PSY 322

Psychology of Social

Identity

and Oppression

MAJOR ASSIGNMENT

Student name: Haiyu Wang

Student number: 3257420

Lecturer name: S. Savahl

Due Date: 28. 08. 2014

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use another’s work and pretend that it is my own.

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in this essay/report/project/………………… from the

work(s) of other people has been contributed, and

has been cited and referenced.

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Introduction

While bullies, gangs, weapons, and substance abuse all

contribute to the fear experienced by many of today's

students, violence in South Africa’s neighborhoods and

communities cannot be overlooked. Notwithstanding the

sometimes unfounded and overgeneralized fear and

apprehension about violence among children and adults,

often fueled by the media, violence in South Africa is a

legitimate concern for everyone. In the fast changing

context of post-apartheid South Africa, rates of violent

crime are among the highest in the world (Hamber, 2000;

Human Rights Watch, 2001). People here living in poorer

neighborhoods have been estimated to be 80 times more

likely to be victims of such crimes than those in more

affluent districts (Hamber, 2000). Especially the

children and youth in some communities live with violence

across layers of social relations – at school, at school

and in their neighborhoods. And there has been much

concern about the effects on them of these experiences.

This essay will focus on highlighting the problems of

sexual violence, gang violence, school violence in the

community and discuss the psychological effects of

violence on the children and youth of South Africa.

The context of violence in South Africa

South Africa is a country where a substantial portion of

the male population historically bonded in a violent and

highly militarized context, both universal conscription

of white men and the absorption of many black men into

the liberation struggle have contributed to a culture

that sees violence as a legitimate means of resolving

conflicts – a culture where ‘tough, aggressive, brutal

and competitive masculinity is promoted ’ and weakness

regarded, with contempt, as ‘feminine ’. (Dayan, 2013)

There are many reasons for the high levels of violence in

South Africa. The violence is partly due to the years of

apartheid which caused big differences between people

living in the country. We also know that alcohol and drug

abuse cause people to behave violently and hurt others,

especially children. Police statistics show that in 2011

and 2012 (a period of one year) a total of 50,688

children were victims of violent crimes in South Africa

(Unicef, 2013). It looks at various types of violence or

abuse that children experience in different places such

as their homes, schools and communities. Sometimes the

communities or areas where children live are unsafe. Many

children become victims of violence in places other than

their homes or schools, such as the streets or parks they

use. These children do various kinds of work such as car

watching, selling of goods or begging (Unicef, 2013).

Children living and working on the streets have no

protection against abuse and violence from their peers

and adults because no grown-ups are taking care of them

and they have to look after themselves.

While, as suggested above, violent crime in South Africa

seems to have been reduced in recent years (Dempster,

2002), it seems to remain at a high level

internationally. Significant events in 1990 (such as the

release of Nelson Mandela and other political leaders)

that ultimately lead to the end of apartheid in 1994 led

many South Africans to believe that post-apartheid South

Africa would be free from violence (Gilbert, 1996).

Political violence did in fact decline significantly, but

it was quickly replaced with various forms of

interpersonal violence. Lockhat and Van Niekerk (2000)

note the adverse conditions affecting children in post-

apartheid South Africa, including exposure to violence

and psychosocial trauma and distress.

Community violence in Cape Town is especially

problematic. Data from the South African Police Service

from 2001 (Isserow, 2005 ) indicate that violent crime

rates in Cape Town are quite high, much higher than

cities in the U.S. that also have high crime rates, such

as Detroit, Michigan. When compared with violent crime

rates for Detroit for 2003 (U.S. Federal Bureau of

Investigation, 2006), the rates of violent crime in Cape

Town are higher in every category, especially for murder

and rape. The rape rate was 1.5 times higher in Cape Town

than in Detroit and the murder rate was more than twice

as high as the murder rate in Detroit, although it is

possible that more individuals in Cape Town died as a

result of assault due to lack of medical care.

The rate of sexual violence in South Africa is among the

highest in the world. An estimated of 500,000 rape cases

take place in the country, every year. In Johannesburg,

More than 25 percent of South African men have raped.

