Internet Access for the Visually Impaired

Department of Media Arts and Communications

MA Programme in Professional Communications

__________________________________________________

MA in Technical Communication

Master’s Dissertation

Title: Internet Access for the Visually Impaired

Author: Victor Diacono

Date: January 2015

Internet Access for the Visually Impaired

Victor Diacono

MA in Technical Communication

Sheffield Hallam University

January 2015

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Acknowledgments

There are many people I am indebted to for their support during this Master's

programme. My heartfelt gratitude goes out, in particular, to my partner Lu. She has

made this all possible with her selflessness in gladly being the homemaker, and in

allowing everything and anything to come second to my studies and itinerary.

Special thanks also go to the survey respondents whose collaboration went into the

findings that have sustained the analysis upon which much of the discussion and

recommendations has revolved.

Another thank you goes to the staff at Sheffield Hallam University whose feedback

and support has always been meaningful and strong. Geff Green and Hilary Cunliffe-

Charlesworth for their invaluable support in the dissertation, as well as Claire Rayner

and all the rest I have had the pleasure of being tutored or assisted by in the First and

Second years.

I am also indebted to those at work who have had a role in enabling contact with the

initial handful of visually impaired questionnaire respondents who in turn referred me

to others. And I am equally thankful to those who have made time for the dissertation

available at the time most needed, even during the busiest periods.

But finally, an acknowledgment and dedication entwined: to Mum and Dad! They

have been off for a better place for many, many years now. But one of the most

precious lessons they left behind was that aspirations are a fine thing, but only

application and hard work brings them to fruition. For your example and much more,

this study is dedicated to you.

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Contents

Abstract iv

1. Introduction 1

1.1 Overview 1

1.2 The workplace context 1

1.3 Aims and objectives 2

1.4 The dissertation's structure 4

1.5 Review 5

2. Literature Review 6

2.1 Overview 6

2.2 Is Braille being eclipsed by electronic speech? 6

2.3 Transfer of technology 8

2.4 Incentivisation for equal access 9

2.5 A one-size-fits-all information structure 10

2.6 Risk of emargination 12

2.7 Review 12

3. Methodology 14

3.1 Overview 14

3.2 The paradigm 14

3.3 Research approach and method 15

3.4 Ethics 18

3.5 Data analysis 20

3.6 Review 21

4. Findings and Discussion 22

4.1 Overview 22

4.2 The findings 23

Question 1: Respondent particulars 23

Question 2: Visual disability 28

Question 3: Age of impairment 29

Question 4: Level of education 30

Question 5: Training in reading media 31

Question 6: Use of reading aids 32

Question 7: Use of computer software 41

Question 8: Internet connection ratio 45

Question 9: Reasons for no Internet connection 46

Question 10: Internet usage, user proficiency, and its effects 47

Question 11: Learning to use the Internet 51

Question 12: Support in using the Internet 52

Question 13: Hardware for connecting to the Internet 53

Question 14: Choice of Internet browsers 54

Question 15: Activities pursued on the Internet 55

Question 16: Why is no social networking, information seeking or other activity pursued? 56

Question 17: Which social media do you use? 57

4.3 Review 59

5. Conclusion 60

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6. Recommendations 63

Bibliography 66

Appendices 68

Appendix 1: Survey Information Sheet 68

Appendix 2: Survey Consent Form 69

Appendix 3: Ethics Form 70

Appendix 4: The Questionnaire 76

Appendix 5: The survey response coding 83

List of Tables

Question 1.1 Sex 23

Question 1.2 Age 24

Question 1.3 Location 25

Question 1.4 Occupation 26

Question 1.5 Accompanying disabilities 27

Question 2 Visual disability 28

Question 3 Age of onset of impairment 29

Question 4 Level of education 30

Question 5 Training in reading media 31

Question 6.1 Braille 33

Question 6.2 Large Print 34

Question 6.3 Videos 35

Question 6.4 CCTV 36

Question 6.5 Computers 38

Question 6.6 Phone Apps 39

Question 6.7 Others 40

Question 7.1 Screen-reader 41

Question 7.2 Speech-to-text 42

Question 7.3 Scanner-to-speech 43

Question 7.4 Screen-magnifier 44

Question 8 Internet connection ratio 45

Question 9 If no Internet connection, why 46

Question 10.1 How many hours weekly on Internet 47

Question 10.2 Are you a proficient Internet user 48

Question 10.3 Any negative effects from Internet usage 49

Question 10.4 If yes, what are they 50

Question 11 How have you learned to use the Internet 51

Question 12 Where do you find support when stuck on the Internet 52

Question 13 How do you connect to the Internet 53

Question 14 With which browser do you connect to the Internet 54

Question 15 Do you use the Internet for any of the following activities 55

Question 16 If you pursue none of the above activities, why not 56

Question 17 Which of the following social media services do you use 58

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Abstract

This study sets out to discover the extent to which online participation and access to

information for the visually disadvantaged is comparable to that enjoyed by the able-

sighted. It treats access to information of whatever nature or origin as a universal

right.

Facts, behaviours and respondent preference in Internet usage, the assistive

technology utilised, and the accessibility barriers experienced by the visually impaired

community in Malta have been gathered by means of a survey. The survey’s sample

has been compiled from a small convenience sample which in turn set in motion a

process of snowball recruitment.

The findings collected from a combination of blind and sight-impaired respondents

provide a snapshot of Internet usage patterns among the visually disabled

community. The paper also discusses the barriers in the way of the community’s full

and proficient use of the Internet.

The survey questions have at times provided thought-provoking findings. The

occupational picture, for instance, is one of preparedness for the visually

disadvantaged rarely reaching beyond the clerical level. But there are then the few

respondents who accept their vision-deprived fate stoically and do not find the need

to re-open doors to the world of reading they have left behind. And among the

Internet-connected, the browsing time disparity is large with anything from 15 hours

weekly to an astounding 70 hours reported at the top end.

This dissertation finally carries a short chapter of recommendations mostly

concerning derivative angles of reflection meriting more in-depth investigation. Its key

recommendation is however that of an assistive-ware driven reading mode framework

residing alongside the default website architectures designed for the able-sighted. It is

the study’s motivation and hope that the infant steps in this direction will embed

respect for a universal right of access in the design philosophies of information

diffusion.

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1. Introduction

1.1 Overview

This is an age when both public and commercial services are migrating to online

media. As a result, accessible online communication has become a critical need if the

functional independence of the blind and visually impaired is not to fall even further

behind the levels borne prior to digital dissemination. This study considers the extent

to which Internet access to information and online participation is accessible to the

visually impaired. Inquiry will not distinguish between governmental and commercial

diffusion of information but will view access to information, of whatever nature or

origin, as a universal right.

1.2 The workplace context

Little technological attention had been given to the accessibility of printed knowledge

and information for the visually disadvantaged until the early 19th century. In 1829,

Louis Braille developed a tactile means of reading that came to carry his name. It

opened up a world of print to the blind and visually impaired, but it cannot be

considered a universal solution for a number of reasons. Converting the printed word

to Braille is costly in terms of both expense and time, with the number of available

texts consequently limited. There is a steep learning curve, and it is inaccessible to

those also suffering from diseases that diminish the sense of touch.

A third human sense, hearing, was harnessed for reading with the arrival of

inexpensive sound recording in the form of the Koninklijke Philips N.V. company’s

audio cassette in 1962. The audio cassette significantly reduced the cost and time of

text conversion. It also eliminated the need for learning a communication medium

such as Braille by the blind or visually impaired reader not wishing or unable to

engage with it. Drawbacks however persist insofar as spontaneity of communication

is concerned, with time-sensitive information becoming obsolete or less relevant by

time of dissemination.

In 1976, the Kurzweil Reading Machine, brainchild of inventor and scientist Raymond

Kurzweil, employed digital technology in the scanning of the printed word for

conversion into synthetic speech for aural assimilation by the reader. ‘Audio cassette

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mode’ thereby gained the benefit of potentially instantaneous turnaround time for text-

to-speech conversion as it was no longer necessary to have text converted to sound

by human readers. But the disadvantage with speech synthesis per se lies in current

technology sounding unnatural. And, for the English-speaking world outside the North

American continent, also in the American twang of the converted text (Hersh and

Johnson. 2008, p.418).

Apart from computer software that speaks out screen content or enlarges text, this is

partly where the current state of assistive reading technology for the blind and visually

impaired lies. The technology, being electronically driven, will indubitably go through

further refinement and tweaking in the short term, as it is in the nature of computer

science to advance in leaps and bounds. However, a fuller emancipation of the

visually impaired in the reading world will only occur if aural ‘reading’ can become a

reading option alongside the default visual mode on Internet sites and pages.

1.3 Aims and objectives

This study aims to discover the level of effectiveness of access to online information

for the visually impaired, viewing as a measure the levels of access and participation

enjoyed by the visually able. It investigates how the visually impaired surf the Internet,

what assistive technology they use, which activities they pursue, and the access

difficulties they encounter. It outlines thought, observation and recommendations on

accessibility issues from literature treating the matter, and it presents findings from

empirical research of its own.

Online participation is essential also because it allows access to vital real world

services which are increasingly migrating to the Internet. Gerber (2003. In: Goudiras

et al. 2009, p.112) believes that “computer use and AT [Assistive Technology] can

make a meaningful difference in the lives of individuals with visual impairments –

improving educational and employment opportunities, enhancing social networks, and

facilitating independence of education, healthcare and purchasing which are

increasingly going online”.

A dearth of study appears to exist on how the visually impaired can be thoroughly

assimilated into online social media usage. There is however a sufficiently sizable

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body of literature on the access for the visually impaired to other online activities. This

corpus has formed the literary resource from where observation of Internet usage and

academic thought on the topic is being considered for its relevance to this study.

This work attempts to establish the extent to which the barriers of sight have come

down for the ocularly disadvantaged part of humanity that aspires and is capable of

partaking fully in the receipt and impartation of information. It recommends the

adoption of ocular assistive technology and digital speech-to-text conversion by

governments and commerce in a new reading mode residing in parallel to the default

visual mode. The rationale behind this recommendation is that access to virtual sites

hosting the published word and online participation is to be considered a right. In the

same way that access to bricks-and-mortar sites is a now universally accepted right

of those suffering from physical immobility.

In the commercial sphere, accessibility can either to be mandated or, as this study

strongly suggests, incentivised. One incentive towards the construction of disability-

compliant information structures can come about through the promise of new

advertising niches. The strongest incentivisation may however lie in the potential for

assistive implementations for the visually impaired being marketed as a convenient

and time-saving software application for the able-sighted. Speech-to-text and text-to-

sound technology are two particularly promising spheres in this regard as the

emergence of a dual reading mode (ocular and aural) can serve as an enjoyable

reading experience for the able-sighted. It also offers benefits in resting one sense by

engaging the other, thereby leading to a reduction of cognitive fatigue. If this dual

reading mode materialises, the visually impaired will gain through social inclusion,

increased educational and employment opportunities and access to information and

services. And the profit of commerce lies in more revenue coming in from higher

Internet traffic, through increased advertising income or sales.

Limitations ensuing from time and cost constraints limit the scope of this study.

Moreover, no study can claim focus if not narrowly directed. Limitations that arise in

this paper include geographical ones as the findings will present a picture of Internet

usage patterns and accessibility limitations as experienced by the blind and visually

impaired in Malta. However, the possibility is discussed in Chapter 4 (Findings and

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Discussion) of extrapolating the findings to the United Kingdom and possibly other

Commonwealth countries too.

The sample size is also a small one, as is in the nature of a small-scale study. And

both Internet usage per se and the survey questions' orientation towards social media

and assistive software denote a bias towards the technologically adept. The topic of

study inherently excludes those without the financial means to afford computer

hardware or the recurrent cost of Internet service. Those falling outside these

boundaries are, therefore, not represented in the study when they are at greater risk

of being left behind in the online migration of essential information. Additionally, the

sample excludes minors and those incapable of giving informed consent.

1.4 The dissertation’s structure

This study comprises the following six chapters.

- The Introduction establishes the general field of study, its workplace context, and

the aims and objectives.

- A Literature Review discusses pertinent theory and concepts from a body of

literature identified through an Internet search.

- The Methodology chapter explains the research paradigm and survey design, also

describing the approach and method employed in the collection of the data and its

analysis.

