How are psychosocial factorsrelated to retirement intentions?

Sara ZaniboniDepartment of Cognitive Sciences and Education, University of Trento,

Rovereto, Italy

Guido SarchielliDepartment of the Education Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy

Franco FraccaroliDepartment of Cognitive Sciences and Education, University of Trento,

Rovereto, Italy

Abstract

Purpose – This study aims to explore the psycho-social factors (i.e. older worker identity,development opportunities on the job, anticipation of lost social integration upon retirement) related tothree types of retirement intention (i.e. full retirement, part-time retirement, job mobility).

Design/methodology/approach – A representative sample of 196 workers aged 50 and overemployed in an Italian public-sector organization completed a research questionnaire. Hypotheseswere tested by using structural equation models.

Findings – The results showed that: the older-worker identity was related positively to fullretirement intention and negatively to job mobility; development opportunity on the job wasnegatively related to the full retirement intention; the anticipation of lost social integration uponretirement was positively related to the intention to take part-time retirement and job mobility.

Research limitations/implications – There are several limitations to the study: thecross-sectional design; use of single items; the fact that the findings can be generalized only to theorganization in which the study was conducted.

Practical implications – Retirement preparation programs should consider the various factors thataffect the transition from work to retirement and which may facilitate prior planning by both theindividual and the organization.

Originality/value – Expanding previous research studies, the study considers the complexity ofpreparation for retirement transition by exploring different types of retirement intentions and thepsychosocial factors related to them.

Keywords Retirement, Older workers, Careers, Italy, Social psychology, Life planning

Paper type Research paper

1. IntroductionThe nature and meaning of retirement are changing profoundly. Historically, work andretirement were considered to be two antithetical conditions. For this reason,retirement used to be seen as an automatic and other-directed change from full-timeemployment to non-work, and it was traditionally defined as a definitive exit from thelabor force. Retirement however is a lengthy and complex process, a specific form ofpsycho-social transition regulated by a set of social norms and economic constraints,but also laden with symbolic meanings for the individual, the organization, and society(Fraccaroli and Sarchielli, 2002). Beehr and Adams (2003) maintain that it is difficulttoday to provide a single definition of retirement, and that it would be more correct to

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International Journal of ManpowerVol. 31 No. 3, 2010

pp. 271-285q Emerald Group Publishing Limited

0143-7720DOI 10.1108/01437721011050576

say that “retirement are plural” (p. 1). Indeed, multiple forms of retirement characterizecontemporary societies.

Although it has been frequently emphasized that the different forms of retirementshould be considered, few research studies have simultaneously explored differentpatterns of retirement and the various factors related to them (e.g. Wang et al., 2008).Accordingly, the aim of this study is to outline a model of the psychosocial factorsrelated to different types of retirement intention.

In the sections that follow, we define the theoretical framework of our study, bybriefly describing the phase of retirement preparation (i.e. the moment at which olderworkers develop intentions concerning their retirement), and Role Theory, one of thedominant theories in the literature on retirement transition. We then presenthypotheses regarding different types of retirement intention and the psychosocialfactors related to them. Drawing on previous research results (i.e. Ekerdt et al., 1996;Wang et al., 2008), we consider three types of retirement intention: full retirement,part-time retirement, and job mobility.

Although many factors impact on retirement plans, some of them have already beenbroadly studied: for instance, health (e.g. Shultz et al., 1998; Talaga and Beehr, 1989;Taylor and Shore, 1995), finances (e.g. Adams, 1999; Beehr, 1986; Feldman, 1994; Talagaand Beehr, 1989), and organizational commitment (e.g. Adams et al., 2002; Taylor andShore, 1995). We consequently consider a person-related psychosocial factor (i.e. thenegative work-role identity of the older worker), a job-related psychosocial factor (i.e.characteristics of the job linked to development opportunities), and a retirement-relatedpsychosocial factor (i.e. worries about the loss of social integration upon retirement) thathave received less attention from previous research.

2. Theoretical framework2.1 Pre-retirement phaseAn elderly worker begins to develop expectations, intentions, and plans concerningretirement well before the actual moment of labor-market exit. Ekerdt (1998)identifies a phase of remote anticipation at the age of 50 to 55, when people begin toorganize their work and lives with a view to future retirement. According toKosloski et al. (2001) the planning of retirement is not a unitary concept, but canrather be described as a set of cognitions and behaviors that relate to differentdimensions. A first level, the planning of retirement, can be represented as anintention regarding the form that it will take. Ekerdt et al. (1996) define plans as“personal designs or intentions toward the conclusion of the work career and theinitiation of retirement life” (p. 141). There are theoretical and practical reasons forfocusing on intentions.

