[Integrated Coastal Planning Maps:

an approach to devise the integrated coastal zone planning

and management in Kiribati

For the Applied Coastal System Dynamics Project Assessment Paper

By Riibeta Abeta, ID: 1044137

University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia

May 2009

i

Synthesis Professional Report

This synthesis report is based on a research paper undertaken as part of an Applied Coastal

System Dynamics course assessment project. This report provides an integrated overview of

the usefulness of coastal planning maps for effective coastal program schemes, including other

inter-linked opportunities in Kiribati.

Coastal planning Maps are useful pre-requisite platforms to integrated coastal zone

management (ICZM).

The coastal zone is a dynamic and complex environment. The coastal issues and problems

usually arrive from multiple sources and tend to affect each other. Therefore, managing the

issues and problems requires not only an ad hoc approach but an integrated approach where all

intricate characteristics are considered in a continuum. The representation of all characteristics

of the coastal zone on visual coastal planning maps will aid the understanding of this

complexity. Since the integrated coastal management approach is a continuous and dynamic

process by which decisions are made for developments, sustainable use and protection of the

coastal resource, coastal planning maps serve as the perfect platform to inform this approach.

Therefore, the coastal planning maps are fundamental for a transitional move to the ICZM

approach. Hence, the ICZM stands to be the most appropriate approach to managing the coastal

regions of these research study sites in Kiribati. This is because chronic and complex coastal

issues and problems were evident in those sites.

The integration, the inseparable nature of the coastal planning and management is

essential for the ICZM approach.

The setting of the government institutions, interests and responsibilities tend to differ in the

coastal zones causing fragmentation of practices in addressing coastal issues and problems.

This arrangement is often not successful in managing the complex nature of the coastal

environment. This is also very similar in the study sites. However, the research found that for

an integrated coastal management approach to be successful, a strong linkage between coastal

planning, management, monitoring and the institutional integration is required. This will

enable integrated consideration and diagnosis of the issues and problems in a continuum

manner. Therefore, the interfacing and integration of different sectors, different levels of

government, different disciplines is to be encouraged to allow collaboration and coordination

under a defined integrated coastal zone management framework.

ii

Designing and implementing mixed coastal planning systems can be successful.

The research paper provides two types of coastal planning maps of different scales, i.e. South

Tarawa as the regional level planning plan and Bikenibeu village for the local level integrated

plan. From the research, it was found that the coastal issues and problems cut across

jurisdiction with different scales and magnitude. This implies that addressing these issues and

problems should involve a wide range of stakeholders. Therefore, the coastal planning maps

allow flexible utility to an integrated coastal program at the regional level for South Tarawa and

at the local level for Bikenibeu village. However, it is also crucial that these detail planning

systems is linked to a broader strategic coastal plan.

Integrated Coastal Zone Management and Planning can assist to reduce vulnerability to

sea level rise and natural hazards.

The coastal planning maps provide baseline information on the physical coastal processes and

socio-economic features of the study site. An understanding on these existing structures is

fundamental and enriches the vulnerability adaptation assessments to climate variability and

climate change. Vulnerable areas could be easily identified with proper adaptation responses

towards projected changes induced by climate variability and climate change in the longer term.

The coastal areas and economically important features will also be adequately protected from

anticipated events of natural disasters. Therefore, the ICZM also impose opportunities and

values alongside managing other coastal issues and problems.

Effective Coastal planning has a pivotal role to sustainable development of Kiribati.

The ICZM scheme is in line with the principle of sustainable development including the

precautionary principle and the inter-generational equity. Noting that most of the economic

activities fall on the coastal zones, the approach of ICZM will ensure a long term vision to plan

for the present and the future uses of the coastal zone areas for aquaculture, eco-tourism and

it’s finite resources. The economic benefits obtained from the sustainable use of the coastal

zone will be maximised. The ICZM approach will ensure the protection of the ecological base of

coastal and marine resources which provide fundamental services to support the community

welfare and the economy.

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Preamble

“Of the six billion people alive today an estimated 1.7 billion or 38% of the global population is

estimated to live within 150 km of the coast” (Alder 2005). The majority of the population and

developments on small islands reside in almost a completely coastal defined area. This is

particularly true in atoll countries like Kiribati.

The study site proposed for the assessment in ENS725 will be in Kiribati, and is structured in

three scales which are the primary, secondary and tertiary compartments. The primary cell will

encompass the whole island of Tarawa; while the secondary cell will be South Tarawa and lastly

Bikenibeu village serves as the tertiary cell.

This preamble will provide a situational analysis of the afore-mentioned sites based on

literature review, local knowledge and Goggle earth observation.

South Tarawa is a typical atoll island with strand of islets, narrow in land size, a large lagoon in

the middle and elevation not more than 3 meters and width of between 350-450m (He 2001).