- The Findings and Discussion chapter analyses the data collected from the survey

and relates it to the topic under review. It presents the findings in a number of views

categorised by fundamental demographic characteristics, principal strains of theory

stemming from the literature, and the resulting differences within categories. The

chapter also discusses the dissertation’s strengths and constraints, and it examines

issues of validity and reliability.

- The Conclusion weighs the degree and adequacy to which the findings have

addressed the research question. It also makes recommendations on the general

direction best followed in future Internet accessibility strategies for the visually

impaired.

- A Recommendations chapter suggests a model of information dissemination

accessible to all, irrespective of sight ability. It also delves into areas deriving from the

topic under examination that merit further investigation, possibly even as a dedicated

research question.

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1.5 Review

This introduction has reviewed the study’s sphere of research, its context, and the

aims and objectives. It outlines the breadth of the investigation and discloses its

limitations. It also introduces recommendations on accessibility design strategy

discussed in more depth in Chapter 4 (Findings and Discussion).

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2. Literature Review

2.1 Overview

This chapter establishes the background to the question under investigation by

means of an evaluation of the relevant literature regarding Internet access for the

blind and visually impaired, the barriers in its way, and how inaccessibility may be

surmounted. It assesses the bibliographic content in this regard and weighs its

relevance to the aims of this study and the problem under review.

2.2 Is Braille being eclipsed by electronic speech?

In a short history of the Kurzweil Reading Machine, Hazan and Hunt (Summer 1990,

p.45) state that “to ‘make the printed word talk’ has been a long sought after goal”.

The Kurzweil Reading Machine, a reading system that scans documents and renders

them into electronic speech, was commercially launched in November 1976. Hazan

and Hunt document what was the first breakthrough in the conversion of the printed

word into synthetic speech.

Braille was the first reading method to make text readable by the blind. It stood alone

and unchallenged for close to a century and a half between its inception in 1829 and

the arrival of the Kurzweil Reading Machine. It has since been increasingly eclipsed

by text-to-speech technology and enhanced display (Goudiras et al. May 2009,

pp.124-125; Stein et al. 2011, p.462). The advent of the microchip computer enabled

optical character recognition (OCR), which in turn made possible the reading out

aloud of OCR-scanned text by a computer once the KRM’s technology coupled OCR

with text-to-speech technology. Goudiras et al. (May 2009, p.112) in fact find

“computer enhancement of the information that is displayed is a promising area for

improvement in low vision reading devices”.

This new technology has a number of notable advantages over Braille, which is

burdened with a steep learning curve (Hersh and Johnson. 2008, pp.143, p.498). The

principal advantage lies in the user needing only to listen, but Braille also suffers from

inaccessibility to users suffering from particular medical conditions. Diabetes, for

instance, reduces the sufferer’s sense of touch as Braille is a tactile form of

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communication. Moreover, tactile acuity is also in itself a sense that diminishes with

the onset of age irrespective of prevailing health conditions (Stevens, Folke and

Patterson. 1996). And, unlike Braille, listening to speech-synthesised text suffers from

no learning curve or limitations of accompanying tactility-reducing disability.

Additionally, it does not become harder to follow with the onset of age when learning

curves get steeper and disease, including the ocular, is more likely to set in.

The aural reading mode is being boosted further with video increasingly becoming a

predominant medium in home entertainment and the pursuit of personal enrichment.

YouTube alone claims to enjoy 6 billion viewing hours monthly with traffic from 61

countries, 80% of which originating from outside the United States (YouTube. 2014).

Most video comes accompanied by an analogue soundtrack and analogue enjoys the

advantage of sounding more natural than digital sound. It does not suffer from poor

quality synthesis or the North American twang presently predominant in digital

synthesis, and there are initiatives being pursued which enrich video content (albeit

by digital means) through additional soundtracks.

Lyon University’s ACAV project (Collaborative Annotation for Video Accessibility) has

for the past few years been working on the development of free Web applications for

the hosting of accessible video for the blind. ACAV seeks to enrich video content

through the additional parallel tracks of speech synthesis and the non-verbal audio

medium known as ‘earcons’. Earcons are an aural message on computer software

interfaces for the recognition of objects and interaction and are an example of how

transfer of technology can benefit the visually impaired while being of benefit to all the

reading public. Earcons do however have to be learned and memorised with the

result of an increased cognitive load (Putz. Oct 2004, p.27).

Braille text is also costly to produce (Stein et al. 2011, p.462; Hersh and Johnson.

2008, pp.478, 537). And the value of news-oriented texts is obsolete by the time it is

transferred to Braille-readable form: “The information may often be out-of-date by the

time it is made available” and “by the time a news bulletin is brailled, it’s yesterday’s

news” (Williamson et al. 2006). Text-to-speech technology and enhanced display

enjoy the benefits of making information available to the visually impaired

concurrently with dissemination to the able-sighted. However, the biggest advantage

of text-to-speech technology is possibly that, unlike Braille, its benefits are

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transferable to the able-sighted. This transfer of technology makes it an attractive and

commercially viable proposition for the producers of websites and social media

applications to adopt as a standard feature.

2.3 Transfer of technology

The benefits that the able-sighted can enjoy from the electronic rendering of text is a

critical factor in making built-in assistive technology an attractive proposition for

website and social media owners. Legislation cannot go any further than obliging

owners to take cognisance of disability needs as far as that same legislation

prescribes. In addition, comprehensive legislative suites of this nature do not only

take much research, time and consultation with stakeholders to build but also need to

be kept abreast of the frequent development in technology and new barriers. Clear

commercial benefits, on the other hand, are an incentive strong enough to drive not

only the assimilation of assistive technology by Internet media but also further

innovation and investment in text scanning and text-to-speech technology. This

potential transfer of technology can be an important factor in boosting development of

electronic assistive technology because Web design has very often only kept the

able-sighted in mind. This lack of consideration for the disabled took root in web

design in spite of early direction from the World Wide Web's inventor Tim Berners-Lee

that “access by everyone regardless of disability is an essential aspect” of the Web

(World Wide Web Consortium. 1997).

Hersh and Johnson (2008, p.497) place emphasis on the multi-modality of human

communication. They state that “people use a number of different types of

communication, including images, text, gestures, oral speech, sign languages, touch,

mime, body language, facial expressions and music, to communicate with each

other”. The able-sighted mainly employ three of these modes of assimilation when

reading information, with text and image the predominant ones but aided by sound

when watching video or documentary. The introduction of a text-to-speech tier in

websites and social media would thereby not be an alien concept for the able-sighted.

It is an added function with the potential of rapid development into a mainstream

mode of online communication for both the impaired and the sighted, with the user

toggling between ‘read’, ‘hear’ or ‘read and hear’ modes. Speech technology has, in

fact, already found its way into everyday commercial activity, albeit in areas

previously reserved for phone communication in the call centre and telephone

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banking industries. Such has been the impact of speech input/output systems that it is

likely they will find adoption in other media and industries and keep growing. G. Sohn

(2004) estimates “the turnover in business applications of speech technology will

grow from $ 540 millions currently worldwide to $ 1600 millions in the year 2007”.

Hazan and Hunt (1990, p.46) claim that “there are very few instances – especially in

the field of computer technology – where a device which was originally conceived and

developed for the disabled has been used as the template to create a commercially

viable product for general use by individuals or organisations”. One such instance

was the Kurzweil DISCOVER application which found widespread use as a faster

means of data entry by the sighted user, through ‘reading’ (rather than typing)

information into computer databases (ibid, p.47). The Kurzweil Reading Machine was

the first breakthrough in the transfer of technology from applications for the blind in

the direction of the able-sighted. With the exponential growth Sohn’s figures (2004)

must have registered since 2007, it will, hopefully, not be long before the quest for

profit identifies a sufficiently strong mainstream consumer need for text-to-speech

converter formats to become standard fixtures in documents and other text.

Text-to-speech can also be a reading mode physically benefitting the sighted in that it

rests the tired eye of avid readers, or of those who read for pleasure after having to

read and write throughout their working day. One can thus extrapolate a further

benefit to the sighted, namely that of preserving their eyesight and consequently

reducing the potential of their progressively coming in need of assistive reading

technology themselves in future years.

2.4 Incentivisation for equal access

The cardinal point that has to be made here is that transfer of technology is vital not

only for accessibility to the visually impaired, but also to provide added value for the

able-sighted when accessing the same text if the commercial world is to be

incentivised towards accessibility-compliant information structures. Leuthold, Bargas-

Avila and Lewis (2007, p.259) observe that a substantial amount of work goes into

developing accessible websites and Perrett (1995, p. 41. In: Williamson et al. 2006)

found that “many companies… considered disabled customers as a niche market at

best, and an unwanted intrusion at worst”. Should the benefits of assistive technology

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become transferable to the able-sighted as a useful and value-added function, the

technology will become an attractive and commercially viable proposition for the

producers of websites and social media applications to adopt as a standard feature.

If this argument can gain widespread recognition and acceptance in the Internet

industry, social networking and the dissemination of information will have reached a

new plane of participation. The barriers of visual impairment will be felt less acutely by

the impaired, and it is also of relevance that their handicap will become less

noticeable. At present, accessibility solutions for the visually impaired can often be

obtrusive. Williamson et al. (June 2006) found in a survey that “adaptive technology is

usually conspicuous and users feel embarrassed, particularly in the workplace. The

helpful equipment has the unintended side effect of accentuating difference”. And “I

don't like to broadcast the fact that I can't see very well” was how one participant felt

in their survey.

2.5 A one-size-fits-all information structure

The logical extension of the above argument is a one-size-fits-all structure of websites

and news portals. One default orthodox structure will have to be in place which can

however alternate between the three modes of read, hear, and read-and-hear

proposed earlier.

This concept of universal accessibility finds support in the reviewed literature and

Jennifer Sutton (2002) recommends that site designers “apply the concepts of

universal design so that pages will be accessible to everyone, regardless of whether

site visitors have a disability”. She even makes the point that the aural rendering of

text is a form the visually impaired may be familiar with from cassette-based

publications, and that “this medium may be the best ‘one size fits all’ choice”.

Goudiras et al. (2009) go a step further in unequivocally attributing the popularity of

cassettes to the “participants’ view that cassettes are perceived through the auditory

sense, without much effort or training being required”. We will have gone a long way

towards assimilation of the visually impaired into the reading universe when the

barriers of learning curves and technology-specific training, and the cognitive

distraction accompanying them, can be pulled down. And a much wider definition of

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‘reading’ will have been attained when information can be widely accessed not only

visually both also aurally, or in a combination of both modes.

Jaeger, Bertot and Shilton (2012, p.219) also argue in favour of the validity of

providing a universal design accessible across levels of ability, and having “its roots in

making commercial products and architecture more inclusive, taking focus away from

the traditional design approach of creating things for an imagined ‘average’ user”. A

cross-ability information product is also more attractive to developers on the strength

of the larger market it reaches. It will consequently reach that market at a price

affordable to the many, not the few (Hersh and Johnson. 2008, p.548).

The case for a one-size-fits-all model of electronic communication is an extension of

the universal accessibility of other, much older, models of communication.

“Established information technologies – postal services, telephones, television –

successfully provide universal usability; that is, the vast majority of the population has

access to, can use, and regularly does use the technology” (Snyder. 2009. In: Jaeger,

Bertot and Shilton. 2012, p.219). But “universal usability focuses on... technologies to

be accessed and used by most” (ibid; my italics) and so it is not an all-encompassing

net, and there will inevitably be the few who fall through it too.

One-size-fits-all will naturally also impose a common model among the visually

impaired, as against accessibility solutions catering for varying degrees of visual

impairment. In a comment on assistive devices that is equally applicable to assistive

software technology, Hersh and Johnson (2008, p.83) state that “there may be

benefits in developing sets of related devices... having [different] features that are

appropriate for particular groups of blind and visually impaired people”. In an ideal

world without economic barriers there certainly would be a greater benefit to a more

finely targeted approach. However, with the accessibility market already being a niche

rendering dedicated products unaffordable to most, a universal solution will in any

case have to be one targeted to the ‘average user’. While acknowledging this

necessary limitation the authors (ibid, p.392) conclude that a compromise has to be

struck even if visually impaired readers have different requirements. Adoption of the

one-size-fits-all approach emerging from this compromise is the principal

recommendation of this study.