First, they have been shown to be antecedents to actual behavior (Azjen andFishbein, 1980). The intention to retire is also related to actual retirement (Daniels andDaniels, 1991; Henkens and Tazelaar, 1997; Van Solinge and Henkens, 2007). Second,with a view to informing social or organizational policies, studying aspects related tospecific intentions provides margins for broader and more timely intervention, aboveall when the concern is to retain workers.

To date, several studies have examined the intention to retire (e.g. Elovainio et al.,2003; Mock, 2001; Potocnik et al., 2009; Schmidt and Lee, 2008) but without clearly

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differentiating among the various types of retirement intention. Indeed, one of the maincriticisms made of studies on retirement intentions is that they have only consideredthe extremes of the “work/retirement” continuum. Taylor and Doverspike (2003)suggest that modern changes in the nature of retirement are reflected in retirementplanning, and “measuring the very concept of retirement is more complicated than inthe past. It is no longer a dichotomous measure of retired or not retired” (p. 78). Ekerdtet al. (1996) have drawn up a taxonomy of possible retirement intentions. Using data ona sample of 5,072 workers between the ages of 51 and 61 (Health and RetirementStudy), these authors identify five general categories that help describe theheterogeneity of retirement intentions:

(1) workers who plan to retire completely;

(2) those who have no intention of retiring;

(3) those who intend to reduce their current effort and retire only partially;

(4) those who intend to move to another job;

(5) those who have no plans.

Authors stress that the heterogeneity of possible intentions is tied to a wide range offactors that influence them. In fact, the complexity of the retirement process is due tothe multiplicity of factors that influence it, and by the array of forms of retirement thatconfront the older worker (Henretta et al., 1992).

2.2 Role theoryRole theory applied to retirement emphasizes that the transition involves role loss,redefinition, and change. Indeed, a person involved in the retirement process undergoesimportant role transitions (Moen et al., 1992; Riley and Riley, 1994). On the one hand,retirement may lead to a loss or a weakening of roles connected with work, such asthose of “worker”, “member of an organization”, or “careerist”. On the other hand, itmay lead to the acquisition or the strengthening of familial or societal roles(Barnes-Farrell, 2003). According to Ashforth (2001), being involved in a particular role(e.g. work role) is important for one’s identity, and it affects our behaviors anddecisions. Hence, the retirement transition may be affected by the motivation ofwhether or not to maintain the work role identity.

Carter and Cook (1995), in a literature review, have used the work-roleattachment theory to examine retirement. They suggest that a person’scommitment to his/her work-role affects his/her desire to remain in the laborforce. Consequently, the degree to which retirement positively or negativelyimpacts on individuals depends on the degree of importance that they attribute totheir role and on whether they are able to replace that role (Carter and Cook,1995). If a worker’s role has been central to his/her identity, its loss may producenegative psychological outcomes such as anxiety, depression, and stress (Burke,1991; Carter and Cook, 1995).

On the other hand, involvement in roles independent from the work sphere, ora negative perception of work roles, may induce people to be less worried, orindeed happy, about the role transition undergone with retirement (Adams et al.,2002).

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3. Hypothesis development3.1 Person-related variable: older worker identityBarnes-Farrell (2003) suggests that in order to gain better understanding of people’spreferences and intentions concerning whether to continue working or to retire, it isimportant to bear in mind that older adults, like people in general, are motivated tomaintain a positive self-concept and identity.

Tougas et al. (2004) consider the identity of the older worker and stress the socialaspect of the ageism related to the internalization of negative attitudes and beliefs inthe self-image. Unfavorable treatments commonly due to stereotypes may lead to theinternalization into the self-concept of negative characteristics commonly associatedwith being an “older worker” (e.g. low motivation, resistance to change, inflexibility,lack of creativity, and lack of interest in training).

Barnes-Farrell (2003) stresses that accepting older worker stereotypes, perceivingone’s skills as obsolete, and considering oneself too old for the work context mayrestrict a person’s ability to maintain a positive identity in the role of worker andinduce him/her to quit. According to role theory, it may therefore happen that anegative work-role identity of the older worker induces him/her to retire.

