AN APPROACH TO INTEGRATE COMMUNITIES IN EARTHQUAKE MANAGEMENT OF DHAKA CITY

by

Nazia Hossain

MASTER OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

Department of Urban and Regional Planning

BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY (BUET)

February, 2020

Dedicated to my sons

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT At first, all praises belong to the Almighty, the most kind and merciful to give me the strength knowledge and patience to conduct the research. I want to express my profound respect to my thesis supervisor, Dr. Ishrat Islam, Professor, Department of Urban and Regional Planning (DURP), Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET). I want to thank her for giving me the opportunity to work on such an emerging topic. I wish to pay my gratitude to her for encouragement and enthusiastic support to work on this research. Without her guidance, valuable suggestions it would be difficult for me to figure out with the study. I am also thankful to her for assessing my research with patience. I am fortunate to work under her supervision. I would like to pay my appreciation to the director of HEQEP CP-3140, BUET-Japan Institute of Disaster Prevention and Urban Safety (BUET-JIDPUS), Dr. Tahmeed M. Al-Hussaini, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering (CE), Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET) for offering me the master’s fellowship. I am thankful to him for his support and direction to my work. I am grateful to my husband and son for their patience and support to my work. Without their support, it was quite tough for me to complete the research. I am grateful to my parents who always inspired me to do the work efficiently. I want to thank the experts of my research for giving me time and their valuable opinion towards the improvement of my research. I am grateful to the Station Officers of Mohammadpur Fire Service and Civil Defense (FSCD), Mirpur -10 FSCD and Kurmitola FSCD for their cooperation and supportive information for the study. I also thankful to the volunteers of those fire stations for giving me support to select the study areas. I wish to convey my gratefulness to the local participants and key informants of the study communities for cooperating me to collect information from field. I would like to thank my friend Shahadath Hossain Patwary, Town Planner, Sheltech (Pvt.) Ltd. for giving me the information of the experts. I am also very thankful to Md. Mehedi Hasan, Urban Planner, Nippon Koei Bangladesh Ltd. and Md. Rashedur Rahman, Md. Atikul Islam Rony, Atif Zoha Sreezon and Saraf Anjum Disha, students of BURP for their support in the field work. I pay my gratefulness to my colleagues from Department of Urban & Regional Planning, Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology (RUET).

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ABSTRACT

Community involvement in earthquake disaster management is an emergent issue for earthquake prone countries over the world. Though Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh lies in the moderate earthquake seismic zone (two (02)) of Bangladesh but its rapid urbanization, unplanned development, lack of open spaces and water bodies, etc. lead the city towards high risk of an earthquake. Considering the threat of a major earthquake, Government of Bangladesh (GoB) has undertaken earthquake contingency plan for Dhaka city aside by the disaster management plan, act, and standing order on disasters. This study aims to develop a community integrated earthquake management framework for Dhaka city. The study reviewed the disaster and earthquake management documents like plan, act and case studies of the selected Asian countries: India, Japan and Nepal to explore the community involvement in different phases of earthquake management. The review of Earthquake Contingency Plan for Dhaka City has also been conducted along with National Disaster Management Plan (2010-2015) and (2016-2020), Disaster management Act, 2012, Standing Order on Disasters (SOD), 2010 and 2019 of Bangladesh. Four earthquake vulnerable wards of Dhaka: Ward 14 (Dhaka South City Corporation (DSCC)), Ward 06 (Dhaka North City Corporation (DNCC), Ward 15 (DNCC) and Ward 17 (DNCC) according to the “Bangladesh Urban Earthquake Resilience Project” by World Bank (WB) and Earthquake Megacity Initiatives (EMI) were selected as study areas to explore the earthquake management at community level. Field level data was collected and analysed through the application of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and Participatory Vulnerability Analysis (PVA) tools. Key informant interview and expert opinion survey have also been carried out. The review of Asian countries show that the linkage established from central to community level for earthquake management through formation of different committees as in Panchayet Raj Institute (PRI), India, or community based disaster management organization as in BOKOMI, Japan. The earthquake contingency plan for Dhaka city proposed the community involvement in a few sectors like search, rescue, health and shelter management. The institutional framework of disaster management shows that City Corporation Disaster management Committee (CCDMC) is the lowest level linking the city corporation with central authority. In SOD, 2019, Ward Disaster management Committee (WDMC) under CCDMC has been declared. But it is tough to manage the population of more than 100,000 in a ward for a WDMC. Thus there is need for a Community Level Disaster Management Committee (CDMC) under WDMC. In the selected communities of Dhaka city, there is no WDMC, lack of volunteers, lack of management of CBOs, absence of rescue teams, and neighborhood level medical teams as per Earthquake Contingency Plan. Thus, the review and field survey have concluded with the proposal for CDMC and Community Disaster Management Organization (CDMO) thus community integrated earthquake management framework that can act as a guideline for the improvement of present earthquake management system of the country.

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1-6

1.1 Background of the study 1 1.2 Aim and objectives of the study 4 1.3 Rationale of the study 4 1.4 Scope and limitations of the study 4 1.5 Organization of the study 5 CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY OF THE RESEARCH

7-14

2.1 Introduction 7 2.2 Conceptual Framework of the Study 7 2.2.1 Formulation of the study 7 2.2.2 Literature review 7 2.2.3 Data collection process 7 2.2.4 Data analysis and result formulation 8 2.3 Selection of the Study Area 8 2.3.1 Selection of earthquake vulnerable Asian countries 8 2.3.2 Selection of earthquake vulnerable communities of Dhaka city 8 2.4 Data Collection Process 10 2.4.1 Review Based Data Collection 10 2.4.2 Primary data collection from study areas 10 2.4.2.1 Application of PRA tools 11 2.4.2.2 Application of PVA tools 12 2.4.3 Focus Group Discussion (FGD) 12 2.4.4 Key informant interview 12 2.4.5 Expert opinion survey 13 2.5 Data Analysis and Developing the Proposal for a Community Integrated Earthquake Management Framework of Dhaka City

13

2.6 Recommendations and preparation of final report 14 2.7 Conclusion

14

CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW

15-47

3.1 Introduction 15 3.2 Operational Definitions and Key Concepts Relevant to the Study 15 3.2.1 Earthquake Hazard 15 3.2.2 Earthquake Risk 15

Table of Contents Contents

Page no.

Acknowledgement i Abstract ii Table of Content iii-xv List of Tables viii List of Figures ix List of Abbreviation xi

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3.2.3 Earthquake vulnerability 15 3.2.4 Earthquake disaster 16 3.2.5 Earthquake disaster management 16 3.2.5.1 Pre disaster management phase 16 3.2.5.2 Response phase of disaster management 17 3.2.5.3 Recovery phase of disaster management 17 3.2.6 Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) and Disaster Risk management 17 3.2.7 Community 18 3.2.8 Community Resilience 18 3.2.9 Community participation in earthquake disaster management 18 3.2.10 Community volunteers in earthquake disaster management 19 3.2.11 Community Based Organization (CBO) in earthquake management

19

3.2.12 Community Based Disaster Management (CBDM) 20 3.2.13 Contingency planning and Earthquake contingency plan 20 3.2.14 Indicators of earthquake management 21 3.2.14.1 Coordination and Communication 21

3.2.14.2 Preparedness program 21

3.2.14.3 Search, rescue and evacuation 21

3.2.14.4 Health and shelter management 22 3.2.14.6 Relief, utility and management of other sectors 22

3.2.14.8 Monitoring and Evaluation 22

3.3 International strategies addressing the importance of community involvement in disaster management

23

3.4 Earthquake risk in Bangladesh and Dhaka city 24 3.5 Disaster and earthquake management in Bangladesh and Dhaka city and scope of community involvement

27

3.5.1 Legislative and institutional framework of disaster management of Bangladesh

27

3.5.2 Legislative framework of earthquake management of Bangladesh and Dhaka city

28

3.5.3 Scope of community involvement in legislative framework of disaster and earthquake management in Bangladesh and Dhaka city

30

3.5.4 Cyclone Preparedness Program (CPP): An initiative of Government of Bangladesh (GoB) to integrate community in Cyclone disaster management

31

3.6 Disaster and Earthquake management and Community Involvement in the selected Asian Countries

33

3.6.1 Legislative and institutional framework of disaster and earthquake management: Way of community involvement in India

33

3.6.2 Legislative and institutional framework of disaster management and way of community involvement: Japan

37

3.6.3 Legislative and institutional framework of disaster and earthquake management and way of community involvement: Nepal

42

3.7 Conclusion

47

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CHAPTER 4: STUDY AREA PROFILE

48-63

4.1 Introduction 48 4.2 Rationality behind the selection of the study area 48 4.3 Location and demographic profile of the selected communities 49 4.3.1 Study area 1: Ward 06 (DNCC) (Block D, Section 6, Mirpur) 49 4.3.2 Study area 2: Ward 15 (DNCC) (Manikdi) 49 4.3.3 Study area 3: Ward 17 (DNCC) (Nikunja-2) 49 4.3.4 Study area 4: Ward no 14, DSCC (Mitali road to Moneshwer road)

49

4.4 Historical profile of the selected communities 51 4.4.1 Study area 1: Ward 06 (DNCC) (Block D, Section 6, Mirpur) 52 4.4.2 Study area 2: Ward 15 (DNCC) (Manikdi) 52 4.4.3 Study area 3: Ward 17 (DNCC) (Nikunja-2) 52 4.4.4 Study area 4: Ward no 14 (DSCC) (Mitali road to Moneshwer road)

52

4.5 Social, Natural Condition and Physical characteristics of the Study Area

54

4.5.1 Social institutions 54 4.5.2 Roads and building pattern 55 4.5.3 Natural resources 55 4.6 Causes of earthquake vulnerability in the selected communities 57 4.6.1 Primary causes 57 4.6.2 Most influential causes 57 4.7 Earthquake vulnerability scenario of the selected communities 61 4.8 Conclusion

63

CHAPTER 5: COMMUNITY INVOVLEMENT AT DIFFERENT PHASES OF IN EARTHQUAKE MANAGEMENT OF ASIAN COUNTRIES

64-99

5.1 Introduction 64 5.2 Sectors at three phases of earthquake management 64 5.3 Pre earthquake management phase and community involvement 66 5.3.1 Coordination with communities: India 66 5.3.2 Coordination with communities: Japan 66 5.3.3 Coordination with communities: Nepal 67 5.3.4 Communication mechanism 69 5.3.5 Involvement of volunteers and preparedness programs 72 5.3.6 Health Management and community involvement 75 5.3.6.1 Examples of community involvement practices in health management at pre earthquake management phase of India, Japan and Nepal

76

5.3.7 Shelter Management and community involvement 76 5.3.7.1 Examples of community involvement practices in shelter management at pre earthquake management phase of India, Japan and Nepal

78

5.3.8 Monitoring and evaluation and community 78 5.4 Response phase of earthquake management and community involvement

79

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5.4.1 Coordination and community 79 5.4.2 Communication mechanism and community involvement 84 5.4.3 Search, rescue and evacuation, and community involvement 85 5.4.4 Health management and community involvement 86 5.4.5 Shelter, sanitation etc. management and community involvement 87 5.4.6 Monitoring and Evaluation 90 5.4.7 Earthquake response and communities: Experiences from India, Japan and Nepal

91

5.4.7.1 Community response in Gujarat earthquake, 2001, India 91 5.4.7.2 Community response in Kobe Earthquake 1995, Japan 91 5.4.7.3 Community response in Gorkha earthquake 2015, Nepal 92 5.8 Post earthquake management and Community Involvement 92 5.8.1 Coordination, communication and community 92 5.8.2 Relief management 93 5.8.3 Restoration of health, provision of water, sanitation, utilities 94 5.8.4 Restoration of housing 95 5.8.5 Provision and reviving the emergency transportation system 96 5.8.6 Monitoring and evaluation 97 5.9 Critical review of earthquake management and community involvement in India, Japan and Nepal

97

5.10 Conclusion

99

CHAPTER 6: EARTHQUAKE MANAGEMENT AT COMMUNITY LEVEL OF DHAKA CITY: REVIEWING EARTHQUAKE CONTINGENCY PLAN, 2010 AND COMMUNITIES OF DHAKA CITY

100-117

6.1 Introduction 100 6.2 Review of Earthquake Contingency Plan, 2010 and scope of community involvement

100

6.3 Community involvement scenario in the selected communities of Dhaka city

103

6.3.1 Presence of Ward Disaster Management Committee (WDMC) 103

6.3.2 Presence of Community Volunteer 103

6.3.3 Capacity building programs at the community or ward level 104 6.3.4 Presence of resources and trained teams in the community 104 6.4 Institutions and interactions at selected communities 105 6.4.1 Internal organizations 105 6.4.2 External organization 106 6.4.3 Summary findings from institutional role at community level 109 6.4.4 Proposed actions of the most influential organizations for earthquake management at community level

109

6.5 Capacity to combat earthquake vulnerability at selected communities 114 6.6 Potentials and constraints of the earthquake management at community level in Dhaka city

115

6.7 Conclusion

117

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CHAPTER 7: PROPOSAL FOR COMMUNITY INTEGRATED EARTHQUAKE MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK OF DHAKA CITY

119-136

7.1 Introduction 119 7.2 Comparative scenario of earthquake management between Dhaka city and reviewed Asian countries

119

7.3 Major findings from the review of Asian countries earthquake management and community involvement

124

7.3.1 Earthquake management under the selected indicators at three phases

124

7.3.2 Findings from the formation community level committee and organizations

124

7.4 Findings from the field survey on the selected communities 124 7.4.1 Defining the size of the community 124 7.4.2 Proposal for formation of Community Disaster Management Organization (CDMO)

125

7.4.4 Proposal for Community Disaster Management Committee 131 7.5 Findings from the expert opinion interview: Formation of committees for integrating communities in earthquake management

133

7.6 Final Proposal for community integrated earthquake management framework

133

7.7 Conclusion

136

CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSIONS

137-139

8.1 Major findings 137 8.1.1 Comparison on the earthquake management and community involvement between Asian countries and Dhaka city

137

8.1.2 Earthquake management scenario at selected communities of Dhaka city

138

8.2 Recommendations 138 8.3 Future scope of work

139

REFERENCES

140-163

APPENDICES 164-205 Appendix-A 164 Appendix-B 175 Appendix-C 191 Appendix-D 199

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LIST OF TABLES

Tables Page no.

Table 3.1: Intensities of significant earthquakes in Dhaka 26 Table 3.2: Provisions of community involvement in the disaster management of India according to the regulatory framework

34

Table 3.3: Institutional structure with responsibilities of institutions of disaster and earthquake management of India and linkage with community

36

Table 3.4: Provision of community involvement in the disaster and earthquake management in Japan according to the regulatory framework

40

Table 3.5: Provisions of community involvement in the disaster and earthquake management of Japan according to the institutional framework

41

Table 3.6: Provisions of community involvement in the disaster and earthquake management of Nepal according to the regulatory framework

45

Table 3.7: Provisions of community involvement in the disaster and earthquake management of Nepal according to the institutional framework

46

Table 4.1: Summary of historical background of the selected communities 53 Table 5.1: Roles and responsibilities of different agencies and scope of community involvement at pre earthquake management of selected Asian countries

70

Table 5.2: Earthquake preparedness programs in India, Japan and Nepal 73 Table 5.3: Health management and community incorporation at pre earthquake management phase

75

Table 5.4: Community involvement in shelter management at pre earthquake management phase in the selected Asian countries

77

Table 5.5: Roles and responsibilities of different agencies and scope of community involvement at pre earthquake management of selected Asian countries

82

Table 6.1: Scope of community involvement in earthquake management according to Earthquake Contingency Plan, 2010

102

Table 6.2: Earthquake management scenario at the selected community according to the documents and field survey

105

Table 6.3: Proposed actions of the most influential institutions in the communities

111

Table 6.4: Vulnerability Vs capacity for regarding earthquake vulnerability of the communities

114

Table 7.1: Comparison of community involvement in earthquake management between Dhaka an deselected Asian countries

120

Table 7.2: Proposed teams under the CDMO 126 Table 7.3: Roles and responsibilities of the teams under the Community Disaster Management Organization (CDMO)

127

Table 7.4: Roles and responsibilities of the proposed Community Disaster Management Organization (CDMO)

130

Table 7.5: Formation of proposed Community Disaster Management Committee (CDMC)

131

Table 7.6: Roles and responsibilities of the proposed CDMC in the earthquake management framework for Dhaka city

132

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figures

Page no.

Figure 2.1: Conceptual framework of the study 9 Figure 3.1: (Left) Tectonic set up of Bangladesh with respect to plate configuration and (Right) geological fault map of Bangladesh

24

Figure 3.2: (Left) Earthquake Intensity Map of Bangladesh, (Right) Seismic zoning map of Bangladesh

25

Figure 3.3: Tectonic plate boundary of Dhaka City 26 Figure 3.4: Institutional framework of disaster management in Bangladesh 30 Figure 3.5: Mainstreaming strategies for DRR enriching the capacity and awareness of community

32

Figure 3.6: CPP field level framework with community volunteer arrangement

32

Figure 3.7: Institutional structure of disaster management of India and incorporation of community

34

Figure 3.8: National to community level linkage in the administrative framework of Japan

39

Figure 3.9: Institutional structure of DM of Nepal according to the NSDRM, 2009

44

Figure 4.1: (Left) Map of ward 06; (Right) selected community (Block-D) 50 Figure 4.2: (Left) Map of ward 15 (DNCC), (Right) Map of Selected community from (Manikdi)

50

Figure 4.3: (Left) Map of ward 17; (Right) selected community (Nikunja-2) 51 Figure 4.4: (Left) Map of ward 14; (Right) selected community (Mitali road to Moneshwer road)

51

Figure 4.5: Social and resource map of the selected communities 56 Figure 4.6: Primary causes behind earthquake vulnerability in the selected communities

59

Figure 4.7: Four most influential causes and reasons behind the earthquake vulnerability in the communities

60

Figure 4.8: Earthquake vulnerability map of the selected communities 62 Figure 5.1: Indicators of pre earthquake management phase 65 Figure 5.2: Indicators of response phase of earthquake management 65 Figure 5.3: Indicators of pre earthquake management phase 65

Figure 5.4: Schematic diagram of coordination among authorities and community at Pre Earthquake Management of India

68

Figure 5.5: Schematic diagram of coordination among authorities and community at Pre Earthquake Management of Japan

68

Figure 5.6: Schematic diagram of coordination among authorities and community at pre earthquake management of Nepal

69

Figure 5.7: Coordination among different agencies involving communities at response phase of earthquake management of India

80

Figure 5.8: Coordination among different agencies involving communities at response phase of earthquake management of Japan

81

Figure 5.9: Coordination among different agencies involving communities at response phase of earthquake management of Nepal

81

x

Figure 5.10: Schematic diagram of management of different sectors during earthquake and community coordination with different agencies in India

88

Figure 5.11: Schematic diagram of management of different sectors during earthquake and community coordination with different agencies in Japan

89

Figure 6.1: The institutional linkage of the community with different organization in the selected communities

108

Figure 6.2: (Left) Schematic diagram of the most influential organizations at community level of Dhaka City; (Right) process of earthquake management by different institutions at community level

109

Figure 6.3: The Ward Disaster Management Committee (WDMC) according to the SOD, 2019

113

Figure 6.4: Potentials and Constraints of community involvement in earthquake management of Dhaka city

116

Figure 7.1: Schematic diagram of the formation of CDMC and CDMO on the basis of the proposed population size

125

Figure 7.2: Proposed community based disaster management organization (CDMO) for earthquake management

126

Figure 7.3: Basic coordination structure of the proposed community based framework of earthquake management

134

Figure 7.4: Proposal to integrate community in earthquake management of Dhaka city

135

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LIST OF ABBREVIATION

AAR Association for Aid and Relief ADB Asian Development Bank ADPC Asian Disaster Preparedness Center ADRA Adventist Development and Relief Agency AFD Armed Forces Division ARC American Red Cross ARMVs Accident Relief Medical Vans BDMT Basic Disaster Management Training BDRCS Bangladesh Red Crescent Society BDO Block Development Officer BNBC Bangladesh national Building Code BNUS Bangladesh Network Office of Urban Safety BUET Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology BUET-JIDPUS BUET- Japan Institute of Disaster Prevention and Urban Safety BTCL Bangladesh Telecommunications Company Limited BUERP Bangladesh Urban Earthquake Resilience Project CASA Church's Auxiliary for Social Action CBDM Community Based Disaster Management CBDRM Community based Disaster Risk Management CBDRR Community Based Disaster Risk Reduction CBFA Community Based First Aid CBO Community Based Organization CCCJ Central community Chest Japan CCDMC City Corporation Disaster Management Committee CCDRR Child Centered Disaster risk reduction CDMC Central Disaster Management Council CDMC Community Disaster Management Committee CDMO Community Based Disaster Management Organization CDMP Comprehensive Disaster Management Program CERTs Community Emergency Response Teams COs Community Organizations CPS Community Policing Services CS Center for seismology CSSR Collapsed Structure Search and Rescue CSOs Civil Society Organizations CRA Community Risk Assessment CPP Cyclone Preparedness Program CSRI Central Building Rearch Institute CSSR Collapsed Structure Search and Rescue CUET Chittagong University of Engineering and Technology DADRM District authority for Disaster Risk Reduction

xii

DDCs District Development Committees DDMA District Disaster Management Authority DDMC District Disaster Management Committee DEOC District Emergency Operation Center DESCO Dhaka Electric Supply Company DM Disaster Management DMAT Disaster Medical Assistance Team DMB Disaster Management Bureau DMI Disaster Mitigation Institute DNCC Dhaka North City Corporation DPDC Dhaka Power Distribution Company DP-NET Disaster Preparedness Network DPP Disaster Preparedness Planning DPSS Disaster Preparedness for Safer Schools DRR Disaster Risk Reduction DRR Directorate of Relief and Rehabilitation DRM Disaster Risk management DRMC Disaster Risk Management Cycle DSCC Dhaka South City Corporation DU Dhaka University DUDBC Department of Urban Development and Building Construction EERC Earthquake Engineering Reaserch Center EEW Earthquake Early Warning ECP Earthquake Contingency Plan EDRI Earthquake Disaster Risk Index EHA Emergency and Humanitarian Action EMI Earthquake and Megacity Initiatives EOC Emergency Operation Centre FAT First Aid Training FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency FGD Focus Group Discussion FMR First Medical Responders FSCD Fire Service and Civil Defense GoB Government of Bangladesh GoI Government of India GoJ Government of Japan GoN Government of Nepal GSDMA Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority HCT Humanitarian Country Team HFA Hyogo Framework of Action HOPE Hospital Preparedness for Emergencies HUDCO Housing and Urban Development Corporation HUG Hinanjo Un’ei Game

xiii

IAY Indira Awas Yojna ICBAAR Integrating Community-based Adaptation Programmes in

Bangladesh ICS Incident Command System IES Indian Economic Service IFRC International Federation of Red Cross Society IMDMCC Inter-ministry disaster management coordination committee IMD Indian Meteorological Department IRCS Indian Red Cross Society ISET Indian Society of Earthquake Technology ISR Institute of Seismological Research IRT Incident Response Team JHFA Japan Housing Finance Agency JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency JRCS Japanese Red Cross Society JSCDMP Japanese Society of Community Disaster Management Plan J/YRC Junior/Youth Red Cross KVERMP Kathmandu Valley Earthquake Risk Management Plan LDMC Local Disaster Management Committee LWF Lutheral World Federation MEOC Medical Emergency Operation Center MFR Medical First Responder MHLW Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare MLIT Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism MoES Ministry of Earth Science MoFDM Ministry of Food and Disaster Management MoH Ministry of Health MoHA Ministry of Home Affairs MOHP Ministry of Health and Population MoHPW Ministry of Housing and Public Works MP Member of Parliament MPPW Ministry of Physical Planning and Works NA Nepal Army NADRM National Authority of Disaster Risk Management NCC National Cadet Corps NCDRRM National Council for Disaster Risk Reduction and Management NDMAC National Disaster Management Advisory Committee NDMA National Disaster Management Authority NDRA Natural Disaster Relief Act NDRF National Disaster Response Framework NDRMA National Disaster Reduction and Management Authority NEC National Executive Committee NFIs Non-food Items

xiv

NGO Non-Government Organization NICEE National Information Centre of Earthquake Engineering NIST National Institute of Standard and Technology N-NCDMC National Network of Community Disaster Management Committee NPO Non Profit Organization NPDM National Plan for Disaster Management NRCS Nepal Red Cross Society NSDRM National Strategy on Disaster Risk Management NSET National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal NSS National Service Scheme NSTN National Seismic Telemetry Network NVOAD National Voluntary Organizations Active in Disaster NYKS Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs OPA Older Peoples’ Associations PAHO Pan American Health Organization PDMC Province Disaster Management Committee PEER Program for Enhancement of Emergency Response PHEP Public Health Emergency Preparedness PRI Panchayat Raj institute PNSN Pacific Northwest Seismic Network PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal PVA Participatory Vulnerability Analysis PWJ Peace Winds Japan QRMTs Quick Reaction Medical Teams RAJUK Rajdhani Unnayan Kartripakkha RDMC Regional Disaster Management Committee RRT Rapid Response Teams RTOs Recovery Time Objectives SAR Search and Rescue SBDRR School Based Disaster Risk Reduction SBDPTOT School Based Disaster Preparedness Training of Trainers SDMA State Disaster Management Authority SDO Sub Division Officer SEC State Executive Committee SEEDS Sustainable Environment and Ecological Development Society SEMC State Executive Management Committees SERV Social & Emergency Response Volunteers SESC School Earthquake Safety Committee SESP School Earthquake Safety Program SEWA Self-Employed Women’s Association SFDRR Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction SGRY Sampooran Grameen Rojgar Yojna

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SOD Standing Order on Disasters SOP Standard Operation Procedures SWOT Strength, Weakness, Opportunity and Threat TGTDCL Titas Gas Transmission and Distribution Company UDMC Union Disaster Management Committee UNDMT UN Disaster Management Team ULB Urban Local Bodies UN United nations UNDMT United Nations Disaster Management Teams UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNDRR United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction UNIASC UN Inter-Agency Standing Committee UNICEF United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNISDR United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction UNOCHA UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs UNV United Nations Volunteers URP Urban Resiliency Project UzDMC Upazilla Disaster Management Committee VCA Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment VDCs Village Development Committees VDPO Voluntary Disaster Preparedness Organization VolSup Volunteer and NPO Support Fund WB World Bank WC Ward Councilor WDMC Ward Disaster Management Committee WFP World Food Programme WHO World Health Organization WMO World Meteorological Organization WRF Wilderness First Aid WVJ World Vision Japan

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study Earthquake is a catastrophic phenomenon over the world. Bangladesh is a low-lying deltaic disaster prone country in South Asia (Islam, Jameel, Rahman & Jumaat, 2011; Rahman, 2014; Davidson, Villacis, Cardona &Tucker, 2000).The country lies in seismically active zone and major earthquake generating active faults of regional scale are present in and around Bangladesh (Akhter, 2010; Rahman, 2014; Comprehensive Disaster Management Program [CDMP], 2009a; CDMP, 2009b). The faults are: Dauki Fault, Madhupur Fault, Assam-Sylhet Fault, Chittangang-Myanmar plate boundary fault (CDMP, 2009a; CDMP, 2009b; CDMP, 2009c; CDMP, 2009d; CDMP, 2009e; CDMP, 2009f; CDMP, 2009g; CDMP, 2009h). Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh lies in zone 2 according to the seismic zone map of Bangladesh, has been identified as one of the 20 most earthquake vulnerable cities in the world according to Earthquake Disaster Risk Index (EDRI) parameters (Davidson et al, 2000; Asian Disaster Preparedness Center [ADPC], 2005; Ferdous & Rahman, 2015). History shows that, there are over fifteen earthquakes that have been felt in Dhaka in the past 200 years (Islam et al., 2011; Rahman, Paul & Biswas, 2011; Earthquake and Megacity Initiatives [EMI] & World Bank [WB], 2014). High population density (approximately 28,000 people per square kilometers), significant number of the unplanned and structurally unsafe highrise buildings, lack of education, awareness and preventive measures have enforced the city as one of the riskiest cities for earthquakes in the world (Rahman et. al., 2011; Ferdous & Rahman, 2015) . The report of Comprehensive Disaster Management Program (CDMP) under the Ministry of Food and Disaster Management (MoFDM) in 2009 has revealed that, 78,000 buildings out of 326,000 buildings in Dhaka are considered vulnerable (Huq, 2017). According to the study of CDMP, it has been revealed that during an earthquake at a magnitude of 7.5 at Madhupur fault in day time and night time will kill 16,000 and 18,000 people respectively (Rahman, 2014; EMI & WB, 2014).

As the city gets special attention due to risk of an earthquake, Government of Bangladesh (GoB) has prepared an “Earthquake Contingency Plan for Dhaka City” in 2010 under Comprehensive Disaster Management Program (CDMP) to manage different phases of an earthquake disaster (CDMP, 2009a).This plan has described different aspects (command and coordination, continuity of operation, search, rescue and evacuation, health, relief and shelter, utility services etc) of earthquake management dividing in nine (09) functional clusters (CDMP, 2009a). National Plan for Disaster Management (NPDM) (2010-2015) of Bangladesh also emphasizes on the earthquake contingency plan (Disaster Management Bureau [DMB], 2010a). Both government and non-government agencies are liable to manage these sectors according to the contingency plan (CDMP, 2009a). The agencies are mainly divided into three categories based on their responding priority and activities in an earthquake namely: first responder organization mainly government agencies, second responder

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organization incorporated utility services providers and third responder organization includes NGOs, CBOs and others (CDMP, 2009a; DMB, 2010b). Separate earthquake contingency plans have been prepared explaining the roles of those agencies at different phases and sectors of earthquake management (CDMP 2009a; CDMP, 2009b; CDMP, 2009c; CDMP, 2009d; CDMP, 2009e; CDMP, 2009f; CDMP, 2009g; CDMP, 2009h). In addition to these contingency plans, general responsibilities of these agencies in a disaster management have also been declared in the Standing Order on Disasters (SOD), 2010 and SOD 2019(DMB, 2010). Along with the involvement of different agencies, active participation of community is considered as an integral part of a well organized disaster management of a country (Wells et.al, 2013; Victoria, 2009; Pandey & Okazaki, 2005; Samaddar & Okada, 2006). Community participation in disaster management denotes such environment and opportunities where people from different strata strongly involve with their capability and own resources to mitigate the impacts of disaster and facilitate the development process (Gautam, 2009; Saito, 2007; Hossain, 2013). Communities should be aware of hazards and potential negative impacts of disasters to which they are exposed (Gautam, 2009). Communities should be able to take specific actions to minimize the threat of loss or damage. When considering disaster issues, the communities have been affected or in the risk of a hazard are considered. The community as an institution in itself is emerging as an effective player in the entire mechanism of disaster administration (Pearce, 2003). In the event of disasters, the community, if well aware of the preventive actions it would substantially reduce the damage caused by the disaster (Pearce, 2003). Awareness and training of the community is particularly useful in areas prone to frequent disasters (Pearce, 2003; Victoria, 2009). It is very tough for a government authority to handle the disaster situation alone rather needs for a good linkage between community and government authority (Raungratanaamporna, Pakdeeburee, Kamiko& Denpaiboon, 2014). The community based approach can correct the deficiencies in reactive or top-down approach for earthquake management (Bazarragchaa, 2012). As the top-down approach generally fails to address local needs, indigenous resources, capacities of communities, thus increasing vulnerabilities of the communities, the community integration promotes a bottom-up approach to address the challenges and difficulties (Bazarragchaa, 2012; Pandey & Okazaki, 2005).

The role of community participation in DM is critical for the long-term sustainability of these efforts. When the community becomes a part of the decision making system, its involvement grows. Thus, taking inputs from the community is the most important factor in sustaining the effort for effective DM initiatives, and for ensuring their ownership and accountability (National Disaster Management Authority [NDMA], 2007). Several experiences from earthquake prone countries have shown that a high level of community involvement is proportional to more positive recovery outcomes after the disaster. The more dependency upon local resources, the quicker the transformation from disaster to normal life is an indicator towards achieving self-sustainability. Countries like India, Nepal, Japan ensure community participation in

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earthquake management in different ways like formation of CBOs, different teams for managing different activities, volunteering, awareness raising campaign, regular mock drills and so on (Nepal Red Cross Society [NRCS], 2008; Victoria, 2009; Cabinet office, 2015; Cabinet office, 2017; Gautam, 2009; Saito, 2007). These countries practice the community involvement in different sectors, like coordination, preparedness activities, health management, shelter management, relief, utility management and overall monitoring and evaluation of the earthquake management (NRCS, 2008; Cabinet office, 2015; Saito, 2007; Bazarragchaa, 2012). It has been found that the countries maintain these sectors in three phases of an earthquake management and involve the community in any way. They focus the community participation mainly in the pre earthquake management phase.

But due to lack of experience of a major earthquake, the people of Dhaka city have a very little knowledge about the activities to be performed before, during and after an earthquake. In the context of earthquake management of Dhaka city, the Earthquake Contingency Plan for Dhaka city involved CBOs as national earthquake responding agencies (CDMP, 2009a). In the NPDM (2010-2015), the institutional framework of disaster management in Bangladesh has been described. In this framework, City Corporation Disaster Management Committee (CCDMC) is the lowest level of managing disasters in urban areas. According to the SOD, 2010, the CCDMC had the responsibility to communicate with the local institutions, volunteers and community people through capacity building, training, drills, preparedness program etc. (DMB, 2010). But it is hopeful that in 2019 a new SOD has been published that incorporated Ward Disaster Management Committee (WDMC) (DMB, 2019). According to this SOD, the responsibility to communicate with the community, prepare the community volunteers and other training and awareness creation activities are vested upon WDMC (DMB, 2019).

The involvement and integration of the community in earthquake disaster management is a crucial issue for reducing losses in case of an earthquake in Dhaka city. The study has been conducted a review on the nature, scope and ways of community involvement at different phases of earthquake management based on a number of indicators of Asian countries: India, Japan and Nepal, three most earthquake experienced countries in the world. At the same time this study will explore the roles of different agencies for those aspects that incorporate community in the earthquake management according to the Earthquake Contingency Plan for Dhaka city and other disaster management documents of Bangladesh (CDMP, 2009a; NRCS, 2008; DMB, 2010a; DMB, 2010b; Disaster Management Act 2012, 2012). Furthermore, the study tried to reveal the present status of community level involvement in earthquake management. . This research has incorporated community people directly to understand the earthquake vulnerability context and formulated the framework of earthquake management involving them. Finally, this research has come up with a proposal of a framework for integrating the community in the earthquake management of Dhaka city based on the review and earthquake management scenario at field level of Dhaka city.

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1.2 Aim and Objectives of the Study The study aims to propose a framework to integrate communities in earthquake management of Dhaka City through the identification of present scenario of community involvement and comparing this reality with the best practices of Asian countries. To achieve the aim, specific objectives are as follows:

To study the scope of community involvement in Asian countries at different phases of earthquake management

To study the role of communities and identify present implementation status of activities of different agencies to incorporate communities according to the Earthquake Contingency Plan of Dhaka City

To propose a framework for integrating communities in earthquake management of Dhaka city

1.3 Rationale of the Study A number of studies have briefly discussed on importance of community involvement in earthquake management of Dhaka city (Rahman, 2006; Nawaz & Shah, 2011; ADPC, 2005). The study of Rahman (2004) demonstrated different approaches taken for community awareness raising regarding earthquake management in Dhaka city. This study has also elaborated existing disaster management framework of Bangladesh. According to this study, community-based earthquake risk management project has been initiated at first by BDPC and Oxfam, GB in Bangladesh that calls for preparedness action at community level (Rahman, 2006). A research conducted on explaining the mechanism of disaster management in Bangladesh revealed that the linking of community with the government can prove effective one for any kind of disaster management. Besides, in case of an earthquake management the community can employ their own local resources and strategies (Nawaz & Shah, 2011).

All the studies have conducted yet did not focus on the present status of community involvement status in managing earthquake in Dhaka city. The studies have also shown the whole disaster management framework, but have not observed the activities to be implemented by different agencies for managing earthquake that are stated in the document (Rahman, 2006; Nawaz & Shah, 2011; ADPC, 2005; Rahman et. al., 2011). Considering all these aspects, this study will examine the present status of involvement of the communities with responsible agencies in the earthquake disaster management process at different phases. 1.4 Scope and Limitations of the Study The primary scope of the research was to gather in depth knowledge regarding earthquake management and community involvement both at home and abroad. With the review of the disaster management framework, earthquake management procedure and community incorporated disaster management framework has added a new

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dimension in conceptualizing the relation between earthquake management and community. This study helped a lot in improving the understanding about the role of communities in disaster management and the way of involving the communities. At the same time, the review of the Earthquake Contingency Plan for Dhaka City provided with the scope of collecting so many information regarding different agencies and their activities to manage the earthquake in Dhaka. This study has also offered to know the level of community involvement with different agencies both through the review and the field survey with the application of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) at four (04) earthquake vulnerable communities of Dhaka City. This study enabled to work closely with different CBOs, NGOs, volunteers, fire stations and comprehend further possibilities of involving the communities through these organizations in the earthquake management framework. Besides, the real scenario of the collaboration of the responsible authorities at community level as said by the contingency plan. Although the study was limited to only four communities at field level, it is hoped that the findings and the final framework can be helpful for further study. The availability of different documents of Asian countries regarding earthquake management incorporating communities was a challenge for this research. As this study is based on participatory method, initially it was a challenge to select right representatives of the selected communities. Besides, it was not easy to persuade community people about earthquake and its consequences as well as importance and role of their involvement. Although these limitation this research tried to find out the actual scenario of earthquake management of Dhaka city where the community can be incorporated in a structured pattern. 1.5 Organizations of the Study The full study has been divided in eight separate chapters. The chapters are as follows: Chapter 1: This is the first chapter introducing the whole study. Here the background, aims with the objectives of the research has been elaborated. The rationale, scope and limitations of have been included in this chapter. Chapter 2: This chapter represents the methodology of the research. From the formulation objective to the study area selection, the method for selecting the study area, in detail data collection procedure and the way of data analysis have been elaborated here. Chapter 3: The chapter establishes the theoretical background of this research. Key operational definitions and concepts related to the study topic: earthquake management and community involvement have been described. A detail review of a number of disaster management documents of the selected countries (India, Japan and Nepal) and

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also the disaster management documents of Bangladesh and earthquake management documents for Dhaka city has been carried out in this chapter. Chapter 4: This chapter provides the study area profile. The location, demographic characteristics and other relevant information of the study areas have been stated along with the rationality. Beside, necessary maps and diagrams have also been provided here to identify and understand the study areas. Chapter 5: In this chapter, earthquake management and the nature of involving communities of the three selected Asian countries: India, Japan and Nepal at pre, response and recover phase of earthquake management have been explored. Chapter 6: This chapter represents the review of community level earthquake management from earthquake contingency plan for Dhaka city has been conducted and also the scenario has been represented from the findings of selected communities of Dhaka. Chapter 7: In this chapter, based on the findings from the first two objectives the proposal of community integrated earthquake management framework has been elaborated. Chapter 8: This is the last chapter explaining the major findings, recommendations and future prospects of the research.