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Yet there are a number of user groups which still cannot be drawn into the information

world by this universal accessibility model by nature of their physical disability,

economic circumstances, digital ineptitude or illiteracy, among other conditions and

circumstances (Knobel and Bowker. 2011. In: Jaeger, Bertot and Shilton. 2012,

p.219). Disabilities or inability of participation outside the barrier of visual impairment

is however beyond the scope of this study, even if it may be a challenge of far greater

dimensions for universal accessibility. This study concentrates solely on how barriers

to information and social networking can be brought down for the visually impaired

even if this user set does share risks and barriers with other disadvantaged groups.

2.6 Risk of emargination

One such shared risk is that of the onset of digital dissemination inflicting further

emargination on the visually impaired. This risk is particularly critical in the sphere of

public services, with the essential services of government departments and

institutions increasingly opting for the cheaper and faster medium of the Internet in

the dissemination of public information (Williamson et al. 2006; Jaeger, Bertot and

Shilton. 2012, p.219).

The risk of the Internet inflicting further emargination is mitigated by the emergence of

sound synthesis as Braille, particularly when applied to the Internet, isolates the

visually impaired community even further. Apart from the disadvantages of a learning

curve, accompanying diseases, and the onset of old age, the cost of Braille computer

hardware is also prohibitive for most blind and visually impaired. The community

suffers from low employability, and it will suffice to note that the entry level cost for a

Braille computer display and printer is a combined $5300 (American Foundation for

the Blind. 2014).

2.7 Review

This chapter has appraised and discussed the literature pertinent to the focus of

study. It has examined the matter of how transfer of technology can further open up

reading to the blind and partially sighted in ways that add value for the able-sighted

reader, as a means of incentivising the world of commerce towards dissemination

frameworks supportive of equal access. A solution put forward is a one-size-fits-all

website framework with default able-sighted mode, switchable to an assistive ‘read-

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and-hear’ structure at the press of a key. It has also looked into whether the electronic

nature of present-day assistive-ware is driving the Braille reading code into

obsolescence. The final section considers the risk of further emargination posed by

the increasingly digital nature of information diffusion for those deprived of sight.

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3. Methodology

3.1 Overview

This chapter describes the theory, instruments, rules and procedures followed in

testing the research question. Research can prove meaningful, or fail, on the

soundness of its methodology, and this section of the study presents a

comprehensive description of the methodology employed. The approach has been an

exploratory one owing to a dearth of extant literature on the subject. It however still

provides an independently valid picture of how blind and visually impaired Internet

users access it for their everyday needs. It also sets the framework for possible

replication in a more exhaustive investigation of accessibility, online participation, and

the state of current assistive technology.

3.2 The paradigm

Patton (1990) describes the paradigm as “a way of breaking down the complexity of

the real world”. This paper offers a break-down of how Internet usage (often

simplistically viewed as one holistic ‘real world’ activity) is practised by a small-scale

sample of visually impaired and blind individuals for their educational, employability,

entertainment and information purposes.

Educational research is broadly built upon three paradigms: normativism,

interpretivism, and critical theory. Critical theory assumes a judgment or preference

on the researcher’s part which has not been one of this study’s motivating factors.

The motivation behind the research question has been to discover how the blind and

visually impaired use the Internet (the ‘why’ and ‘what if’ have not been motivating

factors). The research question has been developed with a normative approach in

mind and Douglas (1973. In: Cohen, Manion and Morrison. 2007, p.21) found that

one significant notion in the normative paradigm is that human behavior is essentially

rule-governed, and as a consequence it is scientifically ascertainable. This study’s

approach is one of a normative nature that is scientifically verifiable or subjectable to

logical or mathematical proof. In this viewpoint, the stark contrast with the

interpretative paradigm’s concern for the individual emerges as the point of

investigative departure. It is an assumption of a common bottom tier of the reviewed

subjects’ behavior during observation.

15

Dills and Romiszowski (1997, p.11) describe one of the paradigm’s functions as

defining “how the world works, how knowledge is extracted from this world, and how

one is to think, write, and talk about this knowledge”. This study presents a

generalized explanation, derived from the questionnaire response, of how the

participants pursue Internet usage. The categorization of questionnaire replies by

personal attributes such as age, education and occupation adds a causal view to this

description, with usage patterns identifiable as belonging to particular demographic

groups. The focus of interest is in the extraction of an Internet usage pattern by the

blind and visually impaired that is general, average, and representative, and free of

researcher-applied values or context. This focus is a positivist one assuming that

"there are patterns and regularities, causes and consequences in the social world...

having their own existence – they are real” (Denscombe 2003, p.299).

3.3 Research approach and method

This survey has employed a questionnaire to gather straightforward facts and

behavioural patterns concerning Internet use by the blind and visually impaired. The

questionnaire is an instrument suited to social research where an empirical stress is

necessary for the collection of the real-world observation required by the Internet

usage patterns and barriers being investigated.

The study is a primarily quantitative one and findings consequently do not claim to be

a thoroughly in-depth and detailed study. Their value lies in the insight generated,

possibly even serving as a platform for a second more detailed qualitative

investigation built upon a more representative sample of the blind and sight-impaired

community. The data collection process has however sought a limited qualitative

input where the opportunity and relevance have arisen.

The sample base is the product of the pragmatic approach often inherent in small-

scale study, and while the target was a minimum response rate of 15, the response

achieved was of 18 participants. It is an exploratory sample built upon a very small

convenience sampling method and the snowball effect of respondents inviting

members of their community to participate and spread the word among visually

impaired acquaintances of their own. The resulting findings are more at risk of bias

than those of larger scale investigations as a consequence of the small participant

16

numbers. Nevertheless, they focus on the extraction of an informative picture of

Internet usage (and the barriers to it) which an exploratory sample permits.

The opening contact with respondents was made by phone to introduce the

researcher and the motivation behind this study. Most respondents took the survey

upon initial phone contact whereupon the survey's Information Sheet and Consent

Form (Appendices 1 and 2) were read out. The researcher then read out each survey

question, marking the answers according to the interviewees' response. Interviewees

were however still offered the option of having all the survey documentation emailed

to them for them to read at their convenience prior to marking of the questionnaire. An

appointment was set for the actual phone interview with those preferring this option.

The Consent Form, filled in by the interviewer on the interviewees’ behalf, was later

mailed to the respondents for signing and return. Follow-up ensued by a second

phone call where qualitative input obtained in the form of comments pointing the

researcher towards new fields for reflection, was not immediately evident during the

phone interview.

The survey questionnaire was of a quantitative design as straightforward facts and

usage preferences were required to establish a clear numeric picture of Internet

usage in the visually impaired community, the barriers encountered and the assistive

technology utilized. Moreover, the survey questionnaire lends itself to the generation

of quantitative data sufficiently voluminous in size to enable statistical analysis. This

data was complemented with the respondents’ personal attributes to attempt to

discover how Internet usage patterns and barriers (such as age, occupation, level of

education, and level of disability) can be conditioned by one’s personal attributes.

Minor qualitative input has however been recorded by means of clarification or remark

where the respondent offered it, or where the answer has suggested elicitation of it.

The questionnaire method was also deemed the most practical to implement because

of the limited resources available to this study, like in any small-scale research

project. It tends to provide a data load sufficiently large to produce meaningful results

and conclusions, and in a reasonably short time-span. Coupling the questionnaire

with snowball sampling (even though this sampling technique can occasionally fall

victim to unpredictable completion timeframes) produced most of the response within

a fortnight. This rapid turnaround was achieved through a number of factors. A

17

referral-and-contact approach was adopted whereby respondents were asked to

invite a few acquaintances to take up the survey. Most accepted, and they were

promptly contacted and requested to nominate acquaintances of their own. The trust

gained through referral-by-acquaintance generates a response faster than the cold-

contact nature of other techniques, and the visually impaired community was found to

be a closely-knit one with the nominee’s trust more easily won with community-

generated referrals. Moreover, most respondents were pleased with their disability

being the subject of interest, and they took the survey eagerly.

The survey questions principally derive from the literature reviewed in Chapter 2. The

examined theory contributed to a mental formulation of what everyday life can be like

for the blind and partially sighted, with their information-seeking needs and the

complementary barriers consequently emerging in harsher clarity. In addition to

questions on needs and barriers prompted by this mental portrait, querying was

necessary on demographics such as age, occupation and severity of sight impairment

to enable a categorisation of the data collected. Other sets of questions were

motivated by the extraction of what assistive tools the sufferers and their

demographic sub-groups employ in attaining Internet accessibility.

The questionnaire combines a variety of means for the collection of data. One

recording method is a three-point Likert scale (e.g. for the scoring of how often the

respondent uses reading aids, on a scale of a little, a lot or not at all). Another elicits

single-line entry for qualitative input such as for establishing which negative effects

the contributor encounters with Internet usage. A third provides for one or more

answers to a question (such as for which Internet browser or browsers used), with a

final method providing for mutually exclusive answer options such as with the

contributor’s gender (either male or female).

A limited release of the questionnaire among the first four recruited respondents, the

ones also responsible for setting in motion the snowball sampling technique, served

to check the questions’ appropriateness and effectiveness. The questionnaire’s

distribution was planned as an email attachment for the response to be taken over the

phone as already explained earlier in this section. Tweaking of the questionnaire was

intended as an iterative process with these four respondents upon identification of

need of improvement, but no such necessity arose. Questionnaire design was given

18

sufficient consideration both from the literature perused as well as in the form of

suggestions emerging from an email discussion with Natalie Swiderska at Action for

Blind People (www.actionforblindpeople.org.uk). As a result, the questionnaire was

sufficiently clear and of a holistic form upon the first iteration.

Surveys are an efficient tool both in terms of time and in the volume of data they

generate. This productive efficiency shows in this study in the wealth of data

produced by just 18 respondents. However, while the survey does create a rich

picture of the sphere under investigation, prudence has to be exercised when reading

deeper into the findings. It is in the quantitative survey’s nature to veer in the direction

of numerics to the expense of the theory in which the core field of study is grounded.

So while the data collected has been described comprehensively, attention has also

been paid to the extraction of the meaning lying hidden between the rows and

columns of the raw data set.

3.4 Ethics

Ethical consideration is a crucial component of any study, particularly so when the

subjects are more vulnerable such as by reason of disability. This study being an

investigation of Internet usage by a disabled community, conduction of the

questionnaire and reporting of its findings necessitated a thorough ethical check to

ensure observation of the community's interests. The richness that can come out of

the questionnaire’s raw data set has consequently undergone balancing against the

rights, feelings and dignity of the participants. As “researchers have no privileged

position in society that justifies them pursuing their interests at the expense of those

they are studying – no matter how valuable they hope the findings might be”

(Denscombe 2003, p.135). The Ethics Form approved by the Chair at the supervisory

body (Sheffield Hallam University) appears as Appendix 3.

The beneficence of this study lies in establishing the extent to which the Internet,

complemented by assistive implementations such as screen magnifiers and text-to-

sound conversion, is enabling the emancipation of the blind and visually impaired into

the world of the visually able reader and writer. It also offers a vision of an assistive

implementation that will enable the blind and visually impaired user to participate fully

in communication.

19

Consideration has been taken of the potential of negative consequences for the

respondents at an early stage. However, no particular issues arise in this regard,

other than respect for anonymity as, with anonymity ensured, no risk of physical

vulnerability through disclosure of identity, location, or both can ensue. Anonymity

also ensures against the risk of psychological harm as a result of stress or

embarrassment emanating from matching of respondent identity with the appertaining

disability. And the subjects’ identity has been protected as it will rest solely with the

investigator. Where individual replies have had to be referred to in the study,

reference has taken the form of Respondent 1, Respondent 2, etc.

Participants' consent has been obtained by means of a Consent Form emailed prior

to the phone interview. It was read out again to the respondent at the start of the

interview, filled in as per participant's instructions, and signed by the respondent at a

later date. The sample has excluded minors or others incapable of providing informed

consent. The respondent’s right of withdrawal has been granted on both the

Information Sheet and Consent Form (see Appendices 1 and 2 respectively),

accompanied by a withdrawal deadline of 31 December 2014 as a result of the study

planned for closure by the following week. Moreover, unnecessary contact details

have not been recorded anywhere in the documentation. Contact details have been

restricted to email address and phone number for use by the author only, and solely

for the purposes authorised by the subjects on the Form.

