IMPROVEDFORESTHARVESTING AND REDUCED IMPACT ...

STATE OF 111E ARI REl^ORI ON

IMPROVEDFORESTHARVESTINGAND REDUCED IMPACT LOGGING

IN ASIA PACIFIC REGION

PRE-PROJECT PPD 19/99 REV. itF)STRENGTHENING SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENTOF

NATURAL FOREST IN ASIA-PASIFIC

,

Cover page:Skidding 45, Reduced Impact Logging Activities," Berau Forest Management Project (BMFP) "Location: Petak 29, Swakelola Labanan, East Kalimantan, PT. In hutani I

STATE OF 11/1E ARI REPORT ON

IMPROVEDFORESTHARVESTINGAND REDUCED IMPACT LOGGING

IN ASIA PACIFIC REGION

(^)^I

PRE-PROJECT PPD 19199 REV. I (F)STRENGTHENINGSUSTAINABLEMANAGEMENTOF

NATURAL FOREST IN ASIA-PASIFIC oITTO

The Indonesia Ministry of Forestry, in its capacity as Task Managerfor the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission's Ad Hoc Working Group onSustainable Forest Management, with support from the InternationalTropical Timber Organization has implemented a pre-project focusedon the application of the code of practice for forest harvesting in Asia-Pacific. The development objective of the pre-project PPD I 9199Rev. , (F); "Strengthening Sustainable Management of Natural Forestin Asia-Pacific" is to promote the contribution of forest harvesting tosustainable management of tropical forest in Asia-Pacific countries.

It is expected that after the pre-project completion the awareness ofimproves forest harvesting practices will have been significantly raisedand political support for the implementation of the Code secured. Toimplement a comprehensive training programme and to operationalizedemonstration sites for RIL implementation there is a need tounderstand the status of forest management particularly state of theart on forest harvesting in each Asia Pacific country.

This state of the art report was prepared by Dr. Supriyanto, whoworked closely with staff of the pre-project has reviewed availablepapers and references related with implementation of RIL in Asia-Pacific region,

I wish this report could be utilized as basic information for designingproper training programmes and other planning process for theimplementation of RIL in support to the achievement of sustainablemanagement of natural forests in Asia-Pacific.

FOREWORD

Project ManagerPPD 19/99 Rev, I (F)

DR. IG. ,,. TANTRA

\

^

,

I

This paper on State-of-the-art report on improved forest harvestingand reduced impact logging conforms to the ITFO Year 2000Objectives. It is also one of the outputs of the Pre-Project PPD 19/99Rev. I (F): Strengthening Sustainable Management of Natural Forestsin Asia-Pacific.

Timber extraction always creates a negative environmental impact,but an acceptable level of environmental impact should be met tominimize the risk. Reduced-impact logging is one of the ways tominimize the environmental impact and in accordance withSustainable Forest Management Principles. Awareness of foreststakeholders in Asia-Pacific region to implement the reduced impactlogging technique is encouraged,In December 1995, ITrO and FAO jointly organized a regionalconsultation on the implementation of sustainable forest managementin Asia and the Pacific regions , in Bangkok, Thailand. Two keyrecommendations emerging from that consultation were:

. a call for the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission (APFC) toestablish an ad hoc Working Group on Sustainable ForestManagement, anda suggestion to develop a regional code of practice for forestharvesting. At its 16'' Session in January 1996, the APFCsubsequently established an ad hoc Working Group onSustainable Forest Management and appointed Ministry ofForestry Indonesia as task manager with a priority mandate todevelop the recommended regional code.

Between I996 and 1998, the APFC ad hoc Working Group onSustainable Forest Management, developed the Code of Practice forForest Harvesting in Asia-Pacific, through an exhaustive participatoryprocess involving various stakeholders.

Technical and financial support for developing the code was providedby the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO),and the governments of Australia, Japan (through the JapanInternational Forestry Promotion and Co-operation Center, JIFRO).and the United States of America (through the Us DA Forest Service).

The code is intended to complement the 1770 Crtteria and Indicatorsfor Sustainable Management of Natural Tropical Forests and InOCriteria and Indibators for Sustainable Management of Natural

PREFACE

.

,..

111

Tropical Forests. It focuses on practical field-oriented approaches toimproving forest management.

The 29-member country APFC formally endorsed the code at its 17Session in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, in 1998. In endorsing the code. theAPFC called on member countries and supporting internationalorganizations to implement it.

Published in early I 999, the code serves as an expression of theAsia-Pacific region's commitment to sustainable forest management.The code is a model and, as such, assists all countries in thedevelopment of national codes that need to be appropriateIy modifiedto reflect national circumstances. The code represents best practiceprocedures and is riot a legally binding document.The APFC is facilitating an email list server known as R!LNET for abetter flow of information about RIL in the region.Such initiatives as the international conference on the Application ofRIL to Advance Sustainable Forest Management, held in Kuching,Malaysia from February 26 to March I, 2001, are conducive to aneXchange of ideas and information on sustainable forest managementand RIL practices throughout the Asia-Pacific region.

All international institutions made a unanimous declaration on thecommitment to increase RIL implementation through increased effortsin RIL training at the operator level. Therefore, a paper on State of theart report on improved forest harvesting and reduced impact logging ismade.

.

IV

FOREWORDPREFACE

TABLE OF CONTENTSI. INTRODUCTION

I. I . Siniculture System1.2. Harvesting Techniques1.3. The Needs of RILin SFM

11. IMPROVED FOREST HARVESTING ANDREDUCED IMPACT LOGGING IN ASIA PACIFICREGIONS2.1. Australia

2.2, Bangladesh2.3. Bhutan2.4. Cambodia2.5. China

2.6. F1i2.7. France (New Caledonia)28. India2.9. Indonesia

2.10. Japan2. I I . Korea, Republic of2.12. Laos

2.13. Malaysia2.14. Maldives

2.15. Mongolia2.16, Myanmar2.17. Nepal2.18, New Zealand2.19. Pakistan

2.20. Papua New Guinea2.21 . Philippines2.22. Portugal (East Timor)2.23. Samoa2.24. Solomon Islands

2.25. Sri Lanka2.26. Thailand

2.27. United States of America2.28. Vanuatu2.29. Vietnam

1/1. GENERAL PROBLEM 'IV. CONCLUSIONREFERENCES

Table of contents

Page

1/1

V

359

9141820232729313338

4043

4649515356

59626365686971

7578828587

919395

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PRE-PROJECT 1909 REV, I (F)She, ;9thoningJ'"st"trad6fo!It@"^emu"torgy'@tnnzfrotestsIn/asi"4'"cmc

I. ,.

Forest formation is defined by the climatic (temperature,precipitation, altitude, latitude) and edaphically conditions (soil type,microorganisms). The vast climatic and soil variations. within thetropics produce an extraordinary diversity of forest types, differing incomposition, structure and commercial value. Forest dynamic occursrapidly if the condition is maintained naturally, and finally the climaxcondition is achieved. The climax formation can be achieved if the

forest ecosystem is healthy. Forest ecosystem is healthy if they areproductive. biologically and structuralIy diverse, large and notfragmented, balance in class distribution and resilient to stressors(Supriyanto at a1. . 2001). Healthy forest ecosystem should bemanaged in sustainable way.

Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) is the process ofmanaging forest to achieve one or more clearly specified objectives ofmanagement with regard to the production of a continuous flow ofdesired forest products and services without undue reduction of itsinherent values and future productivity and without undue undesirableeffects on the physical and social environment (ITF0, , 994, I 998).In this case, continuous flow of the desired products and servicesshould be monitored continuously to know their status, changes andtrends if the forest conditions (stressors) are continued.

Demand for demonstrating sustainable forest management isbeing driven at international and regional levels by a number of factorsincluding international government-to~government agreements,national environmental legislation, real and perceived market demandfor a "green" image to investors ( Dyck and Skinner, 1988).

Forest management needs to be ecological Iy, socially, andeconomicalIy sustainable. Ecological or environmental sustainability isdifficult and expensive to determine directly. Monitoring variableswhich are accepted as indicators of sustainable ecosystem responseto management practices have been recommended by the forestindustry and international agreements, such as the Montreal Process.

To achieve the goal of sustainable forest management, anappropriate Silviculture system in a given ecosystem should beconsidered carefully. The silviculturist look upon the forest as anecosystem, and see their tasks as being those of guiding all of its lifeprocesses within the context of an ecologicalIy stable forest and ofshaping the creation and propagation of such forest system in such a

Silviculture System

I. INTRODUCTION

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PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F)Strengthening SIrst@fir@61^ :I^tall^gumtorgy'@turnfF@testsi, ,^sin. @", I^

way that all needs related to them are satisfied in the best waypossible, in a sustained, continuous and rational manner (Leibundgut,1985). Such view is applied at any applied logging system fromselective cutting, strip cutting to clear cutting systems. Continuous flowof desired product should be maintained. The forested area of theAPFC member countries and their C&I for SFM is shown in Table I.

Table , : Total Forested Area of APFC Member Countries

No.

2

Countries

3

Australia

4

Ban ladesh

5

BhutanCambodia

6

PR China

7

Land areamillion ha

Fi'i

8

FranceNew Caledonia

9to

India

11

Indonesia

766.82

12

Ja an

13

14.17

Re

Forested area

million ha

14

Laos FOR.of Korea

4.70

15

17.64

Mala SIa

959.81

16

Maldives

17

Mori o1ia

re

M an mar

1.83

I58.08

19

Ne al

1.86

20

New Zealand

328.76

1.33

Pakistan

190.4,

V

3.02

21

Papua NewGuinea

9.33

22

36.46

I63.48

20.6

C & I for SF"

Phili ines

9.93

9.

23

23.47

64.2

PortugalEast Timor

0.81

24

32.91

52.9

0.37

25

17.0

Samoa

0.03

156.65

26

64.11

Solomon islands

121.00

27

66.05

44.6

MON

Sri Lanka

14.72

DFAs

20.0

Thailand

24.08

MON, DFAs,InO

28

26.54

DFAs

United State ofAmerica

0.63

29

Source: FAO. 2000,Note: DFAs ( Regional Incentive for the Development and Implementation of NationalLevel Criteria and Indicators for the Sustainable Management of Dry Forests in Asia).ITTO (International Tropical Timber Organization). MON (Montreal Process on Criteriaand Indicators for the Conservation and Sustainable Management of Temperate andBoreal Forests).

78.78

19.5

InO

12.56

46.28

68.0

Vanuatu

19.29

66.0

Viet Nam

o, 001

30.00

ITro

10.64

6.3

DFAs, InO

53.5

34.42

1.48

58.5

3.90

0.28

3.3

7.95

InO

2.89

6.8

2.36

52.1

MON

30.60

6.56

2

51.31

26.5

MON

9,589

29.9

5.79

InO

3.0

0.52

DFAs. InO

66.1

1.2233.17

DFAs

19.3

0.12.54

34.4

DFAs

t. 94

MON

14.27

225.99

37.

NE

87.8

InO

29.6

0.41

28.8

InO

9.82

24.7

36.7

DFAs. InO

29.6

DFAs

MON

InO

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PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F)$tm, !gate"ing S"stqi"@6f0 :*1,131^am"torgy"ruinff"orestsi, ,,^$to-Q^17^

SIIviculture system is determined principalIy. by the conditionof the forest whose management is being _ planned. Silviculturalactivities are justified only if they serve to achieve specific prescribedeconomic objectives. These can be roughly divided into primaryforests, secondary forests, logged-over forests, and vegetation mosaic(Lamprecht. 1989), In such condition. the stand formation will beuneven age or polycyclic. General considerations regarding theselection of the Silvicultural system is mainly based on the initialsituation of the forests and the objectives of management. Silviculturalmeasures is aimed for securing sustained natural production.Determination of minimum harvestsble diameters, improvement ofthinning, gradual transformation system, and conversion system of theforests should be considered. Determination of minimum harvestable

diameter is important to be implemented in selective cutting system toensure the sufficient wood supply. This objective can be achieved ifthere is sufficient large-diameter timber to make utilization profitable,the minimum harvestable diameter laid down is large enough, and thespecies to be exploited exhibit a regular diameter frequencydistribution. Gradual transformation is generally understood to meanthe gradual transformation of a forest as regards its composition and Ior structure. Its consist of gradual transformatton of the growing stock(thinning and enrichment planting) and methods of transformationemploying regeneration (restructuring of the tree regenerations),Conversion system is understood to mean replacement of the originalgrowing stock by artificial forest stands over a fairly large area. It isalso known as clear cutting and artificial regeneration.

The harvesting technique in those Silvicultural system variesfrom country to the other country with regards to their ecologicalcondition of forest

Timber Harvesting Techniques

Timber harvesting techniques in the Asia-Pacific Regionvaries from one country to the other country. In the past, timberharvesting was done by very simple technology with low productivity.The impact of logging in timber harvesting, and particularly on thefuture of timber production and environmental impact, has attractedthe attention of, sylviculturist and forest managers due to the increaseuse of heary machinery for timber extraction. Control andimprovement of the harvesting process to minimize damage to theresidual stand is critical for effective SIIviculture which supposed to be

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PRE-PROJECT 1909REV. I (F)Shangtfie"ing SIrst, ing6fo ^.,@,^fomentC^'orct"mrQ"orestsinftstg-@colic

the subsequent phase in any poly-cyclic management system. Theneed of appropriate harvesting techniques is crucial.

Timber ' harvesting is considered the most destructiveoperation and. if uncontrolled, causing severe damage to soil andresidual forest. Therefore, sound and well-organized timbermanagement activities and its approach, followed by consistency inimplementation should -be performed in long-term 00-20 years),

(540 years) and short-term (annual planning).medium-term

Systematic management planning would secure the continuous woodsupply.

An adequate wood supply is an important prerequisite for longterm sustainable development. This stresses the important of a "wisemanagement " approach in addressing the concerns of depletion.Question is therefore addressed to the harvesting technology withregards to the adopted Sitvicultural system. How to minimize thenegative impact of logging? One of the answers to this question is toapply the Reduced Impact Logging (RIL). But why RIL? Efforts towardsustainable forest management were widely discussed and done.Some reviews revealed that failures in tropical forest management aremainly due to the lack of proper enterprise management, as well as tounfavorable macro-economic framework conditions (Kleine andHe UVeldop, 1993).

Different countries in Asia-Pacific have different forest

management problems, but they have something in common, which isthe needs for enhanced harvesting methods.Therefore, Elias (1999), K!assen (, 998), Uebelhor and Kleine (1995),described several objectives of RIL in the operational level as follows:

. To minimize the environmental damage, especially onresidual stand and soil,

. To conserve wildlife and other forest resources (water,endanger species, non-timber forest product),

. To minimize overall direct impacts to the forest,

. To reduce direct logging costs, timber waste, and accidentrates,

. To protect the long-term integrity and value of the permanentforest estate.

According to Bruenig (1996), the essential technical elements ofreduced impact logging are:

. Pre-felling survey and mapping of topography, site andgrowing stock,

. Technical planning of access and extraction. including roadand drainage specifications;

. Pre-felling climber cutting;

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PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F)st, e^tEe",',!33"st@inc6^:,, an^, Montorgy'"turnf^'or^stsi"^sag^cry^

. Directional felling towards planned skid trails and multipleimpact zones but away from streams;

o Low stumps;. Efficient utilization of the felled trunks;. Optimum width of roads and skid trails;. Winching with arch, famead or pan;. No cross-crossing by tractors;. Slash management to reduce fire hazards and water pollution;. Safe working conditions; and. General compliance with plans, rules and standards.

The basic steps of RIL in Indonesian Selective Cutting andReplanting System comprise pre-harvest, harvesting and postharvesting activities. Harvesting is the aggregation of all operation,including pre-harvest planning and post-harvesting assessment,related to the felling of trees and the extraction of their sterns or otheruseable parts from the forest for subsequent processing into industrialproducts. Logging is the act or process of felling and extracting timberfrom forests, especially in the form of logs.

1.3.

Timber extraction from the forest always create a negativeenvironmental impact. An acceptable level of environmental impactshould be meet to minimize the environmental risks. Environmentaldamage due to logging could be damage to residual stands(production, biodiversity, stand structure) and soil (compaction anderosion). After logging, they have to leave the environmental forest ingood conditions. In other word, logging activity should be able tomaintain forest ecosystem integrity with regards to the implementedSIIviculture system to achieve the objective of sustainable forestmanagement,

Soil is a natural entity of unconsolidated organic and inorganicconstituents in dynamic equilibrium with its environment. Soil qualityreflects the capacity of a soil to produce plant as determined by soilgrowth factors including water holding capacity, soil pH, soil fertility.soil depth and soil texture, Soil plays three important roles in terrestrialecosystem namely: productivity and biodiversity medium, hydro!o91cfunction and environmental buffer (Siregar, and Supriyant0,2001).The effects of perturbations associated with intensive forestmanagement (logging) on the soil physical, chemical and biologicalproperties in long term become a global issues. Miss management ofsoil properties will decrease the forest productivity in the long term

The Needs of RIL in SFM

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PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV, I (F)Strengthening931rstcin@6fo Mangeme"torgy'@turnfFotestsitt^siC-@a^

In0 (1990) specified five groups of indicators of wellmanaged natural forest ecosystem, those are (1) Resource security,(2) Continuity of timber production, (3) Conservation flora and fauna,(4) An acceptable level of environmental impact, and (5) SOCio-economic benefits. It was developed later on to the Criteria andIndicator for Sustainable Management of Natural Tropical Forests(ITF0, 1994, 1998),

Those indicators are related directly to the need ofimplementation of reduced impact logging at any type of forest, anyforest formation and any forest ecosystems. Is RIL enough to sustainthe natural forest?. Just when we thought that we had made somesignificant steps toward sustainable forest management. a number ofcritics have emerged which remind us that the implementation ofcodes of forest harvesting and adoption of reduced-impact logging(RIL) are riot enough to sustain our natural forest.

Reduced"impact logging (RIL) is intensiveIy planned andcarefully controlled implementation of harvesting operations tominimize the impact on forest stands and soils, usually in individualtree selection cutting (Reid and Rice 1997; Webb 6997; Ruslim at al.1999; Van der Hout 1999; Vanuatu Department of Forests 1999;Armstrong and Inglis 2000; Elias 2000; Sist 2000).The forest workers and supervisors should be well trained so that theycan ensure minimal negative impacts on the site, maximum utilizationof trees felled, minimum damage to residual trees and advancedregeneration, and rehabilitation of negative impacts that may haveoccurred on the site (Bull, 2001). They should be also well qualified toconduct a post-harvest assessmentBull (2001) reviewed a total of 266 studies and articles on reducedimpact logging (RIL) and conventional logging (CL), Table 2. Themajority of the studies was conducted in the last decade ( 199,2000).In the 1970's, the number of publications on conventional logging (CL)increased rapidly, whereas RIL was covered in only few publicationsprior to 1980. The intention on the implementation of RIL increased inthe last decade, especially in 1991 to 2000.

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Table 2: The Difference Between Conventional and Reduced-Impact Logging (Bull, at a1. , 2001).

No.

I, Logging intensity 0101ume:in 31ha

2

Parameter

3.

Lo in in tensi

4.

Lo

5.

Cost of Iannin

6.

in c cle

Cost of Fellin

7.

Cost of skiddin

8.Total cost Us$/in3

9.

Residual stand Dama e

frees/ha

10.

ears

Stand damage (trees/treesfelled

11,

CL

us$/in3Us $1m3

Darna e-site % of area

12.

13.

Cano

us $1m3

Lost timber % removal

RIL

45

Table 2 shows the benefits of Reduced Impact Logging ascompared to Conventional Logging System. Reduced-impact loggingproduce less damage than conventional logging, and increase logvalue. RIL has considerable less impact on the residual stand and siteand creates smaller canopy opening. This condition will enhanceregeneration and in some cases, allow an earlier re-entry with highersecond cut. RIL considerably increases the recovery of timber felledand reduces the percentage of lost logs, increasing productivity andincome for logging operator (Bull at a1. , 2001).

Utilization rate (% of felledtimber

o enin

8

35

37

1.44

No. ofobservation

0.60

% of area

93 CL, 37 RIL

4.64

8

19.73

34

1.72

56 CL, 45 RIL

49.4

1.164.46

2 CL. 8 RIL

22

28.23

3 CL. 7 RIL

29.0

18

5 CL. 6 R!L,

25

10 CL, 13 RIL

9

25

42 CL, 33 RIL

47

8 CL, 7 RIL

8

16

39 CL, 19 RIL

15

14 CL, 11 RIL

60

25 CL, 8 RIL17 CL, 4 RIL

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PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F)Strengthening Sustain@6&, ^tangerine"tq'W^runtC'b, ,, t, i", aim^,,#;,

11. IMPROVED FOREST HARVESTING ANDREDUCED IMPACT LOGGING

IN ASIA PACIFIC REGIONS

2.1.

2.1. ,. Background

The total land area of Australia is 766,818 million hectare, andthe total forest area is 158,080 hectare or 20.6 % of the total land

Australia

area. Australia's topical rain forests cover about I0,516 sq. kin (Bell ata1, , 1987) and lie along the north-eastern coastline from '1's to 22's.They form two broad groups, the largest of which lies betweenTownsville an Cooktown and covers part of the coastal plains as wellas the mountain ranges lying parallel to the coast. These rangesreach to 900 in in many areas; the highest peak is Mount Bame Frere(, 612m). Rain forest is found where the rainfall exceeds aboutI500 min per year, or where other conditions are favourable for theretention of moisture. West of the ranges, rainfall declines rapidly inthe rain shadow and rain forest is replaced, often abruptly, by dscelophyll forest where the canopy is more open. This forest containsnumerous eucalypts (Figgis, 1985).

The second major group of rain forest. 2600 sq. kin in extent,lies further north and is separated from the Townsville forests by anarea of open eucalypt forest. It consists of scattered patches of rainforest on the Cape York Peninsula. The largest is in the area betweenthe MCIlwraith Ranges and the Iron Range, just north of Coen.Smaller patches are found in the headwaters of the Jardine River andon the northern tip of Cape York at Lockerbie.

In both groups of forest, small-scale maps tend to exaggeratediscontinuities of rain forest distribution. Except for the corridors ofdrier open eucalypt forest, the larger patches of forest are linked byfrequent outlying clumps of rain forest occurring on suitable moist sitesin gullies, along streams and on hill and mountain tops, South oflatitude 19 S where frosts sometimes occur, fire"adapted rain forestspecies are sometimes present in open eucalypt woodlands onfavourable soils. In addition there are some smaller patches of rainforest near Mackay at about 21'S. These are poorly documented butare believed to have southern subtropical floristic affinities.