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CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY OF THE RESEARCH 2.1 Introduction The study has been designed according to its three objectives: to review the community involvement in earthquake management of different earthquake prone Asian countries; to identify the existing status of community involvement in Dhaka city in accordance with the earthquake contingency plan and finally to propose proposed a community integrated earthquake management framework. At first the chapter deals with the research design and its steps. Then study area selection, data collection procedure has been explained. After that, data compilation, analysis and findings have been chronologically described in this chapter. 2.2 Conceptual Framework of the Study To conduct the study properly at first a conceptual framework for the research design has been developed. 2.2.1 Formulation of the study At first, a preliminary literature review has been conducted on disaster, earthquake management documents and community involvement scenario to fix of the focus of the study, formulation of the objectives as well as preparing the background of this study. At the same time the study areas, Asian countries and earthquake vulnerable communities of Dhaka city have been selected for the first two objectives. 2.2.2 Literature review The key terms, basic concepts of earthquake management and importance of community involvement in this sector have been explored. The Dhaka city earthquake risk and community level management scenario has also been studied. Aside by, the disaster management documents of the selected Asian countries have been reviewed and community involvement scenario has been explored. 2.2.3 Data collection process Data collection has been divided based on the objectives. This study is based on qualitative data. Descriptive review have been conducted to collect data for achieving first objective and a number of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and Participatory Vulnerability Analysis (PVA) tools have applied to collect data to achieve the second objective. Besides, key informant interview and expert opinion survey has also been conducted.

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2.2.4 Data analysis and result formulation The review based data have been analyzed through content analysis and the field based data have been analyzed based on the field findings. Based on this analysis the final proposal for community integrated earthquake management framework for Dhaka city has been developed. A diagram of the conceptual framework of this study is shown in the Figure 2.1. 2.3 Selection of the Study Area The study areas have been divided according to the first two objectives: one review of earthquake prone Asian countries and other earthquake vulnerable communities of Dhaka city. 2.3.1 Selection of earthquake vulnerable Asian countries For reviewing the earthquake management and way of community involvement at three phases of earthquake, mainly three earthquake prone Asian countries: India, Nepal and Japan have been selected. About 59 per cent of India’s land area could face moderate to severe earthquakes (National Disaster Management Authority [NDMA], Government of India [GoI], 2007). Nearly 20% of the world’s earthquakes of magnitude 6 or greater have occurred in or around Japan (Cabinet office, 2015). According to Global Earthquake Safety Initiative, the Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal is exposed to the greatest earthquake risk per capita among 21 megacities around the world (Koirala, 2014). 2.3.2 Selection of earthquake vulnerable communities of Dhaka city For carrying out the earthquake vulnerability and management scenario of Dhaka city at community level, four communities from four earthquake vulnerable wards have been selected. Earthquake Megacity Initiatives (EMI) and World Bank (WB) carried out “Bangladesh Urban Earthquake Resilience Project” where Ward 6, ward 15 and ward 17 (Dhaka North City Corporation) and ward no 14 (Dhaka South City Corporation), have been marked as one of the earthquake vulnerable wards in Dhaka city considering possible building damage and fatalities (Appendix-A, Figure A-1). After the selection of the wards, four communities have been selected based on the information provided by the fire station of Mirpur 10 for selecting the community of Ward 06 (DNCC), the Kurmitola Fire Station for selecting the communities of ward 15 (DNCC) and ward 17 (DNCC), Mohammadpur fire station for selecting the community of ward 14 (DSCC). Also the information provided by the available volunteers of the respective wards, communities have been selected.

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Figure 2.1: Conceptual framework of the study (Source: prepared by author, 2019)

3rd

Step

Fi

nal

Step

Initial literature review

Formulation of study subject

Formulation of objectives

Selection of the study areas

1st S

tep

Literature review

Key definitions and concepts

Disaster and earthquake management documents of the selected Asian countries

2nd S

tep

Data collection

Earthquake management scenario and community

involvement

Identification of the scopes to incorporate communities in earthquake management

of Dhaka city

Data analysis

Findings from field and experts

Proposal for community integrated earthquake management framework for Dhaka city

Disaster and earthquake management documents

of Bangladesh and Dhaka

Comparison between Asian countries and Dhaka city

Earthquake vulnerability context of the communities

Objective 1: Review/ Secondary data collection

Selection of indicators Descriptive review of

community involvement in earthquake management based on these indicators

Objective 2: Primary data collection

Focus Group formation (10 members) Application of PRA tools: timeline, social and

resource map, cause effect diagram, venn diagram, process map and four FGD

Application of PVA tools: Vulnerability map, capacity-vulnerability matrix

Key informant interview

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2.4 Data collection process The data collection is divided in two parts: in two parts: review based or secondary data and primary data. 2.4.1 Review based data collection A number of disaster and earthquake management documents of the selected Asian countries (India, Japan and Nepal) and Bangladesh and Dhaka city have been reviewed first. The documents of the Asian countries include: disaster and earthquake management act, plan, policies, guidelines, contingency plans and case studies. Relevant documents of Bangladesh and Dhaka city are: Disaster management Act, 2012; National Plan for Disaster Management (2010-2015) and (2016-2020); Standing Order on Disasters, 2019; National Earthquake Contingency Plan and Earthquake Contingency Plan for Dhaka city, 2010 have also been studied. Descriptive review method has been applied in this review based data collection. The review tried to find out the link between community and central or local disaster management authorities to manage disasters like an earthquake. Besides, the role of different authorities regarding this issue has been explored critically. The influence of community on the disaster management process with the flow of information from community to central authority has been studied also. This review has been conducted based on the following earthquake management indicators: coordination and communication, preparedness programs, search, rescue and evacuation, health, shelter, utility management, relief management, sanitation and sewerage, monitoring and evaluation. After the review of the Nepal Red Cross society Contingency Plan for Kathmandu Valley, 2008 and National earthquake Contingency Plan for Bangladesh, 2010 and Earthquake Contingency Plan for Dhaka city, 2010, the above mentioned indicators have been selected (NRCS, 2008; CDMP 2009a). The reviewed disaster and earthquake management documents are given in Table A-1, Appendix A. 2.4.2 Primary data collection from study areas Two (02) participatory methods: Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and Participatory Vulnerability Analysis (PVA) have applied to collect primary data for this study. Community involvement in data collection for earthquake management at community level is mandatory in this study. Before application of different tools of these two participatory methods, four focus groups have been formed in the four selected communities for Focus Group Discussion (FGD). A reconnaissance survey has been carried out for having a clear understanding of the communities and different organizations, schools and mosques of the communities have been pointed out. Through the help of the representatives from these organizations communication with the community people has been made to form focus groups. Besides, the local volunteers where available helped in the focus group formation and arranging the place for FGD. The focus groups have been comprised of 10 people per community and

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consisted of aged, experienced, volunteer, female persons so that information from different perspective can be collected regarding their knowledge and practice of earthquake management. Table A-4, in Appendix-A shows the list of focus group members. PRA tools namely: timeline, social and resource map, venn diagram, cause-effect diagram, pair wise ranking matrix and Process map and PVA tool- vulnerability map and capacity vulnerability matrix have been used in this field survey. The FGD has been conducted in 2017 to 2019. The time range of per FGD session was approximately 60 to 90 minutes. Table A-5, in Appendix-A shows the list of applied PRA and PVA tools with the day and time of Focus Group Discussion (FGD). 2.4.2.1 Application of PRA tools

Timeline

Time line has been applied to identify major incidents that can be related to earthquake and community involvement (Kumar, 2002). For example: any fire incident, open space and water body encroachment, history of any kind of disaster and actions by the community people and so on. Social and Resource Map Social and resource maps have been prepared to identify the social habitation, schools, mosques, other important infrastructures and the available resources and at the same time the natural resources like open space, water body, vegetation land etc have been pointed out by the participants of focus group. Cause-effect diagram and Pair-wise ranking matrix

The cause effect diagram focuses on the causes behind the occurrence of an event as well as the consequences. In the FGD, the root or primary causes behind earthquake vulnerability at the communities have been identified along with their effects. After that, the most influential causes have been marked through the application of pair-wise ranking matrix. From this matrix, the most influential causes among the primary causes of earthquake vulnerability of the community have been found. The cause effect diagram has been applied again to analyze the reasons behind the causes and their effects. Venn diagram Venn diagram is generally used to identify the available organizations or individuals within or outside a community, their relationship, influence, and interaction with the community people. In an earthquake management at community level, there should be

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proper coordination among different organizations along with the community. The participants of the focus group have shown different organizations both inside and outside of their community along with the influence and interaction with them. Besides, the responsibilities of these organizations at normal time and during earthquake have been discussed in the session.

Process map In this study the process map has been applied to understand the present courses of actions that the organizations (according to the venn diagram) conduct for disaster management. The participants proposed some actions that the institutions can undertake to reduce earthquake vulnerability and create the opportunity to incorporate communities in the process. 2.4.2.2 Application of PVA tools

Vulnerability Map Vulnerability map has been applied in the focus group to identify the earthquake vulnerable locations inside in community. The participants have identified the major locations and areas inside their community and also some areas that can create havoc if an earthquake occurs at a massive scale. The vulnerable locations have been identified in three categories: high vulnerable, medium vulnerable and low vulnerable areas. Capacity-Vulnerability Matrix This tool has been applied in this study to analyze the capacity of the community to address vulnerability of earthquake considering different sectors like: physical, social and motivational. The focus group members said earthquake vulnerability in their communities under these three sectors and the capacity they have to reduce them. 2.4.3 Focus Group Discussion (FGD) Apart from the application of the PRA and PVA tools, separate Focus Group Discussion (FGD) has been conducted. From these discussions, a rough framework for earthquake management incorporating communities has been developed. The members have proposed the formation of a number of teams based on the management of the selected indicators. They proposed the link of the teams with the phases of earthquake management. Table A-10 in Appendix A shows a structure of this FGD. 2.4.4 Key informant interview Key informant interview has also been conducted. The key informants include the permanent residents of the communities, fire station officers from the nearest fire

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station, trained volunteers, heads different institute like schools, mosques and so on. Information regarding the present status of the involvement of communities in earthquake management practices, the strategies to develop a framework for the creating the scope of community integration has been obtained from this interview. The list of key informants and the questionnaires are given in (Appendix A, Table A-3, Table A-7, Table A-8 and Table A-9). 2.4.5 Expert opinion survey Experts have been selected for this study from: Fire Service and Civil Defense (FSCD), Bangladesh Network Office of Urban Safety (BNUS- BUET), BUET-Japan Institute of Disaster Prevention and Urban Safety (BUET-JIDPUS), Armed Forces Division (AFD), Dhaka University (DU), Chittagong University of Engineering and Technology (CUET), International Federation of Red Cross Society (IFRC) and Urban Resiliency Project (URP) based on their research and work experiences on earthquake management. The information from the experts has been collected mainly through email. The survey has been conducted from 2018 to 2019. Relative importance of the earthquake management indicators at three phases has been found from the interview. As well as different types of committees, their formation and responsibilities at three phases of earthquake management have been obtained for the proposed earthquake management framework. The information obtained from Dr. Rajib Shaw, Professor, Graduate School of Media and Governance, Keio University, Japan, regarding community based social welfare organization (BOKOMI) in Japan helped a lot in proposing the community integrated earthquake framework. The list of experts and the questionnaire have been provided in (Appendix A, Table A-2.and Table A-6). 2.5 Data Analysis and Developing the Proposal for a Community Integrated Earthquake Management Framework of Dhaka City At first, from the review of disaster management documents of Asian countries and Bangladesh, a comparison has been conducted between Dhaka city, Bangladesh and three (03) selected Asian countries on community participation in earthquake management. This comparison helps in identification of gaps in earthquake management of Bangladesh and Dhaka city. Then the information collected from the communities, have been organized to explore the vulnerability context and causes behind this, to conceptualize the institutional profile, proposal for their roles to manage earthquake. At the same time, information collected from the key informants and expert on the scenario of the earthquake management and community involvement has also been analyzed. Finally, a community integrated earthquake management framework for Dhaka city has been proposed.

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2.6 Recommendations and Preparation of Final Report Based on the finding, recommendations and future scope of this study have been described. Also the justification of proposing the framework and scope to integrate it in the national level framework have been suggested and final report has been prepared. 2.7 Conclusion The methodology stated above gives a brief on how intensively this research has been carried out. Both review and field based data collected and analysis have been conducted here to generate an authentic result. It can be helpful in further similar researches.

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CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1 Introduction Literature review is an integral part of any research. In this chapter the definitions of key terms and concepts of disaster and earthquake management have been elaborated. Subsequently the review of regulatory mechanism and institutional framework of disaster and earthquake management of both Dhaka city and the selected Asian countries (India, Japan and Nepal) has been explained. Also the scope of community involvement according to the disaster and earthquake management regulations has been explored. 3.2 Operational Definitions and Key Concepts Relevant to the Study 3.2.1 Earthquake hazard

The term hazard is its origin in the term of “chance” (Coppola, 2007; Rahman, 2014). Hazard is defined according to the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR), “A dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage”(UNISDR, 2009, p. 17). Earthquake hazards include any physical phenomenon associated with an earthquake that may produce adverse effects on human activities (Pacific Northwest Seismic Network [PNSN], 2019; Wald, 2019; Rahman, 2014). Primary earthquake hazards are: ground shaking, landslides, liquefaction, surface rupture and secondary earthquake hazards are those that are caused by the primary hazards, and may often be more catastrophic tsunami, seiche, flooding, fire etc (PNSN, 2019; Wald, 2019; Rahman, 2014). 3.2.2 Earthquake risk The definition of UNISDR (2015) state disaster risk as: “Disaster risk is normally considered as a function of the severity and frequency of the hazard, of the numbers of people and assets exposed to the hazard, and of their vulnerability or susceptibility to damage” (UNISDR, 2015, p.26). “Earthquake risk is the probable building damage, and number of people that are expected to be hurt or killed if a likely earthquake on a particular fault occurs. Earthquake risk and earthquake hazard are occasionally incorrectly used interchangeably” (USGS, 2019, para 1). 3.2.3 Earthquake vulnerability According to the definition of Coppola, 2007, vulnerability is a measure of the propensity of an object, area, individual, group, community, country or other entity to incur the consequences of a hazard. This measurement results from a combination of

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physical, social, economic and environmental factors or processes (Coppola, 2007). Vulnerability can also be defined as the reduction of capacity with respect to cope, mitigate, preparation, response and recovery from the effects of natural or man-made hazard (IFRC, 2019). Vulnerability is such a condition that lead a community to the effects of a hazard in terms of different features like physical, social, economic and environmental (UNISDR, 2017). Urban vulnerability and risk to natural hazards such as earthquakes is a function of human behavior (Rahman, 2014). Within minutes of shaking, the earthquake reveals the vulnerabilities of buildings, households, communities and of a country (Rahman, 2014). 3.2.4 Earthquake disaster According to United Nations definition disaster is “ a serious disruption of the functioning of society, causing widespread human, material or environmental losses exceeding the capability of the affected society to cope using only its own resources” (Coppola, 2007). (Vulnerability+ Hazard) / Capacity = Disaster (IFRC, 2019). Along with nature, disasters can be the results from human activities (IFRC, 2019). Earthquake hazard becomes a disaster when it affects the earthquake vulnerable area and people here thus causing severe damage of lives and properties. Disaster loss increases with the severe consequences for the survival, dignity and livelihood of individuals, particularly the poor (UNISDR, 2015). 3.2.5 Earthquake disaster management “Disaster management is the systematic process of using administrative directives, organizations, and operational skills/capacities to implement strategies, policies and improved coping capacities; in order to lessen the adverse impacts of hazards, and the possibility of disaster” (UNISDR, 2009). Traditionally disaster managements identified as a number of phased consequential actions or a continuum namely pre-disaster phase (prevention, mitigation preparedness), during disaster phase (emergency response) and post disaster phase (restoration, rehabilitation, reconstruction) (Wood, Boruff, & Smith, 2013; Carter, 1991). Earthquake is such a disaster that has no warning and it cannot be stopped or controlled. But the impacts of the disaster can be reduced if the pre earthquake management phase can be emphasized.

3.2.5.1 Pre disaster management phase

Pre disaster management phase is comprised of prevention, mitigation and preparedness. Prevention, one of the most critical components for managing disasters, is comprised of such measures that help to avoid the disasters or lessen the impacts of disasters on the disaster affected area (Carter, 1991; UNISDR, 2009; Sena & Michael, 2006; World Health Organization [WHO]/ Emergency and Humanitarian Action [EHA], 2002; WHO/EHA, 1998). The developing nations face hardship to focus on the prevention step to manage disasters (Sena & Michael, 2006). Whereas, mitigation is the

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effort to reduce loss of lives and properties by lessening the impact of disasters (Federal Emergency Management Agency [FEMA], 2018; WHO/EHA, 1998). Mitigation activities may include: proper land-use planning, limit the development in floodplains, provision of dam or levees to protect the area from flooding, maintaining the building codes to reduce losses from earthquakes and fires and so on (Sena & Michael, 2006). “Disaster preparedness is defined as a state of readiness to respond to a disaster, crisis, or any other types of emergency situation” (Sena & Michael, 2006, p. 114). According to the UNISDR (2009), preparedness is considered as the knowledge, capabilities, and certain measures of governments or other organizations, community groups, and individuals to an effective anticipation, response, and recovers from the impacts of likely, upcoming or current hazard events. Disaster preparedness also denotes the steps that mobilize the persons, funds, equipments, supplies and so on to combat the disasters (WHO/EHA, 2002). 3.2.5.2 Response phase of disaster management

The immediate reaction that is undertaken on the anticipation of disasters or as well as soon it begins is called response (Sena & Michael, 2006). To reduce the spread of the effects activities in response phase includes the supply of emergency services and necessary assistance for saving human lives and immediately cut down other impacts on human health, property, environment, public safety etc. (UNISDR, 2009; Carter, 1991; Coppola, 2007; WHO/EHA, 2002; Carter, 1991; Coppola, 2007). 3.2.5.3 Recovery phase of disaster management

According to Sena & Michael, (2006), the recovery is a coordinated procedure that assists the affected people of the disaster affected area in the rehabilitation, reconstruction and restoration of both of the physical infrastructure, emotional, social, and physical wellbeing. Rehabilitation is the restoration of basic social functions (WHO/EHA, 2002). Reconstruction refers to the full resumption of socio-economic activities like: restoration of the emergency lifelines until fully stable state of the people, provision of temporary shelters, restoring power, critical stress debriefing for emergency responders (Sena & Michael, 2006; (WHO/EHA, 2002). 3.2.6 Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) and Disaster Risk management (DRM) Disaster risk reduction "is aimed at preventing new and reducing existing disaster risk and managing residual risk, all of which contribute to strengthening resilience and therefore to the achievement of sustainable development" (United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction [UNDRR], 2017, p.16). Another definition of DRR according to the UNISDR terminology (2009) is that the DRR is regarded as a comprehensive and systematic approach to reduce the risk of hazards, to manage the factors behind the disasters and lessen the exposure of hazards to the people thus reducing vulnerability.

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As stated in the UNDRR definition in (2017) the disaster risk reduction is considered as a policy objective of disaster risk management. 3.2.7 Community

Literally community is a group of people with common interest residing within proximity and possesses a shared feeling of belongings, emotions and their togetherness (ADPC, 2005; Millan & Chavis, 1986). According to the study of Mwiru (2015), the definition of the community has been put down on the basis of some common characteristics such as: culture, tradition and native language; geographical condition, laws, class and race. Three types of communities can be identified according to their place of living like village, district, city; the ethnical, racial and religious characteristics they belong; the educational concerns that are comprised of parental relation, family and education concerns for the welfare of the students (Bray, 1996). From the perspective of disaster management, the community is defined in terms of their vulnerable condition or risk of a disaster or experience of previous disasters. A number of studies show the importance and effectiveness of community involvement in disaster management at different phases (Rahman et al, 2018; Patterson, Weil, & Patel, 2010; CDMP, 2013). 3.2.8 Community Resilience Resilience is “the ability of a system, a community or society to resist, absorb, accommodate to and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient manner, including through the preservation and restoration of its essential basic structures and functions” (UNISDR, 2009, p.24). According to the concept of Twigg (2007), community resilience can be understood as the capacity to absorb stress or destructive forces through resistance or adaptation; capacity to manage, or maintain certain basic functions and structures, during disastrous events; behavior, strategies and measures for risk reduction and management that are normally understood as capacities. 3.2.9 Community participation in earthquake disaster management Community participation in disaster management denotes such environment and opportunity where people from different strata are strongly involved with their capability and own resources to mitigate the impacts of disasters and facilitate the development process (Habiba et al, 2013; Solo, Godinot & Velasco, 2006; Hossain, 2013). The earthquake prone countries over the world conduct regular drills and trainings to prepare the community people regarding earthquake. Community participation in managing earthquake at different times at different countries is exemplary. After Kathmandu earthquake April 2015, being the first responders, immediate rescue of family members and neighbours from collapsed buildings; establishing the temporary shelters for the people lost houses; providing food and

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emergency supplies to the victims, distribution and proper allocation of relief after arrival have been conducted by the community people (Twigg & Mosel, 2017). Again in the 1999 Marmara earthquake, Turkey, initial days of damages and disruptions have been handled by the neighbours, relatives, spontaneously formed volunteer groups (Twigg & Mosel, 2017). 3.2.10 Community volunteers in earthquake disaster management Volunteering means any activity in which time is given freely to benefit another person, group or organization (Whittaker, McLennan & Handmer, 2015). A number of experiences over the world show the importance of the involvement of volunteers in disaster management. Examples include: In Nepal, women’s volunteer groups are formed for search, rescue, evacuation and emergency relief services (Humanitarian Country Team [HCT], 2016). the setting of Community Emergency Response Teams (CERTs) to combat the impacts of Hurricane Katrina in the United States; volunteers participation in the response to the 2010 earthquake in Haiti; the excellent performance of volunteers comprised of self-organized student workforce and student volunteer army in the Christchurch earthquake in New Zealand for managing the liquefaction impacts around homes and disseminating information to the other volunteers to help the people for overcoming the disastrous situations through providing food, water and other emergency facilities; in case of the Wenchuan earthquake in China, the response works was quickly conducted by the volunteers through the sharing of maps of areas in the province needing assistance (UNV, 2012). 3.2.11 Community Based Organization (CBO) in earthquake management Community based organizations (CBO's) are nonprofit groups that work at a local level to improve life for residents (Pandey & Okazaki, 2005). Different forms of CBOs include school club, owner’s association, youth group, sports clubs and different awareness raising organizations. Disaster management can also be one of the most emphasized visions of CBOs (Wulandari, Sagala, & Sullivan, 2018). Members of CBOs organize different types of preparedness program, drills and awareness programs for disaster within the community including community people of different strata. Volunteers generally maintain communication with the community through the CBOs (UNDP & WB, 1998). Besides, in an emergency situation, CBOs can maintain communication with the authority for further help and aid (UNDP & WB, 1998; Wulandari, Sagala, & Sullivan, 2018). After the devastating experience of Kobe earthquake of 1995, the Japanese government has promoted the Voluntary Disaster Preparedness Organization (VDPO) to enrich and creating the sustainable and disaster resilience communities (Mimaki, Takeuchi & Shaw, 2009). The CBOs in Tehran, Iran is assumed as formal organizations “for relief activities in responding to disasters, the community members and volunteers have been traditionally organized as spontaneous networks and offered emergency services to the victims” (Hosseini, Hosseini, Izadkhah, Mansouri, & Shaw, 2014, p.116).

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3.2.12 Community Based Disaster Management (CBDM) Community-based disaster management (CBDM) is an approach to empower communities to be pro-active in disaster management and creates a space to develop strategies on their own terms rather than waiting for already overstretched governments and NGO's (UNISDR, 2009; Salajegheh & Pirmoradi, 2013). The main goal of CBDM is to transform the vulnerabilities or risk of the communities to resilience of the communities (Bazarragchaa, 2012). Community based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM) comes hand in hand with CBDM. In this process the disaster risk communities engaged in identifying, analyzing, treating, monitoring and evaluating the disaster risk for the reduction of their vulnerabilities (Bazarragchaa, 2012). An example of initiating the CBDM of Iran can be stated here: Iran has faced many devastating earthquakes over times. At present this country is preparing for a better CBDM for especially for earthquake where different preparedness activities and training are given priority to make the community come forward to manage the disasters (Hosseini et al, 2014). A CBDM model for Iran has been prepared by Salajegheh & Pirmoradi (2013) based on a number of reviews of community and disaster management literatures and case studies 3.2.13 Contingency planning and Earthquake contingency plan Contingency planning involves anticipating a specific hazard based on specific events or known risks at local, national, regional or even global levels (e.g., earthquakes, floods or disease outbreaks), and establishing operational procedures for response, based on expected resource requirements and capacity (International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Society [IFRC], 2019a). Such planning is a management tool, involving all sectors like: community, families, neighbors, CBOs, community volunteers and all the responsible agencies for effective provision of humanitarian aid to those most in need when a disaster occurs (IFRC, 2019; CDMP, 2013). The contingency plan is a specific response plan and a part of preparedness planning to a disaster event which is possible, but uncertain, to occur (CDMP, 2010a; Finnish Red Cross, 2019). This plan aims to prepare an organization to respond well to disasters like earthquakes, flood etc. at local, national or regional level and its potential humanitarian impact (IFRC, 2019). The following matters generally included in the contingency plan such as: risk and vulnerability assessment, demand analysis, resource planning, distribution of responsibilities among different authorized agencies and so on (CDMP, 2013). Earthquake contingency plan is such a plan that is prepared based on an earthquake scenario either occurred or can be occurred so that the earthquake vulnerable area and its people can be aware before and losses can be reduced (CDMP, 2009a).

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3.2.14 Indicators of earthquake management Nepal Red Cross society (NRCS) has developed a number of indicators for managing earthquake a major earthquake center on Kathmandu valley (NRCS, 2008). Aside by, the contingency plan for Dhaka city earthquake management, 2010 also defined certain indicators. The indicators include: Coordination, Communication, Safety and Security, Information Management, Rescue, Emergency Medical Assistance, and Health Services, Relief, Food and Nutrition, Shelter, Relief operation, Restoration of urban services, Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, Logistics and Transport and so on (NRCS, 2008). Another important indicator that has been identified in a number of literatures and studies is monitoring and evaluation of the earthquake management (CDMP, 2009a). All these indicators are linked with the three phases of an earthquake management. 3.2.14.1 Coordination and Communication

Coordination can be illustrated as a link between organizations and flow of information according to the hierarchy of such organizations involved in disaster management for managing pre, during and post phases of a disaster (Kaynak & Tuğer, 2014; Bahadori et al., 2015). It is the collaborated actions or activities or connection among different departments, organizations in a disaster management like an earthquake to lessen the impacts of the disaster (Kaynak & Tuğer, 2014; Bahadori et al., 2015). An organized communication during an emergency involves a number of attempts to manage risks to communities (Fakhruddin, 2007). Communication at pre disaster phase include early warning system, system for evacuation order and thus telecommunication can be considered more effective one (Fakhruddin, 2007). Emergency communication is important to carry out activities like coordinating relief operations, assessing damages and mobilizing support for reconstruction properly (Fakhruddin, 2007). 3.2.14.2 Preparedness program

Different types of preparedness activities include training, meeting, seminars for disaster management, mock, drill, volunteer activities, sector wise simultaneous activities at different sectors like first aid training, rescue and evacuation training, awareness programs, different project and institution based programs and so on. In the preparedness of a disaster the role of community volunteer is the utmost important to organize community. 3.2.14.3 Search, rescue and evacuation

Search is meant to focus on finding the location of victims trapped under the collapsed structure or to find out if they are missing due to any natural or manmade disasters (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees [UNHCR], 2019). On other hand rescue is to save the disaster affected people from the entrapped condition in the

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shortest possible time (UNHCR, 2019). In the natural disasters sometimes people may need to be evacuated before the disaster (where early warning can be given like: cyclone), sometimes after disasters that happen suddenly like earthquake (Walch, 2018). To save the lives of the disaster affected community or to be affected, proper evacuation strategy should be kept in mind (Leonard, 1985). 3.2.14.4 Health and shelter management

The target of health management in a disaster especially during and after disaster is to lessen the impact on health of the victims (Pourhosseini, Ardalan & Mehrolhassani, 2015). Heath management of the victims is not confined in physical heath and disease issues it should also be focused on mental health as people after disaster often become traumatized (Pourhosseini et al., 2015; Semlitz et, al., 2013). Provision of first aid just after rescue is also important for initial safety (Semlitz et, al., 2013). Proper shelter management is very crucial issue for saving lives during and after a disaster (ADPC, 2017). Proper site selection is also very important to place a shelter for the evacuees (ADPC, 2017). Shelter management and preparation in a convenient way ensures personal safety, climate protection, security and resistance to diseases and ill health of the disaster affected people (Doğar, 2017). In disaster response, the schools, hospitals or infrastructures like this are often used as the temporary shelters (Akari, 2013). 3.2.14.6 Relief, utility and management of other sectors

Relief refers to the provision of essential, appropriate and timely humanitarian assistance to those affected by a disaster, based on an initial rapid assessment of needs and designed to contribute effectively and quickly to their early recovery. It consists of the delivery of a specific quantity and quality of goods to a quantified group of beneficiaries, according to selection criteria that identify actual needs and the groups that are least able to provide them for themselves (IFRC, 2019b). To revive the damaged structures, utilities, water, sanitations and other facilities an emergency operation plan should be prepared by relevant authority before a disaster (Pan American Health Organization [PAHO], 2011; World Health Organization [WHO], 2011). It is also necessary to organize institutional, human, and operational resources and integrate them with the government level agencies so that restoration of the essential emergency water supply, sanitation, sewerage system for the affected population can be easily possible (PAHO, 2011; Ben & Adams, 2002). 3.2.14.8 Monitoring and Evaluation

Monitoring is the regular observation and evaluation is the assessment or structured evidence based analysis of the different actions that have been conducted or is in progress (Argyrous & Rahman, 2016; Katich, n.d.). This process judges the efficiency and competence of the tasks conducted for disaster risk reduction (Argyrous & Rahman, 2016; Katich, 2010). After completing all the phases of disaster management

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thus reducing vulnerability, the monitoring and evaluation have been performed to review the output with reference to the expected results (Argyrous & Rahman, 2016; Katich, 2010). 3.3 Importance of Community Involvement in Disaster Management in International Strategies Different strategies have been adopted across the world where priority has been given to the community to manage disaster risk and vulnerability. Hyogo Framework of Action (HFA) (2005-2015) adopted in 2005 focusing on the building of resilient nations and communities to disasters. Special attention has been put on empowering the communities with the local authorities to handle and lessen the impact of disaster through proper access to information, resources and implementation actions of disaster management (UNISDR, 2005). In this framework, awareness raising activities and capacity building measures for the community has been promoted to build up resilient disaster prone developing countries at all levels. Furthermore, policy and institutional framework of disaster risk reduction have been encouraged to develop where networking the community participation from top to bottom level, managing resources for community volunteers and so on has been incorporated (UNISDR, 2015). After HFA (2005-2015), Sendai Framework of Action for DRR (2015-2030) has been approved which is a move towards emphasizing on disaster risk management rather than recovery (UNISDR, 2015). The most important consideration of this framework is to share knowledge, information and all other activities of disaster risk reduction with the participation from national level, civil society, communities, volunteers and so on (UNISDR, 2015). Along with knowledge sharing, collaboration among local level authorities and community people in this framework has drawn especial attention. This framework is an approach to set inclusive policies for disaster management where community involvement is a must. The 4th priority of action where disaster preparedness is the prime concern to build resilience, different issues have been come into being like incorporation of women empowerment, inclusion of disabled people, promotion of gender equality thus to enrich the communities from all aspects (UNISDR, 2015). Apart from different institutional strategies, different researches also show community empowerment, integration of community with the disaster management process, sharing information as an integral part of disaster management (Pearce, 2003; Shaw 2014; Bajek et.al, 2008). In 2005, Nepal became a signatory to the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005–2015, a global ten-year plan that focuses on building national and local resilience to disasters. Subsequently, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR) 2015–2030 was endorsed by the UN General Assembly, which aimed at the reduction of disaster risk and loss of lives, livelihoods, and health (Etinay et al. 2018). As a member state to both the international commitments, the government of Nepal shows commitment to

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reduce disaster risk in line with the guiding principles of SFDRR (Pathak &Ahmad 2018). The disaster management policy and institutional framework of India also follows the principle of Sendai Framework of DRR (2015-2030) that encourages shared responsibilities among different departments and agencies on disaster risk management. The institutional framework of this country elaborates responsibilities of central, state, district and local level authorities (from central to village) under these four priority actions to combat the challenges of different types of hazards (National Disaster Management Authority [NDMA], Government of India [GoI], 2016). 3.4 Earthquake Risk in Bangladesh and Dhaka city Bangladesh lies on the northeastern Indian plate near the edge of the Indian carton and at the junction of three tectonic plates - the Indian Plate, the Eurasian Plate and the Burmese micro plate (Akhter, 2010). Active faults of regional scale capable of generating moderate to great earthquakes are present in and around Bangladesh. The faults are: Dauki Fault, Madhupur Fault, Assam-Sylhet Fault, Chittangang-Myanmar plate boundary fault. The seismic zone map of Bangladesh as in Bangladesh National Building Code (BNBC), 2015 has been divided Bangladesh in to four (04) seismic zones. Figure 3.1 shows the tectonic and geological fault map of Bangladesh and Figure 3.2 presents the earthquake intensity map and seismic zone map of the countries.

Figure 3.1: (Left) Tectonic set up of Bangladesh with respect to plate configuration and (Right) geological fault map of Bangladesh

(Source: Akhter, 2010)

The earthquake record of Bangladesh suggests that since 1900, more than 100 moderate to large earthquakes occurred here, out of which more than 65 events occurred after 1960 (MoDMR, GoB, 2015). The Bengal earthquake of 1885 and the Great Indian earthquake of 1897 were the most significant earthquakes in the history of Bangladesh (Ishrat, 2010). According to the reports and observed damages of buildings, walls, factory etc. it is considered as the violent earthquake throughout Bengal province (Ishrat, 2010). At least 75 deaths had been reported in this earthquake, 40 people at

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Sherpur, 11 at Azimgunj, 11 at Rajbari, 5 at Bogra, 4 at Govindpur and 4 at Dum Dum (Akhter, 2010). Damages due to the earthquake of 1897 the impacts were severe in Sylhet, Rangpur, Mymensing (Ishrat, 2010). Dhaka is the capital of Bangladesh and the center of political, cultural and economic act ivities (CDMP, 2009a). In the seismic zone map of Bangladesh, Dhaka lies in zone 2 (Map 3.2). There are two well-known distinct geologic features in Dhaka city: the uplifted block of the Modhupur Tract and the floodplain deposits that surround the Modhupur Tract (CDMP, 2009a; Akhter, 2010; Rahman, 2014). Floodplain deposits consist of alluvial sand, silt and clay and the thickness of the deposits ranges from 6 to 15 metres (Rahman, Ansary & Islam, 2015; Akhter, 2010; Disaster Management Bureau [DMB], GoB, 2010a; EMI & WB, 2014; Sharfuddin, 2001). Figure 3.3 is presenting the tectonic plate boundary of Dhaka city. There are over fifteen earthquakes that have been felt in Dhaka in the past 200 years history (EMI & WB, 2014). Eight earthquakes with strong intensities are recorded – five events with intensity VI, one event with intensity VII, and two events with intensity VIII. Structures start to show cracks and other damages at intensity VI. The latest earthquake event that happened with intensity VI was in 2001(EMI & WB, 2014). Table 3.1 is showing the significant earthquake in Dhaka with intensity.

Figure 3.2: (Left) Earthquake Intensity Map of Bangladesh, (Right) Seismic zoning map of Bangladesh

(Source: Ministry of Housing and Public Works [MoHPW], Government of Bangladesh [GoB], 2015)

The earthquake occurred in 2015 in Kathmandu, Nepal at 7.8 magnitude shook India and Bangladesh also. Several buildings including FR Tower in Banani, Ershad Colony in Islambagh and Barisal Plaza near Bangabazar were tilted in Dhaka (The Daily Star,

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2015). Besides, cracks developed in four buildings in old Dhaka, Tejgaon and Shewrapara of the capital (The Daily Star, 2015). Two consecutive earthquakes shook the country and the capital threatening to a major occurrence of an earthquake. A 6.7 magnitude earthquake struck at 5:05am in January, 2016 originating in the Indian state of Manipur and another powerful earthquake of 6.8 magnitudes, originating in Myanmar, shook the capital Dhaka, Chittagong city and other parts of Bangladesh in August, 2016 (Khan, 2016).