Where individual replies to the numeric content or individual qualitative input are

being communicated, respondent identity has been disguised as Respondent N.

Participant identity will rest solely with the author of this study and questionnaire

replies will be held by him until such time as this study has been marked by the

supervisory body. An anonymised summary of the participants' responses will be

retained for record purposes and also for future use, with the latter purpose enjoying

respondents’ approval on the Consent Form.

No survey questions have been set which are redundant to the topic of investigation

or its complementary angles. Moreover, attention has been paid to reporting of the

individual respondents’ data elements where they produce a risk of identification

through the matching of two or more individually-reported items such as age, sex or

occupation.

20

3.5 Data analysis

The data analysis consists of numeric summarisation of the collective response to the

individual survey questions, comparison between the results of the individual

questions where the content of one question directly feeds into that of another, and of

a discussion considering the result, conclusions and recommendations to be

garnered from reflection on the complete raw data set. Spreadsheet views and pie

charts present the results and comparison between them, followed by a discussion

comparing the findings to the theory emanating from the literature perused. Coding of

the survey response was performed through input of all the collected data elements

into an Excel spreadsheet (Appendix 5) in tabulated form, with a table and pie chart

view extracted for the individual questions’ response in Chapter 4 (Findings and

Discussion).

Data collection employs a quantitative method because of its numeric nature, as the

aim of the study is a result based on a firm numeric foundation for a generalisation as

objective as possible of Internet usage by the sight impaired and the accessibility

barriers encountered. This approach contributes to the reliability of the research even

if Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2007, p.133) do hold that quantitative research

possesses a degree of inbuilt error. And quantitativity’s numeric nature presents a

solid basis for an objective analysis and description of the study’s aims and questions

in spite of a measure of subjectivity inevitably setting in, both during formulation of the

questionnaire and upon categorization of the raw data. The rigid pigeon-holing of the

data elements however enhances the consistency and dependability of the survey,

thus augmenting its potential replicability for future investigations. If reliability is

present in sufficient measure, an acceptable degree of validity ensues “through

careful sampling, appropriate instrumentation and statistical treatments of the data”

(ibid).

The respondent anonymity discussed earlier has dictated that their occupations are

broadly categorized for reasons of non-identification of participant. The first five

occupational categories below have been adopted from the ISCO-08 standard

classification of economic occupations (International Labour Organization. 2008). The

last two have been added by the author to label respondents outside of economic

activity.

21

- Legal, social and cultural professionals

- Information and communication technicians

- Teaching professionals

- General and keyboard clerks

- Cleaners and helpers

- Unemployed

- Retired

So while ethical constraint may have contributed to a generalization broader than the

study topic would have otherwise enjoyed, a hazier view is the price of the ethical

integrity governing modern research. This study can however still be considered a top

level view of a paradigm a more in-depth inspection of which is achievable by the

examination of a larger sample of the sight-impaired community. Higher respondent

numbers will allow for a narrowed-down description that does not compromise on

ethical concern.

3.6 Review

This section has described the paradigm governing the study, the research approach

and the instruments employed in the gathering of the raw data. It has discussed how

this data is analysed and presented in the next chapter (Findings and Discussion),

and also considered issues of reliability and validity, and considerations of research

ethics.

22

4. Findings and Discussion

4.1 Overview

This chapter describes the survey’s findings by setting the response to each question

in table format and reporting on the collated data. It then proceeds to discuss the

picture portrayed by the collated data. It comprises 33 tables illustrating the response

to each of the survey’s 17 questions and their sub-questions, with a pie chart

depicting the summarised percentage for each answer set where applicable.

The survey sample was built by means of the snowball sampling technique which was

largely set in motion by two blind and visually impaired contributors who are in

employment. As a result, there is a possibility that acquaintances they recommended

as respondents may be more likely to be in employment than not. Caution is thereby

recommended when applying the study’s findings to other research settings as the

ratio for employed and unemployed sufferers may hold slight bias towards the former

category.

23

4.2 The findings

Question 1: Respondent particulars

1.1 Sex

The male-to-female respondent ratio of 5:4 is a chance product of the snowball

sampling method’s referral-by-respondent approach. The survey sample’s selection

not being based on demographic attributes may explain why this ratio is not precisely

representative of Malta’s gender ratio in which the female share exceeds that for

males by 0.5% (National Statistics Office, Malta. 2014). Moreover, the possible bias in

favour of employed sufferers noted in the overview on the previous page may be a

contributor towards this sample characteristic because of gender imbalance at the

workplace. Malta’s last national census (ibid) reported a female workforce

participation rate of 38% in 2011.

Question 1.1:

SexMale Female

Respondent 10 8 < Occurrences

R1 √

R2 √

R3 √

R4 √

R5 √

R6 √

R7 √

R8 √

R9 √

R10 √

R11 √

R12 √

R13 √

R14 √

R15 √

R16 √

R17 √

R18 √

24

1.2: Age

Participant age has been collected as at date of survey completion but subsequently

grouped into the four age brackets in the table below. Actual age was requested in

the questionnaire so as to leave open the possibility of emergence of any particular

age grouping of particular significance. However, the respondents’ ages did not

produce results meriting specific or unexpected attention and categorisation has been

established upon a 4-point rating scale starting from 18 as minors have been

excluded from this study. The exclusion of minors has contributed to no occurrence of

respondents in the 18- to 24-year-old age bracket as it has reduced further what

would already have been an age band narrower than the two twenty-year intervals

that follow.

Question 1.2:

Age18 - 24 25 - 44 45 - 64 65 +

Respondent 0 6 11 1 < Occurrences

R1 √

R2 √

R3 √

R4 √

R5 √

R6 √

R7 √

R8 √

R9 √

R10 √

R11 √

R12 √

R13 √

R14 √

R15 √

R16 √

R17 √

R18 √

25

1.3: Town/City

This table provides a summary of participants’ location in Malta. The town or city of

residence is of no real demographic importance to this study, so the data collected

has been restricted to the island of residence, i.e. either the mainland or the second

island of Gozo. Interisland distinction has however not been deemed of any

significance to this study. In fact, the high percentage of Gozitan respondents (22%)

in relation to their 7.5% share of the total Maltese population (National Statistics

Office. 2014, p.xiii) has not been considered a relevant bias.

Question 1.3:

LocationMalta Gozo

Respondent 14 4 < Occurrences

R1 √

R2 √

R3 √

R4 √

R5 √

R6 √

R7 √

R8 √

R9 √

R10 √

R11 √

R12 √

R13 √

R14 √

R15 √

R16 √

R17 √

R18 √

26

1.4: Occupation

Participant occupation is classified across seven labels. The first five in Table 1.4

below are selected from the ISCO-08 classification of economic activity (International

Labour Organization. 2008). The last two have been added to classify the non-

economic activity arising from the sample base.

The unemployed account for a third of respondents, predictably so given the barriers

or lack of sight they are burdened with when conducting even mundane routines, let

alone in employment. However, the 2:1 ratio of respondents in employment (or having

been until retirement) denotes a reasonable level of emancipation of the blind and

visually impaired in the labour market. But it can also be construed that the level of

educational opportunity and preparedness for employment are still largely directed

towards the clerical job markets, when considering that 27% of all participants fall

under the employment category of General & Keyboard Clerks.

Question 1.4:

Occupation

Legal, Social &

Cultural

Professionals

Information &

Communication

Technicians

Teaching

Professionals

General &

Keyboard

Clerks

Cleaners &

HelpersUnemployed Retired

Respondent 2 1 1 5 1 6 2 < Occurrences

R1 √

R2 √

R3 √

R4 √

R5 √

R6 √

R7 √

R8 √

R9 √

R10 √

R11 √

R12 √

R13 √

R14 √

R15 √

R16 √

R17 √

R18 √

27

1.5: Accompanying disabilities

Three-fourths of respondents did not have other disabilities in addition to blindness or

low vision that further hindered reading. Four of the 18 respondents did however

suffer from diabetes, arthritis or, in one case, a combination of diabetes and deformity

of one hand. This figure indicates that close to a quarter of blind and visually impaired

readers will experience above-average difficulty (possibly even unachievability) in the

use of the tactile reading media of Braille. As, as already discussed in the Introduction

and Literature Review sections of this dissertation, diabetics suffer from a severely

reduced sense of touch as do arthritics too.

Add to this the decline in the sense of touch that comes as a result of age itself

(Stevens, Folke and Patterson. 1996) , discussed earlier in the Literature Review

chapter, and the long-term non-feasibility of learning Braille for 67% of the

respondents becomes apparent. This 67% comprises the 45-year and older age

bracket whose tactile sense has already started, or will start, diminishing in a number

of years.

Question 1.5:

Accompanying

disabilities

None Diabetes Arthritis Hand Deformity


R1 √

R2 √

R3 √

R4 √

R5 √

R6 √

R7 √

R8 √

R9 √

R10 √

R11 √

R12 √

R13 √

R14 √

R15 √

R16 √

R17 √ √

R18 √

28

Question 2: Visual disability

The visual disability of participants has been classified according to the three levels of

impairment in the table below. Almost a half (8 of 18) suffers from total blindness, and

another seven individuals have described themselves as severely sight impaired. The

percentage of respondents most at risk of Internet inaccessibility (those not rating

themselves as just ‘sight impaired’) therefore amount to 83% of the participating

sample.

Question 2:

Visual disabilitySight Impaired

Severely Sight

ImpairedBlind

Respondent 3 7 8 < Occurrences

R1 √

R2 √

R3 √

R4 √

R5 √

R6 √

R7 √

R8 √

R9 √

R10 √

R11 √

R12 √

R13 √

R14 √

R15 √

R16 √

R17 √

R18 √

29

Question 3: Age of impairment

This survey question has produced a largely even spread of age of onset of visual

impairment between zero to 64 years of age. The raw unsummarised findings in

Appendix 5 show the actual ages of onset standing between 7 and 40 for blindness,

and between 12 and 62 for severe sight impairment (with one occurrence of severe

impairment from birth). This even spread, coupled with the risk of other sight-

restricting illnesses setting in for the 65+ age bracket in spite of no occurrences

showing up at onset, appears to strengthen this study’s argument in Chapter 2,

Section 2.5 (A one-size-fits-all information structure) for a one-size-fits-all solution.

This recommendation suggests a move away from Braille towards aural reading as

the practical and all-encompassing way forward.

Question 3:

Age of onset of

impairment

Birth 0 - 14 15 - 24 25 - 44 45 - 64 65 +

Respondent 1 5 5 4 3 0 < Occurrences

R1 √

R2 √

R3 √

R4 √

R5 √

R6 √

R7 √

R8 √

R9 √

R10 √

R11 √

R12 √

R13 √

R14 √

R15 √

R16 √

R17 √

R18 √

30

Question 4: Level of education

The level of education attained by the survey participants is either secondary or

tertiary, at 61% and 39% respectively. This result, in spite of the questionnaire still

providing for a primary school level exit or no education at all, is not unexpected

because education up to a secondary level is compulsory in Malta. It has been since

1946 which is before the school entry age of all survey participants.

Question 4:

Level of education None Primary Secondary Tertiary


R1 √

R2 √

R3 √

R4 √

R5 √

R6 √

R7 √

R8 √

R9 √

R10 √

R11 √

R12 √

R13 √

R14 √

R15 √

R16 √

R17 √

R18 √

Question 5: Training in reading media

A third (6) of those taking the survey underwent formal training in at least one form of

assistive reading media. One of them (Respondent 4) self

after being tutored in Braille. Two of the 12 not reporting undergoing training have

self-taught themselves in the media they use, while Respondent 12 had begun Braille

training but “I dropped it as it wasn’t easy and I lacked motivation too [and] I

to the little sight I had and the assistive technology I learned by myself was sufficient

That Respondent 12 did not find Braille easy to learn is no surprise when keeping in

mind she is 59 years old. What Stevens, Folke and Patterson (1996) ha

about the sense of touch with which Braille operates diminishing the older one grows

was touched upon in Chapter 2, Section 2.

speech?).