Until recently most forest in the Townsville to Cooktown areahave been administered as state forests or national parks by the State

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PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F)Strengthening Sustain@6fo :, I'll^emutor'w'at, ,, jar!r'o723tsitt^. siC4z'den^c

of Queensland. Historically this prevented indiscriminate felling foragriculture in the heyday of the dairy industry, and is the reason whyso much forest cover has survived until today.

Australia's tropical rain forest lie at the fringe of the greatMalesian rain forest massif and have a strongly Malesian flora, which,due to its peripheral location, is rather less rich in species than muchof the Males ian - heartland. The flora and fauna also contain aGondwanic to the east and has dispersed into Malesia to the north,especially New Guinea.

A number of estimates have been made of floristiccomposition of the rain forests, A recent study estimated there were1161 species of higher plants in the Townsville to Cooktown rainforests. These were represented in 516 genera and 1/9 families. Ofthe 516 genera, 68 are endemic to Australia and 36 are restricted tithe region. With respect to the species, 710 are Australian endemics.Some 43 genera are monotypic, of which 37 genera are endemic toAustralia, Another estimate (Banow and Hyland, 1988) considerednorthern and southern blocks together and found 133328 species and534 genera.

The forest fauna in Australia is also not particularly rich byMalesian standards, However, it also is strongly Australian in affinity,has numerous endemic and for several groups, such as butterflies.includes a high proportion of all Australia's species, About 95 birdspecies are associated with rain forest or with the land at theirperimeters. Ten of these species are restricted to the lowlands,25 are known only from the tablelands, and the remainder arewidespread (Kikkawa, I 982),

Deforestation has had indirect effects on wildlife by increasingthe degree of habitat fragmentation. This has caused the loss ofcertain vulnerable species, In the Atherion Tablelands, for example,Lawrence (1987) believed fragmentation had probably contributed tothe local losses of spotted-tailed quoll Dasyurus maculatus,

Casualjus Gasuarius and lemuroid ring-tail possumcassowaryHemibelideus.

2.1.2. Forest Management Plans

In Australia, State and Tentorial governments have primaryresponsibility fo forest management while the CommonwealthGovernment coordinates a national approach to environmental andindustry development issues. The Australian Coinmenwealth, Stateand Territory governments are all signatories to the 1992 NationalForest Policy Statement (NFPS), The NFPS provides the framework

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within which the governments can achieve cooperativeIy their visionfor sustainable management of Australia's forest and ensure thecommunity obtains a balanced return from all forest uses.

The policy pursues broad national goals within a regionalIybased planning based framework that integrates environmental andcommercial objectives. The goals cover :

. conservation;

. wood production and industry development;o integrated and coordinated decision making and

management;. private native forests;' plantations;. water supply and catchment management;. tourism and other economic and social opportunities;. employment, workforce education and involvement;. research and development; and. international responsibilities.

A key element of the approach adopted in the National ForestPolicy Statement involves Regional Forest Agreements (RFAs)between the Commonwealth and State governments. RFAs presentlycover nine regions in four States where commercial timber prodiictionis a major forest use.

RFAs are based on scientific, comprehensive, regionalassessments of forest values and uses, and on consultation withstakeholders. The 20-year agreements seek to provide a balance ofthe full suite of environmental, social, economic and heritage valuesthat forests can provide for current and future generations.

They establish a forest conservation reserve system, which iscomprehensive, adequate and representative (CAR), andcomplementary sustainable forest management systems outsidereserves (for more information, refer to the leaflets Sustainable ForestManagement in Australia and Forest Conservation).

The CAR reserve system is based on national criteria,developed to implement the RFA process, for the protection ofbiodiversity, old growth and widerness :

. 15 per cent of the distribution of each forest ecosystem thatexisted before Europeans arrived in Australia;

. 60 per cent or more of the current distribution of forestecosystems, if rare or depleted;

. 60 per cent or more of the current distribution of old growth;

. all remaining occurrences of forest ecosystems or old growththat are Tare or endangered; and

. 90 per cent or more of high-quality wilderness.

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2.1.3. Silviculture and forest management practices

Australia has established a substantial plantation resource,largely of Pinus indiata, managed on 30 - 40 year rotations and thisnow suplies about 50 % of domestic wood consumption. Plantationproduction is similarly split about 70% from state forest, 30% fromprivate plantations. Cutting levels in Australia forests are high. at orapproaching current sustained yield projection in most region (McCormack, 1994). Australia exported significant woodchip ofEucalyptus.

RFAs also provide secure access to wood resources,enabling continued development of internationally competitive andecologicalIy sustainable industries. Industries based on value addingand efficient use of wood provide the foundation for expansion inwood products manufacturing and, in turn. generate regional andnational economic benefits.

RFAs are in operation for the Eden and North East regions ofNSW, the Gipps!and, Central Highlands, North East, West andGippsland regions of Victoria, the South-west forest region of WesternAustralia and the State of Tasmania. Comprehensive regionalassessments have been completed for Southern NSW and South-East Queensland

The RFA process has greatly added to our knowledge of themany values of forests. While the National Forest Policy Statementdid not focus on woodlands, many of its goals are applicable to them.A number of government initiatives, such as the Natural Heritage Trustand farm forestry, address areas outside the focus of the Statement,

The National Forest Policy Statement committed the signatorygovernments to "a strategy des^med to conserve and manage areasof old-growth forests and wilderness as part of the reserve system"The national reserve criteria require the protection of all viableexamples of rare old growth and 60 per cent of existing old growth forall other forest ecosystems. For the RFAs, old-growth forest isdefined as "ecological!y mature forest where the effects ofdisturbances are now negiigible".

The following principles were applied as an integral part of thedefinition.

. Ecological maturity is defined by the characteristics of theolder growth stages

. If data were available on structural, floristic and functionalqualities that would be expected to characterize anecologicalIy mature forest ecosystem, these data were used inassessing the significance of disturbance effects

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. Negligible disturbance-effects will be evident in most forestsby a significant proportion of trees with age-related featuresand a species composition characteristic of an ecologicalIymature forest ecosystem

Sixty seven per cent of old-growth forest is protected inreserves in RFA regions,

Patches of mangroves occur round the Australian coast; theyare most extensive in the north and north-east. There has been noheavy commercial exploitation. At their southern limit the mangroveforests are stunted and consist solely of AVIcennia. In some places,especially Queensland, conversion to urban development is a threat.There is a copious recent literature (CIOugh, t982; Davie, 1987;Galloway, 1982; Semeniuk, 1987 and Wales, 1982). ' ' '

The concept of sustainable forest management (SFM) todayderives from the World Commission on Development, the Brundtlandreport (1987): the ahiffty of humanity to ensure that it meets the needsof the present without compromising the ability of future generations tomeet their own needs. To this can be added the focus on all forestvalues coming from the Rio de Janiero Earth Summit in 1992

The concept of SFM has a long and evolving histo inAustralia, During the 20 century, public forested areas-initialI setaside to stop conversion to agricultural use~were managed to protect arange of forest values, With increased understanding of forestecology and changing community attitudes, managements other forestvalues. These management practices are applicable to public andprivate natural forest and plantations,

Through the National Forest Policy Statement (NFPS) ofI992, Australia aims for sustainable management of all its forests forfuture generations, whenrer the forest is within reserves or inproduction forests or plantations, and on public and private land.

The NFPS adopts three principles as the basis for sustainableforest management :

maintaining the ecological processes within forests (theformation of soil, energy flows, and the carbon, nutrient andwater cycles);

. maintaining the biological diversity of forests; and

. optimising the full range of environmental, economic andsocial benefits to the community from all uses of forests withinecological constraints

Montreal Process on Criteria and Indicators for the Conservationand Sustainable Management of Temperate and Boreals Forests isapplied,

.

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2. , A. Forest harvesting practices

Part of the forest estate was production forest, felled on aselection system with a 3040 year cutting cycle (Frawley, 1985;Queensland Department of Forestry, 1983), especially in Pinusrediata. The Forest Department was able to show that tree speciesdiversity at compartment scale was increased by this practice. It wasclaimed that there was no long-term ecosystem decline. Problemarose, however, because Department of Forestry managementprescriptions were not strictly adhered to; in particular there was theproblem of re-logging of forests at short intervals as marketsdeveloped for species which had not been commercially valuable atthe time of former logging cycles

Code of Forest (or Logging) Practice was made and coverover public and private forest of all states, The development of codesof forest and logging practice was initiated since 1978 and refined inI994 ( MCCormack. 1994). Most of states in Australia now haveidentifiable Codes of Practice, for either logging of forestry moregenerally, These operate generally under either regulationempowered by the various Forestry Acts, through legal contract, andgenerally relate to public land only.

2.2. Bangladesh

2.2. ,. Background

The total land area in Bangladesh is 14,171 million hectare.The total forest area in Bangladesh is 1.334 million hectares or 9.4 %of the total land area (FAO, 2000).

Scientific forest management and conservation in Bangladeshhas a history of more than a century, with government management ofthe hill forests beginning in the 1870s, under a system of selectionfelling with natural regeneration. Forest management in the countrynaturally encompassed the various Silvicultural and managementtechniques developed under British colonial era. It has consequentlybeen based on principles of 'scientific forestry' based around Gustodialmanagement by a centralized bureaucracy. This included theutilization of specific Siivicultural systems, as well as commencingteak plantation establishment in I 871. The strictly ecological approachto forest management has foundered in more recent years in the faceof rapidly mounting population pressures and poverty-driven demandsfor additional agricultural lands. Consequently, since Bangladesh's

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independence (1971) the focus of forest management has movedquite rapidly toward a community-based approach. This approachrecognizes that effective forest management in conditions of intensepopulation pressure requires community participation in planning andimplementation. This approach has been increasingly enshrined insuccessive national Five-Year Plansr

The Sundarbans mangrove forest has a distinct forestmanagement history. The area was mapped as early as 1764, andsoon after proprietary rights was obtained by the East India Companyin 1757. The first Forest Management Division with jurisdiction overthe Sundarbans was established in 1869 and the first managementplan was introduced in 1892.The Master Plan for Forestry Development stipulates that forestresources should be managed in an ecologicalIy sustainable mannerto ensure species diversification and continuous improvement ofenvironmental conditions. State-owned forests, comprising naturalforests, hill plantations and Sal (Shorea robusta) plantations are usedto produce forest products, except for reserved forests, which are setaside to conserve soil and water resources, and for the maintenanceof biodiversity. Commercial management of forests is expected to beprofit oriented.

The Master Plan aims at rehabilitating denuded orencroached forest areas using participatory approaches. The MasterPlan recommends a strategy incorporating six key points for forestmanagement: enhancing environmental preservation and

conservation; introducing rational forest land use; increasing publicparticipation and benefits from resource management; expanding theresource base; improving management practices; and undertakingefficient resource allocation.


Given the high proportion of forests under state control, therehave been significant efforts to develop management planning formany forest areas. Where formal plans have been prepared, however,they have generally proven to be of limited value due to an inability toprovide effective enforcement. The shift toward participatory forestrymeans that new plans, with significantly altered managementprescriptions, will be required. This planning process is, however, verymuch in its infancy. Nonetheless, efforts to involve stakeholders inforest planning are being made in Bangladesh. Workshops andseminars have been arranged at divisional levels to enable 'grassroots' views to be expressed and to share local experiences in forest

.

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planning. Despite the absence of effective management plans in manyareas, all forest areas in Bangladesh are considered to be undersome form of management. Forests managed for production purposescomprise around 550,000 hectares; conservation forests constitute220,000 hectares, while forests for coastal protection, most notablythe Sundarbans area, cover 350,000 hectares, The SundarbansReserved Forest forms part of the largest mangrove forest in theworld. It is the focus of several conservation efforts. including an FAO-executed project, which helped draw up an integrated resourcemanagement plan for the area. The plan was published in 1998 andhas objectives: to produce a plan for integrated resource managementdesigned to enhance the supply of wood and non-wood products; toconserve and manage aquatic and terrestrial wildlife resources; tostudy the potential for mobilizing and assisting people's participation inincome- and employment-generating activities in the area (withparticular focus on disadvantaged groups); to develop the tourism andrecreational potential of Bangladesh's forests; and to enhance theprotective role of forests against cyclones, soil erosion and tidalsurges.


Sal (Shorea robusta) is the principal commercial species inthe tropical moist deciduous forests of Bangladesh. Extensive areas ofSal forest have been heavily degraded and these are beingrehabilitated as part of the country's plantation programme. Theprincipal Silvicu!tural system used in Sal forests is 'coppice withstandards'. This system divides the forest into a series of periodiccutting of 12-20 hectares, according to their relative maturity.Selection felling and improvement felling are carried out in a cuttingcycle according to a particular block reaching prescribed girth anddensity requirements. Intermediary Silvicultural interventions includeforest cleaning and release of seedlings, where rehabi!itative orsupplementary planting has been carried out (or to assist naturalregeneration), weeding and climber cutting during the sapling stage.thinning to waste (or for fuel wood) at the end of the sapling stage,and production thinning at a later stage. Clearfelling systems withartificial regeneration, designed to produce uniform crops of teak andsal, are also used in hill forests, riotably in the Chittagong tracts. Thus,many hill forests have been more-or-less converted to plantationsA moratorium was placed on harvesting in natural Sal forests in 1972.

In mangrove forests the principal Silvicultural system is'Selection cum Improvement'. This system involves selection of

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individual trees and small coupes for commercial felling. based onspecified diameter limits. Misshapen, diseased or otherwise defectivetrees are also removed. In some instances, undesirable species arealso felled, to promote growth of more valuable species. The s sterninitially operated on a cutting cycle of 40 years, though subsequentithis was reduced to 20 years as a result of demand pressures.Harvesting in natural mangrove forests has been under a moratoriumsince 1989 with the exception of the cutting of Gewa (Excoecariaagallocha) pulpwood for the Khulna Newsprint Mill; firewood; andsalvage felling of top-dying Sundri (Heritiera tomes), the main timberspecies. A relatively recent initiative is the substantial Iantin(several thousand hectares) of (mainly) mangroves on lands createdfrom silt deposits in the Bay of Bengal.

The establishment of home gardens, an ensemble fdeliberately chosen species of plants of human utility that mimic anatural climax system, is also extensive in Bangladesh. A mathome garden comprises economicalIy valuable trees with anunderstorey of crops and animals. Taungya system (Agroforestry) isalso prevalent in many areas.

2.2.4. Forest harvesting practices

Serious degradation of Sal forests on the lains ofBangladesh saw a moratorium on logging imposed in 1972. In 1989.this moratorium was extended to all natural forests and this is Iannedto continue until 2005. Nonetheless, significant ille a1 10 incontinues. Presently around 80 percent of Bangladesh's wood harv tcomes from private sources, mainly homestead woodlots. Harvestintechniques are generally rudimentary, and most of the harvest iburned for fuel. Most of the country's plantations have at to reachmaturity. As noted above (Silviculture) harvesting systems in naturalforests have generally been part of formal Silvicultural s stems. Ainability to protect the forests from interventions outside formalSilviculture has, however, resulted in the serious degradation ddeforestation. In part, an important management problem has bedisputed tenure in many of the Forestry Department's forests.

To manage the Bangladesh forests in sustainable wa , thRegional Initiative for the Development and Implementation fNational Level Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Maria ement fDry Forests in Asia (DFAs) is being implemented.

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2.3. Bhutan

2.3. ,. Background

The total land area of Bhutan is 4,701 million hectares, thearea of which covers by 3.006 million hectares of forests or 64.2 % ofthe total land area (FAO, 2000).

Prior to the development of forestry legislation in 1969,Bhutan's forests were managed by local communities to provide localrequirements for forest products (and as a land-bank for agriculture)and according to communal interests. More scientific management offorestry is a recent innovation in Bhutan. The Forest Department wascreated in 1952, but development of scientifically based forestmanagement plans was riot initiated until , 974, under technicalguidance funded by UNDP. This created some serious interest toregenerate the forests in order to achieve sustained, progressiveyields in perpetuity.

In 1979 the Government introduced two major changes inforest policy. The commercial felling of timber was severely restricted,with responsibilities for harvesting being assigned to the Departmentof Forests. eventually through the Bhutan Logging Corporation. Theother change was the initiation of a programme of industrialdevelopment. The move toward a more industrial focus was, however,relatively short"lived.

The National Forest Policy emphasizes communityparticipation in forest management while also focusing on the multiplevalues - economic, social and environmental - of forestry in Bhutan.The Forest Policy specifies the following key objectives for forestpolicy and management in Bhutan, Maintenance of a minimum of60 percent of the country's land area under forests; accelerating thepace of afforestation and reforestation under a community-basedmanagement system, through Gewog (blocks of villages) levelafforestation and social forestry

Recognition of the multi-functionality of forests and placingeconomic considerations at a lower priority are Central features of thePolicy.


Government reserved forests in Bhutan are progressiveIybeing brought under management plans with -a requirement that noforest produce may be harvested, except for personal domestic use,unless harvesting is done in association with an approved

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management plan, Permits are required for all forest activities exceptgrazing activities and collection of forest produce for personal use.Prescriptions for management plans specify that renewable forestproduce must be harvested on a sustained yield basis, Eachmanagement plan at a minimum must contain: a forest map showingplanned areas of harvesting and areas for conservation and otherpurposes; written prescriptions and restrictions; recommendedmechanisms for implementation; written objectives; any additionalinformation deemed necessary by FSD for proper management of anarea

Around 17 percent of Bhutan's forests are managed underformal management plans. Forestry operations in reserved forests areallowed only with approved (ten-year) Forest Management Plans andin areas declared as Forest Management Units. At present there are13 Forest Management Units in Bhutan, covering an area of about89 000 ha. Almost all Forest Management Units encompass areas ofshifting cultivation, as well as incorporating nori"forest areas withintheir boundaries. Conservation areas under management mainlycomprise Jigme Doni National Park and Royal Marias National Parkfor which formal management plans have been prepared.

2.3.3. Sylvicuture and Forest Management Practices

Application of scientific Silvicultural management is a recentintroduction in Bhutan. Forests are generally managed under manyvariations of five basic Silvicultural systems: (a) selection-cum-improvement system for both broad!eaved and conifer forests,(b) seed tree system for chir pine and blue pine, (c) group selectionsystem for mixed coniferous forests, (d) clear-felling and planting and(e) fir management system. In general the management of Bhutan'sforests has been based around minimizing ecological impacts, andthis philosophy has been carried forward to today. Harvesting, mainlyin the coniferous and mixed-coniferous forests is based around small

coupe felling under a group selection system. In general, little or nopost-harvest Si!vicultural treatments are applied and mostregeneration is natural. Blue pine (Pinus wallichiana), probably themost significant commercial species, is managed to a cutting cycle of100-120 years. Community Forest User Groups generally doreforestation and afforestation of small forest blocks.

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2.34. Forest Harvesting Practices

Harvesting in coniferous and mixed coniferous forest isgenerally under a group selection system in which small openings (nogreater than .12 hectares) are made in the forest stand, allowing lightto reach the forest floor. Chainsaws and handsaws are used in fellingoperations. Trees are generally debarked and bucked before beingskidded or hauled to the log yard. Bhutan's steep terrain means thatcable cranes are frequently the most viable means of log hauling.

To manage the Bhutan forests in sustainable way, theRegional Initiative for the Development and Implementation ofNational Level Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Management ofDry Forests in Asia (DFAs) is being implemented.

2.4.

2.4. f .

Cambodia

The total forest area in Cambodia PRD is 9,335 millionhectares or 52.9 % of the total land area of 17,636 million hectares(FAO, 2000). Cambodia has significant traditions in natureconservation. based around Buddhist precepts respecting the sanctityof all life. Early wildlife sanctuaries in Cambodia were establishedduring the Angkorian era prior to the 13'' century, Scientific forestmanagement techniques were introduced during the French colonialera, and these continued through to the late-, 960s when the countrybecame embroiled in the Vietnam conflict. Prior to 1970 Cambodiahad an established legal system, strong institutional framework, well-

Background

educated public service and a reasonably stable society. In the period1970", 990, however, the country's institutional and legislativestructures were destroyed and, with the reinstitution of the state'sadministrative authority after I 989, the country was faced with buildingcompletely new administrative systems. In the forestry sector, as wellas the destruction of administrative systems, many forests have beenheavily degraded through bombing, burning, spraying of herbicides,and illegal logging. Many forest areas have, until recently beeninaccessible due to ongoing conflicts and access problems due to

Cambodia's National Forest Policy outlines the country's keyforest management objectives. The policy is centered on sustainableforest management, with particular reference to the conservation ofbiodiversity and soil and water resources. The policy also dedicates

mines remain.

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appropriate forest lands to a permanent forest estate (though this hasyet to be defined on the ground). A large part of the thrust of the policyrelates, however, to social and development objectives for forestmanagement. The policy anticipates sustaining and increasing thesupply of forest products for social and economic development. andenhancing the welfare of the population, while also assuring thetraditional rights and privileges of local communities. Communities areexpected to undertake greater participatory roles in forestmanagement, protection and development, and the policy emphasizessupport to Community Forestry Programmes

2.4.2. Forest management plans

Existing forest management plans and practices do riotfacilitate sustainable forest management and the Royal Governmentof Cambodia is requesting that all concessionaires prepare new plansto integrate factors related to the forest ecosystem. socialenvironment, economics and technology in exploring managementoptions with relevant forest stakeholders.At present, forest management plans are only required for productionforests. The preparation of management plans for concessionoperations is the responsibility of the logging. companies. A Manual forForest Management Planning has been prepared to assist forestconcessionaires to prepare, implement, monitor and review plans andthe Department of Forestry and Wildlife to evaluate, approve andmonitor plans. These plans have to be approved by the Department ofForestry and Wildlife prior to commencement of harvesting operations.The Department of Forestry and Wildlife is also responsible for controlof all forestry operations conducted by the concessionaires. Ingeneral. however, the Department has had insufficient capacity toeffective Iy monitor operations, and a comprehensive review ofharvesting operations was only implemented in I999 (resulting in arecommendation for the preparation of new forest management plansand environmental and social impact assessments). A sub-decree onconcession management, enforcing sustainable forest managementas a non-negotiable management principle recently entered into force.


In principle, forest harvesting in Cambodia is carried out underselective logging systems, though at present there is little Silviculturaleffort applied to regenerate logged over forests. Natural regeneration,

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particularly in the deciduous forests is uncertain and, up until, 972,artificial regeneration was carried out on a small scale, in poor forestareas. A significant constraint on applying Silviculture in Cambodianforests is that national records and data on soils, botanical species,growing stock and increments of various forest types have been lost.as has much institutional knowledge and expertise. The countrycurrently has little experience or knowledge of appropriate Silviculturalinterventions, or in large-scale reforestation. A significant problem

' created by a lack of post-harvest management, is transmigration intoforest areas, made possible by harvesting roads. This results in furtherwood and non-wood forest products extraction causing progressiveforest degradation and deforestation.

