ProceedingsVOLUME 3

Edited by

Michal FilippiPavel Bosák

16th INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF SPELEOLOGY

Czech Republic, BrnoJuly 21 –28, 2013

2013

16th INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF SPELEOLOGY

ProceedingsVOLUME 3

Edited by

Michal FilippiPavel Bosák

16th INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF SPELEOLOGYCzech Republic, BrnoJuly 21 –28, 2013

Cover photos (some photos were adjusted/cropped)Top left – Specific carbonate speleothem decorations in the Ghost Chamber, Sima de la Higuera Cave. Photo by V. Ferrer.For details see the paper by F. Gázquez and J.-M. Calaforra.Top right – A challenging exploration in the Cueva de los Cristales. Mexico. Photo by La Venta Exploring Team andSpeleoresearch & Films. For details see the paper by F. Gázquez et al.Bottom left – An example of a microcrystalline grained halite speleothem, the Octopus formation in the 3N Cave, QeshmIsland, Iran. Photo by NAMAK team. For details see the paper by Filippi et al.Bottom right – Internal skeleton structure of cryogenic gypsum crystals caused by the presence of partitions oriented parallelto the faces. For details see the paper by Kadebskaya and Tchaikovsky.

Produced by the Organizing Committee of the 16th International Congress of Speleology. Published by the Czech Speleological Society and the SPELEO2013 and in the co-operation with the International Union ofSpeleology.Design by M. Filippi and SAVIO, s. r. o.Layout by SAVIO, s. r. o.Printed in the Czech Republic by H.R.G. spol. s r. o.

The contributions were not corrected from language point of view. Contributions express author(s) opinion.

Recommended form of citation for this volume:Filippi M., Bosák P. (Eds), 2013. Proceedings of the 16th International Congress of Speleology, July 21–28, Brno. Volume 3,p. 499. Czech Speleological Society. Praha.

VOLUME 3Proceedings

ISBN 978-80-87857-09-0

© 2013 Czech Speleological Society, Praha, Czech Republic.

Individual authors retain their copyrights. All rights reserved.No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in anyform or by any means, electronic or mechanical, includingphotocopying, recording, or any data storage or retrievalsystem without the express written permission of thecopyright owner. All drawings and maps are used withpermission of the authors. Unauthorized use is strictlyprohibited.

KATALOGIZACE V KNIZE - NÁRODNÍ KNIHOVNA ČR

International Congress of Speleology (16. : Brno, Česko)16th International Congress of Speleology : Czech Republic,

Brno July 21–28,2013 : proceedings. Volume 3 / edited by MichalFilippi, Pavel Bosák. -- [Prague] : Czech Speleological Society andthe SPELEO2013 and in the co-operation with the InternationalUnion of Speleology, 2013 ISBN 978-80-87857-09-0 (brož.)

551.44 * 551.435.8 * 551.435.88-021.252 * 549- speleology- karstology- karst- pseudokarst- mineralogy- proceedings of conferences- speleologie- karsologie- kras- pseudokras- mineralogie- sborníky konferencí

551 - Geology, meteorology [7]551 - Geologie. Meteorologie. Klimatologie [7]

Scientific Committee

ChairmanPavel Bosák (Czech Republic) – Karst and Pseudokarst

Vice-ChairmanMichal Filippi (Czech Republic) – Karst and Pseudokarst

Members Jiří Adamovič (Czech Republic) – PseudokarstPhilippe Audra (France) – SpeleogenesisJean-Pierre Bartholeyns (France) – Management and ProtectionAaron Bird (USA) – ExplorationDidier Cailhol (France) – Speleogenesis Matt Covington (USA) – Modelling in Karst and Caves Robert Eavis (USA) – ExplorationAnette S. Engel (USA) – GeomicrobiologyLukáš Faltejsek (Czech Republic) – Biospeleology Derek Ford (Canada) – Climate and PaleoclimateFranci Gabrovšek (Slovenia) – Modelling Mladen Garašič (Croatia) – Survey, Mapping and Data ProcessingMartin Golec (Czech Republic) – Archeology and PaleontologyChristiane Grebe (Germany) – Management and ProtectionNadja Zupan Hajna (Slovenia) – Extraterrestrial KarstIvan Horáček (Czech Republic) – BiospeleologyStephan Kempe (Germany) – HistoryAleksander A. Klimchouk (Ukraine) – SpeleogenesisJiří Kyselák (Czech Republic) – ExplorationPeter Matthews (Australia) – Survey, Mapping and Data Processing Iona Meleg (France) – Management and ProtectionMario Parise (Italy) – Artificial Underground Bohdan P. Onac (USA) – MineralogyYavor Shopov (Bulgaria) – Climate and Paleoclimate

The names of the Committee members are given along with their home countriesand fields of research they represented as convenors.

Contents

Preface 10

Session: Karst and Caves in Carbonate Rocks, Salt and Gypsum 13–213

KARST HYDROGEOLOGY OF THE HANEY LIMESTONE, SOUTH-CENTRAL KENTUCKYSarah M. Arpin, Christopher G. Groves ..........................................................................................................................................................15

AN INTRODUCTION TO KALAHROUD CAVE, NORTH OF ESFAHAN, IRANShirin Bahadorinia, Sayed Hassen Hejazi, Alireza Nadimi, Derek C. Ford ......................................................................................16

CAVE SYSTEM OF KITA GAĆEŠINA – DRAŽENOVA PUHALJKA. THE LONGEST CAVE IN THE DINARIC KARSTTeo Barišić, Darko Bakšić, Dalibor Paar ........................................................................................................................................................17

CAVES OF EL PEÑON, CORDILLERA ORIENTAL, COLOMBIA Martin Bochud, Roman Hapka, Jean-Marc Jutzet ..........21

RECENT SURVEY AND EXPLORATION IN LECHUGUILLA CAVE, NEW MEXICO, USA Peter Bosted, John Lyles ............27

PLEISTOCENE SEA LEVEL CHANGES AS REVEALED BY FLANK MARGIN CAVES IN TELOGENETIC LIMESTONESIN SICILY AND SARDINIA (ITALY) Ilenia Maria D’Angeli, Jo De Waele, Rosario Ruggieri, Laura Sanna ............................29

SOME SCIENTIFIC FEATURES OF THE PUERTO PRINCESA UNDERGROUND RIVER:ONE OF THE NEW 7 WONDERS OF NATURE (PALAWAN, PHILIPPINES)Antonio De Vivo, Leonardo Piccini, Paolo Forti, Giovanni Badino......................................................................................................35

SUBTERRANEAN GLACIAL SPILLWAYS: AN EXAMPLE FROM THE KARST OF SOUTH WALES, U.K.Andrew R. Farrant, Michael J. Simms, Steven R. Noble ..........................................................................................................................42

PROJECT NAMAK: SOME OF THE MOST SPECTACULAR FINDINGS IN THE IRANIAN SALT KARSTMichal Filippi, Jiří Bruthans, Ondřej Jager, Mohammad Zare, Naser Asadí ....................................................................................48

