-The Architecture of the Khan-e-.Jahan Style:

Context and influence

111I1I111mmJIlllIllllllllIl U1199053#

MD. All NAQJ

,A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT DFARCHITECTURE, BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY

OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, DHAKA BANGLADESH IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THEREQUIRMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE

MARCH 2003

I

••

_ -4'K ---,Department of ArchitecbJre

Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka-l000.

The theSIS IIIled, "The Architecture of the Khan-e-Jahan Style: Context and influence"

submitted by Md. Ali Naqi, Roll Number 9501005, session 1994-95-96 has be.en acceptable

in partiallulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Architecture. On this day,

31"' of March. Monday. 2003,

BOARD OF EXAMINlES:

Md. Khairul Enam

Professor

Department of Architecture, SUET.

(Thesis Supervisor)

Dr, Md Shahidul Ameen

Professor and Head

Departmenl of Architecture, SUET,

Dr. Faruque A U Khan

Professor

D€partment of Architecture, SUET,

Or, K M. Manlruzzaman

D€partment 01 Urban and Regional Planning,

SUET.

Chairman-- _

"-l """"'" ~ ~-"J" .

Member _

(External)

-

-Candidates Deela'ratlon

II is hereby declared thallhls thesis or any part of it has not been submitted elsewhere for the

award of any degree or diploma.

Signature of the Candidate

Name of the Candidate

Md. Ali Naqi

Abstract

The Architecture of the Khan.•.•.•ahan Style: Context and Influence

Md. Ali Naqi

For centuries the very fertile soil of 8engal has developed a number of independent styles in

its deferent regions. Among them the Khan--e-Jahanstyle stands out with its own Identity in

the southern Sunderban area. The ArcMectural out come of thiS Style In and around the

Khalifatabad city, 8agerhat bears the semantic and symbolic inner structure of reasoning

systems of the builder The austere ideals of a religious leader, the necessary functionality ona marshy frontier region, the Impressions of a jungle life and moreover the hostile nature of

the climatic conditions ttlese are the determlnanls that defined the structure of these

architectural monuments and its place in Bengal culture. The study reveals these underlyingforces that constitute the Architecture of the Khan-e-Jahan Style,

The style was nourished from the very conte>dual realities that the builder has faced dunng

his development endeavors, As a member of a fui! grown and independent Style these

monuments are very sympathetic to its geo.dimatic context and have developed a number of

unique techniques and systems to meet the situations. The extreme austere appearance of

the bnck monuments, ttle relatively dwarf looking reduced lIOidsor openings on the facades

and evolutionary development of independent to complex organization marks the identifying

characters of this style Along with them the use of curved cornice. the placement of stone

course at the base, the terracotta string-motifs and the water drainage system all these are

directed towards a common goal, ttlatls to continue longer with minimum resource in a very

antagonistic contextual setting, Through this struggie of existence the Style gained ~s

strength not only to sustain but also to grow and Influence the later architectural

developments In a considerable extent. The Influence of Architecture of Khan--e-JahanStyle is

fell far beyond the boundaries of the 8agerhat area, Masjid Bari MOSQueat Patuakhali and

Hammad's Mosque at Kumira are two finest examples of such influences The mostmentionable and the noblest influence of this Style is the introduction of Choucha/a roof. The

Pancharatna layout of Hindu temples drew its organizational Inspiration from the maturedIonns of Khan--e-JahanStyle.

This study can also be considered as a guideline lor the conservation of the monumenls

under the Khan-e-Jahan Style The guidelines are drawn not from the apparent outlooks but

from the deeper meaning of the Archttecture of Khan--e-JahanStyle: meanings rooted in bothspiritual and physical conceptualities,

ii

,,

Acknowledgements

I acknowledge my sincere gratitLJdeto my research supervisor Professor Khalrul EllI.m for

his generous gUidance and constructive suggestions at every stage of my worK Words are

not adequate to convey my sense of gratitude to him. It has been a pleasing experience to

work under his supervision. My thanks are due to Professor Shahldul Ameen and

Professor QazJ Azizul Mowla, Department of Arcl1lteclure, Bangladesh University ot

Engineering and Technology, Dhaka and Dr. Abu Say""d Mostaqua Ahmed. Associate

Professor, Department of Archflecture, Asia Pacif,c University. Dhaka with whom I had

constructive consultations in vanous slages,

I owe a deep sense of gratilude to the various authors on the subject whose works have been

a constanl and continuous source of stimulation and either intensively used or quoted by me

in lhis study I am also thankful to Ar. Ziaullslam, Ar. Fllguni Mallik, Ar. Animan Mostala,

Ar. Marm Hoss.ain, Ar. Hafizur Rahman and AT. Imtia Ahmed for helping me In surveying

and In the preparation of lhe drawmgs. There were also many willing people who assisled me

In this research, It will not be pOSSibleto recall everybody by name but should not avoid

mentioning lhe name of Mr. Shihabuddin Md. Akblt, Regional Director (In.charge),

Departmenl of Archaeology. Khulna Division who supplied me with all the drawings of thai

department and offered hiS full co-operation in this pursutt

My wife Dr. Nargis Akhtar, son Purha and daughter Nayrila were always a source of

inspiration. They shared my wearied time and have been patient in many ways over lhe years

of this research

Last but not lhe least; I gralefully acknowledge the encouragement of my parents which

helped me in complellng the study. I am grateful to lhem

Md. Ali Naqi

Iii

The ArchItecture of the Khan-e-Jahan Style: Context and influence

ContentsPall-

Declaration

Abstract iiAcknowledgements iiiTable of Contents "List of plates ;,List if ligures ,Listof tables ,

• Backdrop of Study

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Stiltement ofthe Problem

1.3 Objectives of the Study

1.3.1 Styleidentificationaspecls

'.3 2 $oc;o."ultural,""othetlc& idanlityaspects

1.3.3 Climaticaspecls

'.3.4 Organizationalaspects

'.3.5 St",c!uralaspects

1.4 BrIefReview of Related Literature

1.5 Important issues of the Study

1.5.1 Thecontext

1.52 TheStyle&Architecture

15.3 InfiuenceoftheSlyle

1.6 Organization of research

1.61 Uteraturesurvey1.6.2 PhysicalSurvey

i. SelectionofAreaSurveyedii SelactlonofSamplemooument.

i,

'-n I,2

3

3

3

3

3,4,

""""

""

1.'l.B

1.'1.10

1.6 3 Su~ and data colledJon

1,6,4 Analysis 01the data collected

1,6,5 Synthesisof the finding.

El(pe<:ted outputs of the Study

L1mltlltlon ofthe Study

Framework of the Report

Concluding Remarks

16

""16

Bengal: Context for Khan-e-.Jahan and his Style

2.6.2

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Historicalcontext

2.2.1 EarlyMu.lim Pemd ofBer>gal

2.2.2 Identityof Khan.e.Jshan and hiSbacllgfound

2.3 TheGao-polilicalcontext2,3,1 Topographyof Sengal

2.3.2 The Strategic posiHon o( Bengal in ralation to centrsl India

2.3,3 Khulns, too southern Bengal region

2 3.4 Sundarban'''Ilion

2.4 ClimaticFactor.>2.4.1 Bengal

24.2 KhulnaandSundarb<lnregion

2.5 SettlementsInBenga'

2.5.1 RuralSettlements

2.5.2 UrbanSaUlements

2.6 Phllosophicslsettingsin socialcontelct2.6.1 Developmentof IdeasIn Bengal

i. The VediC school

" JainlsmIii. BU<ldhistschool

Introductionof Islamic Schoo 01thOClghl

i. Sword Ttwory

ii. Polilical PatronageTheoryIii. Social Liberatfon Theory

"'. PersuasionTheoryv. Syncretistic Theory

VI Frontier Theo<y

voi. Local PersonalftyTheory.iii. Open VIllageTheory

""""""

"""

'"'""""

'""'"

2.7 Concluding Remarks "

Theoretical Antecedent: Conceptual framework ofBengal Style Identification

2.' Introduction "2.2 Semantic approach elf the Bengal Style "3.2,1 The terms of Slyle "3.2,2 Self-conscious process end context "2.2 PQtentialities of Early Muslim Bengal Style "33.1 Mt>aning01the term 'Style' "33.2 Components of Early Muslim Bengal Styles "The Concept

" The approachW. Fmm and Conlent

3.33 The func:tionaldive<sily01Early Muslim Bengal Style ~, As a faClOroIl1le creative processii. As a factor of evolutioniiI. As a factor 01the socio-cultural and climatic beingiv. As a faclor of the influence exerted by its expression

33.4 The s1ruc:turallevel 01Early Muslim Bengal Style ~

2.' Concluding Remarks "Style Evolution of Bengal Architecture 47-83

.., Introduction "'.2 Backdrops of Syncretism ••<4.2,1 Muslim ArcI1iteclureArohetype ~, Complex Model

" Independent Model

4.22 Ordenng prirteiples of Muslim Arohitecture "<4.2,3 Pre-Muslim ArcI1itecturalTradmons 01Bengal "'.2 Onset of Syncretism "43.1 The Mamluk Style ", Natural and socio-political fOfce. OO~"

" The concept. ideaiii, Form and contents: morphologyiv. Philosophic trend: attitude, Symbolic nature: meaning, Ufe modes: slalus

4.3,2 The Eany Illyas Shahl Stylei. Natural and sooi<>-l"'llticallorces: contextii. The concept: ideaiii. Form and contents: morphologyiv Philosophic !rerld: altitudev Symbol,c nalure: meaningiii. Ule modes: status

- -.43,3 Th" EklakhiStyle

,. Naturalandsocio-political!orces;contexti, The "concept ideaiii. Form and contents' morpholCIQYIv PhilosophicIrer<l:attitudev Symbolicnaturemeanirtgvi. lire modes:status

4.3 4

4.35

The Lale<IIIY3$ShahiStylei. Naturalandsocio-politicallon:e.-contextIi. TheGoncept:Ideaii, Form and contents: morphologyIV, Phllosophictrer>d:attitudev. Symbolicnature'meaningVI Life modes: status

Th••HussainShahlStylei. NaturalandSOClo-pollticalforces,conle><lIi. Theconceptidea

ill. Formandcontents,morpllOlogyiv, Philosophiclfer>d:att~udev Symbolicnature:meaningvi. ure modes-swtu.

••• Concluding Remarks "

• The Khan-e-Jahan Style

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Potentialities of Khan-e-JahanStyle as a 'Styl.'5,2,1 ComponentsofKhan-a.JahanStyle

The ConceptII. Theapproac:/1ill. Formandcontent

5,2,2 Thefunctionaldiversityof Khan-e-JahanStyle 66Asa factoroflhe Cfealiveprooess

ii. k, a factor01evol<Jlionm. k, a lectorof thesoGio-rolturaiandclimatJcbeingiv, k, a faclorof the Influenceexert!tdby itsexpression

--I""

,

'.35 2.3 The~lrueturallevelof Kha•.••e-JahanStyle

Part of World Heritage

vii

69

,.• Case StudIes: Khallfatabad, 8agemat, Khulna ",., GROUP 01. Nine Domed mosque group "5.5.1 The Nine dome Mosque "5.5.2 The Mausoleum 01 Khan-e-Jahan "5.5.3 The Mausoleum- Mosque ofKhan.e-Jahan "5.5.4 The Ronvijoypur Mosque "U GROUP 02: Shalt Gambuz mosque group "

5.6.1 The Sheil GomblJ2 Mosque "5,6,2 The Singer Mosque "'5,6.3 The Bib, Begnl Mosque M

5.6.4 The Chunakhola Mosque "'U GROUP 03: Reza Khoda mosque group "5.7.1 The Rem Khoda Mosque "5.7.2 The ZindepJr Mausoleum "5.73 The lmdap" Mausoleurn.mosque "'U Concluding RSmlIrks "

Synthesis between Khan-e-.lahan Style &Architecture

95-117

6.1 Introduction

6.2 ArchitectureKhan-e-Jahanstyle and Innuences621 Receivedinfluence.6,2,2 Outwardinftuences

6.3 ArchiteduralCharacters

6.4.1 Orders

6.4.2 StructuralSystem'formarK!space6.43 Clima~cComponents6.4,4 Monumentality'COrnerturrets6.4.5 Perceptualdesignproces.

6.5 The makingof KhallfatabadCity

6.6 ConcludingRemarks

63,15,3.2

6.4 DesignPrinciplO'S

Settings and ""pressionsFunction artd abstraction

"""'"'"'"'" '"

'"'"""'"m'"m

• Conclusions "",u I

,., Introduction '",., The main findings of the study '", The Style

il. The Slyle - comext dialect

iii. The InAuences of the Style

"Basic ISSUas of lhe Style

U RecommendatiortS m

References

Appendices: A Semantic: B, concept & syml>ol : C Nomination to the World HeritageList by UNESCO

List of Technical terms:

List of Plates used 1Mdifferent chapters .

125-13

I.XVI

XVI.XVlU

PI.too No.

i1.',b

'"•,"'"VIII

","'"XIII

'"Ww,mXVUI

'"~

Title

8en9al; it' Topogrephy, Khen-e-J.h.n'. centre of activities

World Muslim ArchltBCtural Arch8lype

Muslim Order of Space, axtBmization

Muslim Orner of Space, order of a mlhrab

Th. Mamluk style

The Early Illy"" Shahl slyl8

The Ekla.hi style

The Later Illy •• Shahl style

The Hussain Sh.h, .tyle

Nine dome Mosque

Mausoleum 01 Khan+Jahan

Mausoleum- Mosque of Khan-e-Jahan

Ronvijoypur Mosque

Sh.a Gombuz Mo.qus

Sjnger Mosque

Bibi Begni M""qus

ChUM"hoie M""que

Reza Khoda Mo.que

Zind""ir Mausoleum

Zindapir Mausoleum-Mosque

;,

'-.

JlJII ..••

)()(1•.1>,c

)()(I-d,e

)()(II_

a.b.c,d .•.!)()(III_

a.b.c.d.e.f.g

J()(l1l .•••'.11

)()(IV".b."

Influences of Khan-e-Jahan Style

Influence in Khan-e-Jahan styl& in the Monuments oIllaro bazar

Influence in Khan_oWahan styla in oltler Mosques

Muslim order of space that is followed in Khan..e-Jal>an Styr.,

Structural System and Clima~c Component analysis

ExtemallZatlon of circle orde,,"9 princip",," and optic!ll CO<Te<:tions

Khallfatabad city with its monuments

List of figures

Flgut'9 01: Flow diagram of study process

Flgu,. 02: ComparaUv" mode ofform generation. Pre-Muslim and Muslim

Flgu,. 03: Development ofoome; turrets

LIst of tables , j

T.ble 01: Status of Documentation

Table 02: Meaning of the name of Kl1an-e..Jahan

Ta.ble 03: Identity of Ktlan-e..Jah8ll

Table 04: Level of Khan ..e-Jahan Style

,

""'"

""""

Chapter 01

Backdrop of Study

" Introduction

" Statement of\he Problem

" Objective. <>fthe Study

"Boel Review <>fRel.led Llt<lf81ure

" Important Issues 01 the Siudy

" Org.",zlllioO 01 researd1

" E><peclod outpulS or the Stud\',. Llm~",ion altho stud\'

" FrameWf1< 01 the Rcpo~

'" Concluding Remarks

I ."

1.1 Introduction

"Backdrop of Study. °r;VS;;J

\.~' .'.'.;0 .1~'Cif,oL{'" " .. - --'•••••••••" .. _,.~. p"'"

---~-~=".'-,. -

Bengal has a lich cultural tradition. She Involved her inhabitants into a mode of life struggle. a

struggle that pushed him to the frontline of a process of maintaining their ex,stence against

the very hostile forcas of nature That is why the cultural foundation of this deltaic region IS

based on the very realities of nature Individual Architectural aetwijies considered in the

context of their relation to the life struggle of this region constitute the behavioural pattem of

the people living here, when they dialect with one another. they become culture. This is the

realm of values of Styles and emotional attachment of intellectual adventures.

These collective Styles of Bengal Muslims are socially acquired and SOCially transmitted by

means of symbols, Hence these distinctive achievements of human groups, include not only

such items as language, art, government, morals, religion, but also artefacts and ArcMecture

In which intellectual cultural features are given practical effect,

In thrs chapter some variables of the context are Identified to explain the Muslim Architecture

of Bengal as a reflection of the fleeds of a community locorporated in the overall design

process, Sometimes, in this respect, a concrete procedure or statement can not be cited but

pragmatic overall statements are possible which represent the average group feelings of the

community of that time through the semantic decoding of design assimilation. Time is

specially mentioned here because we must not forget the fact that these qualitative judgments

are subjected to constant changing processes. To detennine these vanables we have

evaluated the components of the Style and ijs evolutIOn process.

1

•

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Muslim rule in Bengal conlinued for more than six centuries Before the Mughafs, the region

was ruled by the Independents Sultans. During this perIOd,which we call the Early Muslim

phase of Bengal, many new settlements nourished. The centre of building activities were in

and around the capital c~fesof the Sultans and In the sub-centres of the extending fronliers of

the country.

Khulna region was one of Ihose southern frontiers of the Bengal Sultana\. Here a distinctive

Style of Muslim Bengal Architecture has developed which is known by the name of ~s founder

and is called the Khan--e-JahanStyle, Perhaps Khan-e-Jahan settled the Muslim colony in th,s

region in two consecutive phases, The first phase of settlement is around the present

Barobazar area. Jessore and the second and more matured final phase is in the old city of

Khalifatabad now known as Bagerhat - south of Khulna, The Style in its adoption of a non-

urban Muslim model, auslere and purist aesthetic concep~ exposed brick construction and

highly individualistic proportioning system adorned w~h terra-cotta ornaments has shown a

- Vitalinteraclion of World hentage and local building tradilion in an explicit manner,

Khan--e-Jahan Style was sympathetic towards the local context. which in turn helped its

survival against lhe hostile forces of nature and as a result finest pieces of Archileclure

evolved. Absence of permanent construction materfals, nalural caiam,ties like flood and

cllange of river course. and moreover the hostile warm-humKl climate with the extreme

salinity prevailing in the area raised a dialectiC platform as a context for the bUilders in Khan-

e-Jahan Style.

The elements and features of this Style have influenced the builders of Bengal later on, Thus

lhe Style has also SUMVedin a transformed form to give continuity to lha development of lhe

Architecture of Bengal. Considering the signnocanl role of the Style In the history of

Architecture, Khalifatabad City was included on UNESCO's WOI1dHeritage List under the

convention concerning the protectionof the World Cultul<ll and Nalural Heritage.

2

1.3 Objectives of the Study:

In the light of above mentioned study-issues, the following are the objectives Ofthe study:

1.3.1 Style identification aspects: To make a Style identification; determination 01 the

comparative position of the Khan-e-Jahan Style in the evolutionary prooess. explanation of

the components of the Khan-e-Jahan Style and their archnectural expressklns is the major

aim of the study.

1.3.2 Soclo-<:ultural, aesthetic and Identity aspects.

-To identify the socio--culturalbackground of the Khan-e-Jahan, the founder of the

Style, The individual and collective patterns embodied in the sociai tradnion thaI

is, ethnic identity, lifestyle, custom, religiOUSbelief and activity patterns which

delleloped a more enlightened charactenstlcs by incorporating the local aesthetic

values.

To determine the nature and process of Syncretism, the exchange of ideas

between the modei archetypes, the contextual forces and the final form of

synthesis.

To decode the meaning of the Style by follOWingand re-constructing the design

thought process by analysing its semantic aspects. To understand the atmudes of

,theStyle and its symbols by actually reading the Architecture.

1.3.3 Climatic aspects: To testify that the builders were familiar wnh the geo-<::Iimalic,i.e.

the hostile warm-humid, cornHtions of the locality. The features like the stone damp

proof course, the rain water disposaltrealmen~ the curved cornrce, the use of terra-

cotta etc.

1.3." Organizational aspects: To search out the ordering principles to mark !he onginal

organisations of the Khallfatabad city and its monuments.

3

•

1.3.5 Structural aspects: To point out how the buildings were built of heavy walls, arches

vaulls and domes. adapting to the structural system suited to the capabililie$ of the

bum! clay and the local soil conditions.

1.4 Brief Review of Related Literature:

A brief review of the studies directly or indirecUy related the Khan-e-Jahan Style of Early

Muslim Architecture of Bengal considered as sources 01original of ideas in the explanallon of

the Style ISg>venbelow',

A.8.M Husain (1970):'

The author chronologically described Ihe evolutions 01Min"ra and the comer lurrets in the

monuments of 'Indo-Muslim Archilecture'. He identified the comer turrets of Bengal Muslim

Architecture as a 'drastic modification' 01their 'Tughlaqian forerunners'.

Abul htah Mowlana Jalnul Haque Abedln (1991): 3

Basically the author followed the numerous legends that prevail in the Khulna region about

Khan-e-Jahan. For" researcher, this book will provide Ihe very local view of the present

folk>wers of Khan--e-Jahan and might help to understand the sociai impact of Ihese

monuments on them.

Abu Sayeed MO$lilque Ahmed (1997);'

The only book published On the Early Muslim monuments of Bengal written by an architect.

An essential part 01 his research is the draWings attached which IS the resull of extensive

field-surveys Ihroughout 8engal. An inventory 01 Ihe survwing monuments is followed by

1 Tlle Ieml or __ '" 00"",111_ ••• q,_!<om olJlhors"",,_ •••

, HuNI", "-"' ••. (,g"'I, 1Ilo>lin".'" "",•.MiIsJIm~, M1eUcS-1y '" P.,,,tool, Oo>oce,

3 _". Abul F••• h -.. • .101nu1Hoq""I1"'J. _ ""onJoh"" lUI(RI, F"""''''' L,loioy, KhlJI••••

• ••••••••••Abu ""_1lIootoqtoo 1'''7), "'" r;:ho/OSo"," _ '" <';•• e A" s.omplo 0/1JIoEOI1y 1-01.""" __ 0/ BOIlgol,IrlSIIMFOt",,_~hle [)oru",,,,,,,,,mKo_~.

4

catalogues, short descnphons, dating and reference of I~erature. Classification of the

mosques was done OIl the basis of 'ground plan of the mosques', So far as 'representation' is

concerned, this publication would and should be the base and the most reliable source of any

study on Early Muslim monuments of Bengal 8ut for 'interpretation', especially architectural

interpretations the very method of classification seems somewhat retarding and to some

extent misleading too. The story of the process of creating the stylistically stable expressive

Archrtecture which qualitatively defrnes and quantitatively unifies the variety remains beyOlld

the limits of this classification,

Ahmad Hasan Dani (1956 & 1961):'

The studies provide us Wlth an understanding of the different architectural developments that

evolved in the context and conditions of Bengal and led to the formulation of different Styles

of bUildings. The Styles are juslifred according to their context and influences on the evolutIOn

process. That is why the author very klgically united the monuments of Khan-.e-Jahan under a

separate and independent Style, However, ali the components of Styles are not very

systematically arranged Of described. The form-space dialect in relation to detail graphical

design generation process is absent in the study, So, as the author himself speculated, the

study 'may no' salisfy the engif166rs nor even !tie architec/$, as !tie limited numbers of

il/ustralions do nol give all the details that their special teGhni",,1 knowledga demands'.

Nevertheless, the study of 8engal Muslim Architecture marked the beginning for any research

on the stylistic evolution in this field,

Gewge Micheli {1978 & 1!lUj"

The editor has published the results of a collective research work based on a complete survey

of the key monuments of Wand Muslim Architecture The main focus of this study IS on the

History and SOdal meaning of these monuments in relation to the basic Archetype and

models it generated, Later he extended his research work towards the preservation of MusJlm

5 0",,1, ""mod Hoaan (1~, "'"slim ~.1tI SonooI."",,,0,, SocIo'lt OfP_n, """,,", .rIIl Doni,""mad •••..., (1~"'1.__ '" 8eflg1l1, -.0 _ely OfPat;<ton,O"""",

• Michl", G""lI1 (0<1,)jt~Tl!J. ""'"le<tllfo 01 1MWam", _ Its /II$Ioty ~"" _ meonfng. _ ODd flu""'n .• n' _,

Gootge (od,)(11le-1),__ (I<''''_~, UNESCO,

Heritage of Bengal i1ndpublished a collection of research paper for UNESCO, The inventory

of Ihe key monuments of Muslim Bengal is a reliable source of information. Johana E. van

Lohuizen de Leeuw in his artide 'The Early Muslim monuments at Bagerhal' bnefly descnbed

the'Slyles of these structures' and identified them as a blending of 'Delhi Impen'a/ order w~h

'local elemenls',

Hablba Khatun (1990);'

The author has established the ident~y, ethnic background and life history of Khan--e-Jahan

from different historical references Her findings have reliably identified Khan.e-Jahan as

Azam Khan, an Arab general in Sullan Gyasuddin's court of Later Illyas Shahi phase of

Bengal.

Khoundkar Alamgir (2001):'

The author was a F;eld Officer of the Khulna Div[sional Office, Directorate of Archaeology at

Bagerhat. In his published 'monograph' of Khan--e-Jahan he has painstakingly brought

together eVidences of Khan Jahan's life history, detail account of his missionary activities,

description and drawings of Archaeological Department of the individual buildings of

Bagerhat In the last chapter of hiSbook he argued that the present Alaipur village of Khulna

ISthe actual srte of KhalJfatabadCity, but no archaeological evidence is yet available.

Muhammad Haflzullah Khan (1!i188):'

The author has described in detali the decorative use of terraootta In the Buildings of Muslim

Architecture of Bengal. The influences of the World Muslim Architecture, especially the

Persian and pre-Muslim local influences on these deoorailve arts are clearty chalked out with

specific references, The inter-relationship between the Styles of Muslim Architecture 01

,K••••••• , ••••• lI< (1IlOO1, ~ Kh•••• nan, SI>oIOJ>U>/Ipo.BongloA<:n"""'Y, Ohab, pp, 2<0-2<1 .

• Alomgl" Kno<Jndoa'{200'), KIlon"",""" (R): RuIor.a.-- ..d Soinr, P••• " "" •••••••.•• """'.,o""on,""~...,mad_ran ('''8), r_. Om.1m",,,_, in _ A_ 01_, ....- SocieIy<JI"'''111_

,

Bengal is also discussed in brief, The drawings attached with the text are not very accurate

and can hardly be used in any future research work,

Mulk Raj Anand (1974):'.

The stylistic interpretation of 'Bang/a Desll Hanlage' is the main focus of the very brief study.

The work is a compilation of articles and rearrangement of the information published earlier

But, the author intends to search the continuity of Bengal Architecture through the stylistic and

as well as spiritual evolution 01the monuments; and this angle of inlerpretalfon is the author's

very original, buI, the works of Khan-e-Jahan is very briefty mentioned as 'Regional

Archllecture' and nol as a Style of its own.

Nazimuddln Ahmed (1984 & 1989):"

The author in his 'sllort illustrated guide-books' intends to popularise this unique group of

Early Muslim monuments of Khan--e-Jahanand other monuments of Bangladesh and highlight

the problems of their preservalion Brief stylistic interpretations are provided in between the

detailed description of the indivi<:lualmonuments. In detennining 'Ille architeclural Style

,ntraduced by Kllan Jalliln' he descnbed ~ as an 'uncommon' blending of the ind'Qenousand

Ihe imperial Style of Delhi, The reference to Tughlaq architecture is explained as a similarity

in context of 'poHticai and natural Insecurity and economic iimlli/lion',

Percy Brown (1975);"

The Author divided !he development of Bengal Muslim Architecture into two preliminary

phases and a full grown specific Style. The firsl phase (1200 to 1340 AD.) OIlCapital Gour;

the second phase (1340 101430 AD.) at Cap1talPandua and the iast phase where the Style

deveioped (1442 to 1576 AD.) at the re-shifted Capitai Gour. Thai means the aUlhor has

10 ••••_ •••••k RoJ (1070), Bang'. Coon H"'rPO, ","", VohIME XXVI'. No, 2, PIl'''''-

" AI1mod, Nazim""dl" ('9&lI. D/>r;(>vo,-Ill. MooJimo"" of Bo~ A ~ fo _ """"Y. '--lioII & 00_,

lml,.,"'Y """'" UmrW, onoka, UNoSCO, .Jld "'''',""" Hozirnu"'o (1•••• 1. Tho 8<JIJdIpgsOfx •• ,,)o""" in ••• om<md""11""'01, UNESCO.

" e"""", ~ (1~7SI._ A_ r__ , 0, e To",,,,,,,,,_ 500. 5 Co PvLlM. _,

7

certified the Later Illyas Shah. and Hussain Shahi Styles together as a full grown and

mentionable styhstlc development of Bengal.

The author summed up his idea conceming the Muslim Arcl1itecture of Bengal in the following

manner, •...the lsiami<; archilecture of Bengal is nol a style of building of a vel}' impressive

kind. WIlen the Moslem rulers had sertled down 10 realities proceed 10 build structures of

more maderole proportions as shown In the thirrl and matured phase of the styfe, their

producNons W8fll more in accorrlance wllh the prevailing conditions. What they achiavad may

not have b9fln great art, but ,Is construction principles were sound, ils appearances were

mventive and original ,md it was pecui/arly suilabla 10 Ihe climale and 10 the purpose for which

ilwas mtendoo.'

The phase or Stykl identification by the author IS indiscreetly based on the position and shift

of the polijical Capital of Bengal. Here the urban model and scale of Muslim Architecture is

over emphasised as the determining cnteria for Style idenijfication and that is why, from that

point of view, Architecture produced here seemed to him less impressive. But, later In hIS

writing, he appreciated the matured Style developed by the introduction of the non.urban

model in this region. There is no direct mention of Khan-e---Jahan or Khalifatabad In his wrijing.

But, the implied view is to InClude the works of Khan-e---Jahan in the later phase of the

matured Style development appreciated by the author.

Satish Chandra Mitra (11114,1922):"

The Author had painstakingly visited the different archaeological sites of Khulna-Jessore area

and even deep in the Sundarban jungle at the beginning of the last century. The notes on his

visit to these areas ara one of the earliest reliable accounts and documentation available

today. In spite of tha limitations of his hme. hiS detailed description 01 the life history of Khan_

e-Jahan, the location of Khalifatabad. descnptio-ns oftha monuments and the sitas are still an

unavoidable source of reterence for any study of this region .

•

Syed Mahmudul Hasan (1964,1979,1983 and 1887):14

The author gave graphic descripllons of lIle monuments erected under Muslim dispensation

in Bengal. The aesthe~c values and lhe cu~ural heritage embodied in these monuments are

taken inlo consideration. He described the Style as 'Kllan Jallani Style' and idenUfoedKhulna,

Jessere, Patuakhall and Barishal as the influenced area According to the author, 'clearing

jungle, reclaiming land. populatmg tha forost bUlldmg dties and propagation of Islam' are the

major activities of Khan-e-Jahan in this region, There are valuable photographs (some 01

them show the building conditions before restoration worn) attached With the description of

each bUildingof Khalifatabad.

Q.A,.Mowla and M.A.. Naql (1992& 1999):'"

The authors studlell the contextual and stylis~c appraisal of Khan-e-Jahan Style with special

emphasis on its conservation aspects There are some proposed conceptual directKlns on the

evolution and city forming process of the Khalifatabad in Bagerhat. as well as directions for

future research on this issue.

1,5 Important Issues of This Study:

A number of studies on various monuments of Khan-e-Jahan Style have been conducted in

Bangladesh. Most of them have focused on the documentation and classlfK:atlon of the

individual bUildings. These architectural endeavours were judged and analysell as stalic

evenls in history The histoncal approach, where the evolution 01a Style and ~s components

are studied w~h respect to their context and continuity, are gwen less importance. This study

recognises that the architectural interpretation of these monuments through the perception of

" H'''" Syo<l•••~mud"1(,••••).Ar;.",.lo An<>efll_um",," OfEo>! ""_, Societylor P'~"'o ""<!y, ~, l1li•• n.SyooOMahm,." ('007), Goud OllOH."", """"U", Romil""" In B.nd<""" ""'no, ',l,m'" Found,Uon Bong_,h, ><0"'0,

Syed Ma'''''',",.1 {'083J, ~ or......", M onO ~ ••• '''om" Foo•••"""o llonglotdesh, H'san. Syed•••••• colu. ('019)./IfosqIN>At<1>"",,"," of P~OI 80_, Uo"",,<ty P•••• l,mlled,01\;>'0: "_n, S)'eOMo""'colUO(1007). MuslIm Ai>II<JnIOJI/>O'''''~sb, "~miCFo,_ a.ng_h

" Mowil Q,A.,and N"". IlIA 1191'91,'Khoillota ••• sao""" •••• n. ~"" 0 •• ",,"1' SI_ O' """"'". , (~). Oet_Do< , •• , """ Ao

_, ••• of KIlo" ••• J.I"'n SlyiOl" •••• ~ro, ~ -... KU. VoI-1. '10, " Juno 11'99.

,

concept, semantICdecoding 01the Intentions of the desig~ and the spatial expansion olthe

form is 01utmost Importance. Following are Ihe key questions the study allempts to answer:

t.5.1 TIWContexi

a, What were the identity. ethnic background and life history of Khan-e-Jahan?

b. What are the sources or influencing elements of the Khan-e-Jahan Style?

c. What was ttle nature of the salting in which Khan-Nahan continued his building

endeavour?

1.5.2 The Style and Architecture

a. Do the monuments of Khan-e-Jahan constitule an independent 'Sty1e'?

b What is Ihe place 01the Khan-e-Jahan Style in Ihe evolutionary process of Bengal

Archilecture?

c What are the components of Khan-e-Jahan Style?

d, How did the concept and process of designing the stylistically stable expressive

architeclure develop?

e. What is the form-space dialect in relation to detailed graphic design generation

process?

I How can we read out or decode the meaning of these monuments in relation 10the

basic Archetype and Models arid local elements?

g. Can the Style w~h its components be justified according to their conlext?

h. Whatwas Ihe e\lOlulionand city forming process in the Khalifaiabad?

1.5.3 lnfluenc. of the Style

a. How has this Style influenced the Architeclure of Bengal?

b. How successful was the style in the question of survival?

10

1.6 Organization of the Research:

1.6.1 Literature Survey: There are some efforts made by different individuals and

organizations. which have supplied the preliminaf)' material for thiS research. A literature

survey was conducted 10collect the material from the different sources, For literature survey

books published on the socio-cultural. economic and political interpretation of the

development of lhe Bengal Muslim ArcMecture were reviewed Written documents. drawings

and mapswere collected from dJlferentorganizations of Dhaka and Khulna,

Figure01: FlowDl.gl'llm of the Study P"""",,s

Lit"ature ,"vi,w or Li"mlUre re,,,wofU_ "",jew 01various <ludi"

"'n<qJ~ & !h""j •• 00 conceplll& """",,, on cond"",or! onA«hi"',"",~tyl. IIld its OOIlIp"nonts Herilllge•••d 'ts ><mlllltic '- World M",lim ArchiIC="'''''POO- h ~a1 Musbm A",hitmurc,

, KMl-<_J"'"," >lyl, and hisA"h'''',",rc

Dcv,lop ,,"dy ol>ject"" and ~"'CS of~" _\ludy

I 1Ilota ",llo:<tionfrom primary '0=" llil1.o",1I"lioo from """"""") """''''''

(fi.ld '"IT"~) (dilfm:nt Mgani.<.llIi,m,•• " pubi,5J1,dli"'''''re)

""',,,,iog ond an"'l"i"f dOl' 00 th, bas" "f ,,,,"lalli, dalil ""d information(P"'""')' and '""'''""", SO""",)

SY'I!'""" •• d""""" fmd;"ll' of the SIUdy

Ocrj"" concl",i"", "f!he stIJ<I)'

,.(

1.6.2 Physical SUlVey:

Selection of Area SUlVey&d: The survey was focused within Khallfatabad at Bagerhat,

Khulna. Monuments In Khalifatabad represent the most matured stage 01the Khan-e-Jahan

Style, That Is why they were documented and presented to the finest details, For supporting

information the earlier developments ot Khan-e-Jahan at Barobazar, Jessore and its adjacent

areas were also sUNeyed and documented. These areas were selected because the highest

concentration of monuments of Khan-e-Jahan Style Is around these regions. Moreover, the

historical records of the advancement of Khan-e-Jahan towards the southern Sundarban

region also confinns with the position and location of these two sires, Most of the sires

coincide w,th the long abandoned main axial road of Khan-e-Jahan which runs along the old

Bhairab river bank and connects Jessore, Khulna. Chittagong and goes even up to

Bakerganj

ii Selection of Sample monuments:

t, Monuments in Khallfalabad: There were numerous numbers of monuments buiR in the

city of Khalifatabad by Khan-e-Jahan. Traditionally the number of monuments is assumed

to be 360". The spectacular remains of these are still visible for miles around the ruined

city 17Most of the sites 01the mosques are identified by the location of the !<Inks and

ponds." Among them, 12 monuments in Khallfatabad are in a condifion well enough to

be studied for any architectural research, There are two tomb buildings, nine mosques

and one unidentified structure'". For proper representation of the Style all the mosques

and the tombs mentioned above were included in the sample list. surveyed and studied in

detail

•• The ".JIb« P"""Oly d_ n<Jlliterally _ ••• tho actual '0"", beeouoo ~ • q•• n1ll\' •••••• multiplOOf "" •••",,"Ir"'n. Fo' e:><ample:Ilorobazar """"', _ (e <2) m,,-, Shot Gotn,.,. me."" '"'" I' ,'0) <Iomes, ••••••• (e ,2) compon""'.of Khon+hhon, ttl"", oixty (5 <60) """"""" Knon-<>-Johon","'0 on.n

Ah•••• , N""muddln {10tlSJ.OP ""- p.:l3,

•• ".., •• "'''''''''" to dOl' """" orlank ooro", ~ng Ih. Iou",,"",," of 0 mooq""- Th. oxcovot<>d•• "" ""'on uoed for II""de,",,,,,ma'" •• ttl. _ •••• ,1>on~ molOng ''''''' for conolrucllon•• Tho un""""'Od """""-n" 1000'" kn""" •• So ••• oon"" "'_" "' •• ......" of Khon.••.•••hon. The con_Ion or.,. toolfd'"",,"lOmooquo Is 0 _01 _, G _'."" o1llerWI01••• have fdon~11o<ltho tooll:l1"",., one or I_~olo,

2. Monum.nm at Barobazar and other places under Khan.• -Jahan Style: The

monuments of Barobazar area are of more recent diseOV€ryand still there are many a

mound unexcavated in and around the area. So, the Iotal numbers of sites is still

unknown; but at present ninemosques in Barobazar have been partially conserved by the

Archaeology Department. Drawingsoflhese monuments are yet unpublished but required

for Style identification. So, here again all these nine mosques were surveyed and studied

for reference in the Styie identification ot the monuments of Khalifatabad (Table 01) The

monuments of other plac€s which have inftuences of Khan..e-JahanStyle have published

drawings and photographs; these have been used and referred 10in this study_

Table 01. Status of Docume~ion

GROUP N,. Name af mOm/men! Plan EI"". ,-, Deta;1 Photograph Commen!

«'ondo''''''iBog<r"", ••••

"' SatGwnn..) done ,,- "- "- "- rc"ored

"' T,•• ~. Kh,n Jahllll ",m, "- d,mo .- "0'0 origLaaI

"' [omt>Mo'que '000 d,mo , ,., .., ,~,"' Tomb Zioo.pir "- ~, , .- ~, "i[,~ldated

"' Zindapj, M,,"IU< "one "- , .- .- altuedeo RoO""';']"" Mosque d,,,,, "- ,., <lone "'- ~~,0' R= KfJOO,Mo'que ~, , , ,., .., djlapj~","

"' Sm.", Mosque ;one ~, 00- - .- =,~w. Dibi !kgn; Mosque ,., "- d,me "- <!<me """""d"' Ch"""'h,,l. Mosque ,., ,., ~, ,., "one """"cd

" NLne[J,-,meMosque - ~, "- 'M' ~, -~B,,",~",o,

" GO,..-Mosqu< - ,., ""'""od 'B ,,,,10k,,,,, Mosque "- ~, ""opidatcd

" ],= BangI. Mosque ,., .,- 000_

" S"gochi. Mosque , d,m, dilapidate"

" MonollO!Mosq"" , - <li[.~idatedn PltJ'ulw, M",'fl" ; "- d,lapJdaled

" Shuk", M.Uik Mo'que ,., '- ~jlap;d""J

" Nung<>J.Mosque ~, ~, -~'" ~Mo'que 00- .- dilapidaled

" S"'1)dah M""i"< ; '0_ ~ij"",dOl<d

13

3 Individual monuments: A check list was prepared for studying the individual

monuments Information and data was collected under the following headings:

a. Location/ldenlifir:ation of the buildings

b, Cond~ion of surroundings, relation w~h the approach roadc. Present use,

d. BUlkJinginformation an<:lcondition:

• Plans, Elevation and Sec!lons

• Building component detai~.