(IRIN) In addition, South Africa has some of the highest

incidences of child and infant rape in the world (Perry,

2007). In 2001, it was reported by the South African

Police Service that children are the victims of 41

percent of all rapes reported in the country.( Anthony &

LoBaido, 2001) Although there are varying numbers on the

number of reported rapes of children, one report states

that in 2000, 21,538 rapes and attempted rapes of

children under the age of 18 were reported and another

from 2001 states that there were 24,892 rapes.(Dempster,

2002).

Gang violence, criminal and domestic violence, and

substance abuse were major concerns in the neighborhood

(Jones Peterson and Carolissen, 2000). In another study

located in the same neighborhood, 70 percent of primary

school aged children reported that they had experienced

direct exposure to violence (van der Merwe and Dawes,

2000). Gang formation in South African townships has been

associated with poverty and unemployment, changing pat-

terns of family life and socialization caused by

urbanization (Glaser, 2000) and the dislocation caused by

forced removals (Pinnock, 1984).

Psychological Effects on Children

The diverse sequelae associated with violence have been

well documented. Osofsky, Wewers, Hann, and Fick (1993)

reported that exposure to violence, witnessed or directly

experienced, was related to both children's self-reports

of distress and parents' observations of distress

symptoms in their children. The observed symptoms

included loneliness and sadness, loss of desire for

amusement, daydreaming, inattention, disrupted sleep,

nightmares, easy perturbation, intrusive disturbing and

imagery, separation anxiety, and fear of death. Children

may cope with the fear and loss associated with violence

by restricting their activities, pretending not to care

about anything, chronic worry about safety, anxious

attachment to mothers, imitative aggressive play, and

counter-phobic displays of bravado (Osofsky, Wewers,

Hann, & Fick, 1993).

The effects of violence may also spill over into

relationships with peers in the form of emotional

withdrawal and aggressive behavior, both of which may

contribute ultimately to rejection by those peers

(Cooleyquille, Turner, & Beidel, 1995). The frequent

report of fears, difficulty concentrating, reliving or

re-enactment of distressing incidents, heightened

arousal, irritability, anger, fear of being alone,

nightmares about separation, and recurrent distress that

is characterized by crying, tantrums, misery, emotional

numbness, apathy, or social withdrawal have led some

investigators to conceptualize children's response to

violence in terms of post-traumatic stress disorder

(Pynoos et al., 1987). However, the evidence suggests a

broad range of dysfunction that includes depression,

conduct problems, attention deficits, social

maladjustment, and academic difficulties (Attar, Guerra,

& Tolan, 1994; Gorman-Smith & Tolan, 1998).

Sexual abuse also has long-lasting negative effects on

children. Sexually abused children have a higher

prevalence of psychiatric disorders. (McLeer, Dixon,

Henry, Ruggiero, Escovitz, Niedda & Scholle, 1998;

Zlotnick, Mattia & Zimmerman, 2001). Research shows that

having a history of childhood sexual abuse is a risk

factor for a broad range of psychiatric disorders and a

higher rate of multiple Axis 1 disorders. As well, there

is a strong presence of Post-traumatic stress disorder

(PTSD) and post-traumatic stress symptoms in sexually

abused children (McLeer et al., 1998; Zlotnick et al.,

2001). Depression is also found in sexually abused

children (Briere & Runtz, 1988; Roosa, Reinholtz

&Angelini, 1999). These studies have indicated that

sexually abused children are more likely to report

symptoms of depression on various tests, such as the

Children’s Depression Inventory, the Hopkins Symptom

Checklist, and the Epidemiological Studies Depression

Scale (McLeer et al., 1998; Briere & Runtz, 1988; Roosa

et al., 1999). It was also noted that having a history of

childhood sexual abuse appeared to be linked to a longer

duration of the index depressive episode and longer bouts

of depression (Zlotnick et al., 2001).

Another effect noted in victims of childhood sexual abuse

is anxiety. Research has shown that anxiety levels in

victims of childhood sexual abuse were significantly

higher than the non-abused group. This was indicated on

many measures (McLeer et al., 1998; Briere & Runtz, 1988;

Mian, Marton & LeBaron, 1996). Suicidal ideation has also

been linked to sexual abuse. In one study, it was shown

that close to half of the sexually abused children

reported depression and suicidal ideation. This has been

displayed in other studies as well (Molnar, Berkman &

Buka, 2001). Many children who are sexually abused

display maladaptive sexual behaviors. Previous studies

indicate that sexually abused children display more

inappropriate sexual behaviors than non-abused children

(McLeer et al., 1998; Zlotnick et al., 2001).

