Independent Study

Figure 1: Excavation area of the first house from the first excavation byAlfred Cocks in 1912.

Chiltern archaeology

Brothel or Temple:

Is the Function of Yewden Villa Apparent Through theInvestigation of the Possible Practice of Infanticide at the

Site?

1

Contents

1. Introduction

1.1. Research Aims

1.2. Previous investigations

2. Archaeological Background

2.1. The First Excavation

2.1.1. First House

2.1.2. Second House

2.1.3. Third House

2.1.4. The Fourth ‘House’

2.3. The Villa at Mill End

3. Infant Bones

3.1. Scientific Analysis

3.2. The Practice of Infanticide in the Roman Empire

4. Children in the Roman Empire

4.1. Childbirth

4.2. Gods and Goddesses of Childbirth

4.2.1. The possibility of a Temple at the site ofYewden Villa

4.3. Infant Mortality2

4.4. Infant Commemoration and Burial

5. Conclusion

1. Introduction

The topic of this study focuses on the Roman site of Yewden

Villa, located in Hambleden, Buckinghamshire (Figure 1). The

site was first excavated by Alfred Cocks in 1912, upon which

he excavated the

majority of the

site, uncovering

several interesting

archaeological features. These features consisted of several

roman houses,

ranging in size and function, along with the revelation of

outbuildings, main buildings, surrounding walls, trackways and

large, varying collections of artefacts (Eyers, G. 2008, pp.

5). The most intriguing discovery made on this site was the

abundance of human remains that were buried there. At first

glance the occurrence of numerous human remains seems

3

Figure 2: Satellite image of Hambleden, Buckinghamshire, and its relationto the river Thames near Mill End. Google

relatively indifferent, taking into consideration the

occupational span of the site stretches from the middle of the

1st century up until the end of the 4th century (Cocks, A. 1921,

pp. 141). However, at closer inspection 97 out of over 100

remains found at the site, were later analysed revealing that

they were in fact, infant remains.

1.1. Research aims

The fact that this excavation uncovered so many human remains

is enough to raise interest about the site itself. Taking into

consideration that the majority of these remains belonged to

infants, the deliberation of why and how these bones came to

be there in the first place raises questions about the

function of the site and the reasoning behind why so many

infant bones were found here. Using archaeological evidence

and scientific analysis from Yewden Villa and surrounding

areas, this study will determine whether the site was home to

a fully operational brothel or was the site of a religious

temple, and whether this evidence supports the claims that

infanticide was practiced during the occupation of the site.

1.2 Previous Investigations

4

The excavations at Yewden Villa have already generated

attention among many archaeologists, including Dr. Gill Eyers

who investigated the site in 2008, publishing a report on the

geophysics of the site (Eyers, G. 2008). This report aimed to

evaluate and uncover more about the Romano British activity at

the site (Eyers, G. 2008, pp. 5). Upon discovering more about

the site it was confirmed that two Romano British villas were

recorded at close proximity, approximately 670m apart, in the

Hambleden Valley; Yewden Villa and Mill End.

Dr. Eyers also published a report With Simon Mays, analysing

the infant remains at the site (Mays, S. and Eyers, G. 2011).

In these reports the focus mainly centres on the infant bones

themselves and the possible evidence that suggests the

practice of infanticide at the site. The paper shows that the

Romano British perinates showed a strong peak in their age

distribution at around 38-40 weeks. This age generally

corresponds to that of a full term infant (Mays, S. and Eyers,

G. 2011, pp. 1932). The infant bones found at Hambleden

yielded the most perinatal burials from any Roman site in

Britain. The sheer number of bones found, caused the excavator

of the site to come to the conclusion that it suggested

5

infanticide due to the surreptitious disposals of the bodies

(Mays, S. and Eyers, G. 2011, pp. 1932). Other people who have

looked at the reports have also repeated this interpretation

of the suggested practice of infanticide, and specifically

added the notion that the infants may have been the unwanted

offspring of slaves working at the villa (Mays, S. and Eyers,

G. 2011, pp. 1933). These papers also allowed Dr. Eyers to

conclude that the high number of infant mortality resulted as

a consequence of a brothel operating at the site.