We consequently hypothesized that:

H1a. The older-worker identity is positively related to the full retirementintention.

Research shows that confidence by older workers that their skills are still adequate fortheir jobs is of great importance for both their continuing investment in their careersand coping with changes, so that these workers consequently remain in the labormarket (Bailey and Hansson, 1995; Fletcher et al., 1992). For instance, Bailey andHansson (1995) explore the perceived obstacles against adaptive job or career changesin later life. They identify three categories of perceived risk: age-inappropriateness ofthe change, potential for age-discrimination, and risk of hastened obsolescence. Theirresults suggest that workers with poorer psychological and social adjustment to theirown aging (with negative attitudes towards their own aging) are more vulnerable tojob change. In this regard, according to role theory, it may be that a senior worker’spositive identity is a decisive factor in his/her continuing investment in careerdevelopment. It is therefore useful to consider the older worker identity in relation tohis/her job change intentions.

We therefore hypothesized that:

H1b. The older-worker identity is negatively related to the job mobility intention.

3.2 Job-related variable: development opportunities on the jobThere is long-standing interest in the role of job characteristics in retirement (Eisdorfer,1972; Goudy et al., 1975). According to role theory, the nature of the pre-retirement jobis important in the transition to retirement. For example, researchers have shown that ajob with characteristics that make it demanding, stressful and disagreeable for theworker influence the retirement decision (Beehr et al., 2000; Elovainio et al., 2005;Schmitt et al., 1979; Schmitt and McCune, 1981; Shultz et al., 1998). For instance,Elovainio et al. (2005) found that poor job control and high job demands increased thelikelihood of early retirement thoughts ( job control was negatively, and job demands

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positively, associated with early retirement thoughts). In this regard, it may be thatemployees are more likely to postpone retirement if their jobs have desirablecharacteristics. However, less attention has been paid to the influence of positiveaspects of the job on the retirement decision. Hayward and Grady (1986) found that exitfrom the labor force is lowest in occupations characterized by high, substantivelycomplex work and low physical demand. Hence jobs with good opportunities todevelop skills, low physical effort, high-perceived control, and application of socialskills motivate people to delay their retirement. In light of these findings, the researchreported here investigated a specific dimension of work comprising the characteristicsthat may make it demanding and stimulating in terms of a person’s growth anddevelopment. Such positive job characteristics may stimulate the person to keep onworking (i.e. take part-time retirement) rather than go into full retirement.

We therefore hypothesized that:

H2a. A development opportunity on the job is negatively related to the fullretirement intention.

H2b. A development opportunity on the job is positively related to the part-timeretirement intention.

3.3 Retirement-related variable: anticipation of lost social integrationOne of the most salient aspects of the transition to retirement concerns relationshipsand social networks. According to role theory, involvement in roles independent fromwork may induce people to be less concerned about retirement. Fletcher and Hansson(1991), focusing on the social aspects of the transition to retirement, have definedretirement anxiety as “a generalized feeling of apprehension or worry regarding theuncertain, unpredictable, and potentially disruptive consequences of impendingretirement” (p. 77). The authors identify two principal tasks that may threaten thetransition phase:

(1) coping with and/or adjusting to the possible loss of interpersonal relations andsocial activities connected with the work setting;

(2) developing and/or investing in new interpersonal relations and extra-worksocial activities.

Retirement may disrupt long-standing friendships and support networks in theworkplace. Indeed, recent reviews suggest that the most frequently cited disadvantageof retirement is the lack of interaction with co-workers (Moen et al., 2000). On studyingearly retirement decisions, Henkens and Tazelaar (1997) found that the importance ofsocial networks in the workplace contributes to worker evaluations about the relativeattractiveness of continuing to work. This aspect may be particularly important forunmarried people, or at least for those who cannot rely on extra-work networks, afactor which increases the fear of social isolation in retirement. Elovainio et al. (2003)examined the associations of social support with early retirement, finding that, forwomen, the lack of social relations is associated with low retirement preferences (i.e.planning of early retirement). In this sense, worries about possible social isolationduring retirement may encourage older workers to consider the opportunities availableto remain in the labor market (i.e. part-time retirement and job mobility).

