H STO R Y O F R OM E ,

AND OF THE ROMAN PEOPL E ,

F R OM I T S O R IG IN TO T H E IN V A S IO N O F T H E

BA R BA R IA N S.

Bv V I CT O R Q UR UY ,

ME MB E R O F T H E I NST ITUTE , E x-IVI I N I ST E R“

O F PUB L IC I NSTRUCT I ON , E TC.

TR A N SL A TE D B Y M . 111. R I P L E Y A N D W. 7. CL A R K E .

E DI T E D BY

T H E R E V . J. P . M A H A F F Y ,

PRO F ESSOR O F A NC IENT H ISTORY , TRI N ITY CO L L EG E,DUB L I N.

Qt outa ining obst Etha n fitbous a uu Tzngmb ings , 39111113c M a ps a nh 1915118,

A ND NUM E R OU S CH R OM O-L IT H OG R APH S.

V OL UM E I .

PUBLISH E D BY

C. F . JEWE TT PUBL ISH IN G COM PA NY ,

B O S T O N.

E D I T O R’

S P R E F A CE .

IT is the du ty of those who offer to the pu blic so l a rge a work

on a su b ject a lrea dy trea ted in E nglish books, t o ju stify it s

position a n d expl a in the prin ciples followed in tr a n sl a ting a n d

editin g it. Str a n ge t o sa y, thou gh some of the gre a test E ng l ish

histori a n s ha ve devoted them selves to Rom a n history, there does

n ot exist a ny st a n d a rd E n glish work on the whole su bj ect . Por

tion s of it h a ve been thorou ghly ha n dled , b u t a com plete su rvey

is n ot t o b e fou n d except in little h a n dbooks ; so th a t the E n glish

m a n or America n who w a n ts a s a work of referen ce for his

l ibr a ry a history of Rome down to the close of it s p a g a n d a ys,h a s hitherto been u n a ble t o fin d it . E ven if he ca n

‘

rea d Fren ch

a n d Germ a n,h e will en cou n ter the s a m e d ifficu lty ; nor is it in

a ny wa y s a tisfa ctory t o su pply th e wa n t by two or three speci a l

histories . N o dou bt the E nglish edition of Momm sen’

s History,the

l a rge work of Meriv a le, a n d the in com p a r a ble Gibbon cover the

grou n d,b u t they cover it writin g from widely di fferen t st a n d

poin ts, in v a riou s styles , a n d withou t a ny gen er a l in dex which cou lden a ble the ordin a ry rea der t o fin d a ny fa ct requ ired. Moreover,

the very origin a l a n d su ggestive work of Momm sen on the ea rly

history of Rome is tot a lly u n su ited for ordin a ry re a ders a n d for

ordin a ry referen ce , in a sm u ch a s he trea ts with silen t con tem pt

m ost of the popu l a r stories, a n d re—a rra nges the rem n a n ts of t r a

dition a ccordin g t o n ew a n d pecu l ia r prin ciples of his own . Toi

a pu blic “ ign ora n t of h is speci a l resea rches,— his R

'

o‘

m ische F orsch

u ngen a n d R'

O'

m isches Sta a tsrecht, — the History,pu blished with

ou t referen ces or expl a n a tion s , m u st b e often qu ite u n in telligible .

6 E DITOR ’S PRE FACE .

The a ccou n t of the e a rly reform s in the Con stitu tion ,a n d of the

rel a tion s of th e Three Assemblies , a re so tot a lly opposed t o the

a ccou n ts in ordin a ry E n glish histories , th a t the thou ghtfu l rea der

is com pletely a t a loss to find ou t when a l l these n ovelties were

discovered, or how they a re t o b e ju stified . A n edition of this

fin e book , with som e su ch in form a tion in foot-n otes,wou ld h a ve

m a de it a work of fa r grea ter v a lu e ; for it represen ts a school

of thou ght which is a s yet qu ite foreign to E ngl a n d,a n d wh ich

,

u n der the a ble exposition s of Ru bin o , Momm sen, Solt a u , a n d others ,

bids f a ir to displ a ce the views of N iebu hr, even when corrected

a n d m odified by Schwegler , L a n ge, a n d Cl a son .1 Bu t a s yet these

m a tters a re within the field of con troversy ; a n d to a ssu m e a l l

h is own views a s proved m a y in deed b e a dm itted a s l a wfu l in

the histori a n , b u t c a n n ot b e r eg a rded a s s a tisfa ctory in a work

professin g t o give a l l the f a cts of Rom a n history.

The bro a d differen ce between the older school of N iebu hr a n d

th a t of Momm sen is this : tha t while N iebu hr si fts tra dition,a n d

tries t o in fer from it wh a t a re th e re a l fa cts of ea rly Rom a n

history,Momm sen on ly u ses tra dition to corrobora te the in feren ces

dra wn con cern in g e a rly Rom a n history from a n a n a lysis of the

tra dition a l f a cts a n d u sa g es still su rvivin g in historica l d a ys, a n d

expl a in ed a s surviv a ls by critica l Rom a n histori a n s . Thu s,the

u s a ges in a ppoin ting a dicta tor or con su l lea d h im to in fer‘th a t of

ol d the kings were a ppoin ted in l ike m a n n er, these m a gistra tes

h a vin g ta ken the pl a ce of the king. Su ch resea rches a re n a tu ra lly

on ly,of v a lu e in recon stru cting ea rly con s titu tion a l history.

The work of Du ruy does n ot a dopt this method , a n d st a n ds

on th e grou n d of N iebu hr,or r a ther of Schwegler

,whose v a lu a ble

History,l ike th a t of ou r own Thirlw a ll

,is rega in ing it s rea l

position a fter som e yea rs of obscu r a tion by a m ore brillia n t, b u t

n ot im p a rti a l,riva l . In deed , the n ewer critic a l school in G er

m a ny ca n n ot yet , a n d perh a ps n ever will , fu rn ish a re a l history

of e a rly Rom e , su ch a s N iebu hr’ s , I hn e’

s, Schwegl er

’

s,or the pres

en t , b u t on ly a cu te a n d often convin cing essa ys on the Con stitu tion .

I t wa s beyon d my du ty to in trodu ce these n ewer views by wa y

1 The first gl impse of these new l ights in E ngl ish is to b e fou nd in M r. See ley ’s Introd u ction to h is edition of L ivy ; I hne

’s E ss a y on the R om a n Con stitu tion a nd h is H istory

a re origin a l a n d in depende nt l a bors on the genera l l ines of N iebuhr.

“

E DITOR’S PRE FACE . 7

of foot-n otes, even thou gh often con vin ced of the i r tru th ; for I

u ndertook to edit Du ruy’

s grea t work,a n d n ot to su pply a nythin g

m ore . Accordi ngly I h a ve con fin ed mysel f here a n d there to

m en t ion ing a fa ct or su ggestin g a di fferen t view of som e even t,

b u t h a ve a voided st a tin g a ny con flictin g theory . Addition a l books

of referen ce , however ,“

a n d these prin cipa lly of the n ewer school

a bove described , ha ve been som etim es cited,a n d a gre a t de a l h a s

been don e to im prove a n other ca pita l fea tu re of the book , — the

illu stra tion s . I n this respect Du ruy’

s book st a n ds a lon e , givin g the

rea der a l l kin ds of illu stra tion a n d of loca l color , so a s to l e t him

re a d the history of Rom e,a s f a r a s poss ib le , in I t a ly, a n d a m on g the

rem a in s of th a t history , with a l l the l ights which a rch a eologica l

rese a rch ca n n ow a fi ord u s . I n m a ny pl a ces I h a ve left ou t a

cu t which seem ed of l ittle a u thority , a n d su ppl ied from photo

gra phs (collected in I t a ly a n d Sicily) better a n d tru er pictu res . I

ha ve h a d recou rse t o con tem pora ry a rt,a n d given som e idea l pic

tu res of gre a t even ts in Rom a n history , a s im a gin ed by a rtists

lea rn ed in the loca l color a n d the dress of the period . Here

a n d there I ha ve a lso ven tu red to cu rta i l the description s of b a ttles,

which a re borrowed from th e a n cien t histori a n s, a s they were com

posed from pu re ly rhetorica l con sider a tion s , a n d ha ve n o cl a im to

a ccu ra cy . E n ou gh , a n d m ore th a n en ou gh,h a s been left to show

the views of these p a triotic histori a n s . I t is a perpetu a l c a u se of

offen ce a n d a n n oy a n ce in the exta n t cl a ssica l histori a n s,th a t in ste a d

of givin g u s som e in telligible a ccou n t of m il it a ry m ovem en t-s , they

su pply u s with the m ost v ulga r a n d often a bsu rd pl a titu des con

cern in g t a ctics, a n d with the in ven ted h a r a n gu es of the respective

le a ders.I wil l a d d

,in conclu sion

,tha t the pu blishers ha ve m et a l l my

dem a n ds a n d requ irem en ts with the l a rgest libera l ity. So f a r a s

they a re con cern ed, everythin g h a s been don e to m a ke the book

the best a n d the most com plete which h a s yet a ppea red on Rom a n

history.

TR I N I TY COLLE G E , DUBLI N .

I.II.III .IV.

V.V I .

VIII.

T A B L E O F CO N T E N T S.

V O L U M E I .

INTRODUCTION.

TH E F E E —ROMAN E POCH.

Geogra phy of Ita lyA ncient Popu l a tion of Ita ly— Pel a sgia ns a nd Umbri a nsE tru sca nsOsca n s a nd Sa bel li a nsGreeks a nd G a u lsPol itica l Orga n iza tion of the A ncient N a tions of Ita lyR e ligiou s O I g a niza tionSumma ry

F IR ST PE R IOD.

R OM E UNDE R TH E K IN G S (753 —510 B . FOR M A TION or TH E R OMAN PE OPL E .

II.III .IV.

VI.VII.

CHAPTE R I.

TRADIT IONAL HISTORY OF TH E K INGS.R omu lu s (753 —716)N um a (715—673 )T u llu s H ostil iu s ( 673—640)A nou s M a rciu s (640—616)T a rqu in the E lder ( 616 578)Se ins Tu l liu s (578Ta i qu iniu s Superbu s (53 4—510)

CH APTE R I I .

CONSTITUTION OF ROME DUR I NG TH E R E GAL PERIOD.— PRIM ITIV E ORGAN I Z AT ION.

Sources of R om a n H istoryII .I II.IV.

Prob a ble Origin of R ome

P a trici a n s a nd Cl ientsSen a te a nd K ing ; P lebei a n s

10 TA B LE OF CONTE NTS.

CH APTE R III.

RELIG ION AND RELIG IOU S INSTITUTIONS.

I. The Public GodsII. The Domestic GodsIII. The M a nes

IV. N a tur a lism of the R om a n R el igion a nd Form a l DevotionV. Sa cerdota l Co llegesVI. Publ ic Festi va l s

CH APTE R IV.

CHANGES I N RELIG ION A ND CONSTITUTION UNDER TH E THR EE LAST KI N GS.

I. The Gods of E t I u I ia a t R ome ; R e forms ofTa rqu in the E lderII. R efO I ms of Se iu s Tu ll iusIII. Ta i qu in the Prou d ; Power of R ome a t this E poch

CH APTE R V.

MANNERS A ND CUSTOMS.

I . Cha ra cter of An cient R oma n SocietyII . Priva te M a nn ersI II . Publ ic M a nners

SE COND PE R IOD.

R OM E UNDE R TH E PA TR ICIA N CON SUL S (509—3 67 B .— STR UGGL E S WITH IN

WE A KN E SS W ITH OUT.

CH APTE R VI.

INTERNAL H ISTORY FROM 509 To 470 B. C.

I. Aristocra tic Cha ra cter of the R evolution of 509 ; the Consu lshipII. The T I ib u n a teIII. The A gra ri a n L wIV. R ight of the Trmunes to a ccu se the Consu lsa nd to bring forwa rdP lebiscita

CH APTE R VII.

M I LITARY H ISTORY or ROME FROM TH E DE A TH or TARQU IN To TH E DECEMV IRS (495—451B.

I . The R om a n Territory in Porsenna a nd Ca ssius 299'

II. Coriol a nu s a nd the Volsci a ns ; Cincinn a tu s a nd the A equia ns 3 08

I II. Wa r a ga in st Ve ii 3 15

IIIII

II.

IIIII.

TAB LE OF CONTE NT S. 11

CH APTE R VIII.

THE DECEMV I R S AND C IV I L EQUALITY (451—449

Bil l of Terentil insThe Decemvirs (451—449)The Twelve Ta bles

CH APTE R IX.

EFFORTS To OBTA IN POL ITICA L EQUALITY (449—400 B.

R e-esta b lishment of the Tribuna te a nd Consu l a teN ew Constitution of the Yea r 444Struggle for the E xecution of the N ew Constitution

CH APTE R X.

M ILITARY H ISTORY FROM 448 To 3 89 B. c.

Conqu est of A nxu r orTerra cin a (406)Ca pture of Veii ( 3 95)Ca pture of R ome by the G a u ls ( 3 90)

CH APTE R XI .

MILITARY H ISTORY FROM 3 89 To 3 43 B.C.

R ebu il ding of the City ; the R om a n LegionR eturn of the G a uls into L a tium M a n l iu s ; Va lerius Corvu s

CH APTE R XII.

ACCESS ION OF TH E PLEBE IANS TO CUR ULE OFFICES.

The L icin i a n L a ws : Di vision of the Con su lshipsThe Plebei a ns ga in A dmission to a ll Offices

CH APTE R XIII.

TH E A GR AR I A N L AW AND THE AB OL ITION OF DEBT.

A gra ri a n L a w of L icin iu s StoloL a ws on DebtThe A era rii ; CensorshIp of A ppiu s (3 12)

12 TA BLE OF CONTE NTS.

TH IRD PE R IOD.

WA R OF ITA L IA N INDE PE NDE NCE , OR CONQUE S’

I‘

OF ITA L Y (3 43 —265 B.

CH APTE R XIV.

WA R W ITH TH E SAMN ITES AND LATINS ( 3 43—3 12 B.PAG E

I. First Sa mn ite Wa r ; Acq u isition of Ca pu a ( 3 43 - 3 41)I I . The L a tin Wa r ( 3 40—3 3 8)II I. Second Sa mn i t e Wa r ( 3 26- 3 12)

CH APTE R XV.

COALIT ION OF TH E SAMN ITES, ETRUSCAN S, A ND SENONES ( 3 11—280 B.

I. Third Sa mn ite W a r ( 3 11—3 03 )I I . Second Co a lition of Sa mn ites , E tru sca ns, Umbri a ns, a nd G a u ls ( 3 00—290)III. Coa lition of the E truscm s a nd Senones Wa r a ga inst the L u ca nia ns (283 —281)

CH APTE R XVI.

WA R W ITH PYRRHUS (280—272 B.

I. R upture with Ta rentum ; First Ca mpa ign of Pyrrhu s in Ita ly (282- 278)II. Pyrrhu s i n Sici ly ; Ca pture ofTa rentum (979)

CH APTE R XVII.

OR GAN IZ ATION OF ITALY BY TH E ROMANS.

I. The F reedom o f the City, a nd the Thirty-F i ve TribesII . M un icipi a , Prefectures , a nd A l l ied TownsI II . Colon ies a nd M il ita ry R oa dsI V . R eligiou s Suprem a cy R ome governs, a nd does not a dm in ister

CHAPTE R XVIII .

INTERNAL STATE OF ROME DUR ING TH E SAMN ITE WAR.

I. M a nn ersI I. The Constitution ; Ba l a nce of ForcesIII. M ilita ry Orga n iza t ionIV. R eca pitu la tion

TABLE OF CONTE NTS. I 3

FOURTH PE R IOD.

TH E PUN IC WA R S (264—201 B.

CH APTE R XIX.

CARTHA GE .

I. Commerci a l E mpire of the Punic R a ceII. Ca rtha ginia ns a nd L iby Phoenici a ns ; Commerci a l Policy of Ca rtha geI I I . M ercen a riesIV. The Constitution

CH APTE R XX.

THE F IR S T PUN I C WA R ( 264- 241 B .

I. The Trea ties between R ome a nd Ca rtha ge (509—279 )II. Opera tions in Sici ly ( 264)III. M a ritime Opera tions ; L a nd ing of the R oma ns in Africa ( 260—255)IV. The Wa r is ca rried ba ck into Sicily (254—241)

CH APTE R XXI .

CoNQUE STS OF ROM E AND CARTHAGE BETWEEN TH E Two PUN IC WARS ( 240- 219 B.

I . R om a n E xped itions outs ide of Ita ly a nd into G a l li a Cisa lpin aII. Ca rth a ge ; Wa rs of the M ercena ries ; Conqu est of Spa in

CH APTE R XXII.

I NTERNAL STATE OF ROM E I N TH E INTERV AL BETWE EN TH E TWO PUN IC WAR S .

I . Commencement of R om a n L itera ture ; Popu l a r G a mes a nd F estiva lsII. Ch a nges in M a nners, R el igion ,

a nd Constitution

CH APTE R XXIII.

TH E SECOND PUN IC WAR UP TO TH E BATTLE OF CANNAE (218-216 B.

I. H a nniba l I n Spa inII. H a nn ib a l I n G a u l Crossing of the A lpsIII. H a nniba l I n Cisa lpine G a u l ; B a ttle of T icinu s ; Ba ttle of Th'ebia (218)IV. Thra simene a nd Ca nn a e (216)

L I ST OF F UL L — PAG E E NG R A V I NG S.l

VOLUME I.

A I I tiu nI , View of

A ppia n Wa y, the

A rdea , R ema in s fou nd a tA ventine, the (present Sta te)Bi a l-H a mmon , Temple Of (ru ins)Ca nn a e.Ba ttle-field of

Ca stel d’ A sso, Va l ley ofCen is , M ontCha stity , Temple of (restora tion)Circel lo, M onteClo a ca M a xim aCoin s , bronze , ta ble of .

Concord , Temple of (restora tion)Coura geE rctefM ou ntFortune, Temple of (restora tion)G eese of the Ca pitol .G irgenti, Temple a t (rem a ins)H um a n Sa CI ifices

Ju piter St a toI , Temple of (restora t ion)L iI is , Fa l l of theM et a pon tu m , H a rbor ofN a ples a nd M ount Vesuviu sN em i , L a keN orb a , Wa lls of

N ympha eum of E geri aR a venn a , Ca n a ls a nd Pine ForestOfR om a n Ca mpa gn aR omu lu s, Wa l l of ( I em a ins)R osa , M onteSpoleto, View of

Syba ris , P la in Of

Tern i , Ca sca de of

Terra cin a , R ock ofTiberin a , the Insu laTi voli , Temple a tTomb, ca lled tha t of Aruns

E tru sca nof the H O I a tii

Va lley ofTombs n ea r N orchia (restora tion)Ve i i, City of (restOI a tion)V a ses found a t

V iso, Monte

1 F a cing the pa g es ind ica ted .

AL PH AB E T I CAL I NDE X

TE XT I L L USTR AT I ONS,

A ca rn a ni a, co in of

A dora tion ‘before a tombgesture of

A dri a,a s l ib ra l is of

A ed iles,plebe i a n (co in)

A enea s ca rrying A nchises(co in)

A escu l a piu sA esernia , coin of

A g a thoclesA ger R om a nu s (ma p)Ag rig entum ,

co in ofU U

(pl a n)A l a t I i, wa l l of

A lba , extinct volca noes a bout (ma p)A lba F ucen tia (pl a n)A lb a Longa , co in of

A lexa ndeI I, K ing of E piI u s, coin of

A lex a -I I deI I I (gem) .

A lpha betsE a rly R om a n (L a tin)E trusca nof Cen t I a l Ita lyo f N O I the I n Ita ly

Al ps a nd Apenn ines , l im it of the (m a p)Al s ium

,tumu l i a t

A l t a I (tomb a t Pompei i)(domestic) .

A ncil i a , O I Shields of M a I s (cOiI I )(gem)

A ncon a,coin of .

A ncu s M a rt ins, tra dition a l pOI 'tr -a it ofA nna Perenn a (coin )A ntigonu s Cona ta s , co in of

A ntisti a , g ens ,

I NCL UDI NG MAPS A ND PL A NS.

VOLUM E I .

An toni nu s Piu s; coin of( t ( C ( t

Bea k-hea d of a ship (coin)Be l lona (priest of )Beneven tum

,coin of

Bl a ck stone,the (coin)

Boi i , coin o i’

the

Bronze a rms( C ( C

A pol lo, the Pythi a npriest of

A pol lon i a , coin of

A ppi a n G a te (restora tion)Wa y

A qu inum, coin of

A rchig a llu s , a n

A rg en lm'ii

( C

Arim inum, a s of

Arretium , e a rthenwa re of

A rva l is , Fra terA s in rude meta l ( a ctu a l s ize)

double,of G a mers

l ibr a l z'

s of A dri aA I ’Imil l u m

TuderA sta rteAtel l a ne figuresAthlete , victoriou sA u gurA ugu rinus, coin of

A u lu s Postumiu s (coin )A urunca , w a l l ofA ventine , wa ll of the

20 ALPH ABE TICAL INDE X TO TE XT ILLU STRATIONS.

Bronze jewels

va sesvessels

Brundu sium , coin of

Brutu s (bust in the Ca pitol)Brutu s, L. Ju n iu s (coin)Bu lla

you ng m a n wea ring theBuxentum , coin of

Ca d iz, coin of

Ca eles V ib enn a a nd M a sta rn a

Ca cre, va se ofCa les, coin of

Ca m a rin a , coin of

(ea rly period)Ca mers, dou ble a s ofCa m illu sCa mpa gna , R oma n , ca ttle of the

flint wea pons fou nd inCa n n a e ,

ru in s ofCa pitol ine H il l (restora tion)Ca pu a , coin of

Ca rtha ge , a qu edu cts ofcisternscoin of( t ( 6

H t ‘

(pla n)ports of

Ca rtha gin i a n a rt, rem a in s ofex-voto

w a rriorCa stor

,temple of

Ca u dine Forks, v a ll ey of theCepha loedium , coin of

Ceres(found a t Osti a in 1856)

Cha riot-ra ces, gen ii ofCha stity , a lta r of (co in)Ch ickens, the Sa credChim a eraCinera ry UrnsCirce , U lysses, a nd E lpenorCirceii, w a l l ofCivic crown (coin)

With l a u relJea ves (coin)Cl a u di a dra gging the vessel of CybeleCloa ca M a xim aClu sium , bla ck va ses of

Clu s ium , bl a ck v a ses ofCoins, ta ble of (bronze) , see fu l l pa ge i llus .

(gold)(S ilver)

Colony , coin of a

g I ound pl a n of l a nds for)Com ic a ctorConcord (co in)Consu l between two fa sces (coin)Corcyra , co in of

0 0 511. 6 ‘ H

Cors ica a nd Sa rd ini a (m a p)Cossura , co in of

Croton a

Cucume ll a , the

Cum a e , co in of

ca ve o i the Sybil ofCybele (coin)

Deciu s M u s (coin )Decurions , co in o f the

Demetriu s Po liorcetes (co in)Demon s lea d ing a wa y a sou lDen a riu s , silver

o f A nton inu s P iu sDi a n a , or the M oon (ca meo)

with the hindDI I Pen a tes (coin)DioscuriDu illius , rostra l column of

E lea , coin of

E lepha nt (ex-vow)E lepha nts , A frica n (gem)

(coin)(gem )

E lysi a n rep a stE ntell a , coin of

E rcte, coin of

E ryx, rem a ins of the town of

Mou nt, V iew fromE scutcheon s , p a trici a nE tn a , from Ta orm in aE truri a , Southern (m a p)E tru sca n a lpha bets

a rcherch im a eracupsfigure with four wingsfiguresfunera l u rngorgonhelmet of L u cumon

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22

M inerva of H ercu la neumM u n icz

’

pium, coin of a

N a ples, coin of

N a viu s, m ira cle of (coin)N ol a , coin of

v a se ofN ome I I tu I n , bridge of

N uceria , co in of

Nu nI a Pompil iu s, tra d itiona l figu re 0Nm a g/re of Sori

Ops (coin)Order of b a ttle (pl a n)

P a estum , coin of 426

P a l a tine , a ncient su bstructions of 188

P a lla d ium , the (co in) 228

Pa llor 156

P a l u d a mentum 673

P a norni u s , coin of 571

Pel a sgic rem a ins 47

Pha ros , coin of 59 3

Phin tia s 461

P il a m 515

Ploughm a n 260

Tu sca n 69

PO , present sta te of the coa st south of (m a p) 3 0Pomegra n a te (ex -Col o) 541

Pontine M a rshes , present sta te o f (m a p) 3 2

Popu lon i a .co in of 3 6a u u

76

Pra eneste, bronze grou p fou nd a t 259

chest 480

lid of 615

Phoen ici a n cup fou nd a t 3 00

Pra xiteles , the F a u n of 20 3

Priest of Apol lo 6 3 6

presen t ing incense-b ox 3 3 6

Prisoner (g em) 3 68

Ptolemy IV., E u ergetes (co in)

Phila delphu sPu n ic ships , figures a t prow of

P u tea l of L ibo (coin)P V rrhu s

‘t

coin of

R egil lu s, L a ke, ba ttle of (coin)R egu lu sR hea Sylvi aR hegium , coin of

R om a n bra celetca mp (pl a n)ga ucy

ALPH ABE TICAL INDE X TO TE XT ILLUSTRATIONS.

R oma n horse-soldiersoldier

R ome , fo llowed by a m a gistra tesea ted u pon the Seven H il ls (coin)a nd the She-wolf (coin)

R omu lu s , tra d ition a l figure ofR ostra , the (coin)R ostra l columnsR u tulia ns

, coin of the

Sa mn ium , coin of

Sa n ta M a ri a d i Leuca , Ca peSa rd in i a , co in of

Sa turn , temple ofSa turnu s

(Coin)Scipio B a rba tu s , tomb ofSegesta , coin of

Sel inu s

l‘

e I I I a ins of

temple of (frieze)( I netope)

6 ‘

w a ll of

Sa bines, ra pe of the (co in)Sa cred tree ,Sa crifice , in struments ofSa crifices, hu m a nSa gu ntum , rem a ins of thea tre ofSa l i a n priest (coin)Sa mn ite horsem a n

w a rrior

a rcha ic metopeServil iu s Ah a l a , coin of

Serviu s Tu ll iu s , a gg er or ra mpa rt of 161a u a a

( sect ion ) 163162

3 13

ru ins of a temple nea r 3 14

She-wo lf of the Ca pitol 626

Shield , votive 459

Shrine , entra nce of a 123

Sicily, coin of 552

(m a p) 550

Sidon , co in of 53 0

Signia , ga te of 169

Stol a 266

Su essa , coin of 423

Sun -d ia l 628

Suoveta uri lia 23 3

u 507

ALPH ABE TICAL INDE X TO TE XT ILLUSTRATIONS.

Su trium , a mphithea tre ofSyba ris , co in of

Sylva nu s (co in)

Ta n it, the goddesstemple of

Ta orm ina , the a tre of

V iew of

Ta rentum , coin of

ha I bO I of (pl a n)Ta rpe i a ( co i n)T a rpe ia n rockTa rqu ins , tomb of theTa ti u s , tra d itiona l figure ofTa u romenium , co in of

Tea teTea tro Greco,Ta orm in aTemesa , co in of

Terina,

Term inu s , the godTerI or (co in)Thra simene, L a ke (map)Thu nderbo lt with e ight forks (coin)

twe lveWa r-vessel with bea k hea d (gem) .

dou ble bea k hea d (co in)Women spinning

2 3

Torqu z’

s , G a l l icTr iqu etra , the (coin)Tucci a , the Ves ta lTu der, a s Of

co in of

Twe lve gods , a lta r of theha s-reliefs of

Tu scu lum (restored)(present sta te)

V ei I , city o f (pl a n)Ven u s E rycin a (co in )Ven u s i a , coin o f

Vesta (coin)

Vesta lVesta lsVictory , sta tu e ofV ol a terra , ga te ofVo lsci a ns, coin of the

Vul ca n of E lba , the

I N T R ODU CT I ON

T H E P R E - R O M A N E P O C H .

I .

THE GEOGR APHY OP ITALY.

C O I N OF AN TON I NU S R E P R E S EN T I N G I TA LY.1

OR AGE w a s a fra id Of the se a ; he c a ll ed it Ocea nu s d is

socia bilis, the elem en t which sepa ra tes a n d yet it wa s,even for the a n cien ts

,th e elem en t which u n ites .

Lookin g a t th e m ou n t a in s which ru n from Ga lici a to the Ca u

c a su s, from Arm en i a t o the Pers i a n Gu lf,from the region of the

Syrtes to the Pill a rs of Hercu l es, we recogn ize the higher p a rts of

a n immen se b a sin , th e bottom of which is filled by th e M ed it er

ra n ea n . These l im its, m a rked ou t by geogra phy, a re a lso , for

a n tiqu ity, the lim its of history,which n ever

, s a ve tow a rds Pers i a,

1 T he letters T R . POT ., a n a bbrevi a tion of T rib u n icia P otesta s , sign ify the tribu n ici a npower with which the E mperors were in vested ; the letters cos . I I I.m e a n tha t A nton inu s w a s,or h a d been , Con su l for th e th ird t im e ; a nd s o tha t it w a s by order of the Sen a te , Sen a tu sCon su lto,” tha t the piece of mon ey w a s co in ed. A nton in u s h a ving h a d h is third Con su lship inA . D. 14 0 , a n d th e fourth in 145

, the m ed a l w a s issu ed dur in g on e of the ye a rs whi ch interven ebetween these d a tes. T he Sen a te of the E mpire on ly coin ed

l

b ronze m oney. T he first (r ib .poti d a t ed from the d a y of th e prince ’s a ccession : since Tra j a n ’

s tim e , a l l a re d a ted from the

l a t of Ja n u a ry ; hence th e n umber of the ‘

t-

r i

'

b.pot. gi ves the n umber of th e ye a rs of the re i gn .V O L . I . 2

18 INTRODUCTION.

dep a rted f a r from the co a sts Of the Mediterra n ea n . Withou t this

sea , th e sp a ce it occu pies wou ld h a ve been the con tinu a tion Of the

Af rica n Sa h a ra , — a n im p a ssa ble desert ; by m e a n s of it, on the

con tra ry, th e people settled on it s shores h a ve in terch a n ged thei r

idea s a n d their wea lth ; a n d i f we except those a n cien t societies

of the dist a n t E a st which a lw a ys h a ve rem a in ed a p a rt from E u

rope a n progress, it is a rou n d this coa st th a t the first civil ized

n a tion s h a ve dwelt . It a ly,therefore , by it s position ,

between Greece,Sp a in , a n d Ga u l , a n d by it s elonga ted sha pe, wh iClI exten ds a lm ost

to the shores Of Africa a n d tow a rds th e E a st, is in tru th the

cen tre of the a n cien t world , — a t on ce the n e a rest poin t t o the

three con tin en ts which the Mediterra n ea n w a shes a n d u n ites. Geog

ra phy expl a in s on ly a portion of history ; b u t th a t portion it

expl a in s well,— the rest belongs to m en . Accordin g a s they Show

in their a dm in istra tion wisdom or folly, they tu rn t o good or evil

the work of n a tu re . The situ a tion of I t a ly, therefore , will ea si ly

a ccou n t for her v a ried destin ies in a n cien t tim es, a n d in m odern

u p t o a recen t period ; it wil l a ccou n t for the vigor a n d en ergy

she m a n ifested ou tside h er l im its, so lon g a s her in h a bita n ts form ed

a u n ited people , su rrou n ded by divided tribes ; l a ter, for the evils

which overwhelm ed her from a l l poin ts of the horizon ,when her

power w a s exh a u sted a n d her u n ity destroyed,— it a ccou n ts for

Ita ly,in a word , m istress of the world a rou n d her, a n d I ta ly, the

prize for which a l l her n eighbors con ten d .

There is a n other im porta n t con sider a tion . I f the position ocen

pied by It a ly a t the very cen tre of the a n cien t world f a vored h er

fortu n e in the d a ys Of her stren gth,a n d procu red her so m a ny

en em ies in the tim e Of her wea kn ess, wa s n ot this very we a kn ess,which a t first del ivered the pen in su la to the Rom a n s, a n d a fter

them,for fou rteen cen tu ries, to the stra n ger, chiefly d u e t o her

n a tu r a l con form a tion ?

Su rrou n ded on three sides by the sea , a n d on the fou rth by

the Alps, I t a ly is a pen in su l a which stretches tow a rds the sou th

in two poin ts ; while a t the n orth it widen s in to a sem icircle

Of lofty m ou n t a in s, a bove which towers m a jestica lly, with it s

Sp a rklin g sn ow, the su mmit som etim es ca lled by the Lomb a rds“ L a Rosa dell ’ It a l i a . The summit n ext in height to Mon t Bl a n cis this Mon te Rosa ; i t is n ot Six hu n dred feet lower th a n the

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20 INTRODUCTION.

when from the Alps to the M a ltese Cha n n el there wa s b u t on e

people a n d on e in terest, a n in com pa ra ble prosperity beca m e the

gloriou s lot of this bea u tifu l l a n d,with it s two thou sa n d m iles of

sea -coa st,it s bra ve popu l a tion of sa ilors a n d m ou n ta in eers

,it s n a tu ra l

h a rbors a n d fertile d istricts a t the foot of it s forest-covered hills, a n d

it s comm a n d of two se a -s, holdin g a s it did the key of the p a ssa ge

from on e to the other of the two grea t Mediterr a n ea n ba sin s . Be

tween the E a st, n ow brea kin g up in a n a rchy, a n d the West

,n ot yet

a l ive to Civ i liz a tion , I ta ly , u n ited a n d disciplin ed,n a tu r a lly took the

pl a ce of comm a n d . This ph a se of hu m a n ity requ ired t en cen tu ries

for its birth a n d growth a n d com plete developm en t ; a n d the story

of these t en cen tu ries we c a l l the History of Rom e .

A m odern poet gives in a sin gle l in e a n ex a ct description of this

cou n try,

Ch ’ Apen n in pa rte e ’1m a r circond a e l ’Alpe.” 1

Th a t portion of the Alpin e ch a in which sep a r a tes I ta ly from the

rest of E u rope exten ds in a n i rregu l a r cu rvin g lin e from Sa von a t o

Fiume,a dista n ce of a bou t seven hu n dred a n d fifteen m i les ; th e

bre a dth of this mou n ta in m a ss is from eighty to n in ety-five m iles in

the region of the St . Goth a rd a n d the Sept im er (the Pen n in e Alps),a n d ra ther m ore th a n on e hu n dred a n d sixty m iles in the Tyrol 2

(the Rha eti a n Alps). The perpet I‘

I a l sn ows of these high summ its

form hu ge gl a ciers, wh ich feed the stre a m s of Upper It a ly, a n d tra ce

a glittering ou tlin e a ga in st the sky. Bu t the w a tershed , lyin g

n ea rer I ta ly tha n Germ a ny,divides the m a ss u n even ly. Like a l l the

grea t E u rope a n m ou n ta in -ch a in s,

3 the Alps h a ve their m ore gen tle

slope tow a rds the N orth, — when ce h a ve com e a l l the in va sion s,a n d their esca rpmen t tow a rds the Sou th, — which h a s received them

a l l .4 Upon the side of Fr a n ce a n d Germa ny the mou n ta in s ru n t o

1 Which the A penn ine div ides, a nd the sea a nd the A lps surrou n d .

2 From St. G otha rd to the Stra its of M essin a , Ita ly m e a sures 6 25 m i les, with a me a n

bre a dth of from 88 to 100 m i les ; in a re a , squ a re m ile s.8 W

' ith the exception of the C a u ca su s, whose n orthern s lope is mu ch steeper tha n tha t ofthe south.

4 This is tru e, especi a l ly for the M a ritime , Cotti a n , Gra i a n , a nd Penn ine A lps ; b u t theH el veti a n a nd R ha eti a n A lps sen d forth to the south lon g spurs, form ing the high v a l leysof the Ticino, of th e A dd a , the A dige , a nd the Brenta . G eogra phica l ly, these v a ll eys be lon gto Ita ly (ca nton of th e Ticino, the V a l te l ine , a nd pa rt of the T yro l) ; b u t they ha ve a lwa ysbeen inha bited by ra ce s fore ign to the pen insul a , which ha ve n ever protected h er a ga instinv a sions from the north.

TH E G E OG R APH Y OF ITALY. 2 1

the pl a in by lon g spu rs, which brea k the descen t,while from the

P iedm on t side Mon t Bl a n c a ppe a rs l ike a w a l l of gra n ite,sheer for

a bou t ten thou sa n d feet down from it s summ it . M a n stops a t

the foot of these cliffs, on which hold n either gra ss n or

,

sn ow ;a n d N orthern I ta ly, h a vin g little Alpin e p a stu re-l a n d , is n ot like

the D a u phin e, Sw itzerl a n d , a n d the Tyrol,

1 defen ded by a r a ce of

bra ve m ou n t a in eers .

Sca l c of — l

L 50 0 .0 0 0

070 2 4 a m.

Tu: [unit a s w e A L P'

S t.A ra -minib us.2

This differen ce between the in cl in e a n d exten t of th e two

sides in dic a tes on e of the c a u ses which in su red the first su c

cesses of the expedition s directed a ga in st Ita ly. On ce m a sters of

the n orthern side, the in v a ders h a d on ly a m a rch of a d a y or two

1 These Al ps a re covered with be a utifu l forests, which Ven ice a t the time of her powertu r ned to profit ; in tra cta ble mou nta ineers li ve there , l ike the inha bita nts of the Sette Comm u n i. One of the cha ra cteri stics of the Ju l i a n A lps is th e n umber of grottos a n d su b ter

r a n ea n ch a nne ls which they embra ce. F rom the R iver Isonzo to the frontiers of B osn i athere a re m ore tha n a thou sa n d ; a nd the n a tives of the cou ntry sa y tha t there a re a s m a n ystrea m s be low th e so i l a s there a re over it . Cha n ne ls of thi s k in d, when not fil led withw a ter, a fford a n e ntry into the Sette Commu n i.

2 The qu e stion of the bou n d a ry between the A lps a nd the A penn ines h a s been lon g a

su bject of deb a te ; the engineers ha ve decided it by m a king a ra i lro a d a bove Sa von a overthe Col d ’ A l t a se , wh ich is n ot st een hu ndred feet in he ight, whence one descen ds intothe fa mou s v a lleys of the B ormid a a nd the T a n a ro.

22 INTRODUCTION .

t o brin g them in to th e richest cou n try.1 Thu s Ita ly h a s n ever

been a ble to esc a pe from in v a sion s or t o keep a loof from E u ro

pea n w a rs,despite her form id a ble b a rrier of the Alps , with their

coloss a l su mm its, “ which,when seen close

,

”s a id N a poleon

,seem

l ike gia n ts of ice commission ed t o defen d th e a pproa ch to th a t

bea u tifu l cou n try.

” 2

The Alps a re join ed, n ea r Sa von a , by the Apen n in es, which

tra verse the whole pen in su l a,or ra ther, which ha ve form ed it a n d

given it it s ch a r a cter. Their m ea n height in Ligu ri a is

m etres feet) ; b u t in Tu sca ny they a re mu ch higher, where

th e ridges of Pon trem ol i, between Sa rz a n a a n d Pa rm a,of F ium

a lbo, between Lu cca a n d Moden a , of Fu ta,between Floren ce a n d

Bologn a , a tta in the he ight of to feet . Thu s E tru r i a

wa s protected for a lon g tim e by these m ou n t a in s a ga in st the Cis

Alpin e Ga u ls, a n d for som e mon ths a ga in st H a n n ib a l .

The highest summ its of the whole ch a in of the Apen n in es

a re to the e a st of Rom e,in th e cou n try of th e M a rsi a n s a n d th e

Vestin i : Vel in o,

feet ; a n d Mon te Corn o, feet,when ce

ca n b e seen the two se a s which w a sh It a ly, a nd even the m ou n

ta in s of I llyri a , on the ea stern shore of the Adri a tic. At this

he ight a pea k of the Alps or th e Pyren ees wou ld b e covered with

perpetu a l sn ow ; in the clima te of Rom e it is n ot cold en ou gh to

form a gl a cier,

a n d Mon te Corn o loses it s sn ow a t the en d of

Ju ly ; b u t i t a lw a ys preserves it s Alpin e l a n dsc a pe,with the

bea rs a n d the ch a m ois of grea t m ou n ta in s.

Three bra n ches sep a ra te a t the west from the cen tr a l ch a in,

a n d cover with their r a m ific a tion s a con sider a ble p a rt of E tru ri a ,La tium , a n d Ca m pa n ia . . On e of these

”

bra n ches,a fter sin kin g to

the level of the pl a in,rises a t it s extrem ity in a n e a rly deta ched

rock form in g the promon tory of Circe (Mon te Circello), where is

shown the grotto of the m ighty sorceress . Tiberiu s, who on th e

qu estion of dem on s bel ieved n either in those of the p a st n or in

those of the presen t,h a d a vill a bu ilt n ea r this drea ded spot.

1 A u gu stu s u nderstood it ; a n d in order t o defen d Ita ly, h e ca rried the R om a n outpostsa s f a r a s the Da n u be. M a riu s a l so h a d gon e beyond the A lps t o meet the Cimbri ; wh il eCa tu lu s, who wished on ly t o defend the Ita l i a n s ide , wa s forced t o retre a t without a b a ttlebehind the Po. Thu s it w a s not in the m ounta ins, b u t behin d the A dige , tha t G enera lBon a pa rte esta bl ished his line of defence in 179 6.

2 Cicero, d e P rov. Consu l . 14 , s a id more s imply : “ A lpib u s I t a li a m m univer a t a ntean a tura , non sine a l iqu o di vino n umine.

”

TH E G E OG R AP H Y or ITALY. 2 3

From the ea stern side of the Apen n in es there a re on ly -som e

hills deta ched, which descen d str a ight tow a rds the Adri a tic . Bu t,

like V esu viu s on th e opposite co a st feet), Mon te G a rg a n o

form s,over the Gu l f of M a nf redon i a , a solit a ry grou p, of which

on e summ it rises t o the height of.

feet . An cien t forests

cover this m ou n ta in ,ever bea ten by the fu riou s win ds which toss

th e Adri a tic.

Below Ven os a (Ven u si a ) the Apenn in es sep a ra te in to two

bra n ches, whi ch su rrou n d the Gu lf

of T a r a n to ; the on e ru n s throu gh

th e l a n d of B a ri a n d Otr a n to , a n d

en ds in a gen tle slope a t Ca po di

Leu ca ; the other form s, throu gh

the two Ca l a bri a s, a su ccess ion of

u n du l a ted t a ble-l a n ds, on e of which, the Si l a , feet 2 high , is

n ot less th a n fifty miles lon g from Cosen za t o Ca t a n za ro . Covered

CO I N or V E N US I A .1

CA PE SA N TA MA R I A D I LE UCA .

form erly with impen etr a ble forests, the Sil a w a s the shelter of

fugitive sl a ves (Bru t t ia n s), a n d w a s the l a st retre a t of H a n n ib a l

in It a ly. Now fin e p a stu res h a ve p a rtly t a ken the pl a ce of

1 On the obverse th e hea d of Ju piter ; on the reverse, a n e a gle bea ring a thu n derbo lt ;the letters A E (A E S) s ign ify tha t th e p iece is bron ze m oney, a n d the five 0 0 0 0 0 tha t it w a sa qu incu n x , th a t is t o s a y, tha t it we ighed 5 oz .

,the a s l ib r a l is , or R om a n pou n d, we ighing

12 oz. R om e n ever stru ck th e qu incu nx ; it wa s fou n d on ly in the South of Ita ly.2 The highest t op of the Si l a , the M onte N ero, is ne a rly six thou sa nd feet high.

24 INTRODUCTION .

these forests, when ce Rome a n d Syr a cu se obt a in ed their tim ber.Bu t the tem pera tu re there is a lw a ys low for a n I ta l i a n cou n try

,

a n d n otwithst a n ding it s posit ion in l a titu de sn ow rem a in sdu rin g six m on ths of the yea r .l Still f a rther to the sou th

, on e

of the su mmits of th e Asprom on te mea su res feet high . F u r

th erm ore,while beyon d Ca po di Leu c a there is . on ly the Ion i a n

Sea , beyon d the l ighthou se of Messin a we com e to E tn a a n d th e

tri a n gle of the Sicil i a n m ou n t a in s, — a n eviden t con tin u a tion of the

cha in of the Apen n in es .

The two slopes of the Apen n in es . d o n ot differ less th a n the

two sides of the Alps.2 On the n a rrow shore which is w a shed

by the Upper, or Adri a tic, Se a , a re rich p a stu re-l a n ds,woody hills

,

sep a ra ted by the deep beds of torren ts , a fla t shore,n o ports

(imp or ta osum Zitu s),3

n o isl a n ds,a n d a storm y se a

,in closed b e

tween two ch a in s of m ou n t a in s,

' l ike a lon g v a lley where th e

win ds a re pen t in , a n d r a ge a t every obst a cle they m eet . On

the western side,on the con tra ry

,th e Apen n in es a re m ore rem ote

from th e sea,a n d gre a t pl a in s

,w a tered by tra n qu i l rivers

,grea t

gu lfs , n a tu r a l h a rbors,n u m erou s isl a n ds, a s well a s a sea u su a lly

c a lm,prom ote a gricu ltu re , n a viga tion ,

a n d comm erce. Hen ce a

popu l a tion of three distin ct a n d opposi te kin ds : m a rin ers a bou t

the ports,hu sb a n dm en in th e pl a in s, a n d shepherds in the m ou n

ta in s ; or , to ca ll them by their historica l n a m es,the It a l iotes a n d

E tru sca n s, Rom e a n d th e L a tin s, the M a rsi a n s a n d the Sa m n ites .4

Y et these pl a in s of Ca m p a n i a , of L a tium , of E tru ria , a n d of

Apu l i a,n otwithst a n ding the ir exten t, cover b u t a very sm a ll p a rt of

1 Bru gu iere , Orog ra phie d c l ’E u rope.

2 H owever, A pul i a , with it s extinct vo lca no , it s grea t pl a in s, it s L a ke Lesin a , it sm a rshes , s itu a ted to th e n orth a n d to the sou th of M ou nt G a rg a n o ; beyon d thi s th e

m a rshy b u t extremely ferti le l a n ds w a tered by the G u lf of T a ra nto ; l a stly, the n um erou sha rbors of thi s co a st, — reprodu ce Som e of th e fe a tu re s of th e we stern co a st.

3 A l l the i sl a n ds of the A dri a tic, with the exception of the u n im porta nt grou p of th e

Trem iti , a re on th e Il lyri a n co a st, where they form a n inextrica ble l a byrinth, th e re sort ofpira tes, who ha ve in a l l tim es levied contribution s on the comm erce of the A dri a tic.

4 A ll the extinct a s we l l a s a ctive volca n oe s a re west of the A pen n ines, except M ou ntVu ltu r in A pu l i a . I t is th ese n umerou s vo lca n oes which h a ve dri ven th e se a f a r from the

foot of th e A penn ines, a n d ha ve en l a rged this co a st, where a s the oppos ite shore , where no t

a s ingle volc a no is t o b e seen , is so n a rrow ; when ce come a lso th ose l a kes in th e m idstof a nc ient cra ters, a nd perha ps a pa rt of th e m a rshes. I t is known tha t in 153 8 th e

Lu crine L a ke w a s cha nged into a m a rsh by a vo lca n icseruption . T he lowest pa rt of

th e Pontine M a rshes is on a l ine join ing Strombol i to the a nc ient cra ters of B olsen a a nd

V ico.

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26 INTR ODUCTION .

the Mirror of Di a n a ; the legen d of Ca ecu l u s bu ildin g a t Pr a en estew a lls of fl a m es the en orm ou s pile of l a v a a n d debris on the s ides

of Mou n t Vu ltu r ;1the isl a n ds risin g from th e sea

, of which Livyspe a ks ; the Ph l egra e a n fields , th e a n cien t eru ption s of the Isl a n d

of Ischia,of Vesu viu s, a n d of E tn a , a n d so m a ny extin ct cr a ters

,

a l l these show th a t the whole of It a ly wa s on ce si tu a ted on a n

imm en se volc a n ic cen tre .

At the presen t tim e the a ctivi ty of the su bterra n e a n fires seem s

to b e con cen tra ted in the m iddle of this l in e,in Vesu viu s

,whose

eru ption s a re a lw a ys thre a ten in g the ch a rmin g town s which in sist

on rem a in in g close to this form id a ble n e ighbor ; in E tn a , which ,in on e of it s con vu lsion s, tore a w a y Sicily from It a ly ;

2a n d in th e

Lip a ri Isl a n ds, situ a ted in th e cen tre of the seism ic sphere of the

Mediterra n e a n . I n th e n orth we fin d on ly cra ters h a lf filled u p,3

— the volca n ic hills of Rom e,of Viterbo

,a n d of St . Ag a th a , n e a r

Sess a ; the hot stre a m s a n d sprin gs of Tu sca n y ; th e fires ; or“ h ot

springs of Pietra,M a l a

,a n d B a riga zzo a n d l a stly those of the

Orto del l’ In fern o ,”the G a rden of Hell .4

Before th e yea r 79 A . D. Vesu viu s a ppea red t o b e a n extin ctvolc a n o ; popu l a tion a n d cu l tu re h a d re a ched it s summ it ; when ,

su dden ly revivin g, i t bu ried Hercu l a n eum , Pom peii , a n d St a b ia e

u n der a n en ormou s m a ss of a shes a n d du st . In the yea r 472 ,a ccordin g t o Procopiu s, su ch wa s the violen ce of the eru ption , th a t

th e a shes were c a rried by the win ds a s f a r a s Con sta n tin ople . I n

1794 on e of these strea ms of in ca n descen t l a v a , which a re som e

tim es e ight miles lon g, from 3 00 t o feet in brea dth , a n d

from twen ty-fou r t o thirty feet in depth, destroyed th e bea u tifu l

town of Torre d el Greco . Ston es were hu rled t o th e dista n ce of

ya rds ; veget a tion f a r a w a y w a s destroyed by mephitic

ga ses ; a n d within a ra diu s of t en m iles people wen t with torches

a t midd a y.

1 T a ta (L eft. su l JVI on te V ol l u re) , con siders this extinct cra ter a s one of the most terrible of pre

-h i storic Ita ly.2 T h e n a me of the town of R hegium (n ow R eggio) , on the Stra it, s ign ifies “ ru pture.3 L a ke s A vernu s , Lu crin e, A lb a n o , N em i , G a b ii, R eg il lo, Sa n G iu l i a no, Bra cci a no , e tc.

E a rth q u a ke s a re sti l l fre qu ent in the n e ighborhood of B e l l u n a a n d B a ssa no.

4 W ith rega rd t o the “ Sa lse ” of the ne ighborhood of P a rm a , R eggio (di E m i l i a ) ,M oden a , a n d B ologn a , which a re a lso ca lled vo lc a n oe s of m u d , we m u st n ot confou n d th emwith tru e vo lca n oe s, a lthou gh they posse ss som e of the fe a tures of vo lca n ic eru ptions. I n

the Sa lse , c a rburetted hydrogen , the infl a mm a ble g a s of the m a rsh es, predom in a tes.

TH E G E OG R A PH Y or ITALY. 27

Humboldt h a s observed th a t the frequ en cy of the eru ption s

v a ries in versely with the si ze of th e volc a n o . Sin ce the cra ter of

Vesu viu s h a s dim in ished , it s eru ption s, thou gh less violen t, h a ve

becom e a lm ost a n n u a l . I t s terrors a re n o m ore , it s cu riosity rem a in s .

Rich tra vellers come from a l l p a rts,a n d th e N e a pol ita n s, who h a ve

short mem ories,while exhum in g Hercu l a n eum a n d Pompeii , sa y of

their vol c a n o ,“ I t is the mou n ta in which vomits gold .

”

I n 1669 the in h a bita n ts of Ca t a n i a h a d l ikewise cea sed to

be lieve in the ol d t a les of the fu ry of E tn a , when a n immen se

strea m of l a v a ca m e down u pon thei r town , p a ssed throu gh th e

w a l ls,a n d form ed in the sea a giga n tic m ole in fron t of the h a rbor

Fortu n a tely this form id a ble volc a n o,whose b a se is 113 m iles in

circumferen ce, from whose su m m it there is a view of 750 m i les

in exten t , a n d which h a s grown ,by excessive piles of l a v a , to th e

he ight of feet,h a s very r a rely a ny eru ption s. Strombol i,

on the con tr a ry,in the Lipa ri Isl a n ds, shows from a f a r b y n ight

it s di a dem of fi re , by d a y a den se m a n tle of sm oke .

E n closed between E tn a,Vesu viu s

,a n d Strom bol i , a s in a tri a ngle

of fi re, Sou thern I t a ly is often sh a ken to her fou n d a tion s. Du rin g

the l a st three cen tu ries n o less th a n a thou s a n d ea rthqu a kes a re

recorded, a s i f th a t p a rt of the pen in su l a were lyin g on a b ed of

m ovin g l a v a . Th a t of 153 81 cleft the soi l n ea r Pozzu oli,a n d there

c a m e forth from i t Mon te Nu ovo , 459 feet high , which filled u p

the Lu crin e L a ke,n ow on ly m a rked by a sm a l l pon d. I n 1783

the whole of Ca l a bri a w a s wrecked,a n d forty thou s a n d people

perished . The se a itsel f sh a red these horrible con vu ls ion s ; it re

ceded , a n d then retu rn ed 42 feet a bove it s level . Sometim es n ew

isl a n ds a ppea r thu s h a ve risen on e a fter a n other the Lip a ri Isl a n ds.I n 183 1 a n E n glish m a n -of-wa r, on the open se a off the coa st of

Sicily, felt som e violen t shocks, a n d i t wa s thou ght sh e h a d grou n ded

it w a s a n ew volc a n o open in g. Some d a ys a fter a n isl a n d a ppea red,

a bou t 2 3 0 feet high . The E n glish a n d the N ea pol ita n s were a l rea dy

dispu tin g it s own ership,wh en the sea took b a ck in a storm the

volc a n o’s gift.2

1 L i vy spe a k s ( iv. 2 1) of n umerou s e a rthqu a kes in Centra l Ita ly a nd in R ome itse lf in4 3 4 . Th e overflowing of the A lba n L a ke du r ing the wa r with the V eien t ine s is perha psd u e to a n event of this k in d.

2 I n the se sa m e pa rts th e ca ble from Ca gli a ri to M a lta w a s twice broken in 1858 ne a r

M a ret imo by su bm a rine eruption s.

28 INTRODUCTION .

For Sou thern I t a ly the d a n ger l ies in su bterra n e a n fires ; forN orthern a n d Wes tern I ta ly i t l ies in w a ter

, either st a gn a n t a n d

pestilen ti a l , or overflowin g a n d in u n d a tin g the cou n try a n d fill in g

u p the ports with sa n d . From Tu rin t o Ven ice,in th e rich pl a in

w a tered by the Po, between th e Apen n in es a n d the Alps

,n ot a

single hill is t o b e seen ; a n d con sequ en tly the torren ts , which ru sh

down from th e be lt of sn owy m ou n t a in s,

expose it t o drea dfu lr a v a ges by their in u n d a tion s .1 These torren ts h a ve

,in deed

,crea ted

the whole pl a in ,by fillin g u p with a llu vi a l deposits the gu lf which

the Adri a tic Se a h a d form ed there,a n d whose existen ce is proved

by the rem a in s of m a rin e a n im a ls fou n d in th e en viron s of Pi a cen z aa n d Mil a n

,

2a s well a s by th e se a -fi sh which still h a u n t it s l a kes .

Sprin gin g from Mou n t Viso,a n d r a pidly swelled by the wa ters

which ru n down from the slopes of th e Alpin e G ia n t,

3' the P0 is th e

grea test river of I ta ly, a n d on e of th e m ost celebra ted in the world .

I f it h a d a free ou tlet in to th e Adri a tic,i t wou ld open t o n a viga tion

a n d comm erce a m a gn ificen t territory . Bu t th e con dition of a l l

rivers flow in g in to sea s which,l ike the Mediterr a n ea n

,h a ve n o

tides,ren ders them u n fit for se a n a viga tion . The It a l i a n torren ts

brin g to th e Po qu a n tities of m u d a n d s a n d,which r a ise it s b ed ,

4

a n d form a t it s m ou th th a t de lt a before which the sea recedes

e a ch yea r a bou t 220 feet .

Adri a,which preceded Ven ice in the comm a n d of th e Adr i a tic,

is a t the presen t d a y m ore th a n 19 m i les in l a n d ; Spin a , a n other

Sic a ggerib u s rupt is q u u in spu rn eu s a m n is,

E xn t opposit a squ e ev icit gurgite m oles,F ertu r in a rv a furen sCum st a b u li s a rm enta tu l it.

VE R G I L : A en eid , i i. 4 9 6 .2 R a m a zzin i bel ieved a lso tha t the who le cou ntry of M oden a covers a subterra n ea n

l a ke. This wou l d '

expl a in the prodigy, whi ch sta rtled th e who le Sen a te, of fish wh ich ca m e

forth from the e a rth u n der th e plou ghsha re of the B o i a n pe a s a nt. N e a r N a rbon ne thereh a d a lso been a subterra n e a n l a ke , where they u sed to fi sh with a l a nce. Cf . Stra bo, IV. i , 6 .They a re fou nd in m a n y pl a ces.

3 T h e he ight of M ou nt V i so is feet. T he tribu t a ries of th e Po : on the rightba nk , the Ta n a ro, the Trebbi a , whose b a nks ha ve been the scen e of gre a t b a ttles ; the R en o,

wh ere w a s the Isl a nd of the Triumv irs ; on th e left b a n k , the Ticino, the A dd a , the l a rgesttributa ry of the Po , the Ogl io, a n d the M incio.

4 N a poleon I. tho u ght of h a vin g a n ew b ed d u g for the Po ; for in it s pre sent sta te imm in ent d a ngers thre a ten

‘

th e cou ntry'

which it tra verses in th e lower pa rt of it s course , where theris in g of it s b ed h a s c a u sed a rise in the leve l of the w a ters, which overflow the

'

su rf a ce of the

cou ntry. (De Pron y, R eclzerchcs su r le Systeme hyd r a u l iq u e d c l ’ l l a l ie.) During th e l a st twocenturies on ly, M . d e Pron y h a s ca lcul a ted the prolonga tion of the de lta by 2 3 0 feet a ye a r.

TH E G E OGRAPH Y OF ITALY. 2 9

grea t sea port, w a s in the tim e of Stra bo 3 0 sta di a from the coa st,

which in form er tim es i t u sed to tou ch ;1a n d Ra ven n a

, the st a tionof the im peri a l fleet

,

is n ow su rrou n ded by

woods a n d m a rshes .

Ven ice , a lso,h a s t oo

lon g su ff ered the ch a n

n els of it s l a goon s t o

b e stopped u p by the

a llu vium of the Bren ta .

The port of Lido,from

which th e fleet which

c a rried forty thou s a nd

Cru sa ders wen t forth,is

n ow on ly n a vig a ble forsm a l l boa ts

,a n d th a t

of A l b iol a is c a lled the“ Porto secco (dry port).

The n orth-e a st ex

t rem ity of I t a ly is su r

rou n ded by a semici rcleof m ou n ta in s

,which

sen d forth to the Adri

a tic sever a l stre a m s,

whose r a vin e-beds a fford

a n ea sy defen ce a g a i nst

a ny in v a sion from the

Ju li a n Alps. Of a l l

these obst a cles the l a st

a n d m ost form ida ble isthe Adige, a broa d a n d

mighty river a t it s very

dep a rtu re from the

m ou n ta in s .

I n pen in su l a r It a lyA S O F A D R I A .

‘3

1 Stra bo, V. i, 7. I t h a d a trea sure-hou se a t De lphi , a nd is con j ectured to b e the presentv il l a ge of Spin a .2 We c a n n ot sa y whether this m ed a l, on e of the be a utifu l bron zes of the French N a tion a l

INTR ODUCTION .

Apen n in es n ea r

R ice Pin e Ma rshes.pl a n t a t ion s. f ores t.

I

Sca lePR E SE N T STA T E OF COA ST T O T H E SOUT H

T H E MOUT HS O F T H E PO .

sea s t o sen d them gre a t rivers .

However , the Arn o is 75

m iles lon g, a n d the Tiber

190 m iles . Bu t this kin g l

of

a n cien t r ivers is sa d t o look‘

a t . I t s w a ters , con st a n t

l y filled with reddish m u d ,

ca n n ot b e u sed for drin k

in g or b a thin g ; a n d in or '

d er t o su pply th e deficien cy,

n umerou s a qu edu cts brou ght

in to Rome the w a ter of

th e n eighborin g m ou n t a in s .

Hen ce on e of th e ch a r a cter

ist ics of Rom a n a rchitectu re

tr ium ph a l a rches a n d mil i

t a ry roa ds for the legion s ;

a m phithea tres a n d a qu edu cts

for th e town s . Moreover

a l l th e w a tercou rses of th e

Apen n in es h a ve th e c a priciou s

Co ll ection , a n d which bea rs'

the h ea d ofa be a rded B a cchu s, be lon gs to A dri aon th e borders of th e P 0 , or to tha t ofP icen um . Th e ch a ra cter of th e threeletters on thi s piece , H A T (for H a dri a ) ,shows tha t it c a n n ot b e e a rl ier tha n th ethird century before ou r er a . T he a s

”

denoted with th e R om a n s th e mon eta ryu n it. I t ou ght ex a ctly to we igh a

R om a n pou n d ; tha t is, ex a ctly twelveou nces, or 288 scruples, —whence the

n a me a s libra l is. The re a l we ight,however, on th e a vera ge , is n ot m oretha n t en ou nces . Th e R om a n s ha vewithou t dou bt kept t o this u sa ge, b ec a u se t en ou nces of bron ze were worthin Ita ly a scru ple of s i lver, or fi g

of a

si lver pou n d. (M omm sen’

s H is t. of

R om a n Coin a ge.)1 T h e A dige , 250 m i les in length,

the B a cch ig l ione 6 2 , th e Brenta 112 ,

the P i a ve 12 9 , th e Ta gl ia men to 3 3 , the

Ison zo 56.

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TH E G E OGRAPH Y OF ITALY. 3 1

ch a ra cter of torren ts : 1 w id e a n d ra pid in sprin g-tim e,they dry u p

in summ er, a n d a re a t a l l tim es a lm ost u seless for n a viga tion ? Bu t

how be a u tifu l a n d pictu resqu e is the scen ery a lon g the ba n ks of

their stre a ms , a n d in the v a lleys where the ir tribu t a ries d escen d !