• Building construc!lon details,• Building materials.

• Building ornamentation

• Special elements/materials.

1.6.3 Survey and data collection:

Before going to final survey. a pilot sUJ'leywas conducted on some of the important sample

buildings selected for the study. On the basis of the data yielded by this pilot study and

suggestions received from the resource persons, necessary changes and improvements were

made in the study and sUJ'ley process A photographic documentation of the selected

buildings with 35mm film accompanied the sUJ'leywork. The researcher himself collected the

factual data regarding the sample bUildingsand the preparations of the drawings were done

by the researcher himself or under his direct supeJ'liSion, After finishing the drawings the last

and final spot sUJ'leywas conducted lor rechecking and further detail corrections.

1.6A Analysis oftha data collected:

The second part of the research was the analytical part. In this phase data collected from the

sUJ'ley was processed and entered Into the computer for analysis. Appropnate computer

programs (e,g., AutoCad, 3D Max and SPSS) were utilized to obtain deScriptiveand statistical

information,

The graphic representations oIl1le monuments were done as the followmg:

• Plan

• Elevation

• Section •

• Sketches or axonometnc drawings of special details (if necessary)

• 3D models by computer simulation for spatial analysis

The elements and features of the each monument of Khallfatabad, 8agerha~ Khulna included'

in the Khan--e-JahanStyle were studied under the following headlines:

a. Wall

b. Door and opening

c. Floor

d Roof and cornicee. Corner furrel

Column and pilaster

Transverse arches and tranSItionalfonn9h. Domes and vault

,

Special elements

1.6.5 Synthesis ofth. findings;

The synthesis of the data collected in the research was earned out through two differenf

approaches First, 'the historic approach' within which the background, philosophical aspects,

religious aspects and attitudes of the Style was sfud'ed. Second, 'the slatic approach' Within

which the formal aspects were explored ;ro

At the beginning Ofthe synfhesis the very definl~onof the fenn 'Style' is very methodically and

systematically identified. The phiiosophical components of Style, the qualitative and

quanlnative requirements of a Style, and the levels of Style are clear~ chalked oul. The

capability and potentiality of the bUildingsof Khan--e-Jahanare verlf~ecf' egainstlhese stylistic

criteria

The focus of the synthesis is then concentrated on the fact that these buildings are created to

mee! certain conditions and requirements of a tife-slyle, and it is in the fulfilment of these

condilions thai forms the highest achievements of this Slyle. These architectural fonns are

"-, Y"~(1001),A•.w_.f'rog_""_""',,,",W pe7

>1 """uld 110'••••• , • -. dogmo1lc.pprooOh "we stott .-..001"0 • 'S","' """"'" •• n'Y'ngIt>poI_I~ •• 1O"" """'~."'"os • "'1I1l""'" "".....,_ SljIe._t, 111•••••• '$ly1" _ ru.ther _. to bo """" '" .n _Orion or ootItmAn,hite,,'.," '"'_"." Thol Is ""Y. M"col "" totm 'S"'" oM '" compo_ ••.• onalyzoO'ln_,r om fI1""•••• _~""exprosolon•• m """...-"' _po<:! '" ••••,. """P""Onto,

studied and Styles apprehended against the aspirations of the builder and the demand of

local context

The monuments of different periods of Bengal history are analyzed and the evolution of the

Styles that emerged in lhe history of Muslim Bengal ArcMecture is traced out. Then the place

"nd contributions of Khan-e-Jahan style ISK1entified.The motives of lhe builder are searched

in the bUildings lhat he designed, In the setting where he worked on and In the time In l'o1lich

he is placed The synthesis reveals is a story of the continuous search of our ancestors for

architectural expression within a given context, and to see through these expressions the

evolution of " Style.

1.7 Expected outputs of the Study:

1, Understanding the deeper meaning of Khan--e-Jahan Slyle and Muslim Beng,,1

Architecture,

2, To determine the sources of ils inspiration and the level of its influences of the

development of Bengal Architecture.

J. Conservation of Heritage: This study is to develop a basis of information for the

preservation, reslorallon and conservation of the Khan--e-JahanStyle.

4, Provide gUideline for future:

a. Architectural development: This study is 10 develop an att~ude for

appreciating the rich architectural heritage of Bengal, Thus it will reflect the

true aspiration of the people of Bengal and their Architecture taking ~s

inspiration from the struggie of a Slyle that has survived through the ages.

b. Architectural research' The output of the study Mil provide us with new

understanding of the traditional and indigenous architectural and structural

excellence,

c. Provide valuable teaching malenal to the faculty engaged In arcMectural

education

1.8 Limitations of the Study:

The extent of the study sometimes became limited for the followmg reasons:

Firstly, many of the potenlial sites of Khalifutabad and Barobazar areas still remain

unexcavated The monuments which have been excavated by the Archaeology

Department are either in such a dilapidated condition that the details are hard to be

documented or they are altered to such an extent that the details are nol even worthy

to be documented.

Secondly, firsthand information about the foundations and part of structures which

are s~uated under ground-level of these structures is not available This information

can only be obtained through authorised excavation of the potential sites of the

monuments, which was beyond the scope of this study.

Finally, according to the records and written accounts, there could be more

unexplored Sites and sources hidden deep in the Sundarban, which could have been

revealed by expensive and risky expeditions. remained beyond the capabilfly of the

researcher.

1.9 Framework of the Report:

The study has been presented in 7 chapters, The present chapter is introductory in nature A

focus on historical, socia-political, geographical and geological confext of Bengal Architecture

region has been given in chapter 2. The theoretical antecedents required for supporting the

Style identmcation process and the conceptual framework with the basic premises for

analysing the Early Muslim Architecture of Bengal are given in chapter 3, Chapter 4 describes

the factors of evolution and the very dynamics of syncretism active in the Early Muslim Bengal

Architecture, Chapter 5 defines the Slyle of Khan-e-Jahan and verifies its potentialities and

place in the evolutionary process with detailed case studies of the monuments. In chapter 6

the discussions, information and analysis Of the earlier chapters are resolved into a synthesis

17

,

for Style Identification and explanation of contextual inward-outwaro in~uel'lCeS.Chapter 7

presents the major findings of the study and recommendations for future research.

1.10 Concluding Remarks:

The necessary organizational setup has been framed in thiS chapter and the problems

conceming context and inftuences have been identified. The Issues of !he study were noted

down within their limitatiOns. These are the issues that the study will concentrate on in the

following chapters and the final output of the study will be verified accordingly. First, a

thorough analysis of the stylistic and architectural components will be done and then, the

results will go through a process of synthesis to develop a holistIC view on the issue An

overall conceptual framework has been drown forthe study to proceed to the next chapters.

18 •

•••••. ,••••• I , Chapter 02

Bengal; Context for Khan-e.Jahan and his Style

2.1 Introduction

2.2 His/onealcontext

23 The Geo-politio.1 conte>d

2' ClimallcFactOr>l

25 SetllemenlsInBengal

2.6 PMosophlcalseJl'ngs InsoCialcontext

2.7 Cooclud,"gRemarks

•

Bengal: Context for Khan-e-.lahan and his Style

2.1 Introduction:

The centre of Khan-e-Jahan's architectural development is largely constituted by the

environment of the jungle areas of Sundarban during the Early Muslim period ot

Bengal. The setting of his political and architectural endeavour IS well distributed in

the Khulna region, which IS the southern part of Bengal, But, the process of the

evolution and the sources of his inspirations perhaps stretch the contextual

background to the whole Bengal region and beyond So, the context for hiS Style is a

dynamic interrelationship that starts from Bengal, the Indian subcontinent being its

backdrop and then narrowing down to Khulna region and finally to the Sundarban

area

The subjects to be discussed In this chapter includes tOPICSsuch as historical context

and Identity of Khan-e-Jahan; geo-poljtical context; the climatic factors; the evolution

of settlement patterns in the southern region of Bengal; the philosophical and reljgious

sellings 10social context of Bengal at Khan-e-Jahan's time.

2.2 Historical context:

2.2.1 Early Muslim Period of Bengal:'

The triumph of IkhtiaruddmMohammad Ibne BakMar Khalji over Nadia in 1204 A.D. is

generallyassociatedwith the establishmentof Muslim rule in Bengal', The recorded historyof

Bengallrom then concentrateson Gour, the Muslim capitai of Bengal, But the fact remains

that the eastern part of Bengal, specially the south-eastem region, remained beyond the

• fie", the term .•••c.J'm .•• ,..0 ;nsle,d or '••••m'" _so loIam •• "" ,•••• " ""'" thon juot • pel"",,' 0<wlturaI ph"""",""",,Wh" ••• "'''rim, h•••• __ ''''''nd th. WOl1dIolho _~ or cuIlullllJuXllpoo"""" ond oyn_ "' __ oom.xtually.Tho P__ ,he _"",,"0'1' P_ IOd "' •• Orf'W\g"""" •• 1Il.r .,"" ••• pointo/ft> I_~on. ScI.tho 1<>••• 'I>Itomlc' I.

m"" figiO•••• _" olrfldly '" ''''' ,_. 0/ the •••~.>n. 0. the _ no"", ••• ...", 'M_ """""_ !nO ""nom"" on<l._ """" on Iho .Umen _ in 1h~pmco••.

2 Koo1m,~ (2001), 8 ••••••• Uwm_....- S/ooohon.Sorol Put<' •••••.• ,OIIIlk"-p,'SO

19

•

Influences of the Muslim rulers for more than a hundred years. Even the defeated Maharaja

and his descendents had ruled East Bengal for more than forty years since his retreat from

Nadia' The country was known at that time as Lakhnouti (the Muslim name of Nadia, the

term 'Bengal' ISof much later date), Ghiasuddin Iyaz Khalji tried to capture East Bengal in

1:227AD and later in 1236 AD. Saifuddin Ibak launched another attack from Lakhnouti but

both the attempt failed to achieve the desired success,'

In 1300 AD a part of East Bengal came under Muslim rule during Shamsuddin Feroz Shah,

the independent Sultan of Lakhnouti. In 1338 A.D. Sultan Fakhruddin Mubarrak Shah

declared his independence from Sonargaon (centre of East Bengal) against the central

Lakhnouti administration. During th,s period wars between Lakhnouti and Sonargaon (West

and East Bengal) were a very frequent phenomena'

In 1342 A D. Shamsuddin Illyas Shah became the Sultan and in 1352 A.D. he un~ed

Lakhnouti, Shatgaon and Sonargaon to form 'Bengal'. For the first time in history he claimed

the ti~e 'Sullan-e- Banglah' instead of Gour or Lakhnoutl. ' He successfully defended his

independent country from two major attacks of Deihl: actually the mosquitoes of the marshy

land had done the major job tor him.' In the early 15thcentury Sultan Ghyasuddln Azam Shah

was in the throne of Bengal. Somewhere In this phase Khan-e-Jahan started participating in

the history making endeavours of Bengal.

2.2.2 Identity of Khan-e-Jahan and his bat;:kgrouncl:

The Inscriptions found in Khan-e-Jahan's tomb are the oniy historical record SOfar about him.

That ,s why a great deal of controversy exists on the true identity of Khan-e-Jahan.

,SO,,), •• ,"~ (101'),r.ba'l""-I-Noshl. (Sengllfj "'''''UOOI. B""Il" Aca'om1. 0"'" P.28

• "''''' p.2',Kortm, ••••••• , ('''0). a""gi,a'""""(S<HI.n; ArnoJ),J_ Grontho P"''',han,Dh""",.O. lTll.

" "oIrlm, ••.••. {'"":t), SocioJ""" Cullu",Uilsl"'l'oraengm 1f;engolI__ I. Vol-1. ilangla_omy. Dl-.I<a. op.•..•

7 ~rn, Abd"'{l911~), "" CIt P 102

There are some Arabic and Persian inscriptions engraved on the tombstone of Khan-e-Jah,m.

In these inscriptions he is addressed both as Ulugh Khan Jahan and Khan AI Azam Khan

Jahan. In one oftlle Arabic Inscriplion illS said:

• Passed away the feeble slave, the supplicant to the mercy of the Lord of the Univerna, thelover at the children of chlf!f of Prophet ( Mohammad (S1) the sincem to Ihe righteous

servants, the despiser of the infldeis and poIytheisl$, the helper of Islam and the Muslims,

Khan-a-Jahan (UJugh Khan Jahan). Ifw mercy and forgr.eness (of Allah), be upon him fromthiS world to the abode of eternity, on the nighl of Wednesday. 26" Zil-hajja. and was interred

on Thurnday, the 27th oflhat month in the year 863AH (25" oct. 1459AD.) nO

Another inscription descnbes.

"ThiS blessed garden (grave) one of the gardens of heaven is for the exalted Khan (AIAzem

Jahan), Khan-Nahan the mercy and pl9;;sure (of Allah) be upon him, It Is wntten on the 2U"ofZH-hajja in the year 863 (25" Oct. 1459 A D.). •.•

TMe other inscnptions are In Persian Language and describe different religious advice for lhe

common people and the names of Almighty Allah,

During this period the independent Sultans ruled this region of Bengal. Many 01 their Prime

MlnJsters and the other Ministers were called 'Khan Jahan', For example:

Sutton S,I"",lIo' SnahSultan Gnlya,uddin Azam Shan

Suttan JalallJddln Mullammad ShOh

Sultan N,sIr Uddin Mallmud Shall

KIlan AI Azam UIU9h MUKhl;sh Khan

Khan AI Azam Khan Jana"

Khan JOhan Yaniya

UlIJgll Muajjem Khan

Ulugn Khan Jan.n

Table 02: Meaning of tile name of Khan-e-Jahan

Nom. M",,'l!~ Ur1gjDoiWDTd C"mm •• "~. _.P""i"" title,.- uDiv<rse -- ••- - Pmi •• @,

Ulugh ,~. -- ,hlc

• Ah•••• , N"" •• uddln (1".'. <>p. ~ p.'"•"~.p."

21

From the meanings of the name of Khan-e-Jahan (Table 02), ~ can be said that lhese were all

his trtIes for different posts that he was holding at fhe courts of the Sultans of Bengal. His

original name IS s!fll a subject of debaie among scholars. Finding the true polilical identity of

this great bUilder is the job of hlstonans but for fhe sake of this study we Will draw an ouliine

on the eXisting hypotheses (Table 03) developed by the scholars In this regard: 10

Table 03: Identity of Khan-e-Jahan

N•••• " '- "-" "',•.., Uoo" •..••.., R••••• f•• D.;"';"" Co••••• "~ N•••• '" .- "'"" .. _. ,.•••,;,,- ••m;., ••_.

1lIoro" •• ~.~ .....,;,.,~..

.,' .., Do'" Morn,'",. M~"",d Kojo,""" l-<! """",of B_'" ..,S~"I - D<~,l_ r,,""1&qof '"' cl"",", ••. Jrn_ •• old "" SMw" ~,"'-'- -- ~. "" rn,,,,,",,'Y - i" ' ••••••.- i_;" AJ",'''''wo ",!,,,,,,1ooof m lJ", <0'-~ '" X'oj, ;,1,,,,- h"""'" ..,,'" '" ,..

<\olf •••• '

Mol"'"" ~,-,,- - W""",, -~,. _"'m. T'-,fMm;"", .oo ,.

"II," KboJ''_.01 __.m,I.",,,,,,••• rnJ~••••,•••"""" Mal,'"" Sl~",

".•.", -, "- G"""" 0' N"""",,h" KoJ~""" "- -- 1',,", "ll.-- ,~ "'" ,;"" SoJ •••• ""'moo M""""'"". """,,",'''' "" Mym.",;,gh 'U,,,,,,.~.,"' ...... "" U,,_,,;, %"0' """;'0,1, "bon', ,,,",~,,.- A=n",~,"r - Ko"", •• -~--00. h~ To"","0•• -.. Khoj.> 'n~,- 1~~",lkd (•••• h<ing J"", w,,",. "" •.••••••."',=""'" AJk.." S •• ,,", be -- K""'J __ ••KhonJ_ .,. -- "" •.....(_''''',,' him",lf •• tbe ","" h._"",_.. ,,,,,,,,.,,,,1I '"~ '~,..-. • T,",."IJ90AD, •• ',L N""","", CIU,u_, ""' ,;, fat,,, ~

'-" ~.. bU,"by"'J' orkob-" "" -~. """',Ul;,,~, KiwoT.•••••• '.R •..",.,". ••••••••••(~,b h•••••. "oJJ,~•• '"II,,"' •••••• o.lhi;, ""

fil"", SlWu ',I.~im,_""'00",..~'~ .•m""," ..,.,'0 thoru".. 'hal,-

Among the sfudies, the findings of Dr. Habiba Khatun are considered more authent1c by

scholars". From the above comparalive chart the identity of Kha~Jahan can be ouUinee'.

His original name was Azam Khan, son 01 Saikh A1awal Huq a descendenf of a Meccan Arab

10 KI>oIIo•• Ho"'bo (1&00), op. "'- PI' 2..,.247

" "" •••• ,NazI"'''".'. (1S"" 0, til 0,2'

22

and brother of Sufi Noor-i-Kutub who was a very renowned and influential Muslim religious

leader, At the beginning of his career Azam Khanwas a general of Sultan Ghlyasuddln Azam

Shah at Sonargaon in around 1415 AD The SuRan,originally a Persian (Sizistam)", was an

educated and cultured person and had friendship with Persian poet HafIZ. He regularly sent

handsome amount of money to Mecca for its different development projects, At a stage the

Sultan left Sonargaon for Pandua. Here he developed his fascination towards the Sufis of

Bengal and started maintaining a very liberal view to the non-Muslims. He even offered high

posts in the court to the Hindus. among them Raja Gonesha was one. People at that time

used to speak in Bengali and the Admtnistrators used Persian."

In 1390 AD. Azam Khan was the provincial governor at Pandua and from this time he

became the Khan-e-Jahan" 01Sultanat administration. During Ihis period Khan-e-Jahan musl

have been highly influenced by the personality of the Sultan. After the dealh of Sultan

Ghiyasuddln Azam Shah in 1410 A.D, his son Baifuddin Hamzah Shah became the Sultan

and got killed by a slave Shihabuddin Baijid Shah, who declared himself the Sultan of Bengal,

But, Ihe political power remained In the hands 01Raja Gonesha and thus the Early IIlyas Shah

Dynasty ended."

At that lime Khan-e-Jahan left Pandua and with follower>;and Itliyas Shahi descendents or

administration proceeded lowards South Bengal to expand the Mustlm domain He remained

loyal to the IIlyas Shah; dynasty and that is why he never declared himself as a Sultan or

issued coins in his OWnname. He first settled at Barobazar area and bUilt a central large

multi--domedmosque there. His companion, majority of whom were descendents 01Later Illyal

Shahl Dynasty settled around, The central mosque at Barobazar, now known as Shat Gachia

mosque, is a 35 domed mosque With circular comer turrets which resembles the Shalt

Gombuz in many a ways. It has a similar extra dOOrwayin the western wall which suggests

"Koom, •••••••••(1099), o~. cit ~.209."iIl~.,1"213""""""~h h~ original """. ~ IWom Khan. frnm ' •••• Io\l. 01 hi. ""'". """'moo """"",od a. Khoo;.•••• n, Khan-l-Jo •• n. K"'n..,.",",.n"" _ooty •• Knon.•••• nAll, For1l1l._!hO ' ••••• ,noatbod ~"" g_ 'Kha.......mhan' I. la,,,, ••••• n<lordrorm

15 Konm, •••""", (>ml.OP cit P 211

J

that it was atso the DarOOrHall of Khan-e-Jahan's administration. Bu~ all the other mosques

in Barobazar have octagonal comer turrets in relaijon to the Later IIlyas Shahi Style of Gour.

In the mean time Raja Gonesha took over power by killing the slave king and managed to rule

for a few months, Sufi Noor-e-Kulub, brother of Khan-e-Jahan'" Invited the SuRanof Jainpur

Ibrahim Sharki to over throw Raja Ganesha The SuRanof Jainpur responded to the invitation

and obstructed the capital of Bengal Raja Gonesha agreed to convert his son 'Zodu' to islam

and handed over the power to him. At the request of Sufi Kutub the disappointed Sultan of

Jainpur lell ~engal and a moment after his departure Raja Ganesha again re-<:apturedthe

throne. Aller Gonesha his son MOhendradev succeeded him but was over thrown by his

brother Zodu. Now Zodu confirmed his conversion to Islam and took the name Zalaluddin

Mohammad Shah. He shifted his capital from Pandua to Gour and brought certificate from the

'Caliph' and then declared himself the 'Khallfalullah'. He died in 1433 AD, and hiS son

Shamsuddin Ahmed Shah succeeded him but was kiiled immediately,17

With the help of the Amirs Nasiruddln Mahmud Shah, a descendent of Illyas shah Dynasty,

took the power tn 1436 A,D, He declared himself as Sultan of Bengal and as well as

'Khalfatullah'. He claimed this title to counter the claim of Sultan Zslaluddin Muhammad

Shah". Thus, began the Later Illyas Shah Dynasty in Bengal. An inscription wrth his name

has been found in Bagerhat, Khulna, Sullan Nasiruddin Mahmud was a peaceful personality

and had never engaged himself ,nwars ,.

During this time Khan-e-Jahan in Barobazar became very powerful and got hi9hly involved in

the development work of this region. Iv; mentIOnedearlier he was very loyal to the Later Illyas

Shahi Dynasty and he had never declared himself as the Sultan, but ruled Independenlly

almost like a Sultan. Since at that time the Later IIlyas Shahi Dynasty was again in power at

Gaur, probably most of his companions, who were descendents of the Later Illyas Shahi

Dynasty, had gone back to the capital,n Gaur, Khan-e-Jahan with his followers, most Ofthem

'" HotllbaKn"u"('.00I.Ol'ctt p 2••.

"K.~m. _"I (1••• ), 0<1-c<t .,m,'" ." Ibid, P 245.l~d",,":VO.

converted Musiims, moved further to the south deep into the jungle, There could be

compelling reasons for this movement, firstly, he may have apprehended that he will be

considered a strategic threat to the Sultan of Gour, secondly, in Barobazar he was out-

numbered by the Illyas Shahi descendents and he was seeking more independence and

safely with only his converted ~Iowers and finally, his intentions were to expand inhabitable

land by clearing the jungle and convert more people to Islam by Involving them in this

endeavour,

So after 1436 A,D. Khan-e-Jahan settled in the Bagerhat area and ruled thiS area

independently to build numerous monuments. Here again, we see thai the monuments were

grouped around three major multi-<lomedlarger mosques, The most prominent group centres

around the 17 domed Shait Gombuz mosque, then there is another group around the Nine

Dome mosque and the last one with a few members around the 6 domed Reza Khoda

mosque. The characteristics of the monuments of the last group with octagonal turrets are

very similar to thai of the monuments of Barobazar. The use of dual language in his tomb

suggests that the religious language of his administration was Arabic but some of his

companions used or at least were familiar with the Persian Language lor their daily activities,

It might also indicate that a few decedents of Illyas Shahi Dynasty were still WOrkingwith him

in Bagerhal

Here developed his own indepernlent Style and established a city in Bagemat on rural setting,

which was called Khalifatabad at that time"". In 1459 A.D., at a very old age, Khan-e-Jahan

died and was buried in a Mausoleum complex at Bagerhat.

That " "'" sohol,,, "",mod !hal "''' ""''''''''" ••••• '" ~le<oOl. But. "'''';0 '" Ofh..-,*"""" to ••• nam. Of"'" 0<Iy~ lhOl_, So. -. I, "'" &-,- """"",,thOl"'0"""''''' g""'" by KIIorl-<!--J>•.••n "moeii' and 1ha •• "", """""""" "" 10 '~,e A,a, Mo""","r lheto;o._ >Inmg"""""•• ",","", -..u...,o"". Ou""g'" """""'mont "'thi, citySulton N_", "onmuol Shah oIl.oler Itya, _ O••.••m_'0 thupowor " Gour. flO _ hlmselt 1<nal1,"•• ",n' It wa, a ""'l' Impo •••• I""","", ".,"""" • """nleO$<! ••• """ '" "'" ~Ilyn•• 'Y.nd ,,,,,,,,,,,,,.,'1' _heO ItIo'~""" ~_ Of'" 1"l'N Shlill D\onWYto tn. poworOf"""",,, So, ItO>""""""'" of•••~••"""""KIII~. _1oil>eS_""" .1>0_••••••""""'"" Goor

25

2.3 TheGeo-politicalcontext:

The history of Bengal is the history of interaction between people and their geographic

conditions, Among all the regions 01the Indian sub-continent Bengal aMraysstands alone with

her outstanding characteristics and traditions. The hostile nature, mighty great rivers and

ftood, inaccessible jungles, vast marshy plain land, uncertainty 01 life.-systems, heanh

hazards, mosquijo and long lasting persistent urge for independence, all these traits sprang

from the fertile SOilofth,s mystic land.

2.3.1 Topography of Bengal:

About 4600 millron years ago india was covered wijh hoi and melted rocks which by passing

offime gave form to the Archian rock construction. During this cooling procedure the Bindhya

Mountains rose above the sea level In the mlddie region of India. The plateau of the Deccan

JSthe oldest part of India, and Ihen the Himaiayas were formed Between the Himalayas and

the 8indhya Mountain the Ganges lound her way to lum toward east, to enter Bengal. The

Ganges changed her course in Rajmahal, a place al north-west of Bengal and ftowed towards

south to meet Ihe Bay of Bengal."

The term Bengal refers to a territory Ihat has been defined during Ihe Muslim rule and

stretches from the Himalayas in the north to Ihe Bay of Bengal in the south and from

the Brahmaputra, the Kangsa, Ihe Surma and the Sajjuk rivers in Ihe east to the

Nagar, Ihe Barakar and the lower reaches of the Suvarnarekha in Ihe west The area

described above lies roughly between 27°9' and 20"50' north latitude and 66°35' and

92'30' east longitudes. The extent 01 the province excluded the slates of Tippera

Cooch Bihar and Sikkim, and the surface area covered by large rivers and estuaries

was 77,521 sq miies,"

Bengal ISthe product of a long process of geographical formation. Widespread marine

transgression followed by regression With consequenl uplifts featured ils geologic

" _~kI, iIIl'OtII\Er (''''), ~ydB""lJ'Ido.r., U_""y Ploss limrte<I,01••'., po,~2,R", "10'('''1'), _ B""fP/k ~.". ~ •••••••••••••, """GPaA_, 0I1aI<a,po ,4-27.

history down 10 Pleislocene period. II is believed Ihallhe latesl of such processes are

responsible for the development 01 the tertiary folded bell of Tripura, Ihe uplift 01 the

Shillong massif and Ihe uplift 01the Garo.Rajmahal basement ndge, Zl

The large alluvial basIn 01 Bengal is flooded with Quaternary sediments deposiled by

the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers and their numerous associated streams and

distributors. Bengal is the largest and possibly the most fertile delta of the world it is a

land, which is irrigated all through by rivers. Here Ihere are vasl expanses of soft

alluvial deposits, which most of the time remains inundaled, The hills that we come

across in the Chittagong region are composed mainly of sand though in some places

formation of stone may be noticed.

Hence, brick, made lorm alluvial soil was naturally the most faVOUrite building malenal

lor the people of Bengal, Slone architeclure and making of stalues and representation

of objects in the round or reliel by chiselling stone has never been a popular art of the

people of Bengal, though sculptures 01 superb craftsmanship were carved oul of

imported stone under kingly palronage. II is therefore qurte obvious that Ihe monsoon

rains, the rise and fall of river levels, floods, alluvion and diluvion and changes in river courses

form the substanoe of both cullural and physical geography of the area

2.3.2 The Strategic position of Bengal in relation to central India:

Bengal forms the capstone of the arch formed by the Bay of Bengal, and because of the

Tibetan massil to the north and position of inaccessible Jharkhanda Jungle in the south there

IS a comparatively narrow ~nd-bridge befween north and east India. The connection with

cenlral India is a long narrow corridor along the Ganges plain and the passage is the

narrowest near a place called Teligiri. Access 10 Bengal is thus reslrlcted within this

narrow passage and Tellgiri is the first frontIer defence post for Bengal.'" Traditionally

it is observed Ihal most 01the invaders with their huge mililary force have many a time

been driven away by a small number of Bengal frontier guards from this Teligiri point

Zl _hOd, H.",u"!. (''''), Ollo<t"", .3-73.", So ••••••••• p~" ('lIIlIlJ, DofO_SIWy. Vol-III,_llongaISh>Io BookBoord,Calcult!l "" Bll-W.

.~.

(See Plate I), The major and most successful invasions by the Muslims in Bengal

were launched through the Jharkhanda Jungle avoiding the Teligiri post'". Moreover,

the marshy land of Bengal, speCIally its southern part with its deep and dense jungles

was a natural defence tool for the inhabitants and a very irritating-fearful obstacle for

any Invader If we follow the history in relation to the land route skirting the river

Ganges from central India to the southern part of Bengal we will obviously find the

noticeable rate of increase of altitude towards achieving political independence from

the centre among the rulers of Bengal. 26 (Plate: I)

2.3.3 Khulna, the southern Sengal region:

More precisely, Bangladesh stretches latitudinally between 20'34'N and 2so33'N, and

longitudinally between 88°01'E and 82"41'E. It is one ql the most crowded rural areas in the

world.The region between Jessore and Khulna down to Bagerhat is low and covered with

swamps, the population is sparse, and the places suitable for dwellings are the high iands

along the banks of the rivers, The river Jamuna, with tts continuation, the Kalindi, the

Kholpetua and the Kanadak with their tributaries, all traverse this part of the country and

debouch into the Bay of Bengal with numerous tortuous waterways as connecting links

between them. 'll

In the south, where this tract begins to merge in the Sundarbans, some-areas were cleared

up by the p<Clneersof cultivation Here, there are few or no villages, properly speaking, thai

whiCh IS marked as a village is perhaps only an expanse of rich rice land, with a few

cultivators' houses scattered here and there. Sluggish creeks (Kha/s) and rIVerswind about

the rice clearings, and their course can be traced by the fringe of brushwood thai Unestheir

banks. Further south, nearer the sea, is the Sundarban tracts, a region of morasses and

swampy islands, most of which are clothed w,ll1 a dense evergreen forest, while some are

covered wtth salt water at flood tide.

•:,=:.::.-:';.~:;.:~:~~..,.._ -" "'""",,",,Wool Beogal State 800k Iloar<l.CiIl:tJ!tll. pp "'_lB.a..I,.ll,,,tI, Dmp K, (1m). A""""" ~: A S!u<fyoflfro A_oIogIcoI S<>!xr=.Unil<ef>ityP_um_, """'" ""7.

28•

PLATE I

BengalIt. topography

I.-

•

• ••

ahan's centres of activitY

'0

Taken as a whole, Khulna region is a low--jyingcountry occupying the central portion of the

southern delta between the Hooghly and the Meghna estuaries, It is intersected by a large

number of rivers and estuaries, which again are connected by innumerable inter-lacing cross-

channels. Its physical features are much the same as those of other deltaic districts. The

country is flat, the surface being only slightly raised abo~e fIood-le~el; the banks of the ri~ers

are higher than the adjacent land, so that the land sloping away from them on eijher side

forms a series of depressions between thel' courses and there are numerous marshes. The

villages cluster along the banks of rivers, bul large tracts are swampy, and the people who

culli~ate them are obliged to reside elsewhere.

2,3,4 Sundartlanregion:

Further to the south, lie the Sundarbans, a desolate tracI oniy 12 to 30 Inchesabove high tide

level, in whK:hthe slow process of land making has not yet ceased.:!>This tract is intersected

throughout by iarge rivers and estuaries, running from north to south, These are connected

with each other by an intricate series of branches, and the latter in their tum by innumerable

smaller channels, so that the whole tract ISa mesh of water-ways, enclosing a large number

of islands of ~arious shapes and sizes.

In Todarmal's assessment, thiSarea was left unmentioned. In Shah Shuja's (1658) re~ision of

Todarmal's original settlement of 1582, a new Sarkar was introduced to co~er the Sundarban

tracts, In Aln-i-Akbari, this area is described as the 'BhattI or 'ebb tide land', This is the

earliest reference to this' ban' area,29

Nearly half of the region In the south is co~ered by thick forest of mangroves, canes, creepers

and olher trees thriving on muddy saline tidal banks. The Eastern boundary of the

Sundarbans is formed by the ri~er Haringhata or the Baleswar and the Western boundary is

formed by the river Ralmangal and the Haria Bhanga foITTIingthe border line of Bangladesh

wijh West Bengal, Tile forest extends beyond Raimangal into West Bengal (India) up to the

" Iloohl~,~•• "" E, {1991J.<II'dt PI'~,

",M",,~.~

29

estuary 01Ihe Hooghly, The Southern boundary 01Ihe lorest is the Bay 01Bengal. No defin~e

line can be given for Ihe northern boundary because as the dena formation goes on: men

push further southward to culli~ate the fertile allu~tOn. At any given time, therefore, Ihe

Sundarban, geographically speaking begins where culti~ation ends, Howe~er, the length from

the coasl running inland ~anes lrom 60 1080 miles, At prasenl, Ihe northern boundary 01the

SUndarban is the northem boundary of the Go~emment forests"The total area of Ihe forests

of the Sundarban in Bangladesh is 2,316square miles.'"

2.4 Climatic Factors

VI.1 Bengal, Climatically Bengal falls within the monsoon zone. The excessi~e

monsoon rain, ~arying between 70 to 100 inches in a year is the highest in the sub-

continent which falls between June and September; excessi~e humidity a~eraging well

o~er 80% is a permanent feature of life in this country." This phenomenon facilitates the

rapid growth of the wild ~egetation and poses senous threat to any structure abandoned to

the mercy of nature, Moroo~er the de~astating earthquake in 1897 was responsible for the

obliteration of most of the historical monuments of Bengal. This is why, little remains 01any

ancient architecture ISto be found anywhere in this region, For the people 01 Bengal, life

IS a constant struggle against ~iolent storms, rain and thunder. Each year a large

number 01 huts and houses are washed away by the mighty currents of the raging

n~ers The land reformation in, thiS region has no sense of stability or permanence

about it The dwelling house or building constructed on the soft and unstable soil of

this land IS mherently weak and as such does not last ~ery long. As a result the

people tend to build their houses on little mounds, raised abo~e the le~el of normal

flood, The sky almost through the year remains cloudy, which causes glare to the eye

and Ihat is why buildings are constructed with projections o~er the openings to limit

•'~~Pl',~," I"'" pp <:1-73,

the field of ~ision down' to the green landscape. This also helped to protect the built

en~ironment form damaging effects of heavy rainfall. The extensive monsoon rain

encourages the growth of wild vegetation. Once a building has fallen into a state ot

neglect it is quickly over grown by heavy foliage and this plays ha~oc with iis

structure. Especially damaging is ihe Banyan tree. which hoids the building in its fatal

grip, like on octopus until ihe siructure is torn apart

NO traces of ancient architecture is to be found anywhere in this region. This is

because the buildings constructed wilh earthen brick failed to withstand the

onslaughts of rainy weather and shifting nature of sOil for long The changing course

of rivers is almosl a regular phenomenon the floods cause extensive damage and

destruction to crumble away almost all the old buildings of this country. '"

2.••.2 Kllulna and Sundarban region:

The distinctive feature of tile climate of thtS region is the saR iaden air tllroughoutthe year

specially when the winds blow from the sea, In the extreme south, air is ~ery wet and

generally unhealthy The winter sets in the beginning of December and lasts !iii the middle of

Febl1.Jary,These are cool months with a prevailing north-wesl wind and heavy dew at night.

The maximum and minimum mean temperatures during the winter season vary /rom 79.9'F

and 58.3°F respectively" From the middle of February the sun's rays begin to intensr!y, heat

up the land but fail \0 affect the stable sea to the same extent. The land air then becomes

holler and Ifghter than the sea air, and as it rises a current of air from the sea I1.Jshesup in the

form of the salty southe~y winds which prevail from February till the monsoon breaks In The

_alher becomes very hot in April and continues to be so !III the middle of June. when the

temperature is lowered by the setting in of the monsoon. During this dry summer (i.e, from

March to June) the maximum and minimum mean temperatures are from 96.Q"F and 76.S'F

respectively, '"

31

2.5 Settlements in Bengal

2.5.1 Rural Settlements

The most noteworthy fact concernmg the economic life of ancient Bengal is the

preponderance of rural life, and their settlements. From the commencement of the

historical period. these seem to have always dominated the landscape of this

province, The people established themselves in villages. and organized their lands,

the fields, meadow and woodlands to serve their essential needs.

Broadly speaking. they appear to have been of one unilorm pattern. For as la' as

available eVidence Indicales Ihey were usually of the nucleated type, not of the single

farm Iype,"" The fural population lived in compact groups and not in widely scattered

habitations, to adapt to an agrarian system in which cultivation prominently figures.

Inscriptions further reveal that villages usually consisted of certain well-defined parts.

They are'G

a) Vasfu. the habitat

b) Kshelra, agricultural land

c) Go.chara. Natural meadow land. Usually located at the corner of the village(gramas) along the, boundaries,

d) gaffa/nala, pits and canals for drainage.e) Ushara, barren tracts

f) go-parha/go-marga. catlle tracts.g) pafha-path,

It is thus clear Ihat the various type of land attached to the village were not only

distinguished and classified from the point 01 view of their usefulness to man. but

were organized for exploitation according 10certain systems and customary practices

so as to best satisly human needs.

2.5.2 Urban Settlements

Although Bengal was primarily a land of villages (gramas). towns or urban settlements

were by no means rare. References can be made to a large number of these towns as

known from epigraphic and literary evidences.

It is not impossible that few towns might have been primarily brought into being by

administration or political reasons but contemporary evidence proves that they were

often emporiums of trade beSIdes being political centres, Further, an analysis of the

sites and positions occupied by the ancient towns of Bengal shows that they were of

such a geographlcal character that they could be utilized as nodes or centres of

routes by iand or by water.

Both literary and epigraphic evidences make It clear that whereas the rural population

was mainly dependent on the soil and its produce, the towns. although not perhaps

wholiy divorced from agricultural functions, lended to serve some or all of a wide

variety of functions: commercial, industrial, political Judicial and military."

2.6 Philosophical settings in social context

2.6.1 Development of Ideas in Bengal:

The Vedic School", The Vedic SamMas have completely ignored Bengal and the

single Brahmana text, probably also an Aranyaka, that refer 10 Its peoples do so in

disparaging lerms, Even the later work Bodhayana Dharmasutra regards lhe country

as altogether outside the lerritory of VediC culture. Due to the absence of positive

eVidence we cannot admit that the Aryan culture made much headway in Bengal. The

" Rol. AaI•• K•••••••.(191!~),110"9' _._ Song" '" til. ""'otfpIioIl Of_ h-.ller.l (5th '" 1'1" e."w,y). _,,_.c.lc<J1ta. Pl'. J5--3•.

38Roy."loy ('''7). """""" _ ~~ MIl , 80"9'"_""'. 0•••••.PI'-23--ll5

33

linguislic and elhnological evidence renders it highly probable Ihat Bengal was till

then mostly populaled by non-Aryan races,""

It is difficult 10 assign preCise dates bul Bengal musl have come inlo intimate contact

with the Aryan culture by Ihe monks and warriors of the middle counlries by Ihe 4"

cenlury BG. After thaI, as always happens, the primitive cullure of Bengal was

profoundly affected by the impact of a superior civilizalion and we possess very little

knowledge of Ihe old religions, failhs and beliefs

During the Gupta period the new form of Brahmanism had already laken deep roots in

the minds of people. The Vedic gods had mostly disappeared and Iheir places were

taken by new diVinities whom we call Puramc. The then gods were Vedic in name but

had no conneclion wilh Ihe Vedic rituals; Ihey belong 10 Ihe mythOlogy of the ep'cs

and Puranas.