Figure 3.3: Tectonic plate boundary of Dhaka City (Source: EMI & WB, 2014)

Table 3.1: Intensities of significant earthquakes in Dhaka

Intensity of Earthquake

Magnitude Year

VIII 7 Bengal Earthquake, 1885 VII 7.6 Srimangal Earthquake, 1918

8.1 Great Indian Earthquake, 1897 VI 7.1 1923

8.1 1934 6.0 1935 7.2 1943 5.1 2001

(Source: EMI & WB, 2014)

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3.5 Disaster and Earthquake Management in Bangladesh and Dhaka city and Scope of Community Involvement

3.5.1 Legislative and institutional framework of disaster management of Bangladesh Being a disaster prone country, the Government of Bangladesh issued disaster management legislative and institutional framework with a vision to the risk of people from all strata from the effects of natural, environmental and human induced hazards (DMB, GoB, 2010a). The legislations for DM of Bangladesh include, National Disaster Management Act, 2012, National Plan for Disaster Management (NPDM) (2010-2015) and (2016-2020), Standing Order on Disasters (SOD), 2010 that is updated in 2019 and Disaster management policy, 2009. National Disaster Management Act, 2012, aims to support the communities in mitigating the impacts of disasters and respond in an effective manner. The most important objective of the act is to provide the institutional framework of disaster management in Bangladesh at two levels: national and local level (DMB, GoB, 2010a). At national level the disaster management starts under the National Disaster Management Council and different ministries, departments and committees at the subsequent levels. On the other hand, from the national level, the flow of disaster management reaches towards the local level. For village: Union Disaster Management Committee and for city level: City Corporation Disaster Management Committee (CCDMC) work at the bottom of disaster management of Bangladesh. Figure 3.4 shows the institutional framework of disaster management in Bangladesh that is presented in the National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP) (2010-2015). Based on the strategies and priority actions of the two frameworks named the SAARC Disaster Management Framework and the Hyogo Framework of Action (2005-2015) the NDMP (2010-2015) has been developed (DMB, GoB, 2010 a). This provides the overall guideline for the disaster management committees at all levels. After NDMP (2010-2015), NDMP (2016-2020) is fully based on Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR) and the plan has been developed through participatory approach where all the stakeholders’ involvement has been assured. Based on the four priority actions of SFDRR, the NDMP (2016-2020) aimed to prepare strategies for reducing the impacts of disasters categorizing three programs (2016, 2017-2018, 2019-2020). It has been stated in the plan that based on the activities under these three programs, the plan is about to revise regularly (Ministry of Disaster management and Relief [MoDMR], 2017). The Standing Orders on Disaster, 2010 and updated SOD, 2019 describe the detailed roles and responsibilities of committees, Ministries and other organizations in disaster risk reduction and emergency management (DMB, GoB, 2010c). According to the SOD, 2010 and 2019, the formation of different committees at different levels are also

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been defined. Besides, rules and regulations to manage disasters at different phases of the concerned authorities have clearly stated here (DMB, GoB, 2010c). From this institutional structure of it is seen that, CCDMC is the lowest disaster management committee at city level. But it is a matter of concern that in a city a number of wards exists, especially in Dhaka city, in total 92 wards are present. Forming only one (01) CCDMC for total 92 wards for managing disaster is quite tough. That is why, it revised SOD, 2019 the Ward Disaster Management Committee (WDMC) has been formed. But again the question about the effectiveness of WDMC in each ward for managing disasters as more than 100000 people live in one of Dhaka city (BBS, 2011). 3.5.2 Legislative framework of earthquake management of Bangladesh and Dhaka city According to the NPDM (2010-2015), there is declaration for preparing National Earthquake Contingency Plan (DMB, GoB, 2010).The Disaster Management and Relief Division (DM & RD) has undertaken Comprehensive Disaster Management Program (CDMP) at two phases: CDMP Phase-I (2006-2010) and CDMP Phase-II. Under these two programs, earthquake risk and damage assessment and scenario based contingency plans have been prepared at national level, Dhaka, Chittagong and Sylhet at city level and later for Rangpur, Dinajpur, Mymensingh, Tangail, Bogra and Rajshahi Municipalities/ City Corporations areas as well as to develop scenario based ward-level spatial Contingency Plan for Dhaka, Chittagong and Sylhet City Corporation areas. National Earthquake Contingency Plan aims to create an efficient and effective collaborative national approach to National Earthquake Emergency Response & Management at all levels with the participation of all stakeholders considering seismic hazard which has a potential to create an impact within Bangladesh of various magnitudes and intensity (CDMP, 2009b). As said by the NPDM (2010-2015), Bangladesh, all the response activities are the grouped into nine relevant operational functional clusters in the earthquake contingency plan. The clusters are (DMB, GoB, 2010; CDMP, 2009a): (i) Emergency Operations Cluster 1 – Overall Command and Coordination; (ii) Emergency Operations Cluster 2 – Search, Rescue and Evacuation; (iii) Health Cluster; (iv) Relief Services (Food, Nutrition and other Relief) Cluster; (v) Shelter (Including Camp Management) Cluster; (vi) Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene Cluster; (vii) Restoration of Urban Services Cluster; (viii) Transport (Road, Rail, Air, Sea) Cluster and (ix) Security and Welfare Cluster. According to the earthquake contingency Plan for Dhaka city, the organizations involved in the management of earthquake can be divided into three categories: “First Responder organization” refers to those institutions and individuals who in the early stages of an incident are responsible for the protection and preservation of life,

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property, and the environment, including emergency response providers as well as emergency management, search and rescue, fire safety, public health, clinical care, and other skilled support personnel (such as equipment operators) that provide immediate support services during emergency operations; the second level is consisted of the utility and life line institutions (water supply, electricity, gas supply, telecommunications, waste disposal etc) transportation systems (road, air, rail, and sea), Para military forces and Police which will be engaged in security, law and order functions and Third Responder Organizations are the others such as line Ministries, Departments, City Authorities, NGOs/ INGOs, electronic and paper Media, Academia, Development Partners will be the passive users of the plan as they will be providing support services for plan implementation. Besides the country and Dhaka city context, some earthquake contingency plans have also been prepared for fisrt and second responder organizations like Armed Forces Division (AFD), Fire Service and Civil Defense (FSCD), Directorate of Relief and Rehabilitation (DRR), Bangladesh Telecommunications Company Limited (BTCL), Dhaka Power Distribution Company Limited (DPDC) and Titas Gas Transmission & Distribution Company Limited (TGTDCL) who will be involved in case of an earthquake m management at different phases (CDMP, 2009c; CDMP, 2009d; CDMP, 2009e; CDMP, 2009f; CDMP, 2009g; CDMP, 2009h). Apart from this contingency plan, according to the institutional framework of disaster management in Bangladesh, Earthquake Preparedness and Awareness Committee (EPAC) is present at national level which is formed in 2009. The general responsibility of this committee has been specified according to the SOD, 2010 and also in 2019 includes: review the earthquake awareness programs, search and rescue equipments and necessary recommendations for earthquake risk reduction (DMB, GoB, 2010c). Also, NDPM (2016-2020) has considered the earthquake disaster in its strategic actions based on the four priority actions of SFDRR. In this plan a number of actions have been addressed regarding earthquake management under four priority actions. Here also the lead and supporting agencies have been identified to manage them (MoDMR, 2017).

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Figure 3.4: Institutional framework of disaster management in Bangladesh (Source: DMB, GoB, 2010a)

3.5.3 Scope of community involvement in legislative framework of disaster and earthquake management in Bangladesh and Dhaka city The national disaster management plan (2010-2015) has developed some strategies for mainstreaming disaster risk reduction. The strategies include: advocacy, policy and planning reform, capacity building, planning framework, uniform Community Risk Assessment guideline (CRA) (Source: DMB, GoB, 2010a). These strategies tried to include community in the disaster management planning framework. Figure 3.5 shows the involvement opportunity according to the NPDM (2020-2015). According to the SOD 2010, CCDMC is responsible for coordinating with community for disaster risk reduction approaches like: risk identification at community level, vulnerability reduction and capacity building action plan , dissemination of information regarding risk of disasters and practical measures for build up capacities, training to the students, youth, local club members and volunteers on community based actions,

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mock, drill, rehearsal on the dissemination of warnings/forecasts, evacuation, rescue and primary relief operations and so on (DMB, GoB, 2010c). On the other hand, the earthquake contingency plan for Dhaka city declared the communities at risk are the ultimate beneficiaries by the plan (CDMP, 2009a). Among different stakeholders, Community Based Organizations (CBOs), Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) are also one of them (CDMP, 2009a; CDMP, 2009b). 3.5.4 Cyclone Preparedness Program (CPP): An initiative of Government of Bangladesh (GoB) to integrate community in Cyclone disaster management The coastal areas of Bangladesh have been affected by cyclone from years. Since 1970 to till date cyclones visited the country with devastation, life and property losses. In July 1973, Cyclone Preparedness Program (CPP) in the field of cyclone disaster management in Bangladesh has been approved by the then GoB (Cyclone Preparedness Program [CPP], GoB, 2019). This program is mainly activated for early warning system, search, rescue, evacuation, sheltering, first aid, relief distribution and rehabilitation activities in the cyclone prone root level areas of Bangladesh (CPP, GoB, 2019). CPP is a joint effort of the Government of Bangladesh (GoB), United Nations and International Red Cross and the Bangladesh Red Crescent Society (Bangladesh Red Crescent Society [BDRCS], 2019). CPP is solely a community volunteer based program that is grass rooted at the village or field level which is now a well implemented preparedness program for cyclone preparedness in Bangladesh (BDRCS, 2019; CPP, GoB, 2019). The volunteers work restlessly with the locall people of the coastal areas for dissemination of Cyclone Warning, evacuation, rescue, first aid and emergency relief work including mobilization of people toward cyclone shelters (BDRCS, 2019). CPP is an example of the dedication of community volunteers who work for the common people of cyclone prone areas of Bangladesh. At present CPP program has 203 employees and approximately 49365 volunteers where 32310 male and 16455 are female (BDRCS, 2019). This program is active in 7 zones, 13 districts, 37 Upazillas, 322 Unions, 3291 Units of Bangladesh (BDRCS, 2019). The importance of the volunteers in a cyclonic disaster has been acclaimed nationally and also regionally. This program has been awarded with “Smith Tumsaroch award-1998” from Thailand for its outstanding effort that has saved many thousands of lives in Bangladesh (Mohammad, 2016). Figure 3.6 shows the CPP framework of Bangladesh.

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Figure 3.5: Mainstreaming strategies for DRR enriching the capacity and awareness of community (Source: DMB, GoB, 2010a)

Figure 3.6: CPP field level framework with community volunteer arrangement (Source: UNDP, 2019)

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3.6 Disaster and Earthquake Management and Community Involvement in the Selected Asian Countries 3.6.1 Legislative and institutional framework of disaster and earthquake management: Community involvement in India The Government of India has undertaken a number of disaster management legislations and policy frameworks. Disaster Management Act, 2005; National Disaster Management Policy, 2009; National Disaster Management Plan (2015-2030), 2016 are the main legislations for disaster management of this country (Carter & Pozarny, 2016; The Disaster Management Act, 2005, 2005; NDMA, GoI, 2009; NDMA, GoI, 2016). Besides, National Disaster Management Guideline, 2007 has been established where separate guidelines for managing different disasters are elaborated (NDMA, GoI, 2007; Carter & Pozarny, 2016). The main focus of the legislations are: community based disaster management, capacity development in all spheres, preparation of detail disaster management plan at the three tier mechanisms for Disaster Management of India namely National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA) and District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA) (Das, 2012). District disaster management Authority (DDMA) is linked with local authority that is comprised of municipalities thus nagar panchyate at city level and Panchayat Raj institute (PRI) or village panchayat (NDMA, GoI, 2016; Madan & Routray, 2015; The Disaster Management Act, 2005, 2005; National Disaster Management Authority & Indira Gandhi National Open University [IGNOU], 2012; Rath, 2002; Legislative Department, Ministry of Law and Justice, GoI, 2018). The institutional structure of disaster management of India is presented in figure 3.7. In accordance with this guideline, 2017, guideline for Earthquake management has also been formulated. The earthquake management in India is now mainly based on enriching preparedness and mitigation phase where the community participation is a must. The National earthquake management guideline of India prepared by NDMA, stated that “the community will participate at the local level in the planning, implementation and monitoring processes” of earthquake management (NDMA, GoI, 2007, p.12). Besides, projects like National Earthquake Risk Mitigation Project, Urban Earthquake Vulnerability Reduction Project etc. have also been undertaken to increase the preparedness, awareness among people regarding earthquake disaster. A number of institutions are related with management, monitoring and research on earthquake namely: Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), Ministry of Earth Science (MoES); National Geophysical Research Institute, National Information Centre of Earthquake Engineering (NICEE), National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM), National Core Group for Earthquake Mitigation and so on (Disaster Management Act, 2005, GoI, 2005). Table 3.2 and Table 3.3 present the scope of community involvement in the regulatory and institutional framework of disaster and earthquake management of India.

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Figure 3.7: Institutional structure of disaster management of India and incorporation of community (Source: Sinha et al, 2019)

Table 3.2: Provisions of community involvement in the disaster management of

India according to the regulatory framework

Legislations and policy provisions Provision for community involvement

Disaster Management Act, 2005 Main focus is preparedness and preventive measures and community level disaster management plan and vulnerability map is directed to be prepared

Mandates three levels of disaster management where community level is connected through DDMC at City level: Municipalities/nagar panchayet and Village level: Gram panchayet

Encouraging capacity building, training to volunteers from top to community level by local authority and community programmes and awareness activities; training to school teachers, students; emphasizes on the involvement of NGOs and voluntary social welfare communities

National policy on Disaster management, 2009

Focus is community based disaster management, prevention, mitigation, preparedness measures and conceptualizing the concept at different levels

Provision of Panchayat and block level

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Source: Disaster Management Act, 2005, GoI, 2005; NDMA, GoI, 2007; NDMA, GoI, 2009; NDMA, GoI, 2016

community plan Encouraging partnership among all levels of

stakeholders: International, national to local and community level

Emphasizes on the participation of elderly, women, youth in decision making and action groups and encourages volunteerism; organizing capacity development for the community, training to professionals, DM education in schools

National Disaster management Plan, 2016 Focuses on the risk mitigation measures and local authority (Urban local bodies (ULB) and Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRI)) collaboration for different types of disasters

From law enforcement mechanism , early warning, communication to structural and non-structural measures local authority thus ULB and Panchayats are included

Emphasizes capacity development programe –training to village volunteers and network creation for better preparedness and response

National Disaster Management Guidelines, 2007-guideline for earthquake management

Focuses on the awareness and preparedness of all stakeholders, capacity development interventions including education, training, mock drill, vulnerability mapping etc. and strengthening emergency response capacity

Initialization projects of public awareness campaign, professional training to trainers, school teachers and so on.

Preparing community and village level DM plans, with specific reference to management of earthquakes

Projects on earthquake risk and vulnerability reduction

Focused earthquake awareness campaigns in targeted States/ Union Territories (UTs).

Training of masons in earthquake resistant constructions; School safety, education programmes have been organized in schools, colleges and other educational institutions; Awareness generation programmes, community and neighborhood organizations have been started

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Levels of institutions

Institutions Responsibilities and link with community

National National Disaster

Management Authority (NDMA)

Sets down policies, approving plan, guiding the states for the preparation of state level plan

Undertakes necessary measures for disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness and capacity development of different level institutions and departments the direction from central authority and coordination, monitoring activities of executive committees towards the subsequent level

State State Disaster Management

Authority (SDMA)

Sets down the state DM policies, plans and guideline for departments of states to integrate prevention and preparedness measures of disaster management

the coordination, monitoring, reviewing the disaster management activities from state to subsequent level in accordance with national level activities and direction

District District

Disaster Management

Authority (DDMA)

Prepares district disaster management plan at district and local level including district response plan and identifies vulnerable areas of district and undertakes measures for mitigation and preparedness and collaboration with local authorities

Reviews preparedness measures, development plans at district level; organizes, facilitates and coordinates training programs for different category people with the support from local authorities

Sets, reviews and upgrades the early warning and communication mechanism to provide information to local people and encourages the participation of non-government organizations and voluntary social welfare organizations in disaster management at grass root level direct linkage to local level from the state and national level authorities

Local Villages/ Panchayat/

Panchayat Raj Institutions

(PRI)

Certain disaster management activities are performed by the gram panchayats in disaster management include: i) Arranging awareness camp; ii) Forecasting early warning system; iii) Arrangement of disaster shelters; iv) Protection of vulnerable groups of the people and Providing relief materials

Organizing awareness campaign and promoting community education; Preparation of community preparedness and response plan and preparation of teams: Early warning, forecasting, transport; Infrastructure,

Table 3.3: Institutional structure with responsibilities of institutions of disaster and earthquake management of India and linkage with community

37

3.6.2 Legislative and institutional framework of disaster management and way of community involvement: Japan The basis of Japan’s legislation for disaster management system is the Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act, 1961 (Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act 1961, Government of Japan [Japan GOV], 1997; Cabinet office, Government of Japan, 2015;

shelters and food management; Sanitation, health and first aid; Search, rescue and evacuation

Collaboration between local agencies and community; Establishing temporary shelter and evacuation route to the

shelter; coordinating different agencies to operate the rescue and relief activities; arrangement of food, drinking water and sanitation

Works directly at community level and communicate between community and the upper level though direct participation local people in disaster management activities

Earthquake specific

institutions

Ministry of Earth Sciences

Implement and guide the integrated program to forecast issues related to earthquake

Preparation of earthquake management plans Creating earthquake monitoring network not directly related to the community

Indian

Meteorological Department

(IMD)

Earthquake monitoring on 24X7 basis; operation and maintenance of national seismological network and local networks

Seismic hazard and risk related studies - Field studies for aftershock / swarm monitoring, site response studies -Earthquake processes and modeling

not directly related to the community (earthquake signal flows from national to local level)

National Core

Group for Earthquake Mitigation

Drawing up a strategy and plan of action for mitigating the impact of earthquakes and advice to the States on various aspects of earthquake mitigation

Advising for preparing handbooks, pamphlets etc. for earthquake resistant construction

Research Institutes

Research based activities like risk, vulnerability, hazard assessment, short course for students from different backgrounds

no link with the communities

Source: CSRI, 2019; IIIT- H,EERC. 2019; IMD, 2019; NICEE; ISET, 2019; Regional Meteorological Center, 2019; Sitharam & Kolathayar, 2018; Disaster Management Act, 2005, GoI, 2005

38

Cabinet office, Government of Japan, 2017; Pedroso, et al., 2013). Japan is governed by a three-tiered administration: the national government, prefectures, and municipalities (Ogata, 2016; Pedroso et.al, 2013). Central Disaster Management Council at national level, prefectural disaster management council at prefecture level and cities town and village councils are incorporated in municipal disaster management council. This council is chaired by the mayors of the municipal areas and heads of the village areas (Pedroso et.al, 2013). Finally this structure actively incorporates the residents’ level in the disaster management framework of Japan (Pedroso et.al, 2013). Figure 3.8 explains the institutional framework of disaster management in Japan. In accordance with the statement of the act, community disaster management plan explaining the activities at the community level is established by residents and businesses jointly on a voluntary basis (Cabinet office, Japan GOV, 2015; Cabinet office, Japan GOV, 2017). CBOs, voluntary disaster preparedness organizations, neighborhood council work for managing disasters at neighborhood level. Along with the government and community level authorities, a number of NGOs and INGOs work at the time of disasters like Japan Red Crescent Society (JRCS), Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and so on. A number of legislations have been sanctioned to manage different aspects of earthquake include: Act on special Measures for Earthquake Disaster Countermeasure, 1995, Large scale earthquake countermeasure act, 1978, Act on special zones for reconstruction in response to Great East Japan Earthquake, 2011, Basic Act on reconstruction in response to the Great East Japan Earthquake, 2011, act on earthquake insurance, 1966 (Ikeuchi &Waga, 2009; Global Research Center, 2013; International Development Center of Japan, 2014). A guideline for the countermeasures against earthquakes by local municipalities has been compiled covering every step of the disaster response levels (preparation, initial response, response, and recovery) (Cabinet office, Japan GOV, 2017). Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) is the prime authority to monitor seismic activities and disseminate the information from national to subsequent levels. Some research institutes promote research on earthquake educations. After Kobe earthquake in 1995, Japan realized the importance of mutual help and BOKOMI-disaster safe welfare community in each ward of Kobe city is created that emphasizes on self help and cooperation (Bazarragchaa, 2011; Mimaki, Takeuchi, & Shaw, 2009). Disaster countermeasure act promotes voluntary disaster management organizations which is a revolutionary attempt to incorporate community in an earthquake prone country (Bazarragchaa, 2011; Mimaki, Takeuchi, & Shaw, 2009). Table 3.4 and Table 3.5 depicts the community involvement scenario in disaster and earthquake management legislations and institutions

39

Figure 3.8: National to community level linkage in the administrative framework of Japan (Source: Tanaka, 2013)

40

Legislations and policy provisions

Provision for community involvement

Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act, 1961

Main focus is to protect the community from lives and property losses

City, town and village level disaster prevention plan Encouraging the consolidation of the organizations to

public groups for disaster prevention within the cities, towns and villages

Provision to create voluntary disaster prevention group at cities, towns and village levels among the residents of the community

Encouraging people to engage in voluntary disaster prevention activities by the creation of voluntary disaster prevention groups

Promoting education and drill for disaster prevention Recommends the development of “Community Disaster

Management Plans” for each community Disaster Management Plan

(Basic Disaster Management Plan, Disaster Management Operation Plan and Local

Disaster Management Plan)

Local disaster management plan ensures participation of community or citizens which is based on the basic disaster management plan

Community Disaster Management Plans

Community Disaster Management Plan guidelines has been established incorporating experts, local citizens, business people, academicians, government officials and so on

Ensures local community participation in town planning and the preliminary reconstruction phase

Activities regarding public awareness Creation of the Japanese Society for Community Disaster

Management Plan (SCDMP) for activation of the community in the disaster management and for community development

Act on Special Measures for Earthquake Disaster Countermeasures” , 1995

Earthquake resistant renovation work for public buildings, primary schools

Subsidies to local citizens for the cost of formulating planning and for the actual work costs related to their seismic renovations under “Seismic Retrofitting My House Program”

The Basic Act on reconstruction in response to the Great East Japan Earthquake, 2011

Focuses on reconstruction issue to provide a safe future generation

Clarification of the role of local government to incorporate the local people

Table 3.4: Provision of community involvement in the disaster and earthquake management in Japan according to the regulatory framework

41

Table 3.5: Provisions of community involvement in the disaster and earthquake

management of Japan according to the institutional framework

Act on Special Zones for Reconstruction in Response to the Great East Japan Earthquake, 2011

Sharing of roles and mutual cooperation between the national government and local governments

Provides the scope for the reflection of the needs of residents in disaster-stricken areas through initiatives of each respective community

The Earthquake Insurance Act, 1996

Contributes to the lives of the community to come back to normal life

Levels of institutions

Institutions Responsibilities and Link with community

National

Central disaster management

council

Formulation and implementation of basic disaster management plan and plan for emergency measures, basic policy of disaster prevention, overall coordination of measures , outline of urgent measures of temporary nature for a major disaster, declaration of a state of emergency according to the requests from the Prime Minster and/or Minister of State for Disaster Management

Right to seek opinion and views from national or local organs and other local public corporations

no direct linkage with the community direction towards to local level that incorporates

community

Local

Prefecture disaster

prevention council

Establishing joint committee of Prefecture disaster prevention council at city, town or village

Collection of information about a disaster occurring in the area of prefecture

Maintaining coordination among the prefectural designated administration, local administrative organs, the city town or village concerned, designated public corporations in matters of emergency measures and rehabilitation programs in the time of a disaster

Linkage with the community through direct information flow and liaison with the village level disaster prevention councils

Source: Cabinet office, GoJ, 2015; Cabinet office, GoJ, 2017; Ogata, 2016; Pedroso et.al, 2013; Nazarov, 2011; Bazarragchaa, 2011; SCDMP, 2014; Kadel, 2011; Mimaki, Takeuchi, & Shaw, 2009

42

Source: Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act 1961, Government of Japan; Cabinet office, Government of Japan, 2015; Cabinet office, Government of Japan, 2017; Pedroso, et al., 2013; Ogata, 2016; Pedroso et.al, 2013; Nazarov, 2011; Bazarragchaa, 2011; SCDMP, 2014; Global Research Center, 2013; International Development Center of Japan, 2014 3.6.3 Legislative and institutional framework of disaster and earthquake management and way of community involvement: Nepal Government of Nepal has issued various legislations for disaster management. Natural Calamity (Relief) Act, 1982, Local self-governance Act, 1999, National Action Plan on

City, town or village disaster

prevention council

to formulate an area disaster prevention council involving the

area of the city, town or village, and to implement it establishes mutual agreement jointly with a city, town

or village disaster prevention council preparing local level disaster management plan and

community level disaster management plan link directly with residents level and preparedness

ensured through the preparation of CDMP Neighborhood

level Community

based organizations (BOKOMI, Voluntary

disaster response group,

NPO, civil society

Disaster preparedness program at house hold, community and school level; promoting spirit of team work; forming local groups and rescue activities, arrangement of drill, educates residents, maintains rescue tools

Collaborating with different level government and the community

Community based reconstruction plan and developing mutual support system including home welfare services, training and courses, free voluntary services ; provision for education for children

Encouraging the communities in decision making process with the administration

strongly linked with community Earthquake

specific agencies

Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA)

Monitoring of earthquake phenomena and warning activities

Preparing emergency team during extreme disasters like an earthquake or tsunami

Earthquake warning information to the local government, media and other public corporations

evacuation instruction is given by the local government to the residents

education and awareness-raising efforts; distributes leaflets and posters as well as its work in conducting visiting lectures and symposiums

not directly linked with the community but information flow JMA to local government and directly to the community

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Disaster Management in Nepal, 1996, National Strategy on Disaster Risk Management (NSDRM), 2009, Natural Disaster Response Framework, 2013, in 2017 Disaster Risk Reduction Management Act, 2017 has been endorsed and in 2018 the National disaster risk management policy for Nepal has been finalized (Local self-governance Act, 1999, Government of Nepal [GoN], 1999; Ministry of Home [MoH], GoN, 1996; Ministry of Home Affairs [MoHA], GoN, 2009; MoHA, GoN 2013; MoHA, GoN 2018; Ghimire, 2016; Koirala, 2014; Nepal, Khanal, & Sharma, 2018). Under the national council for disaster management all the subsequent authorities work. The National Strategy for Disaster Risk Management in Nepal (NSDRMN), 2009 encourages the incorporation of village, municipalities directly with the local and district level disaster management committee (MoHA, GoN 2009). Separate committees for managing preparedness, rescue and recovery have been stated in this strategy. This document has been developed in participation and involvement of the governmental and non-governmental agencies, local bodies, academic institutions, private sector, international development partners, civil society, and communities (MoHA, GoN 2009; MoHA, GoN, 2011). The framework of the Search and Rescue (SAR) response according to the National Disaster Search and Rescue (SAR) action plan, 2013 include community directly in the SAR operation (MoHA, GoN, 2013). Figure 3.9 presents the disaster management structure of Nepal. Aside by the national framework, National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal (NSET) is working restlessly in preparedness, response and recovery phases of an earthquake management (Upadhyay, Shrestha, Basyal & Ranamagar, 2012; NSET, 2019). Beside this organization, Nepal Red Crescent Society (NRCS) has done tremendous activities regarding earthquake management in Nepal (NRCS, 2017). The Humanitarian Country Team (HCT) has developed plan to reach a common understanding of earthquake risk to ensure early action is taken when required (HCT, 2016). Another contingency plan named “Nepal Red Cross Society Contingency Plan for A Major Earthquake In the Kathmandu Valley”, 2008 has been initiated for three phases of earthquake management namely preparedness, response and recovery (NRCS, 2008; NRCS, 2017). Nepal Red Cross Society (NRCS) involves in the humanitarian activities, disaster preparedness activities and training program where the involvement of the community is mandatory (MoHA, GoN, 2009). Table 3.6 and Table 3.7 show the disaster and earthquake management legislations, institution and community linkage of Nepal.

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Figure 3.9: Institutional structure of DM of Nepal according to the NSDRM, 2009 (Source: Ministry of Home Affairs, GoN, 2009)

45

Legislations Provision for community involvement Natural Disaster Relief Act (NDRA), 1982

Focuses mainly on the post disaster management phase Establishes Local Natural Disaster Relief committee at

local level National Strategy on Disaster Risk Management (NSDRM), 2009

Separate committees for acting in different phases of disaster management prepared namely: Preparedness Management Committee, Rescue and Relief Management Committee and Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Management Committee

Forming Regional Disaster Management Committee (RDMC), District Disaster Management Committee (DDMC) and Local Disaster Management Committee (LDMC)

Activates District Natural Disaster Rescue Committees, District Development Committees (DDCs), Municipalities, and Village Development Committees (VDCs), National Non-government Organizations (NGOs)

Proposal for district/municipal/VDC level DRM Committees

Enhances performance capabilities of Community Organizations (COs) to carry out DRM activities at community levels ; training on local early warning system, relocation to safe places, first-aid, search and rescue, and put out fire

Linkages between COs and related local entities such as: Agricultural Development Bank, health and livestock services for the promotion of disaster preparedness

National Disaster Response Framework (NDRF), 2013

Incorporate different agencies and local bodies in response activities

National Strategic Action Plan for Search and Rescue, 2014

Preparing community based SAR team and providing necessary instruction, accessories and equipments at community level, training at community level on Medical First Responder (MFR) and Collapsed Structure Search and Rescue (CSSR)

Establishing community level first responder at village and municipalities on the basis of available human resources

Disaster Management Act, 2017

Local level disaster management committee to collaborate with community level

“Nepal Red Cross Society Contingency Plan for A Major Earthquake In the Kathmandu Valley”, 2008

Focuses on the preparation of NRCS for an earthquake in Kathmandu valley

Earthquake contingency plan by Humanitarian Country team (HCT),2015

addresses community representatives and private sectors for managing different sectors of an earthquake

Source: Natural Disaster Relief Act [NDRA], 1982, GoN; Local Self Governance Act, 1999, GoN; Local Government Operation Act, 2017, GoN; Disaster Management Act, 2017, GoN; MoHA, GoN, 2009; MoHA, GoN 2018; Nepal et al., 2018; MoHA, GoN, 2013)

Table 3.6: Provisions of community involvement in the disaster and earthquake management of Nepal according to the regulatory framework

46

Table 3.7: Provisions of community involvement in the disaster and earthquake management of Nepal according to the institutional framework

Level Institutions Responsibilities

National

National council for disaster risk reduction

and management (NCDRRM)

Approval of national level policy and plans and direction to the executive committee, national authority and local level authority

no direct link with the community

National Disaster Reduction and Management

Authority (NDRMA)

Implement the policies and plans approved by council and executive committee

Formation of search and rescue teams at different levels, collaborate private, NGOs and local communities and financial and technical assistance to province to local level

Linkage with communities through local level collaboration

Province

Province Disaster Management

Committee (PDMC)

Implement medium and short term disaster management plans, policies and programs and facilitates the disaster preparedness activities of the local disaster management committee

Link with community through the local disaster management committee

District District Disaster

Management Committee (DDMC)

Prepares disaster response plan at district level, involves in search and rescue works

Coordination with national and international organizations for assistance

Linked with community through the direction to the local authority

Local

Local Disaster Management

Committee (LDMC)/ Village Development

Committee (VDC)

Design and operates local disaster management plans

Coordination of public, private, NGOs, local volunteers and social welfare organizations ; formation of disaster preparedness committee at ward and community level; training and awareness program

Management of early warning system, activation of Emergency Operation Centre (EOC), and involves in the rescue and relief operation

Earthquake

specific

-National Society for Earthquake

Technology-Nepal (NSET): “Earthquake Safe Communities in

Nepal by 2020

Addressing preparedness, response and recovery phases through different awareness, training programs, school safety initiatives and community level practices

Community based disaster risk reduction, institutional capacity development; regular projects on mock drill exercises

Source: Natural Disaster Relief Act [NDRA], 1982, GoN; Disaster Management Act, 2017, GoN; MoHA, GoN, 2009; MoHA, GoN, 2013; MoHA, GoN, 2011; Pokhrel, Bhandari, & Viraraghavan, 2009; Koirala, 2014; Upadhyay et al., 2012

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3.7 Conclusion This chapter has provided clear conception regarding the key terms to understand the basic idea regarding the study. The importance of community participation in earthquake disaster management has also been explored here with examples and disaster management regulations from the selected three Asian countries: India, Japan and Nepal. Also, the significance of community involvement according to the international strategies: Hyogo Framework and Sendai framework has been discussed. The gaps and also opportunities to involve communities in earthquake management of Dhaka city has been understood according to the disaster and earthquake management legislative and institutional framework. As a whole, the leanings from this chapter have been applied to further analysis of the study.

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CHAPTER 4: STUDY AREA PROFILE

4.1 Introduction Disaster and earthquake management documents of Bangladesh and Dhaka city stated the community involvement in different sectors. This study explored the implementation status of community involvement of earthquake management scenario at grass root level as per the documents. Four (04) earthquakes vulnerable communities have been selected from four (04) earthquake vulnerable wards for observing real field scenario. This chapter explains the study area and its historical, social, natural, physical and the vulnerability profile. Also the justification behind the selection of the study areas has been stated with necessary illustrations. 4.2 Rationality behind the Selection of the Study Area To analyze the community involvement or community level earthquake management, four (04) communities have been selected from the four (04) earthquake vulnerable wards. The selected vulnerable wards are: Ward no. 06 (Dhaka North City Corporation (DNCC)); Ward no. 15 (DNCC) and Ward no. 17 (DNCC); Ward no 14 (Dhaka South City Corporation (DSCC)) (Figure A-1, Appendix-A). The selected communities are located within Block D, Section 6 of ward no. 06 (DNCC); Manikdi of ward no. 15 (DNCC) and Nikunja-2 of ward no. 17; Mitali road to Moneshwer road, ward no 14 (DSCC). The locations of the communities are shown in Figure 4.1, 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4 respectively. “Bangladesh Urban Earthquake Resilience Project” carried out by WB and EMI in 2014, the above four (04) wards have been identified as one of the most vulnerable wards based on based on the possible fatalities and extensive building damage parameters. It is seen that, Ward 06, 15 and 17 of DNCC are in the top ten earthquake vulnerable wards in possible fatalities and building damage. Ward no. 14 of DSCC is also earthquake vulnerable based on these two parameters (EMI & WB, 2014) (Map A-1, Appendix-A). That is why; these four (04) wards have been selected and among them four (04) communities have been identified where the social and resource bases, physical characteristics, vulnerability scenario and causes and effects of this vulnerability have been analyzed. Apart from the selection of vulnerable communities of Dhaka city, three earthquake prone Asian countries have been selected namely: India, Japan and Nepal for reviewing the earthquake management system of those countries.

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4.3 Location and demographic profile of the selected communities 4.3.1 Study area 1: Ward 06 (DNCC) (Block D, Section 6, Mirpur) Ward no 06 lies in zone 8 of Dhaka North city Corporation (DNCC) and divided into two (02) parts. Part-01 consists of section 7, Pallabi area, Eastern Housing Area Block-A, B, C, D and E; Chaya Neer Housing Society, Arifabad Housing Society, Alubdi Area and Rupnagar tin shed area. Part-02 includes Section – 7: Block-B, E, F, G; Mallika Housing Society; Section 6: Block C, D, E and Ta; Pallabi, Arambag Housing Society Area. The selected community lies in the part 2, zone 8 of Dhaka North city Corporation (DNCC) that is Block D, section 6. The study community is surrounded by milk vita road in the south west part and avenue 5 in the south part, in west side the Bazar road. Figure 4.1 shows the location of the selected community. The ward is under the jurisdiction of Mirpur-10 fire station. The total population of the ward is 163770 and area 3.03 sq km (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics [BBS], 2011). The approximate number of population is 24800 (Table B-1, Appendix-B). 4.3.2 Study area 2: Ward 15 (DNCC) (Manikdi) Ward 15 is divided into two (02) parts and located in zone 8 of DNCC. Part-01 consists of Baighartek Alubdirtek, Barantek, Balughat, Manikdi and part-02 includes Matikata and Bhasantek area. The selected community is located in part-01 that is Manikdi. Figure 4.2 exhibits the location of the selected community. The Total population of this ward is 173842 and area is 5.81sq.km (BBS, 2011). The approximate population of the area is 24000 which have been found from field survey. 4.3.3 Study area 3: Ward 17 (DNCC) (Nikunja-2) DNCC Ward 17 is under Zone 1 of Dhaka North City Corporation. The main areas of the ward are Nikunja, Kuirl, Kuratoli, Kurmitola, Khilkhet – Ka, Joar Sahara, and Part of Bashundhara R/Aand Cantonment area. The 3.1 km long Kuril Flyover is also in this ward. Nikunja and Bashundhara both are residential areas. The selected community is Nukunja-2 (road 1 to road 21) which is a residential area. Figure 4.3 shows the location of the community. This ward is under the Kurmitola Fire Station. Total population of this ward is 196479 and area is 5.48 sq. km (BBS, 2011). The approximate population of this community is 26620 (Table B-1, Appendix-B). 4.3.4 Study area 4: Ward no 14, DSCC (Mitali road to Moneshwer road) Ward no 14 includes Rayer bazar, Dhanmondi 15, Modhubazar, Jigatola bus stand, Hazaribag, Kamrangirchar, Shikaritola, Tali office, Sikder medical estate, Sultangonj, Mitali road, Hazaribazar, Tanari area, Jigatola staff quarter, Bangla road, Tollabag , moneshwar road. The selected community is located between Mitali road and Moneshwer road on the north and south side respectively. On east and west side it is

50

surrounded by Sher-e Bangla road and Jigatola road (Figure 4.4). According to Bangladesh bureau of statistics housing census 2011, total population of ward no 14 was 128,921 and area 1.35 sq. km (BBS, 2011). From the field survey, it has been found that approximately 25000-28000 people live in this community. This ward is under the jurisdiction of Hazaribagh fire station, but due to lack of equipments and manpower this fire station cannot serve this ward properly. That is why Mohammadpur fire station serves the area in need. The location map of the ward and the community are shown in Figure 4.4.

Figure 4.1: (Left) Map of ward 06; (Right) selected community (Block-D)

(Source: DCC, 2008; Google map, 2019)

Figure 4.2: (Left) Map of ward 15 (DNCC), (Right) Map of Selected community from (Manikdi)

(Source: DCC, 2008; Google map, 2019)

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Figure 4.3: (Left) Map of ward 17; (Right) selected community (Nikunja-2) (Source: DCC, 2008; Google map, 2019)

Figure 4.4: (Left) Map of ward 14; (Right) selected community (Mitali road to

Moneshwer road) (Source: DCC, 2008; Google map, 2019)

4.4 Historical Profile of the Selected Communities

The historical profile of the selected communities started from the establishment of the areas and a chronological development status. Table 4.1 here shows the chronological timeline of the study communities that has been summarized through the categorization in some important incidents like: experiences of disasters, earthquake occurrence and damages, Fire incidents, important establishment, drill/ training/ awareness raising program, any other Remarkable event and so on. PRA tool historical time line has been applied in FGD to gather the information.