The w a terf a lls of Tivol i , the m ost ch a rm in g of sights, m a ke a

del ightfu l con tra st t o the wild gra n deu r of the Rom a n ca m p a g n a ;

a n d n e a r Tern i , a t the Ca sc a de de lle M a rm ore , the Vel in o f a llsin to the N er a from a vertic a l height of 540 feet, then ru shes in

c a t a r a cts over the hu ge bowlders which it h a s brou ght down from

the mou n t a in .

A ll the l a kes of Upper I ta ly a re, like those of Switzerl a n d , hol

low v a lleys (L a ke M a ggiore, 3 9 squ a re miles ; Como , 3 5 ; Iseo, 14

G a rd a,

where the stre a m s from the mou n t a in s ha ve a ccum u

l a ted til l they h a ve fou n d in the belt of rocks a n d l a n d the

depression when ce they h a ve m a de the ir esca pe a n d given rise

t o rivers. Those of the pen in su l a,on the con t ra r fi llin g u p

a n cien t cra ters or mou n t a in ba sin s, h a ve n o n a tu ra l ou tlets , a n d

often thre a ten ,a fter lon g r a in s , or the meltin g of the sn ow, t o

in u n da te the su rrou n din g cou n try : su ch were the overflowing of

L a ke Alb a n o, th e sign a l of the down fa ll of Vei i, a n d those of

La ke Fu cin o,which a t tim es rose 54 feet

,a n d h a s l a tely been

dra in ed . There a re others,a s L a ke Bolsen a

, a ki nd of in l a n d sea ,

25 m iles rou n d , a n d the fa m ou s Tra sim en e L a ke , resu ltin g from a n

ea rthqu a ke .

3 The r a in s h a ve filled u p these n a tu r a l ca vities , a n d

a s the n eighbori ng m ou n t a in s a re l ow,they su pply ju st su ffi cien t

w a ter to com pen sa te the loss produ ced by ev a pora tion . There

1 Often a nd often in th e M iddle A ges F lorence — which, by th e wa y, w a s bu i lt on a driedu p m a rsh— w a s n e a r be in g ca rried a w a y by the A rno ; in 1656 R a ven n a wa s flooded by theR on co a nd th e M onton e ; a nd in the l a st centu ry Bo logn a a nd F erra ra ha ve m a ny times bee non th e po int of com in g to blows, a s the Provenca ls a nd A vignonn a is did, on th e su bj ect ofthe Dura nce, t o decide the spot where the R eno shou ld jo in it . Tha n ks to th e n u m erou sc a vities where durin g the w inter the w a ter of its sources stores itse lf , the Tiber does n o t

s in k m u ch a t it s summ er level.2 Other w a tercourses of pen in su l a r Ita ly : a t the west the M a gra , the bou n d a ry of

T u sca n y a nd L igur i a , 3 6 m i les in length ; th e Chi a n a , the N era , a n d the T everone (A n io),tributa ries of th e Tiber ; th e G a rigl i a no (L iris), 70 m iles ; the Vo lturno , 83 ; the Se le ; theL a o : a t the ea st, th e P isa t e ll o (R u bicon ) ; th e M eta uro ; the E sino ; the Tronto, 56 m ilesthe Pe sca ra (A t ern u s) , 83 ; the Sa ngro , 83 ; the Biferno, 58 ; the F ortore, 81 ; a n d the

Ofa nte , 114 .3 There is som e doubt on thi s po int for th e L a ke of B o lsen a , wh ich som e tra ve l lers

(Denn is, E tru ria , i . 514 ) a nd som e le a rned men (Delesse , R evu e d e G e’

ol . 1877) reg a rd a s

a cra ter.

3 2 INTRODUCTION .

h a rdl y issu e from them even in sign ifica n t rivers. L a ke Tra sim en e,

a t it s grea test depth, does n ot rea ch 3 0 feet,a n d it will soon h a ve

the f a te of L a ke Fu cin o .

Sc a l e 2 85 3 0

TH E PR E SE N T CON D I T I ON OF T H E PON T I N E MA R SH E S .

Sta gn a n t w a ters cover a p a rt of the coa st to th e west a n d t o

the sou th : it is the re a lm of fever. The you nger Plin y spea ks of

the u nhe a lthin ess of the'

coa sts of E tru ri a , where the M a r'

emm a ,

which the E tru sc a n s h a d on ce dra in ed , w a s rea ppea rin g. I n L a tium

the sea form erly re a ched to the foot of the mou n ta in s of Seti a

TH E G E OGRAPH Y OF ITALY. 3 3

a n d Privernum ,a bou t 9 miles in from the presen t coa st : 1 from the

tim e of Stra bo the whole coa st from Arde a t o A n t ium w a s m a rshy

a n d u n hea lthy ; a t A n t ium the Pon tin e M a rshes com m en ced . Ca m

p a n i a h a d . the m a rshes of M in tu rn a e a n d of L in t ern um . Fa rther

sou th, the Greeks of Bu xen tum ,of E lea , of Syb a ris , a n d of Met a

pon tum h a d to dig thou s a n ds of c a n a ls to dra in the so il before

pu ttin g in the plou gh . A pu

l ia,a s f a r a s Mou n t Vu ltu r,

h a d been a v a st l a goon , a s

well a s the cou n try a rou n d

the m ou ths of the Po , fu lly

100 m iles sou th of it s m od

ern mou th ? Lom b a rdy a lso

w a s for a lon g tim e a n imCO I N OF B UXE N T UM '

men se m a rsh,

a n d to the E tru sca n s a re a ttribu ted the first em

b a nkm en t s of the Po . The b a n ks of the Treb ia , the territories of

Pa rm a,of Moden a

,a n d of Bologn a , h a d n ot been dra in ed till the

works of A em iliu s Sca u ru s , who du rin g h is cen sorship (109 B .

ma de n a viga ble ca n a ls between Pa rm a a n d Pl a cen ti a .3 There i s

n othin g so ch a rm in g a n d so trea cherou s

a s those pl a in s of the M a l ’ a ri a,

”— a

clea r sky, fertile l a n d, where a n oce a n

of verdu re w a ves u n der the sea -breeze

a l l a rou n d there is c a lm a n d silen ce ;a n a tm osphere m ild a n d w a rm

,which

CO I N OF M E T A PON T UM '

4

seem s to bring life , b u t c a rries dea th .“ I n th e M a remm a

,sa ys

a n Ita lia n proverb,

on e grows rich in a yea r, b u t dies in six

m on ths.”

L a M a remm a ,Di lettevo le mo lto e poco sa n a .

H ow m a ny peoples, on ce flou rishing a n d powerfu l , a re sleepin g

1 De Prony, B eser. H yd rog . et H ist. ( l es l l-"I a m is P on tin s , pp. 73 a n d 176.

2 P liny, H ist. N a t. iii . 2 0 ; Cu vier, Disc. su r les R evolu tion s d a G lobe, p. 216.

8 I n 187 B. C._

the Con su l A em iliu s Lepidu s contin u ed the F l a m in ia n R o a d from R im in ito Bologn a a nd t o P l a centi a , a nd from the nce t o A qu i le i a , e

’

yxvxhovneuos 78; 3M (Stra bo , V.

i. I n the ye a r 160 B .c . the Con su l Cethegu s rece ived a s his province the duty of

dra in ing the Pontin e M a rshes (L i vy, E pitome , x lv i) .4 On the obverse , this m ed a l be a rs th e he a d of the hero Leu c ippe s, the fou nder of

the city ; on the reverse , a n e a r of corn with a bird on the le a f.5 Very de l ightfu l a nd very u nwholesom e.V OL . I . 3

3 4 INTRODUCTION .

here their l a st sleep ! Cities a lso ca n d ie, Opp icl a p osse m a r l

,

sa id the poet R u t il iu s, when con tem pl a tin g , fifteen cen tu ries a go,

th e crum blin g ru in s of a gre a t town of E tru ri a .

To restra in a n d direct thei r stre a m s w a s then for the I t a li a n s

n ot on ly a m ea n s,a s with other people

,of g a in in g l a n ds for a gri

cu ltu re, b u t a qu estion of l ife a n d de a th . These l a kes a t the

summ it of m ou n t a in s , these rivers overflowing their b a n ks every

sprin g, or ch a n gin g the ir beds,these m a rshes , which u n der a n

I ta l i a n su n so qu ickly breed the pl a gu e,com pelled them t o con

st a n t e fforts . When ever they stopped, a l l th a t they h a d con qu ered

with so m u ch trou ble reverted to it s pristin e st a te .l To—d a y B a i

’

a e,

the delightfu l retre a t of the Rom a n n obles ; P a estum ,with it s

fields of roses so m u ch be loved by Ovid,— tep iclt

°

rosa ria P a es ti ;

rich Ca pu a , Cum a e, which w a s on ce th e m ost im port a n t city of

I ta ly, Syb a ris, which wa s the m ost volu ptu ou s , a re in the m idst of

st a gn a n t a n d fetid w a ters, in a fever-breeding pl a in,

“ where the

deca yin g soil con sum es m ore m en th a n it ca n feed .” Pestilen ti a lmia sma , so litu de, a n d silen ce h a ve a lso con qu ered the shores of

the Gu lf of T a r a n to , on ce covered with so m a ny town s ; leprosy

a n d eleph a n ti a sis in Apu l i a a n d Ca l a bria exhibit the hideous d is

ea ses of the in tertropica l region s tra versed by “u n ta m ed w a ters .”

I n Tu sc a ny 120 m iles of coa st-l in e,i n L a tium,82 squ a re m iles of

l a n d , h a ve been a b a n don ed t o poison ou s influ en ces. Here the

wr a th of m a n h a s a ided th a t of N a tu re . Rom e h a d ru in ed E truria

a n d exterm in a ted the Volsci a n s . Bu t w a ter in v a ded the d epopu

l a ted cou n try ; the m a l a ri a , exten din g gra du a lly f rom Pis a to T er

r a cin a,re a ched Rom e herself ; a n d the E tern a l City expi a tes n ow,

in the m idst of h er w a stes a n d her u nhea lthy clim a te, the m erciless

w a r w a ged by h er legion s ? At the poin t where b u t l a tely the

M a remm a of Tu sca ny a n d th a t of the Sta tes of the Chu rch join ,

th e sa ddest of sol itu des m eets the eye : n ot a hu t n or a tree t o

b e seen , b u t hu ge fields of a sphodel , — the flower of the tom b. On e

d a y, a bou t fifty yea rs a go , a v a u lt, hidden u n der the gra ss, ga ve

w a y u n der the hea vy trea d of a n ox : i t wa s a fu n era l cha m ber.

E xca v a tion s were prosecu ted . I n a l ittle tim e v a ses a n d

1 M ura tori (R er. I ta l . Scrip t. n . 6 9 1, a nd A n t. I t a l . d iss. 2 1) h a s shown how qu ickly thedra ined l a nds becom e m a rshy a ga in, a s soon a s cu lti v a tion is su spen ded.

2 Cicero, d e R ep . i i . 6 , s a id of R ome : “ Locum in regione pestilenti sa l u b rem ;

a nd Li vy, v. 54 , “s a l u b err imos co lles.”

TH E G E OGRAPH Y OF ITALY. 3 5

other obj ects of a rt were discovered ,1a n d E tru sca n civiliz a tion w a s

recla imed from oblivion .

The n a me of the rich city which h a d bu ried so m a ny m a rvels

in it s tombs is n ot men tion ed by a ny of the Rom a n histori a n s,a n d m u st h a ve rem a in ed u n kn own b u t for a n in scription which

m en tion ed its defea t a n d the trium ph of it s con qu eror ? The V u l

cien tes h a d fou ght the l a st b a ttle for E tru sc a n l iberty . H ow he a vy

were the h a n ds of Rom e a n d of Time, a n d how m a ny flou rishin g

cities they h a ve destroyed ! Bu t a ga in ,how m a ny won ders does

the I ta li a n soi l reserve for th e fu tu re, when the m a l a ri a is expelled ,a n d the town s i t h a s sl a in sh a l l de l iver u p thei r secrets .3

Borderin g on th e grea t Alps, a n d rea chin g to Africa , I t a ly h a s

every clim a te, a n d ca n h a ve a l l kin ds of cu ltu re . I n this dou ble

respect sh e is divided in to fou r region s : the Va lley of the Po,the

s10 pes of the Apen n in es tu rn ed tow a rds the Tu sc a n Sea , th e pl a in s

of the Pen in su l a , a n d th e two poin ts in which it term in a tes .4

1 M . N o'

el d es Vergers h a s n a rra ted with e lo q u ence the em otion he felt when , in a n

exca v a tion tha t he m a de in the sa m e n ecropo l is of Vu lci A t the l a st blow of the pick , thestone which formed the entra nce t o th e crypt ga ve w a y, a nd th e l i ght of the torches i llum in ed v a u lts where nothing h a d for more tha n twenty centuries di sturbed d a rkn ess a n d

sil ence. E verything wa s sti l l in the sa me sta te a s on the d a y when th e entra nce h a d beenw a ll ed u p, a n d a ncient E truri a a rose to ou r view in th e d a ys of her splen dor. On the irfu nera l cou ches w a rriors, covered with the ir a rmor, seemed to b e restin g a fter th e b a ttlesthey h a d fou ght with the R om a n s or with ou r a ncestors , the G a u ls ; form s, dresses, stu ff s,a nd colors were visible for a few m in utes ; then a l l v a n ished a s th e outer a ir pen etra ted intothe crypt, where ou r fl ickering torches thre a ten ed a t first t o b e extin gu i shed. I t wa s a

ca lling u p of the p a st which l a sted n o t even th e brief m oment of a dre a m , a nd p a ssed a w a y,a s it were, to pu n ish u s for our ra sh curios ity.

Like th a t long-buried body of the kingF ou nd lyin g with h is urn s a nd orn a m ents ,W hich , a t a tou ch of light, a n a ir of hea venSlipped into a shes , a nd wa s fou nd no m ore .

T E N NYSON Aylmer’s F ield ]Whi le these fra i l rem a ins crumbled into du st in conta ct with the a ir , the a tmosphere beca m eclea rer. We then

'

s a w ou rse lves surrou n ded by a n other popu l a tion d u e to th e a rtists of

E truri a . M u ra l pa intings a dorned the crypt a l l rou nd , a nd seemed t o come to life with th efl a sh of ou r torch es.”

2 F a s t. Ca p it., a d a n n . 473 . Triumph of T.Corunca n iu s in 280 for his v ictories over theV u lcien tes a n d V ol sin ien ses .

8 Those u nhe a lthy cou ntries, wh ere a thick vegeta tion covers the ru in s, protect so we lla ga in st curios ity even th e m onuments which a re there , tha t a centur y a go the temples of

P a estum were not known , a n d a lso a few ye a rs a go, the cu riou s necropol is of Ca ste l d ’ A sso,of N orchia

,a nd of Soa n a .

4 I n a nti qu ity Ita ly a bou nded more in woods a nd m a rshes, a n d the win ter w a s co lder.[This is proved, for historica l t im es, not on ly by a llu sion s l ike l -l or a ce ’

s“ V ides u t a lta stet

n i ve ca n didum Sor a cte ,”e tc .

, b u t by th e rese a rches of H ehn in h is wel l-kn own work on the

spre a d of domestic a n im a ls a n d pl a nts in a ntiqu ity.— E d .]

3 0 INTRODUCTION .

Ca l a bri a,Apu l i a

,a n d p a rt of the coa st

.

of th e Abru zzi h a ve

a lm ost the sky a n d the produ ction s of Afric a : a cl im a te clea r a n d

dry,b u t scorching ; the p a lm -tree

,which a t Reggio som etim es

ripen s it s fru it, th e a loes,the m edl a r , the ora n ge

,a n d th e lem on ;

on the coa st the ol ives,which a re the sou rce

,a s form erly

,of th e

we a lth of th e cou n try ; f a rther u p, for two thou sa n d feet, forests

of chestn u t-trees coverin g a p a rt of the Sil a . Bu t from Pis a to

the m iddle of Ca m p a n i a,between the sea a n d th e foot of th e m ou n

t a in s,the m a l a ri a reign s ; the soi l is a b a n don ed to herdsm en

,a n d

a l thou gh very fertile , w a its for the l a b or‘

of m a n t o produ ce it s ol d

retu rn . Alrea dy in Tu sc a ny ten a n t-fa rmin g is drivin g b a ck th e

M a remm a,a n d the l a n d is peopled a ga in wherever it is dra in ed .

Above these pl a in s,on the first slopes of the Apen n in es, from

Proven ce to Ca l a bri a , there exten ds the district of the olive, the

mu lberry—tree,the a rbu tu s, th e m yrtle , the l a u rel, a n d the vin e .

This l a tter grows so freely th a t it

m a y b e seen rea chin g the t op of th e

popl a rs which su pport it ; a n d in the

tim e of Pliny a sta tu e of Ju piter

u sed t o b e shown a t Popu lon i a c a rvedin a vin e-tru n k . F a rther u p, on th e

m ou n t a in ,com e chestn u t-trees, o a ks,

a n d elm s then fi r-trees a n d l a rch . Th e su mmer sn ow a n d th e

freezin g win d rem in d on e of Switzerl a n d, b u t for the flood of

d a zzl in g light from the I t a l i a n sky.

Bu t it is in th e Va lley of the Po , when comin g down from the

Alps,th a t th e tr a veller receives h is first a n d m ost ple a sa n t im

press ion s . From Tu rin,a s f a r a s Mil a n ,

h e keeps in view the l in e

of the gl a ciers,which the setting su n colors with brill i a n t tin ts

of rose a n d pu rple , a n d m a kes them glitter l ike a m a gn ificen t con

fla gr a t ion spre a din g a lon g the sides a n d on the summ its of th e

m ou n t a in s . I n spite of th e vicin ity of th e perpetu a l sn ow,the cold

does n ot descen d f a r on this r a pid slope ; a n d when th e su n bu rsts

forth in the imm en se a m phithea tre of the Va l ley of th e Po, it s

r a ys , a rrested a n d reflected by th e w a ll of the Alps , r a ise the t em

com or POPULON I A .1

1 On the obverse , the hea d of -M inerv a with helmet ; on the reverse , a crescent a n d a

sta r with the word P V P L V written from right to left in E tru sca n cha ra cters. P up l u wa s

the comm encem ent of the n a m e Popu lon i a .

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TH E G E OGRAPH Y OF ITALY. 57

pera tu re, a n d scorchin g hea t su cceeds su dden ly the cold a ir of the

lofty summ its . Bu t the n um ber of the strea m s,the ra pid ity of

their cou rses, the direction of the v a lley, which open s on the Adri

a tic a n d receives a l l ‘ it s breezes, cool th e a tm osphere, a n d give

Lom b a rdy a m ost delightfu l clim a te . Th e in exh a u stible ferti lity

of the soil , en riched by the deposits of so m a n y rivers , ca u ses

everywhere a very rich veget a tion . I n on e n ight, it is sa id, gra ss

which h a s been cu t shoots u p a fresh ;1a n d the la n d, which n o

cu ltu re exh a u sts, n ever lies f a llow .

Su ch is the gen era l a spect of Ita ly, — a l a n d of con tin u a l con

t r a st s : pl a in s a n d m ou n t a in s,sn ow a n d scorchin g he a t , dry a n d

r a gin g torren ts, lim pid l a kes form ed in a n cien t cr a ters , a n d pesti

l en t ia l m a rshes con cea lin g ben e a th the herb a ge on ce popu lou s cities .

At every step,

a con tr a st : the veget a tion of Af ric a a t the foot of

the Apen n in es ; on their summits the veget a tion of the N orth .

Here, u n der the clea rest sky, the m a l a ri a,brin gin g de a th in on e

n ight to the sleepin g tra veller ; there, l a n ds of in exh a u stible fer

t il ity,2

a n d a bove, the volca n o with it s thre a ten in g l a v a . E lse

where,in the sp a ce of a few lea gu es , s ixty-n in e cra ters a n d three

en tom bed town s. At the n orth, rivers which in u n da te th e l a n ds

a n d repel the sea ; a t the sou th , ea rthqu a kes open in g u n fa thom a ble

depths or overthrowing . mou n t a in s . E very clim a te,every property

of the soil combin ed,— in short

,a redu ced pictu re of the a n cien t

world,

3

yet with it s n a tu r a l pecu l i a rities stron gly m a rked .

1 “ E t qu a ntum longis ca rpent a rm enta d ieb u sE x igu a ta ntum gel id u s ros n octe repon e t .

”

VE R G I L : G eorg ics, ii . 2 0 1.Va rro ( ( l e R e ru st. i. 7) sa id m ore pros a ica ll y, “ I n the pl a in of R ose a le t fa l l a sta ke ,to-m orrow it is hidden in th e gra ss.

2 I n E truri a a nd in some other p a rts of Ita ly the l a n d produ ced 15—fo ld, a n d e lsewhere 10-fold (Va rro, d e R e ru st. i . Th e fertil ity of the grou n d of Syb a ris, like tha tof Ca mpa n i a , w a s proverbi a l : it u sed t o b e sa id tha t it returned 100-fold. [A nd even n ow

the tra ve l ler is delighted with th e su dden displ a y of rich pa stu re in the V a l ley of the Cra ti ,a nd with the splen did herds of ca ttle ro a m ing throu gh it s m e a dows a nd forests. N owherein Southern Ita ly is there su ch verdure — E el ]

3 T h is ca n b e m a inta ined without a ny system a tic survey. H a s n ot Ita ly the su n of

A fric a ; the v a lleys a n d m ou nta in s of Greece a nd Sp a in ; th e thick forests, the pl a in s, them a rshes of G a u l ; in dented co a sts a nd ha rbors like A s i a M in or ; a nd even th e v a l ley of

th e N i le in tha t of th e Po ? Both a re the produ ct of these ri vers , with the ir de lta , the irl a goon s, a nd th e ir gre a t m a ritime c ities, A dri a or Ven ice , Al ex a ndri a or Da m iet t a ,

'

a ccord

ing to the a ge.“ The Ven eti ,” s a ys Stra bo (V . i . “ h a d con stru cted in the ir l a goon s ,

ca n a ls a nd dikes like those of Lower E gypt.” I n a nother pa ssa ge R a ven n a reca l ls t o h imA lex a n dri a . See in the fourth cha pter of th e six th book the diff erent ca u ses he a ssign s for

3 8 INTRODUCTION .

I n th e m idst of this n a tu re , ca priciou s a n d fickle,b u t every

where en ergetic for good a s for evil,there a ppea r peoples whose

diversity of origin will b e st a ted in th e followin g p a ges ; b u t we

kn ow a lre a dy,by the stu dy of the It a li a n soil , th a t the popu

l a tion,pl a ced in con di tion s of territory a n d clim a te v a ryin g with

e a ch ca n ton , will n ot b e m ou lded by a ny on e of those physica l

in flu en ces whose a ction , a lw a ys the sa m e,produ ced civil iz a tion s

u n i form a n d im perviou s t o extern a l influ en ces .

I n this gen era l description of Ita ly we h a ve on ly gl a n ced i n

p a ssin g a t th e hills of Rom e,which

,n otwithsta n din g their m odest

si ze , su rp a ss in ren ow n th e prou dest summ its of the world . They

deserve ca refu l stu dy. The ea rth is a gre a t book,wherein scien ce

stu dies revolu tion s bes ide which those of m a n a re b u t child’

s-pl a y.

When the geologist exa m in es th e soil of Rom e a n d it s environ s,he fin ds i t form ed , l ike the rest of th e pen in su l a

,from the two

fold a ction of volca n oes a n d w a ter. Rem a in s h a ve there been

fou n d of th e elepha n t, the m a stodon,th e rhin oceros, a n d the hip

popot a m u s,— proving th a t a t a certa in period of geologica l time

L a tium form ed a p a rt of a v a st con tin en t with a n Africa n t em

pera t u re, a n d on e in which grea t rivers r a n throu gh v a st pl a in s .

At a n other epoch,when the gla ciers descen ded so f a r in to the

V a lley of the Po th a t the ir m or a in es were n ot 'f a r from the Adri

a tic,the Tu sc a n Se a covered the Rom a n pl a in . I t form ed in it a

semicircu l a r gu lf,of which Sora ct e a n d the Prom on tory of Circei

were the h ea d l a n d s .l

At the bottom of this prim ordi a l sea volca n oes bu rst forth ,a n d the ir liqu id la v a wa s deposited by the w a ter in horizon ta l

beds,

“which,a t the presen t d a y, from Rom e a s f a r a s Ra dicofa n i,

a re fou n d m in gled with orga n ic rem a in s. When this l a v a h a s

b ecom e sol idified by tim e a n d the a ction of w a ter, i t becomes the

pep em’

n o,the close-gr a in ed tuf o of which Rom e, both u n der th e

K in gs a n d the R epu blic, w a s bu ilt . When the l a v a rem a in s in a

the su periority of Ita ly. I t h a s even been esta blished tha t a l l the geo logica l form a tion sa re represented in Ita ly ; a nd a lth ou gh m in in g opera tion s a re not wel l prosecuted, they giverise to a n a n nu a l exporta tion of ton s of the v a lu e of 10 0 m i ll ion s (of fra ncs) .

1 I t is con s idered th a t the Ca mpa gn a di R om a from Civ ita Vecchi a to Terra cin a is

9 1 m i les in length, a nd tha t from the M ed iterra ne a n t o the mou nta in s it s bre a dth is m oretha n 2 7 m i les. A s f a r in l a nd a s R om e , the m ou nta in s a re in som e pa rts dista nt on lyfrom three to five m iles. The A n io fa l ls into the T iber a t less tha n three m il es’ di sta ncefrom R om e .

TH E G E OGRA PH Y OF ITALY. 3 9

gra nu lou s sta te i t produ ces the p ozzol a n a , from which wa s m a de

the ten a ciou s cemen t of the Rom a n w a lls . Of this p ozzol a n a the

Seven Hil l s, on the left b a n k, a re formed . The Ca pitol a lon e is

d up e; de l'

E ta t -Ma j vr Ant-id l in g. Gr a vépa r l t h a rd.1

S ca l e

mm .

E XT I N CT V OLCA N OE S A BOUT A LBA .

a lmost en tirely composed of a porou s tuf o ; a m ore sol id su bst a n ceseem ed n eeded for the b i l l which w a s destin ed to b e the thron eof the world .1

When th e form id a ble volca n oes of the Alb a n Hills h a d l ifted1 A mp

‘

ere , L ’

H istoire R om a in e at R ome, i. 8.

40 INTRODUCTION

L a t ium a bove the sea , th e l a v a which ca me from their cr a ters

sprea d over the s ides of the mou n t a in ,a n d on e of the hot strea m s

descen ded a cross the n ew pl a in a s f a r a s Ca po di Bove .1 From

this l a v a , when con solid a ted, Rom e procu red the fla gst on es with

which sh e p a ved the Appi a n Roa d , a n d which rem a in t o this d a y.

The Rom a n c a m p a gn a , formed in the m idst of w a ters, whose

gen tle tm du l a t ion s or level su rf a ce it reprodu ces in tu rn , cha n ged

a fterw a rd by th e volca n oes of th e Alb a n Hills, is fu rrowed by

little hills a n d low grou n d,“a humpy soi l, s a id Mon t a ign e, whose

CA T T LE OF T H E R OM A N CA MPA G N A .

c a vities a re filled with fresh w a ter . On ce they were lim pid l a kes

n ow they a re u nhe a lthy pools ;2

a n d a lea rn ed m a n,Brocchi ,

a ttribu tes to the influ en ce of the a ria ca ttiva the gloom y, violen t,

1 Brocchi , Del lo st a to fi sico d e l su olo d i R om a . Ca po di B ove is th e pa rt of th e

A ppi a n R oa d wh ere is :th e tomb of Ca ec i l i a M ete ll a , the frieze of which be a rs he a ds of

oxen , in rem em bra n ce of th e sa crifices m a de before the tomb.2 The se a son of [m a l a ri a ] fever [typhoid, n ow so comm on , is a pp a rently a n ew scourge

to the city, a ri sing from m odern ca u ses — E d ] exten ds from Ju n e to October. H ora ceespeci a lly dre a ded th e a u tum n ( 0 d . I I . x i v. 15 ; S a t. I I . vi . 19 : see a lso E 1) . I. v i i.M . Col in , th e chief physici a n of th e F ren ch a rmy, a ttribu te s th e m a l a ri a in the Ca mpa gn adi R om a less to th e e ffluvi a of the m a rshes , s ince the Pontin e M a rshes d o n ot re a ch so f a r ,

th a n to the exh a l a tion s from a so i l , very fertile a n d u nti l led , u n der a sky of fiery he a tdurin g the d a y-time , from Ju ly t o October, a n d compa ra tively very m oist a nd co ld duringthe n ight. (T r a ite

'

cl es fi evres in termitten tes,

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42 IN TRODUCTION .

deep l a ke on ce covered the site of Rom e ; a n d on the Pin ci a n,

E squ i lin e, Aven tin e, a n d Ca pitolin e Hills,

flu vi a l shells a re fou n d

13 0 t o 160 feet a bove the presen t Tiber.

The river , b a rred prob a bly by the Hills of Decim o, h a d a ccum u l a ted it s w a ters behin d th a t obst a cle

,which a t length it su c

ceed ed in sweepin g a w a y.

M a n a ppea red e a rly on this soil . I n the post-terti a ry stra t a of

the b a sin of Rome hi s rem a in s a re fou n d,a n d som e ou t or polished

flin t s a long with the bon es of the Corvu s

elep lza s , of the rein deer, a n d of the.

B os p ri

m ig en iu s? Im plem en ts of ston e were fol

lowed, a s everywhere, by im plemen ts of

bron ze . M a n, then a rm ed

, w a s a ble to con

ten d a ga in st the fa u n a, a n d a fterw a rd a ga in st

N a tu re herself . Bu t m a ny cen tu ries p a ssed

before his e fforts produ ced a ny u sefu l effects.

I n th e first d a ys of Rom e -th e Forum,

the Ca m pu s M a rt in s,th e V el a b ru m

,the v a l

l ey between the Aven tin e a n d the P a l a tin eHills ( V a l l is M urci a ), which u ltim a tely th e

l

iiif n

l

diiffio

zifigfggxl

f Circu s M a xim u s filled up en tirely,— in short

,

a l l the l ow-lyin g l a n ds a t the foot of the

Seven Hills, —were m a rsh l a n ds,where the river often retu rn ed

,

a n d where it still retu rn s . I t is from a slou gh th a t the most

bea u tifu l city in the world w a s destin ed to rise .

F or the pu rpose of self -defen ce the Ca pitolin e a n d Aven tin e

were secu re refu ges ; b u t in order t o live a n d sprea d, she m u st

descen d from the hills a n d overcom e th e w a n derin g or st a gn a n t

w a ters over which a lrea dy the m a l a ri a bega n t o hover . Feverh a d e a rly a n a lt a r on the P a l a tin e, where they a ttem pted, by

pr a yer a n d sa crifices, t o ch a rm a w a y it s f a t a l influ en ce .3 Bu t

thou gh su perstitiou s,the people were a lso en ergetic. Wh a t : they

1 B u l l . d e l’

I n st. a rclt ., 1867, p. 4 , a n d th e A tl a s, vi i i. 3 8. M . Ca pe llin i believes he h a sfou n d qu ite recently ( 1870 ) in T u sca ny tra ces of Pl iocen e m a n .

2 A tl a s ( l e l’

I n s t. a rclzc'

ol ., vi i i . 3 6 .8 F or the L a tin s the F ever w a s the G od F eb ru u s, t o whom w a s con secra ted the month

of F ebru a ry, during wh ich pu rifica tory s a crifices were offered ; hen ce th e verb f eb ru a re, t opurify. [Y et su re ly it seem s stra n ge tha t so he a lthy a month shou ld b e chosen for thispurpose. I t m a y b e con nected with ceremon ies a t the en d of the o ld ye a r, when t he 1st

of M a rch wa s N ew Ye a r’s Da y.— E d .]

TH E G E OGRAPH Y OF ITALY. 4 3

a sked from the gods they were rea dy t o dem a n d from their toil ;a n d this stru ggle a g a in st N a tu re prep a red the w a y for the stru ggle

a ga in st m en . I n th is work of im provin g the Rom a n soil they

A R T I CLE S I N T E R R A -COTT A FOUN D I N T H E E N V I R ON S OF R OME .1

were helped by the E tru sc a n s, who kn ew how t o dr a in m a rshy

pl a in s a n d to bu ild imperish a ble mon u m en ts for the lea din g a w a yof su bter ra n ea n w a ters . Th e en tra n ce of E tru sca n a rt in to Rom e

wa s a geogra phica l n ecessity, a s a lso w a s the l a boriou s a n d rou gh

lif e of the. first Rom a n s. With a rt m a ny a lso of the civil a n d

religiou s in stitu tion s of E tru ri a mi gr a ted to Rome .

1 A tl a s d e l’I nst. a rche’ol ., v iii . 3 7.

INTRODUCTION .

THE ANCIENT POPULATION OP ITA LY— PE L ASGIANS AND UMBR IANS.

TALY h a s n ot, l ike Fr a n ce , E ngl a n d , Germ a ny , a n d Sc a n din a vi a ,

preserved n um erou s tr a ces of a r a ce a n terior to the epoch inwhich m a n h a d lea rn ed to fu rrow the ea rth with im plem en ts of

m et a l ; a t lea st , a s f a r a s ou r resea rches h a ve rea ched,it seem s

to h a ve possessed on ly in cert a in spots wha t h a s been ca lled the

a g e of ston e .

1 Sep a ra ted from the rest of th e world by the A lpsa n d th e se a , i t w a s peopled la ter tha n the v a st cou n tries of e a sy

a ccess which l ie on the ea st , n orth , a n d west of it s m ou n t a in s .

Bu t when these regions were on ce in h a bited Ita ly beca m e th e

cou n try of E u rope where the gre a test n umber of f oreign ra ces

h a ve m et together . All the su rrou n din g n a tion s con tribu ted their

sh a re in form in g the popu la tion ; a n d ea ch revolu tion which d is

tu rb ed them produ ced a n ew people . The Sica n ia n s were formerly

derived from Sp a in ; n ow they a re iden tified with the Pel a sgicSicu l i ? Bu t from G a u l ca m e th e Ligu ri a n s

,the Sen on i a n

,the

Boi a n,the I n su b ria n

,a n d the Cen om a n i a n Celts ; from the gre a t

Alps,th e E tru sc a n s ; from th e Ju li a n Alps, th e Ven eti ; from the

e a stern co a st of the Adri a tic Se a s a n d from the Peloponn esu sm a ny I llyri a n a n d Pel a sgic tribes ; from Greece , those Hellen ic

tribes which c a m e in so grea t n um bers in to Sou thern I ta ly a s t o

give t o th a t p a rt the n a m e of Grea t Greece ; from Asi a Min or,the Lydi a n Pela sgi a n s ; l a stly, from the coa sts of Syri a a n d Africa ,the m ore certa in colon ies which Tyre a n d Ca rth a ge est a blished in

the two grea t Ita li a n isla n ds .

3 A n d if we were to tru st t o the

p a triotic pride of on e of her histori a n s ,4 E tru ri a wou ld owe to

1 However, prehi storic discoveries occur d a i ly in the Ca mpa gn a di R om a , in T u sca n y,a n d from th e V a l te l ine , a s f a r a s Leu ca , a t th e extrem ity of Ita ly, where M . Botti Uldericoh a s di scovered grottoes which ha ve served a s she lters for prim itive m a n .

2 Cf . B en loew, E tu d es A lb a n a -lses.3[We m a y a d d a t le a st A gyl l a (Ca ere) , in E truri a , whose n a m e , a s M omm sen h a s

shown , decl a re s it s origin — B 01]4 M ic a l i , S ta rl a d eg l i a n tichi popol i I t a l i a n i, i. 14 2 ; cf. F réret , R echerches su r 1

’origine

et l’

histoire d es diff érents peu ples d ’

I t a lie,”H ist. cl e l

’A ca d . a les insen , xvii . 72—114.

PE LASG IAN S A ND UM BRIAN S. 45

E gypt a n d the dist a n t E a st her rel igiou s creeds, her a rts, a n d h er

s a cerdot a l governm en t .

It a ly w a s,therefore , a comm on a sylum for a l l the w a n derers of

the a n cien t world . All brou ght in with them thei r l a n gu a ge a n d

their cu stom s ; m a ny preserved their n a tive ch a ra cter a n d their

indepen den ce , u n til from the m idst of them there shou ld a rise a

city which form ed a t the ir cost her popu l a tion ,her l a ws, a n d

her religion ,— Rom e herse lf , the a sylum of a l l r a ces a n d of a l l

Ita li a n civil iz a tion s !1

All the I ta l i a n ra ces belonged t o the grea t Indo-E u ropea n

f a m il y,which ca me from the high region s of Cen tr a l As ia a n d

gra du a lly peopled a p a rt of Western Asi a a n d the whole of

E u rope . When they pen etra ted in to the pen in su l a , they h a d a lre a dy

a rrived a t tha t degree of civiliz a tion which stood midwa y between

the p a stora l , or n om a d, a n d the

a gricu ltu r a l , or settled , st a te . The

m ost a n cien t geogr a phica l n a m es

a re a proof of this : Oen ot ria w a s

the cou n try of the vin e ; It a ly

(r itu lu s), th a t of oxen ; the Opiei

m ea n t “ l a borers of the fiel d s ;”

a n d the first mea n s of excha n gewere c a ttle , p eca s ,

— when ce p ecu n ia . Syba ris , l ike Bu xen tum ,

seem s t o h a ve wished t o preserve this remem bra n ce . On e of her

coin s be a rs on both sides th e ima ge of a n ox .2

The m ost a n cien t of these n a tion s seem t o h a ve belon ged to

CO I N OF SY BA R I S.

1 We m u st s a y th a t these qu estion s of origin a nd re l a tion ship a re a mon g the historica lcontroversies which a re sti ll be ing a rgu ed everv d a y. T he evidence for a nd a g a in st is so

m ixed, tha t both s ides ca n a ccum u l a te contra ry q u ota tion s a nd interpreta tion s, so tha t thi sm a ss o f dou btfu l proofs ra ther fa tigu e s tha n en lighten s the m ind. N ieb uhr sa ys , a s reg a rdson e of the se people s : “Wha t a bu ses of im a gin a tion were no t indu lged in with rega rd t o th e

mysteries a nd wisdom of the Pe l a sgi a n s ! The ir very n a me is a n a bom in a tion t o the truthfu la nd seriou s hi stori a n . I t is this disgu st which kept m e from m a k in g a ny genera l references totha t people , lest I m ight open the floodg a tes for a new de lu ge o f writin g a bout thi s wretchedsu bject.” B u t l a ter on he him self cou ld not res ist “ tha t. inclin a tion which led him ,

l ike m osto f hi s cou ntrym en , t o gu ess ou t lost history ; ” a nd the Pe l a sgi a n s obta in ed from him sixtypa ges. T he m o st recent a nd com plete work on the a nc ient popu l a tion s of Ita ly is tha t ofSchwegler (R omisclze G esclriclt te, i . 154 [A v a lu a ble book , obscured, like ou r Thirlw a ll ,by th e bril l i a ncy of a m ore pa ss ion a te , b u t less tru stworthy, ri v a l. E d .]

2 Som e Sa mn ite co in s, stru ck during the Soci a l W a r , ha ve a lso V itel a in scribed in pl a ceof I t a l ia . I t is perha ps in a letter of Decim u s Brutu s to Cicero (F a m. x i. 20) tha t the e a rl iestm ention is m a de of the n a me of Ita ly a s a ppli ed to th e entire pen in su l a a s f a r a s the A lps.

46 INTRODUCTION .

the mysteriou s r a ce of the Pel a sgi a n s,1 whom on e fin ds con fu sedly

a t the comm en cem en t of so m a ny histories,thou gh there is n othin g

left of i t b u t it s n a m e a n d its in destru ctible bu ildin gs. After

h a vin g ca rried it s in du stry a n d a ctivity in to Greece a n d it s isl a n ds,

in to M a cedon ia a n d E piru s , in to I t a ly, a n d perh a ps in to Sp a in,

the r a ce disa ppea red , pu rsu ed , a ccording to the a n cien t legen d,by

the cele sti a l powers, a n d su fferin g en dless m isfortu n es .

At the comm en cem en t of historic tim es n othin g b u t u n certa in

rem a in s of th a t grea t people a re fou n d , a s we discover , in the

bosom of the ea rth , the m u til a ted rem a in s of prim itive cre a tion s .

I t is a whole bu ried world,

— a civil iza tion a rrested,

a n d then

c a lumn i a ted by the victoriou s tribes a fter they h a ve destroyed it .

Their a lt a rs were st a in ed , they sa y, with the blood of hum a n

s a crifices , a n d , in a vow, they offered a tithe of their children .

The priests d irected a t their will the clou ds a n d tem pests ; they

summ on ed the sn ow a n d the b a il,a n d by their m a gic power they

ch a nged the form of objects ; they were a cqu a in ted with f a t a l

ch a rm s ; they fa scin a ted m en a n d pl a n ts by thei r gl a n ce ; on

a n im a ls a n d on trees they pou red the dea dly w a ter of the Styx ;they kn ew how t o he a l , a n d how t o com pose su btle poison s.

Thu s in the mythologies of the N orth the Goths h a ve con sign ed

th e Finn s, whom they h a d dispossessed, to the extrem ities of the

ea rth u n der the form s of in du striou s dw a rfs a n d of form id a ble

m a gici a n s . Like the Pel a sgia n s , the Fin n s open min es a n d work

met a ls ; a n d it is they who forge for the Odin ic gods the in vin cible

sh a ckles of the wolf Fen ris, a s V u lca n , the Pela sgic god , h a d

m a de , for n ew d ivin ities a lso,the cha in s of Prometheu s .

I t seems, then ,tha t there were a t the n orth a n d a t the sou th

of E u rope two gre a t n a tion s who ' kn ew th e ea rl iest a rts , a nd com

m en ced this“

stru ggle a ga in st phys ica l n a tu re which ou r m odern

civil iz a tion con tin u es with so mu ch su ccess . Bu t both Were

su bdu ed a n d cu rsed a fter their defea t by the w a rl ike tribes,who looked u pon work a s servile l a bor, a n d m a de sl a very the l a w

of the a n cien t world .

I n It a ly, where their first colon ies settled a t a rem ote epoch ,the Pel a sgi a n s covered , u nder v a riou s n a m es, the grea ter p a rt of

the coa st . At the n orth, in the l ow pl a in s of the Po, a n d a lon g

1 “ Pe l a sgi prim i I t a li a m t en u isse perh ib en tu r (Serv. in A en . v iii.

PE LA SG I C R E M A I N S.

l . B ovia num . 2 . V ol a terra e. 3 . Lista . 4 . O l iva n o. 5. V e i i . 6 . Sig n ia . 7. A rpin um .

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

50 INTR ODUCTION .

which w a s their port , T a rqu in ii, which pl a yed so gre a t a p a rt inRom a n history

,a n d perh a ps , a t the m ou th of the Arn o

, th e city

of P is a,the popu la tion of which spoke Greek .

The story of Herodotu s is f a bu lou s, b u t it m a y a llu de to a

re a l em igra tion . I n th e tim e of the E m perors this tra dition w a s

n a tion a l both a t Sa rdis a n d in E tru ri a .

1 Wh a tever b e the ir origin ,

the Tyrrhen i a n Pe l a sgi a n s possessed a power which spre a d f a r their

n a m e ; for n otwithsta n din g the con qu est of th e cou n try by th e

R a sen a,the Greeks n ever recogn ized a ny people between the Tiber

a n d th e Arn o b u t “ the gloriou s Tyrrhen i a n s,” 2

a n d the Athen i a n s

ha ve con secr a ted, in the bea u tifu l frieze of th e Chora gic Mon um en t

of L ysicra tes,3 the m em ory of the exploits of on e of the ir gods

a ga in st the pira tes who ca m e forth from the h a rbors of Tyrrhenia .

Bu t while a dm ittin g t he existence of these Tyrrhen i a n s,it is

n ot n ecessa ry t o sa crifice the E tru sca n s to them . The Rom a n s,

who certa in ly h a d n ot lea rn t it from the Greeks , ca lled the R a sen a ,their n eighbors , Tu sci or E t ru sci

,

4a n d the E u gu bin e t a bles , a n

Um bri a n m onumen t,a lso ca ll them Tu rscum , a pl a in proof th a t

the n a m e of the Tyrrhen i a n s wa s n a tion a l a lso in E tru ri a . Wha t

ca n this n a tive u se of two n a m es m e a n,i f n ot the cc-existen ce of

two n a tion s ? Af ter the con qu est the Tyrrhen i a n s were n either

extermin a ted n or b a n ished ; the ir n a m e even preva i led with foreign

n a tion s,a s in E n gl a n d th e n a me of An glo-Sa xon s over th a t of

the N orm a n con qu erors ; a n d the su bsequ en t progress of E tru sca n

power a ppe a red t o b e th a t of the a n cien t Tyrrhen i a n s.

The Pel a sgi a n s, then ,formed a lon g th e western coa st of th e

pen in su l a a first str a tum of popu l a tion , which w a s soon covered

0

by other n a tion s . I n the m idst of these n ew ra ces the a n cien t

m a sters of I ta ly,l ike the Pela sgi a n s of Greece , lost their l a n gu a ge,

their m a n n ers,the ir liberty

,a n d even th e rem em bra n ce of wha t

they h a d been . N othin g rem a in ed of them b u t th e Cyclope a n

w a lls of E tru ri a a n d of La tiu m,en orm ou s blocks of ston e , set

withou t cem en t,which h a ve withstood the r a va ges of time a s Wel l

1 T a c. A nn ., iv. 55, a n d Stra bo, V. i . 2.

2 H es iod, T heog .,10 15 a n d 10 16 .

3[Pictured in Stu a rt a n d R evet t ’s A n tiqu ities of A thens, a nd s ince in a ll the h istories of

Greek a rt ; it d a tes from 3 3 5 B. c .— E d .]

4 The Greeks sa id T uppqvo i a nd T vpu-quoi whence from th e E tru sca n form , T u rscum , we

e a sily a rri ve a t T u sci, E tru sci, a nd E truri a .

PE LASG IAN S AN D UMBRIAN S. 5]

a s of m a n .1 Som e Pel a sgi a n s , however , esca ped a n d yieldin g t o

the im pu lse for in v a sion which w a s a t work from n orth to sou th,ga in ed by slow degrees th e grea t isl a n d to which the Sicu l i g a ve

their n a m e, a n d where the M orget es fo llowed them? Those who

preferred th e ru le of the foreign er t o exile , form ed in m a ny p a rts

of It a ly a n in ferior cl a ss , who rested fa ithfu l, i n the ir degr a d a tion ,

T H E CA B E I R I .

t o th a t h a bit of l a bor which w a s on e of th e cha r a cteristics of

the ir r a ce . I n Oen ot ria the l ow or servil e occu p a t ion s, th a t is to

sa y, a ll a rts a n d m a n u fa ctu res,

3 fell to the ir l ot , a s in Attic a,

where th e bu il din g of the cit a de l of Athen s w a s in tru sted t o them ;

so th a t th e m u ch-v a u n ted E tru sc a n a rts,the figu res in bron ze 4 or

1 A t Segn i the w a l ls, composed of enorm ou s blocks, form a triple enclosure. A t A l a triwe still see a Pe l a sgi a n c ita de l. T he w a lls a re 4 0 feet high, a nd som e stones a re 8 to 9 feetlong. The l inte l of one of th e g a tes of the town is formed of th ree blocks pl a ced side b v s ide.The se stones ha ve been ca refu ll y cu t , a nd se t with sk ill . T he join ing of the stone s 18 perfect.I t is a work of gi a nts, b u t of clever gi a nts.” — A M P iflR E : L

’

H istoire R om a in e 5.R om e, i . 13 5.F or th e description of th ese m on uments see A beken , i

ll/[incl I ta l ien vor d en Z eiten R O’

misclze'

r

H ei rsclt afl.

2 Thneydid e s (v i . 2) shows the Sicu l i flee ing into Sic i ly before the Opie i .3 I t is t o T em esa (T empsa , i n B ru t t ium ) tha t the T a phia n s ca me t o excha nge bra ssfor

gl it te1ing iron (Odys , I. I n the tim e of Thu cydides, the Sicu l i sti ll inha bited thistown . ‘

Stepha n u s Byz. ( su b voce Xim ) sa ys tha t th e Ita l i a n Greek s [Ita l iote s] tre a ted the

Pel a sgi a n s a s the Sp a rta n s did the H e lots.4 A ccordin g t o tra dition it wa s the Pe l a sgic T e lchines — ha lf m en , ha lf sprites — who

52 IN TRODUCTION .

terra -cott a , the dra win gs in relief, th e p a in ted v a ses,1 l ike those of

Corin th , etc., wou ld b e the work of th e Pel a sgi a n s, who rem a in ed

a s sl a ves a n d a rtis a n s u n der the E tru sc a n L u cum on s.

Their religion wa s a s obscu re a s their history. I t wa s con

n ect ed with the worship of

the Ca beiri of Sa m othr a ce,

A x ieros,A x iokers a

,A x ioker

sos, a n d Ca sm il os, cosm ic

deities, person ifica t ion s of

ea rthly fire a n d celesti a l fire,— th e religion of a n a tion of

min ers a n d sm iths. La teron the Ca be iri were id en t i

fi ed with Greek divin ities .

Thu s on a f a m ou s Herm es

of the V a tic a n,A x iokersos is

a ssoci a ted with Apollo-Helios,A x iokersa with Venu s

,a n d

Ca sm ilos, the orda in er,with E ros. A x ieros

,the su

preme god , rem a in ed a bove th e trin ity who em a n a ted from him .

I t h a s been s a id th a t a l l the a n cien t religion s h a ve been th e

worship of n a tu re n a tu ra lizing (n a tu r a n tis), of n a tu re n a tu ra lized

The expression is b a rb a rou s,b u t it is ju st. Of these

rel igion s the first belon ged t o simple n a tu r a l ism ; the secon d h a ve

given rise t o a n thropom orphism ,in which a l l termin a te. The

Ca beiri bein g con sidered th e c a u se of thin gs, the sym bol of gen

er a t ion pl a yed a n import a n t p a rt in their figu r a tive worship a n d

TH E CA BE I R I .

h a d discovered the a rt of work in g m eta ls, a n d who h a d m a de the first im a ges of the gods.N iebuhr h a s rem a rked the singu l a r coinci dence which exists in L a tin a nd in Greek betweenthe words for a hou se, a field

,a plou gh, h u sb a ndry, wine, oil , m i lk, oxen , pigs, sh eep, a pples

(he cou ld ha ve a dded meta l l um , a rgen tum, a rs , a n d a g ere, with the ir deri v a ti ves, a b a cu s,a nd gen era l ly a l l thewords concern in g a gricu lture a nd a pe a cefu l life ; whi le a l l the obj ectswhich be long to w a r or h u nting, d u el l um ,

ensis , s a g itta , ha sta , a re den oted by words fore ignt o Greek. Thi s fa ct is expl a ined if we con s ider tha t the pe a cefu l a nd indu striou s Pe l a sgi a n sformed the fou nd a tion of the popu l a tion in Greece a n d Ita ly, especi a l ly in L a tium , where th eSicu l i a n s rem a ined m ingled with the Ca sci. [N iebuhr’s a cute rem a rk a nticipa ted wha t Picteta nd others ha ve shown t o resu lt from the common A ry a n , not Pe l a sgi a n , a ncestry of Greeksa nd R om a n s before they settled in e ither cou ntry . The common roots indica te wha t cu lt ureea ch ra ce brou ght with it into its a dopted home. —E d .]

1[We m u st n ot forget the direct importa tion of these things from A ttica . E d ]

PE LASG IAN S AN D UM BRIAN S. 53

history. On a Tu sco-Tyrrhen i a n mirror of the fou rth cen tu ry

before ou r er a , two of the three Ca beiri , tr a n sform ed in to the

Dioscu ri, Ca stor a n d Pollu x, a re seen in the a ct of kill in g the

you ngest u n der the eyes of V enu s, who open s the cista in which

the rem a in s of the god a re t o b e pl a ced , a n d in the presen ce of

the wise Min erv a , c a lmly a n d seren ely witn essin g his de a th, which

is n o rea l de a th . Life in rea l ity comes from dea th ; the god willrevive when Mercu ry h a s tou ched him with h is m a gic w a n d .

The in iti a tion in to the mysteries of the I sl a n d of Sa m othra ce

rem a in ed a n a ct of deep piety with the Rom a n s a s with the

Greeks. Rom e wa s, by the legen d, even pu t in direct rel a tion with

the Pel a sgic isl a n d .1

The Pa ll a dium a n d the Pen a tes,c a rried a w a y by Aen ea s from

the fl a mes of Troy, t o b e the pledge of power to th e E tern a l City,were t a ken by the Pel a sgi a n D a rd a n u s, i t is sa id, from Sa mothra ce

to the b a n ks of th e Sca m a n der, when ce they p a ssed to Rome .

V esta , the goddess of th e in extin gu isha ble fi re, who pl a yed so

grea t a p a rt in th e Ita l i a n rel igion s, mu st a lso ha ve been a deity of

the Pel a sgi a n s b u t she belonged to a l l the people of the Arya n r a ce,for she wa s the femin in e represen t a tive of the Agn i of the Ved a s.

The Pel a sgi a n s, a n d those who imit a ted their method of

bu ildin g, ren dered a service to the preten ded descen da n ts of th e

Troj a n s which h a s n ot been su fficien tly n oticed . The Cyclopea n

w a lls,with which they su rrou n ded so m a ny town s of Cen tra l I ta ly,

sa ved R om e in the Secon d Pu n ic Wa r, by preven tin g H a n nib a l

from occu pyin g a single on e of those im pregn a ble fortresses which

defended the a pproa ches to the “ Ager Roma n u s.” Du rin g sixteenye a rs the gre a t Ca rth a gini a n held l ittle beyon d the en closu re of

his ca mp .2

For two cen tu ries the Pel a sgi a n s h a d the m a stery of It a ly ;when the Sica n ia n s, expelled from Sp a in by a Celti c in va sion , a n d

some Ligu ri a n s, who h a d come from Ga u l,3sprea d themselves a lon g

1 See the R evu e a rche’ol. for December, 1877.2 See pl a te of the w a l ls of N orb a . T wenty centu ries a go this town , ta ken a nd burned

down by Syl l a , ce a sed to ex ist ; b u t its w a ll s a re the most curiou s Ita li a n Specimen of the

a rchitecture ca l led Cyclopea n . T he town w a s bui lt on a decl i v ity comm a nding the Pontin eM a rshes. T he enclosure rem a ins a lmost entire ; it h a s no tower to defen d the foot of the w a l l ,b u t th e prin cipa l g a te is fl a nked by two qu a s i-b a stion s.

3 F or a lon g tim e the L igur i a n s were be l ieved to b e Iberi a n s. “ T he ir l a ngu a ge is In doE urope a n ,” sa ys M . d

’

A rb ois d e Juba in vill e (L es P remiers H a b ita n ts d e l’

E u rop e)“ it is

54 INTRODUCTION .

th e shores of th e Mediterr a n e a n from the Pyren ees t o th e Arn o. I n

Ita ly they occu pied, u n der v a riou s n a m es

,a gre a t p a rt of Cis

Alpin e G a u l a n d the two slopes of th e Northern Apenn in es .

Their con st a n t a tt a cks,

especi a lly those of the Sica n ia n s,

1who

h a d a dva n ced f a rthest sou th , forced the Sicu l i a n s to le a ve the

b a n ks of th e Arn o . I t w a s the begin n in g of the disa sters of th a t

n a tion,which preten ded to b e in digen ou s , i n order t o prove it s

right to the possess ion of I ta ly.

When,fou r cen tu ries l a ter , the E tru sca n s descen ded from their

m ou n t a in s,they drove the Ligu ri a n s from the rich v a lley of the

Arn o,a n d con fin ed them within th e b a n ks of the M a cra . H ow

ever,bloody fights still took pl a ce for a lon g tim e between the

two n a tion s , a n d n otwithst a n din g their a dv a n ced post of Lu n a,the

E tru sca n s were u n a ble t o m a in t a in them selves in pea ce a ble possession

of th e fertile l a n ds w a tered by the Serchio (Au sa r).2

N ot f a r,on the Sa n Pellegrin o , th e highest summ it of the

N orthern Apenn in es feet), a n d in the im pra ctica ble d efi l es

from which the M a cra descen ds,th e A pu a n s dwelt, who, from the ir

lofty m ou n t a in s , w a tchin g the ro a ds a n d the pl a in,ga ve n either

tru ce n or respite t o the me rch a n ts a n d tra ders of Tu sca ny.

Divided in to a s m a n y little sta tes a s they h a d v a lleys,a n d

a lw a ys in a rm s a ga in st ea ch other,these n a tion s preserved, how

ever, the gen era l n a m e of Ligu ri a n s a n d som e of the cu stom s

comm on t o a l l the ir tribes, — respect for the cha r a cter of the f etia ls,a n d the cu stom of procl a im in g w a r by a m b a ssa dors . Their m a n n ers

a lso were a l ike everywhere . They were those of poor m ou n

t a in eers u pon whom n a tu re h a d bestowed cou ra ge a n d stren gth,in

pl a ce of the wea lth of a fertile soi l .3 The women l a bored,l ike

th e m en,a t th e h a rdest work , a n d hired themselves ou t for th e

h a rvest in th e n eighborin g cou n tries , while the ir hu sb a n ds tr a v

ersed th e sea in the ir fra il ships a s f a r a s Sa rdin i a a n d Africa ,t o the detrimen t of the rich merch a n ts of M a rseilles, of E tru ri a ,

Celtic, a d d s'

M . M a ury {Comp tes R en d u s d e l ’A ca d . d es I n scr ip t , M . E rn .De sj a rdin sdiscu sses this qu estion in the secon d volume of h is G

’

c’

ogr a p hie a ncienn e d e l a G a u le, a nd

a rri ves a t the sa me conclu s ion s.1 Thu cydides (v i. 2) a dmits th e Sic a n ia n s a s a n Iberi a n tribe, (3 9 Se

‘

r'

; dkfid a a d ipc'

o xsr a c.

2 T he cou ntry of Lu cc a w a tered by the Serch io is ca l led the g a rden of Tu sca ny, wh ichis itse lf on e of the m ost ferti le cou ntrie s of Ita ly.

3 “ A ssu e t um m a lo L igur em .” — VE R G 1L, G eorg ics, i i. 168.

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56 INTRODUCTION .

by the E u ga n e i,who h a d possessed the cou n try before them

, a n d

who h a d given their n a m e to a ch a in Of volca n ic hills betweenE ste a n d P a du a .

To the n orth of the Ven eti,the Ca rn i

,prob a bly of Ce ltic origin

,

covered th e foot Of th e m ou n t a in s which h a ve t a ken their n a m e,

a n d som e wild I llyri a n s h a d t a ken possession of I stri a .

At a period prob a bly con tem por a n eou s with th e in v a sion of

th e Ligu ri a n s, th e Um bri a n s1

(A m r a — the n oble,the br a ve) a rrived ,

who , a fter bloody b a ttles , took possession of a l l th e cou n tries

possessed by the Sicu l i in the pl a ins of the PO . Pu rsu in g theircon qu ests a lon g the Adri a tic, they drove tow a rds the sou th the

L ib u rn ia n s, who left on ly a few of the ir n u m ber (Pr a et u t ia n s a n d

Pel ign ia n s)2on the b a n ks Of th e Prex a r a

,a n d pen etr a ted a s f a r

a s Mon te Ga rga n o,where the ir n a me is still preserved .

3 At the

west Of the Apen n in es they su bdu ed a p a rt Of the cou n try between

th e Tiber a n d the Arn o .4 The Sica n i

,who h a d settled there

,

fou n d them selves in volved in the ru in Of the Sicu l i,a n d m a n y

b a nds of these two n a tion s u n ited a n d em igr a ted beyon d the Tiber.

Bu t they m et there with n ew en em ies ; the n a tives,en cou ra ged

by thei r disa sters , drove them gr a du a lly tow a rds th e cou n try of

the Oen otri a n s,who , in the ir tu rn , forced them t o go with the

M orgetes, a n d fin d a l a st a sylum in the isl a n d which they ca lled

by the ir n a m e . The Sica n i a n s sh a red a secon d tim e their fa te,a n d p a ssed a fter them in to Sicily ?

Heirs of th e Pe l a sgi a n s Of th e n orth Of I ta ly, the Um bri a n s

ru led from the Alps t o -the T iber on the on e side, a n d a s f a r a s

Mon te G a rga n o on the other. They divided this v a st territory in to

three provin ces : I som b ria , or Lower Um bri a , in the p a rtly in u n ~

1 Th e G a ll ic origin of th e Um bri a n s a ccredited by a ntiqu ity, h a s been rev ived by m odernwriters. B u t the in scription s fou n d in Umbri a , on t he frontier, it is tru e , of the Sa binecou ntry, te ll of a L a tin ton gu e ; we m u st then connect the Um bri a n s with th e Sa be l l i a n O se i.Pliny ( i i i . 14 ) s a ys of them ,

“ gen s a n t iqu issim a I t a l ia c. T he recent works of M . B réa l ha veproved tha t Umbri a n wa s a n Ita l i a n di a lect,— which, a fter a l l , does not so lve the ethno logica lqu estion . M . E rn . Desj a rdin s m a kes them a L iguri a n people ; M . d

’

A rb ois d e Ju b a in vi llem a kes them a kin t o th e L a tin s.

2 O vid, who wa s himself Pel ign ia n , gives t o these people a Sa bine origin (F a st , i i i.3 Scyl a x (P eripl a s, p. See the m a p of t he kingdom of N a ples by R izz i Z a n n on i.

A t the centre of the grou p of m ou nta in s a re fou nd, bes ides the “ Va l le degli Umbri,” otherloca l ities n a m ed Ca tino d ’ Umbra , Umbricchio, Cogne t to d ’ Umbri (M ica l i , i.

4 The Umbro ta kes it s n a m e from them .

5 Dionys. ( i. 73 ) a nd Thu cydides (vi . 2) fix this m igra tion a s ha ving t a ken pl a ce two

h u ndred ye a rs a fter the Troj a n wa r,— Of course without certa inty.

PE LASG IAN S A ND UM BRIA N S. 57

dated pl a in s of the Lower PO ; Ol lum b ria , or Upper Umbri a , between

th e Adri a tic a n d th e Apen n in es ; V il um b ria , or M a ritime Um bria ,

between the Apenn in es a n d

th e Tyrrhen i a n Se a .

