HINIJJIS1 NilllE EPICS IF IrtlIA - DOST ScINet-Phil

40 ACTA MANILANA

HINIJJIS1 NilllE EPICS IF IrtlIA 11£ ARTISTIC DJJW:TICI9'I Of TIE ~TA

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Milagros G. lanlayco·

INDIA'S LIVING TRADITION

The Mahiibhfutata and the RCbnecyana as far as the Indians are concerned are more than revered records of their glorious past. They are the living memory of everything that is beautiful, dynamic and essential to Indian thought and way of life. They are the measure of the greatness of Ancient India and an inspiration to succeeding generations. in general, of her people whose lives and beliefs have been tempered one way or another by them and. in particular, of her poets and dramatists who have been inspired by their Sanskrit poetry, their themes and their plots.

WMilagros G. Tanls.yco has been teaching English and Literature since 1951, in the University of Santo Tomas (Faculty of Arts and Letters and College of Science). Her main concern has been connected vi th Oriental Literature, to which she has brought important contributions, both through her own personal research (A Survey of Oriental Literature; a textbook) aDd by helping and promoting literary activities and seminars dealing with that particular field of literature (Perspective of the Philippines: Our Asi&n Heritage, 1976). Acta Manilana gladly presents in the issue her latest contribution to revival of the studle~ on Oriental Literature.

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HINDUISM AND THE EPICS OF INDIA 41

Any student of epic literature can not help but .alVeI at their Ii terary grand .. r ~ Their length alone is t...pres!live~ The Mahaliharata is usually described as "the longest poem known to literary history ~"1 Its length is about eight taes: that of the ca-bined length of the nitul and the 0dJ/-., ~ It is divided into eighteen bo.t.s or parvan.:. Jdi., Sabha, rana (AJ'oanyakaJ, Vi.N~, Udyoga, Bht.hma~ DJtoQCl~ .KaJoI1at Satya, Sauptika.~ StJat~ S-anti~ Anu-8a.aana~ AivQlfledhika~ AiNmavasika, Mau8hala~ NaMpralJthl!nika and SwarglirohaniJca. The RQmlfycma, on the other hand, consists of su UI]<!as or books and a suppleaent, divided into 500 cantos of about 24,000 slokas: B~ta~ A.yodhya~ ~a Kiahk:indha, Sundara, Yudt!ha and Uttara. Each book is in tum divided into sections or chapters.

Although tradition attributes the authorship of the IllaMbharata to the sale lrishna-Dwaipayana Vyisa, Indian sc.holars consider the epic as having undergone an evolution of three stages: the first being that attributed to YyIsa himself who as supposed to have COlII.posed the poea for a period of three years,2 He then dictated it to GaQ-esa, the son of Shiva or Siva as decreed by no less than Brahmi hu.self. 3 Aside fro. Vyisa, the text supposedly passed through two other levels of evolution in the hands of two narrators of the pon: VaisOpeyana and Sauti.

IDr. V. Varadachari, A History of the Swata Ll terature. (2nd ed.; Allahabad-2; Ram NareL1n La! Beni Prasad, 1960), p. 41.

2Book I Adi Parva. Section 62 Adiv&nBaYlll.&r&na Par!!" V01~ I, p~ 137. This re.f'erence to the epic Mahaohirata and. all IlUDsequ.ent ones, unless lnd.icated, are derived t'ruI.: Pratap Chandra ROT (trans~). The Mahibhirata ot Krislma-Dn.i]?!,l&D& Vrisa. revised 'by" Hiralal Haldar, lleCoDd edition, VolUll.e I-XII (Calcutta-12: Oriental Pub-11.h1Dg Co .. , n.d~)

!Book I Ad1 Parn., Section I Introductory, Vol ~ I, pp. 4-5.

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The rishi Irhhna.Dwaipayana Vyisa, to,ethar with his disciples, aUended the Snaka.-sacrifice offered. by Ja .. naII.jaya in order to avenge the death of the MaareJi 1'. father, Parik-!it, who .... as killed by the Nags [iug Tak!h&ta. Arjun's great-grudson then wanted to know the cause of the great war involving not only the whole Kuru race but also their friends, allies and tributaries. Accordingly Vyisa ordered one of his disciples, Vai~iyana, to relate the poea that he, Vyisa, had composed.' Apparelltly however Vaisampiyana did not stick to the original jaya (story) but added to it in order to satisfy the desire of Janamejaya for .ore details or explanations about the personalities involved, their intricate genealogies and WOD

derful adventures.

In turn when the rishi Sauti went back to the forest Naillisha. he related to the gatbering of ascetics the story as he heard it recited "in full by Vaisupiyana at the Snake-sacrifice of the high-souled royal sage Jan_ejaya ....•• 5 Like Vaisaapiyana, in order to satisfy the deaands of his listeners for aore details and elaborations, Sauti presuaably contributed his own additions, includin& an introduction to and the sectioning of the epic.

Tradition, on the other hand, has attributed the authorship of the Riimliyana to the sage VilmIki who was assured by the celestial safe Nirada that Riaa was the _bodiment of the ideal aan. It was also Brahmi who sup-

tt.Book I Adi Parva. Section 60 Adivansavalarama Par!!., Vol. I, p. 131.

SBook I Adi Parva. Section I Introductor:r, Vol. I, p. 1.

6Book I B&l.a wda. Chapter I, Vol. I, p. 3. This reference to the epic RimiYana and &1..l subsequent ones, unless otberviae indicated, are derived 1"roa: Kari Pr_ad Shastri (Trane.>, The Rimiyana of Vil.atIki. Voluaea I-III (London V.ll: Shanti S&dan, 1952.)

HINDUISM AND THE EPICS OF INDIA

posedly ordered hia to compose a poem relating the story of Riaa and Sfta.7 vallllild then taught it to the two sons of Raa and SIti, Kusha and Lava, who sang it at Ayodhya during ~he freat J.iwamedha or HOTse-sacrifice of their father Raa.

The great length of the epics is due to their leisurely narration, the numerous repetitions of descriptive passages and episodes, the repetitions of the genealogies of the heroes and the litany of the nUles and attributes of the deities, and the profusion of details so well loved by Asians. In addition the nUllerous interpolations in the /tIahQbharata. have certainly contributed to its length. There is first of all, the Bhagauad~ta which was originally part of the Bhuhma Pa:t"fJa. 9 There are the innumerable tales, legends, lIIyths and pur0ras that may have no direct relevance to the enmity between the Kauravas and the Pi~9avas but do embelish the po_, heightening its appeal and illustrating the tenets of Hinduism. There are the counsels to Yudhi,~hir. of Bhishma, of Vyasa and of Krishna l 0, not to mention the shorter admonitions liberally garnishing practically every book of the epic.

7Book I B&J.a Kanda. Chapter 2, Vol. I, p. 11.

BBook I B&la KAnda. Chapter 4, Vol. I, pp. 15-11, see also Book VII Uttar. Kinda. Chapters 93-4, Vol. III, pp. 610-13.

9Book VI BhIahma Parve, Sections 25-42 BhagavadGIta Parva. Vol. V, pp. 54-105.

I°Book XII Santi Parva. Sections 23-38 & 55-130 Raladharmanusasana Parva. Vol. VIII, Part I, pp. 41~5. 117-302; Sections 131-13 Apaddh&rma.nusasana Parva, VoL VIII, Part I, pp. 302-407; Sections 174-301 Mokshadharma Iarva, VoL IX, Part II, pp. 1-408; Sections 302:Ji0 II 353-

5 Mokshadharma Parva. VoL X, Part III, pp. 409-560 II 625:Ji0; see also Book XIII Anusasana Parvl!l., Sections 1-14 & 19-35 Anus8sanikB. Parva, Vol. X, Part I, pp. 1-40 II 116-76; SectiODs 36-167, Vol. XI. Part II, pp. 1-403.

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Listeners or readers seemingly do not tire listening to or reading the stories of the two epics. ~eir narration is simple yet the stories themselves are Unl.versal in their at tractiveness, more so because of the sonorous Sanskrit slob metres in which they have been composed, the skillful weaving of the episodes as well as the integration of their main plots with the subplots and the interpolations that have largely been responsible for their length. Both poems boast of an array of characters unforgettable in their allegorical splendour, Rima and sit; being the ideals of the perfect man and woman while the many heroic figures in the Uahabhiirata, although archetypes of greatness, heroism and virtue, become vivid and affecting in their humanity. It is a measure to their author's artistry that no character, however great and heroic, did not betray at times a flaw in his nature or a weakness in his personality just as no character, however, vicious and sinful, did not possess at times a spal'k of decency and even vestiges of nobi! ity.

Devotees have regarded the epics not only as encyclopedias of knowledge of things past in India but also as Snrrtia or secondary scriptures embodying the principal precepts and bel iefs of the orthodox religion and philosophy made more palatable through the use of literary artifices and hence more acceptable to the individual as well as to his society. The MahiibhaMta and the Ramayana for the Indians are more than epic poems, part of their rich cultural heritage. These two works are itihasas which until the present are understood to have actually happened and whose teachings definitely still affect the lives of 20th century Indians. By itihasa is meant "ancient occurrences handed down traditionally from one generation to another. ull Dr. V. Varadachari defines it as that "containing the stories of ancient occurrences and... containing instructions about the four-fold pursuits of existence viz., dharma, aI'tha, ~a and moksha. "12 To the

IIDr Q Varadachari. p. 35.

12IbldQ


Indians therefore the stories of the two epics actually took place and the lives of the characters have served. down the ages as prototypes of everything that is worthwhile absorbing and emulating.

Ouring the Maurya period, the Buddhist and the Jain teachers resorted to imparting their doctrines through the relating of popular tales that they had adapted for such a purpose. The Briluaanas not to be outdone apparently took hold of an originally k~hatriyan tale of war and dynastic dissension as well as a popular love story involving the Raghu Dynasty, reshaping them as the corporate of their Brihmanical doctrines made more attractive by what must have been assimilated from Buddhism and Jainism. Thus the two poems have acquired not only literary greatness but religiol.ls significance as well since they have become the popular vehicles of Hinduism.

Hinduism is actually not one religion; neither is there only one philosophical system of Hinduism. Rather, together with what it has adapted and assimilated from Jainism and Buddhism, which in truth have been but schislIatic movements from the older Vedic fOrll of religion, Hinduim is a conglomeration of Vedic and Upanishadic beUefs, traditions, doctrines and practices, both religious and vedantic, either Aryan or Dravidian in origin. Despite however the existence of many religious sects, the six different systems of Hindu orthodoxy and opposing beliefs and dogmas, it has certain distinguishing features. Although it does not have the equivalent of the Bible or the Koztan. the Vedas. the Upanishads. the Bhagavad-Gita. the two epic poems, the pwraM8 the texts of the si;; systems, saong others, are all considered authoritative even if not one of them has been accepted by all believers to be exclusively so.

HlndulSRI In the EpIcs

Even the orthodox systeas refer to the Mahabha:l-ata and the RCinayana as sources, togtther with the Upanishads and the Bhagl%l1ad-Gttlf of some of their philosophical exigencies. No less than Sauti. one of the narrators in the

.. ACTA MANlLANA

MaMbMNta., intoned the epic as the fifth Veda. 13 He considered it even lIore "superior both in substance and gravity of import" to the four ext~t Vedas. 11t Valiupiyana related to Janoejaya how Vras. taught his own son and his four other disciples the five Vedas, the fifth being the Mahabhlirata .15 On the other hand, the end!n!: of the Uttam ~ sang of the merits of reading the RamayaPIa and exal ted it as "equal to the Veda and should be recited by the wise to lRen of faith ."16

In spite of their sacred nature. the two poeas are not regarded as Shruti (Divine Revelation) but only as 9rrroti (human tradition). The Hindu belief in the in-dwelli~g and all pervading Spirit from which all have emanated is implied in the epics; likewise that of the Triad that represents the three-fold principle of life: creation (Brahma), destruction (Shiva) and preservation (Vishnu). The Hindus believe in the cult of the avatara" the reincarnation of the deities on earth either as lIan or as animal. Chief among these avataras were the ten reincarnations of Vishnu, most significant aIIong thea being his human birth as Krishna and as Rilla. The ihakti cult, the worship of the fea.ale principle of divinity, which has been 1lanifested in lIythology 85 the consorts of the gods enables the devotees to accept Slta, Rima's wife and RullIini, Krishna's wife, as the reincarnations of Vishnu's wife, Lakshmi or Sri, the goddess of fortune.

13Book r Adi Parn., BeetloD I Introductorr, Vol. I, p. 16; Bee also Book XVIII Bvar6irohan1k& Parvs, Section 5, Vol. XII. p. 291.

IltTbid .• p. IT.

lSBook I Adi Parva, Section 63 AdivanasTatarau.& Parvl!L. Vol. I. p.~

IGBook VII Uttar. Kinda, Chapter III, Vol. III, p. 637; see also Book VI Yuddha Kh.da, Chapter 130, Vol. III. pp. 371-2.


Both epics reflect the Hindu affirmation of the caste system and the ascendancy of the Brlhmanas. There are lIaoy references in the two poems of the respect and obedience due to the priestly caste, especially to the holy sages as well as of the nobility and courtliness expected of the K$hatriyan heroes. There are numerous instances in both poems stressing the pursuit of ascestism by renunciation (sannyasa) of the worldly life. The epical heroes are expected to adhere strictly to the lIoral code of behavior. The characters bel ieve in Kannan. the law of causali ty governing man I s actions, and Sa7[ISl!ra. the cycle of birth and rebirth, froa which man may be liberated by following the three paths to salvation: j~ina (Knowledge) bhakti (devotion to God) and Karma (selfless action).

Mother principle governing the Hindu attitude toward life and his social conduct is purIl8,irtha. the four ends of human existence. i.e., dha:rma (righteousness), arotha (wealth), 1@rta (pleasure) and moksha or mukti (spiritual emancipation). These ends are better understood perhaps when viewed together with the four stages of an ideal life (asramas). These are brahrraciD-in, the period of being a student; gM.Mstha. the period of being a householder and active worker; vi2naprastha, the period of retiring from the world and becoming an anchorite; and sannyasa, the period of becoming and being an ascetic.

Much has already been written of the religio-philosophical nature of the Bhagavad-Gtta, the vedanta or synthesis qf Hinduism; of the socio-political lessons found in the santi Paz-va of the MahiibhaNta; of the idealim of YudhiHhira being the son of Dharma and of Rima as the very embodiment of virtue. It seelBs a pity however that such references tend to simply regard the epics as mere allegories and ignore their literary thrusts. On the other hand, it is also unfortunate that a number of literature lovers tend to negate the epics I religious flavour as a contributory factor to their splendour or claim that the sue has detracted froll their literary greatness.