2.44. Forest harvesting practices

Selective logging, rather than clear-cutting is the mostCommon forest harvesting technique in Cambodia. Selection of highvalue species is generally more profitable than attempting to removeall timber. Legal harvesting is generally carried out by the privatesector. under concession agreements. Virtually all concessions areheld by foreign companies or joint ventures. In 1999, a national codeof practice for forest harvesting (modeled after the Code of Practicefor Forest Harvesting in Asia-Pacific) was prepared, with the intentionof achieving sustainable management in concession forests. Keyelements of the code include prescriptions on harvesting practices, arequirement for the preparation of operational management plans, arequirement for environmental impact assessments in forestconcessions, and a framework for community consultation by forestconcessionaires. In the year to April 2000, the Government hascarried out a review of all forest concessionaires to determinecompliance with their contracts and Cambodian laws. The reviewrecommended that new contracts and management plans should bedrawn up. and that in the interim a moratorium on harvesting shouldbe imposed. The Government has also acted to curb the seriousproblem of illegal logging. A forest crime monitoring and reportingproject has been established, while the government has alsocancelled nine forest concession agreements covering 2 millionhectares, In a999 the Government issued a declaration on Measuresto Management of Forests and the Elimination of Forest IllegalActivities. This decree permits the operation of wood processingfacilities only by harvesting concession holders, as a means ofeliminating the use of illegalIy harvested wood, Nonetheless, there

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remains considerable scope for illegal logging and transportationacross borders

To address the concerns of funding agencies about the lack ofcontrol of forest exploitation, in' 1997 the Government initiated theForest Policy Reform Project, with financing from the World Bank, tohelp identify and address critical constraints to sustainable forestmanagement. The studies undertaken with this project identified policyrecommendations and specific actions required to ensure sustainableforest management in Cambodia, including rationalizing concessionallocation and control, monitoring and control of illegal logging,restructuring of revenue generation and collection from forestry, anddrafting legislation to support the policiesTo manage the forest in sustainable way, Cambodia is implementingthe ITFO Criteria and Indicators of Sustainable Forest Management.

2.5.

2.5. ,.

China

The total forest area in PR China is 163,480 million hectares

or covers 17.0 % of the total land area (959.80 million hectares), FAO2000. Forests were cleared in China's main agricultural areas forcenturies ago. Successive dynasties and wars took a further toll onthe forests resulting in increasing environmental consequences andby the time the People's Republic of China was founded in 1949, theforest estate was in poor condition, covering only 8.6 percent of theland area. Consequently, most timber currently comes from northeastChina and the less densely populated parts of the northwest andsouthwest. Since then, the country has carried out afforestation tomitigate natural disasters such as wind and sandstorms, droughts andfloods. These State-owned Forest Farms ' and collectively ownedForest Farm plantations have primarily comprised windbreaks,farmland shelterbelts and "Foursides" (planting along rivers androads and around houses and villages), Early attempts by the Ministryof Forestry, in the late-1950s and 1960s, to encourage selectivespecies plantation and establishment of forest farms for high timberyield were thwarted by the Great Leap Forward in 1958, and theCultural Revolution (1966-76). From the inId"1970s, however, fastgrowing and high-yield, timber plantation bases were establishedusing special State funds and a development programme to develop afurther 20 million hectares of these bases over 30 years wasintroduced in 1988. The Ministry of Forestry also set up joint trial plots

Background

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with provincial/autonomous regional authorities and on State forestfarms. By 1998, 3.4 million hectares of high growth and yield timberplantations had been established, compared with a total area ofestablished timber plantations of around 33.5 million hectares. Thesehigh yield timber plantations are dominated (76 percent) by conifers,of which Cunninghamia lanceolata makes up 46 percent and pinespecies 30 percent.

Ninety percent of the reforestation undertaken is through treeplanting by the rural population. The annual plantation rate presentlyexceeds 5 million hectares.

While meeting the market demand for forest products andsecuring effective supply to society remains a high priority for China,the emphasis is now on sustainable management, and sustainabledevelopment, of forest resources. The goals of the Forest Action Planfor China's Agenda 21 are to lay the foundation for the establishmentof sustainable, and comprehensive, forest ecosystems and a fullydeveloped forestry industry by 2010. The Plan envisages the evolutionof appropriate administrative, and social services, systems to supportthis industry by the middle of the 21st century.

Over the longer term to 2050, the aim is to complete theindustrial development , of forestry, establish a modern forestmanagement service, and to achieve significant environmentalimprovement, A long-term goal is to increase forest cover to26 percent of the land area by 2050.

The overall objective for development of timber plantations inChina will use existing forest regions and key forestry counties as abase. Priority is given to regeneration, transformation, andimprovement of the existing low quality stands. Areas with favorablesite conditions are selected for fast growing and high yield timberplantations, Between 2001 and 2010,6.39 million hectares of highyield plantations are planned, of which 3.45 million hectares will benew plantations, and 1.06 million hectares will be a transformation ofexisting forests. 'Cultivation of young and middle aged stands will be1.88 million hectares. Between 2011-2050, a further 13.29 millionhectares is planned.

Ten major forestry ecological programmes are expected toprovide the framework for addressing the most vulnerableenvironments, and address issues of erosion, desertification andflooding, Combating desertification is a major focus with 27.5 percentof the country affected.

Consistent with this is a large-scale afforestation programmetargeting barren and arid areas of western China over the period 2000to 2010. Western China is also the initial focus of an even moreambitious programme to return farmland to forest and grassland. The

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Us $230 million allocated to this programme includes funds forcompensating participating farmers for loss of income. Mountain forestareas are also identified as a high priority for environmentalimprovement, forestry development and the alleviation of poverty.

Further long-term objectives are to standardize and legal izeeconomic management and operational management systems inorder to optimize resource allocation and realize sustainable forestdevelopment; and to improve the forestry legal system.


Forestland management agencies are legally required toapply the relevant forestry laws and regulations. This includes carryingout inventories and statistics collation, development andimplementation of forest management and conservation plans,investigation of illegal activities damaging to forestlands, andmanagement and application of compensation and subsidy fees.

A national continuous forestry inventory system based onsample plots has been in place throughout the country since 1977. Ata lower forest management level, a 'Class 11' inventory is conductedabout every ten years by state-owned forestry enterprises and forestfarms. This is fundamental for ascertaining the actual level of nationalforest resources and drawing up forest management plans. Furtherinventory assessment is undertaken at the operational level fordetermining felling area, afforestation and improvement cutting.The Forest Management Plan required by law is a comprehensiveplanning and design document serving as a guide for forestmanagement departments to administer the resources scientifically.Elements of the plan include policy, targets, distribution, logging,cultivation, development, forest and environmental protection,construction of production facilities and cost-benefit analysis.Government laws, regulations and policies rely on logging quotamanagement as the central element of forest resource managementand overall management of forest resource consumption. The quotamanagement system is based on the principle that consumptionshould be lower than plantation. It includes sub-quotas based ontypes of cutting, which are divided into Final Felling, IntermediateFelling and Other Felling.

Forest inventory, consumption surveys and forestmanagement right licenses have all contributed to improved forestmanagement by reducing deforestation, Inaccurate ratification andillegal occupation.

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2.5.3. SIIviculture and forest management practices

Sitviculture in China predominantly focuses on plantationestablishment and management. The introduction of advancedtechnology, and superior tree species from - overseas, and theapplication of aerial seeding and closing hills for natural regenerationhave significanty lifted afforestation success. Introduced tree speciescover one'fifth of the area of established plantations. Considerableinvestigation of the forest management of major fast growing and highyield species has been carried out. Ten species form the basis oflarge-scale timber production establishment, with Pinus, Lan>(,Eucalyptus and Populus the predominant genera, along withCunninghamia lanceolata.

Cunninghamia lanceolata is the most widely planted speciesin China. It is grown on a 25-30 year rotation after establishment bybroadcast seeding or closely planted rooted cuttings. Soil is cultivatedbefore planting and the plantation is often intercropped with maize orvegetables. Light thinning is carried out at regular intervals and, insome areas; vigorous coppicing sees the plantations maintainedunder a GOPpice with standards system. When the stands are felledthe GOPpice is thinned and the cycle repeated. Other plantationspecies are managed with similar degrees of Silvicultural intervention.as appropriate.

To address environmental problems while as well as food andtimber resource issues considerable focus has been placed on multi-purpose species, and it particular the establishment of shelterbelts.The main trees used for this are Poplars, Paulownia and Elms.Paulownia has considerable potential in the North China Plains (themain agriculture region) because its deep rooting system interfereslittle with the water supply of agricultural crops, and it modifies themicroclimate in a beneficial way for agriculture.

In the last decade greater attention has been paid to non-wood forests as a means of strengthening the local economy andeliminating poverty.

In the natural forests considerable effort is being made inrehabilitating degraded areas, with particular emphasis on tending andtransforming secondary growth. Efforts are being made to graduallyadjust the species composition, enhance management and improvequality so as to achieve the goal of high yield, high quality and highefficiency.

China has been working to establish a national network ofmodel forests to share information and experiences, The InternationalModel Forest Network has supported this. China is also a participantin the FAO Asia-Pacific model forests project. A very recent initiative

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is a major programme in Western China to afforest barren areas andto convert farmland to forest.


In the coniferous and mixed coniferous forests, clear felling,followed by replanting is the general harvesting practice. Earlierexperiments with selection logging in Manchuria proved uneconomic,however, China is now moving towards selective harvesting systemeven in coniferous forests.

Under the clear-felling system, each coupe is about3 hectares. and separated by a 20 meter buffer strip. The strips areleft to provide wind protection, and to provide local fuel wood supplieswhile a second-rotation crop is growing. After the removal of saw logs.branch wood is collected for mining timbers, pulp and fuel wood.Felling is generally done using chainsaws, though manual crosscutsaws and axes are also used in some instances. Tractor haulingpredominates, with the construction of temporary tramways (narrow-gauge railways) a typical means of transportation. China is currentlydeveloping a national code of practice for forest harvesting, based onthe regional code, with assistance from FAO and ILO.

To manage the forest in PR China, the criteria and indicators ofsustainable forest management of the InO, DFA's and MontrealProcess are being implemented.

2.6. Fiji

2.6. ,, Background

Fiji has a total area of 1.83 million hectares, with the totalforest area of 0,815 million hectares or 44.6 % of the total land area(FAO, 200). The country comprises islands of which too are inhabitedand supporting a population of 783,550 (end 1994), with a populationgrowth well below 29', (Bureau of Statistics 1990). The largest islandsare Viti Levu and Vanua Levu which together contain over 90% of thepopulation and comprise 87% of the land area.

The islands lie between 178 E and 179'\!V longitude andbetween I 6'N and 23'S latitude just inside the tropical belt, They arelargely volcanic, of varying geological age and of mederately fertilesoil, with fairly steep dissected topography in the forest areas,

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2.62. Forest Management Plans

The forest in Fiji is classified as natural forest, plantationforest and mangrove forest. To maintain the sustainability of theforest, Fom is implemeting the Criteria and indicators of SustainableForest Management issued by the ITFO.

IUCN (1991) classified several protected area in Fiji and stated asThe National Trust for Fiji Act, those are National Park, WildlifeSanctuaries, Nature Reserves, Reserves, Sanctuaries, ScenicReserves, Marine Parks, Parks and Wildlife Management Area.


After several thousands of year of human occupation and overa century of European influence, approximately 0.8 million hectares(ha) or about 47% of the country remains under natural forest cover.Reforestation together with afforestation has brought some 90,000 haof long deforested land back into production. A small area totalingabout 42,000 ha is under mangrove forest, Broadly speaking,extensive area of the drier parts of the two main islands have suffereddeforestation. Consequently, the indigenous forest cover is more than50% in the wetter parts of the country.

In 1994, 50,000 ha of grass land have been planted withPinus earlbieae, the major part of which industrial plantations, withannual cut of presently close to 400 000 in3. Another 50 000 ha ofin ahagony plantations is gradually entering the harvesting stage andmay yiped I 00 000 in of logs by the year 2000,


The ILO was invited to assist the country in the introduction oflogging training to ensure that harvesting was carried out eficientiythrough villages and that newly established plant for milling andchipping of pine was regularly supplied with logs. The ILO project washanded over to the Forestry Department in I 993. The training wasparticipated by operators of chainsaws, skidders, bulldozers, loadersand cable crane operators, as well as foremen, managers andsupervisors of logging companies and for forestry staffs. More than2000 trainees took part in the training courses which are continued bya team of Fijian instructors.

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Code of Practice on Safe Design and Use of Chainsaws was made bya national committee which consisted of representatives of theForestry Department, the logging industry, the Fiji Forestry TrainingCentre and ILO Logging Training Project. The relevant informationfrom Australia, New Zealand, North America and Europe was alsoconsidered. The code aims at minimizing adverse impacts of loggingand at providing a basis of environmentally sound, economicalIy viableand save operations. The code comprises main sections on Planningrequirements, Operational requirements, Environmental requirements,Equipments and safety, and Training and supervision.

2.7. France (New Caledonia)

2.7. ,. Background

The total land area of New Caledonia is I. 858 million hectaresand it total forest area is 0,372 million hectares or 20.0% of the total

land area (FAO, 200). The archipelago of New Caledonia, a Frenchoverseas territory, comprises five main islands: Grand Terre, LayouteIslands (Mare, Lifou and Ouvea) and Iles des Pins. Grand Terre is along mountainous chain, reaching I 640 in with Mount Panie, whilethe other islands are flat calcareous plateaux. The climate issubtropical, with two dry seasons, and the southeaterly trade windsplay a major role in distribution of rain. The east coast and centralchain of Grand Terre have a humid tropical climate with heavy rainfall(2000 - 4000 mm/year), while the west coast and the north enjoy adry tropical climate (rainfall about 1500 min/year). The great variety inrelief, exposure and rainfall, as well as variations in soil, explains thecomplexity and the fragmentation of the various types of vegetation.

The variety of forest formation in New Caledonia reflects thewide range of natural conditions, which vary considerable over shortdistances, so that it is rare to find a formation with a hornogenousstructure and composition covering a large area. This partly expalinsthe fragmentation of areas distribution, as well as the differentiationand distinctiveness of New Caledonian flora (3500 species recorded.of which 600 are arborescent).

There is a very high rate of endemism, nearly 80 %, becauseof the early isolation of the archipelago. Five families are endemic:Am borellaceae, Oncothecaceae, Parecryphiaceae, Phellinaceae andStraburgeriaceae.

Frequent outcrops of ultrabasic 'eruptive rock result inextremely poor soil, associated with a specific type of flora. Forests

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are found mainly on ultrabasic soil. Few low-altitude forests are left,and most of the remaining forests are found in mountainous regions.Human activities have caused serious degradation of the forest cover,resulting in vast expanses of niaouli savannah and brushland,degraded form of natural forests. This is due mainly to the use of fireand to mining (often causing irreversible darnae in the latter case).Agricultural clearing and logging are thus not main causes of thedegradation of natural forests.These degraded formations cover the largest areas on the variousislands, although closed forest is still common, However, only smallareas of open forest are now left on ultrabasic land at low and mediumaltitudes, as a result of strong human pressure and frequent bushfire.


The future for New Caledonian forestry activities is promising.Its natural forest its natural forest have been comparatively wellmanaged. Protected areas policies and the prohibitation of loggingactivities in water catchments are well established. The majorenvironmental problems relate to opencast nickel mining with minespoils (FAO, 1997). Most of the forest area is classified as prote^ionarea. The production forest area is limited.

2.73. Silviculture and forest management practices

Closed moist forest have a high degree of endemism (nearly90 %); this is especially true of those on ultrabasic (eruptive rock),which are very different from those on other types of rocks. Typicalfamilies are Podocarpaceae, Cunioniaceae and Aracariaceae. Theupper storey is usually high (up to 40 in) and the lower storey consistsmainly of Araliaceae and Mynaceae. Shrubs grow to 1.5 in. totalingover 400 species belonging to 50 families. Plantation forest isimplemented in flat lands.


The forest ecosystem in New Caledonia is very unique andspecific. Island ecosystem is the dominant condition. Therefore, thelogging practice is done carefully. Selective logging system isimplemented in high land, while the clear cutting is implemented inplantation forest,

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2.8. India

2.8. ,. Background

Traditions of nature conservation have a long history in India.The earliest recorded conservation measures can be traced to the 3century BC when provisions for the establishment of protected areas,including rules for the administration and management of forests, werecodified in the Arthasashtra Indica. Traditional forest managementalso incorporated the establishment of sacred groves, as a tribute andmeans of expressing reverence of nature and in violate to any humaninterference. and village groves where only very limited use bycommunities was permitted. Extensive clearance of forestsaccompanied the advance of agricultural and pastoral societies. butan awareness of the need for ecological prudence was retained.

The origins of scientific forest management in the tropics arefound in India. Dating from the inid-19th century. these are the basisof classical tropical forest management. particularly the principlesdeveloped as part of the Brandis system. Population pressureseventually disrupted this strictly ecological management and poverty-driven pressures had to be accommodated. , leading to the rise ofcommunity forestry programme as a partial solution. More recently,India has given a lead in participatory approaches to forestmanagement through the Joint Forest Management initiative (seebelow), The concept continues to evolve and assimilate localvariations as it spreads to more states and brings more forest areaunder its auspices.


Forest management plans are prepared by State ' forestdepartments for specific tracts of government-managed forests. Whilethere is considerable variation in various State planning processes, itis fair to say that the plans are scientifically based and focus ontechnical rather than social objectives. and community consultationhas generally not been a high priority. Joint Forest Management iscarried out under Village Forest Management Plans, which are site-specific ensuring that plans and budgets are tailored to the specificsite requirements and the specific needs of local users, Consultativeprocesses are built into the plan to ensure communities maintainagreement over management objectives. The Plans also ensure aconsultative process in the formation of interest groups within a villageand with outside resource users, and a process of analysis of local

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resources and needs, Forest management objectives are thennegotiated and agreed amongst all stakeholders, and the rights andresponsibilities of different actors are set out. More than 70 percent ofIndia's forests are managed in accordance with formal. nationallyapproved, management plans. About 60 percent of these managedforests are managed predominantly for production purposes, while theremainder is conservation forests.

2.8.3. Silviculture and forest management practices .

Formal Silviculture in India is founded in the principles ofScientific Forest Management. This incorporates the various elementsof the Ferman management approach into an iterative sequence ofestablishing firm administrative control over the forests; clarifying andformalizing ownership and customary rights; defining the physicaldimensions of the forest estate; investigating the Silviculturalcharacteristics and wood properties of the main species; estimatinggrowth rates and patterns; and prescribing sustained yieldmanagement regimes, combining yield control and replacement of theforest as it is utilized.

A wide variety of SIIvicultural systems are applied in Indianforests and the following provides a broad generalization of theirapplication. Selection systems and selection cum improvement fellingare applied to evergreen and semi-evergreen. moist deciduous anddry deciduous forests. Regeneration is generally natural althoughsupplementary planting often occurs. Tending is largely limited to theestablishment stage with intermediate Silvicultural interventions often

- neglected. The Uniform system is applied in moist deciduous forestswhere natural regeneration of valuable species is adequate. Irregularshelter wood systems are applied to evergreen and moist deciduousforests where regeneration can be established only with considerableeffort. In this system trees below exploitab!e girth are retained asadvance growth and intensive tending is the norm. Clear-fellingsystems are used in moist and dry deciduous forests where naturalregeneration is unsatisfactory or where a change in crop compositionis desired. Silvicultural interventions include intensive post-establishment tending, as well as pruning and thinning at later stages,as required. Coppicing systems are utilized in dry deciduous forests.These include the Simple Coppice system. Coppice with Standards,and CDPpice with reserves. Where these systems are appliedrigorously, tending is carried out immediately after felling and thinning.

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Forest harvesting practices, similar to Silviculturalmanagement, encompass a wide variety of techniques according tothe multiplicity of forest types in India. In evergreen and semi-evergreen forests, as well as some deciduous forests. the principalharvesting system is selective felling of valuable species, oftenincorporating improvement felling. Traditional teak Silviculturecomprises a selection system. In moist deciduous forests, shelterwood and clear felling systems are common. 'Uniform and clear fellingsystems are utilized where regeneration is profuse. Irregular shelterwood systems and clear felling with replanting are used whereregeneration is unsatisfactory, for example in Sal (Shorea robusta)forests in Uttar Predesh, Coppicing systems predominate in drydeciduous forests, for example in eucalyptus plantations, where theprovision of fuel wood and small poles is required. In an effort topreserve forest resources, the Indian Supreme Court prohibited theForest Department from harvesting wood in 'nori-plan' areas (areasthat have not been targeted for managed culling and replanting) in1996. The court also banned the shipment of logs from India'snortheastern states. requiring all wood shipments be at least sawntimber. In 1997, the Supreme Court ordered the closure of allunlicensed sawmills and wood processing plants. and forbade statesfrom licensing new operations.

2.9.

2.9. ,. Background

Indonesia began establishment of forest plantations in 1873.These were mainly teak plantations located in Java. PIhus methusiiwas planted on Sumatra during the First World War. Reserves wereoriginally established on the basis of two colonial governmentordinances. By 4950 the estimated area of plantations was 500,000hectares. Conflicting demands for land in Java then resulted in aperiod of reduced planting. In 1967. the Government adopted BasicForestry Law Number 5, which set in place forest managementprescriptions classified according to main forest functions. Around thattime the Government also adopted a number of programmes thatstimulated commercial timber expansion. These Programmes helpedto dramatically decrease the number of people living in poverty.Reforestation within concession areas (by concessionaires) was

Indonesia

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initiated in the 1970s. By 1980 the total area of plantations was2.7 million hectares, mainly in Java, and by 1990 the plantation estatehad increased to 3.7 million hectares.

In the late I 980s, the government launched a new program toestablish industrial forest plantations to develop pulp and papermanufacturing facilities in order to reduce its dependence on oilexports, and to achieve the goal of becoming one of the leading pulpand paper producers in the world. The new plantations, called "HutanTanaman industry" (HTl) or Industrial Forest Plantation, emphasizedthe establishment of short rotation wood fiber species for pulp andpaper productionScientific management of the natural forests, in Indonesia, dates backto the 1930s, but until relatively recently natural forests were loggedonly selectively and with relatively little destructive impact on theforests. Indonesia started large-scale harvesting its forest only40 years ago. Harvest levels accelerated dramatically in the inid-1970s and 1980s after large-scale logging concessions wereintroduced in 1967. Concessionaires were required to follow theIndonesian Selective Cutting System. In 1960, estimated annual logproduction was only 2 million m'; In 1975, it was 19 million in ; in1985, 26 million in'; and in 1990, 38 million in . In 1989 theIndonesian Selective Cutting and Planting System (TPTl) wasintroduced, placing greater importance on natural regeneration andenrichment planting.