2. Archaeological Background

As previously stated, the site was excavated in 1912 by Alfred

Cocks. The majority of the site was excavated during this

time, revealing several archaeological features. Although the

site has not been re-excavated, there have been several

investigations into the geophysics of the site, and analysis

of the infant bones.

2.1. The First Excavation

The first excavations were carried out in 1921. During these

excavations, Alfred Cocks discovered a site with a rich

6

archaeological and historical background. The artefacts found

during these excavations range from the Palaeolithic right

through to Medieval times (Eyers, G. 2008, pp. 5). During the

excavations it was confirmed that the homestead was built

before the middle of the 1st century AD and occupied until the

end of the 4th century. The latest coins belonging to the site

dated to around 392-5 AD (Cocks, A. 1921, pp. 141).

2.1.2. The First House

The first house, also known as the principle dwelling house

measured around 96ft by 82ft (Figure 1). The excavator and

author of the excavation report, Alfred Cocks, describes the

house to be shaped like a block letter ‘E’ with the bottom of

the shape turning north and the open right side facing the

west (Cocks, A. 1921, pp. 144). The longest portion of the

‘letter’ is formed by long parallel, tessellated corridors

(Figure 4) between which are four rooms. Cocks (1921), writes

about how the four rooms have important alterations deviating

from

7

8

Figure 3: Excavated area of the main buildingshowing an extending bathroom. Original bathroom on the right, the extended portion

Figure 4: An excavated tessellated floor found in the first house. Chiltern archaeology

original plan,

probably the

result of additions made in the middle of the 3rd century. Two

of the four rooms appear to be bathrooms (Figure 3).

2.1.2. The Second House

The second house was discovered on the inner side of the South

Enclosure wall. The excavation report describes it as

resembling a large workshop or barn, most likely dating back

to the late 1st century (Cocks, A. 1921, pp. 148). Cocks, also

writes how the west of the building was probably converted

into a cottage in the early 4th century. The second house

uncovered a large coin hoard. Over 294 coins were found hidden

inside a small dark pot, placed on its side. This suggests

that the villa may have been used as a trading point for near-

by towns and villages, with relatively good business from

these towns.

2.1.3. The Third House

9

Figure 5: Excavated well and grid iron furnace, possibly used for corn drying. Chiltern archaeology

The third house is probably the most interesting,

archaeologically. Outside the house was a flint floor

measuring around 12ft square and a small shed, bellow which

was a gravel floor (figure 6). Two gravel paths were also

revealed, one positioned running behind the outer wall of the

house, diverting to what appears to be a faint 7m by 4m

structure (Eyers, G. 2008, pp. 26). The second of the gravel

pathways leaves the edge of the annexe to the 3rd House which

is joined by a side shoot from another house. This path

continues North-West, taking it directly to a small building

in the adjacent field recorded on the HER as a temple, this

feature has not however been surveyed. The gravel floor found

beneath the house was uncovered and further investigation took

place. Upon which, a large pit was discovered mostly filled

with heavy building materials, masses of large flint and many

roofing tiles along with others. Another 14ft below this

investigation of the pit, just below the water level at that

time, revealed the skeletons of three adult persons and two

children, all of which were found together (Cocks, A. 1921,

pp. 149). The bones found had to be felt for under the water,

therefore little could be said about the positions of the

10

individuals other than the fact they were more or less intact

(Cocks, A. 1921, pp. 149). The artefacts placed with the

bodies give a good impression of the age of the bodies. The

pottery found in association with the individuals dated

roughly to around the second or first or second half of the 3rd

century, probably no earlier than 250 AD.

2.1.4. The Fourth ‘House’

The fourth ‘house’ excavated by Cocks, is the smallest house

found during the excavations, measuring at approximately 6.7m

x 4.6m (figure 7). The outer wall was built with flint and

mortar, with the inner wall built using flint and mud. The

house is situated in a central courtyard placed in between the

1st and 3rd houses (Eyers, G. 2008, pp. 43). Due to its small

size and placement in relation to the villa, it can be

interpreted as a shrine. This is also supported by the fact

that it only holds one room which is an unusual architectural

feature in roman homesteads (Rivet, A. L. F. 1969, pp. 52).

Supportive evidence of the apparent shrine is noticed in the

form of a miniature votive statue found by a metal detectorist

around 200m north of the location of the building. The

11

possibility of a temple and the importance of the votive

offering will be discussed in later sections.