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We therefore hypothesized that:

H3a. The anticipation of lost social integration is positively related to thepart-time retirement intention.

H3b. The anticipation of lost social integration is positively related to the jobmobility intention.

4. Method4.1 Participants and procedureWhen defining the population to study, we adopted the age interval conventionallyused by studies on retirement plans. Hence, identified as belonging to the populationwere workers who were already aged 50: workers, that is, who were in a situation ofremote anticipation of their retirement. The survey was conducted on arepresentative (proportional stratified) sample of 196 older workers in thetechnical-administrative sector of the University of Bologna (generalized to theuniverse of 708 workers aged over 50 of this public organization). The size of thesample (n ¼ 196) was defined according to the parameters suggested by Frosini et al.(1999). Used as stratified variables were contractual category and length of service.The sampling and data collection procedures were conducted so that coverage errorsand non-response bias were reduced to the minimum. The entire sample of randomlyextracted workers (n ¼ 196) was invited to fill out the questionnaire and divided intosmall groups with the presence of a member of the research group. All thequestionnaire were returned.

The sample consisted of permanent workers belonging to different occupationalcategories (24 percent worked in general services, 41.3 percent in administration, 34.7percent in administration-management). Approximately 67.9 percent were women. Theage range was between 50 and 66, and the average age was 54.39 years old(SD ¼ 3:33). The average length of service in the organization was 23.82 years(SD ¼ 10:2). Almost all the participants in the sample worked full-time (92.35 percent).

4.2 MeasuresBackground information. Participants were asked to provide socio-demographicinformation: chronological age, gender, organizational seniority, type of work contract,and occupational category.

Retirement intentions. Participants were asked to reflect on the future and to statetheir degree of agreement or disagreement on a five-point scale (where 1 indicated“completely agree” and 5 “completely disagree”) with three statements concerningdifferent types of retirement intention:

(1) full retirement (item: “As soon as I can retire, I will definitely stop working”);

(2) part-time retirement (item: “Even when I can already retire, I will keep onworking but reduce my actual work effort in terms of working time”);

(3) job mobility (item: “I will keep on working by changing job type, even when Ican already retire”).

Older-worker identity. The 12-item scale constructed by Tougas et al. (2004) –self-descriptive components of older-worker identity – was used to investigate the

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respondents’ perceptions of themselves as senior workers. The participants were askedto describe themselves as workers by evaluating their efficacy, creativity,responsibility, qualifications, slowness in learning, difficulty in learning, motivation,flexibility, development, performance, adaptability to change, and efficiency (exampleitem: “I’m less effective in accomplishing my work”). Respondents used a five-pointscale where 1 indicated “completely disagree” and 5 “completely agree”.

Development opportunities on the job. Six items were used to investigate thecharacteristics that may make a job demanding and stimulating in terms of growthand development. The participants were asked to describe their jobs by considering thedegree of competence/skill and commitment required, opportunities to learn,decision-making, and margins of discretion (example item: “My job requires me tolearn many new things”). Respondents used a five-point scale where 1 indicated “not atall” and 5 “entirely”.

Anticipation of lost social integration. Used to investigate a general anticipation ofuncertainty, loss of place, and loneliness after retirement was a ten-item socialintegration and identity dimension pertaining to the scale constructed by Fletcher andHansson (1991), the Social Components of Retirement Anxiety Scale – SCRAS(example item: “I am afraid I will feel lonely after I retire”). Respondents used afive-point Likert scale where 1 indicated “completely disagree” and 5 “completelyagree”.

4.3 Data analysesStructural Equations Models (SEM) with LISREL 8.7 were used to test all hypotheses( Joreskog and Sorbom, 2004). Before the analysis began, the data were screened inorder to ensure that the principal assumptions at the basis of these types of analysiswere not violated (Schumacker and Lomax, 1998). The covariance matrix of observedvariables was calculated and model robustness was estimated using the maximumlikelihood method. Assessment of fit was based on several indices. Satisfactory fit wasobtained when the chi-square test was non-significant; but given the dependence of thechi-square test on sample size it was advisable to inspect other indices as well. TheNNFI (Not-Normed Fit Index), the CFI (Comparative Fit Index) and the RMSEA (RootMean Square Error of Approximation) were considered. Hu and Bentler (1999) proposethat a model should be accepted when the NNFI and the CFI values are equal to orgreater than .95 and the RMSEA value is below 0.06. It should be noted that the NNFIand RMSEA indices reward for model parsimony and penalize for model complexity.First reported are the results obtained from the measurement model. A modelcomposed of many parameters tends to show computational problems, poorer fit, andincreased measurement error especially when the sample size is small or moderate(Ding et al., 1995). It is possible to counteract these problems by using partialdisaggregation models (Bagozzi and Heatherton, 1994). The aim of partialdisaggregation procedures is to reduce the number of observed variables andparameters included in confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) models. This model usesitems aggregates randomly to form three indicators per construct. Convergent validityis achieved if all indicators display significant loadings on their latent construct(Anderson and Gerbing, 1988). Discriminant validity was assessed by determiningwhether the confidence interval (^2 SE) around the correlation estimate between two