KARST DEVELOPMENT IN THE GLACIATED AND PERMAFROST REGIONS OF THE NORTHWEST TERRITORIES,CANADA Derek C. Ford ........................................................................................................................................................................................54

LITTLE LIMESTONE LAKE: A BEAUTIFUL MARL LAKE IN MANITOBA, CANADA Derek Ford ..................................................55

CAVES AND KARST HYDROGEOLOGY OF JERUSALEM, ISRAEL Amos Frumkin ..........................................................................60

CAVES UNDER DUBROVNIK AIRPORT IN CROATIA Mladen Garašić ..............................................................................................66

SOME INFORMATION ABOUT THE DEEPEST CAVES KNOWN IN CROATIAN KARST AREAMladen Garašić, Davor Garašić ........................................................................................................................................................................72

HYPOGENE SPELEOGENESIS AND SPELEOTHEMS OF SIMA DE LA HIGUERA CAVE(MURCIA, SOUTH-EASTERN SPAIN) Fernando Gázquez, José-María Calaforra ..........................................................................78

THE APPLICATION OF GIS METHODS IN MORPHOMETRICAL ANALYSIS OF DOLINES ON LIMESTONE ANDDOLOMITE BEDROCK Petra Gostinčar ..........................................................................................................................................................84

ORIGIN OF ATYPICAL CALCITE SPELEOTHEMS FILLING FISSURES IN SANDSTONESMichał Gradziński, Marek Duliński, Helena Hercman, Andrzej Górny, Stanisław Przybyszowski ......................................89

UPLIFT EVIDENCE FROM KARST MORPHOLOGY: PRELIMINARY EVIDENCE FROM BLAMBANGAN PENINSULAKARST, INDONESIA Eko Haryono......................................................................................................................................................................90

VALLEY INCISION IN THE NÍZKE TATRY MTS. (SLOVAKIA) ESTIMATED BASEDON PALEOMAGNETIC AND RADIOMETRIC CAVE SEDIMENT DATINGSJaroslav Kadlec, Pavol Bella, Kristýna Čížková, Darryl E. Granger, Helena Hercman, Peter Holúbek,Martin Chadima, Monika Orvošová, Petr Pruner, Petr Schnabl, Stanislav Šlechta ....................................................................94

MAGNETIC FABRIC AND MINERALOGY OF CAVE DEPOSITS IN BOTOVSKAYA CAVE (EASTERN SIBERIA,RUSSIAN FEDERATION) Jaroslav Kadlec, Helena Herman, Martin Chadima, Lenka Lisá, Hedi Oberhänsli,Alexandr Osintsev ....................................................................................................................................................................................................96

CASE STUDIES OF FLUORESCENT GROUNDWATER TRACING IN RECENT CAVE RESEARCHBenjamin V. Miller, Chris Groves, Jason S. Polk, Robert N. Lerch ......................................................................................................99

THE JAJ PLATEAU (LEBANON): TYPICAL HIGH ALTITUDE MEDITERRANEAN KARSTFadi H. Nader, Hughes Badaoui, Marc Metni, Chadi Chaker, Habib Helou, Johnny Tawk ....................................................105

A CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF SPELEOGENESIS IN GREECE Christos Pennos, Stein-Erik Lauritzen ..................................107

2013 ICS Proceedings

COMPLEX EPIKARST HYDROLOGEOLOGY AND CONTAMINANT TRANSPORT IN A SOUTH-CENTRALKENTUCKY KARST LANDSCAPE Jason S. Polk, Sean Vanderhoff, Chris Groves, Benjamin Miller, Carl Bolster ........110

KARST HYDROGEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN CAO BANG PROVINCE (VIETNAM): THE TRA LINH-THANGHEN LAKE AREA Gheorghe M. Ponta, Bogdan P. Onac, Nyguen Xuan Nam ................................................................................116

INCIDENCES OF THE TECTONICS IN THE KARSTIFICATION OF CHALK LIMESTONES IN THE WESTERNPARIS BASIN: EXAMPLE FROM THE PETITES DALES CAVE (SAINT MARTIN AUX BUNEAUX, FRANCE)Joël Rodet, Kun Ma, Jean-Pierre Viard ..........................................................................................................................................................121

CEILING CHANNEL AND INPUT KARST. EXAMPLE OF THE PETITES DALES CAVE, NORMANDY, FRANCEJoël Rodet, Laurent Magne, Jean-Pierre Viard ..........................................................................................................................................126

GULLS, GULL-CAVES AND CAMBERING IN THE SOUTHERN COTSWOLD HILLS, ENGLANDCharles Self, Andrew Farrant............................................................................................................................................................................132

THE ROLE OF FOLD-AND-THRUST STRUCTURE IN THE LARGE SHAFTS AND CHAMBERS DEVELOPMENT:CASE STUDY OF THE POLISH TATRA MTS. Jacek Szczygieł ..............................................................................................................137

HYPOGENIC CAVES OF SICILY (SOUTHERN ITALY) Marco Vattano, Philippe Audra, Fabrizio Benvenuto,Jean-Yves Bigot, Jo De Waele, Ermanno Galli, Giuliana Madonia, Jean-Claude Nobécourt ..................................................144

SEDIMENTS AT THE MÜNNICH PASSAGE IN THE BARADLA CAVE (HUNGARY): MINERALOGICAL ANDPETROLOGICAL STUDY Gábor Vid, István Berényi Üveges, Orsolya Viktorik, Tibor Németh, Zsolt Bendő,Sándor Józsa, Judit Berényi Üveges ..............................................................................................................................................................150

ENDOKARSTS AND CRYPTOKARSTS IN CRETACEOUS COARSE AND HIGHLY POROUS CHALK AT THEBELGIAN-DUTCH BORDER Luc Willems, Joël Rodet..............................................................................................................................154

THE TUPPER GLACIER SINK – RASPBERRY RISING CAVE SYSTEM, GLACIER NATIONAL PARK, CANADA:A REMARKABLE EXAMPLE IN STRIPE KARST Charles Yonge, Nicholaus Vieira, Adam Walker ........................................158

CAVE AND KARST PROSPECTION IN RAS AL-KHAIMAH MOUNTAINS, NORTHERN UNITED ARAB EMIRATENadja Zupan Hajna, Asma Al Farraj Al Ketbi, Franci Gabrovšek, Metka Petrič, Tadej Slabe, Martin Knez,Janez Mulec ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................164

INFLUENCE OF THE PLEISTOCENE GLACIATIONS ON KARST DEVELOPMENT IN THE DINARIDES – EXAMPLESFROM VELEBIT MT. (CROATIA) Neven Bočić, Sanja Faivre, Marijan Kovačić, Nada Horvatinčić ......................................170