South Tarawa is located at approximately latitude 1°22'47" N, longitude 173°09'06" E

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarawa_Atoll), north of the equator in the Pacific Ocean.

iv

Figure 1: Map of Tarawa showing study sites

SOUTH TARAWA

NORTH TARAWA

Source: Goggle earth map

v

South Tarawa, 490km2 land area and approx 30km of coast (Hosoi 1995) is the capital of the

Republic of Kiribati, it is now transformed into a single crowded island through causeway

construction joining all islets. South Tarawa comprises the main administrative, commercial

and residential towns or villages of the entire atoll island system.

Numerous technical studies have been undertaken in the past on South Tarawa, focussing at

long-shore drift, shoreline changes, sediment transport and budget, erosion and accretion and

anthropogenic influences. (SOPAC 2005). The lagoon and ocean represent the magnitude and

complexities of the physical coastal processes and have varying influences on the coastline of

the Tarawa’s atoll system.

Climate parameters are important drivers of the physical processes at the atoll. Due to Kiribati’s

geographical location, the climate is greatly influenced by the large scale regional ocean-

atmospheric circulating systems known as the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and

Equatorial Doldrums’ Belt. (Burgess 1987). However, the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

also affects the longer term pattern of the Kiribati climate.

In effect, Kiribati has two weather patterns through-out the year, and they are i) wet season and

ii) dry season. The wet season runs from December to May and characterises a situation when

the ITCZ is closest to Kiribati bringing extensive rain and highly variable wind patterns. The dry

season occurs from April to November and is typically a calm season with moderate wind.

(Burgess 1987)

These weather patterns are important to understand fully as they determine the regional and

site-specific physical coastal processes such as winds, currents, and waves. Under the climate

variability and change projection, it is highly likely that extreme high sea levels, air

temperatures and winds are likely to occur in the coming decades in Kiribati. (Hay, JE 2006)

Wind patterns in Kiribati are predominantly easterly trade winds, though their direction

changes under the influences of large scale ocean-atmospheric systems like ITCZ or ENSO

(Biribo 2008).

A study of the bathymetry and flow rates of currents in the Tarawa lagoon showed that there is

a high flow rate of tidal currents (Biribo 2008). This tidal pattern is also significant when

considering coastal processes at the study site.

vi

The intensity of rainfall may have influences on flooding in a closed lagoon condition therefore

increases possibilities of swells and waves overtopping in some islands of Kiribati. However,

very little information was available in the literature on the direct influence of rainfall to the

coastal processes of atoll countries.

Wave behaviour is among the most complex and common coastal drivers in the atoll island

systems including the study site. The ocean side of atolls are usually exposed to high energy

waves which tend to carry energy towards the coastline. Wind generated waves and currents

are common in the atoll islands and in the study site as well. These processes are known to be

an important source of energy transporting sediments from the reefs to the coastline and within

the coastline of the atoll islands through longshore drift. Many studies in Tarawa (Solomon

1997) have been undertaken showing evidence of waves and currents workings in South

Tarawa.

Shoaling is the process of beach set-up or set-down or sediment movements accumulating in

areas of convergence where there is no water movements (Solomon 1997). Solomon further

mentioned that Betio, an islet of South Tarawa was built as part of a shoaling process. This was

further confirmed by latter studies (Solomon 1997) where, they mentioned that the coastline of

this islet was highly dynamic and has been continuously eroded and accreted over the years.

The relationship between the climate change, climate variability phenomena, regional decadal

ocean-atmospheric systems and local coastal drivers are extremely crucial to engulf as they

intricately underpin the resultant effects at the coastal zone environments, despite additional

shocks from human induced developments.

Atolls like Tarawa derive its sediment budget from biological remains (M, E 1999) (Biribo

unpublished) This was shown in the composition of their sediment budget with large amounts

of algae remains and forams, shells found in the above mentioned study. The behaviours of

marine organisms like parrot fish, burrowers, through the process of bio-erosion contribute to

the sediment budget of atoll islands (Scoffin 1980). This is an important element as marine bio-

diversity was abundant in the study sites.

Coral reefs surrounding atoll islands, including Tarawa provides the reservoir for major

carbonate sources of the sediment budget of coral atolls. In addition, the reefs also act as buffer

of atolls’ shoreline from high energy waves dissipating as they approach the shores according to

Ebrahim (1991).

vii

In shallow lagoons with mudflats common in the study site; seagrasses can be found. This

ecosystem upholds the fine sediments of the mudflats and maintains turbidity of the water

column, thereby sheltering coral reefs from smothering. Seagrasses also provide habitats for

marine carbonate organisms which are useful for the sediment budget of the atolls.

In certain places of South Tarawa atoll particularly lagoon water areas, mangrove plants can be

found. This ecosystem provides natural protection to the coastline of the small land size atolls

from storms and high energy waves (Scoffin 1980). Usually, this spot is very stable in terms of

erosion and accretion.

These biological features are common in the study site as well, albeit several portions of them

have been destructed due to human interventions.