Like th e Celts a n d the

Germ a n s,they dwelt in open

vil l a ges in the middle of the

pl a in s, disd a in in g t o screen

their cou ra ge behin d high

w a l ls ; b u t therefore exposed

a fter a defe a t to irret riev

a ble disa sters. I t is sa id

th a t when the E tru sc a n s

c a m e down in to Lom b a rdy,

the Um bria n s, bein g con

qu ered, lost a t on e blow three

hu n dred vill a ges . However,

in the mou n ta in ou s c a n ton s

of Ul lum b ria , a fter th e exa m

pl e of th e Tyrrhen i a n cities

which were in th e n eighbor

hood, the ir town s were bu il t

on th e summits, a n d su r

roun ded with r a m p a rts ;1

thu s Tu der, close to the

T iber ; Nu ceria , a t th e foot

Of th e Apen n in es ; N a rn i a ,on a rock which comm a n ds

the N a r ; M ev a n ia , I n ter a m

n a, Sa rsin a , Sen t in um ,

etc.,

which by their con stru ction L I BR A L A S OF T UDE R .

a re proof of a more t imid, b u t a lso m ore a dv a n ced , civiliza tion .

0

1 The se fortifica tion s a re perha ps the work of th e E tru sca n s. for Umbri a rema inedsubj ect to them for a long tim e . Umbri a vero pa rs T u scia e ” (Serv. l n A en . x i i. L i vy(v. 3 3 ) sa ys, Without a ny restriction , tha t the Tu sca n em pire em bra ced the who le width of

Ita ly, from sea to’

sea .

2o o o

‘

T u d ei (Tod i) , or , a s i t i s ca l led on th e m oney, T V T E R E , w a s e a rly a n importa nt c ity .Wh a t 15 left of th e w a l ls resemble s, in it s gre a ter regu l a rity a nd a bsence of ru den ess, those of

V ol a terr a e a nd Peru sm . I t wil l b e observed th a t it s money, which d a tes perha ps from the

fourth century B . c ., is of rem a rk a ble e lega nce.

58 IN TRODUCTION .

F or three cen tu ries the em pire of the Um bri a n s ga in ed for

th a t people a repu t a tion of grea t power ; b u t it wa s broken by

the E trusc a n in v a sion , which deprived them Of the pl a in s of the

PO a n d of M a ritim e Um bri a,where the a tt a cks Of the Tyrrhen i a n s,

F R A GM E N T o r E UG UB I N E T A BLE S ( FR OM I G U V I UM ) .1

who rem a in ed m a sters of a p a rt of the cou n try, h a d sh a ken their

power .

Shu t in from th a t time between the Apen n in es a n d th e

Adri a tic, they were there su bject to th e influ en ce a n d even to the

ru le of the ir n eighbors. E tru sc a n ch a r a cters a re seen on their

coin s ; they a re fou n d , too, on the t a bles of I gzwium , together

1 M . B réa l , the lea rned a uthor of the work entitled L es T a b les E ug u b in es, h a s been k in denou gh to give m e thi s pa ssa ge from T a ble V. in both E tru sca n a n d L a tin cha ra cters. I t

conta in s two decrees gi ven by th e brotherhood Of priests who ca u sed the E ugu bine ta ble s t ob e engra ved. T he first decree , of which on ly the en d is here reprodu ced, is in E tru sca nletters ; the secon d is in L a tin letters ; b u t the l a ngu a ge of the two docum ents is the sa me,

it is Umbri a n . We on ly gi ve a tra n scription of th e commencementE hve l kl u fei a fra t reks u te kvest u r pa nta m uta a d fertu re si.

R og a tionem f a cia t f ra tricus a u t qu a estor qu a nta mu l ta a cifert ori sit.

P a nta m uta fr a t ru A t iied iu m es tru k a ru pure u l u b en u ren t .

Q u a nta m m nl l a m fi'

a trum A l tid iorum ma j or pa rs qu i il l u c venez‘int

a d fer tu re eru pepu rku ren t herifi ,E t a n t u m utu a d fertu re si.

a cifertori esse j usserin t [qu a ntu m] libel , ta n ta mu lta a dfertori sit.

The d a te of these two pa ssa ges m a y b e pl a ced between the first a nd second centuries beforethe Chr isti a n er a , b u t the l a ngu a ge of them is m u ch o lder.

PE LASG IAN S A N D UM BRIAN S. 59

with some words which a ppe a r to belon g t o the l a ngu a ge Of the

Ra sen a ; a n d fin a lly,the soothsa yers of Um bri a h a d n o less rep

u t a t ion th a n the Tu sc a n a u gu rs .1

Often times they b a n ded together a ga in st th e s a me a dversa ries.

Thu s the Umbri a n s followed the E tru sc a n s to th e con qu est of

Ca mpa n i a , where the town s of N u ceria a n d A cerr a e reca ll by

the ir n a mes two Umbri a n cities ; a n d they took p a rt in the grea t

expedition a ga in st the Greeks Of Cum a e .2 When E tru ri a u n derstood

tha t the c a u se of the Sa m n i tes w a s th a t of a l l It a ly, Umbri a did

n ot a b a n don her a t th a t l a st hou r ; s ixty thou sa n d Um bria n s a n d

E tru sc a n s stretched on the b a ttle-fiel d Of Su t rium bore witn ess t o

the a n cien t a ll i a n ce,a n d perha ps blen din g, of the two peoples .

Fin a lly, when the loss of l iberty left them n o other joy th a n

plea su re-seekin g a n d effemin a cy, they were devoted to these , a n d

rem a in ed u n ited still in the sa me repu t a tion for in tem per a n ce.8

Both, too, h a d h a d the s a m e en em ies t o resist,Rom e a n d th e G a u ls ;

with this diff eren ce, d u e t o the position a n d direction Of the Apen

n in es, which protected E tru ri a a ga in st the G a u ls, a n d Umbri a

a ga in st Rome, — th a t the l a tter h a d first come t o b e m ore drea ded

by the E tru sc a n s, a s n o ba rrier sep a ra ted them , a n d the form er

by the Umbri a n s , whose cou n try open ed in to the V a l ley of the Po .

The Sen on es in va ded a con sidera ble portion of it, a n d a lwa ys

stru ck a cross Umbri a in thei r r a ids tow a rds the cen tre a n d sou th

of the pen in su l a .

The Um bri a n s were divided in to n umerou s independen t tribes ,of which som e dwelt in town s

, others in the cou n try. Thu s

while the m a ss of the n a tion m a de comm on ca u se with the E t ru s

c a n s, th e Ca m ertes trea ted with Rom e on a footin g Of perfect

equ a l ity ; Ocricu l um a lso obt a in ed the Roma n a ll i a n ce, b u t th e

Sa rsin a t es d a red to a tt a ck the legion s a lon e,a n d fu rn ished t he

con su ls with two trium phs. Pl iny still cou n ted in h is tim e in

Umbri a forty-seven distin ct tribes ;4

a n d this sep a r a tion of the

u rb a n a n d ru stic popu l a tion s, this p a ssion for loca l in depen den ce,this ‘ riv a lry between town s

,w a s a lwa ys the n orm a l sta te of the

1 Cic., d e Divin ., i. 4 1.2 Stra bo, V . i v. 3 ; Pl iny, N a t. H is t , ii i. 5 ; Dionys iu s, A n t. R om ,

vn . 3 .3 “ A n t pa stu s Umber a u t ob esu s E tru scu s. — CA T ULLUS : xxx ix. 11. On the disso lute

ness of E tru sca n m a nners, see T heopompu s, in A then a eu s, xii. 14 .4 Pliny, iV a t. H ist , i i i. 14 .

60 INTRODUCTION .

Rom a gn a , of the m a rches of An con a,a n d Of a lmost th e whole of

It a ly. I n the fifteen th cen tu ry, ju st a s in a n cien t tim es,there

were in the Rom a gn a comm u n ities of pe a sa n ts en tirely free,a n d

a l l the town s form ed jea lou s mu n icip a l ities.‘ Thu s i t h a ppen ed

th a t this en ergetic r a ce , which h a d n o kn owledge Of the l itigiou s

spirit'

of the Rom a n s,a n d with whom might settled right f — these

a n en , tha t N a poleon decl a red to b e the best soldiers in I ta ly,h a ve ,

th a n ks to their division s, su bm itted qu ietly to th e a scen den cy Of

Rome, a n d ca me u ltim a tely t o Obey the wea kest of governm en ts.

TH E E TR USOA N S.

UR Western civiliza tion h a s it s m ysteries, l ike the ol d E a st ;E tru ri a is to u s wh a t E gypt wa s before Ch a mpoll ion . We

kn ow very well th a t it wa s in h a bited by a n indu striou s‘

people,

skilled in commerce, a rt , a n d wa r , riva llin g the Greeks a t the s a m e

tim e th a t they were u n der their influ en ce, a n d for a long tim e

powerfu l a n d form id a ble in the Mediterra n e a n ; b u t this people

h a s dis a ppea red,lea ving u s for its riddle a n u n kn own l a n gu a ge

for a proof of wh a t it on ce wa s, in numera ble m on um en ts,v a ses,

st a tu es , h a s-rel iefs, orn a m en ts, objects preciou s both for workm a n

ship a n d for m a teri a ls,— a people rich en ou gh to bu ry with its

chiefs th e m ea n s wherewith t o pa y a n a rm y or bu ild a town ;in du striou s en ou gh t o flood Ita ly with it s produ cts ; a n d civil ized

en ou gh t o cover its m on um en ts a n d tom bs with in scription s .3 Bu t

1 See L. R a n ke , H istory of the P opes, ii. 198.

2 ’

Opfipu<oi dr a w p s e j hovs 3xw0'w dn¢ i ofirjmo im KGGOflhw Géx/‘r es woke/u p pdxov

'ra i

Ka i doxoa m Oim w’r epa Ae

’

yew of 70 139 e’

va v'riovs dr oo dxiga w es (N ic.Da m a se., up . Stob. F lor., 10,

H ere we ha ve the j u dici a l du el of the M iddle A ges. They sa id, too :i

A va‘

yKa'

iov i) m a y

i) dwofivfio xew. ( I b id ., 7,3 M . d e L ongperier sa ys o f on e mon ument, which wa s fou nd a t Cerve tri (Ca cre) “ I t is

directly connected with the Corinthi a n a r t of the se venth century, so tha t th is tomb m a y gi veu s a n ex a ct ide a of wh a t tha t of Dem a ra tu s, th e fa ther of T a rqu in the E lder, m u st ha ve been .”

( iWu se'

e N a p ole’

on I I I ., expl a n a tion -of pl. Lx x x .) L et u s n ote th a t the E tru sca n s interredthe ir de a d , a n d did n ot burn them ; the contra ry wa s the ca se in the l a ter times of the R epu bl ic a nd u n der the E m pire [or ra ther, both cu stom s prev a i led.

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(52 INTRODUCTION .

a l l this is m u te,a n d m odern scien ce , wholly b a ffled, h a s hitherto

been u n a ble to in terpret m ore th a n twen ty words or so of the

E tru sc a n l a n gu a ge .

1 Their portr a its which they h a ve left u s on

their tom bs tell u s n othin g m ore of them . These Obese a n d thick

set m en ,with a qu il in e n oses a n d retrea tin g forehe a ds

,h a ve n othin g

in comm on with the Hellen ic or I t a liote type , a n d a re n ot of

the s a m e r a ce a s the thin -fea tu red people represen ted on their

v a ses .

When ce d id they com e ? The a n cien ts them selves did n ot

kn ow . Dece ived by th e n a m e of the Tyrrhen i a n s,who h a d pre

ceded the E tru sca n s n orth of the Tiber, th e Greeks took them for

Pel a sgi a n s, a n d represen ted them a s h a vin g tra velled from Thessa ly

a n d A sia ~ M in or in to Tu sc a ny . Bu t, on the testim ony of Dionysiu s

o f H a l ica rn a ssu s, thei r l a n gu a ge, their l a ws , their cu stom s,a n d

their religion h a d n othin g in common with those of th e Pel a sgi a n s.N iebu hr a n d Otf. M iil l er con sider th a t the E tru sca n s , or R a sen a

,a s

they ca lled them se lves , ca m e from the m ou n t a in s Of Rh a eti a .

2 A s

a m a tter of f a ct, there is n o rea son why th e E tru sca n s, who pl a ced

the a bode of the ir gods in the n orth, a n d ga ve 3 them the Sca n di

n a vi a n n a m e of Ases ,4shou ld n ot b e rega rded a s a n Asi a tic tribe ,

which,a fter h a vin g pen etr a ted in to E u rope by the d efi l es Of th e

Ca u c a su s , by which the Goths a fterw a rd p a ssed, h a d left on the

1 See the work of M . N oél d es Vergers, L ’E tru rie et l es E tru squ es, on d is: a n s d e f ou il lesd a n s les Zl/[a remmes Tosca nes. V a rro (d e L ing. L a t , iv. 9) spe a ks of E tru sca n tra ged ies wh icha re lost. l V e ha ve n ea rly two thou sa n d in scription s ; b u t we ca nnot u ndersta n d them , a nd

M a x M u ller, in h is Scien ce of L a ng u a ge, is obl iged t o pa ss over the E tru sca n in s i lence. T he

interpreta tion s of Corssen , who [thought the l a ngu a ge In do—E urope a n , a nd ] w a s for a tim eca lled “ the Oedipu s of the E tru sca n Sphi n x ,” ha ve been a b a n don ed, a nd the Sphin x rem a in sm ute [til l we fi n d a bi lin gu a l text.

2 L ivy ( v. P l iny ( i i i. a n d Ju stin (xx. 5) m a inta in , on the contra ry, tha t the R ha et i a n s a re E tru sca n s who took refu ge in th e A lps a fter the con qu est of Lom b a rdy by the G a ul s.N ieb uh r su pposes tha t the sin gu l a r l a ngu a ge of G roed en , in Southern T yrol , is a rem n a nt ofthe E tru sca n l a ngu a ge. M a ny n a m es of pl a ces there reca l l the R a sen a , a n d the M u seum of

Trent preserves v a se s a nd sm a l l figures in bron ze with E tru sca n in scription s discovered intha t provin ce . Qu ite recently, in 1877, there were fou nd in the V a l tel ine , no t f a r from Como,som e E tru sc a n obj ects of gre a t a nti qu ity (R ev. a rch , Sept. 1877, p. Og iu l i tried toprove in the G iorn a le A ca d ico th e re l a tion ship of the G erm a n s a nd E tru sca n s. M . N oel d es

Vergers, who h a s sou ght for the solution Of the problem especi a lly in the stu dy of figuredm on um ents, is disposed t o a ccept th e tra dition of H erodotu s a s t o the ir Lydi a n origin . B u t

the pl a stic a rts m a y h a ve been introdu ced into E truri a l a ter tha n the a rri v a l of the E tru sca n s ,by comm erce , or previou sly to it by th e T yrrhen i a n s. I n short, the problem will rem a inin soluble u nti l we decipher the E tru sca n l a ngu a ge.

-3 F est. 5. v. Sin istra e a ves.4 A esa r E tru sca l ingu a Deu s voca ret u r (Su et. Oct.

TH E E'

l‘

I tUSCA N S.

E tru sca n l’a tera from V a se from P a tcra from

B om a rzo . G a l a ss i .

SOM E E T R USCA N AL PH A BE T S.

64 INTR ODUCTION .

sou th the pen in su l a Of th e B a lk a n s occu pied by the Pel a sgi a n r a ces,

a n d h a d a scen ded the V a lley of the D a n u be a s f a r a s th e Tyrolese

Alps. Priestly ru le, division in to strictly sep a r a ted cl a sses,a n d

th e predom in a n ce of f a ta l ism , a r e ch a r a cteristics m ore a n d m ore

m a rked in proportion a s we tr a ce b a ck th e cou rse of cen tu riesa n d a ppro a ch m ore n ea rly to Asi a . E tru sc a n civiliz a tion h a s a lsoin comm on with Semitic liter a tu res the om ission of the short vowels ,

in,

E T R USCA N F I G UR E S. (A TLA S o r M I CA L I,PL. x iv) .l

the redu plic a tion of th e con son a n ts, a n d th e writin g from right t o

left . The dwa rf T a ges rem in ds u s of th e clever dw a rfs a n d m a gi

cia n s of Sca n din a vi a ; whilst the obese figu res fou n d a t Cervet ri ;

the gorgon s, of which there a re so m a ny represen t a tion s ; the gods

with fou r wings, two spre a d a n d two drooped tow a rds the ea rth ;th e sphin xes, the mon sters which gu a rd the a pproa ches t o th e

1 We re lu cta ntly reprodu ce these fig ures, to wh ich we fin d nom a n a logou s in Grec i a na rt. B u t th e E tru sca n s, so clever in th e m a nuf a cture of bron zes, j ewe ls, a n d v a ses, pre servethe ta ste of b a rb a rou s n a tion s for m on sters to serve a s bu gbe a rs. When they thou ght t om a ke them terrible they m a de them h ideou s. We m u st show this si de of the ir pl a stic a r t .

[Sim i l a rly, in old Irish i l lum in a tion s'

a nd ca rvin gs , th e a n im a ls introdu ced a re simply g rot e squ e, a n d th e hum a n figu re s a s b a d a s poss ible , wh ile both the fee l in g a n d execu t ion of the

geom etrica l orn a m ent is the m ost be a utifu l wh ich ca n poss ibly b e fou n d. E d .]

TH E E TRUSCAN S. 65

m a n sion s Of the de a d ; the a n im a ls u n kn own to I ta ly,l ion s a n d

p a n thers, devou rin g on e a n other ; the E gypti a n sc a ra b a ei , the good

a n d evil gen i i , l ike the ( tens of Persi a , which condu ct sou ls to t he

lower world ; fin a lly, a (pui n t ity Of det a ils of orn a n‘

i en t a t ion,

- show

e ither borrowin g from the E a st , or m em ories of'

their e a rly hom e .

We h a ve a bove com p a red the two in du striou s a n d u n iversa lly

persecu ted r a ces of the Fin n s a n d Pel a sgi a n s ; we m ight a lso com

p a re the two peoples who h a ve t a ken the ir pl a ce , — the en igm a tica l

l a n gu a ge Of the Ra sen a with the Sc a n din a vi a n Ru n es ; Odin ,the

Ases,a n d roya l f a m il ies of the Goths

,with the Tu sca n L u cum on s

who were a t the sa m e tim e n obles a n d priests . Like th e Germ a n s

the E tru sc a n s u n i ted wh a t the E a st sep a ra tes, — religion a n d a rm s ,

the c a ste Of priests a n d th a t Of w a rriors.

I f the Goths believed i n the dea th of th e gods,a n d d a red to

strive a g a in st them ,the E tru sc a n s predicted the ren ew a l of the

world, a n d im a gin ed th a t they cou ld by the ir m a gic form u l a e con

stra in the divin e will. The gr a ve,m el a ncholy

, a n d rel igiou s ch a r

a cter of this people, the ir

respect for wom en , thei r

kin dn ess tow a rds sl a ves ,1the

len gth a n d a bu n d a n ce of

their rep a sts,wou ld a lso su g

gest Germ a n ic m a n n ers , i f it

were n ot prob a ble th a t these

resem bl a n ces a re pu re ly 10

cid en t a l . The sa yin g of

on e of the a n cien ts h a s, in

fa ct,rem a in ed the opin ion of

m odern scien ce : By thei r

l a ngu a ge a n d m a n n ers the

E tru sc a n s a re sep a ra ted from a l l other n a tion s .

We will su ppose , withou t fi rm con viction , th a t the E tru sca n s

c a m e down from the Alps in to the V a lley of th e PO, bea rin g with

them from A sia f which they h a d perh a ps qu itted for b u t a few

cen tu ries , their h a lf-sa cerdot a l governmen t, a n d from the m ou n

t a in s, where they h a d recen tly sojou rn ed, th a t d ivision in to in

depen den t c a n ton s which h a s existed in a l l t im e a m ong the people

E T R USCA N G O R G ON (CA MPA N A MUSE UM) .

1 Dionys.A n t. R om , ix. 5. The V eient ines enroll ed them in the ir troops.V OL . I : 5

66 INTRODUCTION .

of the Alps . They first stopped in Cis a lpin eG a u l , Where they possessed a s m a ny a s twelvel a rge town s ; then they crossed the Apen n in es

,

a n d est a blished them selves between the Tibera n d the Arn o . There they fou n d som e Tyrrhe

n i a n Pe l a sgi a n s in possession of Hellen ic bel iefs,

tr a dition s, a n d a rts, a n d in comm ercia l rela

tion s with th e Greeks Of Sou thern I t a ly a n d

Ion ia . These Pel a sgi a n s, protected by citiesstron ger th a n the Open vill a ges of th e Um

F I G U R E W I T H F OUR W I N G S '

bri a n s, cou ld n ot b e expelled or extermin a ted,

a n d form ed a con sidera ble portion Of the n ew n a tion .

1 I s it goin g

t oo to a t tribu te the works of dra in a ge,

2the Cyclopea n con st ru c

CH I MA E R A I N T H E G A LLE R Y OF FLOR E N CE (M I CA L I , A T LA S, PL. xm r

tion s, the preten ded kn owledge of om en s, a n d the in du striou s a ctivity

Of th e E tru sc a n s, to the influ en ce , cou n sels, a n d exa m ple of these

1 E speci a lly in the town s Of Sou thern E truri a , which a lw a ys displ a y ch a ra cteristics d iffer ing from those of the n orthern c ities, a nd throu gh which the Greek re l igion obta in ed a n

entry into R om e. A t Ca cre there h a ve been fou n d in scription s thou ght to b e Pe l a sgi a n .

M oreover Ca cre a n d T a rqu in ii h a d e a ch it s tre a sure-hou se a t De lph i , l ike Spa rta a nd A then s,a nd the pa inted v a ses of T a rq u in ii a re ex a ctly s im i l a r t o those of Corinth. We m ight ca ll tom ind, too, th e re l igiou s ch a ra cter of the people of Ca cre a nd the reputa tion they h a d of h a vinga lw a ys a bsta ined from pira cy.

2 See N oel d es Vergers, E tru r ia a nd the E trusca ns, i. 9 6 . The ra i lw a y throu gh the

M a remm a h a s l ed to the d iscovery of a q u a ntity of su bterra ne a n condu its for dra in in g th esoi l.

TH E E TRUSCAN S. 67

Pel a sgi a n s,1 who a re s a id to h a ve exc a v a ted the tu n n els from L a ke

Copa'

is throu gh a m ou n t a in , t o h a ve bu ilt th e fortifica tion s , still

rem a in ing, of Argos, Mycen a e, a n d Tiryn s, a n d who p a ssed for

m a gici a n s on a ccou n t Of their le a rn in g ? Moreover this people

n ever h a d the spirit Of hostility tow a rds str a n gers ; the tr a dition

of Dem a ra tu s, the mixtu re of Um bria n , Osc a n ,Ligu ri a n , a n d Sa bel

l i a n n a m es in the E tru sca n in scription s, a n d fin a lly the in trodu c

tion of the gods a n d a rts Of Greece, show with wh a t f a cil ity they

a dm itted m en a n d thi ngs Of other cou n tries.

On e p a rticu l a r fea tu re of E tru sc a n m a n n ers is,however, in

a bsolu te con tr a diction t o the Greek m a n n ers. This sen su a l people

loved t o heighten plea su re by scen es Of dea th . They were a ccu s

t om ed to hum a n sa crifices ; they decor a ted their tom bs with scen es

of blood ;2

a n d g a ve t o th ei r n eighbors of the Seven Hills those

gl a dia tori a l g a m es which the . town s of h a lf the Rom a n world

im ita ted ?

The ruin of th e Um bri a n s w a s a ccomplished , sa id the E tru sca n

a nn a ls,

4 4 3 4 yea rs before the fou n d a tion of Rome . The Ra sen a

su cceeded to their power, a n d in crea sed it by fou r cen tu ries of

con qu ests . From Tu sca n y , the prin cip a l sea t Of their twelve tribes,they su bdu ed Um bri a itself, with a p a rt of Picen um ,

where tra ces

Of their occu p a tion a re to b e fou n d.5 Beyon d the Tiber,F id en a e,

1 [T o a ccou nt for the E tru sca n s by referring them to the Pe l a sgi , a nd tha t, t oo, bya ttributing to the l a tter a l l sorts of works without a ny con clu si ve evidence , is ind ee d t o

expl a in obscurum p er obscu r ius , a n d give s n ew po int to N iebuh r’ s rem a rk a h e a dy qu oted bythe a uthor.

2 Thi s design ( see p. ta ken from pl . XX I . Of the A tl a s of N oel d es Vergers , represents A chill es immol a ting ca pti ves to th e m a n es of P a troclu s. Thi s is th e re a ding of the

n a mes written over t he he a d of e a ch figure, a n d M . B ré a l’

s rendering Of them , go ing fromleft to right, — A c E N R UN (A ga m emnon ) ; H I N T H I A L PA T R UCL E S (Ghost of P a troclu s) ;V V P A GHLE (A chi l les) ; T R U I A L S (T roj a n u s) ; CH A R N (Cha ron ) ; A I V A S T L M UN US(A j a x T el a mon iu s) ; T R U I A L S (T roj a n s) : A I V A S V I L A T A S (A j a x Oi leu s). Thi s scen e ofm urder correspon ded so we l l with the m a n n ers of the E tru sca n s , tha t when they wished t o rep

resent a n episode of th e I l i a d , they chose the on ly n a rra ti ve of this n a ture which is fou n d inH omer. M a n y testimon ies of a ncient a uthors, a n d those which the E tru sca n s them se lves ha veleft on the ir m on um ents , be a r witn ess to thi s od iou s fe a ture of E tru sca n society. M a crobiu s(S a turn . i. 7) s a ys tha t T a rqu in c a u sed chi ldren t o b e immo l a ted t o th e goddess M a n i a , them other of th e L a res. A s for the winged figure who is sta n ding behin d A chille s, I sho u ld b eincl in e d to t a ke it for the gen iu s of the hero. F or th e E tru sc a n doctrine of gen i i see be low.

3[I f more con jectures a re encoura ged , we sha ll soon ha ve th e M ex ica n A ztecs, so like

the E tru sca n s in these a nd other po ints, decl a red to b e the ir descen d a nts. E d .]4 V a rr., a p . Censor., 17; Dionysiu s sa id five hun dred yea rs. I t is u se less to a d d tha t

these chron ologica l d a ta a re v a lu eless.5 Pl iny, N a t. H ist , iii . 5.

68 INTRODUCTION .

Cru stu m eria , a n d Tu scu lum, colon ized by them , Open the roa d to

Wa rds the cou n try Of th e Volsci a n s a n d R u tu l ia n s,

1who were

brou ght in to su bjection a n d tow a rds Ca m p a n i a,a n ew ,E tru ri a

w a s fou n ded e ight hu ndred yea rs before ou r era, of which the

prin cip a l cities were V ol tu rnu m, a fterw a rd ca lled Ca pu a , Nol a ,

A cerra e, Hercu l a n eum, a n d Pompen .2 From the cliffs of Sorren to,

which were crown ed by the tem ple of th e E tru sc a n Min erva , they

w a tched a ny vessels ha rdy en ou gh to ven tu re in to th e gu lf s of

N a ples or Sa lern o, a n d their lon g ga lleys cru ised a s f a r a s th e

coa sts of Corsic a a n d Sa i d in ia , where they h a d settlem en ts . “ Then

a lmost the whole pen in su l a,from th e Alps to the Str a its Of Messin a

,

” 3a n d the two sea s which w a sh the shores

of It a ly took a n d still keep, the on e th e n a me of this people,Tu scum M a re, th e sea of Tu sca ny, the other Of its colony Of

A d ri a,th e Adri a tic.

Un h a ppily, there w a s n o u n ion in this v a st domin ion . The

E tru sc a n s were everywhere , on th e b a n ks of the PO, the Arn o, a n d

the Tiber,a t th e foot of th e Alps a n d in Ca mp a n i a , on the Adri a tic

a n d on the Tyrrhen i a n Sea ; b u t where wa s E tru ri a ? Like Atticau nder Cecrops, l ike the Aeol i a n s a n d Ion i a n s in Asia , the Acha ea n s

in Greece, the Sa l en t in es a n d L u ca n ia n s in I t a ly, th e E tru sca n s

were divided,in e a ch cou n try occu pied by them , in to twelve in

depen den t tribes,which were u n ited by a feder a l bon d , withou t a ny

gen era l lea gu e for the whole n a tion . F or in sta n ce, when a ny gra ve

circumst a n ces occu rred in E tru ri a proper, th e chiefs of e a ch city

a ssem bled a t the tem ple of V ol tumn a , in the territory Of V ol sin ii,

to tre a t there con cern ing the in terests Of the cou n try, or‘

t o celebr a te,u n der th e presiden cy of a su prem e pon ti ff , the n a tion a l fea sts.4 I n

th e d a ys Of their con qu ests the u n ion wa s dou btless very close,a n d

,the chief of on e of th e twelve tribes bein g procl a im ed gen er a l

issim o , exercised a n u n l im ited power, in dic a ted by the twelve li ctors

fu rn ished by the twelve cities, with their fa sces su rm ou n ted by

w a s u n der the ir sw a y,

1 Som e tombs ha ve been discovered a t A rdea , the ca pita l of the R utu li , wh ich a ppe a r tobe lon g to the E tru sca n s, a nd the c ita de l of tha t town , more imposin g tha n those of E truri a ,

is built, like them , of enormou s stones.2 L i vy

,i v. 3 7; Ca to, a p . Ve ll. P a tere., i . 7; Polybiu s, 11. 17. L a n z i a dds to these five

town s, N ocera , Ca l a t ia , T e a num , _Ca les, Su essa , A esern ia , a nd A te ll a .2 Ca to, a p . Serv. in A en ., x i. 567. L ivy repe a ts it in a lmost the sa me term s in di ff eren t

pl a ces ( i. 2 ; v.4 L i vy, v. i.; a nd elsewhere, prin cipes E tru r ia e.

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TH E E TRUSCAN S. 6 9

a xes. Bu t l ittle by l ittle this bon d wa s rel a xed , a n d the E tru sc a n s,

who h a d a t first presen ted the a ppea r a n ce of a gre a t n a tion , were

u n a ble to esc a pe this pol itic a l p a rticu l a rism ,which h a s been t oo

dea r to the I ta l i a n s even u p t o ou r own d a ys. At the epoch when

T USCA N PLOUG HMA N .1

Rom e seriou sly m en a ced E t ru ria ,'

a l l u n ion h a d dec a yed , a n d they

h a d gon e so f a r a s to decl a re solem n ly in a gen er a l a ssem bly th a t

e a ch city mu st settle it s own qu a rrels, a n d were n ot a sh a m ed to

expl a in th a t it wou ld b e im pru den t to en ga ge the whole Of

E tru r i a in the defen ce Of on e Of it s tribes .2

B R ON ZE A R MS A N D T OOLS FOUN D A T BOLOG N A .8

1 Thi s group in bron ze , foun d a t A rezzo, is thou ght to b e connected with the legendof the birth of T a ges

2 Li vy, v . 17.8 I n 1871 there were brou ght to light a t the Cha rtreu se , n e a r B o logn a , 3 65

E tru sca n tombs, a nd in th e environ s of Vill a nov a n ume i ou s pi e-historic obj ects, like

70 I NTRODUCTION .

E a ch of these twelve tribes, represen ted by a c a pit a l which

bore it s n a m e, possessed a n exten sive territory, a n d within it

su bject-town s were in depen den ce on the prin cip a l city, with in ferior

JE WE LS FOUN D A T BOLOG N A ( SE E N OT E B E LOW) .

pol itica l rights ; b u t in the c a pit a l itself the ru l in g power wa s the

order of the L u cum on s, the tru e p a trici a n s, who possessed, by

those of the l a ke—cities of Switzerl a n d. I n 1877 a s ingle sea rch a t B ologn a l ed to the d is

covery of a n a mphora 45 feet high a nd 4 feet broa d, buried dou btless a t the m oment ofa n in v a sion , a nd conta in ing bronz e obj ects, u ten si ls, a rm s, a n d orn a m ents. Thesebron zes were then preciou s a nd very expen si ve objects, spre a d throu gh Ita ly a n d intothe Tra n sa lpine cou ntries by a comm erce which wa s a t once timorou s a nd d a rin g (R ev.

a rch. of Ju ne , Cou nt G ozz a d in i pl a ces these bron zes a s f a r b a ck a s the tenthcentur y B. C.

TH E E TRUSCAN S. 71

heredita ry right, power, rel igion , a n d le a rn in g. I n some c a ses they

govern ed th e city i n tu rn a s a n n u a l m a gistr a tes , in others on e of

them govern ed a s kin g,1 b u t with a power l imited by the privileges

of th a t s a cerdot a l a ristocr a cy which h a d u n ited religion ,a gricu l tu re ,

a n d the st a te by in dissolu ble bon ds . The n ym ph Bygo'

is h a d

revea led to them th e secrets of th e a u gu r’

s a rt , a n d the dw a rf T a ges

the precepts Of hu m a n wisdom with the scien ce of the Aru spices.

On e d a y when a pe a s a n t wa s drivin g his plou gh in th e fields of

T a rquin ii, a hideou s dw a rf, with the f a ce of a child u n der his white

BR ON ZE V A SE S FOUN D A T BOLOG N A .

ha ir,T a ges, ca me ou t of a fu rrow . All E tru ri a flocked thither. The

dw a rf spoke for a lon g tim e ; the E tru sca n s collected his words,a n d the books of T a ges, th e b a sis of E tru sc a n discipl in e ,

2 were

for E tru ri a wh a t th e l a ws of M a nu h a d been for In dia , a n d th e

Pen ta teu ch for the Hebrews .

The comm on people, brou ght u p by it s su perstitiou s fea rs to

respect the grea t a n d to su bm it to the l a ws which they h a d

dict a ted, did n ot dispu te their dom in ion ; a n d this docile obedien ce

ren derin g violen ce su perflu ou s,the a ristocra cy a n d th e people were

not sep a r a ted by th a t im pl a c a ble h a tred which ren ds st a tes a su n der.

Like the su bjects of V en ice,still so fa ithfu l , even in the l a st cen tu ry,

1 T a ed io a n nu a e a mb ition is regem crea vere. (Li vy, v. i.)2 Cic., d e Diu , i i. 2 3 .

72 INTRODUCTION .

t o th e n obility of the Golden Book, th e people fou ght for the

m a in ten a n ce of a socia l order wherein it held on ly the l a st pl a ce.

Bu t when the fortu n e of E tru ri a fell , th e a u thority Of th e L u cu m on s

wa s hum bled . At Veii , a t the comm en cem en t of the t en yea rs ’ w a r,a n d a t Arezzo, a cen tu ry l a ter, the plebei a n s d a red to look their

m a sters in the f a ce a n d dem a n d a reckoning .

BR ON Z E JE WE LS.1

The other It a li a n peoples l ived sca ttered in stra gglin g vill a ges

(vica tim ). The E tru sc a n s a lw a ys h a d their tow ns w a lled,

a n d

gen er a lly pl a ced on high hills, l ike so m a ny fortresses dom in a tin g

the‘cou n try. W a rriors

,hu sb a n dm en

,a n d merch a n ts, they fou ght,

dra in ed th e m a rshes,a n d du g h a rbors . In di a a n d E gypt

,bel ievin g

them selves etern a l,spgpt cen tu ries on m a jestic b u t idle m on um en ts .

Greece covered her promon tories with tem ples, h er ro a ds with sta tu es,

1 F or the description of these objects; see A nn a les d u B u l l . a rche’

ol . 1874 , vol . x l v i.p. 24 9 , seq., a n d in the A tl a s, vol . x . pl . x . seq.

TH E E TRUSCAN S. 73

the streets a n d open sp a ces of h er town s with porticos. Here it

wa s the disin terested gen iu s for the a rts, there a profou n dly re

E T R USCA N JE WE LS A N D E A R R I N G S.1

l igiou s sen timen t a n d the hope of a n en dless existen ce. Bu t E tru ria

knew th a t she a n d her gods mu st d ie ; a n d a n xiou s t o l ive a n d

en joy life before th a t a n ticip a ted en d,sh e l a vished time a n d m en

on ly on u sefu l works, m a kin g roa ds, Open ing c a n a ls, tu rn ing a side

rivers, su rrou n din g town s with impregn a ble w a lls .

1 These jewe ls a re ta ken from N o'

e'

l d es Vergers ’ A tl a s.

74 INTRODUCTION .

I n Upper Ita ly, M a n tu a thu s rose in the m iddle of a l a ke on

th e Min cio — a position to this d a y th e stron gest in the pen in su l a .

I t s m etropolis, Felsin a (Bologn a ), on the Ren o, cla im s to h a vefou n ded Peru gi a 1 a lso, a n d Plin y ca lls it the ca pit a l of Circum pa

BR ON Z E

d a n e E tru ri a . M elpum ,on the Add a

, wa s a ble to st a n d a ga in st

th e Ga u ls for two cen tu ries ; a n d Adri a,between the PO a n d the

Adige,w a s su rrou n ded by ca n a ls which, conn ectin g the seven l a kes

of the Po, c a lled the seven sea s, ren dered the delta of the river

1 Sil iu s I t a l ., vi i i. 6 00 .2 Bron ze bu ckler a nd a rm s fou nd in a tomb ca l led tha t of the w a rrior a t Corneto

(T a rq u in ii) ; see A tl a s of the B u l l . cl e l’

I ns t. a rche'ol ., vol . x. pl . x.

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76 INTRODUCTION .

merch a n ts a cross the E u ropea n con tin en t . Ca rth a ge closed a ga in st

them the Str a its of G a des , beyon d which they were desirou s of

lea ding a colony to a l a rge isl a n d of the Atl a n tic,which sh e h a d

ju st discovered ;1 b u t she ga ve u p to them th e Tyrrhen i a n Sea .

Every str a n ge vessel which they m et westw a rd of I t a ly wa s trea ted

a s a prize , u n less som e conven tion protected it .2 When th e

Phoc a e a n s c a m e,in 53 6 B . c .

, to seek a n other cou n try in these

sea s, the E tru sca n s u n ited with the Ca rth a gin i a n s a ga in st those

Greeks,whom the two n a tion s m et a n d fou ght everywhere .

CO I N S O F POPULON I A W I T H A G O R G ON’

S H E A D , R E V E R SE SM OOT I L S

Bu t this u n ion cou ld n ot l a st . The Ca rth a gin i a n s, who for

their comm erce_

.with'

Ga u l a n d Sp a in n eeded bu sin ess settlem en ts

in Corsica a n d Sa rdin i a , esta blished them selves in those two isl a n ds

in spite Of trea ties. Then ce spra n g u p violen t a n im osities, a n d

a n a n xiety on the p a rt of the Ca rth a gin i a n s,t o a lly them selves

with the Rom a n s .‘1 The ha tred of Ca rth a ge w a s d a n gerou s ; yet

less so th a n the riv a lry of the Greeks, who occu pied th e m ost

im port a n t comm erci a l position s in Sicily, in Sou thern It a ly, a n d

a s f a r a s th e cen tre Of Ca m p a n i a , a n d who, throu gh Cum a e,m en

a ced th e E tru sca n colony on the borders of th e Voltu rn o. A s

e a rly a s th e m iddle of the Sixth cen tu ry som e Cn idia n s esta blished

themselves in the Lip a ri Isl a n ds,when ce they h a ra ssed the whole

Of the Tu sca n comm erce. Bein g a tt a cked by a n um erou s fleet

they ga in ed the victory, a n d in the joy of this u nhoped-for triumph,

1 Diod . v . ‘

20. N a vk r ixa l s‘ Ovudp eow icrxvo a w es Ka i 77 070 0 11

19 xpévovs‘

2 A ristotle, P ol . i i i . 6 .3 These m ed a ls give a fu l l-fa ce representa tion of the E tru sca n G orgon , which is seen on

so gre a t a n u mber of v a se s a nd terra -cotta s ; b u t she no longer h a s the hideou s he a d which thea ncient m onu m ents of E truri a ga ve h er. T he Greeks h a d the G orgon too ; b u t they disl ikedu gl in ess. “l hen they h a d m a de her terrible , they m a de h er be a utifu l ; a nd Lu ci a n ends bysa ying th a t it w a s by her be a uty sh e exerc ised hcr fa ta l power of cha ngin g those who lookedupon her to stone. [L ion a rd o

’s fa m ou s M edu sa suggests the s a me idea .— E d .]

4 Shown by trea ties of 50 9 , 3 48, a n d ‘279 B C.

TH E E TRUSCAN S. 77

they dedica ted a s m a ny sta tu es a t .Delph i t a ken ves

sel s .l Rhodes, too

showed a m on g its

trophies the iron

bou n d be a ks of the

Tyrrhen i a n vessel s,a n d the tyra n t of

Rhegium ,A n a x il a os,

drove them from the

Stra its of Sicily by

fortifyin g the en

tra n ce .

2 The E tru s

ca n s,therefore , sided

with Athen s a ga in st

Syra cu se . Hierom a de

them pa y de a rly for

this a ll i a n ce . I n con

ju n ction with Cum a e,

Syra cu se inflicted on

th e E tru sca n s a d e

fea t which m a rked

the decl in e of their

m a ritim e power

a n d of which Pin d a rsu n g

“ Son of Sa tu rn ,I con ju re thee, c a u se

the Phoen ici a n a n d

the soldier of Tyrrh e

n ia to rema in a t thei r

own he a rths,t a u ght

1 Pa u s a n i a s,x. 12 a n d

16 . T h ucyd ., iii . 88.2 Stra bo , VI. i. 5.8 T h is coin , with the

sign of the whee l a nd the

a nchor, is a d upon d iu s , or

piece worth two a sse s, whicha re m a rked on th e two s ides of th e a nchor. Coin s of even ten a sses were m a de ; b u tthese bron ze m u ltiples of the moneta ry u n it a re ra re.

BR ON Z E com A T T R I BUT E D T O T H E E T R USCO—UMBR I A NTOWN OF G A M E R S.

3

78 I NTRODUCTION .

by th e a ffron t th a t their fleet rece ived before Cum a e , a n d by th e

evils th a t th e lord of Syra cu se wrou ght u pon them , when v ictori

ou s he ca st a l l their brilli a n t you th he a dlon g from the he ights of

the swift poops in to the w a ves , a n d drew Greece from th e yoke

o f sl a very.

” Hiero m a de a n ofl'

erin g t o Zeu s of Olym pi a of the

A L UCUM ON’

s HE LM E T .1

helm et of on e of the L u cum on s killed in this b a ttle , with this

in scription ,which h e h a d ca u sed t o b e en gr a ved on i t : “ Hiero,

son of Dein om en es , a n d th e Syra cu sa n s [ha ve con secr a ted] t o Zeu s

th e Tyrrhen i a n [a rm s] from Cum a e .

” 2

1[Th is helmet w a s fou n d in 1817in the b ed of the A lpheu s, a nd is n ow in th e British

M u seum .]2 Pin d a r, Pyth. i. 13 6 , seq. cf. pl a te a bove.

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80 INTRODUCTION

Bu t the econ omica l revolu tion which followed th e grea t wa rsof Rome rea cted on the provin ces . A s in La tium a n d Ca m p a n i a

,

the sl a ve took by slow degrees the pl a ce of the free m a n, th e

shepherd th a t Of the hu sb a n dm a n,a n d sm a ll properties were lost

in gre a t dom a in s . When Tiberiu s Gra cchu s tr a versed E tru ri a, on his

retu rn from N um a n ti a,h e w a s a l a rm ed a t its depopu l a tion . Syll a

com pleted it s ru in by a b a n don in g it t o his soldiers a s th e priceof th e civil w a r ; the Triu n iv irs ga ve i t a n other visita tion . Then ce

forw a rd E tru ri a n ever recovered . H er soci a l orga n iz a tion h a d

perished ; h er l a n gu a ge , too, w a s gon e . From so m u ch glory,a rt ,

a n d lea rn in g, on e thin g on ly su rvived ; u p to the l a st d a ys of th e

a n cien t world the Tu sca n a u gu r reta in ed h is fa m e with the

cou n try people . N on e cou ld better rea d sign s in th e en tr a ils of

victim s,in the lightn in g fla shes, or in ordin a ry phen om en a .

1 I t

w a s a v a in scien ce , which rested on the en erv a tin g dogm a of

f a t a l ism,a n d which in fected the n a tion with a d ea thlike torpor.

The E tru ri a n s pl a yed a con sidera ble p a rt, however, in the

civil iza tion of I ta ly,— n ot by the ir idea s, for they a dded n othin g

to hum a n thou ght ; n or by a rt,s in ce a s rega rds idea l work , theirs

h a s little origin a lity ; b u t by their u til it a ri a n con ception of life ,by their in du stry

,a n d by the in flu en ce whi ch they exercised u pon

Rom e .

Livy c a lls the E tru sca n s the m ost religiou s of n a tion s,the on e

which excelled in the pra ctice of esta blished ceremon ies ; the Fa thersof the Chu rch looked u pon E tru ri a a s the m other of su perstition s.

We sha l l see th a t she deserved this report . The ir a u gu rs ’ doctrin e

w a s f a m ou s a m ong the a n cien ts . They believed tha t the gre a t

even ts of the world were a n n ou n ced by sign s ; a n d they were right

in bel ievin g it,if on ly

,i nste a d of Observin g the phen om en a of

physica l n a tu re, they h a d stu died those of the mor a l order,— sin ce

the best policy is tha t which discovers the s ign s of the times .

Bu t the a u gu r ’ s a rt wa s on ly a collection of pu erile ru les , which

held the m in dI

in bon d a ge, a n d m a de first them,a n d then the

Rom a n s,th e gre a test form a lists in the world .

I f we except the Greeks settled on the shores of the gu lf s of

N a ples a n d T a ren tum ,they were the most civilized of the It a li a n

1 Cicero , d e Divin . n . 12,18. E xl a , f u lgu r a , e t osten ta were the thr ee p a rts of the

science of divin a tion .

TIIE E TRUSCAN S. 81

n a tion s . Thei r a rtisa n s were skilfu l,their n obles loved pomp in

their cerem on ies , a n d m a gn ificen ce in the ir dress ; a n d they g a ve

Rome these t a stes, together with their horse-r a ces a n d a thletic

comb a ts. They ga ve them ,too

,thei r m a ssive a rchitectu re, which

wa s a clum sy imita tion of the Doric order. Th e tem ple of Ju piter

G A T E O F V O L A T E R R A .

on the Ca pitol derived from them tha t fla tten ed look whi ch su i tedso well the du ll Rom a n im a gin a tion , b u t so i ll the G od of the

lofty hea ven s.1"

The ga te of V ol a t erra a n d the Cloa c a M a xim a

prove th a t they kn ew how t o con stru ct a rches a nd v a u l ts, whi ch

1[This w a s m a in ly th e resu lt of the wide sepa ra tion of the pi l l a rs, which give the E tru s

c a n style a feeble a nd spra wling look , a s compa red with th e Greek. The eff ect of widen in gthese inter-co lum n a r spa ces is very m a rked. — E d .]

V O L . I . 6

82 INTR ODUCTION .

the Greeks of the gra n d epoch h a d forgotten [or n eglected] . The

ru de ogive of some Cyclope a n ga te h a d dou btless in spired themwith the idea , a n d a rchitectu re wa s en dowed by them with a n ew

a n d preciou s fu tu re. They do n ot a ppea r to h a ve tu rn ed it t oa ccou n t for m a jestic con stru ction s, a s did th e Rom a n s of the E m

pire ; b u t they em ployed the v a u lt in their ca n a ls a n d tu nn els

t o c a rry off th e w a ter a n d ren der the cou n try hea lthy.

The sen a tors of Rom e, who lodged their gods in the E tru sca n

m a n n er, lodged them selves l ike the L u cum on s of Vei i or T a rqu in ii :the a trium

, which w a s the ch a ra cteristic fea tu re of p a trici a n vill a s,is borrowed from the E tru sca n s ; a n d from the Rom a n a trium ca me

the p a tio Of the Sp a n ia rds or -Moors,a n d the Ca thol ic clo ister .1

Bu t whilst the Rom a n s pl a ced thei r tom bs on the su rfa ce Of the

soil, a s we do, the E tru sc a n s du g fu n'

erea l ch a m bers u n dergrou n d, or

in th e rocky sides of the ir hills . Som e of these,a s, for in st a n ce,

in th e v a lley of Ca stel d ’

A sso,h a ve a sin gu l a r liken ess t o those

which a re seen a t Thebes in E gypt . Som etimes they ra i sed stra n ge

stru ctu res over the exca v a tion which con t a in ed their dea d, of which

the fa bu lou s tomb of Porsen n a wou ld b e the m ost comp lete repre

sen t a t ion ,i f th e description which the a n cien ts h a ve left u s cou ld

b e redu ced t o the con dition s of prob a bility.

Va rro, if Pl iny h a s copied him a ccu ra tely, h a d m a de him self

the echo of v a gu e m em ories which tra dition h a d preserved a n d

em bell ished in it s own f a shion .“ Porsen n a

,

”sa ys h e ,

“ w a s bu ried

ben ea th the town of Clu siu m ,in the pl a ce where h e h a d c a u sed

a squ a re m on um en t Of hewn ston e to b e bu ilt . E a ch f a ce is 3 00

feet lon g a n d 50 feet high . The b a se, wh ich is squ a re, en closed

a n in extric a ble l a byrin th . I f a ny on e en tered it withou t a b a ll of

threa d,h e cou ld n ot reg a in the ou tlet . Above this squ a re a re five

pyr a m ids,fou r a t the a n gles a n d on e in th e m iddle, ea ch 75 feet

bro a d a t the b a se, a n d 150 feet high ; so exa ctly equ a l th a t

with their summ its they a l l bea r a globe of br a ss a n d a kin d

of ca p, from which bells a re su spen ded by ch a in s, which when

m oved by the win d , em it a prolon ged sou n d, su ch a s w a s hea rd

a t Dodon a . Above the globe a re fou r pyra m ids, ea ch 100 feet

1[M ore prob a bly this method of hou se-bu i lding wa s common to a l l the A ry a n s of South

ern E urope , certa in ly to the H omeric Greeks, a s we ll a s the Ita l i a n s. I t is the form now

a dopted a l l thr ough th e M editerra n ea n cou ntries. E d .]

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84 INTRODUCTION .

where their m a ster reposed . The Lu cum o a n d h is kin were fu rther

in , in a cen tra l crypt, the a ccess to which h a d been shu t by.

a

wa l l of su ch thickn ess th a t the workm en cou ld n ot brea k throu gh

it . All e fforts m a de to discover the en tr a n ce t o this sin gu l a r

mon um en t were u seless : th e pyr a m ids of E gypt h a ve n ot defen ded

their sepu lchra l ch a m bers so well . I n the cu ttin gs m a de rou n d th e

ou ter w a ll were fou n d a n im a ls in b a sa lt,win ged sphin xes , l ion s

sta n din g or cou ched , w a tching over this p a l a ce of the dea d t o drive

a w a y the a u d a ciou s visitor who shou ld a ttem pt t o p a ss th e

ga te. On the summ i t were still seen t he b a ses of p a rti a l ly crum bled

BR ON Z E V E SS E LS.1

towers . With th e help of these rem a in s it w a s possible to restore

this m ysteriou s tom b with som e a ppea ra n ce of prob a bility .

2 The

edifice is u tterly devo id of gr a ce . Bu t pu rely E tru sca n a rt h a d n ot

th a t gift which Greece rece ived from Min erv a ; a n d str a n ge a s this

con stru ction a ppe a rs,it is n ot m ore so th a n the tum u lu s Of th e

Lydi a n kin g, Alya ttes , on the b a n ks of the Herm u s .3

1 F or the description of the se objects, see A n n a les d a B u l l . a rch. for 1874 , vol . x lv i. p.24 9 seq., a nd in the A tl a s, vol . x. pl . 10—12.

2 Thi s re stora tion w a s m a de u nder the direction s of th e Prince of Ca n ino, whose dom a incomprised the s ite of Vu lci.

3 H erodotu s, i. 9 3 ; Stu a rt, M on . of L yd ia , p. 4 ; T ex ier, Descrip tion d e l’

A sie min .

i i i. 20.

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86‘ INTRODUCTION .

when ,some ye a rs a go, the Ca m p a n a Mu seum brou ght these m a rvels

to ou r kn owledge , the m odern goldsm ith w a s obliged t o con form

for a tim e t o the E tru sca n f a shion .

Their figu res h a ve the rigidity of E gypti a n st a tu a ry : the style

h a d n ot rea ched even tha t of Aegin a . Y et they fu rn ished I ta ly

with m a ny bron ze a n d terra -cotta sta tu es of l a rge dim en sion s .

The Rom a n s , wh o were n igg a rdly even with their gods,thou ght

th a t terr a -cott a sta tu es were a su ffi cien t decora tion for the ir tem ple

of Ju piter Ca pitol in u s, a n d they pl a ced some of them u pon th e

pedim en t .1 They provided them selves yet more che a ply with

st a tu es of bron ze,when they ca rried off

two thou sa n d a t th e s a ck of V ol sin ii.

The a n cien ts,who on ly lea rn ed very

l a te t o m a ke wooden c a sks,were the

best potters in the world : ou r mu seu m s

con ta i n m ore th a n fifteen thou s a n d a n tiqu e

v a ses . The red pottery of Arezzo a n d

th e bl a ck pottery of Chiu si a re pu rely

E tru sca n . The form is som etim es odd,

b u t Often very elega n t . The orn a m en ts

in rel ief which decor a te them ,the f a n t a stic a n im a ls seen u pon

BLA CK V A S E O F CLUSI UM .

them — sphin xes, winged horses, g riffi n s, a n d siren s — reca ll su bjects

f a m ili a r t o Orien ta l a rtists , a n d l ea d u s to the con clu sion a l re a dy

propou n ded on th e diverse sou rces of E trusc a n civiliz a tion . Som e

of these v a ses m ight even b e t a ken for E gypti a n ca n op es,“those

u rn s of which the cover is form ed by a m a n’

s hea d . Am on g th e

specim en s which we give is a ewer in the sh a pe of a fi sh ;

the Ca m p a n a Mu seum h a s a n other in the form of a bird . Th e

lea rn ed a re a greed to con sider these bl a ck v a ses a s very a n cien t,a n d Ju ven a l a sserted t ha t good K ing N uma h a d n o others

U

Simpu v ium r i dere N um a e,n igrum qu e ca t in um

An su s era t 3

A s for the p a i nted v a ses, they a re copied from Greek v a ses, or

1 [B u t it is not u n like ly tha t the sa me fa shion ex isted in G reece before they h a d le a rn edto ca rve in deep re l ief or set u p m a rble figures in the pedim ent

~

itse lf . E d .]2 T a ken from N oel d es Vergers’ A tl a s, pis. xv ii , xvi i i ., a nd x ix ; see the expla n a tion of

these cuts on pp. 12—14 of the sa m e work.3 S a t

,v i. 3 4 3 .

TH E E TRUSCAN S. 87

else they were im ported in the a ctive commerce which It a ly c a rried

on with a l l the cou n tries borderin g on the ea stern p a rt of the

Mediterra n e a n — E gypt,Phoen icia , Cypru s , Rhodes, a n d

,a bove a l l

,

both E u ropea n a n d Asi a tic Greece . The su bjects m ost frequ en tly

represen ted on these v a ses a re borrowed from the E pic cycle,from

the mythology a n d heroic tr a dition s of Hell a s . When ever they

reprodu ce myths pecu l i a r to E tru ri a , som e rem iniscen ce or imit a tion

of the foreign er a ppea rs . Som e v a ses of gilt bron ze which were

fou n d a t V ol sin ii h a ve figu res which rem in d u s of the m ost

be a u ti fu l coin s qf Syra cu se .

We ou ght t o give the E tru sca n s credit for h a vin g a ppren

ticed them selves to those who, in the dom a in of a rt,h a ve been

the m a sters of the whole world, a n d for ha ving preserved to u s

some of thei r m a sterpieces .

The most a dmira ble of the a n tiqu e v a ses com e from the

exca va tion s a t Chiu si ;1a n d sin ce a n in h a bit a n t of Vu lci esteem ed

a P a n a then a ic v a se preciou s en ou gh to b e bu ried with him ,l et

u s pu t in eviden ce wh a t E tr uria loved a s well a s wha t she

m a n u fa ctu red .

1 The F ra nco is Va se a t Florence, of which a representa tion wil l b e fou n d in the A tl a s

of the I n stitu t a rclzc'

olog ., vol . i v. pl. l iv., l v., lv ii.

88 I NTRODUCTION .

OSCANS AND SABE L L IANS.

N‘ their cen tra l pa rts , e a stwa rd of Rom e a n d L a tium th e

Apenn in es ha ve their highest pe a ks,their wildest v a lleys .

There the Gr a n Sa sso d’

Ita lia,the Velin o

, the Ma jell a , the Sibill a ,a n d the Gre a t Term in il lo ra ise the ir sn ow-ca pped hea ds a bove a l l

the Apenn in e cha in ,a n d from their summ its a fford a V iew of both

the sea s which wa sh the shores of It a ly .

1 Bu t the ir sides a re n ot

gen tly sloped ; it seem s a s if they l a cked sp a ce t o exten d themselves . The ir lin es m eet a n d bre a k ea ch other ; th e v a lleys deepen

in to d a rk ch a sm s, where the su n n ever re a ches ; th e p a sses

a re n a rrow gorges ; the w a tercou rses torren ts . E verywhere there

is the im a ge of cha os . I t is hel l !” s a y the pe a sa n ts ? I n a l l

a ges this pl a ce h a s been the refu ge Of bra ve a n d in tra ct a ble

popu l a tion s, a n d the m ost a n cien t tra dition s pl a ce there th e a bode

of the Osca n s a n d Sa belli a n s,— the tru e I t a l i a n r a ce .

Lon g driven b a ck by foreign colon ists, a n d , a s it were, lost

in the depths of the m ost som bre forests of the Apen n in es , these

people a t l a st cl a im ed their sh a re of the It a l i a n su n . When ce

did they origin a lly com e ? I t is n ot kn own ; b u t hi storic prob a

b il it ies, stren gthen ed by the a ffin ity of l a n gu a ge a n d rel igion ,

3

po in t to a common origin . The differen ce of t he cou n tries where in

they defin itely settled down — the Sa belli a n s in th e mou n t a in s ;the Osca n s in the pl a in — esta blished between them differen ces of

cu stom s a n d perpetu a l hostilities, which obscu red their origin a l

kin ship . Of these two sister n a tion s , the on e, profitin g by the

feeblen ess of the Sicu l i , mu st h a ve descen ded, u n der the iden tica l

n a m es of Osca n s , Opiei, Au son i, a n d A u ru n ci, in to the pla in s Of

1 [Thi s wil d Al pine cou ntry repe a ts itself twice a ga in a s you go southwa rd ; once a lon gthe bou n d a ries of A pu li a , wh ere the A bru zz i , from Poten z a down to the M onte Pol l ino, forma splendid cha in ,

a nd a ga in in Ca l a bri a , where the Si l a M ou nta in s embra ce a l a rge districtof in a ccess ible A lpine cou ntry.

2 They ca l l on e of these v a lleys I nfern o d i S. Columb a .

3 The Sa mn ites spoke O sca n , the l a ngu a ge of the Ca mpa n i a ns, a nd the A te ll a n fa rceswritten in tha t l a ngu a ge were u nderstood a t R ome. (Stra bo , V. iii. G.)

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90 INTRODUCTION .

yea rs l a ter,cl a imed to h a ve inherited . A religiou s bon d , in the

l a ck of a ny other,u n ited these n a tion s

,a n d comm on sa crifices

ga thered them on the Alb a n Mou n t , a t L a v in ium , the s a n ctu a ry of

the m ysteriou s Pen a tes a n d the n a tive gods .1

Thu s the n a tion from whi ch Rome spra n g wa s itself on ly a

mixtu re of differen t tribes a n d ra ces . E lsewhere su ccessive ra ces,

’

in stea d of blen din g, drive ou t or overl a y e a ch other, — on e ru lin g,

th e other en sl a ved . With the Osca n s a n d Sa bell ia n s there is , on

the con tra ry,a fu sion of victors a n d v a n qu ished . Greek tr a di

tion s , which were a lw a ys so in te lligen t,h a ve fa ithfu lly echoed this

origin of the L a tin people ; a n d it wa s by in term a rri a ges a n d

pea cefu l u n ion s th a t E v a n der, Aen ea s, Tibu r,a n d the com pa n ion s of Ulysses est a blished

them selves, ju st . a s a t a l a ter period in ter

m a rria ges u n ite Rom e a n d the Sa bin es. By

it s loca l tra dition s,

a s well a s by it s oWn

origin,Rome w a s prep a red for th a t spirit of

f a cile a ssoci a tion which gives her a distin ctive .

ch a ra cter a m on g a n cien t polities, a n d which

wa s the c a u se of h er grea tn ess .

I n the eighth cen tu ry the prosperity of

the L a tin s w a s decl in ing . The E tru sc a n s h a d

tra versed the ir cou n try,

[

the Sa bin es h a d

crossed the An io, the Aequ i a n s a n d Vo lsci a n s

h a d in v a ded the pl a in a n d seized sever a l L a tintown s ? Alba herself , in tra dition ,

seem s fee

CO’N “ T R I BUT E ”3°

b l e en ou gh for a ha n dfu l of m en t o h a ve ca u sedT H E R U TU L I A N S.

a revol u t l on there . Thi s we a kn ess w a s of a d

va n ta ge to the growth of the E tern a l City.

Ties[

of rel a tion ship a n d a lli a n ce u n ited the Ru tu li with the

F risei L a tin i . The R u tu l ia n ca pit a l , Ardea ,4 wa s a lrea dy en riched

1 J a nu s, Sa turn , P iou s, F a u nu s, a nd L a tinu s were a mong these indigenou s gods. Sa crificeswere a lso offered in m emory of E v a nder a nd of hi s m other, the prophetess Ca rm enta . On e of

the ga tes of R ome wa s ca lled the Ca rm en t a l .

2 I n the first centuries of R ome, L a tin town s a re a ss ign ed in turn to the A equ i a n s,Sa bin es, L a tin-s , a n d Volsci a n s.

3 On the obverse , a tortoise with two o’

s , the m a rk of the sexta n s ; on the reverse, a

wheel , rota , the root of the word R u tu l i.

4 A rd e a m R utu li h a b eb a n t , gen s u t in e a regione a tqu e in e a a et a te divit iis pr a epol len s.

— L I V Y : i . 57.

OscAN s AN D SABE LL IA N S. 9 1

by commerce a n d su rrou n ded by high w a l ls. Sa g im tum ,in Sp a in ,

wa s s a id to b e it s colon y .

Arou n d this primitive L a tium ,which did n ot exten d beyon d

the N um iciu s, a n d whi ch n ou rished a stou t popu l a tion of hu sb a n d

m en ,

1 were settled the Aequ i a n s, H ern ica n s , Volsci a n s , a n d A u ru n

ca n s, a l l in clu ded by the Rom a n s in the gen era l term of La tin

WA LL OF A LA T R I .

people ; fur ther on ,between the Liris a n d th e Sil a ru s , were the

Au son i a n s.