CONTRIBUTION OF THE KARSTIC ENVIRONMENT ON THE ORIGIN OF THE COLLOPHANITES OF ITATAIAURANIUM-PHOSPHORUS DEPOSIT, BORBOREMA PROVINCE, BRAZIL José Adilson Dias Cavalcanti,Cesar Ulisses Vieira Veríssimo, Maria Dulcinea M.R. Bessa, Clovis Vaz Parente ....................................................................173

NA JAVORCE CAVE – A NEW DISCOVERY IN THE BOHEMIAN KARST (CZECH REPUBLIC):UNIQUE EXAMPLE OF RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN HYDROTHERMAL AND COMMON KARSTIFICATIONJiří Dragoun, Karel Žák, Jiří Vejlupek, Michal Filippi, Jiří Novotný, Petr Dobeš............................................................................179

FIELD MEASUREMENTS OF GYPSUM DENUDATION RATE IN KULOGORSKAYA CAVE SYSTEMNikolay Franz, Sergey Sorokin, Alexandra Alexeeva, Irina Inshina, Olga Novysh, Anton Kazak ........................................185

GEOLOGY AND STRUCTURE OF PARIAN CAVE, ISFAHAN, IRAN Ghassem Ghaderi, Leila Karimi ....................................190

PRELIMINARY STUDIES ON CORROSIVE FORMS AND CLASTIC DEPOSITS IN THE ŚNIEŻNA CAVE(THE TATRA MTS., POLAND) Ditta Kicińska ..............................................................................................................................................194

GEOCHEMICAL AND STABLE ISOTOPE CHARACTERIZATION OF DRIP WATER FROM THE POSTOJNA CAVE,SLOVENIA Magda Mandić, Andrej Mihevc, Albrecht Leis, Ines Krajcar Bronić ........................................................................196

THE SKALISTÝ POTOK CAVE IN THE RELATIONSHIP TO THE RELIEF OF THE SOUTH PART OF JASOVSKÁPLATEAU (SLOVAK KARST) AFTER 25 YEARS OF RESEARCH Alena Petrvalská, Zdenko Hochmuth ..............................201

CAN CONDUIT VOLUMES OBTAINED FROM ARTIFICIAL TRACER TESTS BE TRUSTED?Anna Vojtěchová, Jiří Bruthans, Ondřej Jäger, František Krejča ........................................................................................................206

THE TECTONIC CONTROL OF AN UNDERGROUND RIVER NETWORK, AGIA TRIADA CAVE (KARYSTOS, GREECE)Emmanuel Vassilakis, Kyriaki Papadopoulou-Vrynioti ..........................................................................................................................208

Session: Karst and Caves in Other Rocks, Pseudokarst 215–331

CAVE FORMATION INITIATED BY DISSOLUTION OF CARBONATE CEMENT IN QUARTZOSE SANDSTONESJiří Adamovič, Radek Mikuláš, Tomáš Navrátil, Jan Mertlík ................................................................................................................217

2013 ICS Proceedings

ARENITIC CAVES IN VENEZUELAN TEPUIS: WHAT DO THEY SAY ABOUT TEPUIS THEMSELVES?Roman Aubrecht, Tomáš Lánczos, Ján Schlögl, Lukáš Vlček, Branislav Šmída..........................................................................221

INFRARED THERMOGRAPHIC SURVEY OF PSEUDOKARST SITES IN THE FYSCH BELT OF OUTER WESTCARPATHIANS (CZECH REPUBLIC) Ivo Baroň, David Bečkovský, Lumír Míča ..........................................................................227

KAHUENAHA NUI (HAWAII): A CAVE DEVELOPED IN FOUR DIFFERENT LAVA FLOWSIngo Bauer, Stephan Kempe, Peter Bosted ................................................................................................................................................231

GENETIC TYPES OF NON-SOLUTION CAVES Pavel Bella, Ludovít Gaál........................................................................................237

THE KEOKEO LAVA TUBE SYSTEM IN HAWAIIPeter Bosted, Tomislav Gracanin, Veda Hackell, Ann Bosted, Ingo Bauer, Stephan Kempe ..............................................243

ORIGIN OF “ROCK CITIES”, PILLARS AND CLEFT-CONDUITS IN KAOLINITE-BONDED SANDSTONE:NEW INSIGHT FROM STUDY IN SANDSTONE QUARRY WHERE LANDFORMS RECENTLY EVOLVEJiří Bruthans, Jan Soukup, Jana Schweigstillová, Jana Vaculíková, Daniel Smutek, Alan L. Mayo, Lukáš Falteisek ..........247

ORIGINS OF THE KARSTIC SEDIMENT FILLING OF THE NORTHWESTERN PARIS BASIN CAVESS. Chédeville, J. Rodet, B. Laignel, D. Todisco, E. Dupuis, G. Girot, G. Hanin ............................................................................253

SANDSTONE CAVES IN THE SYDNEY BASIN: A REVIEW OF THEIR CULTURAL AND NATURAL HERITAGEJohn R Dunkley........................................................................................................................................................................................................259

KARST EVOLUTION IN SANDSTONE: THE CHAPADA DOS GUIMARÃES SITE, BRAZILRubens Hardt, Joël Rodet, Sergio dos Anjos Ferreira Pinto ..............................................................................................................264

THREE TYPES OF CREVICE-TYPE CAVES IN THE AREA OF CZECH FLYSCH CARPATHIANSJan Lenart, Tomáš Pánek ....................................................................................................................................................................................268

EXHUMATION OF PALAEOKARST BY VADOSE WEATHERING: A TELLING EXAMPLE FROM EASTERN AUSTRALIAR. Armstrong L. Osborne ....................................................................................................................................................................................275

AN INTRODUCTION TO SRI LANKAN GNEISS AND GRANITE CAVESR. Armstrong L. Osborne, Pathmakumara Jayasingha, Wasantha S. Weliange ........................................................................280

ENDO- AND EXO-KARSTIC FEATURES IN BANDED IRON FORMATION AND CANGA, SERRA DA PIEDADE,QUADRILÁTERO FERRÍFERO (BRAZIL)Manuela Corrêa Pereira, Joel Georges Marie Andre Rodet, André Augustos Rodrigues Salgado ....................................286

ENGLACIAL CAVES OF GLACIAR PERITO MORENO AND GLACIAR AMEGHINO, PATAGONIA (ARGENTINA)Leonardo Puccini, Marco Mecchia ................................................................................................................................................................292

SPELEOGENESIS AND SPELEOTHEMS OF THE GUACAMAYA CAVE, AUYAN TEPUI, VENEZUELAFrancesco Sauro, Joyce Lundberg, Jo De Waele, Nicola Tisato. Ermanno Galli ........................................................................298

GOBHOLO CAVE: A LONG GRANITE CAVE IN SWAZILAND (SOUTHERN AFRICA)Manuela Scheuerer, Johannes E. K. Lundberg, Rabbe Sjöberg ........................................................................................................305

SOME SIGNIFICANT CAVES FOUND IN THE NON-KARSTIC ROCKS OF HUNGARYIstván Eszterhás, George Szentes ..................................................................................................................................................................308