The study site is an interesting and complex atoll system with large evidence of human

developments interacting with their natural coastal resources system. The population density

of South Tarawa is 2558 person per km2, which is considerably high (Kiribati 2005 Census

2007). The population is increasing at a rate of 1.8% with the natural environment adapting

and thriving in a most intricate manner providing services to the heavy population capacity.

Since the island serves as the capital of Kiribati, most commercial and social activities occur on

the island with several places already crowded. Therefore, all sorts of economic activities

ranging from fisheries, services, infrastructure like ports, industries, off-shore infrastructures,

roads, commercial towns, and airports and residential/government buildings converged on the

island. In the figure below, it can noted that Kiribati had very minimal economic activities but

the “other” which comprised of infrastructures, services took the greatest percentage and this is

more prominent in Tarawa, which is the study site.

viii

Figure 2: Contribution of some key economic sectors to the national economy in 2005

Source: (Hay, EaO, K 2006)

Due to the pressing need for infrastructure services and settlement on a limited land, several

poorly designed coastal defences like causeways, seawalls, land reclamation can be found along

the island’s coastline, including heavy sand mining disturbing the natural sediment movements

altering the pattern of coastal processes. This leads to a more complex and instability

movement of the island’s shoreline.

Being small, most societies in Kiribati and including the study sites are peaceful and intimate.

Usually, the elders play significant role in the day-to-day decision-making of each family unit in

Kiribati. The village and church communities are very influential and powerful bodies,

particularly in large scale developments and solving community or national level conflicts. At

times of crisis or natural disasters, community leaders usually took initiatives to mobilise

community-based and voluntary assistance to the affected communities. This is an important

cultural norm instituted in Kiribati and the study site. The other cultural aspect which is critical

in coastal issues is the flexibility of land tenure system. In several of the islands, indigenous

people posses lands passed on from their fore-fathers, however, elders in the community

cooperate and consult each other in an informal decision making manner and can designate

land plots within their village for specific emergency purposes.

In South Tarawa, the Government lease land from indigenous land-owners and then sublease

them for commercial, residential, industrial purposes. In this manner, control of the entire

island land tenure and coastal system was decentralised and each entity sitting on sub-lease

ix

land plots take full charge of that land. Though, the issues and conflicts are governed under the

normal national legislation and procedures.

Apparently, in Kiribati and Tarawa, there is no such instrument as a coastal zone management

policy. Coastal issues and problems are dealt with, in a reactive and ad hoc mode by various

government departments. Therefore, the institutional arrangement and formal decision making

process regarding coastal issues in Kiribati is fragmented, piece-meal and usually inefficient in

its implementation (Kench 2005).

As alluded earlier, coastal management issues was managed by the Foreshore and land

reclamation act. This Act retains the ability to designate uses of foreshore areas through a

working committee (Foreshore and Land Reclamation Act 1998) and also stipulates that

foreshore zone of all lands is the property of the Government. However, the boundary of the

foreshore zone was often disputed by landowners.

The Land Use Planning Act was instrumental in properly allocating uses and standards for

government owned lands (AN ACT TO AMEND THE LAND PLANNING ORDINANCE 2000).

The Environment Act through it EIA process, filter out potential environmental impacts and

risks from any prescribed developments intended to be carried out in the country (Ac Act to

amend the Environment Act 1999 2007). This Act was also useful in preserving crucial natural

ecosystems such as coral reefs, mangroves and enforcement of illegal aggregate mining

activities. The climate change study team is dealing with vulnerabilities adaptation assessments

on sectors including coastal zone.

There is also a national Disaster Act but the function of this legislation was more reactive to

immediate crisis and risks and does not operate proactively on a day-to-day basis (Disaster Act

1998).

There are also voluntary activities on mangrove replanting by the youth communities going on

in South Tarawa. This is very useful in preserving these important ecosystems.

Recently, there has been a number of studies moving in a direction of investigating possible

coastal protection approaches, suggested institutional arrangements and decision making

processes for an integrated coastal zone management (Kay 2007a).

The Kiribati Development Plan 2008-2011, was also supportive of coastal management issues

and stated under one of its priority policy area the need to monitor and protect the coastal zone

x

(Kiribati Development Plan 2008-2011 2008). Though, the specificity of how this will be

undertaken effectively was still not fully understood at the national level.

In the Bikenibeu study site, efficient communication and decision making process in the form of

community based governing system was well established in the villages. The church

community of different denominations functioned separately in their respective meeting areas

within the study site all year round. The majority of the elders, women and youth in this site,

like other villages of islands respects honorary to the decisions and direction of their own

community organisation.

However, the priorities of these community organisations are more religious-oriented and they

usually pursue their own developments. Unfortunately, little is known by the community

members on the environment conservation or impacts of developments on their coastal

environment.

The population census in 2005 indicated that the population for Kiribati is increasing at the rate

of 1.8% compared to the 2000 census. Projections of the population using a medium population

scenario (i.e. medium fertility and medium net migration) stated that the population can reach

101,000 in 2010 and 130,000 in the year 2025 (Kiribati 2005 Census 2007).