Apart from the obviously didactic portions of the epics, mostly in the form of discourses such as the very

" ACTA MANILANA

£UOU5 senon of Krishna to Arjuna on dhaJwta and detachIlent or the lessons of BhIshaa to Yudhisthira on practicar ly all aspects of Hinduisll but especially on k.ingly conduct, the two epics are replete with situations whose subtle didacticism is far fro. unattractive because it has been woven very skillfully into the very fabric of their stories. Strewn liberally all over the poems are episodes and dialogue exemplifying the Hindu teachings.

Perhaps more than other Hindu beliefs and practices, it is p14rUeilrtha and asrama that are prominently illustrated by the decisions, the words and the actions of the epical heroes. Rima was no less than dha:t'ma incarnate. Vaisampayana informed Janamejaya that

II ••• This 8hazoata is equal unto the Vedas .. is holy and excellent; is the worthiest of all to be listened to, and is a purana worshipped by the RiBhis. It contains usef"uJ. instructions on Artha and KZfnra (profit and pleasure). This sacred history is called Jaya. It should be heard by those desirous of victory ••• This history is the high and sacred science of DhaPma; and also of Moksha; it baa

!::~U~~b~:~~ • ~r 7 Vyasa himself of mind that is im-

DHARMA, THE FIRST END OF LIFE

DhaPma, the first end of life according to Hinduism, has been variously translated as "duty", "righteousness". "virtue", "law" or Itreligion". The word. dhaJtma has been

" ••• derived trom the root d~, which meaDS to uphold, to sustain, to nourish. n The concept

itself may be traced in tbe 1Jta of the IJg-veda. which means both the order ot' Nature and the IIlOral order ••• The more general meaning is righteousness

17Book I Adi Parva, Section 62 AdivansaT&lar&na ~, Vol. I, p.~


or !lOra!. goo4zleaa .. Mant. lite, individual u vel.l u collective, would be '-po.aible but tor a certain measure ot morality.. In this sense, d11azwIa ia II&D'B inner nature. The greater the approximation to the moral standard, the more truly does man re&l.ize his ovo nature. Each man'a dha:twra - what the Bhagallad-Gitii calls eva-dharma. - is to pertora the duties that pertain to his station in lite .18

nt.e word dJunoma is found in the Vedas and Upanuhdds and

••• had denoted ditterent ideas, such 8S, Vedic ritual, ethical conduct, caste rule, and civil and criminal lav. The Sacred Law Is the codification ot dharma. Actually, the concept ot dharma is all-comprehensive e.nd may be, broa.d.ly speaking, saId to comprise precepts which aim at securing the material and spiritual sustenance and growth ot the individual and society. Another significant characteristic ot dharma which deserves to be speci&l.ly noted is that it vas regarded as not being static. The content of dharma otten changed in the changing contexts ot time, place, and social environment. I '

Dharma then is

.•. the principle of preservation and harmony 1D the human world. D'harnla expresses itself in personal lite as virtues and duties, and in political. life as the laws of the state - just laws which

18T.M.P. Mahadevan, "Social, Ethical, and Spiritual Values in Indian PbUOBOPbJ'," The Indie.n Mind, ed. by Charl..es A. Moore (Honolulu! University of Havaii Press tor East-West Center Press, 1967), p. 156.

1'wm. Theodore de Bary (ed.) Introduction to Oriental. CivUization. Vol. LVI: Sources ot Indian Tradition (In' York: Co11llllt1a Uni .... lt7 Pres_, 1958). p. 218.

60 ACTA MANILANA

reatrain evil. propensities and promote virtuouB I1te. 20

Dhanria consequently involves religious obligations .5 well as ".orality, right conduct, or the rules of conduct (mores, custOl'lS, codes or laws) of a group."21 Duty is thus understood to aean

••• varnasl"a7M:-dharma, dhazrma in accordance with varna ("class") and aSNZma ("stage of lite"). Dharma for any given person should be appropriate to his place in society as determilled by his Val'na (Bribman, Kshatriya, Vaisya, or Sudra) and his stage of lire &s a student, a householder, a hermit who has retired to the forest, or a sannyztsin (a "renounced" person) who has completely severed his ties to society. Each combination of varna and asr>ama defined a specific set of duties and responsibilities. the dharma for a person in that particular situation. 22

Dhanna and the King

If there is one person who should perform his duty and practice virtue at all times. it is the king. He

••• has to take the vow of protecting and maintaining the people with dharma on earth, as VaTUlla rules with Rta from heaven. Dharma as law is above the king, j'':'st as Rta is above the gods. The king obeys the law. ~. and inspires virtue and

20Dhirendra Mohan Datta. "Some Philosophical Aspects of Indian Political. Legal. and Economic Thought," in The Indian Mind, edt by Charles A. Moore, p. 286.

21de Bary, p. 211.

22Thomas J. Hopkins, The Hindu Relisious Tradition, The Relidous Life of Man, edt by Frederick J. Strend (Encino, California and Belmont, California: Dickenson Pu.bliehing Company, Inc., 1971), p. 75.


loyalty in the people by his ovn example:. 2 3

He is always expected to set an example by his ","ords and. his deeds. EnuJlerable incidents 8.y be found in the two stories of the deference extended by royalty to the Brihmin caste. especially to their perceptors or gurusi the lavish generosity of monarchs to their household priests and the other rishes; and the attention given to the ascetics' advice and solicitations.

How everyone ","ould listen carefully to Vyisa or Hirada or Kashyapa or Gautama or Markandeya or Vi~hwimi tra whenever any of them would appear. The naga king Tak~haka was saved. froID falling into the sacrificial fire upon the intercession of the youthful sage Astika to the vengeful king Janaaejaya, Arjuna's great-grandson. Rima, Vishnu's avatira, listened to and accepted with respect the words of sages like Vilmt1c.i or Narada or Agastya. Even when he would not follow their advice, Rima was still capable of behaving with propriety tovards the sages Vasinha and Javali who had tried to convince him to cut short his exile and return to rule the kingdom of the Kosalas as was his right as the eldest son of Dasaratha. Yet it is not to say that the Brahmanas are to be honored simply because they are Brihllanas but because of the exemplary lives they lead.

The king is set up as the yardstick for his subj ects. When he is righteous, the kingdom flourishes. None is .tserable, all are happy and the deities are pleased. He is the purveyor of truth, of justice, of goodness and of all other virtues. Always he !lUst perform his duty and even subordinate personal inclinations and affections to the greater good. Although Rilla had been inconSOlable at the loss of Siti and had fought the mighty Rivana, rikshasa king of Latik1:, in order to rescue her, still he • vas ready to repudiate her after his victory. Rima welcomed

23Datta. lac. cit.

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Siti only after she had undergone the ~rdeal . by fire. ~o prove that she h!d remain faithful, to h1m des:~nte her ~ncarceration at Ravana's harem. Agal.n upon thelr return to Ayodhya, the populace suspected Slti's innocence. Sorrowfully Rama ordered his brother Lak~hmana to take _he~ to the forest and abandon her near the henDi tage of Valmlki. The blind king Dhritari;;h!ra, on the o~her ~and. might have loved his eldest son Duryodhana l.nordmately but still he selected Yudhisthira, his brother's eldest son as his heir. ••

Yudhisthira, whose divine father was Dharma, often pacified his" brothers, especially Bhima, and his wife OTaupadi whenever they would bitterly leent their sojourn at the forest. Although he was a poor gambler, as king he could not refuse a challenge nor turn down an invitation and so he had accepted the challenge of his envious cousin Duryodhana to play dice. Eventually he vould accept the outcome of his losses .ven if he vas vell avare that he had been cheated by Duryodhana '5 uncle Sakuni. He refused to listen to his wife's nor his brothers' grievances and their proddings to attack Duryodhana during the stipulated stay at the forest. He even sent his brothers to rescue the Kauravas who had arrogantly gone to the forest to mock their cousins but committed the folly of attacking the varriors of Chitrasena, king of the gandharvas. The adventure of the Pi,4avas at the magic pool may be too we11-kno\lffl to repeat here. It will not be superfluous, none~heless J • to reproduce here the reasoning of Yudhi~thira 1n ansvenng the yaksha who, pleased with his knowledge and demeanor J offered to resurrect one of his brother! and who appeared to be surprhed that he did not ask for either Bhimasena or Arjuna but for Nakula, son of Madri:

"It' virtue is s&crificed., he that sacrificeth it, is himself lost. So virtue also eherisheth the cherisber. Therefore taking care that virtue by being sacrificed may Dot sacrifice us, I never forsake virtue. Abstention from injury is the higbest virtue, and Is, I .... eD. eYeD higher than


the highest object of attainment. I endeavour to practice that virtue. Therefore. let Nakul.a. 0 Yaksha, re'9'iyel Let men know that the k.ing 1s always TirtuOUIII I v111 never depart from. lIlY duty. Let NakI.ll&. theret'ore. revive. My father bad tvo wives. !twit! and Madrl. Let both of them have children. This ta wIlat I vish. As Kwit! is to me, so also is Madrl. There 1a no difference between

::8;:.IDY Th~:;t'o!e~e~:e N~:t l~!~~~t towards my

At the close of the thirteenth year away from their kingdom, the Pi.o4avas vere ready to return to [ndraprastha which Ouryodhana, backed by his brother Duhsasana and by lama, refused to give up. Pacifying his more aggressive brothel'S and allies, YudhiHhira prudently resorted to peaceful lIeans, to the extent of engaging Krishna as his principal envoy to the court of Oh:ritari~h~ra and even being willing to settle only for five villages for himself and his four brothers. Ever he was the IDan of peace. Always he strove to be truthful. Even his sin against Drol)B may be judged as more a sin of omission than a sin of coaission. On the fifteenth day of the war, Oro)). sought hill. to verify a TUmor that Orona's son A.swatthimi had been slain. YudhiHhira

.•• fearing to utter an untruth, but el!U'nest-17 desirous of victory, •.• distinctly said that Aswatthiimi was dead, adding indistinctly the word elephant (&!'ter the name). Before this. Yudhilf~hira I s car bad stayed at a height of four finger's breath !rcn the surface of the earth; after, however, he he.d said that untruth, his (vehicle and) animals touched the earth. 2 5

24Book III Vana Parva. Section III Aranera Parva, Vol. III, p. 677.

25Book VII Drona Parva, Section 191 Drons.-badha ~, Vol. VI, p. 448.

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A king' 5 vord is sacred. He .ust keep a prOliise he had .ade. Dasaratha of the Raghu Dynasty rashly pro.hed to grant whatever request the sage Vi!hwillitra would .. k~. However reluctantly. therefore, he ... as forced to let h~s young son Ria. accompany the sage in order to slay the two powerful rlk~hasas Maricha and Sivahu who were defiling Vishwamitra's sacrifice. And as any reader of the Ramayanez knows, this was not the only occasion when Dasaratha was forced to keep a promise he had somewhat impulsively given.

Parent-Offspring Relationship

One of the most tell ing episodes in the Mahabharata portraying kingly duty and ideal father-son relationship was that involving the .. sacrifice of Devavrat. for the sake of his father. King Safttanu of the race of Dharata was renowned for his many accomplishments and virtues. He fell in love and wanted to marry Satyavati, the beautiful daughter of the chief of the fishermen. He would not however make a promise to her father until he heard what the latter wanted. Shrewdly, her father imposed a condition to the wedding of Satyavati to the king; that her future son become the royal heir. Despite his great love for the maiden, Sa't\tanu could not accept such a condition since he also loved his son by Ga't\gi, the peerless Devavrata who had already been proclaimed the yuvaraja or heir-apparent. He was disconsolate but he kept silent about the true cause of his grief.

Solicitous of his father's well-being and desirous of dispelling his unhappiness, Prince Devavrata sought to discover its real reason. He then went to the chief of the fishermen to ask for Satyavati's hand for his father, renouncing his claill to the throne in favor of her future son and going to the extent of vowing to remain a celibate so that no descendant of his would ever contest the succession to the throne of her son and progeny. Because of his act of renunciation, he was honored by the apsaras, the devas and the rishis who showered him with flowers from he~ven and proclaimed hill Bhishma the terrible. His father Santanu out of gratitude


•.• bestowed upon the blgh-aou1ed prince the boon of death, at vill, saying, "Death shul never come to thee so long as thou desireat to live. Truly death shall approach thee, 0 .1nl.ess one. having first obtained thy commandl tl2.6

No less poignant ""as the sacrifice of Puru, Santanu's ancestor. At the instigation of his jealous ""ife Devayani. Yayati was cursed with premature old age by the Brihmana Sukra. He appealed to his five sons by Devayani and Sarmishtha to exchange their youth with his premature old age. It was only his youngest son Puru who willingly assumed the curse on his father. After enjoying youth to the fullest, Yayiti restored it to Pul'll and declared him his successor.

More tragic perhaps was the great love king Oasa ... ratha had for his eldest son, Rama, whom he proclaimed as his regent-heir. Entrapped by womanly tears and wiles, he rashly promised to grant Queen Kaikeyi I swishes. Thus he was forced to rescind the installation of Rama and instead acceded to the queen I s demand that her own son Bhirata be made the regent-heir, and that Rama be exiled to Dandaka Forest for fourteen years. Once having given his word, he could not back out. On the day of the annointing of Rima as heir, ""hen he found his father prostrated ""ith grief, all his concern ""as to kno"" its cause and alleviate it. Hearing Queen Kaikeyi pronounce his banishment, he accepted his fate calmly, ""ith no word of protest or lament. He managed to pacify his wrathful brother Lak~hmaQa, consoled his stricken mother and prepared to obey hi.;, father I s command.

died. With Rama's departure, the king pined away and

Recalled to Ayodhyi by Dasaratha '5 death, Prince

26'Sook I Ad! Parta. Section 100 Sambb&va Parva, Vol. It p. 243.

ACTA MANILANA

Bhirata who had been vacationing with Shatrughna in 'the kingdom of his maternal grandfather and uncle, King Aswapati and Prince Yudhaj ita, and who had not be~n ~ par~y to his mother's ambition, reproached her for brlng1ng d1~honor on their family. He performed all the funeral r1tes for his father and proceeded to Dandaka Forest to restore the kingdom to Rima. Rima in turn was ilore than ever determined to obey his father's order and remain in exile for fourteen years. When Bhirata returned to Ayodhyi, he brought with him Rima· s sandals which he placed on the throne. He ruled in the name of Riaa and lived as an ascetic in Nandigrama, outside of Ayodhyi.