At Ihe last stages of Hinduism, during the Sena rule, a strong and orthodox class

system was introduced to society In Ihe name of Brahmanism in Bengal. This forceful

intervenlion to the very nalure of Ihe local people gave rise to philosophical crisis in

the society of Bengal

ii. Jainlsm: This is the first philosophICal revolt against Ihe orthodox class or caste system

of Hinduism, According to the writings of Ihe Jains. Mahawa personally vlsiled west Bengal

but was not favourably received Ihere. This religKln was established in Pundravardhana

during the reign of Awka. There was a Jain vihara at Paharpur in Ihe 4'" century BG. Bul,

after the 7"' century AD, during the Brahmanical sena Kings. this reiigion had almost

disappeared form Bengal.

11'- Buddhist SchoolS: Another classless religIOusphilosophy developed almost parallel to

Jainism. There IS no definite eVidence as to the lime when Buddhism first gained

Influence in Bengal. But during the period of Asoka Buddhism was established in this

area, In the ath century the Palas Bengai experienced the golden period of Buddhism.

But at that time the influence of Buddhism was almost wiped away form Ihe rest of the

India From 8'" to 12'. century AD Buddhism In Bengal went through many a changes

and alteration. During the emergence of the SeM'S and the introduction of class

system, the classless phliosophic religions like Jainism and Buddhism were

suppressed and wenl out 01 royal patronlzation. Offshoots from Mahayana, a school

of Buddhism, had developed in Bengal in the forms of mysticism known as nmtra;

they dealt with certain deeper metaphysical problems and wrote mystic poems in

oldest form of Bengali (called the Charyapada. found in Nepal in 19" century) <II

2.6.2 Introduction 01 Islamic SchOOl ofthoughl:

Introduction of Islam in Bengal region is a multi-dimensional phenomenon. An integrated and

continuous efforts of political, economic, social and cultural endeavour, Any phenomena or

Architectural development during the Early Muslim Period of Bengal is a direct outcome of

this major socio-poli~cal activity. The scholars In this field have developed different theories

for explaining this social change in relation to the settings of the whole Indian subcontinent.

More recent approaches concentrate on the very k>calcontextual factors and the geo-political

ac~vities of the life-system in Bengal. Among the most preliminary thernies, the noteworthy

ones are:"

i. Sword Theory: the theory slre!;ses on the forced conversion of tha locals by a

bunch of Invaders, Although very popular. this theory fails to explain the

higher rate of conversion in the sub-urban and !mntier regions: for example

areas like $undarban region in Khulna.

•• "'~h)"O, Sm.oI1ch..,dro('901), SI>oIttiRong> _""". An.,d. ",",,,.,,,•.• Pvt U,Leo""",, PI'""""' .•• .••••m.A_", (2001). Bongl",blIlm81"'" Tottyo.Pu~"","""'"8~ ••••_ Sc<*IyJoomaJ, V"'19, """ ',Jun.200',"0,,,.'$4

"

il. Polltlcal Patronage theory: according to this theory the conversion mainly

occurred by econom,c and politICal patronization of the ruling Muslims In a

way. the theory can explain the concentration of converted locals around the

Muslim author~ies. But, on the other hand, can hardly put any light on the

frequent employment of Hindu Officials in the Muslim admlnistratKln or on the

different rates of conversion during the Eariy Muslim phase and the later

Mughallmperial phase.

iii. Social liberation Theory: as e~plained earlier in th,s chapter, there was a

philosophical crisis going on in the last slages of Pre-Muslim period,

Orthodo~ Class systems were introduced to SOCfety by the ruling

Bhahmanical Kings and the BuddhiSts, Jains and the Sahajiyas were under

serious political and social pressure. On these settings, the Muslims along

with their classless philosophy of Islam were considered as agents of hberty

by the suppressed local Inhabitants of Bengal.

iv. Persuasion TheOl'Y: the theory Implies that mtssoonaryactiv,bes of the Muslim

saints (I,ke pir, sufi, faior etc.) persuaded Ihe local people to convert to Islam,

But why this persuasion was more effective in the deltaic plain of Bengal than

any other part of the Ind,an sub--continentis still a subject of research,

More recent theories try to explain the phenomena through an understanding of multi_

dimensional and conte~tual approach, they are:

v. Syncretistic ThllOry: Islam in this region was established through the arduous

effurts of the 'Cultural Mediators'. The piTS,sufis, poets and fakiTS In thiS

region acted as mediators to popularise Islam. In an environment of both

philosophical and political crisis, in a land of uncertainty, they introduced

themselves as a group of saviours. They brought order in society, gave

status to the lower castes and classes, acted as social oovisors and most of

all were involved in the development of cultivable land, So, the outcome was

a 'syncretism' between the 'Great Trad~lon' of Islam and the 'little Tradition'

\

,of local culture, The 'Models' 01the 'Great Traditions' were synthesised with

the 'Little Tradition' and as a result some New Traditions evolved In the life

system 01Bengal.•'

vI. Frontler theory: Bengal was considered a frontier zone during the Early Muslim

period. As an active delta, the land In this region is always in a developing

stage. People from the older moribund datta areas, where land is nol that

fertile, migrates in huge number to this southern region. Bengal was the

lenninus or ~st lim~ of this line of migration. The Muslim missionaries in this

region were Involved in two levels of activities in this region. At the first level

they bum numerous mosques, tanks, roads and other monuments and

simultaneously they were pioneers 01proclaIming cultivable land by clearing

jungles. In this way they were very successful in becoming not only religious

but also economic leaders of the local people. So. colonisation, Incorporation

and natural population growth are the msjor factors in the esfablishment of

Islam in Bengal.

v;;. Local Pel1!lonality .theory: Bengal from the ancient period shown her urge for

remsining Independent. both culturally and pollt,eally, from central or

Northern India, People living in this land of uncertainty and rivers of

unpredictable mood basically are less orthodox in nature. So, from HindUism

people converted themsewes to more progressive Buddhism; and then in the

same process to the more litleral and progressive ideals of Islam.

v;;I. Open ViJlag. theory: the settlement patterns of the villages of Bengal region are

anthropologically defined as less corporate and opened type The

administration of the villages was in the hands of the Brahmins, an

untouchable class of society was not very structured and economically

independent. Social order here was thus very lose and ineffective. Moreover,

due to the hostile nature of the environment the villages were very weak and

• •

less powered &leial units. So, the conversion to Islam was in a way easier

than in other regions of the Indian sulH;ontlnenl.

The processes of introduction of Islam in this southem regIOn of Bengal mark a major SOClO-

economic activity by the Muslims. The arcMectural Style developments during thaI period in

this region, especially in Khulna, are obviously influenced by the process.

2.7 Concluding Remarks:

Khan--e-Jahan was one of the pioneers of the Muslim missionary in this region. Along with him

he brought new Ideals models and long experience of cu~ural exchange." Here in this region

he tound not only a nature hostile to any development but a group of people courageous

enough to struggle and sustain with bare minimums From them he has learnt the beauty of

continuing, the excellence of austenty, Moreover. the general inaccessibility to Bengal region

gives it a natural protection against any invasion, and here in Sundarban Khan--e-Jahan found

an even more secured place and time of construction, independently away from any central

control or strategic threat

Khan-e-Jahan was a warrior and got h,mself involved in the arduous life-strugg~ of the locals

at this frontier line of the expanding human activity. Even today, he Is considered as a

personality of a 'Muslim Saint or Pi,' among both the Hondu and Muslim commumties This

respect he has earned by establishing strong centres on which the locals could depend on

and this strength is the underlying motive lor the expressions of his Style .••

To sum up, the confidence of polilical independency; the syncretism of Worid Muslim model

and local open type non.urban context; the hostile nature; the strength of austerity for life-

struggle and the characteristic feature of frontier expansion are the most influenCing factors in

the development of Khan--e-Jahan Slyje

"Haq••• Muh,m ••• d En,mu' {'075), A""""'Y"'StJII.-I>m ifl8efIgoI.A,lde _oty of IIon,g'••••• P",

.•• A ••••• '". Abu' F•••• -... JaInUI ••••••• {''''). /1<POt"""*""" •••• (RI. """""" LJOrary, I(h,,"" p.""

Chapter 03

Theoretical Antecedent: Conceptual framework of Bengal Style

Identification

3,1 Irni'Oduotion

3.2 SementicapproachoftheBengal Slyl.

3.3 polenll.ll~es ofEerty Muslim 6eogel Style

3,4 Conoludir>gReman••

Theoretical Antecedent: Conceptual framework of

Bengal Style Identification

3.1 Introduction

Before getting into the central focus olltle study that is to Identify the Khan-e-Jahan Style, the

basIc conceptuai framework for stylistic evaluation ISClearlychalked out in this chapler. The

monumenls of Khan--e-Jahanwere ereeled during th", Early Muslim period of Bengal history.

Muslim architecture in Bengal has gone through different distinctive phases of devtllopment.

In this chapler a proper and effective framework of understanding is deveioped for the

evaluation of the architectural Styles of these periods. The dynamics of th'is evoiutionary

development phases is better understood by their stylistic profiles studied in rela~on to their

context and Influences. Here the Early Muslim Bengal Styles as a whoie are analysed w~h

respect to the components of the term 'Style', The strength, influence and potenMiWes are

also evaluated with respect to the functional diversity and structu",llevels of Ihe Style itself.

3,2 Semantic approach of the Bengal Style

3,2.1 The terms of Style:

For determining the styllshc charactenshcs of Bengal a semantic approach' is adopted in both

the use of terms and components of arch~ecture. As menhoned 1n the earlier chapter, a

study in this field from architectu",1 point of view is very rare Moreover, the research

conducted, in spite of their excellence as documentation or hlstoricai accounls, iacks in

definite scientific clarifications in the use 01terms and their associated meanings.

One semantic analysis of a quoted paragraph for earlier studies will certainly pin point the

problem in this pursu~. A. H. Dam, the pioneer and perhaps the best researcher in this field,

, _ I, 111.ocIonoo Of 'rne"",Olg',a """"mp<M'Ofl' _pmonl, _~ on ._ In_ ,. <1_ OJ'_'Olg or__ Iloo or "'" __ of ._", •• .......- roI<on••• to "'" !hough! _ •• """""'" or ••• ...--, for r."" ••.""'~ ••• Aj>po_I.

39

has explained his approach for the selection of evaluating Bengal Muslim architecture in the

following words

"If architecture Is an expression of human wiN in brick and mortar 10 CJ'8818somWting

sublime - some thing to express his distinctive genius on the canvass of nature whiGh

is ever ready to merge him within har lap - it is neoossary that the architectural formsare studied and ~ appreclal8d against the demands of ioc<Ji conditions. The

motives of man are underslood only when he Is appreciated In the particular

surrounding in whlcll he Is placed. The buildings are not end-products In vacuum.

They are craal8d to meet cerlain conditions of life, and it Is In the fulfilment of tlreseconditions that the highest achievements of man Is realised. The method will be toselect the monumen/;;; of different periods, 10 analyse them into their consliMingelemenls and tr<lC8the evolution of a slyla 01 styles that emerge in the course ofcenluries. The resuit Will not be a finished monograph .. ,or Elven the reduction of thEl

bUildings into a schElmEl of geolTlfltric plan ...but an appraisal of tha avolutlonary

DroceSS that condition the craatlOn of buildings in the context of local geography,

tradition and foroign influences that are received from tlma to tima. '"

There are mainly three groups of terms used in this quotation, they are:'

1 Terms, associated with the emotional and aesthetic state of a subject (of both the

writer and the reader), like: expressIOn; <lChievemenls; Will;motives and sublime.

2. Terms, associated w~h the very understanding of process of continuity, like' s/yie,

evolutionary process and contexl.

Terms, associated with architecture like, form; e/amenls, buildings and

monuments.

The legendary study on Bengal Architecture by Dam was published about 40 years ago,

During this long four decades the meanings associated with these terms musl have changed

conSiderablydue to the change of the soclo--eulturalcontext and developments in the theories

of architecture itself. Moreover. the meanings associated to the emotional state vary largely

even among the contemporary scholars and rtwill not be a matler of surprise if Ihe number of

Ihe meaning of these arcMeclurallerms coincides with the number of architects in the field.

, lIOn, Ahmod fla•• n (' 0111),"" ~, 0 , (the """', •••• "" tho !<oytnnn•• re g""'n ""the,..."",erj.

$ ....,•••••• M,1l. ('005). ~ G'oosof)'of'--oty T..",., ~ RJno•••rt"""Wl""",, 1tIe.._<to P.",58,71.

40

The detailed glossary of terms and lheir meanrng for this particular study is prepared to

counter this problem of IdenbficationOfthe Style in this sludy. Wherever in lhis study a term is

used maintains the meanmg provided here,

3.2.2 Sallo(:onllCiou$ process and context:'

Anotl1er aspect of the monuments of Early Muslim Bengal archileclure is considered in this

study; the true archilectural aspect of the design thought process. How have these designs

and their constructions been perceived: how were these spaces expanded from individual

understanding to colleclive acceptance: how were tile places and the elements of architecture

determined, how did lhe fealures enriched lhe overall space and form are all the questions

that are raised and dissolved by the semantic architectural interpretation and the meaning of

the Style.

Orthodox contextualism, taking behaVIOUrismas origin, stresses the influences 01the physical

settings of a phenomenon, it considers setting as the only guiding principle for any analysis;

but after the seventies wijh the publlcabon of philosopher-linguist Chomsky's 'Syntaclic

Structures' 5, cognitive and stylistic meaning has come to the limelight as an effective

interpreter Context in this study does not reter only as a setting to the bUildings bul more as a

feedback of the mental process of the desfgners"

,••'••• nd••.•Crimp •••. (1Oil4I.IIofM.""rh. Sy"!II~••" ofFcfm, H'MlI. un"""",, P"''', combr'l"" P 6.\.

S ""'d, Hnn••mn 1""1. ,",,,,,,,,,,,,,.A•• m, P",,"cotlDnS,Oha',- ,,>5

• Palm••.•Jony •••• 000'0", IOn ('""oll, """,,".ed AMI."""", Routl••••• ,"""on & N_ Yo'" PP,"'_73

" I-•••••

3.3 Potentialities of Early Muslim Bengal Style:

3.3.1 Me~ningof the term 'Style':

Words are like symbols: they point beyond themselves; they mean something. Words mean

the thing they make us think of and are the tie that connects us with that thing. Words, in fact,

are Ihe chief media of human communk:ation, and the formal meanings provide us with the

dIctionary meaning which clearly shows the link involved between words and what they

signify Then the meaning of a Style fs understood by the components that consmute it.7

In this process the meaning of the term 'Style' is determined and used for the stylistic

identification of architecture In this study The meanings are directed to refer to the

fol!owings:'

a. Appearance: Outward form as perceived.

b. Form: Conceptual elements made visible through spece and mass.

o. Manner' The way a thing is done or happens

d. Skill' Ability 10use knowledge effectivefy in doing something.

e Wrry of designaling The process or series of slages in design,

/. Mode of living: Seale of living,

,Sty" ISla" ~n. , "'od 0' """ e,~In _'" '" .ppo ••.•n<o "0" O"rnIe'''''''"' >l\'le of house), I m,..,,,, Of"",,ng, ." •• k'ng, '"

po"""","g, , d,"'n,tI", ,"""n., or. ""_, a","~ ",,"0', Qrpenod • <ONoeIwa," """on""'" p"""o 0' "mg, S ,"periOeq"Ii'" "m,nn", {oo";n •••••) • """'00 Indr." eto, , ""In''''' too, 0" sc<""",ng "' ''''',"''09 8 Bot ",~o", e,,,,,,,,loo OfIh. """'I',"_"lnO the SlIgma _, (_ling). O•• "n '" m,k•• t<, In" """,,,'ot {•• p fa,h"'oeble) ,tyIe b ""0"'" 'n " 'pee""" _,. [La'""'''1. Soon;eO.foro [",mor. ="""'l'. 0"'''''' u",~", Pre••,Lon",,",'900.

Sty,. n 1M' _, '1yI., fi L .1>1«.,,"e, ""m, ",'u', ,ty,. of wO"""" perin, ";n Ie L ;n <Ii"". '0 ,,,,,d-mo,,, at """l11«) "d.""o_n. mle2 0: • O,.""cl". m,"o., of "",.,"00 (•• ,n ""'ng '" "",.eIll ""'leO "llh ","ro ""_" to _ I",n '" ooOle",'<"'" _'''_ of 'B" ",otu" prose> 0' •• "."""'" m,nn •• or CUSIOOlor beh"""O '" condCdlng "", •• , < 1M fOnnal_ of the c'".' ~h" - ;, 00",1_ : ."0 a ",,_'" mode01''''ng< Inh"h~ c: " portlCu,",menno,0' _o"'u. b, wh"" .~g '" """e,'_ted. '" _moo < • '"'q'"- 01""".Jo,,:,dd',..~ "'" ~,..,,,, •..oI<IOn",,' 3 0: 'Iy!", b: .00'""" 'b c: " nll"'rmprolOn~•• ooof , pIo", ova" b""'i 0 't!llma ., "" """" - ••• n""""r '"",fi""",, d' 0 olender 010,..0." P"""'" I" ""'tie) 00 an onl",., ~, •""nc1J1'& qu,m,. form '" """ of ""","",'ng<iO """ "'e,,,...,'''. O31•• k-ol A,d"tecMe' 5 0: ••• ...,. of be". """"I"",",hlon«:lom•• II",.", a1w..,.. '"~ b: ro,",on"' • ...,."""" ",,"UIy, grace. '" •• ," of mao"", '" IeChn'QU" en ••••••• Id","meo' ,h. h,odle<lwhh_' .: 0 00''',,"",,0 _ reopect '" 'pol''''', ,,"o,"u''''''", ""pl"rl<ol',,", 'nd Iyp,,""'ph;;: ""'ngemenl"nd,"",'" fc<'O"o"d;own~"Oor P""'''O 'y" •••• "h"'o S""cce' Mom"••..WOIl'••. !liIoJ"""'I".NowYOrl<,200'

StyI. - . Ih. Ram,,", """'" on ••.•_ '"0'"" "Uh • ,h"""",,","," Instrum",,' COl'" ""'" and •.•• ~ever "mllnuen~, '" """ dayhonol&<lhro "J'\IS •• Ill ~II. ffer. " ••• ",urao OrOut "COd otyre. Sou_ Fun., _ Il~~). WOfd ~' ~"" ",... RQmonlt<;sro_ GO\'i """B Publl'•••••& DI"'O,,",,, [>oj'"

• Abo",,,,,,,.", Slonlo)' 11~lI<),An:IIn''''tlJf!'MM. flo""" & Row, P'''~hO''',•••••YO<kPI' '"'"''"

42

3.3.2 Components of Early Muslim Bengal Styles:

To determine the identifying characteristtcs of a Style its constrtuent components are needed

to be anelyzed separately, The concept, approach, form and content of Style differentiate it

from the other predecessors and contemporaries Then the functional diversrtias and

structural levels assign its potentialities and place in the stream of evolution of Style

development.

Style of the Early Musilm Bengal is a complex cuRural phenomena and Architectural Styles

involve even more complex factors derived bofh from aesthetic and technical fields It

developed through the syncretic dialect between the Models of Muslim Archtfecture and the

Pre-Muslim context, The components of these Styles are deSCribedbelow:'

The Concept:

The concept of Style has aspects like intentions of the builder and is used by different

sdences, including literarily criticism, art criticism, lingUistic, the history of culture, aesthetics

and architecture '0 At the beginning of Muslim ruie in Bengal the polittcal center of this sut>-

continent was Delhi. So, naturally the infiuences of World Muslim Architecture came to

Bengal through an interpretaflon of the Delhi Imperiaiist Architecture That ISwhy most of the

scholars while identifying the ,nfluences on Bengal Architecture has frequently referred to the

then contemporary Delhi Styles, Apparently the references sound very logical buf

unfortunately in most of fhe cases they fail to describe the phenomena that were occurring in

this region. Historically during a large porlion of the Early Muslim period the relation of the

Muslims of Bengal was very hostile wrth that of the Delhi centre. But, they always maintained

a cultural, political or at least sp;rdualconnection to the centre of World Muslim CIVilisation,the

Mecca and the seat of the Caliph. So, Archetypes generated by the World Muslim

Architecture had also profound mfluences on them. Through conceptualisation of the

, "","", v,"" (' 00'), op. ""- "" '50.'55.

" """""",Rog'" ('070), 1JtOAos/ItOUc,"'M:Ji1l«ttHO, MeltJ<Jen& Co.lOndon, po, '5"'70

syncretism the Styles of ea~y Muslim Bengal becomes the quality 01 a certain arch,teclure

which dlsllnguishes ,t from olhers.

ii. Th. approach:

The approach to style determines the goal of a creation - to affect the reclplenl In a certain

way - the ultimate achievemenl of the endeavour. By virtue of Ihe principle of feedback, this

goal influences the whole process of creating a styllsllcally expressive work and its future

functioning The approach of Early Muslim Bengal Style was to create an impact on the local

seltlng using the available spirilual and physical resources of the context.

iiI. Fann and Content:

Style in architecture is neither form, nor contenl, nor even their unity. Style reletes to form,

content and their unity as the "form" and .content" 01a liVingorganism relate to a set of genes

In its cell. The genes determine the organization of a given being, its charactenstics as an

indrv>dualand a member of a certain family and species, and its type as a whole" The

raglonal traditions of 8engal Muslim Architecture formed individual units by themselves, and

they express the aspirations 01a group of people faced with a common problem of life. The

builders here had alluVlal day of very fine texture as raw building material and a tradition 01

buildmg with brick. Stone like black basalt is very rare in Ihls region and had to be Imported

from Rajmohol Hills Sandstone and granite though very rare were collected from 8ihar. Lime

as mortar or plaster was never used In Early Muslim phase. Moreover, the indigenous

construction system of bamboo structure might have had a profound impression on the

builders or at !east on the craftsmen who actually built them. When these combine to make

Ihe larger whole, the individuality is never sacrificed. It is the realisation of a wider and

happier cultural sphere thai knits the regional units into a common bond of human activity

Moreover, the regional seltlng where the SiteSwere surrounded by jungles also determined

the scale and details of the monuments.

11 .•••••••, F,"""I (1ga.). Form "oI<ing in om.r sn.,--E.s"'gian'll" ••••..,e, 111"';<(U",,""h,"e<f), Un"",,'ly or c.oh"ml" lo,_p22.

3.3.3 The funetlon,1 divel"'$lty12of Early Muslim Bengal Style:

As a fae;lor of Ille creetive pror:ess' The arcMecture of Early Muslim Bengal

Is predominantly of Bamboo Style, the main inspiration of the creative

process comes from technique which is then transformed Into beauty.

ii. As a factor of evolutIOn. This period of Bengal Architecture marks the

transformat,on of grandeur scale of World Muslim model to the Int,mate scale

of Bengal hut.

iii. As a factor of tile socio-cultural and cllmallc bemg' The development of

curved cornice, use of terracotta details both as decoration and climatic

protection. stone facings and damp proof courses all are responses to local

culture and climate.

iv As a fae;lor of tile mfluence exerted by irs expreSSIOns. The phase of early

Muslim Bengal settled the form of origin of Bengal Architecture once and lor

all; the forms are appreciated by the local people, The Mughal, and even the

Hindus of later period in the hiStoryof evolution of Bengal Architecture."

3.3..4 The structuraltevel" of Early Muslim Bengal Style:

The complex structure of Style, which has many levels, reflecting the designer's integral

personal~y, his intent, the characteristic features of the trend and the entire cultural hentage

which has formed the basis of his work.

Level one;

Level two:

The deepest "generalive" levei of Style: Brick arcMecture IS the frrst level of

motive for Ihe development of Bengal architecture The alluvial clay of very

fine texture is the source of inspiration for these Styles,

The national stylislic compollfjnts: the origin of form of Early Muslim Bengal

architecture ISthe Bamboo huls of th's region.

"Tho"",,,,00", ~~"""'Y •• poet dele"""." Iho"""",, of•• 'Y,.1t>"'" as 0 '$'1".' by <belf,The fune""".' "''''''I' oIa ~. '" moel\1"",0 facto" IU_ I" 0IyI0"~ch,mCler.HOMn.s~ "'.~m".", (H""J,0' <Itor>2'"-'"" Th•• Iru<iu•• ' Ie,,, """'" dOlO""'o••••• con,,,,,, ••,,. ",,"""'n , ••• _ ". 'Slyie' In 1Il'""" ••••• Ifma ••••••• ~ny S!)<o,",'h ."'" """~'" edJ,-. ...". _ IhoIVJl_or _ •••• O'"li""" _.It>e"POM """"""" _. ~ Ih, ""_""""" "It>_c. '''"'' ""'<nloll' •• Tho "'"'''''''' .no d,_ """onohfp' _ """' •• no ~•• " ma>n tho _ •• Of tho '•••••••"'"worl.e and 'he ,,"mO., or ",. otyIIilI, "vels'o. more complOJ<.

Level ttlree

Level four

Level five

Th(J style of a gwen period: The curved cornice with the comer turrets, the

two centred arches and the alternalive recesses all of Bamboo origin

becomes the representattve identifying charactel"1>01 the Early Muslim

monuments"

Matured mdlVlduallty of Slyle: These Bengal Styles for the first time in the

history Introduced the Chouchala and Dor::halabrick roof system over the

monuments.

Slyle oflhe epoch, The use of exposed brick and terracotta in the interior and

exter'or of the monuments of the Early Muslim Bengal Style is not only the

identifying character of that phase of Bengal architecture but aiso ltIe

aesthetic lile-outlook of the soil. That is why. when the Impenal Mughal Styles

with their plastered surfaces were introduced in this region the architecture of

exposed brick and terracotta becomes source of inspiration for all the Hindu

temples for once and for ail

3.4 Concluding Remarks:

A structured semantic analysis for evaluating the Bengal Style has been done in thiSchapter.

The term 'Style' has been pm-pointed to a constant and Independent meaning. Then the

components like concept. approach, form and content: the functional diversity and structural

level 01 Early Muslim Bengal Style have been discussed to determine ~s strength and

potentialities as a Style in the evolutionary process The analysis shows that the Early Muslim

Style as a whole conceptualiy maintained spir~ual connection to the world Muslim centre of

consciousness through Archetypes; the approach of the Style was towards creating an impact

through. its form and content. The Bamboo Style reduced from grand monuments to small

huts secures Its place at the highest level 01 Styles of the epoch. In the next chapter this

evolution ,s further elaborated with individual Styles of Early Muslim Bengal discussed in

relation to the process of syncretism and components of Style,

15 IlIIIIm_'o, F.rlol (1~1, O"Ungul'hing "'otu"" or _quo A_m or_"""",I Pen,," or _., .nd ••••Ir in"""""" 008"'-"'.01 A",h!lecttJraI OO'ltOlopmont,Joo ••• lolA"a"" -.o!y 0/8••••_, Hum" Vo,.,. No" Jooe 1~,. ~p 81-114,

Chapter 04

Style Evolution of Bengal Architecture

"..,..,"

Introduction

Backdrops 01 Syncretism

ons.t of Syncretl5m

Coocluding Remarks

-

Style Evolution of Bengal Architecture

4.1 Introduction

Architecture IS an expression of ideals sUited to socio-eultural needs of man Muslims have

erected monuments allover the world. What all these buildings had in common was their

inner architectural vocabulary - the MuslimArchitectural Archetype. Bul, the transformahon of

one type of building from one climate to another and to new building materials forced the

builders to confront with some obvious problems. So they consclOusly developed a new

vocabulary - the 'Bengali Muslim Style' sUitableonly to the local context of this region

The religion of Islam provided such an Ideal to its followers and that alone governed the;r life

in its entire sphere. But these buildings are not governed by any canon of laws to be found

directly in Ihe Holy Qur'an, bul they follow a tradition of buildings which the Muslims have

developed In course of time' Hence they should be called Muslim ArcMecture (Instead of

mOrerigk! religion dictated term "IslamiC' or narrowly termed 'Saracenic"j

ThiS chapter discusses how the new SOCialdynamiCS,new spring of ideas, new aesthetic

currents of an introduced religion came together in Ihe local context to bring about Ihe

Syncrel~m, a special language of claSSICismthat can be learned and used With a certain

freedom. it is a study of part of the transformation of one social a!tllude by anolher and

prolonged crisis of responsibility and identity, The buildings described here are fascinating

and as well as beautiful. They mark a point of development of our culture, a developmenl sllll

in the process of resolution.

Muslim archllecture of Bengal broadly falls into two cl1ronologlcal phases'>

1. Early Muslim Phase

2. Mughal Phase

1 ~II, A.K.II, Y"ub (1••• ), ","""mArdtiIo<l<Nu, "' ••••~ FOUnd.l;,;m, Dhaka p •

, 0"", .•••m••• H'N. (1"'), op "'- pp 1•. 17, o

The study is concentrated up to the stylistic developmenl of lhe Early Muslim Architecture of

Bengal and references will be drawn to lhe laler Mughal Styles only to mark the differences

and establish lhe specialities of th,s penod Moreover. some references are directed towards

the development ot the ArcMecture during the Mughal period to establish the continuity of

infiuences of the earlier phase

4.2 Backdrops of Syncretism

4.2.1 Muslim Architedulll Archetype:'

In the semantic aspects of Muslim Architecture Archetype, the doctrine of Arab characler hold

Its significance for much from the time of the Caliphs and onwards Within the code they

offered such major alternatives as,

1 Complex models

2 Independent models

The other minor alternatives are:

3. Fortified frontier struclures (ribBts and qasrs)

4. Hunling lodges and

5. Utilitarian structures (like bridges, watch towers etc,)

with direct or indirect acceptance ot the Muslim Ideals,

i. Complex Models: ThiS Model was generated in the densely populated urban areas

of lhe Muslim world These structures were built 10meet the tunctions of palace, mosque,

madrasa, caravanserai, bath or privale dwelling; al different times and in different places, The

prominent example of thiS phenomenon is the four-Iwan courtyard structure of Cenlral AsIa

and Iran, which is also found In other parts of the Muslim world. The major charactenstrcs of

lhls Complex Models are as follows:

a. Archetype: The Model is closely related to the concept of an 'Archetype', where a

typical architectural form is constantiy in use Irrespective of the specific functions.

These buildings do nol automatically reveal the function it serves by its form. The

design is not to serve a particular purpose, but is an abstract and 'perfect. scheme

, Mlmo". Goocg, (•• ) I'"") 00 ~ po. 11.14

48

Ihat can be used for a great variety of functions without any difficullies. The strenglh

01this preconceived 'absolute' scheme can best be demonstrated by the monumental

four-iwan plan for the mosqulHTladrasa of Sultan Hasan in Cairo', fitted inlo an

irregular site thai is singularly unsuited for il.

b, Adaptablllty: Generally, the Compklx model hide tis principal features behind an

unrevealing extenor. Us forms do not change according 10 funclional demands but

rather tend 10 adapt funclions to the preconceived forms. which are basically Ihe

contmned intemal spaces.

c Non-axiality: The bUildings rarely adopl an Inherent directional or axial quality The

actual physical direction of a building is often different from Its functional direction,

The visitor wllo enlers Ihe courtyard of a mosque is drawn atongslde the prayer hall,

down Ihe width of Ihe courtyard. This is often at right angles to the true metaphysical

'direction' as indicated by the mihreb,

d Organic growth This lack of Indlcalion of a direction or focus is also c1aarly

expressed in the asymmetric balanced composition between the various parts of a

building complex Additions to an anginal plan are governed by an inherent principle

condilionlng all parts in an equal manner. Pure symmetric balanced schemes like

four-iwan plans may be explained as being a pre-Islamic, Central Asian or Iranian

concepl adopled by the Muslims But much more important is the d,ssolution of this

original symmetric plan within the tolallty of an archilectural complex, lis absorption

inlo a number of additional slructures which accumulate around the original design.

eventually engulfing it completely. The Friday Mosque of Isfahan, with ils long and

complex bUilding history spanning almosl a millennium, is a perfect example of this

prinCipleof organic growth

e, Brutal Irregul~rity. The very possibility of enlarging a given structure in any', ..- ""

direction by adding units of almost every conceivable shape and size to the original

scheme,' totslly disregarding the form of the original structure, is a differentiating

characteristic of Muslim architecture. Its most impreSSive manifeststion occurs in

Muslim palaces, a setting where financial, legal or other material conslderallons

csnnot ever have been the cause for the Incredible 'irregularity' of planning (e.g. the

Topkapi palace, Istambul, or Fatehpur Sikri, India)'

f. Unarticulated exterior Another principle ot this Complex Model IS its almost

undecorated and unarticulated exter;ors Even where articulated exterior surface do

appear, they have little relationship to the Interior organization of the building, ThiS

disregard for the outside appearance of structure is otten developed to the extreme

whereby even a monumental structure in an urban context is completely hidden by

secondary adjacent buildings or a bazaar, That ISwhy these buildings can hardly be

understood by its exteriors (Plate' II)

ii Independent Models: A number at building-types were espedally developed for the

non-urban context, although they trequently appear within the city as well. The major

characteristics of this type of Model are,

a Isolation: The caravanserais are generally situated in tile open country side

along the prindple travel routes and the monumentsl tombs appear as isolated

monuments Wlthina proper cemetery When the mausoleums or monumental tomb

commemorate an Important personage; its very function as a commemorntive

structure makes 'visibility' and physicsl Isolahon imperative, These isolated

monuments had their Origin in the 'Dome of Rock', stsnding alone on its plafform

and viSible from all sides, based entirely on pre-Islamic models,. The formal

architectural vocabulary of this monument is that of the vanquished, not that of

victors.

• MI""oll, GoO'll" (od.) (1978) "" dl P ••.

o H.II •••b•••• , _n111Wll), 1m""" Art _nO A<cIlrtecMo, 1110"'0> end Hod""", LOtIO"" p "

PLATE lI(a)World Muslim Architectural Archetype

11_' 1 "

.Ii! •

Complex model

independent model

Dome of RockJerus.lem,&85-92A D.

/

PLATE lI(b)World Muslim Architectural Archetype

independent modelHumayun's Tomb

Delhi.1565AD

b. Local Conten, Basically these non-urban models consequenUy show the

cuMu•.••1expression of the local contexltrom which they are derived. They bear the

outcome of the World Muslim Model with constant and maximum use of pre-Muslim

or non--Muslln characters produced by the process of syncretism

4.2.2 Ordering principles of Muslim Architecture:

The basic ordering principle of Muslim philosophy depends upon seeing numbers and fogures

as key to the structure of the cosmos and as symbols of archetypal wOOd and also a world

which is viewed as the creation of God in the sense of monotheism. The internal intellectual

universe of Islam propagated by the Muslims developed a school of mathematiCS in parallel to

the Pythagorean-Platonlan tradition

The geometry of the Muslim designers metaphysical and cosmological principles are

embedded inherenlly. The mathematical basis of the Muslim ordering principles largely

depends upon the most primary moves of geometry The first level of gene of ali fonns in

Muslim Architecture is thus a circle formed by exlernlzation of the unfolding centre- the point.'

In a generative stage these circles produce the square fonn, the symbol of 'Purity'. Interaction

between the square, the circle and the space in-between is the basic and most emphasised

order that have been practiced among the archrtects, designers and craftsmen through out

the Muslim Wo~d. (Plate III)

4.2.3 Pre-Musfim Archiledunil Tradlllons of Bengal:

Bengal has a rictl architectural trad~ion, During more than hvo thousand years of its histllry many

distinguished phases have developed and disappeared and have lelllheir mal1lln !he shape of

spectacuiar seltlements and monuments, the deserted relics of which ilfe still visible throughOlJl the

region, During !he Buddhist and Hindu rule in Bengal many new settlements flourished onty to later

become abandoned and tumed into ruins.

PLATE III

Muslim Order of SpaceExternalization of circle

Instead ofthe contemporary space generation of point-line-plane-volume order the Muslim Orderof space follows the point-line-.arc-circle order. That is why an understanding of such two-dimensional ordering principle is of utmost necessity to decode the generation process of anyMuslimArchitectural space. All geometric proportioning system depend upon thiSOrder of Space.

Point-line-arc-circle

• •

// -.... ,

•" "\/

,,i \,

II •

\ ,,\\

I

/",i

, /,,./.,-._- " --'

PLATE IV

Muslim Order of SpaceExternallzatlon of circle

Bythe generation olthe circles.developed through the point-line-drcleorder, e~ery elemenlandspace dimension of Muslim Architecture is derived. For example, the proportions andarrangements of the complex parts of a typical mlhrab ISgenerated through the extemalrmlion ofthesame original circle.

Order of a Mihrab

// I1 II I l,..•...: / ,

: / •.....•.I I'I ' I,-'___ ;0.::.. __ I

\\\\, \,, ,, \'" ,- .••.•..,,--_.

A Moorish doorway, Spilin.SOU"": Crt<:I1IOW._ , ('992) I!lamlC Poltemo, anAnol)rtle one CoomolOlJieol Approoch. n"""", arid HLICI.on.london. p:'03.

•

Bengal was devoid of building material of more permanent nature like rock or slone, But the

genius 01 the people was focussed on the alluvial silt depostt and more durable buildings were

bum 01 brick burnt out of this siR. Anhough sometimes stones were imported from nearby

quarries, but in general, buildings were built 01 heavy walls adapting to the structural system

suited 10 the capabili~es of the burnt clay. The structural cores in many cases were COllared

with terracotta burnt tiles, 10 protect the structure from the hostile warm-humid climate, These

tiles provKle base for creatlve arlistlc endeavour and thus some of the finest pieces of

architecture were created and distinct architectural character evolved

The basic attitude of the Pre-Muslim Architecture of Berlgal was to create numerous angles, 1aceIs,

recesses and pro]ections to accommodate brick and terracotta decorations. Th~ was done by

initi31ing the form generation or e>demalization from a basic square and then divKling It into a

special rhythmic: proportion (Fig. 02). Strong comers and deep mouldings wrth massive walls

signifies the intention of designirlg 'Heavy Architecture' •

Figure 02: Comparative mode of Ionn generation, Pre-Muslim and Muslim

Pre-Muslim mode of externalizing(Mandai ••)

Muslim Mode of externalizing

With the introduction of Islam and establishment of MusHm political domination ,n Bengal

around 1204 A.D. we are confronted wilh a new definition of Style; iI is no longer to be

• Oonl, ••••••••••••• n (1061), "" <it PI' 16-17.

52

considered as an archetypal code but rather a mode of expression. More attention paid to the

effect of Style than to its inherent characterislics. The magnificent large dimensions and the

sharp profile associated with Iheir background represented the richest inheritance of the

Muslim culture. ArcMeeture was deliberately used to pronounce their growing domination on

the political and cultural levels in 8engal; at this stage a symbol was needed to represent the

progress. Tewers were erected at different places and eventually corner turrets eVOlved.

4.3 Onset of Syncretism

Early Muslim Phase: At the beginning of the 13'" century when the Muslims established their

power in Bengal Musl,m Architecture had already established ijs basic highly developed

Styles and characters around the world. But when these norms were practiced in the deltaic

land of Bengal local conte><twijh its strong background comprised with its technology.

architectural setting and soclo-<:ultural attitudes have changed and enriched the bUllding

Archetype. Thus, Early Muslim Phase gave birth to individual Styles with the characteristics of

their own"

a. The Mamluk Style

b. The Early Illyas Shahi Style

c The Eklakhi Style

d, The Later Illyas Shahl Stylee. The Khan-e..Jahanstyle

f. The Hussain Shahi Style

4.3.1 The Mamluk Style;

(Representative ,,,,,,"_study: M""que of Z••••r Khan G•• I, at Tnben, ; Plate V)

i. Natural and "ocio-polilfcal fore"",; context: The Style developed Under the

Sultanat of Lakhnauti, initially provincial governors of Delhi bearing the @e of

'Malik', around Tribeni, Saptagram, Chota Pandua and Hugly. The Arabic word

'Mamluk' means owned. basically they were slave solders; woo had begun their

• D'nl, "'"ned Hooan ('''"'J. "" dl. o-:l\l,

53

PLATE VZafar Khan Gazi MosqueAt Tribenl. (1298A.D.)

The lafarKhan Gazi Mosque is an example of the Mamluk Style of Bengal developed undertheSultanat 01 Lakhnauli. It represents all the lackings of the iniijal stages of a Styie developmentThe oblong shaped multi-unit space is not well-represented from the exterior due to the absenceot massiveness at the corners With the use of pillars in the front row the fronlfacade became overexposed from exterior and thus further reduced the monumentality Of the structure. The centralbay, which demands more width is inefficiently equal to just any other in the structure.