The‘ Aequ ia n s, a little n a tion of shepherds a n d hu n ters, in

sa ti a ble phm d erers,2 h a d

,in ste a d of town s, on ly fortified vill a ges ,

situ a ted in in a ccessible pl a ces . Qu a rtered in the difficu lt region

E t n u nc m a gn um m a n et A rdea nom en ;

Sed fortu n a fu it.” -VE R G I L : A en eid , vii. 4 12.

Dionys. (A n t. R om ,iv. 64) is sti l l m ore express i ve .

1 “ F ortiss imi v iri et m il ites strenui ssimi ex a gricolis gign u n t u r." — PL I NY : N a t. H ist.

2 Convect a re j u v a t pr a ed a s et v ivere ra pto. — VE R G I L : A eneid , vn . 74 9.

9 2 INTRODUCTION .

tr a versed by the u pper An io , they rea ched, by w a y of the mou n

t a in s,a s f a r a s A lgidu s , a volca n ic prom on tory

,from which the

Rom a n territory m ight b e seen,a n d whose forests covered their

m a rch . Then ce they su dden ly pou red in to the pl a in,ca rryin g off

crops a n d herds ; a n d before the people cou ld t a ke a rm s,they h a d

dis a ppea red . Fa ithfu l,however

,to their plighted word

,they h a d

e st a blished the feti a l right which the Rom a n s h a d borrowed from

them,

1 b u t which they seem n o lon ger to h a ve recogn ized a t the

t im e when,by their r a pid in cu rsion s

,they every yea r tu rn ed the

a tten tion of th e people from their qu a rrels in the Forum . N ot

withst a n din g their proxim ity t o Rom e,a n d two cen tu ries a n d a

h a lf of w a rs,they were the l a st of the I ta li a n s to l a y down a rm s .

Less given to w a r a n d plu n der, bec a u se their cou n try wa s

V OLSCI A N CO I N .

r icher,n otwithst a n din g the rocks which covered it ,

2 the H ern ica n s

form ed a con federa tion ,the prin cip a l m em bers of which were the

cities of F eren t in um , A l a t rium ,a n d A n a gn ia .

3

The im perish a ble w a ll s of the two first -n a m ed town s , the lin en

books wherein A n a gn ia recorded her history, h er repu t a tion . for

wea lth,th e tem ples th a t Ma rcu s Au reliu s fou n d there a t every

step,

a n d the circu s where th e depu ties of th e who le le a gu e

a ssem bled,bea r witn ess to the ir cu ltu re , their rel igiou s spirit, a n d

their a n cien t m ight .4 Pl a ced between two n a tion s of w a rlike t em

per , th e H ern ica n s displ a yed a p a cific spirit, a n d ea rly a ssoci a ted

1 L i vy,i . 3 2 .

2 Sa xosis in m on t ib u s (Serv. in A en . v i i. 684) he ta kes them for Sa bines.3 Di ves A n a gn ia (V erg ., A en . v ii . Stra bo (V. i i i. 10) ca lls it i l lu striou s (m ilu s

4 F eren t inum , on th e V ia L a tin a , between A n a gn ia a nd Pru s ino ; A l a trium , a town of the

sa me n a tion , is seven m iles from the former.

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94 IN TRODUCTION .

of a n a n cien t belief . I s n ot Ci rce , whom th e Greeks con

n ected with the i ll-omen ed f a m il y of the K in g of Colchis, b u t

who wa s s a id t o b e the d a u ghter of the Su n ,dou btless bec a u se

in the morn in g, when th e pl a in is still in sh a dow, her m ou n t a in

is l ighted by the first r a ys of the risin g sum— Circe, who

ch a n ges form s, a n d com pou n ds m a gic dra u ghts of the herbs 1 h er

prom on tory still bea rs,? — m a y she n ot b e some Pel a sgi a n divin ity,

a goddess of medicin e, l ike the Greek Aescu l a piu s, wh o w a s

a lso a n offsprin g of the Su n , a n d who, f a llen with the defea t of

her n a tion , w a s degr a ded to a drea d sorceress by th e n ew

comers ?

Th e Volscia n s ofi

th e coa st — with the Isl a n d of Pon ti a a n d

the stretch of coa st which they possessed ; with th e ports of A n

tium a n d A stu ra , a n d th a t of Terra cin a , which h a s a circum

feren ce of n o less th a n n in e miles ;3 with the lesson s or exa m ple

of the E tru sca n s, —cou ld n ot f a i l to b e skil fu l sa i lors ; a t a l l even ts

they bec a m e form id a ble pir a tes. The whole Tyrrhen i a n Sea , a s f a r

a s the lighthou se of Messin a, w a s in fested by their crui sers ; a n d

the in ju ries they inflicted on th e T a ren tin e commerce n e a rly re

su l ted in a w a r'

b etween the Rom a n s a n d Alex a n der, the Molossi a n

ki ng of E piru s. Y et Rome h a d a lrea dy con qu ered A n t ium a n d

destroyed it s fleet.

The Volsci a n s of the in terior were n o less drea ded in th e

pl a in s of L a tium a n d Ca m p a n i a ; a n d a fter two hu n dred yea rs of

wa r ,4 Rom e on ly got rid of them by extermin a tin g them . I n th e

time of Pliny 5 thirty—three villa ges h a d a lrea dy dis a ppea red in the

1 The Crep is l a cer a a bou nds there (M ic., i . Stra bo (V. iii. 6) wa s a lso a w a re tha tpoisonou s herbs grew there in grea t numbers ; cf. V erg . A en . vi i. 10

,seq. The m emory of

the drea d encha ntress sti ll l i ves "there ; a n d not long a go no pe a sa nt cou ld ha ve been fou n dwho wou ld d a re for a ny mon ey to penetra te into the grotto sa id to b e Circe ’s. (De B on

stetten , V oya ge su r te the'

a tre cl es six d ern iers l ivres d c l ’E n e’

id e, p.2 Pl iny, N a t. H ist. ii . 85 I ii. 11 ( 9) thou ght, a s in deed the a ppea ra nce of th e

region proves, tha t the promontory of Circeii h a d been once a n is l a n d, which som e wereinclin ed to recogn ize a s the problem a tic Isl a nd of A e a of H omer (Odyss. x.

3 De Prony, “ M em . sur les m a ra is Pontiu s.” “ A n xur Oppidum vetere fortu n aopu len tum .

” — L I V Y , i v. 59 . Cf. Pliny, ib icl . '

iii. 9 .

4 L i vy, v i. 21. “ V ol scos vel u t sorte qu a d a m prope in a etern um exercen do R om a n o

m il iti d a t es.”5 Pl iny, N a t. H is t. i i i. 9 : “ A Circeu s pa lu s Pompt in a est qu em locum xxx i ii u rb ium

fui sse M u cia nu s ter con su l prod id it . I n the whole of a ncient L a tium h e m entions fifty-fiveru ined town s.

9

OscAN s A ND SA B E L L I A N s. 95

Pompt inum ,sin ce the reign of Au gu stu s a region of pestilen ce

a n d desol a tion ?

Between the V olsci a n cou n try a n d the River Li ris, in a m ou n

t a in ou s region Where b u t two n a rrow roa ds g a ve p a ss a ge from

La tium i nto Ca mp a n i a , dwelt the A u ru n ci. In heriting the n a m e of

the grea t It a l i a n ra ce, they seem to h a ve possessed a lso it s u n u su a l

st a tu re, it s threa ten ing a spect, a n d its bold ch a ra cter? Accordingly,

it is a t F orm ia e , on thei r co a st, th a t tra dition pl a ced the a bode of

the gi a n t L a estrygon es .3 B u t sin ce historic a ges this ra ce h a s

rem a in ed Obscu re ; Livy n a mes the A u ru n ci on ly t o rel a te the

pitiless w a r th a t Rom e m a de u pon them ,a n d the destru ction of

three of their town s .

Sou thw a rd from the Li ris l a y the cou n try kn own to the Rom a n sa s Ca m p a n i a

,— a m ild a n d en erv a tin g region , where n o form of

governm en t ou tl a sted m ore th a n a few gen era tion s, a n d the grou n d

itsel f, with it s con sta n t ch a n ges, seem ed to sh a re in the vicissitu des

of hum a n a ffa irs . The Lu crin e L a ke , on ce so celebr a ted,a fterw a rd

beca m e a mu ddy sw a mp ; a n d the Avern u s,“ the m ou th of he ll

,

cha n ged in to a pellu cid l a ke. At Ca sern a a tomb h a s been fou n d

n i nety feet u n der grou n d ; a n d the beds of l a v a u pon which H ercu

l a n eum a n d Pom pei i were bu ilt,themselves con ce a l a str a tum of

produ ctive soi l a n d tr a ces of a n cien t cu ltu re .“ There

,

”s a ys Pl iny,

in th a t l a n d of B a cchu s a n d Ceres, where two sprin g-tim es bloom,

the Osca n s a n d Greeks, the Um bri a n s, E tru sc a n s, a n d Ca m p a n i a n s,

riva lled on e a n other in lu xu ry a n d effem in a cy ;”

a n d Stra bo, m a r

vellin g th a t so m a ny n a tion s h a ve been by tu rn s dom in a n t a n d

en sl a ved in this l a n d,l a ys the bl a m e on it s soft sky a n d fertile

soil , — when ce, sa ys Cicero,com e a l l vices .4

The Osca n s in Ca m p a n ia h a ve been , sin ce historic times , on ly

a r a ce su bject to foreign m a sters a n d blen ded with them,— Greeks

bein g esta blished a lon g the coa st,E tru sca n s in the in terior, a n d

Sa m n ites com in g down from the Apenn in es . A few Au son i a n tribes ,su ch a s th e Sid icin i of Tea n um a n d the A u ru n ci of Ca les, a lon e

1 L i vy , v i. 12 : “ I nnum er a b il em m u l t itu din em l ib erorum ca pitum in e is fu isse locis, qu a enu nc

,vix sem in a rio ex igu o m il itum relicto, servit ia R om a n a a b solitu dine vindica n t .

2 Dionys., A n t. R om. v i. 3 2 , a nd L i vy, ii. 2 6.3 H omer, Odyss. x . 89 , 13 4 .4 Pl in y

, N a t. H ist. ii i. 9 summum L iberi P a tris cum Cerere certa men . Cf.

Floru s, i. 16 ; Stra bo, V. iv. 9 ; Cicero, d e c c A gra r. i. 6 , 7.

96 INTRODUCTION .

preserved their l iberty in th e m ou n t a in s which sep a ra te the V ol tu r

n u s from the Liris . I n Apu l i a , on th e other side of the pen in su l a ,th e m a in stock Of th e popu l a tion w a s a lso of Au son i a n orig in , a s

is proved by n a m es of town s in th e in terior, a n d by the prev a len ce

of th e Osca n l a n gu a ge throu gh a grea t p a rt of Sou thern I t a ly.

The Sa bin es, from whom n ea rly a l l the Sa belli a n people'

s a re

descen ded ,1origin a l ly occu pied the high region of th e Upper Abru zzi

a rou n d the hea d-w a ters of th e V elino, the Fron ti, a n d the Pesc a ra ,

WA LL OF A UR UN CA .2

a cou n try where th e gr a du a l meltin g of th e snows keeps the p a stu

ra ge good long a fter the su n h a s scorched the pl a in s below. Here

they h a d a city, A m iternu m ,a n d hen ce they c a m e down u pon the

territory of Re a te ; drivin g ou t the Ca sci, while by w a y of Mou n t

L u cret il is they stretched a cross to th e Tiber. On the n orth they

crowded the Umbri a n s b a ck beyon d the N er a ; m a kin g pred a tory

excu rsion s sou thw a rds, they occu pied p a rt of the left b a n k of the An io,

1 P a terqu e Sa b inu s (V erg., A en . vi i.2 T a ken from the A nn . d a B u l l., vol . i v. 183 9.

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98 INTRODUCTION .

From the Sa bin es, s a ys Pliny,

1 “ the Picen t in es a re descen ded,

by a s a cred sprin g-tim e .

”Bu t too m a n y differen t r a ces occu pied

this coa st for a n u nm ixed people t o h a ve resu lted therefrom . I n

their fertile v a l leys the Picen t in es rem a in ed u n a ffected by a l l the

I t a li a n w a rs , a n d m u ltipl ied a t leisu re . Pl in y a sserts 2 th a t when

they su bm itted to Rom e , in 2 68,they were in n um ber.

Am on g them were cou n ted the Pra et u t ia n s, who form ed a distin ct

n a tion , settled in the high l a n ds .

By a singu l a r ch a n ce,it w a s these

poor m ou n t a in eers , sc a rce kn own to

the histori a n s of Rom e,who g a ve

their n a m e t o the cen tre of the

pen in su l a,the Abru zzi .

CO I N OF T E A'

I‘

E , CA P I T A L on T H E The v a st provin ce comm on lyM A R R UC I N I .3

ca ll ed by the n a m e of the Sa m

n ium,a n d which in clu des a l l the m ou n t a in s sou th of Picen u m ,

a n d th e Sa bin e l a n d a s f a r a s M a gn a'

G r a ecia , wa s divided between

two con feder a tion s, form ed of wh a t were held to b e the br a vest

n a tion s in I t a ly.

I n the first lea gu e th e M a rsi a n d Pel ign i were m ost ren own ed

for their cour a ge. “Who sh a ll trium ph over the M a rsi, or with

ou t the s a id they. N extt o th e E tru sc a n a ru spex there weren o divin ers m ore celebra ted f or their

skill in re a din g sign s,especi a lly the

flight of birds, th a n those of th e

M a rsi a n s . Am on g them we m eet

a ga in with the p sylli of E gypt a n d

the physi ci a n -sorcerers of the n a tives of th e N ew World, wh o

CO I N OF T H E FR E N T A N I .5

R om a n s m a de a sim il a r vow,with th e exception of the proscription of children (L ivy, xxn .

Sa bine tra dition s sa id, too, tha t Semo Sa ncu s, a lso n a m ed Diu s F id iu s, the divine a uthor ofthe Sa bel li a n ra ce, h a d substituted rites free from blood for hum a n sa crifices (Dionysiu s,A n t. R om. i.

1 H ist. N a t. iii . 13 .

2 Ibid.3 On the obverse , a h ea d of P a ll a s, a bove , five o

’

s, the sign of the qu incu nx ; on the

reverse, th is sa me m a rk, a crescent, a n owl sta nding on a ca pita l , a nd the word T I A T I .A ppi a n , B el lum civile, i . 4 6 . “ G en u s a cre virum ”

(V erg., G eorg. i i. “ F ortissi

morum virorum , M a r sorum et P a el ign orum (Cic., in V a tin .

5 A he a d of M ercury with the word F R E N T R E N in Osca n ch a ra cters ; on the reverse,Pega su s flying.

OSCAN S AND SA BE LLIAN S. 9 9

he a led with the sim ples g a thered in thei r mou n t a in s, a n d with

their m a gic in c a n t a tion s, n enia e? On e fa m i ly, which n ever in ter

m a rried with the rest, h a d the gift of ch a rm ing vipers, with which

the cou n try of the M a rsi a n s a bou n ded , a n d of ren dering the i r

bites h a rm less ? I n the tim e of E l a ga b a lu s the repu t a tion of the

Ma rsi a n sorcerers still rem a in ed ; even to this d a y the ju gglers

who go to Rom e a n d N a ples to a ston ish the people by their tricks

with serpen ts, whose poison ou s f a n gs they h a ve extr a cted, a lw a ys

com e from wh a t wa s on ce th e L a ke of Cel a n o (F u cin u s N ow i t

is St . Domin i c of Cu l lin o who bestows this power ; three thou s a n d

yea rs a go it w a s a goddess held in grea t ven er a tion in those sa m e

pl a ces , the en ch a n tress A n g it ia , s ister of Circe, or perh a ps Medea

herself, of the gloom y r a ce of Aeetes . N a m es ch a n ge , b u t su per

st it ion en du res, when m en rem a in u n der the influ en ces of the

sa m e pl a ces a n d in th e sa m e sta te of ign ora n ce .

The cou n try of th e M a rsi a n s a n d Pel ign ia n s, situ a ted in the

hea rt of the Apen n in es, wa s the coldest in the pen in su l a :4 thu s

the flocks,which in summ er left th e scorched pl a in s of Apu l i a .

wen t then , a s they do n ow, to feed in the cool v a lleys of th e

Pel ign ia n s, who moreover produ ced excellen t wa x a n d th e fin est

of fla x .

5 The ir stron ghold of Corfin ium wa s chosen du rin g the

Soci a l w a r to serve, u n der th e sign ifica n t n a me of I ta lica , a s the

ca pit a l of th e It a l i a n s who h a d risen a ga in st Rome .

The other grea t Sa bel li a n le a gu e con sisted of the Sa m n ite

people , who h a d m ore brill i a n t destin ies , grea t riches, a n a m e

d rea ded a s f a r a s Sicily, a s f a r even a s Greece, b u t who p a id fora l l this glory by fea rfu l dis a sters Be in g l ed

,a ccordin g t o thei r

legen ds, from th e cou n try of th e Sa bin es t o the m ou n t a in s of

Ben even tum by the wild bu l l whose im a ge is fou n d on the coin sof the Soci a l w a r , the Sa m n ites m in gled with the Au son i a n tribes

1 Cf. H on , E p od . xv11. 2 9 .2 “ Spa rgere qu i somn os ca n t u qu e m a nu qu e soleb a t ,M u lceb a tqu e ira s et morsu s a rte l ev a b a t .”

VE R G I L : A eneid , vii. 754 .

8 L a ke F ucinu s, the a rea of which w a s a cre s, a n d th e depth 58 feet, wa s dra inedby Prince T orlon i a between A u g . 9 , 186 2 , a nd the end of Ju n e , 1875.

‘1 The a ncients h a d a proverbi a l sa ying, P el ign a f r igora a nd zl /[a rsa e n ives ; now they s a y

fred d o d ’

A b ru zzo.

5 Pl iny, N a t. H ist. x i. 14 ; xix . 2 .

100 INTRODUCTION .

who rem a in ed in the Apen n in es, a n d sprea d from hill to hill a s

f a r a s Apu l i a . While the Ca u din i a n d H irpin i1settled on the

slopes of Mou n t T a b u rn u s, the foot of which re a ched t o a v a lley

ren dered f a m ou s by them u n der th e n a m e of the Ca u din e Forks,

the Fren t a n i est a blished them selves n e a r the u pper sea , a n d irreg

u l a r b a n ds of them p a ssed over th e Sil a ru s a n d form ed on th e

fu rther side the n a tion of the L u ca n ia n s,which ea rly sepa r a ted

itself from the lea gu e . This wa s com posed of fou r n a tion s (Ca r acen i

,P cn tri, H irp in i, a n d Ca u d in i),

t o whom belon gs m ore p a rticu l a rly

the gloriou s n a m e of Sa m n ites.

Their cou n try, su rrou n ded by

the Sa n gro , Vo ltu rn o , a n d Ca lore ,is c overed with ru gged m ou n t a in s

(th e M a tese), which preserve the

sn ow u n til M a y,2a n d Of which th e

highest pea k , Mou n t M il et to, rises

to feet . Thu s the flocks

fou n d fresh p a stu r a ge a n d a bu n d a n t

sprin gs a m on g these high v a lleys

du rin g th e scorchin g summ er .

These con stitu ted the wea lth of

th e Cou n try.

’

Thei r produ ce so ld

in th e G reek town s on the coa st ;the pa y which they often received

u n der the title of a u xi l i a ry troops ;SA MN I T E 12 11 111110 11, A FT E R A P A W T E D b u t , a bove a l l , the booty which they

V A SE I N T H E LOU V R E '

brou ght b a ck from the ir r a ids in to

M a gn a G ra ecia , a ccum u l a ted grea t wea lth in the h a n ds of these

w a rl ike shepherds . I n th e tim e of the w a r a ga in st Rom e th e

a bu n d a n ce of bron ze in Sa m n ium w a s so gre a t th a t th e you nger

P a piriu s ca rried off m ore tha n two mill ion pou n ds of it ;a

a n d

his col lea gu e Ca rv il iu s h a d m a de,with n othin g b u t the a rm or

ta ken from the Sa m n ite foot-soldiers, a colossa l sta tu e of Ju piter,which he pl a ced on the Ca pitol, a n d which cou ld b e seen from

1 F estu s, s.v. H irp inos ; cf. Stra bo, V. i v. 12 ; Serv. in A en . x i. 173 .

2 K eppe l-Cra ven , E xcursion ; in the A b ru zzi.3 Li vy, x. 4 6.

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102 INTRODUCTION .

I f th e thirteen Sa bell i a n n a tion s h a d been u n ited,I ta ly wa s

theirs. Bu t the L u ca n ia n s were a t enm ity with the Sa mn ites, thel a tter with the M a rsic con feder a tion , the M a rsi a n s with the

Sa bin es, a n d the Picen t in es rem a in ed str a n gers to a l l the m ou n

t a in eers ’ qu a rrels . Y et Rome, which represen ted, a s n o other

a n cien t Sta te h a d ever don e, th e Opposite prin ciple of pol it ic a l

u n ity, on ly triumphed a fter the m ost p a in fu l e fforts, a n d by ex

term in a tin g thi s in dom it a ble popu l a tion ? Sh e wa s, m oreover, com

pel l ed to u n derta ke the work of destru ction twice over . The

Sa m n ite a n d Secon d Pu n i c w a rs h a d a lrea dy m a de m a n y ru in s

a n d sol itu des ; b u t when the ven gea n ce of Su ll a h a d p a ssed over

th a t desol a ted l a n d,Floru s cou ld sa y :

“ I n Sa m n ium itself it wou ld

b e v a in t o seek for Sa m n ium . The ru in w a s so complete tha t

on ly a

'

few mon umen ts of those people a re left u s ; a n d m ore th a n

twen ty of their town s h a ve di sa ppea red withou t lea ving a ny

tra ce behin d.

On the sou th-ea st,T a ren tum a n d the grea t town s of Apu li a

sta yed th e Sa m n ites ; b u t tow a rds the west the E tru sca n s of

Ca mp a n i a were u n a ble to defen d th a t rich territory a ga in st them .

Tired of their con tin u a l expedition s, the E tru sca n s thou ght to b uypea ce by sh a ring with the Sa mn ites their fields a n d town s . On e

n ight they were su rprised a n d m a ssa cred (a bou t V u l tu rn um

took the n a me of Ca pu a , a n d th a t of Ca m p a n ia n s distin gu ished the

n ew m a sters of the cou n try ? The gre a t Greek city, Cum a e,

wa s then t a ken by a ssa u lt, a nd a Ca m p a n ia n colony repl a ced a

p a rt of the m a ssa cred in h a bit a n ts ; yet

withou t m a kin g the Osc a n l a ngu a ge

a n d Sa bell i a n cu stoms su persede the

Greek .3 These herdsmen , who in their

mou n t a in s r a ised fin e breeds of horses,

4

M E DA L OF T E N N” beca m e in the Ca mp a n i a n pl a in s the

best horsemen of the pen in su l a ; a n d the

1 L i vy, a nd a fter him a l l the histori a n s of R ome, ha ve ex a ggera ted this depopul a tion

of Sa m n ium, since a ccording to the cen su s preserved by Po lybiu s, tha t country coul d

furn i sh so ld iers a fter the F irst Pu n ic W a r.

2 B iod. x i i. 3 1 : m 39m T a mK a yd ra wi w

2 See L i vy, x1. 4 2 , where the Ca m a ca n s dem a n d the substitution of L a tin for Greek inpu blic records.

4 E speci a lly in those of the H irpin i, whose cou ntry sti l l re a rs a n exce ll ent breed.5 Silver co in : obverse, a wom a n ’

s hea d ; reverse, the nymph L yge a sea ted.

OSCAN S A ND SABE LLIAN S. 10 3

renown which this conqu est won for them l ed the wa y t o m o re .

To the n orth , e a st , a n d sou th they were su rrou n ded by diffi cu lt

cou n tries a n d w a rlike n a tion s , which blocked the roa d t o fresh

en terprises ; b u t the se a rem a in ed open / a n d they kn ew th a t

beyon d the gu lfs of Pa estum a n d Terin a there w a s booty t o b e

Obt a in ed a n d a dven tu res to b e fou nd in Sicily . Un der the a n cien t

a n d expressive n a m e of I l l a -

in er tin es , the Ca m p a n i a n horsem en

offered t o serve a ny on e who wou ld pa y them . The riva lry b e

tween the Greek cities, the a m bition of the tyra n ts of Syr a cu se ,the Ca rth a gin i a n in v a sion , a n d the cea seless wa r which desol a ted

the whole isl a n d , a lw a ys provided them with pu rch a sers for their

v a lor ; a n d this tra de of mercen a ries bec a m e so lu cra tive th a t

a l l the bra vest of t he Ca m p a n i a n you th p a ssed over in to th e

isl a n d,where the M a m ertin es were soon n umerou s en ou gh to

l a y down th e l a w a n d ta ke thei r own w a y.

Bu t whilst beyon d the stra i t; they were become a power a ga in st

which Ca rtha ge , Syra cu se , a n d Pyrrhu s strove in v a in ,their town s

on the b a n ks of the V u l t u rn u s were bein g enf eebled by th e sa me

m igra tion s whi ch in crea sed the

m il it a ry colony in Sicily . A s

e a rly a s the middle of the fou rth

cen tu ry,

a t Cum a e , N ol a , a n d

Nu ceria , the a n cien t inh a bit a n ts

beca m e m a sters a ga in ; a n d if

Ca pu a m a in t a in ed it s su prem a cy

over the n eighboring town s , it w a s on ly by los in g a l l’

it s Sa bell ia n

cha ra cter . The effemin a cy of the a n cien t m a n n ers rea ppea red , b u t

st a in ed with more cru elty . I n fu n era l cerem on ies there were com

b a ts of gl a di a tors in hon or of the dea d ; in the m idst of the

m ost sumptu ou s fea sts, ga mes of blood t o en liven the gu ests,2a n d

con sta n t mu rder a n d trea son in pu bli c l ife.

We h a ve seen how th e Sa mn ites possessed them selves of the

town by the ma ssa cre of the ir en terta in ers ; the first Rom a n soldiers

who were pl a ced there , wished, a ccording t o their exa m ple , to pu tthe inh a bit a n ts t o dea th . Du rin g the Secon d Pu n ic Wa r

, Ca pu a

CO I N O F CA PUA .1

1 L a ure l-crowned he a d of Ju piter ; two soldiers joining swords, ta kin g the o a th over a

2'

A then a eu s , i v. 3 9 ; L i vy , ix. 4 0 Sil iu s , x i. 51.

104 INTRODUCTION .

sea led her a ll ia n ce with th e Ca rth a gin i a n s by the blood of a l l the

Rom a ns settled with in her wa lls, a n d Perol l a wished a t h is f a ther’

s

t a ble t o st a b H a n n ib a l . When ,fin a lly , th e legion s re-en tered it, a l l

the sen a tors of Ca pu a celebra ted their own fu n era l rites a t a joyou s

fe a st,a n d dr a n k poison in the l a st

cu p. No history is m ore bloody,a n d n owhere wa s life ever m ore

effem in a te .

The L u ca n ia n s h a d a destiny

both less s a d a n d less bril l i a n t .CO I N O F LUCA N I A ?

Followin g th e ch a in of the Apen

n in es,this people en tered a n cien t Oen otria , the coa sts of which .were

occu pied by Greek cities,a n d where Syb a ris ru led from th e Gu lf of

Pa estu m to tha t of T a ren tum . Af ter h a vin g slowly in crea sed in

the m ou n t a in s,their popu l a tion ca m e down u pon the cu ltiv a ted

territory of the Greek cities , a n d tow a rds the m iddle of the fifth

cen tu ry,Pa n d osia , with th e n e ighborin g town s , fell in to their power .

M a sters of the western shores,they tu rn ed tow a rds those of the

Gu l f of T a ren tum,a n d pl a ced

the Greeks, a lrea dy m en a ced on

the sou th by the tyra n ts of

Syra cu se, between two d a n gers .

Tow a rds 43 0 B . C.,they were a l

rea dy con ten din g a ga in st Thu rii

a n d su ch w a s their( progress

in the sp a ce of thirty-six yea rs,

n otwithsta n din g their sm a ll n umber, which did n ot exceedcom b a t a n ts ,

3 tha t a grea t defensive lea gu e , the first tha t the

Greeks of this coa st h a d m a de,w a s form ed a ga in st . them a n d

Dionysiu s of Syra cu se . The pen a lty of dea th wa s pron ou n ced

a ga in st the chief of the city whose troops shou ld n ot h a ve a ssem

bled a t the first n ews of the a pproa ch of the b a rb a ri a n s (3 94 B .

These m ea su res were frui tless ; three yea rs a fterw a rd, a l l the

you th of Thu rii, desirou s of reca ptu ring the city of La u s

,were

CO I N OF T H U R I I .2

1 H e lmeted hea d of M a rs ; reverse B el lon a .2 H e a d of M inerv a , a n d the bu ll so frequ ently foun d on the coin s of Southern Ita ly.3 Diod oru s, x iv. 101— 10 2 .4 I b it l . 9 1.

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106 INTR ODUCTION .

Greek festiv a l , du rin g which they ga thered together t o re-a w a kenthe a n cien t tra dition s, t o reca ll the beloved n a m es a n d thei r lost

cou n try ; a n d then they p a rted weepin g,”

a s a d a n d tou ching

cu stom , which a ttests a h a rd sl a very. At the extrem ity of E a sternCa l a bri a (th e l a n d of Otra n to), in scription s h a ve been fou n d which

ca n n ot b e a ssign ed to a ny kn own di a lect? They h a d been left

there by the I a pygi a n s , on e of th e m ost a n cien t n a tion s of the

pen in su l a . They seem to h a ve ru led a s f a r a s Apu l i a, b u t were

ea rly brou ght u n der He llen ic in flu en ce, a n d bega n ea rly t o lose

their n a tion a lity a m on g the Greek colon ists.

GR E EKS AND GAUL S.

E h a ve ju st spoken of tru ly It a l i a n r a ces, Of those, a t lea st,who

,with the exception of th e E tru sc a n s

,m a de u se of a

s ister l a n gu a ge t o the Hellen ic, a n d who g a ve t o Rom e it s popu

l a tion ,it s ma n n ers, a n d it s l a ws. There rem a in two n a tion s to

stu dy, the Greeks a n d the G a u ls, who est a blished them selves l a ter

in th e peni n su l a . The l a tter h a r a ssed it for a lon g tim e by their

r a ids for plu n der ; the former open ed it up t o Hellen i c civili za tion .

A few yea rs a go Greek wa s still spoken in the n eighborhood of

Locri in th e Ca l a bri a s, a sort of sa cred d a n ce resem bles tha t

which is represen ted on a n tiqu e v a ses ; a n d a t Ca rdeto the women

h a ve so well preserved the type of Hellen ic bea u ty, th a t it is

s a id of them ,

“ They a re Min erv a s . I n the s a m e wa y it h a s

been thou ght th a t, from Tu rin to Bologn a , the persisten t tra ces

of the Celtic inv a sion 3a re to b e seen in the fea tu res a n d in

the comp a r a tively h a rsh a n d gu ttu ra l a ccen t of the Piedm on tese ,Lomba rds, a n d Rom a gn ols .

‘

1[These M essa pi a n texts a re be ing deciphered by Decoke, a nd a re

'

re l a ted to Ita l icdi a lects. E d .]

2[There a re a lso five vill a ges ne a r B a ri , where a Greek pa to is is sti ll spoken ; b u t Lenor

m a nt h a s l a te ly proved, in h is interesting work on M a gn a G r a ecia , tha t a l l these rem a in s of

Greek d a te from the repopu l a tion of these pa rts of the Byz a ntine E mpire in the n inthe leventh'

centuries A .D., a n d n ot from ol d cl a ssica l times.— E d .]2 Dr. E dw a rds, in h is letter t o A m .Thierry.

GRE E K S A ND GAULS. 107

The history of the Greek co lon ies in I t a ly is divided in to two

epochs . Ab ou t the on e,comm en cin g in the e ighth cen tu ry be fore

ou r era , there ca n b e n o dou bt ;1the other

,a scribed to the fou r

teen th cen tu ry, h a s a l l historica l prob a bilities a g a in st it . I t is

of cou rse possible tha t, in the tim es which fo llowed the Troj a n

Wa r,a fter th a t grea t distu rb a n ce of Greece

,Hel len ic troops , driven

ou t of the m other cou n try by revolu tion s, l a n ded on the shores

of Ita ly. Bu t a s to wh a t is sa id of the settlemen t of Diom ede

in D a u n i a, or a m on g the Ven eti

, who in th e time of Str a bo s a cri

ficed a white horse to him every yea r ; of th e comp a n ion s of N estor

a t Pisa , of Idom en eu s a t Sa l en tum ,— a lthou gh Gn ossu s in Crete

held his tomb, — of Philoctetes a t Pete l ia a n d Thu rii, of E peu s

R U I N S OF T H E T E MPLE O F M E T A PON T UM (TA V OLA DE I PA LA D I N I ).

a t M et a pon tum , of Ulysses a t Scyl a cium , of E va n der,of Tibu r,

of Telegonu s, son of U lysses, in L a tium,a t Tu scu lum

,Tibu r, Pr a e

n este , Ardea , etc.,— these legen ds, we m a y s a y, ca n on ly b e re

ga rded a s poetica l tr a dition s in ven ted by rh a psodists in order to

give a n il lu striou s origin t o these town s.

1[On these e ighth-century d a tes, a n d the ir in vention , cf. my H is tory of Greek L iter a tu re,

vol . i., A pp. B .— E d .]

INTRODUCTION .

N othin g w a s w a n tin g t o s a n ction these gloriou s gen e a logies

n either the son gs of the poets , n or the blin d or in terested credu lity

of the histori a n s , n or even th e ven era ted rel ics of th e heroes . 0 11

th e b a n ks of th e Num iciu s the con tem por a ries of Au gu stu s u sed

t o visi t the tom b of Aen ea s , who h a d becom e the Ju piter I n d iget es,a n d every yea r the con su ls a n d Rom a n pon ti ffs Offered sa crifices

there . Circeii exhibited th e cu p of Ulysses a n d the tom b of E lpe

n or , on e of his com p a n ion s ;1 L a vin ium

,the u n dec a yin g ships of

Aen ea s 2 a n d his Pen a tes Thu rii, the b ow a n d a rrows of Hercu les

,

given by Philoctetes ; M a cell a , the tom b of this hero ; M et a pon tum ,

th e i ron tools which E peu s u sed for m a kin g the Troj a n horse ;3

L u ceria , th e a rm or of Diom ede ;4 M a l even tu m , the boa r ’ s hea d

of Ca lydon ; Cum a e, the tu sks of the E rym a n thi a n boa r . Thu s

the inh a bi t a n ts of a town of Armen i a exhibited th e rem a in s of

N o a h ’ s Ark .

5

NO on e a ny lon ger holds to these f a bu lou s origin s, except thosepeople of Rom e who still sa y : Sia m o R om a n i, a n d wou ld willin gly

sa y l ike the P a du a n s : Sa ngu c Troia n o. Moreover, even if we

con sidered a s a u then tic th e first settlem en ts of th e Greek ra ce in

It a ly,we cou ld n ot a llow them a ny historic a l im porta n ce ; for ,

left withou t in tercou rse with th e m other-cou n try , they lost the

ch a r a cter of He llen ic cities ; a n d when th e Greeks a rrived in the

e ighth cen tu ry,they fou n d n o fu rther tra ce of these Un cert a in

colon ies . To this cl a ss of legen d a ry n a rra tives belong the tra di

tion s of the Troj a n An ten or,fou n der of Pa du a

,a n d of Aen ea s c a rry

ing in to L a tiu m th e P a ll a dium of Troy. The Rom a n n obles desired

to d a te from th e Troj a n Wa r,like the Fren ch from the Cru sa ders .

Accordin g to Herodotu s , the first Greeks est a blished in I a pyg ia

were Cret a n s whom a tem pest h a d ca st there . In du ced by the

fertility of th e soil , they h a d bu rn ed the ir ships a n d bu ilt I ri a in

th e in t erior of the cou n try. Bu t the m ost a n cien t Greci a n colony

of which the est a blishm en t is beyon d dou bt,is th a t of the Cha l

cid ia n s, fou n ders of Cum a e . L ed by H ippocl es a n d M eg a sthen es,

they ven tu red,sa ys tra dition

,a cross u n known sea s, gu ided in the

d a ytim e by a dove, a n d a t n ight by the sou n d of the mystic

4 Pliny,H ist. N a t. iii. 2 6.

5 Jos., A n t. J u d . xx. 2.

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110 INTRODUCTION .

Af ter Cum a e a n d it s direct colon ies, the most fa mou s of which

is the N ew City, N a ples, the other Ch a lcidi a n cities were Z a n cle,

a fterw a rd ca lled Messin a , a n d Rhegium ,both of which gu a rded the

en tr a n ce t o the Stra its of Sicily, b u t whose m il ita ry position w a s

t oo im port a n t n ot to dra w u pon them n u m erou s ca l a m ities. The

M a m ertin es,who took Messin a by su rprise a n d m a ssa cred a l l

it s m a le popu l a tion , on ly did wh a t, som e yea rs l a ter, a Rom a n

legion repea ted a t Rhegium .

The Dori a n s, who ru led in Sicily. were less n um erou s in I t a ly ;b u t they h a d T a ren tum, which riv a lled in power a n d wea lth

Syba ris a n d Croton , a n d which preserved it s in depen den ce lon ger

th a n these two town s ? Rich offerin gs, deposited a t the tem ple of

Delphi , still bore witn ess, in the time of P a u sa n i a s,to it s victories

over the I a pygia n s, Mess a pi a n s , a n d Peu cet ia n s . I t h a d a lso r a ised

t o it s gods, a s a token of it s cou ra ge,

sta tu es of a colossa l height,a n d a l l

in fighting a ttitu de ; b u t these cou ld

n ot defen d it a ga in st Rome,a n d the

con qu eror who r a zed it s w a lls left

in derision the im a ges of it s w a rlike

divin ities . An con a,fou n ded a bou t 3 80 B . C.

, in Picen u m,by

Syra cu sa n s who fled from the tyra n ny of Dionysiu s the E lder,w a s a lso Dori a n .

The m ost flou rishing of the Acha ea n colon ies wa s a t first

Syb a ris , which h a d su bdu ed the i ndigen ou s popu la tion of the

cou n tries of win e a n d oxen (Oenotria a n d I ta ly). At the en d Of

a cen tu ry,a bou t 620 B . C.

,it possessed a territory covered by twen ty

five town s, a n d cou ld a rm three hu n dred thou sa n d fighting m en .

Bu t a cen tu ry l a ter,in 510, it wa s t a ken a n d destroyed by the

Croton ia t es. All Ion i a , which tra ded with it, l a men ted it s down

fa ll,a n d the Milesi a n s wen t in to mou rn in g. I ts l a n d u sed t o yield

a hu n dredfold : 3 it is n ow on ly a deserted a n d ma rshy shore .

CO I N OF A N CON A .2

1 L i vy,xxvii . 16 . Stra bo sa ys (VI. i i i . 4 ) ia xv a a v d e

’

7ro‘re o i T a pa w ivm Ka d’

im'

epfiohr'

w.

The we a lth of Ta rentum a rose from it s fisheries, from it s m a n ufa cture [a nd dye ing] of thefine woo l of the cou ntry, a n d from its ha rbor, which wa s the best on the south co a st.

2 A ncon a in Greek sign ifies e l bow, h ence the h a lf-bent a rm on the reverse. The a ncientsoften ren dered a n a m e by a figure which ga ve the m e a n ing of it ; thu s certa in coin s of

Sic i ly, the isl a n d with three promontories, ha ve three legs pointed in different direction sa n d u n ited a t the t op. The m odern Sici li a n s ha ve kept this emblem , the ti riqu etr a .

3 Va rro , d e R e ru st. i. 44 . [T he s ite of the town is not yet a ccura te ly known , b u t

GRE E KS A ND GAULS. 111

On the western co a st of Lu c a n i a , L a u s, which the L u ca n ia n s

destroyed a fter a gre a t victory over the con federa te Greeks , a n d

Posidon i a , whose im posing ru in sl h a ve ren dered f a m ou s the n ow

deserted town of P a estum , were colon ies of Syba ris . Other

Ach a ea n s, invited by them ,h a d settled a t M et a pon tu m ,

which

owed grea t wea lth to its a gricu ltu re a n d to its h a rbor, n ow

converted in to a l a goon .2 Croton a h a d a s ra pid a prosperity a s

Syba ris, its riva l , b u t on e which l a sted

longer. I t s w a lls, dou ble a s grea t in

exten t (100 sta di a ) i ndica te a m ore

n um erou s popu l a tion , whose ren own

for pu gilistic com ba ts [for cookery

a n d for medicin e] wou ld a lso lea d

u s t o con sider the popu l a tion m ore en ergetic . Milo of Croton a

is a wel l-known n a m e . Th e tyr a n ts of Syra cu se took it three

times, a n d i t h a d lost a l l im porta n ce

when the Rom a n s a tta cked it . Locri,of Aeol i a n origin ,

n ever a tta in ed to so

m u ch power . I t s down fa ll, begu n by

Dionysiu s the You nger, w a s completed

by Pyrrhu s a n d H a nn ib a l . CO I N or CR OTON A .3

The Ion i a n s h a d on ly two town s in M a gn a G r a ecia : E le a

f a m ou s for it s schoo l of philosophy, a n d Thu rii, the prin cip a l

fou n ders oi'

which were th e A then i

a n s . Hostile to the L u ca n ia n s a n d

t o T a ren tum , Thu rii, like it s m et rop

ol is, en tered ea rly in to the a ll ia n ce

of Rom e.

I t is rem a rk a ble th a t a l l these

town s h a d a r a pid growth, a n d tha t a few yea rs su fficed for them

t o becom e st a tes, reckon in g the n u m ber of the i r fightin g m en by

CO I N OF LA US.

CO I N OF E LE A .4

is som ewhere u nder the Cr a this, which w a s tur ned over it. The pl a in is re a ll y rich ingra ss a nd in ca ttle , b u t mu ch v is ited by m a l a ri a . E xca v a tion s, a ccom pa n ied by a cha ngein th e river’s course, woul d prob a bly brin g t o light the most interesting rem a in s yet fou ndin Ita ly.— E d .]

1 The two temples a nd stoa of Pa estum .

2 N ow L a go d i Sa nta Pe l a g in a . “rh en the w a ter is low,rem a in s of a ncient con stru o

tion s a re seen there ; it wa s destroyed by the b a nds of Sp a rta cu s.3 H ea d of Ju no L a cin i a ; on the reverse , H ercu les s itting.4 H elmeted M inerva ; lion cou cha nt.

112 I NTRODUCTION .

th e hu n dred thou s a n d . I t w a s n ot on ly th e fa vor a ble clim a te of

M a gn a G r a ecia , th e fertility of th e so il,which , in the v a lleys a n d

pl a in s of th e two Ca l a bri a s, excelled th a t of Sicily,1n or even the

wisdom of the ir legisl a tors, Ch a ron d a s, Z a l eu cu s, P a rm en ides,a n d

Pyth a gor a s , th a t e ffected this m a rvel, b u t th e clea r-sighted policy

which a dm itted a l l stra n gers in to th e city,2a n d for som e cen tu

ries“

con verted th e Pe l a sgi a n popu l a tion s of the sou th of It a ly in to

a grea t Greek n a tion . Dou btless distin ction s were esta bl ished ;a n d there were prob a bly in th e ca pit a ls plebe i a n s a n d n obles, in

the cou n try serfs of the soil , a n d in the con qu ered tow‘

n s su bj ects ;b u t these differen ces preven ted n either u n ion n or stren gth. I t

w a s by this m ea n s, too,by this a ssim il a tion of con qu ered a n d

con qu erors,th a t Rom e in crea sed . Bu t Rom e preserved it s disci

plin e for a long tim e , wherea s the town s of M a gn a G r a ecia , u n der

m in ed W ithin by in testin e division s a n d m en a ced withou t by

Ca rth a ge a n d Syra cu se , by the tyra n ts of Sicily a n d the K in g of

E piru s,in cessa n tly h a ra ssed by the It a li a n Ga u ls a n d the Sa m n ites

,

especi a lly by the L u ca n ia n s, were , m oreover, en feebled by riva lries

which prep a red for the Rom a n s a n ea sy con qu est .

I f Um bri a owes it s n a m e t o a Ga ll ic tribe, ou r fa thers m u st

h a ve crossed th e Alps the first tim e in a l a rge body a t a very

e a rly epoch .3 The in v a sion of the sixth cen tu ry is m ore cert a in .

1 Do lom ieu , Disserta tion su r te tremb lemen t (l e terre d e 1783 . [I n n a tu ra l be a uty Ca l a bri af a r surpa sses th e gre a ter pa rt of Sici ly. E ( l .]

2 Polybiu s , i i. 3 9 Diod ., x i i. 9 . Syb a ri s ru led four n a tion s a n d twenty-five town s (Stra b.,VI. i. There is dou btle ss a gre a t ex a ggera tion in the figure of fightin g m en ; b u t

the n umber of inh a bita nts m u st ha ve been m u ch l a rger tha n tha t of th e town s of Greeceproper. A t certa in of it s fe a sts, Syb a ris a ssembled a s m a ny a s ca v a lry, four t im es

m ore tha n A th en s ever h a d (A t-hen , x i i. 17 a n d 18 ; Diod ., fr a gm . of bk . v i i i . ; Scym n .,

I t w a s th e sa m e a t Croton a . T he Pe l a sgi a n s of Lu c a n i a a nd B ru t t ium showed the s a m e

re a dine ss a s those of Greece in a l lowin g them se lve s to b e a bsorbed by th e H e l len es a n d in

a doptin g the ir l a n gu a ge a n d m a n ners,a n d for th e sa m e rea son s,— identity of or igin , or a t le a st

n ea r re l a tion ship. This influ en ce of the H el lenes wa s so stron g, tha t n otwithsta nding the l a terR om a n co lon ies, Ca l a bri a , l ike Sic i ly , rem a ined for a long tim e a G reek cou ntry. I t wa s on lya t the comm encem ent of the fourteenth centu ry tha t the Greek l a ngu a ge [re-in trodu ced in thee leventh] bega n t o b e lost there. A s to th e prosperity of these town s , it is conn ected, m oretha n h a s been shown with tha t of th e G reek co lon ies in genera l. M a sters of a l l the shoresof th e gre a t b a sin of th e M editerra ne a n . the Greeks h a d in the ir h a n ds the comm erce of th e

three worlds. Contin u ed intercou rse u n ited the ir town s, a nd every po int of thi s im m en secircle profited from the a dva nta ges of a l l the others. The prosperity of T a rentum , Syb a ris,Croton a , a nd Syra cu se, corresponded with tha t of Phoca e a , Smyrn a , M iletu s, a n d Cyrene.

3 G eogra phica l n a m es, do lmen s, e tc., reve a l the pre sence , in th e Va l ley of the Da nu be,from th e B l a ck Se a t o th e Schw a rzw a ld, of num erou s G a ll ic popu l a tion s which m a y ha vecome thence directly into Ita ly. I n tha t ca se the G a u ls of the b a nks of the Loire wou ld on ly

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G R E E K S A ND GAULS. 113

I t is sa id th a t the G a llic th e n orthwest , driven b a ck

the Ceven n es a n d the

Alps by inva ders from

beyon d the Rhin e, a o

cum u l a ted there , a n d ,

like w a ves lon g pen t

up, overflowed t o the

n um ber of three hu n

dred thou s a n d a cross

the Alps in to the V a l

l ey of the PO . On the

b a n ks of the Ticin o ,

the Bitu rig a n Bellove

su s overwhelm ed a n

E tru sca n a rmy a n d

esta blished h is people ,

the I n su b ria n s , b e

tween this r iver , the

PO, a n d th e Add a .1

B e l l o v e s u s h a d

sh ow n t h e w a y ;

others followed it . I n

the sp a ce of sixty-six

yea rs,th e Cen om a n i,

u n der a chief su r

n a m ed th e whirlwin d

R h a eti a n . E u g a u e a n . E tru sc a n .

(E l itoviu s), Ligu ri a n s,Boia n s, L in gon es , A n

a m a n s a n d Sen on es,2

drove the E tru sca n s

from th e b a n ks of

the Po a n d the

ha ve been the western grou pof thi s grea t n a tion . Cf. R e

vu e a rche’

olog . for J a nua ry,1881, A LPHA BE T S or N OR T HE R N I T A LY.

1 L i vy,v . 3 4 , 3 5.

2 W ith the Senones, Stra bo u n ites (V. i. 6) the G esa tes, “ The two n a tion s , s a ys he,“ who took R ome.

V OL . I .

114 INTRODUCTION .

Umbri a n s from th e shores of the Adri a tic a s f a r a s the River

E sin o (A egis). Som e rem a in s of the E tru sca n a n d Um b ria n .powers

existed, however, in th e m idst of the G a ll ic popu l a tion s,a n d form ed

sm a l l sta tes which were free, b u t tribu t a ry a n d a lwa ys exposed,

from the fickl en ess of these b a rb a ri a n s,to su dden a tta cks. Thu s

M el pum w a s su rprised by trea chery, a n d destroyed on the s a m e

d a y, it is s a id,a s the Rom a n s en tered Veii .1

A s con qu erors,the Ga u ls did n ot go beyon d the l im its where

th e in v a sion s of th e Sen on es h a d stopped . Bu t this vigorou s r a ce,these m en e a ger for tum u lt, plu n der , a n d b a ttle , lon g trou bled th e

pen in su l a a s they did a l l the a n cien t world,u n til th e legion s were

a ble t o rea ch them in th e m iddle of thei r forests a n d t o fix themto the soil . They in ha bited u nw a l led vill a ges

,s a ys Polybiu s

,slept

on gra ss or str a w ,a n d h a d n o kn owledge except of fightin g a n d

a l ittle hu sb a n dry . Livin g chiefly on m ea t,they on ly v a lu ed

flocks a n d go ld , — rea dy we a lth which does n ot im pede th e w a rrior,a n d which h e ca rries everywhere a lon g with h im . Un der their

ru le Cis a lpin e G a u l retu rn ed t o the b a rb a rism from which th e

E tru sca n s h a d s a ved it ; th e forests a n d m a rshes sprea d ; th e p a sses

of the Alps especi a lly rem a in ed open,a n d n ew b a n ds con tin u a lly

descen ded from them ,which cl a im ed their sh a re of the cou n try

of the win e. Their high st a tu re,thei r sa v a ge shou ts, their pa s

sion a t e a n d men a cin g gestu res, a n d th a t p a r a de of cou r a ge which ,

on d a ys of . b a ttle, m a de them strip off a l l their clothin g in order

to fight n a ked, frighten ed the It a li a n s so mu ch th a t a t thei r

a pproa ch the Whole popu l a tion took u p a rm s . When th e you n g

a n d fortu n a te Alex a n der threa ten ed them ,the G a u ls of the D a nu be

replied th a t they fea red n othin g b u t th a t the sky shou ld f a l l ; . a n d

th e first Rom a n a rm y th a t s a w those of I ta ly fled terrified . Y et

Rom e wa s compelled to m eet them everywhere, a t Ca rth a ge, in

Asi a , with H a n n ib a l, a t her ga tes even,a n d u p to th e foot of

th e Ca pitol '

It a ly in this ea rly a ge h a s on ly a twilight of history, th e

u n certa in ra ys of which with difficu lty pierce the d a rkn ess in

which th e comm en cem en t of the n a tion s is con cea led. However,

by this stil l dou btfu l light we ca n recogn ize som e f a cts impor

t a n t to'

gen era l history, a n d p a rticu l a rly to tha t of Rome.

1 Pl iny, N a t. H ist. i i i. 17

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116 INTRODUCTION .

POL ITICAL OR GANIZ ATION OF THE ANCIENT NATIONS OI‘ ITA LY.

N I t a ly, a s in the rest of E u rope, the most a n cien t civiliza

tion seem s to ret a in som ethin g of the theocr a tic form s of Asi a,

when ce it h a s come , — with this differen ce, however, th a t a n order

of priests is n ot fou n d distin ct from th e rest of th e citizen s.

The s a m e m en were he a ds of th e people a n d min isters of the

gods ; so th a t a ccordin g to the m ore hum a n a n d more politic a l

spirit of th e West, th e rel a tion s were the reverse of wh a t they

h a d been in the E a st : the w a rrior took preceden ce of the

priest ; before bein g pon ti ff or a u gu r, the n oble w a s a p a trici a n ;

he did n ot shu t him self u p in a sa n ctu a ry,b u t l ived before the

pu blic ga ze ; h e did n ot rem a in tied to u n ch a n gea ble forms,b u t

modified them ,a ccordin g to the w a n ts of the st a te ; rel igion ,

in

f a ct , w a s for h im n ot on ly a n en d,b u t a m e a n s a n d a n in strum en t

a l l the more form id a ble , beca u se i t wa s em ployed by believers, so

tha t st a tecra ft cou ld brin g f a n a ticism to its a id .

Am on g th e E tru sca n s th e two ch a r a cters of th e priest a n d

w a rrior a ppe a r in equ i librium . The ir lu cum os, a lon e in stru cted

in th e a u gu r ’ s scien ce,

a lon e el igible by heredita ry right for

pu blic fu n ction s, gu a rdia n s of the mysteries a n d m a sters of every

thin g divin e a n d hum a n,form a m ili ta ry theocra cy fou n ded on

divin e right a n d the a n tiqu ity of f a milies . Am on g the Osca n a n d

Sa belli a n n a tion s the ba l a n ce seems distu rbed, to the a dv a n

t a ge of th e w a rrior . The ch ief is the m a n revered for th e a n

t iqu ity of h is r a ce a n d the gra n deu r of his hou se , powerfu l by

the exten t of his dom a in s a n d th e n um ber of h is rel a tives , sl a ves,a n d cl ien ts .

Agricu ltu ra l a n d shepherd n a tion s, for the very rea son th a t

they rem a in in con t a ct with n a tu re , follow it closely in their in sti

tu t ion s ; for them ,Jews a n d Ara bs , Celts of Scotl a n d a n d I rel a n d,

or n a tives of La tium a n d the Sa bin e cou n try, the fa m ily is the

first elem en t of society, a n d the p a tria rch a l a u thority of the

POL ITICAL ORGAN IZATION . 117

chief who, l ike Abra ha m ,fights a n d s a crifices in tu rn ,

is th e

e a rliest governm en t . At Rom e , a l l rights ca m e from th e f a m i ly ;

the he a ds of the st a te were the f a thers , p a tres a n d p a trioti

property w a s the p a trim on ium th e cou n try , th e common property

of th e f a thers, res p a tri a . Y et the r ight of prim ogen itu re , which

is fou n d a m on g so m a n y n a tion s , w a s u n kn own on th e ba n ks of

the Tiber . With the f a m ily a re con n ected th e serv a n ts, devoted

for l ife a n d de a th to him who n ou rishes a n d protects them ,who

le a ds them t o b a ttle , a n d en riches them with spoil , like the

Germ a n com ites , the Aqu ita n ia n sold a r ii , the m em bers of the Scotch

Cl a n s, - like,in f a ct , the It a l i a n cl ien ts, a s reg a rds their p a tron .

P a tron a ge , p a trocim’

um ,

1a n d the p a trici a te ou ght then t o b e r a ised

from th e r a n k of a pa rticu l a r in stitu tion ,in which histori a n s

h a ve lon g pl a ced them ,to th a t of a l a w

"

of the very org a n iz a tion

of prim itive societies . When there a re n o in stitu tion s , i t is very

n ecess a ry for th e n a scen t sta te th a t there shou ld b e , between th e

stron g a n d the feeble , between the rich a n d the poor, a n e a rly

a ssoci a tion ,— a n a ssoci a tion with v a ryin g obliga tion s, gra n ti ng

here m ore,there less , to th e l iberty of the protected a n d to the

rights of the protector . At Rom e,this rel a tion w a s c a lled clien t

ship ; in th e Middl e Ages, feu d a l ism .

Like the E tru sc a n lu cum os, the L a tin a n d Sa bin e p a trici a n s

were th e priests of their f a m ilies a n d clien ts ; they'

s a crificed to

the dom estic Pen a tes they fu lfilled th e pu blic cerem on ies, a n d he ld

the m a gistr a cies,— in a word

,they h a d both religiou s a n d pol itica l

a u thority. Bu t in L a tium ,rel igion

,bec a u se it wa s m ore popu l a r,

protected their privileges less tha n in E tru ri a . So the grea t m en

of Rom e lost n o tim e in borrowing from the E tru sca n s their

a u gu ra l kn owledge, a n d in bu yin g,a t a grea t price , the Sibyllin e

books,in order to pl a ce by the side of the popu l a r rel igion , a ccess

ible t o a l l,a st a te rel igion

,reserved for them selves a lon e .

From this u n ion between st a tecr a ft a n d rel igion,from this

1 Dionysiu s H a l . (n . 10 , 9) expressly rega rds R om a n p a tron a ge a s a n old Ita l i a ncu stom . T he J a va n tia tia s a nd A lb a n i a n pha rs rest u pon the sa m e principle ; they a re

fa m il i es composed of a he a d, re l a ti ves , a n d serv a nts, a l l depen din g u pon him . Cl ientshipex isted a mong th e Sa bin es (L ivy , i i . 16 ; Dion .

,v . 4 0

, a n d x. a m ong the E tru sc a n s(Livy. v. 1, ix. 3 6 , a nd xx i ii . 3 , Dion . H a l ., ix. Cf. L ivy, x. 5, the gen s L icin ia a t

Arrezo ; a t Ca pu a (L ivy , xxi ii. 2

, a mong the Sa mn ites, who ha ve the ir p r-in c-ip es ,

przmores, n ob iles, equ ites, m il ites a u r a ti et_

a rgen ta ti.

118 INTRODUCTION .

dou ble ch a r a cter of th e I ta l ia n a ristocra cy,especi a lly in E tru ri a ,

i t resu lted th a t pu blic a n d priva te rights were closely u n ited

with religiou s rights , th a t re l igion ,a s in the E a st

,w a s the bon d

of every city a n d the prin ciple of a l l ju rispru den ce,a n d th a t

a n cien t legisl a tion s, pl a ced u n der divin e s a n ction ,ga in ed thereby a

higher a u thority. Moreover , a s it is th e essen ce of a l l rel igion s

t o love mystery,especia lly of those th a t a re in possession of th e

hea ds of the st a te,th e civil l a ws were wr a pped u p in secret a n d

m ysteriou s re ligiou s form s .1 “ Preserved in a dum b l a n gu a ge,

a n d on ly expl a in in g them selves by holy cerem on ies,whereof som e

rites rem a in ed in the a cta leg itim a , they were lon g obeyed with

scru pu lou s piety .

” 2 Th e a ristocra cy, who were it s sole deposi

ta ries,fou n d therein a power which for cen tu ries the plebe i a n s

d a red n ot dispu te .

The grea test stren gth of this a ristocra cy w a s, however , th e

possess ion of th e soi l , even in E tru ri a , where in du stry a n d com

m erce h a d cre a ted the m ov a ble wea lth of gold beside the in con

vertible we a lth of l a n d . To possess l a n d w a s, a s in th e Middle

Ages, n ot on ly th e sign of power b u t power itsel f ; for v a st

dom a in s fu rn ished a whole a rmy of serv a n ts a n d depen d a n ts.

Origin a lly these dom a in s were equ a l,3

a n d th e a ristocra cies, by

their n u m ber a n d the equ a l ity of the ir mem bers, were tru ly

dem ocr a cies . I n the G ra eco- It a l i a n st a tes, gen er a lly form ed by a

few m igra tion s,colon ies, or Sa cred Sp rin gs , society existed before

property . There were citizen s before there were l a n down ers ; a n d

when a town rose , the soi l cou ld b e divided geom etrica lly : e a ch

citizen received a n equ a l sh a re . Th e prin ciple of feu da l a n d

con tin en ta l E u rope , th a t pol itic a l rights flow from possess ion of

property, w a s in verted by a n tiqu ity . At L a ceda em on it w a s a s

Dori a n s,a s citizen s a n d fou n ders of th e sta te , th a t the Sp a rt a n s

received sh a res ; a n d n o n ew right spr a n g from th a t con ces

sion of property. Before receiving thei r p a rt of th e prom ised l a n d ,

Th e pa ss a ge of F estu s a bou t the E tru sca n ritu a l shows cle a rly the sa cerdota l cha ra cterof E tru sca n legisl a tion . I t is re l igion ru les a l l thin gs ; it w a s there written , sa id he , q u o ritucond a n t u r urbe s, a ra e , a edes sa cren t u r ; q u a sa n ct it a t e m uri , qu o j ure porta e , qu o modo tribu s,e e ter a qu e ej u smod i a d be ll um a c pa cem pertin enti a .”

2 V ico , i i. 283 .3 A s a t Spa rta ; the sha res gi ven t o th e Spa rta n s were in a l ien a ble . [B u t th i s w a s

prob a bly a modern theory, devised in the tim e of A gi s a n d Cleomen es, a s Grote h a s conclus ive ly shown , in spite of the a rgum ents of recent G erm a n critics.

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POLITICAL ORGAN IZATION . 119

the Hebrews were a l l equ a l , a l l m em bers of God ’ s people ; a n d

a fter th e divis ion they rem a in a s they were before . I n E gypt,

a t Cyren e , in a l l the Greek colon ies, sim il a r division s took pl a ce ,withou t im plying a ny politica l con sequ en ce

?

With u s these a gr a ri a n l a ws wou ld b e a su prem ely in iqu i tou s

m ea su re, beca u se property n ow represen ts the a ccum u l a ted fru its

of the l a bor of m a ny gen er a tion s ; in a n cien t tim es they on ly

re su lted in the in crea se of the n u m ber of citizen s, in a n n u ll in g

u n ju st u su rp a tion s , a n d lea din g the sta te b a ck

t o primitive equ a l ity. They were n everthe

less violen tly rejected wherever there a rose,

a s a t Rom e a n d in E tru ri a , a secon d people ,poor a n d oppressed, which might h a ve becom e

too form id a ble if t o th e power of n u m bers

they h a d join ed th a t of fortu n e . To a void

these reform s even Rel igion w a s ca lled t o the

a id of civil l a w,a n d m a de t o im pri nt on

l a nded property a sa cred ch a ra cter. She i t

w a s who divided the l a n d, who by pr a yers,

lib a tion s, a n d s a crifices m a rked the bou n da ries

th a t n o on e cou ld rem ove withou t in cu rrin g

the divin e wra th .

2 N um a s t a tn it cum qa i

term in a m exa r a sset, et ip sum et bores s a cros esse.