In Pursuit of Virtue

Many references are found in both epics about the education befitting the young aristocrat. All the K~hatriyan heroes were said to have been proficient not only in the knowledge of warfare but also of the Vedas. The teacher of Devavrata had been the muni VasiHha. The sons of Dhritari~h~ra and of Pandu had outstanding tutors, KIipa and the Brahmin-warrior Dro".1a. The famous ~ni Vi~hwami tra offered to become the perceptor of Rama whose other guru was the sage Vasinha. At the completion of his instruction, the student should gratify his perceptor. Thus Arjuna defeated the old enemy of Drotta, Drupada, the king of the Panchalas, while Rima slew the two ri~khasas disturbing Vi~hwimitra I s sacrifice.

There are likewise many examples in the epics of wifely devotion and sacrifice, the famous ones being Gandhari who blindfolded herself upon her marriage to the blind King Dhritarii~h~ra, Siti and Draupadi, Damayanti and SavitrI. Mention has already been made of the sacrifices that offsprings can undergo for the sake of their parents and vice versa. There was also the exemplary behavior of the Brihmana family with whom Kuftti and the Pandava princes stayed at Ekachakara, after the unsuccessful attempt by Duryodhana I s accomplice, Purochana, to burn them to death at Varanivata. The countryside had been plagued by a cannibal rak~hasa. Vaka, who would eat not only the food offered to him regularly by the people but also the unfortunate who would bring it to him. It was now


the turn of this family to prepare the food and bring it to the lair of Vaka. The Brihmin father was decided that he would rather sacrifice hi1ll5elf than his wife or his son or his daughter. His wife felt it was her duty to be the one to sacrifice herself; 50 did their young daughter; so did their little son. Fortunately this episode h;;d a happy ending as KufttI ordered her son BhImasena to be the one to confront Vaka. Bhima handily won over his fonaidable foe and thus saved not only the Brahmin f81lily, their host, but the whole countryside as well.

There was also the story related by the wonderful weasel who was not impressed by the magnificent Aiwamedha yajiia or Horse-sacrifice of Yudhinhira. According to this weasel, during a famine, a poor Brahmana family was lucky enough to secure a small quantity of maiz.e. After grounding it, they divided the flour among the four of them. But they had a visitor, a Brahmana, to whom the Brlhmin father offered his share of the flour. After eating the share, the guest was still hungry and the host's wife offered her own share. Still the hunger of the visitor was unappeased. Then the host's son offered his share of the flour and finally so did his daughterin-law. Only then was the guest satisfied and revealing himself as the god of righteousness invited the four to join him in heaven.

The Dharma of a Warrior

The pursuit of dharma is best exemplified in the poems perhaps by the code of action followed by the Kshatriyan warriors. Not only the portions referring to' the Bhagavad-Gtta stress the duty of the Kshatriya to obey, to be loyal to, to fight for, and, if need be, to die for the ruler. Despite Yudhinhira's hesitation to let them go, BhIaa and Arjuna set forth to defeat Jarasandha, the !lighty king of Magadha. Arjtma experienced many trials in obedience to his eldest brother's co_and, first, to go on exile for twelve years at the forest and, later, to secure the celestial weapons which were in the care of the god Ihdra. During the twelfth day of·the eighteen-day war, in obedience to Yudhi~~hirats order, the youthful Abhillanyu,

" A(~A MANILANA

Arjuna's son by Krbhna t. sisteT Subhadra, broke the formation of DroVa's fftces, but at the cost of his own. Ufe. Krishna, consoling the grieving Arjuna, reminded hia:

n. o.Born as ltvhatriytL9 ve bave to live and die by weapons. Death 1s ever the companion ot those who have taken up the protession ot arms and go to battle, determined not to retre&t. Warriors must be ever ready to die young. Abhimanyu, boy a8 he vas. has attained the happy regions above vhich grey-ba.ired veterans yearn to reach in battle. Abhimanyu '8 end is indeed the prescribed and auebdesired goal. of a.l.l 1t~trlya.a. It you give va.y to grief in this inordinate vay, your brothers and other kings v1l.1 lose heart. Stop grieving and intuse courage and fortitude into the bearts ot the othersQ "27

Al though worn-out. Sityaki sped to obey Yudhl1thira's order to go to the aid of Arjuna. Likewise did 8.hIaa obey his brothers command to join Arjuna. Even while. the elders Bhis\uaa, Dropa and. ViduTa admonished Duryodhana for his ruthlessness and unrighteousness, they Temained loyal to hiJI and his father King DhTitaTashtra. BhYsma was COlI_

.ander-in-chief of the Kauravas for the first ten days of the war until his fall. Drot'a succeeded Bhishaa as the generalissimo for the next five days. He too loved the Pandava princes but, just the same, he fought bravely and ferociously against the Pav~ava forces. When the blind king refused to heed his wise counsels and even accused him of siding with the Pil}4avas, Vidura left for Yudhi~,hira's camp. Vet when Dhritarashtra remorsefully recalled hill, he left the Plndavas and returned to the court at Hastinapura. Best of ail was the example of Kama's

27C. Rajagopa.l.achari (trans.), Mi!Lhabharata, ed .. K. M .. Munshi and R.R. Divakar (Chovpatty: Bombay: Bbaratiya Vidya Bhavan, 1970) I pp. 255-6.


" gratitude to Duryodhana for the latter's royal favor. Despite learning later that he was in reality the eldest son of KuntI, he remained true to Duryodhana and to his vow to kill Duryodhana I s enemies, only promising his sorrowing mother to kill or be killed by Arjuna and not to harm his other brothers.

Many times duties and priorities might clash and become ambivalent but always and ever the epic characters were ready to perform their d:ha.:Pma to the best of their abilities according to the dictates of their conscience and the highest good. Thus it is not to say that the k~hatriyas are admirable for being members of the nobility but rather for being men of noble thoughts and of noble deeds. As he lay mortally wounded on his bed of arrows, Bhishma extolled righteousness thus:

" ••• No one in discoursing upon righteousness, can indicate it accurately. Righteousness was declared (by Brahman) for the advancement and growth of all creatures. Therefore, that which leads to advancement and growth is righteousness. Righteousness was declared for rp.straining creatures from injuring one another. Therefore, that is Righteousness which prevents injury to creatures. Righteousness (Dhanna) is so called because it upholds all creatures. In fact, all creatures are upheld by Righteousness. Theretore, that is Righteousness which is capable ot upholding all creatures. "28

As he neared his end, he preached on the merits of righteousness and the virtue of detachment:

"If one does acts oneself that are good or causes others to accomplish them, one should then

28 • Book XII Santi Parva, Section 109 Raladharmanusa-

sana Parva, Vol. VIII, Part If p. 253.

60 ACTA MANlLANA

expect to attain to the mertt. of' righteousness. Similarly t if one does acts oneself that are evil, and causes others to accomplish them, one should never expect to attain to the merits of righteousness. At all times, it is Time that, entering the understanding of all creatures. sets them. to sets of righteousness or unrighteousness. and then confer felicity or misery upon them. When a person, beholding the fruits of Righteousness, understands Righteousness to be superior, it is then that be inclines towards Righteousness and puts faith in it. One however, wbose understanding is not firm, fails to put faith in it. As regards faith in Righteousness, it is this (and nothing else). To put faith in Righteousness is the indication of the 'Wisdom of all persons. One that is acquainted with both (Le., what should be done and what should not be done), vi th a view of opportl.Uleness, should, with care and devotion, achieve what is right ••• These are the two results achieved by Righteousness viz" the stainlessness of the soul and unsusceptibility of being touched. by Unrighteousness. Verily Righteousness is fraught with victory. Its effulgence is so great that it illumines the three worlds. A man of visdorn cannot catch hold of a sinful person and forcibly cause him to become righteous. When seriously urged to act righteously the sinful only act with hypocrisy, impelled by fear. • • The re8ions of felicity which represent the consequences or revards of Righteousness are not eternal t for they are destined to come to an end. Righteousness, hovever, is eternal. When the cause is eternal, why is the effect not so? The answer to this is as follovs. Only that Righteousness is eternal which is not prompted by the desire of fruit or reward. That Righteousness, however which is prompted by the desire of reward, is not eternal. Hence, the reward though undesired that attaches to the first kind of Righteousness. viz ••


attainment of identity with Briihma, is eternal. -2' ARTHA, THE SECOND END OF LIFE

Often enough the epical characters were confronted with a dilemma between their sworn duty and the immediate goals they might be pursuing according to their aSl"amas. After all, it is not always easy to make decisions and human motivations are not always clear-cut. Men are ever contending with different values and must choose according to their priorities. The pursuit of a:t'tha is, therefore. seen to flow from the practice of dha:rrma. Al'tha which is considered the second end of man is the Sanskrit word for ;~~!~~!o which may be defined as "what is sought after as

Man's duties as has been mentioned embrace all aspects of his relationship with the society in which he lives. One of these aspects is political in nature and refers to the relationship between the individual and the state. Such a political situation is certainly reflected in the poems both on the level of dynastic rivalry and of the individual's pursuit of economic stability. The period in which the epics were composed was said to have been characterized by the growing "struggle for power in Ancient India and the growing complexity of the methods

~:~:I~~1I3fa!~t:~d al ~e~~ i~o:~~~i a o~~i!~e to~:~d th:~d s!~: weal thy families become so powerful that they can and do dictate national and even international policies.

J(autilya. a minister of Emperor Chandragupta of the Maurya Dynasty defined Al'tha-sastl'a as

••• the science 'Which treats of the means of acquiring and maintaining the earth. and indeed

29aook XIII Anu9isana Parva, Section 164, Vol. XI. Part II, pp. 394-6.

30Mahadevan. p. 155.

31de Bary, p. 236.

62 ACTA MANlLANA

deus witb practical government administration more fully than vi th theorizing about the f'und8lllental principles of political sclence. 32

AJltha may thus be seen as an a;pect of dharma related to activity (proaortti) and is directed mainly to the second stage of life, that of the householder who has the duty to acquire wealth for the betterment of his family and indirectly for the maintenance of his position as a respected member of society. The sage Kashyapa was desirous of saving King Parik~it from being slain by the naga King Tak~haka in order to gain wealth and merit. Tak.-t"haka promised instead to give him "as much wealth as he desired,,3) if he would desist from aiding Partk~it. Oro'O. who married the sister of Kripa heard that Parasurima was giving away all his possessions to the Brahmanas. But by the time he arrive, Parasurama had no more wealth to bestow on him. Instead he agreed to give Oroga all his weapons and teach him their use. Orona later became the peerless percept or of th.e Kaurava~ and the Pal)9aVa princes.

Whenever there may be a conflict between the Sacred LaN and the science of material gain, the former should prevail over the latter:

... While Dharma Shiistra insisted on the righteousness of both the means and the ends, Artha Sbastra concerned itself primarily with the attainment of the ends irrespective of the nature of the means employed for the purpose... The Artha Shas:.. tra ideology completely dominated the polity or ancient India. Attempts were made, however, from time to time to reassert the superiority of Dharma Shastra over Artha Shiistra by prescribing that, in

32lbid ., p. 238.

33Book I Adi Parva, Section 43 AstIka Parvs, Vol. I. p. 105.

HINDUISM AND THE EPICS OF INDIA .3

case of cont'l.lct betwea. tlle tWO. DbaNa Slllatra. should prevail. 31t

Al'tha and Kri shna

Between law and its implementation. however, may be found a chaSll. as proven by a number of situations in the epics in which the expediency of aaterial gain and the prospect of military victory appeared to prevail over the IIOre ideal moral code. No less than Krishna was responsible for helping the Piv4avas win over the (aurav.-s by resorting to devious and, at times, even unchivalrous .ems on the justification that the war declared by Yudhi~tJrl.ra against his grasping relations was a righteous one. It was Krishna himself who advised ,the Piv4avas to go to their grand uncle Bhishma and to ask him how he could be defeated. According to Bhishma:

" ••• When vi th weapons and my large boy in hand I contend caref'u.l1y in battle, I am incapa.b1e of being defeated by the very gods and the a.suras vith Incira. at their head 1 If, however, I lay aside m:r weapons. even these car-warriors can slay mel One that hath thrown away his weapons, one that hath fallen dow. one whose armour hath slipped off. one whose standard is down. one who is flying away. one who is frightened, one who says - I am thine, one who is a female, one who beareth the name of a female. one no longer capable of taking care of one I s self, one who hath only a single 80n. or one who is a vulgar fellow, -with these I do not like to batt1ef"35

Thus on the tenth day of the war, BhIsbma fell because he would not draw his weapons against the warrior Sikhatt4tn who had been born a woman.

34de Bary, p. 231.

35Book VI BhIshma Parva •. Section 108 Yudhisthira Repairs to BhIshma. Vol. V, pp. 290-91.

54 Ac:rA MANILANA

Arjun blued Jayadratha, the SiAdhu monar1:h. for the death of his son Abhimanyu. Wrathfully he vowed to kill Jayadratha before the sun set the day after the killing. Krishna thought him to have been foolhardy for having made such a vow because when Jayadratha's father Vriddhakshatra was informed that his son would lose his head in battle, he vowed that the head of the man who would cause his son I s head to fallon the ground would crack into a hundred pieces. As the sun began to sink, Krishna cautioned Arjuna to cut off Jayadratha's head by using a celestial weapon so that the head would faU on the lap of Vriddhakshatra who was practising austerities in the woods. Finished with his prayers. he stood up not realizing that his son's head was laying on his lap. When the head fell on the ground, his own head burst into pieces.

It was also Krishna's plan to demoralize the invincible Oro;pa. He ordered Bhima to slay an elephant with the same name as Orona's beloved son Aswatthima. Then Bhima spread the rumor that Aswatthama was dead. Dismayed DroQa sought Yudhisthira for assurance and was fooled. Still he fought and·~ould not be defeated. Finally after the hurting words of Bhima, Oro!la lay aside his weapons and went into yoga. Dhrishtadyumna, son of Drupada, OroI,la IS ancient enemy. then shot him dead despite the pleas of Arjuna who did not at all approve of the plan to defeat Orona in such an underhanded way.