2.2. The Villa at Mill End

Mill End was the second Romano-British villa found in

association with the villa complex at Hambleden (figure 8).

The villa was first recorded in July 1921 by E. Payton,

alongside the excavations at Yewden Villa. The villa at Mill

End has not previously been excavated; the field is usually

under pasture making excavation limited, it is now a scheduled

ancient monument (Farley, M. E. 1983, pp. 256). The presence

of two villas in the Hambleden Valley is of some interest.

Generally there is a rough space of around 1 and a half to 2

miles between them (Branigan, K. 1968, pp. 152). It was

considered that this may be due to estate size. The fact that

two villas existed in such close proximity to one another

makes it unlikely that they were operating for the same

reasons. This interpretation does not correlate unless the

dates of occupation of both villas coincided with each other

(Farley, M. E. 1983, pp. 258). However, the likelihood of

these two villas running together is highly plausable as both

seem to be in use from the 1st to the 4th centuries. The

12

location of the Mill End villa in comparison to Yewden villa

also arouses interest. The close proximity of Mill End to the

River Thames makes it the better situated of the two. It is

possible that the Mill End Villa was a secondary development

made for the exploitation of sources from the river (Farley,

M. E. 1983, pp. 258). In terms of the artefacts gained,

certain aspects of the finds indicate that Hambleden may have

been a farming unit where production was the result of

government requirements (Applebaum, C. 1966). The high number

of styli found at Hambleden, as well as the numerous corn

dryers, evidence of pig fattening and cattle breeding are

particularly indicative of farming, it could be the case that

there was a bureaucratic checking of produce, giving use to

the number of styli associated with the site (Farley, M. E.

1985, pp. 258).

13

Figure 6: excavated area of the 3rd houses showing

14

Figure 6: excavated area of the 3rd houses showing

Figure 7: excavated image of the fourth 'house' facing north east, showing the single room. Chiltern archaeology report 117

Figure 8: The layout of the villa at Mill End. Chiltern archaeology report 117

3. Infant Bones

The most remarkable feature of the excavation is the number of

infant bones found ‘littering’ the site on the Northern side

(Cocks, A. 1921, pp. 150). Most of them appeared to be new

born with the occasional being slightly older. A few of the

bodies were laid out at full length, where as some were

evidently carried and buried wrapped in a cloth or burial

garment huddled, and bundled up with the head being central,

the knees above it. There was no evidence found to suggest

that the graves of the infants were marked, in some cases a

second body was placed in an already occupied grave. After

dark burials of children and infants were not uncommon in the

Roman world but rather widely practiced as a burial rite. With

this in mind it would not be surprising that newly deceased

infants were placed in occupied graves due to the ceremony

being held at night time (Hope, V. 2007).

3.1. Scientific Analysis

15

Scientific analysis of the Hambleden burials was carried out

upon their discovery in 1912. The results were presented in

the report written by Cocks. Sir, Arthur Keith, found that the

bones of the adult skeleton displayed no marks of violence. In

all three of the adult skeletons the bones had impressions

which were suggestive of muscular strength. The bones of the

fingers and hand were thick, also suggestive that the

individuals were accustomed to manual labour. With this in

mind it is likely that the individuals were associated with

the complex, presumably as labourers (Keith, A. 1921, pp.

159). No further investigation had been carried out to

ascertain details about the infant bones found at Yewden Villa

until recently. In 2011, Simon Mays and Gill Eyers carried out

detailed analysis of the infant bones. Mays, had already

established that it was possible to infer whether infanticide

was practiced on a regular basis by analysing the age at death

of perinatal burials (Mays, S. 2001, pp. 555). The aim of

their research was to shed light on the idea that infanticide

was practiced at that site. This site was chosen for analysis

for two reasons: the first being that the site shows

occupation during the Roman period, the second reason being

16

that there are multiple sources of evidence that suggest

infanticide was a widely practiced phenomenon in the Roman

Empire (Langer, W. L. 1974, pp. 555).

The infants were mainly found on the North side of the villa

complex (Figure 9). Many of the infant bones cannot be

directly dated; however of the 16 that could be dated more

closely, they dated to approximately 120-200AD, with the

burials accumulating over a period of 280 years (Mays, S. and

Eyers, G. 2011, pp. 1933). After looking more closely at the

infant bones on the site, an observation was made that the

infants involved did not get proper burial treatment but were

rather cast into a sewer that ran beneath a brothel that was

operating there (Mays, S. and Eyers, G. 2011, pp. 1931).