The size and density of the population has a direct impact on the environment including needs

for higher demand on the ecosystem. On areas with high population densities particularly in

South Tarawa, one would expect more pressures on the coastal zone environment as the

population is either competing for the needed services on the exhaustible environment. This

will interfere with existing processes of the environment and coastal zone thru heavy and

destructive development interventions.

Climate change is an additional factor that can influence the coastal zone environment. There is

a degree of uncertainty in the scientific knowledge of climate change but it is certain that it

going to eventuate sometimes in the unknown future. The forecasting of the magnitude and

intensity in the future is also still uncertain, making decision making even more difficult with

regard to which approach and options to begin with. In addition, there is a challenge in choosing

current coastal adaptive plans that are compatible with projected climate change effects and

infer ‘no regrets’ sentiments without climate change.

Recalling the complexity of the coastal zone management and the population and climate

change projection, the ideology of integrated coastal zone management seemed to be the most

favourable approach to go. The ICZM intertwine the bio-physical factors, socio-economic

xi

aspects and considerations of future phenomena like climate change and population projection

in a continuum and effective decision making process.

There are bands of opportunities attached to this approach, for instance effective assessment of

the coastal zone impacts and added values adaptation to climate change. However, this is not

easy to achieve and will require collaboration, cooperation, provision of tools, strategies, plans,

knowledge and awareness, Also required will be effective institutional and decision-making

arrangements and complimentary communal and political commitments and support.

The research in this exercise will investigate ways to facilitate the process of the integrated

coastal zone management with a view to be useful for addressing issues of the coastal zone

systems.

xii

Executive Summary

This research paper intends to characterise the dynamics and complexity of the coastal zone

system through provision of the coastal planning maps representing all essential features.

It is also the intention of this research that the maps should assist the enhanced understanding

regarding the interconnected factors within the coastal zone. This anticipated established

understanding would be instrumental to addressing the intricate and multiple coastal issues

and problems in a particular region or site.

The sites chosen for the research are South Tarawa and a village of South Tarawa which is

Bikenibeu. The rationale behind the selection of the sites was to have an opportunity to develop

coastal planning maps of different scales. The South Tarawa will represent the regional scale

while Bikenibeu village represents the local scale.

From the Preamble and the literature (refer to section 2.0), both of the study sites were already

pressured by intensive coastal developments; with all kinds of coastal issues and problems

visible at the study sites. The review of the existing governing systems has shown that it was

fragmented and ineffective. Different institutions, policies and legislations were mandated to

address specific coastal problems with minimal coordination of their measures. The study sites

also have numerous technical studies on physical coastal processes driven mostly by different

objectives. While these studies recommended remedy actions and the need for integrated

coastal management approach, there has not been any serious consideration of those

recommendations to date.

The maps in this research developed by Google earth have limited features, though they provide

a scoping medium to the future integrated coastal zone management approach in Kiribati. The

maps require modifications to include sea level rise risk zones, contours, bathymetric data, and

to translate the coastal planning maps features into geo-rectified GIS layers.

These maps should be part of the integrated coastal framework and mainstreamed into an

established institution managing the framework. The performance of such an implemented

framework must be measured and evaluated to achieve a better measure.

xiii

Table of Contents

Synthesis Professional Report .................................................................................................................. i

Preamble ................................................................................................................................................ iii

Executive Summary ............................................................................................................................... xii

1.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1

2.0 Literature Review ........................................................................................................................ 2

3.0 Description of methods .............................................................................................................. 3

3.1 Characterising the elements and features of the coastal planning maps .............................. 3

3.2 Boundaries of the coastal planning maps for each of the two study sties ............................. 3

3.3 The physical environment features and construction of physical coastal planning maps ..... 3

3.4 Biological features identification and development of biological environment maps ........... 4

3.5 Observation and identification of economic features and construction of maps .................. 4

3.6 Overlaying of sociological issues on the coastal planning maps of each site ......................... 4

3.7 Matrix of each of the study sites ............................................................................................ 4

4.0 Results: Coastal Planning Maps .................................................................................................. 5

Matrix of each study sites compartment .............................................................................................. 13

Discussion.............................................................................................................................................. 15

6.0 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 17

7.0 Recommendations and the way forward ................................................................................. 18

References ............................................................................................................................................ 19

xiv

List of Tables and Figures

Figure 1: Map of Tarawa showing study sites .................................................................................... iv

Figure 2: Contribution of some key economic sectors to the national economy in 2005 ............ viii

Figure 3: South Tarawa Map with physical environment features ......................................................... 5

Figure 4: South Tarawa Map with biological environment features ...................................................... 6

Figure 5: South Tarawa Map with economic features ............................................................................ 7

Figure 6: South Tarawa Map with sociological features ......................................................................... 8

Figure 7: Bikenibeu Map with physical environment features ............................................................... 9

Figure 8: Bikenibeu Map with biological environment features .......................................................... 10

Figure 9: Bikenibeu Map with economic features ................................................................................ 11

Figure 10: Bikenibeu Map with sociological features ........................................................................... 12

Table 1: The integrated coastal planning information matrix for South Tarawa ................................. 13

Table 2: The integrated coastal planning information matrix for Bikenibeu ........................................ 14

1

1.0 Introduction

This research paper recognises that the management of the coastal zone issues is complex

because it involves a composite of problems and sources. This is particularly apparent in the

proposed study sites of the research paper which is South Tarawa, Kiribati and one village of the

capital island, Bikenibeu.