Question 5:

Training in

reading media

Yes

Respondent 6

R1

R2

R3

R4 √

R5

R6 √

R7

R8

R9

R10 √

R11 √

R12 √

R13

R14 √

R15

R16

R17

R18

31

Training in reading media


One of them (Respondent 4) self-taught himself other


taught themselves in the media they use, while Respondent 12 had begun Braille

I dropped it as it wasn’t easy and I lacked motivation too [and] I

to the little sight I had and the assistive technology I learned by myself was sufficient


mind she is 59 years old. What Stevens, Folke and Patterson (1996) ha


was touched upon in Chapter 2, Section 2.2 (Is Braille being eclipsed by electronic

No

12 < Occurrences

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√


taught himself other media


taught themselves in the media they use, while Respondent 12 had begun Braille

I dropped it as it wasn’t easy and I lacked motivation too [and] I held on

to the little sight I had and the assistive technology I learned by myself was sufficient".


mind she is 59 years old. What Stevens, Folke and Patterson (1996) have to say


Is Braille being eclipsed by electronic

32

Question 6: Use of reading aids

The following tables display usage of a number of reading technologies or the

hardware that hosts them.

6.1: Braille

This study puts forward the author’s opinion that Braille is steadily being eclipsed by

electronic speech, for a number of reasons. Electronic speech is unburdened by the

steep learning curve Hersh and Johnson (2008, pp.143, 498) attribute to Braille, it

suffers from no cognitive overload, and it is cheaper and faster to produce. The

results to Question 6.1 bear out this declining presence of Braille or, alternatively, the

lack of learning ability, commitment or interest in the code that is bringing it about.

The following table shows only one in six using Braille ‘A Lot’, with the remaining

respondents almost evenly spread among the ‘A Little’ or ‘Not At All’ brackets. These

figures seem to indicate a weak respondent commitment (or possibly insufficient

training opportunities) in Braille and further strengthen the argument for an alternative

reading mode.

However, the emphasis the study places on the diminishing popularity of the Braille

code does not infer that no presence whatsoever will remain of it, or even that there is

not a need for it. It can very well survive as a niche writing mode. Respondent 1

commented that her blind father treasures the feeling of achievement and

competence he derives from Braille, as much as the fact its inherent tactility gives him

the added satisfaction of feeling ‘in touch’ with what he reads in much the same way

the able-sighted feel with a book in hand.

Apart from this morale-boosting angle, there may still also be a practical niche side to

Braille as a note-taker. Respondent 7 commented that Braille will still be good “for

taking notes in bed”. And, until the time he can spare the cost of a tablet computer,

the Braille reader is lighter and less cumbersome than his notebook PC to use on his

lap in bed. He possesses an iPhone that he can use for note-taking but, its’ reading

mode being aural not tactile, it lacks Braille’s legacy reading mode that can be

comforting.

Question 6.1:

BrailleA Lot

Respondent 3

R1

R2

R3

R4

R5

R6

R7 √

R8 √

R9

R10

R11

R12

R13

R14

R15

R16

R17

R18 √

33

A Little Not At All

8 7 < Occurrences

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

6.2: Large Print

That only 6% of the surveyed participants use large print ‘A Lot’ and 72% ‘Not At All’

may appear a surprising find, particularly with the relative ease the computer screen’s

content can be enlarged on the ubiqui

platforms. One has however to keep in mind Table 2 (

respondents almost evenly split between the blind and visually impaired.

With enlarged text of no help for the eight respondents who have

maximum number from the sample for whom large print is helpful is reduced to

Deducting from that number the four respondents using computers a little or not at all

(see Table 6.5: Computers

these six, four read in large print ‘A Lot’, with the remaining two populating the ‘A

Little’ and ‘Not At All’ bands (Respondents 6 and 17 respectively). No amplification

emerges from the data for non

assistance by these two participants.

Question 6.2:

Large PrintA Lot

Respondent 4

R1 √

R2

R3

R4

R5

R6

R7

R8 √

R9 √

R10

R11

R12 √

R13

R14

R15

R16

R17

R18

34



content can be enlarged on the ubiquitous Microsoft Windows operating system

platforms. One has however to keep in mind Table 2 (Visual Disability


With enlarged text of no help for the eight respondents who have no sight at all, the

maximum number from the sample for whom large print is helpful is reduced to


Computers) leaves six non-blind users using compute



emerges from the data for non-usage of the simplest form of computer

assistance by these two participants.

A Little Not At All

1 13 < Occurrences

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√



tous Microsoft Windows operating system

Visual Disability) with


no sight at all, the

maximum number from the sample for whom large print is helpful is reduced to 10.


rs regularly. Of



usage of the simplest form of computer-based reading

6.3: Videos

The video tutorial can be a very effective instrument for the acquisition of knowledge,

or of instruction on anything from vocational training to the use of domestic

appliances. For the blind and visually impaired it replaces reading text with aural

assimilation and visual enactment of actions, at times even complemented with a

track of large text.

It is a result meriting further examination that the majority of respondents (56%) o

reported ‘A Little’ use of video, with a further 22% on ‘Not At All’.

Question 6.3:

VideosA Lot

Respondent 4

R1 √

R2 √

R3

R4 √

R5

R6

R7

R8 √

R9

R10

R11

R12

R13

R14

R15

R16

R17

R18

35



or the blind and visually impaired it replaces reading text with aural


It is a result meriting further examination that the majority of respondents (56%) o

reported ‘A Little’ use of video, with a further 22% on ‘Not At All’.

A Little Not At All

10 4 < Occurrences

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√



or the blind and visually impaired it replaces reading text with aural


It is a result meriting further examination that the majority of respondents (56%) only

36

6.4: CCTV

CCTV has resulted to be by far the least popular reading tool with only Respondent 1

reporting using it at all. This may be attributable to the price of the hardware that may

cost up to USD 3,000 on the price list of one supplier (The Visual-Tech Connection.

2014). With a number of other assistive needs requiring attention from a community

largely in no or lowly-paid employment, this can be a considerable outlay unless

funded by the employer for office use.

Question 6.4:

CCTVA Lot A Little Not At All


R1 √

R2 √

R3 √

R4 √

R5 √

R6 √

R7 √

R8 √

R9 √

R10 √

R11 √

R12 √

R13 √

R14 √

R15 √

R16 √

R17 √

R18 √

37

6.5: Computers

The computer is the platform for the assistive software technology discussed in this

study, so this band is a critical component of the survey. Seventy-two percent report

using computers a lot and 17% a little.

The two respondents reporting no computer use at all are effectively cut off from all

assistive technology bar Braille (which they cannot use anyway owing to

complementary illnesses affecting tactility) but, representing 11% of the sample, their

presence cannot be discarded as insignificant. Respondent 5 is a 67-year-old male

pensioner with severe sight impediment setting in at age 62, while Respondent 16 is

an unemployed female of 49 with sight impairment having set in at the age of 22. So

while one has suffered sight impairment for the last five years, the other has already

lived with it for over half her lifetime. These two participants’ histories are very

different so there are no common factors that can identify an explanation of their not

being computer users, particularly since none indicated that obtaining one would be

too large a financial burden.

Having said the above, keeping the world of reading open may not be the be-all and

end-all of a happy life for all who suffer blindness or visual impairment. There may

very well be the one-in-ten who find acceptance of their reduced senses and

fulfilment nonetheless in the limited activity they can pursue. Respondent 16 did in

fact remark, when being asked upon the reading aids she uses (none at all, as

recorded in this section’s tables below), that “my biggest concern is mobility, more

than reading”. The priorities the visually impaired make in adjusting to a life of sight

deprivation, and the extent to which the printed word forms part of that prioritisation, is

a field of enquiry that can merit dedicated research in its own right.

Question 6.5:

ComputersA Lot

Respondent 13

R1 √

R2 √

R3 √

R4 √

R5

R6 √

R7 √

R8 √

R9 √

R10

R11 √

R12 √

R13

R14 √

R15

R16

R17 √

R18 √

38

A Little Not At All

3 2 < Occurrences

√

√

√

√

√

6.6: Phone Apps

Two-thirds of respondents report not using smartphone apps at all. The collected data

does not go into the ‘why’ of non

additional cost over a normal cell phone is one, though the price difference has come

down considerably, apart from smartphones also frequently being packaged into

fixed-term phone contract deals offered by mobile telephony service providers. A

bigger obstacle to taking up smartphone usage by the blind and visually impaired may

be the prospect of learning new software applications,

curve of phone apps usual

smartphone with typical screen sizes of five inches.

Four of the respondents however reported using phone apps a lot, with another two

‘A Little’. All of these six also report using from six to eigh

and technologies listed in Questions 6 and 7. This technological aptitude and

exposure, possibly a result of five of the respondents being in employment in

professional and white collar occupations, may explain their confidence in

a technological layer in addition to the average assistive portfolio in use by the survey

respondents.

Question 6.6:

Phone AppsA Lot

Respondent 4

R1

R2 √

R3

R4

R5

R6 √

R7 √

R8

R9

R10

R11 √

R12

R13

R14

R15

R16

R17

R18

39

thirds of respondents report not using smartphone apps at all. The collected data

go into the ‘why’ of non-usage, but a number of reasons come to mind. The



contract deals offered by mobile telephony service providers. A


ing new software applications, however short the learning

curve of phone apps usually is. Or possibly even that of operating and reading a

smartphone with typical screen sizes of five inches.


‘A Little’. All of these six also report using from six to eight of the 10 reading media



professional and white collar occupations, may explain their confidence in


A Little Not At All

2 12 < Occurrences

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

thirds of respondents report not using smartphone apps at all. The collected data

usage, but a number of reasons come to mind. The



contract deals offered by mobile telephony service providers. A


however short the learning

ly is. Or possibly even that of operating and reading a


reading media



professional and white collar occupations, may explain their confidence in employing


40

6.7: Others

No use of software aids or hardware other than the five specifically listed in Question

6 has been reported.

Question 6.7:

OthersA Lot A Little Not At All


R1

R2

R3

R4

R5

R6

R7

R8

R9

R10

R11

R12

R13

R14

R15

R16

R17

R18

No other use of reading media or hardware

has been reported by respondents

Question 7: Use of computer software

Respondent usage of the software assistive technology most commonly used by the

blind and sight impaired is presented in the tables below.

7.1: Screen-reader

The screen-reader is the most frequentl

indicating its’ usage, 83% of which (

respondents in employment use it (together with one unemployed participant and a

pensioner). The six remaining participants (five unemplo

make use of the screen-reader.

The above usage pattern appears to indicate a low reading rate among the

unemployed with only 25% of the unemployed and pensioners (two of eight) finding

any need for it.

Question 7.1:

Screen-readerA Lot

Respondent 10

R1

R2 √

R3 √

R4 √

R5

R6 √

R7 √

R8 √

R9

R10

R11 √

R12 √

R13

R14 √

R15

R16

R17

R18 √

41

Use of computer software


blind and sight impaired is presented in the tables below.

reader is the most frequently employed aid with 89% of participants

indicating its’ usage, 83% of which (10 of 12) report using it ‘A Lot’. All


pensioner). The six remaining participants (five unemployed and a pensioner) do not

reader.



A Little Not At All

2 6 < Occurrences

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√


y employed aid with 89% of participants

) report using it ‘A Lot’. All 10


yed and a pensioner) do not



7.2: Speech-to-text

This technology does not enjoy a high take

78% not utilising it at all. Those employing it are in employment, two in the role of

clerk and one as a disability trainer.

Question 7.2:

Speech-to-textA Lot

Respondent 3

R1

R2 √

R3

R4

R5

R6 √

R7 √

R8

R9

R10

R11

R12

R13

R14

R15

R16

R17

R18

42

This technology does not enjoy a high take-up rate among the survey sample with

78% not utilising it at all. Those employing it are in employment, two in the role of

clerk and one as a disability trainer.

A Little Not At All

1 14 < Occurrences

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

up rate among the survey sample with

78% not utilising it at all. Those employing it are in employment, two in the role of a

7.3: Scanner-to-speech

Scanner-to-speech also suffers from low usage with only 33% indicating any level of

use. The two participants reporting much usage are a solicitor and a disability trainer,

with the four users using the technology a little working as a clerk, phone operato

in ICT.