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4.4.1 Study area 1: Ward 06 (DNCC) (Block D, Section 6, Mirpur) The establishment period of this area is 1959-1965. In this time period, 6 no. mosque has been constructed that is the most influential structure of this area. Till 1980, there were enough open spaces, play field, play lot and also some ponds and water bodies. After 1980 more people came to live in this area and the congestion has been started. Land grabbers started to occupy the lands and constructed buildings filling up the water bodies and occupying the open spaces from 1995. Another pond that was beside the Block-D bazaar, has been filled up and a community center has been constructed here in 2011. Table B-2 in Appendix-B presents the detail timeline of this community. 4.4.2 Study area 2: Ward 15 (DNCC) (Manikdi)

From 1972-1978 Manikdi area was used as paddy field. After 1978, the bazaar and schools were established and the bazar had been connected with the ECB chattar and Matikata road. After continuous establishment and events, in 2000 shared development concept initiated and high rise buildings were being built in the area. Afterwards, in 2003 people developed their land individually or sharing with others. The construction of some buildings occupying the roads results in narrow road width. The haphazard development is ongoing and the area is becoming more vulnerable to earthquake due to this unplanned growth. Table B-3 in Appendix- B shows the chronological history of the community. 4.4.3 Study area 3: Ward 17 (DNCC) (Nikunja-2) The establishment of this area has been started after the acquisition of land of Nikunja-1 and Nikunja-2 by DIT (Dhaka Improvement Trust). The area was called “DIT Field”. The buildings were started to build in 1992. In 2002 two (02) storied under construction building collapsed and some people injured. The development of buildings has been remarkably increased after 2008. At present, the roads have been occupied for the construction of high rise buildings though the buildings are permitted to build up to six (06) storied. There left some pocket spaces, one park and an Eidgah field. Table B-4 in Appendix B shows the historical timeline of the community. 4.4.4 Study area 4: Ward no 14 (DSCC) (Mitali road to Moneshwer road) The area was established before 1971. Before 80’, there were enough open spaces and greeneries and water bodies. But After 1980, building construction was started filling up the water bodies and open spaces. After 1990, construction had been started covering Buriganga that was beside the area. This area experienced incidents like building collapse, fire at under construction building, fire at Hazaribagh tannery and so on. At present there is no water body. As the roads are continuously being narrowed down, the water bodies already had covered up, open spaces are occupied, the people are in a huge risk of an earthquake. Table B-5, in Appendix- B shows the detail

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historical background of the study area. Table 4.1 briefly summarized the important events chronologically.

Table 4.1: Summary of historical background of the selected communities

Year Events Ward 06 (Block

D), DNCC Ward 15

(Manikdi), DNCC

Ward 17 (Nikunja-2), DNCC

Ward 14 ( Mitali road to Moneshwer

road ), DSCC Before 1971

Establishment Initial establishment, mainly an agricultural field

Establishment -Establishment - leather technology institute

After 1971-1980

-enough open space, play field, park and greeneries; buildings were semi pucca and tin shed - buildings were established two (02) to three (03) storied

start of filling the low-lying paddy fields and started development of katcha and semi-pucca buildings. -bazaar and schools established -connection with ECB chattor

-Plot allotment by RAJUK for the people affected by acquisition of Nikunja-1 and Nikunja-2 area by Dhaka Improvement Trust (DIT)

-enough open spaces, greeneries; 60feet wide road started to narrow down for construction

1980-1990

-people came to live and allotted with 1.45 katha plot -starting of construction to accommodate people; demolishing of the open spaces started

-flood of 1988 created havoc -Dam established by Govt. -land price increase -more construction started haphazardly -narrow down roads

-Flood of 1988 created devastation -political changes came -plots were reallocated

-started building construction covering roads in a congested way - disturbance by flood

1990-2000

- filling up water bodies -congestion increased -lessening road width - a few spaces left for evacuation -lake beside D to Ta block started to lose its pleasant view due to Slum

-1st CBO formed -shared development concept initiated; high rise building construction started

-building construction started without water, gas supply -flood of 1998 showed its destruction -first CBO formed

-demolishing of water bodies and greeneries continued -road are narrowed down

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Source: FGD, 2017 to 2019 4.5 Social, Natural Condition and Physical characteristics of the Study Area To understand the social institutions and to observe the resource base, social and resource map has been prepared. Aside by, the physical characteristics such as building patterns have been identified by transect walk. Figure 4.5 shows the social aspects and resources of the selected communities. Figure B-1 to Figure B-4 in Appendix B; represent the physical characteristics of the communities 4.5.1 Social institutions The communities have a number of social institutions like: mosques, educational institutes, bazar, medical center, community services and so on (Figure 4.5). Among them, mosques are the most important one for all the communities (Figure 4.5). In Nikunja-2, there is a mosque committee consisted of 24 members that has enough influence on the community people. The mosques can be the evacuation center and also be used for earthquake awareness programs and speeches by the Imam. In Block-D community Mirpur, Ward 06, the bazaar area is the gathering place for the people and due to the location of the mosque here, this has become the most important structure for them. The schools and its premises can be used as evacuation place and for earthquake drills, practices for school children. The clinics will be necessary for initial treatment of victims. Among four communities, two of them have organized CBOs. In Manikdi, Ward 15, there exists a CBO named “Community Policing Services”. Another CBO

2000-2010

Pond filled up for the construction of a community center

- individual or shared building construction started in an unplanned way and without rules and roads were narrowed down -Community Policing Services (CPS) formed

-two storied building collapse, people injured - building of two CNG stations beside the area -start of rapid construction

-a water pump established after some fire incidents at nearest slums, but failed to operate -a buildings collapse, owner was the victim but rescued -Mohammadpur to Bosila road construction

2010- onwards

Ongoing rapid construction

-some improvement initiative but ongoing rapid construction in an unplanned way

-road construction by Army; -start of high rise building without maintaining rules; covering the wider roads and congested pattern buildings -ongoing rapid construction

-fire incident at developers buildings -Ongoing rapid construction in an unplanned way

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named Otindra formed with old people is outside the community. In Nikunja-2, the CBO named Nikunja-2 Barir Malik Kollyan Shomiti and Nikunja Club. The main tasks of these types of CBOs are: arrangement of social programs, providing security to the area at night, communicating with the nearest police station in any emergency etc. These types of CBOs can arrange earthquake awareness raising programs and related activities. Figure 4.5 (a) , Figure 4.5 (b), Figure 4.5 (c) and Figure 4.5 (d) show the social and resource characteristics of Block-D, Ward 6, DNCC; Manikdi, Ward 15, DNCC; Nikunja, Ward 17, DNCC and Mitali to Moneshwer Road, Ward 14, DSCC respectively. 4.5.2 Roads and building pattern The access roads of the communities are 5-10 feet. The road condition in the community between Mitali and Moneshwer road is the worst. The maximum road width of the boundary road of this area is approximately 12feet. The Mitali road is approximately 9 feet that mainly connects the whole community through different access roads. The access roads are 6-5 feet or less than that. The width of the roads in Block-D, Mirpur and Nikunja-2 is 15-20 feet wide. Maximum buildings of the communities except Manikdi is four to six storied. At present, new buildings constructed by the developers are seven stories and above in a congested way (Figure B-1 to Figure B-4, Appendix B). 4.5.3 Natural resources

In block-D, Mirpur, the baazar area can be considered as open space and in Manikdi there are some vacant lands. In Nikunja-2, there is park and an eidgah field. But the worst scenario iseen in the community between Mitali to Moneshwer road left with no natural resources (Figure 4.5).

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Figure 4.5: Social and resource map of the selected communities (Source: FGD, 2017, 2018 and 2019)

(a) Block-D, Mirpur, Ward 06, DNCC

(b) Manikdi, Ward 15, DNCC

(c) Nikunja-2, Ward 17, DNCC

(d) Mitali Road to Moneshwer Road, Ward 14, DSCC

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4.6 Causes of Earthquake Vulnerability in the Selected Communities

The causes have identified behind earthquake vulnerability at the selected communities through the application of cause effect diagram and to find the most influential causes pair-wise ranking method has been carried out. Figure B-5, B-6, B-7 and B-8 in Appendix B, show the primary causes of earthquake vulnerability in the selected communities. Table B-6, B-7, B-8 and B-9 in Appendix B show the ranking of the primary causes of the four communities. Figure B-9, B-10, B-11 and B-12 depict the most influential causes and reasons behind earthquake vulnerability. Here in Figure 4.6 shows the overall primary causes behind earthquake vulnerability of the communities and Figure 4.7 presents the most influential causes and reasons behind the earthquake vulnerability of the communities.

4.6.1 Primary causes The primary causes behind earthquake vulnerability in the communities include: lack of awareness, unplanned structures, lack or retrofitting of old buildings, increased population density, lack of open space and water bodies, absence of emergency exit, absence of volunteers, no or ineffective community based teams or organizations and so on (Figure 4.6). The consequential results of these causes of earthquake vulnerabilities in the communities are: possibilities of the collapse of buildings that are very old and represent the culture or memory of the area, no evacuation route and evacuation plan, possibilities of trapping the people inside the buildings due to collapse and thus demise and injury can be increased (Figure 4.6). 4.6.2 Most influential causes

Among all these primary causes, the most influential causes are unplanned and haphazard development, lack of open spaces and water bodies and lack of awareness (Figure 4.7). Due to the lack of enforcement of laws, government intervention, inspection and monitoring at the time of building construction as well as ignorance of the rules, the unplanned development is increasing. As a result, the roads are being blocked and road capacity is decreased. Besides, due this rapid construction the open spaces and water bodies are decreasing (Figure 4.7). This reduction of the resources will result in no evacuation place and no water in an emergency. Furthermore, the gaps between two buildings are decreasing due to this haphazard construction, thus there can be a possibility of building collapse that can take more lives at the time of an earthquake. Lack of awareness is another influential cause that increases earthquake vulnerability (Figure 4.7). Lack of interaction of the fire stations with the community is one of the main reasons behind it. In case of any emergency, the fire station comes forward to help them, but in case of creating awareness among the people regarding earthquake management the role of fire station is very poor. Drills are conducted in the FSCD premises, but there is no approaches taken to incorporate communities in these

58

programs (Figure 4.7). That is why, the community people remain ignore about the activities they should do or not do in the time of an earthquake. Besides, in Manikdi, Ward 15 (DNCC) and Nikunja-2, Ward 17 (DNCC) there is no volunteer inside the community as well as no interaction (Figure B-10, B-11, Appendix B). So, the awareness creation activities, lack of training and workshop that could be arranged easily by the volunteers through the collaboration with the fire station is not practiced here. Besides, the inactiveness of the CBO “Nikunja-Malik Kollan Somiti” results in lack collaboration between the residents (Figure B-11, Appendix B). This institution can be a good place of social gathering, earthquake awareness raising programs, discussions and so on.

59

Figure 4.6: Primary causes behind earthquake vulnerability in the selected communities, two most influential causes and reasons behind them (Source: FGD, 2017 to 2018)

Earthquake vulnerability at community level PROBLEM

PRIMARY CAUSES

EFFECTS

Lack of awareness

Unplanned structural build up

Increased population

density

Congested building pattern

Lack of open space and water

bodies

Increased possibilities of structural collapse

No evacuation route plan

Possibilities of increasing lives and property loss

Lack of retrofitting

of old buildings

People will trap inside the collapsed structures

Collapse of the buildings representing the culture of

the area

Absence of CBO

Narrow access roads

No volunteer

60

Figure 4.7: Four most influential causes and reasons behind the earthquake vulnerability in the communities (Source: FGD, 2017 to 2018)

REASONS BEHIND

Upward building

construction without

permission

Lack of monitoring

from authority

Lack of involvement of

nearest fire station with the community

No volunteers inside the communit

y

No awareness creation programs

Unplanned structural build up

Lack of awareness

EFFECTS

Increasing buildings without spaces

between

MOST INFLUENTIA

L CAUSES

Decreased road width

Reduction of open

spaces

Increasing panic during

earthquake and increasing fatalities

Narrow staircase and

no evacuation

route

No knowledge on do’s and not

to do’s in earthquake

Road coverage

overlooking BNBC

Lack of liaison with

the CBO

Absence of volunteers

No communication from community to

authority

Lack of community

preparedness

Residence outside the area

Lack of incentives

Lack of concern of

FS

REASONS BEHIND

EFFECTS

MOST INFLUENTIAL

CAUSES

Lack of awareness among people on the importance of natural resources

Lack of monitoring

from authority

Haphazard construction of structures

Lack of open space and water bodies

Reduction of evacuation

places

Increasing possibilities of

death if fire outbreaks

Reduction of natural

resources

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4.7 Earthquake Vulnerability Scenario of the Selected Communities

With the application of the PVA tool, vulnerability map in the FGD, the vulnerability assessment of the study communities has been conducted. Figure 4.8 explains the vulnerability scenario of the selected communities. Here red marked areas are identified as highly vulnerable, yellow marked area is medium vulnerable and green marked is low vulnerable areas. These areas have been categorized based on social and physical characteristics and also the influential causes behind the earthquake vulnerability.

The main reasons behind earthquake vulnerability in the selected communities are congested building pattern, high rise buildings and narrow roads. In Block-D community, Mirpur, the north part of this area is now occupied by the developers for the construction of high rise buildings (Figure 4.8). Though the roads are spacious around these buildings about 15feet to 30feet, the buildings are being constructed in a very congested way. Additionally, there are no emergency exits inside the newly developed buildings. This zone lies in road no. 1. Again in between road no. 3 to road no. 5, the buildings are about 5 to 6 storied but there are no gaps between the buildings and also the situation is same for the area within road 8 and 19. Manikdi area is a low-lying area. But development rate has increased in the recent years. People are filling these areas and constructing buildings, thus increasing vulnerabilities. According to the local people of the area, high rise buildings are being developed violating the regulations. Besides, roads are not planned. Participants have focused on the issue that the narrow access roads (less than 10 feet) which are inaccessible by the fire service vehicles can create a worse condition at the time of an earthquake. According to the participants, the north-east part (eastern side of road 5 to road 13) is fully built through filling swamps by RAJUK. The schools in the area are mainly high rise buildings and they are vulnerable due to their poor construction. In case of the community between Mitali and Moneshwer road, the narrow roads and congested building pattern lead towards its vulnerability to earthquake. The roads are so narrow that it is not possible to fit a fire rescue vehicle there not even two private cars side by side. In some of these two persons cannot walk side by side without colliding with each other especially when the weather is bad or any vehicle stand by along the road. Mitali road is the boundary road of the community in the north side. This road is only 9 feet in width. If an earthquake with higher magnitude hits the area, the residents will not get any space to move towards a safer place. Above all, the communities lack or do not have any open spaces and water bodies. In the Block-D community, there are two chemical storages and two CNG filling stations are located just beside Nikunja-2. If a fire incident occurs after an earthquake, these two structures can increase the possibilities of fire explosion thus more live losses.

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Figure 4.8: Earthquake vulnerability map of the selected communities (Source: FGD, 2017 to 2019)

(b) Manikdi, Ward 15, DNCC

(a) Block-D, Section-6, Mirpur, Ward 06, DNCC

(c) Nikunja-2, Ward 17, DNCC

(d) Mitali road to Moneshwer road, Ward 14, DSCC

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4.8 Conclusion In the study communities it is seen that in spite of having enough social institutions, there are no or little natural resources. Besides, the physical characteristics of the area revealed that the buildings are constructed in a very congested way. While exploring the vulnerability context, most of the areas, especially in the communities in ward 14 (DSCC) and ward 15 (DNCC) are vulnerable due to a number of reasons. The historical background of all the four (04) communities show that after 1980 the greeneries began to lose due to rapid construction. At present, the trend is continuing with more unplanned and haphazard development. Among the four (04) study areas, two (02) are fully residential with good road and buildings, but now are destroying due to the grabbing of open spaces and lands for high rise building construction. Earthquake vulnerability in the other two (02) areas is beyond any explanation due to unplanned growth, over congestion of buildings, narrow roads thus leaving no greeneries. So, the study areas say all about its earthquake vulnerability.

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CHAPTER 5: COMMUNITY INVOVLEMENT AT DIFFERENT PHASES OF IN EARTHQUAKE MANAGEMENT OF ASIAN COUNTRIES 5.1 Introduction The earthquake prone Asian countries: India, Japan and Nepal developed their disaster management legislations with the provision of community involvement to manage the disasters from preparedness to recovery stage. A number of disaster management acts, plan, policies, and case studies have been studied based on a number of indicators namely: coordination, communication, volunteer involvement, preparedness programs, search, rescue, health etc. In this chapter the community involvement scenario at different phases of earthquake management of the selected Asian countries are described. Also, some examples of community involvement practices and critical review of their involvement in earthquake management have also explored. 5.2 Sectors at Three Phases of Earthquake Management The integration of community in earthquake management of the selected countries have been analyzed through dividing the selected indicators under three phases of earthquake management. Pre earthquake management phase includes management of certain factors like proper coordination from community to upper level authority; a range of preparedness activities at different sectors like health, shelter, emergency facilities and so on; monitoring and evaluation in different activities. The most important sectors to manage response phase include: coordination from bottom to top level; search, rescue and evacuation; immediate or temporary shelter management; first aid and quick medical facilities thus heath management and so on. Likewise preparedness and response phase, post earthquake management phase also incorporates some sectors like coordination among agencies, relief management, utility restoration, emergency transport supply, safety, security and so on. Among all these indicators, coordination between the central level disaster management authority and community as well as information flow and proper linkage is the most important at all the three phases of earthquake management (Expert opinion survey, 2019). Figure 5.1, 5.2 and 5.3 presents the sectors to be managed at different phases of earthquake management.

65

Figure 5.1: Indicators of pre earthquake management phase (Source: Prepared by author, 2019 based on NRCS, 2008; CDMP, 2009a; CDMP,

2009b and expert opinion survey, 2019)

Figure 5.2: Indicators of response phase of earthquake management (Source: Prepared by author, 2019 based on NRCS, 2008; CDMP, 2009a; CDMP,

2009b and expert opinion survey, 2019)

Figure 5.3: Indicators of pre earthquake management phase (Source: Prepared by author based on NRCS, 2008; CDMP, 2009a; CDMP, 2009b)

Pre Earthquake Management Phase

Coordination between authorized agencies

Communication mechanism

Preparedness activities at different sectors

Volunteer involvement

Community oriented awareness activities

Health, sanitation

management

Shelter management

Monitoring and Evaluation

Response phase of Earthquake Management

Coo

rdin

atio

n be

twee

n au

thor

ized

ag

enci

es a

nd c

omm

uniti

es

Com

mun

icat

ion

mec

hani

sm

and

com

mun

ities

Search, rescue and evacuation

Utility, Sanitation, sewerage, pure drinking water

etc.

Monitoring and Evaluation

Search and rescue team,

Evacuation plan, route

Medical team formation, First aid provision

Health Shelter

Post earthquake management phase

Coordination and communication among agencies

Relief management

Utilities restoration

Transportation supply,

management

Safety and security

Medical, shelter, food, etc.

water, electricity supply, sanitation, sewerage

Monitoring and evaluation

66

5.3 Pre earthquake management phase and community involvement 5.3.1 Coordination with communities: India National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) is in the central position to manage disasters from top level. Under NDMA, State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA) that flows information to District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA) in both three phases of earthquake management (NDMA, GoI, 2009). Through DDMA, dissemination of information is possible between local to upper level (NDMA, GoI, 2009). The local level authority is linked directly with the communities through Panchayet Raj Institute (PRI) at village level and Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) or Nagar Panchayet at ward level. But PRI is the most effective one in India. The population under one PRI is approximately 6000-16000. It works directly at community level and communicates with the upper level though local level authorities (NDMA, GoI, 2009; NDMA, GoI, 2016; Rural Development and Panchayet Raj Department, Government of Tamil Nadu, 2020). A number of Community Based Organizations (CBOs) like Local Occupation Groups , Local Residents' Associations , Older Peoples‟ Associations (OPA) , Religious bodies work in earthquake management and play major roles in resource mobilization, providing specialized services to the disaster victims and so on (Bhadauria, 2018; Investors Clinic, 2019; Helpage International, 2007; Helpage India, 2006; Erb, 2011; Saran, 2003); Shodganga, 2019). Some NGOs work in earthquake preparedness from national to community level. The working area of these NGOs include: identification of vulnerable communities, education and training of affected communities, disaster preparedness cells, training modules for NGO and GOI staff etc. (NDMA, GoI, 2007). Figure 5.4 shows the coordination and information flow from central to community level and also involvement of different government and community based agencies to communicate from top to bottom level for better coordination. 5.3.2 Coordination with communities: Japan According to the disaster countermeasure act of Japan, the local governments are authorized to prepared disaster prevention plan and amend on necessity basis. Local government has direct connection with the towns or villages thus communities (Disaster Countermeasure Basic Act, 1961, GOJ, 1997). Along with the government level agencies the most important CBO in the communities of Japan named BOKOMI/ social welfare organization or disaster prevention welfare community started working after Kobe earthquake, 1995. One (01) BOKOMI for each elementary school district; more than 2000 households comprises a BOKOMI (1 group) total 191 groups in Kobe city. More than 13,000 Citizen Leaders are present in the BOKOMIs. The school districts are located in such a way that within 2 km radius people can go to the school. The population of school district varies on residential areas‟ population. Generally BOKOMI serves 5,000-6,000 people. About 25-30 members are present in one

67

BOKOMI (Expert opinion survey, 2019). BOKOMI works forming a number of teams like: information team, fire extinguishing team, and rescue team, escape guiding team, life support team for different phases of earthquake management. The main target of BOKOMI is to prepare the elementary school children thus the community for an earthquake through regular practices and it makes sense of self and cooperative help within communities and public help from the administrative bodies and organizations (Bazarragchaa, 2012). This organization maintains coordination with the local authority, local fire station, leader of local residents associations, women‟s associations, elderly associations, voluntary fire corps and etc (Nazarov, 2011). Other CBOs include neighborhood council, voluntary organizations and so on. Besides, different NGOs like Japanese Red Cross society, Save the Children Japan, have also worked to combat large scale earthquakes maintaining liaison and support from local government (Smith, 2011). Japan Platform and the Japan NGO Center for International Cooperation are called an umbrella of cooperation for smaller NGOs in Japan (Smith, 2011). Figure 5.5 shows the coordination and information flow from central to community level and also involvement of different government and community based agencies to communicate from top to bottom level for better coordination. 5.3.3 Coordination with communities: Nepal National Disaster Management Committee (NDMC) at national level, District Disaster management Committee (DDMC) at district level and Local Disaster Management Committees (LDMC) coordinate at local level manage disasters. The DDMC directs for the preparation of district-level disaster management plan involving the district level NGOs, CBOs, earthquake disaster affected or vulnerable community, district-based experts, social workers and so on. Besides, all other pre earthquake management activities are reported by the DDMC to the NDMC council (MoHA, 2009). LDMC is directly linked with the community rooted at village. These types of committees are formed in each Municipality and areas having Village Development Committee (VDC). These two communities encourage the involvement of communities in disaster risk reduction activities especially earthquake. CBOs are linked to both municipal and village level committees to earthquake risk reduction activities (MoHA, GoN, 2009). But it is mandatory to develop the Skills and knowledge of CBOs in financial and people management, resource mobilization, interpersonal communication and presentation (MoHA, GoN, 2009). Besides, the preparedness management committees are active to coordinate all the preparedness and risk reduction activities for earthquake. Figure 5.6 shows the coordination and information flow from central to community level and also involvement of different government and community based agencies to communicate from top to bottom level for better coordination. Table 5.1 summarizes the roles of different authorized agencies to involve communities in earthquake management.

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Figure 5.4: Schematic diagram of coordination among authorities and community

at Pre Earthquake Management of India (Source: Prepared by author, 2019)

COMMUNITY

NGOs and

INGOS

Religious bodies

Local Residents'

Associations

Panchayet Raj Institutes (PRI) Urban Local Bodies (ULBs)/ Nagar panchayet

State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA)

Local Disaster Management Authority (LDMA)

District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA)

National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)

Local Occupation

Groups

OPA

Doctors‟, Traders

associations

GO

CBO

Figure 5.5: Schematic diagram of coordination among authorities and community at Pre Earthquake Management of Japan (Source: Prepared by author, 2019)

GO

CBO

GO

CBO

Central Level authority

Cities and villages

COMMUNITY

BOKOMI Well formed Community based

organizations/ Community social welfare committees

Local Level authority NGOs

and INGOs

Women‟s associations

Parent-Teacher‟s associations

Resident‟s associations

Youth associations

Business associations

-Chonaiki -Jishu-bosai-soshiki,or Jishubo -Voluntary Disaster Preparedness Organization (VDPO) Volunteer fire corps

Prefecture Level authority Municipal Level authority

69

Figure 5.6: Schematic diagram of coordination among authorities and community

at pre earthquake management of Nepal (Source: Prepared by author, 2019)

5.3.4 Communication mechanism The communication systems are actually activated at the time of an earthquake. But at pre earthquake management phase, all these systems are developed and kept prepared to coordinate from central to local level at the time of an earthquake. The main communication system of India for earthquake management are: Emergency Operation Center (EOC) from national to local level; Control Room; Contingency Action Plan at local or village level; Incident Command System (ICS) and Standing Operating procedure and so on (NDMA, GoI, 2007; Dave, 2015). The communication mechanisms of Japan for managing earthquake are On-site Headquarters, Observation system and Early Warning System (EWS) by Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) and 24-hour monitoring system (JMA, 2013). In Nepal, Emergency Operation Center (EOC) from central, regional and district level is the main communication system for earthquake (MoHA, GoN, 2009). Another system called One-window Policy has been developed through Disaster Management Authority or Disaster Management Committee. This policy incorporates Government, NGOs, CBOs, civil society and communities (HCT, 2016).

District level

NGOs

District Disaster Management Committee (DDMC)

National Disaster Management Committee (NDMC)

Local Disaster Management Committee (DDMC)

Municipal level Village level (VDC ) Local level

NGOs

CBOs Social workers Community leaders

School management committees

Parent Teacher Association (PTAs)

Preparedness committee

COMMUNITY GO

CBO

70

India Japan Nepal Agencies Responsibilities and

involvement of community

Agencies Responsibilities and involvement of

community

Agencies Responsibilities and involvement of community

National Disaster management Authority

-Direction towards subsequent level

- Central Disaster management Authority

-Direction towards subsequent level

-National council for disaster management

-Direction towards subsequent level

• State Disaster Management Committee

• • District Disaster

Management Committee

-Setting up State Earthquake Management Committees (SEMCs)

• -Provides guidelines for the preparation of DM plans by Urban Local Bodies (ULBs), Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs), district administration, NGOs, CBOs

• -Prefecture Disaster Management Committee

• Municipal Disaster Management Committee

• -Directly linked with city/towns and villages thus communities

• -Maintain liaison with community directly and creates scope to provide necessary information

• -District Disaster Management Committee

-Coordinates with national to vulnerable and affected community through the collaboration with different professional s and local bodies

- - Disseminate information and order to the local level authority

- - explanation to council regarding earthquake preparedness activities

• Gram Panchayet • Urban Local

Bodies (ULBs)/ Nagar panchayet

-Organizing awareness campaign; developing early warning system; preparation of community preparedness and response plan,

-Local Disaster management Authority (City level Village level)

• -Direct linkage both to the community and upper level authority -Review of local disaster management plan

• -Local Disaster Management Committee

• Village Development Committee (VDC)

- -Preparation of local and village level earthquake management plan for the concerned municipality and VDC

- - Collaborates with NGOs, CBOs, disaster affected or potentially affected communities, social workers, persons

Table 5.1: Roles and responsibilities of different agencies and scope of community involvement at pre earthquake management of selected Asian countries

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temporary shelter and evacuation route to the shelter, arrangement of food, drinking water and sanitation -Establishment collaboration between local agencies and community

-Conducts school level earthquake drills and awareness programs

• Older Peoples‟ Associations (OPAs)

• Local Occupation Groups

• Doctors‟, Traders associations

• - Identify the needs and vulnerabilities of the families and neighbors, awareness raising through religious institutes, dissemination of necessary information to the community for earthquake risk reduction

• Voluntary associations Non Profit Organization (NPO) BOKOMI- Disaster Welfare Organization

-Formation of different teams -Conducts various emergency drill programs; educate residents, maintain rescue tools -Transmitting information and instructions to neighborhood residents

• Social workers • Community leaders • Parent Teacher

Association (PTAs) • School management

committees

• - Collaborate other community based teams bank group, official groups at the community to involve them in preparedness programs like drill, education etc.

Source: NDMA, GoI, 2009; IMD, 2019; NDMA, GoI, 2007; Shodganga, 2019; NDMA, GoI, 2011; Bhadauria, 2018; Erb, 2011; Saran, 2003; Shaw, 2003; HCT, 2016; NRCS, 2010; MoHA, GoN, 2009; MoHA, GoN, 2011; Shrestha& Pathranarakul, 2018;Nazarov, 2011; Bajek et al., 2008; Mimaki et al., 2009; Bazarragchaa, 2012; Disaster Countermeasure Basic Act, 1961, GOJ, 1997; JMA, 2013; Umetani, 2019

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5.3.5 Involvement of volunteers and preparedness programs In India, the volunteer involvement is seen mainly at national level but is active from national to community level. Some of the voluntary organizations include: National Service Scheme (NSS), National Cadet Corps (NCC), Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan (NYKS) (Youth organizations), self help groups, CBOs, youth organizations and so on (NDMA, GoI, 2007). Activities of these national and community level volunteers include: capacity building of the community and awareness raising on disaster risk reduction; support services to the response teams at the local level etc (NDMA, GoI, 2007; Lal, 2015; Saito, n.d.). Community based volunteers work directly at community level in Japan especially BOKOMI. One of the main concerns of the voluntary organizations of Japan is to work at school level to make aware the school children. Activities for earthquake risk reduction like: creating awareness and encouraging community participation, making the disaster reduction part of the daily routine and so on. (Bazarragchaa, 2012; Lahidji &Undseth 2006; UNV, 2012). On the other hand, institution-based volunteers work in Nepal at national to community. Volunteers from institutions like: Nepal Red Cross Society (NRCS), National Network of Community Disaster Management Committee; National Society for Earthquake Technology (NSET) work involving communities in earthquake management. Some of their activities are: Community Based Disaster Preparedness initiatives and community-level DM training initiatives, providing First aid and basic search and rescue (SAR) training, developed emergency plans for each school and so on (MoHA, GoN, 2011; NRSC, 2008; HCT, 2016; DP-Net, 2004). Along with the involvement of volunteers at different activities for disaster and earthquake management, a number of preparedness programs are undertaken by different voluntary organizations, NGOs and INGOs and also from government level. Preparedness programs can be categorized in general awareness, education based, project based training based etc. Table 5.2 gives a view of such types of programs in India, Japan and Nepal.

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Programs India Japan Nepal General

Awareness - Developing public awareness materials like brochures, manuals, booklets, action plans, videos, and demonstration kits - Preparation of “a handbook on earthquake safety” community and house level preparedness and awareness for the general public -Mock drills for industrial units, offices, schools and hospitals, as well as for specific urban and rural areas

-the Disaster Management Fair, Disaster Management Seminar and Disaster Management Poster Contest - promote volunteer activities and local disaster management activities based on neighborhood associations

-national meeting, awareness rally, earthquake safety exhibition, symposium, public broadcast of earthquake safety message by the Home Minister -awareness campaigns like the orientation sessions to parents, community people and the leaders on concepts of hazards, disasters, preparedness and mitigation - publications such as information leaflets, calendars, posters on earthquake safety

Education based

-School safety program under the disaster risk management project of UNDP, publishing booklets on “ten golden rules to protect yourself and your community for earthquake preparedness and response plan & Earthquake pre/post and during preparedness points to be remembered.” is a landmark in earthquake preparedness campaign (GOI-UNDP, 2009)

-designing educational programs (including learning materials and games) to communicate this knowledge to children, developing a new type of disaster reduction training event for family untaken by these types of organizations

-School Earthquake Safety Program (SESP) is another major accomplishment under Kathmandu Valley Earthquake Risk Management Plan (KVERMP -“Disaster Preparedness for Safer Schools in Nepal (DPSS)” by NRCS, NSET, -Formation of Student Disaster Safety Clubs, Strengthening of Junior/Youth Red Cross (J/YRC), preparation

Table 5.2: Earthquake preparedness programs in India, Japan and Nepal

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Source: GOI-UNDP, 2009; NDMA, GoI, 2007; NDMA, GoI, 2009; Bazarragchaa, 2012; Lahidji & Undseth 2006; Saito, n.d.

5.3.6 Health Management and community involvement Health management at pre earthquake management phase is somewhat government authority oriented rather than community. Government and other organizations come forward to exercise medical preparedness in India, Nepal and Japan. According to the disaster management act of India the DM plans are to be prepared at the state and district levels including a single „all hazards‟ medical management plan (NDMA, GoI, 2007). Disaster Medical Assistance team (DMAT) in Japan has been established from the lessons of Kobe earthquake, 1995 to manage health in earthquake disasters. DMATs are defined as “mobile, trained medical teams that can be rapidly deployed during the acute phase of a disaster (within 48 hours)” (Nazarov, 2011). CBOs and of course BOKOMI is involved in medical preparedness. Also, Japanese Red Cross Society (JRCS) is involved in health management practices at pre phase of earthquake management. In Nepal, Nepal Red Cross Society (NRCS) is responsible for health and sanitation management activities from top to village level (MoHA, GoN, 2011). Along with all these community and government level authorities, NGOS and INGOs are also involved in medical preparedness practices. Table 5.3 shows some key agencies and way of community involvement in India, Japan and Nepal.

Training based

-Class and on field training are undertaken for the artisans involved in different trades including masons, welders, carpenters, plumbers and electricians by the state government -training to government officials, professionals: urban planners, infrastructure development experts, engineers, architects and builders, NGOs, CBOs social activists, social scientists, schoolteachers, and children

-Disaster prevention training for school children creating scenario of real earthquake, evacuation practices, training of fire extinguishing - training for disaster response specialists; young disaster management specialists; local disaster response assistance by DRI, Japan

Under the intiatives by NSET, -Training of masons, teachers, parents and students on earthquake preparedness and seismic retrofit or earthquake resistant reconstruction of public school buildings -School Based Disaster Preparedness Training of Trainers (SBDPTOT), -Basic Disaster Management Training (BDMT),

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Table 5.3: Health management and community incorporation at pre earthquake management phase

India Japan Nepal Agencies Community

involvement Agencies Community

involvement Agencies Community

involvement State and district

authority

-Medical management plan -Training of medical first responder -Preparation of medical facilities - rehearsing earthquake -preparedness through mock exercises

Disaster Medical

Assistance team

(DMAT)

-formed at prefectural and neighborhood level Specialized members render medical assistance during the acute phases

National Society for Earthquake Technology

(NSET)

-Training to school children on first aid, water purifier etc..

Public health

authority

-Exercise and training to the medical staffs

Japanese Red Cross

Society (JRCS)

-training and prepare small medical teams both from volunteers and professionals

Nepal Red Cross

Society (NRCS)

- training to the community people, volunteers and of course the local medical staffs Hygiene promotion training for volunteers and youth groups

Indian Red Cross

Society

-first aid training to volunteers and workshops, trainings arrangement

BOKOMI -guidebook for the school children for 35 minutes to practice of first aid

Source: IRCS, 2019; NDMA, GoI, 2007; Subedi et al., 2018; MoHA, GoN, 2011; David, 2011; NRSC, 2008; Nazarov, 2011; Semlitz et al., 2013; Hotta, 2016

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5.3.6.1 Examples of community involvement practices in health management at pre

earthquake management phase of India, Japan and Nepal

Source: IFRC, 2002; IRCS, 2019; National Disaster Management Division, GoI, 2004; Acharya, Daniel, Nongkynrih,& Gupta, 2018; National Disaster Management Division, GoI, 2004; Matsuoka, Joerin, Shaw & Takeuchi, 2012; JRCS, 2009; WRF, 2013; Shaw, 2003; JICA, 2010; Subedi et al., 2018; MoHA, GoN, 2011; David, 2011; NRSC, 2008

5.3.7 Shelter Management and community involvement

According to the National Disaster Management Policy, 2009 shelter management for earthquake disaster included participatory process involving government, affected community, NGOs and the corporate sector (NDMA, GoI, 2007; NDMA, GoI, 2009 ). Shelter management issue in Japan has been initiated after the Kobe earthquake, 1995. At present the community is working towards the adoption of a shelter plan,

Box 5.1: Community involvement practices in health management

- After experiences earthquakes in India, a number of government and non government agencies have undertaken different initiatives to incorporate people in health management sector. For example: Indian Red Cross Society (IRCS) has exercised a First Medical Responders (FMR) programme in 2011 in the State of Uttarakhand. The name of the programme was changed later to Social & Emergency Response Volunteers (SERV). The trained volunteers work closely with the local administration. Public Health Emergency Preparedness (PHEP) is proposed to ensure the capability of the public health care system, community and individual to respond to any health emergency in disasters like earthquake (National Disaster Management Division, GoI, 2004).

- The local government of Japan has implemented a comprehensive disaster management drill framework in 2015. Under this drill program, a simulation with voluntary disaster management organization has been conducted where first aid training has been given to the local residents, local personnel from different institutions, and local volunteers from the community. Apart from the government level, BOKOMI at community level conducts first aid training to the students of elementary and high schools.

- National Society for Earthquake Technology (NSET) and NRCS in Nepal

undertaken the one-year pilot programme in 2010 on training of school children aged 11-16 years on first aid, triage, light search and rescue, and basic disaster management planning. NRCS HQ technical team in the field oriented 100 volunteers particularly on Water and Sanitation (WATSAN) and mobilized in the rural areas for the awareness, evacuation of the patients and demonstrating water treatment. The chapter further mobilized volunteers for the 16 VDC for the awareness raising purpose.

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strengthening efforts to set up evacuation shelters (Cabinet office, 2015). Besides different types of preparedness projects are conducted on regular basis (Saito, n.d.). According to the Contingency Plan for the Coordination of Emergency Shelter of Nepal by HCT, the District level emergency shelter management agencies are: NRCS District Chapter, shelter cluster partners and community level volunteers (HCT, 2011). Table 5.4 shows the community involvement practices in shelter management in India, Japan and Nepal.

Table 5.4: Community involvement in shelter management at pre earthquake management phase in the selected Asian countries

India Japan Nepal

Agencies Community involvement

Agencies Community involvement

Agencies Community involvement

SDMA and housing

agency : Housing and

Urban Developmen

t Corporation (HUDCO)

• -Shelter management plan

• - designing temporary shelters considering eco-friendly and compatible with local culture (NDMA, 2009).