In the single combat between Karna and Arjuna on the seventeenth day of the war, one of the wheels of Karr:a's car sank into the ground. He called upon Arjuna to follow the code of chivalry:

"0 pavifa.val Spare me for a moment while I extrica.te my \theel from the earth! You a.re on your ca.r while I am standin~ weak and languid on the ground. It is not fair that you should slay me now! You are born in the k~hatriya order. You are the scion of a high race. Recollect the teachings


ot righteouBness, and give me a moment's t1.me!fl 36

It was Krishna who, acting as Arjuna's charioteer, answered KarJ].a and reminded him of his past lIlisdeeds against the pal}-!avas. Prompted by him, Arjuna then shot the arrow called AnjaUka and beheaded Karoa who was still trying to extricate the wheel of his car.

In the single combat between Duryodhana and Shima. knowing that the latter would never win over the former in a fair fight, Krishna advised Arjuna to strike his left thigh. Bhima understood the hint and hurled his mace at Duryodhana's thighs. Balarima, Krishna I 5 brother, was horrified and rushed to punish Bhima, but Krishna stopped him with this justification:

"There are six kinds ot advancement that a person may have, viz., one's advancement, the Ildvancem.ent of one's f'riends, the advancement ot one's friends' friends. the decay of one's enemy, the decay of one's enemy's friends, and the decay of one's enemy's f'riends' friends. When reverses happen to one's own self or to one's friends, one should then understand that one's fall is at hand and, therefore, one should at such times look for the means of applying a remedy. The Pao4avas of unsullied prowess are our natural friends. Tbey &re the children of our own sire's sister. They had been greatly afflicted by their foes! The accomplishment of one's vow is one's duty. Formerly BhIma. had vowed in the midst of the assembly that he would in great battle break with his mace the thighs of Duryodhana. The great Riebi Maitreya

36Chakravartbi V. Narasimhan (trans.), The Mahibhi~ number LXXI, The Records of Civilization: Sources and Studies, ed. The Department of History, ColumbiaUniversity (Rev York and London: Columbia University Press 1965). p.l65; Bee alao Book VIII Karna Parva. Section 90, Vol. VII. p. ZTl.

66 ACTA MANILANA

also 0 Bcorcher ot toe, had formerly cursed Duryodh~a, saying, -'Bhima will, with hiB mace, break thy thighs t' _ in consequence ot all this, I do Dot see any tault in Bhtmal Do not give way to wrath, o sl&yer ot Pralamval Our relationship with the P&o4avas is founded upon birth and plead. as &lso upon an attraction of hearts. In their growth is our growth. Do not.l therefore give vay to wrath, o bull among men I n 3 7

Before the commencement of the battle on the first

:~~;~~jun~r~~! ::~ a~~5 ~~: ~:::!va f~~:n~:f~~~ r!~a~~~~! wi th wh:" he had no personal enmity. Krishna preached to him on the duty of the kshatriya to fight, thus resulting into the misconception arrived at by 50.e that the Bhagavad-G1:ta favors war. And earlier when YudhiHhira wanted to perform the Raja.-si1ya sacrifice which was clone only by an acknowledged peerless monarch, it was Krishna who advised him that he would "become the emperor of all the k~hatriyas"38 only after defeating Jarisafldha, the mighty king of Magadha. Together with Bhima and Arjuna, Krishna penetrated successfully the stronghold of JarasaAdha by disguising themselves as Snataka BMhmins. The single combat between Jarasaitdha and Bhima lasted for fourteen days and nights without stop. On the fourteenth night, Krishna indicated to Bhtro.a to take advantage of the fact that Jarasandha was already exhausted. Shima obeyed the hint and was able to kill his opponent. When Krishna was reproached by the sage Utaiika for failing to effect peace between the warring cousins, he justified himself thus:

" • 0 0 I am the origin and I am the destruction of all things. I am the creator of all existent

37Book IX Salya Parva, Section 60, Vol. VII, p. 174.

38Book II Sabha Parva, Section 15 Ra'asuYarambha Parve. Vol. II. p. 42.

HINDUIS. AND THE EPICS OF INDIA .1

objects and I am their destroyer. Knowing no change myself, I am the destroyer of all those creatures that live in sintulness. In every Yuga I have to repair the causeway of Righteousness, entering into diverse kinds of wombs from desire at doing good to my creatures. When, 0 son of Brighu t 8 race, I live in the order of the deities, I then verily act every respect as a deity. When I live in the order of the Gandharvas, I then, 0 son ·of Brighu's race, act in every respect as a Gandharva. When I live in the order of the Nagas, I then act as a Naga, and when I live in the order of Yaltsha or that of Rlkshas&s, I act after the manner of that order. Born now in the order of humanity, I must act as a human being. I appealed to them (the lCauravas) most piteously. But stupefied as they vere and deprived of their senses, they refUsed to accept my Yards. I frightened them, filled vith wrath, referring to some great fear (as the consequence of their slighting my message). But once more I shoved themselves my usual (human) form. Possessed as they were of unrighteousness, and assailed by the virtue of Time, all of them. have been righteously slain in battle, and have, without doubt, gone to Heaven. The Pllo~avas also, 0 best of Bramnanas, have acquired great fame. "39

Gains, at All Cost

Even supernatural means may be resorted to in order to win a victory. Krishna related to YudhisthiJ:a how SUwa wanted to avenge the death of his brothe;· §isGpala whom Krishna had slain at the Raja8uya of Yudhisthira. SUlita therefore attacked Dwaraka, the capital city of Krishna and had recourse to the use of illusion. He was however killed by Pradyumna, Krishna's son by RukmipI. The rak~hasas applied supernatural devices as they defended Larlka

39Book IV ASwamedha Parv~. Section 54, Vol. XII, pp. 107-8.

68 ACTA MANlLANA

from the avenging monk.ey-army of ~ama and in order to deceive SitS. into believing that Rama was dead. Sh!. however) remained faithful to Rama while Bibishana, Ravana 15

brother who has transferred his allegiance to Rima neutralized their magic.

Duryodhana and his sympathizers were ·no less adept at strategy and deviousness to gain their ends. Seeing Kar'}a duplicate the feats of Arjuna during the. tournamen~, Duryodhana readily befriended the unknown warrlor. had hili

annointed king of Anga and even defended him against the insults of Bhima. He thereby, won himself a champion and henceforth, he stopped being wary of his cousins. He plotted to destroy the PatlcJavas by ordering one of his ministers, Purochana, to build at the city of Vlranivata, a palace made of highly inflammable materials. Unfortunately for him, the PiQ~avas learned of the attempt at their lives and turned the table on the hapless Purochana.

With Sakuni, his uncle, and with the tacit consent of his doting father, he planned to win all the wealth of the PIlQ-q.avas in a game of dice. When he found out later that the PiQq.avas were gathering an army to fight hill, he also started courting allies including Salya, the brother of Queen Madri, uncle of the PiQq.avas, and the Dwarakans. the subjects of Krishna. He died happy when he vas told about the successful sabotage of A.swatthilli who, together with his Uncle Kripa and Kritavarma, the king of the Bhojas, was able to slaughter in their sleep practically all the surviving paQ4avas. Actually only the five brothers. Krishna and Sityaki who was Krishna IS kinslllan escaped. Even King Dhritara~h~ra was not adversed to po_ litical gains. Fearful of the popularity of Yudhisthira whom he had just installed as his heir and of the might of the PiT)q.avas, he consulted one of his ministers Kanita. Kanika, a Brahmana, was "well versed in the scie~ce of po_ litics and an expert in counsels."ItO He told the king

It 0Baok I Adi Parva, Section 142 S8IIIbhava Parva, Vol. I. p. 332.

HINDUISM AND tHE EPICS OF INDIA 69

that the defeat of enemies was possible through four ways: "the arts of conci liation or the expenditures of MOnet I or by prociucing disunion or by the employment of force."

There were a number of instances in the epics when heroes faced with a dilemma resolved it according to their priorities or acted with single-mindedness as per the dictates of their conscience. There were other instances, however, when manls pursuit of material gains would be of benefit not only to himself but to others as well. In the reconciliation scene between Dhl"itara~h~ra and the Pil}.qava princes, knowing that the blind king might harm Bhima, the slayer of his son Duryodhana, Krishna let him embrace not Bhima but an iron statue of him. The blind king, in a fit of anger, cracked the iron statue. His remorse afterwards was cut _short by Krishna who explained his ploy.

Alliances are established through marriages. Thus Piv4avas numbered among their powerful friends and all ies Orupada, the father of Draupadi, and his warlike sons, Drishtadyumna and Sikhandin; Balarftma and Krishna, brothers of Subhadra, the wife of Arjuna, and nephews of Queen KUDti; VirUa, the Matsya 1R0n~rch and Abhimanyu IS

father-in-law by Princess Uttara; Salya, king of Madra and brother of Queen Madri, the mother of Nakula and Sahadeva. When the war broke out, Krishna became the Charioteer of Arjuna, his brother Balarirla remained neutral, but his army joined Duryodhana. Salya was inveigled by Duryodhana to fight with him against his own nephews because of a rash promise he had made. King Janaka of the Videhas, on the other hand, was pleased with having Rima for a son-in-law that he also married off his other daughter Umita to Prince Lak~hmana and his nieces, Princess Mandavi and her sister Shruta-Kirtti, the daughters of his brother, King Kushadwaja, to Prince Bhirata and Prince Shatrughna respectively. King Dasaratha was not at all displeased with the alliances between the two powerful royal houses of Ikshaku and Videha.

"lUid., p. 333.

70 ACTA MANILANA

After the royal wedding had. been celebrated in Mithila the Kosalas returned to Ayodhyi. Twelve y~ar5 pass~.Then Dabratha.feeling old age creeping on him, decided to proclaim his favorite son, Rima, his regent-heir. He called for a council. carefully inviting all the elders and his ministers as well as tithe subject pri.nces and the inhabitants of other cities and lands"42 but as carefully refraining from inviting King Aswapati of Kaikeya, Queen Kaikeyi's father, and King Janak. of Mithila. ·Sita,s father. He addressed the gathering thus:

"It is veIl known to you that this vast empire vas upheld by my predecessors and their fathers before them. To promote the prosperity and felicity of the kingdom, formerly protected by the Kings of Ikshvaku, I; walking in the path trodden by my forebears, have preserved it to the utmost ••• The burdens of state, not able to be sustained by those of uncontrolled mind, have I borne, and nov am veary" Today, therefore, vi th the approval of the learned brahmins present here and for the good of my people, I desire to surrender the dominion to the protection of my eldest son. Possessing every essential virtue, 8hri RBm.achandra, my beloved son, equal to Indra in prowess and the conqueror of hiB foes, excelling in every virtue resembles the mooo accompanied by the Pushya star." lt3

The elders and the other monarchs could not fault his choice of regent-heir and began to praise Rima. When ~im.achandra heard his father's wish, all he said was "I am In duty to carry out your orders, whatever they be. tlltlt

1t2Book II AyodhYa Kanda, Chapter I, Yolo I, p. 151.

43Ibid", Chapter 2, Yolo I, p. 152.

ItItC" Rajagopa!achari (Trans.), RiimflYana ed. K.M. Munshi and R.RQ Divakar (Chowpatty: Bombay: Bha.:atiya Vidya Bhavan, 1968), p. 49; see also Book II AYodhyii Kinda, Chapter 3, VoL I, p. 158.

HINDUIflM AND THE EPICS OF INDIA 71

Later, as he received the congratulatory greetings of his moth~r. Queen Kausalyi. of Queen Sumitra and of Lak~hmal}a, to his brother he said, "0 Laksluuana, share with me the government of the kingdom, tho{a art my second self. The dominion is equally thine. 0 Brother, I desire life and a kingdom for thy sake."4S The King would not rest until the installation of Rlma take place immediately. Calling for Rima, he sa id:

"Prince Bhirata is in the city of his grandsire, it is my will that thou be installed in his absence. Thy brother, Bhirata, is virtuous, compassionate, master of his senses and obedient to thee, yet, 0 Prince, I know the mind of man to be fickle, even the mind of a righteous and devout man may be subject to inconstancy. Tomorrow, thy coronation shall take place, therefore, now return to thy abode. "46

Finally in the section of the santi Parva of the Mahilbhiirata, as Bhtshma lay dying, Yudhi~fhira sought his counsel and was instructed on the duties of a king and on all the ramifications of kingship. For fifty-eight nights, Bhishma was visited by the K,hatriyas and the Brahmanas as he lay on his bed of arrows. his head resting on three arrows shot in position by Arjuna. On the instruction of Krishna or Kesava, he began to preach on sundry topics including the four ends of life, the four modes of life and the duties of and the conduct of the members of the different castes; the science of ruling; ahimsa or non-violence; victory and conquest; knowledge of the Vedas .. morality, truth and wisdom; the four kinds of yoga meditation and the difference between Slnkhya and yoga systems; mythology; death; gifts and their merits; Iftan. woman and man-woman relationship; Kines and cows;vows and fasting; and ttl'thas or sacred waters. YudhiHhira,

Itsaook II Ayodh,yl[ Kanda,' Chapter 4. Vol. I. p. 160.

1t6Ibid •• p. 159.

72 ACTA MANILANA

wanting to be clarified, questioned him numerously and his answers were long and detailed, not only in expository form but replete with narratives and quotations from the great sages such as '!yisa, N3rada. VasiHha and Yijnavalkya and even from Kesava himself. Most of the lessons were relevant to the governance of a kingdom and thus of practicable value to YudhiHhira in his role as the victorious ruler of all Kuruland.

KANA, THE THIRD END OF LIFE

Like artha. klima" the third human value may be considered also as another aspect of dharma related to activity (pravrttiJ. Like artha. kama is also directed to the second stage of life, that of the householder whose dha:rma

••• vas in fact largely the f'u.lflllment ot aPtha and kama" since it was the householders' production and procreation, that satisfied society's debts to the gods and ancestors and supported those who preserved tradition. Through the discipline of his dharma, the householder purified the desires for vealth and sensual enjoyment carried over from his past lives and transformed them into spiritual benefits for himself, his family, and society.it?

Kama has been interpreted as pleasure or

••• the enjoyment of sense pleasures which cover a vast area, from the enjoyment of conjugsJ. love to the appreciation of art, music, and literature. Life becomes drab and gray unless one cultivates aesthetic sensitivity. Both wealth and sense pleasures should be pursued according to dha:trma; othervise, they vill turn into greed and sensuality. Ita

1t7Hopkins, p. 78.

1t8Svami Nikhilananda, "The Realistic Aspect at Indian Spirituality," in The Indian Mind. ed. by Charles A. Moore, p. 239.