A "Reform Agenda of the Forestry and Estate Crops Sector"was launched in 1998, as part of the recovery programmeimplemented in response to the ,997 monetary crisis. The reformagenda will follow four phases: (,) rescue, (2) recovery, (3) stability,and (4) progress and development, Forestry is in the rescue phaseuntil2001.

All of Indonesia's natural forests are owned and administered

by the State. The Ministry of Forestry's role is to wisely utilize theresources of the forest so as to recognize the multiple functions offorests, and achieve intergenerational equity, Since 4997, Indonesianforest management and utilization have been restructured with a shiftfrom timber-based to resource-based management. In parallel, greaterfocus is also given to empowerment of local communities,decentralization, and strengthening the role of research andeducation. The MOF is also reviewing several policies to make themmore compatible with sustainable forestry management principles,riotably the Act on Basic Provisions for Forestry and the concept ofpeople's participation in forest management

In February 2000, the Government of Indonesia made acommitment to set up an Interdepartmental Committee on Forestry to

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initiate policy related to forest management. The commitment spellsout eight important points as priorities in the reform of policy on forestresource management and the activities of forest-based industries.These are:

. To invite cooperation and coordination of other Ministries toimpose strong measures . against illegal joggers especiallythose operating within national parks, and to enforce theclosure of illegal sawmills.

. To speed up forest resource assessment as the basis of aNational Forest Programme (NFP)

. To evaluate policies relating to conversion forests and place amoratorium on all natural forest conversion until the NFP is

agreed.. To downsize and restructure wood based industries to

balance supply and demand for raw materials and mostimportantly to increase the competitiveness of Indonesianwood based industries.

. To close heavily indebted wood industries and link proposeddebt write-off to capacity reduction.

. To relate reforestation to existing forest industries and thoseunder construction.

. To recalculate the real value of timber.

. To use decentralization processes as a tool to enhancesustainable forest management.This commitment is based on concern over diminishing forest

resources, where the annual rate of deforestation has reached 1.8million hectares in the past decade. Damage to forest resources isexacerbated by the capacity of wood and pulp industries that farexceeds the sustainable supply of forest resources.

The potential of forest-based ecotourism is currently beingactively explored in Indonesia. In particular, it is intended thatecotourism will be developed further in Nature Recreation Parks andHunting Parks.


In the 1980s a Consensus Forest Land Use Plan was

established for all provinces, This designated forest functional areasbased on biophysical and ecological features. As at April I 999, theforest area of a2, ., million hectares was divided into conservation

forest (20.6 million hectares), protection forests (33.9 million hectares)and production forest (58.5 million hectares). The remaining8.1 million hectares is designated non-permanent forestland or

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conversion forest designated for conversion to' other uses such asagriculture, mining and industrial forest plantation. All 27 provinceshave developed land-use plans.

Under the concessionary management system. eachconcessionaire is required to prepare an Annual Management Planthat covers production, marketing, equipment usage, road networkdevelopment and maintenance, and Silvicultural activities on thelogged areas, as well as community development. The concessionaireis also required to submit a five-year management plan, as well as anoverall plan that covers the duration of the concession tenure, and acomprehensive Environmental Impact Assessment Report for theentire concession area. Management plans must show progress inpost-logging Satvicultural activities to ensure the sustainability of theforest for the next harvesting rotation. Particular attention is paid to thenumber of commercial species standing in post-harvest inventories.Failure to file adequate plans is punish able by limiting the followingyear's production targets for the violating concessionaire.

2.9.3. Silviculture and forest~management practices

Three main Silvicultura! systems are employed in Indonesia tocover the wide range of natural forest types across the dipterocarp-rich forests in Sumatra, Kalimantan and SUIawesi to the dipterocarp-poor forests in Nusa Tenggara, Maluku and Inari Jaya. These are(, ) Indonesian Selective Cutting and Replanting System (TPTl-Tebang Pilih Tanam Indonesia), (2) Clear Cutting with NaturalRegeneration (THPA), and (3) Clear Cutting with ArtificialRegeneration (THPB). applied to plantation forests. These systems areregulated through laws and decrees. The Ministry of Forestry hasprepared guidelines for these systems. These require loggers tosubmit plans for inventory, road construction, felling, and residualstand inventory, to replant, to retain at least 25 commercial trees(20-30 cm dbh) per hectare after logging, and to carry out post-harvestsurveys and treatment.

The dominant TPTl system has been applied to managementof the natural forests since 1989. This system requires concessionholders to manage on a 35-year cutting cycle (mangroves, bycontrast, are managed on a 45-year cycle). No tree less than50 centimeters (20 inches) in diameter may be felled for timber. Atleast 25 commercially valuable trees with diameters between 20 and30 centimeters must remain per hectare after logging, and enrichment

' planting is specifically required after harvesting. Seedling stock maycome from either nurseries or from dense natural regeneration

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elsewhere in the forest. Each concession is divided into 35 blocks,and only one block can be harvested per year. The Ministry ofForestry sets an allowable annual cut that is based on the cuttingcycle, and the area under concession. A minimum of 700 hectareswithin each concession area is required to be protected as aconservation area.

Average annual growth rates for short rotation pulp and paperplantations are estimated at 25-30 in'/ha/yr on 8 to 10 year rotationsfor hardwood (such as acacia and eucalyptus), while pines are grownon 45 to 18 year rotations.


Forest harvesting in Indonesia is predominantly carried outusing the Indonesian Selective Cutting and Planting System (TPTl). asdescribed above (Silviculture). However, the system of loggingconcessions and selective cutting, whereby private concessions aregranted to private or state companies, is being replaced by theProduction Forest Management Unit (KPHP) system. Studiesconducted with the support of the UK Overseas Development Agency(ODA), conclude that the KPHP is a promising system for bettermanagement of natural production forests in -Indonesia. This conceptis being introduced in two provinces, Central Kalimantan and Jambiwhere the area of production forest management units range from40,000 to 120,000 hectares. In many cases where company licenseshave been revoked the Ministry has taken over the management ofthese concessions. In 1998 the government issued a new policy thatlimited concession areas to a maximum of 400,000 hectaresthroughout the country. Expired concessions and excessive areas areallocated or sold at auction to co-operatives. or to small- and medium-scale businesses. There is currently a proliferation of mini-concessions of up to 100 hectares that can be allocated by localgovernment as part of the decentralization process.

Indonesia has operated as task manager for the FAO AsiaPacific Forestry Commission in developing the Asia Pacific Code ofPractice for Forest Harvesting and has organized related training toursand workshops. A draft national code has also been prepared and aguidebook 'Principles and Practices of Forest Harvesting inIndonesia', has been developed to assist these processes. At theoperatorleve!, a guidebook for tree harvesting in tropical forest hasalso been published. Reduced Impact Logging (RIL) continues to bepromoted and has involved the establishment of RIL demonstrationsites, and the publication of a technical procedures manual, and

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training material. RIL guidelines are currently being formulated.Studies comparing conventional harvesting with reduced impactharvesting have been carried out, Since , 996, around 100 forestconcessionaires have been trained in RIL techniques.

The timber industry is currently confronted with a huge gapbetween supply and demand of raw material, This gap has resulted ina threat not only to the forest itself, but also to the continued existenceof significant portions of the wood industry in Indonesia. The shortfallin 2000 between log su^ply (24.7 million in ) and industrial productiondemand (63.5 million in ) is 38.8 million cubic meters,

Ministry of Forestry estimates for distribution of wood suppliesfrom forests in year 2000, are: natural forest - ,4.3 million in(58 percent), conversion forest - 7.0 million m' (28 percent). plantationforest " 2.8 million in' (, I percent), and community woodlots -0.6 million in' (3 percent).

2. ,0. Japan

2.10. ,. Background

The total land area of Japan is 36 460 000 ha. Japan isheavily forested country, with forest covering 66 9', of the total landarea, or more than 24,081,000 hectares. There is considerablediversity in Japan's forests ranging from small .areas of sub-tropicalforests located south of To kara islands; warm temperate forestslocated from the western Pacific coast to Kyushu island; cooltemperate forests from the middle to north-east; and sub-frigid forestson Hokaido islands. Japan has more than 10.5 million hectares ofplantation forests, containing predominantly coniferous species inrelatively young age. Major plantation species are cedar, cypres andpine in most part of Japan. specially Sugi (Cryptomeria japonica) andHinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa) which were planted during 1950'sunder the assumption of intensive management for high-qualitytimber. In general, the species distribution in terms of areas is asfollows: about 50 91, predominantly coniferous, more 42 %predominantly broadleaved. 7.4 % mixed forest stands. and about0.6 9^'. predominantly bamboos. The total growing stock in Japan'sforests has been calculated at 3.5 billion cubic metres, and a goodhalf of it consists of softwood species in man-made forest plantation,About 42 % of forests are in public ownership, and 58 % of forests areprivate. Japan has more than 2.5 million hectares of land in formallyprotected areas. Included in this total is a network of specific forest

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reserves. Important non-wood forest product in Japan includemushrooms, bamboo shoots, chesnuts, wax and lacquer.

2. , 0.2. Forest Management Plans

The ownership of the forest in Japan can be classified intothree catagories: private forest (, 4.6 million ha), public forest(2.7 million ha) and national forest (7.6 million ha). The government ofJapan established the "Basic Plan for Forest Resources" whichaoutlines basic ideas on forest management policies and providesindividual forest owners with information on forest managementpractices. In addition, the " Nationwide Forest Plan" was developedbased on the Basic Plan as a comprehensive forest management planin a'ccordance with the " Forest Law'.

Under the " Nature Conservation Law" and the " Natural ParkLaw, " areas with scenic beauty and valuable ecosystem aredesignated as the Nature Conservation Areas and Natural Parks.These protected areas play an important role in the forestconservation, and also contribute to the sustainable forestmanagement in Japan.


The government of Japan established the ' National Land UsePlan" as part of integrated national plan for the management of landresources, The "Basic Plan for Forest Resources' which is an integralpart of the national forest program, was developed to maintainconsistency with national land policy.

The contents of the important forest management plans, suchas the Basic Plan for Forest Resources, are developed throughconsultations with relevant governmental agencies based on theForestry Basic Law. Once agreement is reached, the Cabinet makesthe decision. Effort are made to ensure the consistency and harmonywith other national policies and plan such as the Basic EnvironmentPlan, which aims at achieving sustainable development.

Since April 1999, mornitoring of domestic forests has beenimplemented in reference to some of the criteria and indicatorsidentified in the Montreal- Process. Moreover by financing InO'sactivities, the government of Japan has contributed to ITrO producercountries' efforts toward the Year 2000 objective through developmentof a manual for application of criteria and indicator, improvement of

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forest fire management, dissemination of reduced-impact 'loggingpractice, and enhancement of statistical functions and networks.

2. , 0.4. Forest harvesting practices

Forest harvesting is most commonly done as a highlymencanized cleanell operation. The logging operation in Japan isconducted by implementing the Reduced-Impact Logging principles.Variety of methods are used, for example skyline, mainline, haul-backline and mobile tower yarder. The use of cable was able to reduce thedensity of forest roads and disturbances to forest soil.

2.1, . Republic of Korea

2. ,,.,. Background

Total forest area in Republic of Korea is 9926 000 hectare or6.3 % of the total land area (FAO, 2000). Forest management andnature conservation in Korea dates back many hundreds of -years' Forexample, during the Silla and Sinra Dynasties (400600 AD), theimportance of scenic areas was emphasized and one of theconstitutional "Five Rules of Practice" was that people should cherishall living things. By the , 5 Century, a self-regulating form ofcommunity forest management, known as "Sarinmgae", had beenestablished to ensure forest protection. Forest management systemswere largely dismantled during the Japanese colonial era (, 910-1945)during which the vast majority of forests on the Korean peninsula werecleared to meet Japanese demand for timber, and local requirementsfor fuel wood. Consequently, much of the forest that exists today inKorea is the result of large-scale afforestation programme, firstinitiated at the end of the Second World War, and intensified in thepost-Korean War period. Concerted afforestation efforts under the10 year Forestry Development Plans have resulted in an increase instocked forestlands to 6.3 million hectares in 1995.

Following the Korean War, and proceeding decades ofdeforestation and forest degradation, management objectives werenecessarily aimed at forest restoration and rehabilitation, with aparticular emphasis on mitigating and preventing soil erosion. Inrecent years, the primary objective in . managing natural resources,including forests, has been sustainable development as targeted inthe Fourth Forest Development Plan. Until recently, forests in Korea

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were classified into two categories, Reserve and Non-Reserve forests.This classification hindered efficient and rational forest landsdevelopment, mainly because it provided insufficient flexibility inmanaging forests for conservation and production purposes. In 1994,the Forest Law was amended to reclassify forest lands into threecategories - productive, protective (environmental) and convertible(multi-purpose or semi-conservation) forests. This reflects a newemphasis on multiple objectives for forest management. The majorgoals of the Forestry Promotion and Advancement Law support thisframework, by encouraging private forest owners to activelyparticipate in managing forests, and by strengthening governmentincentive systems to promote further development of national timberresources

2. ,,. 2. Forest management plans

The system of forestry planning in Korea is largelyhierarchical. Under the Forest Law of 1961 a national forest plan isrequired to be produced every 10 years in order to establish andmanage the forest resources. Local governments are required to setup local forest plans on the basis of the direction of the national forestplan. Due to the decentralized and fragmentary nature of Koreanforest ownership, it is impractical to prepare management plans foreach individually-owned tract of forest. Cooperative managementplans are drawn up for many privately owned forests, setting outobjectives for groups of collectively managed forests.

Forest land in Korea is classified into national Forest (20 %),Public Forest (8% ) and Private Forest ( 72%).

2.1, .3. Silviculture and forest management practices

Korea's principal forestry efforts during the past 40 years havefocused on tree planting and reforestation. Large-scale reforestationbegan in 1973 with the First lovear Forest. Development Plan. Thebasic objective of the , 0-year Forest Development Plan is to create anew source of the national economy to promote public benefits fromforest lands.

Almost 4 million hectares of forests have been planted orrehabilitated. The focus of Sinicultural practices tends, as aconsequence, to be centered around plantation techniquesSilvicultural systems are chosen according to species, quality of forestlands and growing conditions for trees. In coniferous forests,

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understorey removal and pruning are carried out, as required.Thinning, normally carried out in winter, occurs 'once or twice beforefinal harvesting. The optimal age for thinning varies depending on thegrowing conditions in each plantation. Reforestation is based on fieldsurveys that identify topography and soil conditions in areas plannedfor reforestation. Species are then matched to site characteristics, aswell as to the preferences of forest owners. The productivity of enestablished plantation is largely influenced by genotypes of plantedStocks. To produce superior planting stocks, the Forest GeneticResearch In titute has established seed orchards and clone banks of

important tree species. From the year 2000, the seed orchardsproduced enough seeds to meet the annual reforestation plan. Theplanting density is generally standardized: 3000 stock per ha for slow-growing timber tree species, 400 to 600 stocks for fast-growing treespecies, and 400 stocks for nut-bearing tree species. The stockvolume comprises of coniferous (45%), Deciduous (28%) and Mixed(27%).

To maintain the forest sustainability, Forest Administrationaplies the Montreal Process on Criteria and Indicator for Conservationand Sustainable Management of Temperate and Boreal Forests.

2. ,1.4. Forest harvesting practices

Forests occupy around 65 percent of Korea's total land area,but annual per hectare forest productivity is very low. This is mainlydue to a very high proportion of immature stands but, equallyimportant, is that Government sets a very conservative annualallowable cut. At present, the allowable harvest is set at around11 percent of the annual volume increment. On-ground harvestmanagement follows a set of guidelines for cutting in both nationaland private forests. These guidelines stipulate best practices foroptimal recovery of timber. The guidelines also incorporate elementsof a code of practice for harvesting, and Silvicultural prescriptions.

To reduce the reforestation expenses, human labor anddisturbance of forest ecosystem, tending of natural forest are beingexercised. The suitable forest for tending is selected on the basis ofthe site quality and the growth of characteristics of the trees. Theselected natural forest is converted into productive forests throughproper intermediate treatments.

The quality of timber harvested is generally poor. Inferiorgrade timber, and pest and disease damaged timber, makes up morethan 50 percent of the annual harvesting volume. In part this is due topoor harvesting techniques and insufficiently developed technology.

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Harvesting costs in Korea are high, mainly because of relatively high(by Asian standards) labor costs, and high recovery and transportationcosts. A significant trend is that costs associated with SIIviculture andharvesting have increased marked Iy during the past 20 years, whilestumpage prices have trended downward over time, This dichotomy isan obstacle to establishing sustainable harvesting practices andimplementing reduced impactlogging techniques.

2. , 2. Laos

2. ,2. ,. Background

Traditional forest management in Laos reflects the historicalinfluences of the then - Siam (Thailand) on the country. Shiftingcultivation has predominated among the country's hill-tribes for manycenturies, while more settled Laotian principalities had discernibleconservation ethics. Laos came under French control in the late. ,9''century, but its forests remained largely under traditionalmanagement. The country's turbulent history, post-Second WorldWar, meant that new techniques for forest management received littleattention until relatively recently, after the People's DemocraticRepublic consolidated political control of the country. Similarly, untilrecently the forests remained largely free from exploitation and,consequently, Laos retains a relatively high proportion of forestslargely undisturbed by commercial activities.

The National Forestry Action Plan stipulates four primaryobjectives for forest management: biological resources of forestsshould be protected by an approach emphasizing people'sparticipation; the economic resource value of forests should bebalanced with conservation; afforestation, production and forestdevelopment must be linked to food production and, particularly, theprovision of alternatives for shifting cultivators; and development ofincreased forest cover to 70 percent of total land area by giving priorityto natural regeneration systems.

The Vision 2020 outlines additional priorities as being toallocate land to rural families and encourage sustainable plantationdevelopment, and to survey the forest resource and to set upappropriate systems of forest management and infrastructure toachieve Government objectives.

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All production forests in Laos, both natural forests and forestplantations, are required in principle to be managed according toforest management plans derived from research results in the countryand the region. At present, however, few plans have been draftedtoriiy a handful of projects and concessions have management plans).There are no management plan guidelines and no requirement toprepare them prior to allocation of harvesting quotas. There are basicoperational management plans for harvesting, and logging quotas foreach province are worked out based on assumptions that in somecases have yet to be adequately validated. Annual logging volumesare set by logging quotas issued by the Prime Minister's Office basedon proposals from Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAF), Ministryof Commerce and Tourism, and the industry. Annual quotas are riotset systematically and do riot necessarily reflect forest managementobjectives.


The implementation of scientific Siiviculture is only carried outsmall scale in Laos. Selective logging is practiced mainly

because it is more profitable than clear felling. Harvesting techniquesare generally fairly simple and little Silviculture is applied pre- or post-harvest. Reliance is mainly on natural regeneration. Nonetheless,Laos is endeavoring to conduct research to improve the potential forSi!vicultural management. Recent research projects administered bythe Department of Forestry have included, growth rate studies ofnatural forest, thinning systems for teak plantations, managementsystems for natural dipterocarp and pine forests, and development ofnatural forest management plan models. Several donor projects havecollected growth data and implemented low impact, low intensityharvesting models to demonstrate sustainable forest managementthrough community participation.

The majority of intensive SIMculture is applied to the modestplantation estate, which has largely been established since 1990. TheGovernment envisages that the plantation sector in Lao will developalong different lines from the commonly accepted model in SoutheastAsia. The focus is to be on agroforestry techniques, which will see theplantation estate highly integrated with food crop growing, cattlerearing and aqua-culture, rather than tree monocultures. Plantationsare expected to be environmentally friendly, using mosaic plantingpatterns and leaving intact, scattered natural trees during land

on a

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clearing, with protection strips for water bodies, steep areas, - and ricepaddies. At present, however, this model is far from realization. Thetwo largest plantation development projects in Laos are industrialEucalyptus carnaldulensis and Acacia inarigium monocultUres.

2. ,2.4. Forest harvesting practices

Prior to 1986, Laos' forestry industry largely operated to meetmoderate domestic demands for timber. In 1986, however, theintroduction of the New Economic Mechanism. , saw the industry take amore outward focus with a rapid acceleration in export levels. Highintensity logging was the gredominant means of harvesting, basedupon the harvest of 25 in Ihectare (or more) with a prescribed cutevery 50 years' Since most concessionaires do riot practice post-harvest management to ensure that the residual growing stock isnurtured and protected between cycles, forests have beenprogressiveIy degraded and progressiveIy yielded species andvolumes of lesser quality and lower value. In 1991. concerns overunsustainable logging practices and corruption led to a PresidentialDecree banning logging. The full ban was, however, relatively short-lived.

The country stopped issuing concessions for forest harvestingin ,994, but logging is still permitted in areas designated to becomehydroelectric reservoirs, irrigation reservoirs, transmission pylons,electricity lines and other infrastructure and rural developmentprojects. These remain a major source . of environmental concern.There has been an increasing reliance on logs from infrastructureprojects and agriculture and rural development projects requiringconversion of forested land to non-forest land-use. Between I 995-99,3.3 million in of logs were formally recorded as harvested, of which63 percent were from conversion of forested lands for developmentprojects. There are no standards or guidelines for roading, landinglocations, felling or extraction. Harvesting waste in the forest isexcessive as volumes and grades of logs are riot assessed orrecorded until delivery of logs to the second landing. There are fewincentives for efficient harvesting operations nor supervisory ormonitoring procedures to ensure compliance with regulations andspecifications. A National Code of Timber Harvesting Practice wasdrafted in inid-, 997. The purpose of the Code is to provide guidelinesfor carrying out timber harvesting operations in order to protect theenvironment and promote forest development consistent with theprinciples of sustainable development.

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2.13. Malaysia

2.13. ,. Background

Natural forests in Malaysia have been progressive Iy broughtunder systematic managem'ent since the appointment of the firstForest Officer in 1901. Most-notable was the development of specificforest management systems, particularly for the dominant dipterocarpforest ecosystems. In the early 1920s, forest management in Malaysiawas carried out through the Regeneration Improvement Felling (RIF)system, which prescribed sequential felling with a five-yearregeneration period, The RIF was superseded by the development ofthe more sophisticated Malayan Uniform System (Mus) in 'the late1950s. A more conservation oriented approach to forest managementhas seen significant modification to the Mus, as well as theintroduction of the Selective Management System in the 1970s for hillforests where the Mus was unsuitable.