• -training program on safer housing, preparing temporary shelter

• -training of local masons by housing agencies

Government authorities

•

• -framework under Cabinet office for identification of evacuation shelter

• -drills for opening and setting up the center were conducted in coordination with local elementary schools

• -NRCS District Chapter,

• -shelter cluster

partners • communit

y volunteers

• -NSET

• - Practice of incorporating communities in using local materials for temporary shelter building.

• - emergency shelter plan and different shelter models for families for the earthquake disaster affecter people in different communities of Kathmandu Valley

Source: NDMA, GoI, 2007; NDMA, GoI, 2009; Cabinet office, 2015; Shizuoka Prefecture Emergency Management Department, 2014; Saito, n.d.; Dixit, Shrestha, Parajuli & Thapa, 2012; MoHA, 2011

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5.3.7.1 Examples of community involvement practices in shelter management at pre

earthquake management phase of India, Japan and Nepal

Source: Cabinet office, 2015; Shizuoka Prefecture Emergency Management Department, 2014; Saito, n.d.; Dixit, Shrestha, Parajuli & Thapa, 2012; Preventionweb: The knowledge platform for disaster risk reduction, 2019; MoHA, 2011; Care, 2017 5.3.8 Monitoring and evaluation and community In India, all the sectors where the communities are involved regularly observed and monitored by the state level authority. The activities of local level authorities, district level authorities and community level authorities are strictly monitored by the central authority of each state. Aside by, the involvement of the local NGOs, INGOs and other concerned organizations are evaluated by the higher authority so that the activities can

Box 5.2: Community involvement practices in shelter management

- India‟s social welfare organizations: Indira Awas Yojna(IAY) and Sampooran Grameen Rojgar Yojna (SGRY) assists in building rural housing and community assets for vulnerable sections of the population under the Ministry of Rural Development. About 250 thousand small and compact housing units are constructed every year along with maintenance. Community assets: community centers, recreation centers, anganwadi (child care) centers etc. are also built by them. On the headship of Ministry of Rural Development, a training program for 5000 masons has been organized joinly by SDMA and HUDCO.

- In Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan a game called Hinanjo Un‟ei Game [HUG] (meaning shelter management game) has been developed in 2007 as one of the approaches to consider shelter management together. The aim of this game is creation of awareness in the shelter management. Here the participants take part in simulations of real earthquake scenario and how to manage the shelter, where to take the evacuees. In this simulation, evacuees from different sections like elderly people, handicapped people, disaster orphans and people accompanying pets have been arranged by the participants (Shizuoka Prefecture Emergency Management Department, 2014).

- Under the project named “The Study on Earthquake Disaster Mitigation in the

Kathmandu Valley, Kingdom of Nepal” undertaken by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)” strategies have been developed to improve the school safety as well as for the whole country. Training and awareness programs on these issues have been arranged. In the mission of preparing Earthquake Safer Communities in Nepal by 2020, NSET undertaken different shelter and building safety management programs. In 2008, a risk Mapping Program and Shelter Response Planning in Kathmandu has been organized; training guideline and manual Earthquake Resistant Construction of Buildings have been prepared.

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be improved (Dave, 2015). BOKOMI at community level monitors and practices all the earthquake management activities in Japan (JICA, 2010). Along with all these approaches the self-organizations, residents associations, community based organizations like Jishubo practices systematic monitoring and evaluation of the performance on regular basis in case of an effective earthquake management in Japan (Millan, 1986). According to the Contingency Plan by NRCS, 2008 in Nepal for monitoring and evaluating the activities conducted pre earthquake management phase by different authorities or organizations (NRCS, 2008) 5.4 Response Phase of Earthquake Management and Community Involvement

5.4.1 Coordination and community In the response phase of earthquake management, Center for seismology (CS) of India and Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) under Ministry of Earth Science (MoES) monitor the overall seismic activity day long and disseminate information to the disaster management authorities (MoES, 2019). State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA) on the direction of NDMA takes step to disseminate information towards district to community level. In this phase community is connected to the DDMA directly through local entities (Ministry of Law and Justice, Government of India, 2005). The signal of earthquake occurrence is provided from the IMD and CS to the MoES and the MoES collaborates and informs to the national, state and district level authority. From these levels the information of earthquake is directed towards the local authorities thus village and ward level via PRI and ULBs respectively. Along with these government agencies, the local volunteers, CBOs, NGOs and other related organizations collaborate to manage the response activities of earthquake. According to the Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act, 1997, Japan separate roles and responsibilities of central government to city/town /village level authority has been clarified during an earthquake disaster (Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act, 1997, GoJ, 1997). After the warning from Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), the central government directs to the subsequent authority to act for response. The governor of prefecture is the second level authority to disseminate emergency measures to the consequent levels. Then the Mayor of city or town and head of villages communicate and coordinate directly with the residents (National Land Agency, 1997; Nazarov, 2011). Along with these authorized bodies, designated public corporations are present to support the authority (Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act, 1997, GoJ, 1997). At the time of an earthquake, rescue team of BOKOMI, conduct rescue activities and coordinate with upper level authorities to provide damage information, required assistance and so on.

According to the National Strategy for Disaster Risk Management (NSDRM), Nepal, the District Disaster Management Committee (DDMC), in collaboration with the national level authority and local or municipal level authority maintains all the response

80

activities in proper manner (MoHA, GoN, 2009). Incorporation of VDC and community during an earthquake is always encouraged by this committee so that the response activities will be faster and well directed (MoHA, GoN, 2009). Besides, there is a designated Rescue and Relief Management Committee that works with other designated government authorities during earthquake management. The main roles of this committee include: manages emergency search, rescue, arranges food and non food items and financial help to the affected, special arrangement of rescue and relief of children, women, elderly and physically challenged people etc. This committee works with the collaboration SAR team comprising of security agency, NRCS, volunteers, disaster rescue group, civil society and other stakeholders (MoHA, GoN, 2009). Figure 5.7, 5.8 and 5.9 shows the coordination between community and government agencies in the response phase of earthquake management of India, Japan and Nepal respectively. Table 5.5 shows the roles of different agencies and way to involve the communities in earthquake management at response phase.

Figure 5.7: Coordination among different agencies involving communities at

response phase of earthquake management of India (Source: Prepared by author, 2019)

GO

CBO

Indian Meteorologic

al Department

(IMD)

COMMUNITY

Religious bodies

Panchayet Raj Institutes (PRI)

Urban Local Bodies (ULBs)/ Nagar panchayet

State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA)

Local Disaster Management Authority (LDMA)

District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA)

National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)

Local Occupation

Groups

Old Peoples Association

(OPA)

Doctors‟, Traders associations

Center for

seismology (CS)

Army, Air

force, Police and

other agencie

s 24*7 monitoring seismic activities,

location of earthquake and

related information

Residents' Associatio

ns

Ministry of Earth Science

(MoES) NGOs

and INGO

S

Support from nearest

communities

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Figure 5.8: Coordination among different agencies involving communities at

response phase of earthquake management of Japan (Source: Prepared by author, 2019)

Figure 5.9: Coordination among different agencies involving communities at response phase of earthquake management of Nepal

(Source: Prepared by author, 2019)

GO

CBO

GO

CBO

Central Level authority

Cities and villages

COMMUNITY

Local Level authority

Other CBOs and voluntary organizations

in the communities

Prefecture Level authority Municipal Level authority

Information team

Fire extinguishing team

Rescue team

Escape guiding team

Life support team

Community organizations

from near villages/ towns Communities

designated local

administrative organs and

public corporations

Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA)

NGOs and

INGOs

BOKOMI Well formed Community based

organizations/ Community social welfare committees

GO

CBO

GO

CBO

District level

NGOs

District Disaster Management Committee (DDMC)

National Disaster Management Committee (NDMC)

Municipal level Village level (VDC)

Local level NGO

s

COMMUNITY NRCS,

volunteers, rescue groups

Nepal Seismological

center

-Army, fire

service, police

Rescue and Relief

Committee

-INGOs

School management committees

Parent Teacher Association

(PTAs)

Social workers

Community leaders

CBOs

Community engagement

group

Local Disaster Management Committee (DDMC)

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Table 5.5: Roles and responsibilities of different agencies and scope of community involvement at pre earthquake management of selected Asian countries

India Japan Nepal Agencies Roles and

involvement of community

Agencies Roles and involvement

of community

Agencies Roles and involvement

of community National Disaster

management Authority

- direction to execute emergency response activities to the subsequent authorities and committees

Central Disaster

management Authority

-monitoring the emergency measures undertaken by the designated authorities at different levels

National council for

disaster management

-order for necessary activities to be conducted in response -maintaining communication with all stakeholders, government, NGOs, donor agencies and the UN system, corporate sector and academician

State Disaster Management Committee

District Disaster

Management Committee

- coordinate the response activities through the formation of state executive committee and direct order to implement response activities

• -Provides emergency information to the Urban Local Bodies (ULBs), Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs),

• NGOs, CBOs

• Prefecture Disaster Management Committee

• Municipal Disaster Management Committee

-information gathering from Japan Metrological agency -report to the prime minister of emergency measures and states

• -head of village can call for an emergency

District Disaster

Management Committee

- create a link between central and local level response activities

- -ensures collaboration of different community groups and NGOs

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Local authorities

Gram Panchayet

Urban Local Bodies (ULBs)/

Nagar panchayet

- organizes community and disseminate information to execute activities to save people -Inform and order PRIs to organize local people to be active through the CBOs -provides directions to utilize the resources needed

Local Disaster management Authority (City level Village level)

• -Direct linkage both to the community and upper level authority -Review of local disaster management plan

Local Disaster

Management Committee

Village Development Committee

(VDC)

-conduct and monitor the response activities as per direction from upper level and based on the risk reduction plan -encourages the communities to work together during an earthquake

The Indian Meteorological

Department (IMD)- nodal

agency

-monitor seismic activity and disseminate the information to Ministry of Earth Science (MoES)

Japan Meteorological Agency

(JMA)

• -provides early warning

• -forms emergency teams

Nepal seismological

center

- -monitor seismic activity and disseminate early warning

CBOs -organize, mobilize and support people to respond in a well manner

CBOs BOKOMI

-Rescue team activated -collaboration and coordination with local to upper authority

CBOs Community

working groups

-guide the community responders and volunteers to perform their respective roles and dissemination information of community needs to the authority

Source: NDMA, GoI, 2009; IMD, 2019; NDMA, GoI, 2007; NDMA, GoI, 2011; Bhadauria, 2018; Erb, 2011; Saran, 2003; Shaw, 2003; NRCS, 2010; MoHA, GoN, 2009; MoHA, GoN, 2011; Shrestha & Pathranarakul, 2018; Nazarov, 2011; Bajek et al., 2008; Mimaki et al., 2009; Bazarragchaa, 2012; Disaster Countermeasure Basic Act, 1961, GOJ, 1997; JMA, 2013; Umetani, 2019

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5.4.2 Communication mechanism and community involvement In India, Emergency Operation Center (EOC) or Control Room, Incident Command System (ICS) operated from EOC, Standing Operating Procedure (SOP) are the main communication system at the response phase of an earthquake. An EOC is considered as the nerve centre of all emergencies. On the basis of the activity type and communication chain, the control rooms are divided into three categories: central, state and district. State Emergency Operations Centre (SEOC) activates the Incident Response Teams at State, District, or block level and ensures coordination with the District Emergency Operations Centre (DEOC) (NDMA, 2007). Local administration operates suitably devised Incident Command System (ICS) at local level through EOC that mainly works at the time of emergency or at response phase (NDMA, 2007). Incident Command System (ICS) is also works at the time of emergency or at response phase (NDMA, 2007). All response activities are undertaken at the local level through a suitably devised ICS coordinated by the local administration through the EOC (NDMA, 2007).

The communication mechanisms of Japan include signal or alarms, signals, information gathering and transmission, on site headquarters, observation mechanisms of Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), 24-hours monitoring system. The signal and alarm are generated mainly from the JMA (JMA, 2013). The flow of information from the alarm continuously moves from upper to lower level and vice versa. JMA forms emergency teams and passes information parallel to the central and residents‟ level via local government (prefecture and municipalities). This agency is also connected to the media for effective flow of information towards community (JMA, 2013). An on-site headquarter is generally set up to increase coordination among the affected local entities and collect information with requests from relevant prefectures. A 24-hour monitoring and quick-response system is maintained in anticipation of the occurrence of an earthquake (JMA, 2013). The Government of Nepal established a National Emergency Operation Centre (NEOC) as well as in all the regions, districts and in municipalities (MoHA, GoN, 2019 & Preventionweb, 2015). NEOC is the main communication point including government, non government and international agencies and coordinates all response activities with support from the District Emergency Operation Center (DEOC) (HCT, 2016). Besides, for the emergency communication with the community directly local radio is considered as a main source of communication in Nepal (HCT, 2016). The radio station in each community is well furnished with necessary equipments and infrastructures (HCT, 2016). Through the formation of Emergency communication group (ECG) the emergency massages are disseminated both in English and local language (HCT, 2016). One Window cluster approach with 10 established clusters is other response system of

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GoN. This approach leads all the stakeholders including community organizations, civil society to be well responsive and coordinated to each other (Preventionweb, 2015).

5.4.3 Search, rescue and evacuation, and community involvement As earthquake disaster requires multi -disciplinary response, so the trained community based teams in India are supported by the non government agencies, civil defense, army, police and other relevant agencies (NDMA, GoI, 2007). Search and Rescue (SAR) Teams and equipment are always ready to assist the search and rescue operation as training on these issues are provided on regular basis. The role of PRI at village level communities in earthquake search, rescue and evacuation procedure include the arrangement of emergency communication through available resources; necessary steps have been taken to evacuate the victims to the temporary shelter and running relief camps. Ensuring the readiness of the local volunteers for rescue purposes is also conducted by the PRI (GoI-UNDP, 2009 b). At the response phase civil defense works for transportation for evacuation. Department of Transport works with the logistic section of the state level Incident Response Team (IRT) to provide effective services to the field level IRTs for response (NDMA, GoI, 2016). Along with the government level agencies, Japan Disaster Relief (JDR) search and rescue team comprised of police, firemen, coast guards, structural engineers, logisticians and medical professionals with local authorities across Japan works restlessly in the search, rescue and evacuation activities after an earthquake (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA), 2012). Besides, trained volunteers of Japan Red Cross Society (JRCS) support the rescue operation properly (IFRC, 2011; Umetani, 2019). Expert teams, CSOs, well formed local volunteers, and military forces from around the world provide support at the time of rescue aftermath of an earthquake (World Bank, 2012).Voluntary disaster response group of the communities support local authorities to strengthen the response activities (Bazarragchaa, 2012). The role of rescue and life support team of BOKOMI, Jishubo, Chonaikai, Voluntary Disaster Preparedness Organization (VDPO) as stated earlier is beyond explanation in earthquake emergency response (Nazarov, 2011; Umetani, 2019). BOKOMI has its own fire extinguisher team for initial fire extinguishing activities (Bazarragchaa, 2012). During emergencies, Jishubo members guide refugees to a shelter, rescue residents, provide the initial first-aid and supply food and water (Bajek et al., 2008). According to the National Strategic Action Plan for Search and Rescue, 2014, the community level SAR teams have been given priority. During an earthquake disaster before the arrival of authorized teams of government level, the community level Search and Rescue (SAR) teams carry out preliminary work to save the lives of the people (MoHA, GoN, 2014). The community teams identify the available resources and

86

equipments to be used in search and rescue activities based on the prepared map of assigning responsibilities of each member of the teams. The VDC and municipal authorities are responsible for managing the community level teams for search and rescue (MoHA, GoN, 2014). The VDC collaborate and coordinate activities of all stakeholders to perform search and rescue work, and arrange necessary tools, equipment, resources, and adequate budget (GoN MoHA, 2009). NSET in collaboration with the local government authorities (i.e. municipal officers and village development officers (VDC)) and the communities identifies the available open spaces after an earthquake and sets up evacuation center and shelter sites for the victims (Shrestha, Dixit, Basyal & Chaudhary, 2012). 5.4.4 Health management and community involvement In the health sector response in India, the Red Cross field workers (previously called Community Based Health Workers or Trainers of Red Cross Volunteers), International Federation of Red Cross (IFRC) form Community Based First Aid (CBFA) teams that work together with other agencies and communities (IFRC, 2001). Besides, the Trained Medical First responders (MFRs), mobile hospitals and Quick Reaction Medical Teams (QRMTs, Accident Relief Medical Vans (ARMVs) of the Railways are always ready to response and provide medical care to the victims of an earthquake (NDMA, GoI, 2016). Safe disposal of carcass and arranging safe drinking water and sanitation have been assured by the village and block level PRIs (GoI-UNDP, 2009 b). During the earthquake, the Government activates Disaster Medical Assistance Teams (DMATs) in Japan. DMATs work in collaboration with Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare (MHLW) and professional medical institutes (Sakamoto et al., 2018). Following the Basic Plan for Disaster Prevention DMATs provides emergency medical relief and medical care (Sakamoto et al., 2018). DMAT are operated from the affected areas and disseminate its activities to the prefectural task force, neighboring task force and neighboring DMAT (Nazarov, 2011; Sakamoto et al., 2018). DMATs disseminate its medical activities from the affect areas to the central, prefectural, neighboring and local residents. The rescue team of BOKOMI provides initial first aid to the evacuees before other interventions from upper levels (Bazarragchaa, 2012). Japan Red Cross Society assists the government with immediate and further support for necessary medicines, health equipments. In case of Nepal, the ministry of health has taken initiatives to train the Rapid Response Teams (RRT) at central, regional, district, and community level to work during earthquake response and activates Medical Emergency Operation Center (MEOC) (Subedi, Sharma, Dahal, Banjara & Pandey, 2018). Community RRTs responds first at earthquake spot for emergency first aid and other facilities (Subedi et.al, 2018). The District-level RRTs provide support to the community RRTs with medical supplies and

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related logistics at different as well as maintain communication with other stakeholders involved in the response activities (Subedi et.al, 2018). Medical First Responders (MFR) from the community provides the first aid initially to the victims after an earthquake (MoHA, GoN, 2014). NSET also contributes in earthquake emergency medical services. 5.4.5 Shelter, sanitation etc. management and community involvement Trained community level teams in India, assist in planning and setting up emergency shelters, with the government authority (NDMA, GoI, 2007). These teams convey the information to the government in identifying the most vulnerable people who may need special assistance following an earthquake (NDMA, GoI, 2007). PRI always takes very effective initiatives for ensuring water supply to the victims. This authority assures the provision of water (on average15 liters) per person in a household per day for purposes of drinking, cooking and personal hygiene. Besides, the water points are located in such distance that not more than 500 meter from any house (GoI-UNDP, 2009 b). International organizations also support the communities through providing emergency shelters. IFRC, Direct relief, Un-agencies, CARE, India and so on provides emergency shelter (temporary), non-food items (NFIs) (Indian Red Cross Society, 2019; Care, 2017, Direct relief, 2019). After an earthquake, local government of Japan establishes a meeting place to temporary housing complexes, where neighborhood associations and volunteer groups conduct exchange meetings and allow tenants to develop personal relationships with each other (Saito, n.d.; Cabinet Office, 2015). In the situation of an earthquake, tenants‟ association in temporary housing named kasetsu jichikai in local language is formed to forward the information and necessary requirements of the people living in the temporary housing to the local government (Saito, n.d.). BOKOMI organizes shelter team for managing emergency shelter during earthquake. Besides, Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW) and the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT) are responsible for developing national policies for water supply, and sewerage respectively (WB, 2017). According to the NSDRM, 2009 the rescue and relief management committee is responsible for emergency shelter management in earthquake (MoHA, GoN 2009). Village Development Committee, district and municipal disaster management committee work together to manage emergency shelter in the affected communities (MoHA, GoN 2009). The CBOs, civil societies and other community associations support in this case based on the training they have taken before. Besides, the Contingency Plan for the Coordination of Emergency Shelter and Non-food Items (NFIs) specifies the District level emergency shelter management agencies are: NRCS District Chapter, shelter cluster partners and community level volunteers (HCT, 2011). Emergency shelter kits are distributed along with household NFIs (HCT, 2011). NSET

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also takes initiatives to organize safe shelter site in the earthquake response according their shelter plan (Shrestha et. al, 2012). For the management of sanitation and hygiene NRCS, youth groups from the communities, Care, Unicef and other agencies work together to provide water purification tablets, immediate cleaning of water sources by the help of the community volunteers for emergency water supply (MoHA, GoN, 2009). Figure 5.10, 5.11 and 5.12 represent present different agencies present at community, government and international level to manage the sectors of response phase of earthquake management India, Japan and Nepal respectively.

Search, Rescue, Evacuation Health management Shelter, sanitation management

IFRC

IRCS

Army, police

Fire service UN

agencies

National level

Community neighbors

Community volunteers

ULBs

National level

volunteers

CBOs

PRIs

State level

District level

Villages urban communities

Local NGOs

Religious organizations

Local level

GO

CBO

International Organizations

Figure 5.10: Schematic diagram of management of different sectors during earthquake and community coordination with different agencies in India

(Source: Prepared by author, 2019)

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Figure 5.11: Schematic diagram of management of different sectors during earthquake and community coordination with different agencies in Japan

(Source: Prepared by author, 2019)

Search, Rescue and Evacuation

Health Management

Shelter, sanitation etc. Management

BOKOMI-Search and rescue team,

medical team, shelter team

Japan Disaster Relief

Search and Rescue team

JRCS

Voluntary disaster response

group

Jishubo, Chonaikai, Voluntary Disaster

Preparedness Organization (VDPO)

DMAT

MHLW & MLIT

Resident‟s level/community level

other organizations at community

National/ Central government (Prime Minister)

Municipal level

Local authority (Mayor/Head)

Police, fire man, coast

guard

Armed forces UN

agencies

IFRC

GO

CBO

NGO

International Organizations Prefecture level

(Governor)

90

Figure 5.12: Schematic diagram of management of different sectors during

earthquake and community coordination with different agencies in Nepal (Source: Prepared by author, 2019)

5.4.6 Monitoring and Evaluation

In India, National Disaster Management Guideline, Management of Earthquakes, 2016 establishes the importance of ULBs and PRIs in monitoring and evaluating all the activities under search, rescue, health, temporary shelter management in their respective urban and village communities (NDMA, GoI, 2016). ULB, PRIs also carry out safety audit of lifeline buildings and critical infrastructure, ensure implementation, monitoring, enforcement and proper compliance within state by public, private and individuals (NDMA, GoI, 2016). Earthquake monitoring service at central level estimates the earthquake parameters quickly after detection (NDMA, GoI, 2016). Besides, IMA observes the seismic activities till the risk is reduced. The central government of Japan takes necessary steps and forwards orders to the subsequent level authorities to be responded during the earthquake. The prefectural government is in the action to monitor each and every sector management of their respective prefectures. And definitely the leaders or the heads of the community organizations (BOKOMI) in each community monitor and evaluate every step they are managing for the betterment of the people during an earthquake. Monitoring the

Health Management

Shelter, sanitation etc. Management

District Disaster Management Committee (DDMC)

National Disaster Management Committee (NDMC)

Municipal level communities

Village level (VDC ) communities

Army, fire

service, police

Rescue and Relief Committe

e

School management committees

Parent Teacher

Association (PTAs)

Social workers

Search, Rescue and Evacuation

Health Management

Shelter, sanitation etc. Management

Community Rapid

Response Team (RRT)

WHO and UN

agencies

Nepal Red

Cross Society (NRCS

)

Medical First

Responder

9MFR)

GO

CBO

NGO

International Organizations

Local Disaster Management Committee (DDMC)

CBOs Community leaders

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seismic activities frequently is the responsibility of Japan Meteorological agency (JMA) (JMA, 2013). This agency passes the information of seismic activities to the local government and central government at the same time. Monitoring and evaluation of rescue and humanitarian assistance related activities in Nepal are organized at national and district level (MoHA, GoN, 2011). The National Disaster Risk Reduction Center (NDRC) monitors and evaluates the national level operation. The District Disaster Risk Reduction Center (DDRC) monitors and evaluates the district level operation and also local level operation (MoHA, GoN, 2011). It is actually a flow of monitoring from the national to local level. Monitoring the activities at the community level is conducted by VDC and community based teams. 5.4.7 Earthquake response and communities: Experiences from India, Japan and Nepal 5.4.7.1 Community response in Gujarat earthquake, 2001, India

A major earthquake of the magnitude of 7.9 on the Richter scale hit the Indian state of Gujarat at at 8:40 in the morning in January 2001. More than 20,000 people were killed, 167,000 were injured and as many as 600,000 people were left homeless. In Gujarat, community groups were on the frontline of recovery. Their role was not just to provide relief but to demand rights, and this work continues today. This is the first time when the people responded to such a disaster (Rutten, 2001). Existing NGOs and CSOs moved to affected areas within hours to help with organized teams and relief material. Local temples, masjids and church groups were in action quickly. Local food markets were active within two days and building construction material was available in key locations in ten days and in less than 60 days in almost all other affected locations (Price & Bhatt, 2009). Gujaratis and residents of different states set up community kitchens. One such was set up in Adesar by an organisation called „Jain Sasan‟ of Mumbai in which more than 3500 persons were served food per day (Dangi, 2001). Gujarat is home to the powerful network of Gandhian organisations schools, hostels, and ashrams as well as a number of large organisations set up by religious and business groups that actively provided teams and material (Price & Bhatt, 2009). . 5.4.7.2 Community response in Kobe Earthquake 1995, Japan

The January 17, 1995 Hyogoken-Nanbu earthquake of magnitude 7.2 in JMA scale (Mw = 6.9), which struck Kobe, Japan and its surrounding area was the most severe earthquake to affect that region this century. About 61 aftershocks and 110 fire broke out on the first day of the earthquake (Tanaka, 1996). A study shows that about 20000 people were trapped under the collapse structures. Among them only 5000 people were rescued by the fire service, police and self defense force. The remaining people were rescued by the help of community residents including neighbors, family members, and people from other nearer areas (Akari, 2013). After three days of the earthquake,

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January 18, 1995, representatives from the emergency shelter and the heads of the 15 neighborhood associations organized a district emergency response center at the Mano Elementary School (Akari, 2013). This center became the core organization driving the disaster response in the district, meeting every evening to confirm information collected from the district and elsewhere, and to decide what actions to take. They also collaborated with the staff of the elementary school and city employees to operate the emergency shelter (Akari, 2013). Fire rescuers were also supported by the community people for directions to search the trapped victims. 5.4.7.3 Community response in Gorkha earthquake 2015, Nepal

25 April 2015, shows one of the worst earthquakes with 7.6 magnitude earthquake at 11:56 local time in Nepal with the epicenter in Lamjung District (north-west) of Kathmandu and south of the China border (Subedi & Chhetri, 2019). A number of aftershocks occurred after this earthquake. “These earthquakes killed 8970 people where 198 people are missing, and 22,303 people were seriously injured. The earthquakes destroyed 604,930 houses completely and 288,856 houses were partially damaged” (Subedi & Chhetri, 2019, p.3). In those first few days following the earthquake, the first responders were members of local communities, along with Nepalis from across the country. Neighbours pulled neighbours out of the rubble. People shared their scarce resources with those in need. The youth of Nepal mobilized to collect relief items and travelled long distances across difficult terrain to help their fellow citizens recover. Local non-governmental organizations (NGOs) used their extensive networks to provide critical information to the military and humanitarian actors. They deployed volunteers on foot, carrying supplies on their backs to the most remote areas, places helicopters and vehicles could not reach (Ovesen & Heiselberg, 2016). Community health workers (formally organized by the Government of Nepal as Female Community Health Volunteers) were trained to provide health care to families living in some of the most remote communities. Community volunteers enabled to provide primary healthcare services. In conjunction with health infrastructure, community awareness of communicable diseases, reduction of the risk of illness and disease was possible (WV Nepal Earthquake Response Team, 2016).

5.8 Post Earthquake Management and Community Involvement 5.8.1 Coordination, communication and community NDMA, India directs all the activities after an earthquake like debris removal, vehicular traffic control, water, sanitation service control and so on to the SDMA and DDMA for early recovery. As the PRIs of India are very much active and well organized, earthquake recovery is easy to manage (Ministry of law and Justice, Government of India, 2005). Peoples‟ awareness, well-formed CBOs, coordination with PRI and DDMA work as a catalyst for managing the earthquake at recovery phase in India. Due to the community preparedness activities and awareness, well formed and diversified CBOs, the community members were very much active along with the national and

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state agencies (WB & ADB, 2001). The support from INGOs is extensive and commendable (WB & ADB, 2001). The Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), UN Disaster Management Team (UNDMT), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), World Health Organization (WHO), World Food Programme (WFP) and so on support in earthquake recovery and also response. The local government agencies of Japan are mainly liable to manage post earthquake management phase in Japan (Sun, 2017). The government of Japan seeks support from the defense force, police, fire fighters and other international organizations and so on when necessary. The Prime minister forms recovery teams on the basis of needs in this phase (The Law Library of Congress, Global Legal Research Center, 2013). Shaw (2003) emphasized the coordination of NGOs and voluntary organizations in post-disaster scenario, and concluded that these activities are successful when they are rooted to the people and community (Shaw & Goda, 2004). Different expert teams, CSOs, volunteers, and military forces around the world support Japan in recovery from a major earthquake (World Bank, 2012). In this phase the community is more benefitted by the community volunteers through the formation of temporary voluntary associations, enhancing communications among residents (Sun, 2017). In Nepal, the recovery or post earthquake management phase starts with the initiatives and order by the NDMA to provide necessary relief. The authority mobilizes and directs all other level authorities to be synchronized for further recovery after immediate earthquake response. The rescue and relief committee and rehabilitation and reconstruction committees work together at the post earthquake management. Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Management Committee maintains coordination and cooperation from national to local level. This committee mainly activated after earthquake to build up the damaged area. This committee works in the collaboration with district, municipal and VDC level DRM committees for quick recovery from earthquake devastation. In this phase, linkages are developed between COs and local entities along with rehabilitation and reconstruction committee (MoHA, GoN, 2009). 5.8.2 Relief management In India, there are the temporary relief camps having adequate provision of drinking water and bathing, sanitation and essential health care facilities (NDMA, GoI, 2009). The affected community and local authorities are involved in managing the relief camps for maintaining minimum standard of facilities. Under the coordination of DDMA along with the community level organizations and teams, Incident Command Post, relief camp, base, staging area, camp, and helipad are activated in the relief management stage of earthquake (NDMA, GoI, 2009). The district Relief Committee is set up for reviewing of relief measures comprising of official and non-official members including local legislators. Gram Pradhan or Sarpanch of PRI contact with the individual villages and take necessary steps to allocate relief to the earthquake affected people (Shodganga, 2019)

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According to the Disaster Relief Law, 1947, Japan the relief management operation are carried out jointly by the local government along with NGOs, Japanese Red Cross Society and of course the city or village level author and public entities (Nazarov, 2011). The relief includes setting up of places of refuge and emergency temporary housing; supply of food and water; supply of clothing, bedding, etc; rescue of disaster victims; emergency repair of houses. Provision of school supplies, burial arrangements; search for deceased victims and body treatment; removal of debris and other obstacles and so on (Nazarov, 2011). The activities of Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism of Japan for recovery of a disaster include: rescuing the sufferers; rendering assistance to them; restoring and reestablishment of infrastructure including roads, railways, ports and airports; and accelerating the delivery of relief supplies to the affected areas (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism [MLITT], 2011). Other than the governmental procedure, different voluntary non- profit organizations (NPO) in Japan play effective role in provision of relief to the victims. There exists an information and coordination sharing structure through which the relief is distributed and well managed from the central government to the residents of damages area (Nazarov, 2011). Moreover, the Civil Society Organizations supports with enough relief, help and funding. According to the Natural Disaster Relief Act (NDRA), 1982, the Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA) forms relief committees at different levels such as central, regional, district and local level. There is an information flow or interaction between all these committees to coordinate relief activities in the earthquake affected areas (Ghimire, n.d.; Koirala, 2014; Pokharel, 2004; DP-Net, 2004). Besides, rescue and relief management committee is in action for relief management under the NDMC (MoHA, GoN, 2009). Mainly the local committee on the basis of the instructions by the district level relief committees acts at local level incorporating different volunteer teams takes necessary arrangement to allocate the relief to the victims according to their needs (Pokharel, 2004). Also this committee maintains the fund for relief as well as organizes all the volunteers and social organizations inside the community for their involvement in the management of relief (Pokharel, 2004). According to the local governance act, 1998, the local authority takes necessary actions to distribute the relief to the earthquake affected areas based on the relief plan (Pokharel, 2004). 5.8.3 Restoration of health, provision of water, sanitation, utilities The state government of India takes initial steps to manage health conditions of the affected people at recovery phase of earthquake management. For enhancing hygiene and sanitation the government makes liaison with international organizations like: UN organizations, WHO, Save the Children and so on. Indian Red Cross supports a lot in health issues with the government. Along with the physical health, treatment for reducing trauma and depression active involvement of the trained local volunteers and NGOs are encouraged (Gujarat Earthquake Recovery Program, n.d.; GSDMA, 2001).

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The State government provides emergency water supplies from the water tankers and immediate repair of water pipe lines. Besides, the Government takes a number of approaches to ensure the availability of this facility like: reconstruction of storage system, water distribution network and so on (GSDMA, 2001). UN organizations provide necessary support to the government to supply water to the earthquake affected areas with different measures (Clasen & Smith, 2005; Murty, Jain, Sheth, Jaiswal & Dash, 2006). Besides, The Government takes other necessary steps to restore other utility facilities with the collaboration of relevant authorities, ULBs, PRIs and trained community teams (Murty et al., 2006; NDMA, GoI, 2009). In Japan, the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW) is concerned with handling of medical records in the disaster-stricken areas. Along with the ministry and government level disaster management authority, DMAT works restlessly for reviving the health of the victims. The water supply system is developed namely Recovery Time Objectives (RTOs) where some measures have been undertaken: (i) 3 liters per person within the first three days post disaster, (ii) 20 liters per person within seven days, (iii) 100 liters per person within 11 days, and (iv) 250 liters per person within 28 days (World Bank, 2017). Also a number of actions like: retrofitting the water distribution pipes, preparation of emergency water storage tank, multifunctional transmission pipeline and so on. Along with the government agencies different NGO like Care, Nepal take initiatives for the distribution of household water containers (buckets for collection & storage) and household water treatment options; repair and disinfection of water points where required (Care, 2017). Quick restoration of other utility services of the earthquake affected areas is also important issue considered by the Rehabilitation and Reconstruction committee of GoN (MoHA, GoN, 2009). After the damage assessment of all these facilities, required steps have been taken to repair, restore and reconstruct where necessary. The existing conditions of these and other critical elements of the infrastructure are reconstructed as per the rule of the NDMA (MoHA, GoN, 2011). 5.8.4 Restoration of housing The damage assessment and social impact assessment are one of the most important issues to be conducted by the state government of India. This assessment is generally carried out by a team of every villages consisting government Engineer, Panchayet head, school headmaster or NGO leader (Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority (GSDMA), 2001). In general through public private (Government and NGOs), community participation mechanism and community development programs the State conduct the reconstruction process for an earthquake recovery (GSDMA, 2001). For the reconstruction of temporary shelters in case of relocation, the government takes step to prepare the houses by own or by the support from NGOs and communities (GSDMA, 2001). For the permanent reconstruction process keeping the homeowner as

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the primary driver a team is prepared consisted of the NGOs, local artisans, small contractors or cooperatives (GSDMA, 2001). Japan Housing Finance Agency (JHFA), the only Japanese government-owned financial institution for reconstruction or repair of houses provides low-interest-rate loans (Umeda, 2013). In case of the residents‟ living in the temporary houses, aside by the efforts of the government of Japan, many organizations maintain coordination among them and with the prefectural and municipal authorities to provide necessary items for temporary houses (International Development Center of Japan, 2014). In case of major earthquakes NGOS like: Peace Winds Japan (PWJ), World Vision Japan (WVJ), Adventist Development and Relief Agency (ADRA), Association for Aid and Relief (AAR) provide temporary houses to the victims. Caritas Japan organizes funding from both home and American NGO Ameri Cares and International Rescue Committee (International Development Center of Japan, 2014). The Ministry of Physical Planning and Works (MPPW) of the Government of Nepal is the key player for housing related policy provision (UN-HABITAT, 2010). But mainly private sectors, NGOs and UN agencies are responsible for housing construction and related activities (UN-HABITAT, 2010). Along with the contribution of UN-HABITAT, NRCS is the national level leading institute for the distribution of emergency shelter and other Non Food Items (NFIs) in the earthquake affected areas (HCT, 2010). UN-HABITAT is involved in the proper linkage between relief and shelter management at recovery phase with the provision of technical, financial support and overall recovery planning for earthquake (HCT, 2010). Other agencies like Department of Urban Development and Building Construction (DUDBC), UN Office for Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA), IFRC are ready to provide emergency shelter, donors, and representatives from universities (HCT, 2010). 5.8.5 Provision and reviving the emergency transportation system The state emergency operation center and the district emergency operation center of India along with the Armed forces and police, adequately address the post-disaster transportation to ensure the emergency response and recovery efforts. Department of Transport works with the logistic section of the state level IRT to provide effective services (Ground Support Unit) to the field level IRTs (NDMA, GoI, 2016). Requirement of transport for the sending the relief material, responders are arranged under the SDMA and DDMA (NDMA, GoI, 2016). The Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT), Japan repairs and rearranges the emergency transport network for transportation of emergency goods (water, food, etc.) and rescue the victims. Sometimes temporary bus services are also provided in emergency basis. With time the transportation system is well repaired and reorganized by the authority for the ease of movement of people.