This rel igion of property h a d it s god , Term inu s ,the imm ov a ble gu a rdi a n of l a n dm a rks , who, in

tr a dition,will n ot fa ll b a ck even before the

M a ster of hea ven a n d ea rth .“ I l l -lu ck

,

”s a id

a n ol d prophecy,

“ t o h im who displ a ces Ter T H E e on m nm m ys ,

m in u s,in order to in cre a se his dom a in ! H is

A FT E R A ST A T U E I N

T H E LOUV R E .

l a n d sh a ll b e bea ten with storms,h is whe a t

1 Joshu a xx. ; Plut., L ye. H erod , n . 10 9 ; A ri st., P o l . vi i . 4 .2 T he l a nd t o b e m a rked ou t w a s for th e a g rimens or, who w a s both priest a n d a u gu r, a n

enclosure where in a re ligiou s a ct w a s t o ta ke pl a ce. L ike th e s a nctu a ry of the gods , it wa s atempt

-

um, whose l im its were pu t in con n ection with the di vis ion s which the a u gur e sta bl i shed in

a eri a l spa ce , when he con su lted th e omen s. A n a lta r w a s ra i sed a t the l im it, a nd the

entra ils of the v ictim s were pl a ced u nder the bou n d a ry stone, which by this con secra tionbeca m e itself a god ; a nd the property, th e a g er a u sp ica tus vel tim ita tu s

, cou l d n o t b e u surped.Cicero , in the Second Phi l ippic den ies tha t a ny on e h a d the right to le a d a n ew co lonyinto the territory of a n a nc ient on e n ot ye t destroyed. N ega vi in e a m colon ia m ,

qu a e esseta u spica to d ed u c t a , d um e sset in col um is , colon ia m mov a m deduci posse.”

120 INTRODUCTION .

e a ten with mildew,h is hou se overthrown

, a n d a l l h is r a ce sh a ll

perish . N ever h a s l a n ded property been m ore en ergetic a ll y pro

t ect ed , a n d with it the heredita ry power of riches . Thu s it w a s

th a t Rom a n society rem a in ed deeply a ristocra tic t o it s l a st d a y.

This con secr a tion of property w a s especi a l ly the work of th e

E tru sca n s,whose con qu ests a n d influ en ce exten ded the u se of it in to

a grea t p a rt of the pen in su l a ; a n d n o divin ity, s a ys Va rro

,w a s

m ore hon ored in a l l I t a ly tha n the G od of Lim its ?

On this dou ble b a sis of religion a n d property rose th e ol d

a ristocra cy of I ta ly,a n d in l a te tim es th a t of Rom e . Un iting these

two e lem en ts of stren gth , which e a ch sep a r a tely con fer power, wh a t

m ight n ot b e it s du ra tion a n d a scen den cy ? A s lon g in deed a s

the city did n ot a ssu m e the proportion s of a n em pire,n o f a m i lies

a rose possessin g power by heredit a ry right. The m a gistr a tes

were a lm ost a lw a ys elected a n n u a lly,l ike the lu cum os of E tru ria ,

th e m ed a l ist tn ticu s of the Ca m p a n i a n s,2a n d th e pr a etor or dict a tor

of the L a tin cities. I n gr a ve ci rcu m st a n ces a su prem e chief wa s

elected, su ch a s the em br a d ur (im per a tor) of the Sa bell ia n s, th e kin g

whom th e twelve E tru sca n cities n a m ed,ea ch sen din g h im a l ictor

in token of the power over th e whole of th e n a tion 3 which w a s

comm itted to h im , su ch , in short, a s th a t dict a tor of Tu scu lum ,

E g eriu s, who wa s recogn ized chief of the L a tin con feder a tion , in

order to u n dert a ke the dedica tion of th e comm on tem ple of A ricia .

I n the heroic a g e , legend tells of kings in L a t iu m ; b u t a t the tim e

of the fou n d a tion of Rom e there were n on e left s a ve in the l ittle

town s of the Sa bin e territory .

4 E ven Alba n o lon ger h a d a u ght

b u t dict a tors ; a n d in detest a tion of the roya l n a m e, popu l a r stories

were a lre a dy repea ted a bou t the cru elties of Mezen tiu s a n d of those

tyr a n ts who, stru ck by th e divin e a n ger,h a d been bu ried with

thei r p a l a ces a t the bottom of L a ke Alb a n o . When the w a ters fell,i t w a s thou ght th a t these gu ilty dwell in gs m ight b e seen .

5

On a hill,on the borders of a l a ke

,or on the steep b a n ks of some

1 O vid , F a st. i i . 6 3 9-684 .2 L i vy, xx i v . 19 ; F estu s, s. v. Tu ticu s.3 L i vy

,i. 8.

4 A t a l a ter epoch there were sti l l kings a mon g the Da u n ia n s, Peucet ia n s, M essa pi a n s,a nd L uca n ia n s. (Stra bo, V. a nd VI. p a ssim L ivy, i . 17 Pa u s., x. B u t they were perh a ps on ly s im ple le a ders in w a r , l ike the Sa mn ite emb ra d u r

5 V erg ., A en . vi ii . 7 a n d 481 Dionys ., i . 71.

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122 INTRODUCTION .

su sta in ed by con tin u a l w a rf a re ga ve rise t o b a n ds of m ercen a ries

who sold their services, l ike the con dottieri of th e Middle Ages,or m a de w a r on thei r own a ccou n t ? We sha ll see how the

M a m ertin es fa red in Sicily. The fortu n e of a few Tu sca n chiefs

wa s n o less brilli a n t,2a n d the E tru sca n con dottiere M a st a rn a , th e

son -in -l a w a n d he ir of T a rqu in the E lder, in volu n t a rily ca l ls to

m in d th a t other con dottiere, Fr a n cesco Sforz a , son -in -l a w a n d

su ccessor of a du ke of Mil a n . Rom u l u s him self,proscribed from

the time of his birth, rejected by the p a trici a n ca ste of Alba,

a ssoci a ted in tr a dition 3 with other con dottieri sim il a rly repu lsed

by the E tru sca n a ristocra cy, a ppea rs t o h a ve been n othin g b u t on e

of these w a rrior chiefs , who kn ew how to choose with m a rvellou s

in stin ct the a dm ira ble position of Rom e, a n d hide h is eyrie between

the river, the wooded hills, a n d the m a rshy pl a in s which exten dfrom their foot to the Tiber.

R E L IGIOUS OR GANIZATION.

KOE PT in E tru ri a , a n cien t I t a ly h a d few m ysteries or profou n d

dogm a s. I t s rel igion wa s sim ple ; from th e n ecessities of

life a n d from the l a bors of the fie l d 4 it derived the im pression s

of a dmira tion or a ffright which th a t lovely a n d ch a n ge a ble n a tu re

produ ced . I n this essen ti a lly ru r a l rel igion a l l services took pl a ce

in the open a ir . The fi rst-fru its of the field a n d flock were

offered t o the god on the a lt a r of s a crifice which stood before th e

tem ple ; there were piou s son gs , pra yers, rel igiou s d a n ces, ga rl a n ds

of flowers a n d fol i a ge su spen ded on th e s a cred w a lls ; a n d when

the f a ithfu l were rich en ou gh for su ch a n ou tl a y, a few gra in s of

in cen se were bu rn ed on the a lta r, a n d perfum es in the in terior of

1 Li vy ( i v. 55 ; v i. 6) spea ks of the b a n ds who i ssu ed from the cou ntry of the Volsci a n swithout lea ve from th e n a tion a l cou nc i l, a nd Dionys. (A n t. R om. vi i. 3 ) of the m ercen a rieswhom the E tru sca n s took into the ir pa y.

2 T a c., A n n . iv. 65.

3 Dionys., A n t. R om. i i i. 3 7. There is a lso m ention of Oppiu s of T u scu lum , a nd of a

L a evu s Cispiu s of A n a gn ia , in the tim e of T u l lu s H ost iliu s. (Va rro, a p.F est.Sep tim fm tium .)4 The o ldest R om a n a lm a n a c (Corp. I nsor. L a t , vol . i. p. 3 75) m ent ions none b u t rura l

festi v a ls.

RE LIG IOUS ORGAN IZATION . 12 3

the sa n ctu a ry,where the a ctu a l presen ce of the god filled the sou l

with piou s a we .

On e of the fea tu res which distin gu ished these creeds of

Cen tra l Ita ly is the m o ra l su periority of thei r gods , a s, for

in sta n ce, Vest a , the imm a cu l a te virgin , who protects both th e

priv a te a n d pu blic he a rth (f ocu s p u b l icu s) ;1the Pen a tes , the pro

tectors of hum a n l ife a n d of

the city ; Ju piter, a rbiter of the

physica l a n d m ora l world,the

su st a in in g f a ther a n d su prem e pre

server ; the gods Term in u s a n d

Fidel ity, who pu n ish fra u d a n d

violen ce ; the Bon a De a , who fer

t ilized the ea rth a n d ren dered

u n ion s fru itfu l , thou gh she her

sel f ever rem a in ed a virgin ;2a n d

th a t tou chin g worship of the

Ma n es,d ii m a n es , which , re

storin g lif e to those who h a d

been loved, showed a n cestors

wa tchin g beyon d the tom b over

those whom they h a d left a m on g E N T R A NCE OF A sn nm s fl

the l iv i ng . Three tim es every

yea r the Ma n es left the infern a l region s,a n d the son who h a d

imit a ted the virtu es of his f a thers cou ld see their revered

sh a des .

The gods of Greece a re so n e a r to m a n,th a t they h a ve

a ll his we a kn esses ; those of the E a st a re so fa r from h im , tha t

they do n ot rea lly en ter in to his l ife a t a l l , n otwithsta n din g

the ir n um erou s in ca rn a tion s . The I ta li a n gods, the gu a rdi a n s of

1 Vesta is the A gn i of the V ed a . The Pe l a sgi a n s h a d brou ght th e worship of this d iv in ityof fire from A s i a . There were Vesta ls a t L a vin ium (Serv. in A en . i i i. a t Tibu r (T i vo l i) ,a nd elsewhere. The tem ple represented on pa ge 124 ,w a s dedica ted , a ccordin g to som e , to Vesta ,a ccording to others, t o the Sibyl A lbu ne a , ‘

fDom u s A l b u n e a e reson a n t is”

(H on , Od es , I . vi i .12 ) others a ga in see in it th e temple of H ercu l es : it is a d h u e su b j u d ice. T he m a in po int istha t the ru in is love ly. T o th e right of the rou n d temple there is a nother squ a re one a boutwhich the sa m e u ncerta inty ex ists.

2 I t is Va rro who sa ys so , in M a crobiu s, S a tu rn . I. xii . 2 7. nec virum u n qu a m vid erit

vel a v iro visa sit b u t others re l a ted her a dventures, a nd her festiv a ls , a t le a st in the tim e of

Ca esa r, were con s idered a s l icentiou s, thou gh a l l m en were rigid ly excluded from them .

3 A fter a m in i a ture from the Va tica n Vergil.

124 INTRODUCTION .

property,

con ju g a l fidelity, a n d ju stice, the protectors of a gri

cu ltu re,the dispen sers oi a l l ea rthly good

,preside over the

a ction s of m en w ithou t sh a ring the ir p a ssion s,b u t a lso withou t

ra ising thei r m in d a bove selfish in terests . Art

a n d scien ce feel the loss , m or a l ity ga in s ? We

sh a ll n ot fin d the Rom a n Olym pu s e ither teem in g

with life , l ight , a n d bea u ty,l ike tha t of Greece

,

or profou n d , mysteriou s , a n d terrible,l ike those

of E gypt a n d I n di a . We sh a ll fin d it s gods

ingloriou s a n d pr a ctica l,

3 whom du rin g lon g yea rs,

selfish worshippers d a red on ly a ddress with ju st pr a yers. Their

service will b e a m ea n s of preserv a tion for a society devoid of

OPS, on WE A LT H.

en thu s ia sm ,n ot a n elem en t of prog ress .

These m odest divin ities cou ld n ot displ a y the terrible requ ire

men ts th a t a re fou n d in l a rger theogon ies . They

very ra rely dem a n ded hu m a n blood on their

a lta rs ;4 b u t they a ccepted a volu n ta ry s a crifice ,

the redem ption of the people by the devotion

of a victim ,— a Cu rtiu s , who closes the gu lf in

the hea rt of the city by lea pin g in to it,

sa n d

G OOD SUCCE SS-6 a Deciu s, who by hi s dea th ch a nges defea t in to

victory.

An other ch a r a cteristic of the It a l i a n gods is their in fin ite

m u ltitu de . E very town h a s its tu tel a r divin ity . At N a rn i a it is

V isid ia n u s , a t Ocricu lum Va len ti a,a t Ca sin um Delven t iu s

,a t

M in tu rn a e M a rica,a m on g the Fren ta n i Pa l in a , a t Sa tricum M a tu ta

1 Sa int A u gu stine (d c Civ. Dei, vn . 4 ) rem a rks th a t J a nu s w a s the hero of n o q u estion a blea dventure. O vid , however, h a s comprom ised h im somewha t (F a st. v i. 119 , seq) ; b u t in the

tim e of Ovid the sen se of the a nc ient rites w a s lost.2 She ho lds some e a rs of corn . G o ld co in of Pertin a x, stru ck a t the close of 19 2 A .D.

3 S a tor, seed ; Ops , work in the fie lds ; F lor a , flower ; J u ven t a s, youth ; F a tes, fa ith Corv

cord i a . concord ; F ors , fortu n e ; B on u s E ven tu s , good su ccess. [The re a der wil l n otice th a ta m on g Greek a uthors Xenophon a lon e, fo llowin g the hom e ly s ide of the Socra tic re l igion ,exhibits th i s se lfish a nd vu lg a r piety. Cf . my Soci a l L ife in Greece, p. 3 70.— E d .]

4 See pa ge 13 9 , note 1.5 T h is gu lf wa s b u t i ll closed by Curtiu s ; a t lea st a s f a r a s we a re concerned ;

for in m odern tim es a lon e it h a s re-open ed three times, in 170 2,1715, a nd 1818 A . D.

(Wey, R ome,6 Su cce ss (B on u s E ven tu s) sta nding, hol ding a bowl a nd e a rs of corn ; a t his feet a n a lta r

burn ing. Bron ze co in of A nton in u s, stru ck by order of the Sen a te (S. C.) during his secondcon su lsh ip ( Cos. I I .) in 13 9 A . D.

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R E LIG IOUS ORGAN IZATION .

M a ter ; in the Sa bin e cou n try Nerio, who wa s iden tified by th e

gens Cl a u d i a with the Rom a n Bellon a,the wife or sister of M a rs ?

To these m u st b e a dded the n um erou s Sem on es or I nd igetes, the

nym phs, heroes , a n d de ified virtu es : Con cordia , Flora ,Pom on a , Ju ven ta s, Pol l en t ia , Rum in a , Men a

,N um eria ,

a n d the sw a rm of loca l divin ities which Tertu ll i a n

ca lls d ecu riones cleos , a n d th e gods of the lower world,

La rv a e a n d Lem u res, a n d those of the in d igi t a m en t a ,

those books which were both col lection s of pra yers

whereof the priests kept the secret, a n d lists of di vin e bein gs

whom Tertu ll i a n comp a res to the a n gels of the Bible ; on e m ight

a dd tha t they ca ll t o m in d the s a in ts of the popu l a r beliefs of

Rom a n Ca thol ic cou n tries .

Not on ly ea ch town , b u t ea ch fa m i ly, ea ch m a n,p a id hon or t o

speci a l gods a n d to genii who protected his life a n d goods (L a res ,Pen a tes) : there were gods for every a ct of

m a n’

s life, from t he cra dle t o the gra ve .3 Thu s

a t the close of the Repu blic Va rro cou ld cou n t

a s m a ny a s thirty thou s a n d gods. With n a tion s

in their in fa n cy,im perfect l a ngu a ge su pplies , by

the v a riety of p a rticu l a r n a m es, the a bsen ce

of the gen er a l term s which represen t the u n ity

CON CO R D.2

of the species. The It a l i a n s possessed so m a n y y oum fi

deities on ly bec a u se their m in ds were in ca p a ble

of risin g t o the con ception of on e on ly G od,— a defect which l a sted

a long tim e with them , a n d which,with others, l a sts even til l

n ow.

Thi s divin e democra cy n ecess a rily esc a ped from the con trol of

the grea ter gods a n d their priests. This is the re a son why religiou s

1 N erio a ppe a rs to h a ve denoted strength ; the in scription is kn own V ir tu ti B el lon a e

(Orell i,2 Concord (Concord ia ) , sea ted, le a nin g with her e lbow on a horn of plenty, a n d ho lding

a pa tera . Go ld co in of the E mperor A eliu s H a dri a n u s, stru ck in the second ye a r of his

tribu n iti a n power, a nd dur in g hi s secon d con su l ship, con sequ ently in th e yea r 118 A .D .3 See in Sa int A u gu stin e (d e Civ. Dei

,vi. 9 ) th e m a n ifo ld a n d very humble employ

ments of these gods, a fter Va rro, who him self h a d doubtless described them in the orderof “ ind igit a men t a , a concept ione u squ e a d mortem e t d ei q u i pertinent a d ea qu a es int hom in i s, sicu t i est victu s a tqu e vest it u s ,

”e tc.

4 Y outh (Ju ven ta s ) sta nding ne a r a n a lta r, in the form of a ca ndel a brum , into whichshe throws a gra in of in cen se , a nd holding a pa tera. in her left ha n d.

126 INTRODUCTION .

tolera tion wa s on e of the n ecessit ies of Rom a n governm en t ; a n d

if the p a trici a n s h a d n ot held the secret of the a u gu r’

s scien ce, of

the sym bolic form u l a e a n d cerem on ies, they wou ld n ot h a ve been

a ble to a dd th e

a scen den cy of re »

l ig ion to th a t of

bir th a n d fortun e.

Som e gods h a d

m o r e n u m e r o u s

worshippers t h a n

o t h e r s, s u ch a s

Ju piter, god of a ir

a n d l ight ; Ja n u s ,t h e Su n ,

w h o

open ed a n d closed

the hea ven s a n d theTWO WV OM E N BUR N I N G I N CE N S E A N D PE R FUM E S UPON TWO

POR T A BLE A L T A R s B E FO R E A N I MA G E O F MA R S.1 yea r ; Sa tu rn ,the

protector of ru stic

l a bor, whose hollow st a tu e w a s filled with the oil of the ol ives.

he h a d ca u sed to grow ; M a rs,or M a spiter, the symbol Of m a n ly

stren gth,

a lso ca lled M a vors,the god who sl a ys ; Bellon a , the

terrible sister of the god of w a r ; Ju n o R egin a , qu een of hea ven ,

a n d a lso th e helpfu l , Sosp i t a , in whom wom a n a t a l l m om en ts of"

her l ife fou n d a id, b u t who f a vored on ly cha ste love a n d in vio

l a te u n ion s .

The worship of these divin ities w a s often the on ly bon d which

a tt a ched cities of the sa me origin t o on e a n other . Thu s th e'

E tru sca n s a ssem bled a t the temple of Vol tum n a,the La tin s a t the

sa cred wood of the goddess F eren t in a , a t th e tem ple of Ju piter

L a t ia l is on the Al b a n Mou n t,a n d in those of Venu s

,a t L a vin ium

a n d L a u ren tu m ;2the Aequ i Ru tu l i a n d Volsci a t the tem ple of

Dia n a a t A ricia . Sim il a r ga therings took pl a ce a mong the Sa bin es,Sa m n ites

,L u ca n ia n s, Ligu ria n s , etc. They were re a lly A mph ic

1 Ta ken from M a rin i , G l i A tti e m a n a ni . ( I e’

f r a tel l i A rva h a fter a pa inting fou nd a t

R om e,which W incke lm a nn h a s a lso reproduced in h is Al on . ine

’

d its, pl . 177.

2 T he worship of Ven u s a t L a vin ium a n d L a u re n tu m on ly d a tes from th e epoch a t whichthe legend of A en ea s took form . There w a s no godde ss be a ring the n a me of Ven u s a t R ome

in th e tim e of the kings. (Va rro, in A u g u r a m l ibr is, fra gm . of book v i.; M a crob .

I . x i i. 8

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128 IN TRODUCTION .

b a lefu l Su n ; Summ a nu s, god of n ight a n d n octu rn a l thu n ders ;Seth l a u s, or Vu lc a n ,

the grea t smith ; Nort ia , f a te or fortu ne,

etc. By a n ol d con tr a ct, N ort ia len t th e inn er w a lls of her

temple for the reception of the s a cred n a il which m a rked the

ch a n geless order of time a n d the“ regu l a r retu rn

of th e yea rs . Higher yet , hidden in the nu

fa thom a ble depths of‘

hea ven,mysteriou s deities

whose n a mes were n ever u ttered,the d ii involu ti

(or ve iled) pl a yed the p a rt of the destiny to whicheven the gods were su bject ; they helped t o

expl a in the in explica ble m ystery of l ife.M a n h a s in a l l a ges been desirou s of p a ssin g

in thou ght over the threshold of dea th,a n d of

lookin g in to the'

grea t u n known beyon d . The

more u n cert a in a n d con fu sed his view,the

m ore his m in d peopled it with v a gu e ph a n tom s.

Bel ievin g tha t de a th sep a r a ted two differen t b u tn ot a bsolu tely di stin ct thin gs

,the body which

f a lls l ifeless, a n d the other self , th a t of dre a m s,

m emories, a n d hopes, which stil l exists,2 — this other self wa s

looked u pon a s form ed of a corporea l su bsta n ce . With the ex

cept ion of Pyth a gora s a n d Pl a to,

a ll the philosoph ies, a ll the

V U'LCA N or E LBA .

‘

1 I t is thou ght th a t this bron ze sta tu ette, fou nd in the Isle of E va . (E lb a ) , a nd now in the

M u seum of N a ples, represents the god who m u st ha ve been the protector of the isl a n d whencethe sm iths of E truri a got the ir iron .

2 This w a s the m ost a ncient be lief of E gypt, a n d it is fou n d everywhere. A lthou gh a

phil osopher h a d d a red to s a y a t the time of the con stru ction of the pyra m ids Of tho se whoh a ve entered the coffi n , wa s th ere ever a ny who ca m e ou t a ga in ? ” a l l E gypt thou ght th a tthere ex isted a cl a ss of be ings who were n e ither the l i v in g nor the de a d. T he de a d who h a dbeen good durin g the ir l i ve s cou ld a t will resume terrestri a l existen ce in a ny pl a ce or formwh ich su ited them . (Cha b a s, L es M a x imes (l a Scr ib e A n i, in M el . E gg/p t. p. Thi s in

som e be l ief w a s popul a r in Greece , where m a ny Sa rcopha gi a nd fu nera l urn s show sou lsin som e w a y de ified (R a v a isson , M on . d e Jl/I g/rrhin e) a n d it w a s sti ll current in the world inthe s ixteenth century. “ There a re a eri a l beings, sa ys G u iceia rd in i (R icord i p olitici, ccx i) ,whoho ld con verse with m a n I know it by experience.” I t stil l ex ists in Chin a : T o send gold

a nd s i lver to th e m a n es of the de a d in the other world, s a crifi ci a l p a pers a re burned , which a re

gi lded or sil vered, a nd there a re prepa red a t certa in d a te s, a s wa s done a t R om e , repa sts inwh ich they a re supposed to come a nd ta ke p a rt. B u t t o prevent them from ta k in g u ndu ea dv a nta ge thereof, peta rds a re fired, t o sen d them b a ck to the pl a ce when ce they ca m e. F or

the E squ im a u x the who le world is peopled with gen i i , a nd every object h a s it s own . I n ou r

own d a ys some people preten d even to con verse with the spirits. I n m a ny points the diff erencebetween the b a rb a ri a n a n d the civ i lized m a n is n ot so grea t a s is thought. [The Christi a ndoctrine of the resurrection of the body impl ied tha t the i dea of a pure soul ex isting here a fterwithout it s body wa s fou n d inconce i v a ble.— E d .]

RE LIG IOUS ORGAN IZATION . 12 9

rel igion s of cl a ssic a n tiqu ity , even som e of the e a rl iest Fa thers

of the Chu rch, a dm itted the corporea l n a tu re of the sou l.

Im p a lp a ble yetm a teri a l sh a des , the gen ii were l ike a s a cred

hu m a n ity which peopled th e in vis ible u n iverse . On e of them

is seen in a n E tru sca n p a in ti ng which represen ts two ol d

m en bew a il in g th e de a d , whose gen iu s hovers a bove them u nder

the form of a win ged wom a n .

The L a res were th e gen i i of th e f a m ily ; th e M a n es, those of

the lost dea d . Gen ii dwelt in woods, foun t a in s, mysteriou s

DE MON S LE A D I N G A WA Y SOUL.1

grottos ; the Rom a n s even a ssign them t o everythin g which h a s

a sort of collective life , — to the cu ri a , the legion ,a n d the cohort.

E very m a n a n d every thin g h a s on e of it s own .

When the gods issu ed from the obscu rity which en veloped

them in a n cien t d a ys, a n d the theogon ies settled order a m on g the

divin e r a ce , th e gen i i bec a m e the m in isters of the ir b en eficen t or

terrible will . The som bre im a gin a tion of th e E tru sc a n s del ighted

in pictu ring, on v a ses a n d m u r a l p a in tin gs , in fern a l gen ii a rm ed

with serpen ts, hideou s m on sters , a grim a cing Ch a ron , dra ggin g the

dep a rted to the lower region s, or , a rm ed with a hea vy h a m m er,

a ssistin g a t hum a n sa crifices,to pu t a n en d to th e victim s whom the

1 Conesta bile , P itture m u r a le, pl . xvii .V O L . I . 9

13 0 INTRODUCTION .

kn ife might spa re ? Som ethin g of this gloomy spirit a ppe a rs to

h a ve su rvived in m odern Tu sca ny . Wh a t a re the gorgeou s a n d

hideou s p a in tin gs of the E tru sca n s beside the drea dfu l pictu res of

D a n te a n d Bu on a rott i ?

On e essen ti a l differen ce between this rel igion a n d the Asi a ticcu lt

,w a s th e scien ce of a u gu ry. The un kn own fills the child with

fea r, a n d a ttr a cts th e m a n who still drea ds it, b u t who seeks therein,

a ccordin g to the a ge of the world , the m a rvellou s or the scien tific

elem en t . N ow men of tha t tim e were in the a ge of the m a rvellou s ,a n d they dem a n ded from physica l phen om en a

, in stea d of a revel a

tion of the l a ws of n a tu re, the kn owledge of the fu tu re .

The Assyria n s im a gin ed they cou ld rea d in the sta rs those

im pen etr a ble secrets ; the E tru sca n s sou ght them in terrestri a l

phen om en a,in the flight of birds a n d the en tra i ls of victim s . The

Greeks a n d I ta li a n s pr a ctised the l a tter two kin ds of divin a tion ;b u t the E tru sca n s form u l a ted their ru les, a n d m a de of them a .

com plic a ted system. They were especi a lly skilled in in terpret in gthe sign s fu rn ished by thu nder a n d l ightn in g.

2 When the echoes

of th e Apen n in es repea ted the cra shes of n octu rn a l thu n der, i t wa s

the god Summ a n u s spe a kin g ; a n d h i s voice mu st b e u n der

stood .

This cou n try,then ,

so often a ffrighted by e a rthqu a kes, a n d

where , on a ccou n t of it s frequ en t storm s, l ightn in g still cl a im s so.

m a ny victim s,— this l a n d , so fertile a n d ever so m en a ced

, w a s su re,m ore th a n a ny other

,to n ou rish religiou s terror . M en h a d fa ith

in a n occu lt power which m a n ifested it s will in a m a n n er ou ts ide.

the n a tu ra l order of thin gs, a n d the a rt of expl a in ing prodigies,

of ga in in g the f a vor of th a t drea ded power, bec a m e the su prem e

scien ce .

3 The n obles a lon e kn ew it, a n d in their h a n ds it bec a m e

a wea pon ,lon g u n fa il in g, a ga in st popu l a r

' in n ov a t ion s . I n these rit

u a l s everythin g w a s c a lcu l a ted ; for the priest, the better to a ssu re

h is power, w a s u nwillin g th a t there shou ld b e a single indifferen t.

a ction ; a n d a sha m efu l su perstition , weighin g on the people, tied it s:

1 See the engra ving on p. 68. Cha ron a n d hi s clu b pa ssed on to R ome ; u nder the n a m e :

of Pluto he pu t a n end with his ha mmer-strokes t o th e wou nded in the G a mes who were n ot .

worth the trou ble of curing.2 This w a s the m a x imum a u spicium . (Serv. in A en . i i .3 This scien ce w a s a fterw a rd comm itted to the tib rif u lg u ra les.

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13 2 INTRODUCTION .

the a trociou s n a tu re of th e pu n ishm en ts reca lls the cold cru elty

of the heroic a ge, a s som e other l a ws a n d cu stom s a ppea r to

h a ve been t a ken from a society of still n om a dic shepherds ?

N either l et u s forget th e feci a l right est a blished by the Aequ i , th e

order of b a ttle (a cies) of the E tru sca n s, whose in f a n try, dra wn

u p in deep lin es, resem bled a w a l l of iron (in u ru ni f erreum ) ; the

golden crown s in im it a tion of oa k~ lea ves, a s a m il it a i y rew a rd ; th e

a rm or of the Sa m n ite soldier which bec a me th a t of the legion a ry ;a n d the sim ple worship , fru g a l l ife , a n d severe edu ca tion of the

shepherds a n d hu sb a n dm en of L a tium a n d the Sa bin e cou n try ;the lu xu ry a n d a rt of E tru ri a , — a n d

,in short

,a m a ss of cu stom s

which wou ld show th a t Rom e a lrea dy existed in a n cien t I t a ly,

were it n ot n ecess a ry to a d d som ethin g especi a lly Rom a n,— the idea

of th e Sta te overru l ing a l l,a n d th a t a dm ira ble discipl in e which

of su ch diverse elem en ts form ed a n origin a l society a n d the m ost

powerfu l em pire tha t the world h a d hitherto kn own .

SUMMA R Y.

H I S is a very del iber a te excu rs ion throu gh a n cien t It a ly ;

b u t,if we a re n ot m ist a ken ,

the circu it will on ly h a ve the

e ffect of shorten ing ou r rou te . Althou gh we h a ve tra velled this

lon g jou rn ey illum in ed on ly by str a y ligh ts, we h a ve been a ble

t o ca tch a glim pse of the very cra dle of Rom e,of th e in stitu tion s

from which hers were derived , of the n a tion s who , a fter h a vin g

form ed her popu l a tion , produ ced her gre a test m en . I n th e con su l a r

a n n a ls we fin d a m on g th e con su ls of th e yea rs 510 to 460 , B . C.,

Volsci a n s , A u ru n ca n s , Sicu li a n s , Sa bin es , R u tu l ia n s, E tru sc a n s, a n d

L a tin s . Am on gst th e grea t f a m i l ies,The Ju l ii, Servil ii, Tu l l ii, G eg a n ii, Q u in ct ii, Cu ra t ii, a n d Cloel ii,

com e from Alb a ;

1 Dorn seiffen :“ Vestigi a vita e nonra d ica e t a m in m or ib u s qu a m in leg ib u s R om a n is con

SUMMARY. 13 3

The Appii , Postum ii, a n d prob a bly the V a lern , F a b ii,

Ca lpiu'

n ii,who c a lled them selves the descen d a n ts of N um a

,

the Sa bin e cou n try ;The Fu rii a n d H ost il ii, from M edu l l ia in L a tiu m ;

The Octa vii, from V eli tra e ;

The Ciln ii (M a ecen a s w a s of this fa m ily) a n d the L icin ii,

Arezzo

The Ca ecin a e, from V ol a terr a ;

The Vet t ii , from Clu sium ;

The Pompon ii, P a pii, a n d Copon ii, from E tru ria

The Coru n ca n ii a n d Su lpieii,

from Ca m erium

The Porcii a n d M a m il ii, who

cl a im ed descen t from Circe, from

Tu scu lum,e tc.

Am on gst th e grea t n a m es

of Rom a n l iter a tu re,on ly two ,

those of Ca esa r a n d Lu cretiu s,

belon g rea lly to Rom e ; a l l the

others a re I ta l ia n s : Hor a ce is

Apu l i a n ; E n n iu s, a Messa pi a n ;Pl a u tu s, from Um bria ; Vergil ,from M a n tu a ; Sta tiu s , from

E lea N a eviu s, from Ca m p a

n ia ; Lu ciliu s, from Su ess a

Au ru n ca ; Cicero , l ike Ma riu s,is a Volsci a n ; Ovid

,a Pe

l ign ia n ; Ca to, a Tu scu l a n ;

Sa l lu st , a Sa bin e ; Livy, fromPa du a ; th e two Pl inys , fromCom o ; Ca tu llu s, from Veron a ;[Ma rti a l a n d Sen ec a wereSpa n i a rds] . Teren ce w a s evena Ca rtha gin i a n . So m u ch form en . L et u s proceed t o m a teri a l m a rks

R OMA N I N T OG A .1

1 Bron ze sta tu ette in the P a yne K n ight Col lection a t the British M u seum ; in M r. P a yneKnight’s collection it is described a s Cicero.

13 4 INTRODUCTION .

Rom e received from E tru ri a,— the division in to tribes

,cu ria e,

a n d cen tu ries , the order of b a ttle,the dress of th e m a gistr a tes

,

the l a ticl a ve , the pra etext a , the toga , the a pex,

1the cu ru le ch a ir

,

the l ictors, a l l the displ a y of the triu m phs a n d pu blic g a m es,the

n u n d in a e,

2the sa cred ch a r a cter of property

,a n d the scien ce of

the a u gu r, — th a t is t o sa y, the st a te religion . From L a t ium,the

n a m es of dict a tor a n d pra etor, the feci a l right, a s im ple rel igion

which pl a ced a l l the works of ru r a l l ife u n der the protection of

th e gods, th e worship of Sa tu rn ,protector of a gricu ltu re, a n d th a t

of J a n u s a n d Dj a n a , the su n a n d the m oon,u n ited in the dou ble

J a nu s ; in f a ct , a gricu ltu ra l cu stom s a n d even l a n gu a ge . FromSa m n iu m a n d the Sa bin e cou n try, the title of imp er a tor , the

a rm or a n d wea pon s of the soldiers,severe a n d rel igiou s cu stom s

,

a n d w a rrior gods . From a l l the n a tion s which su rrou n ded them,

the p a trici a te or p a tron a ge , the division in to gen tes, Cl ien tship ,p a tern a l a u thority

,th e worship of the l a res a n d fetich gods

,su ch

a s bre a d or Ceres,the spea r or M a rs, the divin ities of the rivers

,

l a kes,a n d w a rm sprin gs . I n short , a s a f a ithfu l represen t a tion

of this form a tion of Rom a n society, Rom u lu s a n d Tu llu s a re

L a tin s ; N um a a n d A n cu s, Sa bin es ; Serviu s a n d the two T a rqu in s,E tru sca n s.

The followin g be a u tifu l a n d expressive legen d is fou n d in

Plu t a rch . Rom u lu s , s a ys he , ca lled m en from E tru ri a , who t a u ght

him the holy cerem on ies a n d sa cred form u l a e . They h a d a tren ch

d u g rou n d th e Cornitiu in , a n d e a ch of th e citizen s of the n ew

city threw i nto i t a h a n dfu l of ea rth brou ght from h is n a tive

cou n try . Then they m ixed the whole, a n d ga ve t o the ditch,a s to th e u n iverse , the n a m e of th e world (m u n d u s).

3

1 L a ticl a ve, a tu n ic, edged from t op to bottom with a bro a d purple b a n d , wove n in the

m a teri a l , the m a rk of a sen a tor ; p r a etex t a , a toga bordered with purple a n d worn by m a gistra tes (or n oble ch i ldren ) ; a p ex, a he a ddress of th e fla m en s a n d the S a li i. The a pex is seen

on a qu a ntity of co in s a n d mon uments, th e l a ticl a ve in very ra re pa inti ngs.2 N a n d in a s (n oven a d ies) , the n inth d a y, or m a rket-d a y.3 T he m u n d u s of R om u lu s w a s th e world of the m a n e s a n d the su bt erra n e a n de itie s.

E very time th a t a city wa s fou n ded , a mu nd u s w a s opened , into whi ch were thrown the first

fru its of a l l the crops , with objects of good omen . I t w a s a re l igiou s cu stom , which ex i stede ven in A ssyri a , where , in the fou n d a tion s of m on uments, were pl a ced the idols which shou ldprotect them . Wh en we fix co in s in the first ston e o f a n edifice , we d o something a n a logou swith tota ll y different ide a s ; a nd this cu stom , which on ly serve s to m a rk the d a te of th e erection of the m onum ent, is perha ps a very

'

remo te sou ven ir of a re l igio u s u sa ge which h a s beensecul a ri zed.

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H I S T O R Y O F R O M E .

FI RST PE R I OD.

ROME UNDE R TH E K INGS (753 - 510 B .

FOR M ATION OF T H E R OM A N PE OPLE .

CHAPTE R I .

TR ADITIONAL H ISTORY OF THE KINGS.1

‘

O s e’

u r ots wa r pfo t s fia t/0 15 b7rbt

Pequ a lwu 57 1 I t a l mfw ciSe'r a t .DI ONYSI US : A n t . R om. I. 79 .

I . R oMUL Us (753

OME , the city of strength 2 a n d w a r a n d bloodshed, wa s plea sed

to pl a ce a n idyl a t the begin n in g of h er form id a ble history ;N ero’ s city

,a scribin g to her first d a ys the virtu es of the a ge of

1 We d o n o t propose to discu ss the legends of the roy a l period. T he re a der curiou s ininte llectu a l d ivers ion s of thi s k in d wi l l d o we l l to consu lt the first vo lum e of N iebu hr, inwhich a l l these tra dition s a re co llected a nd critica l ly con sidered ; a lso Schwegler ’s H i story,in which they a re a lso ta ken u p a n d discu ssed. F or ou rse l ves, t o a nyhypotheses, howeveringen iou s a nd eru dite , -which m u st still b e a s inc a pa ble of proof a s a re the legend s theycomb a t

,—we prefer L ivy

’

s a dm ira ble n a rra ti ve, if no t a s a ctu a l truth, a t le a st a s picture.De t a i ls m ore or less a uthentic in respect to the biogra phies of certa in person a ge s a re , a fter a l l ,of l ittle con se q u ence . One thing on ly is re a ll y importa nt, since it is wha t m en of a l l time sdesire to u n dersta nd , a nd tha t is the qu estion how this singu l a r city w a s formed, which c rewto b e a n a tion , a world. This problem w il l occu py u s fa r m ore tha n the idle or in solublequ estion s which , s ince N iebuhr’ s tim e , ha ve been so m u ch a gita ted in G erm a ny. [Thecourse here a dopted is tha t of A rno ld , who te ll s the o ld legen ds a s legend s , without a ny a ttemptto sift history from them . M omm sen contemptu ou sly ignores them a ltogether. I hne

’

s l ittlebook on the e a rliest epoch Of R om a n history is the best di scu ss ion of the problem in E ngl ish.E ( l .]

2 The Greek word for R om e m ea n s strength ; a nd the c ity ’s secret n a m e wa s perha psV a len tia , from the verb va lere, which h a s the sa me m e a n ing . See p. 142 , n . 2.

13 8 R OM E UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

gold , bega n h er legen d a ry a n n a ls with a reign of Sa tu rn , - a period

of in n ocen ce, pe a ce, a n d equ a li ty , of ru stic l a bors a n d s im pleplea su res .

I n th e beginn in g , s a ys tra dition ,a str a n ger kin g reign ed over the

people of L a tin -m , Ja n u s, the su n

god , whose dwelling w a s u pon the

Ja n icu l um . H is su bjects h a d th e in

n ocen t a n d sim ple,b u t ru de a n d u n

cu ltu red , m a n n ers of prim ev a l m a n

From this kin g, Sa tu rn u s , who h a d

been driven ou t of hea ven by Ju pi

t er, obt a in ed the gift of the Ca pi

tolin e Hill ;1a n d in retu rn for this

hospit a l ity,t a u ght the La tin s how

t o cu ltiv a te corn a n d th e vin e .

This is the a ge of a gricu ltu re, su c

ceed in g the p a stor a l a ge , when m en

l ived by the fru its of the ch a se

a n d u pon the a corn s which they

ga thered u nder the grea t oa ks of

t he L a tin fore st. Sa tu rn u s, “t he

good sower,” 2

w a s a lso the good

h a rvester,a n d w a s long represen ted

with a sickle,which l a ter a ges, per

vertin g the origin a l m yth,

con

verted in to the scythe of Tim e.

To him su cceeded Picu s, his son , a f a m ou s sooth

s a yer h a vin g the gift of ora cles, a n d “ the good ”

Fa u n u s, the fou n der of im porta n t religiou s in stitu tion s ,who w a s worshipped

“

in la ter tim es in his twofold

ch a ra cter a s the god of fields a n d shepherds,a n d

SA T UR N US.‘1 a s a n or a cu l a r a n d prophetic divin ity. Fa u n u s a lso

SA T U R N u s 8

1 Thi s b ill wa s ca ll ed a t first the M ou nt of Sa turn . (Va rro, d e L ing . l a t. v. 4 2 ; A en.

vfi L 3 58 )2 S a tor mea n s sower.3 T a ken from the M on umen ts of A n cien t A rt of M u ller-W isler.4 The cross pl a ced u n der the chin in dica tes tha t the piece is a si l ver den a riu s. B ehind

there is the s ickle of the divine hu sba ndm a n .

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140 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

Throu gh Sa tu rn , the f a ther of th e gods , Rom e wa s con n ected with

wh a t wa s gre a test in hea ven ; throu gh Aen ea s, the son of Venu sa n d a n cestor of Rom u lu s , with th a t which Greek poetry h a d m a de

the gre a test u pon ea rth , th e city of Pri a m. H a vin g esca ped from

the bu rn in g Troy with his fa ther An chises,h is son Asca n iu s

,a n d

his wife Creiis a , who ca rried the s a cred objects a n d the P a ll a dium,

he crossed the Hellespon t ; a n d a fter h a vin g w a n dered for a long

time on l a n d a n d sea,he wa s l ed by the st a r of h is mother

,which

gu ided his ship by d a y a s wel l a s by n ight,to the shores of

L a tium .1 L a tin u s , kin g of the coun try

,welcom ed the stra n ger

,

ga ve him h is da u ghter L a vin ia t o wife , a n d t o h is com p a n ion s

seven hu n dred a cres of l a n d , seven for ea ch . Bu t in a b a ttle

a g a in st the R u tu l ia n s, Aen ea s , con qu eror of

Tu rn u s , disa ppea red in th e m idst of the

w a ters of the N um iciu s , th e s a cred w a ter of

which w a s a fterw a rd u sed in the worship

of Vesta . The gods h a d received the hero .

H e w a s worshipped u n der the n a m e of Ju piter

I n d ig etes . The wa r,however

,con tin u ed , a n d

A EN EA S ; in sin gle com b a t Asca n iu s killed Mezen tiu s,

the a lly of Tu rn u s . Then,le a ving the a rid

a n d u n hea lthy coa st where his fa ther h a d ’ fou n ded L a v in ium ,

he ca m e t o bu ild Alb a Lon ga,in the he a rt of the cou n try,

on the Alba n m ou n t a in ,the su mm it of which comm a n ds a l l

L a tium,a n d a ffords a view of the Tiber, th e sea

,a n d the storm

be a ten crests of the Apen n in es. Twelve kin gs of the r a ce of Aen ea s

su cceeded him ; on e of them , Proca s, h a d two son s , N u m itor a n d

Am u l iu s. The former,by right of a ge , ou ght t o h a ve inherited

the kin gdom ; b u t Amu l iu s took possession of i t, killed the son of

N um itor, pl a ced h is d a u ghter Sylvi a a m on g the V est a l s, a n d on ly

a llowed h is brother a portion of th e priv a te dom a in s of their f a ther.

Now on e d a y when Sylv i a h a d gon e to the fou n t a in of the sa cred

1 Serv. in A m . i. 3 82 . A s e a rly a s the s ixth centu ry B. c., Stesichoru s a sserted the a rri

v a l of A ene a s in Ita ly. A ri stotle , in the fourth, a dopted this tra dition ,a nd the histori a n

T iin a eu s, in the third , popu l a ri zed it . We sha ll see l a ter on tha t a t the tim e of the F irstPu n ic W a r it wa s a ccepted a t R ome.

2P P. T R . POT . COS . I I I . SC.

, tha t is to sa y, F a ther of the cou ntry, third yea r of the

tribu n iti a n power, a nd third con su l a te ( A . D. a piece stru ck by order of the Sen a te.I t is the reverse of a l a rge bron ze of A nton ine representing A enea s, who is ca rryingA nchi ses a n d hold in g hi s son A sca n iu s by the ha nd.

TRADITION A L H ISTORY OF TH E R I N G S. 141

wood. t o dra w the w a ter n ecess a r r for the tem ple , M a rs a ppe a red

to her, a n d prom ised d ivin e child ren to the frighten ed m a iden .

H a ving becom e a m other, Sylv i a w a s con d em n ed t o dea th , a ccord

ing t o the rigorou s l a ws of the worship of Vest a , a n d h er twin

son s were exposed on the Tiber . The river h a d then overflowed it s

b a nks ; th e cra dle w a s gen tly ca rried by th e w a ters a s f a r a s th e

Pa l a tin e Hill , where it stopped a t the foot of a wild fig -tree .

1 M a rs

R H E A SYLV I A . R OM E A N D T H E SH E

did not a b a n don the two children . A she-wolf, a ttr a cted by their

cries,or ra ther, sen t by the god whose sym bol w a s the wol f,

nou rished them with her m ilk . Afterwa rd a sp a rrow-h a wk brou ght

them stronger n ou rishm en t , while birds s a cred to the a u gu rs hovered

over the ir cr a dle to keep off the in sects . Stru ck by these m ir a cles,

Fa u stu lu s , a shepherd of the K ing’

s flocks , took the two children

a nd ga ve .them to h is wife, Acca L a ren tia , who c a ll ed them Rom u lu s

a n d Rem u s .5

1 The fi cus R umin a l is, re l igiou sly preserved throu gh centurie s. R a m a , or rum is , h a sthe mea n ing of m a mm a (V a rn , d c R e ru st. I I . i . a nd the Tiber itse lf w a s ca lled H um a n ,

th a t is, the ri ver with ferti l iz ing w a ters . (Serv. in A m . v ii i. H ence c a me the n a mes

of R ome , R om u lu s , a nd R em u s. (Ph il a rgyr. in V erg ., E cl . i. T he b ed of the Tiber

form erly re a ched from the F incio to the J a n icu lum . A lthou gh thi s ri ver h a s n ow a width of

on ly 185 feet, it sti l l fre qu ently overflows into the streets ; a ris ing of 3 2 feet h a s been m a rkedon the church of M inerv a . Tha t of the 2 9 th of December, 1870 , w a s 18 y a rds , 2 feet.

2 T he A em il ii pre ten ded tha t R he a Sylv i a be lon ged to the A em ilia n gen s. a n d they pu ther im a ge on som e of the ir m ed a ls . Tha t which we give is ta ken from a d ie of A nton inu s ,who w a s fon d of reca l ling on h is co in s , fa cts or m on um ents of the prim iti ve hi story of

R ome.

3 A d id r a chm e of Ca m pa n i a n m a ke , in s i lver. Pieces of two dra chm a e a re ra re. T he

dra chme w a s a lmost eq u i v a lent to a fra n c.4 SE X POM F OST L V S R OM A . F a u st-u l ns sta nding on the left ; before h im the

wolf sucklin g the twin s ; in the b a ckgrou n d the R um in a l fig-tree with three crows. R everse of

a si lver co in of the Pompe i a n fa m i ly .5 Li vy ( i. 4 ) a llu de s t o other a ccou nts. in which A cca L a renti a , on a ccou nt o f h er

loose mora ls, w a s given a n a m e for courtes a n , l up a , the she-wolf. N othin g more wou ldb e requ ired for form ing the fa m ou s lege nd on this n a me . I t w a s a lre a dy popu l a r in 2 9 6

,a

t ime when the wolf a nd the twin s were offi ci a l ly con secra ted on th e Pa l a tine ; b u t it w a s n o t

very a ncient, s ince the co in s of R ome bore the impress of the sow before tha t of the wo lf,which does n ot a ppea r ti ll the qu a d r a n ics of th e fifth century. A cca La renti a w a s a te lluricgoddess, who person ified the e a rth in which we pl a ce the de a d, a nd seeds, whence l ife springs ;

142 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

Brou ght u p on the P a l a tin e in hu ts of str a w,l ike the h a rdy

children of the shepherd, they grew in stren gth a n d cou ra ge,

fea rlessly a tt a ckin g wild bea sts a n d briga n ds,a n d a ssertin g their

rights by force . The com p a n ion s of Rom u lu s were ca lled the

Q u in t il ii : those of Rem u s,the F a b ii ; a n d a lrea dy division broke

ou t between them . On e d a y, however, the two brothers h a d a

qu a rre l with the shepherds of the rich N um itor,whose flocks fed

on the Aven tine , a n d Rem u s , su rprised in a n a m bu sh,w a s ta ken

by them to Alb a before their m a ster . The prison er ’ s fe a tu res,h is a ge , the twin birth, stru ck N um itor : he ca u sed Rom u lu s to

b e brou ght before him ; a n d F a u stu lu s disclosed to the two you ng

m en the secret of their birth . Aided by their com p a n ion s,they

killed Amu l iu s,a n d Alba retu rn ed to the sw a y of it s l a wfu l

kin g. I n retu rn,N um itor perm itted them t o bu ild a town on

th e b a n ks of the river , a n d g a ve u p to them a l l the cou n try

which exten ded from the Tiber on the roa d to .Alba a s f a r a s

a pl a ce c a lled F es ti,a bou t five or six m iles dista n t .1

E qu a l in power a n d a u thority, the two brothers soon d is

pu ted the hon or of choosin g the site a n d the n a m e2of the n ew

city . I t wa s left t o the gods, whose will they con su lted by the

Sa belli a n a u gu ry throu gh the flight of birds. Remu s , on the

Aven tin e , first s a w six vu ltu res ; b u t a lmost a t the s a m e t im e

twelve a ppea red t o Rom u lu s, on the P a l a tin e ; a n d thei r com

p a n ion s. won over by this h a ppy om en,pron ou nced in his

f a vor . So the plebe i a n hill, a lrea dy su l lied in the most a n cien t

so her festi v a l wa s ce lebra ted a t the winter so lstice. A t the s ixth hour, a t the moment whenthe ye a r p a ssed a w a y, the Q u irin a l flamen offered a s a crifice to the m a nes in honor of the“ M other of the L a res, — thi s is the m e a n ing of her n a me ; a nd the re st o f the d a y w a scon secra ted to Ju piter, the god of l ight a nd regen era ted life. [T he curiou s a n a logies in the

stories of the birth a n d edu ca tion of Cyru s, pre served by H erodotu s, show tha t we prob a blyha ve before u s a n ol d A ry a n legend , however l a te it m a y a ppe a r a t R om e. E d .]

1 This is the a ger R om a n u s . Under T iberiu s expi a tory sa crifices were sti ll o ffered there,intended to pu rify the prim iti ve frontier. T he R om a n m i le , or thou sa nd pa ces of five feet, isequ i v a lent to a bout y a rds.

2 The profa n e n a me w a s R om a (see p.13 7, n . the s a cerdota l n a me , F lora . There w a s athird secret n a m e, possibly A mor, a n a n a gra m of R om a , which it wa s forbidden to pronou nce,u nder pa in of de a th. (M u nter, De occu l to u rb is R om a e n omine.) Others think it V a len tia , orA n g erom a . (Cf. M a ury, m em o ir on Serviu s T u l l -in s.) Gre a t ca re w a s ta ken to conce a l thisn a m e, s a ys P liny (H is t. N a t , xxvi i i. beca u se it belon ged a t th e sa me time t o the

tute l a r de ity of the city. A s lon g a s it rem a in ed u nknown , the hosti le priests cou ld not in du cethi s god to a ba ndon his people , by prom i sing in the ir city gre a ter honors, a mp l ia rem cu l l um,

which, a ccording to the ide a of the a nc ients, wa s the determ in ing rea son of the fa vor of thegods.

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144 ROM E UNDE R TH E K I N G S.

feet), wa s n ea rly ya rds in circum feren ce, so th a t a ccess to

i t w a s ea sy .

Bu t,

a t a l ittle dist a n ce, the Ca pitolin e Hil l (145 feet) d escen ded by steep declivities in to the m a rshes ; this position ,

then,

w a s a lre a dy stron g in itself . Rom u lu s there c a rried ou t works of

defen ce , which m a de it the cit a del of Rom e .

I n order to in crea se the popu l a tion of t lte n ew city,h e open ed

Ca esa r reform ed th e ca lend a r, it w a s n ecessa ry t o m a ke a ye a r of fifteen m onth s, in order topu t th e c i v i l ye a r in a ccord with th e course of the su n .

2d . The R om a n yea r is four m onths behin d the Christi a n ye a r,a n d three m onths in

a dv a n ce of th e Greek ye a r ; so tha t the ye a r of R ome 3 00 correspon ds t o e ight m onths of theyea r 454 B . c .

, a nd four m onths of the ye a r 453 B . C. a n d for th e O lym pi a ds , t o three month sof 0 1. 81, 3 , a n d n ine m onths of O l . 81, 4 . Consequ ently , even if this chron o logy were certa in ,there m u st b e conti n u a l rect ifica t ion s in reckon ing the ye a rs before Christ.

3 d . L i vy a vows tha t gre a t confu sion sti l l exi sted concern ing the period which fo l lowedth e expu ls ion o f the kings , — l a n l i errores imp l ica n t I empor um ( i i. a n d th ere is , intruth, no certa inty in R om a n chron ology u nti l a fter ta kin g of R ome by the G a u ls, beca u se the

Greek s kn ew thi s e vent a n d con n ected it with the ir own chron o logy , in O ]. 98, 1 or 2 , or even ,a ccording to Va rro , ( ) l . 9 7, 2 . “Then they bega n a t a ra ther l a te d a te t o e sta blish a chro

n ology for R om a n history, it wa s a tra dition a l be l ief (see Serv. in A en . i. 2 68) tha t R ome h a dbeen fou nded 3 6 0 ye a rs a fter th e downfa ll of Troy, a n d tha t betwe e n it s fou n d a tion a nd d e

stru ction by the G a u ls th e sa me n umber of ye a rs h a d e l a psed. Of th is period of 3 6 0 ye a rs, athird

, or 120 , wa s a l lowed for the con su ls ; th e other two thirds , or 24 0,with four interca l a ry

ye a rs , 24 4 , form ed the period of the kings. N ow 3 90 B. c ., the d a te of the ta kin g of R om e by

the G a u ls , plu s 3 64 , give 754 . B u t a s there w a s a v a ri a tion of some ye a rs in the sa m e fu nd am e nta l d a te, som e took 754

, others 753 , or 752 (F a biu s, 0 1. 8, 1 Po lybiu s a n d Corn . N ep.,

O ]. 7, 2 ; Ca to , 0 1. 7, 1 ; V a rro, 0 1. 6 , 3 ; a nd the Ca p itol in e A n na l s , 0 1. 6 , They went a sf a r a s to fix the d a y (A pri l 2 l st ) , a nd eve n the hour, when R om u lu s h a d tra ced ou t the

pom eri um . T he v a lu e of su ch a chron o logy will b e e a s i ly a pprec i a ted.[T he e a rly R om a n , l ike the Greek , chronology, re a soned down from remote mythica l

d a te s, no t u p from kn own h i storica l fa cts. T he u se of 60-ye a r cycle s is j u st a s cle a r in thelegen ds of the birth of H om er. Cf. th e critic ism in my G reek L itera tu re, vo l . i. A ppen dix B .,

a nd in my E ss a y on the O lym pi a ds in th e Jou rn a l of H el l en ic Stu d ies , i i. 164 , seq.4 th . A s reg a rds the three l a st kings in pa rticu l a r, Cicero a nd L i vy repre sented T a rqu in

the Prou d , who died in 4 95 B.c.,a s the son of T a rqu in the E lder, who h a d come to R ome

with h is wife 13 5 ye a rs before , — hence chrono logica l imposs ibi l ities of which the legen d h a dn ever drea m ed.

5th . F in a l ly, the 244 ye a rs of the roy a l period gi ve on a n a vera ge 3 5 ye a rs for e a ch

re ign . N ow R ome wa s a n e lecti ve m on a rchy, in which the throne w a s on ly re a ched a t the a ge

of experience a n d m a turity ; m oreover, of seven kings, two on ly fin ished the ir l ife a nd the irre ign in pe a ce . So

I

N ewton , on ly a l lowing 17 ye a rs a s a n a vera ge for e a ch re ign , reducedthese 244 ye a rs t o 119 , a n d pl a ced the fou nding of R ome a bout 6 3 0 B. C. N iebu hr h a srem a rked tha t Ven ice , a repu bl ic which a lso h a d e lecti ve chiefs, reckoned, from 805 to 13 11, 4 0

doges ; which gives a n a vera ge of 124 ye a rs for e a ch. We ca n infer nothing from the se ca l

cu l a t ion s, for , in Spa in , from 1516 t o 1759 ( 24 3 ye a rs) , there were on ly se ven kings , b u t note lecti ve ; a s m a ny in F ra nce , from 987 to 12 2 3 ( 2 3 6 ye a rs) , a nd from 1589 to 183 0 , 24 0 ye a rs,there wou ld h a ve been , reckon ing a s the R estora tion did, seven kings, two of whom died av iolent de a th, a third fin i shed h is l ife in ex i le. a n d a fourth died a t the a ge of ten .

This chrono logy of the e a rly tim es of R ome m u st therefore b e su spiciou s, like the hi storyof its first k ings. We will fo l low it, however, in d efa u lt of a better one.

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146 ROM E UNDE R T H E K IN GS.

between their f a thers a n d their hu sb a n ds . Pea ce wa s con clu ded,

a n d th e first b a sis of th e gre a tn ess

of Rom e est a blished by the u n ion of the

two a rm ies . The dou ble-hea ded J a n u s

bec a m e the sym bol of-the n ew n a tion .

l

At the en d of five yea rs T a tiu s

wa s killed by th e L a u ren t in es,to

whom h e refu sed ju stice for a

mu rder, a n d th e Sa bin es con sen ted

to recogn i ze Rom u lu s a s sole king.

Victories over the F id en a tes a n d

V eien t in es ju stified this choice . Bu t

R OMA N nm cm m flon e d a y,

when he w a s reviewin g h is

troops n ea r th e Ca pra ea n ma rsh , a storm dispersed the a ssem bly ;when the people retu rn ed

,the K ing h a d d is

a ppea red . A sen a tor,Procu l u s

,swore tha t he

h a d seen him a scen d t o hea ven on the ch a riot

of M a rs, a mid thu n der a n d l ightn in g,

a n d

h e w a s worshipped u nder the n a m e Of Qu irin u s.The Sen a te h a d sa crificed him t o the ir fea rs

,

or the Sa bin es to their resen tm en t.

I I . N UM A (715

TH E two n a tion s cou ld n ot a gree a s to theT R A D I T I ON A L F I G UR E

O F ”m u g s a ppom tm en t of h i s su ccessor, a n d for a ye a r

the sen a tors govern ed by tu rn s a s in terreges .

At len gth it w a s settled th a t the Rom a n s shou ld m a ke the

selection , on con dition th a t they chose a Sa bine . A voice n a m ed

1 I n m emory of this pe a ce R om a n l a dies ce lebra ted on the Ca lend s of M a rch (M a rch l st )t n e festi v a l of the m a tron a l ia . I n the m orn ing they a scended in pom p to the temple of Ju no,

on the E squ i line H i ll, a nd pl a ced a t the foot o f the goddess the flowers with which the ir he a dswere crowned. (O vid, F a st. i i i. I n the e ven in g, in order to comm em ora te the m a rks ofte ndern ess which the Sa bine women h a d rece ived from the ir hu sba nds, they rem a ined a t homerichly a dorned, w a iting for the gifts of the ir hu sb a nds a nd re l a ti ve s. Tibu l lu s chose this d a y,on which cu stom a l lowed presents to b e off ered to women , to send h is books to h is be lovedN e a era . (T ib ., Ca rm . iii.

2 I n go ld a nd open work, with coin s set in it is redu ced t o a lmost ha lf s i ze , which provesth a t it wa s worn on the upper pa rt of the a rm . T he med a ls a re of the third“

century of our er a .(Cf. Diction a ry of A n tiqu ities, p.

3 V iscon ti’

s I conogra phie R om a in e. (See p. 14 3 , note

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148 ROB/[E UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

m ost n oble f a m i lies to keep up the perpetu a l fi re, the P a ll a dium ,a n d

the Pen a tes ; a n d l a stly of th e Sa li i, who gu a rded the shield th a t

h a d f a llen from hea ven (a neile) a n d celebr a ted th e festiv a l of

T H E E I G HT COLUMN S O F T H E T E MPL E O F SA T U R N .l

the God of Wa r by son gs a n d a rmed d a nces . H e forb a de bloody

s a crifices, the represen t a tion of the G od by im a ges of wood, bron ze ,

or ston e, a n d p a id speci a l hon ors t o Sa tu rn , th e f a ther of It a li a n

civiliz a tion ,the kin g of the golden a g e, of th e times of virtu e,

1 R em a in s of a temple of Sa turn , rebu i lt by the E mperor M a xen t iu s.

TRADITIONAL H ISTORY OF TH E K IN GS. 149

plen ty, a n d equ a lity, whose festiv a l, a d a y of m a d joy a n d

liberty even for the sl a ve , su spen ded hosti lities on the fron tiers

HE A DS OF T H E DI I PE N A T E S.1 SA L I A N PR I E ST .2 A N C I L I A .

3

a nd the execu tion Of crim in a ls in the city.4 I n l a ter times th e

tem ple of this god w a s a kin d Of st a te s a n ctu a ry . The pu blic

trea su re w a s preserved there , with the Offici a l docum en ts a n d the

en sign s of the legion s .

Tha t ea ch m ight l ive in pea ce on h is f a rm ,N um a d ist rib

u t ed a m on g the people the l a n ds con qu ered by Rom u lu s,r a ised

a tem ple t o Good Fa ith on th e Ca pitol , a n d con secr a ted the

l im its of property (festiv a l of the Term iu a tt'

a ) by devotin g to

the gods of th e inf ern a l region s those who shou ld rem ove th e

bou n d a ries of the fields . H e m oreover divided the

poor in to gu ilds of cr a ftsm en,a n d bu ilt the tem ple

of J a n u s, th e open ga tes of which a n n ou n ced w a r ,

the closin g of them pe a ce . I t w a s n eedfu l th a t

du r in g w a r tim e th e god shou ld le a ve h is tem ple

to protect the youn g w a rriors of Rom e ; pe a ce“ N U“

rendered this a id u seless . Un der N u m a“th e n eighborin g town s

seem to h a ve bre a thed th e hea lthf u l bre a th of a soft,pu re w in d ,

tha t blew from the side where Rome l a y,”a n d the temple of Ja n u s

a lw a ys rem a in ed closed .6

1 DE I PE N A T E S. Cou pled he a ds of the Pen a tes. Sil ver co in of A nti a n fa m i ly .9 A V G V ST . DI VI F . L V DOS SA E . Sa li a n priest. Sil ver co in of the f a m ilv Sa n

quin i a , commem ora ti ve of th e secu l a r ga mes.3 T he a ncil ia ; reverse of a bronze of A ntoni n u s.4 T he Sa turn a l i a leg a lly l a sted one d a y in a n cient tim es, three in l a st centurie s of the

{epu b l ic, a n d five u n der the E mpire ; b u t seven were often ta ken . During the se fe a sts , whichin certa in cu stom s reca l l our ol d ca rn i v a l, offic i a l life w a s su spen ded a n d the tribu n a ls closed.Cf. M a cr., S a t. I.p a ssim .