However the only body of water found at Hambleden only yielded

two child burials. Whether or not the water ran beneath a

brothel or not is something that will also be looked into

during this study.

The most common motive for infanticide in the Roman world was

because the child was not of the desired sex, limiting family

size or because the child was deformed. In the case of the

Hambledon infants this seems unlikely. The theory of a brothel

17

operating at the site would arouse the suspicion that the

motivation, if any, for practicing infanticide, was due to the

simple reason of not wanting to bring children into a highly

slave driven environment.

To investigate whether or not infanticide is a likely

interpretation in the case of the Hambleden infants, the long

bone lengths of the infants and their estimated ages at death

are looked at and compared with the site of Ashkelon, a late

Roman, early Byzantine period which both share the same

indication of infanticide at the site (Mays, S. and Eyers, G.

2011, pp. 1933). Infanticide was usually carried out as close

to birth as possible, in order to prevent the mother-infant

bonding. This would allow for the victims to fall between a

narrow age range (Tooley, M. 1983). The investigation into

infanticide and Romano-British perinates found that the

infants showed a strong peak in their age distribution at

about 38-40 weeks. This age corresponds to that of a full term

infant (Mays, S. and Eyers, G. 2011, pp. 1932). The age

distributions being clustered tightly around that of a full

term infant is highly indicative of infanticide. The ages at

death were estimated from long bone lengths. In terms of

18

central tendency and dispersion, the Hambleden infants

strongly resembled the infants found at Ashkelon. The infants

found at Ashkelon also represented a strong chance that the

infants were the victims of infanticide (Mays, S. and Eyers,

G. 2011, pp. 1336). Infant bones found in usual burial

conditions are often very fragile and rarely found intact in

their original context. However at Ashkelon, the skeletons

were in good condition, indicating that their disposal

occurred fairly soon after birth while the soft tissue was

still present (Smith, P. and Kahila, G. 1992, pp. 669).

As well as analysing the long bone lengths, the few prevailing

dental remains were also analysed and compared to the dental

samples found at Ashkelon. Out of the infant bones taken from

Hambleden, only 12 had surviving dental remains. The teeth

from 6 of the perinates were sectioned in order to look for

the neonatal lines – none of which were found, indicating that

the infants were either born dead or died within around 14

days of birth (Whittaker, D. K. and Richard, D. 1978).

The main conclusion reached in the case of the Ashkelon sample

was that the infants were victims of infanticide, due to the

callous nature of their disposal. Another conclusion reached,

19

suggested that the infants were victims of a mass disaster

that somehow cause the breakdown of normal burial practices

(Smith, P. and Kahila, G. 1992, pp. 670), however there is not

enough conclusive evidence, literary or archaeological to

suggest any ‘mass disaster’ taking place during the time

period or over such a large period of time. In the Hambleden

sample, it was found that the infants indicated evidence for

infanticide. It is clear from the studies of the infant bones

that infanticide was practiced in Britain during its time as

part of the Roman Empire. Comparative evidence from the site

of Ashkelon also gives archaeological evidence that suggests

infanticide was practiced in the Eastern part of the Empire

(Mays, S. and Eyers, G. 2011, pp. 1337). However, evidence for

infanticide in other parts of the Roman Empire is not apparent

thus far.

4. Children in the Roman Empire

4.1. Childbirth

Childbirth is a challenging aspect of life for women in any

time. In the Roman period however there were a number of

things that could and often would go wrong during childbirth.

20

The women responsible for the delivery and care of the mother

and child after birth would have to ensure that every aspect

was taken care of; they would often go to extreme lengths to

do so. The training and skill of the midwives varied, many

rural women would combine the act of midwifery with witchcraft

and the use and of herbal medicines (Lindsay, A. J. 1989, pp.

35). In roman medicine the life of the mother was of paramount

importance. In cases of difficulty it was often necessary to

focus the attention on the mother, even if it meant the child

dying as part of this process (Lindsay, A. J. 1989, pp. 36).