Establishment of forest plantations dates back to the 1950s.when trial areas of teak we're planted in Peninsula Malaysia. Morerecently, the timber value 'of extensive areas of rubber -woodplantations has been recognized and utilized. The reservation-of theMatang Mangroves began in 1902 and was completed in. 1906.By 1908 the whole gazette forest came under management. .The firstWorking Plan was prepared in I 952 for 1950 to 1979. It was the firstcomplete Plan ever published in Malaysian Forestry and has sincebeen revised at , 0-year intervals.

One of the more significant; events for forest management inMalaysia, in recent history, was the advent of an ITFO mission team toSarawak in 1989. The mission was responding to an invitation fromthe Sarawak government to assess the sustainable utilization andconservation of tropical forests and their genetic resources as well asthe maintenance of the ecological balance in sustainable forestmanagement policies and practices, including areas of internationalcooperation and assistance. the mission issued a report titled, ThePromotion of Sustainable Forest Management: A Case Study inSarawak, Malaysia, which recommended a number of measures topromote sustainable management including a reduction in Sarawak sannual timber production from the Permanent Forest Estate fromI2 million cubic meters to 9 million cubic meters.Forest management objectives are clearly specified in theNational Forestry Policy. The Policy clearly differentiates between aPermanent Forest Estate (PFE), to be maintained and managed asforest in perpetuity. and Stateland Forest areas outside the RFE, oftentermed Conversion Forests. In the past, State land Forests were

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designated for eventual clearing to meet demands for additional landsfor agricultural, urban or other non"forest purposes. More recently,efforts are being made to incorporate these into the permanent forestestate. All forest lands in Malaysia are state-owned.

The primary management objectives in the PFE are tomaximize the economic, social and environmental benefits to Malaysiaand its people from the sustainable management of the country'sforest resources. The National Forest Policy specifies that productivityin the PFE be optimized through sound regeneration and rehabilitationprogramme compatible with environmental requirements, as well asproviding for the conservation and protection of the forests' biologicaldiversity, water and soil, and sustainable productivity potential.

The PFE comprises 14.3 million hectares, of which 3.7 millionhectares are broadly designated as protection forests (soil and waterprotection as well as amenity forests), and I 0.6 million hectares areavailable for productive purposes. An additional 2.1 million hectares offorest outside the PFE is protected in National Parks and WildlifeSanctuaries. State land Forests presently comprise around 3.5 millionhectares.

2.13.2, Forest management plans

Since the 1950s, the development and implementation offorest management- working plans has been mandatory. Each forestconcession area or forest management unit, whether inside or outsidethe PFE and including protected areas, must have a ForestManagement Plan. The plan contains a description of the area, theobjectives of management or prescriptions on how the managementunit is to be harvested, the species to be removed, the minimumcutting diameter limits, the annual allowable harvest, penalties forharvesting damages and a variety of other prescriptions. Plans thatencompass harvesting must specify the number of trees to be leftbehind, road construction prescriptions, and measures taken tominimize soil erosion and other residual damage.


In Peninsula Malaysia, two Silvicultural systems are practiced,the Malayan Uniform System (Mus) and the Selective ManagementSystem (SMS). The Mus is effective Iy a system for converting virgintropical lowland dipterocarp forest into a approximately even-agedforest containing a high proportion of the commercial species to be

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managed under the Uniform system. This is achieved by a clear-fellingof a mature trees down to a minimum diameter at breast height (dbh)of 45 centimeters, This is followed by the release of selected naturalregeneration of varying ages, aided by systematic poison girdling ofdefective and non-commercial species. The Mus focuses mainly onthe seedlings and saplings that are expected to form the bulk of thenext harvest. This has led to much heavier poison girdling of treesthan is necessary and also drastic opening of the canopy. Hence overthe years the emphasis has to a more discriminating approach topoison girdling and a more conservation al approach in Silviculturetreatments (this is the 'modified' Mus).

The SMS was introduced in the 1970s when the Mus wasfound to be unsuitable for managing hill dipterocarp forests inPeninsula Malaysia. The comparatively more di^cult terrain, unevenstocking. lack of natural regeneration on the forest floor, and uncertainseedling regeneration after logging meant the Mus failed to promoteadequate post-harvest rehabilitation. Problems with erosion and thedifficulties in regenerating the cut-over forest did riot favor drasticopening of the canopy. SMS operates on a 25-30 year cutting cyclewith an expected net outturn of 3040 cubic meters per hectare. Theminimum cutting dbh prescribed for dipterocarp species is50 centimeters. The cutting limit for non-dipterocarp species shouldnot be less than 45 centimeters dbh, while the residual stockingshould incorporate at least 32 sound commercial trees per hectare for

. diameter class 30-45 centimeters. Similar systems are practiced inSabah and Sarawak.

2.13.4, Forest harvesting practices

Forest harvesting in Malaysia is regulated and controlled. AnArea Control approach is used whereby a certain area of forest isdesignated for harvesting each year. This is done through theallocation of an annual felling coupe based on resource availabilityand current forest management practices. For example, the annualcoupe for Peninsula Malaysia during the period 4995-2000 was46,000 hectares, These areas are allocated as forest concessionsusing a license tender process. Harvesting systems require both pre-and post-felling inventories to be carried out, while harvest volumesare closely monitored to ascertain correct royalty payments.

Harvesting in Malaysia is largely mechanized with roads andskid-trails built. Yarding is generally done using tractors and skidders,although cable-yarding systems are used in locations where roadingoptions are limited. Malaysia is, however, implementing a large

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number of innovative projects designed to develop better techniquesfor reduced impact logging. These include, for example, the testing ofhelicopter logging in Sarawak (under an InO funded Sarawak ModelForest Management Area project implemented by the SarawakForestry Department in partnership with Sarawak Timber Association).This project is developing a variety of measures to encourage effortstowards sustainable forest management, including airborne video-recording and mapping. computer-aided road-building and design,and comparative studies of PATH logging, RIL logging. hell-logging,and conventional logging. In Sabah, an ongoing carbon^ffset drivenrehabilitation project is planting high value Dipterocarps and fruit treesin areas of logging disturbance. The Sabah pilot programme(supported by Forests Supporting CO2 Emissions (FACE)), includesmapping; pre-selection and marking of marketable timber; pre-harvestcutting of climber vines; slope and riparian restrictions on logging;weather restrictions on logging; lowering the impact of access roadsthrough planning; use of directional felling techniques; planning of skidtrails; and eliminating the use of bulldozer blades on skid trails.

The modified Mus and SMS promote reduced impact logging,with an emphasis on reducing residual damage to future crop treesEnvironmental Impact Assessments are required for logging areasgreater than 500 hectares.

In an effort to optimize the utilization of forest and millresidues, as well as promoting trade in . under utilized species.Malaysia has undertaken a variety of studies with cooperation from

Research has also been intensified in reducedvarious agencies.Impact Logging and Low Impact Logging technologies. The use ofmodified excavators and skyline mobile yarding for log extraction isalso being evaluated. In order to alleviate the negative impacts of roadconstruction on forests and the environment, Forest RoadSpecifications have been revised and applied to logging, since 1999.

2.14. Maldives

2. ,4.1. Background

Historically, the Maldives has had good natural cover of foresttrees and was self-sufficient in forest products. Little information isavailable on the history of forest management in the Maldives, thoughit appears that the historical adequacy of forests meant that littleregulation was required. Currently, however, the country is

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experiencing significant shortages of forest products, mainly as aresult of population pressures and unsound land use practices.The second National Environment Action Plan is undertakes anintegrated approach to the management of the environment andfocuses on working towards the goal of sustainable development. Theapproach taken in the formulation of the second National EnvironmentAction Plan resulted in drawing out a number of key issues, whichneed to be addressed and then identifying appropriate responses tothem. Increasing timber production has been stated in developmentplans as a priority factor in promoting and sustaining the limited forestresources. Demand for wood (mainly for firewood, boat-building andhouse construction) outstrips supply, mainly due to populationpressures and previous improper management. Wood is recognizedas a valuable natural resource in the Maldives and the preservation^rid regeneration of timber stocks is an important element ofgovernment policy.


The law prohibits harvesting of natural vegetation withoutwritten government permission. There are, however, no regulationsrequiring forest management plans, and presently few forest areashave formal planning measures applied.


The key tree species for boat building in the Maldives areCalophyllum mophyllum, Cordia subcordata, Thespesia populnea andHidscus till^ceus. These species are all easily propagated by eithervegetative cuttings, or by- seed, Calophyllum mophyl!urn and Cord^^subcordata are grown in simple GOPpice systems with relatively shortrotations and little Silvicultural management other than cutting.Thespesia populnea and Hihiscus tiliaceus are grown from seedlings,Gasuanha equisetifolia is grown in shelterbelt systems for fuel woodand as shelter from both wind and salt spray. The relatively extensiveareas of mangroves in the Maldives have received no scientificmanagement and nor (to 1993, at least) have management plansbeen proposed for these forests

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2. ,44. Forest harvesting practices

In 1993 a permit system for harvesting timber and fuel woodin the mangroves forests was introduced. The system requires writtenpermission from the Ministry of Fisheries and Agriculture to removalmangrove timber. The permit system, however, encourages highgrading of the mangroves since permits authorize removal of specifiedlengths of bole. More recently, the Ministry of Fisheries andAgriculture has restricted the issuing of timber cutting permits toprotect the existing vegetation, Only a few species is permitted to becut as firewood, Regulations also require that any tree cut down mustbe replaced by two newly planted trees. Fuel wood collection onuninhabited islands is authorized only on specified days of the week.

2.15. Mongolia

2.54 Background

Until the 1920s, Mongolia was essentially a feudal agrariansociety, with a high proportion of the population comprising nomadicherdsmen. Nonetheless a tradition of nature protection dates back tothe 13th century when many forested hills were protected as holyareas. The introduction of Buddhism in the 16th and 17th centuries

was accompanied by conservation-based philosophies resulting in theestablishment of the first protected areas in the late 1700s. In 1924the Mongolian People's Republic was declared and Mongolia becamethe world's second communist country. Close ties with the SovietUnion saw Russian forest management prescriptions adopted inMongolian forests, while forest management fell under the purview ofcommunity collectives and the principal focus 'was on woodproduction, More recently, conservation and forest rehabilitation havebecome the main focus of Mongolian forest management,

The principal objective of forest management in-Mongolia is toprotect and develop the existing forests to ensure their maximumcontribution to soil and watershed protection, and the-conservation ofexisting ecosystems. At the same time forests are also expected tomeet people's needs for industrial wood, fuel wood and minor forestproducts, and to contribute to export revenues through the export ofwood products. The Forest Law of 1995 recognizes that forestry is along-term activity, which must be guided by far"sighted strategy andplanning to 'ensure the balanced development of resources. Proper

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planning includes taking into account the institutional, economic,environmental'and social objectives of the country.

2. ,5.2. Forest management plans

The Forest Law of Mongolia notes that a forest inventory andmanagement planning should be' carried out every 10 years, Thereare presently no records of how much forest is under management assuch. According to the Mongolian Law on Forests, all forest land iscategorized in one of 3 groups: Strict Forest Zones; Utilization ForestZones; and Protected Forest Zones. Management of Strict ForestZones is planned and financed by Central Government. However,formal forest management plans have yet to be prepared for mostmajor tracts of forest. Local forests administered by district and localgovernments are under discretionary forest management, and there isno requirement for local governments to issue formal managementplans, Where private sector entities hold contracts to harvest ormanage forests they are required to have management proceduresapproved by the Government. Private sector harvesting for industrialpurposes is controlled by contracts, which are required to stipulate thepurpose of harvesting, species of trees. volume and duration, as wellas forest management interventions, technology utilized and aprogramme for protection of the forest from fire, disease, harmfulinsects, and for regeneration.

2. ,5.3. Silviculture and forest management practices

Silviculture in Mongolia is largely restricted to ensuringregeneration of forest areas after harvesting. A major problem inMongolian forests is that natural regeneration is generally inadequateto maintain current forest areas and forest types. Natural regenerationtends to promote the expansion of birch and 'aspen forests at theexpense of more valuable species. The Forest Law of Mongolia I995requires that logging enterprises undertake regeneration activities inharvested areas, but currently only to percent of harvested areas areartificially reforested. The current regeneration method consists ofpiling and burning of logging waste, manual site preparation andplanting of bare-root seedlings. The nursery-grown seedlings are 2-3years old. The most common planted species are pine and larch. Thesurvival rate of seedlings is reported to be only 30-65 percent.

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Until the 1940s the majority of forest harvesting in Mongoliawas done under selective cutting systems (in deciduous forests)without any formal forest management. Clearfel!ing systems havepredominated in coniferous forests. Horses and yaks were mainlyused in skidding operations and, consequently, residual damage wasrelatively low. Timber harvesting technologies have traditionallyfollowed Russian systems. Whole-tree logging has been common withskidding to roadsides and transport to landings by truck. Mongolia isslowly implementing changes to logging methods including a shift fromclear-cutting to selective logging in larch and pine forests. All forestharvesting is licensed by the governors of each soum (District).Licenses are only issued after considering the economic efficiency ofproposed activities, the cutting technique and processing technology.level of utilization, and funding set aside for the protection andregeneration of the forest. Mongolia is currently formulating a nationalcode of practice for forest harvesting with assistance from ILO andFAO.

2. , 6. Myanmar

2. ,6.1. Background

Systematic management of forests in Myanmar can be tracedback to ancient times, when the kings of Myanmar legally designatedprotected forests and wildlife sanctuaries. The scientific managementof natural forests in Myanmar began in the inid-19th century, with thedevelopment of the Brandis Selection System, during British colonialera. The Brandis system melded German principles of scientificforestry, with the traditional Burmese forest culture. During thefollowing 60 years the system evolved, and was eventually modified,into the Burma (Myanmar) Selection System. By the early 1920s theMyanmar Selection System was already well established, and hascontinued to be practiced in natural forests throughout the country,through to today

Establishment of forest plantations using the Taungya methodwas originated in Myanmar, with initial teak plantings in 1856. Thismethod. the forerunner of modern tropical agroforestry and communityforestry practices, continued through to around 1930, when problemswith bee hole borer, allied with erosion problems on sloping terrain ledto the shelving of plans for large-scale teak afforestation, Extensive

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planting of teak only commenced in 1972, and has continued to thepresent day. . .The Forest Policy of I 995 has an over-riding objective of conservingforest resources to achieve sustainable forest management anddevelopment, while optimizing socio-economic benefits. The ForestPolicy enunciates basic tenets of: sustainable production; satisfyingbasic needs; institutional strengthening and improvements inefficiency; protection of forests and biodiversity; and participatoryforestry.

The policy focuses on sustainable forest management toensure a continuation of the current level of forest benefits, bothtangible and intangible, for the present and future generations. Thepolicy places priority on meeting people's basic needs for fuel, water,fodder, shelter, food and recreation, while at the same timeharnessing the full economic potential of the forests through increasedproductivity. Conservation objectives are emphasized includingprotection of soils, water catchments, ecosystems, biodiversity,genetic resources, scenic reserves and national heritage sites. Thepolicy plans for a participatory approach to forest management with anemphasis on people's participation in forestry, wildlife and natureconservation activities. as well as in establishing plantations andincreasing incomes through the application of community andagroforestry systems.


In 1996. the Forest Department launched a special operationto update and reformu!ate Forest Working Plans to incorporatemodern sustainable forest management concepts. The new districtforest management plans place emphasis not only on timberproduction, but also on non-wood forest products, biodiversityconservation, and the socio-economic well being of local people. Theplans are implemented at the district level and formulation of plans for62 districts, covering the whole of the country, has been completed.Additionally, the development of village forest conservation Imanagement plans has proved to be important for preventing orcontaining forest degradation and deforestation. It is mandatory toprepare a management plan before handing over forests tocommunity user groups, and plans are certified by the ForestDepartment to ensure they meet the Department's technicalrequirements. Some form of management plan covers all forests inMyanmar, although many older working plans have been terminated.

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The District Management P!ans that substitute these old working plansare riot yet approved (2000) and still in the review stage.


The principal SIIvicultural system practiced in natural forests isthe Myanmar Selection System. The system operates in felling cyclesof 30 years and requires the division of forest blocks into30 compartments of approximately equal yield capacity. Each yearselection felling is carried out in one compartment. All marketabletrees that have reached minimum exploitable girth requirements areselected for cutting. In moist teak forests the minimum diameter atbreast height limit is 73 centimeters, while in dry forests the diameterlimit is 63 centimeters. The fixed diameter limit for other hardwoodsvaries across species. Teak trees are girdled 2-3 years beforeharvesting to enable the tree to dry, prior to harvest and enabletransportation by water. Defective trees in compartments are poison-girdled, and intermediate Siniculturai interventions include cleaninand seedling release, climber cutting, and thinning in congestedstands. Supplementary planting is done both to increase theproportion of commercially important species and enrich the naturalforests, or to restore and rehabilitate degraded forest lands. Ingeneral. however, there has been a preference in Myanmar to allowforests to regenerate naturally. In Local Supply Reserves and fuelwood plantations a variety of other Sitvicuitural regimes are practiced,including clear felling, coppice, and coppice with standards systems,A UNDP project in the Ayeyarwaddy delta is 'presently focusing onsustainable use of mangrove forests, which have been degraded as aresult of everexploitation for charcoal manufacture.


At present, the Myanmar Timber Enterprise is the sole agencyresponsible for the extraction and export of teak and other hardwoodspecies. Harvesting and export of hardwoods other than teak wascarried out by private sector agencies between I 989 and I 993.Indiscriminate cutting and failure to follow the procedures of thesystem resulted in the banning of logging and log exporting by theprivate sector.

Harvesting plans generally prescribe a 'two pass' system,where teak is harvested first and other species later. Teak is firstgirdled and then harvested, utilizing the prescriptions of the Myanmar

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Selection System on diameter limits for cutting and post-harvestinventories. Traditionally, teak logs have been floated down streams torafting stations and it often took several years for logs to be deliveredto mills. A switch to a trucking system has created a significant savingof time and volumes lost in transit are also minimized.

Clearing of stumps and dragging of logs are done mainly byelephants and, to a lesser extent, water buffaloes. The use of animalsin extraction of logs has proven to have the least impact on theenvironment and biodiversity. The Myanmar Timber Enterprise utilizesaround 5,000 elephants for timber extraction. Mechanical extraction isriot considered to be economicalIy feasible under the MyanmarSelection System, and is used only in limited areas. Heary machineryis used mainly for road construction, loading and -unloading of logs,and transportation.

Myanmar has developed a national code of practice for forestharvesting based on the regional FAOIAsia-Pacific ForestryCommission Code of Practice for Forest Harvesting in Asia-Pacific.

2. , 7. Nepal

2. , 7.1. Background

Various traditional systems of forest administration havedeveloped across the centuries including, for example, the kipatsystem of exclusive communal rights in the east of the country, andthe shingo nawa (forest caretakers) of Sherpa society.

From the early 20 Century a National Code for forestadministration placed responsibility for forest management in thehands of village leaders, under the supervision of a districtadministrator. in 1957, however, control of all private forests wasvested in the State under the Forest Nationalization Act 1957. This Actwas designed to bring all forests under effective management and,particularly, to halt the conversion of forest lands to agriculture. In thelate I 970s community access to forests and participation in forest

once again became important Under the Panchayatmanagementwhich endeavored to enforce sustainable utilization ofForest Rules,

forests, and regulate access to forests. Meanwhile, successivegovernments in Nepal pursued a policy of large-scale export of logsand timber from the Terai and .SIwalik regions, to India. Up untilthe1970s, forest-based income was the country s largest source ofgovernment revenue. However. in an effort to reduce forestdegradation the export of logs and timber Was banned in 1979.

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More than half of Nepal's forests have been cleared orseriously degraded in the past 30 years to make way for agriculture,and to meet demands for fuel wood, fodder and timber. More recently,a realization that the 'protective' forest management strategy wasfailing has seen a strong shift back towards community participation inforestry.

The Master Plan for the Forestry Sector has spelled out thefollowing long-term objectives for the development of the forestrysector: to meet the basic needs of people for fuel wood, fodder,timber, and other forest products, and to contribute to food productionthrough effective interaction between forestry and farming practices; toprotect the land against degradation by soil erosion, floods, landslides,desertification, and other effects of ecological imbalance; to conserveecosystems and genetic resources; and to contribute to the growth oflocal and national economies by developing forest management andforest based industries and creating opportunities for incomegeneration and employment.

The medium term objectives of the Master Plan' are to supportdecentralization and promote people's participation in forest resourcedevelopment. management and conservation, and to develop thelegal framework needed to enhance the contribution of individuals,communities, and institutions to forest resource development.


All types of national forests are required to be managed undera management plan. The Department of Forests (DoF) hasresponsibility for sustainable management of all forest resources,including government-managed forests.

The Government of Nepal has particularly recognized that theimplementation of improved management systems in the Terai forestscould substantially increase revenues from these forests.Consequently, the Department of Forests has committed toimplementing scientific management plans in all Terai forests.Management plans have been prepared for many districts of the Terai.The absence of adequate funding, along with inadequate technicalcapacity and a variety of social factors have, however, precluded theimplementation of many plans. The Leasehold Forestry Programmerequires the leaser(s) to prepare a 5-year operational plan in order towork in the leasehold forest. The Community Forestry Programme hassimilar requirements for the completion of a Forest Operational Plan.The Operational Plan specifies various protection, utilization andmanagement aspects for each community forest. Plans are prepared

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by Forest User Groups with assistance from District Forest Officestaff. Forest User Groups are allowed to sell forest products, raisefunds, and use the income generated for rural development and forestregeneration as per their Operational Plan. More than 7,000 planshave been developed for managing community forests that have beentransferred to forest user groups.


Silvicultural management in Nepal has moved through distinctphases during the past 50 years, evolving from passivecommunity/subsistence management. through a period of governmentcontrol with a particular emphasis on low!and forest exploitation and,more recently, with the shift back to community participation. Whilethere is naturally considerable variation in SIIvicultural treatmentsapplied by several thousand independent Forest User Groups, studiesindicate that considerable Silvicultural interventions are beingimplemented, Where appropriate, Forest User Groups are undertakingselective felling, planting, thinning, and pruning operations, known asBan Godne Silviculture. Activities are generally geared to providingproducts and services to meet users' current needs. For example.pruning and thinning activities are primarily carried out to supply fuelwood, with the Si!vicu!tural benefits being in some respects a positiveexternality. ,

The vast majority of Nepal's forests remain, however. undergovernment jurisdiction, and most of these receive inadequatescientific Silvicultural management. The exceptions are valuablelowland production forests, particularly in the Terai. These forests,comprising high proportions of Sal (Shorea robusta), tend to havebeen managed under scientific 'coppice with standards regimes,although encroachment by migrants has regularly compromisedmanagement efforts,


Forest harvesting practices in Nepal fall into two distinctcategories. The first is Small-scale, manual harvesting bycommunities. The other is by government forestry agencies.Harvesting techniques are labor intensive, and industrial logging isonly slightly more mechanized than that carried out by the villages.Handsaws and axes are used for felling, deciimbing. and cross-cutting.