The.., pilla", lire ioll""m:". ofI_I OO"tex!sod ;"";"'110"Iorlsterslyl""

\

;,1

iU"d< ~~~!],I"" ',' ",: ':' '.'_.'Ii~: .. 1 / " '-.: le, •• ce"traitJ, [:' 'oJ . :-- ',:1

W.akco",",r I~..........i/ \f )]"U!bJ'''-- __ 0' -'~ --'<'-~'-'f~rrHr-'-r-~'"-~-':"-'of':'T:~iaf+r"~~,..__, :¥ ._'__._J~.__ ¥.~---,~'-=,~, .

../, \,' Planof ,~afarKhanG~:.Ii I \ ' ,.,••

j"--,,:,,,,,.exposed ,/ ,~\/ -------- \,,'

..,•• .,. (i • ,...

-:' ,, (, ,,': rt-~,. (

Part 01 a ruined wall shows 11>0"""Slructlon .ystem.

A broken pillar 01zatar Khan GrIliMO",!"".

The /rtIrrtlacade appe'"'''''' monumental du" (0 t/1aabsence 01004id".,.. intile CO",Iru!:lJOlI ,

career as the military slave of some powerful Arab amir. The majority of such

slaves were ethnic Turks'". II was an era of confinuous war of the Muslim rulers

against the Hindu Rajas and the political environment was turbulent one.

il. TIle eoneept; idea: Due to the direct political influence of Delhi the arcMecture

produced is a compromi~ of local skills and treasures with the imperial Deihl

model.

iii. Form and contents; morphology: The buildings are multl-domed with honzontal

comice. A~hough in arrangement the inspirat<onof Delhi is evident the interior

arrangement of the stone COlumnsrecalls local pillared halls of the Hindu temple

and the huge thickness of them also recalls the brick pillar dimensions, The

columns are monolithic with different facets in different sections, In the Mosque of

lafer Khan Gazl, Tribenl, the interior is strikingly exposed towards the east as the

front row columns directly sprang from the huge adjacent piers

iv, Philosophic tl'ilnd: attitude: The very attitude of Impenallsm IS clearly

expressed in the building construction. The architectural vocabulary

establishes the right of a group of new invaders who are more over comers

than victors. That is why rough and ready materials from existing Hindu

buildings were lrequentiy reused in different places.11

v. Symbolic natures; meaning: Absence of comer turrets, the over exposed

interior and horizontal cornice states thai the builder was reluctant to share

ideas or exert Innuence upon the locals through architecture. This indicates

the conservativeness of a confined or cklsed society On the other hand the

use of stone veneer facing With brick core inside decodes the urge of the

bUildersfor permanency for themselves.

VI. Life modes; status: ThiS is the formative stage of Muslim Bengal Style and a

new taste of Architecture with brick and bnck-stone combination was coming

'" ••••• n ••.• ..., R.bont 11900), .p. <it. p."'." Oonl,An••••••.•••• n <''"'1), "" d' P 39

54

•

4.3.2

up. This was an inspiration for oblong shaf"'d mult~domed mosques for the

later periods of Muslim Bengal Architecture."

Th9 Early lIIyas Shahi Style:

i. Natural and soclo-political fore&S; context: The Style developed when

lllyas Shah became the independent Sultan of Bengal in 1338 AD and

claimed the mle of 'Shah.<-Bangla' Th,s has l>appened when the Imperial

Delhi Empire was in a state of breaking away in the mid 14'" century. But

SOOn~ revilled under the Tughlaqs and afterwards Sultan Illyas Shah was

engaged in defending his throne against Flrol Shah Tughloq of Dethl.

il. The concept; Ide.: This is a Style of experiments With ideas and scale in

design. The Architecturat vocabulary bears no relahonship with the

contemporary Tughloq Style 01 Delhi probably due to the hostile political

relationship between the two regions, This break up With Delhi had sent the

buitders 01 Bengal back to the original Mushm Architectural Archetype of

Urban model.

iii Form and contents; morphology: The introvert layout with the four-iwan

central courtyard plan is a bold conception New pattern of screen arches

were added In the front la\'3de, They sprang not from pillars but from brick

piers thus Increasing the e~pression of sol'dlty, The grand scale and the

conscious increase of solidity in the front ra\'3d" enriched the character 01

stability and monumentat,ty of the building, In Adina Mosque, Hajra! Pandua

circular pseudO comer turrets (i e turrets not exposed beyond the exterior

walts) appeared A barrel vault was placed over the central nave but the

complex looses its a~lallty due to the absence of any grand entry from the

eastern side,

"AAmOd.""" So, ••••••••••••• (10)91), op Ol ,87,

PLATE VIAdina MosqueAt HaJrat Pandua, (1374 -75AD.)

The Adina Mosque represents the Early Illyas Shahl Style. The grand scale altha mosque is anexpression of the independence ot 'Shah-e-Bangla' Illyas Shah. This courtyard type ofarrangement is of a complex urban model, bllt here it was implemented as 'a pMori', thus neverrepeated everafler in Bengal.

""

!o0'0'.00'0'0 <l

i',

~

~ i'•0,r".:ooob':

\The central boy I. empho.lzed by ""Ing vaun. lI1u."""bng roonument.1rty from lI1e inner oourt, but fromoutoide tile moO'l"" thl. monumenllliity 1&ag.in lost doo10 ab.ence many g",n~ go_"l' Qr any other oonl",1olemon!.

pgD • a -- ,c -

",;I ",- ,.,.-

..pp 0g ~ ;: gg :: The ""mern", sl,llle •• mOIlumo"tal gt> ' _ from outside, olll1oughpseudo Iurrel> (J" • ''''. appeared. :; ~

g/: " "c> I- ' Cl ( ,,0 ,,_ ~l " __ .- •. ;; ,1 (; C 0:'0'0'0: 0 0 0 O:'O'O[J,o:,o- {}C>,'. Cl' '"' , •••••• i:jt>J •• Cl • " • , • , , , • 0 ••••• " •• "'.""'"" > •• , • Cl!),n'.I+,.CI_On a (.lolla'D.'D.,D.'n lU~"l1'll'l1.11' 0,.O-'Ll'lI!!l'o.-a-a ll'!l'O n'n'a o'n lJiDrl:l,a

'i--~-" ",--!jPlan of Adina Mosque

• •, • '. ••, ~-.

The central bay of Adina Mosque as seen from the inside of the courtyard. The gable window inthe vaultls still visible.

4.3.3

iv, PhilO$ophlc trend: attitudes: The denial of Imperialism of Delhi pushed the

builder towards the central Purist Ideas of the Muslim Architecture. This was

a giant leap backward, and obviously has failed in achieving many aspects

demanded by the context on which it stands. In this respec!, Dani

commented about Adina Mosque: ..Thus tho's grand mosqu(l of bold

conCflpffon;s architecturally a faj/ure.13

v Symbolic natures; meaning: The appearance of pre-mature comer turrets,

the monumental grand scale and revival of Complex Model ail converges

towards the full expression of a local genius and this over emphasised new

spirit of an independent Kingdom What the builders had in their mind is an

'a- priori' set of context of dense urban background. Such a direct denial of

reality creates illusions in the viewers perception In the words of Percy

Brown, •.. standing wo'lho'n Ih(l eXpanSl1lfJquadrangular COlJrtyardof Adina

Mosque, surrounded by its se(lmingly endless array of arches ..presents the

appearance of Ihe forum of some ancient clly rather than a self contained

MuslIm house of prayer .. ,,14

VI. Life modes; status: The builder designed a grand orthodox Mosque but

perhaps (like his contemporary counter- part in Delhi, Feroz Shah Tughloq)

he had ideas much ahead of his time, His schemes were beyond the

capability of his local HLndu craftsmen and his denial of contextual reality

was a mistake A mistake that was never repeated in the htstory of stylistic

evolution of Bengal Muslim Architecture,

The Eklakhi Style;

(Represent.~ve e<>se-stLJ<lyEkhl.kh, Tomb, at Hazrol Pandu., Plate Vn)

i, Natural and socla-polillcal forces; context: Taking advantage of the rivalry

among the Muslim rulers, ethnic diversity of the courts and ioose chain of

"OOn1.Ahrn.~ H1•• n {,oa,), o~ CItp aZ

"Brown,.''''1 (10"1. "" CIt0"

PLATE. VII

Eklakhi TombAt Hajrat Pandua (ea~y 15th century),

The Ekhlakhi Tomb represents the Eklakhi Style that developed at Hajrat Pandua. In this Stylethe independent model of Muslim Architecture was adopted to accommodate the forces of thelocal contex!. To resolve the problem of monumentality, that the earlier styles had confronted, thecomer turrets were introduced in this structure. More local inftuencesare seen in thismonumentboth m Its brick construction system and m Its terra cotta surface treatments The constructionsystem to accommodate a circular dome 00 a square base was a very oaive one, the comerswere filled up with bricks, thus unnecessarily creating an octagonal interior space.

Use of "'1"inoh wasnQI~.t known lOthob",lders

N.rrow opening'

Teora cOltlllacade lreatmenlsof tho tomb wao a ",,"'ee 01,"OpilllMn l<>the lot., penod'

Plan of Eklakhi MosquB

The front facade of the Eklakhi tomb is more monumental with the introduced comer turrets

command Raja Genesa seized lhe power of Bengal, Evenlually his son,

Zalaluddln Mohammad Shah became converted to Islam and declared himself as

Su~an; in a stage he also claimed the mle of 'Khalifa' to confirm his right rn the

throne and shifted his capijal from Gour to Pandua.

ii. The concept; idea: It was a time tor the expression of the Influences of the 'soil

and cl,mate,15of this dellaic plane 01 Bengal. The superimposed orthodox urban

model of Muslim Architecture is rejected and isolaled non-urban model was

adopted as archetype.

iii. Form and contents; morphology: With the devefopment of Ekhlakhi Style, for

the first time in the evolution process of Muslim Bengal Architecture brick became

the true representative of a major Style. The massive walls constructed were

entirely of brick and from now On stone facing became rare and very occasionai

in Bengai For the first time in Bengal Architecture the following features and

elements came into being'

a Octagonal dacorated comer turrels: Dani ident,f'ed it as Tughlaq

influence'", but he also noticed lhe dllferenws from Tughtaq turrels

which are plastered, circular jn plan and are lapered towards the top. On

the other hand a second example of the same Eklakhi Style the Chika

Building (probably originally a tomb or administrative bUild,ng,since lhere

is no trace of any mlhrab), which Dani has erroneously descnbed as

'almost copy'" of Eklakhi tomb, lhe corner turrets are aclually c,rcular

and recessed, thus divided in 12 segments.'" AAyway, this inlroduction of

corner lurrels has emphasised the solidity and monumentailty of the

building

b. Curved cornice

c. Battlements

d Offsets and rocessed walls

e. Continuous lines of mouldings with panels

I' 10". PBO.

•• Oonl, AOm"" H••• " (''''). "" <>t P ,.

" ;~d0e~,,e 11100011,~ I"") (10e.), 00 <It pM

".

f Glazed liles

g, One dome on square plan solution in Bengal Architecfure

Spec,al care was taken to reduce water penetration in the slructure and for this

purpose rain water drainage system was introduced. The doors are small in size

and lotal number of opening is reduced to only four for the same purpose.

Moreover, two courses of slone damp proof layers were provided, one at ground

and lhe other at IlntelleV€1.Consequently, there are some defects present in this

Style, especially where technology is concem. For example, the way the large

dome of 48'--6"diameter ISplaced on the square stn;cture is obviously very crude

and the intenor was unnec€ssarily turned octagonal with deep dark niches,,.

IV PhilosophIc trend: attitude: For the first time in the throne of Muslim Bengal

there was a local converted Muslim Naturally, he was Bengali speaking and had

better understanding of lhe local culture and aspirations of the people. This was

an age of Hindu-Muslim co-{)peratlon and this philosophical syncretism

characterises lhe symbols of thiSStyle,

v, Symbolic natures; meaning: Although so many 'first times' In this Style puts ~ in

a very vulnerable position the monumental aspirations in the bUilders mind is

eVident in his work. This signifies belter communication Wlththe surrounding or at

least more concern 10spread infiuence on subjects beyond the royal court The

d,!'SigndeciSion of taking the isolated model also involves a 'bottom up' thought

process That is the process starts from the local context and rises towards the

non-urban type independenl Muslim Model established earl,e,-

vi. Life modes; status: The adoption of non-urban isolaled monumental models,

enhanced fabric of brick Withterracotta, curved cornice and the corner turrels set

onward an Ideal regional model and respected Style to be followed for lhe later

dates to come.

58

4.3.4 The Later IIlyas Shah! Style:

(Rep""entatlve "", •.• tudy Gour mo",,,,,",",, Ookhll 001WaZ0. Choml<otl Mosque, T.""p'''' Mo"'lue,

00"''''" Mo,~"" oM Fo", •• Minor: PI••• VIII)

I. Natural and socio-polltlcal forces; context: Th~ II'yas Shahi Dynasty

recaptured the throne of E!<lngalin 1435 A.D. and thl: capttal was again shifted

from Pandua to Gour This Sallenat continued upto 1,(67 A.D. unM the AbySlnlan

Slave Dynasty over threw them to hold Bengal for about SIXcons~utive years.

Among the Sullens of th;s dynasty Nasiruddin Mehmud Shah is considered as a

great bUilder

" The concept; Idea: The spirit of search for a common goal standing on the

already established foundation of the independent Sultanat of Bengal. The

principle concentration of the design was neither on over-ambitious

experimentation nor on limited elaboration of the earlier Styles All the efforts

were towards achielling a matured and self-sustaining Style for Bengal Muslim

Architecture.

iii. Form and contents; morphology: The assimilation of form and content with the

context was handled with great care by developing well balanced plans, ensuring

proper adjustment to the surroundjng and allowing self-controlled but highly

developed decorations A dialectic relationship waS established between the

architectural form and the artistic decoration. which critics have called 'a happy

blend'>!' between the two disciplines. Quality of spaces With 'really charm,ng

effect''', both interior and exterior, was ensured by deploying balanced proportion

within the parts and maintaining scale to the sellmg on which the architecture was

created. Th;s Style has produced the earltest Gate buildings (Kotwali and Dakhil

Darwaja, Gour) in Mus;im Bengal Architecture. In these Gate buildings they have

achieved a very effective sense of grandness and monumentality. The buildings

are h;ghly proportionate in form and peculiarly suitable to their functions, On each

" ",no, AOm" H•••• 11"'), ". ,rt ,,,1fJ "~ •• "

",,~,,21.

\•

PLATE VIII(a)

Dakhil Darwaza (15tf1. 15th century)

Chamkatti Mosque (15th • 16th century)At Gour

(

Clear square .pace .':

OJ I1

,.."Plan of Chamkatli Mosque

- ,.. -.Dakhil Darwaza

The Dakhil Darwazaand tlle Chamkatti Mosquebelong to the Lale IllyasShahi style of Bengal.These two structures represent the search foran Identity in Bengal style in two different fields,firstly In gateways and secondly in mosquestructures_ More concenlration is given inarchilectural proportions than in mereomamental detail and thus lhe problem ofmonumentality was resolved_

Chamkatti MO$que

•

PLATE VIII(b)

Tantipara MosqueAt Gour, (1480AD.)

o([J.•.•...u..o..•

.''\

Plan of Tantip:ora Mosque

,

The problem 01 n.",,,,, ""nhl boy 10stilipresent in this ITOSqLJe

.,

" ".. "

Entry of Tantlpara Mosque

The monumentality in the central bay wasachieved by extensive terra cotta details inthe cenlTal entry gate. These details wererepeated by the later Styles deveioped inBengal.

PLATE VIII{c)

Darasbari MosqueAt Gour, (1479A.D.)

Plan of o..",sbari Mosque

SlNctu",1 Details

face of the doorways there are tapered towers circular in plan. The first one is

plain and the other has 12 sides created by vertical recesses. These corner

turrets are richly decorated w~h the recesses to cope with the decorative mode of

local Bengali style, Introduction of a new technique of placing the dome on

square base is seen in Chamkatll Mosque, Gaur, where stone pillars were used

at each comer of the octagon, thus creating a free square space inside, The ten-

domed Tantipara Mosque, Goor, ISconsidered the finest monument of all in Gaur

for its rich omamentations. The 18domed Darashbari Mosque had a central nave

covered with barrel vaults.

iv PhilosophIc trend: attitudes: The restoration of the old Illyas Shahi Dynasty

was a reaction of the then conservative society against the new value system of

the earlier converted dynasty, But, the later administration did not discard the

alms and aSPirationSof the earlier one rather further enriched it with great care.

This liberal aMude of the builders rewarded them w~h the honour of the

establisher of 'The Classical Phase'" of Bengal Muslim ArcMecture.

v, Symbolic natures; meaning: Introduction of so many types of buildings in this

Style means increase of complexity in the life system of the builders Aspiration of

monumentality is finally resolved into Architecture especially in case of the

gateways."

vi Life modes; etattJs: The defects of earlier Styles were removed and a fully

developed Style of Bengali Muslim ArcMecture evolved. This Gour centered

Style had spread extensively to the sub-urban areas and of course influenced the

later phases of Bengal Archrtecture.

" I~,. P27

Zl a •••••••, Per<y ('"""), OJ'-ell pp. et-101l'

"

4.3.5 The Husain Shahi Style:

(Representative cll.e"lLxll' Lott1n M"",!LJO,B••.• SO" "'""'1"", GOrolllln! MosQue .00 Chmo Son.

M"",!,,"; Pial. IX)

i. Natural alK! socio-political forcas; conlext: Hosain Shah, !he Arab Wazir of

Ihe last Abyssinian dynasty, took over power and dedared himself the Sultan of

Bengel. The capital was at Gour, The complex"" in SOCietywas Increased even

m<lre. Specially, lhe ethnic divisions (Syed Arsbs ss administrators, Afghans es

war lords and Mughals as paid solders) were getting stronger and kept the Sultan

busy in their reconcillaton, However, the Sultan succeeded to manage these

groups end bring order In society at least for some time. The Srea of Sultanat

extended within a very short period of time, Despne the underlying SOClslstirring

it was an era of peace and prospenty.

ii. The concept; !lIN: TIle builders stressed cn the quentrty rather than quality of

werll. The same details were multiplied over and over again until it went below

the expected taste level of the spectator." The main drive of design was to

further elaborate the eartier Styles We herdly find any new end creative

inventions in the Slyle evollllion. Uncontrolled over-decoration replaced the Style

anrichment process in this phase of Bengal Muslim Architecture.

iii Fonn and contants; morphotogy: The buildings were of brick and stone facing

on brick core. Th•• slone cullers' art was revived but more Importance was given

to increasa permanency of the structure than enriching II A neeessny was felt at

this time to use a more lasting matertal than brick, and plenty ot resources made

It pOSSibleto quarry fresh stones from lhe hills, This necess'ly Is the only likely

motive for the usa of stone atlhis time because the artlslic qual"" of the slone

culling is 'poor in qual",,'''. Multi-dome mega structures were buill In more

numbers Among the best examples Is 44 domed Bara Sona Mosque. Here the

slone lacing imm.tes lhe bfick details bul the front fa~ade IS much less

decorative, Anolhe< IS 27 domed Gunmanl Mosque, originally faced with btack

" 00." A"on"" H••• n (""1. ,"'", ,,27.

" Ill". P '''''.

•

PLATE IX(a)

Sara Sana Mosque atGaUr(1526AD)

Gunmant Mosque at Gaur (1484A.D.l

Sr,'--

,~

~-,

Pliln of Gunmant Mosque

. -,. - _.- -----< ~'.

Plan of Bara Sona Mosque

~ J0 0 0 0 0 0 ~ 0, ,

0 • • 0 0 0 ~ 'iil 0b 0000000HQ,_, t' ", , , ,-

~~,, "@' " [., [1 II Ij II IJ [j If] ICii

, '!!ill q [J 0 n n !I LJ Ii II IJ, ,[~1@@J~:~IIf1E@l@j]![U~@!\:1../ ,'" 'i '11' ";r' '. "if \,i' ""i q j" . _...iiln ul!tJit:Jjjl:1Erll~n'lE1:J!r:rIic,in~r~

These monuments represent theHusain Shahi Style in BengalArchitecture, The structureselabomle the earlier Styles andare sometimes burdened withover-decoration.

Ruined details ofBara Sona Mosque

" "''. ':-::,'r. ",,-,.... ' "";'~-"_:.

Bara Sona Mosque

PLATE I (b)

Choto Sona MosqueAt Gaur, Rajshahi District (1493-1519A D.)

The decorative art andarchitecture oHhe Hosain ShahiStyle ISbest represented in thisChoto Sana Mosque. The brickcore of the structure is coveredwith black basalt stones withextensive imitations of terracolla detarls. Mhough grand inscale and sound in constructionthe building IS just an ecoocrepet~ion of the earlier stylesFor example, the chouchalaoverthe central nave isacopyolShait Gombuz Mosque atBagerhat There is nothing newin the arrangement ororganization of the plan. Slonehere ISUSedonryasa material tolast longer, but the potenbalitiesof it was never explored.Altitudeof creative invention is herereplaced by establishingrepebtivestandardproto-types.

Details of Chota Son •• Mosque

Chota Sona Mosque

basalt. The central nave is wider, covered w~h barrel vauR, and ~ clearly shows

influences of Adina, a style of over 100 years earlier. Finally, perhaps the best

representation of slone art and arcMecture of Hossain Shahi Style, the 15 domed

Choto Sona Mosque, The central wider nave is covered with chouchsls. The

fayade is treated w~h mouldings and is extensively decorated with motives of

terracotla copied in slone. But here again, in spite of Its elaborate building

program, the design is only an imitation of the earlier Styles'" .The central nave

with side-wings is the idea of Adina and the choucha/a is of Sha~ Gombuz,

8agerhat.

iv. Philosophic trend: iltlltudes: In spite of developing or at leasl ennching an

Archetype for lhe stylFstlc e...-olu~onlhe builders attilude was driven towards

repeating proto-types. Philosophically this mediocnty syndrome is an after effect

of earlier exulling search and achievements of crea~ve ideas and of urge for

spreading ideals In short spen of time.

v, Symbolic natures; meaning: The bUlkler has a strong indinallon lowards

implementing 'order' on his society and on his Style. Attempts to bring unfl'ormity

in the Slyle the entire building design endeavour has narrowed ~ down to the

production of 'failhful copies,27of certain model

vi. Life modes; slatus; Architecture became repetilions of certain proto-types and

the Style spread out even beyond lhe boundaries of Bengal Influence of thiS

Style is noticeable In some Mosque designs of Assam (Gateway at Dimapur) and

Bihar (Pir Nafa's tomb at Monghyr).

~.4 Concluding Remarks:

The ewlution process described in lhis chapter makes it evidenl thai the Early Muslim 8engal

Styles evolved through a process of syncretism of World Archetypes and the local Muslim and

pre.Musllm traditions. From a very initial formation stage Mamluk Style w~h its ordering

principles and over exposed organization gave little attention to the contextual settmgs. In the

""D.lnl, •••••••••••IlO•• n(lQ03')Ol' CIIp.''"',,bod .• "T,

fully develop&d Later Illyas Shahi Style the evolution proceeded Iowards level of excellence of

Style structure. The Ekhlakhi Style is more sympathelic to local gecr<:limatic conlexl and,

established the basic norms and values for the Bengal Style developments. The last stage,

that is, the Hussain Shahi, style seems 10 show symptoms of sterility in ~s repeated

prototypes; which are less imaginative but more faithful to orders, In the next chapter the

Khan--e-Jahan Style is evaluated in relation to this process of evolution and ~s place is

determined by analysing its components and structural levels of Style,

Chapter 05

The Khan-e-Jahan Style

5 1 IntrC>dlJClion

5 2 Potentielitiesof Khan-<>-Jahanstyleasa 'style'

53 PartofWortdHertlage

5,4 CaseStudies,Khalifatab.ad,Bagerhat,Khulne

5.5 GROUP01,NineDomedmooquegroup

5.6 GROUP02;ShanGombuzmosquegroup

5.7 GROUP03, ReuoKhodam()Squegroup

58 ConcludingRemarks

The Khan-e-.Jahan Style

5.1 Introduction:

At the very beginning, the question of wtlelher the monuments of Khan-Nahan can be

represenled under the Illle of an indapendent 'Sly~'is to be answered. Then the potenl~ls

and achievements of Khan-e-Jahan Style are needed to be verified through complete

underslanding of lhe components of Ihe lerms of Style IdenMcation. Finally, the comparalive

posilion or level of this Slyle is determined.

5.2 Potentialities of Khan-e-Jahan Style as a 'Style':

Researchers have frequentiy ,denlified the monuments of Khan-e-Jahan undar a

nomenclature of Style. Bul, there seems 10 be difference of opinion in asserting Ihe level of

lhe Slyle and Its posItion In the evolulionary process of Bengal architecture. The lable below

explains the denoled Identity of the Style

Table 04: Level of Klian-e.Jalian Style

Nom, <>f,h, •.•••• "'bcr r<no "'nnl«!10 Id•• 1IfyIll••••• n""n •• '.,n~~«1 Lewl nfSl}'I,.rKlun--e-J.h.n

Ab. Say<ed Moo"qn' "b ••<>1' ~ 'Bm.t ""'-"I"''' "' llagcr!lal '. No oomm,.'~ 'M""""""", m R"I!"'Mr'~ 'Group of buo/dJng,<qf Khd"

JuIoan'

Ab••• d HaMn IIoni ' ~ 'KiwlJa"""SNI.' '- -~,Ie, ",lh mn"",,=

J.b ••• Eo"n '''''nl",. do Loon•• ' ~ 'K,"",",.Johan Rlcnd oj 1m on<!L"".I ""n_Mn!lomm.d n.r ••.•lI.b KII•• ' ~ 'Khdn./dhQn', SIyk' Pc",;"" lnl1n,., ••

"M""""",",s or Khald'"",bad'

Mnll "" •.••d ., ~ 'A",hI/eel'",' "' KhaJra_' R, ;onol orcMccmre

, ."" •••••• Abu $0 n" (m7) op '"' P '''' ''', 11•.,""., AM". " ••• n (1~57l."" "'- P '12"rod .1"" Coni,Ahmad H'''n (1001).o~.cit p, '3 •.

3 •••••••• ,. GOO/9O (od) (19S<) "" Oil P.1e~,,,,"on. M. _''"'' ('OM). T"""",,,," am.m.n_o In_Ard>Jtoottno OI_QOI, _ Sooery or Eloogl",,_. p 'a5,

•A••• d.MulkItoj. I'~"), "" ,;t~,n,

•

'" tmJ """"'<I Bagerhd;'

~ The architec,"ml Slyl. by Khan,-Sy.d lIlohmudul II •••• ' ~ 'StykojKa!lJt.!dhM's Ooly ref,m:d to II" 5tyl. """ bIl' DO

'M<>""".",,, In KhQlifawhad' other comrnool,

~ M""",,,,,""ofll<> ~Q.A. Mowlo o.d )LA. Noqi " ~ 'Khan-<"alwt StyI,' lrulependCDt Slyl<, ,.;do inn"""""

5.2.1 Components of Khan~-Jahan Style:

Concept of Kh~n-e-JahanStyle:

Khan-e-Jahan Style is the constructive principle of the formation of Architecture of Muslim

Bengal In the southern region, Style of Khan-e-Jahan's Architecture is not only ~s appearance

but. first and foremost, en indicator of 'Is material and spiritual function w~hin the frontier

culture of expanding Muslim domain in the southem region during Early Muslim period

Acquiring cultural value, architecture also acquires a certain style, which says that ~ belongs

to a certain social and historical segment of a certain cuRure, In other words, the Style reveals

the functional characteristics of a group of poople engaged in the missionary activities and

jungle exploration in the southem Bengal of that time

II. Theapproach of Khan~-Jahan Styl&:

The Khan-e-Jahan Style. as we have seen in the preceding chapter had a goal of acqu<nng

the respect of the local people w~hin the lim~ed resources 01 this marshy land. Conversion to

Islam and a desire of independence is the interpretation of this Style with lim~ed multitude of

elements which are functionally stable, qualltatN'ely definite and culturally expressive. The

introduction of a large multi-domed fort-like structure in the midst of a jungle. in both cases of

8arobazar and 8agerhat is the introductory triumph of a victor but the Single domed structures

grouped around is the product of a syncretism, an expression of becoming a part of the land

• •••••••••• ~ ••••• Uddlu, (HI"OI OIl <>t o. 2~, 11-4,,••••• u. ~ Mohmu<lul ('i7ll1, up, o~ 0,'53,,-.. Q••••••••• "".' M..•• (1000), An .",,_' of I<.h•••••• ""hon SIy\e In o_re, Unlv=ify_ KUVQI." No, "

Jun.1llS. PI' 5-12

iii. Fonn and Content of Khan-e-Jahan Style

Khan-e-Jahan Style contains "a set of genes" which determines the type of his monuments.

The austerity expressed in his monuments is the gene and it is a representative 01the who~

in each cell of a work of the monument!:;in this Style. The monuments Khan-Nahan in this

region, be they multi-domed or single domed are all examples of less decorated, highly

proportionate, introverted or less exposed Intenor, experimental but not extravagant

achievements of a Style. The Style is also characterised by elements like heavy masonry

walls, curved COrnice,dwarllooking small openings and selective use of stone as protective

measures. Moreover, features like the string courses on the comice level and on the shaft of

the comer lurrets. the corner turrets. specially the circular ones, are all subordinating in every

detail to Ihe overall constructive intent. The Style determined the structure of the work 01

these monuments and its place in Bengal culture

The selectivity of this style by Khan--e-Jahan is both spiritually and historically conditioned

Style has the potential to draw 01all the elements in a work of architecture towards ~s centre

In the mature phase 01 this Style the expansion of this centre is not very grandiose in scale

rather very down to earth. Austertty and functionality, the centrifugallorce which unites them

in a single whole, becomes the pivot of the crealive process. It determines the most general

elements and features and the baSICprinCiple01the organization 01the architecture

5.2.2 The functional diversity of Khan-e-Jahan Style

The very understanding of the social and aesthetic polentialtties of this Khan--e-JahanStyle,

and ,ts excellence es a Style depends on the' answer on the question 01 the function 01 the

Slyle.

i. As a factor of the creative process: The Khan--e-Jahan Style which all the

monuments in Bagerhat, Barobazar and others in adjacent region, gives tt

direction and provides the designer wtth landmarks to be guided by context when

evolving his wond outlook. The Style incorporated the varied impressions 01

jungle life to fall into a harmonious system. That Os why these monuments did nol

get lost In the labyrinths of repetitive decorations of unnecessary motifs as was

the case of the parallel Hosain Shahi Style of Gour. The style was also

successful to avoid the trap of eclecticism.

II As a factor of evolutIOn' The Khan--e-Jahan Style found its place in the

e...-olutionaryprocess of its time. It ensured conijnuity of tradition and made

possible the cu~ural interrelaijon of different epochs w~hout disrupting the

structure of a work of architecture, whicll corresponds to the personal~y of the

builder and to his time.

iii. As a faclor of the socirHJullural and climafic being' In the marshy frontier region

of Muslim Bengal the Style Is a response to Independent sodal phenomenon.

The channels through which Khan--e-Jahan Style operates show that II is

selective towards the material provided by the local context, cultural tradrtion.

sodal goals, and the publiC.

iv As a factor of the influene6 exerted by lis expressions: This has produced some

of the finest examples of Bengal Muslim architecture. The InMuencesof these

monuments are bound to be noteworthy On the common people For example,

other than its arcMectural excellence, Shalt Gombuz Mosque is stili the largest

and Ronvijaypur Mosque is the largest single dome mosque in Bangladesh. The

introduction of brick chauchala over the roof Is another such achievement that

determines Its Cultural and aesthetic impact on pub1ic, Many a bUilding even

beyond the boundaries of Khulna was influences by this Slyle. The Styie is a

carrier of the Immediate sp"itual influence on human consciousness and thus

creates a system of images on the wllective frame 01mind of its poster~les. The

spectator is frequently able to Idenlily the Khan--e-JahanStyle or its infiuence In a

building, although he may have gone through the first glimpse of the work. The

Style affected culture 01 the region as a whole and represenls a Khan--e-Jahan

culture stiillivlng around his mausoleum.

.'"'.

5.2.3 The structural level of Khan-e-Jahan Style:

The arcMecture of Khan-.e-Jahanprocesses the highest level of e>«:e~enceas a Style not

only within the boundary of this region but has already been approved as a component of

Wood Heritage. Each level of the Khan-.e-Jahan Style is analysed below in relation to the

interactions with both inner and outer influences:

Level one:

Level two:

Tile daep6st "generaUve- leva! of Sryle: the aspects which is known as the

ongmal phenomenon of culture It starts from the individual worn of

archLtecture10the history of culture. The process is as below;

a. Designe(s emotional state: the utilitarian Slyle strongly represents the

urges of a warrior and the scale incorporates the spintual aspirations of

an individual and a group.

b. Value The proportion mainlalned in the monuments represents the

rhythmic development of intention of the designer from dualities of

universal characters to Internal dynamiCS, ideals to local context and

wretchedness grandeur to spIritual base.

b. The meaning. the deSigner Invented a Style SUitableonly for this region,

less artistfc (decorative motif containers) but more arcMectural (form

enriched by decorations).

The naUonal stylistic components: Here, the Khan-e-Jahan Style shows its

excellence to be a regional Style (a single store of theme I concept) acquires

a concrete quality of resting as it does on the cultural experience 01the new

converted Muslims in the southern region of Bengal in history.

Level three The style of a given region or period: The Khan-e-Jahan Style became the

part of the nation's historical and cultural development. Although In this level.

i! is possible to single out the Style of an individual Missionary-warrior but, on

the other hand, this levei of Style can be l!X\t!nded not only to the phenomena

"

Level four

Lenitive

of archrtecture but also to cuKure as a whole. The Style is a paralfel

evoluTIonaryalternative of expensive Hussain Shahl Style developed around

Gour and represents the EartyMuslim Bengal phase in the frontier regions

Matured individuality of Style: at this level the individual Style emerged as a

structured frame 01taste, prtnciples and action. In this level the lempo 01the

inner life of the Khan-e-Jahan was so qUick that different smaller group of

work of his archilecture became the sub-Styles of rts own The Shalt Gombuz

Mosque group, The Nine dome Mosque group and the Reza Khoda Mosque

groups are the symptom of such development. the Every section of such work

has something of the Whole linking rt to the other sections, but the work in its

entirety will differ stylistically from the other works by the same designer and

give rise to issues of their own.

Sfyle of the epoch: this Is the most extensive stylistic level Khan..e-Jahanhas

achieved historically It has established a separate stylistic level of the

architecture of different countries produced by the same epoch. The common

features of Muslim arcMeclural development which produced similar ways of

life-modes and forms of activity results in a similarity of cultures and

enhanced international cultural wmmunication with a fixed centre of the

World Heritage.

5.3 Part of World Heritage

It can be conf<dentlystated that the monuments and building activities of Khan..e-Jahanhas

produced a definite independent Style in the development of Early Muslim Bengal

architecture. The Style has shown its highest potentialrties to be considered as more

Infiuential than just a regional character, or even a national asset for a given period of time.

The Khalifatabed city has been included in the UNESCO's Wand Heritage list In this way the

Style has I:lecomea part of the World Muslim arcMectural model and a Heritage of all time.

5.4 Case Studies: Khalifatabad, Bagerhat, Khulna

The monuments of Khalifatabad are divided into three groups ae<::ordingto their site locations in the

Bagerhal diy, Each oontalf1inga multi-domed large rectangular mosQ"" and olher nearby single domed

smeller structures:

Group 01: Nine Dome M""'que group:'

1. Nine Dome Mosque

2, Mausoleum 01Kher>-e.Jehan

3 Mausoleum _ Mosque of Khan.e.Jahan

4 ROtw'jDYpurMosque

Group 02: Shait Gombuz Mos"ue group:

,. SharrGombuz Mosque

2, SingarMosque

3. Bibi Begni Mosque

4, Chuna~holaMosque

Group 03: Reza Khoda Mosque group: '0

1. Rem KOOdeMosque

2, Mausoleum of Zinda pIC

3, Mausolaum-Mosque of Zindapir

5.5 GROUP 01. Nine Dome Mosque group:

5.5.1 The Nine dome Mosque: (Plate Xl

Type:

Nameless nine domed square mOsquewith circular romer turrets; exposed brick

structure Withterracotla dewil •.

PLATE: X-a

Nine Dome MosqueAt Khalifatabad, Bagemat

Plan

Ii~I, ..,.:;,.

IDetails

"•...-,-.......,,~ .~-,--c:-I--___ 1______ _ __ L'-='---'=-I __~,•..~"."._. ".".._'"._~"'.=--'~r

~_, ", I 1 ~ _ "

,••

PLATE: X.b

Nine Dome MosqueAt Khaiifatabad, Bagerhat

n:.-.-., --,Section

1-1""

(: I,- - [I I"'-F I ,

.. r I

,-~I - I1";7!Z' ,

/ I'" .. ,l

Details

-

I,,- i ~/-'11,z" ...:-

2" I

1 \'1':1.-- \:: ,,'-.. --' c-, _.rc:;',

",I". ''f ,dC~Ii!lf;r \'~'L ~r~'Nr-:~J11J

""'~ ~ '0'

I: ,I "I &CJ':NI;j GJ0'.)(;j

~'0C::;;C::;;c::?'::)';:V(/.'G](/) c'CJW'L 0J(V>C::? ~""V'VIv '--C/v00i;:;'00 ';:<::::;'00

PLATE - x-cNine Dome MosqueAt Khallfatabad, Bagerhat

Elevation~~,,;

Photographs

--,

I. LO(:ation:

S~uated on the western embankment of 'Thakur Dighi', the adjacent tank of

Khan-e-Jahan's Mausoleum complex; Khalifatabad, Bagerhat, Khulna,

ii, Surrounding environment:

The mosque is now surrpunded by a brick wall enclpsure of recent dale.

ill. Pl'tIsent condition and use:

The mosque structure is renovated and is in use by the local people.

v. Building components:

•

Form:

interior:

Wali:

Coiumn;

Opening;

The mosque is a 54'--8"square brick structure.

The diameter elfthe dOO1esis 11'-1",

The diameter 01the Ipur corner turrets is 5'-0",

The interior is a rectangle of 29'-6",

The walls are 7'-7" thick; constructed wilh 2" x 5" x 6" bricks,

There are four slender stone octagonal cplumns of 7 44" arm

on 1'-11" base dimension, pn which arches are carrying the

load pi the domes resl. The column is not monolithic; the

capital, the base, and two pieces comprising Ihe shaft are

joined in Ihe middle. The plasters on the walls are of brick

wilh stpne capital.

The three entrance doors in Ihe east are flanked with two

pointed arches; Ihey are bordered within two rectangular

frames with twp parallel terracplta details atlhe lop within

raised brick mouldings, The central door ISslightly higher and

wider Ihan the two adjacent ones. The two other Doors on I

soulh and north walls are similar in detail. The two openings

on Ihe northern and southern sides of Ihe mosque contain

two pointed arches sprung from the recesses of Ihe side

walls; Ihey are bordered wiltlin rectangular frames with mulli.

cusped arched brick detail above; the rectangular form is

,~•

decorated wrth two parallel terracolta details at top within

raised bTickmouldings.

Mihrab: Among the three mjhrabs on the western wailihe central Ofle

is larger than the others; Ihere are multi-foiled arches in front

of the Ihree mjhrabs The arches terminate in a spear-

headed detail. The mjhrabs are detailed wilh lo~enge motif,

terracolta ftoral scroll and foliage patterns within rectangular

panels. A chain-and-bell terracotta motif decorates the centre

of the each mihrab; a large terracotta rosette is placed above

Ihe apex.

Roof Cornice: The roof cornice is curved, Ihe pick is 6.375" lifted upward at

Ihe cenlre; Ihere are two bold string courses of Ihe cornice,

with extensive lerracotta panels In between, there is aiso

anolher course of lerracotta detail just bellow Ihe stnng

courses Combination of all these delails acts as a highly

decorated and rhythmtc termination oflhe bUilding.

Corner Turrel: Circular In plan; wfth a base of mouldings raised up to 3'-5.5"

helgh~ lour more string courses on Ihe turrel diVides the

shaft inlo five parts.