In answer to Yudhisthira I s query as to the "respective roots of Virtue, Wealth, and Pleasure.,,49 Bhishma replied:

"When lIlen in this world endeavor with good hearts to achieve Wealth with the aid of Virtue, then those three, viz., Virtue. Wealth, and Pleasure, lIlay be seen to co-exist in a state of union in respect of time, cause, and action. Wealth has Its root In Virtue, and Pleasure is said to be the fruit of Wealth. All the three again have their root in WilL Will is concerned with objects. All objects, again, in their entirety, exist for gratifying the desire of enjoyment." 50

T .M. P. Mahadevan observes that

The normal man has his desires, and he seeks pleasure in the objects of sense. The passions are an integral part of his nature, and there must be ch&lUlels through which they may flow. The vorld would be a dull affair without its dance and music, sport and recreation, connubial love and filial affection. Indian thought does not attempt to suppress the desires and emotions that well up from the human heart. On the contrary, its purpose is to let them flov vithin bounds and so canalize them that through them they may reach higher levels of experience. Marriage and the founding of a family are helpful in that they make the individual less egocentric and assist in the pro~ess of sublimating his desires. 51

49Book XII Santi Parva, Section 123, VoL VIII, Part I, p. 286.

50lbid.

5lMahadevllD.. p. 155.

74 ACTA MANILANA

As far as the householder is concerned. marriage is

.,. the most important single ritual in a person's life. The marriage aBe for men depended upon their period of studentship and was sub.lect to vide ve.riation. Men who completed a full twelve years of Vedic study would have been at least twenty before they could marry, \lhile those who did not finish Vedic study might be several years younger. There \las no requirement of immediate marriage after studentship, but social and family obligations encouraged men to marry as soon as sui table arrangements could be made.

Women did not go through the period of studentship and were generally much younger than men at the time of marriage ••• The father was responsible for arranging his daughter's marriage ••• By around the sixth or seventh century, A.D. marriage came to be considered the upanayana for Brihman girls and marriage between the eight and tenth year became the norm, though the marriages were not consummated until the wife had reached puberty. 52

In Pursuit of love and Marriage

In the Bvayamval'"a53 of the three daughters of the king of Kasi. Bhishma described the different ways by which marriage could be contracted:

"The wise have directed that when an accomplished person has been invited, a maiden may be bestowed on him decked vi th ornaments and along vi th many valuable presents. Others may again bestow their daughters by accepting a couple of kine. Some again bestow agl!Lin their daughters by taking a fixed sum, and some take away maidens by force. Some wed with the consent of the maidens,

52Hopkins, p. 78.

53An assembly of roya.l suitors among who. the princess chose a spouse.


some by drugging them into consent, and some by going unto the maidens I parents and obtaining their sanction. Some again obtain vives as presents for assisting at sacrifices. Of these. the learned always applaud the eighth form. of marriage. Kings, however, speak highly of the Swayamvaro (the fifth form. as above) and themselves wed according to it. But the sages have said that t that wife is dearly to be prized who is taken away by force I after the slaughter of opponents, from amidst the concourse of princes and kings invited to a self-choice ceremony. "5'+

He was determined to win the three princesses - Amba. Ambika and Ambalika - for his half-brother Vichitravirya. Suiting words to actions, he challenged the gathering of royal suitors to fight him. He defeated all of them and triumphantly brought the princesses to Hastinapura to wed them to Satyavati' 5 son.

It is interesting to note how a seemingly romantic action like this could have a tragic consequence while illustrating at the same time the inexorable law of causality. The eldest of the three. Amba, requested Bhishma to let her marry instead Silwa. the king of Saubha. who. however. refused to do so since he was among the royal suitors routed by Bhishma. In turn both Bhishma and Vichitravirya refused to have her. the former because of his vow of celibacy and the latter because she was in love with another man. After undergoing terrible austerities, Alaba petitioned Shi"va to grant her wish that she be the cause of Bhishma's death in her next incarnation. Throwing herself at the funeral pyre, she perished. She was then born in the household of King Orupada as his daughter who later was transformed into a male and became the warrior Sikha~4in. Bhishma's nemesis.

S'+Book I Adi Parva, Section 102 Sambhava Parva, Vol. I, pp. 244-5-.---

76 ACTA MANILANA

Another sJ..'a,;,ant>JaI'a also had a rather tragic sequel. Pritha. the foster daughter of Kuntibhoja. her uncl~. was famous for her beauty and her virtue. At her svayamvara" she placed the nupt ial garland about the neck of Prince Pandu. I'.'hen her husband later expressed regret that he could not have sons hecause of the curse of the sage Kindama. she revealed to him that she had been _ taught a divine mantra or sacred spell by the sage Durvasa. Thus "'ith the consent of her husband, she called upon three gods and had a son by each of them: Yudhi~t.hira by Dharn3. god of duty: Bhihma by Vayu, god of the wind; and Arjun ... b)' Iftdra, the champion of the gods. She let Madri, Pandu's other consort, recite the sacred 1"lar'.tl'a. Madri called upon the Asvin twins, the twin physicians of the gods, and bore the twins Nakula and Sahadeva.

Pritha Jid not tell her husband that her curiosity had led I\er to call upon Surya, the sun-god, when she was still unmarFieJ. \\'hen i.::arQa was born, she panicked and threw away the bab)' who had been born with annours and eardngs. The bah)' ""3.S found and adopted by a charioteer. KarQa later became the faithful vassal of Duryodhana and sworn enemy of the paQ~avas. Even when he learned from hoth Bhishma and Kmi.tr the truth about his birth, he remained loyal to Duryodhana and met his brother Arjuna in a single comhat. It was only after his death that the Pan-Javas learned that he too was Kuliti' s son, .

Not all s!Jayamval'as, however, had such terrible or tragic consequences. Two of the most exciting ones were those of Draupadi and 5it3:. The king of Panchala was determined that his heautiful daughter should marry only one such as Ar juna who had been reported as having died in the conf1a~ration at Varanavata. At the commencement of the tournament. Prince Dhrig.adyumna announced the test: his sister Oraupadi would wed the K$hatriya who would succeed in stringing an enormous how and shoot five arrows with it at a target that was almost impossible to hit. The royal sui tors tried one by one and failed to even string t~e bow. Karl}a was able to do so and was about to shoot flve arrows


•.. But in proud and queenly accents Drupad's queenly daughter said:

:~~~a~~~':e~~~~~ter. born a K~hatra. Suts's son I

Arjuna who was disguised like his brothers as a poor Brahmin student stepped forward, asked permission, stringed the bow, shot the five arrows rapidly one after the other and hit the target. At first the K~hatriyas were affronted that a mere Brahmin youth had bested them. Krishna who recognized the Pal)4avas pacified them. Meanwhile the brothers took Draupadi to the potter's hut where they had been staying with their mother. Without seeing her, Kur\ti told them to share as usual among themselves what they had obtained that day. Uence in obedience to her words and as a result of an act of hers in a previous birth, Draupadi became the wife of the five brothers, bearing each one of them a son.

The svayamvara of Sita: was no less striking. lIer father, King Janaka of the Videhas, had ordained that she would marry the K~hatriya who would be able to "raise, bend or string"S6 his god-given bow. Whereas innumerable kings had tried their luck and were disappointed, Rima easily lifted the bow, stringed it and as he bent it, it broke. Janaka was so gratified at Rama's victory in the trial of strength that he readily acquiesced to the suggestion of the percept or Vishwamitra that not only Rima and Lak~hmaoa marry Sit a and'her sister, Urmila, respectively but that Bharata and Shatrughna would wed his two nieces, Mandavi and Shruta-Kirtti, respectively.

SSRomesh C. Dutt (trans.), The Ramayana and the Mahabharsta. Everyman '5 Library (London: J .M. Dent &: Sons Ltd, &: Nev York: E.P. Dutton &: Co., Inc., 1910) p. 187i see also Book I Ad! Parva, Section 189, SVayain~, 1/01. I, p. 425.

S6Book I Bala Kanda, Chapter 67, Vol. I, p. 128.

7. ACTA MANILANA

Both POeliS are l.y1 .... in describin, the brilliant 8t1ayaftvaras. The princesles WftB invariably portrayed as extraordinarily beautiful and virtuous; the suitors, im .. pressive and heroic; the halls or the tournament grounds, colorful and richly decorated; the presence ot the spectators, contributing to the splendour of the occasion.

Other stories of marriages .lght not have involved Bvayamvams but they were no less attractive nor exemplary. Once Arjuna was visiting his friends and cousins. Ba ... larama and Krishna, when he caught a glillpse of their sister, Subhadra. He feU in love with her and at the instigation of Krishna, eloped with her. Irishna himself had won his bride by abduction. He and the Princess Rukmint. daughter of Bhishmaka. king of Vidarbha, were in love with each other. Her brother, Rukma, however favored. Sisupala. the king of Chedi and Krishna's .ortal enemy. On the day of her wedding to SiSupala, (rishna appeared. in his chariot and ran away with her. Al though he had to be away often, still Krishna always welcomed being reunited. with his beloved RukmiQi. After all, she was the incarnation of the goddess LakshDIi, Vi~hnu's spouse.

According to Hopkins:

Brarunanical support of family life hB.d other i.m.portB.nt side effects. Members of the monastic orders were not only celibB.te themselves, but could not officiate in ms.rriages and sanction vhat they considered mistaken entanglement in the world. BrahmB.ns, hovever, were both householders themselves a.nd also household priests. 51

There was the Brihmin ascetic Jaratkaru who saw

••• the spirits of bis ancestors, heads dovn, in a hole, by a cord of vizoana roots baving only one thread entire. And that single thread even was being gradually eaten away by a ls.rge rat dwelling: in thB.t hole. And the Pit;ris in that hole vere without food. emaciated, pitiable, and eagerly de-

57Hopkins, p. 79.


sirous of salvation. sa

The Pit~i8 or ancestral spirits attributed their deplorable state to the fact that their only living descendant, Jaratkaru, preferred to remain an ascetic rather than do first his proper duty of marrying and begetting children. So did the illustrious rishi Agastya behold !lhis deceased ancestors hanging in a pit with heads downwards. ,,59 They beseeched him thus:

"We are your ancestors I It is even for offspring that we stay suspended in this pitl If. 0 Agastya, thou canst beget us a good son, we may then be saved from this hell and thou usa wilt oLtain the blessed state of those having offspringl"60

One is reminded of the biblical injunction that there is a proper time for everything in life just as there is a time to die.

To the Hindus, the sanctity of marriage is best exempl ified by the role of the wife. When Dushmanta denied Sakuntala before his court, humiliated she waS' almost prov~ked. Instead she exhorted her royal husband on the merits enjoyed by a II&ll who had a. dutiful wife:

" ••• She is a true vife Ybo is skillf'ul in household affairs. She is a true vite who hath bore a son. She ia a true vife whose heart is devoted to her lord. She is a true wite vho knoveth none but her lord .. The vite is a lIl&D'a half. The wife is the first at friends. The vife is the root

saBook I Adi Parva, Section 45 AatIka Puva. Vol .. I p. 107.

S9Book III Vana Parva. Section 96 ~t Vol. II, p. 217.

6·~ld.

TIrtha-yatra

'0 ACTA MANII~NA

of religion, profit, and desire. The wife is the root of salvation. They that have wives can perform religious acts. They that have wives can lead domestic lives. They that have vives bave the means to be cheerfUl. They that have vives can achieve good fortune. Sveet-speeched vives are friends on occasions of joy. They are the fathers on occasions of religious acts. They are mothers tn sickness and voe. Even in the deep woods to a traveler I!L vife is his refreshment and solace. He that hath a vife is trusted by all. A wife. therefore, is one's most valuable possession. Even when the husband leaving this world goeth into the region of Yama, it is the devoted wife that B.ccompanies him thither. A wife going before vaits for the husband. But if the husband goeth before, the chaste wife followeth close. For these reasons, 0 King, doth marriage exist. The husband enJoyeth the companionship of the wife both in this and in the other worlds ."61

Wifely Fidel ity

Fortunate is the husband who enjoys marital bliss with his wife. And he is fortunate because his state is the true path to salvation. Yet lIore ideal than domestic bliss is love under fire and chastened by sacrifice. This is best illustrated by the display of wifely fidelity by those who suffered unbearably out of love for their husbands or in the perfol'lllance of their wifely obligations. One needs only to recall the trials of stU. who, just like DraupadI, accompanied her husband into exile and was twice subjected to the indignity of being abducted _ first by the dellon Viradha and later by the Lahki king, Rivana. After her rescue from Laitki, she was repudiated _ not once but twice - by her husband whose priorities place his duty to his people above his affection for and trust in his wife.

61aaok I AtU Parva, Section 74 Sambhava Parva, Vol. I, p. 117.

HINDUISM A'ND THE EPICS OF INDIA 81

As Rima prepared for his banishment, he originally intended to leave his wife at the palace. Siti demurred:

"Do I hear my husband rightly, are these words my Rama spake,

And her banished lord and husband will the wedded wife forsake!

Lightly I dismiss the counsel which my lord hath 1 ightly said,

For it 111 beseems a warrior and my husband's princely gra.de!

For the faithful woman follows where her wedded lord may 1 ea.d,

In the banishment of Rima, sItii's exile is decreed. Sire nor son nor loving brother rules the wedded

woman's state, With her lord she falls or rises, with her consort

courts her fate. If the righteous son of Raghu wends to forests dark

and drear, SItii steps before her husband wild and thorny paths

to clear! Like the tasted refuse vater cast thy timid thought

aside, Take me to the pathless jungle, bid me by my lord

&blde, Car and steed and gilded palace, vain are these to

woman's life, Dearer is ber husband's shadow to the loved and

loving wife I For my mother otten taught me and my father otten

spake, That her home the wedded woman doth beside her

husband make, As the shadow to tbe substance, to her lord Is

faithful wire, And she parts not t'raD. her consort t ill she part s

with fleeting life I Therefore bid me aeek the jungle and in pathless

forests roam,

" ACTA MANlLANA

Where the wild deer freely ranges and the tiger makes his home.

Happier than in father's mansions in the voods will SItS: rove,

Waste no thought on home or kindred. nestling in her husband's love! 't62

Despite her ordeal by fire at Lankl to prove her chastity, Siti was disowned again by Rima beca~~e his subjects were skeptical of her virtue. During hi~ Aswamedha sacrifice, listening to his sons, Lava and Kusha,relate their parents I story. his longing for her prevailed and he recalled her frora the hermitage of Vilmiki. When she found out she was expected to prove her innocence once again, she prayed to Madhavi, the earth-mother, to take her if she had always been faithful to Rilma. Indeed the spectators witnessed the wonderful sight of the earth. goddess rising from the grounds to take her away.