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Bullock carts are used to haul logs to landings or depots, from wherethey are loaded manually onto trucks for transportation to mills.

2.18. New Zealand

2. ,8.1. Background

Forestry play an increasing important role in New Zealand sNew Zealand's forest resource can be divided into twoeconomy.

distinct types. The first is large areas of natural forest made up ofspecies indigenous (and often endemic) to New Zealand and includingboth virgin and regenerating forest. The second type is a smaller, butstill extensive, area of forest that has been planted with mainly non-native, coniferous species. New Zealand's 6.4 million hectares ofindigenous forest is located mainly in the mountains and hill country,and on the West Coast of the South Island. The major in dig^noustree species in these complex forests are beech, kauri, rimu, taraireand tawa. Public opinion I^vours the preservation of our native forest,and approximately 77 percent of New Zealand's indigenous forest is innational parks and reserves, covering a 8.2 percent of the total landarea. New Zealand's national parks area a major tourist attraction,offering a wide range of walking tracks and other activities, andcontaining many unique wildlife species.

2. ,8.2. Forest Management Plans

Forest Management Plan in New Zealand involves(a) Gathering information (e. g. biodiversity and wildlife survey),(b) Evaluation of all information (natural and economic),(c) Operational considerations (roading and logistic), (d) Formulationof project plans and ecological and timber yield targets, (e). Providingfor auditing and monitoring.

2. ,8.3. Forest Management Practices

Sustainable forest management principal in New Zealandinvolves (a) application of ecologicalIy sensitive Sitvicu!tural systems,(b) careful measurements of forest growth and structure, (c) individualselection of groups of trees to meet ecological, Silvicultural and timberyield targets, (d) careful removal of prepared trees, and (e) checking

-- J

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and tending the forest to ensure regeneration, and preventdeterioration in health and quality.Sustainable forest management is currently in. use and has beensuccessfully employed in the only large scale sustainable indigenousRimu management operation in New Zealand at Okarito and SaltwaterForests in South Westland since 1993.

The technologies developed in South westland is applied to allTimberland forest. At present, 83 % by area of the Rimu Forest areaare sustainably managed. The remaining I7 % of area comprisemixed beech (dominant) and rimu forests, which are available forharvesting of rimu at unsustainable rates as part of an interimtransitional arrangement approved by the Government. Theunsustainable management was ceased at the end of 2000, All beechforests are to be sustainably managed for those species.


The New Zealand forest industry is almost entirely based onplanted forest, which cover 1.7 million hectares, or 6.4 percent of NewZealand's land area. New Zealand has had planted productionforests, of mainly coniferous softwood species, since the early 20century. Approximately 90 percent of this forest area is planted withrediata pine. This species grows quickly under New Zealandconditions, and the average time from planting to harvest is around 28

. years' Much of the planted forest area is young, with 61 percentbeing 15 years old or younger, - so production will increasesubstantially over the next ten years' Sixty-two percent of the plantedforest has been pruned to produce high quality timber.

In the year ended 30 Iune 1999 the forest industry :. harvested , 6.4 million cubic metres of wood from New

Zealand's forests (up 5 percent on the previous year);processed on-shore 11.0 million cubic metres (up 3 percent);exported the roundwood equivalent of ,1.1 million cubucmetres (up 8 percent), in raw and processed form, earningNew Zealand $2.5 billion (up 5 percent) and ranking forestrythird in terms of commodity exports;

. exported to over 40 countries;

. employed over 2,000 people;

. accounted for 3.9 percent of GDP

.

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Rimu tree removals amount to approximately 30 % of the totallarge (40 - 90 cm in diameter), beech and rimu trees combined. Mostof seedlings, saplings, poles and younger rimu trees up to 40 cmdiameter are retained. These should completely replace the removedtrees over time. A few large defective rimu' trees are retained andprovide ecological benefits. Beech trees are currently generally riotharvested. A low yield will be possible under sustainable managementregimes. The intensity of tree harvest is between 13 to 20 trees I haor 10 - 16 % of all the large rimu and beech trees combined perhectare.

Orikaka is a larger forest of 6,400 ha of which 30 % is already cleared,previously heavily logged for rimu or subject to severe earthquakedisturbance. It is Beech dominant forest. The intensity of tree harvestwould be 6 trees per hectare or 5 % of all the large rimu and beechtrees combined per hectare.

Introduction of low impact helicopter harvesting reduceddramatically environmental impacts.The advantages of timber harvesting using helicopter are as follows

True selective logging under sustainable forest management.Improved retention of forest structure in unsustainablemanagement,Reduced damage to non-targeted species.Minimized effects on soil and water values.

Dramatically reduced roading requirements.Retention of other forest values.

Ability to economical!y salvage from previously logged areas.Flexibility to leave individual trees, species and areas of land.

To enable extraction of determined yields from a practicalmanageable area, the total annual harvest is concentrated over afraction of the total forest area. This area is then riot visited for harvestfor a time period equivalent to the inverse of its fraction of the forest.This period is the felling cycle. For the forests in these plans,information on the distribution of dead trees gained from inventory andthe proportion of volume extracted from field trials have indicated thatbetween 10 and I5 year felling cycles are appropriate. This willachieve a spatial distribution of felling gaps well within the scale ofnatural disturbances,

The New Zealand Forest Code of Practice (FCOP) was firstpublished in I 990, after three years of consultation between LIRO andthe forest industry, territorial authorities (councils) and other interestgroups. In 1991 a comprehensive new environmental law, theResources Management Act, was passed by parliament and the FCOP

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was revised and updated in 1993, The aims of the code are to plan,manage and carry out forestry operations in sustainable manner". Itcontains both environmental planning and operational information, isdesigned for ease use, and should be a good tool to promote betterforestry practices,

2.19. Pakistan

2. , 9. , . Background

Forest has been central in human history in that they providecritical ecosystem services for climate range and forege, wildlifehabitat, biotic diversity, watershed protection, soil erosion control, etc.Humans have left an impressive mark on the world over the pastSeveral centuries. With the dramatic growth in population-from aroundI billion in I 800 to 5 billion today-pressure on the land has greatlyincreased, The need for greater food production has led to a massiveincrease in cropland, By early 1990's, .almost 40 percent of earth landsurface had been converted to croplands and permanent pastures.This conversion has occurred largely at the expense of forest.

Of the four forest cover percentage groups (> 70 %, 40-69 %,, 0-39 %, 0-9 %), Pakistan lies in the last category: 0-9%. Between1981 and ,990, there had been a 4.3 % decrease in forest areas ofthe Tropical Asia and Oceania, which Pakistan is a part of. During thesame period, 0.6% deforestation had been occurring each year. Thisis an alarming situation and needs to be stalled and then reversed, ifpossible.


As recognition of the multiple values of forests has grown, sohave concerns for their disappearance. In Pakistan. subtropical,temperate, riverain and mangrove forests are being lost because ofquestionable land use practices and the evenncreasing demand fortimber and firewood. As a result, more responsible managementapproaches are being demanded that can accommodate complexeconomic and the development of plantations and afforestationpractices are needs. of the hour,

Total Forest Area under the control of the Forest Departments(including A::ad Kashmir and the Northern Areas) is 4.26 millionhectares. The per capita forest area is only 0,037 ha compared to the

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world average of ONE ha, Main reason for this is that more than 70 %land area of Pakistan is And and semi-And with annual rainfall of 250-

500 min: too low and erratic to sustain natural vegetation and to planafforestation/regeneration programmes.

Due to diverse ecological conditions, a variety of forest typesexist in the country. There are natural forests growing in the moist-and-dry temperate zones and on the foothills. On the other extremeare the mangrove forests in the Indus Delta and the Arabia Sea.lingated plantations and to some extent. riverain forests aremanmade.


Of 4.26 million hectares (of forest area), only 1.12 millionhectares (26.3%) produce timber and firewood: the rest are meant toprotect the watershed area and the erodable lands. Besides forests,the forests department also controls 6.4 million hectares ofRangelands. In fact. there are about 51.3 million hectares ofRangelands in Pakistan. These ranges provide sustenance tolivestock population of about 98.6 millions. Being under incessantgrazing pressure, these lands are producing hardly 10-15 % of theiractual potential, Over grazing has intensified the problems ofdesertmcation resulting in accelerated soil erosion and degradation ofplant communities.

2.20. Papua New Guinea

2,204. Background

Papua New Guinea is a unique country in term ofgeographical position, its ecological importance and its social andpolitical structures. The total land of PNG is 46.0 million hectares outof which 39.0 million hectares or 84.8% of land area, where their totalnatural forest area is 36,909 million hectares. The total productiveforest is estimated to be 15.0 million hectares. Currently 10 millionhectares has been acquired as forest concession areas with about5.0 million hectares remaining. The annual cut to date has been below4.0 million in' per annum, PNG's forest play important socialresources for the local people and a biological wonder. Ninety sevenpercent of the land area is in customary land ownership. In 1996, PNGhad 26 million hectares of unlogged primary rainforest. There are

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45 different types of forest and woodland that have been identified in' PNG. These contain the large majority of PNG's estimated 20 000species of higher plant and account for perhaps 7.5 % of the worldstotal biodiversity.


Forest management in PNG has traditionally been exercisedby the traditional landowners ' following broadly sustainablemanagement practices and with little interference from outside,

The laws and regulations that are currently in force includes:(1) Forestry Acts 1991, (2) Forestry Regulation ,998. (3) NationalForest Development Guidelines, (4) National Forestry Plan, (5) TheEnvironmental Planning (, 978), (6) The Environmental ContaminatesAct (1978), and (7) The Water Resources Act (1982).


PNG has a relatively small plantation forest. PNG's forests areof closed broad!eaved type. The most common sub types are lowlandand montane rainforests. The principle species utilized are mainlylowland rainforest species including Intisia bjuga, Pometi:a pinnata,Ptsrocaipus in dieus, Calophylum spp, Geltis spp and Eucalyptusdeglupta.

In the management practices there are some key issuesconcerning unsustainable level of logging, inadequate forest research,rapid change in governments. structure of the forest sector and thereliance on round log exports and fund equitably.

The first certified forest area in PNG was Bainings, certified bythe SGS Qualifor programme in 1993/94. Recently the EU-fundedIREP program in Kiinbe has been certified, also by Qua!for, aprogramme that caters for many small operators.


More recently there has been massive industrial logging byforeign companies who primarily export round jogs; more than 10 % ofthe forest resources. New area identified for logging in the NationalForest Plan in 1996, the PNG Forest Authority has maps that identifyover 100 further new concession that cover an area more than10 million hectares. In contras there are approximately 200 000

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hectares of forest and more than 100 community groups involved incommunity based forest management in association with a supportagency, mostly national non-government organization.

The main forest products are round logs, the majority of whichare exported. The principle markets for PNG's timber are Japan(56%), Korea (, 7%) and China 00%). Some of them are alsoexported to the Philippines and Hong Kong.

A nationwide survey of portable sawmills was undertaken in1993/94, There are over 2000 portable sawmills in the country doingtheir own thing. Villagers, families and or communities own 90% of thesawmills, The markets are mainly local but major efforts have beenmade to develop the trade.

PNG Logging Code of Practice has been developed in 1995.This is being implemented now and adjustment is continuously beingmade to hold improve the system. The Logging code of practice isalso part of the 1991 Forest Act that came about due to increasepressure from World Bank for improved forest management practices.

.,

2.2, . Philippines

2.2, .,. Background

The management of forests in the Philippines dates back to atleast the 15 Century, when tribal councils regulated the extraction offorest products from within tribal spheres of forest ownership. The firstofficial effort to administer the forests was made during the Spanishcolonial era, with the establishment of an 'Inspection General deMontes', designated to administer the cutting and extraction of timber,as well as surveying and issuing concessions to forest and mountainlands. Scientific forest management in the Philippines is, however,strongly influenced by American forestry practices. In 1904, the Usmilitary government passed a Forest Act, which signaled thedevelopment of forestry as a science in the Philippines, Around thesame time a Bureau of Forestry was established. Mechanizedharvesting, based on North American practices, was undertakenthrough the period 1900-1942.

After the Second World War the selective logging system wasdeveloped in the Philippines. This was a modification of the selectioncutting system adopted in some European and North Americancountries. Since the I 970s, the rapid depletion of timber stocks hasseen a shift in emphasis from timber harvesting and utilization, toprotection, development and rehabilitation of forestlands.

.

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Forest management planning is envisaged to be stronglyconsultative, with NGOs, private sector organizations, 'communitiesand other beneficiaries involved in participative planning with national,regional and provincial planning groups, and the Community,Environment and Natural Resources Forestry Planning Group.

In the past, access to forest resources has been mainlythrough license agreements or permits operated mainly in large-scaleoperations involving thousands of hectares of forestlands. Since 1993.specific forest management planning by private sectorconcessionaires has been carried out under Industrial Forest

Management Agreements (legislated under DepartmentAdministrative Order No. 60, ,993). The various forms of community-based forest management also require the preparation ofmanagement plans. Forests under the Integrated Social ForestryProgramme (IsFP) are managed under a Certificate of StewardshipContract. Production sharing contracts for plantation forests managedunder Forest Land Management Agreements (FLMAs) provide forleasehold agreements, with specified reforestation targets. As ofOctober 1996, all people-oriented forestry programmes wereintegrated and unified under the Community-Based ForestManagement (GBFM) programme. By inid-1999 almost 4 millionhectares were covered by CBFM tenurial instruments.


Silvicultural interventions in the Philippines are predominantlycarried out utilizing three distinct management systems.

The Philippines Selective Logging System is a polycyclicsystem, under which extensive natural management is applied toresidual dipterocarp forest. The system specifies that trees with adiameter at breast height (dbh) greater than SOCm be harvested, while20-25 undamaged trees per hectare with dbh in the range 36-60centimeters are left to provide the next crop, The system is expectedto operate in cutting cycles of around 40 years, though in practice thecycle is generally 30 years, or sometimes less, Loggers are requiredto implement Timber Stand Improvement (TSl) measures afterharvest, although TSl measures are regularly omitted from loggingoperations. Timber stand improvement is the post-logging phase ofthe system and generally comprises refining and liberation, Refining

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comprises climber cutting and girdling of over"mature and defectivetrees. Liberation eliminates competing vegetation.

An intensive natural management system, similar to theMalayan Uniform System, is also applied to dipterocarp forests. Thissystem operates on a 60-80 year rotation and involves removing theoverstorey in a series of two or three harvesting operations over aperiod of 10 years' The canopy is gradually opened up, and finallycleared, to induce regeneration. Sitvicultural treatments are applied10 years after the final harvest followed by two thinning operations at20 year intervals.

Plantation Silvicultural systems are regularly practiced onclear-cut forestland. A system utilizing fatcataria, for example, seesseedlings planted at 4x4 meter spacing after clear-cutting of naturalforest. Trees are grown in short rotations of 8-10 years with anintermediate harvest at year-4 to yield raw pulp material.


The management of dipterocarp forests in the Philippines isbased on principles of sustained yield and multiple uses. Harvestingoperations systematically remove mature, ovenmature and defectivetrees, while leaving sufficient trees for future harvests, as well assufficient forest cover to protect and conserve water, soil andbiodiversity.

Selective logging in the Philippines follows a three-phasesystem of tree marking, harvesting through directional felling, andresidual inventories. Government timber management officersimplement residual stand inventory, with assistance from thelicensee's tree-markers. This operation determines the extent andreasons for damage due to logging operations and appraises theresidual growing stock for yield projection and computation ofallowable cut

Logging systems commonly used in the country include: trucklogging using converted trucks with a winch to drag logs to landings.This is a relatively small-scale form of cable-yarding requiring a densenetwork of roads and without the capacity to handle large logs; tractorlogging using a mobile traction (skidding) system with winches or logarches to bring logs to the landing area; High-Lead Yarding - a cablesystem making use of a stationary 'donkey' engine yarder, haulinglogs 200-300 meters to elevated landings, This technique has beenbanned in dipterocarp forests under the Department AdministrativeOrder No. 3,1993.

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Labor-intensive systems are also very common usingmanual and animal skidding. Most harvesting is actually donemanually or with carebao (large oxen).

Department Administrative Order No. 24 (1991) prohibitslogging in the old growth forests and on slopes with gradient greaterthan 50 percent. An FAO study on the efficacy of imposing loggingbans concludes that the Philippines is continuing to struggle toimplement the ban on harvesting in natural forests. In spite of the ban,the achievement of effective protection and conservation remainselusive. The lack of effective institutions and policies to deal with bothreduced timber supplies (and enforcement of harvesting restrictions)together with substantial social and economic impacts have made therealization of natural forest conservation difficult. The Philippines hasbecome major net importer of timber since imposing restrictions onharvesting in natural forests. leading to concerns over the harvestingpractices and sustainability of harvests in the other countriessupplying imported timber.

2.22. Portugal (East-Timor)

2.22. ,. Background

East-Timor was colonized by Portugal and integrated toIndonesia until 1999. Since I 999 East Timor become an independentcountry. East Timor consists of enclave of Am beno, Eastern TimorIsland, Atauro Island and Jaco Island. Geographical Iy, East Timor islocated at South Attitude of 8'1 0' - 9'32' and East Longitude ofI24'4' - I 27'30'. The total land area of East Timor is I 4,609 Kin'includes Am ben0 (778 Kin'), Atauro island (140 Kin'), Jaco islandtit Kin'). Most of the land is hilly, flat land (20 %) is found mostly incoastal area. The land is divided in 122 water catchments. Total forest

area is 699,822 ha or 47.90 % of total land, It consists of protectionforest (435,277 ha), National Park (25,163 ha), Recreation Forest(13,687 ha), Permanent Production Forest (45,211 ha), LimitedProduction Forest 070,484 ha) and Conversion Forest (I0,000 ha).


The complete data on the forest types in East Timor is notavailable yet, also for its management plans.

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The important species found in production forests is Santalumalbum, Teetona grandis, Vilex pubesGens, Pterocaipus indieus,Eucalyptus platyphylla, Casualtrialunghuhniana, Pometia pinnata andPterocaipus indibus.


Timber harvesting in East Timor is conducted using selectivecutting in limited production forest, while clear cutting is done inplantation forests. Conventional logging is the common technique toextract the timber from the forest.

2.23. Samoa

2.23. ,. Background

Western Samoa is an independent country located halfwaybetween New Zealand and Hawaii. The total land area of Samoa is283 000 ha, of which covers by I05 000 forests or 37.1 % of the totalland area.

Western Samoa comprises of two main islands, Up o1u and Savain,apart from several smaller ones. Samoa archipelago is of relativelyyoung volcanic origin; many volcanic eruptions are known in historictime. The volcanic material in Samoa has a very porous structure.Temperatures differs from around 26.5 'C at the coast to less than22 'C in the islands.

Different type of vegetation in Samoa can be found. It isdifferentiated into littoral forest, mangrove scrub and forest, swampforest, lowland rain forest, and moritane rain forests. Littoral foresttype grows on sandy or rocky substrates in the narrow zone betweenlow-growing littoral vegetation on the seaward side and lowland forestinland. The important species in this forest types, among them isBarringtoriia asiatica, Calophyllum mophyllum and Terminal18 catapa.

The forest in Samoa has always provided the Samoans withmany different products. First of all was a source of fire and timber.Timber was necessary for construction of the all-traditional openhouse, canoes, ceremonial- and household objects, The forest use by

_I

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the population has never been excessive. People just took what theywant. In fact, most of the people only entered the edge of the forestand never entered very deep. In general, no more forest would becleared if not necessary. Most of the village is located in coast. Forestcutting mostly is done in coastal zone. Timber production is generallydone for the local demand.


Obviously the great variety of ecosystem implies atremendous biodiversity. The native flora comprises nearly500 species, of which native fern comprise almost 200 species. Theisolated position of Samoa made it possible for many unique speciesto evolve. As a result 32% of the native Samoan plants are endemic.Plantation for timber production was established during colonial time.The Germans introduced several species such as Tectona grandis,A1bizzia spp, and Ainucaiia excelsa. Teetona 91^, ridis was planted fortimber production, while Araucan^, excelsa was used for windbreak.Introduced species of A1hizzia spp and Mikania micronta known asfast growing tree species successfully grows in Samoa.In 1970's the Forestry Division of the Department of Agriculture,Forests, and Fisheries started more seriously with the establishmentof commercial timber plantation, Species planted included Tectonagrandis, Swietinea macropylla, Toona spp, Cedrela odorata, EUCalyptspp and Poumuli (local species), In the beginning of 1990's the totalarea under forest plantation was 2,000 ha. The principle way ofplanting is line planting in low quality of soil. Most of spacing was10 x 2 meters. The average final number of stern per ha is about200 trees. The plantation was done in government land, but also inleased customary land. Forestry research was also established toconduct research on species trials and management system.

The Department of Lands Surveys and Environment, assistedby the South Pacific Regional Environment. has recently started aproject with the local people of Sa'ariapu village in order to protect andconserve one of the last remaining areas of high mangrove forest inthe country. The objective of the project was to show to the localpeople the way to make money out of the mangrove without cuttingthe trees. Activities include eco-tourism and the production ofhandicrafts,

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Growing need for foreign currency has certainly affected thesituation of the Samoan forest, Gradually logging activities increased,and several sawmills were established. The logging activities were notaccompanied by any serious management plan and the resourceswere depleted at great speed, Also establishment of cattle imposed athreat to the forest areas. Fuel wood is important forest product inSamoa. People harvest the fuel wood from the forest traditionally andin unsustainable wayIn 1990 and 1991, the country was struck by two exceptionally strongcyclones. which left destruction everywhere. Large forest area waspractically blown away, implying a dramatic change of forest cover.There was remained 13 000 ha is still considered to be merchantable,Logging operation was done to rescue the blown over logs. Theremaining commercial plantation was Swertetia inagagony amountingto 2000 ha.