5 J a ne P a tri. J a n u s sta n ding, ho ldin g a pa tera a n d a sceptre. A ur eu s, or gold pieceof G a llienu s.

6 l -Vith the worshi p Of J a nu s wa s perha ps con nected the v a gu e notion of a su preme god ,who wa s both su n a n d m oon , th e beginn ing a nd en d of a ll things , the cre a tor of t he world a nd

a rbiter of ba ttles. The old de ity w a s su cce ss i ve ly despo iled of his w a rl i ke a ttributes in fa vor

150 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN GS.

Beyon d these works of pea ce, tra dition kn ows n othing of the

secon d K in g of Rom e , a n d rem a in s si len t on th e su bject of thislon g reign of forty-three yea rs.H e him self h a d recommen ded theworship of silen ce

, the goddessT a cit a . At h is dea th Di a n ach a nged E geri a in to a fou n ta in

,

a n d th e sprin g still flows a t the

pl a ce which w a s the sa cred wood

of the Ca m en a e . N e a r the tom b of N um a,d u g a t the foot of

the J a n icu lum ,were bu ried his books, which con t a in ed a l l the

prescription s to b e followed to en su re the a ccom plishm en t of the

rites so a s t o g a in certa in fa vor from the gods . Bein g recovered

a t a n epoch when Greek idol a try h a d repl a ced the ol d religion,

these books were ju dged d a n gerou s, a n d were bu rn ed by order of

the Sen a te .

2

CO I N O F T H E MA R CI I .1

I I I .— TULLUS H OST I L I US (673

To th e piou s a n d p a cific prin ce there su cceeds the sa crilegiou s

w a rrior kin g ; a fter N um a, Tu llu s H ost il iu s. The Sa bin es

,in

con sequ en ce of the a greem en t m a de between the two n a tion s

a bou t the election of N u m a,

chose him a m on g the Rom a n s,

a s th e l a tter, a fter Tu llu s,n a m e the Sa bin e A n cu s . Rom u lu s

w a s the son of a god , N um a , th e hu sb a n d of a goddess ; with

Tu llu s begin s the reign of m en . H e wa s gra n dson of a L a tin of

of M a rs,a n ol d god of th e fie ld (Ca to, d c R e r u st. 14 1, a n d Sa int A u gu stin e, d e Civ.Dei, i i.

a n d of h is supreme m a jesty in fa vor of Jupiter. I n the F a sti ( i. 10 1, 117 seq.) Ovidm a kes h im sa y

" M e Ch a os a ntiqu i, n a m sum res prisca , voca b a n t

Q u idq u id u bi qu e vides, ca el um , m a re , n ubil a , terra s,Om n i a s u nt nostra cl a u sa p a ten tq u e m a n u .

”

1 Thi s coin of th e M a rci i, who a sserted the ir de scent from the fourth K ing of R ome,him se lf sa id t o b e t he gra n dson of N um a , gi ves th e tra dition a l fe a tures of these prin ces. On

th e reverse a re two a rc a des : u nder the first sta nds victory on a co lu m n , u n der the secon d theCre scent m oon a nd th e prow of a ve sse l

,a nother sou ven ir of th e port of Osti a bu i lt by A ncu s

a n d of h is su ccess over the La tin s. We see the cu stom the R om a n s h a d of reca ll ing\on the ir

co in s the fa cts Of the ir a n n a ls, a n d the interest tha t these co in s o ff er from th e dou ble point ofview of history a n d a r t .

3 Th e fa ct is reported by Dionys iu s, L i vy, a nd Cicero. We sha ll.see a t the right pl a ce

wh a t t o be l ie ve a bout this preten ded discovery of the books of N um a m a de in the ye a r 181 B.c.,which wa s a piou s fra u d.

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TR ADITIONAL H ISTORY or TH E K IN G S. 151

M edu l l ia , who h a d fou ght v a l i a n tly u n der Rom u lu s a ga in st the

Sa bines . Tu llu s loved the poor,distribu ted l a nds a m on g them ,

a n d wen t to l ive a m on g them him se l f on Mou n t Ca e l iu s , where

he est a blished the con qu ered Alb a n s .

L et u s hea r Livy rel a tin g the a n cien t legen d ; a lthou gh n o

tra n sl a tion ca n con vey the brill i a n cy of h is n a rr a t ive . Alb a,the

m other Of Rom e,h a d by slow degrees becom e a str a nger to

her colonv , a n d m u tu a l in cu rsion s brou ght on a w a r . Lon g the

two a rm ies rem a in ed f a ce to f a ce,w i thou t d a rin g to comm en ce

the sa crilegiou s strife .

“ A s there were fou n d in e a ch of the

two n a tion s three twin brothers, of n e a rly the sa m e strength a n d

a ge , the Hora tii a n d Cu ri a tii , Tu llu s a n d the dicta tor of Alb a

cha rged them to fight for their cou n try ; the su prem a cy shou ld

belong t o th e victors . The con ven tion th a t w a s m a de w a s this .

The feti a l is, a ddressin g Tu llu s, sa id :‘K ing , dost thou bid m e

con clu de a trea ty with the p a ter p a tr a tu s of the Alb a n people ? ’

A n d on a n a ffirm a tive a n swer bein g given ,he a dded : I

dem a n d of thee the s a cred herb .’ ‘ T a ke i t pu re ,’ replied Tu llu s .

Then the fet i a l is brou ght th e pu re herb from the cita del,

a n d

a ddressing Tu llu s a n ew :‘K in g , dost thou n a m e m e in terpreter

of thy roy a l will a n d th a t of t he Rom a n people,descen ded from

Qu irin u s ? Dost thou a pprove of th e s a cred vessels, a n d the m en

who a ccom p a ny m e ?’ ‘Y es,

’ replied th e K ing,

‘withou t preju dice

to my right a n d th a t Of the Rom a n people .

’

The feti a lis w a s M .

Va l eriu s ; h e m a de Sp. F u siu s p a ter p a tr a tu s of the Alb a n s,by

tou chin g h im on the hea d a n d h a ir with verv a in . The p a ter

p a tr a tus took th e oa th,a n d sa n ction ed the tre a ty by pron ou n cin g

the n ecessa ry form u l a e . When the con dition s h a d been rea d,the

feti a lis con tin u ed : ‘Hea r, Ju piter, hea r , f a ther pa t ra t u s of the

Alb a n . people ; hea r, t oo , Alb a n people . The Rom a n people will

n ever b e the first t o viol a te the con dition s inscribed on these

t a blets, which h a ve ju st been rea d to you ,— from the first lin e

t o the l a st withou t fra u d or f a lsehood . From this d a y theya re clea rly u n derstood by a l l . I f it shou ld h a ppen th a t by

pu blic delibera tion or u nworthy su bterfu ge the Rom a n people

in frin ge them first, then ,gre a t Ju piter, strike it a s I strike

this swin e, a n d strike with m ore severity,a s thy power is grea ter.’

When the impreca tion wa s en ded , he broke the sku ll of the pig

152 ROME UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

with a ston e . The Alb a n s , by the m ou th of the Dicta tor a nd

priests, repea ted the s a m e form u l a e a n d pron ou n ced the sa m e o a th .

“When th e tre a ty w a s conclu ded,the three brothers on e a ch

side t a ke the ir a rm s . The cheers of their fel low citi zen s a n im a tethem ; the Gods of their cou n try, a n d even

, so it seem s t o them,

their cou n try itself, h a ve their eyes fixed u pon them . Bu rn in g with

cou r a ge, in toxica ted with th e sou n d of so m a ny voices exhortingthem

,they a dva n ce between the two a rmies

, who, thou gh ex

em pt from peril , were n ot so from fea r ; for i t w a s a m a tter of

empire depen din g on the v a lor a n d fortu n e of so sm a ll a n um

b er Of ch a m pion s.

The sign a l being given,the six ch a m pion s sprin g forw a rd

sword in h a n d, a n d bea rin g in their hea rts the cou ra ge Of

two gre a t n a tion s. Heedless of thei r own d a nger , they on ly

keep before their eyes triu m ph or sl a very, a n d the fu tu re of

their cou n try, whose destiny depen ds u pon their a cts . At

th e first shock,when the cl a sh of a rm s w a s hea rd a n d th e

swords were seen fl a shin g , a deep horror se ized the spect a tors .

An xiou s expecta tion froze their u ttera n ce a n d su spen ded their

bre a th . Still the com ba ta n ts fight on ; the blows a re n o lon ger

u n certa in , there a re wou n ds a n d blood . Of the three Rom a n s two

f a ll dea d. The Alb a n a rmy u tters shou ts of joy, a n d the Rom a n s

fix looks of desp a ir on the l a st Of th e Hora tii,whom the Cu ri a tii

a re a lre a dy su rrou n din g. Bu t these a re a l l three wou n ded,a n d th e Rom a n is u n hu rt . Not strong enou gh for his en em ies

u n ited, yet m ore tha n a m a tch for e a ch sep a r a tely

,he t a kes to

flight,su re th a t ea ch w ill follow him a ccord in g to the degree

of stren gth he h a s left . When he h a d gon e som e dista n ce fromth e scen e of com b a t, he tu rn ed , a n d sa w his a dvers a ries following

h im a t u n equ a l dist a n ces , on e a lon e pressin g ra ther close u pon

him .

“ Qu ickly he tu rn s,d a rts on him with fu ry , a n d while the

Alb a n s a re ca lling on th e Cu ri a tii to help the ir brother, Hora tiu s,a lrea dy victoriou s

,h a sten s to his secon d com b a t . Then a rose

from the m idst of the Rom a n a rmy a cry of u n expected joy ;the w a rrior ga thers stren gth from the voice of h is people , a n d

withou t givin g the l a st Cu ria t iu s tim e to a pproa ch , he pu ts a n

en d t o the secon d . There rem a in ed on ly two ; b u t h a ving n either

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154 R OM E UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

a n d a m ong th e people, thou gh th e bri lli a n t exploit of the m u rderer

took from th e horror of h is crim e . H e is l ed before the K ing,

th a t ju stice m a y b e don e . Tu llu s, fea rin g t o becom e respon sible

for a sen ten ce. the severity of which wou ld ra ise in revolt the

m u ltitu de , c a lls the people together a n d s a ys : I n a m e du um virs,

1

a ccordin g to the l a w, t o ju dge the crim e of Hor a tiu s.’ The

l a w w a s fea rfu lly severe. ‘L et the du um virs (it r a n ) ju dge the

crim e ; if the ju dgm en t is a ppea led from, l et the a ppea l b e pro

n ou n ced u pon ; i f the sen ten ce is con firm ed,l et the he a d of the

con dem n ed b e covered , l et h im b e h a n ged on the f a t a l tree a n d

bea ten with rods within or withou t the circu it of th e w a lls .’ The

du um virs imm edi a tely t a ke their se a ts ;‘P .

‘Hor a tiu s,

’

s a ys on e

of them ,

‘ I decl a re th a t thou h a st m erited dea th . G o,l ictor,

bin d h is h a n d s ! ’ The l ictor a pproa ches ; a lre a dy he w a s p a ssing

the cord rou n d him , when by the a dvice of Tu l lu s,a m ercifu l

in terpreter of the l a w,Hora tiu s cries

,I a ppe a l a n d th e ca se

wa s referred t o the people. Then th e elder Hora tiu s w a s he a rd

cryin g th a t the de a th of h is d a u ghter w a s ju st ; otherwise h e him

self , in virtu e of h is p a tern a l a u thority,wou l d

'

h a ve been the firs-t

t o pu n ish h is son ; a n d he besou ght the Roma n s, who on the

preceding d a y h a d seen him fa ther of so fin e a fa mily,n ot t o

deprive him of a l l h is children . Then , em bra cin g h is son , a n d

showin g the people the spoils of Cu ri a tii , hu n g u p in the

pl a ce ca lled t o this d a y the Pill a r of Hor a tiu s : ‘Rom a n s,

’

s a id

he ,‘ the m a n whom you s a w with a dm ira tion so l a tely m a rching

in th e m idst of you ,trium pha n t, a n d bea rin g illu strious spoils,

will you see h im tied to the degra din g post, bea ten with rods, a n d

pu t to dea th ? The Alba n s them selves cou ld n ot en du re su ch a

spect a cle . Go, l ictor, bin d those h a n ds which h a ve ju st given u s

empire ! G o,cover with a ve i l the hea d of the l ibera tor of Rom e ;

h a n g him on the f a t a l tree ; strike him within the town , i f thou

wilt,b u t in presen ce of these trophies a n d spoils withou t the town ,

b u t in th e m idst of the tom bs of the Cu ri a tii . In to wh a t pl a ce

ca n you lea d h im where th e mon um en ts of his glory do n ot pro

test a ga in st th e horror of h is pu n ishm en t ? ’

The cit izen s, con qu ered

by the te a rs of the fa ther a n d the in trepidity of the son , pro

n ou n ced th e a bsolu tion of the gu ilty ; a n d this gra ce wa s a ccorded

1 Du u nwir i p erd u el l ion is (L i vy, i. 2 6 cf.L a nge, R omiscke A l terlkumer, i . 3 28, seq) .

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156 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

Alb a , the f a mily of Ju l i i , when ce Ca es a r spr a ng,"

a n d it s rights a s

m etropol is of severa l L a tin town s . Six cen tu ries l a ter, the H ost il ii,

who cl a im ed descen t from the third

K in g of Rom e,h a d represen ted on their

coin s the two drea d divin ities, whom

the ir a n cestor, s a id they , h a d in voked .

Tu l lu s a ga in fou ght su ccessfu lly

a g a in st the Sa bin es a n d the V eien

tin es, whose town he besieged . Bu t he n eglected the service of

the gods, a n d their a n ger brou ght on Rom e a con t a giou s disea se

which a tta cked the K in g him self . Like R om u lu s, h e c a m e t o a

m ysteriou s a n d tr a gic en d . H e thou ght he h a d fou n d in N u m a’

s

books a me a n s of expia tion , a n d the secret of forcin g revel a tion s

from Ju piter E l iciu s .2 A m ist a ke m a de in these drea d a dju ra tion s

drew down lightn in g u pon him,a n d the fl a me devou red h is body

a n d h is pa la ce (640 B .“ H e

,

”s a ys Livy, “ who h a d hitherto

con sidered it u nworthy of a king t o occu py him self with s a cred

thin gs,beca m e the prey of every su perstition ,

a n d filled th e city

with religiou s pra ctices . A n ol d story, ever n ew ! A more prosa ic

a ccou n t sa ys he wa s sl a in by An ou s .4

T E R R OR .1 PA L L OR .

l

I V . AN GUS MA R CI US (640

TH E reign of A n cu s, who w a s sa id t o b e the gra n dson of

Num a , h a s n ot the poetic brilli a n cy of th a t of Tu llu s. After the

exa m ple of h is a n cestor, he en cou ra ged a gricu ltu re,re-esta blished

n eglected rel igion ,c a u sed the l a ws regu l a tin g cerem on i a l t o b e

in scribed on t a bles 5 a n d exposed in the Forum ; b u t he cou ld n ot ,

l ike N um a , keep the temple of J a n u s shu t , a nd he wa s obliged

to l a y a side the service of the gods in order to t a ke u p a rm s.

The L a tin s h a d ju st broken the a lli a n ce con clu ded with Tu llu s.

Fou r of the ir town s were t a ken ; their inh a bita n ts settled upon

1 Si lver coin of L . H ost il iu s Sa sern a .

2 T he priests of Ju piter E l iciu s cl a imed the power of m a king th e thu nder fa ll ; a nd

they were thou ght to b e a ble t o d o so. (Pl iny, N a t. H ist. i i. 4 , a n d xxvi i. T hey keptthis secret so well , tha t the world h a d to w a it for F ra nkl in to discover it a g a in .

3 L i vy, i . 3 1.4 Dionys. i i i. 3 5.5 L i vy, i. 3 2 ; Dionys. i i i. 3 6.

TRADITIONAL H ISTORY OF TH E K IN GS. 157

the Aven tin e ,1a n d

“

the territory of Rom e exten ded a s f a r a s the

sea . A n cu s fou n d brin e-pits, which a re still there , a n d forests ,which a re gon e ; he a ppropri a ted the reven u e of them for the

roya l trea su ry.

2 At the m ou th of the Tiber

there w a s a f a vor a ble site for a port ; he

there fou n ded Ostia (th e m ou ths), which is

n ow a le a gu e from the sea . H e bu i lt th e

first bridge over th e Tiber (pon s Su b l iciu s),3

m a king it of wood, th a t it m ight b e ea sily

broken down i f the en em y wished to m a ke

u se of it ; a n d he defen ded the a pproa ch

by a fortress over th e J a n icu lum . To pro

teet the dwell in gs of the n ew colon ists on

the left b a n k of th e river, he tra ced the ditchT R A D I

I QEL

Mfif

gfifT O F

of the Qu i rites a n d in order t o deter from

crim es,which h a d becom e n um erou s with the in crea se of popu l a

tion ,he d u g in the tu fo of the Ca pitol in e the fa m ou s M a m ertin e

prison,which m a y still b e seen

,a n d which w a s l ed u p t o by

the steps of th e G em on i a e, or“ St a ir of Sighs .” H is reign of

twen ty-fou r yea rs, a ccordin g toL ivy, of twen ty-three by Cicero’

s

a ccou n t, fin ished tr a n qu illy, like th a t of Num a ; a n d th e Rom a n s

a lwa ys hon ored th e m em ory of the prin ce, wise a n d ju st in pea ce,bra ve a n d victoriou s in

V . TA R QU I N T H E E LDE R (616

I N th e reign of A n cu s,a str a n ger h a d come t o settle a t Rome .

5

H e w a s sa id t o b e the son of the Corin thi a n Dema ra tu s,

a

rich m erch a n t of th e fa m ily of the B a cchia d s, who, flee ing from

the tyra n ny of Cypselu s, h a d retrea ted t o T a rqu in ii. I n E tru ri a ,a l l hope of power w a s forbidden to the stra n ger. Bu t T a n a qu il 6

1 Cicero, (16 R ep. i i. 18 ; L i vy, i. 3 3 .2 A u rel. V ict. ( l e V ir. il l . 5.3 F rom su b l ic a , a pile. F estu s. s. v. Su b l icium.

4 H e is sa id t o ha ve ca rried on seven w a rs, a ga in st the L a tin s, F id en a tes, Sa bines,V eien t ines, a nd Vo lsc i a n s.

5 Schwegler ( R om. G csch. i . 6 77) m a kes the Ta rqu in s a n a ncient R om a n g ens .

6 Others sa y hi s wife w a s G a i a Ca eci l i a , the good spin ner a nd b eneficen t encha ntress,to whom the you n g brides p a id honor. (Pliny, H is t.N a t. viii .

158 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

h a d rea d in the fu tu re th e fortu n es of her hu sb a n d . H e c a m e t o

Rom e with his we a lth a n d n u m erou s a tten da n ts . On th e ro a d the

foreca sts of h is fu tu re grea tn ess were ren ewed . The Rom a n s were

n ot p a rticu la r in th e m a tter of om en s ; they a dm itted a l l th a t were

told to them ,a n d Livy. gra vely repea ts the n u rsery t a les which

tra dition tr a n sm itted to him . We m u st repea t them a fter h im ,

beca u se they show u s the m en t a l con dition of the n a tion,which

h a d n o im a gin a tion except for this kin d of things, a n d beca u se theytea ch u s how th e a ru spices a n a lyzed a sign .

“ A s T a rqu in

a pproa ches the J a n icu lum ,a n e a gle slowly descen ds from the

high hea ven s a n d ca rries off h is ca p ; then hovers a bou t the

ca r with lou d screechin g, swoops down a fresh, a n d repl a ces it on

the tra veller ’s hea d . At this sight T a n a qu il, versed in the a rt

of a u gu ry , embr a ces her hu sb a n d with delight . She tells him to

con sider well the kin d of bird,the p a rt of hea ven when ce i t

ca m e,a n d the god who sen ds it. An other m a n ifest sign wa s tha t

th e prodigy w a s a ccom plished on the highest p a rt of the body ;the orn a m en t which covered h is hea d wa s on ly ra ised a n in st a n t

,

to b e repl a ced on it imm edi a tely. The gods,then

,prom ise h im

the highest fortu n e . T a rqu in a ccepted the omen ; b u t a t the

sa m e tim e helped him self. At Rom e h e ga in ed by his wisdom the

con fiden ce of A n cu s,who left to him the gu a rdi a n ship of his son s ;

a n d by his worth a n d his kin dn ess towa rds them he won the a ffec

tion of the people, who procl a im ed him kin g, to the exclu sion of

the son s of the ol d prin ce .

The n ew K in g em bell ished Rom e, en l a rged its territory, a n d

u ndertook the en circling of the town with a w a ll,which wa s fin ished

by Serviu s. The Forum,dra in ed a n d su rrou n ded by porticos

,w a s

u sed for the ga therings a n d ple a su res of the people . The Ca pitol

w a s begu n,a n d the Circu s levelled, =for the shows a n d Grea t

G a m es‘

b rou gh t from E tru ri a . Bu t th e most con sidera ble of these

works were the su bterra n ea n sewers,which to the presen t d a y sup

port a grea t p a rt of Rom e, n otwithst a n ding e a rthqu a kes, a n d in

spite of the weight of edifices a hu n dred tim es rebu ilt over their

v a u ltin g.1 F or su ch works,which ha ve n ot the m a j estic u selessn ess

1 I n con sequ ence of th e ra ising of the b ed of the T iber, perha ps a lso of the he ight of w a ters a tthe tim e when the dra wing w a s ta ken , on ly the top of the sewer is seen in ou r engra ving on pa ge160 . This construction a ston ished the contempora ries of A ugu stu s by it s si ze a nd the a mou nt

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160 ROM E UNDE R TH E K I NG S.

golden flowers, a n d h is ch a riot dra wn by fou r white horses. From

h is reign d a tes the in trodu ction in to Rom e of E tru sca n costum es,

the roya l robe , th e w a r-m a n tle, the toga pra etexta ,a n d the tu n ica

p a lm a t a , worn by the victoriou s gen era l a t h is trium ph ; a n d to h is

tim e belon g the twelve l ictors a n d the cu ru le cha ir,— a

'

n ivory se a t

whose m a teri a l the E tru sc a n s Obta in ed from Asi a or Africa . T a r

qu in m a de a n a ttem pt to ch a n ge the con stitu tion ; b u t , n otwith

sta n din g h is popu l a rity, he did n ot su cceed

in re-a rra n ging the tribes . The p a trici a n s

who opposed h im m a de religion spea k by

the m ou th of the a u gu r,A t tu s N a viu s.

This person a ge m a in t a in ed his oppos ition

to the K in g by a id of a m ir a cle . Au gu r,

”

s a id T a rqu in,hoping to bring h im to con

fu s ion , ca n the thing b e don e which I

n ow h a ve in m in d ? ” The a u gu r con

M I R A CLE OF N A V I U S"

su l t ed the hea ven s, a n d decl a red th a t it

cou ld . T a rqu in presen ted h im with a r a zor a n d a W hetston e, s a yin g : Cu t this ston e , then , with this kn ife.

”A t tu s cu t the ston e

throu gh with the kn i fe ; a n d to keep th e even t fresh -in th e m i nds

of the people, the r a zor a n d the ston e were preserved u n der a n

a lta r, a n d a st a tu e of N a v iu s erected beside it,

a figu re with veiled

hea d in the a ttitu de a ssum ed by the a u gu rs when a w a itin g the

revel a tion of the divin e will. The popu l a r f a ith h a d n o difficu lty

in a cceptin g a legen d which grew u p a bou t the cu t ston e, a n d the

college of a u gu rs, n a tu r a lly con sidering it historic tru th, erected

the sta tu e t o con secra te it.

T a rqu in h a d reign ed for thirty or forty yea rs with grea t ren own

in pe a ce a n d wa r , when on e d a y two shepherds, su born ed by the

son s of A n cu s,presen ted them selves before the K in g, pra ying h im

t o settle a dispu te which h a d a risen between them‘

. The K ing

listen ed to them ; a n d while on e w a s en grossin g his a tten tion ,the

other su dden ly stru ck him a m orta l blow on the he a d with a n

a xe . Upon this,T a n a qu il a t on ce closed the pa l a ce doors , a n d ga ve

ou t word t o the people th a t the K in g wa s n ot de a d , b u t m erely

Wou n ded, a n d tha t m e a n time he h a d depu ted h is son -in -l a w Serviu s

1 The a u gur N a viu s, on h is kn ees, cutting a stone ; Ta rqu in sta nding before him ; beh in dthe K ing a nother stone. Bron ze of A nton in u s.

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162 . ROME UN DE R TH E K IN G S.

him, a n d he grew u p in the K ing

’

s p a l a ce in th e midst of pro

d ig ies a n d m a n ifest sign s of h is fu tu re gre a tn ess . We sh a ll see

l a ter on wh a t history a n d a rch a eology m a ke of these tr a dition s,which con cea led a tota lly differen t f a te .

H a vin g becom e kin g, Serviu s m a de grea t ch a n ges in the

city a n d in it s l a ws . H e ga ve Rom e the dimen sion s which it

F R A G M E N T O F T H E WA LL OF SE R V I US T ULL I US.

h a d u n der th e Repu blic,by u n itin g the Vim in a l

, the E squ il in e,a n d the Qu irin a l to the city, by a w a ll a n d a m ighty b a n k of

ea rth (a gger), with a ditch in fron t, 100 Rom a n feet wide, a n d13 0 deep .

1 Thi s is a l ittle l ess tha n 100 feet on e wa y, a n d 3 0 the other. T he R om a n foot is equ ivalent to inches. This w a l l w a s n ot contin u ou s. I t d id no t ex ist by th e s ide of the T iber,which a ppe a red a suflicien t defence in itse lf, since the fortress of the J a n icu lum defen ded itsa ppro a ches , a n d certa in s ides of the Ca pito l were steep e nou gh to a ppe a r in a ccessible. Thereex ist between the E sq u i l in e a nd Co ll in e g a te s con sidera ble rem a in s of the grea t a gger of

Serviu s, which T a rq u in the Prou d en l a rged. I n the section repre sented in the engra vin g thereis shown a w a ll , now vi sible, of a h e ight of 26 feet. B u i lt in regu l a r course s , this w a l l h a s a

fou n d a tion o f blocks a vera gi ng 10 fe et in len gth. I n order the better to re s ist the pressu re of

TRADITIONAL H ISTORY OF TH E K IN G S. 163

Rome wa s then the Size of Athen s, two lea gu es a n d a h a lf in

circum feren ce . H e divided it in to fou r qu a rters or city trib es,

S E CT I ON OF T H E A G G E R O R R A MPA R T O F S E R V I US T ULL I US.

the Pa l a tin e , the Su bu ra n , the Collin e , a n d the E squ ilin e , ea ch

qu a rter h a vin g it s tribu n e , who drew u p the lists for con scription s

a n d m ilit a ry service . At the bir th of e a ch b oy a piece of si lver

h a d to b e deposited in the tre a su ry of J u n o

L u cin a , the protectress of wom en in tr a v a il .

The territory w a s divided in to twen ty-six ca n

ton s, a lso ca lled tribes , a n d a ll the people , p a tri

cia n s a n d plebei a n s , a ccordin g to the cen su s

tha t is to sa y, a ccordin g to the ir fortu n e — in to

five cl a sses a n d a hu n dred a n d eighty-three

cen tu ries, the l a st of which wa s formed by the

Proleta ri a te . The l a st n a m ed were exclu ded from m il ita ry service ;Serviu s w a s u nwillin g t o in tru st a rm s t o citizen s who , possessing

nothin g,cou ld n ot t a ke a n in terest in pu blic a ffa irs , n or give the

st a te a gu a r a n tee of their. fi d el ity.2

Moreover, Serviu s . con clu ded with the thirty L a tin town s a

trea ty,the text of which Dionysiu s cl a ims t o ha ve seen pre

served in the tem ple of Di a n a on the Aven tin e .

3 I n order to

dra w closer the bon ds of this a ll ia n ce,a temple

,in which w a s seen

the first st a tu e erected a t Rom e,h a d been bu il t a t the comm on

expen se .

JUN O LUCI N A .1

Som e Sa bin e tribes a lso c a me to s a crifice . These lea gu es,which

the e a rth which form s the ra mpa rt, the w a l l is fl a nked a t interv a ls of 17feet by buttresses 7feet squ a re. T he ditch ru n s a lon g this w a l l. I n th e tim e of A u gu stu s the a gger wa s

converted by M a ecen a s into a w a lk .” B iol . (16 3 A m. p. 14 0 , seq.

1 I V N ONI L V CI N A E S. C. Ju no se a ted , ho lds in one ha n d th e flower which precedesthe fru it, a nd with the other a chi ld in sw a ddl ing-c lothes. The reverse of a l a rge bron ze of

Luci ll a , wife of th e E mperor Lu c iu s Veru s.2 See below, Cha p. v i.3 i v. 26. B u t if Dionysiu s sa w thi s tre a ty, he cou ld n ot u n dersta n d it ; for Polybiu s

fou nd it very diflicul t to rea d a document which wa s not so old by two centuries.

164 » ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

h a d their cen tre in the sa n ctu a ry of a divin ity, were common

a m on g the It a l iote n a tion s, a n d reca ll the Am phictyon ies of

Greece .

We m u st keep them in m in d,for we sh a ll fin d these religion s

con feder a tion s u n der the E m pire ; a n d we sh a ll ha ve t o reproa ch

th e E m perors with n ot h a vin g kn own how to u tili ze,in the

in terest of provin ci a l l iberties, a n in stitu tion which m ight h a ve

sa ved the provin ces a n d them selves.

Bu t l et u s retu rn t o the legen d . Livy rel a tes how th e ru se

of on e of th e Rom a n priests,a tt a ched to the tem ple of Di a n a ,

ga ve Rom e it s hegem ony over L a tium .“ A heifer of ex tra ord i

n a ry bea u ty wa s born a t the hou se of a Sa bin e m ou n ta in eer. The

divin es a n n ou n ced th a t he who Shou ld sa crifice i t t o the Di a n a

of the Aven tin e wou ld secu re the em pire to h is cou n try. The

Sa bin e l ed h is heifer t o the tem ple,a n d w a s goin g t o perform the

sa crifice , when the priest,versed in prophecy, stopped him :

‘Wha t

a rt thou a bou t t o do ? Offer a sa crifice t o Di a n a withou t h a ving

pu rified thyself ? I t is sa crilege ! The Tiber flows a t the foot of

this hill ; ru n a n d m a ke cerem on i a l a blu tion s there .

’

The pe a s a n t

wen t down to the river . When he retu rn ed , the priest h a d s a cri

ficed the victim .

”A n d Livy a dds : This piou s kn a very w a s very

a gree a ble to the K in g a n d to the people .

” Moreover,th e imm en se

horns of the predestin ed heifer were preserved for a ges in the

vestibu le of the tem ple . Popu la r im a gin a tion loves to m a ke the

gre a test resu lts proceed from th e sm a llest t rifles , a n d'

som e b istori

a n s d o l ikewise . I f the L a tin s h a d a l rea dy a ccepted the su prem a cy

of Rom e,it wa s bec a u se her a rm s h a d esta blished it .

Tr a dition a lso spoke of a wa r of Serviu s a ga in st Ve ii,T a rqu in ii ,

a n d the in h a bit a n ts of Ca ere . The l a tter h a d u n i ted their a rm s

with those of the E tru sca n s, n otwithsta n ding their Pel a sgia n origin ,

which con n ected them with Rome (whose a llies they beca me l a ter

on ) a n d with Greece , which ga ve them so m a ny of the v a ses n ow

fou n d in their tom bs .1 This w a r mu st ha ve resu lted for the

Rom a n s in a n'

in crea se of territory ; b u t the distribu tion of these

l a n ds which Serviu s m a de to the poor a u gm en ted still m ore the

1 Two sm a ll bl a ck v a ses, fou n d in these tombs, a nd very in sign ifica nt in form , h a vea cqu ired a gre a t importa nce , beca u se it is be lieved tha t the in scriptions on them werePe l a sgi a n .

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166 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

u n derst a n ding ea ch other a n d in con ferring a bou t their crim in a l

hopes . Tu ll i a got rid of her hu sb a n d a n d of h er Sister by poison,in

order to m a rry Lu ciu s . Overwhelm ed with grief, Serviu s wishedto a bdica te , a n d est a blish con su l a r governm en t . This w a s the pretext which Lu ciu s m a de to the p a trici a n s for overthrown the

K ing. On e d a y, when the people were in th e fields for h a rvest,

he a ppea red in th e Sen a te clothed w ith the in sign ia Of roya lty,threw

the Ol d prin ce hea dlon g from the top of the ston e steps which l edto thes Sen a te Hou se , a n d ca u sed h im to b e pu t t o dea th by his

con federa tes ; Tu ll i a , h a sten in g to h a il her hu sb a n d a s kin g,drove

her ch a riot over the bleedin g body of h er f a ther . Th e street

reta in ed the n a m e of V i a Sceler a t a ;1 b u t the people did n ot forget

the m a n who h a d in tended t o est a blish plebei a n l iberties, a n d on the

n on es they celebra ted the birth of th e good K in g Serviu s

V I I . TA R QU I N IUS SUPE R BUS (53 4

TH E king wa s su cceeded by the tyra n t . Su rrou n ded by a gu a rd

Of mercen a ries a n d secon ded by a p a rty of the sen a tors whom he

h a d ga in ed over , T a rqu in govern ed withou t the a id of l a ws,depriving

som e of their goods,b a n ishing others

,a n d pu n ishing with de a th

a l l those of whom he w a s a fr a id . I n order t o stren gthen his power,he a llied him sel f with stra n gers a n d ga ve h is d a u ghter to Octa viu s

M a miliu s,dict a tor of Tu scu lum . Rom e h a d it s voice in the

L a tin f er-toe, in which th e he a ds of forty-seven town s,a ssem bled

in the tem ple of Ju piter L a t ia ris,2on the summ it of the Alba n

m ou n t,which so m a jestic a lly comm a n ds a l l L a tium

,offered a

comm on sa crifice a n d celebra ted their a lli a n ce by festiv a ls . T a rqu in

ch a n ged this rel a tion ship of equ a l ity in to a n a ctu a l dom in ion,by

wh a t m ea n s we do n ot kn ow ,b u t certa in ly by n ow-forgotten

stru ggles. Legen d su bstitu ted the tra gic a dven tu re of H erdon iu s

of A ricia for these t a les of b a ttle .“ T a rqu in ,

”s a ys Livy , “

pro

posed on e d a y to the chiefs of L a tium to a ssem ble a t th e wood of

the goddess F eren t in a , in order to del ibera te on the ir comm on

1 Li vy, i. 41—48 ; Dion ys. iv. 3 3 —4 0 , a n d 0 vid (F a st. vi. 59 9) spe a k of a comb a t betweenthe two pa rties, — H in c cru or, hinc ca ed cs, e tc.

2 The ru in s of the temple , which sti l l ex i sted in the e ighteenth century, were destroyedby the l a st of the Stu a rts [the Du ke of A lba ny].

TRADITIONAL H ISTORY OF THE K IN G S. 167

interests . They a rrived a t su n rise, b u t T a rqu in kept them w a itin g .

“Wha t in solen ce !’

cried H erdon iu s of A ricia a t la st . ‘ I s a l l the

La tin n a tion to b e thu s m ocked ?’

A n d he w a s persu a ding e a ch

of them to retu rn to h is hom e . At this m om en t the K ing a ppea red .

H e h a d been chosen ,s a id he , a s m edia tor between a f a ther a n d son ;

this wa s the c a u se of the del a y , for which h e a pologized,a n d pro

posed to postpon e the delibera tion to the m orrow .‘ I t w a s very

e a sy ,’ replied H erdon iu s ,

‘t o pu t a n en d to this differen ce . Two

words were su fficien t : th a t the son shou ld obey or b e pu n ished.’

Ta rqu in ,hu rt by these ou tspoken words , ca u sed a rm s to b e con ce a led

du ring the n ight in the hou se of H erdon iu s , a n d on the m orrow

a ccu sed h im of w ishin g t o u su rp the em pire over a l l La tium by the

m a ssa cre of the chiefs . The Assem bly con dem n ed th e a lleged tra itor

to"

b e drown ed in the w a ter of Feren t in a,u n der a hu rdle loa ded

with ston es ; a n d T a rqu in ,bein g rid of this citizen who h a d so

little respect for kin gs , h a d the trea ty ren ewed,b u t in trod u ced in to

it a cl a u se tha t the L a tin s, in ste a d of fightin g u n d er the ir n a tion a l

chiefs , shou ld b e , in a l l expedition s,u n ited with the legion s a n d

” 1 This n a rra tive is on ly th e feebleoffi cered by Rom a n cen tu rion s .

echo of a violen t riv a lry between Rom e a n d the town of which

H erdon iu s w a s chief,A ricia , a powerfu l city

,a ga in st which the

em pire of Porsenn a w a s presen tly sh a ttered .

H a vin g becom e the a ctu a l lea der of the L a tin con federa tion,to

which there a lso belon ged the H ern ici a n d the Volsci a n town s of

E cetr a a n d A n t ium,T a rqu in l a id siege t o a n d took the rich city

of Su ess a Pom et ia, which , dou btless, refu sed t o en ter in to the

lea g ue . H e w a s a t first less fortu n a te a ga in st G a b ii. A check

which he en du red in a n a ss a u lt compelled him even to giveup a regu l a r siege . Bu t his son Sextu s presen ted him sel f to the

G a b ia n s . “ T a rqu in , s a id h e,

“ is a s cru el to h is f a m i ly a s t o his

people ; he wishes to depopu l a te h is hou se a s he h a s d on e th e

Sen a te . I, Sextu s, h a ve on ly esca ped by flight from my fa ther

’

s

sword . H e w a s received , h is cou n sels were followed,a n d su ccessfu l

in ro a ds in to the a ger R om a nu s in crea sed th e con fiden ce which w a s

1 L i vy, i , 50—52 . T he spring ca l led a q u a F eren tin o , which w a s, perha ps , a n a tu ra loutlet of the A lb a n L a ke , bu rst forth in a sa cred wood , in which, u nti l the ye a r 3 4 0 B.c.,

the L a tin s he ld the ir a ssembl ies. F estu s, s. v . P r a etor. I t is n ow the M a rra n a d e l Pa nta no,which flows in a deep v a l ley n e a r M a rino .

168 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

pl a ced in him . Soon n o on e h a d m ore credit in the city. Then he

despa tched to Rom e a secret em iss a ry, comm iss ion ed to a sk the ol d

K in g wh a t Sextu s ou ght to do in order t o give the city in to h is

h a n ds . T a rqu in , withou t spea kin g a word , p a ssed into h is ga rden ,

a n d , w a lking u p a n d down , cu t down w i th a stick the poppies

which were highest ; then he sen t b a ck the m essen ger, qu ite su r

prised a t su ch a stra nge a n swer .

The Rom a n logogra phers took this story from Herodotu s [whotells it a bou t Peri a n d er , tyra n t of Corin th] ; b u t th e su bm ission of

G a b ii t o T a rqu in is n on e the less cert a in . Dionys iu s

of H a l ica rn a ssu s sa w the tre a ty con clu ded between

the K in g a n d this city : i t w a s preserved on a

wooden shield in the tem ple of Ju piter F id iu s , — a

com O F T H Epl a ce singu l a rly chosen for a m on um en t of tre a son ,

i fG EN S A N T I ST ‘A "

the n a rra tive of Livy w a s a s tru e a s i t is celebra ted ?

On the l a n ds t a ken from the Volsci a n s T a rqu in fou n ded two

colon ies : th e on e en closed behin d the w a lls of the Pe l a sgi a nSign ia . th e other on the prom on tory of Circe . They were com

posed Of Rom a n a n d L a tin citizen s , who h a d to fu rn ish their

con tin gen t to the a rm y of the le a gu e . This w a s th e first exa m pleof those m i l it a ry colon ies

,which

,m u ltiplied by the Sen a te a t a l l

poin ts of It a ly,exten ded there the l a ws a n d

[

l a n gu a ge of L a tium .

At the s a m e tim e they were perm a n en t ga rrison s,a dva n ced ou t

posts, which wou ld stop a n en emy f a r from the ca pita l,a n d

when ce v a li a n t soldiers cou ld b e dr a wn a t n eed .

Like his fa ther,T a rqu in loved pom p a n d m a gn ificen ce . H e

hired Skilfu l E tru sca n workm en,a n d with th e spo il obt a in ed from

the Volsci a n s he fin ished the sewers a n d the Ca pitol , — th a t fa vorite

residen ce of the god who holds th e thu n der,a n d when ce “ he so

Often shook his bl a ck shie ld a n d summ on ed the storm -clou ds to

h im .

” 3 I n diggin g u p the so il for l a ying the fou n d a tion s of this

n ew sa n ctu a ry of Rom e,they h a d fou n d a hu m a n he a d which seem ed

freshly cu t ofi .“ I t is a Sign

,

”s a id the a u gu rs

,

“ th a t this tem ple

I t bea rs the words F OE DV S CV M G A BI N I S, or trea ty with the G a b ia n s, a nd

repre sents two person s offerin g a pig in sa crifice , in order to consecra te the

2 H on , E 1) . II. i . 25, a nd F est. s. v. Clypeu s. G a b ii h a d obta ined the

R om e . 0 11

m T O I’

JTOt S‘

71’

l‘

Pwya t'

wu Za ovrohvr et'

a v 57mm xa plgeo fia t . (Dionys.R om . i v .

3 Vergi l ., A en . vi i i . 3 53 .

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170 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN GS.

These m en a cin g Sign s, however, frighten ed the roya l f a m ily.I n order t o kn ow the m ea n s Of a ppea sin g the gods

,T a rqu in

sen t his two son s to con su lt t he ora cle of Delphi, th e repu t a tion

of which h a d pen etra ted a s f a r a s It a ly . Bru tu s, a n ephew of

the K in g, who fe ign ed m a dn ess 1 in order to esc a pe h is su spiciou sfea rs, a ccom p a n ied them . When the God h a d replied, the you ng

WA LL O F CI R CE I .2

m en a sked which of them wou ld repl a ce the K in g on th e thron e“ H e

, sa id the Pythi a,

“ who em bra ces h is m other first .” Bru tu su n derstood the con cea led m ea n in g of the or a cle : he fell downa n d kissed the ea rth

,ou r comm on m other.

n ot yet extin ct a mong u ltra -Protesta nts in th is k ingdom ; a n d there a re m en sti l l li ving whoha ve “

cu t for prem ium in Trin ity Co l lege , Du bl in , when two equ a l competitors u sed to

open th e B ible a t ra ndom , a nd priority of the secon d letter in th e second l ine on the leftha nd pa ge determ ined th e v ictor.— E d .]

1 H e wa s m a de, however, tribu n e of the Ce leres, who wa s , next to the K ing, th e firstm a gi stra te of the sta te. H is n a m e, which in the a ncient L a tin s ign ifies the gra ve a n d strongm a n (F est. 5. v. B ru tum) , b u t which a lso h a d the m e a n ing of idiot, ga ve rise to the legend ofh is m a dness.

1 See Dodwel l, P el a sg ic R em a in s , pl . 104.

TRADITIONAL H ISTORY OF TH E K IN G S. 171

The jou rn ey to Delphi w a s then for the Rom a n s a very

gre a t jou rn ey, a n d the K in g h a d n o m otive for sen ding su ch a n

em b a ssy.

Bu t th e Greeks wished th a t this hom a ge Shou ld b e ren dered

T H E CA V E OF T H E S I BYL OF CUMA E .1

to their f a vorite or a cle ; a n d in order t o complete th e pictu re

of the tyr a n ny of T a rqu in ,they took a ple a su re in Showin g the

n ephew of the K ing con str a in ed t o con cea l h is deep m in d u n der

the a ppea r a n ce of m a dn ess, a s he h a d con cea led a go lden in got

in his tr a vellin g St a ff, in order to Offer it t o the god .

I n a pl a y of Attiu s , represen ted in the tim e of Ca es a r , th e

poet rel a ted th a t T a rqu in ,trou bled by a dre a m ,

h a d ca lled h is

divin ers a bou t h im .“ I sa w in a vision , sa id h e ,

“ in the m idst

of a flock,two m a gn ificen t r a m s. I s a crificed on e ; b u t the other,

1 T a ken from a n engra vin g of the B ibliothequ e N a t ion a le. T he mou nta in seen to the

right is the h i l l on which Cum a e h a d been bu i lt. T he summ it bore it s a cropol is , a n d grottosh a d been exca v a ted in it . O n e o f the se grottos , the entra nce o f which is seen , is su pposedto ha ve been the ca ve where the Sibyl g a ve h er ora cle s. (See Vergil , A en . v i .

ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

d a shing u pon m e, threw m e t o th e grou n d , a n d severely wou n ded

m e with his horn s. At this m om en t I perceived in the he a ven s a

won derfu l prodigy : the su n ch a n ged his cou rse,a n d his fla m ing

orb m oved tow a rds th e right .” “ O K in g !” replied the a u gu rs

,

“ the thou ghts which occu py u s in the d a y-tim e a re reprodu ced

in ou r vision s ; there is no n eed, then ,to b e trou bled . However

,

t a ke ca re th a t he , whom thou dost n ot cou n t higher th a n a

bea st , h a ve n ot in h im a gre a t sou l , fu l l of wisdom . The prodigy

which thou ha st seen a n n ou n ces a revolu tion n ea r a t h a n d. M a y

it b e a h a ppy on e for the people ! Bu t the m a jestic sta r took

it s cou rse from left to right ; it is a su re om en . Rom e will a tta in

to th e pinn a cle of glory .

” 1 Wa s it the Greek fiction th a t the

frien d of Ca esa r’

s m u rderer took u p in his B ru tu s ? or did he rec a ll

a tr a dition preserved in the hou se Of the fou n der of the Repu blic ?

Arou n d gre a t even ts there a lw a ys g a ther a cycle of stories Of

a dven tu re from which poetry a n d legen d a ry history ca n dra w .

When the emb a ssy retu rn ed from Greece, T a rqu in besieged Ardea ,which w a s the ca pit a l of the Ru til i , a n d h a d been th a t of Tu rn u s ,the riv a l of Aen ea s? I t w a s a powerfu l city

,in which the E tru sc a n s

h a d lon g ru led ; Pliny there s a w pictu res which were thou ght3a n d a lthou gh its dec a y comm en ced a sm ore a n cien t th a n Rom e ;

e a rly a s the third cen tu ry,som e st a tu es ha ve been fou n d there

which,in spite of thei r m u til a tion s , su ggest th e in spira tion of Greek

a rt . Wh a t rem a in s of its w a lls a n d cit a del is m ore im posin g th a n

a ny of the ru in s fou n d in E tru ri a . The opera tion s comm en ced

a ga in st it by T a rqu in were protra cted a n d wea risom e,so th a t the

you n g prin ces sou ght t o drive a wa y by fea sts a n d ga m es the en nu i

of the siege ; when on e d a y there a rose between them th a t f a t a l

dispu te con cern in g th e m erits of their wives .“ L et u s t a ke horse,

”

sa id T a rqu in iu s Col l a t in u s ;“ they do n o t expect u s

,a n d we will

j u dge them a ccording to th e occu pa tion s in which we.

su rprise

them . At Col l a t ia they fou n d the K ing’

s d a u ghters-in—l a w en ga ged

I n the del ights of a su m ptu ou s fe a st . Lu creti a , on th e con tr a r ’

,

in the reti remen t of her hou se , w a s spin n in g a m on g her wom en

1 Thi s pa ssa ge is a ll tha t rem a in s of the B ru in s a n d e ven of a ny R om a n tra gedy of the

cl a ss c a l led p r a etex ta ta , or n a tion a l.2 I n th e tre a ty conclu ded with Ca rtha ge, in the first ye a r of the R epu blic, A rdea is ca l led

the su bject of R ome.3 Pl iny, H ist. N a t. xxxv. 6 .

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TRADITIONAL H ISTORY OF TH E K IN G S. 173

fa r in to the n ight . She w a s procl a im ed th e best . B u t h er d is

cretion a n d her bea u ty excited crim in a l p a ssion in the he a rt of

Sextu s. Som e tim e a fterwa rd he retu rn ed on e n ight t o Col l a t ia ,

en tered the room of Lu creti a , u rged h er to yie ld to his desires ,a n d com bin ed threa ts with prom ises . I f she resists , h e will ki l l

her, pl a ce beside h er the dea d body of a m u rdered sl a ve,a n d go

a n d tel l Col l a t in u s a n d a l l Rom e th a t he h a s pu n ished the cu lprits .

Lu creti a is overcom e by this in fa m ou s perfidy, which exposes her

to dishon or ; b u t n o soon er w a s the ou tr a ge a ccom plished , th a n

she sen ds a swift m essenger t o her fa ther a n d her hu sba n d t o

come t o her,

ea ch with a tru sty frien d . Bru tu s a ccom pa n ies

Col l a t inu s. They fou n d her plu n ged in deep grief . She in forms

them of the ou tra ge,a n d her desire n ot to Su rvive it ; b u t dem a n ds

of them the pu n ishm en t of the crim in a l . I n v a in they try to

sh a ke her resolu tion ; they u rge th a t she is n ot gu ilty, sin ce

her hea rt is in n ocen t ; it is the in ten tion which con stitu tes th e

crime.1 Bu t she s a ys : “ I t is for you to decide the fa te of

Sextu s ; for m ysel f,I a bsolve m yself of the crim e

,b u t I d o

not exempt m yself from the pen a lty ; n o wom a n, t o su rvive

her sh a me , sh a ll ever invoke the exa mple of Lu creti a . A n d

she st a bs herself with a d a gger which she h a d con cea led u n der

her dr ess.

Bru tu s drew the wea pon from the wou n d,a n d

,holdin g it u p,

cried : “ Y e gods ! I c a l l you to witn ess . By this blood, so pu re

before the ou tr a ge of this K ing ’s son,I swea r t o pu rsu e with fire

a n d sword, with a l l the m ea n s in my power, T a rqu in , h is in fa mou s

fa m ily, a n d his cu rsed r a ce . I Swe a r n o lon ger to su ffer a K in g in

Rom e.”

H e h a n ds the wea pon t o Col l a t inu s, Lu cretiu s, a n d

Va leriu s, who repe a t the sa m e o a th ; a n d together they rep a ir t o

Rom e . They show th e bleedin g body of’

the victim ,a n d in cite

to vengea n ce the Sen a te,whom T a rqu in h a d decim a ted

,a n d the

people, whom h e h a d oppressed with forced l a bor on h is

bu il dings. A sen a tu s-consu l ta m,con firm ed by the Cu ria e , pro

cl a im ed the dethron emen t of the K in g,h is exile

,a n d th a t of a l l

1[The Greeks a nd R om a n s , who were fa m i l i a r with these m i sfortu n e s in the ca se of the

noblest ca pti ves ta ken in wa r, a n d were a ccu stom ed to rece i ve them ba ck into the ir homes,fe lt the ju stice of th is excu se f a r more thorou ghly tha n we shou l d d o , a m ong whom the sta inis inde lible. - E d .]

174 R OME UNDE R TH E K IN GS.

his kin . Then Bru tu s h a sten ed t o th e c a m p b efore’

Arde a,

which he moved to in su rrection ; while T a rqu in ,h a vin g retu rn ed

to Rom e in a l l h a ste,fou n d it s ga tes shu t

,a n d wa s redu ced to

t a ke ref uge with his son s Titu s a n d Aru n s in the E tru sca n town

of Ca ere . The third , Sextu s, h a vin g retrea ted to G a b ii, w a s

killed there by the rel a tives of his victim s .1

This s a m e ye a r Athen s wa s delivered from the tyra n ny of

the Pisistr a tid a e .

A s a rew a rd for the ir a id , the people cl a imed the restora tion

B R UT US (BUST I N T H E CA P I TO L) .

of the l a ws of the good K ing Serviu s a n d the esta blishm en t of

con su l a r governm en t ; th e Sen a te con sen ted t o it, a n d the com iti’

a

cen tu rio t a procl a imed a s con su ls Ju n iu s Bru tu s a n d T a rqu in iu s

1 L ivy,i . 57-60.

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176 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN GS.

Bru tu s, who ordered a n d ca lm ly looked on a t their execu tion .

Twen ty d a ys were gr a n ted t o th e refu gees t o retu rn t o the city.1

I n order to ga in th e people over t o the ca u se of the revolu tion,

they were a llowed the pill a ge of T a rqu in ’

s goods , a n d ea ch pl e

bei a n received seven a cres of th e roya l

l a n ds ; the fields which exten ded b e

tween th e city a n d the river were

con secr a ted t o M a rs,a n d th e Shea ves

of whea t which they bore,seized a n d

thrown in to the Tiber,were stopped on

the sh a llows which beca m e a fterw a rd th e Isl a n d of Aescu l a piu s .

3

A n a rmy of V eien t in es a n d T a rqu in ia n s , however, m a rched

on Rome . The legion s wen t ou t to m eet them ; a n d in a single

com ba t Bru tu s a n d Aru n s fell m ort a lly

wou n ded . N ight sep a ra ted th e com b a ta n ts

withou t decided victory . Bu t a t m idn ighta grea t vo ice

, a s it were,w a s hea rd pro

ceed in g from the A rsi a n wood a n d pro

n ou n cin g these words :“ Rom e h a s lost on e

w a rrior less th a n the E tru sca n a rm y.

”The

l a tter fled a w a y in a p a n i c. Va leriu s re

en tered Rom e in triumph a n d pron ou n ced

th e fu n era l p a n egyric of Bru tu s ; the m a tron s hon ored by a

yea r’

s m ou rn in g th e a ven ger of ou tra ged m odesty,a n d the people

pl a ced h is st a tu e,sword in h a n d , on the Ca pitol

,n e a r those of

th e kin gs, which were still protected by a su perstitiou s fea r .

CO I N on T H E G E N S HOR A T I A .2

HOR A T I US CocL E s .4

1 Dionys., v. 13 .2 A co in be a rin g the n a me of Cocle s a n d stru ck a t a n u ncerta in d a te by some m ember

of the g en s H ora tio . I n front , a he a d of Pa ll a s ; on the reverse , th e Dio scu ri.3 Dionys., ib it l ., a n d Pl iu .

,xvi i i. 4 . This in su l a T ib er-in t : (di Sa n B a rto lomeo) wa s a fter

w a rd jo in ed to th e left b a n k of the ri ver by th e p a n s F a b r iciu s (Ponte Q u a ttro Ca pi , on

a ccou nt of the figures of J a n u s qu a fl r if ons pl a ced a t it s extrem ities) , a n d t o the right b a n k bythe ports Cestiu s, which be a rs th e m odern n a me of the is l a nd. I n m em ory of a m ira cle , whichwe sha ll ha ve to re l a te l a ter on ,

they ga ve t o th e in s u l a T ib er in a , by so l id con struction s, theform of th e kee l of a ship floa ting on the w a ter

,a n d it s extrem ity repre se nted a prow, the

rem a in s of which a re sti ll seen . T o this i sl a nd , very su bj ect before these works t o the in u nd ation s of the Tiber, they ca rried the s l a ve s, o ld , s ick , or in firm , a nd there a b a n don ed them .

A e scu l a piu s a fterw a rd h a d h is first temple there. N otwithsta n ding the n e ighborhood of the

god“he a ler, the despera te who wished to qu it l ife , witho ut ca ring a bout the ir buri a l, gener

a lly chose th e p a n s F a br iciu s in order t o pa ss into etern ity throu gh th e T iber. (H or., S a t. I I .

111.

‘1 Bron ze m ed a l l ion of A nton in e . Cocles crosse s the T iber swimm in ov a n enemy is trying0 ,

to pierce h im with hi s j a ve l in , a nd a R om a n fin ishes bre a king down th e bridge.

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178 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

im pression of the foot of a horse w a s shown in the rock on the

field of ba ttle, a n d Rom e, which took pride in represen tin g itself

a s the object of the con sta n t sol icitu de of the gods, con secra ted

T H E T HR E E COLUMN S OF T H E T E M PL E or CA STOR .1

this legen d by r a isin g a tem ple t o the divin e son s of . Zeu s a n d

Led a , which bec a m e on e of the most celebra ted in the city.

The victory w a s a bloody on e . On the side of th e Rom a n s,three V a l erii, H erm in iu s , the com p a n ion of Cocles , A eb u t iu s, the

m a ster of th e horse, were left on the field of b a ttle or qu itted it

wou n ded . On the side of the La tin s, Oct . Ma m iliu s, the dict a tor

1 The tem ple of Ca stor a n d Po llu x , in which th e Sen a te often a ssem bled , in a ed c Ca storis,

celeberrimo cl a rissimoqu e mon umen to (Cic., in V err . II. i . 4 9 ) begu n by Post um iu s a n d fin ishedby h is son , w a s rebu i lt on the sa me spot u nder A u gu stu s a nd Tiberiu s. T he three m a gn ificentco lum n s which rem a in of it d a te from this l a tter epoch.

TRADITIONAL H ISTORY OF TH E K IN G S. 179

of Alb a , a n d Titu s, the l a st son of T a rqu in , fell. The ol d K ing

com commu oru rrvr. or m e BATTL E com or rm ;

or LA KE a ss u mes.3 G E NS hu m u s !

himself , stru ck with a blow of a l a n ce , on ly su rvived a l l his

SUPPOSE D TOMB O F T H E T A R Q U I N S.5

ra ce a n d his hopes, t o fin ish his miser a ble ol d a ge a t the cou rt of

the tyr a n t of Cum a e, Aristodem u s (496 B .

1 Si lver co in of t he A lbin i , descen d a nts of Postum iu s.2 I t wa s a descen d a nt of A . Postumiu s who h a d this sil ver m ed a l stru ck. The portra it

is certa inl y no tru e l iken ess ; b u t a l l the pa trici a n s kept the im a ge s of the ir a ncestors in the

a trium of the ir hou se, a n d the coin m a y ha ve been fa irly a ccura te . B es ides , we ou ght tod o for figured R om a n a ntiqu ity wha t we ha ve done for it s h istory ; I m e a n tha t we c a n not

ignore the w a y in which the R om a n s represented the ir a ncestors, a ny m ore tha n om it thelegends which were a l l , gre a t a n d sm a ll , con sidered a s h i storic truth.

The descend a nts of the Dicta tor ca u sed a coin to b e stru ck in remembra nce of h is v ic

tory, representin g the hea d of Di a n a on the obverse ; on the re verse three kn ights tra mpling ahostil e soldi er u n der th e feet of the ir horse s.

4 This g en s cl a imed to b e descen ded from Ulysses, a nd pu t the l iken ess of this prince on

their coin s.5 The sepu lchra l ca ve of the Ta rqu in s h a s perha ps been fou nd in ou r d a ys a t Ca cre.

Their E tru sca n n a m e, T a rchn a s, is in scribed th irty-five times on th e w a ll s of th is tomb, a fa ct

180 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

The T a rqu in s a re dea d ; the fou n ders of the Repu blic h a ve on e

a fter the other disa ppe a red ; the tim e of heroes a n d legen ds is

pa st : tha t of the people a n d of history begin s.

which, however, is not suffi cient for u s to b e a ble to a ff irm tha t this sepu lchr a l ch a mber is th a tof the Ta rq u in s of R ome.

L a rge bronze of A ntonin e ; the wo lf on the left, the T iber on the right.

R OME SE A T E D UPON TH E SE V E N E mma .11

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182 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN GS.

possessed written m on umen ts, a s well a s the H ern ici a n d the

E A R LY '

R OM A N ( LA T I N ) A LPHA BE T S.1

La tin s ; Dionysiu s m a kes m en

tion of their wa r-son gs, Sil iu s

of those of the Sa bin es, a n d

Vergil, who w a s a s eru dite

a s the lea rn ed V a rro in the

a ffa irsaof a n cien t I ta ly

, Spe a ks

of the n a tion a l son gs of the

p risez'

L a tin i.

In scription s on bron ze a n d

on ston e,m emori a ls

,n a m es

a tt a ched to m on um en ts a n d

pl a ces, a s th e Sister’

s Post,

the vi a Sceler a t a , a n d ora l

tra dition s which lived in fa m i

l ies, m ight a id rese a rches in to

their prim itive history. Bu t

the m ost a n cien t of Rom a n

a n n a lists l ived a t the tim e

when Rom e, th e m istress of

I t a ly, en tered in to rela tion s

with Greece ; they were

d a zzled by the b rilli a n cy of

Hellen ic litera tu re, a n d,m is

u n dersta n din g the im porta n ce

of n a tive docum en ts, which

were extremely m e a gre, they

beca m e the pu pils of those

whom they h a d ju st su bdu ed .

There w a s then ,a s it were, a

dou ble con qu est ma de, in differen t d irection s . The Greeks beca m e

su bjects of Rom e,the Rom a n s th e disciples of Greece ; a n d the

E tru sc a n edu ca tion of you n g p a trici a n s w a s repl a ced by Greek

edu c a tion ,— the jou rn ey t o Ca ere by the jou rn ey t o Athen s .2 E ven

1[These a lpha bets a re ta ken (by F . L en orm a n t ) from the P r isca e L a tim

’

t a tis M on . E p i

gr a pha , a nd represent the writing of the l a tter 5th , the 6 th , a nd the 7th (A u gu sta n ) centuriesA . U. e . — E d .]

2 L i vy,ix. 3 6 H a beo a u ctores vu lgo mm ( in the fifth century of R ome) R om a nos p u eros

s icu t nu nc G ra ecis, ita E tru scis l itter-is eru d iri sol itos.

PRIM ITIVE ORGAN IZATION . 183

lon g before the Rom a n s thou ght of Athen s,th e influ en ce of Greece

h a d m a de itself felt in the cen tre of It a ly,a m on g the E tru sca n s,

a n d even in Rom e . The Sibyllin e books were written in Greek,

a n d the a mb a ssa dor from Rom e to the T a ren tin es spoke to them

in tha t l a n gu a ge .