Two of the most popular tales among the narrative interpolations in the Mahabhltl"ata were the stories of Damayanti and Savitri. During the 8vaya7bvara of Damayanti, despite the presence of no less than four divine suitors -IJ\dra; Agni, the fire-god; Varu!la; and Yama, the god- of death - she placed the nuptial garland around the neck of her true love, King Nala of the Nishadhas. Their happy marriage was marred by the raischief perpetrated by the two celestials, Kilt and Ow.para. Yet throughout her separation from her husband and her two children, she remained faithful to him. It was she who sought the means to effect her reunion with her beloved NaIa. On the other hand, being the only offspring of the powerful King Aswapati, SavitrI could have had any great hero for her husband. Instead she selected to marry Satyavanta, who was the son of the exiled King Dyumatsena and who was destined to die after one year. She lived in the forest with her

62Dutt, p. 34; see also Book II AyodhYi Kinda, Cha.pter 27 t Vol. It pp. 221-2.


husband and her in-laws, was subject to thell. perfoned extreme austerities and even dared to confront Yama out of love for her husband. Next to SIt8:, it is Slvitrt who is supposed to typify best the ideal woman and wife, a choice that can certainly be challenged because of the presence in the two epics of so many other faithful wives and daughters-1n-law.

Lust. Not Love

How well the ancients knew that any good, however worthwhile, when abused would turn into evil. Love in the Hindu scheme of things holds an honored place as the elelIent that should bring joy to the life of the householder and should make of lIarriage the proper preparation toward the path of emancipation. Hence when passion or lustful desire is substituted for love, catastrophe is sown and grief and regret are reaped.

Once Jayadratha, the king of Siitdhu and Dhritari$htra's son-in-law, was travelling through the forest with other K~hatriyas. They came upon Draupadi. Desiring her, Jayadratha took her away by force. When the five Piv.4avas who had been hunting learned of the abduction, they angrily pursued Jayadratha and defeated his entire company. His life was later spared by Yudhinhira but only after he had already suffered ignominiously in the hands of RhIma. Later when the disguised Piv.4avas and Oraupadt found __ plorment in the royal household of Virita, king of Matsya, Queen Sudet>NJa's brother, KIchaka, lusted after Draupadi despite her claim that her husbands were gandhaMJas or celestial musicians. One night expecting to finally possess DraupadJ. Kichaka found himsel f being crushed to death by BhIma. Aside from him, Bhima also killed one hundred and five of his kinsmen.

Agastya related to Rima the origin of the Desert of Dandaka. Danda was the least prepossessing among the hundred sons of Ikshwaku, Rama's ancestor. His father made him the ruler of the city of Madhumanta which was situated between the Vindhya and Shaivala mountains. Visiting the hermitage of Bhargava, he ravished the rishi's daughter,

" ACTA MANlLANA

Aruja. Her father pmisbed Duda by reducing his entire ci ty into ashes sevea days after the outrage.

Not only aen ltut even. devu or gods and .suras or d_ons would be guilty of ClYG'-iDCIu1Iftce as well. But all, aortal or t-ortal, are subject to the Sacred Law and •• ,. not transgress with iapuaity. A celestial nymph, Urvaihi t bee .. e enDGlued with Arjuna when he went to litdra to secure the celestial .",oM. Arjuna courteously but finly repulsed her. In her ire, she cursed him to become a eunuch and a dancer living alIong wOIIen.Fortunately IOOrs decreed that the curse would take effect during the thirteenth year of the PjvcJav&s' exile when they would need to raain incognito or be further exiled for another twelve years. Later Urvuh[ herself bee... the vieti. of a curse. Varuna was lnf_blated with her and. thus she incurred the wrath of Mitra. She •• s cursed to becOlle a .artal WOIIan and _any the royal sage Pururavas.

Ravana, the rik~hasa king of Lankl, had becOlle invincible through his sovere asceticin. Once he spied • nyaph, Punjikasthala, on her way to worship Brahlli. He aU_pted to rape her but she escaped. and. sought refuge with the Grandsire of the world. arabi thus cursed hlat "0 RAvana, from today, if thou dOlt violence to any other va.an. thy head will be split into a hundred pieces, this is certain! ,,6:3 That was why he could not use force on Siti. On the other hand, if Vishnu was born as Ru. in order to annihilate Ravana. the ene.y of the devas, it was the latter's kidnapping of Slta that precipitated his downfall. Once he saw the beautiful Vedavati, the daughter of the Brahman rishi Kushadwaja who had destined her t~ become t~e con~ort of Vishnu. Despite being repulsed, Revane pers1Sted ~n trying to seduce her. In disgust. Vedavati committed suicide after cursing hia. She was later born as Sita, the daughter of Janika and Rba's wife.

6:3Book VI Yuddha !&nda. Chapter 13, Vol. III, p. 31.0


Apart from Love and Sex

Pleasure does not pertain only to romantic love and sex. There is also delight in the beauty of natural phenomena, in the pursuit of the arts and of the sports of the aristocrats, in the possession of treasures and in the company of righteous men. There are a great number of passages in both poems devoted to the description of nature's beauty.One SUlllDer, in the happier days before the fatal game of dice, Krishna and Arjuna, together with their respective households, vacationed along the beautiful banks of the Yamuna River. Vaisampanaya later related to Janamejaya the pleasure of Arjuna as he ascended the summit of Mt. Himavat in order to meet hi.dra.

Both MaJiibharata and ~amayana are lavish in describing the different woods, the sanctuaries of ascetics and the haven of wonderful creatures, celestial and terrestial. The exile of the Pitt4ava brothers and Draupadi who, incidentally. is a1 so addressed as Krishna was lightened not only by the presence of the peaceful henni tages or 2ishl'amas they visited but also by the enjoyment they derived in the beauty surrounding them. Once beneath the shadow of Mt. Mainalea and near the Vinda Lake, they

••• took pleasure in ranging excellent and captivating woods, shining with flowers of every season; beauteous on all sides with trees bearing blovn blossoms ~ and bending down with the y~ght of' fruits and attended by tbe numerous male kok1!tas and of glossy foliage; and thick and having cool shade and lovely to behold. They took delight in beholding diverse beautiful lues of' limpid water and shining all round with lotuses and lilies. And there ••• the balmy breeze bearing pure fragrance, blew gladdening all the P~<!avas, together vi th Krishna. And hard by the gigantic jujube, the mighty son of KuntI sa,v the Bhagirathi of' easy descent and cool and furnished with f'resh lotuses and having stairs made of rubies and corals and graced with trees and scattered over with celestial f'lowers. and gladsome to the mind .And at this spot.

" ACTA MANILANA

frequented by celestlal.a and sages. and extremely inaccessible, thq. atter having purified themlIelves. oftered oblations wrto the pims and the goda and the r-ishia in the s&Cred vaters of the Bhagiratbl. 61t

Rilla, L8k~h.8J1.a and Siti likewise enjoyed the first ten years of their sojourn Dong the rishis at the different parts of Dandaka Forest for the sue reasons as did the Pandavas. After Siti I 5 abduction by RAvana, as the brothers searched for her, they reached the Pupa Lake. Although SOrTow-stri«:ken, Riaa could not help but react to the beauty of springtt..e:

"0 Lak.!}hm8J2.&,hoV beautiful 18 tbe Lake Pampa with its pure ILDd liapid vaves, its lotuses and flowering vater-lilies, ita many kinds of trees. ObI Hov dellghtfUll 0 Saum!tri, observe the Pampa Woods, how pleasant they are to look upon, thoae aagniticent trees resl!III.bling erested. mountains. I all overvhel.med. &Ild stricken vi th grief on recollecting Bharata fS diBtreas and the abduction of SIta.

"Though lIlY heart is heavy, yet the Pampa Lake ia still able to charm. me, with its raTishing woods luxuriant with W'reT7 kind of blossom and its f'resh and delicious vatera. The month of flovering lotuses lends it an extreme beauty; serpents and rlld an1m.&la f'requent it, whilst deer and birds abound. The thick grasa, of a deep emerald hue, is sprinkled with different fiovers that have fallen f'rca. the tre88 and re8eablea 11 bright earj,et. On f!!Very aide the topa of the trees, bending under the weight of their blo88ona t are wholly hidden by the creepers vi th their fiowering frond a .' 5

'''Book III ~, Seetion 144 Tlrtha-yatra Parva, Vol. III, Part II, p. 309.

163. 65Book IV Kiahkindha Kanda, Chapter 1, Vol. II, p.

HINDUISM AND TIlE EPICS OF INDIA 87

After the rescue of Sita and her ordeal by fire, she and Rima spent an idyllic moment at the Ashoka Grove which was famous for its trees and pools.

It is a pity that it is not possible to render in this paper all such descriptions which abound in both epics. It is also a pity that the beauty of the Sanskrit poetry can only be inferred in its Engl ish translations. No wonder that the Kshatriyas enjoyed hunting in the woods, the appropriate setting for the adventures of such heroes as Samvarana, Pandu, Dasaratha and Duslmanta. At the sUle time, the POe!llS also mention different forms of court entertainment so much a part of the lives and pleasures of royalty and the nobility. One can, therefore, understand the brooding envy of Duryodhana when he beheld how the pa1J.4avas had transformed the wasted plains of 1Cha.1J.4avaprastha into a fabulous city they called Indraprasthak

• He literally fell ill with frustration when he observed the magnificence of the palace buH t for his cousins by Maya. the chief archi tect of the danavas or asuras. He would be satisfied only when the whole kingdoll as well as the personal wealth of Yudhi~~hira becUle his.

Indraprastha and the riches of YudhiHhira could be rivalled only by the opulence of Lanka, Rlvana's palace and his harem of beauteous females. If the palaces of mortals and demons were imposing beyond ordinary belief, more so then were the abodes of the divinities in the Himalayas. Nlrada described to the Pandavas the halls or sabhas of Indra or Saltra; of Varuna:· the ocean-god; of Kubera or Vaisravana. the god of wealth; and of the Grandsire Brahal - each one lIore iIIlpressive than the other, truly a feast for all the senses.

There can be no doubt that the Mahabhfuoata and the Ramayana. contain so many incidents illustrating dhaJoma. artha, and kirma; none .ore gratifying, perhaps, than the fruits of the righteous reign of monarchs such as Yudhisthira and Samvarana. VaiSampiyana related to Janaaejaya how delighted the people of IRdraprastha were at the rule of Yudhi~~hira

88 ACTA MANILANA

••• not only because be vas their king but also from sincere a.ffection. The king always did what was agreeable to them. The sveet-speecbed Yudhi,~hira of great intelligence never uttered. anything that vas improper or ,untrue or unbearable or disagreeable. The best of monarchs of the Bharata race. endued with great energy. passed his days happily for the vel fare of all as his own. His brothers also bringing by their energy other· kings under their sway. passed their days in happiness t without a foe to disturb their peace. 66

On the other hand, when their ancestors. King Samvarana and his wife Tapati. stayed in the forest for twelve years, his kingdom suffered frOll drought and famine. The rishi VasiHha brought the royal pair back and lndra

••• poured rain in abundance and caused corn to grow. Revivified by the foremost of virtuous soul the capital and the country became animated with extreme joy. The monarch, with his wife Tapati. once more performed s3.Critices tor twelve years, like the lord Indra (god of raiD) performing with his wife Sachi. 67

MOKSHA. THE FOURTH END OF LIFE

Whatever success man may earned, invariably he will find something wanting in his life. Earthly happiness, he is apt to discover. is insufficient and can not be totally fulfilling. Then he will realize that only the ideal of moksha or liberation through renunciation will suffice. M.ksha, the fourth human value •

•• • literally means release, relel!lse from the bondage to the sensuous I!lnd the individual, the

66Book I Adi Parvl!l. Section 224 Khindava~t.ba .!:!!:!!.. Vol. I, p. 493.

61Ibid., Section 175 Chaitrl!l-r&tha Parva, Vol. I, p. 400.


narrow and the finite. It is the resu.!.t of' self'enlargement and treedom. To live in perfect goodness 1s to realise one I s life in all. This ideal for which the moral nature of' man cries can be attained only if' the finite self transcends its narrow individuality and identifies itself with'the whole. The path of de1ivera.nce is the path of soul growth. 68

Moksha, therefore, is freedom from pain and death, freedom frolll all fears and all sorts of bondage due to selfish or inordinate desire. It is "the discovery of the ttue nature of the self, which was hidden by maya, or cosmic ignorance. It is the highest state of understand· 1ng.,,69 Moksha is aimed at man's emancipation from the law of Karman (causality) and the curse of samsiira (cycle of birth and rebirth). It is man's supreme goal, the logical culmination of the other three ends and the state of "perfection, enlightenment, or irmnortali ty. ,,70 It may be described as the dharma of man related to retirement from life (nivrtti) although "only a few could attain it in their present lives; for most lien it was a goal to be reached in future births. ,,71

Hopkins contends that

for most people, householder life was the limit of' their present existence: they married, raised a family, carried out their social duties, performed their prescribed rituals, and ended life as householders. hoping that they had prepared the way for a better future birth. This was not a cause for regret or f'or resignation, since house-

68RadhakriBhn&ll, Indian Philosophy, Vol. I (London George Allen" Unwin Ltd. and New York: Humanities Press Inc_, 1929), p. 209.

69Swami Nik.hilananda, p. 242.

70Ibid.

71Hopkins. p. 18.

90 ACTA MANIl.ANA

holder life could be person&lly satisfying and. if properly lived I vas preparation for future advancement.

A fev t however, were relSdy to go further toward release from sCJmsCira in their present life. For them tvo final as:ramas were established. that of the "forest-dveller" (vlinaprastha) and the "renounced" (sannyasa). 72

He described the vanapPastha as

... in effect retired from act i ve household life to live as a hermit in the forest. His vi1!'e might accompany him to aid in performing rituals, but from this point OD both were enjoined to celibacy ... He practiced restraint of the senses and performed austerities, seeking constantly to achieve purity and self-control. The hope vas that the disciplines and personal development achieved would bring about, if not final release from rebirth. at least a major step toward that goal.But for those who sought greater assurance and had the qualifications. there was an even higher way yet, that of the sannyasin, whose life was aimed more distinctly at the attainment of moksa or release. Only those with the highest standards of purity and dedication were admitted to this final airama.