According to (Creary 2003), “Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) is a continuous,

interactive, adaptive, participatory, consensus-building process comprised of a related set of tasks,

all of which must be carried out to achieve a desired set of goals and objectives specified in a given

time.”

It is of the view of this research paper that the ICZM is a suitable practice to counteract and

softens the current coastal zone issues in Kiribati.

Therefore, the research paper will investigates existing gaps and formulate underpinning

substructures needed for the urgent implementation of the most relevant ICZM approach in

Kiribati.

The methodologies for the above undertakings is provided and simplified in section 3.0 so that

replication of similar exercise can be followed and/or improved to other sites or for similar

undertakings. The approach taken in this research as a turning point to ICZM in Kiribati is to

collate all relevant information of the two study sites necessary for ICZM and overlay them on

visual coastal planning maps. The information can be classified into physical environment,

biological environment, economic features, sociological features and other necessary issues.

These maps will then be translated into a matrix information package which can be used

interactively in any level of decision making processes.

Assumptions on the utility of the coastal planning maps will be provided in section 4.0. The

existing response practices to coastal problems, barriers and additional requirements to

advocating the ICZM approach will also be discussed. This research noted that the findings of

this research may not provide all the answers for a transition shift to ICZM in Kiribati.

Nevertheless, the fundamental aspiration of this research paper is to initiate the process of the

integrated coastal zone management approach; through provision of integrated coastal

planning maps and provides the recommendations.

2

2.0 Literature Review

The context for Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) in Kiribati and in the Pacific region

is still premature (Kay 2007a). The Secretariat of the Pacific Environment Programme (SPREP)

through the International Waters Program had attempted to encourage recognition and

implementation of the ICZM in the pacific region; however it was apparently entangled with the

integrated watersheds management and other pressing priorities (SOPAC 2003). To date, there

has not been any documentation of lessons from the pacific islands authorities based on the

ICZM practices or experiences. However, a number of lessons on coastal management deriving

from community-based initiatives are available (SOPAC 2003) .

ICZM in the Caribbean region had progressed well (M, L 1998). Several of the Caribbean island

countries had formulated and implemented Integrated Coastal Zone Management practices. It

was mentioned by Creary (2003), that various form of gradual commitments had to be subdued

in order to successfully set for the context of ICZM in the Caribbean countries. These include

policy and institutional reforms, vertical and horizontal integration of responsibilities and wider

community consultation process.

According to Banica (draft), the ICZM require basic information like physical environment,

biological environment, economic conditions, sociological features and issues to be overlaid

together or considered in an inter-active and adaptive management system.

This information was readily available in several countries including Kiribati through past

technical studies (Biribo 2008). However, integration and consideration of the information

together in a coordinated management regime has never taken place due to considerable

reasons. One of the fundamental reasons for this ICZM loop-hole, despite financial and

institutional capacity constraints, is the fear of responsibility abdication to each institution since

the mechanics of ICZM involves cross-sectoral approach. Another underlying drawback for

ICZM in Kiribati is the complexity of delineating the ICZM boundaries.

The ICZM approach will addresses coastal problems effectively, which usually have multiple

impacts arriving from different sources. This approach will ensure maximum economic

benefits, reduce vulnerability, maintain ecological and life support services and moreover could

overcome the fragmentation inherent in both sectoral management and splits in jurisdiction

among levels of sectors (Knecht 1998).

This is in line with the rational of this research project and will initially attempt to progress

steps and favourable ingredients to demonstrate that ICZM is possible and practical in Kiribati.

3

3.0 Description of methods

This research project will use Google earth tool to formulate coastal planning maps.

This method adopts the coastal planning principles described by (Alder 2005) for different

levels of planning. The South Tarawa coastal planning map will be used for the integrated

regional plans while Bikenibeu village coastal map will feed to the integrated local level plans.

The following are description of the methods undertaken in this exercise.

3.1 Characterising the elements and features of the coastal planning maps

The main features of the coastal planning maps will includes, the physical environment (i.e.

coastal drivers, sediment transport, landforms, and meteorological data), the biological

environment (such as reefs, mangroves, mudflats, aquaculture ponds), economic and social

features will be factored separately in each map of the study sites respectively. Therefore these

elements form the basis for coastal planning maps.