In addition, gang violence causes the most commonly

expressed fears are of the security forces, of future

attacks especially on the children and youth. First of

all, it will cause emotional changes, such as feelings of

emotional numbing, powerlessness, of extreme

vulnerability and lack of safety. (Pinnock, 1984)

Anxiety, restlessness and irritability. Having no

interest in life, feeling guilt or bad to be alive. No

energy and feeling tired all of the time. Changing

quickly from one mood to another. Secondly, difficulties

with sleeping and dreaming, like nightmares about attacks

and fear of falling asleep. Thirdly, difficulties with

thinking, for example, constantly thinking about and re-

experiencing the traumatic experience. Not being able to

concentrate and to remember properly. Fourthly, it will

lead to social difficulties, not wanting to be social

with other children, being aggressive with others.

(Zlotnick et al., 2001)

The factor which increases the risk of experiencing

school-based violence is learner’s relationships with

peers who influence them negatively. According to

Nofziger and Kurtz (2008), children and youth who are

brought up in violent communities tend to interact and

spend time with delinquent, criminal or antisocial peers.

Importantly, these friendships both increase their risk

of being negatively influenced in turn engaging in

violent activities themselves as well as their chance of

having violence committed against them. The School

Violence study was able to support this hypothesis, as

those children who had friends involved in antisocial

behavior (drug-related or criminal) were significantly

more likely to report the experience of violence against

them than their peers who spent time with more

conventional friends (Burton, 2008; Leoschut, 2006).

Problematically, the high rates of crime and violence

within South African society means that there is a very

high possibility that children and youth will be exposed

to criminal and violent individuals/peers.

In addition, violent acts directed against children send

the message that people are not to be trusted because

they may harm you in a very fundamental way. A child who

has committed violence also believes this because if they

can do this, so can anybody else. The implications of

this are sad and politically very serious - a person who

is unable to trust is generally unable to create lasting

and respectful relationships. This is true, not only in

terms of love relationships, but also in friendships,

political alliances and working relationships. (Stavrou,

1993)

Last but not least, children will loss of self-esteem and

feelings of personal power. Children report that the

feelings of helplessness and inability to change the

violent situation, makes some of them want to avoid all

future situations which may result in conflict and

possibly violence. (Stavrou, 1993)The long-term effect of

this may be that young people feel that they do not have

much internal strength and the power to control their own

lives, and so feel generally weakened in their ability to

cope and succeed in the future.

Conclusion

In summary, to better understand the effects of

children's exposure to violence, it is important to

broaden the primary focus on victims and perpetrators to

include the important "ripple effects" of the

psychological impacts on children who may be witnesses.

Violence carries multiple meanings and thus may have

multiple consequences for children, as they strive to

make sense of their experiences.

For the South African children, violence in the community

was a constant threat, which undermined their safety. So

society should pay more attention to this phenomenon.

There are some recommendations to alleviate the effects

of violence exposure. Firstly, strengthening culture’s

ability to protect youth may be an important means to

help prevent violence. Psychologists can promote greater

respect for culture by helping to increase understanding

about culture, by promoting acceptance of cultural

diversity, and by respecting ethnic minority cultural

values and norms and incorporating them into violence

prevention programs. (Felitti, Anda, Nordenberg

Williamson, 1998).

Secondly, parents who are most likely to be responsible

when children with disabilities are abused. Examples are

the “home visitor” programs available in 24 states to

provide parenting instruction and support on a recurring

basis in the home, to teach parents how to respond to the

complexities of raising children with disabilities.

Children also should receive instruction in how to

recognize, refuse, and report inappropriate sexual

contact, an approach that has been tried in several

programs.

Thirdly, children who have already shown seriously

aggressive and violent behavior, sustained, multi-modal

treatment appears to be the most effective. Such

psychological treatment consists of carefully designed

and coordinated components involving school, parents,

teachers, peers, and community, often coordinated around

family intervention. By the time youth with antisocial

behavior are referred clinically, their dysfunction often

is pervasive and severe, and multiple counter influences

need to be brought to bear to achieve significant impact.

(Gorman-Smith, Tolan, 1998).

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