2.24. Solomon Islands

2.24. ,. Background

Land area of Solomon Islands is 2,856,000 ha, which coversby 2,536,000 ha of forest. The Solomon Islands is one of the world'smost extensively forested countries. Most of the country is under highrain forest with a small portion of swamp forest, including mangroves,and upland forest. The major species harvested are Pometia pinnata,Calophyllum spp. , and mixture of whitewoods. Agathis (the kauri tree)is also found in some areas, The vegetation types in Solomon Islandsinclude Littoral forest, Mangrove forest, Freshwater swamp forest,Lowland rain forest, Montane rain forest. Baringtoriia asiatica,Calophyllum mophyllum and TerminalIa catappa are found in littoralforest. Rhyzophora apiculata, Brugue^re parviflora, Nypa fiatioans arefound in mangrove forest. Fresh water forest is dominated byCampnosprema brevfy, etiblata and TerminalIa brasii. Intsia ^, Juga,Pterocarpus Indicus and TerminalIa brasii are also found in this foresttypes. The lowland rain forest contains about 60 common treespecies, of which twelve are very common: Calophyllum kej'wski4C. vitiens, Campnosperma brevfy, etiolata, Dinenia salomonensis,Elaeocaipus sphaericus, Endospermum medullosum, Gineiinamoilucana, Marenthes Gorybosa, Pannari papuana spp.Salomonense, Pometia pinnata, Schizomeria serrata and TerminalIa

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Galamansanai (Doinbois and Fosberg, 1998). Some lowland rainforest in the Solomon Islands has 'low diversity. In Santa Isabel, thereare almost mono-dominant stands of Campnosperma bievj?etolata,and sometimes with Dellinea salomonensis as co-dominant species.In Santa Cruz group, gymnospermae tree Agathts macrophyllaappears.


The Solomons Islands Constitution protects the right of landowners to utilize their land and forests as they wish. Consequently,any restriction resulting from designation of a reserve or forest parkwould impose upon this basic right. Some 87 % of all land is held incustomary or tribal tenure,

Formal protected areas legislation principalIy comprises twoacts, both dating from the colonial era. The Wild Birds Protection Act(1914) enabled the Minister, under section 14, to declare any island orislands, or parts of any island or any district. as a bird sanctuary. TheNational Parks Act (, 954) makes provision for the establishment ofstrictly protected natural areas as national parks.

The forest policy of the Solomon Islands was reviewed in1983, and a National Forest and Timber Policy was approved by theGovernment in 1984. The Policy called for the maximum desirable logprocessing, minimum wastage and increased investment in forests,aims that were restated in I 985-89 National Development Plan.Failure to achieve these and more detailed aims are attributed to

shortcomings in the forest legislation, institutional weakness and alack of public participation and awareness. Consequently, a revisedforest policy has been promulgated. This six imperatives, those areprotection, sustainable use, basic needs, development, participationand distribution. Six objectives are established including " (Vl) setaside areas for environmental, ecological, scientific and heritagereserves taking into account landowner needs and customary values;protect sensitive areas".

The forestry and Timber act (1969, amended 1977) hasnarrow perspective, but makes some provision for controlled forestareas for forest water catchments protection. The Forest Resourcesand Timber Utilization (Amendment) Act I 987 was approved in MarchI987, with a retro prospective commencement date of I6 June I 978.The North New Georgia Timber Corporation Act (1979) provides forestablishment of a corporation for promotion of timber utilization inNew Georgia. The corporation can impose conditions on licensedfelling and is charged with the duty of encouraging replanting in felled

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areas (Sloth, 1988). There was new Forestry Bill, 989 that was due togo before Parliament in November ,989, which included provisions forthe establishment of conservation areas. The Town and CountryPlanning act (1979) provides for tree preservation order for " any tree,groups of trees or woodlands ..,. In the interests of amenity". TheLands and Titles Act 0968, amended I 970) makes provision forpreservation order to be applied to land of "historic or religious" value,and permits the establishment of nature reserves"

Regulations prescribe measures for the protection andpreservation of the marine. Environmental can be promulgated underthe Delimitation of Marine waters Act (1978). A forestry bill was due tobe presented to parliament in November I 989. This includes provisionfor environmental protection and establishment and management ofconservation area (ISA. I 989).


The total plantation forest in Solomon Islands at year 2000 isestimated 49,900 hectares, with the annual establishment of newplantations has been estimated at I 000 ha. The species plantedamong them are EUCalypts (, 2,000 ha), Gineiina (8,500 ha),Mahagonies (5,000 ha), Teak (,, 500 ha), Terminalia (7,000 ha), Otherbroadleaved (15,900 ha). State-owned land covers only 257 sq. kin(9.0% of total land area), of which 240 sq. kin is committed to forestryplantations or operations.

The Solomon Islands is partly to the South Pacific RegionalEnvironmental Programme (SREP) and has ratified 00 August 1989)the 1986 Convention for Protection of the Natural Resources andEnvironment of the South Pacific Region (SREP Convention). Theconvention entered into force during August 1990. Article 14 callsupon the parties to take all appropriate measures to protect rare orfragile ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora and faunathrough the establishment of protected areas and the regulation ofactivities likely to have and adverse effect on the species,ecosystems, and biological processes being protected.

General responsibility for environmental matters is part of theportfolio of the Minister of Lands. Energy and Natural Resources. TheEnvironment and Conservation Division of the Ministry of NaturalResources has responsibility for environmental protection and theconservation of natural resources.

The Forest Division comprises management, plantation,research and development, timber control (logging and utilization) andherbarium and extension sections. Training of forestsrs takes place in

_ I

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Papua New Guinea, at the Solomon Islands College of HigherEducation, and Australia. The Conservators of Forests is responsiblefor implementation of the Forestry Timber Act.


The Solomon Islands Development Trust is a ruraldevelopment organization, which place its operation, with particularfocus on community education, in environmental context, and is asignificant influence in the rain forest logging debate. Community-based association has been formed to counter the growing threat ofover-exploitation.

The production of round wood. industrial round wood, sawlogs and veneer logs, fuel wood, sawn wood from 1990 to 1998(x 1000 Cum) was 468 to 872,330 to 734,330 to 734,138 to 138,12 to 12, and 16 to 42, respectively. The production of round woodand industrial round wood, saw logs and veneer logs was practicallydouble, while the production of fuel wood was stable, and decreasedfor sawn wood.

Mangrove forest has never been heavily exploited and thecanopy is typically 24 in tall.

Some 95 % of logging takes place on land in customarytenure, whilst reforestation on the same class of land is restricted tojust 98 ha on Malaita, indicating a serious imbalance betweenreforestation and logging operation (Wenze1, 1989).

Prior to the 1970's, forest cover was largely pristine, but hassince been heavily exploited by foreign interests. During the last20 years, a timber industry has developed. Widespread logging hasresulted in the loss of primary forest on several islands, especiallyGhizo and KOIombangara, with consequent loss of wildlife habitat, soilcompaction and erosion, leading to reef sedimentation. Historically,forestry practice has riot given due to consideration to the ecologicaleffects of logging, and small-scale operations are underway orplanned in several small areas, rather than utilizing larger block onlarger islands. However, since 1986 logging companies have beenrequired to fell only trees wit diameters in excess of 60 cm. Thuspreventing the removal of super smalls (trees with diameter as little as35 cm). These regulations are likely to reduce damage substantially toforests during logging and enhance natural regeneration.

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2.25. Sri Lanka

2,254. Background

Traditions encouraging nature conservation have a longhistory in Sri Lanka. The first recorded wildlife conservation areaswere established more than 2000 years ago and Buddhist precepts,adopted by the ruling dynasties of Sri Lanka around this time, forbadekilling of any form of life. Around the 12'' century large tracts of forest,including the Udawattekele and Sinharaja forests, were protected asreserves. Formal legislative protection of forests was enacted in 1895through Forest Ordinance (No. IO), which established forestsanctuaries. Forest plantations were first established in Sri Lankaduring the 1870s, although large-scale plantation establishment didriot commence until the 1950s. The Taungya system was adopted forestablishing teak plantations, often with under-plantings of mahogany.Pines and eucalypts have been planted in up-country grasslands(patana) since 1938. During the past hundred years extensive tracts ofnatural forest have been cleared in the face of rapidly increasingpopulation pressures, Much forest was subject to destructive Chena(slash and bum) shifting cultivation, while a focus on wood productionand clearing for agricultural development saw Sri Lanka, incurring veryhigh rates of deforestation until quite recently. In 1990 a logging banwas implemented in all natural forests in Sri Lanka.

The principal objectives for forest management in Sri Lankaas outlined in the Forestry Master Plan 1995, include: establishment ofa protected area network that is fully representative of forestecosystems, and species. This is to be supplemented by ex-situconservation wherever necessary; creation of a permanent forestestate, which is categorized into various forest classes depending onthe objectives of management. It is proposed that all forest areas willbe managed scientifically through appropriate forestry managementplans, and with people's participation wherever possible. This willinclude development and management of agro-forestry systems andimprovement of the wood production potential of home gardens.

Forest plantations being managed as commercial ventures byestablishing a "forest plantation profit center'. Partnerships will be builtfor the scientific management of the plantations with appropriatecommunity based organizations or the private sector. In addition,degraded state lands will be leased out on a long-term basis to theprivate sector for the development and management of forestplantations.

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The National Forest Policy, developed in 1995, has forestconservation as its primary emphasis. The Policy stipulates that alarge proportion of the forests be completely protected through theestablishment of a protected area system. Forest conservation effortsare expected to take special account of biodiversity, soil and waterconservation objectives. The policy aims to promote multiple-useforestry with natural forests outside the protected area system beingmanaged in sustainable way to help meet increasing demands for bio-energy, wood and nori-wood forest products and various services offorests, especially for the benefit of the rural population. The policyalso recognizes the crucial role played by home-gardens, agro-forestry, and trees outside forests, in supplying timber, fuel-woods andnon-wood forest products. The policy advocates further developmentof community participation in forest management with a particularfocus on broadening the institutional framework for forestmanagement with clearly defined roles and responsibilities for theforest partners. Farmers, community organizations, NGOs andcommercial entrepreneurs are all expected to become partners withthe State in assuming appropriate forest management roles,


Forest management plans are prepared for both naturalforests and forest plantations and provide operational prescriptions forimplementing key forest policy guidelines. Management plans arerequired to provide for the conservation of forests, with particularregard to biodiversity, soils, water, and historical, cultural, religiousand aesthetic values. Management also seeks to increase theproductivity of the forests and to enhance the contribution of forests tothe welfare of the rural population. State forest management planshave the objective of bringing all state forests under sustainablemanagement, both in terms of the continued existence of importantecosystems, and the flow of forest products and services. Naturalforests are managed firstly for conservation values, and secondly formultiple use production forestry. All forest areas in Sri Lanka areconsidered to be under formal management.


In the absence of harvesting in natural forests, the keySilvicultural interventions are planting and release of seedlings as arehabilitative measure in degraded forest areas. A variety of

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Silvicultural techniques are applied to plantation-grown species. Inteak plantations, for instance, a typical initial stocking is between1,200 and 1,600 plants per hectare. Plantations are heavily thinned toa final stocking of around 300 sterns per hectare. Teak rotations are inthe range of 30^0 years, In rubber and coconut plantations (currentlyimportant sources of wood supplies), old stumps are grubbed out priorto re-planting, because they are a possible reservoir of plant pestsand diseases. Other SIMcultural interventions generally relate toimproving production of latex or coconuts. An important objective is todevelop improved management techniques for agroforestry systemsand home gardens to improve wood production potential. At present,home gardens are the predominant agro-forestry technique, while thegovernment is also promoting the taungya system.


Timber harvesting is banned in all natural forests. Non-forestwood resources, consequently, play a major part in wood supplies,Home gardens are the single most important source of wood andcontribute around 40 percent of total log. supplies. Rubber andcoconut plantations provide around 30 percent of timber supplies,while the bulk of the remainder is from unrecorded sources. Forest

plantations and illicit supplies from natural forests contribute around4 percent of total wood supplies.

Elephants are used extensively in logging operations in SriLanka. As experience with mechanized logging has accumulated.elephants have been increasingly recognized as being ideal forcertain forest operations, both in terms of cost and in response todemands for sensitive and responsible environmental management. Anormal harvesting operation in Sri Lanka might comprise felling andbucking with power saws, elephants used for skidding to a roadside,and truck haulage to mills, Elephants skid logs by two methods,selected according to terrain type: the harness method, or the sidemethod. The harness method is used when the terrain is flat and

offers no danger of the log rolling down a slope. Skidding on slopes isdone by the side method, so that an elephant, when sensing danger,can simply jettison the bit from its mouth and release the log instantlyElephants are used to lift logs into trucks, thereby avoiding the needfor additional equipment. Elephants are also employed in sorting logsat landings and depots. The main functions here are rolling, lifting andpushing

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2.26. Thailand

2.26. ,. Background

Forestry in Thailand has historically been controlled by themonarchy with a focus on the utilization of resources. In the inid-1800s the forest area comprised over 70 percent of the total land areaand forests were regarded as sufficiently abundant for people to begranted unconstrained rights to harvest timber, with the exception ofteak. Early commercial forest exploitation was typically on the basis ofnegotiations between colonial buyers (mostly British subjects) andlocal chieftains, who had complete ownership of the forests.The Royal Thai Forest Department was created under the Ministry ofInterior, in 1896, in an attempt to control exploitation of forests. At thistime the concession system and some associated controls wereintroduced, Initially, the Department relied heavily on trainedEuropean forest officers borrowed from India and Burma to administerits forests.

The first teak plantations were established about 1898, butfurther development was sporadic until about 1960, when regularplanting commenced. The Silviculture Division of the RFD established133,800 hectares of commercial plantations by I 980 of which55 percentwere teak. By 1985 the area was 542,100 hectares, and by1994 rose to 827,677 hectares. Eucalyptus was first introduced intoThailand in the northern province of Chiang Mai in f 950. Hailed as afast-growing tree, it was promoted by the government under areforestation scheme to rehabilitate the Thung Kula Rong Hai plains inthe Northeast. Eventually, it was introduced on a broad scaleostensibly to replenish denuded forests. When adverse impacts of theprogramme resulted in conflicts among locals, the ForestryDepartment suspended the promotional scheme.In 1941 the Forest Reserve Act placed the control of all forests landsin Government hands. By the inid-, 960s, the total forest area haddropped to around 50 percent of the land area. In response protectionand conservation measures were introduced into forest managementand it was decreed that the forest cover should be held at 50 percent.Subsequently, village based forestry was introduced and rights tocultivate land were issued. Encroachment into forestland continued,however, and reached a peak between , 976 and 1978 when morethan 2 percent of forest was cleared, annually. The introduction of anational forest policy in 1985, and a widening of forest managementfocus to water catchments protection, fores. t rehabilitation, and

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research, was riot sufficient to halt the loss of forest. By I 998, theforest area had shrunk to only 25 percent of the country's land area.

In 1993, the Government saw benefit in pulp production andlaunched a new project to encourage the private sector to groweucalyptus to feed the industry. The state leased out land for theprivate sector to grow the trees and charged a minimal rent of 10 bahtper rai annually. It also attracted farmers by offering soft loans, andallowing a grace period of five years' Farmers owning hundreds ofthousand rai participated during 1995 and 1997. Pulp productiondemanded I8 million cubic meters of eucalyptus in I 990 and annualdemand is expected to reach 55 million cubic meters in 2015.

Recognition of the severity of deforestation and forestdegradation, and a series of major floods and a landslide that claimedhundreds of lives in late 1988, prompted the government to introducea complete ban on logging in 1989. Measures to protect the remainingforests and promote plantation establishment were also introduced.Thailand has subsequently moved form being a net exporter, to a netimporter of forest products. More latterIy. forest management hasplaced an emphasis on community and people's participation andadvancement.

Sustainable forest management is an important element inThailand's 8th National Economic and Social Development Plan(1997-2001). The principal forest objectives within the plan are topreserve and rehabilitate conservation forests to cover at least25 percent of land area, to maintain mangrove forest areas at riot lessthan 160,000 hectares, and to promote and expand total forest coverto 40 percent of land area.

The five key goals for the Royal Forest Department are:Protection of the remaining natural forest; Forest rehabilitation andforest plantation extension; Reduction of forest and land resourceutilization conflict; Enhancement of management effectiveness; Forestresearch development and extension

These are consistent with the objectives of the 1995 ForestSector Master Plan, which envisages: arresting the destruction of theremaining habitats of biological diversity rehabilitating degradedwatersheds; promoting social justice and equity in forest-based ruraldevelopment; meeting the bulk of national needs for forest-basedproducts from domestic sources; strengthening rural and nationaleconomies; and actively supporting international efforts to controlglobal warming.

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2.26, ^2GForest;managem9!!tPla!!^;r! d if!:3:0:1^!ia, ion 22;\,! it}T*e;?2.1.:: ,,*I :'*, *. , \:~., it : :'-, ,if!{ - !'. iris' ;'13<. at: \, ip. 'If, I .;', 191;it ,*,'I :=;;\,; ':'*c *c :

t:!\;. r;*I;T-h^:...:, preparations{, Qf^ *!:letiQ!laityfoieSb in^n, ^9911/9/1t planscommenced;:. in 4.9^5, ., but, were:,,îscontinu. ^^.;, layê. ^*^' ^0^!!tryW!^glogging ban was leptoneed;, n; ^:^89'1'.!T!^t!^.^4 a, ;Ôi. ^^;^9C!91:, M, Î^!plan Iwa's:.. completed'. inn995în^ny-^19ments, oilîs ;!I:^^;. t!^!^; ,^Qâdopted;:. ask, part. :-Qf^.;T'bail^rid's. ,*n^jig!lab;;;L!.^:!ginîb!â, ^^yÎ^înît'strategy, ;The. *in^crp-!ey!^11^taster^!?!an is êiDg, -imp!99nîtâitj;Q^^^local, level. plans ., drawn:.!!p 6thrpu^h. -!_ a ^91tîn, !IRG PIPp^;^S: . j;fiiâpproach!*has;:been ,apP!I^<13 911.2^, IPIl^t, ;.^^!$i^:,:!p, "by^':pigjj^^^,^:Lampang;inithe: 1/19itlii: an^:^;orîf^^!Di, .ill^. i^^ ^^^^fly;-:TÎ^^^;!!^!:'^designed:to modeltbe. .^Qj!om. up pLqgeSS:!Q, PI^!rining;;IWC, *?;,

, ;. . \*I. . ; A . , . . ,. . a , , a ...,. , ,- . . , . ** I . : - : I, . I, f; - I ,, I -, . r. , ,.,: , I, ^ . .-, . . I* ' . I I . .

^;2653, ;SIIyipql!!, re!ant!. forest:trial!:igemQ. Pi;!;19^tip^^j, 3:51. -:!:It:> ::: . -. A I . .\.: = - . . c! .. , . a. - .\\-. .. . I ' . - 13 .It , ~ - ,. . f:. . 'I, ; i':I .. - I . r; : f: C' : i' -\ '-- ; ,, ' -" - ; I

1.7. .--. :,: NativevTeak, erectQ"at 9180dj$),*âs^:^^^nit^^3 Digst3j^y^r^^.species-:fobcomme!:@jarp!antatjons;CIOjher;;11, ip^^!e^}!p^,\specie^,:^^q. blass !PterqcaipL!$ a'ing!?.roban?!Is, !;:,:!?int^.f9C;^rolls:siSPP. -,, ;;^W!î!^!11^macrophyila and Hopea odoraia are PIahi6d on a smaller:SCj^19, -:j^^^trees:grown. in*plantations; on?909ds!$9i!s .in^Y, :reapji. \jô5^yerage of:60'6entimetetsJofldiameter at, .brea^theigj!t, !grid;::^. QinE;t9rS:'in^^^19ht,in -about:. 50 eyears^,;I;ypic^!Mali20Q*itQ>^1.6Qp:, sterns, ;perl^^gt:ar^:^reipianted. and, .eanopy^closure takes. piac^.*beû^<^!I;tê tbii^. an^,:i991!^-year. and; suppressesIthe:., dev. elopment;:Qf=w^!SEI^:-, Pruning!is:g^!rr!^d.out:. near:the*time. !.@f, panopj; CIO. sur^<;TiiS, bast:I^91-a^^^^.:IPL!TPO$'^!.:qfreducing the chance of ground fires re^g^rig-!:jig:. ip^;!!!I^,.:,!a3!^facilitating. acpg:ss!tq, tile stan. q; The first t^jog^19.99ng!^11y?takes place,when:the;;dominantêight;. reaches;;a!?o9tj^,^pig, lotmet9r$:.,^:!!!,:the,second'when!the;dominantheight. rela!$^9^.. it^t63j^31n^;j^^:!;;:t: 11*,,.;I:Teak; isealso, ;thendominantstiee:in; merit!!ixedl^.^qj4!!Pi!^. forestîpfnorthern Thailand. These f6rests, -Iare, qp^nt:witty!9a^!!^95,591Î^^, or

jin*small*groups. IHoweverijJQggingiiin, *n^tU191eiQi^^t$::in:.^hailand was.banned:inn989!:Inithe. absenê;91th1.5. banj!tile. -. natjgnal. for^^try:pg!19y,states, that efficiency!in timberproductiQn;$110u!^ be. in. qreas^d';t^!9119h' appropriate_'forest, management. tech. I!iq!!e. SLusingboi^:Sgl^pnPn. !an;I'clear-cutting systems. ., I;-.., ^-;;~. ,,- *....:! ,.., .*. I. ,,\.: .: .:-,,. :^.,-; -:;:.- .-: ^..* ~ The clearcutting Isystem required thd^:the:* cleared;area . ^p

: replanted jinm'ediately. :Teak forests .were roaringed, under a 130. yearfelling cycle; trees to be felled were marked and girdled. for, felling. -j'êtropical evergreen forest was managed under a similar'System andthesame felling cycle. The dry Dipterocarp forest was managed under'modified coppice' and 'GOPpice with standards systems, based on a20-year rotation.

' '~ ' I ' " . ' ' ' ' ' " ' ,. ' I , ~ ' '~ ' ' ~ ,' ' I ' J I . , ' ' ' ' ' ' ' :' c FF '> ' ' ' I' ' ' ~ . ' ' \ ' ' ' I ' ' ' ' ' '

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The Forest Master Plan specifies eucalyptus and pulpproduction as major tools to rehabilitate degraded forests. Eucalyptustrees in Thailand are felled for pulp at five years of age andreplacement saplings are planted immediately. The trees, however,extract large amounts of water from the soil, which is a particularproblem where rice is grown in adjacent areas, The root system of thetrees is also extensive and difficult to remove for alternate cropping.

Mangrove forests are valuable to both the economy andprotection of coastal environments. Local people for variety ofpurposes including firewood, charcoal, poles, tannin, and medicineand fish nurseries have traditionally utilized the forests, The forestsare two-storied, with an upper layer up to 20 in high

The SIIvicultural system in natural mangrove forests has beenrevised from time to time in order to suit auction licensing, to promoteeffective regeneration and to prevent illegal cutting. The traditionalSilvicultural system applied is clear felling in alternate strips. Rotationis set at 30 years with a felling cycle of 15 years' In practice, dividingthe area into 15 coupes, forming an angle of 450 to the tide, andcutting alternate strips every 15 years, thus giving a rotation of30 years, does it. This Sitvicultural system shows good results andcontinues to be used today.