3.2 Boundaries of the coastal planning maps for each of the two study sties

The processes of demarcation of boundaries where the coverage of management will be

imposed require stakeholder consultation and must also be consistent with the implied policies

and legislation. In this exercise, the boundaries of the coastal zone adopt the concept by

(Knecht 1998) where the coastal area should consists of inland areas, coastal lands, coastal

waters and offshore waters. However boundaries of these coastal planning maps must be

guided by the integrated coastal zone management framework after stakeholders’ consultation.

Therefore, the boundaries of these maps are subject to further modification and endorsement.

The extent of the coastal zone belt to be covered in this crucial exercise will extend from Betio to

Bonriki including immediate inter-tidal reef zone of the lagoon and ocean side for the South

Tarawa site. While for the Bikenibeu village site, it will exclusively include the whole village and

its coastal waters as well.

3.3 The physical environment features and construction of physical coastal planning maps

The physical environment features as identified from previous technical studies will be

revisited and collated onto a single map for the two study sites. The prominent coastal

processes including climate drivers on the island and at the village will be clearly highlighted

onto maps. This will be aided through Google talk observation.

4

3.4 Biological features identification and development of biological environment maps

The distinct features for biological systems such as mangrove, reefs, seagrasses ecosystems,

other agricultural important sites will be marked, collated and represented on maps.

3.5 Observation and identification of economic features and construction of maps

The main economic infrastructures including roads, air-strip and terminals, commercial centres,

government’s buildings, ports, factories, settlements, so forth will also be placed onto the maps.

This will give an outlook of the economically important features at the two study sites.

3.6 Overlaying of sociological issues on the coastal planning maps of each site

The social issues like community based governance systems, traditional land and resource use

practices over the coastal zone will be overlayed on the coastal planning maps.

3.7 Matrix of each of the study sites

The matrix will attempt to compound all physical, biological and sociol-economic information

for each of the study sites in one single table. The table should represent the description of the

coastal zone landmarks and coastline features, community values to the coastal zone, types of

pressures existing on the study sites and other relevant information relevant for the analysis

and the integrated coastal management.

5

4.0 Results: Coastal Planning Maps

Figure 3: South Tarawa Map with physical environment features

sources: (Biribo 2008), (He 2001), (Burgess 1987), (Solomon 1997), (SOPAC 2005), Google earth

Prevailing wind direction

Sediment transport direction

Wind and tidal generated currents

Fisheries channels

Passages blocked by causeways

Shoaling

Sand bulge landforms

Erosion spots

LAGOON WITH LOW ENERGY

WAVES

OCEAN WITH HIGH ENERGY

WAVES

KEYS

6

Figure 4: South Tarawa Map with biological environment features

Source: (E 2000), (Hay, EaO, K 2006), (Biribo unpublished), Google earth

Reefs ecosystem

Fisheries ponds

Seagrass/mudflat ecosystem

Mangrove ecosystem

KEYS

7

Figure 5: South Tarawa Map with economic features

Source: (Hay, EaO, K 2006), (Tererei Abete Reema 2002) Google earth

Landfills for waste

Towns and Villages

Airstrip and Terminal building

Towns and Villages

Education Institutions

Major Hospitals

Government and Commercial buildings

Parliament Complex

Wharf and Port

Sealed road

KEYS

Causeways

8

Figure 6: South Tarawa Map with sociological features

Source: (Kiribati 2005 Census 2007), (Tererei Abete Reema 2002)

91 people

12,509 people

2,011 people

3,939 people

2,766 people

803 people

2,119 people

1,688 people

2,299 people

6,170 people

Fisheries/gleaning

Seawalls, dumping, boat ramps

Population in each village

Recreational spots

KEYS

9

Figure 7: Bikenibeu Map with physical environment features

Sources:(Biribo 2008), (He 2001), (Burgess 1987), (Solomon 1997), (SOPAC 2005), Google earth

LAGOON WITH LOW ENERGY

WAVES AND INCOMING

AND OUTCGOING TIDES

OCEAN WITH HIGH ENERGY

WAVES AND INCOMING

AND OUTCGOING TIDES

Prevailing wind direction

Sediment transport direction

Wind currents direction

Beach-rock-structures

Erosion spots

Man-made coastal structures

KEYS

Sediment transport direction

10

Figure 8: Bikenibeu Map with biological environment features

Source: (E 2000), (Hay, EaO, K 2006), (Biribo unpublished), Google earth

Reefs ecosystem

Seagrass ecosystem

Agriculture nursery

Keys

11

Figure 9: Bikenibeu Map with economic features

Source: (Hay, EaO, K 2006), (Tererei Abete Reema 2002) Google earth

Education institutions

Commercial centres

Hospital and Clinics

Government Offices

Sealed road

Settlements

Key

Landfill for waste

12

Figure 10: Bikenibeu Map with sociological features

Source: (Hay, EaO, K 2006), (Tererei Abete Reema 2002) Google earth

Demographic information: Bik Village

Total population: 6,170

Male: 2,969 Female: 3,201

Fisheries and gleaning practices

Beach mining, boat ramp, channels, dumping

Church centres influencing coastal decisions

KEYS

13

Matrix of each study sites compartment

Table 1: The integrated coastal planning information matrix for South Tarawa

South Tarawa compartment

Community Use

- Residential (Private and Government) activities

- Commercial activities

- seawall and land reclamation activities

- Waste disposal activities

- Subsistence activities (fisheries)

- Commercial fisheries and aquaculture

- Recreational activities (camping, picnics)

Coastline Description

The coastline of South Tarawa is very complex and

dynamic. The length of the coast consists of exposed

beach with beach rock formation at several spots.