4.2. Gods and Goddesses of Childbirth

Juno was the first and foremost goddess that Roman women would

relate to during major events in their lives, including

marriage and childbirth (Lindsay, A. J. 1989, pp. 143). The

goddesses Postverta and Prosa were also called upon by women

who feared childbirth; these specifically were invoked in

order to avert the dangers of a breach birth (Turcan, R. 2000,

pp.

21

22

Figure 9: reconstruction of the Yewden Villa complex showing the distribution of infant remains at the site. Chiltern archaeology

19). Sacrifices

were also made to the

nymph Egeria, who allowed

the woman to give birth without difficulty (Turcan, R. 2000,

pp. 19). Credit must be given first and foremost to Juno in

the form of Lucina who overlooked all areas of life for women.

Offerings were often given to Juno in the form of coins at her

Esquilline temple, when a mother gave birth to a male child

(Turcan, R. 2000, pp. 19). Other offerings were also given to

goddesses during and after childbirth in the form of pipeclay

statuettes. Using evidence from other sites where pipeclay

statuettes were also found in association with infant and

child burials, it may be the case that the statuettes were

used as offerings when children or women had died during

childbirth (Lindsay, A. J. 1989, pp. 143). A number of

pipeclay figurines were found on a site in Kent. Upon

excavation it seemed likely that the figurines had been

deliberately broken before being added to the burial. After

doing so, it was believed that the spirit portrayed by the

23

Figure 10: votive offering showing awoman holding a child, possibly representing a mother goddess, foundin association with the fourth 'house'. Chiltern archaeology

figurines would also die making them available to accompany

the deceased into the afterlife (Lindsay, A. J. 1989, pp.

148). Terracotta figurines were also found at Colchester,

where archaeologists excavating in that area discovered a

child’s grave which yielded figurines made out of terracotta

rather than pipeclay. In this context it was suggested that

these terracotta figurines were also used as offerings in the

religious beliefs of women during the 2nd century (Eckardt, H.

1999, pp. 60).

This seems to be a likely suggestion in the case of the

Hambleden infants. A broken figurine of a woman in a woven

chair nursing a child was found in association with the villa

excavated at Hambleden. The original placement of the broken

figurine is not known. However, using existing knowledge of

pipeclay figurines and their importance during childbirth it

is highly likely that the figurine found at Hambleden was used

in a similar manner. This also suggests that a number of

children may not have been the victims of infanticide, but the

victims of a difficult and fatal birth.

24

4.2.1. The possibility of a Temple at the site of Yewden Villa

As previously discussed throughout this study, the most

common, conclusion reached for the high number of infant

burials found at the site is due to running of a brothel. Dr.

Gill Eyers first suggested this idea that the villa also

operated as a brothel in an article for the BBC. Dr. Eyers

also suggested that infanticide resulted as a means of

disposing unwanted offspring conceived by the women working

within the brothel. A similar idea was also proposed by Frere,

where he suggested that the babies were the illegitimate

offspring of illicit affairs with slaves (Frere, S. 1967).

Other people have however disputed these claims, due to the

fact that the villa was situated too far away from any highly

populated areas.

It is clear to see after further investigation into the site,

how Dr. Eyers came to her conclusions. However, the only link

between brothels and Yewden Villa is the fact that there is

archaeological evidence for multiple bathrooms/wet-rooms in

the villa itself. It is already known from literary sources

that brothels were usually situated next to or near public

bath houses (Lindsay, A. J. 1989, pp. 81). Although this is a

25

very ambiguous link connecting the two, it is a possibility

that the villa had multiple functions. It is viable, that the

villa operated as a communal public entertainment centre, with

both small but various baths/wet-rooms where people would

convene, and rooms where men working in the area would go to

find a female companion.

Again, it is understandable how this conclusion was reached,

but there is another possibility as to what purpose the site

maintained. Yewden Villa yielded many sources of evidence that

suggest the villa had connections with multiple mother

goddesses from different parts of the Roman Empire. Although

there were very few, however, significant religious and votive

objects they may be indicative of a temple or shrine operating

at the site. Votive offerings are the most likely form of

evidence when locating a nearby shrine or temple (Smith, J. B.

1995, pp. 1). The temple would have been used when women would

give birth, acting as a birthing room and a place where the

women could get protection from the goddesses in cases of

difficult or fatal births. The large number of infant bones

found at the site would, in this case, be an example of the

26

high number of fatalities during childbirth or still births

who were then buried at the site where they had died.