TYPES OF NON-KARST CAVES IN POLISH OUTER CARPATHIANS – HISTORICAL REVIEW AND PERSPECTIVESJan Urban, Włodzimierz Margielewski ..........................................................................................................................................................314

CAVES IN SANDSTONE DEPOSITS OF THE SOUTHERN ITALIAN APENNINESGianni Campanella, Mario Parise, Angela Rizzi, Mariangela Sammarco, Antonio Trocino ..................................................320

KARST DEVELOPED IN SILICICLASTIC ROCKS AT SERRA DO ESPINHAÇO MERIDIONAL, MINAS GERAIS (BRAZIL)Alessandra Mendes Carvalho Vasconcelos, Fernanda Cristina Rodrigues de Souza, Joel Rodet, CristianeValéria de Oliveira, André Augusto Rodrigues Salgado........................................................................................................................326

Session: Speleogenesis 333–421

LAG AND TRANSFER TIME INFERRED FROM MELTING CYCLES RECORD IN THE COULOMP KARST SPRING(ALPES DE HAUTEPROVENCE, FRANCE) Philippe Audra, Jean-Claude Nobécourt..................................................................335

DISSOLUTION RATES, CARBON DIOXIDE DYNAMICS, AND GEOMORPHOLOGICAL FEEDBACKS IN OPENCHANNEL CAVE STREAMS Matthew D. Covington, Mitja Prelovšek, Franci Gabrovšek ......................................................340

A METHODOLOGY TO ESTIMATE THE AGE OF CAVES IN NORTHERN LATITUDES, USING TOERFJELLHOLAIN NORWAY AS AN EXAMPLE Trevor Faulkner ........................................................................................................................................342

2013 ICS Proceedings

HOW DO APERTURE SIZES IN LIMESTONE VARY FOR THE ONSETS OF TURBULENT FLOW AND FIRST-ORDERDISSOLUTION KINETICS? Trevor Faulkner ................................................................................................................................................349

INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE POTENTIAL FOR HYPOGENE SPELEOGENESIS IN THE CUMBERLAND PLATEAUOF SOUTHEAST KENTUCKY, U.S.A. Lee J. Florea ....................................................................................................................................356

THE ROLE OF BASE LEVEL INCISION AND TRANSIENT RECHARGE IN VERTICAL ORGANISATION OF KARSTNETWORK Franci Gabrovšek, Philipp Häuselmann, Philippe Audra ..............................................................................................362

HYPOGENIC SPELEOGENESIS IN THE CRIMEAN FORE-MOUNTAINS (THE BLACK SEA REGION, SOUTH UKRAINE)AND ITS ROLE IN THE REGIONAL GEOMORPHOLOGY Alexander B. Klimchouk, Gennadiy N. Amelichev,Elizaveta I. Tymokhina, Sergiy V. Tokarev ..................................................................................................................................................364

PARAGENESIS: THE “ROYAL MARK” OF SUBGLACIAL SPELEOGENESIS Stein-Erik Lauritzen ............................................366

GLACIER ICE-CONTACT SPELEOGENESIS Stein-Erik Lauritzen, Rannveig Øvrevik Skoglund ............................................368

GROUNDWATER / SURFACE WATER MIXING IN THE UNDERGROUNDHYDROLOGIC SYSTEM OF THE DEMÄNOVSKÁ DOLINA VALLEY (SLOVAKIA)Peter Malík, Dagmar Haviarová, Jaromír Švasta, Miloš Gregor, Anton Auxt ..............................................................................370

KARST PROCESSES AND CARBON FLUX IN THE FRASASSI CAVES ITALY Marco Menichetti............................................376

MIOCENE - PLIOCENE AGE OF CAVE SNEŽNA JAMA NA RADUHI, SOUTHERN ALPS, SLOVENIAAndrej Mihevc, Ivan Horáček, Petr Pruner, Nadja Zupan Hajna, Stanislav Čermák, Jan Wagner, Pavel Bosák ..........379

SEDIMENTARY STUDY AND U-TH DATATIONS CONTRIBUTION TO THE MORPHODYNAMIC RECONSTITUTIONOF THE JUNCTION CHAMBER (KASSARAT CAVE, NABAY, LEBANON): A GEOMORPHOLOGICAL APPROACH FORPALAEOHYDROLOGICAL RECORDS ANALYSISC. Nehme, J.-J. Delannoy, S. Jaillet, J. Adjizian-Gerard, John Hellstrom, T. Comaty, M. Arzouni, P. Matta......................384

A GENETIC CLASSIFICATION OF CAVES IN LOWER AUSTRIA Pauline Oberender, Lukas Plan ........................................390

EFFECTS OF CO2-DEPLETED VADOSE SEEPAGE IN KARST Arthur N. Palmer, Margaret V. Palmer ................................393

DETAILED MORPHOLOGIC ANALYSIS OF PALAEOTRAUN GALLERY USING A TERRESTRIAL LASER SCAN(DACHSTEIN-MAMMUTHÖHLE, UPPER AUSTRIA) Lukas Plan, Andreas Roncat, Gregor Marx ........................................399

INFLUENCE OF THE PLIO-PLEISTOCENE TECTONICS ON THE EVOLUTION OF THE PURGATORIO POLJE(NORTH-WESTERN SICILY) Rosario Ruggieri, Giuseppe Napoli , Pietro Renda ........................................................................402

SPELEOGENESIS OF A 3D-MAZE CAVE (HERMANNSHÖHLE, LOWER AUSTRIA)Andrea Schober, Lukas Plan, Denis Scholz, Christoph Spötl ............................................................................................................408

EVOLUTION OF CAVE PROVALATA: REMARKABLE EXAMPLE OF HYPOGENIC THERMAL CARBONIC ANDSULFURIC ACID SPELEOGENESIS Marjan Temovski, Philippe Audra ............................................................................................412

FLANK MARGIN CAVES ON A PASSIVE CONTINENTAL MARGIN: NARACOORTE AND OTHER SOUTHERNAUSTRALIAN EXAMPLES Susan White ........................................................................................................................................................418

TRITIUM AND H, O AND C STABLE ISOTOPES AS A TOOL FOR TRACKING OF WATER CIRCULATIONIN THE NIEDŹWIEDZIA CAVE SYSTEM (SUDETES, POLAND) Michał Gąsiorowski, Helena Hercman ............................421

Session: Cave Mineralogy 423–495

HYPOGENE SULFURIC ACID SPELEOGENESIS AND RARE SULFATE MINERALS (FIBROFERRITE, JAROSITESUBGROUP) BAUME GALINIERE CAVE (ALPES-DE-HAUTE-PROVENCE, FRANCE)Philippe Audra, Fernando Gázquez, Fernando Rull, Jean-Yves Bigot, Hubert Camus ............................................................425

RARE SULFATES (MIRABILITE, EUGSTERITE) IN THE DRY MICROCLIMATE OF CHAMOIS CAVE(ALPES-DE-HAUTE-PROVENCE, FRANCE) Philippe Audra, Jean-Claude Nobécourt................................................................432