Transitional Form: Two point arches sprang from the stone columns and rests

on the pilasters of the walls or on adjacent column: In this

system Ihe interior square space is divided Inlo nine smaller

square units of 11'_7"x 11'-7" dimension. These squares are

lhen transformed into circles for the base of the dome above

by using brick pendenlives.

Dome and vault: The mne domes over the mosqueare hemispherical one; the

highest point reaches up to 31'--0"from Ihe ground.

vi, Sp6(:lal elements: The walls on Ihe northern and southern sides contains

recesses in-between lhe openings and near Ihe comer

turrets. The recesses are toped wfth mulli-<:uspad arched

"

Mel<. details: and decorated with two parallel lerracolta

details at bottomwithin raised bric~moukJings(Plate Xl.

5.5.2 Tile Mausoleum of Kilan-e-Jahan: (Plate: XI)

i. Type:

Single domed square Mausoleum with circular carner turrets; exposed bric~

structure with terracolta and stone details, there is a crypt under the buitding

containjng the actual grave.

ii. Location:

Situated on the northem emban~ment of an extensive la~e, locally known as

'Thakur Ohighl'. Khal,fatabad, Bagerhat, Khulna

iii. Surrounding environment:

The bUilding stands on a artificially high land: enclosed by a inner and outer

boundary wall with short corner turrets, approached by the anginal Khan-e-Jahan

secondary road; which offshoots at a right angle towards south from the Khan-e-

Jahan main road along old bed of Bhalrab River: the road reaches the

Mausoleum from the north and the position 01the main gateway of the comptex IS

at 90' angle wllh Ihe main aXIsof Ihe Mausoleum and the second gateway to the

inner boundary; none of Ihe 5 gateways 01the outer boundary maintains the axial

relation with MaUSOleum,moreover the inner enclosed area wllich is almosl a

square In shape is placed non-ax;ally within the outer enclosure, thus creallng

more space In the north.

Iv. Present condition and use:

The Mausoleum slructure is In excellent condilion in compare to the other

adjacent buildings 01 the Khalifatabad crty. Locals frequently come to the

Mausoleum and perform religious rituals In the Mausoleum and at the steps

(Ghar) to the nearby Oighi.

v, Building components:

Form: The Mausoleum is a 46'-0' square brick structure

The diameter oltha dome IS28'-6",

PLATE: XI-a

Mausoleum of Khan.e.JahanAI Khal,fatabad Bagerhilt _

Plan

Details

PLATE: XI-b

Mausoleum of Khan-e..,JahanAt Khalifatabad, Bagerhat -

,-- --------

.~iiI.~_•••••-== _Section

-,- -",,,. \-, -,-w,"'. /",;/.', --

JI

Details

PLATE - I.e

Mausoleum of Khan.e.JahanAt Kh~lif~tab<ld,B~gerhat

Elevation

Photographs

Floor:

Niche:

Interior:

Roof Cornice:

Wall:

Opening:

Comer Turret:

The diameter 01the four corner turrets is 4'..{l".

The intenorolthe Mausoleum a square of 30'-0".

The walls are 8'-0" thid<; constructed wilh 2" x S"x 8" bricks.

The door in the eastern side is flanked wijh two pointed

arches; but the arches are transformed into rectangular door

frames by large stone lintels. Two pointed arches sprang

from the recesses on the openings of the other three side

walls and sits on stone details: onginally these openings

~re used as doors too: traces of door details are stili visible.

There are two spear-headed mulli-<:usped arched lamp-

niches on each interior wall.

Originally covered by mulli-<:olouredglazed Wes, remaining

are seen on the base of the grave.

The roof cornice is curved; lhe pick is 10.62" lifted upward at

the centre: three bold string courses of the cornice acts as a

strong termination of the building.

Circular In plan; with a base of mouldings raised up to 3'-

11.5- height: 4 more string courses on the turret dwides the

shaft into -5 parts; at the top the turret is covered by ribbed

copula

Transitional Form: Squinches are used to transfer the square suppomng form

into octagon for the circular base of the dome above: the

octagon is then transformed inlo circle by using brick

pendentives; the squtnches sprang from projected slone

brackets on the inner wall surface at a height of 8' It from the

floor level.

Dome and vault: The dome over the Mausoleum is a hemispherical one; the

highest point reaches up 1031'-8" from the ground; there is

an iron finial above of later date; the cross section of the

dome is gradually reduced 10 the lop: there are Chouahs/a

74

vaults on the gateways accommodated by two pointed

arches, at the inner side of tile vaults traces of rafter details

are still visible from bellow.

vI. Gateway; The outer appearances of tile gateways are totally aReredby

tile local people,

vii. SpKlai elements: The walls are constructed on five courses of black basalt

stone, which forms tile base for the Mausoleum structure;

these layers protect the building from the extreme salinity

prevailing In the region. There are stone spouts projectlng at

each corners of the rool for roof water drainage

5.5.3 The Mausoleum. Mosque of Khan-e-Jahan: (Plate XII)

i. Type:

Single domed square mosque w~h circular corner turrets; exposed brick structure

w~h terracotta details; very similar to the adjacent Mausoleum.

ii. Location:

Within the Mausoleum complex of Khan-e-Jahan; Khalifatabad. Bagerhat,

Khulna.

iii. Surrounding environment:

The mosquewas once an integrated part of the Mausoleum,complex; but, due to

the presence of an open lomb structure in between the tomb and the mosque it

has become detached !rom the inner enclosure. Nowaday, the mosque can only

be approached from the outer enclosure through structures of later addition.

iv. Present condition and use:

Unauthorized and unplanned addition and extension of tile mosque has almost

hidden the structure behind concrete jumbles.

v. Building components:

Fonn: The mosque ls a 40'.2" square brick structure.

The diameter of the dome is 24'-6".

The diameter of the four corner turrets is 3'-0".

75

PLATE : XII..a

Mausoleum-Mosque of Khan-e-.JahanAt Khalifatabad, Bagerhat

.'1 'IfJ!id,i%iii! 'ii i II-~---- I 'f ------,I II', ,III !i

Wd / "", // "

(~L//??i%/_L "UI" f/~.i

t,','~~.. '-'Plan

,"-<l".

Details

PLATE. XII-b

Mausoleum-Mosque of Khan-e-JahanAt Khalifatabad, Bagerhat

--,(' ", '

/-,

Elevation.".'-,-,-,-''''''--''''''"","", ---/

/

--------

Detailsr

T.,"' •• _

PLATE: Xllc

Mausoleum-Mosque of Khan.e-JahanAt khalifatabad, Bagerhat

/;\ ;;\'" /~/ ' \ ..../' \ 1/\\,/ / \, I / / \ /,1 \\1,1 Ivl \\,/( \\,! \/ '"~I:, \,

-"-- -- I \ II 'i I i I

--I 0 IJJww IJJ0 I,

Section

l t, ,

F,

r ";,,I ,, ,,",I =f.I, ( ,ji

J "~/ "\ :.c, ,\ +,, ':7

I

c-- I,Q' -~"L-,,'=,1,---:.'>--,,~

Details

Niche:

Interior:

Roof Cornice:

Comer TUrTet:

Wall:

Opening:

The interror of lIle mosque is completefy renovated with

ceramic tiles the aesthetic beauty of the antiquity is lost for

ever.

The walls are 7'.2" thick; constructed with 2" x 5" x 6" bricks.

The door in the eastern side is flanked with two pointed

arches, but the arches are transformed Into rectangular door

frames by large stone lintels Two pointed arches sprang

from the recesses on the openings 01 the other three side

walls

There are two spear.headed multi-cusped arched lamp-

niches on each interlorwall,

The roof cornice Is curved; the pick is 12,94" lilted upward at

the centre; two bold stnng courses of the cornice acts as a

strong termination nf the building,

Circular in plan; with a base of mouldings raised up to 4'-0"

height; 4 more' string courses on the turret divides the shaft

Into -5 parts;

Transitional Form: SqUinches are used to transfer the square supporting form

into octagon for the circular base of the dome above; the

octagon is then transformed into circle by using brick

pendentives.

Dome and vault: The dome over the Mausoleum is a hemispherical one; the

highest point reaches up to 37'-8" from the ground; the cross

section 01the dome is gradually reduced.

5.5.4 The RonvlJoypur Mosque: (Plate: XIII)

i. Type:

Largest single domed square mosque of Bangladesh; with circular comer turrets;

exposed brick structure with terracotta details.

76

PLATE: XIII-a

Ranavijoypur MosqueAt Khal,fatabad, Bagerhal

Plan

Detail

PLATE - XIII-b

Ranavijoypur MosqueAt Khallfatabad, Bagerhat

Section~,-- -

L .__Details

,'""y.--

~'"Y

,,-/POF

,

PLATE - XIII-c

Ranavijoypur MosqueAt Khalifalabad, Bagefhat

.-. -.

-~---.----~

Elevation

Photographs

Interior:

ii. Location:

Situated on the northern side of the anginal Khan-e.Jahan road; Khalifalabad,

8agerha~ Khulna.

ill. Surrounding environment:

The mosque slands on the southem embankment of the old bed of Bhairab Rever,

stands facing the node of Khan-Nahan road from where the secondary road

which approaches the Mausoleum complex offshoots at a right angle towards

south,

Iv. Present condition and U$e:

The Mausoleum structure has gone under extensive restoration work; some of

the original features may have been lost, as some of the scholars noticed.

v. Building components:

Form: The mosque is a 54'-0" square brick structure.

The diameter of the dome is 33'-5",

The diameter of the four comer turTels is T -0",

The Interior,is a square of 35'-6".

Wall:

Opening:

Mlh•••b:

The walls are 9'-3" thick, constructed with 2" X 5" X 6" bricks.

The three entrance doors in the east. north and south side

are flanked with two pOIntedarches; they are bordered within

rectangular frames with parallel terracotla details within

raised brick mouldings; the main entrance door has a

Chouchala hut-shaped vault resting on either side with

arched frames; at the inner side of the vau~ there are !races

of rafter details, The two openings on the sides of the

entrance doors contains two pointed arches sprang from the

recesses of the sielewalls.

There are multi-foiled in arches in fronl of the three mihrabs.

The arches terminate ,n a spear-headed detail The concave

apses are laterally divided into six panels, bordered by

rnoulding$; there are panels above which is alternatively

n

Roof Com ice:

CornerTurrfi:

relieved wrth floral and plant motifs, The panels are filled with

motifs of rosettes and serpentine tendrils ending in circles

enclosing a flower.

The rool cornice ls curved; the pick is 11.69" lifted upward at

the centre; one bold string courses of the cornice acts as a

termination of the building.

Circular in plan: with a base of mouldings raised up to 2'-{I-

height; 3 more string courses on the turret divides the shaft

into 4 parts

Transitional Form: Squinches are used to transfer the square supporting form

into octagon for the circular base of the dome above: the

octagon is Ihen transformed into circle by using brick

pendentives; the squinches sprang from projected stone

braCkets on the inner wall surface at a height of 8'-0" from

the fioor level.

Dome and vault; The huge dome over the Mausoleum is a hemispherical one;

the highest point reaches up to 39'-3" from the ground and

the thickness of the dome gradually reduces at the top.

5.6 GROUP 02: Shait Gombuz Mosque group: (Plate: XIV)

5.6.1 The Shalt Gombul Mosque:

I. Type:

Seventy seven domed rectangular mosque with tapered circular comer turrets;

the biggest brick mosque in Bangladesh; exposed brick structure with terracotta

details,

ii. LOCation:

Situated on the eastern embankment of the vast lake 'Ghora Dighl', Khalilatabad.

Bagemat, Khulna.

78

PLATE: XIV-a

Shait Gombuz MosqueAt Khalifatabad, Bagefhat

Plan """" '-

I :_;~T~~,~~~~~~~-_L~,,','~j, ',,':.':!.." ; I ',_1~" ~-__,- -~-=-~=t

,,, ,, ,, ,, ,,,

---,------

Details

c•.•••.•, • ......,

•

,",,""':::fl

.. >----1-'-"il-11T'-il--; I - I

1-

•••.~.l.rw.• •l--,--------

--

II"

[-:-

co.-i(I)

CP::III"

~

N::IJ:l "•.E1,0 •><:1"- "•• ••• •• !!

III .- $'••• as 'mC,c2t.cn:l

•I

WK -----

f-- ,.' -' .'

IJ:(I~III[

•

UI~(\\... \',', \ ',---

i, ,,[V-\ \ '~"'-

/~1\' ",! II I IIIr;'\\ \ m• .\

i'\\I(. \

,I I II, I' I, WYr -"II l~-~

I[Lill- ,c

PLATE: XIV-d

Shait Gombuz MosqueAt Khallfat"bad, Bagerhat

Entry of the Shalt Gombuz Mosque

PLATE: XIV-e

Shait Gombuz MosqueAI Khulifntabad, 8frgcrhn1

Interior of Shalt Gombuz Mosque

Roof Domos

Corner Turret

•••PLATE: XIV.'

Shait Gombuz MosqueAt Khal,fatabad, Bagerhat

Chouchala Detail

Interior Squinch Arch detail

a.. ,

'.

iii. Surrounding envIronment:

The mosque is now surrounded by a brick wall enclosure of with comer turrets

and picturesque grand gateways; the mosque complex is Onthe western side 01a

secondary Khan-e-Jahan road which offshoots perpendicularly toward north from

the original Khan-e-Jahan's rood; the relation between the mosque, the boundary

enclosure and the adjacent Dighl is non.axial. Apparently bears no axial

relatklnship with Ihe nearby Singar and Bebi Begni Mosque; the approach road

turns around Ihe mosque complex 10 rich the embankment of the Ghora Dighl

and then runs parallel to the sides of Ihe Dighl.

Iv. Present condition and use:

The mosque structure was reno~ated se~eral times and was in comparatively

better cond<tionthan Ihe other monuments of Bagerhat; recently the intenor of the

mosque is lotally altered and remo~ed the triangular pediment by the local people

in c:ollaboratlon with the Archaeological Department; the fioor and the stone

columns ha~e been co~ered With brick and cheap white tiles."

v. Building components:

Fonn:

Interior:

Wall:

The mosque IS a 159'"11" x 104'"8" rectanguiar brick

structure. The diameter Ofthe se~enty domes on the mosque

is 10'--6".

The Dimensions of Ihe Chouchalas o~er the central nave are

14'-S" x 10'-11"

The diameter of the four comer turrets is 13'-7".

The diameter of the four domes crowning the turrets is 11'-1".

The interior is a rectangle of 143'-11".

The walts are 8'-0" thick; constructed with 2" x 5" x 6' bricks.

" The m",,<uo Is >0111In •••••• J,ml mooquo by ••• _,. According to on. ""'" """"","os on. moon """P'''n '"'" ••• ,•••••••<lompn••• IIlI1 ;""""1 on,l",nmonl or'" I_or On ••• _ hond, "'" "_rill or on. _ "",PO,,",,,nl, I(hcOn. 0",."",.~owed on,,,, ~1"""_0I'l 0I'l th>. d-=on or unOOll""'''' aIter=tJorI or <h. nI_coI morJIIIIlOfItoJ>d Itloy 1l<X:UMd•••• OU""""'""l'p<e'IOi""~ In It>e ~ 11". I. "'" <he n••• 1Dla "'01 l1li. typo oIlrJO>POfl'I>Io __ woo ,"""", h'-l' -. ••••• for 1""_ of h__ >tn ond OOIl<lrUCllonmoIOIIol "'0 _'" I\O(It _ •• _ mony 0 ~_ I)y tho _, ood II'MImmom"'ll"'IZ>"",," '''" R"ll"'''''' or"""", of "'"""""lOgy ~ or Khulno <If~••"" •••• PO"""'''''' ;_ ••••••••• :h'" tho1••••• .,'"" 0 •• ;n """"'" to bring boIc1<It>oon~nal ",t.nor '" the m<»Qu. by "'"""""ll tho tI<1<:k>ond _ I••• ""'" tho floor OM""I,"",~ Tholl, why tho dow~ 011111.mooquo ~II be on tho .-11 •• condltIOn"' ••• mooque, _ Ol'lopo 0101",~"",....mont~1I.wr\'l", Ihe>o l"""""noIo"" •• ~ ho,"'- Ibr ""''"...., 000 lfOOr>ag;>I•••••• ""om. ~""" •• "'d <>J •••.• "'''"' region.

Column:

Opening:

Mih",b:

•There are sixty slender 7.81. armed octagonal slone

columns on 1'-10' x 1'.10" base dimension, on which arches

carrying the load of the domes rest The columns are not

monolrthic; the capital, the base, and two pieces comprising

the shaft are jOined in the middle, The plasters on the walls

are of brick

The eleven entrance doors in the east are flanked with two

pointed arches With a terracotta geometnc motif at the top;

they are borderedwithin a rectangular frame wrth two parallel

terrac<Jttadetails at the top within raised brick mouldings; the

central door is much higher and wider than the adjacent

ones, In case of the central door there are lateral panels of

blind merlons above and below the moukllngs, al the top of

the frame there ISa thin band of terrac<J1tadetail; The other

Doors on eastern wall has a single band of terracotta motif

panel befow the brick mouldings: All the eleven doors has

decoraled terracotta rosettes in the spandrel, the central door

has two more rosettes on the either side of the frame at the

level of the brick mouldings; the seven openings on the

northern and southern sides 01 the mosque contain two

pointed arches sprang from two stepped recesses 01the side

wails: they are bordered within rectangular frames simiiar to

the side doors of the front facade

Among the ten millrabs on the western wall the central one is

constructed with faced stone and is Similar in design but

larger than the others; the side brick mehrabs are flanked

wifh mulH-foiledarches in front on octagonal pilasters over

square base. The arches terminate in a spear.headed detail.

they are bordered wifhin two rectangular frames, there is a

lateral panel of blind merlons within ralsed brick mouldings

80

Roof Cornice:

Comer Turret:

and the spandrel is decorated wiltl two terracotta rosettes on

eilher Side, the space between the two frames is recently

being decorated by terracotta details, earlier there were five

rosettes on tis upper part; the deep epse of each mihrab has

lateral brick mouldings with terracotta details and a chain-

and-bell terracotta motif decorates the centre of It; above the

brick mouldings of the outer !rame there IS a serres of

decorated battlement of foliage type and a large terracotta

rosette wtlh eight smaller rosettes around is placed above

the apex.

The roof cornice IS sloped towards the sides broken by a

smalltnangular pediment at the centre of the !rant facade",

the pick IS Z'-{l" lilted upward at the centre; there a single

string courses with a lateral band below in the cornice: ea~ier

the comice is said to have series of battlement

ornamentations" at the top, but now there ISno trace of tI.

Circular in plan: slightly tapered towards the top: rises above

the roof ~vel: the details of the roof cornice continues around

the turrets and there ISanother string cou~ just above It.

The turret terminates at ltle top with a similar detail of cornice

01 the mosque rool, the turrets are capped with round

cupolas but have no base mouldings like the other bUildings

of Bagemat; so the turrets are diVided into two parts by the

string courses at the roof level:, tile upper part of the turrets

in the eastern side IS higher their western counterpart and

has spiral staircase Within each, all tile turrets hava arched

Windows at ltla roof level but details of the eastern ones

slightly dillers from the others

"" T110p""m.n1 •••• '0<'/ ,,,,,,,nlly boon _. "''' ,n ."', •.••nt ,,<It ~ _ 0 result of ••••• '"'""'"""' ,...10_.Knon, M. H•••••• II.h ("'''"), 00 '0. ~ '"

81

Transitional Form: Two point arches sprang from the stone columns and rests

on the pilasters of the walls or on adjacent column: in this

system the interior square space is divided into thirty fIVe

square units on each side of central seven rectangular units;

these squares are then transformed into circles for the base

of the dome above by using brick pendentives.

Dome and vault: The central rectangular units are covered with Chouchala or

four-sided curved Bengali domes w~h curved flat lop; at the

inner side of the vaults there are rafter details. The seventy

domes over the mosque are hemispherical one: the highest

point reaches up to 27'-3" from the ground. The Choucha/as

rises up to 27'-9" from ground level.

vi. Special elements: The brick Clloucha/as of this mosque is the earliest use of

such architectural feature: the character of the corner turrets

Is also unique in Bengal; there is also another very

uncommon feature, a small arched door way In the western

wall close to the central stone mlhrab. probably the entrance

of the Imam or leader of the society

5,6.2 The Singar Mosque: (Plate: XV)

i. Type:

Single domed square mosque; clrcuiar corner turrets: exposed brick structure

Withterracolla details.

II. Location:

Situated at the soulh--east af the Shait Gombuz Mosque; Khalifatabad, Bagerhat,

Khulna

Ill. Surrounding environment:

The mosque is now totally detached from the Sha~ Gambuz Complex by a

highway which runs between them. Originally it was enclosed by a boundary wall

•

PLATE :XV-a

Singer MosqueAl Khaiifatabad, Bagerhat

•~..,~ ~(/ '\:~1f2: :i \:~

" ' , " r,,' ," ,r---------l ii Ii~--------.I~ 'i\\ ;i~.'~ ~ - , /,r 0

(~ ~. ..~.. . ".\ ': ~J ~Il~'!->. ' .

Plan

Details

•

PLATE: XV-b

Singar MosqueAt Khahfatabad Bagerhat

'''''''''. '. '''''. ,-"' •..~---Section

I

.. . "- -- . .

I ..-/ ------'" "2--r- /::

:D -1-;0_ .', ~ ...

2"1 \j"- :or "5~J ,,

Details

-, ---- - -"

\ ....

II\J

,L_______ .

",,,.

PLATE - XV-e

Singar MosqueAl Khalifatabad, Bagerhal

----~

\.

1/:"-/ \

/

///

~'~C--;;~=~__.,-"-------~~---.--"=_===_,__-~=..:--:--::,JI--:;;:.- -,- '-~""-= - -.... !;;;;;r-

6f'-~I"'" ,U!",,,,,,l1- . T

Elevation

'~!' :,,",-, ,-. ,---- -

Photographs

wijh four corner turrets and a small arched gateway on the east, the enclosure

was demolished dunng the construction ofllle highway.

iv. Present condition and use:

The mosque structure is recen~y restored by the ArchallOlogy Department.

v, Building components:

Form: The mosque ISa 30'-<3"square brick structure.

The diameter of the dome is 24'.1"_

The diameter of the four corner turrets is 4',2"

Interior:

Wall:

Opanlng:

Niche:

Mihrab:

The interior is a square of 25'-6".

The walls are 7'-0" thick; constructed with 2" x 5" x 6" bricks.

The three entrance doors in the east are fianked with two

pointed arches: they are bordered Within rectangular frames

with parallel terracotta details Within raised brick mouldings at

the top: the central door is much higher and wider than the

others The single openings on the northern and southern

wall contaln!wo pointed arches sprang from the recesses of

the side walls are similar to the eastem doors in detail from

outside

There are !WO spear-headed multi-cusped arched lamp-

niches within rectangular frames With parallel terracotta

details at the top in the western wall and two other smaller

ones in the north and south walls.

There are multi-foiled arches in front of the slngie central

m;hrab. The arches raises from decorated octagonal

pilasters and terminate In a spear-headed detail: they are

bordered within two rectangular frames wilh two parallel

terracotta details at the top wilhin raised brick mouldings and

the spandrel IS decorated with two terracotta rosettes on

eilher Side; the space between the two frames Is decorated

by terracotta details; a chain-and-bell terracotta motif

Roof Cornice:

Comer Turret:

decorates the deep apse of the mihrab and at the top of the

!fames there is a series ot battlements.

The roof comice IScurved: the pick is 12" lifted upward at the

centre: there are two slender string courses on the cornice,

with e>denslveIerracotta panels of blind merlons in between,

there is also another thin course of terracotta detail just

bellow the string courses, Combination of all these details

acts as rhythmic termination ot the building.

Circular in plan: With a base of mouldings raised up to 2'-2",

height: 4 more string courses on the turret divides the shalt

Into 5 parts,

Transitional Fonn: Squinches are used to transfer the square supporting torm

Into octagon for the circular base of the dome above: the

octagon is then transformed into circle by using brick

pendentives: the squinches sprang from brick piiasters on

the inner wall surface,

Dome and vault: The dome over the mosque is a hemispherical one; the

highest p<lintreaches up to 33'.1" from the ground,

5.6.3 The Blbl Begnl Mosque: (Plate: XVI)

I. Type:

Single domed square mosque: circular corner turrets; exposed brick stn.Jeture

w~h Ierracotta details.

Ii. LOC;ltion:

Situated at west of the Ghora Dighi of Sheit Gombuz Mosque: Khalifatabad,

Bagerha~ Khulna.

IIi. Surrounding environment:

The mosque stands on the southern side of an un-metalled road which runs on

the embankment of the Dighi. The surrounding area is inaccessibje due to

PLATE, XVI-a

Bibi Begni's MosqueAt Khallfatabad, 8agerhat

,.:\~.'.t "0: % /"

"./ '>c '.

.,~k •Plan

/ ---------Detail

C',,

PLATE: XVI.b

Bibi Begni MosqueAt Khal,fatabad, Bagerhat

Section

Details

....m ]

,.

L __~ _

PLATE - XVI-e

Bibi Begni MosqueAt Khallfatabad, Bagerhal

Elevation

Photoghaphs

.,.--.'r"-,.", .

unplanned growth of trees almost creahng a Jungleand obslnJding all the.views

of the mosque; this also resulls in increase 01dampness in the building.

lv, Present condllion and use:

Although the mosque was restored earlier, due to severe salln~y the building

structure was highly damaged and started showing symptoms to fall apart,

recently Archaeology Department has again started its restoration work.

v. Bulldlng components:

FOrni: The mosque is a 51'.10" square brick structure.

The diameter 01the dome is 31'-0",

The diameter 01the lour corner turrets is 4'.5"

Interior;

Wall:

Opening:

Niche:

Mlhrab:

The intenor is a square of 32'-10•.

The walls are 9'--6" Ihick; constructed with 2" x 5" x 6" bricks.

The three entrance doors in the east are flanked with two

pointed arches; the central one, which is much higher and

wider than the others, is bordered wifh two rectangular

frames; the space between Ihe two frames is filled with

terracotla details; the other two doors devoid of any further

decorations The two Single doors at the centre of the

southern and the northem wall are similar 10Ihe central one

olthe east wall.

There ere two spear-headed multi.cusped arched lamp.

niches each in the northern and southern walls.

The mihrab details in Ihls mosque different from the others;

The central mlhrab IS bordered with geometric motifs and

blind me~ons; separaled by laleral bands of brick moutdings,

the spandrel is decorated wilh two terracolta rosettes on

eilher side; the mulll--cusped arches raises from decorated

oct"9onal pilasters; the apse of the mihrab contains panels

of motifs simila~y separated by mouldings and a chain-bell

Roof Cornice:

motif at the centre; the smaller slde-millrabs are similar in

detail but with an added series of battlements at the top

The roof comfce is curved, the pick is 2'-6.94" lifted upward

at the centre; there is a single slender string courses on ltle

cornice; the termination of such huge mosque seems a little

weak in compare to the other mosques of Khan--e-Jahan

Slyle.

Corn&r Turret: Circular in plan; With a base of mouldings raised up to 2'-4"

height; 6 more string courses on the turret divides the shaft

into 7 parts

Transitional Form: Squinches to form the octagon for the circular base of the

dome above rises from slender brick semK:lrcular pilasters,

these pilasters in compare to the huge dlmens,on 01 the

dome above seems very inadequate

Dome and vault: The dome over the mosque is a hemispherical one, the

highest point reaches up to 40'-3" from the ground.

vi. Special &I&menis: The exterior walis 01this mosque are peculiariy barren even

in compare to the other austere looking bUildings 01 Khan-e-

Jahan Slyle The exterior projection of the mlhrab on the

west wall contains two e>dra circular comer towers rising

about half height of the building, The arches of the mlhrab

are constructed by brick corbelling system; this seems to be

either an exception or an eITorof restoration

•5.6.4 The Chunakhola Mosque: (Plate' XVII)

I. Type:

Single domed square mosque; circular corner turrets: exposed brick structure

With terracolta details.

Ii. Location;

Situated at far west of the Ghora Dighi of Shalt Gombuz Mosque. Khalifatabad,

Bagerhat, Khulna

iii. Surrounding environment:

It stands alone on an isolated low mound in lhe midst of vast flat nce-field and

has no road connection Wlth the adjacent mosques.

;Y. Pl"e$ent condition and use:

Although the mosque was heavily eroded due to severe salin~y, specially the

lower part of the building structure was highly damaged, Archaeology Department

has restored the bUilding: the lower part of the building IS almost entirely rabu,l!

and shows some definite symptoms of erroneous restoration.

v. Building components:

Form:

Interior:

Wall:

Opening:

The mosque is a 40'-0" square brick structure

The diameter of the dome is 23'.10"

The diameter of the four corner turrets is 5'-5".

The interior is a square of 25'-0 •.

The walls are 7'~" thick; constructed With 2" x 5" x 6" bncks

The three entrance doors in the east are flanked with two

pointed arches; they are bordered wilhin two rectangular

frames with parallel terracotta details within raised brick

mouldings at the lop of the frames; the space between the

two frames is decorated by terracotta details; at the top of the

brick mouldings there is a series of battlements and the

central point is crowned by a kelese motif, the central door is

higher and Wider than the others: The other two doors in the

east are bordered Within rectangular frames with parallel

PLATE: XVII ••

Chunakhola MosqueAt Khailfalabad, Bagerhat

..._~!"!"'.-!",.-!"'; -.

Plan

,.... '-------""-

". "'-.11 ''''''---T----.. __~_L _

Side Meh",b

----------_._---~~-~--0_ Ceok.1 Mell,ab

Details

•

PLATE: XVIl-b

Chunakhola MosqueAt Khalifatabad, Bagerhal

Section

Details

T_' 112'"

1- \~.\ ! (, +I" .-t\' f.\. "

fl' r, 0 r (\(;;;)'1" ,-,J T ''IU',IJL,'IIUUU I'"I -"= - -- --- -~i1JIi'"~~"''''''''''""""',,'",,''' ""'.""""'''''.~~

- ----;i .--'

\-I-

i,

--;:::-;qt8C ~~,. "-j-

.",-_L"":'""",-"'".

11~'_"-,---;.=

!

PLATE. XVIl-c

Chunakhola MosqueAt Khalifatabad, Bagerhat

" -- -i '.

------~

-r•... 11~,

-------

/

~AI I

Elevation

'IJ''''~''''',.,••,.••..•••..••• _ ••

Photographs

Niche:

Mlhrab:

Roof Cornice:

Comer Turlllt:

terracotla details within raised brick mouldings at the top;

The single openings On the northern and southem wall

contain two pointed arches sprang from the recesses of the

side walls are similar to the eastern central door In detail.

There are two spear-headed multi-cusped arched lamp-

niches each in the northem and southern walls.

The mihrab detail is almost identical to the Singar Mosque

described earlier; the multi-foiled arches with spear-headed

detail, decoraled octagonal brick pilasters, two rectangular

bmdenng frames, raised brick mouldings, decorated

terracotta rosettes in spandrel, decorated terracotta details

between tlle two frames and a series of battlements at the

top are all alike; again there are the a chain-and-bell

terracotta motif in the apse of the mihrab; the apse also has

panels of motifs separated by mouldings; the slde-mihrabs

are similar in detail but with without any battlement at the

<opThe roof cornice IScurved, the pick is 7" iifted upward at the

centre, there are three string courses on the cornice; the

upper and lower ones being bold and strong conlaining the

comparatively weaker one in between., moreover below the

string courses there is a band of geometric terracatta

patterns with rhythmic intervals witllin a continuous frame; all

of them together creates a spectacular termination of the

mosque.

Circular in plan, with e base of mouldings raised up to 4'-3"

height; 3 more string courses on the turret divides the shaft

into 4 parts

88 •• •.

Transitional Fonn: Squinches form the octagon and then this octagon is

resolved Into a circle for the base of the dome above the.

square space.

Dome and vault: The dome over the mosque is a hemispherical one: the

highest poinl reaches up to 32'-9" from the ground

vi. Special elements: The exterior of this mosque shows some resemblance with

the Singar Mosque described earlier, but, walls here are

more articulated than the earlier; the solid sunaces in

between the doors and the corner turrets of the extenor wall

are decorated with terrecolta features

5.7 GROUP 03: Reza Khoda Mosque group:

5.7.1 The Reza Khoda Mosque: (Plate: XVIII)

i. Type:

Original name was Reza Khan's Mosque, six domed rectangular mosque with

octagonal corner turrets: exposed brick structure with terrecotta details

ii. Location:

Situated on the western side of a secondary Khan-e-Jahan road: Khalrtatabad,

Bagerhat. Khulna

iii. SurroundIng environment:

The approaching secondary Khan-e-Jahan road offshoots perpendicularly toward

south from the or~inal Khan-e-Jahan's main road', the mosque is adjacent to the

Zindaplr Mausoleum complex.

iv. Present condition and use:

The mosque structure is now in a very dilapidated condition; only the parts of the

four walls remain up to 6 to 7 ft.; the corner turrets are totally destroyed oller the

base level. the pieces of the stone columns are found scattemnghere and there,

some partially buned under ground: In spite 01its condition, the mosque is a very

special case-study for the examination of its original structural systems; a

89

PLATE : XVIII-a

Rezakhoda MosqueAt Khallfatabad, Bagerhat

--~-,5'''._

Detail

e•••••.•' __

PLATE: XVIII.b

Reza Khoda MosqueAt Khahfatabad, Bagerhat

Wall:

Inlerior;

Column:

Mlhrab:

Opening:

tempor~ry structure has been erected inside the mosque and is used by the 10c~1

poople for prayers.

v. Building components:

Form: The mosque is a 50'-7" x 37'-7" rect~ngular brick structure.

The diameter olthe domes is 11'-3""

The arm of the four octagonalcorner turrets is 1'.3".

The interlor;s a rectangle of 39'-3" x 26'-3",

The walls are 5'-8- thick: oonstructedwith 2" x 5" x 6" bricks.

There were two slender stone columns, on whiCh arches

carrying the load of the domes rest. Pilasters on walls are of

brick,

Among the three entrance doors in the east the central door

is sllgh~y wider than the two adjacent ones,

The central one of the three mihrabs on the western w~11is

larger than the others: the mlhrabs are lIanked by richly

deoorated octagonal brick pilasters; there are mUIiL-Ioiled

arches in front of the three mlhrabs. The arches terminate In

a spear-headed det~il; ~ chain-and.bell terracotta motif and

I~teral bands of terracolta panels decorates the apse of the

each mihrab,

ComerTurrel: Octagonal in plan with a base of mouldings

Transitional Form: The interior rectangular space Is divided into six smaller

square un~s of 11".9" dimension to transform them into

circJes for the base of the dome above by using brick

pendentives.

vi. SplH:lal elements: The solid surfaces in between the doors and the comer

turrets of the eastern exterior wall are relieved w~h two

sunken panels, The inner panel is toped w~h a mul~-foiled

arch brick detail and a hanging chain-beil mo~f; the comer

turrets join With the exterior walls on two stepped recesses;

90

•••

the two other openings on south and north walls are similar

In detail containing panels and recesses In-between the

openings and near the corner turrets.

5.7.2 The Zindapir Mausoleum: (Plate: XIX)

i. Type:

Single domed square Mausoleum with octagonal corner turrets; exposed brick

slnJcturewith terracotla details

ii. Location;

S~uated on the southern SIde of a terliary Khan~-Jahan road; Khalilalabad,

Bagerhat. Khulna.

iii. SUrTOunding environment:

The tertiary Khan~-Jahan road offuhoots perpendicularly toward east from the

original Khan~-Jahan's secondary road which leads to the Reza Khoda Mosque;

the Mausoleum is within the boundanes 01 the Zindapir Mausoleum complex;

there ISan approach gateway to the walled (01laler date) complex that contains a

large number 01 plain masonry graves without any inscnpt,on on them, The

mausoleum ISplaced non-axially in the boundary complex

iv. Present condition and use:

The Mausoleum structure is now in a very dilapidated condition; only the four

walls remain up to 5 It; the comer turrets are totally destroyed; only the base at

ground level IS viSible which suggests thai they were octagonal in shape; a

temporary structure has been erected inside the Mausoleum, many a locals viSit

the Mausoleum which is now maintained by a family who claims to be the

descendents of the Pi'" ; since the anginal walls are still exposed the buikling

constructkm system is clearly visible.

1<Abodln, Abu' F"'h _ •••• Jolnu' ""quo {1'''1. op ,10P '"

PLATE :XIX.a

Zindapir MausoleumAt Khalifatabad, Bagerhat

Plan

(:~H","''''r-'1 ]."", ?,,~ ,-1--:-

H'." ,e' IIJ'T '~I ILi_-i

lOW II I I ,7-Jr~- 'I ' 'I ,'~ ,-.•,__ 1., _)."__ ".•./1,,,,":--:_~

I .j"" /"" \I J' """. "/';JI4" '"",.I >'/',

"' [

Details

'r]'. '12"

I If-------fL........s <t' '"

,1

PLATE: XIX-b

Zinda Pi. MausoleumAt Khalllatabad, Bagerhat

Wall:

Interior:

Comer Turret:

Niche:

Opening:

v. Building components:

Fonn: The M~usoieum is a 35'-3" square brick structure

The diameter of the domes is 23'-7-.

The arm ofthe four octagonal corner turrets is 1'.{I,8",

The Intenor is a square 0125'-3",

The walls are 5'.0" thick; consln.Jctedwtth 2" x 5" x 6" bricks,

There are two niChesin the northern wall,

The northern wall contains only one entry which is the widest

in the Mausoleum sln.Jcture:among the olher three entrance

doors in the west, south and east the central door is slightly

wider than the two adjacent ones

Octagonal in plan,

5.7.3 The Zindaplr Mausoleum_Mosque: (Plate: XX)

t. Type:

Single domed square mosque wilh oelagonal corner turrets, exposed brick

structure wrth terracotla details

ii. Location:

Situated Withinthe boundaries 01the Zindapir Mausoleum complex; Khallfatabad,

Bagerhal, Khulna.

iii. Surrounding environment:

Unlike the Mausoleum-Mosque 01 Khan--e-Jahanthis mosque is more exposed

from the approach road, there is no axial relationshiP between the Mausoleum,

mosque, gateways or the graves wtthln the complex.

IY. Present condition end use:

Renovatlon of the mosque structure is almost complete now; a part 01the originai

dome which was present even two or three years ago has been completely

replaced by a new one,

Y. Building components:

Fonn: The mosque is a 24'-6" square brick structure,

•

PLATE: XX

Mausoleum-Mosque of ZindapirAt Khalifatabad, Bagerhat

Plan1111- •••••••• -~~, , , , , ' . I

"

II'••••

,II 1'''-___ 1_------

Details

I"-T'.1 ~----:- ~--i 1'''"-j-'""1''''<". 1- 1_1 __

_.--------

•

Interior:

Wall:

Niche:

The diameter of the dome IS15'.2",

The arm of the four octagonal comer turrets is 1'-3".

The interior is a square of 16'-0-.

The walls are 4'-3" thick; constructed w~h 2" X5" X6" bricks,

There are two niches in the western wall and two smaller

ones in the north and south walls adjacent to the west wall.

Opening' The northern and southem walls contain only one entry,

among the other three entrance doors in the east the central

door is slightly wider than the two adjacent ones,

Corner Turret, Octagonal In plan

Transitional Form: Four squinches transfonn the square supporting fonn inlo

octagon for the circular base of the dome above; the octagon

ISthen transfonned inlo Circleby using brick pendentives; the

sqauinches sprang from bricll pilasters on the inner wall

surface.

Dome and vault: The original hemispherical dame over the Mausoleum is

replaced Witha complete new one

vI. Spectal el&mems: The exterior walls of this mosque are more articulated than 10

other austere looking buildings of Khan-e-Jahan Style The

solid surfaces in between the doors and the COmerturrets of

the exterior wall are relieved panels and stepped recesses;

these recesses are decorated with Ihree parallel string

courses of terracotta details at bottom w~hin raised bncll

mouldings; this detail is a continuation of the base mouldings

of the corner turret, this is an exceptional feature because in

the other buildings the string courses of the corner turret

never continues to the solid walls,

.,

5.8 ConcludingRemarks

Intllis chapter it has been established that Khan-e-Jahan Style is to be considered as an

Independent Style in the evolulion process of Muslim Bengal Arcllitecture The frontier cu~ure

01a Muslim domain in the southern region of Bengal has been truly expressed in this Style.