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factors included 1.00 (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988). The composite reliability of theconstructs was calculated as follows (Fornell and Larcker, 1981; p. 45):

CR ¼ ðSlyi Þ2=ðSlyi Þ2 þ SVarð1i Þ

Note that some of the latent variables considered were defined using only one observedvariable. Other authors have used single items in structural equation models withoutreporting particular counter-indications (Perugini and Bagozzi, 2001; Perugini andConner, 2000). Finally reported are the results obtained with the structural model.

5. Results5.1 Measurement modelThe means, standard deviations, and correlations for latent constructs are shown inTable I. The CFA model showed acceptable fit indices. The chi-square was significant,but all other indices were good (x2 (42, n ¼ 196) ¼ 68.09, p ¼ 0:0066; NNFI ¼ 0:96;CFI ¼ 0:97; RMSEA ¼ 0:056). The loadings were all significant and high, andalthough the error variances were all significant, they were moderate in magnitude.The Composite Reliability ranged between 0.81 and 0.87. The completely standardizedsolution of the correlation matrix between latent constructs was inspected to verifydiscriminant validity (Table I). Further, discriminant validity analyses showed thatnone of the numbers in the confidence interval around the correlation estimate included1.00, providing support for discriminant validity.

Inspection of the correlations among retirement intentions showed that the intentionto take full retirement was negatively correlated with both the intention to enterpart-time retirement (w ¼ 20:21, p , 0:01) and to undertake job mobility (w ¼ 20:43,p , 0:01). By contrast, the intention to take part-time retirement was positivelycorrelated with job mobility (w ¼ 0:39, p , 0:01).

5.2 Structural modelFigure 1 shows the findings for the structural equation model. Standardized parameterestimates are presented for ease of interpretation. The model showed acceptable fitindices. The chi-square was significant, but all other indices were good (x2 (46,n ¼ 196) ¼ 69.59, p ¼ 0:014; NNFI ¼ 0:97; CFI ¼ 0:98; RMSEA ¼ 0:051).

Regarding H1: there are significant direct paths, in the hypothesized directions,between older-worker identity and the intention to take full retirement (g ¼ 0:18,

M SD 1 2 3 4 5

Full retirement 3.05 1.56 –Part-time retirement 2.28 1.30 20.21 * * –Change job 1.9 1.12 20.43 * * 0.39 * * –Older worker identity 2.1 0.70 0.30 * * 0.04 20.17 * –Development opportunities on the job 3.43 0.85 20.34 * * 0.02 0.07 20.41 * * –Anticipation of lost social integration 1.74 0.63 20.04 0.39 * * 0.25 * * 0.19 * 20.02

Notes: * p , .05; * * p , 0.01; n ¼ 196

Table I.Means, standarddeviations, andcorrelations for latentconstructs

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ES ¼ 0:08, t ¼ 2:33, gstd ¼ 0:18), and the intention to job mobility (g ¼ 20:21,ES ¼ 0:07, t ¼ 23:01, gstd ¼ 20:22). This pattern of results supports H1a and H1b.

Regarding H2: there is a significant direct path, in the hypothesized direction,between the characteristics of job stimulus and development and the intention to takefull retirement (g ¼ 20:27, ES ¼ 0:08, t ¼ 23:63, gstd ¼ 20:27). This pattern ofresults supports H2a. However, there is no significant direct path between thecharacteristics of job stimulus and development and the intention to take part-timeretirement (g ¼ 0:03, ES ¼ 0:07, t ¼ 0:50, gstd ¼ 0:03). This pattern of results does notsupport H2b.