Question 7.3:

Scanner-to-

speech

A Lot

Respondent 2

R1

R2

R3

R4

R5

R6

R7 √

R8

R9

R10

R11 √

R12

R13

R14

R15

R16

R17

R18

43

speech

speech also suffers from low usage with only 33% indicating any level of


with the four users using the technology a little working as a clerk, phone operato

A Little Not At All

4 12 < Occurrences

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

speech also suffers from low usage with only 33% indicating any level of


with the four users using the technology a little working as a clerk, phone operator or

7.4: Screen-magnifier

As with the technologies in the two previous tables (Speech

speech), screen magnification has not resulted in a high take

respondents reporting utilisin

between screen magnification and use of large print technology with four in five users

of the former not having reported any use of the latter in Table 6.2 (

This finding appears to sugges

there is a choice between two technologies performing the same basic function, by

either adopting one or the other.

Question 7.4:

Screen-magnifierA Lot

Respondent 2

R1 √

R2

R3

R4

R5

R6

R7

R8

R9 √

R10

R11

R12

R13

R14

R15

R16

R17

R18

44

As with the technologies in the two previous tables (Speech-to-text and Scanner

speech), screen magnification has not resulted in a high take-up rate with only 28% of

respondents reporting utilising it at all. There however seems to be a correlation


of the former not having reported any use of the latter in Table 6.2 (Large Print

This finding appears to suggest that users avoid duplication of assistive aids where


either adopting one or the other.

A Little Not At All

3 13 < Occurrences

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

text and Scanner-to-

up rate with only 28% of

g it at all. There however seems to be a correlation


Large Print).

t that users avoid duplication of assistive aids where


Question 8: Internet connection ratio

The ratio of respondents wi

5:1 which is higher than Malta’s broadband ratio per household of 4:1 (Eurostat

2014). This ratio may be indicative of how critical a service it is considered by the

blind and sight impaired commun

information and knowledge are negligible. It has nonetheless to be borne in mind that

not all those suffering the isolation of sight impairment feel the need of a direct

connection to the Internet. Respondent 1

below, but he finds a substitute for the Internet in family when in need of the

occasional bit of information: “

Internet".

Question 8:

Internet

connection

Yes

Respondent 15

R1 √

R2 √

R3 √

R4 √

R5

R6 √

R7 √

R8 √

R9 √

R10 √

R11 √

R12 √

R13

R14 √

R15 √

R16

R17 √

R18 √

45

Internet connection ratio

The ratio of respondents with an Internet connection to those without one is that of

5:1 which is higher than Malta’s broadband ratio per household of 4:1 (Eurostat


blind and sight impaired community whose alternative resources for accessing



connection to the Internet. Respondent 13 is one of the unconnected in the table


occasional bit of information: “my children help whenever I need anything on the

No

3 < Occurrences

√

√

√

th an Internet connection to those without one is that of

5:1 which is higher than Malta’s broadband ratio per household of 4:1 (Eurostat.


ity whose alternative resources for accessing



3 is one of the unconnected in the table


my children help whenever I need anything on the

Question 9: Reasons for no Internet connection

The three participants without Internet connectivity have cited four reasons for this,

with two naming at least one reason not outside his or her control.

Respondent 5, a 67-year-

Most of his needs such as banking are seen to by family. He moreover finds the

remnant of sight his severe sight impairment leaves him with to be sufficient for

pursuing an interest in the cable TV documentaries and other information,

entertainment or knowledge needs he habitually follows.

Respondent 13, an unemployed 45

while Respondent 16 (unemployed and 49) believes

training will not be easy but adds that

either.

It is surprising that a number of those denied full sight, and consequently also full

mobility, do not find the need for a medium that brings the world to their desktop.

However, the proviso put for

those visually impaired who accept their condition and find fulfilment nonetheless,

may apply in this case too.

Question 9:

If no Internet

connection, why

I don't

need itCost

Difficulty in

finding

training

Respondent 2 0

R1 - -

R2 - -

R3 - -

R4 - -

R5 √ -

R6 - -

R7 - -

R8 - -

R9 - -

R10 - -

R11 - -

R12 - -

R13 - -

R14 - -

R15 - -

R16 √ -

R17 - -

R18 - -

46

Reasons for no Internet connection


with two naming at least one reason not outside his or her control.

-old pensioner, states that he has no need for the Internet.




entertainment or knowledge needs he habitually follows.

Respondent 13, an unemployed 45-year-old, cites a difficulty with using technology,

while Respondent 16 (unemployed and 49) believes her finding the necessary

training will not be easy but adds that she does not really need the Internet that much



However, the proviso put forward in Table 6.5 (Computers), that there may well be

who accept their condition and find fulfilment nonetheless,

may apply in this case too.

Difficulty in

finding

training

Difficulty in

using

technology

Fear of

technologyOther

1 1 0 0 < Occurrences

- - - -

- - - -

- - - -

- - - -

- - - -

- - - -

- - - -

- - - -

- - - -

- - - -

- - - -

- - - -

- √ - -

- - - -

- - - -

√ - - -

- - - -

- - - -


eed for the Internet.




old, cites a difficulty with using technology,

finding the necessary

she does not really need the Internet that much



), that there may well be

who accept their condition and find fulfilment nonetheless,

Question 10: Internet usage,

This question set elicits the respondents’ weekly time span on the Internet, and it

seeks an answer as to whether the sight impaired, like the able

also has an intrusive or overbearing effect on their lives.

10.1: Hours spent weekly on the Internet

Five of the eight participants not in employment (a mix of unemployed individuals and

pensioners) state they spend an average 18½ hours (between 5 and 40) weekly on

the Internet. The remaining

double that time at an average 41 hours weekly (anything between 15 and 70 hours).

The difference in durations can be attributable to the employed respondents finding

more use for the Internet, when considering both work and private purpose.

The average weekly hours of Internet use for all 15 connected respondents is 33½

hours.

Question 10.1:

How many hours

weekly on Internet

Less than 7 7 - 14

Respondent 1 2

R1

R2

R3

R4

R5 - -

R6

R7

R8

R9

R10

R11

R12

R13 - -

R14 √

R15 √

R16 - -

R17 √

R18

47

Internet usage, user proficiency, and its effects

t elicits the respondents’ weekly time span on the Internet, and it

seeks an answer as to whether the sight impaired, like the able-sighted, may feel it

also has an intrusive or overbearing effect on their lives.

Hours spent weekly on the Internet



the Internet. The remaining 10 of the sample, those in employment, spend more than

that time at an average 41 hours weekly (anything between 15 and 70 hours).



hours of Internet use for all 15 connected respondents is 33½

15 - 28 29 - 42 43 - 56 57 - 64 65 +

4 3 2 2 1 < Occurrences

√

√

√

√

- - - - -

√

√

√

√

√

√

√

- - - - -

- - - - -

√

t elicits the respondents’ weekly time span on the Internet, and it

sighted, may feel it



of the sample, those in employment, spend more than

that time at an average 41 hours weekly (anything between 15 and 70 hours).



hours of Internet use for all 15 connected respondents is 33½

10.2: Internet usage proficiency

Two-thirds (10) of the 15 respondents possessing an Internet connection rate

themselves a proficient Internet user, a reasonably high ratio

assistive technology lying in between the user and the software interface. Eight of the

10 proficient participants are in employment, with the five non

over three unemployed persons and two in employment.

The five non-proficient users average an 11½ hours’ weekly time span on the

Internet. This duration is just a third of the average weekly duration for all

respondents (see Section 10.1 above,

it is a case of little usage contributing to a low Internet proficiency or the other way

round, with non-proficiency causing low usage, is possibly one point for discussion

where both can emerge as cause and effect in equal proportion.

Question 10.2:

Are you a

proficient Internet

user

Yes

Respondent 10

R1 √

R2 √

R3 √

R4 √

R5 -

R6 √

R7 √

R8 √

R9

R10

R11 √

R12 √

R13 -

R14

R15

R16 -

R17

R18 √

48

Internet usage proficiency

thirds (10) of the 15 respondents possessing an Internet connection rate

themselves a proficient Internet user, a reasonably high ratio given the layer of


proficient participants are in employment, with the five non-proficient users spread

over three unemployed persons and two in employment.

proficient users average an 11½ hours’ weekly time span on the


respondents (see Section 10.1 above, Hours spent weekly on the Internet

usage contributing to a low Internet proficiency or the other way

proficiency causing low usage, is possibly one point for discussion

where both can emerge as cause and effect in equal proportion.

No

5 < Occurrences

-

√

√

-

√

√

-

√

thirds (10) of the 15 respondents possessing an Internet connection rate

given the layer of


proficient users spread

proficient users average an 11½ hours’ weekly time span on the


Hours spent weekly on the Internet). Whether

usage contributing to a low Internet proficiency or the other way

proficiency causing low usage, is possibly one point for discussion

10.3: Does Internet use have negative effects?

Much has been said and researched on the negative effects of excessive time on the

Internet. For the blind and visually impaired, it is a particularly critical and delicately

balanced issue. The benefits of a medium helping the

a world designed around the needs of the able

added isolation that medium may bring, as the visually impaired already suffer

isolation by the very nature of their disability. By way of i

Officer in the next section (10.4:

excessive time he spends on the Net exacerbates the human detachment that comes

with sightlessness.

The extent to which excessive Internet use

impaired as a result of their higher need for Internet browsing is another question

warranting further investigation. And the amount of free time available to them as a

result of reduced employment opportunity may be

question's concern in this study is limited to the affirmation or rejection of a negative

effect and a description of it.

The following table shows that two (13%) of the 15 respondents with access to the

Internet have indicated deleterious effects. Table 10.4 (

next page describes the identified effects.

Question 10.3:

Any negative

effects from

Internet usage

Yes

Respondent 2

R1

R2

R3 √

R4

R5 -

R6

R7

R8

R9

R10

R11

R12 √

R13 -

R14

R15

R16 -

R17

R18

49

use have negative effects?



balanced issue. The benefits of a medium helping the sight impaired keep abreast of

a world designed around the needs of the able-sighted has to be weighed against the


isolation by the very nature of their disability. By way of illustration, the blind ICT

Officer in the next section (10.4: The negative effects of Internet use) feels the


The extent to which excessive Internet use is present among the blind and visually



result of reduced employment opportunity may be yet another cause. However, the


effect and a description of it.


icated deleterious effects. Table 10.4 (If yes, what are they

next page describes the identified effects.

No

13 < Occurrences

√

√

√

-

√

√

√

√

√

√

-

√

√

-

√

√



sight impaired keep abreast of

sighted has to be weighed against the


llustration, the blind ICT

) feels the


is present among the blind and visually



yet another cause. However, the



If yes, what are they) on the

50

10.4: The negative effects of Internet use

Two of the sample respondents have indicated a negative effect stemming from their

time on the Internet. Respondent 3 is a blind ICT Officer reporting spending 70 hours

weekly on the Net, and he finds that it has “a tendency to further isolate me from

humans”. His is the highest Internet time span that emerges from the survey, and his

occupation may be a principal contributor to this high usage particularly if the ICT

support he provides is largely online.

On the other hand, Respondent 12 (unemployed) states that “I spend too much time

on it” in spite of being, at 20 hours weekly, well below the sample’s average Internet

use of 33½ hours. She further explained that the family and her role of homemaker

keep her busy in spite of her severe impairment.

The case of Respondent 12 is a clear indicator that there is no such thing as the right

number of hours spent on the Internet. The ideal time span can be very relative, and

dependent on the rest of the user’s day and activities.

Question 10.4:

If yes, what

are they

Respondent

R1

R2

R3

R4

R5

R6

R7

R8

R9

R10

R11

R12

R13

R14

R15

R16

R17

R18

"I spend too much time on it"

Effects

"A tendency to further isolate me from humans"

Question 11: Learning to use the Internet

This table displays the methods by which the su

access have learned to use the Internet. Five of the 15 users have gained instruction

through one way, such as family help, with the remaining

of modes.

Formal training and through trial and e

at a combined 78%, followed by family help (15%) and through the assistance of

friends (7%). The table rows for survey contributors without an Internet connection

appear in this table, as in the others below, fil

Question 11:

How have you

learned to use

the Internet

Trial and error Family help

Respondent 11 4

R1 √

R2

R3 √

R4

R5 - -

R6 √ √

R7 √

R8 √ √

R9

R10 √

R11 √

R12 √ √

R13 - -

R14 √

R15 √

R16 - -

R17 √

R18 √

51

Learning to use the Internet

This table displays the methods by which the survey’s contributors having Internet


through one way, such as family help, with the remaining 10 enlisting a combination

Formal training and through trial and error are the most frequently employed modes



appear in this table, as in the others below, filled-in with a dash (-).