MINERALOGY AND SPELEOGENESIS OF THE CORONA ‘E SA CRABA QUARTZITE CAVE(SOUTHWEST SARDINIA) Eleonora Baldoni, Jo De Waele, Ermanno Galli, Mauro Messina, Bogdan P. Onac,Laura Sanna, Francesco Sauro, Mauro Villani ..........................................................................................................................................437

GENESIS AND EVOLUTION OF CALCITE BUBBLES IN GYPSUM CAVESMassimo Ercolani, Katia Poletti, Paolo Forti ............................................................................................................................................443

STRONTIANITE FROM SERIZJAN CAVE (IRAN): A NEW OCCURRENCE OF THIS RARE CAVE MINERAL WITHA DISCUSION ON ITS GENESIS José Maria Calaforra, Jo De Waele, Paolo Forti, Ermanno Galli, Masoud Ebadi ......449

SKELETON CRYSTALS OF CRYOGENIC GYPSUM FROM KUNGUR ICE CAVE, URAL MOUNTAINS, RUSSIAOlga Kadebskaya, Ilya Tchaikovsky ..............................................................................................................................................................454

2013 ICS Proceedings

HYPOGENE SULFURIC ACID SPELEOGENESIS AND RARESULFATE MINERALS (FIBROFERRITE, JAROSITE SUBGROUP)

BAUME GALINIERE CAVE (ALPES-DE-HAUTE-PROVENCE, FRANCE)

Philippe Audra1, Fernando Gázquez2, Fernando Rull3, Jean-Yves Bigot4, Hubert Camus5

1Polytech Nice – Sophia, University of Nice – Sophia Antipolis, 930 route des Colles, 06903 Sophia-Antipolis,France & Innovative City – IMREDD, Nice, France, audra@unice.fr

2Water Resources and Environmental Geology Research Group, Dept. of Hydrogeology and Analytical Chemistry –University of Almería, Crta. Sacramento s/n, 04120 La Cañada de San Urbano, Almería, Spain, f.gazquez@ual.es

3Unidad Asociada UVA-CSIC al Centro de Astrobiología, University of Valladolid. Parque tecnológico Boecillo,47151 Valladolid, Spain, rull@fmc.uva.es

4Association française de karstologie (AFK), 21 rue des Hospices, 34090 Montpellier, France,catherine.arnoux@clubinternet.fr

5CENOTE, 1 chemin de Valdegour, 30900 Nîmes, France, camus.hubert@laposte.net

The oxidation of sulfide sources (H2S gas, pyrite, hydrocarbons) produces sulfuric acid that strongly reacts with bedrock,causing limestone dissolution and complex interactions with other minerals. This type of cave development, known assulfuric acid speleogenesis, is a subcategory of hypogenic speleogenesis, where aggressive water rises from depth. It alsoproduces uncommon minerals, mainly sulfates. Baume Galinière is located in Southern France, in the Vaucluse springwatershed. This small maze cave displays characteristic features such as corrosion notches, calcite dikes and iron crusts,and sulfate minerals. Thirteen minerals were identified, including elemental sulfur, calcite, quartz, pyrite, goethite, gypsum,fibroferrite, plus all of the six members of the jarosite subgroup (jarosite, argentojarosite, ammoniojarosite,hydroniumjarosite, natrojarosite, plumbojarosite). The Baume Galinière deposits are the first documented cave occurrenceof argentojarosite and the second known occurrence of plumbojarosite, hydronium jarosite, ammoniojarosite, andfibroferrite. Together with other hypogenic caves in the Vaucluse watershed, Baume Galinière Cave owes its origin inburied conditions to deep water rising along major faults, mixing with meteoric water at the contact of the karst aquiferand overlying impervious cover, and causing pyrite deposition. Sulfuric acid speleogenesis occurred later after base leveldrop, when the cave arrived in shallow phreatic then in vadose zone, with oxidation of pyrites involving sulfidic gases.Attenuated oxidation is still occurring through condensation of incoming air from outside. Baume Galinière Cave recordsthe position of the paleo-cover and documents its retreat in relationship to valley incision caused by uplift and tilting ofthe Vaucluse block during Neogene.

1. IntroductionSulfuric acid speleogenesis involves the dissolution oflimestone by sulfuric acid derived from H2S that degassesfrom hypogenic water fed by deep sources (Egemeir 1983).The source of acidity may be hydrocarbons, sulfides orsulfates, or may be a result of volcanism. Cave developmentis due to strong acid corrosion, which also resulted inproduction of secondary sulfate minerals and developmentof microbial activity evidenced by the presence ofpoolfingers (Melim et al. 2001). These minerals are mainlygypsum and rare sulfate minerals, depending on thecomposition of the hypogenic water and the host carbonaterock. Sulfuric acid caves develop near the water table,where mixing of meteoric water and hypogenic waterallows oxidation processes. Such caves record position ofthe water table contemporaneous with their developmentand are good markers of geomorphological evolution.Baume Galinière is a cave located at the edge of theVaucluse Plateau, close to the margin of impervious bedsthat overlie the karst aquifer. The cave contains masses ofpyrite that are of hypogenic origin. The speleogenetichistory of the cave points toward the oxidation of thesepyrite masses during a vadose phase as a result of meteoricwater seepage. Oxidation is ongoing under the influence of

air convection between the surface atmosphere and thecave, which results in seasonal condensation andevaporation. Beside the classical products of sulfideoxidation, such as gypsum and iron oxihydroxides, someunusual sulfates are present. These minerals occur ascolorful crusts or foam-like silky masses. Mineral analyseshave been performed, using XRD, Raman, SEM imaging,and stable isotopes. In this paper, we present details ofmineralogy of Baume Galinière. Discussion focuses onmineral genesis and on cave genesis in relation to thegeomorphological evolution of the region. In addition to thepresence of rare sulfate cave minerals, Baume Galinièrealso records successive stages of regional geomorphologicalevolution. The area is an important place to study theevolution of the Vaucluse area landscape.

2. A sulfuric cave at the border of the VauclusePlateauBaume Galinière Cave is located in Provence (South-EastFrance), at the foot of Ventoux Plateau, which roughlycorresponds to the Vaucluse spring catchment (Fig. 1).

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To the north, the Lure crest rises to 1,826 m. Elevationdecreases to the south toward the Durance River at about300 m above sea level. Topographic relief is caused by anUrgonian (Barremian-Bedoulian) monocline containing.1,000 m thick limestone that has been carved by karstprocesses that formed poljes, gorges, dolines, and someavens. To the north, the Lure crest corresponds to a north-verging overthrust. To the south, the limestone monoclinegradually plunges under a thick cover of clastic formationsranging from Upper Cretaceous to Oligocene (successivelyGargasian marls, Albian sandstone, Cenomanian sand, thenEocene-Oligocene clay, marls and marly limestone; Blancet al. 1973). The boundary of this cover follows an irregularline caused by erosional retreat that exposed Urgonianlimestone and allowed the development of surface karstfeatures. Additionally, the plateau is cut by several N-Sfaults that form horsts and grabens, such as the Oppedettegraben, which is still filled with Cenozoic cover and issurrounded by higher karst surfaces.