By a sin gu l a r frea k it w a s from the Greeks th a t the

Rom a n s le a rn ed their history : I me a n th a t hi story which the

Greeks m a de for them . The epic cha r a cter which the in flu ence

of Hom er a n d Hesiod h a d given t o th e n a rra tive prose of the

Hellen es, p a ssed in to the writin gs of th e a n n a lists of Rom e.

Two of her first histori a n s, E n n iu s a n d N a eviu s, were epic poets ;Dionysiu s s a id of their works : “ They resem ble those of

the Greek a nn a l ists ; a n d he a dded con cern in g Ca to, C. Sem

promin s, etc. : They fol lowed Greek story.” T a citu s a n d Stra bo

reproa ched them wi th the sa me thi n g .

1 Thu s th e n a tion s of

Western E u rope forgot in the Middle Ages their tru e origin for

the ped a n tic rem in iscen ces of a n cien t liter a tu re : th e Fr a n ks

sa id they were descen ded from a son of Hector ; the Breton s,from Bru tu s ; a n d Rheim s h a d been fou n ded by Rem u s .

On the origin of Rom e a n d of Rom u lu s,there a re in Plu tr

a rch n o less tha n twe lve differen t tra dition s,a lm ost a l l of which

bea r the st a m p of Greek im a gin a tion ; a n d th e on e which he

preferred a s be in g th e m ost widespre a d wa s on ly the story of a

Greek, Diocles of Pepa rethos, followed by a soldier from the

Secon d Pu n ic Wa r, Fa biu s Pictor, the Oldest of Rom a n a n n a l ists

a nd the first a m b a ssa dor from Rom e in to Greece .

The orga n iz a tion , however , bein g a ltogether rel igiou s, a n d a s the

priests were a t every m om en t in terferin g in pu blic a ff a irs, the pon ti ffs

were con cern ed in keeping u p the mem ory of even ts a s a ccu ra tely

a s possible . Thu s the Rom a n s h a d th e A nn a ls of the P on tifi s ,2or

A nn a les M a xim i, the F a sti flf a gis tr a tnum , the F a s ti Tr iumph a les ,

the rolls of th e cen sors, et c. Bu t these a n n a ls were so l a con ic

tha t they open ed a wide fie ld to in terpreta tion s a n d f a bles . Moreover, bein g written down from d a y t o d a y, in order to preserve

1 Stra bo, I I I.vi. 19 : 0 : a e c v'

Pwp a i'

wv o vyypa ¢ £ic p tpofiw a t P a m t g"

E u nya y. Dionys.l . 11 : r e p66? q o a

'

p evot . [This a gree s with M omm sen’

s v iew of th e a nti qu ity of

wr iting in Ita ly, a theory strongly corrobora ted by the recent di scovery of the old Phoenici a na lph a bet, with it s sa mech a nd ts a d d e on v a se s a t Ca cre a nd e lsewhere . E d .]

2 Cicero , d e Or a l . i i. 12 , a n d F est., 8. v. I ll a xim u s a n d Serv iu s a d A en . i. 3 a 3 .

184 R OME UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

the mem ory of trea ties, the n a m es of m a gistra tes a n d of im port a n t

even ts,they on ly wen t b a ck t o the period when est a blished

Rom a n society felt the sim ple n eed of ren derin g a n a ccou n t toi tself of it s a cts a n d of it s en ga gem en ts with it s n eighbors .

Beyon d,there is n othin g b u t m ythologica l d a rkn ess ; a n d this wa s

the open field in which the im a gin a tion of th e Greeks w a s exer

cised . They l a id hold of this period a n d filled it u p t o su it the ir

in terests . Now in their own history they h a d preserved h a rdly

a ny grea t record of a n cien t tim es,except th a t of the con test

a ga in st Troy . With this even t they con n ected the first history

of It a ly. I t w a s tow a rds It a ly tha t they l ed the Troj a n chiefs,

esc a ped from the s a ck of the city,or the Greek heroes driven

a w a y from their hom es by tem pest, a n d e a ch Ita l i a n town of a ny

im port a n ce h a d a s fou n der a hero of on e of th e two ra ces . L et

u s n ote th a t the Greeks a lso “ fou n d a n a dva n t a ge in this dou ble

m a n n er of con n ectin g Ita ly a n d Rom e with their history,by their

own colonies,

a n d by the Troj a n settlem en ts, by E va n der a n d

Aen e a s, by U lysses a n d An ten or . To go b a ck to Troy,w a s

,for

the Greeks,t o go b a ck t o a n epoch of glory a n d power ; a n d

,

m oreover,in enn obling throu gh these legen ds the begin n in gs of Rom e

a n d of th e L a tin s,the Greeks a ven ged themselves in directly in

exhibitin g this city a n d n a tion form ed by fu gitives esc a ped from

the V ictoriou s sword of the Hellen es . I t wa s n ot deroga tory for

Rom e t o a ccept this origin . Troy w a s the grea test n a m e of

a n tiqu ity, th e m ost powerfu l sta te of the a n cien t world ; her

repu t a tion w a s imm en se , a n d a t the s a m e tim e it cou ld n ot

wou n d their pride, for Troy w a s lon g sin ce destroyed . Moreover,

she w a s the en emy of Greece . Rom e wou ld n ot so willin gly h a ve

a llowed it t o b e s a id tha t she spra n g from M a cedon i a , Sp a rta , or

Athen s,which were of recen t celebrity. We a re n ot jea lou s of the

gloriou s dea d ; t o b e their heirs is a n ew title t o fa m e .

From the tim e of the First Pu n ic Wa r the be lief in the

Troj a n descen t of the Rom a n s w a s cu rren t, a s is seen in the

in scription of Du il l iu s, in which the E gest a n s, who were con

sid ered a s a Troj a n colony, a re c a lled cogn a ti p ap a l i R om a n i . After

Cyn oscepha la e, on e of the first ca res of Fl a m ini n u s, who wa s

a n xiou s n ot to p a ss for a b a rb a ria n ,wa s t o set u p a t Delphi a n

in scription which c a lled the Rom a n s the ra ce of Aen e a s. When

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186 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

the grea t a n n a l ist of Rom e l ike th e su bjects which in school a re

proposed ' for recit a tion s a n d essa ys,a n d which s a vor f a r m ore of

rhetoric th a n of the b a ttle-fiel d or the Forum . I t is a ve il

covered with ch a rm in g em broidery,which mu st b e respectfu lly

r a ised in order to fin d the fra gm en ts of tru th hidden behin d it .

Of these tr a dition s the lea st im prob a ble is the r a pe of the

Sa bin e wom en ,— a pra ctice very comm on in th e heroic a ge . This

V iolen ce a grees well with t lie history of the pl a ce of

refu ge : a ccordin g a s the ou tl a ws of th e P a l a tin eHill ca rried off wom en , u n ion s were a rr a n ged . A h

du ction wa s, m oreover, the prim itive’ form of

m a rri a ge , a n d the recollection of it w a s preserved(

351

0523 , in the n u pti a l cerem on ies u n til the l a st d a ys of

P a ga n Rom e .

2 Bu t the f a ct of the r a pe of the

Sa bin es c a n n ot b e recon ciled with the legen d tha t Rom e wa s a n

Alb a n colony ; for a ccordin g t o this i t wou ld h a ve h a d the con

nu b imn, or right of m a rri a ge

,with it s m other city, a n d n o on e

wou ld h a ve d a red t o rej ect th e a ll i a n ce of th e dom in a n t ra ce.

Moreover,the violen t ch a r a cter of a n cien t Rome h a s been ex

a ggera t ed , by m a kin g it a sort of in tren ched ca m p,from which

pill a ge a n d w a rf a re ever issu ed. This w a s on e con sequ en ce of

the idea tha t the town h a d been fou n ded by a troop of b a n dits.

The severi ty of the first Rom a n in stitu tion s , the p a tricia te, a n d

the pol itica l a n d rel igiou s privi leges of the n obility, do n ot a gree

with this tr a dition of a m ob collected a t ra n dom ,a n d lon g given

u p to a l l kin ds of disorder.

We do n ot wish t o rej ect the idea of the existen ce of Bom u

l u s ; thou gh the hym n s, still su n g in the tim e of Au gu stu s, which

preserved the poetic history of the first king of Rom e,a ppe a r to

u s n othin g b u t a legen d,su ch a s a l l a n cien t n a tion s h a ve h a d , a n d

the cou n terp a rt of which it wou ld b e e a sy t o fin d in other

n a tion a l tr a di tion s. Thu s Sem ir a m is, l ike Romu lu s, is th e child

of a goddess ; l ike him ,a n d l ike Cyru s, who wa s exposed in a

1 L. T I T V R I . Si lver co in of one Sa b in u s.

T it u riu s.

2 T he bride wa s ca rried, a s it were, by force from h er fa ther’shou se, a n d it w a s cu stom a ryto lift her over the threshold of her hu sb a n d ’s hou se. The l a tter pra ctice stil l ex ists in a few

vill a ge s in E ngl a n d , wh ere it m a y ha ve been introduced by the R om a n s ; b u t it is u su a l inCh in a (Den n i s, The F ol k-lore of Chin a ) a n d with the E sq u im a u x , which we a ken s the prooftha t m ight b e thence a ddu ced in fa vor of the legen d of th e Sa bin es.

PRIM ITIVE ORGAN IZATION . 187

forest a n d su ckled by a hitch,

1she is a b a n don ed in th e desert ,

fed by doves, a n d picked u p by a shepherd of th e kin g . H er

hi story, too, is bloody . A s Rom u lu s kills h is brother,she c a u ses

the dea th of her hu sb a n d, a n d a fter a lon g reign she disa ppea rs ;b u t som e sa w her a scen d t o hea ven

,a n d h er people p a id her divin e

hon ors. N ea rer Rom e, in L a tium itself,Ca ecu l u s, son of Vu lca n

a n d fou n der of Pr a en este , is a b a n don ed a fter his birth,a n d brou ght

u p by wild bea sts . I n order to people h is city,which rem a in ed

empty , he ca lled together the n eighboring n a tion s t o solem n

ga m es ; a n d when they c a m e together from a l l pa rts,

fla m es su r

rou n ded the a ssem bly . I n the Sa bin e cou n try, Mediu s F id iu s, or

Sa n cu s, who beca m e th e n a tion a l god of the Sa bin es, w a s a lso

born of a virgin who w a s su rprised by Ma rs E ny a liu s in a tem ple

of Rea te a n d,like Romu lu s, h e h a d fou n ded a town , Cu res, which

in tr a dition is th e secon d m etropol is of Rom e . These legends,which a re fou n d a s f a r a s the b a n ks of the Ga n ges, in the story

of Ch a n dra gu pt a , were, with m a ny others,th e comm on in herita n ce

of the Arya n r a ce .

We m a y rega rd Rom u lu s, who m a y b e conn ected with the

roya l hou se of Alb a ,2to h a ve been on ly on e of those w a rl ike

chiefs su ch a s both a n cien t a n d m odern I ta ly h a ve produ ced,a n d

who beca m e the kin g of a people to whom th e position of Rome,

3

fortu n a te circum st a n ces,a n d the a bility of it s a ristocr a cy ga ve

the empire of th e world .

N um erou s testim on ies 4 prove th a t,lon g before Romu lu s tra ced

a fu rrow rou n d the P a l a tin e,th a t bi l l w a s in h a bited . There w a s,

therefore, a La tin city there, the town on the Tiber, R a m a

,

h a vin g the m a n n ers a n d l a ws of L a tiu m a n d of the Sa bin e

cou n try, the p a trici a te, p a tern a l a u thority,p a tron a ge , clien tship ,

1 P a ri s by a she-be a r, Telephu s by a hind , e tc. This k ind of legen d w a s extreme ly widesprea d in a ncient time s, a nd spra ng u p a g a in in t he M i ddle A ge s : G enevieve of Bra b a nt, e tc .

2 I n the legend , he is the gra ndson a n d sole he ir of N um ito r. H e does n ot , however,su cceed him , a n d the fa m i ly of Sylviu s is repl a ced on the throne of A lb a by a n ew fa m i ly

,by

Cl u il iu s, king or dicta tor. R ome is ca lled a colony of A lb a , a nd yet there is no a l l i a nce betweenthe two town s, a nd the m odern city doe s n o t defe nd its co lon y a ga in st th e Sa bines, e tc.

3 “ Pl a ce R ome a t a nother po int of Ita ly,” s ays Cicero (d e R ep . ii . “a nd her ru le

becomes a lmost impossible.”4 R om a a n te R omu l um f u it et a b ea sib i R om u l um n omen a d qu is ivisse .M a r ia n u s L up erca l i

orum poeta osten d it. (Phil a rgyr ., a d V erg ., E e l . i. N one b u t town s fou nded in entirety

a nd on a precise d a y by a colonyha ve a certa in d a te . The others ha ve been a t first ha m lets,vil l a ges, a nd burghs. 1Vith London or P a ri s, when did the ha m let begin ?

188 ”R OM E UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

a sen a te,a n d perha ps a kin g, — in short, a tru l y pol itic a l a n d

rel igiou s orga n iz a tion ,a lrea dy a n cien t

,a n d which Rom u lu s

,him self

a La tin,on ly a dopted . H e m a y h a ve com e to esta blish himself

Victoriou sly there with his b a n d,1the Celsi R a m n en ses

,givin g the

a n cien t town a n ew a ppe a r a n ce a n d m ore w a rlike m a n n ers . On'

this grou n d he m a y h a ve p a ssed for it s fou n der,a n d h is com

p a n ion s for the hea ds of p a trici a n hou ses . I s n ot t he n obili ty

A N C I E N T SUBST R UCT I ON S OF T H E PA LA T I N E .2

of E ngl a n d , so powerfu l a n d so prou d , [in gre a t p a rt] descen dedfrom th e a dven tu rers who followed Willi a m of Norm a n dy ?

I n spite of N iebu hr’

s disda in ,sometim es so h a rshly expressed,

for those who seek historic f a cts in these a n cien t legen ds, we

m a y a llow th e a bdu ction of cert a in Sa bin e wom en by the Celsi

R a m n enses,3a n d the occu p a tion ,

efi ect ed by a con ven tion ,of the

1 F estu s (s.v. V er s a crum a nd Al a mer tin i) a ttributes the origin of R ome to a sa credSpring-time. There is a lw a ys the idea of a n occu pa tion of the Pa l a tine by a n a rmed troop.

2 A tl a s of th e B u l l . a rche’ol ., vol . v. pl . 3 9 .8 I n the most a ncient of the R om a n histori a n s, F a biu s, the n umber of the Sa bine women

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190 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

a n ts of the town m a y h a ve rem a in ed u n til the tim e of T a rqu inu n der the yoke of con qu est .

The tribe w a s divided in to t en CUR I A E,ea ch cu ri a in to ten

DE CUR I A E ; a n d these division s, which were a lso territori a l a n d

m il it a ry,1 h a d their chiefs, — tribu n es, cu rion es, a n d d ecu rion es.

I n e a ch tribe were in clu ded a certa in n umber of politica l

fa m ilies, or G E N T E S, which were not com posed of m en on ly of the

s a m e blood, b u t a lso of m en con n ected by m u tu a l obliga tion s,

by the worship of a hero ven er a ted a s a comm on a n cestor (sa er a

gen til iti a ), or by the right of inheriting on e from a n other in the

a bsen ce of a will or of n a tu ra l heirs ,2

- a right which rem inds

u s th a t, in the begin n in g, property h a d been comm on . Thu s

they were en a bled t o redu ce to a sm a l l figu re the n um ber of these

pol itica l fa m i l ies, — 200 a t first , a fterw a rd 3 00 , — a n d t o a llow on ly

citizen s to th e city of Rom u lu s ; b u t we m u st a dm it tha t

these figu res, l ike th e E n glish words hu n d red , tithing , were n ot

a strictly exa ct a rithm etica l expression . Moreover by these

citizen s of origin a l Rom e the p a tricia n s a lon e a re u n derstood .

N ow to these hea ds of the gen tes were

a tta ched n u m erou s clien ts . I n tra dition the

gen s Appi a n um bers the gens Fa bi aa n d Coriol a n u s coiI l d form a com plete

com O F TH E G E N S F A B“ ,a rm y of his tribe . L et u s a ccept 3 00 a s the

n um ber of pa trici a n hou ses, a llowin g for e a ch

hou se a n a vera ge of 100 clien ts,a n d we sh a ll ha ve a popu l a

tion of m ore th a n E ven were these n um bers pu rely

im a gin a ry, the gens wou ld n on e the less b e the b a sis of the

prim itive orga n iza tion of Rom e,a s it h a s been a m ong m a ny

n a tion s . However f a r we tra ce b a ck the cou rse of history,we

fi n d in the fa m ily,n a tu ra l or fictitiou s, the prim ordia l elem en ts

of society. The Greek ye’

un, the Scottish cla n s, the I rish

septs, a n swer t o th e Roma n gen tes a n d the sa me orga n iza tion

1 V a rro (d e L in g . L a t. v. 3 5) spea ks of a threefo ld div ision of territory for the threetribes ; Dionys. ( i i . 7) of a di vision into thirty a llotments for the thirty curi a e.

2 In ste a d of gen s , g en u s is som etimes fou nd , which cle a rly expl a in s the word gen s.

Thu s Cil n ium g en u s (Li vy, x. 3 Cf. A u lu s G e l liu s, xv . 27; Pollu x, v i i i. 9 ; H a rpocr a t ion ,

s. v. F em/firm . . Pa u l Di a c. (p. 94 ) a lso s a ys : G en til is d icit u r et ex eodem gen ere or tu s et is

qu i simil i nomin e a pp el l a tu r . Cl iens or e lu en s, from cl u eo, m ea n s he who b ea rs a nd who

obeys.

PR IM ITIVE ORGAN IZATION . 191

is m et in Friesl a n d, a m on g the Ditm a rses, th e Alb a n i a n s,

Sla vs, etc.

I n Algeri a the Ara b d ou a r a n d the K a byl d echera resem ble

the Rom a n gens , th e sheik]; or a m in represen ts the p a terf a m ilfi a s ,

a n d the chiefs of the dou a rs a n d d ech er a s , l ike the p a t-

res a t

the cu ri a , discu ss a t their j em a a th e in terests of the f a m il ies

they represen t . Stu died more closely, history shows th a t cu stom s

long looked u pon a s pecu l i a r to certa in peoples a n d certa in

epochs h a ve been gen er a l in stitu tion s, a n d represen t the sta ges

hum a n ity h a s tra velled .

Thu s th e gen s u n ited a l l it s m em bers by a bon d of rel a tion

ship, re a l or fictitiou s. The cu ri a wa s this s a m e f a m ily en

l a rged , a n d the tribe wa s a sim i l a r on e , on ly more com plete .

E a ch cu ri a h a d it s d a ys of fea sts a n d sa crifices, it s priests a n d

tu tel a ry gods . Religion u n ited still m ore closely those whom

ties of blood or soci a l position a lrea dy conn ected . The whole

Rom a n sta te rested on this b a sis of f a mily, a n d h a d the sa m e

strict discipl in e .

The m em bers of a gen s were divided,we s a id

,in to two

cl a sses, - those who belon ged to it by right of blood,a n d those

who h a d becom e a ssoci a ted with it by certa in en ga gem en ts .

The former, the p a tron i or PA T R I CIA N S,1 were the sovereign

people, to whom everythin g belon ged,

a n d who h a d the two

grea t ou tw a rd Sign s which m a rked the n obility of the Middle

Ages, f a m ily n a m es a n d a rm ori a l bea rin gs,— I m ea n the j u s im

a ginum ,spea kin g devices, which were f a r more prou d a n d im

posing th a n a l l the feu d a l coa ts of a rm s,

sin ce it seem ed a s

thou gh the a n cestors them selves,cl a d in their in sign i a of office,

gu a rded the en tr a n ces of p a trici a n hou ses. I n fu n era l cerem on ies,individu a ls rec a llin g in fea tu res 2 a n d form the person s whom itwa s desir ed t o represen t

, a ssumed th e costume a n d “ hon ors ”

tha t these l a tter h a d worn,thu s su rrou ndin g the dea d p a trici a n

with a l ivin g escort of h is a n cestors. I n l a ter times they h a d

a nother form of escu tcheon s, the represen t a tion u pon coin s of

the obj ects th a t their n a me rec a lled . Thu s A qu il l iu s Floru s,a

1 o v

I

. 0 o a n o o o a oP a tr tczos C'm czu s a zt, zn lzbro d e Comztu s, eos a pp el l a r t solztos qu i n u nc t ng en u z vocen tu r.

(F est , s. v.P a tr icios.)2[R a ther, they wore the wa x m a sks ta ken from the im a ges in the a trium .— E d .]

192 . ROME UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

f lower ; Q u in ct iu s Mu s, a

pon iu s Mu sa , th e n in e

FLOW E R .1 CA LE .

2

MUSE S.3

R A T .4 P I CKA X E .

5

MA LLE T .6

COLLA R .7 BULL.B

WOME N CHA N G E D I N TO T R E E S.9

1 Co in of L . A qu il l iu s F loru s I I I . V ir (m oneta rytrium vir), repre sentin g on the reverse a l a rge fu ll-blownflower ; a n a u reu s of A u gu stu s.

2 Q. V ocon iu s V itu lu s. V it u lu s m e a n s a ca lf ; re

verse of a den a riu s of Ca e sa r’s tim e.3 P ompon iu s Il l u sa . La u re l-crowned he a d of M u se ;

behind , a .bu skin ; on the reverse , Tha l i a sta n din g, ho lding a com ic m a sk. Den a riu s of the Pompon ia n f a m

i ly.4 Ti. Q. T iberiu s Q u inct iu s M u s, a n u nknown mem

b er of the fa mi ly Q u in ctia . Si lver co in repre sentinga r a t , in La tin mu s , ben e a th som e horse s wh ich the rideris restra in in g on the exergu e ,D. S.S.

,tha t is, d e Sen a tus

sen ten tia , stru ck by order of the Sen a te.5 A ciscu lu s, ha mm er in a crown of l a urel. The

a ciscu l um w a s a too l qu o u tu n fu r l a p icvfd a e a d exca va ru /os

l a p i'

d es (F orce ll in i , s. R everse of a s i lver co in of

the Va leri a n fa m i ly.6 H e a d of P a l l a s, a bove , a m a l let, m a l leolu s on the

reverse C. Al a l l. (Ca iu s M a l leolu s). N a ked m a n withh is foot on some a rm or ; in front, a n a nchor ; behind , th e prow of a vesse l. .Den a riu s of thePob lici a n fa m i ly.

7 L . Torqu a t. I I I . s ir . Tripod en closed in a co l l a r, torqu es ; den a riu s of the M a n ln .

3 L . l or iu s B a l b a s , den a riu s of the Thori a n fa m ily. Ta u ru s m e a n s a bu l l.9 P . A cco leiu s L a r r

’

scol u s. B u st of Clym ene , th e m other of Pha eton on the reverse, thethree si sters of Pha eton cha nged into l a rche s ( l a rix) .

m ou se ; V ocon iu s V itu lu s, a ca lf ; Pomm u ses on n in e differen t coin s

, etc.,

a cu stom infin itely m ore m odest,which

en ded by being m erely a pl a y of wit,

b u t which h a d a t first served to reca ll

heroi c a cts, a s,for in st a n ce

,the coll a r of

the M a n l ii,a n d dou btless the h a mm er

of th e Pu b l icii a n d the a xe of the

V a l erii.

Th e secon d cl a ss of the m em bers

of th e gen s com prised stra n gers dom iciled

in the town , the prison ers brou ght to

Rom e, the a n cien t in h a bita n ts of the

l a n d, the poor, freed sl a ves,

-'

in short,

a l l who preferred depen den ce on the

gre a t a n d strong, with their protection ,

to isol a tion a n d a n in secu re lib erty.

These were the CLI E N T S, or we might sa yv a ss a ls.

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194 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN GS.

bon d between the sen a tors of Rom e a n d the provin ci a l cities,between th e rich a n d poor ; it freed the society of this a g e fromthe n ecessity of h a ving these ch a rit a ble in stitu tion s which Christi

a n ity m u ltiplied when clien tship h a d dis a ppea red .

I V . SE N A T E A ND K I N G ; PLE B E I A N S.

TH E m embers of the gen tes , of a bsolu tely free con dition (in

genu i), or th e comra des in a rms (com ites), th a t is to sa y, the p a tri

cia n s, m u stered a t the Conntiu ni ,1 divided in to thirty cu ri a e

, the

COM I T I A CUR I A TA ,a n d there , by the m a jority of votes

, b u t with

ou t discu ssion ,they m a de l a ws, decided on pe a ce or w a r

,he a rd

a ppe a ls,a n d a ppoin ted t o pu blic or religiou s offices . Here, a lso

,

they a pproved or rejected wills which m odified the property of the

citizen s,a n d a doption s which ch a n ged their civil con dition .

The chiefs of these gen tes, or elders (sen iores, when ce SE N A TOR S),t o th e n u m ber of a t first a hu n dred , two hu n dred a fter the u n ion

with the Sa bin es, a n d three hu n dred a fter th e a dm ission of the

gen tes m inores u n der T a rqu in,were th e gu a rdi a n s of the n a tion a l

cu stoms .2 By refu sing perm ission t o presen t a bill to the a ssembly

of cu ri a e,they ren dered the l a tter powerless ; a n d a s the cou n cil

of the su prem e m a gistr a te,they a ssisted h im with their a dvice in

his governm en t a s wel l a s in the proposition s which he m a de to

the people .

Chosen for l ife by the com iti a cu ri a t a , the K I N G fu lfilled the

triple fu n ction s of gen era lissim o,high priest, a n d su prem e ju dge.

E very nin e d a ys,

a ccordin g to E tru sca n cu stom ,h e dispen sed

ju stice, or a ppoin ted ju dges t o dispen se i t in h is n a m e. Du ring

w a r a n d ou tside the w a lls his a u thority wa s a bsolu te for discipline,

1 The Comitium wa s the pa rt of the F orum n e a rest the Ca pitol. A t first distinct from the

F orum , or pu bl ic pl a ce, it w a s confou n ded with it when the two n a tion s beca me on e. The

Com itium w a s crowned by a pl a tform , on which wa s a n a lta r sa cred t o Vu lca n , the V u lca n a lthe kings, a n d a fterw a rd the con su ls a nd pra etors, d ispen sed j u stice there.

2 Usu a ll y they sa t in the curi a H ost il ia , bu i lt oppos ite the Com itium , a t the foot of the

Ca pito l (Li vy, i. 3 0) l a ter on they me t in on e of th e temples of the city, a nd a lw a ys in a pl a cecon secra ted by a u spices. They del ibera ted with open doors. Th is sem i-pu blic ity of the

s ittings w a s better in sured when the tribu nes of the people h a d been a dmitted to sea ts on

benches a t the doors of the curi a .

PRIM ITIVE ORGAN IZATION . I 95

a s well a s for th e divis ion of booty a n d con qu ered l a n d , of which

he himself kept a pa rt ; so th a t he possessed , u n der the n a m e o f

st a te property, con sidera ble dom a in s . Stra n gers , tha t is , plebe i a n s ,were su bject t o him a t a l l tim es a n d in a l l pl a ces . H e con voked

the Sen a te a n d the Sovereign Assem bly, h e n a m ed sen a tors,w a tched

over the m a in ten a n ce of l a ws a n d cu stom s, a n d took the cen su s .

Six cen tu ries l a ter we fin d these rights rea ppe a rin g in th e pre

rog a t ives of the E m perors. Bu t a ppea l m ight b e m a d e to the

people , th a t is t o s a y, t o the comiti a cu ri a t a , or p a tricia n a ssem bly,

from the K in g’

s ju dgm en ts, which w a s n ot a llowed from th e

sen ten ce of th e E m perors, — a d ifi eren ce which su ffi ces t o m a rk the

l imited power of the on e a n d the a bsolu te a u thority of the other .1

There w a s a n other a l l-powerfu l restr a in t which does n ot ex ist

u n der th e E m pire, — th e a u gu rs a n d priests , b ein g a ppoin ted for

life,h a d n othin g t o fe a r from the K in g, a n d they cou ld a rrest his

proceedin gs by m a kin g th e gods in terven e .

H e h a d for h is gu a rd, i t is sa id , three hu n dred KN I G H T S, or

coleres . Bu t these kn ights , chosen from a m on g the richest citizen s,

were prob a bly on ly a milit a ry division of the tribes : in tim e of

wa r they form ed th e c a v a lry of the legion s .2 The ir chief, th e

tribu n e of the celeres , w a s, a fter th e K in g, the first m a gistra te

of the city, a s u n der the Repu blic the m a gis ter egu itum ,the

dict a tor’

s l ieu ten a n t, is th e secon d person in the st a te . When

the K ing qu itted Rom e,a sen a tor, whom h e h a d chosen from

a m ong the t en first of the a ssem bly, govern ed th e town,u n der

the n a m e of gu a rdi a n .3 I n c a se of a v a c a n cy in the roya l power

,

the Sen a te n a m ed a n in terrex’

every five d a ys . Fin a lly,the

qu a estors ch a rged with th e in stitu tion of crim in a l proceedings

w a tched over the distribu tion of pu blic ch a rges, m u n i a , a n d the

levy of cert a in t a xes a n d du es a n d th e d u u nwiri p erdu el l ion t'

s

1 ‘

I epc’

bu “1100 0 16 1! r'

ryepom'

a u E’

xew (Dionys., I I . [The E mperors m onopo l ized the rightof a ppe a l u n der the tr ib u n icia p otest a s. E d .)

2 N ieb uhr’

s school inclu de a l l the pa trici a n s in the three centurie s of kn ights, withoutreflecting tha t in Ita ly, especi a l ly a t R ome. a ll the m i lita ry force s con s isted of infa ntry, a ndtha t in a R om a n a rmy there were n ever more tha n a sm a l l n umber of ca v a lry, a s the n a ture of

the cou ntry requ ired.3 Cu stos u rb is. T he a ppe ll a tion of pra ef ectu s u rb i is m ore m odern . Sec Jo a n . L yd ., d c

Il I a g ist. i. 3 4 , 3 8 ; T a c., A nn . vi. 11.4 T a citu s (A nn . x i. 2 2) pl a ces the in stitution of the fin a nci a l qu a estorship a s f a r b a ck a s

the kings ; b u t it is not m entioned before 50 9.

196 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN GS.

ju dged su ch ca ses of high trea son a s the K in g did n ot reserve forhis own decis ion .

By the side of this people of p a trici a n hou ses,

1 which a lon e

NFE L

M E R CUR Y FOUN D A T PA LE ST R I N A .8

form s the sta te , m a kesl a ws, fu rn ishes the

Sen a te with m em bersa n d the Repu blic with

kin gs a n d priests,

which possesses every

thin g, religion, th e

a u spices by which it

holds comm u n ica tion

with the gods,pol itica l

a n d priv a te rights,

la n ds, a n d,in the m u l

t itu d e of it s cl ien ts,a

devoted a rmy,—below

this sovereign cl a ss a re

fou n d m en who a re

n e ither cl ien ts,n or v a s

sa ls, nOr m embers of

thec

gen tes, who m a y

n ot en ter the p a tricia n

hou ses by lega l m a r

ria ge, who h a ve n either

th e p a tern a l a u thority,

2

n or th e right of testa

men t a ry disposition or

of a doption,— who do

n ot in terpose in a ny

a ff a ir of pu blic in terest, a n d rem a in ou tside the pol itica l,a s they

dwell ou tside th e a ctu a l , city, beyon d the pomerium, on the

hills which su rrou n d the P a l a tin e . These m en a re the PLE B E I A N S.

An cien t in h a bita n ts of the seven hills, or ca ptives ca rried to Rom e,

1 T he three tribes , T b s Tpe'

is (pvhds yewxcis (Dionys., v i.2 P a tr ia potesta s is deri ved from pa trici a n m a rri a ge by conf a rrca tio, a nd the plebe i a n s

ca nnot contra ct su ch. Wil ls a nd a doption s, to b e v a l id, m u st b e a ccepted by th e cu ri a e, a ndthey ca nnot enter these . 3 M u s.P io Cl em , P l. 6.

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198 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN GS.

dom a in or th e Lomb a rd withou t a wa r-horse l in to the K ing ’ shost . Un der differen t a spects , m a ny a ges of the world a re a like.

I n n a tu re a sm a ll n um ber of essen ti a l e lem en ts produ ces a n

in fin ite v a riety of crea tu res ; ju st so in the pol it ica l world the‘

most diverse soci a l form s often hide sim il a r prin ciples. Still it

n eed n ot b e con clu ded from this tha t hu m a n ity su rges t o a n d fro

l ike th e w a ves of th e oce a n , in con tin u a l eb b a n d flow ; in th a t

etern a l evo lu tion of be ings a n d empires, prin ciples do n ot rem a in

imm u t a ble ; they a re m odified a n d developed. The world seem s to

roll in the sa m e circle ; b u t this circle is a spir a l which a t tim es

retu rn s on itsel f, a n d a lwa ys en ds on a higher level .

Wh a t we h a ve n ow been rel a tin g w a s , a ccordin g to tra dition,

the work of the first king, — th a t is to sa y, of a n cien t tim es ; for

popu l a r im a gin a tion ,which sees on ly gods in the phen om en a of

n a tu re,sees on ly m en in th e grea t ph a ses of history, a n d a ttribu tes

t o heroes, whose n a m es i t in ven ts or rece ives,the work of m a ny

gen er a tion s . F or th e Rom a n s,it wa s Rom u lu s who h a d

divided th e people in to tribes a n d cu ri a e, who h a d crea ted the

kn ights a n d the Sen a te, est a blished p a tron a ge a n d p a tern a l a n d

con ju ga l power,a n d forbidden n octu rn a l s a crifices

,the m u rder

of prison ers,

a n d th e exposu re of children,

u n less they were

deform ed .2 I t w a s he a ga in who , by o fferin g a n a sylum a n d by

settin g the grea t ex a mple of in viting con qu ered people to the

city,h a d preven ted Rom e rem a in i ng

,like Sp a rta a n d Athen s, a

city with on ly a few citizen s , or,to a dopt the expression of

M a chi a vell i, a n imm en se tree withou t roots, rea dy to fa ll a t the

le a st win d .3

L u itp r. L eg. v. ca p. 2 9 .

Dionys., i i. 15.“ Spa rta a n d A then s were exceedi n gly w a rlike ; they h a d the best of l a ws ; ye t they

never in cre a sed a s m u ch a s R om e , wh ich seem ed to b e less wel l a dm in i stered, a nd govern ed byless perfect l a ws. This diff erence ca n on ly come from the re a son s expl a ined a bove [the introdu ction into R om e of the con qu ered popul a tion s, or the concess ion of the c itizen ship] . R om e,

a nx iou s to incre a se it s popu l a tion , cou ld pu t m en u n der a rm s ; Sp a rta a nd A then s weren ever a ble to exceed the n umber of e a ch. A ll ou r in stitution s a re im ita tion s of

n a ture , a nd it is n e ither possible nor n a tu ra l tha t a sl ight a n d feeble tru n k shou ld supporthe a vy bra nches T he tree loa ded with bra nches thicker tha n th e tru nk grows wea ry ofsu pporting them , a nd bre a ks in the lea st win d." -M A CH I A V E LL I .

1

2

8

CHAPTE R I I I .

R E L IGION AND R E L IGIOUS INSTITUTIONS.

I . — TH E PUBL I C GODS.

UST a s those civil in stitu tion s which h a d belon ged to Cen tra l

Ita ly , when ce the Rom a n s spra n g, were a ttribu ted to Rom u lu s,

so Nu m a h a s been looked u pon a s th e a u thor of the religiou s

cu stoms brou ght from L a tium a n d the Sa bin e cou n try. We kn ow

thei r gods . Th e most hon ored were first J a n u s , the grea t n a tion a l

divin ity, whose n a m e st a n ds a t th e hea d of a l l solemn

invoc a tion s — the g od with two f a ces : for he i t is who

Open s a n d shu ts, a n d begin s a n d en ds ;1 Jovis

,or

Ju piter,th e god of light , who i s c a ll ed f a ther a n d

preserver of a l l thin gs ; Sa tu rn ,who protects the gra in MA R S

sown in the ea rth ; Min erv a , who w a rn s the hu sb a n dm a n in time

of the works to b e u n dert a ken ;2 M a rs, the sym bol of l ife ren ewed

in the sprin g-tim e,a n d of m a n ly force, a ga in st which n o obst a cle

ca n st a n d ;3 Qu irin u s

,the Sa bin e god , who, l a ter on ,

being con

fou n ded with Rom u lu s,descen ds to the r a n k of a dem igod ; Vest a ,

whose a lta r m a rked th e cen tre of dom estic l i fe in th e hou se a n d

of politic a l l ife in the city ; V u lc a n ,a n other god of fire

,— of the

1 A ccording t o Dionys. (fr. Ja nu s is represented with two fa ces beca u se he knowsthe p a st a nd the future . This interpreta tion is re l a ti ve ly m odern . I n fa ct J a n u s mu st ha vebeen a sol a r de ity, a symbo l of the etern a l revol ution of things.

2 M in erv a , or ra ther M enerv a , is a n a m e be longing to the s a m e fa m ily of words a s mens,mon ere, mem in isse ; hence the tra n sform a tion of thi s a gricu ltura l de ity into th e goddess of

science a nd a rt , a nd th e confou nding of her with the Greek A thene. (B réa l , I l fl e'

l. d e mgr/col .

p.

8 Coin s sometim es represent h im by the figure of a you n g m a n with a he lmet on h is he a d,sometimes mou nted on a cha riot, bra n dishing a l a nce a n d bea ring spo i ls. W ith the legen d ofM a rs is con nected th e m u ch le ss cle a r on e of A n n a P eren n a , whose festi v a l, a s Ovid describesit, reca lls certa in fe a tures of the popu l a rf etes of modern R ome.

200 ROM E UNDE R T H E K IN GS.

fire which devou rs a n d destroys , of th e fi re which con qu ers iron

a n d con str a in s the h a rdest m eta ls to ben d to the w a n ts of m en .

H e ea rly h a d a n a lta r,the V u lca n a l , below th e Com itium, . I t

w a s there , a ccordin g to tra dition,th a t Romu lu s a n d T a tiu s m et

t o con clu de pea ce .

Di a n a a n d Jovin o were the femin in e forms of Ja n u s a n d

Jovis : the on e , goddess of the n ight a n d of gloom y woods ; the

other,Ju n o, of the d a y

a n d of l ife,qu een of

hea ven,m a ter regin a , a n d

Ju no Sosp it a , protector of

m a tron s who preserved

thei r con ju ga l fidel ity.

H er sa n ctu a ry a t L a n uvium w a s f a m ou s ; the

priests there kept a ser

pen t , t o which every ye a r

a virgin Offered a s a cred

c a ke, — a drea dfu l ordea l.

I f h e refu sed it, the

m a iden h a d n ot kept her

V irgin pu rity. Di a n a , who

w a s a fterw a rd join ed with

the Hellen ic Artem is, w a s

a lso a kin d of Lu cin a ,whom wom en ca l led to

their a id in childbirth.

M en p a id her hon or, a s

the goddess of m ysteriou s

forests ; a n d a s L a tiu m

wa s covered therewith,JU N O N UR S I N G H E R CUL E S (ST A T U E I N T H E she wa s on e of the grea t

V A T I CA N ) .1

d iv t I es of the L a tm s.

We h a ve seen how Serviu s ra ised a tem ple to h er on the

1 We n eed ha rdly observe th a t the A ncient R om a n s long h a d , a s representa tion s of the irg ods, n oth ing b u t the tru nks of trees rou ghly h ewn into sha pe , or co a rse symbols, a n d th a tcon sequ ently the bu sts a nd sta tu es here given a re of a period when G reek a r t re igned a t

R ome , a n d when the town w a s encumbered with sta tu es ta ken by the procon su ls from the

c ities of H e ll a s a nd A si a M inor.

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202 R OM E . UNDE R THE K IN GS.

a dven tu rer h a d m a de him a kin g. “ When she en tered Rom e,

sa ys Plu t a rch ,1 “sh e folded her win gs a s a Sign tha t she wished

t o rem a in there . A n d in f a ct She is still there ; the Rom a n of

th e presen t d a y bel ieves a s firm ly in ch a n ce a s the Roma n of

bygon e a ges .

Inn um era ble were her titles, a n d con sequ en tly her tem ples ;for a s every epithet bestowed on her expressed a speci a l kin d of

T E T R A STYLE T E MPLE or FOR T UN A ( V I R I L I S).2

fa vor expected from her, there seemed t o b e a s m a ny goddesses of

fortu n e a s there were m otives for m a kin g su ppl ic a tion to Cha n ce.

The Roma n s th us divided the deity a ccordin g to th e fu n ction s

which they m ea n t it t o fu lfil ; a n d a l l the ir gods h a d severa l

differen t ph a ses,a s thou gh this people were in ca p a ble of con tem

pl a tin g a divin e bein g in it s gra n deu r a n d seren ity .

Wom en even desired to h a ve the ir goddess of Fortu n e, F or tu n am u liebris, to whom th e m a tron s whose te a rs overc a m e Coriol a n u s

erected a tem ple . They con secr a ted a n other to F or tu n a viril is,

1 De F ort. R om. 4 .

2 A tetra style temple of the l a st d a ys of the R epu blic, the b a se of wh ich is sti l l su rrou nded by the a ncient p a vement of the Pa l a tine W a y. I t is s itu a ted ne a r the Temple of the

Su n (p. 160 ) a nd a hou se m a de entire ly of the a nc ient ru in s. See Wey, R ome, p. 16 2.

RE L IG ION A ND RE LIG IOUS IN STITUTION S. 2 0 3

which h a d a t first a very m or a l fu n ction , th a t of preserv in g t o

wives the a ffection of thei r hu sb a n ds, b u t which en ds by bein g

on ly the goddess of every kin d of fem in in e coqu etry . This

tem ple still exi sts, — a n d with good rea son , sin ce the goddess h a s

not ce a sed to reign .

The gods of the lower world , — Tellu s, Terr a -M a ter, Ceres

,

Dis-Pa ter, etc., c a u sed

the seed to germin a te

in the bosom of the si len t

ea rth, a n d kept gu a rd

over the dea d . Those of

the sea,

so n um erou s

a m on g the Greeks,who

p a ssed h a lf their l ives

u pon the w a ters, cou ld

n ot possess m u ch credit

with a people who h a d

no fleet . Bu t in the

m iddle region dwelt the

deities of the e a rth, M ed l

or um l,

1 gods of the field

a n d forests , of the h a r

vest a n d V in ta ge,of the

sprin gs a n d rivers,— gods

more popu l a r a n d m ore

honored th a n the grea t

gods who l ived f a r a w a y.

There Bon a Dea reign ed,

or M a ia,the ea rth whi ch

produ ces a l l thin gs n eces

sa ry to l ife,a n d who w a s

therefore c a lled the Grea t Mother, M a ter .M a gn a ;2 Sa tu rn ,

“ the

Good Sower,”

Fa u n u s, Sylv a n u s, a n d P a les,gods of the woods

a n d m ea dows, who protected the f a rm, the pou ltry-ya rd , a n d the

ga rden est a blished in som e forest cle a ring, a n d who drove a wa y

the wolf a n d f a t a l di sea ses.

fl.

FA UN or PR A x I T E L E s .3

1 Pl a utu s, Cis tel l a r l a , II. i. 45. 2 M a crobiu s, S a t. I. x i i . 20.8 A ncient copy of the F a u n of Pra x iteles

, in the Ca pitoline M u seum.

2 04: ROME UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

I n a n cien t times I ta ly w a s, a s i t is n ow, th e cou n try of grea t

p a stu res ; a n d th e Rom a n Ca m p a gn a still keeps the r a ce of wild

Shepherds whose sports Vergil depicts. Their

gre a t festiv a l, the P a l l l l a , wa s celebra ted on the

a nn ivers a ry of the fou ndin g of Rom e, April 21,

a n d the roya l hill of Rom u lu s be a rs the n a me

of their divin ity .

l Ru m in a , the foster-mother,

w a tched over the n ou rishmen t of the you ng

c a ttle ; hen ce the n a m e of the Rum in a l fig—tree,u n der whose sh a de the she-wolf su ckled the twin s.

Ru bigo preserved th e whea t from m ildew, Vertum n u s a n d Pom on a

c a u sed the fru it t o ripen in the orch a rd . Feron ia,

the goddess of flowers, of joy, a n d of a l l n a tu ra l plea s

u res,seem s to h a ve been less l a vish of u sefu l fa vors ;

yet sh e w a s held in so grea t hon or th a t H a nn iba l

fou n d a rich tre a su re to c a rry off from her tem ple

a t the foot of Sora cte . Besides this tem ple she h a d

others a t Terr a cin a , a t Trebu l a in the cou n try of the Sa bin es,a n d a t

Lu n a in E tru ri a . I n l a ter times Flora a n d Ven u s bec a me formid a ble

riva ls t o this goddess .

MA T R I MA G N A E .

F E R ON I A .2

Liber , the gen iu s whose m odest du ty it

w a s to secu re a bu n d a n ce on the t a bles of h is

worshippers,l a ter fell heir to the rich legend

of th e Theb a n Dionysos a n d the In dia n B a c

chu s ; in the sa m e w a y Hercu les, the herdsm a n ,

beca m e the gloriou s son of Ju piter a n d Alcm en a

[Her a kles] when a w a ve of Greek poetry h a dT H E “ B E R fertilized the soil of I ta l i a n mythology 3

Above th e n a i a ds, a n d nym phs, a n d a l l the w a ter gen n ,rose

Fa ther Tiberin u s, the mighty river, who scorn ed t o b e fettered with

a bridge of ston e , a n d for m a ny cen tu ries permitted to Spa n his

1 Pa l a tine , from p a les , a word which is itse lf deri ved from the root p d , which formed theverbs s ign ifying to pa stu re in Greek , L a tin , a nd F rench.

2 Thi s co in wa s stru ck in the time of A u gu stu s by the mon eta ry tribu ne Petron iu s Turpil ia n u s, who h a s n ot bestowed be a uty on the G oddess F eron i a . B u t R om a n a rti sts, even in thetim e when they were m ost u nder the influ ence of Greek a r t , did not seek the ir goddesses inhe a ven , they took them from the R om a n Ca mp a gn a . T he M inerv a of th e m a gn ificent chestof Pra e neste , ca lled th e F icor in i, looks l ike a con ta d in a .

2 T he first m ention of the worship of H era kle s, or H ercu les, a t R ome, is m a de by L i vy(v.13 ) in connection with the lcctistcrn l um of the ye a r 4 18 B.C.

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206 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

of his own m in d ! Bu t this people , possessed of su ch terribleen ergy

,who kn ew n ou ght of drea m y con tem pl a tion s or mystic

a rdors , — these m en of a ction a n d of persevera n ce cou ld do n othin g by them selves . Whether h is priv a te in terests or the a ffa irs of

the sta te were in qu estion , the Rom a n m u st h a ve a god a t h a n d.An other cha ra cteristic tra it we n otice : the Greeks held the ir polit

ica l a ssemblies in the thea tre ; the Rom a n Sen a te m et to del ibera te

in the temples of the gods.

I I . TH E DOM E ST IC GODS.

CE R TA I N of the Rom a n divin ities — who m a y b e ca lled oflicia l ,

h a vin g tem ples, priests, a n d a pu blic ritu a l , with th e homa ge of the

crowd — were besides hon ored in a speci a l m a n n er in the gen tes,

by the sa cr a gen tl litt’

a . E a ch of the gre a t fa m il ies h a d it s protect

in g deity, — a s the m edi aev a l corpora tion s were won t to m a ke choice

of a hea ven ly pa tron ; a n d this cu lt closely u n ited a l l the m em bers

of the gens . To a b a n don it w a s to perish ; the gens n ot su rviving

the desertion of its a n cien t a lt a r. Livy rel a tes tha t the Pot it ii,

h a vin g given up to the st a te the worship of Hercu les, pecu l i a r to

thei r I a ce, a l l died within the yea r .1

E a ch hou sehold, even the poorest, h a d a lso it s domestic gods,m odest a n d hum ble

,som e u n seen ,

the Gen i i a n d

M a n es ; others, the L a res a n d Pen a tes, represen tedby sm a ll ru de ea rthen figu res

,co a rsely m ou lded

a n d ba ked in a n oven,b u t held in a s m u ch hon or

a s a re the holy pictu res of the Ru ssi a n pe a sa n ts

in ou r tim e . All these a re with difficu lty d is

t ingu ished from on e a n other, represen tin g m ore

or less clea rly the ide a of a su pern a tu ra l protec

tion exercised by dep a rted spirits over the hou se

which h a d on ce been their hom e. This f a ith

a ppea rs to h a ve existed in Greece ; we a lso fin d it in E tru ri a ;a n d it wou ld seem to b e on e of the ea rliest m a n if esta tion s of

the religiou s in stin ct.

DOM E ST I C A LT A R .2

1 ix. 29 .2 T he domestic a lta rs were sometimes very sm a ll , l ike the Pen a tes themse l ves. The one

we ive is on ] redu ced to a u a rter o f it s re a l s ize.g.V ‘l

R E LIG ION A ND RE L IG IOUS IN STITUTION S. 2 07

L et u s first dispose of the n umberless crowd of Gen i i.Th a t stra nge doctrin e is wel l kn own .which m a kes m en

,a n d even

gods, of a dou ble n a tu re,

a n d gives e a ch in his l ifetim e two

exi sten ces, on e of which con tin u es a fter dea th .1 The Gen i i pre

TH E LA R E S.2

Sided over a l l the phen omen a of physica l a n d mor a l life . Nothing

took pl a ce withou t them ,a n d the f a vor or enmity rea ched the

individu a l, the fa mily, the city, even the whole n a tion .

1 See p. 128. —Su b terra cen seb a n t religu a m vit a m a g i mor tu orum . (Cic. T u sc. i.2 L a res ta ken from the Ca mpa n a M u seum , a n d compa ra tive ly m odern . These sta tu ette s,

so fu ll of pretentiou s a ff ecta t ion , were certa in ly n ot honored with the s a me strong fa itha ccorded to the Sh a pe less fetiches of a ncient d a ys. T he Pe n a tes, who in su red joy a nda bun da nce t o the hou se, were in l a te d a ys represented in a joyou s a ttitu de, holdin g in one

h a nd a drink ing-horn , a nd in the other a dish .

208 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

The Pen a tes, or gods of the in terior,whom Vergil ca lls

p a tern a l gods ,1 were the spirits of the hou se, in which they

provided a bu n d a n ce , p en u s . With the L a res or Lords, the Spirits

of a n cestors,were con n ected a l l en dea rin g a n d Sweet m em ories.

The L a res sh a red the joys a n d griefs of the fa m ily,a n d were.

a ssoci a ted with it s good or evil fortu n e . I n every festiva l

they took p a rt , on a l l h a ppy occa sion s they were crown ed with

flowers or fol i a ge, a n d the you n g m a n , when he took the tog a .

viril is, con secra ted to them the bu l l a which he h a d worn . No

m ea l wa s ea ten withou t a portion bein g set a p a rt for them,

a kin d of comm u n ion with the gods which in gra ve circumsta n ces.

w a s perform ed by the whole city,when she in vited a l l her

gu a rdi a n deities to the solem n fe a st of the lectis tern lum .

At a n epoch a lre a dy sceptic a l P l a u tu s in trodu ces on the st a ge

a fa m ily L a r, who expl a in s to the specta tors the plot of on e of

his pl a ys. “ I a m the L a r of this hou se . F or m a ny a yea r I

h a ve h a d the keepin g of it,a n d I w a tch over it from f a ther to

son . The gra n dfa ther of the presen t holder con fided a tre a su re

to m e with m a n y su pplic a tion s, a n d secretly hid it u n der the

he a rth,

a skin g m e -to preserve i t. H e w a s a m iser, a n d he

depa rted withou t spea kin g to h is son a bou t it . When he wa s

de a d,I ca refu lly observed his son , to See

”

i f I shou ld receive

more hon or from him th a n from his f a ther . I soon fou n d tha t

h e dim in ished stil l m ore the expen ses which con cern ed m e. I

pu n ished h im for it, a n d he n ever kn ew of the secret h o a rd . H is

son resem bles him ; b u t his da u ghter n ever misses a d a y in offer

in g m e in cen se, win e, a n d pra yers ; so I will le a d her to discover

th e tre a su re .

” 2

T a ke a w a y the disrespectfu l ha n dlin g of the poet, who ma kes.

the fa m ili a r L a r a piece of the a trica l m a chin ery, a n d you will

fin d the god whose worship wa s the con sol a tion a n d hope of m a ny

a gen er a tion .

With the worship of the La res w a s a ssoci a ted tha t of the

domestic fire ; a n d i t m a y b e sa id th a t the two corn er-ston es which

1 M a crobiu s (S a t. I I I iv. 6 a n d 8) ca l ls the Pen a tes the pecu li a r gods of th e R om a ns

d is R om a n orum prop riis p er qu os penitu s Sp ira mu s, p er q uos ha bemu s corp us, per qu a s:

ra tionem a n im i p ossid emu s.

2 Prologu e of the A u l u l a i'i a .

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ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

a n emotion which gives a n idea of this etern a l worship of the

hea rth, Cicero s a ys, l a ter on :“ Here is my religion ,

h ere my

r a ce a n d the tr a ces of my f a thers . I fin d in this pl a ce a n in d efin

a ble ch a rm,which pen etra tes my hea rt a n d en thr a lls my sen ses.

”

A n d we of m odern times still s a y simil a r things when we retu rn

to ou r p a tern a l hea rth .

I I I . TH E MA N E S .

TH E sou ls of the de a d, or L em u res , were of two kin ds,— those

of the wicked, the L a rva e, a n d those of th e good,th e M a n es .

The M a n es ,“ the pu re beings

,

” were the dea d pu rified by

fu n era l cerem on ies, a n d becom e the protectors of those whomthey h a d left behin d them in l ife. At Rom e

,a s everywhere

,the

dea d w a s n ot thou ght to b e a ltogether dea d . H e h a d h is pl a ceof a bode l ike the l iving ; his hea rth w a s in the tom b . There he

bega n a secon d life, sa d , b u t c a lm , i f the fu n era l rites h a d been

a ccom pl ished ; fretfu l a n d u n h a ppy when fu n era l hon ors h a d n ot

been p a id him . Sep a ra ted from his m ort a l rem a in s, the hu m a n

being did n ot qu it the e a rth to a scen d in to”

ethere a l spheres or

to descen d in to th e lower region s . Invisible,b u t ever presen t,

he rem a in ed n e a r those h e h a d loved , in spiring them with wise

thou ghts,protectin g thei r a bode a n d their fortu n e

,— ou the con

dition,however

,th a t th e l ivin g Shou ld ren der t o the de a d the

worship du e t o a n cestors . Origin a lly these rites were cru el,— a t

lea st on the d a y of the fu n er a l cerem on ies ; for it wa s thou ght

tha t th e Ma n es loved blood . On the tom b of a kin g or hero

they imm ol a ted his wife,h is sl a ves, h is w a r-horse or ca ptives ;

a n d from this cu stom c a m e the com ba ts of gl a dia tors, which were

a t first,a s w a s the Sp a n ish a u to-d a -f é, a n a ct

‘

of devo t ion . Bu t

on a n n iversa ries the M a n es were sa tisfied if the rel a tion s ca m e

to deck the tom b with wrea ths of foli a ge , a s we pl a ce flowers

thereon , a n d to deposit c a kes of hon ey a n d mea l, t o m a ke l iba

tion s of win e , m ilk ,1a n d the blood of som e u n preten ding victim.

They were pre sen t in invisible form a t these piou s ceremon ies,

1 O vid , F a s t. i i. 53 7, seq.

RE LIG ION AN D RE L IG IOUS IN STITUTION S. 211

a n d took their p a rt of the“

offerings.1 A grea t n um ber of b a s

rel iefs a n d p a in tin gs represen t the dea d en ga ged in the ir “ E ly

si a n rep a sts.” Lu ci a n

,who l a u ghs a t everythin g, ridicu les this

a ppetite of the dea d ;2

a n d in f a ct, in h is tim e,n a y, even lon g

before h im ,there were m isera ble wretches, the bu s tl ra p l ,

3 who

pl a yed th e p a rt of the dea d, by c a rryin g a w a y

in the n ight the food deposited on the tom bs .

Bu t piou s people believed tha t. th e ben evolen ce

of the M a n es wa s secu red by these offerin gs,a n d th a t t o forget them wa s to expose on eself

to their a n ger . W a n derin g then in the s ilen t

n ight, they c a m e t o terrify the l ivin g, or to c a st

disea se on the flock, b a rrenn ess on the l a n d .4

Thu s even a t a time when the credi t of Ju piter

h a d f a llen very l ow Cicero wrote :“ Ren der t o

the M a n es wh a t is d u e to them,a n d hold them

for divin e bein gs ; for ou r a n cestors wou ld th a t

those who h a d qu itted this life shou ld b e of the

num ber of the gods !” 6 We m a ke the Sign of th e cross on p a ss

ing n ea r a tom b . The Rom a n sa id t o the dea d,

“ Sleep in pea ce !”

or else,

“ Be propitiou s t o u s !”

a n d he sa lu ted with t h e s a m e

gestu re of a dor a tion th a t he u sed'

in worshippin g the gods . E ven

when a fa m ily wa s obliged t o sel l the field in which it s fu n er a l

va u lt wa s pl a ced, the l a w reserved a right of p a ssa ge , th a t they

might go to“

perform the sa cred rites there .7 On the retu rn of

A DOR A T I ON B E

FOR E A T OMB.6

1 V a rro, d c L ing . L a t. vi.13 . The cu stom of the fu nera l fea st on the d a y of th e obsequ iesis preserved in our prov inces. I n my chi ldhood it sti ll exi sted, even in P a ris ; b u t it is nolonger more tha n a n a ct of po liten ess tow a rds the gu ests, a nd none of the re l ig iou s idea whi chthe a ncients a tta ched to it n ow rem a ins.

2 De L u etu , 9 .3 Pla utu s, P seu d . I. iii. 12 7.

4 T a cita e tempore n octls

P ergu e via s u rbz’

s, L a tiosqu e u lu l a sse p er a gros

Def ormes a n im a s.

O V I D F a st. 11. 552 .

5 Ta ken from a p a inted v a se , on which Orestes is represented a pproa ch ing the tomb of

A ga memnon .

6 Cic., d e L eg. n . 9 a nd 2 2 Al a j ores eos, qu i ex h a c vita m igra ssen t, in d eorum

n umero esse volu issen t. We m u st ca l l to m in d th is be l ief, so persistent a mon g the R om a n s,when we see the E mperors decla red d ivi.

7 Dig . xviii. 1, 6 . These rites of the tomb a re fou nd a s f a r a s the extrem e E a st. A mongthe A nna m ites, ch i ldren inh erit the property of the ir fa ther in equ a l portion s, except the e ldest,

212'

R OM E UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

the F era l l a , th e l a st d a y of th e festiv a l of the dea d , there Wa scelebr a ted in ea ch hou se the Ca ris tl a e, a fe a st in which a l l the

rel a tives took p a rt. Then they reca lled the gloriou s m em ories of

the f a m ily ; together they worshipped the L a res,the protectors

of th e p a tern a l roof, a n d they sep a ra ted with mu tu a l wishes for

prosperity .“ At this fra tern a l b a n qu et

,sa ys Ovid

,Con cord

a lwa ys ca m e to t a ke a sea t .” 1

This rel igion of dea th is a t on ce th e most a ncien t a n d the

most tou ching ; it esta blished a bon d between the p a st gen era tion s

G E ST UR E OF A DOR A T I ON .2 G E ST UR E O F A DO R A T I ON .

8

a n d those which su rvived them . The sou l of the a n cestors w a s the

sou l of the f a mily, a n d there w a s in thi s firm bel ief a grea t

prin ciple of soci a l con serv a tism .

Bu t l et u s t a ke n otice th a t this festiv a l of the de a d differed

essen ti a lly from ou rs, which is a bea u t ifu l ide a of u n iversa l ch a rity

con tin u ed beyon d the tomb, —a pr a yer offered by a l l for a l l .

Amon g the Rom a n s th e worship of the dea d w a s essen ti a lly

dom estic ; n ea r rel a tives a lon e were en titled t o m a ke the offerings,

a n d n o stra n ger h a d th e right to b e presen t a t the fu n era l repa st,

the piou s represen t a tion of th e b a n qu ets of the E lysi a n life, which

who holds a n extra port ion , in order to keep up the tombs of h is a ncestors. (Ch. Lem ire,Cochin chin e fra n c.,

1 Concord ia f ertu r a d esse. (F a st. i i.2 B a s-re l ief from the Lou vre.3 T a ken from a pa

intin g on a Greek v a se. A you ng Greek wom a n a nd you ng m a n

sa luting a H erm e s. T o pu t theright ha n d u p to the mouth is stil l a mode of s a luta tion in the

E a st, a nd sometimes even with u s.

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RE LIG ION A ND RE L I G I OUS I N STITUTION S. 215

were the on ly joy th e Rom a n a n d Greek cou ld im a gi ne for their

de a d .1 The m a n ,then , who died withou t le a vin g a fa m ily behin d

him ,l a cked those hon ors which were n ecess a ry to th e repose

a n d con sol a tion of th e dea d . I n order to a void this m isfortu n e,

the childless Rom a n,in defa u lt of a n a tu ra l f a m ily

,crea ted for

him self a lega l f a m i ly ; a n d to rel igiou s bel ief m u st b e a ttribu ted

the im porta n ce of th a t civil cu stom of a doption,a s frequ en t a t

Rom e a s it is r a re with u s. The f un er a l co lleges u n der the

E m pir e a re a n other m ea n s of providin g on esel f with rel a tives,who

m a y a ccompli sh the rites n ecessa ry to thi s secon d lif e in the

tomb .

The L a rva e, th e m essen gers of the gloom y a bode,brou ght

the livin g u n lu cky dre a m s, threa ten in g vis ion s

, a n d terrible

a pp a rition s ; they were th e ph a n tom s th a t peopled the n ight,a n d

whose a n ger people sou ght to deprec a te by thr owin g bl a ck bea n s

over the shou lder, or by strikin g a bron ze vessel . All were n ot

so ea sy to exorcise , a n d a bou t some of t hem there circu l a ted

drea dfu l stories,which stren gthen ed

the bel ief in evil Gen ii . “ U lysses,sa y P a u s a n ia s a n d Stra bo, h a vin g

stopped a t Tem esa , on the coa st of

Bru t t ium,

on e of h is com p a n ion s,Pol ites

, ou tr a ged a m a iden,a n d wa s

T E M E SA OF B R UT T I UM '

ston ed by the in h a bit a n ts. U lysses did n othing to a ven ge this

mu rder a n d a ppea se the m a n es of the hero,so th e spectre of Pol it es

retu rn ed every night to sprea d terror a n d dea th a mon g th e people

of Tem es a . I n order t o esc a pe his a nger, they were a bou t t o

a ba n don their town ,when th e Python ess reve a led t o them tha t

they wou ld a ppea se the hero if they bu i lt a s a n ctu a ry t o h im ,a n d

ye a rly offered to him the m ost be a u tifu l a m ong their d a u ghters .