In the same BBC article, Dr. Alice Roberts talks about

indentations and marks found on a number of the infant bones,

possibly due to a sharp implement. Dr. Roberts also goes on to

say how the cut marks may be an example of anything from the

human sacrifices of a religious ritual to the more extreme

possibility of the dismemberment of a child during birth, in

order to save the life of the mother. In the case of the

Hambleden infants, it could be the case that these

indentations and marks on the bones resulted as a consequence

of a difficult birth. Where the mother was possibly having

trouble giving birth herself, midwives present may have used

insufficient medical equipment in order to help deliver the

baby. During this time the babies’ bones would have still been

rather fragile, causing any type of force on the bones to

leave a mark.

4.3. Infant Mortality and Infanticide

27

During this time period infant mortality rates were

particularly high for babies and children. Many infants did

not survive childbirth; the weeks after childbirth were

therefore the most critical for infants who had gone through

difficult births (Hope, V. 2007, pp. 10). The main reasons for

such high mortality resulted from unwanted children. For

example, a father could decide to choose whether or not he

brought up a child. The exact motives for this are little

evaluated however it can be assumed factors including poverty,

disability, gender or illegitimacy were taken into

consideration beforehand (Harris, W. V. 1994, pp. 13).

As previously stated there are numerous forms of literary

evidence that suggests infanticide was practiced in the Roman

Empire, with strong reasoning supposing the exposure of

infants was a common practice (Harris, W. 1982, pp. 114). Some

writers have even postulated the importance of such acts as a

form of population control, especially where it was though

that too many children of one sex were being born (Engels, D.

1980). Many academics who have previously written about the

favourability of one sex, suggest that female infants were the

most likely victim of the practice. The exposure of children

28

also served as a form of limiting family size in general,

usually being practiced by women or slaves in order to try and

stop the children being brought into the same labour intensive

world as the parents (Harris, W. 1994, pp. 3).

While in modern times the idea of infanticide is an utterly

abhorrent concept, in the roman world, the practice of

infanticide or exposure of infants was tolerated in cases

where people believed that too many children of the same sex

were being born (Harris, W. V. 1982, pp. 115). When exposure

was the case, rather than the practice of infanticide it was

usually the work of women or slaves (Harris, W. V. 1994, pp.

2). This is supported by the site of Yewden Villa, as there

are multiple sources of evidence which suggest a high majority

of women labourers working at the site (Farley, M. E. 1983,

pp. 259).

4.4. Infant Commemoration and Burial

Due to lack of evidence, it is not possible to ascertain what

proportion of infants received a formal burial. There is

however evidence that suggests infants were buried, not

outside the town, as with regular roman burial customs

29

according to the twelve tables, but were buried in the town

and even in some circumstances under the threshold or

foundations of a house (Wiedemann, T. 1989, pp. 179). The lack

of statistical analysis of epitaphs also indicates the

underrepresentation of infants in commemorative burials,

possibly due to the frequency of their deaths (Valerie, H.

2007, pp. 11).

5. Conclusion

This study has aimed to shed light on the purpose and function

of Yewden Villa, Hambleden. Throughout this study, different

avenues have been explored in order to highlight the evidence

found at Hambleden, which suggest its differing functions

throughout its occupation from the 1st through to the 4th

century AD. The most important archaeological discovery found

at Hambleden was the high number of infant remains found

buried in the area surrounding the villa. This has

subsequently been the primary focus of interest for

archaeologists conducting further research on both the Villa

and the infant remains. This study, however, has taken a

different approach toward conceptualising the importance of

the infant remains, and has sought to interpret available

30

information as a stepping stone in order to formulate a better

understanding of the function of the site.

After researching the site further and incorporating other

interpretations made by archaeologists, such as Dr. Gill

Eyers, and Sheppard Frere, it became clear throughout the

analysis that two main functions have been forwarded. The

first is that Yewden Villa operated as a brothel, and as a

result of the women conceiving whilst working there, they

would consequently turn to the practice of infanticide in

order to prevent the children growing up in such a harsh

environment. The second, more plausible explanation, suggests

that Yewden Villa was an industrial complex dependant on

female workers. Due to the high population of females, there

would have been an increase in births in the area. It would

have therefore been necessary to incorporate some sort of

religious building – a temple, or shrine -where women could go

to give birth and seek the comfort of certain goddesses in

times of difficulty.