Baume Galinière Cave is at the top of the northern slope ofa 200 m deep valley, in the uppermost part of the Urgonianlimestone. The entrance is a few meters below Albiansandstone cover, close to a local fault. Baume Galinière isa horizontal maze cave less than 200 m long (Fig. 2).Passages are commonly between 0.5 and 2 m high andwide, with two main routes forming a loop around theentrance chamber. Two chimneys rise above the maze, thehighest reaching overlying sandstone cap rock. Vadose flowfeatures and sediments are absent, except at one spotcorresponding to a small collapse undermining theoverlying cover. Typical sulfuric acid corrosion features andmineral byproducts are present (Audra 2007; Audra et al.2009). Walls are deeply etched or weathered. The floor,which is devoid of sediment, displays smooth surfaces anddeeply entrenched rills caused by corrosive laminar orconcentrated flow. Numerous niches, pockets, and bellholes result from the intense corrosion. A horizontal notchrecords the position of a pool once filled with corrosivewater. Above, some odd-shaped voids may be replacementpockets. Feeder channels occur as narrow fissures whereaggressive water rose from depth, whereas blind chimneyswere upper outlets truncated at the contact with theoverlying sandstone caprock.

Several minerals are present and have a specific distributionin the cave. A fissure rising along the chimney to thesandstone caprock is filled with iron oxihydroxides andcalcite spar. Iron occurs as dikes and crusts, withcentimeter-long pool fingers in some places. Calcite sparlining the fissure is mostly scalenohedral.

Pyrite bodies are present, surrounded by gypsum crusts andiron oxihydroxides. The inner and dryer parts of the caveare partly covered by evaporitic sulfate minerals, mostlygypsum, displayed as saccharoid crusts on ceilings and greyto yellow minute crystals on walls. Foam-like masses of agreen color, silky appearance and a ribbon-like texturecorrespond to an uncommon mineral, fibroferrite.Additionally, some iron oxihydroxide stalactites are present.Currently, the cave is entirely dry, due to its perchedposition at the top of the limestone, to the presence of thesandstone caprock, and to the absence of connections to the

Figure 1. Structural characteristics of the Vaucluse plateau(geology after Blavoux 2010). The block is composed of thickLower Cretaceous Urgonian Limestone. It is gently undulant andbounded to the north and south by overthrusts resulting from alpinecrustal shortening. Hypogenic caves are located on the peripheryof the plateau along primary fault lines (Audra et al. 2013).

Figure 2. Baume Galinière Cave survey. Red dots indicate sampling locations.

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surface. Consequently, the atmosphere is extremely dry andunder the influence of thermobarometric exchange with theouter atmosphere. Since the cave is horizontal, we supposethat convection drives the cave climate: cold air entering inwinter mainly favors evaporation whereas cooling of warmsummer air favors condensation.

3. MethodsIn May 2012, the cave survey was completed, documentedwith pictures, and 13 samples were taken for mineralogicalanalysis (Fig. 3; the locations of the sampling sites areshown on Fig. 2). Samples are labeled BG1 through BG13.

(i) Calcite-iron oxihydroxides association: ferruginouspool fingers hanging under ghosts of calcite scalenohedra(BG1); calcite scalenoedra covered with iron oxihydroxides(BG2); calcite scalenohedra (BG11). (ii) Sulfidic depositwith oxidized aureole: mass of pyrite (BG3a) with a whiteto yellow gypsum crust (BG3b); core of greyish-blue mass(BG5) with an inner yellow-white aureole of gypsum (BG6)and an outer red aureole of iron oxihydroxides (BG7). (iii)Gypsum crystals associated with colored crusts: yellowgypsum crystals (BG4); grey gypsum crust (BG10); largegrey gypsum crystal (BG12). (iiii) Foam-like mass (BG8),located on gypsum crust with yellow surface (BG9).

Mineral identification was carried out using X-ray powderdiffraction (XRD) and micro-Raman spectroscopy. Thespectra obtained were compared with those reported byFrost et al. (2006) from natural jarosites and our database.Oxygen and hydrogen isotopes were measured on calcitescalenohedra (details in Dublyansky and Spötl 2009).Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) was use to observemicrobial traces on ferruginous pool fingers.

4. ResultsAnalytical results of the samples (mineralogy, stableisotopes) are presented in Fig. 3. Thirteen minerals wereidentified: one native element (sulfur), one carbonate(calcite), one silicate (quartz), one sulfide (pyrite), onehydroxide (goethite), eight sulfates (gypsum, fibroferriteplus six members of the jarosite subgroup (jarosite,argentojarosite, ammoniojarosite, hydronium jarosite,natrojarosite and plumbojarosite). The mineralogicalanalysis by micro-Raman spectroscopy revealed thepresence of up to five different minerals of the jarositesubgroup in the samples (Tab. 1). For space reasons, theRaman spectra are not displayed here and will be discussedin a future paper.

Figure 3. General results of the mineralogical analysis (XRD, micro-Raman spectroscopy), and stable isotopes. Thirteen minerals wereidentified: One native element (sulfur), one carbonate (calcite), one silicate (quartz), one sulfide (pyrite), one hydroxide (goethite),eight sulfates (gypsum, fibroferrite, and six members of the jarosite subgroup (jarosite, argentojarosite, ammoniojarosite, hydroniumjarosite, natrojarosite, plumbojarosite).

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Table 1. Results of the mineralogical analysis by micro-Ramanspectroscopy. Percentages represent the occurrence of eachmineral in each sample regarding the total number of spotsanalyzed (n).

Oxidation of sulfide produces suites of variably solubleefflorescent sulfate salts (Hammarstrom et al. 2005). InBaume Galinière, sulfide is present as pyrite [FeS2], and isthe original sulfide deposit. It is displayed in decimetricmasses of small pyrite crystals (< 1 mm). It may not beconsidered as a true cave mineral, since it was deposited byhydrothermal solution in vugs before the cave developed.Calcite [CaCO3] is found as detrital grains of limestone hostrock inside sulfide deposits or in the weathering aureole.Other minerals result from reactions between the pyrite, thesurrounding limestone, and the clays where sulfuric acidfrom the oxidation of pyrite is responsible for a strongacidic environment.

Native sulfur [S°] is present inside the pyrite deposit andprobably results from the oxidation of pyrite. Goethite[FeO(OH)] is typically displayed as red crusts surroundingoxidized pyrite masses. Gypsum [CaSO4·2H20] isdisplayed in two forms according to its location. Onceilings, the high parts of walls, and around pyrite massesit occurs as saccharoid white crusts. On the lower parts ofwalls it occurs as macrocrystals which are always tintedyellow, grey or brown.