Mangrove plantations in Thailand belong either to the RoyalForest Department or to private individuals. The two species that arecommercially planted on a large-scale are Rh^^ophoia apiculata andRhizophora inucronata. Rhizophora species are generally planted at aspacing of I X I in or 1.5 x 1.5m. The cutting rotation applied forprivate plantations is fixed at 10 years for firewood and charcoalburning,


In May 1989, two Royal Decrees were passed to amend andsupplement the Forest Act. making provision for a nationwide ban oncommercial timber production from natural forests. Timber harvestinghas been reduced drastically since the implementation of these bansand is now only undertaken in plantations and mangroves. As aconsequence, there is riot the impetus to develop reduced-impactharvesting guidelines, or a harvesting code of practice. In principle,Thailand has moved to implement sustainable yield managementharvesting practices for its plantation forests with logging operationsbased on selective cutting.

.

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2.27. United States of America

2.27. ,. Background

About one-third of the total U. S. land area is made up offorestland, which is land that is at least 10 percent stocked by foresttrees of any size. The forests vary from sparse scrub forests of theand, interior West to the highly productive forests of the Pacific Coastand the South, and from pure hardwood forests to multi-speciesmixtures to coniferous forests. Most of the forestland in the eastern

U. S. is in private ownership, while most land in the west is public.American forest have a wide variety of forest types and ages,

including old-growth stands, naturally regenerated forests, andplanted forests. Areas of old growth remain in the Pacific Northwest,parts of California, and much of the Rocky Mountains. East of the100'' meridian, most of the forests are second growth, naturallyregenerated stands. In some cases, these lands were never fullyconverted to agricultural use, but selective logging was common. Thetree species found in these stands are usually similar to those thatwould have existed there before European settlement. Even in mostforest plantations, the species composition mimics the forest thatwould have naturally regenerated there (Sedj0,1991).

227.2. Silviculture and forest management practices

Suitable Lands-Of the 93 million acres of commercialforest!ands on NFS lands, an estimated 47 million acres (51%) areconsidered suitable for timber production. Lands that are suitable fortimber production are those that are capable of reforestation within5 years of harvest. able to be harvested without irretrievable damageto soils or watershed, and are riot in an area reserved by Congress orotherwise determined to be unavailable for timber production.Responsible officials may establish timber production as a multiple-use land management plan objective for lands where costs of timberproduction are justified by the ecological, social, or economic benefits.

Through the land management planning process, eachnational forest and grassland determines the location and amount ofsuitable acres. Of the 47 million acres within the National Forest

System designated suitable for timber production, there are anestimated 9 million acres (roughly 20 %) located in inventoried roadless areas where existing land management plans would allow timber

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harvest and road constructions to occur in the Western United Statesand Alaska.

The trend in Silvicultura! practices is shifting away from even-aged management toward management of uneven-aged standsprimarily due to public controversy .and management concerns aboutnori-timbers resources. These multi-story and multi-age stands requirethinning and other Silvicu!tural treatments with greater frequency, thusneeding road access more often, Thinning to remove excessiveforest fuels, before using prescribed fire, or to treat diseased or incestinfested stands is often economical Iy feasible only if a road system ispresent- (Us DA Forest Service) 1999c). Nationally, clear cutting hasdecreased from 31 % to total harvested acres in 1989 to to % in 1997(Us DA Forest Service 1998b). This downward trend is expected tocontinue.


Of the 747 million acres of forestland in the United States in1997, about 490 million acres are considered commercial (capable ofgrowing 20 cubic feet or more of wood per acre per year),Approximately 70 % of all commercial forestland is found in theEastern United States; roughly 30 % is found in the West. Privatelands account for 71 % of the total commercial forestland; theremaining 10 % are in other public or tribal ownerships. On publiclands, almost 7 % of the total forestland base has been set aside fromtimber production. Some 78 % of the reserved forestland area is inthe West

The volume of timber on all forestlands has been increasingsince I952 when inventory data first became available. Much of thehardwood timber volume is in the East, while much of the softwoodvolume is in the West. In the West, 46 % of the softwood timberresources are on NFS lands (Us DA Forest Service 1999b).

Within the I 92 million-acre National Forests System, theForest Service manages ,40 million acres of forestland, 56 % of totalfederal dorest land. Because of the distribution. of public lands, 78 %of the commercial forest and on national forests is in the West.

In 1997, the volume of growing stock on all National ForestSystem (NFS) lands was approximately 1,260 billion (nearly1.3 trillion)-board feet (BBF). Net annual timber growth in 1996 on allNFS lands was about 20.5 BBF. Removal of timber volume from allNFS lands due to harvest, mortality, or land clearing for the same yeartotaled about 4.1 BBF, or approximately 20 % of growth (Us DA ForestService I 999b), While the I 996 removal is riot a current annual

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PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F)StrengtheningS"st@jin6f0 %, 4,843e", e"torgy'arumrrores, sinnsic. eonj^c

average, the difference between growth and removal is indicative ofan ongoing substantial net increase in volume of wood fiber standingon NFS lands.

Trends in Consumption, Production, and Import of WoodProducts- a significant effect of the reduction in Federal timber harvestbetiNeen 1987 and 1997 (from about 13 BBF to 4 BBF annually) hasbeen to trahsfer harvest to private forest ecosystems in the UnitedStates and to forest ecosystem in Canada (MacCleery 2000). Forexample:

. Since 1990, United States softwood lumber imports fromCanada rose from a2 to 18 BBF, increasing from 27 % to36 % of United States softwood lumber consumption. Muchof the increase in Canadian lumber imports has come fromthe native old-growth boreal forest. In Quebec alone, theexport of lumber to the United States has tripled since 1990.The increased harvesting of the boreal forest in Quebec hasbecome a public issues there,Harvesting on private lands in the southern United States alsoincreased after the reduction of Federal timber harvest in theWest. Today, the harvest of softwood timber in thesoutheastern United States exceeds the rate of growth for thefirst time in at least 50 years' Increased harvesting of fiber bychip mills in the southeastern United States has become apublicissue regionalIy.

Total national production of lumber, plywood, and all othertimber products in the United States has been relatively stable overthe past decade, averaging slightly more than 18 billion cubic feetannually from 1997 to-, 999. However, total national consumption of

timber products during the same period has averaged about 20 billioncubic feet annually. Sofhaood lumber production is the largestcategory within the totals above. National .production has riot beenkeeping pace with demand. Production averaged 35 BBF whileconsumption averaged 45 BBF annually.

National Forest Timber Harvest- Timber harvest is theprocess by which trees with commercial value are cut and removedfrom the forest. Timber sale refers to a contractual process of sellingthe timber to a purchaser and implementing a series of harvestingrequirements for what type, how and when the trees are removed.For purposes of this analysis, these terms are used interchangeably.

Timber sales are often used as a least-cost method ofmanaging vegetation to meet resource objectives or to achievedesired ecosystem conditions. These objectives or desired conditionsinclude improving wildlife, reducing fuels that may increase fire risk,recovering timber value from natural disasters, such as windstrom or

.

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PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F)Stre, !gate, ,i, ^$^st@I'm6fo", tc"49,111entq"or"turnfForests i"^sad-G'"6:1^c

fire, reducing impact of insect and disease, and improving tree growthin addition to producing timber from the national forest.

Roads are required to support a timber sale, and frequentlythey must be constructed or reconstructed to meet timber harvest orother resource management objectives. Roads are needed to moveequipment into the area and to haul logs or other forest products tothe community where they will be processed, While timber can beharvested using helicopters or cable yarding systems from existingroads, the terrain. and the distance to an existing road, Each timbersale contract specifies the yardng method . and any permanent ortemporary road construction and reconstruction required.

Road spacing and distance from the nearest road have adirect effect on yarding coast of wood fiber. As the road spacing ordistance from the nearest road increases, so does the averageyarding distance for a given harvest unit. This affects turn speeds andproduction rates, which affect yarding costs. Frequently, the edge of aharvest unit furthest from the road reflects the maximum externalyarding distance. External yarding distance dictates the size class ofthe yarding equipment needed to retrieve the material. This in turndetermines the road width needed for that size equipment. Generally,wider road spacing means longer yarding distances, which requireslarger yarders and wider road widths. The location of a road isparticularly important in an area planned for cable logging. Roadslocated at the break provide better cable deflection. which results inlarger payloads and less ground disturbance.

2.28. Vanuatu

2.28. ,. Background

Plant consists of 870 vascular plants, including 130 endemics(15%) 31 endemic orchids (39%) Insects consists of 71 species ofbutterflies, with 5 only in Vanuatu, 26 shared with PNG and/orSolomon Islands; southern islands with distinctive fauna. 12 speciesof ants and termites, 5 endemic (42%) Other invertebrates consist of76 species of land snails, including 57 endemics (50%) Reptiles-Amphibians : 22 species, including 4 endemic lizards Perochirusguentheri (Saw-tailed Gecko) group endemic. Efate and Anatom,know from 4 specimens. Ernoia speiseri (Speiser's Skink) groupendemic, Ambrym, Anatom, Efate, Malakula. Birds : 57 species ofland birds, 2 endemic genera and 5 other endemic species Pmnopustannensis (Silver-shouldered Fruit Dove) group endemic Ducula bakeri

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PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F)Strengthening SIrst","46fo ^,@, IC^elite"t96w'@t",@f4"orestsi, Instz-eony^

Participatory approaches and flexible forestcommunities.

management to support communities and agricultural production wereriot encouraged. Local communities considered public forestsbelonged to 'everybody, but nobody' and over-exploited themaccordingly. Of 1.34 million hectares of plantations established to1992, only 0.4 million hectares were considered successful. Mostwere poor in quality, with limited economic, social and environmentalbenefits.

The central objectives of Vietnamese forest policy are to:meet the nation's needs for forest products and sustainableenvironmental protection; increase social and economic benefits offorest resources through efficient utilization; increase people'sparticipation in forest protection and utilization; and improve the livingconditions of the rural population through forestry development.

A central plank in Viet Nam's forestry strategy is the IndustryPlantation Programme (The 'Five Million Hectare ReforestationProgramme'), This programme envisages the establishment of 5million hectares of intensiveIy managed industrial plantations(including rehabilitated areas), by 2010. It focuses on: (a) the creationand more effective protection of special use forests and watershedprotection forests; (b) the economic regeneration or expansion offorests to meet domestic consumption and export needs of the woodproducts industry; and (c) the effective development of communeswith bare lands/hills to create more employment, improve incomesand reduce the pressure on forests, A ban on wood and timberextraction from many natural forests is in place and it is planned totransform the' Vietnamese forestry sector by placing a strongemphasis on forest plantations, and protection, regeneration andrestoration of natural forests. By 2010, it is planned to haveestablished a system of protection forests covering 8 million hectares,providing (among others) watershed and soil protection services. Theforest estate will also include a system of special-use forests coveringmore than I million hectares of natural forests, incorporating NationalParks, Protected Areas, and Historic Sites, as well as a system ofproduction forests. Special-use forests are planned to extend overI O million hectares, in which forest plantations will play a key woodsupply role,


Forest management plans have been given relatively lowemphasis in Viet Nam. The land allocation process, which has seen5 million hectares of forestland devolved to Vietnamese households,

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PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F)strengthening SUEt"inn6f0 9/@/'430me"torgy'@tyrefQ;'ores, ,in^sin4'coy^

largely precludes the preparation of detailed management plans formany specific tracts of forest, Forests that remain under control ofstate agencies have formal management planning applied.

2.29.3, Silviculture and forest management practices

Strong restrictions on harvesting in natural forests mean thatthe focus of Si!vicultural efforts in Viet Nam is on rehabilitating naturalforests and establishing plantations. Protection forests, managed forthe conservation of water and soil, and to counter the erosive impactsof water and wind, form the largest category of natural forests. Theseforests have been given increased Silvicultural attention in recentyears, with supplementary planting being carried out as a part of forestmaintenance, regeneration and restoration. Denuded hillsides andbarren lands are being reforested, often with multi-stoned forestplantations. At present, the average quality of Silviculture is likely to below, given that households, which have received forestland tenurethrough the land allocation process, are carrying much of the work out.

The principal plantation species on barren and degradedlands is Eucalyptus carnaldulensis. Sitviculture is negligible with seedsmainly collected locally (from small trees where seeds are mostaccessible), poor planting stock, little site preparation, no fertilizing,weeding. thinning or protection, The trees are susceptible toCylindrocladium fungal attack during the wet season and leaves,twigs, and branches are foreged for fuel wood, thus breaking thenutrient cycle. Growth performance is, consequently, generally poorwith mean annual increments commonly in the range of5-8 in Ihectare/year.


In the past, production forests have been managed to meetthe objectives of both timber production and environmental protection.However, as natural forests were cleared or degraded, duringdecades of high-impact timber extraction and shifting cultivation, thegovernment has enacted decisions to limit production for a period of15-20 years to assist forest restoration and rejuvenation. A timberexploitation ban was placed on special-use forests and reservedforests (most natural forests) in 1992, and also encompassed limits onother logging. Collection of all forest products from protected areas,and critical watersheds has been banned for 30 years. Commerciallogging has been prohibited in the remaining natural forests of

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PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F)St",^timing Sustaina6f0",,",, 43e", e"t^:N'@turnfQ"orestsi, ,^sir4Z'"cry^C

Northern Viet Nam, southeast of the South -Mekong Delta, and in theRed River Delta. An annual allowable cut of 300,000 cubic meters willbe applied from Year 2000. A ban has also been placed on timberexporting.

Timber extraction is done in conventional method, clearcutting is applied in plantation forests.

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PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F)strengthening sustain"6@ :It@"qgeme"torgy'"turnf!F'oustsin/Ism-Q'eraj^

The implementation of Reduced Impact Logging (R!L) in AsiaPacific Region varies among the countries. RIL is being developed,and adjusted to the specific ecological condition and Silviculturesystem in the country. The general condition is shown in Table 3.Forest legislation and National Forestry Policy were made. Code ofPractice, Reduce Impact Harvesting Guidelines, Operational Operator,Accreditation and Demonstration Forest were developed, or beingdeveloped, or will be planned or nil. The important progress was also

the APFC member countries. Each APFC membermade amongcountries should issue their own code of forest harvesting practice.FAO model code of forest harvesting practice can .be used forguideline (Dykstra and Heinnch, I 996). To evaluate theimplementation of RIL the Environmental Impact Assessment shouldbe done.

Silvicultural system should be considered in RILimplementation since each species has its own SIIvlcultura! regimes.Modified system must be done in proper way,

In most cases, skilled and trained operator and workforce isstill needed, It should be supported by the rational incentives, goodsafety and health to reduce the accident. Safety has tended to beneglected as results of economic difficulties. POSchen (2000)suggested that occupational safety and health criteria should be partof the criteria of sustainable forest management. ILO Code of Practiceon Safety and Health in Forestry Work should be implemented.

1/1. GENERAL PROBLEM

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PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV, I (F)yin, !4thami^1345t@Inn6f0 :1.1""@88me"torgy'ct"mrQ"orest$ trillsi"-!2'"c#^c

IV. CONCLUSIONS

A successful code of forest practice requires a solidfoundation of research and other comprehensive analyses toaccurately identify forest practice problem as well as cost-effectivesolution and Sitvicultural regimes.

The success of RIL implementation can be enhanced if forestowners, managers and operators can actively communicate their viewand experience throughout the process of designing, applying andrevising the code.

To improve forest-harvesting practices, a skilled and trainedworkforce is essential. Developing such a workforce requires morie .resources and support from all levels of management, dedication bforest supervisors, enthusiasm from trainers and. above all,application of the required standards by all forest operators. All in a'orindustry organizations are required to have accredited operators. Theneed of regional training center for RIL is crucial.Transfer of technology among the member countries is needed.

..

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PRE. PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F)Strungtfiet, ing S"stdinc6&! arc",!genentorgy'"turnf"orestsin, asi^41'4c;I^CTable a jin Iemenjatjon of K6 Elements of Sustainable Forest Maria ement in Asia-Pacific: Count Status APFC 2000

Sub-Region Country Legislation National Code of Reduced. Impact

Pacific Region(MelanesIaIPolynesia)

Australia

FunNew GaledoniaNew ZealandPNGSamoaSolomon IslandsVanuatu

South-East

Asia Region

V

CambodiaIndonesiaLao PDR

MalaysiaMaldives

MyanmarPhilippinesThailandVietnam

VIIIIVV

South Asia

Forest Policy

Region

VVVVVVVV

VVVVVVVVV

Bangladesh

East Asia

BhutanIndia

MongoliaNepalPakistanSri Lanka

Region

V

Practice

State-based forestry management with each state determining its own Codes of Practices and Reduced Impact Logging Guidelines,Some countries in the Pacific are currently reviewing their Codes of Practice.

V

VVVVVVVVV

VVVVI

China

VJapanRepublic of Korea V

VVVVVI

VIVV Harvest guidelinesNilVMinimal logging

Harvesting Guidelines

States have own Guidelines

DevelopingNilCombined with CodePlannedPlanned

VIVVVVV

-v

DevelopingV

Logging SuspendedV

Planned

DevelopingInstitutions/CompaniesDevelopingV Some StatesNil

DevelopingMinimal LoggingLogging SuspendedPlanned

V

DevelopingPlanned

DevelopingPlannedPlanned

Developing

VV

OperationalOperator

Accreditation

NilNil

VDevelopingNilNilNil

DevelopingVPlanned

Demonst

Planned

rationForests

Planned

NilNil

Some Forest TypesNil

Planned

Nil

Company basedNilVNilNilNilNilNil

INilVPlannedPlannedPlannedI

PlannedVPlanned

NilVVVNilVVVNil

NilNilNilNil

NilNilNil

Nil

Nil

NilNil

NilNil

NilNilNilNil

NilNil

PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F)Strengthening SLs, a, ', 3461^ "^,@"49ene"t

~ orgy@twinfFore$tsi"/15,242'coy^c

Antstrong. S. , and C. Inglis, 2000. RIL for real: Introducing Reduced Impart LoggingTechniques into Commercial Forestry Operation in Guyana. International ForestryReview. V01,2 No. I .

APFC, 2000, Regional Strategy for Implementing the Code of Practice for Forest Harvesting inAsia-Pacific. CIFOR. Jakarta, Indonesia,

Andrewartha, R. , 2001. Training to Achieve Competence: Competencybased Training andEducation in Vanuatu. Have Helped Improve Forest Harvesting Practices. InOTropical Forest Update. Vol. I I. No. 2.

Bull G. Q. . R. Pulkki, W. Kilmann and O. Schwab, 2001. Does It Cost or Does It Pay: anInvestigation of the costs and Benefits of Reduced Impact Logging, ITTO TropicalForest Update, Vol. It , No. 2.

MCCormark R. J. 1996. A review of Forest Practice Codes in Australia. In: Forest Codes ofPractice: Contributing to Environmentally Sound Forest Operations. Proceeding of anFAO I IUFRO Meeting of Experts on Forest Practices Feldafing, Germany, 11-14December 1994.

Dykstra, D. P. . and R. Hemrich, 1996. FAO Model Code of Forest Harvesting Pradice. FAO,Rome.

Elias, 1999. Introducing a Manual on Reduced Impact Timber Harvesting in the IndonesianSelective Cutting and Planting System. InO Tropical Forest Update VCI. 9, No. 3.

FAO. 1982. Forestry in China. FAO Forestry Paper. Rome.

FAO, 2000. Committee on Forestry.

Forest Department, Myanmar Timber Enterprice and Planning and Statistics Department,2000. National Code of Forest Harvesting Practice in Myanmar. Union of MyanmarMinistry of Forestry Yangon.

Isa, H. (1989), Wildlife management in the Solomon Islands. Case Study 10. Fourth SouthPacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu,4-12 September. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Cared onia. 6 pp,

IUCN, 1991. The Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests Asia and the Pacific. Mac MillanPress Ltd. London and Basingstoke,

Lamprecht, 1989. SiMculture in the Tropic. GTZ.

Marigold, R. 1997. Forest Health Monitoring: Field Methods Guide (International-Indonesia).Us DA- Forest Service.

Reid, J. and R. Rice, 1997. Assessing Natural Forest Management as a tool for TropicalConservation. Am bio V0126 No. 6.

REFERENCES

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PRE-PROJECT 19/99 REV. I (F)Strengthening $43t@inc6fo MCRqgeme"torgy'arumfForesLs i, alastz-@'"c:j?c

Rusiim. Y. , A. Hinrichs, and R. Ulbricht, 1999. Technical GUIdline for Reduced Impact TradorLogging. SFMP Document No. 10a. Indonesian-German Technical Cooperation.Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops in Cooperation with Deutsche Gesellschaft furTechnische Zusammerabeit.

Siregar. OA. and Supriyant0, 2001. Trend of Soil Chemical Property Changes on ForestHealth Monitoring Activities Conducted in South Kalimantan, Jambi and East Java.Technical Report N0. : 21. InO-SEAMEO BIOTROP - MOF and UsDA-FS.

Sist, P. 2000. Reduced Impad Logging in the Tropics: Objectives, Principles, and Impacts.International Forestry Review V01.2 No. I .

Sloth. B. (1988). Nature Legislation and nalure conserve!Ibn as part of to un'sin developmentin the island Pacific. Pacific Regional Tourism Development Programme. TourismCouncil of the South Pacific, Suva. F1i. 82 pp

Strehlke B. . 1996, F1i National Code of Logging Practice. In: Forest Codes of Practice:Contributing to Environmentally Sound Forest Operations. Proceeding of an FAO IIUFRO Meeting of Experts on Forest Practices Febafing, Germany. 11-14 December1994.

Van der HDut. P. 1999. Reduced Impact Logging in the Tropical Rain Forest of Guyana. PhDdissertaion. University Unecht.

Vanuatu Department of Forests, 1999, Vanuatu Reduced Impact Logging Guidelines, VanuatuDepartment of Forests. Port Vila.

Webb, E. L. 1997. Canopy Removal and Residual Stand Damage During Controlled SelediveLogging in Lowland Swamp Forest of Northeast Costa Rica. Forest Ecology andManagement 95:, 17.29.

Wenze!, L. (1989). Environmental and Change in the Pacific : a survey of resource use andpolicy in F^i, W. Samoa. Vanuatu and Solomon Islands. INR Environmental StudiesReport No. 43. Institute. of Natural Resource, University of the South Pacific. SUva,Fom. 95 pp.

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