Shoaling and accretion is also evident in some parts of

the island coast. There are also severely eroded and

inundated areas.

Values

- Marine life habitats

- Groundwater reservoir recharge

- Dissipative barriers to erosive forces

- Habitats for culturally important plants

- Aggregates sources

- Recreational amenities

- Cultural heritages

- Wetlands

- Commercial and residential settlings

Pressures

- High population density (over-crowding)

- Intense coastal developments

- Improper coastal designs

- Dredging for aggregates

- Illegal beach mining

- Access impacts (wharf, channels, boat ramps)

- Storm and flood effects

- Sea level rise

- Storm surge

- Invasive species

- Land clearing

- Land pollution

- Marine pollution

- Intensive fishing and gleaning

- Using of destructive fishing methods and gears

Other issues:

The entire coastline of South Tarawa is very dynamic and consists of natural exposed beach, beach rocks to man-

made engineered coasts like causeways, seawalls. The coastal water is very rich in marine biological diversity and a

potential source for the population livelihood and complex coastal process system. Poorly designed and engineered

coastal structures have lead to severe damages on the coastal system. There is evidence of waves overtopping and

inundation in several corners of the island. The coastal issues are complex and hard to address and require an

integrated manner.

14

Table 2: The integrated coastal planning information matrix for Bikenibeu

Bikenibeu Village compartment

Community Use

- Residential and commercial activity

- Fisheries and Gleaning

- Waste dumping

- Sources for aggregates

- Channels for access

- Pigsties spots

- Reclamation and seawall

- Sources for handicraft articles (shells, etc)

Coastline Description

The coast of Bikenibeu village consist of exposed beach at

the lagoon side, and wave-dominated beach with pockets

of beach rocks at the ocean side. There is evidence of

wash over by wave overtopping at the ocean side and

inundation at the lagoon side.

Values

- Local groundwater recharge sources

- Biological diversity

- Marine biological diversity

- Habitat for native and culturally important

plants

- Nutrient sink

- Sediment sink and source

Pressures

- Overcrowding

- High population growth and density

- Intensive coastal developments

- Improper coastal designs

- Illegal beach mining

- Domestic dumping

- Marine pollution

- Sea level rise

- Storm surges

- Inundation

- Storms effects

- Land clearing

- Access impacts for channels, fishing boats, etc

Other issues:

There is evidence of disturbance of the bikenibeu village coastline by man-made groynes, land reclamations, seawalls,

fisheries channels. It’s also important to note that the coastal zone is an important source for biological diversity of

marine life. The activities, population on the island is extremely high. The coastal areas are mostly low-lying. The

coastal water near the site is rich in coral reefs and marine diversity. The community could play such an important

role in the management of the coastal zone area. However, this would require an understanding and appreciate of the

roles and functions of the coastal zone system.

15

Discussion

The results presents two scales of coastal planning maps which are i) the regional level or

secondary compartment level for South Tarawa and ii) the local level or tertiary level

compartment. The matrix for each compartment sites aggregates all information of the coastal

planning maps.

The results exhibited a plethora of coastal zone information ranging from physical environment,

biological environment, sociological features and economic features of the study sites. These

coastal planning maps represent the dynamics of the coastal zone area superimposed by the

complexity of issues and problems from the settling intense population.

The coastal planning map in Figure 3 indicated that the level of residential, domestic and

economic activities on the coastal areas of the island is extremely intensive. As in figure 4, the

population for villages across the island capital is very high for a limited land space.

Figure 1 describes distinct features of the physical environment and in particular the coastal

processes and morphologic features surrounding the island. This information should assist

planners with the locality and design of their developments along the coastal area.

The historical resource use pattern of coastal zone resources for the community which include

waste dumping, channelling, and poorly designed seawalls implies that the community are not

well informed on the dynamics of the coastal zone area portrayed in figure 1. These existing

developments could influence the direction and disrupts the physical environment processes

like sediment transport affecting other spots within the coastal zone area.

From figure 4, it was shown that the population depended on the coastal zone features like reefs

and mudflat for their livelihood. The state of these important coastal features could be directly

affected by other associated factors such as economic activities, coastal defence constructions

within the coastal zone. This is because, for instance, economic activities may produce

contaminants which could be leached out into the lagoon or the ocean harming and destroying

the invaluable biological coastal features.