The Style not only exerted its ,nfiuence to the regional level but has also been recognized as

a part of the Wortd Heritage.

The monuments of Khan-e-Jahan Style 01Bagemat have been divided into three groups The

Nine dome mosque group which contains the mausoleum 01 Khan-e-.Jahan represents the

most matured and final stage 01 the Style development. The Shari Gombuz Mosque group

represents the earliest stage where the searc!l lor an identity of the Style itsell is clearly

evident The last group, that is, the Reza Khoda Mosque group shows the characteristics 01a

sub-8tyle within the Khan-e-Jahan Style

In the next chapter, the synthesis between this Khan-e-Jahan Style and its architecture is

studied as a phenomenon 01 continuity In the Styie making process The architectural

characteristics of the monuments developed under the Khan-e-Jahan Style are evaluated to

determine their contextual relationship and the strength 01 place is determined by thel[

exerted infiuences on the predecessors

Chapter 06

Synthesis between Khan.e-Jahan style & Architecture

InlmdUCllon

ArchileClure Kh.r>- ••..J.h.n Slyle .nd Infiuenoes

Archilectur.1 Characters

Design Pnnciplas

The mai<,;ng 01 Kh.lil.l.bad C,ly

Conclud'ngRem.".

Synthesis between Khan-e--Jahan

Style & Architecture

6.1 Introduction

The developing process of the t(h.m-e-Jahan Style from a multi-domed large

structure to single-domed small structure clearly depicts an idea getting absorbed and

becoming adjusted to its contextual seiling. This unique process has produced some

Identifying characters for the architectural monuments thai have b'*ln developed

under th,s Style. The sense of austerity and the approach to funclionality of these

monuments mar1<edthe Style's place in the history of 8engal The contextual

approach of this Style In Its building process excelled its influences over a long period

of time on the making of 8engal Architecture

6.2 Architecture of Khan-e-Jahan Style and influences

62.1. Received influences:

The most frequent reference of influence that the architecture of Khan-e-Jahan Style

experienced is drawn from the Tughlaq Style of Imperial Delhi. The earliest reference

to the Tughlaq influence is found in the works of Dani,' The tapered corner bastion

like towers of Sha~ Gombuz mosque, use of stone lintels in Khan-e-Jahan's

mausoleum and the overall expression 01ausferity in the buildings of Khan-e"Jahan

Style ISthe central logic behind thiS idea

The Tughlaq Style of central Imperial Delhi was an incidenf of about hundred years

earlier. The Tughlaq Style became obsolete in Delhi for about half a century earlier

than Khan-e-Jahan's period. At a time Khan-e-Jahan was considered as a probable

,0>"', Ahmo<ll-lo •• " ('05'1. op, oil, p,2l!,

•

ethnic Turk and It was another reason for whteh the similarity was drawn between him

and the Tughlaqs, who were also of Turk in origin. But resent research has definitely

proved thai Khan-e-Jahan was not a Turk; rather he was a descendent of a renowned

Meccan Arab family',

The ArcMeclural form development analysis of the Tughlaq Architecture and Khan-!!-

Jahan's Architecture tells us a differenl story. The two storied Khlrki mosque, Deihl

bui~ in the penod of Firoz Shah Tughlaq In 1375 A D., which apparently shows close

relationship with Shait Gombuz mosque, is actually a single storied mosque on a

bastioned fortress like podium. The design principle IS similar to Ghyasuddin

Tughlaq's mausoleum, which is square in plan without any comer turret, stands on a

pentagonal bashoned podium. The difference in the case of lhe Khirki mosque IS that

the size of the mosque coinCides With the size of the podium underneath. So, the

bastions of the podiums are continued over the roof level of the mosque. The above

understanding of the deSign development process indicates that lhese bastions of

Khirki mosque are not an integral element 01the mosque, rather are only extension of

the podium The Tughlaqs never used comer turrets or comer bastions what so ever

in any of the" bUildings w~hout a podium Even the tomb of Feroz Shah Tughlaq

himself ISa simple square in plan (Plate XXI-a)

If the form is considered With Its external appearance only then lhese comer turrels or

so-called bastions of Shalt Gombuz mosque better resemble the sub-uman

caravanserais that developed along the lrade and travel routes of the Mushm world.

Moreover, the Shall Gombuz does not represent the final and most matured phase of

Khan-e-Jahan Style.

, """,.n, H••••• ('"""I."" M P 24&

96

PLATE: l-a(1)

Tughlaq influence on Khan-e-.Jahan Style

,;!

B•

Some "'~"" "'.t,,,,, 01••• Khatl+J.aMn Slyl.conform, to ••• d,"",'"am' "' well •• '"ecu",,,,1 """'"''"''",,1 0'10. loco' <eo"''' The"0'" ph"'" WON., ••• mp pmof ••,., fix 'hebUlld'r>g .no w''''' ;, •"",Que OO'll<:lOpmen' 0''he ,lyle'" "''''''''''1 wi ••rhe "'""'Xl Age;n •••te.,'menlO In tn,"'.h"," ,''ow> ,ornedO,. """"" •••h", withthe p,~_m,<J,moe"lopmen" '" """''"''"'

• • • •..~..

I,omet" wew of s.,1tl Gumb,d"""0"" The'",e'"""1 0'''''0"' .nd

••• "",nded "",,,,., "","II, the ;m"'le 0'th. K',,1<, "',,",,"" of Delh,

• ••••Wi.~'iI!-.-.-.-.-.--.- -..•...••,~

PI>-I & ,Ie>'",," <$ SsiII Gwl'lblld MosqlJl!, KalOataO>:leu~ In 'nt ptI100of~~,,,,"

•, .• "M'" ~ •• _ .•c;;~~;;~jr~~;;i'••

PIa •• & elevo""" of KtOr1<,t.lo,,"ue Delo, 13118IJ,I" •• 1t>e ""'''''' ofF,= Sho" Tu,",,,,, (13".'1)

••

PLATE: XXI-a(2)

Tughlaq influence on Khan-e...JahanStyle

Khirki MosqueAt Deihl (' 375 A.D,)

•

••

•

- . -- - .

..

o'''co ,LA'

"'""~"..•B"'VATIO> .,.KHIRIU _

M •• """0=0"".'"

• ,""

Likethe otherlwtl mosques ot theTughlaqs this Khirki mosqueappears simiiarto Sha;tGombuz

This is the podium on which themosque stands, the minars arean extension of the bastions,

Tomb of Ghiyasuddin TughlaqAl Deihl (1325 A D.)

This mausoleum is also astructure on fortress likepodium, it should be noticedthat the tomb itself has noturrets

Aller the constructIon of Ihis muill-dome huge structure Khan-e-Jahan concentrated

on developing more coherenl smaller Iorms for his building activity. None of these

later monuments have a tapered corner turret- which means that.

a, The tapered comer turrets of Sha~ Gombuz were an experimenl in his

building endeavour, and was nol much appreciated or repeated by the builder

himself.

b. The decision of tapering the towers had functional reasons (like achieving

more height w,th less building materials) forthat particular build,ng only

c. The designer wanted Ihis central monument to look bigger and more

monumental than its actual size by accentuating its 3-point perspectlVeeffect

Another resemblance to lhe Tughlaq arcMecture is generally drawn by the similarity

of use of stone lintels The only example of such slone Iintei is in the mausoleum of

Khan--e-Jahanat Bagerhal. Th,s building is built allhe last and mosl matured phase

of Khan-e-Jahan's Style, Here, the use of five consecutive stone layers beneath the

walls at plinth level proves lhat the builders have already become aware of the

dampness rising from the ground. The stone spouts for rainwater disposal used at the

Khan-e-Jahan's Mausoleum is another addition to the building. These features I,e. the

stone lintel, the stone damp proof course and the rain water disposal trealment testify

that the bUilders were famil,ar w,th and sympathetic to the gea-dimahc conditions of

the locality' and at least some of fhe monuments af that time has already started

showing symptoms of decaying'. So, Ihis use of stone is hardly an extemalrnfiuence

of a long forgotten Style of more than 100 years earlier in date, rather; !hey are lhe

desperale attempts of the bUilders to give permanency la the mausoleum 01 their

beloved leader,

l MowI. Q.A.••n. Naql M,A. (1~e~),op Ql P 11.,''''' "'~. <Ieco, .n. <l.m••••• of the otn.du= ore • very oommoocharacl8l1.~e P_ . .,. """'"motI\$ wh"'" h•• been

"""" •• '" 'M "rl, "ri'" "OW, wrthm• 'I'On of '••• then"'" V""', ••"9!"n \IOI~ underffilljor re.~oo P""""

The direct relation of Khan-e-Jahan Style with that of Tughlaq may be a far-fetched

concept. But, we must admit that there are similarities at least in appearance and in

decision making process of these two Styles of architecture,

The best prob<lble answer to this mystery is that, these two builders were working

under 'somewh"t simll", conditions, such as .,.diminlshing (or scarce)

resources ... poIitic,,' end netural sacurity end economic limita/lons" Moreover, fhese

two groups of builders bear similar mode 01 personality as recorded in hisfory Both

the Tughlaqs and Khan-e-Jahan had fheir personal record as successful warnors in

their early life and family b<lckgroundof orthodox religious and as well as spiritual

importance, The Tughlaq Sultans were highly educated, for example Muhammad Bin

Tughlaq was considered as an expert in 'Dialectic Philosophy'" of that time and he

developed magnificent ideas (like: commissioning copper coins, introdudng inter--eity

bell-ma,1systems elc.) far ahead of their time They were followers of a very austere

hfe-mode and even banned the use of gold as utensils of the Sultan himself

The best resemblance between these two characters is their fascination towards

arcMecture, Feroz Shah Tughlaq in his biography has written, "Anrong the gifts God

bestowed on me, HIS humble servant, was a desire to erect Public Buildings"

Now, this archetype of personality is not rare in the history of Muslim Khalils and

Rulars. The mosl quotable and probably the best of such archetype after Prophet

Muhammad (S) is Khalil Omar bin Aziz (R)". The archetype w~h all fls characteristics

remains latent in the collectIVe unconSCIOUSof fhe Muslim world and with the

nourishment from proper setting and in the demand of time they emerged In

consecufive period of time', There are so many 'Omars' and his archetypes onthe

, Mmod, NozImoddln 1'"'01, "" <It P J-4

• K.orlm,"""ul ('90'), 0', <~p .,

, F._S~,~ T~loq, "'fuhat •..F""" Shohi(T,."~,",,by f'iIJot).Voltil," ~"2

•GoUI'"",.,A_ (1Q~7I,ISJOm, (Bengali ""","""",J, Tn.u_ Pr••• Ud.•on••••pp. '''''2• jun9, C,n (M.) I""), Man_"" Sy_ I'On 800"," Ltd, ,0nOO" PO"S-O,.

98

history and even in the present time among ltle Muslim leaders that a lisl can hardly

be produced here. All these subjects draw their inspiration trom the same centre of

intellect-self and produce similar activities but apparenUy have no socio-polit,cal,

historical or even stylistic connections among ltlemselves The trend of intellectualism

among ltle Arabs, utilitarianism among the Turks and emotions at Persians are the

outcome ot these repeatingArchetypes ,n their society.lO

it can be said that both Tughlaqs and Khan-e-Jahan belongs to the same archetype

of personality and draW'Sinspiration lrom the very centre of the austere Ideals of

Islam", Thus, when ltIese personalities come to meet a crisis, in different span of

time. produce individual solutions very similar to each oltler. Here predecessor does

not exert infiuence on the later comer The mythical status 01both is to be measured

from the reference of the central seif, the collective unconscious,"

On Ihe other hand. the Khan-e.Jahan Style in Khalifatabad has its roots deep into the

Bengali brick monuments of Later Illyas Shaihi Style developed earlier around Gaur

The spirit of developing a self.-<>ustainableArchitecture, emphasis on form rather than

on decoration, endeavour to achieve balanced proportions and liberal attitude

towards local context all these altitudes are the direct infiuences olltle later Illyas

Shahi Style Here it is noteworthy that there ISmonument of the later lIIyas Shahi

Style. the Dakhil Darwaza With circular tapered towers at its two corners, different in

appearance but similar in deSign thinking ot resolving symbolic constraints" of

monumentality. Moreover, the tapering towers in the torm of minar of gateway are to

commemorate the victory are presence by many a medieval Muslim rulers These

towers acted as landmarks ,n their settlements conveying to the subjects the

message regarding the strength of the ruler Here In Shalt Gombuz mosque the

10 R.nm"", lIoyHur,I,"&4), .." "'lrodtJcIron 101,1.",,, C"," •• on<!PhiIoooi>/7. 8aog1.-....,., 1)hoIoo.l'-;O.

n GtIIU.u•••• """" ('~71. uP <it p~~.a2,

" Paac.o', Eu ••••• 1'002), .hm~ To"'" By. Th. 0,"_, P••••• 0•••--. P <7

\3 La"""', 0 •.••• 1'000), Ho •• ~ """~ Ill. ~ P"JC"" """'_. AreMOClu",1 PrOM, Ox!o", P '05

99

tapering lowers at the four comers serve the same purpose wrth a unique

architectural expression,

6.2.2 Outward influences:

The Style developed by the Architecture of Khan-e-Jahan sustained better in the

hostile climate of lhe southern region partly because of lhe measures laken by ds

bUilder and partly because of pure luck, The adjacent river changed its course away

from the city of Khalifalabad. otherwise like many of Ihe settlements in this region this

city would have been washed rmay Without leaVing any trace, However, direct

influence of the matured stage of this Style can be observed in some other buildings

outside Khalifalabad region - they are slx-domed MasJldkur Mosque at Chandkhal"

MasJ,dBan Mosque at Patuakhali and one domed Hammad's Mosque near Kumlra"

The mosques of Barobazar though were probably example of earlier works of Khan-

e-Jahan has the similar charactenstlcs of the monumenls of Khalifatabad. Except the

grand mosque of Satgachia, which is almos! same as lhe monumenls of Bagerhat the

other mosques of Barobazar are closer 10Later i11l'asShahi Style than the Style of

Khan-e-Jahan (Plate XXI-b, c, d, e).

Moreover, the indirecl influence of this Style ISalso observed in many regLons The

noblest introduction of this Style in Bengal Architecture is the Chouchala roof which

was for the firsl time used over the central nave of Shail Gombuz mosque. The long

lasting and the deepest aesthetic influence of Khan-e-Jahan Style comes from his

matured works 01 Bagerhal. His mausoleum building, wllh its four turrets at the

comers, is one of the main sources 01inspiration for the development of pancha rotn"

layout of later Hindu temples,"

•• -.n, Sy" "Ohmudol{""7)."" oil. " 120.1611,'0"

15McC"ohoo.o. •••u. (1'''1. W. _ T_oI SefJgof.The ••••••," Soo>oIy."""""" P.'"

PLATE XXI(b)

Influences of Khan-e-Jahan StyleBaro Bazar

Galakata Mosque

Ih",,., II"ee mosque-; al lklro EJaLar~'"e,"",ples or rr,ultl unll "'osq""" WllhSimilar~Iyl~ nt the monuments ot lJaqerllat TherUineD"trud"r"" 011l1H~algdchla shaw thattho ''',,"que hud ""culm lurr~!f,al thecorners very "mil,,, 10 ii" B"u~rhalcounwrp"rts TI", r"pLJkur ~osque seemsto I,ave d tHick qallelY ,,'S'ae the ""'"'I'"'structura

Pirpukur Mosque

Satgachia Mosque

PLATE XXI(c)

Influences of Khan-e-Jahan StyleSaro Bazar

Gorar Mosque

This one unit mosque" highly deTailedwith lerru COII~ In Ihe lacades Thoverandahwilh three bay, seem" 10 be ,luler"d<l,110",

Thissmallone unitm'''''lue re,embles 10the lJagerh~1 nlC"'ques In lisproportioning'ysl~m

Shukur Mallik Mosque

n,e "truciure IS completely in rUlnc<!condilion The multi-unit mosque I",d&qualebnekpillarsintheeenlralboys

Monohar Mosque

TIle single unil mosque havoonly thr~eopemrtgsat Ihe easl side ond there 'liPIwo larga nicheson Ihe ~orth vnd "oulhwalls the traalmenls r()""ml~"" 10IheReza Khoda group "I Ihe Ek,gerhalmonumenlS

Jote Bangia Mosque

-.'" ,"-,,~,"~." ,;;•.••~-

Plan1111-.-_::-111- ••, " , , , . .

", .'-8"-"1"- ,

I iII 4'.8"I II II I

__ 1 __ -

1"'.".-1-3'_8111'6"_ ~' - ,

Details

mI •••••

,.

PLATE: XXI-c(2)

Galakata MosqueAt Barobazar, Jgssore

Plan

/ d'

,. ; ----<'"''''''.. , -i... . .. " ...

tr-I

•

IlT~.I , j j ii', -l,~., .•. ,.<" , .•. _, ..•. '_4-<,/2'

Details

I- •• ".' '''",

II U-'-

PLATE: XI-c(3)

Nunagola MosqueAt Bam Bazar, Jessore

Plan

\'''~.,"!",~._.

,---iII 5'.S"

I I••••••~~S"I /I/-_I_L-j/

Details

PLATE: XXI-c(4)

Pathagar MosqueAt Bam Bazar, Jessore

Plan~~---';;-~----.!' , , , . , .

mlh'"

1_;:', ~' 'c"

\ ! .. i , .\, , , ---....-',: : I j ,~." , I _,_

I: ~--1'---+-D' I'': : , -.i, , "~1W , I'I , I" I '---'-, l

,/ I ~--- -~:,~:""'" t -" ;./J ',_I., ,- I/ / '"./ -"~,,,.- I/ _.

Details

PLATE - XXI-e(S)

Shukurmallik MosqueAt Bam Bazar, Jessore

Plan --_-I 1,""",. '" .,

Details

\,

\ ,. "."1,,, •., I t."1, ,

" I I " .•,""" I I J" 1------, 1'),/2"" I I

j'~t..I I .

\ , ;t."" •••_," I-'

PLATE: XXI-c(6)

.lore BangIa MosqueAt Barn Bazar, Jessore

Plan

~~,~

Details

!

IFf--I "

! I

•

, ,

PLATE XXI(d)

Influences of Khan-e-Jahan Style

,

o,O .• qDDD~

Masjidkur MosqueKhuina, Unlncnbed, mid 15th CoolU""

Molla simla MosqueHa<JgIy.vw",l Bengal: Uninorii>ed, I.te 1.th century

:t-,

",, , ,, ,

.'.~,--

", ,

, , , , ",

'-

Qasba MosqueBe'erg,oj: Unlnoni>ed, early 16l;h GenlU""

-

Shallkup. MosqueJhenaidah; highly altered, 16th ConllJry

PLATE XXI(e)

Influences of Khan-e-.lahan Style

, , . , -, .0

'0:"",.".

Hammad MosqueKumira, Chittagong; Dunng HDss.in Sh.h

Goaldi MosqueSonargaon. Dhaka; 1619A.D.

6.3 Architectural Characters

The basic Architectural character of Khan-e-Jahan Style owes its inspirations from its

contextual settings. The very identlfying expressions the Architecture of lIlis independent

Style are largely governed by the conditions of [ts settings and function that they performed.

63.1. 5ellings and expressions:

The most common expression of all the monuments of Khan-e-Jahan Style is its

austere looking facades. The external exposed brick facades are plain devoid of

any extensive decorations. The terrac<ltta bands or details are used only to

articulate Ihe terminations of the buildingsand in the mihrab in the interior,

8agemat, before the establishment of Khalltatabad City It was a rural setting just

produced by cleaning lIle jungle. In this setting where the monuments obselVed

from a distance the delails on its external fa~ade virtually would have no Impact

at all,

The extensive ornamenlations of the earlier Styles were products of urban

settings, as lIle concentrales in and around Gour, lIle most developed capital 01

Bengal From a distance lIlese delail with minimal depth appears to be somewhat

fretted and only in urban setting, where it is difficult to have long views, these

details are most effective "

The monuments are actually representatives of true brick architecture of Bengal.

The massive walls, entirely of brick are the emphasised and most prominent

element of architecture of Khan--e-Jahan,The Style of offsets and the recesses in

the external walls that have been developed in the ea~ler Ekhlakhi Style, Gour is

deliberately avoided here. ThiS is clearly evident In the central Shail Gombuz,

probably the first building constructed by Khan-e-Jahan at Bagerhat", where lIle

••,,'bld,~.1'~<l1.II,60o",. (ad.J(""41.", dt p ,,..

'" •

eastern facade is plain and stark in character where as the less exposed and

shorter facades of the two sides are recessed at the either sides of the openings.

The expression of Architecture of Khan-e-Jahan is less ornamental but is more

representational. The Architecture represents the ideal of a political and religious

leader working in the midst of a marshy land with barely accessible jungle around

in the most frontier province of Muslim Bengal. This preference of

representational over ornamental Architecture" depicts the des'9ners aesthetic

interest In austerity

The intenor of the Salth Gombuz mosque metaphorically represents a forest" of

column which led spectators to compare it wijh a damer hall'" than mosque,

These two references clearly express the setting conditions for this architecture.

6.3.2. Function and abstraction:

Although Khan.e_Jahanhas never declared himself as an independent Sultan, he

almost In all aspect acted like one. The region was under his independent

command and the mullitude of hiS building activity has produced a magnificent

city In Bengal history after Gaur. Among the newly converted Muslims of this

region he was the torchbearer of a new Ideal, 'a friend' and to the remaining 'the

infidels and poiytheist population 'the despiser'," So, the function of Architecture

for him at first was beinga tool for propagating this social information, ThiS duality

Of intentions is expressed in the evolutionary development 01 monuments

Khal<latabadCity The Earliest building that is the Shait Gombuz, looks more like

a fort with its imposing bastion type comer turrets or like temporal caravanserai 01

central Asia, The function intended a sense of organi2ationalism, containing

conglomeration of huge number of friendly population Inside and impOSinga very

"Sc,,"O", R_I1979), n..A•.••_ 0/ ArcI>"""",. ",.,,_ & Co It<l Lo""on., ~ 1B!l.

"_.n, Syo<lIhhm ••,,", (1070) o~.en p 1"'

"D'nl, Ahmod HAun 1'''1) "" e<l" 14$,

21q"''''d fiQm K!IIn+J•• ",,', ~."" '",_on.

'" • •

strategiC threal oulside, Where as the later monuments are more like houses or

chambers for medilation both al interior and exterior refers to an achie\l<'!d sense

of security in builder's attitude.

6.4 Design principles

6.4.1 Orders:

Llke any other monuments of Ihe Muslim ArcMeclure the initiation point of Khan.

e-Jahan's Architecture is a 'point', the self evident origin of all the geomelrlc form.

This first stage is very similar our known ordering pnnciple thai W€ use In !tie

ArchLtecture of today.

In the next step, the point unfolds to become a line, apparently this is also a very

familiar process 10 us, Bul, In facl the line is created not through extension of Ihe

point rather by expansion, a phenomenon of extemization, which always refers to

its origin as a Poinl of departure Then Instead of extending to a rectilinear plane

the Muslim order slarts encompassing an area by creating an arc at Hs path,

consequently the area takes the form of a circle,"

Now, thiS circle becomes the archetypal tor generating the triangle, square,

hexagon and octagons through the tsngential arrangement of circles ot the same

radius. By foilowmg Ihe number of arms of !tie unfolded shapes !tie Muslim

progression of number series becomes like: 1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 14 ... and so on,

The significance of understanding this number series IS that the trace of origin in

the creative process In thiS order is to be not backward but inward, Another

unavoidable consequence is thai irrespective of the reallhree--dimensional wo~d

'"

the Muslim in!elligence and creativity remains confined within the boundaries 01

two dimensions"

This two dimensional nature of paradisal world is reflected In Ihe works of Khan-

e-Jahan Style through the crystallising order of radial symmetry and the rhythms

of externization 01the circles is the key-mode pattern of his every decISion (Plale

XXII-a, b, c. d, e, I)

6.4.2. The StrLlctural System: form and space

Form and space: The Architectural form and spaces of Khan-e-Jahan'

monuments, like other Muslim monuments, are generated lrom the understanding

Of the structural system for brick construction and are generated as units of

In!eractlon between the circles and a base square. This characteristic of

ju><laposilionof circle and square lakes two dillerent modes for two different

situanons. There are two different structural systems used in the buildings of

these monuments, They are:

a Unils lor Multi-domed Structure

b. Units lor Single-<.fomedStruclures

In case of multi-dome structure the circular base of Ihe semi-circular dome s~s

directly on the square made by the lour arches festing on the stone pillars. The

area between the arches is filled With lateral layers of pendentives. These

pendentives are constructed with diagonally placed cantilevered. radial and

header-sided brick layers to achieve the perfect circle as the base of the dome at

the top, This unil is then repeated to achieve lhe desired length and breadth 01

the interior space, In case of the un~s near Ihe walls the arches sprang lrom the

pilasters slightly projected from the wall surface The exceptional generation of

2J110"'""11. O'••••d (ed,) 1'"'2), Philo_ ~""""""'.on,,_, SiockwellP<l_"', Oxfu'" UK& Comlm",," uS/'-

P '"

""

PLATE: XXII-a

Muslim Order of Spacefollowed in Khan-e-Jahan Style

Unfolding of mythmic circle

Rhythm of 7_14-28

Rhythm of 11-12.24

Rhythm of 8-16-32

Rhythm of 3-6-9

PLATE: XXII.b

/

------- --

~- --1 -

. I .... '"' ..>--~'\:-¥~--*,::/--~~- .J'-~="-'

- -'--)-.-r--J ---F>\' ",iii __ --.

Rhythm of thirty twoChunakhola mosque

PLATE: XXII-e

Rhythm of circles in mehrabC/Iu","_la __

PLATE:XXIl-d

order of externalizing a circleProportion study of Chunakhola mosque

PLATE XXII-e

Motifs and Details in Khan-e-Jahan Stylea. Terra cotta rossette: Shalt gombuz Mosque, b Stone rossette, do, c Spear head deta,ls:do; d, balliement mOlrf: Chunakhola Mosque; e, Tera cotta Jell work do, f, Terracollamouldings and pan nels. Sheit Gombuz Mosque

:~ ?fi: 'fJl$ l" '0TWrr:'! I, ;', I) I ,I I r;,'.--.V! i__ ,!f);,''--.) ''i, (',' 'h ,le, ,le,};'\ f" '\ '\

",~-----.. . . • ,. .. . ,

JIFiJU~tjLrLf'ULrL'ffi[ilIJTIlIIdJllhldl,"]]U,llllliJ,IIII,lI,IJll.IllLllill,1l1m,IIII,II,lllllirnnITrITInm'";I)'

- .:77-""=-';:;';::&i';Y7Z:Z~=='~,-'_

d

f

PLATE XXII.'

Motifs and Details in Khan-e-Jahan Stylea, Kalasa detail Over entry: Chunakhola Mosque; b. finial over dome. Mausoleum of Khan-a-Jahan,c. Only surviVing copula over COmer lurret: do: d. terracotta detail: Chunakhola Mosque, Chaln-bellmot~ in mlhrab: do Spear-head foil arch: dO;9. Stone p'lia~ Sha~ Gombuz Mosque; h, Stone pillarin mihrab; do, Slone pillar' Nine dome Mosque; Turret lop Singar Mosque: Turret lop: ChunakholaMosque.

~, \, ,r'\\1(\

./ \, b

lr-rtl:J:'[

I

bd 9

1-liT,.", ,

11,,',hDj

space in Kh~n-e-Jahan's Architecture comes wrth the introduction 01 seven

Chouchala Bengali domes in the middle row 01this bUildingwhich has become a

lyplCal Beng~li arcMectural feature lor the days to come and has been

repeatedly used in the monuments 01the later date.

The single domed mosques, the represent~tive 01 individual characte~sbcs 01

Khan--e-JahanSlyle. takes the base square and rotate 11to 45 degrees ~round

the centre 01origin, Thus producing an octagon and then pulling the circle over It

This octagonal base is structurally achieved by using four squinches at the

comers and the circular base for the dome above is then made by filling the gaps

with brick pendentives ThiS squinches are series of diagonal arches placed one

behind another gradually reduced by height and width The squinch thus takes

the shape of a corbelled hall dome to meet the corners of the square interior

space. These arches 01 the squinches sprang from the wall sometimes from a

slone bracket, as in case of mausoleum of Khan--e-Jahan,or lrom brick details,

as in case of Singer mosque. ThiS Iorm generic octagon is the basic decision

making guideline lor positioning the other elements like mlhrab, Doors and

openings and niches in the interior space (Plate XXIII-a, b, c, dj

Foundation: Since authorized excavation was beyond the scope of this study

any description of loundatJOnsunder the ground level of lhese structures can nol

be given, As seen over the ground level, the topmost layer of the foundation is

slightly projected outward at the base of the wall. From observation on the

structures in dilapidated condition it can be said that the foundation structure has

a regular sized outskirt brick layer with a core filled With irregular shaped brick or

rubbles, The only exception is the mausoleum structure of Khan-e-Jahan, where

the base 01the walls stands on layers of Slonecourses Wlthhorizontal mouldings.

This stone layer is successfully protecting the brick structure and acting as a

damp proof course for the upper structure.

PLATE; XXIlI-aVirtual reconstruction

-'Multi-unit structural system.The structural system of the multi-unit monumentsstarts from the construction of a single un~ standingon stone pillars at the four comers of a square. Thefour arches sprung from the pillars form the fourpoints for the base of the dome above Now, thegaps are filled with pendentives to ach;eve thecircular base, on which the dome is constructedThis un~ is then repealed in the four sides to coverthe required spaces,

",i' ,,

J,. " -,~,

ti

5 The bricI<dome

1

L

,

7 MOlbpl. ""IS

PLATE: XXIlI-bVirtual reconstructiono.Single-unit structural system.The structural system of the Single-unit brickmonuments starts from the foundalt<ln layout andbuilding Ihlck brick walls on them. At lintel level archesare constructed on the openings thus atjusl under theroof height a square base is formed The corners of thissquare ISthen filled up by senes of arches called thesquinch. ThiS octagonal form ISthen transformed intocircle by the use of pendenlives, The dome is placedonthiScircular base. Finally the curved roof ISfilled up toget the finished form, The corner lurrets are notstructural member and do not participate in loadlransformation

~,lb, do"",.odcu,,,,"_

1"'"ceo'""'''''''"'

7 Then""llmm

Floor: The floors of all the monuments of Bagerhut have been reconstructed

several times, as they are still used as seat of prayers by the local people. The

floor level from the ground varies in different structures, both the floor level and

the ground level are not 10its anginal state. In case of the mausoleum of Khan-e-

Jahan original multi-coloured glazed Illes are stili visible placed in scattered

manner at the base of ttle grave. Some of these tiles are hexagonal in shape. In

some structures small outlets with corbelled tops are found at ttle floor level on

the walls to drain-away water !fom InSideoul.

Plinth: Since the floors of the monuments are not ,n its original state it is vel)'

hard to make any definite comment on the conditions of the plinth level. But In

general it can be said that the remaining low plinth height was determined In

accordance Withthe surrounding low laying area and there is a 6" raised platform

placed In each doorway to prevent water penetration.

Walls: The wall thickness vanes in the monuments ot Bagerhat from 4'-3"

(Zlndap" mausoleum mosque) to g'--6" ( Bibi Begni Mosque). The Reza Khoda

group of bUlldings, with octagonal turrets, has comparatively less thicker walls

and the large single domed mosques of the other two groups has the highest

thickness of walls,

The wall construction system of these monuments reminds us the construction

techniques of the earlier Hindu-Buddhist periOdS" Basically they are out-skirted

with finished brICks with core of irrogular shaped bricks or rubbles. The outer

sides have lime mortar masonl)' where as the core is filled with only mud mortar.

The inner side of the finished bricks are rough and irregular.

In the mausoleum of Khan-e-Jahan, there are slone layers at the base of the

walls and stone lintels. There are slone bracket details at the springer level afthe

'"

-'.J;~A•

Briel< wall with rubble core

Non-structural polygonal corne, turret

,

Slone pillars for mull,_unit structure

PLATE: XXIII-c

Structural componentsof Khan-e-Jahan Style

Mlhrab with original terra cotta details

Brick layers in wall sectionNon-structural circular corner turret

Slone layers at base levelBase of s!rucrural pillars

arches of the squinches. Similar treatment of stone IS seen in most of fhe

mosques of the Gaur. but in case of Bagerhat these stone treatments are used

only in the mausoleum of Khan-e-Jahan as stone in !his region is very scarce.

There are different shapes of bricks used in these bUildings, The polygonal

shaped bricks are used for !he polygonal furrets, wedged shaped bricks are used

,n the circular turrets and rectangular or square shaped bricks are used in the

walls. The thickness of these bricks varies from 1.5 fo 2.5 inches and the length

from 5 to 9,5 inches,

Pillars and pilasters; In case of fhe single domed mosques there is no need of

pillars to support fhe structure, but for the multi-<;lomedmosques there are series

of freestanding stone pillars in fhe intenor. These pillars are slender in shape

consisting of a number of horizontal layers of stones There are three parts the

base (square in section), the shall (octagonal in section) and fhe capital (square

in section). These iayers are jointed by iron dowels In case of the monuments of

Bagerhat the number of segments In fhe pillars are greater than the other

monuments of Bengal region Usually the shaft of these Bagerhat monuments

confalns two p,eces of stones placed on one another This is because of fhe fact

fhat the stones were brought here from a distant source and was cut Into smaller

pieces for ease of transportalion The stone pillars of Bagerhal area are almost

devoid of any ornamentation and its teJdum is strikingly very rough and unfinished

looking, The p,lasters used in the multi-<;lomedmosques are of brick construction

slightiy protruding from the walls either as rectangular projections or in the shape

of the central free standing stone pillars.

Domes and vaults: The semi-cin;uiar domes of ltle multi-unk mosques of

Bagerhal are much smaller in size; for example the diameler of Ronvijoypur

Mosque's dome is 33'-5. whereas the diameter of Shait Gombuz Mosque's

domes is only 10'--6.,almestone-third of the former.

0;:"> •

PLATE: XXIlI-d

Structural componentsof Khan-e..Jahan Style

Entry arches over the side watts

Stone pillars Wlth recently apptled bricl< cladding InShait Gombuz Mosque

Onglnal stone p,ttars of Shall Gombuz MOSQue

Pendentive to form circular base for dome

BrICk dome on CIrcular base

Chouchata ,001 on rectangutar base

,. Ibid P 178

The domes of all the monuments of Bagertlat are entirely constructed by bricks.

These are pure semi-<:irculardomes, where bricks are placed radraily from the

centre towards the edges.25The thickness of the domes in the smaller unils is

same in all sections but for large spanned domes in the single unit mosques, like

Ronvijoypur, Bebi Begni and Singer Mosques, it varies and gradually becomes

thinner at the top, This special treatment makes it possible to construct larger

span domes with brick as the vertical load IStransmitted through the edges and a

lighter top reduces this load to a considerable limit

The wider central nave of the Shail Gombuz mosque IScovered with a special

type of vault called the Chouchala dome This new Iype of vauilis introduced for

the first time here after the traditional ehauchala hut structure of Bengal. The

vault consists of four curved Sides which meet In curved ridges, Each side Is a

segment of a circle, imitated from the original bamboo structure. The inner

surface ISdecorated with bamboo rafters and purlln motifs. The very shape of th's

vault might have been derived from the bamboo scaffoldings used during its

construction.

6.4.3 The Climatic Components

The principal factor respons,ble for the rapid decay and dlslntegralion of these

monuments is the extreme salinity in Ihe area, The floor levels of most of these

monuments are built in level with the surrounding low country-side. As a result,

the buildings perceplually remain saturated with salt-laden moisture, the corrosive

effects of whiCh are very apparent on the brick walls and stone columns which

often buckle or cave in. Use of stone beneath the walls at pllnlh level of some of

the structures, testify that the builders were aware of the dampness rising from

the ground. Another feature ISthe method of rainwater disposal, by stone spouts

projecbng at each comer of the roof and small outlets in floor level with corbelled

tops, in use at the Khan~-Jahan's Mausoleum. These features i.e. the stone

W8•

PLATE XXIII-e

Climatic Co ponentsKhan-e-.lahan Style, Bagef'hal

A

B

A Exleriorof Beb, Begni mosque: the <!warf loo~ingapl"'aranc:e reduces the exposure 01 the interior

'"",,s. Chunakhola mosque: Terra cotta details In theexleriorwall surface.

C Chunakhola mosque: Moldings and lerra coItadetails protecting the surface underneath

c

•,

PLATE XXIII.'

Climatic ComponentsKhan-e..Jahan Style, 8agerh ••t

A

B

Mausoleum of Khan-e-J ahan'

A. Use of stone layers beneath thawalls at plinth levelB. Stone linlels,C, Jail work inthe boondarywal',D, Stone spouts alrooflevel.E Protected original wooden door otthe mausoleum,F Stone details.

c

PLATE XXIII-g

Climatic ComponentsKhan.••.••ahan Styl., Bagerhal

A Shalt Gomuz mosque: Tha sari"" of slone pillarsand a1fed ofdampnessonlhem,B The western side of Shalt Gornbuz mosque: The recessedwall arid the moldings at roof level prol/ides cl,matic protection tothasurface bricks.C,Abradad fioorsurface in Nine Domed mosque,D. West facada of Nine Domed mosque' The vertical recessesdearly shows how the brick surfaces are oo;ng protectedE Use ofjaliworl; in theShait Gombuz mosque,

--_ce.,

c

D

---"'-'-'-~""""""";"~,

PLATE: XXIlI-h

Climatic ComponentsKhan-e-.Jahan Style, Bagerhat

I"~ /,1/'" ,/ /"',,, / .\

• / / ~'\/'/\ •• / \ i i

• / \ • i

\'1 // /\ \~,I ",,~, •

I. i ):/ I, , .. / -~O•• ,-.., f]

• •

IStone lintel details

plinth level

"'"'"MoldIngs over opening

spouts

DPC, the rain water disposal treatment, the curved comk:e, the use of terra-cotta

eIC. testify that the builders were familiar with and sympathetic to the goo-<;Iimatic

conditions of the locality.

6.4.4 Monumentality: comer turrets

Another major decision of Khan--e-Jahan's Arct1itecture is the introduction of

circular turrets In its monuments. As mentioned earlier, the brick corner turrets

first appeared in octagonal form in Bengal Architecture during the Eklakhi Style

phase, and again the reference of influenced is generally drawn from Tughlaq

Style,'.

A careful study in the evoiutionary process of the Early Muslim Architecture

brings out the fact that the corner turrets are not tile only element that have

developed in the Ekhlakhi mosque of Eklakhi Style, another most prominent detail

of roofing system, the curved cornice, is also for the first time introduced in the

same building The curved cornice had its origin in the gentle curved form of

bamboo hats of rural Bengal "D. Similar other details like bamboo rafters also

appeared in the bUilding fa<;ade which confirm thiS concept of origin. The

introduction of these curved cornices must have produced a crisis in the

proportioning systems of these monuments, The hemispherical domes without

drum underneath, the vast solid fa<;ade for rafter details, the smaller openings

together would accentuate the 'dwarf" appearance of these monuments.

Specially, when the corners of the square or rectilinear form goes down WJththe

curved cornice below the highest roof level at the centre

The very innovative solution to this design problem was achieved by the Bengal

Architects by introducing a bold and vertical element at the four corners of the

form. A copula was added on the top of it to get the height just above the height

'" "

of the roof at the centre of the fa~ade. This added component not only reduced

the dwarf appearance of the form but also accentuated its monumental~y to such

a level that it becomes a very popular symbol for Bengal Architecture, So, ~ can

be stated here that the introduction of these comer turrets draws ~s inspiration

from ~s very local context Bengali hut form and the remarkable sense of

proportion of the builders are responSible for this classic invention of ordering

element.