Unlike the vanapmstha stage. sannyasinhood vas entered by means of a formal ri tua.l in which the initiate renounced all wordly ties including a.ll relationships vith wife and famil3' •• He affirmed vows of non-injury to any creature, truthtulne:3s. unconcern for property or wealth, and total continence. declaring formally his renunciation of

~~d:~!:t~~~3 entry into a state of eannyasa, "a-

72Ibid .• pp. 81-2.

73Ibid .• pp. 82-3.

HINDUISM AND THE EPICS OF INDIA ., There are several references in both epics to

monarchs who retired to the forests at the twilight of their year~, usually after entrusting the administration of their kingdoms to worthy regent-heirs. Among them were Pratipa, Santanu IS father; Vrddhakshatra. Jayadratha IS

father; Dhristarasht-ra with Queen Candhiri and Queen ptithl, after the debacle; Yayit-i, after restoring to Puru his youth and regaining his old age; Dilipa, remorseful over the tragic history of his ancestors; and King Parik$it of the lkshaku Dynasty.

One does not have to wait for the third and the fourth stages of life for his lifestyle to conform to the most rigid demands of the moral code, to practice non-violence or ahims4 and to give up selfish desires. One may attain moksha when he lives the life either of a student or a householder according to the strictest precepts of morality and religion. Although he may not enjoy Ni1"Vtu.za in that lifetime, he is certainly on the Fight path to escaping from the law of Karman and the curse of Ba7psam. EVen undergoing ascetism for the birth of a son may be considered a step toward the right direction since having a son is part of the duties of a householder and, therefore, an act of virtue. He has thence discharged one of man's four debts on earth. debts which according to the MahabhCz:ttata are "those due to the (deceased) ancestors, the gods,the Rishis, and other men.,,74 Thus did K$hatriyas like King Dasaratha, King Brihadratha, King Janaka and Queen Gindhiri as well as Brahmanas like Agastya and Kashyapa perform great religious acts in order to beget sons.

There ,.,ere occasions when the epical characters underwent penance, prayers, fasting, almsgiving and pilgrimages for other proximate reasons that, nonetheless, were correlated to their dharma. In anticipation of the war with the Kauravas, the PaQ4avas lived in ascetism in

74Book I Adi Parva, Section 120 Sambhava Parva. Vol. I, p. 279.

92 ACTA MANILANA

the forest, together with their entourage of tsrahmanas. In addi tion, Arjuna practiced further 3scetism in order to secure the celestial weapons from Iitdra. Savitri prayed and fasted out of love for her husband Satyavanta; as did the goddess Umll out of love for her prospective spouse, Mahadeva (Shiva).

On the other hand, there were instances when religious pursuits were resorted to for purely nefarious reasons. The fierce asuras, Sunda and Upasunda, perfonned austerities in order to become invincible. Then they began to abuse and terrorize the three worlds until Brahma ordered Viswah.ram, the celestial architect, to create Tilottama, a female being, perfect in form and appearance. Eventually she caused the destruction of Sunda and Upasunda .... ho killed each other for her favors. Surely more dubious were the penances done by Rivana in order to become invincible. Like Sunda and Upasunda, he then began to harass the divinities .... ho could not defeat him and who had to ask the help of Vishnu. Vishnu then detennined to be born as the sons of Dasaratha in order to destroy Rivana.

Bhlshm. on Mok.ha

Preaching to Yudhisthira on renunciation and emancipation, 8htshma describ&i ho .... man can acquire virtue .... hile living an active life:

" ••• Such a man inasmuch as he seeks the good of others, succeeds in winning good for himself. By practicing duties that are fraught with other people's good,he attains at last to a fhigbly agreeable end. He Who, aided. by his wisdom, succeeds beforehand in beholding the faults above-adverted to, who is skilled in judging of what is happiness and what is sor::ow and how each is brought about t and who waits wlth reverence upon those that are good I makes progress in achieving virtue t both in consequence of his habit and such companionship of the good. The mind of such a person takes delight in virtue, and he lives on, making virtue his support. If he ~ets his heart on the acquisition of wealth, he desl.res only such wealth as may be acquired in


righteous vays .... ln consequence of biB acquisition of friends, of wea.l.th, and of children, he aport. in happiness both here and hereafter. The mastery (in respect of enjoyment) that a living creature a.ttains over sound, touch, taste, form, and scent, o Bhirata, represents the fruit of virtue. Remember this. Having obtained the f"ruit of virtue, 0 Yudhisthira, such a man does not give him8elf up to joy. 'Without being conteDted with such (visible) fruits ot virtue he betakes himself to Renunciation, led on by the eye of knowledge. WheD, having acquired the eye of knowledge, he cease8 to take pleasure in the gratification of desire, iD taste and in scent, when he does Dot aJ.low hi8 mind to run towards sound, touch and form, it is theD that he succeeds in f'reeing hiBaelf f'r0ill desire ••• Gradually &banciODing all sinf'ul uts he betakes himself to Renuneiation, and beeoaing ripteouB-souled succeeds at last in attaining to Daancipation.:"75

It is obvious, therefore, that in the pursuit of dharma. a householder likewise pursues aJ"'tha and ~. But weal th and pleasure can bring about happiness only up to • certain point. One can not escape frail. the awareness that over-indUlgence or excesses can r6ul t only to unhappiness. So aany incidents may be found in the two epics .. -nifesting this inevitability that it is a wonder not a few still aisinterpret the functions of artha and k4ma and aiss the truth that perfect happiness is happiness that is eternal.

In the final analysis, extreae sacrifice or penance is no sure way to attain moksha. Rather what utters is living a ... ningful life through the practice of righteousness and detachaent. When Yudhinhira asked Bhlstuu. how life should be lived, the grands ire answered:

7SBook XII Sinti Psrva, Section 273 Mokshadharma Pa.rv~,. Vol. IX, Part J.I. p. 304.

" AcrA MANILANA

"One should aTOld the three acts that are done vi th the body. the four that are done vi tb speech, the three tba.t are done with the mind, and the ten paths of action. The three acts that Bre done with the body" and should be wholly avoided are the destruction of the lives of other creatures, theft or appropriation of Yhat belongs to other persons, and the enjoyment of other people's vives. The four acts that are done with speech, 0 King, and that should never be indulged in or even thought of. are evil. conversation, harsh Yords, publishing other people's faulta, and falsehood. Coveting the possessions of others, doing injury to others. and disbelief in the ordinances of the Vedl!lS, are the tbree acts done with the mind which should a1~ be B.voided. Hence, one aboul.d never do any evil act in word, body. or mind. By doiq good EUld evil acts lone is sure to enjoy or endure the Just consequences thereof. Noth1q can be more certain than this. "76

Religious Evolution in the Epics

Life is imbued with suffering and pain. Such misery can only lead to the realization of its cause or causes and the natural and logical tendency to eliminate it by yogic practices. One also becomes aware that such detachment or sel f-discipline can be possible only to those of strong religious conviction. those to whom religion is the very core of their existence. Reading the two epics. especially the Mahabharata. one can trace the gradual evolution of religious worship 8JDong the Hindus. from the early Vedic belief and rites to the emergence of the tl'imurti or the triad and the ascendancy of the Vaishnava and the Shaivite worships to the cult of Krishna. These transitions were the happy result of the affirmation oj Vedic doctrines fused with non-Vedic practices and beliefs.

76Sook XIII Anusasana Parva, Section 13 Anus&san1ka Parva, Vol. X. Part I, pp. 38-9.

HINDUISM AND ~ EPICS OF lNDIA " In both poem's may be found references to the

worship of the ihakti or the consorts of the gods, especially Ourga who became the wife of Shiva and was called Uma.; the paAupata doctrine of Rudra-Shiva; and the Bhagaoata system or Pancaratro religion with its worship of Vasudeva-Krishna. The last mentioned became the basis of the BhagalJad-Gtta and the source of modern Vaishnavism. The one single doctrine that is principally celebrated in both poems is the cult of the personalized god, Isvara. It is not strange then that the six orthodox systems of Hinduism, which have been founded on or influenced by the BhagalJad-Gi.ta should make mention of passages from the two epics. The Ra.nayana and especially the MahabhliPata are sufficiently ambiguous to lend themselves to universalization as well as to providing the touchstones to the different. systems of orthodoxy: Silnkhya. Yoga. Vaisel}ika, Nyaya, PUl'1Ja~'UtlamSa and Vedanta.

Like any other epic poem, the MahabhilPata and the Ra.nayana teem with mythological allusions. Aside from the narration and the repetition of the ventures and adventures of deities, demons and semi-divine creatures as well as heroes, who oftentimes were human incarnations of divinities and titans, both poems include the various names and quintessence of the god and goddesses, the recitation of which is supposed to earn merits for the devotee. Al though portions of the MaMbhamta and the Ramayana treat Krishna and Rama respectively as mortal heroes, likely as not. the next pages of the poems will begin praising them as alJataras of Vishnu.

During the triumphant return of Rama to Ayodhya and his coronation, the sages overwhelmed him with praises that he thought exceeded his victory over Rivana. In explanation, Agastya related to him how as Vishnu, he had been the dreaded nemesis of the rak~hasas:

" ••• 0 Prince of the House of Raghu , those Rnshasas. renowned for their strength and who were the' issue of the Salakatankata Race t remained under

.. ACTA IlANILANA

the leadership ot Sumall. It vas Thou Who' dldat destroy those varriors of the family of Poulaatya named Suma.li, Malyavan. Mali, &Dd their eompanioDs, who were all exceedingly resourcetul and more powerful than Hivana. None other could have subdued the enemies of the Gods 01" have weeded out those thorns in the side of the Celestia.ls, save Nir~anat the God Who bears the conch, discuss s.nd mace. Thou art that Four-armed God, NKrI:YI!IJ}&, eternal, invincible and immutable, Who came to exterminate the Rik~hasas. Thou ut the Father of &11 Beings, who. whenever righteousness declines and for love of those who take refuge in Thee, dost appear to wipe out evil-doerB . .,77

During the RajasUya sacrifice of YudhiHhira, the rishi Nlrada had a vision of the divinity of Krishna as Narayana or Hari. On the last day of the sacrificial rites, 8hishlla advised Yudhinhira that the foremost honor of Az-ghya should be offered to Krishna. §isupala, king of Chedi, objected and even insulted Krishna who, having forgiven him a hundred tillles before, now slew hill for his irreverance. As Bhlstuaa lay dying on his bed of arrows, he eJUJllerated the attributes of Vishnu and praised. Lord Krishna thus:

"That is the supreme God, the Creator of all beings, the soul of all creatures. the foremost ot all yogins. Of huge body and great strength. be cometh here. having slain the foremost ones among the Dinavas. He is the Lord ot all beings. the master ot yoga, the great ascetic, the Soul of all living beings ... He is Krishna, the destrOYer ot all obstacles and impediments •.. It Is He from whose navel the primeval lotus has sprung ..• There is uo need tor sorrow or fear or griet, ye foremost of gods I He is the Ordl!Liner. Be is the Creating

77Book VII Uttar. Kanda, Chapter B, Vol. III, p.397.

HINDUISM AND THE EPICS OF INDIA,

Principle. Be is all-destroying Time. It is He who upholds all the worlds ••• He is the object of universal worship. Incapable of deterioration,

~~:~r l~~;:~~r one is the origin of all beings and

Krishna himself exclaimed as he exhorted Arjuna on his duty as a K~hatriya:

" ••• Know me, 0 son of ptith&, to be the eterna.l. seed of all beings. I am the intelligence of all creatures endued with intelligence. the glory of all glorious objects. I BID. also the strength of all that are endued with strength, (myself) freed f'rom desire and thirst, and, 0 bull of Bharata's race, am the desire, consistent with duty, in a1.1 creatures."79

THE EPICS' RELIGIOUS DIDACTISM

There should be no difficulty in perceiving, thuswise, that to consider the MahabhZirata and the ImmlJ.yana apart from their religious relevance would be to deprive them of much of their attractiveness and to seculariz.e them out of the contexts in which they must have been composed. Both poems manifest all those qualities so distinct to epopee literature. But even these epical qualities only serve to enhance the mystical aura that pervades both of them.

The Mahabharata invokes no less thaD. Vishnu as Nir~yal}a and Saraswati, the goddess of speech and learning. Everyone of the eighteen books or parvan begins with the same invocation: "0m I Having bowed down to Narayana, and Nara, the most exalted male being, and also to the goddess, Saraswati, must the word Jaya be uttered." If the

7aBaok XII Sinti Parva, Section 209 M.oksbadharma Parva, Vol. IX, Part II, p. 94.

79Book VI BhIsbm,a Parva, Section 31 Bha.e;avad-GIti Parva. Vol. V. pp. 75-6.

OB ACTA MANlLANA

length of the poems can be intimidating and if the presence of too many repetitions and too many interpolations may be held against the epics, their religious flavour and Hindu colour have endowed them with a unity that is unarguable. Repetition is often employed to sing the praises of the divinities or to stress the heroism of the characters who are exalted mostly for their virtue and religious prominence. The detailed listing of the genealogy or ancestry of the characters tends to elaborate on their morality or spirituality. Epithets are plentiful and 11l05t of them are but qualifications of godliness or morality. Thus Brahml, the Grandsire of the world. was also referred t~ as Guru of the worlds, the world's percept or and god of gods. The sages or rishis were addressed as the regenerates or twiceborn (enlightened beings) or high-souled.

Enough instances have been brought out to illustrate the analogical nature of the plots and subplots that intertwine them. The long speeches of the characters serve not only to introduce them and relate past events but also to highlight the tenets of Hinduism. Even the figures of speech do not escape from acquiring a religious tinge. Allusions to plants, flowers, trees. mountains, rivers and animals reflect religious connotation. The heroes and heroines are no ordinary beings but often godincarna tes who have been born on earth not for a mere whim or caprice but because of the law of Karman which even they have been subject to or because they have a duty to accomplish on earth. The epical characters are made to behave in such a way that all too clearly. they demonstrate a very tolerant view of human nature and unveil a great insight into man's multifaceted personality, faculties possible only with those whose lives are geared toward more than purely material values and sensual pleasures. Even the battle scenes have been utili:z:ed to drive home dharma and renunciation or absence of selfish interest.