This reinforces the fact that managing the coastal zone is complex as it contains multiple

problems and sources inter-linked together.

In Kiribati, management of the coastal zone characteristics such as reefs, foreshore, coastal

developments e.g. land reclamation, and resource use pattern of the public is administered

independently by different government agencies.

16

From the analysis of the results, it was evident that this ad hoc approach of management by the

respective institutions does not collaborate together and operated independently. This had

resulted in the numerous poorly planned coastal developments and chronic coastal problems

like pollution, severe erosion, and so forth on the study site.

At the local Bikenibeu village, community governance system, despite national operatives was

the most influential decision making body to any sort of coastal activity within their

jurisdictions. From figure 8, there are two existing form of similar church community exits on

the village. The decisions of the governing systems of these two churches could direct the

activity of the entire population residing on the village. The absence of knowledge on the values

and inter-linkages of the coastal zone features is the underlying problem to their contribution to

the coastal zone problems.

From this research, it has shown that an understanding of the array of the coastal zone

information could inform effective decision making (both at the national and local level) for

managing the coastal zone areas in the study sites.

From the results, coastal planning maps only represent the major pillars of the integrated

coastal planning i.e. physical environment, biological environment, and socio-economic

information. The maps also do not overlay detailed bathymetric information, contours of the

island, risk zones (erosion and inundation areas) according to sea level scenarios and

projections and other detailed economic and socio features. This is because of the limitation of

the tool limitation employed in this exercise which is the Google earth. Representation of the

missing information will add more to the integrity of the coastal planning maps. In addition,

since the maps are generated from Google earth they have not been rectified or set to scale for

accurate measurements or positioning purposes.

Table 1 and 2 represents the coastal zone information of the two study sites. The matrix

contains brief information on the description of the coastline morphology, coastal zone

resources uses by the community, and the current pressures on the coastal zone either

anthropogenic or natural. From these matrices, the coastal zone is invaluable resource for the

community, and its activities. However the pressures are prominent and could override the

significance of the coastal zone values. Therefore, the physical coastal drivers and biological

features of the coastal zone must be well understood to assist planning of developments.

17

6.0 Conclusions

Due to the limited land size of the study sites, coupled with the increasing rate of urbanisation

and improper planning; the coastal zone had been intensely developed. The developments

could undermine the values of the coastal zone essential for the community welfare and

economic development.

The coastal integrated planning maps and the matrices as in the results provide the baseline

information for all essential elements of the coastal zone; and also as important tools to improve

the management of the coastal zone. This is because the maps and matrices enable the holistic

consideration of the interconnected features and issues of the coastal zone.

However, these coastal planning maps would not be as effectively utilised as anticipated unless

they are recognised as part of a defined integrated coastal management (ICZM) framework.

To date, the integrated management approach for the coastal zone has never been accomplished

and implemented in both of the study sites.

The coastal planning maps could be used to improve the decision making of the two levels of

government systems at the national and the community level on the management of the coastal

zone. As a result of this, effective management measures to address the coastal zone problems

could be designed and implemented.

Depending on several factors which may trigger the need for an integrated coastal management

approach in Kiribati; this research concluded that

• The coastal planning maps and matrices are important sub-structures to the integrated

coastal zone management framework

• The integrated coastal zone management is the most appropriate approach in Kiribati to

address the current chronic and multiple sources of coastal problems requiring

immediate implementation

• The integrated coastal zone management practice would require numerous institutional

integration, reforms and adequate capacity.

18

7.0 Recommendations and the way forward

Based on section 5.0 and 6.0, this research recommends the following measures as ways

forward to fast tracking the immediate implementation of the integrated coastal zone

management approach in Kiribati.

1.0 Public awareness and science-management integration

• Public campaigns and awareness raising on the functions and advantages of the

integrated coastal zone management approach must be increased and

maintained

• Mechanisms to increase exchange and communication between scientists and

managers or administrators within the government institutions must be

accomplished to attain an appreciation and the recognition of the important role

of the coastal zone features and the integrated coastal zone management

approach to managing the intricate coastal issues and problems.

2.0 Improvements to the Coastal planning maps

• Delineating and digitisation of the defined physical, biological, social and

economic environment features into respective GIS layers compatible to geo-

rectified GIS maps

• Risk zones (erosion and inundation) of sea level rise of different scenarios and

timeframes must also be part of the coastal planning maps

• Land contours and bathymetry data maps for South Tarawa and other outer-

island must be collated and form part of the coastal planning maps

• Boundary of a coastal zone to be managed must be defined and consulted with

stakeholders prior to the implementation of management measures.

3.0 Formulation of the National Integrated Coastal Zone Management Framework

• A study must be commissioned as soon as possible to identify the barriers to the

implementation of the ICZM approach in Kiribati, recommend and formulate the

appropriate ICZM framework (national or local), pilot its implementation and

evaluate its performances against measurable indicators.

19

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