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In case of reviving the transportation system in Nepal, the rescue and relief committee provide assistance for reopening of blocked transport like: road transport, airports and so on so that the vehicle can reach to the earthquake affected areas for emergency relief supply, medical services and other necessary supports (GoN MoHA, 2009). According to the experiences of earthquakes in Nepal, the community volunteers along with other organizations work to remove debris from the near roads so that the transport can easily reach to the community. 5.8.6 Monitoring and evaluation Monitoring and evaluation at recover phase in India is conducted by the central authority at each state. Inter agency coordination group at state and district level adapt the norms, by laws and codes as per State‟s requirement, enforce and monitor these at the non-structural mitigation phase collaboration with ULBs, PRIs (NDMA, GoI, 2016). The SDMA, ULB, PRIs carry out safety audit of lifeline buildings and critical infrastructure, ensure implementation, monitoring, enforcement and proper compliance within state by public, private and individuals (NDMA, GoI, 2016). In case of Japan, at post earthquake the post disaster review is conducted by the local authority to identify the gaps in the whole management process. After the positive report from the JMA, the government ordered to start reconstruction, restoration and rehabilitation to the concerned authorities to support the victims. The community disaster welfare organizations like BOKOMI support the local people for each and every task they are about to do for their normal life. National Authority of Disaster Risk Management (NADRM) is the upper level agency of Nepal to implement and monitor all the response, recovery, reconstruction, restoration, rehabilitation activities (GoN MoHA, 2009). A monitoring and evaluation plan has been prepared at recovery phase of an earthquake for implementation, allocation of necessary budgets, increasing the capacity of all the responsible agencies for managing different sectors (GoN MoHA, 2009). The performance of all the organizations at central, regional, district, local, village thus community level has been evaluated for the better recovery activities for the well being of the affected communities of Nepal. 5.9 Critical Review of Earthquake Management and Community Involvement in India, Japan and Nepal India is focused on its administrative framework for disaster management. It emphasizes the involvement of PRI for ensuring community participation in earthquake management. Separate community based organization involvement is not emphasized more in their earthquake management practices. Rather different voluntary organizations and NGOs both national and international level are involved in building awareness among people. But to some extent it has been revealed that at the time of

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earthquake, the response activities are quite low of PRI than other community oriented organizations or volunteers or NGOs. Gujarat earthquake was handled in an efficient manner by both the government and international agencies and also the involvement of communities at initial phase, the government came under attack for the immediate response to the earthquake, lack of disaster management policy and its failure to implement proper construction laws (Reliefweb, 2001a; Reliefweb, 2001b). The reasons identified include: absence of official responsibility for earthquake preparedness, contingency plans or policies for dealing with such a catastrophe and others. Sometimes the communities are discriminated against on the basis of caste, religion and political affiliation (Reliefweb, 2001a; Reliefweb, 2001b). Japan is enriched in community oriented disaster management. Due to the establishment of BOKOMI after the Kobe earthquake in 1995, Japan is now considered as role model in earthquake preparedness for countries over the world. Different countries like Indonesia, Vietnam are trying to establish an organization like BOKOMI at community level so that they can manage disasters in an effective way (Umetani, 2019). It has been seen that in the 1995 earthquake, the government of Japan had played a very weak role and community raised its hands in the response. Also the regulations of disaster management of Japan have been revised based on the experiences and lessons learnt from this earthquake. It is notable from a number of studies that due to the preparedness among the communities number of fatalities was less in the triple disaster in 2011, than before experiences (Koshimura & Suto, 2015). But still in Japan, information necessary for residents to prepare for post-earthquake fires needs to be developed and disseminated to the public. In the ensuing years, Japan‟s legislature, the National Diet, introduced a range of legislation aimed to grow and strengthen Japan‟s non-profit sector (Choate, 2011). The earthquake preparedness practices are much more oriented to government and non government agencies like NRCS, HCT, IFRC, NSET in Nepal. But the most remarkable thing in Nepal that these organizations carry out different project based preparedness practices like education, earthquake scenario based project, training programs and so on where they incorporate communities from school level children to the professional. The new policies and strategies are now put on towards integrating the community in earthquake management. The formation of VDC is the example of it. On the other hand, Nepal government has been criticized from different perspective of response activities of 2015 earthquake. In a study conducted by Shrestha & Pathranarakul (2018) on Nepal earthquake, 2015, one of the important findings was lacking of coordination among the agencies involve in disaster management according to the national framework. One of the challenges were the gaps in the supply chain, lack of local leadership, and coordination difficulties (Hall et al. 2017). Community participation was seen very little in the response of this earthquake. But along with increasing the national capacity, the community based approaches should be in consideration. Utilization of social network, self mobilization through enriching local skill and knowledge are needed to be improved in Nepal (Thapa, 2016).

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5.10 Conclusion Reviewing the three countries‟ earthquake management and its community involvement practices at different issues, it can be concluded that different approaches are present where the participation of community is seen. From experiences, these countries are now trying to overcome the limitations in their regulations so that community participation level can be increased in managing earthquake before it occurs. Following Sendai framework (2015-2030) the three Asian countries are now trying to make disaster resilient communities to manage earthquake or other large scale disasters from pre to recovery phase stage for ensuring “Building Back Better” to normal life.

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CHAPTER 6: EARTHQUAKE MANAGEMENT AT COMMUNITY LEVEL OF DHAKA CITY: REVIEWING EARTHQUAKE CONTINGENCY PLAN, 2010 AND COMMUNITIES OF DHAKA CITY 6.1 Introduction The present status of community involvement at earthquake management is important to explore. At first, this chapter summarizes the aspects where the community has been included according to the contingency plan through a review of this plan. Aside by this contingency plan, the issues that were missing in earthquake management practices at the selected communities have been explained. A number of institutions are shown here that have been found in the communities those can play an important role in earthquake management practices. From the field survey, some actions of those organizations have been identified. Lastly, the capacity of the communities to address the vulnerability has been explained and finally a SWOT analysis has been presented to show the potentials and constrains in earthquake management at community level of Dhaka city. 6.2 Review of Earthquake Contingency Plan, 2010 and Scope of Community Involvement National Plan for Disaster Management (2010-2015) of Bangladesh has declared to prepare national contingency plan for earthquake under certain sectors in three phases: preparedness, response and recovery. Earthquake Contingency Plan, 2010 has also been prepared based on the statement of this plan statement. Also, the institutional framework for disaster management in Bangladesh has been presented in this plan where the lowest level is City Corporation Disaster Management Committee (CCDMC) at city context. But due to the management of large population, the Standing Order on Disasters, 2019 included a Ward Disaster Management Committee (WDMC) under CCDMC. The presence of this committee is compulsory in each ward. The contingency plan for Dhaka city has been tried to be prepared in such way that it could be the foundation for an effective earthquake disaster risk management. The possible outcomes of this plan are as follows: appropriate command and control mechanism, effective collaboration, coordinated partnership among all the stake holders (CDMP, 2009a). From the analysis of the contingency plan, the community level participation is not found in earthquake management except in some aspects like search, recue and evacuation; health management; relief management and storing water at emergency among nine functional clusters. The search and rescue programs can incorporate community if the volunteers are well trained. The plan states that the community can support the search and rescue (SAR) teams at the time of an earthquake, but no such specification on supporting activities is clear in this plan.

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Again community role in the health and shelter management sector also depends on the trained volunteers and medical first responders. This plan said about the neighborhood level support for the management of these two sectors but the formation of such neighborhood is not described. In case of relief management, the community are supposed to maintain liaison with the other stakeholders. But the linkage between communities and those stakeholders are not explained in the plan. Table 6.1 explores the scenario of community involvement in some aspects according to ECP, 2010. Review of ECP, 2010 with agencies and community involvement scenario in the stated sectors is in Table C-1 in Appendix C. Table C-2 represents the monitoring and evaluation sector of earthquake management. A number of capacity building programs namely: training and education, community level awareness creation, awareness program for government officials, Public awareness campaign, school awareness programs and so on, have been proposed to be conducted at community and ward level according to this contingency plan. Different government and donor agencies are to be involved in such programs. International agencies like United Nations Disaster Management Teams (UNDMT), Red Cross, International NGOs like CARE, Oxfam, Islamic Relief, Action aid etc. undertake different capacity building activities and necessary support for earthquake response through the collaboration with Disaster Management Bureau (DMB) and Disaster Relief and Rehabilitation (DRR). Another regional training program named: Program for Enhancement of Emergency Response (PEER) are implementing capacity building activities under the Ministry of Food and Disaster Management (MoFDM) (CDMP, 2009a). Table C-3, Appendix-C depicts an overview of the proposed capacity building according to the contingency plan.

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Table 6.1: Scope of community involvement in earthquake management according to Earthquake Contingency Plan, 2010

Source: CDMP, 2009a; CDMP, 2009b

INDICATORS PRE RESPONSE POST

Lead agencies

Community link Lead agencies Community link Lead agencies Community link

Coordination & Communication

DCC ------- DCC ------- DCC -------

Preparedness/ Capacity building

DMB; FSCD; INGOs; NGOs

Training, education, awareness campaign : ward, community, schools, govt. level

Search, Rescue and Evacuation

DCC Trained community volunteer; supporting

the SAR team

Health, medical and associates

Office of civil surgeon

neighborhood level support

Office of civil surgeon

neighborhood level support

Office of civil surgeon

neighborhood level support

Shelter DCC ------- DCC ------- DCC -------

Restoration of water, sanitation,

hygiene and urban services

Office of civil surgeon RAJUK DWASA

AFD

community level storage for search

and rescue kits

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6.3 Community involvement scenario in the selected communities of Dhaka

Community involvement in earthquake management In Dhaka city has been observed in the selected communities based on certain issues like: presence of Ward Disaster Management Committee (WDMC), presence of volunteers, capacity building programs as stated in the ECP, 2010, community based teams and so on. Table 6.2 gives a summary of the finding from field survey in earthquake management.

6.3.1 Presence of Ward Disaster Management Committee (WDMC)

Although the SOD, 2019 states the presence of WDMC at each ward, in the four selected wards there are no designated WDMC. In 2011 an earthquake contingency plan for Ward no 11 (DNCC) has been prepared where a WDMC proposed. For managing disasters or any emergency, this WDMC is followed by the fire station in Mirpur 10, under which jurisdiction the Block-D, Mirpur community of ward no 06 (DNCC) is located. But this committee is in the documents only. No execution or implementation of activities of this committee is seen from the field survey. The other wards: ward 15 (DNCC), ward 17 (DNCC) and ward 14 (DSCC) do not have any WDMC. It is astonishing that, some fire stations do not have any idea regarding the WDMC and its responsibilities.

6.3.2 Presence of Community Volunteer

Four fire stations work in the four selected wards thus communities. Mirpur 10 fire station is the nearest fire station from the Block-D community, Mirpur, ward 06 (DNCC). Kurmitola fire station serves ward 15 (DNCC) and ward 17 (DNCC) thus Manikdi and Nikunja-2 communities. On the other hand, Hazaribag fire station is about to serve the selected community (Mitali to Moneshwer road) of Ward 14 (DSCC). But due to lack of equipments and manpower, Mohammadpur fire station is involved here. Fire station is the designated authority to train the community volunteers. About 2605 volunteers have been trained from Mirpur-10 fire station; 450 volunteers from Kurmitola fire station; 140 volunteers from Hazaribagh fire station while Mohammadpur fire station trained 1739 volunteers till 2015. In Block-D community, Mirpur and Mitali to Moneshwer road community have community volunteers inside their area. These volunteers have participated in different rescue activities in different incidents. One of the volunteers involved in Rana Plaza incident. In Nikunja-2 community, no volunteers are found and also people do not know about them. There is one volunteer in Vasantek area, near Manikdi community but people do not have much interaction with him.

According to the opinion of the fire station officers, the volunteers are regularly trained from their fire station. While taking the opinion from the volunteers it has been found that a few of the volunteers have regular communication with the fire stations who reside in the nearer community. But in most of the cases, after training program the fire stations do not maintain regular contact with them and also the volunteers do not show interest in these training programs. According to the key informants, the authority does

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not provide any incentives to the trained volunteers. This is one of the main reasons behind the unwillingness of the volunteers to work for people and also take training programs. 6.3.3 Capacity building programs at the community or ward level According to the key informants of fire station, they organize drills regularly in the areas like bazaar or school campus. But from the information given by the people of Focus group it has been revealed that, no such programs have been arranged in their communities by the fire stations, volunteers or other authorities. The earthquake contingency plan proposed a number of capacity building programs to be arranged by different organizations both at community and ward level, but the execution of such programs have been found from the field survey. In the community of Ward 14 (DSCC) the volunteer sometimes deliver speech on earthquake awareness and about do’s and not do’s in the time of an earthquake. But no formal programs have been organized yet. The situation is almost same in the community of ward 06 (DNCC). Table C-3 in Appendix-C shows the capacity building programs at ward and community level as stated in the Earthquake Contingency Plan, 2010. 6.3.4 Presence of resources and trained teams in the community

The earthquake contingency plan states to involve the community in SAR, health, shelter management through preparing trained community SAR teams to support the rescue team in the field; medical first responder for emergency medical care; resource management teams for management the resources like survival kits, community water storage and so on. But in the communities, there is no existence of such teams. In fact, the volunteers also do not have any knowledge about the teams. Besides, there is no arrangement of survival kits or emergency water storage in the communities.

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Table 6.2: Earthquake management scenario at the selected community according to the documents and field survey

Source: CDMP, 2009b; DMB, 2019; Field Survey, 2017 to 2018

6.4 Institutions and Interactions at Selected Communities

Different organizations inside or outside of the community can be a resource to manage earthquake in the communities through the interaction with the people. PRA tool Venn diagram has been applied to identify those institutions. Figure 6.1 shows the institutions and their linkage with the selected communities. 6.4.1 Internal organizations Among internal organizations, different committees like Community Based Organizations (CBOs), mosque committee, educational institutes, influential persons or

ECP, 2010 Field scenario

Block D, Mirpur Manikdi Nikuja-2

Mitali road-moneshwer

road

According to SOD, 2019 : WDMC

none, but sometime follows

the proposed WDMC for Ward

11

none none none

Presence of community volunteers

Total 4934 volunteers have been trained under the fire

stations under which jurisdictions the community

located

Present both inside and outside of the community

Not in the

community but

near area

Absent Present inside and outside the community

Regular training of the volunteers by Fire Station

Occasionally, but involved in

different rescue activities

none none Occasionally, but

involved in different rescue

activities

Training and capacity building programs by

Government authority, NGOs, INGOs for

community

none none none none

Medical level neighborhood team

none none none none

Search and Rescue kits and Response teams

none none none none

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political leaders and in some cases community volunteers are the most important one. In Block D community, Mirpur, ward 06 (DNCC) and community between Mitali and Moneshwer road, ward 14 (DSCC), there is no well-formed CBO. But in Block D community, there is a club formed by the young people of the area that is not much active. On the other hand, Manikdi and Nikunja-2 community have CBOs named Community Policing Services (CPS) and Nikunja Malik Kollan Samiti respectively. The main activities of these types of CBOs are: all social, cultural, security services, waste collection and so on. Community volunteers are present in Block D and community between Mitali and Moneshwer road and they are well communicated with community people and also the fire stations. The people of Block-D area, Mirpur are well interacted with the mosque (Mirpur D block Jam-e-Mashjid) committee especially with the Imam of the mosque. This committee arranges different types of Islamic programs. Also, many of the children in the community study in the madrasha here. In Nikunja-2 community, Nikunja there is also a mosque mosque committee that is consisted of 24 members. This committee has also an influence over people of this area through different Islamic programs. Besides, the community people have a good communication with the schools or other educational institutes inside their community through parent-teacher’s meeting, sports and cultural programs, art and quiz competition and so on. There are some influential or reputed or political persons in the selected communities. Though most of the people do not have interaction with them but people of the focus group have identified them as one of the important institutions because their influence can be helpful at the time of an earthquake through emergency funding, link with the authorized persons and so on. 6.4.2 External organization Nearest fire stations, in some cases volunteers and a number of CBOs outside the communities, some influential persons, member of parliaments, ward councilors; utility service agencies are the most influential organization in the four communities. The most important external person of the community of ward 06 (DNCC) is the Member of Parliament of this ward. The MP of these wards has contributed for the development of the community time to time. Also, he maintains regular communication with the people of the area through different activities. The community Nikunja-2 has also good communication with the MP of this ward. In 2010, a fund had been managed for the development of roads and drainage system through the direction of the MP. But in the other two communities the involvement and interaction with the MP or ward councilor is quite less. One volunteer residing outside the community, trained from the fire station, Mirpur 10, have an interaction with this people in Block-D community. They have also quite good understanding with the fire station Mirpur 10 through well interaction with the two volunteers inside and outside of their area. The scenario is also same in the case of ward 14 community. Though there are no volunteers inside the community of Manikdi, some volunteers of Mirpur 10 fire station and volunteer of Vasantak area have a communication with the influential people of this area.

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A CBO named “Kingshuk Association”, outside the community that is governed by the youth group have influence in the Block-D community Mirpur. This institution deals with a number of activities in the community like organizing people for solving or discussing any important issue, organizing play match, local drama, fair, picnic etc. The local leaders often sponsor in these programs. That is why; there is a tendency among the local people to follow the members or the leaders of these institutions. In Manikdi, there is a voluntary organization named Otindro consist of some schools, colleges and university going young group of people is located outside the community. This organization contributes some social activities in the community like picnics, drama, different programs at occasions etc. They collect fund from the community to offer these programs. Besides, this organization sometimes arranges educational programs for the small children of this area. They voluntarily work for some educational programs to the children. Through their involvement in these activities a good communication and interaction among the community and the young people of this organization has established.

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(i) Block-D, Mirpur, ward 06 (DNCC) (ii) Manikdi, ward 15 (DNCC)

I H

LEGEND

Internal Organizations 1. Influential person 2 2. Influential person 3 3. Market association 4. Mosque committee 5. Volunteer (internal) 6. Political office

External Organization A. MP B. Volunteer C. Ward Councilor D. Influential person 1 E. Fire Station F. Police Station G. Kinshuk samittee H. Gas supply (TITAS) I. Power supply (DESCO)

COMMUNITY

D

A

B

E

4

6

1

2 3

5

C

F

G

LEGEND

Internal Organizations 1. Mosque Committee 2. Nikunja Malik Kollan Samiti 3. Educational institutes 4. Power supply organization (DESCO) 5. Nikunja club 6. Bangladesh Rural Electricity Board (BREB) External Organization A. MP B.RAJUK C. Fire station D. Water supply organization (WASA) E. Gas supply organization (TITUS) F. City corporation office G. Ward councilor H. Police station

2

4

E

1

F

H 6

5

B

D

3

G

C

A

COMMUNITY

(iii) Nikunja-2, ward 17 (DNCC) (iv) Mitali to Moneshwer road, ward 14 (DSCC)

Figure 6.1: The institutional linkage of the community with different organization in the selected communities (Source: FGD, 2017 to 2019)

High to Low Influence High Interaction Low Interaction One way Interaction Both way Interaction

F

LEGEND

Internal Organizations 1. Community Policing Services (CPS) 2. School 3. Mosque 4. Influential persons

External Organization A. Voluntary organization (Otindro) B. Volunteer C. Fire Station D. MP E. Police Station F. RAJUK G. Gas supply (TITAS) H. Power supply (DESCO) I. Water supply organization (WASA) J. DNCC

1

H

E

C D

A

2

3

4

B

COMMUNITY

J

G

I

LEGEND Internal Organizations 1. Local volunteer 2. Imam of mosque 3. Educational institutes 4. Influential person 1 5. Owner’s association External Organizations A. Mohammadpur Fire Station B. Hazaribag Fire Station C. Ward Councilor D. Influential person 2 E. Power supply organization (DESCO) F. Gas supply organization (TITAS) G. Water supply organization (WASA)

COMMUNITY

A

C

D

E

F

G

1

2

3

4

5

B

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6.4.3 Summary findings from institutional role at community level

Analyzing the field scenario regarding the institutional linkage of the community and the way of interaction with the community, it can be concluded that the roles, responsibilities of the institutions and their coordination and interaction with the community are very important for earthquake management. Figure 6.2 (Left) shows the most important organizations that can collaborate with the community to handle disasters like an earthquake. After the application of the process map in FGD, it has been found that, although the institutions are linked and interacted with the communities more or less, but no disaster management activities are performed by them. Figure 6.2 (Right) shows the process of present disaster management by the institutions

Figure 6.2: (Left) Schematic diagram of the most influential organizations at

community level of Dhaka City; (Right) process of earthquake management by different institutions at community level (Source: FGD, 2017-2019)

6.4.4 Proposed actions of the most influential organizations for earthquake management at community level From the FGD, a number of actions have been pointed out that the above institutions should conduct for earthquake management at community level. Among them, the study focused especially on the actions of fire stations, volunteers, CBOs, Imam of mosque, educational institutions and NGOs. The role of fire stations is mainly the arrangement of preparedness programs in different forms, training to the volunteers and community people etc. The volunteers should arrange the awareness activities within the community through the collaboration with fire stations. CBOs in the communities can arrange seminar, workshop and other preparedness programs incorporating people. During the FGD, several actions that an Imam can undertake have been pointed out if he is well trained in disaster or earthquake preparedness programs. Educational institutes are such places from where the basics of children start. At first the school teachers should be well trained from the fire station. Then they can encourage their students in earthquake preparedness programs and other related activities. NGOs like SEED, BRAC etc. have worked in some communities in different aspects. They should play an effective role in earthquake management through the contribution of resources

Institutions

Interaction with the community

No disaster management

initiatives

Experienced person

COMMUNITY Volunteer

s

Fire Stations

CBOs Educational institutes

Religious organization

s

Local authority

es

Influential persons

Local /INGOs

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like: man power, rescue equipment, supplying survival kits and so on. Table 6.3 represents the proposed roles of the influential organization in the communities:

111

Table 6.3: Proposed actions of the most influential institutions in the communities Fire station Volunteer CBOs Imam of

mosques Educational institutions NGOs

- Training to the volunteers and ensuring the participation of male and female -Liaison and regular meeting with local authority and central authority -Arrangement of awareness programs like regular mock, drill, training programs at schools, community ; seminars or workshop for discussion on disaster management including local authority and the representatives of different institutions of the community -Training to the local imam, school teachers and parents, influential persons and also the school children and

-Collaboration and regular communication with FSCD through training, workshops etc. -Arranging mock drill, awareness raising activities, speeches, leaflet distribution, stage drama on earthquake scenario ; preparedness practices for school children in the community through the interaction with fire stations

-Meeting and open discussion with the community and the volunteers or the representatives from fire stations -Creating scope for training of local people from fire station through maintaining regular communication with them -Arrangement of emergency kits and fund

-Training from the fire service -Delivering speeches on earthquake management and awareness ; group discussion in the mosques on earthquake - Collaboration with the local volunteers, influential/ reputed persons in the community - Guide and providing information to the community during

- Arrangement of training of the teachers from fire stations - Regular lectures and classes on earthquake and its impacts, what to do during an earthquake; table top exercises, regular practices, arrangement of quiz, art competition; training, mock drill, with the collaboration of local authority, fire service and community volunteers - Regular teacher-parents’ meeting on this topic and arrangement of guest lecture by earthquake experts - Special arrangement for practices for the disable students

-Undertaking disaster management projects incorporating issues like training, mock drill, awareness raising etc. - Provide fund for awareness raising activities in the community for earthquake vulnerability reduction -Supplying emergency/survival kits, fire fighting equipments -Collaboration with local authority,

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Source: FGD, 2017 to 2019

other professionals in the community -Maintaining the regularity of the meetings of WDMC

-Communication with the locally influential persons, CBOs or other individuals

in case of emergency like earthquake

earthquake - Keep ready the school campus for the use of an emergency shelter

volunteers and FSCD

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In addition to the above mentioned institutions, influential persons like political leader, permanent residents of the community, professionals can play vital role in effective earthquake management. These people generally have link with the authorities that can be helpful for earthquake management at community level. Member of Parliament (MP), Ward councilor should be in lead positions according to the existing framework and the proposed one. These two institutions always maintain contact with the central authority. The more interaction with the community more the earthquake risk will be reduced. Through these two authorities the earthquake information of the locality can be easily disseminated to the central level. In the updated SOD, 2019 all the above institutions have been incorporated in the Ward Disaster Management Committee (WDMC). Figure 6.3 presents the present WDMC according to the SOD, 2019. Under the nomination of ward councilor, all the representatives from these institutions are the members of the WDMC. One important finding from the institutional interaction of the communities is that there is no such linkage between the utility agencies and the communities. But in the WDMC the utility organizations are also present and if an earthquake occurs, lack of communication between community and these utility supply agencies will result in poor management of emergency utilities.

Figure 6.3: The Ward Disaster Management Committee (WDMC) according to the SOD, 2019 (Source: DMB, 2019)

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6.5 Capacity to Combat Earthquake Vulnerability at Selected Communities

Capacity at different sectors at community level is very important to act efficiently in an earthquake management. From the previous analysis of the vulnerability context of the study communities, reasons and effects behind the vulnerability, institutional linkage with community revealed a clear scenario regarding earthquake management scope and lacking. Participatory Vulnerability Analysis (PVA) tool capacity –vulnerability matrix has been applied in the FGD so that the capacity of the community against the earthquake vulnerability can easily be identified. From three (03) perspectives namely: physical, social and motivational, the earthquake vulnerabilities in the communities and the capacity to tackle the disaster have been observed from FGD. The findings can reach to a summary that in most of the cases the physical vulnerabilities are: lack of open space to evacuate, lack of water body and congested building pattern. Social vulnerability and capacity show mainly the organizational pattern of the community where the results are different for the four different communities (Table 6.3). Two among four communities show good volunteer participation where the third one is not so much interactive with volunteers and the last one has no information and relationship with the volunteers. The most interesting findings of this case that can affect badly in constructing a well-formed community based earthquake management system are the vulnerabilities of motivational sector and there are no or less capacities to enhance it (Table 6.4). Table 6.4 here shows summery of the vulnerability-capacity matrix of the study communities. In Table C-4 in Appendix-C shows the detail capacity vs earthquake vulnerability scenario of the study communities.

Table 6.4: Vulnerability Vs capacity for regarding earthquake vulnerability of the communities

Vulnerability Capacity Physical -Narrow road

-Lack of open spaces and water bodies -Building without space between -Congested building pattern - Long distance of fire station (Ward 15 and Ward 17 communities) - Lack of fire extinguisher in the buildings or lack of knowledge on its usage

-Spacious road in some areas within the communities -Nearness of fire station (Ward 06 community)

Social - No volunteer inside the community -No well formed Community Based Organizations (CBOs) -Lack of bonding among people of different among different cultures, economic status, profession -Lack of women volunteer participation

-Presence of volunteers in two communities -CBO in two communities

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Motivational -Low awareness about volunteer training and awareness program -Ignorance of people regarding the vulnerability -Lack of willingness to be aware of earthquake vulnerability especially among women

-In one community (Ward 06) the bonding among people is good

Source: FGD, 2017 to 2019

6.6 Potentials and Constraints of the Earthquake Management At Community Level In Dhaka City Earthquake management at community level in Dhaka city is not established due to a number of problems. Application of different tools and FGD sessions, the scenario has been explored in the selected communities. It has also been revealed that there are some factors, capacities; institutions etc. which can be utilized to make the community prepared for an earthquake. The SWOT (Strength, Weakness, Opportunity and Threat) analysis has been applied in the FGD for identifying the potentiality of the communities both inside (Strength) and outside (Opportunity) that can guide them to a way for earthquake management. At the same time, it has also been found that there are some barriers that can come in the way of earthquake management at community level (Weakness and Threat). The Figure 6.4 represents the summary of the SWOT analysis of earthquake management of the selected communities. Four (04) selected communities have certain positive factors inside their communities that can work as strength to manage earthquake. Among them, presence of community volunteers, availability of fire station, availability of open space in some communities (ward 17), social bonding (Figure 6.4). In some cases, the location of the fire station outside the community, good communication with the local authority is important that can be an opportunity for them (Figure 6.4). In some cases, like ward no 17, the presence of the communities near the main road is considered as a potential for easy rescue from the collapse if an earthquake occurs (Figure 6.4). There are also a number of institutions inside and outside the communities that can create scope to incorporate them in earthquake disaster management. On the other hand, a number of problems have been identified as constraints for earthquake management at community level. Lack of open space and water body; unplanned and congested structures; high population density; weak road network; lack of volunteer involvement in the most communities; lack collaboration with the local authority etc. are the weaknesses and threats common for all the communities (Figure 6.4). Along with all these, the communities located near main road can be trapped if the traffic congestion occurs at the time of an earthquake (Ward no 17 and ward no 06). In some communities, it is seen that there are some factors that make the communities vulnerable both for earthquake and the fire hazard as secondary hazard after an earthquake (Figure 6.4).

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Table C-5, C-6, C-7 and C-8 in Appendix C show the separate SWOT analysis of the four (04) selected communities.

Figure 6.4: Potentials and Constraints of community involvement in earthquake management of Dhaka city (Source: FGD, 2017 to 2019)

STRENGTH

Internal Factor

WEAKNESS Community volunteers: ward no.

14 (DSCC) CBOs: ward no. 06 (DNCC);

ward no. 17 (DNCC) Different organizations or

individuals: ward no. 06 (DNCC),Ward no 17 (DNCC)

Open spaces in some communities: ward no. 06 and 17

Wide roads: Ward no 17 (15-20’) Bonding among people: ward no.

06 Involvement of local authority

with community people: ward no. 06

a number of reputed persons: ward no. 14 (DSCC); ward no. 06 (DNCC); ward no. 17 (DNCC)

No WDMC Lack of volunteer collaboration Lack of experience Ignorance of earthquake risk Lack of awareness and training Lack of open space No water body High population density Unwillingness of the local authorities

to communicate with the communities Congested and high- rise buildings:

ward no. 17 Narrow and congested road: Ward no.

15 (DNCC); Ward no. 14 (DSCC) Negligence in obeying rules and

regulation of constructing buildings: ward no. 17

Competitive mentality among groups of people

Lack of participation of women Vulnerability for fire hazard:

Placement of flammable structures or objects in some communities: ward no. 06; Power supply station : Ward no. 17 (DNCC)

EARTHQUAKE MANAGEMENT AND COMMUNITY

INVOLVEMENT

OPPORTUNITIES External Factor

THREATS Local Authority collaboration FSCD Community volunteer: Ward no:

06

Lack of collaboration of fire stations Explosive structures nearby the

community : ward 17 (DNCC) Political issues International conflict

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6.7 Conclusion The contingency plan of earthquake management in Dhaka city lacks the incorporation of community in organizing different activities at three phases of earthquake management. It has been found from review of this plan; the coordination of the community with the local level institutions is very poor which has also been proved from the field study. As per the FGD and present community level field scenario revealed that, the capacity of the communities are too little to combat the vulnerability of a disaster like an earthquake and also there is huge gap in the information flow from community to upper level. There is also a limited scope of incorporating the community in earthquake management. That is why, the community perception is a valuable issue to be presented in the community based earthquake management framework and its effective implementation.

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CHAPTER 7: PROPOSAL FOR COMMUNITY INTEGRATED EARTHQUAKE MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK OF DHAKA CITY 7.1 Introduction Earthquake management largely depends on a better coordination and communication between community and central level that is shown from the review of the disaster and earthquake management documents of the selected Asian countries (India, Japan, Nepal) (Detail in chapter 3 and 5). On the other hand, review of the disaster management documents like Disaster management Act, Plan, SOD, Earthquake Contingency Plan of Bangladesh shows a gap between community and upper level authority (Detail in Chapter 3 and 5) . Besides, same condition has also been found from the field survey of the selected communities of Dhaka city (Detail in Chapter 5). After all the reviews, field survey, key informants’ interview and expert opinion survey the earthquake management framework has been proposed for Dhaka city. This chapter explains the major comparison between Dhaka city and Asian countries at three phases of earthquake management under some selected factors; the issues to be included from the review for the proposed framework for Dhaka; formation of proposed committee and organization; activities of the committees and related organizations and finally the linkage from top to bottom thus community level. 7.2 Comparative scenario of earthquake management between Dhaka city and reviewed Asian countries Community level earthquake management in the selected Asian countries (India, Japan and Nepal) at different aspects in three phases revealed a clear image of community participation in all the phases of earthquake management especially in pre earthquake or earthquake risk reduction phase. The disaster management documents, practices, different case studies of those countries emphasizes on the community participation for managing earthquake. all the documents emphasize on the flow of information, coordination from national to community level, encourages the formation of detail community disaster management committee, on the other hand the increased importance of the formation of community based teams to manage earthquake (detail in Chapter 5). Unlike the countries, earthquake management of Dhaka city, the capital of Bangladesh integrated community in a very few aspects according to the contingency plan (incorporation of CBOs, school children, NGOs, civil society), disaster management documents and practices. The formation of disaster management committees at different levels according to the Standing Order on Disasters (SOD), created a few scope of integrate communities directly in the disaster thus earthquake management especially for Dhaka city. Earthquake Preparedness and Awareness Committee (EPAC)

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officially present at national level omitted any linkage with local level disaster management committees. One of the main reasons behind the lacking of community participation can be identified from the review of the national documents is the absence of disaster management committee after city corporation level in the cities especially for Dhaka (DMB, 2010) (detail in Chapter 3 and 5). The review of all the documents shows some issues based on these a comparative scenario can be carried out between Dhaka and Asian countries in case of earthquake management (Table 7.1). The issues includes the level of coordination, presence of communication system at different levels, a number of preparedness factors like volunteer activities and their liaison with the communities, the preparedness programs like awareness raising, mock drill, table top exercise, occasion, school and project based programs and training programs for people from different professions and also the general people. For better response the SAR team formation at different levels has also been compared. Besides, the arrangement of medical facilities, shelter management, relief distribution after earthquake and some other sectors have been compared. The comparison reveals the insufficient sectors in earthquake management of Dhaka city that should be incorporated in the proposed framework.

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Phases Pre earthquake management Response Post earthquake management Countries

Issues Dhaka India Japan Nepal Dhaka India Japan Nepal Dhaka India Japan Nepal

Lowest level of

Coordination

Ward level

Urban local bodies and PRI (Panchayet Raj Institute)

Community based organizations like BOKOMI

Village development committee

Ward level

Urban local bodies and PRI (Panchayet Raj Institute)

Community based organizations like BOKOMI

Village development committee

Ward level

Urban local bodies and PRI (Panchayet Raj Institute)

Community based organizations like BOKOMI

Village Development Committee (VDC)

Communication system

National Emergency Operation center (NEOC)

National, District and Local level emergency operation center

Early warning system

National, District

National Emergency Operation center (NEOC)

National, District and Local level emergency operation center, contingency action plan

Early warning system, Observation system, Onsite headquaters

National, District

National Operation center (NEOC)

National, District and Local level emergency operation center, contingency action plan

Early warning system, Observation system, Onsite headquaters

National, District

Main form & level of activation

of volunteers

Community

National but works at community

Community Specific institution based

Types of Preparedness programs

General wareness programs (mock drill, stage

Occasion, School based

General wareness programs (mock drill, stage drama etc.);

School& Project based

Table 7.1: Comparison of community involvement in earthquake management between Dhaka an deselected Asian countries

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drama etc.);

School and occasion based

Training program

For volunteers

For professionals including masons, school children, parents and teachers

School based (teachers & students);

For professionals & masons; School based (teachers & students);

SAR Organizations

Army, Police, Home Guards and other institutions;

Local level, Community level/ CBOs/PRI, ULBs

Community level/ CBOs/community volunteers

Local level , Community level

Presence of relief

management committee

National level

National level, District level, civil defence

Local government, Community based, NGO/NPO

District disaster managemnet committee, VDC

Arrangement of emergency medical

Medical first responders (MFR), Neghborhood

national level agencies (Medical first responders (MFR), and

local voluntary organizations/CBOs

VDC, national internationla level

Medical first responders (MFR), Neghborhood

national level agencies and international level

local voluntary organizations/CBOs

VDC, national internationla level

Medical first responders (MFR), Neghborhood

national level agencies and international level

local voluntary organizations/CBOs

VDC, national international level

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Source: Prepared by author, 2019 based on CDMP, 2009a; CDMP, 2009b; Literature review (Detail in Chapter 3 and 5)

international level

Availability of specific shelter/temporary shelter plan

national State level to Village level

community level

Red cross society and VDC

national State level to Village level

community level

Red cross society and VDC

national State level to Village level

community level

Red cross society and VDC

Overall monitoring & evaluation linkage at lowest level

national

National-local-community

National-local-community

National-local-community

national

National-local-community

National-local-community

National-local-community

national

National-local-community

National-local-community

National-local-community

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7.3 Major Findings from the Review of Asian Countries Earthquake Management and Community Involvement

7.3.1 Earthquake management under the selected indicators at three phases

The review of the Asian countries in the three (03) phases of earthquake management has been conducted based on certain indicators (Chapter 5). From the review, a number of issues have been emphasized while proposing the earthquake management framework of Dhaka city. In pre earthquake management phase, coordination and communication mechanism, categories of preparedness programs, health management like preparation of first aid and survival kits, trained Medical First Responders (MFRs), shelter management like temporary shelter, community integration in shelter management etc. have been considered. In the response phase, matters like: way of involving communities in managing search, rescue and evacuation, how the medical issues can be handled by the community in earthquake response, what should be the role of volunteers and other community organizations in this case, community participation in the temporary shelter preparation and provision of basic facilities management have also been incorporated. The coordination mechanism from central to community level, relief management and nature of community participation, emergency supply of utilities and urban services and also some issues on monitoring and evaluation for the overall management of post earthquake scenario and the scope of incorporating communities have also been noted down for the proposed framework.

The detail picture of the considerations from the review for indicators that should be present in the earthquake management framework of Dhaka city is presented in the Table D-1, D-2 and D-3 in Appendix D.

7.3.2 Findings from the formation community level committee and organizations

At present there are 92 wards comprising both DSSC and DNCC and each ward have large number of mohollas or blocks where a number of communities exist. In the SOD, 2019 there is the provision of Ward Disaster Management Committee (WDMC). But in one ward of the city have more than 100,000 populations. So, it is quite difficult to manage this population under a committee. Rather it would be very easy to manage the earthquake if there would be the committees at community level and community based teams under the communities level disaster management committees (DMB, 2010; CDMP, 2010; Rahman et. al, 2018; Bajek et, al, 2010; Pedroso, 2015; Saito, n.d.; Shaw & Goda, 2004). In the proposed framework the formation of CDMC can be a reflection of the formation of PRI of India (Indian Economic Service (IES), 2015). The PRI of India is authorized to apply the power like government at village or community level. PRI is consisted of elderly, experienced and wise people who are selected by the local community. The most elderly or experienced person called Sarpanch is selected as the leader or so called chairperson. Gram panchayat has a Secretary who is appointed by the Government.