The Epics and As ian Art

The Mahiibhiirata and the Ramayana are, for that matter,more than epic literature. They are typical examples


of Asian artistry 4 The MaMbhm-ata has no less than three .. jor narrators ... Vaiiupiyana. Sauti and Sa'Bjaya ... the first two with Vyisa belag sages whose proselytisll can not be ignored. Often they quoted other sages, the better to stress their lessons and to convince their listeners, Rua heard .any tales froll his perceptors and other rishis, the better to clarify to hi.self his duty and guide hi. in his choice always of the greater good. ....t the poells do not only utilize the presenoe of narrators and the technique of the story within a story. They actually !l8ke use of one story to lead to another, the better to eaphashe a lesson that the perceptor wanted his listener or listeners to absorb. At the sue tille, the eJlploYJIent of the story within a story fraaework does satisfy the Asian inclination for details, repetition and digression. And this foniness for details, repetition and digression is further shown by the way in which practically every episode is presented in both abridged and detailed versions. Often a section of the book ends by giving an abbreviated version of its sequence or of another event. In the next section or chapter, this condensed version is then related completely. Before the main storyline can be picked up, nevertheless, other events and flashbacks may still intervene.

In the evolution of the theory of art and beauty as conceived by the Indians, the Mahabharata and the RCbrrayana certainly have played an illportant role. The Hindus are no different frail other aesthetes who believe that a didactic objective should necessarily be subordinated to artistic enjoyment. This artistic enjoyment, they believe, may be achieved only through the presence in literature of eootions, true and enobling, that, universalized and concretized, may produce a state of aesthetic relishment. The theory of paBa must have been evolved much later than the epical age and, undoubtedly, Bharata Muni. to whom the Natya Sastra has been attributed, and other critics as well as later Sanskrit poets must have been inspired by the poells I evocative diction, by the use of ill8.gery that appeal not only to the senses but also to the emotions and

100 ACTA MANILANA

the intellect; by the archetypal presentation of their characters; and by the richness of their eJlotional content. After all these poems are more than the secondary scriptures the Hindus regard theaa to be. Their scriptural exigencies are clothed with exciting narratives and interesting characters "hose appeal is not alone for themselves and their religious values but in the manner they have been presented as unified works of art. Aside fro. the beauty of their Sanskrit style, their plot structure and narrative technique have made of thell the literary masterpieces that they are.

For the Indians, it is not the story nor the characters that matter as such in Sanskrit literature. Rather it is the etIIotions they evince and try to communicate to the beholder or listener or reader. The emotional value of a work may be said to center around the presence of basic and enduring sentiRlents understood and experienced by all mankind and thus capable of producing in them a corresponding emotional response. And the enjoynlent such a response can engender will depend upon the cultivated tastes of the beholder or listener or reader who should possess a high degree of sensitivity 50 that the pleasures he derives from literature supersede the merely emotional and are directed to the intellectual faculty.

The process of universalization enables the pleasure to be derived from the goodness of the hero or the loving nature of the heroine or the saintl iness of the sage to be transcended into the appeal of goodness or love or sanctity in the abstract form. The Indians believe that art is a path to the knowledge of the Absolute. As such God is the embodiment of all beauty just as He is thp object of lIIan's devotion and service. Thence the pleasure the poems gives is a lIeans toward which the soul may achieve self-realization. And the emotional relish as found in those epics is too pronouncedly religious to be mistaken for anything else.

The Mahabhiirata and the Ramiiyana can certainly stand froll a purely secular viewpoint even the lIinutest


scrutiny of their epical grandeur. D'rle can not very well disregard the loftiness of their vision nor the masterly handling of their epical craft. It has been no empty boast to claim that everything that is of Jndia is found in the MahabhaNta and what is not there is not of India. One has only to remember how the RanCJyana of Vilmlki has so inspired the poets of India that almost all of the great ones have composed their versions whether in Sanskrit like Kalidasa or in the vernaculars like Tulsi Dis. At the same time, the atmosphere of reconciliation and serenity, that runs through them as a silken thread stringing together all the elements in the poems, divergent and consequential, serves to endow them with the true essense of sublimity. And this atmosphere of calm and quietude is attributable to the epics' Hindu character.

A Final Word on Purus3rtha

This paper contends that more than any other Hindu truth or precept. it is the doctrine of pu1'Usaz.tha as well as the lrsramas that is best exemplified in both MahZibhlirata and Ramayana. In attempting to draw out from them their allegorical significance, one reaches the conclusion that many times a certain act or episode does not depict only one of these human values. Often enough the whole incident reveals two or more of the values eo that one can not help but conclude that this is but another instance of how the East best exemplifies unity through plurality and even diversity. After all, the four ends of dharma, a:t'tha, kama and moksha are actually one: dharma which is the requisite in order for the soul to escape from and triumph over this world of miya.

The last two books of the Mahiibhiirata, the MahaprasthZmika Parva and the Svargezr.ohanika Parva treat of the final trials of Yudhighira. Thirty-six years after the war, with the destruction of the Pa:Q4ava allies, the Vri~hl)is and the Andhakas, as well as the death of Krishna himself who was inadvertently shot by a hunter, Jara, Yudhighira decided to abdicate. He installed Arjuna's grandson, Parlk~it, king of Hastinapura and the only survivor among the Y8.davas (Krishna's clan), Prince Vajra,

102 ACTA MANlLANA

king of Indraprastha. Then as he, his four brothers and his wife Draupadi began to climb the Himalayas, they were accompanied by a dog. One by one, they succUIlbed so that only YudhiHhira with the dog was met and made welcome by Iitdra. Yudhisthira, however, even refused to enter Heaven if he could not take the dog with him:

n •.. It is exceedingly difficult ror me that is of righteous behavior to perpetrate an act that is unrighteous. I do not desire that union vi tb prosperity for which I shall ha.ve to cast otf one that is devoted to me ... It bas been said that the abandonment of' ODe that is devoted Is infinitely sinful. It is equal to the ain that one in~8 by slaying a Brihm~a ••• I shall not abandon this dog today frOID. desire of my happiness. Ever this is rAY vow steadily pursued, viz., that I never give up a person that is terrified, not one that is devoted to me, not one that seeks my protection, saying that be is destitute, nor one that is weak. in protecting oneself, not one that is 80-

!!~i~~~~ : o~f~ife is s:~~ n:~~1I8wive up such a

He even preferred to stay with his brothers and Draupadi at what appeared to be a hellish region than to enjoy the bliss of Heaven without them. Finally Indra explained to him that these illusions were only to test as well as to punish him for his lie to Orona. For that matter I when he and the others renounced' their human forms, they became celestials and were freed from human wrath. There is no doubt that the lessons in this final episode of the .\fahabharata sum up the Hindu teachings that when obeyed can lead the soul only to 6ne inevitable end - emancipation or the fulfillment of his yearning to be released from all imperfections and pain.

B°Baok XVII Mahiprasthinlka Parva, Section 3, Vol.o XII, pp. 277-78.

HINDUISM AND THE EPICS OF INDIA loa

In the same way, the supplement to the RamayanaJ

the Uttara J(jj"l4a deals with how after Sita was taken away by the earth-goddess, the sons of Rama, Bhiirata, Lak~hmal]a and Shatrughna were made rulers. Bhlrata's two sons Taksha and Pushkala ruled respectively Takshashila which was situated east of the Indus and Pushkalavata which was situated west of the Indus. Rima built for Lakshmana's two sons, Angada and Chandraketu, the cities of Angadiya and Chandrakanta in the country of the mallas (giants)or Malwa as it was later known. Shatrughna's two sons, Subahu and Shatrughatin, were established as the rulers respectively of Madhura (Mathura) and Vaidisha o When Bhirata refused to succeed Rllma, the latter's two sons, Lava and Kusha, were installed as the rulers respectively of Northern Koshala (Sravasti) and Southern I<oshala (Kusavati). Then led by Rama, Bh!rata and Shatrughna,61 the whole populace of Ayodhya together with the monkey tribe of Sugriva, those who had helped Rama rescue Sid. from Rlvana, began to ascend the Himalayas. Bibishana, Rlvana's brother who had sided with Rima wanted to join him, but Rima ordered him to continue reigning in Laftki. Likewise did he order Hanuman who had discovered Sitl at Lallki to remain on earth: "Resign thyself to continue to live, do not render my will void. As long as my story is told in the world, 0 foremost of monkeys. so long mayest thou be happy and remember my words!n82 Reaching Heaven, no less than Drahma welcomed Rima thus:

"Hail 0 Vishnu I Hail a RaghavaJ With thy God-like brothers, nov enter thine eternal abode I Return to thine ovn body if thou so desirest, 0 Long-armed warrior I Occupy the realm of Vishnu or the shining ether. 0 Mighty God I Thou art the support of the vorld. though there are some who do

a lLak~hmar;a had gone to Heaven earlier.

82Book VII Uttara Kanda, Chapter 108, Vol. III, p. 633.

104 ACTA MANIl.ANA

not recognize Thee 'Without the large-eyed Maya, thine ancient Consort! Thou art the Inconceivable One, the Great Being, the Indestructible, the Ageless One. Enter into thy real body if Thou so desirest. "8 3

The religious meaning of these two endings can not be ignored. They do serve as fitting climaxes to the stories of the epical heroes and heroines whose ideal of life had been the cultivation of piety and the practice of self-abnegation. As they pursued their goals with unfaltering zeal and earned their just rewards, one can not help but conclude that in embodying the doctrines of Hinduism, they and their adventures have become the unforgettable expressions of the imperishable truths of life, death and salvation.

One has only to remember how these two itihiisas, especially the Ramliyana, have influenced the literary expressions of the East to realize that such could not have happened if not for their rich religious contexts as there is no more fundamental interest of man thim the discovery of his relationship with his Maker. One does not have to be a Hindu believer in order to accept the sacredness of the epics. A.fter all, the longing to be one with Infinity and the belief in God can be understood not alone by Hindus. In the light of the Asian attitude toward art as an experience in the divine and a means to reach self-realization, the Mahabhli:rata and the Rllmllyana may be said to rank among the foremost, if not the foremost, paradigms of Asian art.

Book VI, the Yuddha KiIrula, ends with a benediction enumerating the merits gained from a knowledge of the Ramiiyana:

Rama is ever pleased with the one who hears this epic or who recites it in its entirety and he

8Jlbid., Chapter 110, Vol. III. p. 635.


who does so will obtain a felicity comparable to Rima's, who is Vishnu, the Eternal, the Primeval God, the Long-armed Hari, Narayal)a, the Lord. Such are the fruits produced by this ancient narrative. Mat prosperity attend thee~Recite it with love and may the power of Vishnu increase!

The Celestial Beings rejoice in the understanding and hearing of "Ramiyana"and the Ancestors are gratified. Those who, in devotion, transcribe this history of Rima, composed by the Rishi ViilmIki, attain to the region of Brahmi.

The hearing of this rare and beautif'ul poem in this world brings prosperous families, wealth and grain in abundance, lovely wives, supreme felicity and complete success in all undertakings.

This narrative which promotes long life, health, renovn, brothelly love, wisdom, happiness and power should be heard in reverence by virtuous men desirous of felicity. 8,*

The ending of the supplement, the Utta:ra Kiinda, also states the merits to be earned from reciting and listening to the Ramayana:

•.. This epic, wbich promotes long life, grants good fortune and destroys sin, is equal to the Vedas and should be recited by the wise to men of faith.

On hearing it, he who has no son will obtain a son, he who has no fortune will become wealthy. to read but a foot of this poem will absolve him from all sin. He who commits sins daily will be wholly purified by a single sloks. ........•.....•••.

S4Book VI Yuddha Kinds., Chapter 130, Vol. III, pp. 371-72.

",. ACTA MANILANA

This narrative, tblSt grants longevity, with the "Bhav!shya" aDd ''Uttara''. whose author is the son of Pracetas. has the approval of Brabmi Himself. BS

According to Sauti, the study of the Mahiibharota is "an act of piety." He continued:

"In former days, having placed the four Vedas on one side and the Bharata on the other, these were weigbed in the balance by the celestials assembled for that purpose. And as the latter weighed heavier than the four Vedas with their mysteries, from that period it hath been called in the world Mahibharata (the great Bharata) I for it being esteemed superior both in substance and gravity of import is denominated Ma.hltbhltrata from such substance and gravity of import. He that knoweth its meaning is saved from all his sins. "86

Janamejaya's final query to Vaisamp.iyana concerned the merits of knowing the Mahabha:rata as well as the procedure of reciting and listening to the poem. VaiSampayana ended thus:

637.

" ... The Bbarata is cleansing and sacred. In the Bharata are diverse topics. The Bhirata is worshipped by the very gods. The Bharata is the highest goal. The Bhiirata t 0 chief of the Bharl!ltas, is the foremost of all scriptures. One I!lttl!lins to Emancipl!ltion through the Bhul!lta. This that I tell thee is certain truth. One that proclaims the merits of this history called the Mahibhirata, of the Earth t of the cow t of Saraswati (the goddess of speech) t of Briihm8..1}as t and of Kesava, has never to languish. In the Vedas, in tbe

85Book VII Uttara Ki:nda, Chapter 3, Vol. III, p.

86Book I Adi Parva. Section I Introductory, Vol. I, pp.16-7. ----


Rimi,yana, and in the sacred Bhirata, 0 chief' of Bharata1s race, Hari is Bung in the beginning, the middle, and at the end. That in which occur excellent statements relating to Vishnu, and the eternal Srutia. should be listened to by men desirous of attaining to the highest goal. This treatise is is sanctifying 6 This i8 the highest indicator as regards duties; this is endued with every merit. One desirous of prosperity should listen to it. Sins committed by means of the body t by means of words., and by meanB of the mind, are all destroyed (through listening to the Bhirata) as Darkness at sunrise. One devoted to Vishnu acquires (through this) that merit which is acquired by listening to the eighteen Purlnas. ..Tb.ere is no doubt in this •.• The man that listens (to the Bhirata) or that recites it to other people, becomes cleansed of all his sins and attains at last to the standard of Vishnu. Such a man rescues his ancestors to the eleventh degree, a8 also himself with his wives and sons, 0 chiet ot Bharata' s race. After concluding a. recitation ot the Bhirata, one should, 0 King, perform a Bema vith all its ten parts.

"I have thus, 0 chief of men, told everything in thy presence. H~ that listens with devotion to this Bhirata :from the beginning becomes clea.nsed of every sin even it he be guilty of Bra.haanicide or the violation of his perceptor1s bed, or even if he be a drinker ot alcohol or a robber of other people I s wares. or even it he be born in the Cbandala order. Destroying all his sins like the lIlaker of day destr(jying darkness, such a man, vithout doubt, sports in felicity in the region of Viah.nu like Vishnu himself. 1187

87Book XVIII Svargirohallika Parva. Section 6, Vol. XII, pp. 299-300.

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