The circular corner turrets of Khan-e-Jahan owe rts origin in the very unfolding

process of the central pOintand rhythmic extemization of a circle. The evolution

of the turrets in Bengal ArcMecture shows that, although the octagonal comer

turrets of Eklakhi mosque is the pioneer, an under.(jeveloped form of such comer

treatment is present in the Adina mosque buill under Ea~y Illyas Shahi Style, But,

In this case they are 14 fiuted in details and IScontained Withinwalls, The next

monument that contains corner turrets is the Chika building of same Eklakhl

Style; here the turrets are circular in plan with 12 vertical recesses, then the

Dakhil and Kotwali Darwa~a of Later IIlyas Shahi Style shows use of circular

corner turrets with 12 vertical recesses like Chika building of earlier Style, Rest

and majorities of the Illyas Shahi monuments has octagonal corner turrets. Then

we find that the majority of the Khan-e-Jahan Style monuments containing

circular turrets, Afterwards during the Hussain Shahi period, when Styles of

earlier period were copied with excessive decorations of either terraootta or its

copy on stone", again we find circular turret in Gunmant mosque, Bara Sana

mosque with 8 sides, 12 sided turrets in Choto-sona mosque and even 14 fiuted

turrets in Lattan mosque,

'" •••••

Now, we plol the above data In a conceptual graphical fOnTltaking x-axis as

chronological development of Styles and y-axis as number of side5 or rotation to

generate the shape of predominant comer turrets of that Style,'"

Figure 03: Development of corner turrets

"'"IUyasS~a~fstyle

Eklak~1style

U.,lIIyosS~.~Istyle

K~.n.•.JaM"style

HusuinSb.bi

""

'm- '1"4',-"'"0'.--, I6112 sides08 sides01 sides

The above conceptual representalron shows a depression 111the lime period of

Khan-e-Jahan This depre5sion is not an accidental phenomenon, the tendency

to reduce the sides riches lis pick point in Khan-e-Jahan's Style and Iighl after

that goes b<lckto Its ongrn.

The tendency of this curve points oul three historical and stylistic conditions:

a. The curve goes up when eclecl1C1smpredominates the Style, in other words

more individual~y and purity 111Style less the number 01sides

b. More decorative Styles show preference to more multi-Sided shape, Prob<lble

reason for thls is the fact that building decorations in Bengal are

predominantly guided by rectilinear terracotta tiles. When motifs are

engraved in stone they are simply the faithful copies of their terracolta

" This ron",pIU.' .""'''''' ,""ce>enIIlUoo "" 001 "'''''"en! the ..,.. ,,",,",,Ie """""cal 0"'''''' or ""I Styfo, •• many of the_I •• oItho! Slyi. """", ••••outo,,101he •• m~ , ••• ,en...,,,, h••.•• Irea<l\''''' <leoIroye<Iill <0",.,,,11 lmo. Out"""' no. tIoeotlIkon ~om "'" """""""""I anotyoj> of "'" StyIo, so 111.,111,"",,_n. "'"DOI'''Y e>:<:op1iOnol••• m••• of"" S1yIo On •.••0111•• h•••• , •.•• _ "", ., ~ out """" "ht on the """"'blo ron_' ",,!tern 01<levekJpmO"OI 111••••• ...",. oIthow""",whIChI••••• m)'tlery to the >d1a.n..

'"

counlerparts (e~ample: Cholo Sana mosque), These tile when is needed to

be employed on a lurret surface the shape of the turret natul<llly shows a

tendency to become mU~l-Sided.

c, Level of political stability and prosperity is another determinant of the choice

Inslability in political atmosphere ends up in scarcity of resource; the

e~pression ofwhlch is increasing austerity in design thinking.

So, the inlroduction of these circular austere looking comer turrets was the

outcome of a long process of achieving Arch~ectural purity prevailing in the

Styles of Bengal. At lhe tIme of Khan-e-Jahan the highest achievement of

Purism-Bengall-Style is attended. It is nol a bac~ard move of the designer

rather to be precise should be called as Inward progress. lowards the inner point

from where every thing starts, Many a time attitude of Purism ,n the history of

Architecture achieved lis highest points only to gwe <may lhe place to successwe

Eclecticism" and here purism of Khan-e-Jahan's Style also shares the same fate

6.4.5. Perceptual design process:

Design decisions in Khan-e-Jahan Slyle shows its special interest towards

achieving delICate proportions and scale, If lhe composrtlons of the elements of

the monuments are decoded there IS certain proof that many a deliberate

measures were laken to achieve the highest apprecialion from the spectato~

The corner turrels of Shait Gombuz mosques are not equal In height, they varies

in size and in treatment. Both the eastern turrets are higher then their western

counterpart. This variation of height starts from the roof level where lhe curve

cornice meets the turrets. The reason behind this variation is thoughl to be In

difference of use of the lurrets The Ironlai turrets are supposed to be mezines"" •

112

•

place for giving aazan: the spiral stairs inside the towers are one of the main

reason behind this speculation

The very small windows provided at this upper level are then very inadequate for

this function. Moreover the treatment of the windows ot the two sel of turrets are

very different and somewhat strange in appearance Although the total height

varies, the height ot the openings is kept the same. To do this the designer has

pushed the openings otthe western turrets upward and literally cui through the

turret cornices above. Not only has that, the booleaned pieces of the cornice

remamed attached to the top of the opening. Form th", treatment of the opening il

can be certainly stated thaI the designer wanted to create an illUSion01 vieWing

four equal sized corner turrets in the spectators perception, At first, the intention

seems to be very contradictory to the design deCISion.A detailed inspection of the

total form taking plan, elevations and sections together reveals the actual

Intention of the deSigner(Plate XXIIl--e).

In spite of the grand scale of the Shalt Gombuz mosque, the monument is

subjected to very carelul and sensitively handled optical corrections. Beside the

widened central bay, all the outer bays adjacent to the wails are slightly smaller

than the others. Thus, produoing the four smallest square units at the four cOrner>;

of the building. The mihrab In this unit is also smaller and lowest in height; even

the openings towards thiS smallest unit are also the smallest among all.

Externally the height dome on these four units IS the lowest The towers like

turrets are now placed just adjacent to them. The Most natural reaction for any

spectator will be that the tower like turrets will appear higher than their actual

size, The tapering in the turrets will accentuate this effect to even further extent

The curved roof is gently tilled towards east so Ihat more domes are visible in the

front fa<;:ade.The domes outside the roof becomes lalfler towards the east as a

resull the domes of the western side appears smaller in size, The triangular

113

PLATE. XIII-e

optical correctionsTo achieve the grand monumentality the Shalt Gombuz Mosque has been treated with optical corrections, Firstly, the front towers aretappered in 2 degrees upward and at the same time the height of the back towers are reduced in such proportion that the Inclination isalso 2 degrees with the horizontal axis. Secondly, the front side domes are made more exposed by increasmg the roof-slope towardseast edge, Finaly, the bays near the outer wall are made smaller In dimension, All these treatments enhances the perspective effect tomake the mosque appear even I'arger 10any viewer approaching the complex from the eastem Side.

//~ -,

.ame .0 anJlle

!

.0

J'''..~/.

,., ~",I

iJ

o'''"',1

".. '-,..,

thiS op"nlng ISdeliberately ,!teduvward to ereffie theopticalltlu.",n

/

,.

oom., op""lngs .r" 01r"du""d size

Shait Gombuz Moque, south elevation

I ~[II1,,i,

T• +

II!•!

! ,,- ,- •)(,

"~••w

5••

•• . •. . • •,.~

•~~. • • '..•

;;; " , "" , , • ,.• .• • • . • • • .'. • •, •• •• •• •• •• ••

pediment placed at the centre of the front fayade and the Chouchliias behind tt

increased the expanded nature of the front Together ailihese measures end up

in the accentuated a perspective effeel of grandeur appearance of the mosque

structure. The tower like corner turrets, the central pediment, and the optical

corrections produced a remarkable solution of monumentality, a fulfilment of a

long deSired aSPirationof 6engal Architecture.

The position of the circular lurrets of Khan.e-Jahan's Architecture in 6agemat

depends of the outer dimenSion of the walls that IS the square or rectangle on

which the turrets are attached to. The data series of the dimenSionsof the outer

most conceptual outline was tested in regression analysis with the outer

dimension of the walls. The result certainly proves that relation stands and the

two series are in posttive linear relationship, From this statistical analysis it can be

said that the corner turrets are only actually accentuating visual elements of the

outer fa98de which depends only on the outer dimenSions not to any structural

element of the building The perceptual exposure of the total fa~a<;Ieis firstly fixed

and then the radiUSof the turret ISadjusted With the fa<;ade More the radius will

be more II Will penetrale into the wall and vice- versa. The radius of the turrets

holds no direct relationship with the any other formal dimensions in the

monuments (Plate XXIII-f).

The positioning of the side doors or openings In the eastem fa<;ade of the

monuments is according to the proporboning system generated from the outside

elements and features, Where as, the positloOlng of the side mihrobs in the

western wall correspond with the gUide line provJdedby the interior elements and

features; like the squinch at the corners, pilasters in the wall etc, that is why the

axis of Ihese two elements does not colncadewhen seen in plan. This ISanother

proof of the deliberate attempt of the designers to bring perceptual harmony both

in the exterior appearance and in the interior space,

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6.5 The making of Khalifatabad City-Khan-e-Jahan's Khaltfatabad city stands on an earlier Buddhist.Hindu loundation

of 5"' century AD that had been abandoned due to hostile nature of the region,

Today the city, once a prosperous Muslim centre, has become a backwater to the

busting commercial of Khulna. Mucl1of its monuments and roads have already

disappeared, Only 50 of the sites of either a monument or a pond have been

detected yet; among the legends of 360 SiteS.Most of them are uni<:lentlfiedand

in a state 01advance ruin"

From such a condition it is very difficult to come to any concrete decision on the

process of making the city However, the existence of a original Khan-e-Jahan

main road, kx:ally known as Khanjali road, about 50 feet wide which roughly

divides the Khalilatabad City into two zones locally known as Uttar D,hi and

Dakshin DiM ,gives us with some direction in th,s pursuit.

ThiS main road runs along the old bed of the adjacent Bhairab river and from It a

grid of secondary and tertiary roads subdivides the city In an almost 'chess board

pal/em"" This pattern of settlement, also known as 'goo iron pal/ern~', indicates

the dependency of the city administration on the local agrarian society in this

region. But. within these grids, places where the monuments are more densely

clustered, the traditional attitude of changing axial direction 01complex model of

Wo~d Muslim Architecture is evident In Khalifalabad City The best example is the

Khan-e-Jahan mausoleum complex where the developments of the spaces are

more organic than aXial The dispersed sites, like that of Chunakhola Mosque,

where the structures stands isolated In a vast fieids the monuments and the

adjacent roads shows more symmetric and axial intel-relationship, as a character

of independent model, than the earlier ones, The architectural characteristics

among the monuments of these two types vary in their extent of detailing also,

33 iIlld.p >5• Ibid. ""- .,Q••••.""" N,." M.A, ('092), "" "'- p.>:'

Where they are in closely clustered around a central large multi dome mosque

they seem to be more detailed then others

Moreover among the three groups the monuments of the Shalt Gombuz Mosque

group contains the monuments With circular turrets only. Reza Khoda Mosque

group contains all the monuments of excessive decoration and of 8 faced

octagonal turrets of the dty, Nine dome mosque group represents the most

matured stage of Khan-e-Jahan Style are more decorated than the others

contains some features collected from multi-level sources. Persian influences"

like; the extensive recesses In the exterior wall and mat-pattern of terracotla

detain below the cornice; Influences 01Gaur and local pre-Muslim characters

mentioned earlier are frequent In this final stage.

The society of Khan-e-Jahan constituted with population from different ethniC

groups, The leader himself was a Syed, Arab, thus the administration 01the City

was predominantlyArabs. The next most prominent group were the, decedents of

the Later Illyas Shahi dynasty who were Pers~ns in origin and finally the group of

converted local Muslims who became the major prominent group at the final

stage of Khan-e-Jahan's rule. The placement of such a converted Muslim, locally

known as Mohammed Taher alias Pir Ali's grave') within the inner boundary of

the Khan--e-Jahanmausoleum complex is the deflnite proof of the statement. The

placement of that grave and stone structure Withmscriptlons on it proves that it

was an alter thought but the person was a growing Influential personality at that

time Although all these ethnic groups were living in Khallfatabad under a singte

administration but must had maintained their own territories. ThiS IS the main

reason for developing three distinct groups among the monuments of the crty and

these groups show their differences 01 charactelist;os under sub-Styles of the

dominant Khan--e-JahanStyle (Plate XXIV a. b, cj,

"" Khan,ll.nornmtd H••••• II•• ('9'8), r_. Om"""",,"_ in ••••• m_ oI8of1goJ, A""",, SooieI)'orBItlgI"_31 P ''', ,••••••m ••••••• 'mU01<1n("")."<>- <it " 'S.

116

(

6.6 Concluding Remarks

In this chapter we have analyzed. and verified the relationship between Tughlaq

and Khan-e-Jahan Style through comparing the architectural elements and

features of the both. The apparent similarity between the two Styles is derived

from a similar stale of contextual decision making process. The direct influence of

the monuments of this Style, especially In its matured stage, is emment in many a

buildings of bolh Muslim and Hindu architecture of Bengal region. The aeslhetic

interestm austerity, shilt and development from grand organisational scale to a

scale of individualism. continuity of Muslim tradition of westernization of a point

through circles, preference to use circular comer turrets, use of optical

corrections and a 'dwarf like appearance in the facades - these are the general

characters of the architecture produced under the Khan--e-JahanStyle.

ThiS chapter also gives us an indication towards the process of development of

Khalifatabad city In relation to the development of the archilectural Style The

central Shalt Gombuz Mosque IS the beginning point of the Khalilatabad City

Then the Reza Khoda group IS represents a sub-Style malntamed by a definite

ethnic group and the octagonal turrets are the symbol of their identity and the at

the final phase ot Khan-e-Jahan Khalilatabad the Nine dome Mosque represents

the end result of the long syncretic process' Ihe final matured Khan-<!-Jahan

Style, a Style independent of its own at this stage the Citywas grown to be a fully

developed form Withclosely connected monuments in compact situation around a

dominant multi-clomedstructure.

PLATE: XXIV-a

Khalifatabad CityThe groop of monuments

Reza Khoo, m<»que group

, S.,lh Gom""" mo,qu' lro""

i GROUP 1

"jqROUP 3/ '•• N<n.00'",," mo'q"" gro"p

oho", h,".•

GROUP 2............

',__ I,Io

Legend1. The M.usolO\llll2. SIl.il Gombuz MO$que3, Nine Domed Mosque., Zlnd. Pir', Mausoleum .nd

Rezaidlode Mooque5 Ronv')O)'PUr Mosque6, Sing.' MOOllU.7 Residence 01KIl.n .••.j.h.na Cilun. Kilo" Mooque9. Sibi Begnrs Mosque

PLATE: XXIV-a

Mausoleum Complex

•

The", are ""me otnJ<:ture, 01 """,j.<101<100to 'hIS """",,,,, Eve" """" of"'" on\li'" ".""","" do ""'_to 'he _, "'_0", of the wholacompie> Tho .,,,' """~" '''''g •••••••• tn. _'",eh",'''!he •• ,tom "'0 0'••• """1''"' w •• thO m.ln 10••.••,.o""neo 10 orlg", Exls""'reo' corner•• rre1:! .00 '1rOOg "'"""" ,oo! of lIle.1ruCltWe'"PPD"'''''' idea,

ThOre ,. • "'iP' In 'oo molnmou,oIa,m "''''''"Q con1a;n1ng "'011'"'.an' "'" '"""000'" "'" tho",,,•••• """"red with """gonol •••,",10""'"Iea.1M """' a' 111.""""-_ corn., I.m. only ••••• In~g origin", ono. Tho""""'"0"' on ••• I"~,M,." 'M"tn.r "ottJror; conn"", to 'he 1"",1'"'00"""''''' the "han+J,,,"n ""~

.,,-.""='••::::..'.0==••.: j

KI1• ....,.J.h.n's M.u""leum Compie>.

•

PLATE: XXIV-a

Monuments of Khalifatabad

•...:;,~....II••••~u••Pian 0_ ofJ."

00doo, pan'"

""',IorCorn., '"rret

...,Io•••

Ro"'joypur Mooqu."-"tIIlifw •. ",..*4

Chapter 07

Conclusions

7.1 Irrtroduction

7.2 ThemainfindirlgS of thestL>dy

7.3 Recommendations

Conclusions

7.1 Introduction

The study all the e~olutiollary process 01the Early Muslim Arcl1~ectureof Bengal was carried

out 10make a knowl€dge base all the identification 01the architecture of the Khan-e-Jahan

Style in respect to ~scontext and inftuences

The study covered the broad base of World Muslim Architectural traditions, then the initial

architectural endeavours of the Early Muslims in Bengal. Finally. the focus is on the

architecture produced by the Style of Khan-€-Jahan, In this concentratioll the syncretic nalure

of lhe Style development ISemphasised to Identify the gUiding Ideals. The local context and

~s trad~ional architecture as the base are studied In respect 10~s philosophical background

which acts at lhe feeding end of the syncretic process

For analysing Ihe buiiding information collected in the field survey a thorough semantic

approach was employed which meticulously decodes the e~ery detail of Khan-e-Jahan's

Architecture and ilS Style and it also draws out the intentions of the des>gner ,n clear and

defined communicable terms.

7.2 Themain findings of the study:

i. Identity of Khan-e-Jahan: Khan-e-Jahan was the title of Azam Khan, son of

Saikh Alawal Huq a descendent of a Meccan Arab. Starting his career as the

general of Sullan Ghyasuddln Shah at Sonargaon in around 1415 A,D, became

the provincial go~ernor of Pandua in 1390 AD Aller the death of Sultan

Ghyasuddin Shah In 1410 A.D. Khan.e-Jahan left Pandua and arri~ed at the

southem regions of Bengal wilh his followers and some descendents of Illyas

Shahl Dynasty. Before arriving at Bagerhat area he settied in a number of places

on his way, among them the most notable one is near Barobazar, Jessore. When

'"

Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah 01 Laler IIlyas Shahi Dynasty became the

Sultan of Bengal in 1436 AD., Khan--e-Jahanremained loyal to Ihe authorijy 01

the Sultan but moved further to the soulh deep into Ihe Sunderban, Here he ruled

almost independently like a Sultan and aIIer bUilding numerous numbers 01

monuments In and around Bagerhut area died 01old age in 1459 AD

ii. Sources or Influencing elements of Khan~-Jahan Style: The Khan-e-Jahan

Style had procured its position in Ihe evolutionary process of the character

development of the Early Muslim Architecture of Bengal through the dynamiCs01

syncretism belween the local context and Wortd Muslim Architecture and its

archetypes, The Style drew ijs inspiration from the very centre 01 the austere

Ideals 01Islam. In Ihis respect it is similar to Tughlaq Style of Deihl, at Ieasl in its

altitude towards architecture Itself, However, the Khan--e-JahanStyle shows Its

continuity with the Style development process of the brick monumenls of Bengal,

especially with that of the Later Illyas Shahi Style and Hossain Shahl Style of later

date.

iii. Nature of setting for Khan~..Jahan Style. Khan-e-Jahan came to this southern

part of Bengal not only as a ruler but also as a 'cultural mediator'. In a land 01

hostility these ClIllural mediators came for the salvation of the local people and to

bring them into the religious orders of Islam through the process 01 expanding

cultivable land by clearing Ihe deep lorests of Sunderban, Khan--e-Jahanbecame

the econom.c leader from a religious one to the localities and eventually gained

the status of a spiritual leader among his lollowers, both the Muslims and the

Hindus,

The region where this Style has developed was surrounded be deep Ioresls 01

Sundartlan. The building materials available w~ bricks and terracolla bonded

by lime or mud mortars; techniques available were the experiences 01Gaur, the

Hindu construction system of corbelled brick and the bamboo Chouchala

'" •

construcnon system, stone was rare and the dima~c conditions were hostile In

nature. From these conditions and constrains of settings the Style came up with a

solution which produced the remarkable phase of BengalArchitecture.

"' The Independence of the Style' The Khan--e-Jahan'sarchitecture has been

justified against every comjXlnent of style identification and fouml fa consjijute as

a full grown independent Style, It further elaborates that this typology is not only a

part of fhe Muslims buf of the Wo~d Heritage. The Style had fhe sfrengfh to

produce sub-styles within self and represents an era of fhe masf southern

frontiers of Bengal in the Ea~y Muslim Bengal period

Place of Khan-e-Jahan style in !Jle eVOlution: The Early Muslim Styles of

Bengal developed through a process of syncrefism between World Muslim

Archefype and the tradition of the local settings. A search for Idenfity and a Style

coherenf with the contextual setting is evident in fhis evolufionary process After

the achievements of Later Illyas Shahl Style the creative sfrengfh of this searen

became timid and was ending up In the less imaginative repebtlon of proto-types,

DUring fhis period the Knan-e-Jahan emerged in the fronfier regions of Muslim

Bengal and had shown its potentialities to develop creative and as well as

utilitarian solutions to meet the demands of the local context. Moreover, the Style

had Introduced one major roof system, the Chour;;hala roof, in the Bengal style

In all these respect the Khan-e-Jahan Style slands out as an imlfvidual Style in

fhe evolution of the Bengal ArcMecture and secures its own place in the

continuity of the development process.

vi. Components of the Style: The experimenlal changes in this Style, starting from

monumenlal grand paviliOn structures to ending up In imlividualistlc small

structures show us the Spirit of search for identity and the spirit of dynamic

characters In it. The Stylistic components that Khan-e-Jahan Style shares witn

the other Muslim Bengal Styles are the brick structure with tarracotta details, the

'"

curved cornice and the use of stone details in the structu~. The individual

distinguishing characters of this particular Style ts the austere and dwarllooking

fa<;:adewith smaller openings of two centred pointed arch, the circular turrets, the

Chouchala roofing system, the perceptual corrections and compact proportlons

that has been used in the torm generation,

Vll Concept of the Style: The very concept of the Khan-e-Jahan Style is In Its

utllijarian characters, Buildings here were perceived not as art forms but as

p;eces of architecture where torms are generated by contextual needs and

organisational simpliCity. The basic intention of this Style concentrates on the

purist approach to architecture and the inner life-mode of austerrty. Architecture

here is not seen as a container of decorative art rather a fully Independent

disciplme collecting Its resources from art, aesthetics, technique and

philosophical Ideals.,

viii. Form-space dialect of the Style: In case of the Shaij Gombuz Mosque the

space generated in the monument is 01a pavilion type for mass organization. The

interior resembles to a forest of stone pillars and the exterior expression is of a

fort-Ilke monumentality. Resolving these two opposite characters in one structure

was a challenge that tha builder had successfully met. The corner tower,"lke

bastions with predetermined proportioning system, the Inclinedwalls of the tower

and the perceptual corrections made the structure appear more grandeur and

monumental in scale. In case of the single domed structures the sizes of the

corner turrets were very carefully chosen so that the scale remains within the

limits of the individualistic mode. The elements of the interior of the monuments

are placed according to the guidelines provided by the basic circle-square-

octagon form from which the proportion of the whole structure is denved

ix. Meaning of the monuments: The grand scale pavilion type monumental

structures were symbol of power of a neWly established value system to the

121

localities. It represented the new ordering principles that the society had to learn

and admire. The monument addresses to the mass and intends to provide

spaces for large group activities, either religious or political Al the more matured

staj,Jeof Khan-e-Jahan Style the monuments became more reduced in scale and

express more individualistic and spir~ual att~ude The self conlained space

centres on individual and isolates him from the crowd towards the path of self

actualization.

TII& Style-conl&xt dialect: Khan-e..Jahan Style IS sympatlletlc to llie geo-

climatic and social context The designer here had emphasised on the formal

expression and functional requirements of 1115arcliitecture and tile Style

developed by him has served Its purpose with remarkable excellence, The Style

coped with the expanding frontier region by ijs concept of austerity. The less

ornamented facades ensured qUick and ease of construclton The smaller

openings reduced lhe exposure 10 the hostile nature and the use of stone

minimised lhe damaging effects of dampness and lhe decaying nalure of brick

construction,

XL The cily fonning process of Ihe Style: The Khalifalabad city was developed on

gnd Iron pattern evolved from the settings of an agrarian society. The eanlest

monument was the grand Shait Gombuz Mosque where the city administration is

localed The site organization of the monuments is complex in nature and seems

to grow in a non-flxlai organic pattern, There are more sub-<:enlres in the city

where monuments of Similar characters are localed in close VICinity In case of all

these sub-cenlres there IS a centrai mulli-domed large mosque and a group of

single-domed mosques arranged around them. Reza Khoda group and Nine

domed group are such sulH:entres still remaining in the Khalifatabad c~y. In the

city centres complex model afwalled compounds with non-axlai arrangement and

at lhe outskirts the isolated independent model is more a dominant phenomena.

xii. The influences of the Style: The Style lakes its inspiration from the local context

and the spiritual ideal of Khan-e-Jahan Ihe warrior, the saint and the builder, The

achievements of this Style are nol accidenlal ralher a fuffilmenf of a long aspiring

goal of the 8engal region, Infiuences of Khan-e-Jahan Style are eVldenf In many

other buildings beyond the Khalilatabad city. Specially, the influence is felt in the

monuments of 8arobazar, Potuakhali, Chandkhali and even up to Kum,ra area

The Introduced Choucha/a roofing system had influenced the Mughal architecture

of later date and the mausoleum of Khan-e-Jahan was a source of insp,ration for

fhe Pancharalna femples of the lafer Hindu temples.

xiii. Survival of the Style: Khaiifatabad, long abandoned perhaps due to the

changing course of the adjacent river, has been engulfed by the growing

vegetation, by farms and encroachment from the expanding local town and

settlements. Today only a few buildings are stili standing, a few ruins have been

located but many more must have been destroyed altogether. This study shows

that fhe bUildingcharacteristics of the Style were familiar with, and sympathetic

towards fhe local confext, which in turn helped Its survival against the hostile

forces of nature. Use of stone OPC against dampness, rainwater disposal

system, curved cornice and terracotta details and an organization of less exposed

Interior gave these monuments a distinct characteristic for which some of the

finest pieces of architecture evolved under the Khan-e-Jahan Style.

7.3 Recommendations:

The architecture of Khan-e-Jahan Style was developed in such a setting that it requires our

constant attention and care. In this context, there is a need fa create awareness for

conserving these monuments. The conservation is of utmost importance to bridge the gaps

between our past, present and future and also to expose new gamut of thought before the

students. researchers and the pracl~ing architects 01the present generation,

The meaning and the functions of these built forms must exist together to sustain our heritage

and to create a proper environment required by society. For any effort of conservation of

these heritages, a proper underslanding of the fonn and morphology 01these complexes are

to be established,

Conservation of architecture is a social phenomenon. The general people are to be made

aware of the cultural, historical and arch,tectural importance of these monuments. In this

endeavour architects should take a leading role. For the preparation of taking this

responsibility one has to develop and Increase understanding and communication skill

between the different disciplines related to this field. Terminologies used m Architecture are

often obscure, superfluous and sometimes becomes hard to comprehend, even for an expert

Any future research in this field should take proper precaution aga,nst this crisis.

ThiSstudy is to develop awareness for the rich bUilt-heritageof Bengal which reflects the true

aspiration of the people In forming lIleir Architecture, taking inspiration from lIle struggle of a

Style that has surl/wed through the ages A search of the continUity prevailing in the

Architectural history of Bengal will not only bridge up the gaps butWillaiso expose new gamut

of thought before the present generation Identifying the Architectural characteristics of the,

monuments of Khan-e-Jahan at Bagemat through Stylistic evolution is the goal of this study

but not the end of the process, Rather. it can be the beginning of on going process; a process

waiting for the participation of fresh, imaginative researcher who would be devoted to this

countryarnJits architecturaihentage

'"

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12.

Appendix -A

SemanticAlso called semJOlics, semology, or semasiology, the philosophical and scientrfJc study ofmeaning, The term is one of a group of English words formed from the vanous derivatives of theGreek verb semalno ("to mean" or "to signify") The noun semantics and the adjective semanticare derived wom semantlkos ("slgnlficanrj; semiotics (adlective and noun) comes fromsemeiotikos ("pertaining to signs"), semotogy from sema ("sign") + logos ("account"); andsemasiology from semasia ("signification") + logos ("accounf').

It is difficult to formulate a distinct definition for each of these terms because their use targetyoverlaps In the literature despite ,ndividual preferences. SemarJtics IS a relatively new field ofstudy, and ~s origirJators,often worimg Independently of one arJother fe~ the need to colrJa newname for the new discipline; hence the variety of terms derJoting the same subject. The W(jrdsemantics has uttimalely prevaiied as a name for the doctnrJe of mearJlng, in partlculsr, oflinguistic meaning. Semiotics is stilt used, however, to denote a broader f,eid, the study of sign-using behsviour In general.

Modem development of semantics The concern w~hmeaning, always present for philosophersand linguists, greatly irJcreasedIn the decades followingWorld War II, The sudden rise of InterestIn meaning can be attributed to an interactiorJ of several hnes of development In vanousdisciplines From the middle of the 19th century onward logic, the formal study of reasoning,underwent a period of growth unparalleled S,nce the time of Aristotle Although the malrJmotivation lor a renewed Interest irJ logic was a search for the fourJdations of mathematics, thechief protagonists of this elfort-notably the German mathematician Gottlob Frege and theEnglish philosophar Bertrand Russel~xtended their inquiry into the domarn of the naturallanguages. which are the origirJal media of humarJreasoning. The irJfluence of mathematicalthirJking, and 01 mathematical logiC irJ psrticular, however, left a permarJent mark On thesubsequent study 01semantics

Positivist theory This mark is nowhere more obvious than ,n the semant,c theories offered bythe Neopositivists of the Vienna C,rcle, which flourished in the 1920s and 1930s, snd which wascomposed of philosophers, mathematiciSrJS,and SCientistswho discussed the methodology andepistemology of sci,mce To such "logical" posnivists as the GermarJ-oorn philosopher RudolfCarnap, for instance the symbolism of modern loglC represented the grammar (syntax) of arJ"ideal" larJguage. Because the Logical POSitiViStSwere, at the same time, radical EmpiriCists(observat,orJahsts)in their philosophy, the semantiCSof the" ideal ianguage has been given Interms of a lie connectirJgthe symbols 01thiS language w~hobservable erJtitiesin the world, or thedata 01one's serJseexperience, or ooth. Against such a rigid ideal as logiC, natural larJguageappeared to these philosophers as something primitive, vague, inaccurate, snd confusedMoreover, since a large part of ordinary and philosophical d,scourse, particularly that concerningmetaphysical and moral issues, could not be captured by the Ideal language, the Positivisticapproach provided a way to brand all such talk as rJonsensical, or at least as "cognitilfely"meaningless Accordingly, the Posl\ivists engsged In a prolonged, <mdlargely unsuccssslul, effortto formulate a crnerion 01meaningfulness in terms of empirical varlfiabillty With respect to thesentern:esformed in natural language.Modem grammatical influences In the 1950s the scierJce of linguistics itself rose to theef1altenges thst had been coming chiefly from philosophical quarters. The development oftraflsformational, or generative, grammar, initiated by the work of the U.S linguists Zellig SHarris and Noam Chomsky, opened a deeper insight Into the syntax of the natural larJguages,Instead of merely prov,ding a structural description (parsing) of sentences, this approachdemonstrates how sentences are built up, step by step, from SOmebasic iflgredients. In the

hands of the philosopher, this powerful new grammar not only served to counter the positivisticcharge of imprecision laid against natural language but aided him in his own work of conceptualclarification Moreover, the generative approach promised further results Since the late 1960ssome steps have been taken to develop a generatille semantics for natural languages, in additionto a generatilla syntax

Philosophical views on meaningMeaning and reference On a rather unsophisticated lavei the problem of meaning Can bElapproachad through the lollowing steps. The perception of certain physical ent~les (objects,marks, sounds, and so on) might lead an intelligent being to the thought of another thing Withsome regularity. For example, the sight 01 smoke evokes Ihe idea 01 lire, footpnnts on the sandmakes one think of the man who must have passed by The smoke and the footpnnts are thussigns 01 something else, They are natural signs, inasmuch as the connection between the signand the thing signrlied lS a causal link, established by nature and leamed from expenence, Thesecan be compared with road signs, for example. or such symbols as Ihe outline of a heart piercedby an arrow. The connection between the symbol and the thing signified in these cases is not anatural one, It IS established by human tradrtion or convention and is leamed from these sourcesThese non-natural s'gns, or symbols, are widely used in human communication.

In this framework the elements of language appear to be non-natural signs, The Interest In wordsand phrases reaches beyond their physical appearance their perception IS likely to directattention or thought to something else.

There are some words lor which thiS approach seems to work very straightforwardly. The nameParis means (signifies, stands for, relers 10, denotes) the City 01Paris, the name Aristotle meansthat philosopher, and so Iorth. The initial plausibility of such examples created an obseSSion inIhe minds 01 many thinkers, beginning with Plato Regarding proper names as words parexcellence, they tried to extend the referential model of mean,ng to all of the other classes ofwords and phrases. Plaia's Iheory of "forms" may be Viewed as an attempt to lind a referent forsuch common nouns as "dog" or for abstract nouns like "wMeness" or "justice' As the W{)rdSocrates in the sentence "Soaates is wise" refers 10 Socrates, for example so the word w<serelers to the form of wisdom Unlortunately, whereas Socrates was a real person In thLswortd. theform of wisdom IS no! something to be encountered anywhere, at any time, in the world. Thedlfflrulty represented by "Platonic" entities 01 thiS kind increases as one tnes to find appropnatereferents for verbs, prepOSitions, connectives, and so forth. Discussion of abstract enlities suchas classes (e,g" the class 01 all rurlning thlrlgs) arid relations (e,g" the relation of being greaterthan, ,j abound in philosophical I~erature; Gottlob Frege even postulated "the True" and "theFatse" as referents lor compiete pmposllLooS

Philosophical views on meaningMeaning and thought In Witlgenstein's chess example, moves are made by moving the pieces.In a language, moves (say,ng something) are made by using words. And, according to the usetheory, as a Piece is defined by its move potentlai, so (the meaning of) a word IS defined by its"say"'g" potential.

Th,s analogy W{)rks only up to a certain limit Whereas chess is only a game, the use of languageis much more. One plays chess-----(lr any other game-lor Its own sake; one speaks however,wrth other ends in mind Games, as ~ were, do not point beyond themsetves: speech does. Inorder to see this, compare an ordinary conversation with such word games as children ptay-e,g ,exchanging words that rhyme, or words thai beg", With the same letter, These W{)rd games aretanguage games and nothing more because the children USewords according to certain rules. Indoing so, however, they do not say anything exceplln the triv;al sense of uttering words; nor arethey called to understand what the other children say beyond the minimal feat of recognizing thewords.

"

In real speech the situaliOfl is radically different The point of using words in a real speech act isto be understood. If someone says, "It will rain tomorrow' his aim is to make the hearer believethat II Wilt rain tomorrow It i5 poss,ble, of course, that the hearer or listener will not believe thespeaker Nevertheless, If the hearer understands whallhe 5peaker says, he will at lea5t knowthat thl5 i5 what the other person wants him to believe by saying what he says. S,milarly, if onesays, "Go home," and the listener understands what is said, then, whether or not the listener willactually go, he will at least know that this.s what the speaker wants to bring aboul by using thesewords. Thus, the notion 01 saying someth,ng 's inseparably tied to such concepts as belief,intention, knowledge, and understanding

The view just outlined IS a refonnulation of a very tradijional idea, namely, that speech isessentially the expression of thought Words are used not to playa game Wltl1 fixed rules butloexpress beliefs and judgments, intentions and desires; that is, to make olhers know, by the use ofwords according to fixed rules, that one has certain beliefs, desires, and so forth, and that oneInvites others to share them.

"ExpreSSion of Ihought' sounds rather vague For one thing, what is a Ihought? Suppose Johnbelieves Ihat Joe has stolen hiS watch, John can express thi5 belief by saYing, "Joe ha5 stolen mywatch" or "My watch has been stolen by Joe" or "II is Joe who has slolen my walch" and so onMoreover, If John,s a multilingual person, he can express Ihe same belief In German, French,and so forth These variants, called paraphrases and translations respectively. will expreS5 thesame belief, the same thought. But whereas ij makes sense to ask for the exact words 01 John'5statement or to ask about the language in which It was made, it would be foolish to ask for theexact words 01 John's belief or to ask about the language In which ij is framed. The aRernatllle in"Do you believe that Joe has stolen the watch or that the watch was stolen by Joe?" does notmake sense Consequently, the same thought-the Same proposition, as some philosophersprefer to call it-can be expressed by us,ng vanous linguistic media. In other words, the samethought can be encoded .n vanous codes (languages) and 'n various ways in the same code(paraphrases) In much the same way as Ihe same Idea can be expressed in speech Or In writingand the 5ame numbers can be written by using Roman or Arabic numerals,

From this point of view, ~ appears that saying something involves encoding a Ihought aod thatunderstanding what one said involves decoding and recovenng the same thought. The meaningof a sentence will consist In ijs relation to tha thought it is used to encode. ThiS may be viewed asthe fundamentai theSIS of the psychological theory of meaning

As previousty explained, no theory of meaning can be adequate as long as it treats sentences asindiVISible uMs. For, ,n the first place, the potentially InfiMe number of sentences WOuld defy anyattempl to learn their meaning one by one, and second, such a theory could not account for theobvious ability of fluent speakers to understand entirely novel sentences There must be,therefore, a correlation between certain recurring elements of sentences (roughly words) andcertain recurling elements of thoughts (roughly, concepts or idees). Accordingly, the learning ofthe semantic component of a language will conSISlln the learning of these connectiOllS,

In thiS learning process two notions playa prominant role: synonymy and analyticijy As thesentence5 that express the same thoughl stand in the relation of paraphrase (or translation), sowords or phrases that code the same idea are related as synonyms-e,g .. "vixen" and "femalefox' Again, becau5e one concept may Include another, the sentence expressing this relation willrecord e cooceptualtruth or analytiC propOSItion; e.g, "A dog i5 en animal." A definition, finally,will exhib~ all parts of a concept by a combinalLon of such proposijions

Meaning in linguisticsSemantics in lite theory of language The sCIence of Ilrlgulsi<cs is concemed With the theory oflanguage expressed in terms of lingulsttC universals-'.e , features that are common to all neturallanguages. According to the widely adopted schema of the U,S, scholar Charles W, Morris. this

" I

theory must embrace three domains: pragmatics, the study of the language user as such;semantics, the study of the elements of a language from the point 01 view 01 meaning, andsyntax, the study of the formal interrelations that exist between the elements of a language (i.e,sounds words) themselves. Subsequently, certain authors spoke of three levels; the phonetic,the syntactic (the phonetic and syntactic together are often called grammatical), and the semanliclevel On each of these levels a language may be studied in isolation or ,n comparison with oIherlanguages In another dimension, the investigation might be restricted to the state of a language(or languages) at a given time (synchronic study), or It might be concerned w~h the developmentof a language (or languages) through a period of time (diachronic study).

Semantics, then, is one of the main fields 01 lingUistic science. yet, except for borderlineInvestigationS, the Iinguisfs interest in semantic matters is quite distinct from the philosophe~sconcern. lNhereas the philosopher asks the question "What IS meaning?", the typical questionsthe linguist is likely to ask include: "How is Ihe meaning of words encoded In a language?" "HowISthis meaning to be determined?" "What are the laws governing change of meaning?" and "Howcan the meamng 01 a word be gillen, expressed, or defined?"

There are some obVIOUSregularities In the change of meaning that are of Interest to the linguist.One sum regulanty 1Sthe extensFon or transference of meaning based upon some similarities-ie" the phenomenon 01 metaphor For example, one can speak of the leg of the table, the mouthof the river, the eye of the needle, and lhe crown of the tree These are anthropomorphiCmetaphors: the transfer goes from something belonging to an individual or close to him (hiS body,garments) to something more remote. The same principle operates in the extension of meaningfrom a domain close in interest rather than In phYSical proximity, Baseball-minded people are aptto speak of "rlOt getting to f,rSI base," .striking out," or .scorlng a hit" in contexls often remote frombasebail. For a Similar reason, many abstract concepts are denoted by wmds transplanted fromthe concrete domain Such phrases as "grasping ideas," "seeing the point of a joke," "body ofknowledge," "in the back of my mind," and many others, ale the resuK of this very Important movefrom the abstract to the concrele

Meaning changes 01 another type are the resuk of emotive factors. The word democracy, forinstance, has all but lost ~s origlnat meaning and has become a word applicable to any systemthe speaker wants to praise. The contrary development is exhibited in the recent history of suchwords as 'FaSCist" and "aggression." In order to avoid derogatory connotations one IS oftenforced, by SOCialpressure, to use euphemisms, often 10 the detriment of clarity, Examples of thiSInclude the sw~ch from "underdeveloped nallOns" to "devetoplng nations: from "retarded children"to "exceptional children," and from "old people" to "senior cltlzens,"The preceding are bul a fewexamples concerning coding and meaning change, The questions about the ways of finding oulwhat a word means and about lhe manner of giving an adequate defin~ion of a word deserve amore detailed account.