Jarosite sub-group minerals and fibroferrite are presentaround the pyrite masses in the oxidation aureole. TheJarosite subgroup is composed of six sulfate minerals,with the following common composition[MFe3(SO4)2(OH)6], where M = K+ (jarosite), Ag+

(argentojarosite), NH4+ (ammoniojarosite), Na+

(natrojarosite), Pb (plumbojarosite), H3O (hydroniumjarosite). Such minerals are commonly found in mines inthe oxidized zones of sulfide deposits, formed by sulfuricacid derived from the oxidation of pyrite reacting with clayfrom the wall rock. Jarosite [KFe3+

3(SO4)2(OH)6] is namedafter the type locality, Barranco Jaroso in Southern Spain.It is usually displayed as yellow, amber, or brown crusts. Itis not soluble in water, and rather common in sulfuric caves(Fiume – Vento, Italy; Cottonwood, New Mexico, USA). Italso occurs in volcanic caves, or in caves in metamorphicrocks where sulfidic ores are present (Hill and Forti 1997).Jarosite may also precipitate subaqueously in shallow, low-pH pools (Hammarstrom et al. 2005). Ammoniojarosite[(NH4)Fe3+

3(SO4)2(OH)6] is named from the ammonium ion(NH4

+) and displays as light yellow to nearly colorlesscrusts. It has been mentioned only once before, in CuevaAlfredo Jahn, Venezuela, where it brought into the cave byflooding, and the mineral, displayed as light blue spots,forms by evaporation during the dry season (Forti et al.1998). Argentojarosite [AgFe3+

3(SO4)2(OH)6] is named

from silver (Ag) and displays as pale yellow, yellow,yellow-brown to brown crusts. It is mentioned here for thefirst time as a cave mineral. Hydronium jarosite[(H30)Fe3+

3(SO4)2(OH)6] is named from the hydronium ion(H30+) and displays as ochrous, amber to dark browngranular masses or crystalline to earthy crusts. It has beenmentioned as a cave mineral only once, in Iza Cave,Romania, where “goethite and hydronium jarosite formedthrough the action of percolating water over pyrite that ispresent as accessory mineral in the crystalline schists”(Tămaş and Ghergari 2003). Natrojarosite[NaFe3+

3(SO4)2(OH)6] is named from sodium (natrium) anddisplays as yellow, golden brown, red-brown crusts. It hasbeen mentioned as a cave mineral only once, in Jungle PotCave, South Africa, originating from the oxidation of pyritefrom shales combined with Na from a diabase sill (Martini1984). Plumbojarosite [Pb0.5Fe3+

3(SO4)2(OH)6] is namedfrom lead (Pb) and displays as golden brown to dark browncrusts or masses. It has been mentioned only from NaicaCave, Mexico, originating from neoformation after thedewatering of the famous geode (Forti 2010). Fibroferrite[Fe3+SO4(OH)·5H2O] is a hydrated iron sulfate. It displaysas fibrous mushroom-like masses of minute acicularcrystals. Coalescent needles form ribbons folded byextrusion. The color ranges from pale yellow, yellowishgreen, greenish gray, nearly white, to translucent, with atypical silky luster. It is soluble in water and forms byevaporation. Consequently it is most stable in arid regions,rarely as volcanic sublimate (Anthony et al. 2003). It hasbeen mentioned only from Grotta Ferrata, Italy, originatingfrom pyrite oxidation and growing over mud associatedwith goethite and gypsum. Its stability requires strong acidenvironment (pH < 2). When pH increases due to thebuffering effect of limestone reacting with sulfuric acid,fibroferrite becomes unstable and forms iron oxihydroxides(Forti and Salvatori 1988).

Stable isotopes of fluid inclusions (δ18O, δ2H) were madeon tips and bottoms of calcite scalenohedra (BG2). Thereleased water amount (0.39 and 0.54 μL, respectively)provided valuable results. The ratios of δ18O and δ2H fortips and bottoms (-7.8/-51.7 and -8.5/-52.8) plot close to themeteoric water line (MWL) (Craig 1961).

SEM imaging of iron pool fingers clearly shows thepresence of microbial communities, mainly as filamentsgrowing onto the iron oxihydroxides (Fig. 4). The largestfilaments (diam. 5μm, length > 100 μm) must be fungi.Smaller filaments (diam. 2 μm, length 50 μm) and cell-likeindividuals could be bacteria (H. Barton pers. comm.).

5. Discussion (mineralogenesis and sulfuricacid speleogenesis)The identification of minerals in the framework ofgeological and geomorphological context helps understandthe genesis of this mineralized cave. Mineralization tookplace in at least three main phases (Fig. 5).

Early phreatic fissure phase. The initial mineralizationphase occurred at depth, below the water table and underthe cover of thick marls and sandstones. Chemicallyreduced water rising from depth along faults carriedmetallic ions (Fe2+, Pb2+, Ag+) and sulfur. At shallow depths,

SampleNo.

Number(n) of

analyzedspots

Jarosite Hydroniumjarosite

Argento-jarosite

Plumbo-jarosite

Natro-jarosite

BG3b

BG4

BG6

BG9

BG10

11

10

7

9

10

36 %

10 %

14 %

–

40 %

–

20 %

–

100 %

20 %

–

50 %

86 %

–

–

54 %

–

–

–

–

10 %

20 %

–

–

40 %

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mixing of reduced water with oxygenated meteoric water,probably carried along the sandstone acting as aquifer,changed pH and Eh conditions and led to the deposition ofsulfide minerals, mainly pyrite [FeS2] with traces of Pb andAg, as masses or sills along fractures. The contact betweenreduced flow and fresh water from the sandstone aquifercould explain the sulfidic deposits localization wheremineralization is concentrated at the top of the limestonejust below the sandstone cover. Eventually, calcite withscalenohedral habit was precipitated. This type of calcite isgenerally associated with a warmer environment thancommon trigonal rhombohedral calcite spar (Dublyanskyand Smirnov 2005). Isotopic ratios (δ18O, δ2H) close toMWL indicate a contribution from surface water. At thattime, no cave was present and the corresponding voids werelimited to tiny fissures and vugs.