Other

Family help Training Through friends

10 2 < Occurrences

√

√

√

- -

√

√

√

√

√

√

- -

√

- -

√

√

rvey’s contributors having Internet


enlisting a combination

rror are the most frequently employed modes



Question 12: Support in using the Internet

This question seeks to discover where the blind and visually impaired turn for support

when they encounter difficulty surfing the Internet. None of the means of assistance

the table below stands out as a predominant one, though

highest recourse at 20% (4 occurrences). Five respondents employ a combination of

methods for support by opting for the one closer at hand.

Question 12:

Where do you find

support when

stuck on the

Internet

On the

Internet

Family

help

Respondent 3 3

R1

R2

R3 √

R4

R5 - -

R6

R7

R8 √

R9

R10

R11 √

R12 √

R13 - -

R14

R15 √

R16 - -

R17

R18 √

52

Support in using the Internet


when they encounter difficulty surfing the Internet. None of the means of assistance

the table below stands out as a predominant one, though Support group


methods for support by opting for the one closer at hand.

Family Support

groupA friend

A sighted

colleagueThe wife

Visually

impaired

friends

By trial

and error

4 3 2 1 1 1

√ √

√

√

√ √

- - - - - -

√

√

- - - - - -

√ √

- - - - - -

√

√

Other


when they encounter difficulty surfing the Internet. None of the means of assistance in

Support group registers the


By trial

and error

I have no

support

1 2 < Occurrences

- -

√

√

- -

√

- -

Question 13: Hardware for connecting to the Internet

Ten of the 15 connected contributors indicate a combination of hardware devices with

which they access the Internet and they are all employed bar two. This is possibly a

significant factor in their having more than o

disposal, as they enjoy a level of disposable income and possibly different hardware

at the workplace to access the Internet for work. The fact that the desktop and laptop

computers are predominant in almost equal n

given that they more or less offer a similar computing experience not strictly

necessary as a complementary resource.

The desktop and laptop computers together account for three

cited. The smartphone, increasingly becoming a necessity for the ultimate degree of

portability it provides, is next in frequency of use with a 1:4 usage ratio with all the

other devices cited.

Question 13:

How do you

connect to the

Internet

Desktop

computer

Laptop

computer

Respondent 11 10

R1 √

R2 √ √

R3 √ √

R4 √ √

R5 - -

R6 √

R7 √ √

R8 √

R9 √

R10 √

R11 √ √

R12 √

R13 - -

R14 √

R15 √

R16 - -

R17 √

R18 √ √

53

ardware for connecting to the Internet



significant factor in their having more than one piece of electronic hardware at their



computers are predominant in almost equal numbers seems to bear out this fact,


necessary as a complementary resource.

The desktop and laptop computers together account for three-fourths of the gadgets

hone, increasingly becoming a necessity for the ultimate degree of


Laptop

computer

Tablet

computerSmart TV Smartphone

Games

consoleOther

1 1 5 0 0 < Occurrences

√

√ √

- - - - -

√

√

√

√

- - - - -

- - - - -



ne piece of electronic hardware at their



umbers seems to bear out this fact,


fourths of the gadgets

hone, increasingly becoming a necessity for the ultimate degree of


< Occurrences

Question 14: Choice of Internet browsers

The principal choice of bro

Firefox (39% and 36% respectively). Google Chrome holds a 21% selection rate and

one user (4%) reports occasionally using Safari too. Nine of the contributors make

use of a combination of two or three

mixed browser usage but one possible explanation is compatibility issues, which are

of higher significance for the visually impaired, on different hardware devices.

Respondent 3, in fact, states "

compatibility often dictates Explorer or Firefox

Question 14:

With which

browser do you

connect to the

Internet

Internet

Explorer

Mozilla

Firefox

Respondent 11 10

R1 √ √

R2 √ √

R3 √ √

R4 √ √

R5 - -

R6 √

R7 √ √

R8 √

R9 √

R10 √

R11 √ √

R12 √

R13 - -

R14 √ √

R15

R16 - -

R17 √

R18 √

54

Choice of Internet browsers

The principal choice of browser is an even spread between Microsoft IE and Mozilla



use of a combination of two or three browsers. No reasons have been recorded for



Respondent 3, in fact, states "I use Internet Explorer and Firefox in equal proportion;

compatibility often dictates Explorer or Firefox".

Other

Mozilla

Firefox

Google

ChromeDon't know Safari

10 6 0 1 < Occurrences

√ √

√ √

√

√ √

- - - -

√ √

√ √

√

√ √

- - - -

√

√

- - - -

√

wser is an even spread between Microsoft IE and Mozilla



browsers. No reasons have been recorded for



Explorer and Firefox in equal proportion;

Question 15: Activities pursued on the Internet

This table displays the contributors’ preferences of social networking, information

seeking, educational and other online activities. Fourteen respondents have

contributed to this question, with Respondent 15 not pursuing any of the listed

activities in spite of owning a desktop computer “

using the computer”. The Internet

only two activities to just one short of all

The social media and website preferences of the blind and visually impaired merit

dedicated enquiry alongside the issue of negative Internet effects on the imp

Question 10.3 (Does Internet use have negative effects?

the principal cause of excessive usage.

Question 15:

Do you use the

Internet for any of

the following

activities

Social

networking

Making new

or finding

past friends

Contributing

to a blog

Respondent 8 8

R1 √ √

R2 √ √

R3

R4 √

R5 - -

R6 √ √

R7 √ √

R8

R9 √

R10

R11 √ √

R12

R13 - -

R14

R15 - -

R16 - -

R17 √ √

R18 √ √

55

Activities pursued on the Internet


nal and other online activities. Fourteen respondents have


activities in spite of owning a desktop computer “because I have only just started

”. The Internet-connected contributors’ preferences range from

only two activities to just one short of all 10.


dedicated enquiry alongside the issue of negative Internet effects on the imp

Does Internet use have negative effects?). Social media is very often

the principal cause of excessive usage.

Contributing

to a blog

Making job

seeking

contacts

Tele-

working

Reading the

news

Information

and

knowledge

Training

needsShopping

4 3 6 12 14 8 8

√ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √

- - - - - - -

√ √ √ √ √ √ √

√ √

√ √ √ √

√

√ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √

- - - - - - -

√ √ √ √

- - - - - - -

- - - - - - -

√ √

√ √ √


nal and other online activities. Fourteen respondents have


because I have only just started

connected contributors’ preferences range from


dedicated enquiry alongside the issue of negative Internet effects on the impaired in

). Social media is very often

Shopping

Banking or

online

payments

Other

6 0 < Occurrences

√

√

√

- -

√

√

√

- -

- -

- -

56

Question 16: Why is no social networking, information seeking or other

activity pursued?

This question sought to discover barriers the Internet-connected blind and visually

impaired find to online participation or individually-pursued Internet activity. The table

below records the reply of Respondent 15, unemployed and suffering severe sight

impairment, who is the only Internet-connected contributor indicating no such activity

in Table 15 (Activities pursued on the Internet). He states “I have only just started

using the computer” and that he is still learning to operate the newly-acquired device.

Other

Question 16:

If you pursue none

of the above

activities, why not

Cost of

training

Privacy

worries

Not confident

I can learn

I do not have

assistance

I am new to

computer

use

Respondent 0 0 0 0 1 < Occurrences

R1 - - - - -

R2 - - - - -

R3 - - - - -

R4 - - - - -

R5 - - - - -

R6 - - - - -

R7 - - - - -

R8 - - - - -

R9 - - - - -

R10 - - - - -

R11 - - - - -

R12 - - - - -

R13 - - - - -

R14 - - - - -

R15 √

R16 - - - - -

R17 - - - - -

R18 - - - - -

57

Question 17: Which social media do you use?

This table seeks to discover the social media most used by respondents. There are

those participants who use a wide variety of applications, with others joining only one

or two. And there is Respondent 14 who has interestingly reported email as her social

medium of choice. Email is not popularly considered part of social media, but neither

can it be totally discounted as a means of collaboration or keeping in touch. Anthony

J. Bradley (Gartner, 2010) states that “it should not be shortchanged as a very

important communication channel and collaboration mechanism”, even if email is

thirty years of age and this is the era of mass collaboration media.

The concurrent use of social media reported by a number of respondents can be

explained by a variety of reasons. Different sets of friends with common interests

are found on different social media: Facebook enables connecting to and the

sharing of personal news and events with family and friends; Skype on the other

hand provides the platform to host video chats, voice calls, messaging and file

exchange with family and friends. YouTube hosts video sharing and a comments

board for every uploaded item; Twitter is about sharing news and information, and

entering into discussion, in short ‘tweets’ of a maximum 140 characters. Tumblr is

(like Twitter) a micro-blogging site as the user posts snippets of text but, in Tumblr’s

case, accompanied by bits of music, video or photos. Each of these social media

applications can perform a unique function.

There are also the social media applications that seek to emulate their

predecessors’ successes, even if with a defining twist. Google+ is one, and it

adopts Facebook’s offline interaction model structured around circles of interest.

However, the listed applications’ functions and user experience mostly differ,

thereby also providing a diverse social networking experience which the table on

the next page indicates is as equally sought by the blind and visually impaired.

Question 17:

Which of the

following social

media sevices do

you use

Facebook Twitter YouTube

Respondent 9 2

R1 √

R2 √

R3

R4

R5 - -

R6 √

R7 √ √

R8 √

R9 √

R10

R11 √ √

R12 √

R13 - -

R14

R15

R16 - -

R17 √

R18

58

YouTube Second Life Google+ Tumblr Skype Viber WhatsappMessenger

12 0 3 0 6 2 1

√ √

√ √ √ √

√

√ √

- - - - - - -

√ √ √

√ √ √

√ √

√ √

- - - - - - -

√

√

- - - - - - -

√

√ √

Other

MSN

MessengerEmail

1 1 < Occurrences

√

- -

- -

√

- -

59

4.3 Review

This chapter has displayed the study’s findings in tabulated form, described them,

and entered into a discussion tying them in with the theory of the topic as well as with

points emerging from the same findings.

60

5. Conclusion

The thesis question is motivated by the necessity of directing Technical

Communication at an audience not easily reached by the printed word. The

physical immobility of the ocularly disadvantaged is easily recognisable and

consequently receives the technological attention it warrants. On the other

hand, the immobility of aspiration to intellectual development or social

inclusion is not as immediately identifiable.

In the 1970s, text-to-speech technology started making inroads in the assistive

reading technology sphere. Braille’s standing as the principal means of

reading for the blind has since been in steady decline, burdened as it is with a

steep learning curve that increases with one's age. Apart from it also suffering

from diminished readability where other illnesses affecting the tactile sense

are present.

This study shows that speech technology has the potential not only of being a

learning curve-free purveyor of the published word, but also of spawning a

dual reading mode on the Internet. In the parallel reading mode being

recommended, the text pages are accompanied by a synthetic speech

rendering, or substitutable with one at the press of a key.

The enquiry also finds five of every six respondents connected to the Internet.

This is a share higher than Malta’s broadband ratio per household of 4:1

(Eurostat. 2014) and an indicator of how much store the majority of the visually

disabled set by independent access to information. The study did, however,

uncover one unexpected fact in this regard: there will still be the few who have

come to terms with their isolation and do not yearn for a return to the lost world

of print. They have adjusted to their ocular condition and live a contented life

regardless.

61

It has also been found that excessive time spent on the Internet may be a

matter of concern for the visually disadvantaged too. It may indeed be of

higher gravity given the more critical need the visually disadvantaged find for

the Internet, and the lack of ease of mobility that may most times drive them

towards activity restricted to the home.

The study looks at other questions of relevance in obtaining a picture of the

state of online accessibility and participation by the visually disadvantaged.