Me.aning and style in languageTypes of meantngLexicat m6llnlng The olher component of sentence me8fT1ng is wQ(d meaning, the indiVidualmeanings of the words in a sentence as iexicalltems The concept ofword meaning is a familiarone, Dictionaries list words and ,n one way or another state tI1eir meanrngs. It is regarded as asensible question to ask of any word In a tanguage, "lM1at does it meanT This queslion, likemany others about language, is easier to ask than to answer

It IS through texical resources that tanguages maintain the fleXibility their open-endedcommilments demand. Every tanguage has a vocabutary 01 many thousands of words, thoughnot all are in active use, and some are known only to relatively few speakers Perhaps thecommonest delusion in considering vocabutanes is the assumption that the words of differentlanguages, or at least their nouns, verbs, al1d adjectives, label the same inventory of !tungs,processes, and qualilies ,n the wortd but unfortunatefy label them with d<fferent labets from

N

language to language. If thiS were so, Iranslatlon would be easier than It is; but the fact thattranslalion, Ihough often difficutt, ISpossible Indicates that people are talking about similar worldsof expenence in their various languages

Languages in part create the world In wh;ch men live, Of course, many words do name eXistingbits and pieces of earth and heaven: "stone," "tree," "dog," "woman:' "star," "cloud," and so onOthers, however, do not so much pick out what is there as classify it and organize one's relationswllh il and wilh each other with regard to tt, A range of liVing creatures are mammals or arevertebrates, because people c1ass~ythem in these ways, among others, by applying seleeledcrileria and so determining the denotation of the words mammal and vertebrate Plartts arevegetables or weeds accordirtg as groups of people classify them, and d;fferent plartts areincluded and excluded by such ClaSSificationSin different languages artd different cultures,

Time and tts associated vocabulary ("year," "month," "day," "hour," "minute," "yesterday,""tomorrow," and so on) do not refer to discrete sections of reality but enable people 10 imposesome sort ot order, in agreement with others, on the prucesses of change observed in the world.Personal pronouns pick out the persons speaking, spoken 10, and spoken about; but somelanguages make different dLstinctlonsin their pronouns from those made in English. For example,in Malay, kita, which meanS "we," including the person addressed. ISdistinct from kaml, a form for"we" that includes the speaker and a third person or persons but excludes the person addressed.In Japanese and in several other languages, a variety of words denoting the 1st and 2nd personsindicate additionally the observed or IntendedSOCialrelationship of those Involved

Other word meanings are even mOrelanguage and cutture bound, and ,n consequence harder totranslate "Right' and "wrong," "theft," "Inheritance," .property," "debt:' "sin," and "crime" (asdifferent sorts of wrongdoing) are lust a few of the words regulaling one's conduct and relalionswith one's fellows in a particular culture Translation becomes progressively harder as one movesto languages of more remote cultures, and it has been said that it requires "a unification ofcultural context," Insofar as a person's understanding of the unLverseand of the retatlons betweenhimself and other people is closely I1nkedWiththe language he speaks, tt must be assumed, andthe eVidence confirms this aSSumption,that the child progressively acquires such understand,ngalong WithhiSlanguage,

The great mal0rlty of word shapes bear no d"ect relation to Ihe" lexical meanings If they did,languages would be mOrealike. Whal are called onomatopoeic words are rather s,milar in shapethrough different languages: French coucou, English "cuckoo," and German Kuckuck directlymimiCthe call of the bird, English "d,ngdong" and German blm-bam share several sound features,n common Ihat partlalfy resemble the clanging of bells. More abstractly, some direct "soundsymbolism" has been Seen between certain sound types and Visual or tactile shapes, Mostpeople agree Ihat Ihe made-up word "oomboolu" would better des,gnate a round, bulbous objectthan a spiky one, In addition, the appropriateness of the vowel sound represented by ee inEnglish "wee" and i in French petit "small" and Italian piccolo "small" for expressing things of smallsize has been traced in several languages

AlllhlS, however, is a very small part of Ihe vocabulary of any language For by far the largestnumber of words In a language there is no direct association between sound and meaning,English "horse: German Pferd, French cheval, Latin equus, and Greek hippos are all unrelated tothe animal so named, except that these words are so used in the languages concerned. ThiS 'swhat ISmeant by the term arbitrary in Ihe second definilion of language quoled al the beginningof this article Vocabulary has to be largely arbitrary, because the greater part of the world and ofman's experience is not directly associated Withany k,nd of noise, and It is a contingent, thoughuniversal, fact of history and biology that sound and not the material of some other sense is thebaSISof human language,

The relations between sentence struelure and structural meanings are also largely artlltrary andlacltly conventional Though loudness and stress for emphasis and certain linguistic indicatLonsof

v

anger, excitement, and the like are more closely akin to nonlinguistlc ejaculations and aresomewhat similar across language divisions, actual intonations and features such as word order,word inflection, and grammatical particles, used In maintaining distinctions In structural meaning,

. differ markedly In different languages.

Semantic f1eKibilltyNot only are word meanings somewhat different In different lar19uages: Ihey are not fIXed for alltime In anyone language, Semantic changes take place all along {see below), and at anymoment the semantic area covered by a word is indeterminately bordered and differs fromcontext to context This is a further aspect and condition of the inherent and necessary flexibilityof language

Methods of synchronic linguistic analysisStruclurallinguislicsSemanticsBloomfield thought that semantICs, or Ihe study of meaning, was the weak point In the scientificinvesligalion of language and would necessarily remain so untillhe other sciences whose task rtwas to describe the universe and man's place In rt had advanced beyond their present state, Inhis textbook Language (1933), he had himsell adopted a behaviouristic theory 01 meaning,defin,ng the meaning of a lingUistic form as "the SituatIon in wh,ch the speaker LItlers rt and \heresponse which it calls forth In the hearer: Furthermore, he subscribed. in prinCiple at least, to aphysfcal,st thesis, according to which all sCience should be modelled upon the so-called exactsciences and all scientllic knowledge should be reducible, ultimately, to statements made aboutthe properties of the physrcal world. The reason for his pessimism concerning the prospects forthe study of meaning was his leeling Ihat it would be a long time belore a complete scientificdescription of the slluatlons in which utterances were produced and the responses they calledlorth In the,r heqrers would be available. At the time that Bloomfield was wr~ing, phYSicalism wasmore widely held \han It is today, and It was perhaps reasonable lor him to believe thai linguisticsshould eschew mental,sm and concenlrate upon the directly observable As a result for some 30years after the publicatiOll of Bloomfield's texlbook, the study of meaning was almost whollyneglected by his followers, mosl Amencan lingUISts who received theLr training dUring thiS periodhad no knowledge of. still less any interest in, Ihe work being done elsewhere in semantics

Two groups of scholars may be seen to have constituted an exception to Ihis generalization;anthropologically minded linguists and linguists concerned With Bible translatio'l. Much of thedescnptlon of Ihe indigenous languages 01America has been cerned out since the days of Boasand hiS most notable pupil Sapl! by scholars who were equaily profiCient both in anlt1ropology andin descriptive linguistics; such scholars have frequently added to their grammatical analyses 01languages some discussion of the meamng 01the grammatical calegories and of the correlationsbetween the structure of the vocabularies and the cultures in which the languages operated. Ithas already been pornted out that Boas and Sapir and, followrng Ihem, Whorl were attracted byHumboldt's view of the inlerdependence of language and culture and of language and thought.ThiS Vlf3wwas qlltte widely held by American anthropotoglcal linguists (athough meny of themwould not go as far as Whorl in asserting the dependence of thought and conceptualization uponlanguage) Also of considerable importance in the description of the indigenous languages ofAmerica has been the work of linguists trained by the American Bible Society and the SummerInstitute of L,ngulstlcs, a group of Protestant missionary lingUISts Because their pri'lcipal aim IS10produce translations 01 the Bible, \hey have necessarily been concerned wrth meaning as well aswith grammar and phonology, This has tempered the otherwise fairly orthodox Bloomfieldianapproach characteristic of the group

The two most Important developmenls evident In recent work in semantics are, first, theapplication of Ihe structural approach to the sludy of meaning and, second, a better appreciationof the relationship between grammar and semantics, The second of these developments Will lietreated In the lollowing section on TransfollTlationalijenerative grammar, The lirst, structural

•

,semantics, goes back to the period preceding World War II and is exemplified in a large numberof publications, mainly by German scholars-Jost Trier, leo Weisgerber, and their collaborators

The structural approach to semantics is best expla,ned by contrasting it w~h the more traditional"atomistic" approach, according to which the meaning of each word in the language is deSCribed,in principle, independently of the meaning of all olher words. The structuralist takes the view thatthe meaning of a word is a !unction of the relationships it contracts w~h other words Ina particularlexical field, or subsystem, and that It cannot be adequately described except in terms of theserelationships. For example, the colour terms in particular languages constitute a lexical field, andthe meaning of each term deperlds upon the place It occupies In the field Mhough thedeno!atlOrl of each of the words "green," "blue," and .yellow" in English is somewhat impreCiseatthe boundaries, the poSItionthat each of them occupies relative to the other terms In the systemISfIXed: "greerl" is betweerl "blue" arld "yellow," so that the phrases "greenish yellow" or "yallowishgreen" and "blUishgraM" or "greerlish blue" are used to refer to the bourldary areas, Knowing themeaning of the word "green" Implies knowirlg whal cannot as well as whal can be properlydescribed as green (and krlowlng of the t>orderlln6 cases that they are borderline cases).Languages d[ffer considerably as to the number of baSICcolour terms that they recognize, andthey draw boundaries within the psychophysical corltinuum of colour at different places, Bluegreen, yellow, and so on do not exist as distirlet colours in nature, wa~ing to be labelleddifferently, as It were, by different languages: they come into existence, for the speakers ofparticular languages, by virtue of the fact that those languages impose structure upon thecontlrluum of colour and assigrl to three of the areas lhus recognized lhe words "blue," "green,""yellow."

The language of any society is an int8{lral part of the culture of that society, and the mearllngsrecognized within the vocabulary of the language are leamed by the child as part of the processof acquiring the culture of the society irl which he ISbrought up Many of the structural ddferencesfound in the vocabulanes of differerlt larlguages are to be accounled fOf in terms of culturaldifferences This ISespecialfy clear Irl the yocabulary of kinship (to which a considerable amountof atlerltlon has been given by anthropologists and linguists), but ,t holds true of many othersemarltlc fields also, A cOrlsequerlce of the structural dlffererlCilS that eXist betweerl theyocabularies of different languages 's that ,n many instances, It IS Irl pnnclple Impossible tolrarlslate a sentence "literally" from one larlguage to another,

~ IS Important, nevertheless, rlot to overemphasize the semarltlc incommerlsurabitily oflarlguages Presumably, there are many physiological and psychological constraints that, In partat least, determine one's perception and categOrization of the ~rld, It may be assumed that,when One is learning the denolation of the more baSICwords irl tI1evocabulary of one's natlyelanguage, a1tenl,orl is drawrl first to what might be called the naturally salient features of theerlyirorlment and that one IS,to thiS degree at least, predisposed to identify and group objects inone way rather than another. It may also be that human beings are genetically endowed w~hrather more speCific and lingUistically releyant pnnciples of categorization, It is pOSSiblethai,aKhough languages differ il) the number 01basic colour categories that they distingUIsh,there ISaIlm~ed rlumber of hierarchically ordered basic colour categones from which each language makesits seleeMn and lhat what COUrltsas a typical instal)ce, or focus, of these universal colourcat8{lories is fixed and does not vary from one larlguage to another If tI1lShypotheSISis correct,then It IS faise to say, as marlY structural semantiCists have said, that larlguages divide thecontinuum of colour in a qUite arbitrary manner, But the general thes,s of structuralism isuneffected, for it stili remains true thai each language has its own unique semantic str~cture everlthough the total structure is, irl each case buik UP0rla substructure of universal distinctions

Langer's semantic theory of artRepresentation and expression irl art Various theories have been proposed in arlSwer to thesequestions, the most popular being that the forms of art are similar \0 language and are to beunderstood as tarlguage Is understood, In terms of CDnyentiorls and semantic rules A fewexamples of contemporary theories that have described art In thiS way irlclU<JeErnst Cassirer's

V"

philosophy of symbolic forms, Susanne K. Langers theory of presentational symbols. and theworks on semiology and semiotics, largely Inspired by the wr~ings of Roland Barthes, that havebeen fashionable In continental Europe. It seems Important to review soma of the arguments thathave been employed both for and against the overall conception of art that such theories share

In favour of tha view, ,t ISunde'liable that many works of art are about the world t'l somewhat theway that language may be about the world This is eVident in the case of literature (which," ItseKa'l i'lstance of natural language), It is no less evident ,n the case of painting A portrait stands to~s sitter In a relatlo'l that is 'lot unlike that which obtai'ls betwee'l a desc"ption a'ld the thingdescribed. EV8l1ff the majority of pictures are of, or about, e'ltirely imaginary people, scer.es, andepisodes, this is no different from the case of literature, In which language ISused to descnbepurely imaginary subjects. This relation between a work of art and its subject, captured in theword "about," is sometimes called representation-a term that owes Its currency in aestheltcs toCroce and Colhngwood, who used ~ to draw the familiar contrast between represe'ltatlon andexpression

The concept of expression IS vanously analyzed. Its principal function in modem aesthetiCS,how<over,ISto describe those aspects and dimens,ons of artistic meaning that seem not to fallWithin the bounds of representation, either because they Invollle no clear reference to anindependent subject matter or because the connection between the subject and the artistiCformis too close amI inextricable to admit description in the terms appropriate to representationTherefore, it is widely recognized that abstract art forms--musIC, abstract painting, arch~ecture--may yet contain meaningful utterances, and most frequently phElosophersand critics use termssuch as expression in order to describe thase elUSivemeanings Music, in particular, is often saidto be an expression of emotion and to gain much of its significance from that Expression In sucha case is unlike raprasenlatlon, according to many philosophers, In that It involves no descnptlvecomponent. An expression of grief does not describe grief but rather presents ~, as it might bepresented by a face or a gesture,

ExpreSSionmust be distinguished from evocation. To say that a piece of music expressesmelancholy ISnot to say that it evokes (arouses) melancholy. To descnbe a piece of music'asexpressive of melancholy is to give a reason for listening to it; to descnbe It as aroUSingmelancholy is to give a reason for aVOidingIt (MUSICthat is utterly blank expresses nothing, but itmay arouse melancholy.) EXpreSSion,where ~ eXists, IS integral to the aesthelic character andment of whatever possesses it. For sim,lar reasons, expression must not be confused withassociation, in sp~e of the reliance on the confusion by many 18th-eentury EmpIricists.

The distinction between representation and eXpreSSLOnISone of the most important conceptualdeVices in contemporary philosophy of art Croce who introduced It, sought to dIsmissrepresentation as aesthetically irrelevant and to elevale expression into the Single, true aeslhelicfunction. The first, he argued, is descriptive, or conceptual, concerned WIth class<fylngobjectsaccording to their common properties, and so done to satisfy our Gurios~y. The second, bycontrast, is intuitive, concerned with presenting ItSsubject mailer (an "intuition") in its Immediateconcrete realily, so that we see it as it is in itself, 11"1 underslanding expreSSion,our attitude passesfrom mere CUriOSlty10that immediate awareness of the concrele particular that is lhe oore ofaesthetic experience.

Symbolism in art Later philosophers have been conlent merely to dIstinguish representation andexpression as different modes of artistic meamng, characterized perhaps by different formal orsemantic properties Nelson Goodman of the United States is One such philosopher. HISLanguages 01Art (1968) was the first work of analytical philosophy to produce a distinct andsystematic theory of arl Goodman's theory has attracted conSiderable attention, the more so Inthat it [San extension of a general philosophical perspective, expounded in works of greal "gourand finesse, that embraces the entire realm of logic, metaphysics, and the philOSOphyof science.

VIII

Goodman, hke many others, seeks the nature of art in symbolism and the nature of symbolism ina general theory 01 signs (This second part of Goodman's aim ISwhal Ferdinand de Saussurecallad semiology, the general science of signs [COUISde Iinguistique generale, 1916; Course ofGeneral Linguistics]). The theory derives from the uncompromising Nominalism expounded inGoodman's earlier works, a Nominalism developed under the Influence of two other USphilosophers, Rudoli Camap and WV Quine, but also showing certain affinrties with the laterphilosophyof Witlgenstein. According to Goodman's general theory of signs, the reiation betweensigns and the worid can be described, like any relation, in terms of Itstormal structure. the objectsrelated, and its genealogy, But, apart from that formal and factual analYSIS,there ISnothing to besaid. Words are labels that we attach to things, but the attempt to justify that practice merelyrepeats it. In us,ng words, It presupposes precisely the justiflcallOn that it alms to provide.

A corollary of this view is that relations of identical logical structure and identical genealogybetween relevantly similar terms are really one and the same relation. Thus, If we assume thatpaintings, like words. are signs, then portra~s stand to their subiects In the Same relation asproper names to the objects denoted by them. (This is the substance of Goodman's proof thatrepresentalion IS a species at denotation.) We should nat worry Ii that leads us to no newunder5tanding at the relation (e.g, if it leads to no procedure for decoding the painted sign), forGOodmanbelleve5 the seardl for sudl procedure is incoherent. The meaning of a sign is Simplygiven. along with the art,sbc practice that creates it.Goodman proceeds to generalize his theory atsymbotism, using the word reference to express the relation between word and thing, (We mightwell characterize thiS relation as labelling.) Denotation IS the special case of referenceexemplified by proper names and portra~s--a case In which a symbol labels one indiVidualWhen a Singlelabel picks out many things, then we have not a namebut a predicate

Sometimes the process at labelling goes both ways, A colour sample is a sign for the colour itpossesses-say, the colour red, iltherefore refers to the label red, whidl in tum refers back tothe sample. In thiS case, the predicate red and the sample mutually label each other Goodmancalls this relabon exemplification, and analyzes expresSion as a special case of it-namely, thecase wnere the exemplification at a predicate proceeds by metaphor. For example, a piece ofmusic may refer to sadness; it may also be metaphoflcally sad In this case, Goodman argues,we may speak of the music as expressing sadness.

The economy and eleg<lnce of Goodman's theory are matched by its extreme Inscrutability Onthe surface ~ seems to prOVidedirect and Intelligible answers to all the majOr problems of art,What ISart? A system of symbols What;s representation? Denotation. What Is expression? Akind of reference What Is the value of art? It symboll~es (displays) reality What is the disbnctlonbetween art and sCience? A distinction between symbOl systems but not between the mattersthey display, Yet, at each point we feel at a loss to know what we are learning about art In beingtold thaI it is essentially symbolic.

In Ihls respect, Goodman's theory,s similar to many semantic theones at art: it proves thatexpression, for example, deSCribesa symbolic relation only by giVing a theory at symbolism thatIs so geneml as to include almost every human artifact. It becomes ImpoSSibleto extract from theresult a procedure of Interpretation-a way of understanding a work of art Irl terms of its allegedsymbol,c function. In particuiar, we cannol extend to the discussion of art those theodes thatshow how we understand language In terms of Its peculiar syntactic and semantic structure, forsuch theones always seem to rely precrsely on what is peculiar to language and whatdistinguishes language from, say, music, painting, and architecture,

A similar result can be found in an earlier theory upon whidl Goodman's is to some extentmodelled-the one proposed by Langer in her Philosophy In a New Key (1942) and Feeling andForm (1953). She argues that works of art symboli~e states at mind ("feelings"), but that therelabon is not to be explained in terms of any rule of referenca such as operates in language,Works of art are, Langer says, "presentational symbols" whose relation to their objects is purelymorphological. The symbol and its object are related by virtue at the fact thai they possess the

same 'logical form." It follows that what the symbol expresses cannot be restaled in words, wordsdo not present the "logical form" of individuals but rather that of the properties and relations thatcharacterize them. (Here again ISthe familiar view that art presents the Individuality of ~s subjectmatter and is therefore not conceptual or descrIptive,) With such a Viewwe can no longer explainwhy we say that a work of art expresses a feeling and not that the teeling expresses the work: forthe relation of expression, explained In these morphological terms ,s clearly symmetrical.Moreover, like other semantic theories, Langer's analysis prOVides no procedure forInterpretation, nothing that would give application to the cla,m that in understanding a work of artwe understand It as a symbol

Notwithstanding these difficulties for semantic theones of ert, most philosophers remainconvinced that the three categories of representetion, expression. and understanding are all-Important In making sense of auf experience of art. They have become Increasingly persueded,however, with Croce and Collingwood, thai the differences between representation andexpression are more Important than the similarities In particular, while representatlon may besecured by semantic rules (as in language itself), there cannot be rules for the production ofartistiCexpression To think otherwise ISto imagine that the difference between a Mozart and aSelien ISmerety a difference of skill ExpreSSionoccurs In art only where there is expressiveness,and expressiveness ISa kind of success to be measured by the response of the audience ratherthan by the grammar of the work. This response crucially Invotves understanding, and no theoryof expression that ISnot also a theory of how expression ISunderstood can be persuasive

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,

Appendix-B

CONCEPT

Cognitive development The mental actfv;t,es involved In the acquls,tion, process,ng,organization. and uSe of knowledge are collectively termed cognition. These activ;ties ,ncludeselective attention, perception, dlscriminatron, interpretation, c1assmcatlon,recall and recognitionmemory, evaluation, inference, and deduction The cogn;tive structures that are involved in theseprocesses ,nclude schemata, images, symbols, concepts or categones, and prOpoSJtIOnS,Aschema is an abstract repre5ef1tation of the distinctive characteristics of an event Theserepresentations are not photographic COpiesor visual Images but are more like schematiCblueprints that emphasize the a'Tangemenl of a set of salient elements which supply the schemawith distlncliveness and d,fferentiete It from similar events The child's abihty to recognize the faceof another person is mediated by a schema, for example. Young Children already display aremarkable ability to generate and store schemata. Another type of early cognlt,ve un~ is theimage; this ISa mental picture, or the reconstruction of a schema, that preserves the spatial andtemporal detail of the even!'

Symbols represent the next level of abstraction from experience: they are arbitrary names forthings and qual~ies Common examples of symbols are the names lor objects, letters, andnumbers. Whereas a schema or Image represents a specmc experience, such as a sighl orsound, a symbol is an arbitrary representatiOll of an event. The letter A ISa symbOl,and childrenuse schemata, images, and symbols In their mastery of the alphabet SymbOlsare used in thedevelopment of higher cogn;tive units called concepts, A concept, or category, may be thought ofas a .pecial kind of symbol that represents a set of atlributes common to a group of symbols orimages The concept represents a COmmonattribute or meanJng from a diverse array ofexperiences, while a symbol stands for a particule! class of events, Concepts are used to sortspecific experiences Into general rules or classes, and conceptual thinking refers to a person'ssubjective mampulationsof those abstract classes,

Symbols

Religious symbolism and iconographyrespectlve~, the basic and often comptex artistic forms and gestures used as a kind of key toconvey religious concepts and the visual, auditory, and klnetic representations of religiOUS.deasand events Symbolismand iconography have been utiilzed by all the religions of the world

Systems of symbols and pictures that are constITuted in a certain ordered and determinedrelationship to the form, content, and intention of presentation are believed to be among !he mostimportant meansof knowing and expressing religious facts

Such systems also contribute to the maintenance and strengthefllng of the relationships betweenman and the realmof the sacred or holy (the transcendent, spiritual dimension), The symbOl is, ineffect, the mediator, presence, and real (or intelligible) representation of the holy In certainconventional and standardized forms

The nature of religious symbols and symbolization The word symbol comes from the Greeksymbolon, which means contract, token, insignia, and a means of identification, Parties to a

contract, allies, guests, and thllir host could identify each other with the help of the parts of thesymbolon. In its original meaning the symbol represented and communicated a coherent greaterwhole by means of a part.

The symbol is based, therefore, on the pnnciple of complementation The symbol oblect, picture,sign, word, and gesture require the association of certain conscious ideas in order to fully expresswhat ISmeant by Ihem To this extent it has both an esoteric and an exoteric, or a veiling and arevealing, function The discovery of lis meaning presupposes a certain amount of activecooperation. As a rule, it is based on the convention of a group that agrees UPOl1its meaning

The concept of Ihe religious symbol also embraces an abundantly wide variety of types andmeanings, Allegory, personifications, figures, analogies, metaphors, parables, Pictures (or, moreexactly, pictorial representations of ideas). signs, emblems as individually conceived, artrflcialsymbols With an added verbal meaning, and attributes as a mark used to distinguish certainpersons all are formal, hlstoncal, literary, and artifiCial categones of the symbolical

Symbols in the religious consciousness The formalion of rehgious symt>ols thai occur whenunconscious ideas are aroused or when a process of consciousness occurs is prinCipally a matlerof religious experience. Such symbols usualry become intelleclual acquisitions, and, as religiOUSconcepts are further elat>orated upan, the symbols may even flnaily become subjects of majortheologIcal questions.

OccaSionally, religion .s regarded as the ong,n and the product of certain established (orfundamental) symbols. In such cases the outcome of the process 01 the structural'zation ofreligiOUS consciousness woukj then be the establishment of a symbol that is generally applicableto a particular histoncal species of religion,

In any event, the symbOl belongs to the essence of man's coming of religious consciousness andto the formation of history's institutional religions II plays a fundamenlal and continual part in thefurther grOWing of such religions and in the mental horizons of their followers The relation of thesymbol and the sacred .

The signs, such as a stake, posl, or pillar, that delimit the area themselves are endowed Withsacred symboliC meanings, which often can be noted by their particular designs. The ground planof the secred bUilding and its Orientation, wells, roof, and arches are all utilized to symbolize the""cred,or holy

Temple in Jerusalem a symbol of Yahweh, the Holy of Holies In Sh,nto shnnes (honden) a symbolof the dlvlMy, and the Time as atr'lrtsparenl symbol of the sacred may be represented by means of the cycle of Ihe sacred yearand its high panls.

The relation of the symbol and the sacred Ceremonial and ritualistic objectsRetation to the social realmReligion often draws its symbOls and pictorial forms from the social, political, and economiCdomains. Persons (e,g" king, father, mother, child, slave, brother) and conditions and structuresIn socrety and the state (e.g government, a people, family, marriage, occupation) all receivemeenlng as symbolical and pictonal motifs in myth and cull. Examples of such motifs are throne,crown, sceptre, standard, arms, instruments, the figures of the father, mother, and child, andsymbols offamillal relationships.

The morals, law, administration of Juslice, and the customs and haMs of a society containreligious symt>ols and symbolical ections, as In Iha anointing of a king and in the administering ofthe oath or ordeal or ,n the observance of tradlllOns and customs associated with birth, mamage,and death.

X"

Relation to the literary and visual artsReligious symbols and pictures may be Identical with, related to. or similar to those of language(metaphors) and to pictorial expreSSiOnS In prose and poelry, They are relaled in allegory,parable, fairy tales, fables, and legends in which they can appear in a form that is closely relatedto thai of religiOUSsymbolismModes of symbolic expression In the long history of the forms of symbol,cal expression anafTower (exclusive) and broader (Inclusive) Idea of what a symbol is has gradually evolved, Th,Sevolution is reflecloo in the vanous manners of symbolical expression that may influence andcombine w~h one another.Diagrammatic and emblematic Symbolic representations are usually depicted in diagrammaticor ideographiC modes as signs, abbreviations Images, and objects of all kinds thal indicate alarger context. In th,s category belong the simplmoo or abstract forms of objecls of nature or otherobjects and geometncal forms, as well as colours, letters, and numbers. The Circle, Ihe disk, therosetle, or lhe swastika, for example, may symbolize the sun, universe or a star, The square andthe cross may symbolize the Earth or the four cardinal points: the wreath, the labynnth, the spiral,the plait, and Ihe knot may indicate eternity, the flow of lime, or a magical spell.

Icons and systems of iconographyThroughout the history of the,r development, religiOUS iconography and symbolism have beenclosety Interrelated. Many retlglous symbols can be understood as conceptual abbreviations,simplifications, abstractions and styli:zations of pictures or of pictorial impressions of the world ofsense Objects that are manifested in iconographiC representations. In wnceiving. describing, andcommunlcaling the experience of reality, the realistic picture and the nonrepresentational signboth have as their pnmary function the expression of thiS experience in religiOUS terms, Inreligious pictures lhat are of a wmpound or complex nature, particular symbols occasionallyreappear. These pictures may also Include other types of symbol,c representation, such aswords, tones, gestures, ntuals, and architecture

Iconographic forms Temples and other sacred placesThe arch'tectural iconography of sacred bUildings and places of worship,s a field of its own Theptace of worship, insofar as it is understood as the ,mage of the unrverse and Its centre, must bearchitecturally patterned according to a speCifiCdesign of the universe, The place of WOrShiPmaybe wnsidered to be the navel of the world e g. the rock in the temple area of the Dome of theRock (Mosque of Omar), in Jerusalem, A holy place usually is built around these holy points, Theholy place as a structurel creation together With its natural seWng may create an Idyllic oroverwhelming effecl, evoking in the beholder an experience of religiOUSlNIe or devotion.Iconographic types

Influences from natureThe main streams of the Influence from nature are derived from man's experience of nature ilsell,his pos~ion in the universe. and hiS a1templto master his world In rel,gious lerms.

The space Ihal surrounds man provides him wilh lhe dimenSional coordinates of hiS reiigiousexperience. Height depth, breadth, direction, proxim~y, and distance are the spalial forms Inwhich the holy manifeSts Itself.

The holy may reside on a mountaintop, In heaven, ,n a chasm, in the underworld, in waterydepths, or In a desert. The holy way or path proVides man with his direction to the dlvLne end ameans of approaching It

The infinity of space may be represented by geometncal and linear figures, Emptiness or fullnessmay characterize the utilization of spaces and surfaces that are usually intended for lhe receptionof symbols and signs.

XIII

Works of art may be totally absent In certain architectural structures, o'r all available space maybe filled Wltha dense profusion of all kinds oj figures and objects, all oj which may sometimes beencircled by an ornamental network or web of branches, vines, leaves, and blossoms: anexample of such embellishment is Islamic art. The ebb and flow of, time and things, the flow ofwater, and the cycliCrecurrence of time are pictorially expressed-in symbols such as the wheel,spiral, wave, and CIrcle

Phytomorphic. or plant-form, representatlons of the divine also are nch ,n diverse examples andoften enigmalic Holy plants and plants considered to be diVine are represented in conneclionwith gads in human form

The tree of life the world tree, and the primeval cosmic plant all have characterlStics related tothe nature and origin of the cosmos, The grapevine is a prominent ritual motif. It ISfound, forexample, in representations of Dionysus and Christ Painted ar'ldsculptured leal, flower, and plantmotifs decorate Christian churches and many religiOUSand funeral monuments Plants bound intoa wreath symbolically promise Victoryover death and the joys of heaven

Chrematomorphic motifs Objects that are used, or chrematomorphlc objects, prOVideanotherform of pictOrial representation Holy Objects, especially those used in worship, fall in th,scategory The holy book, the cross, the throne and other insignia of power and majesty, lights,tamps, and canopies become representatives of the hory

Absence of represenlatlonat forms The absence of an expected object, person. pient, oranimal In a picture or the absence of all p,ctorial representation may also represent the holy ordiVine. The rejection of a picture as a means of represenMg lhe holy also is a symbolical way ofpositrvely asserting the presence of God

Cultural influences Other cultural, pol~ical, social, and economiC Inst~ullDnsand conventionsalso influence religiOUSsymbolism and iconography. Work and leisure, war and peace, and themyriad things associated With them-()ccupations, positions in society, classes and theirfunct,ons, the tools of domestic and professional life. technical equipment, forms of internationalrelahons and strife-all play an important part In man's interpretation and understanding atrellg,ous reality and hence in hiSsymbolization of thiSexperience

Warriors and missionaries and their activities are represented in religiOUSpictures end appear Inthe verbai symbolismof religion,

Man's religious act,vlt,es may also be expressed In terms of play and sport, training, competition,and victory,

Conceptual influences tdeas Influence of man's environment on religiOUSsymbolism andIconography theories, and st~ctured systems of thought also are incorporated ,nto religiOUSsymbolism

Abstract ideas-such as wholeness, unity, and the absolute----<lndthe power of the spirit areconcretely expressed in religiOUSterms, The idea of uMy plays an important part In expressingthe oneness 01the diVinity

ConclusionWithin the horizons of a secularized, skeptical, and egnostic society, religious symbols Seem tobe dispensable, but nonetheless a new and increasing interest In symbols was appeanng,especially among the younger generallons who came into contact with both Eastern and westernreligious and cultural trad~ions with their rich sources of symboiic images and modes oIthinking.

Appendix-C

Document of Nominations to the World Heritage List by UNSECOfor Khaitfatabad City, Bagemat, Bangladesh.

Di3tribu'=~on Ii"," ~eo"'OICONF. 008/9

UNrTED NATrONS EDUCATI~,SCIENTIFrC AND CULTl)RALORGlINrZATrON

::'IN\fENTIo:1C8NCLRKIllGTHE p~O'n'C'tIO~OP j'HE .\'ORLDCULTURAL.~~D~A'IUPJ\]'H~RI7AG£

World Heritag@ Cammitt~~~~,,~h Ol:diooI"/ Sesoioc.

Ut'~5COH~adg'BH~,", Poris, 2-6 Dccembe~ 1985

REPCRT 0, TIlE RA?POnSU?

i. Th :.LOt). session of t'.~ ~Io,ld He=itaq~ COJ"J"littc~ wa,U)jESCOE~,O(lg'l"'ters in 2an, frD", 2 lD 6 D~cembeI ~%~.at~cndcd by th~ following Sta-;:cs ~!~mbe" of the '"'arliCOTiL"nitt~e: .Ug~,,". Aus~Ialia. 8Ean1, bulgal:ia, Cae.ada,Germa~l' ':,cc:cIal Re~~bl~c of), GEccce, (,lJic.~a, ]"J:,,,,Leb""o~. ~ibyar. A~ab J~m,h"nya, f'~uco. Ncrwav, SIi Lanka,[1c.ite~ RepubLc ~f Tanzan;"o, Ye,"~n A=a~ P.e;<ublic and Zalre.

h~1c' ~t

It ,,~>Hcr;,t"g~Cyp""',JOEda~,1'urkey,

2_ R~pre5~nt"t~ves 0::' t.'~ '"."~n"tic~"l Counell of Mo:cu""",L" c.ndSite, (ICOM05),u( the Intern"tion~l [J~lon [or the Con,~n'atior. of~ature and l\atural R,"ouroes IWCN) and of the l"t$L"atH'''ol Cen~IC[or taa St~dl' 0= tne ?'eserlat,o~ and the RestoIatioc. of ,""ilu=alPIcpeItl' IrC;;~OMIatte~icd the rreatlng "" "c. adviso~y ca;<acity.

II-IX aEe official docume-ntsi

x. Nm~INA'l"IONSro THEWOR~D~~!UTAGELl~T

29. "he- Cc=i~tee exam~ned 37 c.O.tw."ticns t~ the No~li HeIit,'ge ',cst,t~kng oGGount of tc.c Bu"eac's reco:o.'1lendations, and of t1-.eevalu3tions of ICOMOSa"d JUCI' ~OE ~ach p~operty_ Th~ CorrJ"liae~"e~,ded tc incLie 30 c'oHmal "r.d r.atural pIcpcrties on ne WoI:ldHC",tage I.15t.

A. Propertie, included j" lhe ""odd Hecitaqe Ll~l

ContIactiug Sta~c ha"u.g Ident . ~a:rtc" propeIty CT1~e[~asub,JOitted De nominat10n 00.0' Lhe proparty '"acco"daoce with theConventionBac.Jladcsh 321 n.e h' no=ic mesque i . 11").

GLty ., BagerhatT!.e Cornmitt~e reccrmen""d tc the "ang1adc.,h aulhori~ies that beypursue a ~resernti"n ""d :nana'w",~r.t pla~ ~" accordauo" w,th thconclusion, M the U~ESCQmission Sent to the sHe in 1983.

Scur"",http: ( (www . unes co . org! cu1tu"e (he, ~lOge(tar.g ible/bang1adesh/h tml eng / inde~ en.8h~",1 (date:20.01.LD03)

xv,

.,

List of technical terms

T,~Aazan

Aesthetic

Aesthetlcs

Analysis

Appearance

Archetype

Architect

Architecture

Attitude

Austerity

Bangladesh

Bastion

Bengal

Builder

Building

Chouchal••

Coding

Composition

Concept

Conservation

Conlenl

Context

Culture

Darbar hall

Oeocodtng

Oeocorations

Design

Designer

Details

Dialectic

Documentation

Ecleoclicism

Element

Evolution

Expre8Slon

ExIl1rntzatlon

Meaning Intended in Ihis study

Muslim tradition of calling for p~ayer

Metacategory of beauty, sublime, base etc.

Human values, their percep~on, creation and assimilation

Detailed examination of cons~tuent parts

Outward form as perceived

Original model or prototype

The professional arcMects, In contemporary sense.

The lolal Architectural activity aspects, including Idea, Form and Function

Subjective inclination

Being severely simple and morally strict

Peoples Republic of Bangladesh

Projecting part of a fortifica~on

Historically determined region

The person responSible for construction and its process,

The construction and its process,

Traditional four sided curved roof structure of Bengal

System of representational symbolic meaning

Arrangement of the parts

Dominant expression or Idea of combining elements into singular~y

Making an object socia-culturally and physically sustained,

Substance of form

Relevant circumstances or surroundings

Customs and achievements of a particular civilization or group

The Seat of the ruler or the hall 01justice

Deciphering the symbolic meaning

Added beautification

Imaginative object generation and problem solVing process.

Imaglnatill<'! object and envlronmenl generator

Small particular treatments assigned for particular duties

Process whereby contradictions merge to form a higher truth

Collection and classification of information

Selecting ideas from various sources

Constituent parts

Gradual dell<'!lopment by unfolding the events

Unfolding of ideas in phYSical world

Unfolding outward from a center

•

Features

Form

Grave

Heritage

Identity

Indigenous

individualism.".Life_system

lintel

Manner.~,Mausoleum

Munlng

Mihrab

Mode

Model

Monuments

Mosque

Motif

Motive.,~Order

Organizationalism

PanchamnaPattern

Phenomena

Preservation

Proc""s

Purism

Qlbla

Rntoratlon

Semantic

Skill

SpaceStatus

Structure

Sufi

Symbol

Additive enriching parts

Conceptual elements made visitlle through space and mass

Bunal place of a corpse

Inhented circumstances and tlenefils worthy of preservation

Condition of lleing a specified person or thing

Native or belonging naturally to a place

Idea of being independent or different

Vaultel:l or domed space with one side opentng on the court

Li~ing things and their senes of acti~ihes for existence

Horizontal memtler across the top of a door or window

The way a thing is done or happens

Cense aggregation of otljects

Monumental structure on a tomtl

Significance, both apparent and underlYing

Niche in the qibla wall of a mosque

Any of se~eral types of scale

S,mplified representation of a system

The establishment, end product and the Image,

Muslim place of worship

Repeated omamental patterns with representational meaning

What ,"duces a person to act in a particular way

Traditional thoughts embedding popular ideas

Authoritative conditions

Idea of be,"g a part of the mass people

A type of Hindu temple with fi~e towers

Repeated comtlinatlon of regular and logical shapes

Occurrence that is perceived

EnhanCing Objects continuity.

Sertes of stages in course of development acti~ity

Idea of scrupulous pur~y

The direction of prayer towards Mecca

Taking objects back to its original state,

Meaning of language

Ability to use knowledge effl!ctively in doing something.

Intervals and backdrop of mass

Relative importance and its place

The Structural system and ~s components

IslamiC myslics

Thing regarding as typifying or representing an Idea

xvii

Syncretism

Synthesis

Syntax

System

T.~Tomb

Towers

Tradition

Turrets

ClassiCism leamed and used wrth freedom

Combination of elements into a whole

Arrangementof terms

Logical set of connected things or parts

Word for a definite concept used in a mode of expression

Structure on a grave

Tall structures

Custom or belief handed down to poslerily, related 10mode of production

Decorative towers added 10 structures

XVIIi

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