Main vadose phase. Valley entrenchment combined witherosional retreat of the overlying caprock dramaticallychanged conditions. The water table fell below the sulfidicdeposits resulting in vadose conditions and associatedoxygenated meteoric seepage. Thinning of the caprockallowed development of soils and vegetation just above thecave. Oxidation of the pyrite masses produced sulfuric acidthat dissolved the limestone host rock, resulting in sulfuricacid speleogenetic processes. The earliest sulfuric acidspeleogenesis may have occurred in a shallow phreaticenvironment at the onset of the fall of the water table, whenmeteoric water was able to flow and be replenished.However, the most active processes occurred inatmospheric conditions after the cave was drained, whenseepage water oxidized pyrite masses and produced

concentrated sulfuric acid. Most of the cave volumeprobably developed during this phase, associated withtypical sulfuric acid features such as notches along acidicpools, corrosion trenches, etc., and sulfate mineralbyproducts. Saccharoid gypsum crusts formed on someceiling and upper wall surfaces where condensation waslimited. Otherwise, ceilings and upper walls were etched bycondensation corrosion and sulfates in solution wereprecipitated downwards through evaporation as centimetricgypsum crystals. This sulfuric process produced a low pHenvironment, and secondary ions combined with ironsulfates to form jarosite subgroup minerals. Hydroniumjarosite is produced by seepage on pyrite. Trace amounts ofPb and Ag produced argento- and plumbojarosite,respectively. Weathering of the Albian green sandstonecaprock, which contains glauconite group minerals[(Ka,Na)(Fe3+,Al,Mg)2(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2], may haveprovided K+ and Na+ ions, which in turn produced jarositeand natrojarosite, respectively. Biological activity producedthe ammonium ion (NH4

+), which combined to formammoniojarosite. Meantime, oxidation of pyrite is boostedby ferro-oxidant bacteria taking energy from oxidation offerrous ion Fe2+ to ferric ion Fe3+, resulting in ironoxihydroxides, mainly goethite. Ferruginous materialoccurs as massive coatings on calcite spars, as pool fingers,or as powdery masses mixed with gypsum surroundingpyrite masses (Fig. 3).

Still-active seasonal sulfuric mineralogenesis. Currently,the cave is open to the surface allowing convective airexchange. In summer, cooling of air entering the cavefavors condensation and thus slow pyrite oxidation and theformation of the associated suite of sulfuric byproducts(gypsum, sulfates ion and iron oxihydroxides). In winter,warming of entering air causes evaporation thatconcentrates acidic solutions around pyrites and favorsevaporitic sulfate development, namely fibroferrite.

Figure 4. BSE imaging of iron pool fingers. Microbial filaments aredeveloping on iron oxyhydroxides. Largest filaments (diam. 5 μm,length > 100 μm) must be fungi. Smaller filaments (diam. 2 μm,length 50 μm) could be bacteria.

Figure 5. Genesis of minerals in Baume Galinière. First phase indeep-seated conditions, where mixing of hypogenic flow and freshwater produces sulfide deposits (pyrite) along fault below thesandstone aquifer. After a base level drop, vadose seepage oxidizesthe sulfide deposits, making sulfuric speleogenesis, with cavedevelopment and secondary minerals (sulfates and ironoxihydroxides). Jarosite subgroup minerals appear thanks to thepresence of accessories ions originating from traces in the sulfidedeposits (Pb, Ag), from sandstone minerals weathering(glauconite), or from biogenic production (ammonium ion).Seasonal changes between condensation and evaporation allowdeveloping of fibroferrite.

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Although we did not observe it during our visits, we suspectthat fibroferrite follows seasonal cycles of relative humidity(RH), dissolving when wet and regrowing when dry.Evaporation in the vicinity of oxidizing pyrite may beresponsible for the deposition of native sulfur, whichrequires high H2S concentration in the surroundingatmosphere.

The progression of speleogenesis can be traced at theregional scale. Comprehensive data are still missing, butmain phases can be traced and assigned to periods whenphysical conditions were permissive (Fig. 6). Phase 1 ofhypogenic rising flow requires a hydraulic gradient and thepresence of impervious caprock. Such conditions couldhave occurred after the first phases of orogenic uplift at thebeginning of Miocene. During Phase 2, which correspondsto the main sulfuric acid speleogenetic event, vadoseconditions gradually phased in. This occurred after theerosional retreat of the marly caprock and the onset ofvalley incision. Erosion and caprock retreat caused thewater table to fall to depths below the cave. During Phase 3,the cave is open to the surface allowing air exchange inresponse to seasonal changes in RH. Phase 3 is currentlyactive.

6. ConclusionsBaume Galinière sulfate mineralization resulted fromsulfuric acid speleogenesis in successive phases. The firstphase of sulfide deposition (pyrite masses) occurred indeep-seated conditions, where hypogene water rising alonga fault mixed with meteoric water flowing within an

overlying sandstone aquifer. At that time, probably at thebeginning of Miocene, the onset of orogenic uplift allowedwater to move in a deep loop through the karst aquifer.Impervious caprock cover was present, keeping the karstaquifer in anoxic conditions. Locally there were local,discrete zones where anoxic hypogene water could mix withmeteoric water at the contact between the karst aquifer andthe overlying sandstone aquifer. Hypogenic flow wasprobably warm, as shown by the scalenohedral habit ofcalcite crystals.

The second phase of sulfuric speleogenesis corresponds tovadose conditions that were coeval with valley incision. Thewater table was shallow, and meteoric seepage waterreacted with pyrite. Sulfur oxidation released sulfuric acid,which reacted with the carbonate host rock. Typical sulfuriccorrosion features developed, with enlargement of voids,including pockets, bell holes, pool notches andentrenchments. Sulfate minerals, mainly gypsum, coveredwalls as saccharoid crust on ceilings and recrystallizedmacro-crystals on the lower passage walls. Oxidation ofpyrite also produced iron oxihydroxide crusts, masses, andpool fingers on walls around pyrite masses. Theoxihydroxides mixed with and tinted the sulfates. Microbialand fungal activity (fungi and probably ferro-oxidantbacteria) developed and is preserved as filaments in the poolfingers. Beside gypsum, rare sulfates crystallized, includingall members of the jarosite subgroup. Precipitation ofjarosite is mainly due to the weathering of glauconite in theoverlying sandstone, which delivered ions by seepage.

The present phase corresponds to the deep entrenchment ofthe valley and the opening of the cave allowing airexchange corresponding to seasonal changes of RH.Cooling results in condensation that maintains pyriteoxidation and sulfate production. Warming causesevaporation and development of fibroferrite. Thedevelopment of this cave records the gradual incision ofvalley and correspondent retreat of impervious caprock, animportant milestone for the reconstruction ofpaleolandscapes. As with similar caves (Audra et al. 2013),Baume Galinière is located at the topographic intersectionof a regional fault and the edge of the caprock covering thekarst aquifer. The chronology of speleogenesis probablystarts at Early Miocene and continues to the present. Datingof successive speleogenetic stages could provide a betterunderstanding of the geomorphological evolution of theVaucluse region.

AcknowledgmentsI thank Y. Dublyansky (Univ. of Innsbruck) for helping withthe stable isotopes, D. Borschneck and R. Notonier (AixMarseille University) for XRD and SEM, respectively. H.Barton (Univ. of Akron) made useful comments on SEMimages of microbial filaments. B.P. Onac and P. Forti arethanked for discussions during the identification ofminerals. We are also grateful to two anonymous reviewerswho greatly improved the text and A. Sanz, the technicianwho performed the Raman analyses. Financial support wasmade available through Project “RLS Exomars Science”(AYA2011-30291-C02-02; Ministry of Science andInnovation, Spain and FEDER funds of EU).

Figure 6. Evolution of Baume Galinière from Miocene. Successivephases, from deep-seated to vadose conditions are related to theretreat and stripping of covering strata related to valley incision.

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