Regarding H3: there are significant direct paths, in the hypothesized directions,between the anticipation of lost social integration and the intention to take part-timeretirement (g ¼ 0:37, ES ¼ 0:07, t ¼ 5:05, gstd ¼ 0:37), and job mobility (g ¼ 0:26,ES ¼ 0:07, t ¼ 3:60, gstd ¼ 0:26). This pattern of results supports H3a and H3b.

Figure 2 shows the final model, with the main standardized parameters, revised inlight of the results obtained (and therefore eliminating the direct path betweencharacteristics of job stimulus and development and the intention to take part-timeretirement). The modified model showed a reasonable fit. The chi-square wassignificant, but all other index were good (x2 (47, n ¼ 196) ¼ 70.06, p ¼ 0:016;NNFI ¼ 0:97; CFI ¼ 0:98; RMSEA ¼ 0:05).

6. Discussion and conclusionsThe main aim of this study has been to outline a model of the psycho-social factorsrelated to different kinds of retirement intention (see also Warren and Kelloway thisissue). It has explored three types of retirement intention (i.e. full retirement, part-timeretirement, and job mobility) and three psycho-social factors (i.e. a negative work-roleidentity of the older worker, characteristics of the job linked to developmentopportunities, and worries about loss of social integration upon retirement). Before thespecific hypotheses are considered, the pattern of retirement intentions will bediscussed. The correlations between the retirement intentions showed that the more a

Figure 1.The model of retirement

intentions

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worker intends to retire as soon as possible, the less he/she is likely to consider theopportunities available to keep on working (i.e. job mobility and part-time retirement).In our sample, which consisted of employees in a public organization, the preferredintention seemed to be full retirement, but with a certain degree of indecisivenesscharacterizing the pattern of plans. These results are in line with the suggestion byKosloski et al. (2001) and Ekerdt et al. (1996) that people in a phase of remoteanticipation of retirement may have mixed intentions regarding retirement. Accordingto Taylor and Doverspike (2003), changes in the nature of retirement are reflected inretirement plans, underling the need to consider different types of retirement. Futureresearch should more thoroughly explore the commitment to different plans and testthe pattern of intentions in different sectors (i.e. public and private).

The structural model showed that the personal, job and retirement factors studiedwere related to the types of retirement intention considered. The results relative to H1showed that the older-worker identity was positively related to full retirement (H1a)and negatively to job mobility (H1b). According to role theory, the retirement transitionmay be affected by a negative perception of the work-role. Our results showed that asenior worker who describes him/herself negatively (i.e. as ineffective and poorlymotivated, with difficulties in adapting to change, learning difficulties, little interest inskills updating and professional growth) will definitively retire as soon as s/he iseligible for pension benefits, which matches the advice by Barnes-Farrell (2003).

Moreover, according to Fletcher et al. (1992) and Bailey and Hansson (1995), thebelief that one’s working skills are still adequate seems to be important in inducing theolder worker to continue to invest in career development and cope with change. Indeed,an older worker with a negative identity related to his/her work role will not manifest adesire to seek new work experiences. As suggested by Tougas et al. (2004) andHenkens (2005), the existence of negative stereotypes about senior workers in the worksetting may engender a vicious circle of consequences whereby an older workerperceives him/herself as “unsuited” or “no longer suited” to the work context, torequirements, to expectations connected with his/her role, and to coping with change.

Figure 2.The modified model ofretirement intentions

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This may have an impact on the self-image of older people as workers, with aconsequent progressive disinvestment and eventual retirement.

The results regarding H2a showed that job characteristics such as opportunity forgrowth and development were negatively related to the full retirement intention.Hence, a job demanding and stimulating in terms of growth and development, withdecision-making opportunities, discourages senior workers from taking retirement.These results highlight the important role of various aspects that characterize the workcontext in retaining senior workers. Indeed, as shown by the correlations matrixbetween the latent constructs, the older worker identity is correlated negatively withdevelopment opportunities on the job. A context free from discrimination, and withopportunities for growth and training may help the older worker to maintain a positivework role and discourage intentions to retire as soon as possible. Nevertheless, H2b onthe relation between job characteristics like opportunities for growth and developmentand the intention to take part-time retirement did not find support. Future researchshould explore the impact of the work context on the role identity of the older workerand on the retirement transition.