One such issue is that of the activities they pursue on the Net and the social

media sites they join. As far as the social media sites are concerned, YouTube

is the most popular with respondents, with two-thirds reporting using it. It is

followed by Facebook with half the survey contributors having an account, and

by Skype enjoying a usage by a third. There are conclusions to be extracted

from these respondent preferences if one looks at the brief description of

these three social media’s characteristics in Chapter 4 (Findings and

Discussion, Question 17: Which social media do you use?). It appears from

this data that the survey's respondents primarily seek social media for the

following needs: for the perusal of video content, to a lesser degree for

connecting to family and friends and, thirdly, for voice and video chatting.

The study also takes a look at the access barriers encountered on the Net,

and it is to social media’s credit that it is among the most accessibility-

conscious segments of the Internet industry. Facebook, in particular, hosts an

Accessibility for People with Disabilities page (https://www.facebook.com/help/

141636465971794/) providing the user with advice on how best to apply

extant assistive technology in reading and navigating it.

Another point for further enquiry is a reasonable level of penetration of the

labour market with a 2:1 ratio of respondents either in employment or having

been until retirement age. Less encouraging, however, is a high tendency for

employment not to reach beyond the clerical grade with six of the 11

62

contributors currently in employment falling within that category or below.

However, it has to be observed that three of the four impaired individuals who

set in motion the snowball sampling process are employed within that

category. The likeliness of their associating, both socially and professionally,

with others of similar background may have been a factor contributing to this

outcome.

The survey’s employment question also brings up the fact of just one

respondent being engaged in blue-collar work. Here, one has to keep in mind

the almost negligible job prospects suffered by those respondents unable of

obtaining white collar employment. Unskilled work can often be unsafe or

undoable for the blind and severely sight impaired. But it can at times be

achievable as seen with Respondent 10, employed as a cleaner. This

participant's occupation was a surprising find of the survey, but not all cleaning

jobs require full mobility or are unsafe for the blind to perform. Respondent

10’s case illustrates that niches of possibility can also be found where least

expected.

This conclusion has reviewed the most salient reflection and findings from the

preceding chapters. These raise derivative matter justifying further enquiry and

also the most central question of all: is there a solution? The next chapter,

Recommendations, proposes parallel assistive-ware driven website structures

and issues meriting further research.

63

6. Recommendations

This study, with the time resource available to it, cannot do full justice to the

wealth of hidden meaning that lies across the tabulated results in Chapter 4

(Findings and Discussion). Nor to the offshoot branches of enquiry that have

emerged from the findings and reflection. In this chapter, the author

summarises the derived areas of study worth further investigation and puts

forward his proposals on how the reading barriers can be pushed back further

for the blind and visually impaired.

The principal recommendation the author presents is that of a one-size-fits-all

web page structure for news portals, diffusion of government information, and

commercial websites. Chapter 2, Section 2.5 (A one-size-fits-all structure)

proposes that the default structure for the able-sighted resides alongside an

alternate assistive-ware driven reading mode framework for the assimilation of

the sight-impaired into the mainstream reading universe. The study also

strongly proposes that accessibility of information constitutes one of the

fundamental rights of the disadvantaged.

There is legislation providing for the right of accessibility, but as one in the

spectrum of disabilities requiring legislative support. The UK’s Equality Act

2010 (Government Equalities Office. July 2010) and its forerunner the

Disability Discrimination Act 1995 (legislation.gov.uk. 1995) which it replaced,

are one case. The Equality Act applies to “all service providers and those

providing goods and facilities... for example, those providing information”

(Government Equalities Office. July 2010). In Australia, the Disability

Discrimination Act 1992 (Australian Government, ComLaw. 1992) lays down

that websites and web content be made accessible. The provider is held as

discriminating if it “does not make, or proposes not to make, reasonable

adjustments for the person” upon request by a complainant.

64

What these recommendations propose, however, is an all-encompassing and

universal solution that will require the support of business interest too. This

study recommends a model of real-time accessibility incentivised beyond the

‘reasonable adjustment’ the Australian Act provides for upon a complainant’s

representations with the provider. Put more succinctly, incentivisation over

reparative redress.

While governments may be persuaded to provide this dual accessibility model

out of social consideration, the business world will need incentivisation that

can come about from stressing this model's benefits to commerce. The

commercial world can profit from the advertising revenue the Internet traffic of

an untruncated flow of potential readers brings with it if it can find the foresight

and courage to tap this potential. And equally gain from emerging niche

markets, as well as the ethical profile and social capital accruing from a

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) philosophy that the more marketing-

savvy modern enterprise values so highly.

Other points of recommendation are for the pursuit of further enquiry in a

number of spheres of potential interest touched upon by this study. Question 9

in this chapter (Reasons for no Internet connection) looks at the degree to

which the visually impaired may at times accept their handicap and pursue a

fulfilled life nonetheless, without feeling a need to turn to communication

media to cling on to a way of life since left behind.

A second matter for further enquiry is how excessive use of the Internet by the

blind and visually impaired may exacerbate their isolation. Those deprived of

sight are much more prone to excessive time online as a result of the lack of

sufficiently accessible structures, and of the Internet being of a bigger

necessity to them.

65

Another matter for study and in part related to the above issue, insofar as a

large share of excessive Internet usage is often credited to it, is the social

media preferences of the blind and visually impaired. Table 17 (Which social

media do you use? In Chapter 4, Findings and Discussion) illustrates the

contributors’ preferences, but the question did not go into the ‘why’ of the

respondent’s choice. Is it a result of joining the medium of choice of the

acquaintances the respondent wishes to make contact with? How much do

accessibility issues influence the choice and what are the barriers

encountered?

A final suggestion concerns the potential of extrapolating these findings to

Britain, and possibly other Commonwealth countries too. In Britain and its

former colonies with a shared level of educational standards and Internet

penetration, the cultural glue born from the colonial past is likely also to

produce a sharing of concomitant deficiencies such as inequality of online

access. The point being made is that a common language of reading and

shared news diffusion portals, home entertainment sources, and political and

cultural worldviews may produce common Internet sources and usage

patterns for the sight-impaired in these countries.

There is thus the potential for this study’s findings and reflection to be

extendable, both in method and results, to the visually disadvantaged in all

countries sharing these cultural characteristics.

66

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68

Appendix 1: Survey Information Sheet

69

Appendix 2: Survey Consent Form

70

Appendix 3: Ethics Form

76

Appendix 4: The Questionnaire

83

Appendix 5: The survey response coding

Please turn to the next page for the tabulated raw data emerging from the survey’s

questionnaire.

Respondent:- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Q.1 Particulars

Sex Female Male Male Male Male Female Male Female Female Male Male Female Male Female Male Female Female Male

Age 44 31 50 42 67 34 42 52 50 54 36 59 45 48 50 49 57 62

Town/City Malta Malta Malta Malta Malta Malta Malta Gozo Gozo Gozo Gozo Malta Malta Malta Malta Malta Malta Malta

Occupation Clerk Clerk ICT Officer Phone Oper/

Receptionist

Pensioner Clerk Trainer & Co-

ordinator for

Visually

Impaired

Disability

Coordinator

Unemployed Cleaner Solicitor Unemployed Unemployed Clerk Unemployed Unemployed Unemployed Pensioner

(Remark 1)

Accompanying disabilities None None None None Diabetes Diabetes None None None None None None None None None Arthritis Diabetes and only

3 fingers & a

conjoined 2

None

Q.2 Your disability: Sight

impaired (SI), Severely sight impaired

(SSI), Blind

SSI Blind Blind Blind (Remark

2)

SSI SSI Blind SSI SI Blind Blind SSI SI Blind SSI SI SSI Blind

Q.3 Impaired since Birth 12 23 20 62 20 7 12 9 40 13 50 30 32 30 22 50 17

Q.4 Level of educationSec (Remark

3)Ter Ter Ter Sec Ter Ter Sec Sec Sec Ter Ter Sec Sec Sec Sec Sec Sec

Q.5 Training in reading media No No No Yes No Yes No No No Yes YesYes

(Remark 4)No Yes No No No No

Q.6 How often do you use the following

on a scale of:

A Lot (1), A Little (2), Not At All (3)

Braille 2 2 2 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 2 3 3 2 3 3 3 1

Large print 1 3 3 3 3 2 3 1 1 3 3 1 3 3 3 3 3 3

Videos 1 1 2 1 3 2 2 1 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2

CCTV 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Computers 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 23

(Remark 5)1 1

Phone apps 3 1 3 3 3 1 1 2 3 3 1 2 3 3 3 3 3 3

Other None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None

Q.7 How often do you use the following

on a scale of:

A Lot (1), A Little (2), Not At All (3)

Screen-reader 2 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 2 1 1 3 1 3 3 3 1

Speech-to-text 3 1 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3

Scanner-to-speech 3 2 2 2 33

(Remark 6)1 3 3 3 1 3 3 2 3 3 3 3

Screen magnifier 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 2 3

Q.8 Do you have Internet access? Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes

Q.9 If not, why? N/app N/app N/app N/app I don't

need it

(Remark 7)

N/app N/app N/app N/app N/app N/app N/app Difficulty

using

technology

N/app N/app Difficulty in

finding training

but I don't

need it

N/app N/app

Survey response: the coded replies

Remark 4: ''Yes' but "I started on Braille but dropped it as I lacked motivation too, as I held on to the little sight I had and assistive technology was sufficient "

Remark 5: Computer not used at all because of a fear the monitor will make her visual condition worse

Remark 1: Formerly spent some time as a Braille instructor

Remark 2: Vision lost as a result of injuries in a road accident

Remark 7: ''I don't need it', and definitely not because he would find difficulty using it as '"no fear of technology as I worked in a bank where I hooked up the PCs for presentations " in his sighted days

Remark 3: Received education up to a secondary level but kept pursuing further training and personal enrichmentVision lost as a result of injuries in a road accident

Remark 6: Scanner-to-speech software not used at all but looking forward to ontaining it

Respondent:- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Q.10 If you have Internet access... N/app N/app N/app

How many hours weekly? 40 15 70 60 50 60 40 20 15 50 20 10 5 7 40

Are you a proficient user? Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes No No No Yes

Any negative effects? No No Yes No No No No No No No Yes No No No No

If yes, what are they? "A tendency

to further

isolate me

from

humans"

"I spend too

much time on

it"

Q.11 How have you learned to use it? N/app N/app N/app

Trial and error √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Family help √ √ √ √

Training √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Other Through

friends

Through friends

Q.12 Where do you find support when

stuck on Internet?

N/app N/app N/app

On the Internet √ √ √

Family help √ √ √

Support gropup √ √ √ √

Other A friend A sighted

colleague

A sighted

colleague or

the wife

Visually

impaired

friends

By trial and

error

A friend A friend

I have no support √ √

Q.13 How do you connect to Internet? N/app N/app N/app

Desktop computer √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Laptop computer √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Tablet computer √

Smart TV √

Smartphone √ √ √ √ √

Games console

Other

Q.14 With which browser do you

connect to the Internet?

(Remark 8) (Remark 9) N/app N/app N/app

Internet Explorer √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Mozilla Firefox √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Google Chrome √ √ √ √ √ √

Don't know

Other Safari

Remark 9: Internet Explorer and Mozilla Firefox used (in more or less equal proportion) "as compatibility often dictates Explorer or Firefox".

Remark 8: Safari used on the iPhone

Respondent:- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Q.15 Do you use the Internet for any of

the following activities?

N/app N/app N/app

Social networking √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Making new or finding past

. friends√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Contributing to a blog √ √ √ √

Making job seeking contacts √ √ √

Tele-working√

(Remark 10)

√ √ √ √ √

Reading the news √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Information and knowledge √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Training needs √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Shopping √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Banking or online payments √ √ √ √ √ √

Other Research for a

religious

organisation

she forms part

of

Q.16 If you pursue none of the above

activities, why not?

N/app N/app N/app

Cost of training

Privacy worries

Not confident I can learn

I do not have assistance

Other "because I

have only just

started using

the computer"

Q.17 Which of the following social

media services do you use?

N/app N/app N/app

Facebook √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Twitter √ √

YouTube √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Second Life

Google+ √ √ √

Tumblr

Other Skype Skype,

Viber,

Whatsapp,

MSN

Messenger

Skype Skype,

Viber

Skype Social

contact

achieved by

email

Skype

Remark 10: Tele-working used for voluntary work only

Internet Access for the Visually Impaired

Documents

Transcript of Internet Access for the Visually Impaired