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There is the opportunity of the participation of women, people from special caste and tribes. The Gram or Village panchayet of India generally comprised of minimum five and maximum 30 members. Along with the formation of CDMC, a structured Community Based Disaster Management Organization (CDMO) should be incorporated for the framework of the study which is seen in case of Japan. Dhaka city has an enormous population. Specific disaster management organizations at each community can help to manage earthquake at root level. In Japan, Community Voluntary Disaster Management Organization (BOKOMI) organized at community level and operated through a specific organogram dividing some teams based on different activities performed to manage earthquake (Detail in chapter 5). The BOKOMI is formed under the supervision of local authority including ward offices and through the participation of local fire stations, local residents’ associations, women’s associations, elderly association, volunteer fire corps (JICA, 2010) (Detail in chapter 5). The BOKOMI has a communication with Ward office (JICA, 2010) (Detail in chapter 5). Another study shows that, the BOKOMI is organized and performed its activities dividing under certain teams considering different activities to manage earthquake like information, fire management, rescue and so on (Bazarragchaa, 2012) (Detail in chapter 5). All the teams work under the leadership of a president and vice president (Bazarragchaa, 2012) (Detail in chapter 5). 7.4 Findings from the Field Survey on the Selected Communities 7.4.1 Defining the size of the community

For proposing a community integrated earthquake management framework, the size of community should be defined. From the review of the Asian countries’ documents the approximate size of the communities in Dhaka city has been proposed in the study.

Community Disaster Management Committee (CDMC) can be formed like Nagar Panchayet or Gram Panchayet of India. The average population of Nagar Panchayet is 11000-25000 at ward level and the average population of Gram Panchayet 7000-16000 at village level (Rural Development and Panchayet Raj Department, Government of Tamil Nadu, 2019). It is noticeable that the role of Nagar Panchayet in disaster management is not seen largely where the Gram Panchayet or PRI works effectively at community thus village level. In the context of Dhaka city, the communities have approximately 25000-30000 people that have been found from the field survey (Field Survey, 2018). Considering 30000 people in a community of one ward of Dhaka, about six (06) communities would be existed in one ward. Thus the number of Community Disaster Management Organization (CDMO) should be six (06) in a ward. It is proposed that under each CDMC there would be a number of CDMOs likewise BOKOMI in Japan as it is tough to manage 30000 people under CDMCs only. Considering 5000 population served by one CDMO, it is proposed to form six (06) CDMO under each CDMC. Calculation of the number of CDMC and CDMO is shown

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in Table D-4 in Appendix-D. The calculation of the area of one community is presented in Table D-5 in Appendix-D. Here in Figure 7.1the schematic diagram showing the formation of disaster management committees based on the proposed size.

Figure 7.1: Schematic diagram of the formation of CDMC and CDMO on the basis of the proposed population size

(Source: Author’s preparation based on the literature reviews 2017 to 2019 and field survey, 2017 to 2019)

7.4.2 Proposal for formation of Community Disaster Management Organization (CDMO)

The main focus of the proposed framework is to flow the information and coordination from the root level. This framework focused on the bottom up approach. That is why a ‘Community based Disaster Welfare Organization’ has been proposed in the framework at community level on the basis of the formation of BOKOMI in Kobe city, Japan (Detail in Chapter 5). This organization will be divided under five (05) teams based on the studied indicators (Chapter 2, 5). The teams are: Coordination and guiding team; Preparedness team; Resource management team; Response team and Life support team. All the teams have been organized under three phases of earthquake management (Table 7.2). It is proposed that in the pre phase of earthquake management the incorporation of both the trained and local people (Table 7.2). But in response phase most of the rescuers should be trained people. At recovery phase the participation of the community is not much as the government authorities take almost all the activities of the area. The proposal depicts that this organization will run by a president and he will monitor all the activities of each team based on the feedback of the leaders of different teams. The basic formation of the proposed CDMO is presented in the Figure 7.2. Table 7.2 shows

WDMC

CDMC 1 CDMC 2 CDMC 3 CDMC 4 CDMC 5 CDMC 6

CDMO 6

CDMO 1 CDMO 2 CDMO 3 CDMO 4 CDMO 5

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the teams under the CDMO. Table 7.3 illustrates the roles and responsibilities of the proposed teams under CDMO. Again Table 7.4 represents the overall responsibilities of CDMO. Table 7.2: Proposed teams under the CDMO

Figure 7.2: Proposed community based disaster management organization

(CDMO) for earthquake management (Source: Prepared by author, 2019 based on literature review, 2017, 2018; Field survey,

2017 to 2019 and Expert Opinion Survey, 2018 and 2019)

Phase 1: Pre Earthquake Management

Phase 2: Response

Phase 3: Post Earthquake Management

Information, communication and guiding team

Information, communication and guiding team

Information, communication and guiding team

Preparedness and training team

Search, rescue, evacuation team Relief management team

Resource management team First aid and health team Life Support team Shelter management

Community Disaster Management Organization (CDMO)

Coordination and guiding team

Preparedness team

Resource management

team

Response team

Life support

team

President/Chairperson Senior station officer of the fire

station/ Expert volunteer/elected persons from

the community

Leader Team 1

Leader Team 2

Leader Team 3

Leader Team 4

Leader Team 5

Source: Literature review, 2017, 2018 and 2019; FGD, 2018

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Teams under Community Disaster Management Organization Teams/

Committee Tasks Addressed

phases of earthquake

management

Members Responsibilities

Coordination and guiding team

- Coordination communication - monitoring and evaluation

- Pre -Response - Post /Recovery

Imam of mosque School Teacher Volunteer (both male

and female) Ward councilor Member of Parliament representative from fire

station Representative from

Social welfare organizations

At pre phase Make people aware of the risks of the disasters encourages to coordinate to each other and good relation

with the volunteers monitoring different unusual occurrences occurred in the

community make understanding of bonding among themselves and

with the government bodies regular checking out the communication systems at the time

of an emergency and the way to communicate with government bodies

At response phase Disseminate information throughout the community guide to be activated and start rescue activities without

delay start to communicate and information providing about the

situation of the community to the government authorities At recovery phase coordinate and communicate with the government authority

to manage recovery phase post disaster review and evaluation of the situation as

whole

Table 7.3: Roles and responsibilities of the teams under the Community Disaster Management Organization (CDMO)

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Teams/ Committee

Tasks Addressed phases of

earthquake management

Members Responsibilities

Preparedness team

- community awareness program

- volunteering - training program

- mainly at pre phase. -activities conducted under this phase is applied in the subsequent phases

Trained volunteer (both male and female)/Representative from local FSCD

School teachers Youth group Imam of mosque Professionals Influential persons representative from local

authority local NGOs local people

- Arrange monthly discussion and awareness sessions to dissipate information about preparedness for disaster and to train what to do during and after a disaster - preparation of the community level earthquake disaster plans - school based mock drill and training to the school teachers regarding table top exercises - fire drill and evacuation drill -training on the operation of fire hydrants to the owners of buildings, school teachers, local leaders and professionals - seminars and sessions with the professional and reputed persons of the community/developer company/owners and so on - medical first aid training both to male and female -training on psychology or counseling to the traumatized people - community mapping showing the locations of vulnerable areas and roads

Response team

-First aid and counseling

-fire management -evacuation -temporary

shelter arrangement

-During/ Response

-Separate teams will be formed under these activities and the members will be selected based on expertise and activities. For example: -Medical team Trained volunteers Experienced person local doctors medical students counseling experts

-Fire management team Trained volunteers Trained persons from

the community

-rescue the people from the collapsed structures as soon as possible - rescue people from disaster affected area and take them to shelters and safe places. - Support the First Aid Team in sustaining the medical help and prevent life threatening damage. -Prepare the first aid kits for disasters that will serve the whole community. -Provide primary medical attention after any disaster before taken to hospital. -quick stopping the fire from spreading with available water sources before the reach of the FSCD

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Source: Literature review (Chapter 3 and 5); FGD, 2018; Expert opinion survey, 2018 and 2019

-Search and evacuation team Trained volunteer female volunteers community people

involved in preparation of evacuation route and shelters

Life support team

-relief management -utility management -water, sanitation, sewerage -housing restoration -security -emergency transport

Mainly at post phase but should be prepared from the risk reduction phase of pre earthquake management phase

- Mainly government level agencies like utility agencies, AFD, FSCD, health authority, building authority, City corporation authority -Community members: trained volunteers youth groups medical students doctors owner’s association local security guard

-the role of the community here to support the authority to disburse the relief properly among the victims -support the affected people to retrofit or repair their necessary infrastructures -manages emergency water source for immediate need -necessary medical support -emergency shelter management -security at community level

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Proposed organization

Pre Disaster During Disaster Post Disaster

CDMO - management of the teams under the organization -preparation of a framework of different tasks assigned to each team - arrangement of training to the local people with the support from local fire station and community volunteers - maintenance of regular feedback of activities from the leaders of the teams - encouragement of the communities to participate in the earthquake management - steps to prepare community map by the local people leaded by the leader of the respective team - arrangement of regular meeting, arranges seminars, talking and school based programs to aware the community - maintaining regular link with the CDMC - ready to follow the immediate instruction

- order the leader of coordination and guidance team to disseminate the occurrence of earthquake and inform to evacuate as soon as possible - immediate instruction to the team leaders to conduct rescue activities without any delay - communicate with the fire station for recue vehicle - especial instruction to the medical team for immediate first aid and fire management team to be aware of the fire incidents and do accordingly -order to the team leaders to effectively use the safety equipment and other resources available - instruction to regular feedback of activities to the leaders - disseminate time to time information regarding rescue activities to the chairperson of the CDMC - try to have linkage with the local utility agencies and local authority like ward councilor, MP and so on - regular monitoring all the

- evaluate all the activities conducted during the earthquake by the teams and asks for immediate information when necessary - arrange meeting with the leaders of each teams and with the trained persons for the query about the current scenario of the affected area and the victims - order and support the medical team to counsel the traumatized victims by suggestion and help from the expert psychologists for getting back to normal life - preparation of the inventory regarding the losses and remaining resources - reorganize the affected area and seek financial support to the authority for the restoration of structures -report to the CDMC on the rescue and response activities and present status of the community and seek for support for relief and other issues like sanitation, security,

Table 7.4: Roles and responsibilities of the proposed Community Disaster Management Organization (CDMO)

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7.4.4 Proposal for Community Disaster Management Committee

The CDMC is a formal committee formed under the headship of the member of parliament of the respective ward. Fire station officer or representative from the fire station will act here as the co-chairperson. The main task of this committee is to organize and obtain regular feedback of all the activities undertaken by the teams under community disaster management organization. Table 7.5 shows the formation of CDMC. Table 7.5: Formation of proposed Community Disaster Management Committee

(CDMC)

Source: Literature review (Chapter 3, 5, 6 and 7); FGD, 2018; Expert opinion survey, 2018 and 2019)

Regular meeting of this committee should be arranged once in two months. As the meeting is arranged by the CCDMC at least two within one year and the WDMC should be met once in two month according to the SOD, so the meetings of this committee proposed to be held in once in four months so that the information can be well disseminated from the community to city corporation level and finally to the upper level. Table 7.6 here shows the roles of the CDMC.

from higher authority - regular monitoring and evaluate the responsibilities carried out by the teams

emergency tasks and necessary support to the teams following the rules and regulations and liaison with the upper level authority

emergency communication and transport

CDMC Member of parliament specific ward 1 Chairperson Ward councilor 1 Co-Chairperson Fire station officer/representative from local Fire station, respective ward

1 Member

President / vice president (in the absence of president) of Community Disaster Management Organization (CDMO)

1 Member

Imam/ head (two) of Mosque and other religious institutions 2 Member Representatives (two) of educational institutions 2 Member Representative from community volunteers (at least one female ) 3 Member Representative from residents’/land owners 1 Member Representative from local NGOs/social organizations 1 Member Representative from professionals 1 Member Influential person of the community 1 Member Experienced permanent person 1 Member- secretary

Source: FGD, 2017 to 2019; Expert opinion survey, 2018 and 2019

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Table 7.6: Roles and responsibilities of the proposed CDMC in the earthquake management framework for Dhaka city

Source: FGD, 2017 to 2019; Expert opinion survey, 2018 and 2019

Proposed committee

Pre During Post

CDMC - preparation of community level disaster especially earthquake management plan incorporating the information gathered from the CDMO of the community -preparation of the evacuation plan with the help of the community people - arrangement of regular meetings according to the rules with the CDMO and gather community level information and the needs of them - assist the CDMO to conduct the community awareness programs and also training to the people and volunteers - continuous communication with WDMC and giving update about all the preparedness activities at community level - monitor the activities of CDMO and report to the WDMC - regular liaison with the fire service office for emergency support and relevant authorities

- command to the CDMO for conducting all the activities through the members of the teams under it - time to time information regarding the rescue activities from the CDMO an report to the WDMC - execution of the community level earthquake plan - emergency contact with the fire services if the CDMO fails to do this due to the lacking of communication system - call for emergency meeting in case of unusual occurrences - seeking necessary support from the WDMC and also maintain a liaison with the ward councilor and MP of the ward

- -arranging meeting after earthquake with the president of CDMO and taking the information of the affected victims and the losses

- - -deliver the report of the

community situation after an earthquake

- -regular communication with the ward councilor to reach the information of the needs of the community to the central level - inform the WDMC for emergency relief and supports -revise, update and reorganize the community plan to be prepare and better response to any upcoming disasters -monitor and evaluator the losses and report to the higher authority

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7.5 Findings from the Expert Opinion Interview: Formation of Committees for Integrating Communities in Earthquake Management

According to the expert view, it is the responsibilities of the city corporation to take necessary step as the disaster management institutional framework of Bangladesh links the City Corporation Disaster Management Committee with the upper level. In this case there should be a proper formation of WDMC under the CCDMC and that is already proposed in the revised SOD, 2019. From the opinion of the experts, the necessity of CDMC where the priority should be given to the local people. Also, if properly managed, a Community Disaster Management Organization (CDMO) can be present to involve communities in earthquake management. This can work in the core level of community so that the information and tasks can be disseminated and managed easily. But the most important matter is the leader of such community organization and CDMC should be very wise one who is capable to provide the community level necessity or saying to the upper authority. The concept of different teams under the organization is very unique in this context. It can give the community people the broadest floor to organize them as well as to face an earthquake disaster. These three levels WDMC, CDMC and community earthquake management organization should be well coordinated at all phases of earthquake management at community level. The experts have focused on the involvement of the following persons to be included in the framework who can persuade the community and organize them. Also these persons should be integrated in the both in CDMC and CDMO. Community level: Head of religious institutes, Heads/ members/ students of

educational institutes, available owners’ association, experienced local person, influential person, female participation, people from nearest companies related to development of roads/ buildings, the professionals like doctors, developers, businessman, media persons etc., inside or near to the community

Supporting agencies: Nearest fire service, trained volunteers, NGOs, Ward councilor, Member of parliament, responsible utility agencies, security agencies like police/ RAB members

7.6 Final Proposal for Community Integrated Earthquake Management Framework It is a matter of concern that the proposed framework should be acceptable to the communities and also in the legislative framework in the context of Bangladesh. For formulating an appropriate organizational framework, the perceptions of the communities have been collected regarding their proposals about the organizational setup for disaster management through participatory tools. Key informant interview has been conducted to understand the perceptions of the key stakeholders involve in the disaster management process for proposing the organizational setup. Experts from

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related fields also have given their perceptions regarding the proposed framework. The disaster management plan 2010-15 provides an organizational framework for Bangladesh. But this organizational linkage does not provide any guidelines for the root level that is seen from the earthquake prone countries around the world and of course the studied countries (Detail in Chapter 5, 6 and 7). City corporation and ward level in Dhaka city context is very broad level which would not be a proper unit to be activated in Dhaka city. Considering the background, existing organizational setup and finding from this study the final proposal of the earthquake management framework for Dhaka city has offered. The framework proposed two (02) divisions under the WDMC that will create collaboration with the CCDMC and above levels. The basic framework of the proposal is here in Figure 7.3.

Figure 7.3: Basic coordination structure of the proposed community based framework of earthquake management

(Source: FGD, 2017 to 2019; Key informant interview, 2018 and 2019; Expert opinion survey, 2018 and 2019)

Based on the above study findings the proposal for the framework of earthquake management at community level of Dhaka city involving communities is as follows (Figure 9.4):

Community Disaster Management Organization (CDMO)

CDMC

WDMC

Teams under the indicators for three phases of earthquake management

identified by the community

CCDMC

Central level

Supp

ortin

g or

gani

zatio

ns fr

om

natio

nal t

o lo

cal l

evel

135

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7.7 Conclusion

Earthquake management from grass root level is now a vital issue to be considered in all cities including Dhaka. The earthquake prone countries around the world are improving their disaster management framework through creating bottom up approach leaving the top bottom approach behind. Considering this scenario, the proposal of the community integrated earthquake management framework for Dhaka city has been proposed. Along with the literature review of the selected Asian countries, the importance for such framework has also found from the field survey. Furthermore, the key informants’ and expert opinion interview also indicates towards such a framework. It can be concluded that this framework can work as a guideline in near future to establish a well-structured community based earthquake management framework, regulations and policy guidelines.

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CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSIONS In this study a number of documents related to disaster and earthquake management of three Asian countries and Dhaka city have been reviewed to identify the gaps of earthquake management scenario and community involvement of Dhaka city. Aside by earthquake vulnerability and management scenario at community level of Dhaka city has also been found from four (04) earthquake vulnerable communities. Finally, a proposal for community integrated earthquake management framework of Dhaka city has been explored. In this chapter the major findings from the study along with some recommendations against those findings have been explained. Furthermore, future scope of work has been put down here. 8.1 Major Findings 8.1.1 Comparison on the earthquake management and community involvement between Asian countries and Dhaka city The main coordination framework at pre, response and post earthquake management phase and in different sectors like communication, preparedness activities, health and shelter management etc. is same. Coordination and information flow from top to bottom level: in India: Panchayet Raj Institute (PRI) to community or villages and number of population in one community is approximately 25000 according to the concept of Nagar Panchayet; in Japan: BOKOMI- a community disaster welfare organization at community level and the teams under this organization working for disaster management at different phases and the population served by BOKOMI is 5000-6000 and in Nepal Village Development Committee (VDC) to local people. In the response phase, the prepared community response on the basis of the pre designed coordination structure with the authorities in issues like health, shelter and emergency food, water, sanitation management. At recovery phase, the community supports the authority mainly in relief management and proper allocation. On the other hand, City Corporation Disaster Management Committee (CCDMC) is the lowest level disaster management committee for Dhaka city. The revised SOD, 2019 has incorporated the Ward Disaster Management Committee (WDMC) under the CCDMC so that the ward committees can reach to the community and perform efficiently in disasters like earthquake management. But the city has been divided into two (02) city corporations namely Dhaka South City Corporation (DSCC) and Dhaka North City Corporation (DNCC). Under these two (02) city corporations there exist 92 wards where each ward has population above 100,000. So it is quite tough for one WDMC to reach to the community level. Thus the way of linking between roots to upper level remains unsolved. Again the Earthquake Contingency Plan, 2010, there is no scope for community involvement except search and rescue, health and shelter management and water restoration.

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8.1.2 Earthquake management scenario at selected communities of Dhaka city

From the field survey, it has been identified that there is absence of WDMC, community based teams and also in some communities there were no volunteers that should be present according to the earthquake contingency plan, 2010 for Dhaka city and other disaster management documents of Bangladesh. Besides, the congested building pattern, lack of open spaces and water bodies, unplanned growth, lack of awareness among people regarding earthquake hazard and preparedness programs etc. are increasing the earthquake vulnerability and reducing the capacity of the communities. Along with these findings, a number of institutions have found those can play effective role in the earthquake management through the interaction from the community to the upper level authorities. The institutions are: local fire stations, volunteers, imam of mosque, school teachers, influential and experiences persons. The roles and responsibilities of those institutions have also been proposed at the time of field survey. It is noticeable that representatives from these institutions are also recommended in the WDMC according to SOD, 2019. 8.1.3 Proposal of community integrated earthquake management framework From the study two committees have been proposed under WDMC: Community Disaster management Committee (CDMC) and Community Disaster Management Organization (CDMO). The proposal states that the population of a community served by the CDMC and CDMO is approximately 30000 and by the CDMO is 6000. Considering 30000 people in each community, there should be six (06) CDMC and under each CDMC there should be six (06) CDMO. About five (05) teams have been proposed to work under one CDMO. The teams are: Coordination and guiding team; preparedness team; resource management team; response team and life support team. The CDMC is proposed to be consisted of 16 members under the headship of Member of Parliament (MP) and Ward Councilor as co-chairperson. The team leaders and president of CDMO are proposed to present in the committee. The detail roles and responsibilities of the proposed committees and organization have also been proposed in the study. The proposed linkage is: CDMO - CDMC -WDMC –CCDMC to the central authority. The teams under the CDMO will reach to the community level. The supporting organizations are the local NGOs, volunteers; ward offices and those are stated in the documents. 8.2 Recommendations A number of issues have been found from both the findings from review and field scenario. It is quite clear that the earthquake management and community involvement scenario is very poor in Dhaka city. Based on the findings of the study, some recommendations have been identified.

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The coordination structure of the Asian countries is well established. The flow of information dissemination from top to root level is observed at the three phases of earthquake management. For Dhaka city earthquake management framework this concept should be followed and implemented efficiently. Community involvement likewise the reviewed countries should be more focused on pre earthquake management activities. The community based disaster management should be emphasized.

Preparedness practices are highly recommended incorporating community people in different forms. School based capacity building, mock drill, table top exercises should be more focused. Involvement of volunteers should be ensured in preparedness programs at community levels.

Volunteers should be well trained and regularly monitored by the authorities. At the same time local fire stations should be prepared with trained personnel and also rescue equipment. It is important to maintain communication with the community through the volunteers and local fire stations. Besides, the local ward offices should be strictly ordered to collaborate with the fire station, volunteers and other important personnel of a community. Not only volunteers, but also the fire station should train the important individuals from a community like head of religious institutes, school teachers, locally influential persons, persons from CBOs and so on. Authorities must ensure the involvement of female volunteers.

The disaster management authorities should ensure the formation of WDMC at each ward and of course the regularity of the meetings to be held according to the SOD, 2019. Besides, the proposed CDMC and CDMO should be encouraged to form in the community.

The government authorities should undertake initiatives for earthquake related projects where community based practices on real life earthquake scenario can be conducted regularly. Also, there should be direction of preparing survival kits and list of other resources of the communities.

8.3 Future Scope of Work The study revealed a new area to think on the earthquake management framework of Dhaka city. The experiences that have been reviewed in the study from India, Japan and Nepal, the recognized three (03) most earthquakes prone and also experienced countries can support the present disaster management authority to understand the importance of community involvement in earthquake management for Dhaka city. The field findings can help the authorities to perceive the real scenario of Dhaka city at community level. The review of the disaster management documents of Bangladesh and Earthquake Contingency Plan of Dhaka city can reveal the gaps and create the opportunity to make scope for community involvement. Thus, it can be hoped that in near future the decision makers would come up with a new and improve earthquake management framework for Dhaka city where community will be incorporated that will reduce vulnerability of earthquake on community.

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164

APPENDIX- A

Figure A-1: (Left) Earthquake vulnerability map of Dhaka city based on possible building damage (Middle) Earthquake vulnerability map of Dhaka city based on possible fatalities; (Left) selected vulnerable wards from WB and EMI study

(Source: EMI & WB, 2014)

166

Table A-1: Reviewed disaster and earthquake management documents

Table A-2: List of experts

Name Designation Contact no. Mr. Shakil Newaz, Director (operation &Maintenance), department of

Fire Service and Civil Defense -----

Mehedy Ahmed Ansary Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, BUET ------ Dr. Edris Alam Associate professor and head, Department of

Geography and Environmental Studies, Chittagong university

01760412648

Shubarna Barma Emergency Preparedness and Response Coordinator International Rescue Committee (IRC), Bangladesh

------

Shamaun Al noor Project Manager, Urban Resiliency project 01716-980426 S M Morshed Project Manager, 01755627125

Documents Countries

National Level

Earthquake Specific Others

Bangladesh -Disaster Management Act, 2012 -Disaster Management Policy -National Plan for Disaster Management (2010-2015) -Standing Order on Disasters, 2010

-National Earthquake Contingency Plan -Earthquake contingency Plan for Dhaka City -Contingency Plan for Earthquake Hazard for -AFD, FSCD, DPDC, TGTDCL, BTCL

-Disaster response and preparedness plan -Earthquake Contingency Plan for Mymansing, Rangpur , Sylhet City Corporation

India -Disaster Management Act, 2005 -National policy on Disaster management, 2009 -National Disaster management Framework -National Disaster management Plan (2015-2030)

-National Disaster Management Guidelines-management for Earthquake - Earthquake Risk Mitigation Project -Urban Earthquake Vulnerability Reduction Project

-National Disaster information and communication network -National Disaster Response Reserves -National School Safety Pilot Project

Japan -Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act, 1997 -Disaster Relief Act, 1947 -Basic Disaster Management Plan

-Large scale earthquake countermeasures act -Great east Japan Earthquake Reconstruction Basic Act - Great east Japan Earthquake Special Zoning Act -Earthquake Insurance Act

-Peoples Protection Act -Fire fighting Act -Fire and Disaster Management Organization Act

Nepal -National Disaster Act (Relief) Act, 1982 -National Action Plan on Disaster management in Nepal, 1996 -National Strategy for Disaster Risk Management, 2009 -National Disaster Response Framework (NDRF), 2013 -National Strategic Action Plan for Search and Rescue, 2014

-Kathmandu Valley Earthquake Risk management Action Plan, 1998 -NRCS earthquake Contingency Plan, 2008 -Contingency Plan for Earthquake, Nepal, 2016

-The constitution of Kingdom of Nepal, 1990 -Local Self-Governance Act, 1999

167

National Resilience Program (NRP), UNDP Bangladesh

Abdul Latif Khan Freelance Consultant Disaster Risk Management and Climate Adaptation &Adjunct Faculty IDMVS, DU

01713-063302

Table A-3: List of key informant

Ward no 6 (DNCC) (Community: Block

D)

Ward no 15 (DNCC)

(Community: Manikdi)

Ward no 17(DNCC) (Community: Nikunj-

2)

Ward no 14 (DSCC) (Community: Mitali to

Moneshwer road)

Name Designation

Name Designation

Name Designation

Name Designation

Mr. Anwar

Hossain

Senior Station Officer, Mirpur 10 FSCD

Mr. Zahurul

Huq

Senior Station Officer, Kurmitola FSCD

Mr. Samsuzzaman

President, Nikunja Malik Kollan Samiti

Mr. Jaman Senior Station Officer, Mohammadpur FSCD

Mr. Raihan

Volunteer, Mirpur 10 FSCD

Mr. Atik Volunteer, Vashantek area

Mr. Samsuddin

Member, Nikunja Club

Mr. Saiduzzaman

Station Officer, Hazaribagh FSCD

Mr. Ilias

Molla

MP, Ward 6 (DNCC)

Mr. Zia Hasan,

Chairman, BAWDC

Ms. Nurunnahar

Teacher, Kinder garden school

Mr. Asru Volunteer, , Mohammadpur FSCD

Mr. Fazlay Hasan

Imam, Block D Jam-e Mashjid

Mr. Rashid

Imam, Manikdi Mosque

Mr. Rafik Uddin

Member, Mosque Committee

Mr. Babu Volunteer, Hazaribagh FSCD

Mr. Zakir

School teacher, Mirpur Bangla High School

Mr. Zahangi

r

Leader, Manikdi Bazaar

Ms. Rabeya

Volunteer, , Mohammadpur FSCD

Mr. Hafiz Imam, Jigatola mosque

Mr. Ratan

Businessman

Mr. Mozam

mel

Executive Engineer, RHD Mr.

Sentu Leader

Mr. Tamal

Program officer, SEEP

169

Table A-4: List of participants of the focus group

Ward no 6 (DNCC) (Community: Block D,

Mirpur 6)

Ward no 15 (DNCC)

(Community: Manikdi)

Ward no 17(DNCC) (Community:

Nikunj-2)

Ward no 14 (DSCC) (Community: Mitali to

Moneshwer road)

Mrs. Farah Diba Mr. MA Rashid Mr. Zia Hasan Mr. Monir Ms. Sadia Md. Shakif Mr. Sagor Mr. Khairul Mrs. Liza Mr. Kashem Mr. Rezaul Karim Mr. Kamruzzaman Mr. Tuhin Mr. Mominul Mr. Zaoinal Abedin Ms. Rabeya Mr. Sentu Mr. Mozammel Mr. Md. Aminul

Islam Mr. Habibur

Mr. Tamal Ms. Nila Mr. Goribulla Mr. Mostakim Mr. Manik Ms. Kaniz Mr. Samsuzzaman Mr. Asru Mr. Anwar Mr. Rashed Mr. Samsuddin Mr. Babu Mr. Nabi Mr. Asgor Mr. Habibur Rahman Ms. Nasrin Mr. Salauddin Mr. Ali Hossain Mr. Roni

Mr. Liton

Tools Date and Time Community 1

Ward 06 (DNCC)

Community 2 Ward 15 (DNCC)

Community 3 Ward 17 (DNCC)

Community 4 Ward 14 (DSCC)

Historical Timeline

July 6, 2018; 4:00 PM

August 24, 2018; 5:00 PM

September 24, 2018; 5:00 PM

January 20, 2016; 4:00 PM & January

27; 6:00 PM Social and

resource map August 4, 2018;

5:00 PM September 14, 2018; 5:00 PM

October 19, 2018; 4:30 PM

February 17, 2016; 5:30 PM

Transect walk August 30, 2018; 2:00 PM

September 15, 2018; 12:00 PM

October 20, 2018; 10:30 PM

February 18, 2016; 12:00 PM

Cause-effect diagram

September 1, 2018; 4:30 PM

October 31, 2018; 12:00 PM

November 2, 2018; 4:00 PM

April 21, 2017; 5:00 PM

Pairwise ranking matrix

September 1, 2018; 5:00 PM

October 31, 2018; 3:00 PM

November 2, 2018; 4:00 PM

April 21, 2017; 5:00 PM

Venn Diagram

September 22, 2018; 5:00 PM

November 2, 2018; 4:00 PM

November 16, 2018; 3:00 PM

May 19, 2017; 5:00 PM

Process map October 12, 2018; 5:00 PM

November 2, 2018; 4:00 PM

November 16, 2018; 3:00 PM

May 19, 2017; 6:00 PM

Capacity-Vulnerability

matrix

November 16, 2018;4:20 PM

December 14, 2018; 4:30 PM

December 7, 2018; 4:30 PM

July 27, 2018; 6:00 PM

Vulnerability map

August 4, 2018; 5:00 PM

September 14, 2018; 5:00 PM

October 19, 2018; 4:30 PM

February 17, 2017; 5:30 PM

SWOT analysis

December 21, 2018; 5:00 PM

December 14, 2018; 4:30 PM

December 7, 2018; 4:30 PM

September, 2018; 3:00 PM

Separate FGD January 31, 2019; 4:00 PM; March 15, 2019;

4:00 PM

February 8, 2019; 3:00 PM

February 15, 2019; 5:00 PM

March 1, 2019; 4:30 PM

April 6, 2019; 4:30 PM

January 1, 2019; 3:00 PM;

February 21; 4:00 PM

Table A-5: Date and time of the PRA (Participatory Rural Appraisal) and PVA (Participatory Vulnerability Analysis)

170

Table A-6: Questionnaire for expert opinion survey

This is a study under Master of Urban and Regional Planning (MURP) Program of Bangladesh

University of Engineering and Technology (BUET) of Ms. Nazia Hossain, MURP student bearing roll 1014152020

Research Title: An approach to integrate communities in earthquake management of Dhaka city

The information collected here will be used academic purposes only Name: Designation: Date: Please score the following indicators on the basis of the community involvement in different

phases of earthquake management

The scoring scale is 0 to 5; where 0 indicates no importance and 5 indicate most important). 0 1 2 3 4 5 not important very low medium good most important low

Indicators Pre earthquake management phase

Response phase of earthquake

management

Post earthquake management phase

Coordination and communication

Preparedness program, training and

Type of volunteers and level of activation

Search, rescue and evacuation

Health management and medical facilities

Shelter management Relief management

Utility facilities management

Water, sanitation and hygiene

Monitoring and evaluation Mention if any other indicators where the community can play role at the three phases

Scope of community involvement in present disaster management framework of Bangladesh

Scope of community involvement ECP, 2010 for Dhaka city

Need to form the Community Disaster Management Committee (CDMC) and why

Members of CDMC and role Define community It has been seen that some Asian countries offer a community based organization under such

community level committees. Is it necessary to incorporate such organizations in the context of Dhaka city? The coordination mechanism may be like the following:

171

Answer: Important community level personnel Important personnel from outside can work in Earthquake management of the community

Government level supporting agencies

head/leader and other members of the teams can form CDMC

head/leader of the CDMC should be present as a member of WDMC

head/leader/other members of WDMC should be present as a member of CCDMC

Community Disaster Management Organization (CDMO)

CDMC

WDMC

Teams under the indicators for three phases of earthquake management

identified by the community

CCDMC

Central level

172

Table A-7 Questionnaire for key informant: Fire Station Officer

This is a study under Master of Urban and Regional Planning (MURP) Program of Bangladesh

University of Engineering and Technology (BUET) of Ms. Nazia Hossain, MURP student bearing roll 1014152020

Research Title: An approach to integrate communities in earthquake management of Dhaka city

The information collected here will be used academic purposes only Name: Designation: Date:

Questions Answers No. of trained volunteers from this fire station, total no of volunteers in Dhaka city also

Volunteer ratio: male/female Types of training Incentives for volunteers Incorporation of general people from the area under the jurisdiction of this fire station

Training or drill in the schools or other educational organizations

Training or drill in the garment industries Availability of fire rescue equipments on the basis of requirement

Arrangement of seminars on fire or earthquake related issues Collaboration of communication with any CBOs or other related organizations in the local areas under their jurisdictions

Collaboration with NGOs or other such organizations Collaboration with INGOs or other such organizations Involvement in the Ward Disaster Management Committee according to the SOD, 2019

Meeting or communication pattern with higher authority like 1. frequency of meeting 2. emergency meeting 3. members of such meetings

Urgent or first communication with higher authority when an emergency occurs

Necessity of community based disaster management or earthquake management committee

If yes, a brief on the formation of such committee Necessity of specific community based disaster management teams or such organizations within an area

If yes, a brief on the formation of such teams Linkage from community to city corporation level

173

Table A-8: Questionnaire for key informant: Volunteer

Table A-9: Questionnaire for local key informant

This is a study under Master of Urban and Regional Planning (MURP) Program of Bangladesh

University of Engineering and Technology (BUET) of Ms. Nazia Hossain, MURP student bearing roll 1014152020

Research Title: An approach to integrate communities in earthquake management of Dhaka city

The information collected here will be used academic purposes only Name: Designation: Date:

Questions Answers Training from ........fire station Communication with fire station Serving areas Place of residence Communication with local people Awareness creation activities with the community Liaison with the important personnel/organizations in the community Liaison with MP/WC of the respective ward Liaison with NGOs Knowledge about WDMC Need for CDMC under WDMC If yes, formation Need for any disaster management organization under CDMC, why If yes, formation Working procedure of such organization Teams under this types of organization Mention important personnel in the community can work in earthquake management Mention important personnel in the community can work in earthquake management Share experience of any incident you have participated in rescue (if any)

This is a study under Master of Urban and Regional Planning (MURP) Program of Bangladesh

University of Engineering and Technology (BUET) of Ms. Nazia Hossain, MURP student bearing roll 1014152020

Research Title: An approach to integrate communities in earthquake management of Dhaka city

The information collected here will be used academic purposes only Name: Designation: Date:

Questions Answers Residing period in the area Communication with others Knowledge on earthquake Experience of any important incidents like building collapse, fire, accidents etc.. Volunteer incorporation within the area Presence of any community based organizations Activities of such organizations and population serve Liaison with the MP/WC Liaison with the nearest fire station Need to form a specific disaster management organization inside the community Formation of this organization

174

Table A-10: Structure of FGD other than the application of the PRA and PVA tools

This is a study under Master of Urban and Regional Planning (MURP) Program of Bangladesh

University of Engineering and Technology (BUET) of Ms. Nazia Hossain, MURP student bearing roll 1014152020

Research Title: An approach to integrate communities in earthquake management of Dhaka city

The information collected here will be used academic purposes only

Indicators Formation of teams

Addressing phases of

earthquake management

Responsibilities of the

teams

Coordination and communication

Preparedness program, training Type of volunteers and level of activation

Search, rescue and evacuation Health management and medical facilities

Shelter management Relief management

Utility facilities management Water, sanitation and hygiene

Monitoring and evaluation

175

APPENDIX-B Table B-1: Calculation of population in the selected communities of Ward 06 (Block D, Mirpur 6)

and Ward 17 (Nikunja 2)

Ward 06 (Block D, Mirpur 6) Ward 17 (Nikunja 2) Number of roads: 12 Approximately 30 to 32 buildings in each

road. Maximum buildings are four (04) to six

(06) storied and to the northern part some buildings are seven (07) and eight (08) storied and above.

Considerations: five (05) roads have six (06) storied

buildings; five (05) roads have four (04) storied

buildings one (01) roads have seven (07) storied

buildings one (01) roads have eight (08) storied

buildings two (02) flats per floor of each

building of four (04) and six (06) storied

four (04) flats per floor of each seven (07) and eight (08) storied building

Number of people in each family: five (05)

Calculation Population in six (06 ) storied buildings: (5*31*60)=9300 Population in four (04) storied buildings: (5*31*40)=6200 Population in seven (07) storied buildings: (1*31*140)=4340 Population in eight (08) storied buildings: (1*31*160)=4960 Total no. of population in the community: 24800

Number of roads: 21 Approximately 20 to 25 buildings are located

in each road Maximum of the buildings are four (04) to six

(06) storied. In some roads, three (03) storied and a small number of roads have newly constructed seven (07) storied buildings.

Considerations: 12 roads have six (06) storied buildings four (04) roads have four (04) storied

buildings three (03) roads have three (03) storied

buildings two (02) roads have seven (07) storied

buildings Most of three (03), four (04) and six (06)

storied buildings have two (02) flats in each floor.

Maximum seven (07) storied buildings have four (04) flats each floor.