The results regarding H3 showed that anticipation of lost social integration waspositively related to the intention to take part-time retirement (H3a) and job mobility(H3b). The fear of losing work relationships (Moen et al., 2000) and of being lonely afterretirement (Elovainio et al., 2003) increases the desire to remain in the labor market.According to role theory, involvement in extra-work roles may reduce people’s worriesabout the retirement transition. These results highlight the difficulties that a personmay encounter in the retirement transition if s/he does not invest in different socialspheres. In modern society, in fact, the different roles occupied by a person in everydaylife have grown exponentially, contributing to the increased complexity of theirmanagement (Ashforth, 2001). Consequently, not knowing how to managememberships of different social domains may impede construction of themeaningful and continuous support relations on which the person can rely. Inregard to the results, it may be that not having cultivated solid social relations outsidethe workplace generates a fear of being lonely in retirement because the retiree cancount on work relationships to a lesser extent.

The present study has various shortcomings. One concerns its lack of alongitudinal methodology. In fact, although the initial research intention was toconduct diachronic analysis as well, the data currently available refer to a singlecross-sectional survey. Moreover, the current examination of the psychosocialfactors related to different types of retirement intention has certainly not beenexhaustive. Future research might include more predictors and thus provide a morecomprehensive explanation of retirement decisions. For instance, future studiesmight include the retirement pattern of the spouse, given that this has been shownto be an important social aspect affecting the transition to retirement. The use ofsingle items to explore retirement intentions is another weakness of the study.Although, the types of intentions considered were not general constructs, and it ispossible to regard the part denoting the single item as corresponding to the conceptinvestigated, owing to their close affinity of meaning. However, in order to obtainmore accurate estimates, future studies should test and replicate the relationshipsconsidered in the present study by using multiple-item instead of single-item scales.

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Another limitation of the study is that its findings can be generalized only to theorganization in which the survey was conducted. Future research should explore themodel of retirement intentions outlined in this study among older workers employedin different sectors and organizational contexts.

To conclude, the study has sought to determine how different retirement intentionspatterns come about. This scientific purpose has been accompanied by the practicalone of supporting both senior workers preparing for retirement and the organizationsthat, more or less deliberately, influence the choices and intentions of their members.The endeavor to facilitate smooth transition is commonly accepted, howeverretirement preparation programmes generally focus on economic and financial aspects,neglecting the psycho-social ones essential for adaptation to retirement (Taylor andDoverspike, 2003). They consider transition to retirement as a predefined orprescriptive phase, rather than as a complex process to be negotiated with theindividual. Given the complexity of this process, the various aspects that characterizethis transition should be borne in mind. The actions undertaken to prepare forretirement, which may range from information/training to counseling, should be aimedat the progressive construction of a “map of opportunities”. In concrete terms, thismeans channeling efforts towards awareness-raising and responsibilization at both theindividual and organizational levels. In the former case, consideration should be madeof personal goals and interests, while reflecting on the opportunities and constraintsconnected with the individual (e.g. goals, motivations, preferences, needs, and abilities).In the latter case, at organizational level, consideration should be made of theopportunities and constraints connected with the specific context (e.g. the constructionof personalized paths so that older workers have different models for managing thework exit phase). It is important to bear in mind that finding a way to prolong thepresence of senior workers in their jobs, achieved at normative level through socialsecurity and welfare policies which gradually raise the statutory retirement age, is avery different matter from finding a way to retain workers motivated to remain inwork.

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About the authorsSara Zaniboni is a researcher at the University of Trento (Italy). She obtained her PhD in Workand Organizational Psychology at the University of Bologna. She has participated in nationaland international research projects on two main topics: the retirement process of older workersand the work integration of people with mental disabilities. Sara Zaniboni is the correspondingauthor and can be contacted at: sara.zaniboni@unitn.it

Guido Sarchielli is a full professor in work and organizational psychology at the University ofBologna (Italy). In the past he has been Dean of the Faculty of Psychology at the University ofBologna. His main research interests concern the organizational socialization process, includingboth organizational entry and exit.

Franco Fraccaroli is a full professor in work and organizational psychology at the Universityof Trento (Italy). He is also the Director of the Department of Cognitive Sciences and Education(University of Trento) and past President of the European Association of Work andOrganizational Psychology. His main research interests are: older workers and the late career;organizational socialization process; training and development in organizations.

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