From the research assessed in this investigation, the latter

suggestion seems to be a more plausible interpretation. A

variety of different industrial equipment was discovered at

31

the site, along with evidence that suggests the trade and

produce of cattle and other animals. Additionally, the high

number of styli found implies a particularly well educated

area and the perception that bureaucratic checking and

documenting of trade occurred within the area.

In order for a conclusive interpretation for the function of

this site, and whether it does in fact prove that infanticide

was practiced in the Roman world, it would be necessary to

look further into other aspects of the site, especially its

industrial history. The fourth ‘house’ or temple, as this

study would also suggest, has not been fully surveyed at

present. With the fulfilment of the acknowledgement

limitations noted above, in the future it may be possible to

obtain a definitive interpretation of the Yewden Villa as a

primary an important trading centre for the surrounding areas,

rather than a site unusual for its high level of infant

deaths.

32

Bibliography

Applebaum, C. 1966. In: Thomas, C. ed. Rural Settlement in Roman

Britain. CBA Res.

Branigan, K. 1968. Romano-British Rural Settlement in the West

Chilterns. Journal of Archaeology, pp. 124-152.

Cocks, A. 1921. A Romano-British Homestead in the Hambleden

Valley. Archaeologia 74, pp. 141-198.

Eckhardt, H. 1999. The Colchester ‘Childs Grave’. Britannia 30,

pp. 57-90.

Eyers, G. 2008. Romans in the Hambleden Valley Project. Geophysical and

Desktop Study. Report 1. Chiltern Archaeology Report Number 117.

Chiltern Archaeology, High Wycombe.

33

Farley, M. E. 1983. The Villa at Mill End, Hambleden,

Buckinghamshire, and its Neighbour. Britannia 14, pp. 256-259.

Frere, S. 1967. Britannia, a History of Roman Britain. Routledge, & Kegan

Paul, London.

Gowland, R. L. & Chamberlain, A. T. 2002. A Bayesian Approach

to Ageing Perinatal Skeletal Material from Archaeological

Sites: Implications for Evidence for Infanticide in Roman

Britain. Journal of Archaeological Science 29(6), pp. 677-685.

Harris, W. V. 1994. Child Exposure in the Roman Empire. The

Journal of Roman Studies 84, pp. 1-22.

Hope, V. M. 2007. Death in Ancient Rome: A Sourcebook. Routledge.

Langer, W. L. 1974. Infanticide: A Historical Survey. History of

Childhood Quarterly 1, pp. 353-365.

Lindsay, A. J. 1989. Women in Roman Britain. British Museum

Publications. London.

Mays, S. 1993. Infanticide in Roman Britain. Antiquity 84(257),

pp. 883-888.

34

Mays, S. 2000. The Archaeology and History of Infanticide and

its Occurrence in Earlier British Populations. In: Derevenski,

J. S. ed. Children and Material Culture. Routledge, London.

Mays, S. 2001. Sex Identification in Some Putative Infanticide

Victims From Roman Britain Using Ancient DNA. Journal of

Archaeological Science 38(8), pp. 1931-1938.

Mays, S. & Eyers, J. 2011. Perinatal Infant Death at the Roman

Villa Site at Hambleden, Buckinghamshire, England. Journal of

Archaeological Science 38(8), pp. 1931-1938.

Richmond, I. 1969. The Plans of Roman Villas in Britain. In:

Rivet, A. L. F. ed. The Roman Villa in Britain. Routledge & Kegan and

Paul, London.

Smith, J. B. 1995. Interim Report on the Votive Material From

Romano Celtic Temple Sites in Oxfordshire. Oxoniensia 60, pp. 1-

27.

Smith, P. & Kahila, G. 1992. Indentification of Infanticide in

Archaeological Sites: A Case Study From the Late Roman, Early

Byzantine Periods at Ashkelon. Journal of Archaeological Science 19(6),

pp. 667-675.

Tooley, M. 1983. Abortion and Infanticide. Claredon Press. Oxford. 35

Turcan, R. 2000. The Gods of Ancient Rome. Edinburgh University

Press. Scotland.

Weidemann, T. 1989. Adults and Children in the Roman Empire. Routledge.

36