Number of people in each family: five (05)

Calculation Population in six (06 ) storied buildings: (14*22*60)=18480 Population in four (04) storied buildings: (5*22*40)=4400 Population in three (03) storied buildings: (1*22*30)=660 Population in eight (08) storied buildings: (1*22*140)=3080 Total no. of population in the community: 26620

Source: Prepared by author based on field observation and FGD, 2018 and 2019

176

Table B-2: Timeline of ward 06 (DNCC) (Block-D, Mirpur, 6)

Source: FGD, 2018

Time Incidents Remarks 1959-1961 -1.45 katha plot was allotted and 16 families started to live

in this area -establishment of 6 no mosque

-establishment of the community -1st mosque in the area

1964-65 -after division of India and Pakistan, Bihari people came and started to live abundantly -in storm the mosque were badly affected

1970-1971 and till 80’

-enough greeneries, vacant spaces -open spaces playfield behind the mosque -play lot in front of each houses -a lake was present throughout Ta block of this ward -ponds existed -a field were present in road no .01 and 20 -parks were there in road no.14 and 15 -maximum houses were semi pucca and some buildings were established were two (02) to three (03) storied

-enough spaces and greeneries -buildings were few in number

after 80’ -population started to increase and construction of buildings were started in each 1.45 katha plots, but the play fields, open spaces were existed

-starting of construction to accommodate people

1990-1992 -some tin shed buildings were present in the area that is known as “Park Colony” had been occupied by housing society to build buildings for 3rd and 4th class employees

1995-onwards -the land grabbers started to occupy the vacant spaces maintaining liaison with authority -the field behind the mosques, the spaces in front of the buildings started to occupy for building construction -people started to neglect rules and constructed buildings without keeping spaces between -the ponds have been started to fill up -the lake of Ta block were occupied by the slum people and the condition of the is started to worsen by wastes

-starting of demolishing of free spaces -filling up water bodies -congestion increased - lessening road width - a few spaces left for evacuation -the new buildings do not have proper evacuation staircases and other necessary equipments

2005 the orchid community center has been constructed filling up a pond

2011 Mayor of DNCC started to construct some roads for widening

2012-onwards developers started to come and high rise buildings have been started to construct

177

Year Incident Remarks 1972 Manikdi was a low-lying area. These lands were mainly used for agricultural

purpose. Low lying agricultural land

1974 The whole area was used as paddy field. This area was frequently flooded during rainy season.

1975 Plots were bought by the retired Army officers seeing the potential of these lands in future, as the area is just located beside the cantonment area.

1978 Plots were being developed which were comparatively high land than the surroundings. People started filling the low-lying paddy fields and started developing katcha or semi-pucca buildings.

Start of establishment in Manikdi

1978 Manikdi Govt. Primary School was established. 1979 Manikdi Bazar was established. The building condition of the shops in the

bazar was katcha.

1980 Manikdi road and Manikdi Bazar road were constructed which connected Manikdi with ECB Chottor and Matikata road.

1981 AdarshaBiddaNiketon, Manikdi was built. This school is directed under supervision of the Dhaka Cantonment Board. Manikdi bazar was upgraded to semi pucca structure.

1984 East Manikdi WelfareSomiti was formed for the welfare of community people which is currently obsolete.

1988 Total land area was flooded 1990-91 After the flood of 1988, Govt. of that time constructed a dam which reduced

frequent flooding in the area. Job holders of Cantonment started buying plots in an increased rate.

1992 Amtola, Manikdi Social Welfare Somiti was formed. 1996 Construction of Matikata road, significant improvement of the

communication system of the area were done.

2000 Concept of shared development is seen. 10-15 people together bought a plot, started developing buildings. High rise buildings were being built in the area.

2002 Matikata Flyover was constructed; giving a boost to the development in the area as the price of the lands became high.

2003 Rapid construction of buildings was seen at this time. People developed their land individually or sharing with others or with the help of developers; creating haphazard situation. Some constructed buildings occupying the roads illegally which narrowed down the roads.

Rapid urbanization

2007 Community Policing Services (CPS) was formed and started its operation. It is supervised by the nearest police station.

CPS started its journey

2017 Sewage system was improved by replacing 2-3 feet diameter sewage line with 4.5-5 feet sewage line. This improvement reduced the water-logging in the area. The area was frequently water-logged during rainy season prior to improvement of sewage system.

2019 Amtola pump was constructed for providing safe drinking water to the community people.

Table B-3: Timeline of ward 15 (DNCC) (Manikdi)

Source: FGD, 2018

178

Table B-4: Historical timeline of Nikunja-2

Source: FGD, 2018

Year Incident Remarks 1962 Acquisition of Nikunja-1 and Nikunja-2 area by DIT for the

resettlement of the affected people from land acquisition of Gulshan, Badda, Mohakhali, area by DIT in 1959-60

Starting the establishment of Nikunja-2

1980 Application called by RAJUK for the distribution of plot among the affected people of land acquisition by DIT in 1959-60

1982 Plot allotment by RAJUK among the affected people 1984 Plot allotment stopped and distributed plot were re-settled into

Uttara area due to political disruptions.

1988 Total land area was flooded 1990-91 Due to regime change in a political maneuvering the then elected

government reallocated the plot to the affected people.

1992 Building construction restored without electricity connection, gas and water supply

1996 Transfer of one Petrol pump into CNG Station 1998 Low land area was flooded, movement disrupted and the main

transportation medium was boat

2000 Nikunja-2 house owner association was formed 2002 The association started its operation 2002 Collapse of a two storied under construction building Risky construction 2008 Building of two CNG stations beside the Khilkhet over-bridge 2010 Building the gates of the residential area at the entry of each access

road

2010 Employed security around the area by Nikunja Malik KollanSomiti 2012 Infrastructure development held significantly 2012 Improvement of roads and area with sufficient drainage system by

government agency (Army 16 ECB)

2014 Assigned guards at every access by NikunjaKollanSomiti 2017-2019

-Development was increased and negligence of rules were started -Some roads have been constructed and some high rise buildings are in under construction

179

Table B-5: Timeline of ward 14 (DSCC)

Source: FGD, 2018

Time Incidents Remarks Pakistan period

Establishment of leather technology institute

Before 1971 till 1974

Enough open space and greeneries

Before 80’s 60’ road narrowed down when entering to road no 15 Trend of narrowing road started

After 80’s Start of construction activities and building high rise building Initiation of build up 1988 Flood 1989 Buriganga was present beside the area 1990 Buriganga river stated to fill and construction Lose of water body

1995-1996 River demolishing continued with structures 2002 Establishment of staff quarter water pump

From 80’s to 2006

Fire incidents per year in slum areas and loss of lives

2008 Initiation of road construction by Army (Mohammadpur to bosila) 2013-2014 Completed the construction of road (Mohammadpur to bosila)

2013 Collapse of a building and the owner was the victim but recued 2013-2014 A 13 storied building near Jigatola post office, collapsed to a

nearest building including overhanging electric wire. No injury as the power was cuff due to cyclone

2014 Fire at Dom-Inno developers’ building, one dead 2015 Fire at Hazaribagh tannery 2017 Steps were taken to establish an emergency water supply line from

Rayer Bazaar staff quarter water pump to use in case of a fire incident, but failed

180

Figure B-1: (Left) Arrangement of buildings of Block-D, Mirpur from south to north (AA’); (Right) arrangement of buildings of the study community from west to east (BB’) (Source: Field survey, 2018)

Figure B-2: (Left) Arrangement of buildings of Manikdi from south to north (AA’); (Right) arrangement of buildings of the study community from west to east (BB’) (Source: Field survey, 2018)

Figure B-3: (Left) Arrangement of buildings of Nikunja-2 from west to east (BB’): North portion; (Right) arrangement of buildings of Nikunja-2 from north to south (CC’): North portion (Source: Field survey, 2018)

Figure B-4: (Left) Arrangement of buildings of Mitali road to Moneshwer road community from west to east (AA’); (Right) arrangement of buildings of Mitali road to Moneshwer road community from north to south (BB’) (Source: Field survey, 2018)

181

Figure B-5: Primary causes and effects of earthquake vulnerability in the selected community of Ward No 06 (Block D, Section 6, Mirpur (Source: FGD, 2018)

Earthquake vulnerability at community level PROBLEM

PRIMARY CAUSES

EFFECTS

Lack of awareness

Unplanned structural build up

Increased population

density

Lack of open space and water

bodies

Increased possibilities of structural collapse

No evacuation route plan

Possibilities of increasing lives and property loss

Lack of retrofitting of old buildings

People will trap inside the collapsed structures

Collapse of the buildings representing the culture of the

area

Congested building pattern

Earthquake vulnerability at community level PROBLEM

PRIMARY CAUSES

EFFECTS

Unplanned development

Lack of awareness

Absence of CBO

Lack of open space

Narrow access roads

Unplanned building construction No evacuation places

Possibilities of increasing live losses

No volunteer

Trouble in the entry of rescue vehicles Difficulties in rescue of the

victims

Figure B-6: Cause effect diagram of earthquake vulnerability in the selected community of Ward No 15(DNCC) (Manikdi) (Source: FGD, 2018)

182

Figure B-7: Cause effect diagram of earthquake vulnerability in the selected community of Ward No 17 (DNCC) (Nikunja-2) (Source: FGD, 2018)

Figure B-8: Cause effect diagram of earthquake vulnerability in the selected community of Ward No 14 (Source: FGD, 2018)

Earthquake vulnerability at community level PROBLEM

PRIMARY CAUSES

EFFECTS

Unplanned growth

Lack of awareness

Lack open space and water body

Higher population

density

Narrow road width

Less interaction with local authority

Possibilities of structural collapse and accidents Lessening evacuation route Increased communication gap between

authority and community

Possibilities of increasing lives and property loss

Lack of social interaction

PROBLEM

PRIMARY CAUSES

EFFECTS

Inactive Malik KollanSomiti

Absence of water bodies

Congested buildings and absence of emergency exit

Increased possibilities of structural collapse and injuries

No evacuation place

Increased life loss as people will trap inside the collapsed structure

Absence of volunteers

Earthquake vulnerability at community level

Lack of open space

183

Table B-6: Pair-wise ranking matrix of the primary causes of earthquake vulnerability at community level (Ward 06 (DNCC), Block-D, Section 6, Mirpur)

Problems

1. Lack of awaren

ess

2. Unplanne

d structural build up

3. Lack of

retrofitting of old

buildings

4. Increas

ed populat

ion density

5. Congeste

d building pattern

6. Lack

of open spaces

and water bodies

Frequency

Rank

1. Lack of

awareness ✖ 2 1 1 1 1 4 2

2. Unplanne

d structural build up

✖ 2 2 2 2 5 1

3. Lack of

retrofitting of old

buildings

✖ 3 5 6 1 5

4. Increased population density

✖ 5 6 0 6

5. Congested building pattern

✖ 6 2 4

6. Lack of

open spaces

and water bodies

✖ 3 3

Source: FGD, 2018

184

Table B-7: Pair-wise ranking matrix of the primary causes of earthquake vulnerability at community level (Ward 15 (DNCC), Manikdi)

Problems 1. Unplann

ed develop

ment

2. Lack of

awareness among people

3. No

volunteer

4. Absenc

e of CBO

5. Lack of

open space

6. Narrow access roads

Frequ

ency

Rank

1. Unplanne

d developm

ent

X 1 1 1 1 1 5 1

2. Lack of awareness

among people

X 2 2 2 2 4 2

3. No volunteer

X 3 3 3 3 3

4. Absence of CBO

X 5 6 0 6

5. Lack of open space

X 6 1 5

6. Narrow access roads

X 2 4

Source: FGD, 2018

185

Table B-8: Pair-wise ranking matrix of the primary causes of earthquake vulnerability at community level (Ward 17 (DNCC), Nikunja-2)

Source: FGD, 2018

Problems 1. Inactive Malik Kollan Somiti

2. Absence

of emergency

exit

3. Absence

of volunteers

4. Absence of water pump for

fire fighting

measures

5. Lack of

open space for

emergency assembly

Frequency

Rank

1. Inactive Malik Kollan

Somiti

X 1 1 1 1 4 1

2. Absence of emergency

exit

X 3 2 2 2 3

3. Absence of volunteers

X 3 3 3 2

4. Absence of water pump

for fire fighting

measures

X 5 0 5

5. Lack of open space

for emergency assembly

X 1 4

186

Table B-9: Pair-wise ranking matrix of the primary causes of earthquake vulnerability at community level (Ward 14 (DSCC), Mitali road to Moneshwer road)

Source: FGD, 2018

Problems 1. Unplanned Grow

th

2. Lack of awaren

ess

3. Lack of social

interaction

4. Lack

of open spac

e and wate

r bodi

es

5. Higher

population

density

6. Narro

w road width

7. Less

interaction with

local authorit

y

Frequency

Rank

1. Unplann

ed Growth

X 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 1

2. Lack of

awareness

X 2 4 2 6 2 3 3

3. Lack of social

interaction

X 4 5 6 7 0 6

4. Lack of

open space and

water bodies

X 4 4 4 5 2

5. Higher

population density

X 6 5 2 4

6. Narrow

road width

X 6 4 3

7. Less

interaction with

local authority

X 1 5

187

Figure B-9: Cause effect diagram of earthquake vulnerability in the selected community of Ward No 06 (Block D, Section 6, Mirpur (Source: FGD, 2018-2019)

Figure B-10: Cause effect diagram of earthquake vulnerability in the selected community of Ward No 15(DNCC) (Manikdi) (Source: FGD, 2018)

REASONS BEHIND

Upward building construction

without permission

Lack of monitoring

from authority

Lack of involvement of nearest fire station with

the community

No volunteers inside the

community

No awareness creation

programs

Unplanned structural build up

Lack of awareness

EFFECTS

Increasing buildings without spaces

between

MOST INFLUENTIA

L CAUSES

Decreased road width

Reduction of open spaces

Increasing panic during earthquake

and increasing fatalities

Narrow staircase and no evacuation

route

No knowledge on do’s and not to

do’s in earthquake

Road coverage

overlooking BNBC

REASONS BEHIND

High rise buildings without

following rules

Lack of monitoring and inspection from

authority

Lack of collaboration with

fire station

Absence of Community

Based Organization

(CBO)

Absence of volunteers

Unplanned Development Lack of awareness

EFFECTS

Increasing buildings

without spaces between

MOST INFLUENTIA

L CAUSES

Decreased road width

Reduction of open spaces

Unavailability of first responder organizations at

the time of disaster

Lack of community

Preparedness

Lack of govt.

intervention

Misusing the power of

influential people from

authority

188

Figure B-11: Cause effect diagram of earthquake vulnerability in the selected community of Ward No 17 (DNCC) (Nikunja-2) (Source: FGD, 2018-2019)

Figure B-12: Cause effect diagram of earthquake vulnerability in the selected community of Ward No 14 (Source: FGD, 2017-2019)

REASONS BEHIND

Functions of the committee are not

fulfilled

Lack of interest in collective decision

making

Lack of liaison with

the CBO

Absence of volunteers

EFFECTS Reducing collaboration

with fire station

MOST INFLUENTIAL

CAUSES

Declining interaction with

the people

No communication from community to authority

Lack of community preparedness

Ineffective committee members

Inactive Malik KollanSomiti

Lessening the scope of collaboration among

people

Residence outside the

area

Lack of incentives

Lack of concern of

FS

REASONS BEHIND

Ignorance of laws and

regulations

Lack of monitoring

from authority

Profit of developers and

owners of buildings

Lack of awareness among people on the importance of natural

resources

Lack of monitoring

from authority

Haphazard construction of

structures

Unplanned growth

Lack of open space and water bodies

EFFECTS

Increasing structural

vulnerability

MOST INFLUENTIAL

CAUSES

Possibilities of building collapse

Reduction of open spaces

Reduction of evacuation places

Increasing possibilities of

death if fire outbreaks

Utility shortage

Reduction of natural

resources

189

Photo B-1: Road and building conditions of the study communities (Source: Field survey, 2017, 2018 and 2019)

190

Photo B-2: Members of focus groups (Source: Field survey, 2017, 2018 and 2019)

191

APPENDIX-C

Table C-1: Earthquake management for Dhaka city and scope of community involvement according to the Earthquake Contingency Plan, 2010

Clusters/indicators Lead agencies

Responsibilities Supporting agencies Addressing phases

linkage with community

Role of community

Search, Rescue and Evacuation

Dhaka City Corporation (DCC)

- training to first responder organization such as: AFD, FSCD, DGHS, DMB, DRR and so on.

- AFD - FSCD - Ansar and VDP - RAB - BDR - DC office - NGOs - Media partners - BPDB - DWASA - office of civil surgeon - TGTDLC

Pre, during and post

-linkage through the trained community volunteer if well communicated

-support the SAR team at the time of emergency based on the training if conducted

Health Office of civil surgeon

- preparedness planning, training, networking, procedure development for medical facilities, handling the emergency health conditions, managing the health facilities for both human and livestock

- maintaining liaison with the private and public hospitals within and surrounding the affected areas

- DCC - BDRCS - NGOs - AFD - private clinic, hospitals

and medical colleges - FSCD - DRR - DMP - Media - Civil society

Pre, during and post

-no direct linkage is stated but liaison can be created through the training program to the MFR if they are from the community level

-neighborhood level support can be called for assisting medical team -as per the plan, the civil society works as one of the supporting agencies to evaluate the performance in emergency

192

Source: CDMP, 2009a; CDMP, 2009b

Table C-2: Responsibilities of lead agencies in monitoring and evaluation of different sectors of earthquake management of Dhaka city and role of community

Indicator Lead Agencies

Sectors Activities Community involvement

Monitoring and

Evaluation

DCC

Coordination and

communication

- - performance of ICS and NEOC - - review the plan and necessary recommendations for improvement of - activities at different phases of earthquake management

- no role is specified in the document

Search, Rescue and Evacuation

- post disaster performance of search and rescue units and provide necessary modification - no role is specified in the document

- review the inter coordination operation among agencies associated

Shelter - periodic condition report evaluation on the services can be restored for shelter management

- no role is specified in the document - reviewing the progress of the work time to time

- performance evaluation of activities regarding shelter management and utility restoration and recommend modifications or improvements

Water, - evaluation of performance on the action taken by the concerned authorities to response in - no role is

Clusters/indicators Lead agencies Responsibilities Supporting agencies Addressing phases

linkage with community Role of community

Relief DCC - keeping liaison with relevant stakeholders for relief management and ministries, departments, authorities at different sectors, NGOs, INGOs, UN agencies and so on

- DoF - DC - AFD - BDRCS - DRR - FSCD - Ansar and VDP - NGOs & INGOs - Private hospitals and

social welfare - DMP - DRRO

Pre, during and post

-through the provision of proper guideline for participation in relief activities by DCC

-management of relief camp, support the authority in evacuation procedure maintain liaison with the community level other stakeholders like volunteers, NGOs, social groups and so on

193

sanitation, hygiene and

restoration of urban services

the earthquake disaster specified in the document - quality check of the water supply and sanitation provision and waste disposal

management periodically - recommendations for modifications for improvement of water supply, sanitation and

restoration of urban services if necessary

Transportation - performance review of the transportation system during earthquake and after the earthquake quick revive the system

- no role is specified in the document - monitor the activities and recommend the modification if necessary

RAJUK

Restoration of urban services

- building code evaluation in relation to the earthquake vulnerability - no role is specified in the document

- review the process to incorporate earthquake vulnerable building in the building standards - review the performance of the activities undertaken and recommendation where necessary

DMP Security - review and evaluation of security planning, operation and implementation of related activities

- regular review to revise, modify and improvement if necessary

- no role is specified in the document

Office of

civil surgeon

Health - performance evaluation of all the activities and recommend modifications or improvements

- evaluation of emergency medical services, MFR team preparation, preparedness programs and other instructions

- no role is specified in the document

* (not included in the functional cluster. added on the basis of literature review of other Asian countries)

Table C-3: Proposed capacity building activities at community level according to the ECP, 2010

Types of capacity building programs Training types and Proposed activities Community level target Group Training and Education - Contingency plan development through workshop and training for both

national and community level - Training on community level first responders: FSCD training; PEER first

responder training program - Training for scouts - Community level first responder activities like first aid

Ward or community - Community volunteer groups - Red Cross and Red Crescent

volunteers - School level scouts and teachers

Community level awareness creation - Management of utility services at home - Evacuation through following evacuation route - Steps to protect houses, pets, animals and livestock - Preparation of earthquake survival kit containing:

water in unbreakable containers

- Community

194

Source: CDMP, 2009a; CDMP, 2009b

packaged and dry foods clothing and temporary beddings and so on personal assets, medicines and daily usable stuffs

Awareness program for government officials

- knowledge on functional clusters, seismic hazards, vulnerability - respective roles and responsibilities regarding the operation of EOC,

validation of evacuation routes at community level -

- NGOs - CBOs

Public awareness campaign - preparing the community to be supportive for the execution of the plan - mobilizing the community regarding earthquake hazards - campaigns to increase awareness - risk communication programme through:

face to face activities like seminar, workshop, training, exhibition etc. campaign through media earthquake simulations, mock drill, drama, booklet, stage show, bill board, posters

- community leaders from different working sectors and religious sector in the community

- School children - Leaders from local political

authority and so on.

School awareness programs - awareness program like seminars, simulation activities, providing awareness materials,

- creation awareness and training on first aid - encouraging activities like art or quiz competition, formation of “school

safety club” with a range of activities like: - knowledge sharing on the structural and non structural earthquake

vulnerability at neighborhood level schools; arrangement of preparedness planning, evacuation plan etc.

-school children at neighborhood level -school teachers

195

Ward no 14 (DSCC) Ward no 06 (DNCC) Ward no 15 (DNCC) Ward no 17 (DNCC) Vulnerability Capacity Vulnerabilit

y Capacity Vulnerability Capacity Vulnerabilit

y Capacity

Physical

-Narrow road -lack of open spaces and water bodies -no security barrier when constructing a building -lack of equipments of the fire station to handle the community in earthquake disaster -lack or no interaction with utility services -lack or no fire extinguisher in the buildings

-nearness of two fire station

-narrow road in many portions of the area -lack of open space and water bodies -building without space between -chemical storage in buildings -lack of fire extinguisher in the buildings or lack of knowledge on its usage

-nearness of fire station -nearness of open space outside the community (indoor stadium Mirpur 10) -spacious main road -newly constructed spacious road -eidgah yard

-Insufficient open space and water bodies - Congested building pattern -narrow road width -

-Voluntary organization and volunteers outside the community

-Long distance of fire station -lack of open space and water body -vulnerable soil condition -High rise and congested building pattern buildings (mostly 5-6 storied) -adjacent CNG stations -DPDC substation

-some open spaces -planned road network -location behind main road

Table C-4: Vulnerability Vs Capacity of the communities to address earthquake vulnerability

196

Source: FGD, 2018

Ward no 14 (DSCC) Ward no 06 (DNCC) Ward no 15 (DNCC) Ward no 17 (DNCC) Vulnerability Capacity Vulnerability Capacity Vulnerability Capacity Vulnerabilit

y Capacity

Social

-lack of bonding among people of different among different cultures, economic status, profession -lack of women volunteer participation

-good interaction community volunteers

-conflict in the community bazaar and between different political leaders or among residents

-community volunteer -good interaction of the community with different associations -activities and bonding with MP and school teacher

-No well formed Community Based Organizations (CBOs) -No volunteer inside the community

-community bonding -support from two fire stations -trained volunteers’ support -Local mosques -Training from NGOs -NGO-BRAC

- No volunteers inside the community - present weak functions of CBO -lack of bonding among residents of different status

-Well communication with the MP -Support and directions from the armed forces from nearby cantonment area -educated manpower

Motivational

-ignorance of people regarding the vulnerability -lack of willingness to be aware of earthquake vulnerability especially among women lack of effort to be capable

--------- -ignorance of people regarding the vulnerability -lack of willingness to be aware of earthquake vulnerability -lack of effort to be capable

--------- -ignorance of people regarding the vulnerability -lack of willingness to be aware of earthquake vulnerability -lack of effort to be capable

--------- -Low awareness about volunteer training and awareness program -lack of willingness of women participation

---------

197

Table C-5: SWOT analysis of the community regarding earthquake vulnerability and community involvement (Ward 06 (DNCC), Block-D, Section 6, Mirpur)

Source: FGD, 2018

Table C-6: SWOT analysis of the community regarding earthquake vulnerability and community involvement (Ward 15(DNCC), Manikdi)

Source: FGD, 2018

STRENGTH Internal Factor

WEAKNESS - Planned development - Road width is quite good - Some roads are accessible to rescue

vehicle - Community volunteer - Political leader - Small playground of kinder garden

schools - CBO - Good bond between community

people and mosque committee

- Congested building pattern - No open space and water body - No emergency exit - Adjacent buildings without spaces

between - Structures are built without maintaining

setback rules - Negligence of the people regarding

earthquake vulnerability - No intervention from the volunteer in

the community regarding earthquake awareness

- Chemical workshop inside the community

EARTHQUAKE MANAGEMENT AND COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT

OPPORTUNITIES

External Factor

THREATS - Mirpur indoor stadium - Milk vita road and avenue 5 with

greater width - Nearness of the fire station - Volunteer, School teacher, Media

person, MP and influential person

- Lack of collaboration with nearest fire station

- Traffic congestion in Mirpur 11 to Mirpur 10 road at peak hour that can create hindrance to evacuate and rescue

- Nearby slum areas

STRENGTH

Internal Factor

WEAKNESS - Existence of low storied buildings

(includes a bazar which is one storied) - Road structure is semi pucca. - Good bond between community people - Mostly young residents and well

educated manpower - Community people are interested in

earthquake preparedness measures.

- Unplanned development - No CBO for community welfare - High rise buildings (mostly 5-6

storied) not maintaining setback - High population density - Absence of volunteers and fire

fighting equipment - No emergency exit - Absence of open space and water

bodies in the area - Narrow roads

EARTHQUAKE MANAGEMENT AND COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT

OPPORTUNITIES

External Factor

THREATS

- Kurmitola Fire Station is close to the area.

- Some NGOs, volunteer organizations works in the neighboring communities

- Surrounded by cantonment area.

- Lack of collaboration with nearest fire station

198

Table C-7: SWOT analysis of the community regarding earthquake vulnerability and community involvement (Ward 17 (DNCC), Nikunja-2)

Source: FGD, 2018

Table C-8: SWOT analysis of the community regarding earthquake vulnerability and community involvement (Ward 14 (DSCC), Mitali road to Moneshwer road)

Source: FGD, 2017 and 2018

STRENGTH

Internal Factor

WEAKNESS - Planned development - Road structure is pucca and Road

width is around 15-20 feet - Roads are accessible to fire station

trucks - Good bond between community

people and mosque committee - Mostly young residents and well

educated manpower - Exiting park and playground can be

used for emergency assembly.

- Inactive Nikunja 2 Malik Kollan Somiti

- Weak bond between somiti and community people

- High rise buildings (mostly 5-6 storied)

- High population density - Absence of fire fighting volunteers

No emergency exit - Structures are built without

maintaining setback rules - No water pump in the area - Insufficient open space in the area

EARTHQUAKE MANAGEMENT AND COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT

OPPORTUNITIES

External Factor

THREATS

- Airport road (100 feet wide) is near to area.

- Nikunja 2 is close to the main road

- Lack of collaboration with nearest fire station

- Existence of two CNG filling stations - Lack of collaboration with nearest

fire station

STRENGTH

Internal Factor

WEAKNESS - Local volunteer - Good relation with Imam of

mosque - A number of mosques

- Unplanned development - Congested buildings - Narrow roads - Lack of awareness - No open spaces and water bodies - No CBO - No awareness practices, training etc. - Incidents of collapse of buildings - Recently developed high rise buildings

violating regulations - No emergency exit in the buildings - Unwillingness of people

EARTHQUAKE MANAGEMENT AND COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT

OPPORTUNITIES

External Factor

THREATS

- Good relation with Mohammadpur fire station

- No collaboration with the local authority

- Congestion in the Shatmosjid road at the peak hour

199

APPENDIX-D

Table D-1: Issues to be incorporated in the proposed framework at pre earthquake management phase based on the findings from literature review

Pre Earthquake Management Phase: To be incorporated Indicators India Japan Nepal

Coordination and

communication

Flow of information

communication system at root level through the presence of district authority

Information flow (central-prefecture-municipal-mayor of city/ village head-CBO teams)

main coordinating authority is BOKOMI or voluntary disaster management organizations (Community through CBO-city/village level-central level)

formation of separate teams for designated activities maintained and reported by the leader

collaboration and information dissemination with

the authorities regarding the condition of community

Separate preparedness committee

formation of village development committee at root level

incorporation of CBOs within the

communities

Preparedness activities

Presence of Volunteer in national to community level to bottom level

interconnected volunteerism from national to community level

training to different sectors of people including community, school based project.

emphasize on the formation of community based disaster management organization and its practices almost every community (BOKOMI/ Community Disaster Welfare Organization)

formation of separate teams under certain activities in the organization

division of different activities of different teams

both at normal time and after an earthquake

promotion of self help activities and interaction within the community among the teams

incorporation of local NGO

volunteers at different levels and well coordination and preparedness practices with the community

risk reduction plan by VDC

different categories of voluntary organizations

200

Source: Prepared by author based on NDMA, GoI, 2009; IMD, 2019; NDMA, GoI, 2007; Shodganga, 2019; NDMA, GoI, 2011; Bhadauria, 2018; Investors Clinic, 2019; Erb, 2011; Saran, 2003; MoSPI, 2011; Shaw, 2003; GSDMA, GoI, 2017a; GSDMA, GoI, 2017b; GSDMA, GoI, 2017c; Dave, 2015; EDUCALINGO, 2019; IFRC, 2002; IRCS, 2019; National Disaster Management Division, GoI, 2004; Acharya, Daniel, Nongkynrih,& Gupta, 2018; Nazarov, 2011; Bajek et al., 2008; Mimaki et al., 2009; Bazarragchaa, 2012; Disaster Countermeasure Basic Act, 1961, GOJ, 1997; JMA, 2013; WB, 2016; Umetani, 2019; JICA, n.d.; Semlitz et al., 2013; Hotta, 2016; Matsuoka, Joerin, Shaw & Takeuchi, 2012; JRCS, 2009; WRF, 2013; Shaw, 2003; JICA, 2010; NRCS, 2010; MoHA, GoN, 2009; MoHA, GoN, 2011; Shrestha & Pathranarakul, 2018; MoHA, GoN, 2014; Preventionweb, 2015; MoHA, GoN, 2013; MoHA, GoN, 2009; HCT, 2016; MoHA, GoN, 2011; David, 2011; NRSC, 2008; Subedi et al., 2018; MoHA, GoN, 2011; David, 2011; NRSC, 2008

Health Management

presence of medical team at different levels

emphasize on training on first aid to the volunteers (responsibility of health authority and Red cross team)

separate medical team from central to community level

community based health care team formation and

integrated medical team through community participation

training on first aid to the multiple community volunteers

formation of Rapid Response Team (RRT)

medical team at Village level

through the VDC and assistance from red cross

Shelter

Management shelter management from state to

community level including preparation of temporary houses and other related facilities

regular practicing on the preparation of temporary shelter map called community mapping for quick response

contribution of VDC in preparing safe shelter for the evacuees and for quick recovery

Monitoring and Evaluation

community involvement checked by authority

local level and community level activities are monitored regularly in two steps

focus is given on self monitoring within community though the voluntary organization

--------

201

Table D-2: Issues to be incorporated in the proposed framework at response phase of earthquake management based on the findings from literature review

Response Phase: To be incorporated Indicato

rs India Japan Nepal

Coordination and communication

Flow of information (national-state-district-local-village/ULB)

activation of communication mechanism that reaches to the root level through the establishment of communication mechanism at village level (control room, contingency action plan and so on)

Information flow (central-prefecture-municipal-mayor of city/ village head-CBO teams)

main coordinating authority is BOKOMI or voluntary disaster management organizations (Community through CBO-city/village level-central level)

activation of separate teams for designated activities maintained and reported by the leader

collaboration and information dissemination with the authorities

regarding the condition of community

separate recue and relief committee collaborates from national to village level

tasks of VDC is encouraged by the local level committee

formation of VDC and activation of it for

effective response better flow of information from the village level to central level

involvement of community volunteers,

civil society in different communication mechanism

Search, rescue

and evacuati

on

importance of fire service on the training to the ULBs to be active in search and rescue operation

immediate activation of the search and rescue operation by the teams under the CBO

activities of well trained community volunteers

active response activities by other neighborhood association,

council, preparedness organization other than teams of BOKOMI

role of VDC to manage resource, tools other necessary issues in response

designation of open spaces emergency evacuation by the VDC and local committee through the collaboration of NSET

202

Source: Prepared by Author, 2019 based on Subedi et al., 2018; MoHA, GoN, 2011; David, 2011; NRSC, 2008; Shodganga, 2019; NDMA, GoI, 2007; GSDMA, GoI, 2017a; GSDMA, GoI, 2017b; GSDMA, GoI, 2017c; Dave, 2015; EDUCALINGO, 2019; NDMA, GoI, 2016; Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act, 1997, GoJ, 1997;

National Land Agency, 1997; Nazarov, 2011; Bajek et al., 2008; Araki, 2013; JMA, 2013; WB, 2016; Umetani, 2019; Sakamoto et.al., 2018; Kinni, Agaki & Kita, 1995; Umeda, 2013; Cabinet Office, 2015; WB, 2017; Hikino & Sato, 2014

Indicators

India Japan Nepal

Health Manage

ment

activation of quick response team, trained medical first responder, trained community and community volunteers

Community based first aid concept by the Red Cross Society

neighborhood DMAT concept

first aid conducted by teams of BOKOMI

medical response activities like medicine collection, assessing the need of affected people

activation of Rapid Response Team (RRT) are activated specially the community RRT

local level, community level health instructors are activated with medical supplies

Shelter Manage

ment

activities conducted by the trained community level teams

community organization organizes shelter team for managing emergency shelter during earthquake

community organizations offers sharing mentality of the victims in the premises or inside the temporary shelters provided by the local government for improving personal relationship that helps in quick recovery

at community level responsibilities upon the VDC

activities of community volunteers regarding shelter management and emergency water supply

Monitoring and

Evaluation

community level activity monitored by the PRI and ULB

leaders of BOKOMI are responsible for monitoring the activities of each teams and contribute the information to upper level

community volunteers, community association coordinated with the local level authority

203

Table D-3: Issues to be incorporated in the proposed framework at post earthquake management phase based on the findings from literature review

Post earthquake management phase Indicators India Japan Nepal

Coordination and communication

Flow of information (national –community level with external support)

community is involved with the coordination with the local authority

local government agencies are liable for the flow of information from community to central level

coordination among NGOs, community voluntary organizations is encouraged

organized community

involvement along with the local authority for the reconstruction and recovery phases

coordination through Rescue and Relief Management Committee and Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Management Committee with the collaboration from national to village level committees

community volunteers coordinated with the community people and are connected to the upper level authority for necessary information dissemination

Relief, restoring utilities and urban

services, health and shelter

mainly the central authorities are involved

relief camp management and supplies distribution are conducted through the coordination among national to local authority with coordination with communities

preparation of community reconstruction teams

local NGOs are involved in the restoration of housing

community participation and needs are assessed while restore of repair or retrofit the shelter

trained community medical teams helps the victims to come

out from trauma through physiological support and advise

joint work of government level authorities and Community organization

relief management and distribution by the voluntary organizations

utilities and other urban services are mainly dependant on the central authorities at this stage

local level committee works mainly under the direction of district disaster management committee based on the relief plan

different NGOs both local, national and international work in the reconstruction of shelters, water supply provision, provision sanitary facilities

VDC coordinated and

communicate upper level committees and NGOs working in the communities

Emergency transport supply

mainly the responsibilities of government authority mainly the responsibilities of government authority

mainly the responsibilities of government authority

204

Source: Subedi et al., 2018; MoHA, GoN, 2011; David, 2011; NRSC, 2008; Shodganga, 2019; NDMA, GoI, 2007; GSDMA, GoI, 2017a; GSDMA, GoI, 2017b; GSDMA, GoI, 2017c; Dave, 2015; EDUCALINGO, 2019; NDMA, GoI, 2016; Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act, 1997, GoJ, 1997; National Land Agency, 1997; Nazarov, 2011; Bajek et al., 2008; Araki, 2013; JMA, 2013; WB, 2016; Umetani, 2019; Sakamoto et.al., 2018; Kinni, Agaki & Kita, 1995; Umeda, 2013; Cabinet Office, 2015; WB, 2017; Hikino & Sato, 2014

Monitoring and Evaluation

mainly by the central authority

some activities like the assessment of lifeline buildings, community infrastructures etc are conducted by the PRI and ULB collaborating with central authority

mainly governed by the central and local authorities

support from BOKOMI to the community for getting back to normal life is highly recommended

mainly governed by the central and local authorities based on the monitoring and evacuation plan

205

Table D-4: Calculation of CDMC and CDMO in the proposed community integrated framework of earthquake management

Source: Prepared by author, 2019 based on BBS, 2011; Rural Development and Panchayet Raj Department, Government of Tamil Nadu, 2019; Expert Opinion Survey, 2019

Table D-5: Calculation of CDMC and CDMO in the proposed community integrated framework of earthquake management

Source: Prepared by author, 2019 based on BBS, 2011

Ward population Approximate community population

Number of CDMC Ward population/assumed

community population

Average no. of CDMC

Ward no 14 (DSCC): 128921 30,000

5 6 Ward no 06 (DNCC): 163770 6

Ward no 15 (DNCC):173842 6 Ward no 17 (DNCC):196479 7 Number of CDMOs under one CDMC can be: 30000/5000=6 (With the reference of BOKOMI one CDMO

can serve 5000 people)

Assumed community size: 30000 and number of community six (06) per ward Area of one community= (Ward area* population of one community)/ total ward population

Ward 14 (DSCC) Ward 06 (DNCC) Ward 15 (DNCC) Ward 17 (DNCC)

Total area: 1.35 sq.km Total population: 128921 Area of one (01) community = (1.35*30000)/ 128921=0.31 For six (06) communities total area=0.31*6=1.89 (approximately similar to total area of the ward)

Total area: 3.03.sqkm Total population: 173770 Area of one (01) community = (3.03*30000)/ 173770=0.52 For six (06) communities total area=0.52*6=3.13 (approximately similar to total area of the ward)

Total area: 5.81.sqkm Total population: 173842 Area of one (01) community = (5.81*30000)/ 173842=1.00 For six (06) communities total area=1.00*6=6.00 (approximately similar to total area of the ward)

Total area: 5.48.sqkm Total population: 196479 Area of one (01) community = (5.48*30000)/ 196479=0.84 For six (06) communities total area=0.84*6=4.9~5.02 (approximately similar to total area of the ward)