The shrin e w a s r a ised in the thickest p a rt of a wood of wild

ol ives,a n d the fea rfu l sa crifice w a s perform ed , till the d a y when a

1 The engra ving on p a ge 213 represents the pa intings on a tomb a t T a rqu in ii (Corneto).I n the foregrou n d a n E lysi a n repa st ; on the two s ide-pieces , person s d a ncin g, doubtless th einiti a ted celebra ting som e rite of B a cchu s in the m idst of a s a cred wood. On the two s ides ofthe door of the tomb

,two horsemen a nd som e tigers or pa nthers , proba bly in m em ory of the

fu nera l ga m es. (A tl a s d a B u l l . a rch., 183 1, PI . xxxii . F or the description , see A n n a les,

vol. ii . p. 3 25, seq.)2 T he first three letters of the n a me of the town , a n d a helmet ; on the reverse a .tripod,

two grea ves ; s i lver co in .

216 R OME UNDE R TH E K IN GS,

f a mou s a thlete of Locri, n a m ed E u thym os

, en tered th e temple,sa w the m a iden , a n d , tou ched with com p a ss ion a n d love, resolved

t o fight the dem on on the followin g n ight . H e con qu ered,drove

him ou t of the territory, a nd obliged him t o ca st himself intothe w a ves of the Ion i a n Sea . Af ter tha t time n ever did the f a t a l

spectre re-a ppea r b u t there long existed th e proverb,‘Bew a re

the b ero l ’ ” li 1

I V . N A TUR A L I SM OF T H E ROM A N RE L I G I ON A N D FO R M A L DE vo '

r I ON .

TH E R E is a -poetry in the piou s cerem on ies perform ed n e a r the

he a rth a n d a rou n d the tom bs . Poetry of a nother kin d, t oo

, is

fou n d in the worship of

the sa cred groves . The

Apen n in es were thencovered with those im

men se forests, whose

silen ce a n d m ystery long

in spired a rel igiou s ter

ror . To fin d -protection

a m id these u n kn own,

a n d, con sequ en tly

,so

m u ch the more drea ded,d a n gers, men con secra

t ed in som e gl a de a

grou p of trees,which hen ceforth beca m e a n in viol a ble sa n ctu a ry.

Sometimes a sin gle tree, which h a d been stru ck by a thu n derbolt,or whose crest topped the whole forest, a n d which a llowed n othing

t o grow ben ea th the depths of it s sh a dow, bec a me a divine being.

I n 456 B . c.,three a mb a ssa dors from Rom e ca m e to dem a n d of

the Aequ i the fu lfilm en t of a trea ty. The chief, sea ted u n der

SA CR E D T R E E .2

1 Pa u sa n i a s, VI. vi. 7—11 ; Stra bo, vi . p. 255 ; S u id a s, s. v. E i‘févp or ; A e l ia nu s, H ist. V a r.viii . 18. See , in the re ign of T iberiu s, the story of the m a tron de livered by the priests of Isisto the god A nu bis.

2 B a s-re l ief in the L ou vre. Cymba ls a re hu ng on the bra nches of the s a cred tree ; behindit sta n ds the a lta r

, on which a r a m ,which a chi ld le a ds , is a bou t t o b e sa crificed ; behind, a

ve iled priestess a nd the flu te-pl a yer, necess a ry in a l l sa crifices. B ehind the a lta r a secondwom a n , bea rin g offerings on her he a d. T he worship of s a cred trees sti l l ex ists in m a ny pl a ces.

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2 18 R OM E UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

or in volu n t a ry sa dn ess, a fa lse step,the flickerin g of a fla m e

,

the groa n s of the victim,the prolon ga tion or speedy termin a tion

of its dea th-p a n gs , the color a n d form of the en tr a ils,— everything

,

in f a ct,w a s a n om en

,a n d th e a ppetite of the s a cred chicken s or

the size of a victim ’

s l iver often ca rried gra ve decision s.

The Rom a n kn ew n othing of divin e love ; on the con tra ry,

h e trem bled before the in n u m er a ble deities,

1 c a priciou s a n d v in

d ict ive, whom he pictu red to himself lying in w a it everywherea lon g the p a th of life ; a n d in the words of the m ost rel igiou s of

p a ga n s,2 “ Fu ll of a ffright, he en tered their sa n ctu a ry

,a s thou gh

their tem ple were the c a ve of a bea r or dra gon .

”

Shou ld he

by m isch a n ce cross the threshold of his hou se with h is left foot

first, Shou ld he hea r the squ ea k of - a mou se or h is gl a n ce fa ll on

a ny object held to b e u n lu cky,imm edi a tely h e re-en tered his hou se

distra cted, a n d cou ld n ot feel re-a ssu red till he h a d Offered a n

expi a tory sa crifice . H e bel ieved in the evil eye,3 like the I tfia l ia n

of the presen t d a y, a n d l ike him t oo h e thou ght to gu a rd a ga in st

it by a f a scimm t4 which he hu ng rou n d th e n ecks of his children

,

in his ga rden a n d over his hea rth . Hen ce ca m e th e god F a scin u s,

whose worship w a s in tru sted to th e vest a ls, a n d who w a s pl a ced

on the ch a riot of gen era ls a t their trium ph, to tu rn a side envy

a n d to a vert evil fortu n e .5 There w a s, however, a su re preserva

tive a ga in st spells, which w a s to spit in to on e’

s right Shoe before

pu ttin g it on .6

Ca to the E lder died in 149 B . 0 . H e l ived, then , a t a period

in which the gra n d a g e of Rom a n civiliza tion bega n ; yet how

superstitiou s is this cool-hea ded a n d ca lcu l a tin g m a n ! H e bel ieves

in ch a rm s a n d in m a gic words for hea l in g Sickn ess . Here is

h is prescription,for in sta n ce , a ga in st disloca tion s . “ T a ke a green

ru sh , fou r or five feet lon g, cu t it in two in the m iddle,a n d l et

1 Va rro sa id which wa s a lso H esiod ’s reckon ing (Works a nd Da ys, b u t

M a xim u s Tyriu s (Disser t. i .) thou ght this figu re f a r too sm a l l.2 Pluta rch, d c Sup erst. 25 ; Cic., d e Divin . i i. 72 .8 N escio qu is ten eros ocu l u s m ihi f a scin a t a g n os. (V erg ., E cl. i i i.4 Thi s f a scin a m wa s comm on ly a sa lyricu m sig n um (P liny, N a t. H is t. x ix. or a little

be ll su spen ded on a bra nch of cora l. A lmost a l l you n g Chinese we a r this l a tter kind of

a m u let. This does no t imply tha t the su perstition tra vel led from Pekin to R om e. The

hum a n m in d, in a l l ra ces, pa sses throu gh sim i l a r sta ges, which le a d to u n expected resul ts.5 F ortu n a g loria e ca rn if ex. (Pliny, N a t. H ist. xxvi i i.3 I b id .

RE LIG ION AN D RE L IG IOUS IN STITUTION S. 2 19

two m en hold it on you r thighs. Begin to sin g : d a ries ( Za rd a ries

a sta ta ries d issu n a p iter , a n d con tin u e to do so u n til the two pieces

a re join ed together a ga in . W a ve a bl a de over them when the two

pieces a re join ed a n d tou ch on e a n other, seize hold of them,a n d

cu t them a cross len gthw a ys . M a ke a b a n d a ge therew i th on the

broken or disloca ted mem ber, a n d it will hea l . Sing, however ,

over the disloca tion d a i ly : [m a t h a n a t ha a t, ista p is t a sis t a . d om ia bo

d a m n a u s tra or else hu a t [t a u t h a u t fis ta sis t a r sisorcl a u n a bon

d a nn a u s tra . A n d he in trodu ced in to his d e R e ru s t ica m a n y

sim il a r receipts . Y et Ca to is on e of the grea test person a ges of

Rom e . I t is eviden t th a t this people wa s, on certa in points, very

sm a l l in deed .

Su perstition s qu ite a s gross a n d credu l ity a s blin d h a ve been

seen in l a ter, a n d even in highly civili zed a ges,a n d in m a n y

pl a ces there exist others worthy of them . E ven the Gen ii of

a n cien t Rome a re n ot a l l dea d ; they l ive a ga in u n der other n a m es,

to people th a t infin ity of hea ven s whereof the void a n d s ilen ce

frighten u s. Bu t wh a t belon gs m ore p a rticu l a rly t o the Rom a n

religion is it s form a l ism . There is n o fervor or divin e a spira

tion , stil l less philosophic reflection ,in it s piety . The words ,

a ttitu des, a n d gestu res a re ordered by the ritu a l. To lea ve the

esta blished ru le, even to b e gen erou s to the gods, wa s to go

beyon d wh a t wa s proper, a n d to fa ll in to su perstition . I n the

temple,the most religiou s sta te of the sou l wa s a bsolu te ca lm ;

silen ce on the l ips, si len ce in the m in d .

1 F or th e cerem on ies,a l l

wa s settled beforeh a n d, even t o the pr a yer,which shou ld on ly

rise from the hea rt ; a n d soon they begin t o pr a y in form s-which

a re n o longer u n derstood . I n the tim e of the An ton in es the

brotherhood of Arva les ch a n ted son gs which d a ted perh a ps from

Numa . I t w a s n eedf u l,t oo

, to repea t these a n cien t com position s

with rel igiou s ca re, for a pecu l i a r virtu e a tt a ched t o the very

expression s. By the omission of on e word a sa crifice bec a m e

u seless, a pra yer v a in . The l a wyers sa y a t a l a ter period : gu i a

virgu l a ca d t'

t, ca u sa ca d it, — throu gh a comm a

,on e loses h is su it .

The s a m e wa s thou ght t o b e th e c a se with the gods. When a

con su l h a d a religiou s form u l a t o pron ou n ce, he rea d it from t he

1 Temp lum'

in qu o verb is p a rcimu s , in qu o a n imos comp on imus, in qu o ta cita m etia m

men tem nostr a m cu stod im us . (Q uin t il ., Decl a m.

R OME UNDE R TH E K IN GS.

ritu a l , for fea r of om ittin g or tra n sposin g a word. A priest

followed the rea din g in a secon d book, in order t o b e su re tha t a l l

the sa cra m en t a l phra ses were s a id a right ; a n other s a w th a t a bsolu te

si len ce w a s Observed a m on g the bysta n ders ; l a stly, a mu sici a n

drown ed with the modu l a tion s of h is flu te every sou n d which

cou ld h a ve broken the cha rm a tt a ched to the words th a t the

Offici a tin g person recited .1

The feelin g of rel igion h a s su bm itted t o m u ch sl a very, b u t

n ever h a s it been en cha in ed in su ch strict bon ds. I t m ight b e

thou ght th a t Rom e,l ike a cert a in f a mou s in stitu tion

, w a s a fra id

of rel igiou s excitemen t,if we did n ot kn owtha t in this in stitu tion

th e regu l a tion of piety is th e resu lt of policy,wherea s with the

Rom a n s it w a s the spon ta n eou s produ ction of the n a tion a l cha r a cter.

Bu t i f this childi sh credu l ity lowers the spirit of the people,it yet

renders them very ea sy t o govern ; a n d the vigorou s devotion a l

disciplin e,which h a s n othin g to do with re ligiou s feel in g

,produ ced

citizen s in whom respect for th e ru les of the temple lon g in spired

respect for the l a w in th e Forum .

We m a y m a ke a n other rem a rk : these divin ities of Rom e

a ppe a r less bea u tifu l, b u t more m ora l , th a n those of Greek

polytheism ;2

a n d the Fa thers Of the Chu rch consider the religion

1 Pl in y, N a t. H ist. xxvi i i. 3 . H ere is the longest p a ss a ge left u s of the ol d histori a nF a biu s P ictor. A t the sa m e time m a y b e seen the poverty o f this a ncient l itera ture, them isera ble sta te of m en

’

s m in ds, a n d how grievou s wa s tha t s a cerdota l s l a very in which there isnowhere felt be a tin g a tru ly re l igiou s he a rt. “ I t is a crim e for the fla men of Jupiter toride on horseb a ck or to see the centuries u nder a rm s ; thu s he ra re ly h a s b een

'

n a med con su l.H e is not perm itted to ta ke a n o a th the ring he wea rs m u st b e ho l low a nd of open work . N 0

fire m u st b e ca rried from h is hou se b u t the sa cred fire . If a m a n enters tha t hou se bou nd, hem u st b e u nbou n d, a nd the bon ds m u st b e ca rried throu gh th e in ner court u p the roof a n dthrown into the street. T he fi a men h a s no knot a bout h im , e ither on h is ca p, h is girdle , or a ny

other pa rt. I f a m a n who is go ing to b e bea ten with rods fa ll s a t h is feet a s a suppl i a nt, thegu i lty one ca n not b e bea ten Without s a cri lege tha t d a y. N one b u t a freem a n ca n cu t a fla men

’

s

ha ir. H e never tou ches or n a mes a she-go a t, r a w flesh, ha re.or bea n s. H e m u st not clip thetendri ls of the v ine tha t cl imb too h igh T he feet of the b ed he sleeps in m u st b e pl a steredwith m ud . H e never qu its it three con secuti ve n ights, a nd no on e e lse h a s th e right to sleepthere in . There m u st n ot b e n e a r the woodwork of h is b ed a b ox with s a cred ca kes in it . The

p a rings of h is n a i ls a n d the cuttings of h is ha ir a re covered with e a rth a t the foot of a fru ittree . F or h im a ll d a ys a re ho ly da ys. H e is n ot a l lowed t o go into the ope n a ir without thea pex ; a n d even a s to rem a in ing b a rehe a ded u n der h is own roof, the pontiff s h a ve on ly qu iterecently decided tha t he m a y d o so. (A u lu s G e l l iu s , N oct. A M. x . A nother ex a mpleof th is m in ute a nd chil dish form a l ism is fur n ished by Ta ble x l i. of M a rin i. (A l l i e mon umen ti

d e’

F ra tel l i A rva l i.) [One m ight im a gine th is pa ge of ol d F a biu s ta ken ou t of the Zenda vesta or from the l a ws of M a n n.— E d .]

‘1 See pa ge 124.

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222 ROME UNDE R TH E K IN GS.

l a cked certa in high qu a lities of min d ; h a vin g n o rel igiou s spir it,

they h a d in l a ter tim es n o philosophic spirit .

Vest a , however, h a d brou ght virgin pu rity in to hon or ; Ju n o

a n d a l l the other goddesses of m a rri a ge or n u rtu re h a d don e the

sa me for the wisdom a n d devotion of m a tron s ; the L a res loveddom estic virtu es ; the M a n es con cord in fa m i l ies ; Fides

,good

f a ith in con tra cts ; Term in u s, respect for a l l

rights ; a n d with the exception of cert a in

ru stic divin ities,who delighted in ga yety a n d

l a u ghter who a llowed even f a r more a l l the

gods h a d the Rom a n gra vity . Still we shou ld

n ot go a s f a r a s to repe a t wh a t is s a id of

this rel igion,

“ tha t,like the philosophy of

Socra tes, it brou ght divin ity down t o ea rth,a n d obliged it to regu l a te th e life a n d m a n

n ers of m en . The Socra tic philosophy w a s a m ighty effort of

reflection ; th e Roma n religion, on the con tra ry

,spra n g spon

t a n eou sly from cu stoms ; a n d in prim itive a ges cu stoms precede

bel ief, which in their tu rn preserves them . The La tin o-Sa bin epopu l a tion s, a m on g whom the fa m ily t ie w a s so stron g, cre a ted

dom estic gods who n ever ca n b e imm ora l,a n d

,their a gricu ltu ra l

life com pelled them to ha ve gods who protected property a n d

a greemen ts . Before he wa s ca rried to the en ds of the field to

serve a s the sa cred bou n d a ry, Term in u s h a d risen from the fu rrow

open ed by the L a tin plou gh.

F I DE S, O R G OOD FA I TH.1

V. SA CE R DOTA L COLLE G E S.

TH US the Rom a n rel igion is twofold in its n a tu re. There

is th a t of th e sta te, or of society a s a whole , a n d th a t . of

individu a l person s ; b u t there exists a very good u n derst a n ding

between th e two, beca u se in the m a in it is the sa m e thing

a n swerin g t o two differen t n eeds . The fa m il y h a s it s Pen a tes,which the st a te respects ; the city it s gods, which priva te in di

F I DE S A V G V ST . S. C. Good F a ith, sta ndi ng, ho lding some ca rs of corn a nd a

b a sket of fru it. L a rge bron ze of P lotin a .

RE LIG ION A ND RE LIG IOUS IN STITUTION S. 22 3

vidu a l s honor n ot on ly by a ssoci a tin g them selves with the pu blic

ceremon ies of their worship, b u t by p a rticu l a r devotion s t o su ch

a n d su ch a by s a crifices a t su ch a n d su ch a tem ple . I n

1. L itu us , or a u gur ’s ba ton .’

2 . Secespz'

t a,or s a crifici a l kn if e. 3 . P a tera . 4 . Sa crificia l va se,

wrongly confou nded with the pra ef ericu l um ,wh ich h a d n o h a nd le . 5. S impu lu m ,

sm a ll cu p em ployedin liba tion s. 6 . Sprinkl er. 7. A pex, or fla m en

’

s ca p. 8. T ripod surmou nted by the cort in a . 9 . A x e

with wo lf’s hea d, for kill ing grea t victim s.

I N ST R UM E N T S OF SA CR I F I CE ; T A KE N FR OM V A R I OUS COI N S I N T H E CA B I N E TDE FR A N CE .

a ddressin g on e of the gods of the city,there is no n eed of a medi

a tor. The A ru spicium ,

”sa ys V a rro

,en join s th a t e a ch shou ld

sa crifice a ccordin g to h is own cu stom,— su o qu isqu e ritu sa crifi cium

f a ci a t a n d this prin ciple con stitu ted the rel igiou s tolera n ce of the

Roma n s,so lon g a s they did n ot believe th a t the st a te w a s threa t

en ed by pa rt icu l a r religion s. When the f a ther of the f a m ily, who

1 De L ing . L a t. V I I . 3 8. Cicero a lso sa ys, rims f a mil ia e p a trumqu e tha t m u st b e preserved, a d is qu a si tra d ita m rel ig ionem. (De L eg . i i.

224 R OME UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

w a s sovereign pon tiff in h is own hou se , h a d recou rse to the priest,

it wa s t o a ssu re him self th a t he properly ca rried ou t a l l the rites,a nd employed the form s n ecessa ry t o con str a in the divin e will in

his fa vor .1 Hen ce it resu lted th a t a l l the priests, thou gh -a ppoin ted

for l ife 2 a n d form in g p a rticu l a r coll eges, rem a in ed, a s sen a tors a n d

m a gistr a tes, a ctive m em bers of society,a n d a s citizen s su bj ect t o

the l a w a n d it s represen t a tives .3

I f then rel igion a n d its min isters were , a t Rom e , closely con

n ect ed with'

pol itica l m a tters,it wa s n ot by ru ling them

,b u t in

rem a in in g su bordin a te to them . This depen den ce l a sted a s lon g

a s p a ga n Rom e ; thence c a m e her su periority in governm en t a n d

h er in feriority in a rt a n d poetry, which in Greece were born in

the precin cts of the tem ples .

N either speci a l kn owledge n or pecu l i a r voca tion w a s requ ired

of those who desired to b e

priests . I f Rom e h a d a clergy,

she h a d n o sa ce rdot a l cl a ss

possessin g grea t wea lth or re

ceivin g tithes ; a n d n o religiou s

in terest w a s recogn ized a p a rt

from st a te in terest. The a u

g‘

u rs cou ld on ly con su lt a u spices

on the order of the m a gistra tes ;a n d it w a s forbidden to reve a l

a n o r a cle to the people u n lessA N CI L I A ’ OR SH I E LDS O F MA R S "

th e Sen a te h a d a u thorized it .6

Ou r a n cestors,

s a ys Cicero,“ were n ever wiser or better in spired

by the gods th a n when they settled th a t the s a m e person s

shou ld preside over rel igion a n d th e governm en t of the Repu blic.

1 M . B onché-L eclercq (L es P on tif es d e l’

a n cien n e R ome) very j u stly rem a rks tha t a tR ome the priest on ly figures in re l igiou s solem n ities a s the m a ster of ceremon ies.

2 Pl iny, E p . iv. 8.

3 On ly the d u umviri s a cr is f a ciu nd is, a fterw a rd the decem virs, the interpreters of the

Sibyll ine B ooks, the fla men of Ju piter, a nd , a fter th e commencement of the R epu bl ic, the rex

sa crorum, cou ld fu lfi l n o other pu bl ic cha rge. The Vesta ls were a lso devoted to the a lta r ; “

yet

the y cou ld, a fter thirty yea rs of du ty, re-enter ci v il life. T he pontiff a n d a u gu rs once cla im edto b e exempt from th e ta xes imposed on other citizen s ; b u t the qu a estors forced them to pa y.

(L i vy, xxx i i i.1 T a ken from a gem in the collect ion of F lorence.6 Dionys .

,xxx ix . 5.

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226 ROME UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

a ccou n t to either Sen a te or peopl e, wa tched , u n der the presiden cy

of th e high pon tiff, over th e m a in ten a n ce of the l a ws a n d reli

gion s in stitu tion s ; they a lso settled the ca len da r, a n d which da yswere lu cky or u n lu cky, — thu s ren derin g th e a dm in istr a tion of ju sticea n d the holdin g of th e com i t i a t o a certa in exten t depen den t u ponthem . On th e d a y th a t the n ew moon showed her golden sickle inth e hea ven s, on e of the pon ti ffs, c a ll ed (ca l a re) the people together

on the Ca pitol, a n d t a u ght them how m a ny d a ys t o reckon from

th e k a len ds to th e n on es.1 On the d a y of the n on es a n other pon

tiff a n n ou n ced the festiv a ls to b e celebr a ted du rin g the m on th,

— a n a n n ou n cemen t which is m a de on Su n d a ys in ou r chu rches.

Fin a lly, th e pon tiffs kept th e record of sa cred a cts,phen om

en a , a n d a l l even ts which a ppea red‘

to ha ve a religiou s ch a ra cter ;hen ce ca m e the Gr ea t A n ii a ls .

Th e Vest a ls were a t first fou r in n um ber, two for ea ch tribe ;a fter the a ddition of the L a ceres there were six . When a v a c a n cy

occu rred in th e college , the K ing, a s chief pon tiff, chose twen ty

you n g p a trici a n m a iden s of from six to t en yea rs’

of a ge, withou t

a ny b lem ish, a n d who seem ed to prom ise bea u ty. The lot , a s

represen tin g the divin e will,design a ted which of them wa s to b e

con secra ted priestess. When the selection wa s m a de , the hea d

pon tiff took the ha n d of the chosen on e :“ I t a ke thee, he sa id ;

thou sh a lt b e priestess of Vest a , a n d sh a lt perform the s a cred

rites for the sa fety of the Rom a n people .

”Then he l ed her t o

the reg i a , the s a cerdot a l dwellin g, where her l ooks fell ben e a th

th e she a rs,2a n d where her sisters cl a d her in white. I t wa s ou r

m odern t a kin g of the ve il .

The virgin s of Vesta w a tched by tu rn s over the m a in ten a n ce

of the fi re which bu rn ed n ight a n d d a y on her a lta r. I f it shou ld

1 The R om a n ye a r seem s to ha ve a t fir st cou nted on ly t en month s, M a rch, A pril , M a y,

Ju n e, the v .,vi .

,vi i i.

,ix.

, a nd x th m onths. Those l a tter, from the seventh to th e tenth, ha venot cha n ged the ir n a me ; we sti ll s a y September, October, N ovem ber, a n d December. L ivy( i. 19 ) a ttribu tes to N um a th e div is ion of the yea r of 3 55 d a ys into twel ve lu n a r m onths,with the in sertion of complem enta ry m onth s, which a t the en d of n in eteen ye a rs pu t thelu n a r ye a r in a greem ent with the sol a r. E a ch m onth wa s divided into three pa rts, the

k a lends, wh ich m a rked the first d a y, the n one s (n on u s, n inth ) , which comprised the n ined a ys precedin g th e id es, a n d these ( id u a re, t o divide) which bega n in the .m id d le of the month,the l a st d a y of which wa s ca l led the eve of the k a len ds.

2 Pl iny, N a t. H ist. xv i . 85. T he reg ia , wh ich wa s a sserted to b e the hou se of N um a ,

wa s the hea d pon tifi ’

s resi dence ; behind it were the a trium a nd temple of Vesta .

RE LIG ION A ND RE LIG IOUS IN STITUTION S. 227

h a ppen t o go ou t , it w a s a terrible om en for Rom e ; she who

h a d been gu ilty of the n eglect w a s bea ten with rods in a d a rk

pl a ce by the chief pon ti ff, who a fterw a rd re—l ighted the fire by

ru bbing together two pieces of wood t a ken from a

tree of good fortu n e, f el ia : a rbos ; in l a ter tim es , by

con cen tr a ting in a m eta l v a se th e r a ys of the su n .

l

They h a d to m a ke l ib a tion s, offer sa crifices , a n d per

form a stra n ge cerem on y,which dou btless h a d som e

conn ection with thei r v ow of virgin ity. When, on

V E ST A M

the 15th of April , th e pon t ifi s imm ol a ted thirty pregn a n t cows,

the em bryos were t a ken a n d comm itted to the Chief Vest a l , whobu rn ed them a n d c a refu lly kept the cin ders

,which She distribu ted

a m ong the people on th e d a y of the Pa lil i a,th a t they m ight m a ke

expi a tory o fferin gs of them .3 E very m orn in g they clea n sed the

tem ple with w a ter dra w n from th e fou n t a in

of E geri a in a vessel with a l a rge mou th a n d

en ding in a poin t, f u tile, SO th a t it cou ld n ot

b e set down on th e grou n d withou t th e w a ter

bein g spilled . They h a d th e protection of F a s

cinu s, th e god who a verts evil spells , a n d th a t FUT I LE , V A SE O F T H E

of the holy rel ics, pledges of the du ra tion ofV E ST A LS '

4

em pire, f a t a le p ign u s imp erii.5 These rel ics

,preserved in the m ost

secret pl a ce of the s a n ctu a ry,were th e P a ll a dium ,

a Sh a pe less

st a tu ette of Pa ll a s, a n d the fetiches which were sa id to h a ve been

brou ght from Sa mothra ce to Troy by D a rd a n u s , a n d from Troy to

Ita ly by Aen ea s . The Chief Vesta l, m a xim a virgo, a lon e pen etr a ted

this holy of holies.

Their fun ction s l a sted thirty yea rs,a t th e en d of which the

Vest a ls cou ld re-en ter the world, a n d even m a rry ; b u t very few

took a dv a n t a ge of this right ; they en ded their l ives n e a r the

goddess t o whom they h a d vowed the ir virgin ity . A s a com pen

1 Dionys. ii . 67; P lut., N um a , 10 ; F estu s , s . v . P en us V esta e'

. The a rbores f el ices were,however, ra ther num erou s, — the oa k, th e he lm-o a k, the beech, the m oun ta in -a sh .

2 T a ken from th e Ca b in et d e F ra nce.8 Ovid, F a s t . i v. 6 29 , seq. M ention h a s been m a de (pa ge 13 9) of the twenty a rgei, or

figures of m en in wicker-work , which were thrown by the Vesta ls into the T iber every ye a r.‘1 Serv iu s ( a d A en . xi. 3 3 9) a sserts tha t hence com es the word f u l il is , design a ting a

m a n inca pa ble of keeping wha t is con fided t o him . Ta ken from th e C a t a l og u e Du ra n d byM . d e W itte .

5 Li vy, xx vi. 2 7.

R OM E UNDE R TH E K IN GS.

sa tion for this sa crifice, they received the grea test respect a nd

en joyed grea t hon ors. Free from a l l ties of rel a tion ship,th a t is,

rele a sed from p a tern a l restra in t, p a tri a p otest a s,

a n d from the gu a rdi a n ship of their kin ,they cou ld

receive lega cies a n d dispose of their goods by

test a m en t . I n cou rts of ju stice they m a de depo

sit ion s withou t be in g obliged to t a ke the o a th .

On m eetin g them ,the m a gistr a te h a d

.

the fa sces

lowered ; a n d the crimin a l being l ed to pu n ish

men t w a s set free, provided they decl a red they

h a d a cciden ta lly crossed his p a th .

Bu t,on th e other h a n d, wha t a horrible dea th

if they broke their vow ! At the extrem ity of the Qu irin a l,

between th e Coll in e g a te a n d the pl a ce where a fterw a rd stood

the fa m ou s g a rden s of Sa llu st, w a s the “a ccu rsed field,

”ca mp u s

sceler a tu s . There w a s du g a n u n dergrou n d ch a m ber, where in the

gu i lty priestess wa s to b e bu ried a live . Pl a ced on the bier,which

w a s su rrou n ded with thick coverin gs t o stifle her cries, She w a s

born e with m ou rn fu l pom p a cross the Forum , throu gh the silen t

crowd,to the v a u lt, wherein were pl a ced a b ed

,a l ighted l a m p,

som e brea d, a li ttle w a ter,m ilk

,a n d oil

, proy ision s for on e d a y,

TH E PA LLA D I UM .1

in a n etern a l prison , the m ockin g help of a piety u nwillin g to

h a ve to give a n a ccou n t to Vesta of the m u rder of on e of her

virgin s ! When th e fu n er a l tr a in h a d a rrived a t the pl a ce of

tortu re the high priest u ttered secret pr a yers ; then the bier wa s

Open ed,a n d

,wr a pped in her white veils a s in a Shrou d

,the victim

descen ded by a l a dder in to her tom b, th e open in g of which wa s

speedily covered by the sl a ves . The ea rth wa s stu diou sly levelled,in order th a t n othing m ight revea l the pl a ce where

,in the

d a rk n ight a n d cold of the gr a ve, the Vest a l expi a ted a s a crilege

which perch a n ce She h a d n ever comm itted . N o on e ca m e there

to m a ke those l ib a tion s which the poorest Offered to the M a n es.2

Sh e w a s cu t Off a t on ce from the world of the livin g a n d of

the de a d .

When the sen ten ce wa s a ccomplished, the crowd slowly melted

1 A fter a silver co in of the Ju l i a n fa m ily.2 I n the tim e of Pluta rch, however (Q u a es t. R om. the priests ca me thith er to perform

expi a tion s.

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280 ROM E UNDE R TH E R I N GS.

The twen ty f etia les , e lected for life, a n d t a ken from the m ost

n oble f a m ilies, form ed a college a t on ce pol itica l a n d rel igiou s,

which presided over in tern a tion a l a cts. When Romethou ght she h a d a right to com pl a in of som e n a tion

,

a feti a l is — ca lled, for the occ a sion,the p a ter p a tr a tu s

of the Rom a n people — wa s sen t ou t . H e set forth,

on h is hea d a fillet of white wool a n d a crown of

” 3

:55n n verv a in , which he h a d cu lled on th e Ca pitol. Wh enhe a rrived a t the en emy ’ s fron tier h e cried : “ Hea r

m e,Ju piter ! Hea r m e

, G od of bou n d a ries ! A n d thou , s a cred

ora cle of right (f a s), hea r . I a m the m essen ger of the Rom a n

people ; I com e in a l l ju stice, a n d my words deserve a l l tru st .”

Then he enumera ted the griev a n ces -of the Rom a n s,bea rin g witn ess

by solem n im preca tion s tha t they were well fou n ded . “ I f it is

a ga in st right a n d my con scien ce th a t I dem a n d these person s a n d

these thin gs to b e del ivered u p t o m e, the m essen ger of the

Rom a n people,m a y Ju piter n ever perm it m e to retu rn in to my

cou n try. Adva n cin g in to the en em y’

s cou n try,he a ddressed the

s a m e words to the first in ha bit a n t whom he m et,then to those

whom he fou n d a t the ga tes of the prin cip a l city,a n d fin a lly in

the forum to the m a gistra tes . I f,a t the en d of thirty-three d a ys,

s a tisf a ction h a d n ot been a ccorded h im,he

/

cried : “ He a rken ,Ju piter, a n d thou , Ja n u s Qu irinu s, a n d a l l ye gods of hea ven

,

ea rth, a n d the lower region s, I t a ke you to witn ess th a t this

n a tion is u n j u st a n d viol a tes right. H ow sh a ll we a ven ge ou t

ra ged right ? Ou r ol d m en will decide . A n d he retu rn ed to

Rom e . I f the Sen a te a n d people decided to ha ve recou rse t o a rm s,

th e feti a lis wen t b a ck to the en emy ’ s fron tier bea rin g a j a velin,

the en d of which h a d been bu rn ed a n d redden ed in blood,a n d

there c a st this thre a t of fi re a n d ca rn a ge,a n n ou n cin g a t the

s a m e tim e the open in g of hostilities . At a la ter period,a n d

u n ti l the tim e of the E m pire, when the en em y w a s on the E lbe

a n d E u phr a tes, the feti a l is perform ed the sa m e cerem on ies, b u t

withou t go in g ou t of Rom e . On th e Field of M a rs, n ea r the

Tem ple of Bellon a,rose th e colum n of wa r

,which represen ted

the l imit of the Rom a n fron tier. There the feti a lis c a st his

1 G old co in from th e Ca b in et d e F r a nce.

RE LIG ION A ND RE L IG IOUS IN STITUTION S. 2 3 1

bloody j a vel in ,a n d Rome thou ght she h a d con scien tiou sly per

form ed a l l the rites which obliged the gods'

to gra n t her vic

tory.

At the sa crifice offered on the con clu sion of a trea ty, the fetia l is

killed the victim with a fl in t ston e , — the

ston e when ce spa rks fla shed,a n d which, on

a ccorm t of this property, w a s often pl a ced

in ' the h a n d of Ju piter,in ste a d of the

d a rts which represen ted lightn in g-fla sh es.1

The grea ter num ber of s a cerdota l col

leges fi l l ed-

u p v a ca n cies!

by co-option , th a t

is to sa y, the su rvivors m a de the election .2

This w a s on e m e a n s of preservin g secret

the tr a dition s of the corpora tion . The

fla m en s were design a ted, like the V esta ls,by the chief pon tiff.

To a id the priests in the holy cerem on ies

there were a ssoci a ted with them children of

noble f a m ily a n d perfect bea u ty, to whom

wa s given the n a m e of ca m il li, born e by

Mercu ry,the m essen ger of the gods .4 The

CA M “ ”15 '

s

divin ities of Greece, especi a lly a lso those of Rome,were thou gh t

to b e mu ch im pressed by bea u ty, which w a s on e of their gi fts .

They exa cted it in their priests,

a n d were offen ded if they

were n ot served by the most perfect a tten d a n ce ; e. g . Ju n o, who,“ in the belief of m a ny

,

”sa ys V a leriu s M a xim u s ,

6 “ m a de Va rrolose the b a ttle of Ca nn a e beca u se h e h a d given the ca re Of the

tem ple of Ju piter Ca pitol in u s t o a m ost be a u tifu l you n g m a n,whom

she wished to see a tt a ched to her own a lt a r . We h a ve pre

served som ewh a t Of this respect for the work of G od in those

who con secr a te them selves to his service ; cert a in bodily defects

a re a n Obsta cle to ordin a tion .

The expen ses of worship a n d the m a in ten a n ce of the priests

1 A rnob iu s, v i . 25.1 Cicero, P hil. x i i i. 5, a nd B ru t. 1.

3 This Ca m i ll u s, or servitor of the pontiff s, seem s to ca rry the sprinkler in hi s left ha n d ,a nd in his right the s il u l a , or pa il , conta in ing the w a ter n ecessa ry for the ceremony.

4 P a eri seu p u el l a e, ingenu i,f el icissimi, p a tr imi m a trimiqu e. Cf. F est ., s. v. F l a min iu s.6 I. i. 16 .

2 3 2 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN GS.

were provided for by a certa in tra ct of l a n d a ssign ed to e a ch temple .1

I n l a ter ti mes the st a te even a llowed a su bsidy .

2

The dom estic worship of certa in fa m i lies a lso m a de p a rt of

the pu blic worship of the city ; a s , for in st a n ce, the L up erca lia , of

which the gen tes Fa bi a a n d Q u in ct ia held the heredit a ry priest

hood,a n d the s a crifices in hon or of Hercu les,

3 which m u st b e

performed by Pin a ria n s or Pot it ia n s.

V. PUB L I C FE ST I VAL S.

TH E festiv a ls , like the gods, were inn umer a ble ; for in a l l a gesthe It a li a n h a s loved rel igiou s services

,a s bein g a brea k in the

m on otony of ordin a ry life, a n occ a sion for piou s cerem on ies,n oisy

ga m es,a n d m ea ls in which the poor Spen t the sa vin gs of a whole

week . I t will here Su ffice to poin t ou t a few which displ a y in a

distin ctive m a n n er the cu stom s of a n cien t tim es.

Cert a in festiv a ls, still celebra ted in the tim e of Ca esa r,

4a n d long

a fter,rec a lled th e ru ra l lif e

,co a rse m a n n ers

,a n d selfish devotion of

the Rom a n s . From P a les they a sked wh a t thei r descen d a n ts a sked

of Sa in t An tony,the hea lth of their flocks ; of

/

L u percu s, the god

wol f who protected th e fa rm a ga in st the terrible be a st whose n a m e

he bore,they a sked their i ncrea se ; of Dea -Dia

,a n a bu n da n t

h a rvest . On the d a y of th e Lu perca li a,th e priests r a n h a lf-n a ked

throu gh th e town,a rm ed with whips

,the thongs of which were

m a de with the Skin of the deer a n d of dogs o ffered in s a crifice to

th e god of fertility, a n d with them they stru ck a l l whom they

m et , especi a lly the wom en,who, by su bm ittin g , thou ght to esca pe

the Opprobrium of sterility, or t o in su re them selves a h a ppy de

l ivery. On the P a l il i a , the Shepherds jum ped thrice over a bu rn ing

h a ycock,a n d m a de their a n ima ls go throu gh the pu n gen t sm oke.

1 Dion ys., i i . 7; F estu s, s. v . Oscum ; Sicu lu s F l a cc., d e Cond . A gror. p. 23 , ed . Goes.2 T o the Ve sta ls (L i vy, i. t o the a u gurs (Dionys., ii . a n d prob a bly to other

colleges. T he Ve sta ls, the pon tif ex m a ximu s, a n d the rea r s a crorum h a d moreover a d omu s

p u b l ica , or re sidence gra nted by the sta te.3 The R om a n H ercu les , who w a s identica l with th e Sa bine Sa ncu s, a nd wa s a lso the God

o f G ood F a ith (mekercu le) , bec a u se h e w a s the strong god , took the n a me of R eca ra n u s, or

G a re-nu s. (A nr. V ic., Or ig . 6 ; Serv., a d A en . vi .Plut.

, Ca es . 6 1.

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2 3 4: ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN GS.

by a n expi a tory sa crifice . Bein g con voked by the hera ld,they

a ssem bled in the Fie ld of M a rs,whither the K ing

,

“scen ted with

m yrrh a n d sweet-sm ellin g pl a n ts,

”h a d resorted a t d a ybrea k with

the servitors,who l ed a hog , a Sheep , a n d a bu ll . Three tim es

he m a de the rou n d of the a ssem bly,repe a tin g hym n s a n d pra yers ;

then he immol a ted th e victim s, a n d the su oveta u rile1w a s per

form ed . Son gs , pra yers, Offerin gs, were a l l these good-n a tu red gods

dem a nded to keep them a t pea ce with the ir people .

I n gr a ve circum sta n ces,du rin g a pestilen ce or a m idst som e

pu blic misfortu n e , they a dm itted their people to comm u n ion with

them . Their st a tu es were c a rried t o a t a ble rea dy sprea d ; the

gods were l a id u pon cou ches, a s a t th e Rom a n mea ls,

the goddesses were pl a ced sittin g ; a n d th e popu la r

im a gin a tion ,highly excited by d a n ger

,s a w them

a ccept the fea st, or som etim es tu rn a w a y their hea ds

ST A T E B E Dfrom i t in a nger.1 I S it to som e mem ory of these

F O

T

R

I VKiE

OiE S‘

stony gu ests, sti l l preserved in Sp a in ,th a t the terrible

L s cn sm n legen d of the comm en d a tore (in Don Ju a n ), cl ConviN I UM.

2

d a d o d e p i ed ra ,3I S d u e ?

Su ch Gods a n d su ch festiva ls Show the Rom a n revell in g, like

the Greek,in th a t in toxi ca tion with n a tu re which the grea t

en cha n tress h a d offered to a l l the Ary a n r a ce, —a n in toxica tiondelightfu l a n d fru itfu l for th e son s of Hom er a n d Pl a to

,oppres

s ive a n d b a rren for the son s of Rom u lu s ; for the form er fou n d

therein a lovely a n d su blim e idea l, which the l a tter n ever kn ew,

a n d of which they on ly ca u ght a glim pse on the d a ys when they

cea sed to b e Rom a n s .

1 I J I V Y, X1. 59.

2 Si lver coin of the fa m i ly of Ca e li a , with the n a mes of L.Ca l d u s, sep temvir ep u lonum,

a nd C. Ca ld u s,m on eta ry triumvir.

3 M a gn ien , L es Orig in es d a Thea tre, i . 252 .

R E V E R SE OF A BR ON ZE PI E CE OF FA UST I N A T H E YOUN G E R . V E ST A HOLD I NG T H E

PA LLA D I UM A N D T H E CU P F O R L I BA T I ON S.

CHA PTE R I V .

CHANGES I N R E L IGION ANDCONSTITUTION UNDE R THE THR E E L AST KINGS.

I . TH E GODS OF E T R UR I A A T ROM E ; RE F ORM S or TA R QU I NT H E E LDE R .

H E third a n d fou rth kings of Rom e a re repetition s of the

two first : Tu l lu s is a n ew Romulu s, An ou s a secon d Num a,

a su spiciou s symm etry which is repu gn a n t t o history, b u t in

which legen d delights . Legen d , however, a ttribu tes a speci a l

cha r a cteristic to Tu llu s : h e com pletes the city,by givin g it its

m il it a ry in stitu tion s, — m ilit a ris rei in stitu tor .1

The reign of the three l a st kin gs m a rks, on the other h a n d,

a n ew era . Wha tever m a y b e the ca u se,

—hé it the pe a cefu l or

forcible settlem en t of som e E tru sc a n chief, or a lon g period,

u n kn own to u s, which prepa red the tr a n sform a tion , — it is cert a in

th a t the city, whose territory w a s on ly Six miles lon g by two

broa d,h a s becom e a grea t town ,

which covers the seven hills, a n d

erects m on umen ta l bu ildings , which cou n ts its in h a bita n ts by the

hu n dred thou s a n d , a n d exten ds it s power a f a r ; a n d fin a lly,which

repl a ces a n cien t“ Sim plicity by the Splen dor Of it s fea sts,it s fet ich

gods by th e grea t E tru sca n divin ities , a n d thei r modest a lt a rs by

the Ca pito l with it s hu n dred steps“Whether it w a s a herita ge of the Pel a sgi , or, m ore prob

a bly, borrowed from th e Greek colon ies of It a ly throu gh the

medium of the Ca mp a n ia n E tru sca n s, the gods of Greece were

grea tly hon ored in the sou thern cities of E tru ri a . Then ce they

ca m e to Rome. T a rqu in the E lder, it is sa id,drove a l l the gods

1 Orosiu s, n . 4. Floru s, i. 3 , a lso sa ys : hic omnem m il ita rem d iscip l in a m a rtemqu e bel l a nd i

cond id it.

R OM E UNDE R TH E K IN GS.

of N um a from the T a rpe i a n ,in order to r a ise a temple there to

th e grea t celesti a l f a m ily , Ju piter, Ju n o, a n d Min erva . Y ou th

a lon e a n d the g od Term in u s opposed it ; for the Rom a n peoplewa s n ever to grow ol d , n or it s fron tiers t o recede . Ceres

, who

wa s iden tified with P a les, a n d whose priestess wa s a lw a ys a

Greek,c a lled from N a ples or from Vel i a (E lea )

1 to do the

du ties of the s a n ctu a ry which w a s r a ised t o her a fter the

f a min e of 496 B .C. ; Di a n a , who w a s con fou n ded with Feron i a,

JUN O. JUPI T E R . M I N E R V A .3

the protectress of the comm on people,2 t o whom Serviu s bu ilt

a tem ple ; Vu lc a n ,whom T a tiu s a lrea dy hon ored ; Mercu ry, the

plebei a n god of the comm erce which h a d a risen ,a n d the elo

qu en ce which wa s to in crea se , offered a d a n gerou s com petition to

the n a tive gods. Apol lo, N eptu n e, Cybele , a n d Venu s did n ot

1 Cic., p ro B a lbo, 24.

2 Dionys., i i i. 3 2 .8 These three bronze sta tues, fou nd in the exca v a tions of H ercul a neum , a re of a comp a ra

t ively recent d a te.

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2 3 8 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

in spirin g the former a n d m a king h im u n con sciou sly report fromhea ven the divin e decree m ost con form a ble t o the in terests of the

sta te .1

This bel ief in Sign s en ded by m a kin g th e Rom a n s th e m ost

rel igiou s people in the u n iverse .“ I t w a s, sa id Polybiu s

,

“on e

of the ca u ses of her gre a tn ess .” A n d the frien d of Scipio is right ;for this

.

blin d piety, i f it did n ot g a in the fa vor of the gods,

a t lea st a ssu red the power of the a ristocra cy, by keeping the

people depen den t on the m ost experien ced a n d the wisest cl a ss.

Besides, in spite of their belief in the a u gu rs,the Rom a n n obility

a n d it s Sen a te n ever a b a n don ed e a rthly thin gs for religion till

hum a n pru den ce h a d n othin g left to d o. I n ca se of n eed,they

a ltered f a t a l pres a ges by th e freest in terpret a tion s, withou t the ir

fa ith bein g a l a rm ed therea t. A con su l w a s a bou t to en ga ge in

ba ttle, a n d the divin er a n n ou n ced h a ppy om en s ; he w a s m ista ken,

the Sign s were con tra ry. Th a t con cern s h im, s a id the con su l

,

“a n d n ot m e or my a rm y

, t o whom f a vora ble a u spices h a ve been

prom ised a n d he en ga ged in a ction . At the first en cou n ter the

divin er fell ; b u t the con su l w a s victoriou s .

I t w a s T a rqu in the E lder,t oo, who first l a id h a n ds on the

ol d con stitu tion ,n ot to cha n ge it, b u t t o bro a den it s fou n d a tion s.

I n spite of th e opposition of the p a trici a n s a n d of th e a u gu r

N a viu s,he form ed a hu n dred n ew p a tricia n f a m il ies, whose chiefs

en tered the Sen a te (p a tres m inorum gen tium ). W'

ere these the rich

est a n d n oblest of the plebei a n s, or on ly the chiefs of the Lu ceres,

Sp a in , the books which trea ted of sa cred things, discovered th a t, a s president of the con su l a rcom iti a , h e h a d om itted on e of the rites. H e ha sten ed to m a ke known this m i sta ke to the col

lege of a u gurs, who immedi a tely informed the Sen a te of it , a n d the two con su ls were obl igedt o a bdica te . (V a l . M a x .

, I. i . 3 Plu t., M a rc.

1 A ug u r iis s a cerd otioque a u g u r a m t a n tu s honos a ccessit, a t n ihil bel l i d omigu e p oste a n isi

a u spica to g ereretu r. (L i vy, i. The a u gurs h a d the right of decl a ring the a u spices tob e contra ry. Comitia tu s et concil ia , vel in stitu ta , d im ittere, vel ha b ita rescind ere d ecern ere

u t m a gis’

tra ta se a bd icen t ca u sa les. (Cic., d e L eg . i i. T he m a gistra tes h a d to con su ltthem for a l l the ir enterprises, a nd qu iqu e n on p a r u er it, ca p ita l es to. ( I d .

, d e L eg . i i . B u t

prodigie s were on ly referred t o the a u gurs by the order of the Se n a te , s i Sen a tu s j u ss lt,d ef er un to . ( I b id . i i , The scien ce of a u gury , sa ys Cicero e lsewhere , “ h a s been preservedfor sta te re a son s ” : J u s a u g u r a m etsi d ivin a t ion is op in ione prin cip io con s titu tum sit, l a men p ost

cd rei p u b l ica e ca u sa , con serva tum a c reten tum . (De Divin . i i . I n De R ep u bl ica , i i. 10a nd 9

, he s a ys of R om u lu s : Q u um h a ec eg reg ia d u o fi rm a men ta rei p u b l ica e p ep er isset, a u s

picia et Sen a tum id quod retin emus Izod ie m a g n a cum s a lu te rei p u b l ica e. The

n ecessa ry inform a tion a bout the a u gurs will b e fou nd in Sa g lio’

s Dicl . d es A n tiq. Gr. 6!

R om , pp. 550-560 , a nd a bout the a u spices , I bid ., pp. 580-583 .

CHAN G E S UNDE R TH E TH RE E LAST K IN G S. 2 3 9

u n ti l this tim e kept ou t o f the Sen a te , a n d n ow a dm itted t o i t by

T a rqu in ,the fore ign kin g ? The in crea se in the n um ber of Vest a ls ,

from fou r to six,wou ld seem t o con firm the opin ion th a t he sou ght

t o ra ise th e third t rib e to a n equ a lity with the origin a l two . Cicero,

however , a ffi rm s tha t the p a trici a te wa s dou bled 1a n d Livy

,n a rra t

ing the crea tion of three n ew cen tu ries of kn ights , ca lls them R a m

n eu ses , Ti tien ses , a n d L u ceres pos teriores . Thu s we h a ve the first

a n d secon d r a n k of Ra m n en ses,.T it ien ses , a n d L u cereS ;

2a s l a ter

there wa s a division in th e Sen a te , which is n ot very clea rly u n der

stood, Of p a l res m a j orum a n d p a tres m inorum gen tium , th e l a tter

voting a fter the form er . The method of cha n ge is n ot im port a n t,

the m a in f a ct bein g u n dou bted th a t th e p a trici a te w a s r a dica lly

m odified by T a rqu in ; a n d we m a y con sider this a s a prep a ra tory

step towa rds the gre a t reform s in trodu ced by Serviu s .

I I . R E F OR M S or SE R VIUS TULLIUS.

WE ha ve seen3 th a t th e Rom a n s represen ted their s ixth king

a s speci a lly u n der protection of the gods . The E m peror Cl a u diu s,who com posed a history of the E tru sca n s, sa id on on e occ a s ion in

the Sen a te :“ Ou r writers m a in t a in th a t Serviu s w a s th e son of a

sl a ve n a m ed Ocrisia , while E tru sca n a n n a ls represen t him a s the

com p a n ion -in -a rm s of Ca el es V ib en n a , a n d sh a rin g a l l the l a tter ’ s

a dven tu res. Driven ou t of E tru ri a by some u n fortu n a te tu rn of

even ts, these two chiefs est a blished them selves, with wha t rem a in ed

of their a rmy, u pon the Ca el i a n hill , which took its n a me from

Ca el es V ib enn a . Serviu s , who in E tru ri a h a d born e the n a m e of

M a st a rn a , n ow a dopted the on e by which h e is known to u s.

E ven tu a lly he bec a m e K in g of Rom e, occu pyin g the thron e with

ren own a n d for th e good of the st a te .

” 4 A tomb a t Vu lci,

1 Duplica vit il l um p ristin um p a lrum n umera m. (De R ep . ii. Cf. L ivy, i. 3 6 ; V a l.M a x .

, I I I . iv. 2 .

2 L i vy, i. 3 6 , a d flnem. Civit a s R om a n a in sex er a t d istribu ta p a rtes, in p rimos secu n d osqu eT itienses , R a mnenses, cl L u ceres. ( F estu s, s. v.Sex sufi ra g ia .) H ence six Vesta ls, Ut popu lu sp ro su a qu a qu e p a rte Iza beret et min is tra m sa crorum. ( F e st., s.v. Sex V est a e S a cerd otes.)Th is num ber w a s never cha n ged a g a in . Cf. Cic., d cDiv. i. 17; Dionys., i i i. 71.

3 Pa ge 161.4 This discourse of Cl a u diu s, of wh ichTa citu s h a s given the substa nce, is engra ved on two

240 R OM E UNDE R TH E K IN GS.

discovered a bou t twen ty ye a rs Sin ce,

1con firm s the recit a l of the

im peri a l histori a n ,or proves, a t lea st, tha t this wa s a n a tion a l legen d

in E tru ri a . Upon a w a ll of the tomb a re represen ted two figu reson e

, who exten ds h is bou n d h a n ds,the other , who cu ts the thon g, a n d

holds u n der h is a rm the sword with which h e is a bou t to a rm h is

frien d . Thei r n a m es a re written a bove their hea ds ; Ca el es V ib enn ais the ca ptive, a n d his deliverer is M a st a rn a . Here a re th e two

!m m »com pa n ion s-in -a rm s

,who a fter

m a n i fold a dven tu res,som etimes

perilou s l ike th a t represen ted inthe pictu re , a rrived in Rom e

,

where on e becom es chief of the

people of M a rs , the other giveshis n a m e to the Ca el ia n hill.

I t is e a sy to u n dersta n d th a t

Roma n pride wou ld grea tly

prefer the fa vorite of their

gre a t gods to this E tru sca n a d

ven tu rer, seekin g fortu n e a tCA E L E S V I B E N N A A N D M A STA R N A .

the pOI n t of his sword .

Th is a dven tu rer wa s,however, a m a n of pea ce. Bu t on e w a r

is a scribed to him , a n ot very wel l a u then tica ted ca m pa ign a ga in st

the people of Vei i,2 which Dionysiu s of H a l ica rn a ssu s tra n sform s

in to a victory over the whole E tru sca n n a tion . Serviu s is,a bove

a l l , the legisl a tor . Bu t sh a ll we s a y th a t the con stitu tion which

be a rs his n a m e wa s rea lly his own , or tha t it w a s the work of the

time ? This reform a tion ,which stil l l a sted a s long a s Rom a n

l iberty en du red,m u st h a ve Spru ng, not from the m in d of on e

m a n , b u t from soci a l a nd pu blic n eeds. The p a trici a n s, or origin a l

ta bles of bron ze fou nd a t Lyon s in 1524 by a pe a sa nt who w a s trenchi ng h is viney a rd. [I t isnow to b e fou nd a ppen ded to most good edition s of T a citu s’ A n n a l s. E d ]

1 I n 1857, in the sa me fu n era l cha mber a t Vu lc i in which A chi l les w a s representedsa crificin g some Troj a n ca ptives ( see p. The lu cum o who h a d been l a id there h a d withou t dou bt som e sim il a r brother-in-a rm s ; for the two pictures express the sa me idea , the devotion of a w a rrior tow a rds the frien d who foll owed h im in b a ttle : A chi lles a ven ges P a troclu s,a nd M a st a rn a de li vers Ca eles. These fe ll owsh ips in wa r m u st b e a n E tru sca n cu stom . (Cf.

N oe' l d es Vergers, R evu e a rche

’

oL , 186 3 , p. [They were , a s we know, a n ol d Greekcu stom , especi a l ly in Spa rta a nd a mong the A b a ntes of E u boe a .— E d .]

2 Li vy, i. 4 2. [This does not a gree with the rese a rches of V. G a rd th a u sen (M a st a rn a ,

p. who shows tha t h is ru le wa s a m i l ita ry revolt a ga in st E truri a by a n E truri a n le a der ofthe L a tin s. E d ]

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242 ROME UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

a dmin istra tive, for e a ch district h a d it s ju dges for civi l m a tters,

1 it s

tribu n e (cu ra tor tribu s) to keep a ccou n t of the fortu n es,a n d to

a ssess the t a xes ; a n d l a stly, it w a s m i lita ry, for these tribu n es a lsoregu l a ted the m ili ta ry service of their tribesm en

,a n d in c a se of

su dden in v a sion collected them in a fort bu ilt in th e cen tre of the

c a n ton ? The st a te w a s com posed,then

,of 3 0 comm u n es (p a rishes),

h a ving their chiefs, their ju dges, their pa rticu l a r gods, b u t n o

politic a l rights, these rights bein g on ly exercised in the ca pita l.

Withou t tou chin g th e privileges of the p a trici a n s, Serviu s secu red

t o the plebe i a n s th a t m u n icip a l orga n iza tion which m u st precede,a n d which in trodu ces

,pol itica l l iberty. A s the p a trici a n s ga ve their

n a m e t o a l l th e tribes except on e, we h a ve the right t o con clu de

tha t they preserved their influ en ce . in th e ca n ton s where the ir

esta tes were, a n d th a t they prob a bly filled a l l th e offices of ju dges

a n d m u n icip a l tribu n es . Bu t for th e first tim e they fou n d

them selves con fou n ded with the plebei a n s in a territori a l division

in which birth a n d tra dition s were om itted . Th a t a lon e w a s

en ou gh to ca u se a revolu tion . A tim e will come when these

tribes desire a n d obta in pol itica l rights . Tha t will b e the victory

of n um bers ; the cen tu ries secu red th a t of We a lth .

Serviu s h a d m a de the cen su s, or n um berin g, which w a s for

the fu tu re t o b e ren ewed every five yea rs E a ch citizen

c a m e t o decl a re u n der oa th h is n a m e,his a ge, h is f a m ily

, the

n um ber of h is Sl a ves, a n d the v a lu e of his possession s ? A f a lse

decl a ra tion wou ld ha ve l ed t o th e loss of property,l iberty

,a n d

even Of l ife .4 Kn owin g thu s a l l m en

’

s fortu n es, h e divided citizen s,in proportion to their property, in to five cl a sses, a n d e a ch cl a ss

in to a differen t n um ber of cen tu ries . Dionysiu s Spea ks of six

cl a sses,a n d a ssign s t o the first 98 cen tu ries, whilst the five others

together h a d on ly 95. I n e a ch cl a ss there were the j u n iores, from

17 to 45 ye a rs of a g e, who com posed the a ctive a rmy, a n d the

1 Su mo-ra g . (Dion ys., iv. These ju dges dou btless form ed the tribu n a l of thecen tumvirs, a s the cura tors o f the tribes form ed the college of the tribu nes of th e trea sury.

2 Va rro, d e L ing . L a t. v i. 3 6.3 T he cen su s ga ve (Li vy , i. 4 4) citizen s fi t to be a r a rm s or, a ccording to Dionysiu s

( i v. a ; a 70 29 ‘r tpn‘

r txofs‘ cps'

pem .‘

ypciyp a o w.

4 Some critics think tha t the v a lu a tion of ca ttle, sl a ve s, a nd re a dy m on ey w a s n ot requ iredfor the cen su s u nti l a fter th e cen sorsh ip of A ppiu s, in 3 12. T he a ncient decl a ra tion wou ld intha t ca se ha ve been m ore fa vora ble to the a ristocra cy, since , for the di vis ion into cl a sses,a ccou nt wou ld on ly h a ve been ta ken of l a n ded property.

CHAN G E S UNDE R TH E TH RE E LAST K IN GS. 243

sen iores , from 40 t o 60,who formed the reserve . The first cl a ss

thu s con t a in ed 40 cen tu ries Of sen iores , 40 of j u n iores , a n d , besides,18 cen tu ries of kn ights ; th a t is t o sa y, the 6 equ estri a n cen tu ries

of T a rqu in (sex sufira g ia ), a n d 12 n ew on es, form ed by Serviu s of

the richest a n d m ost in flu en ti a l plebei a n s . The st a te ga ve to e a ch

of these kn ights a horse,a n d a llowed for h is m a in ten a n ce a n

a n n u a l stipen d (a es hord ea rium ), which the orph a n s a n d u nm a rried

wom en p a id .

1 To the secon d cl a ss were a tt a ched two cen tu ries of

workm en (f a bri), a n d to the fou rth two of m u sici a n s (tu b icin es)?

The poor, ca p ite censi, form ed the sixth cl a ss, a n d a sin gle cen tu ry,

which did n ot serve in the legion s .

3

The tota l of the a rmy w a s 170 cen tu ries Of foot-soldiers, 18 of

horse-soldiers, 4 of m u sici a n s a n d workmen .

4

Cicero, in the m u ch-discu ssed p a ss a ge in the secon d book of the

R epu b l ic, on ly Spe a ks of five cl a sses,form ed of a ssid u i (a ssesd a re,

t a x-p a yers To th e first he a ssign s 89 cen tu ries ; to the fou r

others, 104 : in a l l,193 , a s in the c a lcu l a tion of Dionysiu s, a n d

on e less th a n in th a t of Livy . The proleta ri a te , whose cen su s did

n ot a m ou n t t o a sses, a ccen si a n d r el a tif followed the legion s

u n a rm ed, t o repl a ce the dea d, t o Skirm ish

,or to do orderly service .

The poorest, ca p ite censi, who were on ly cou n ted on the register of

1 Thi s cu stom ex i sted a t Corinth. (Cic., d e R ep . ii. Orb a s ign ified both widow a nd

u nm a rried wom a n .

2 Dionysiu s ( i v.16—19) gi ves the cen su s of th e first cl a ss a t 10 0 m in a e ( a bout P liny(xxx i i i. 3 ) a ss ign s t o it a sses ; A u lu s G e l l iu s (vii . F e stu s , L i vy( i. These figures a re of a d a te posterior to th e s ixth century of R om e. F romthe time of Serviu s, the a es g r a ce, or th e a s l ibra l , w a s a pou n d we ight of bron ze, a nd there w a sthen in R ome n o one whose goods wou ld represent pou n ds of bron ze , whether th e v a lu eof oxen , or of 100 wa r-horses, or sheep. ( F estu s, s. v. P ecu l a tu s .) T he b a s is of

the cen su s w a s dou btless the j u g er um ( 2 roods, 19 poles) , or wha t a pa ir of oxen cou ld plou gh ina d a y. T he j u geru m w a s estim a ted l a ter a t a sses, which su pposes 20 j u ger a for the firstcl a ss, 15, 10 , 5, a nd 2 or 2 ; for the others . A s for the a s l ib r a l of 12 ou nces, it w a s su ccess i ve lyredu ced , a bout 2 68 B. c .

, t o 4 ou nces ; a bou t 2 41, t o 2 in 2 17, by the F l a m in i a n l a w, to 1 in

89 , by the l a w Pl a u t ia P a pir ia , to 1.3 I n gra ve d a nger they were a rm ed a t the expen se of the St a te

P rolet a riu s pu b l icltus scu tisqu e f erogu e

Orna tu r f erro. (E N N I US , in A ul u s G ell iu s , xvi.Cf. F e st., 5. v. A ccens i.

4 I t is im poss ible to a dm it tha t the centuries of workmen a nd m u s ic i a n s , a dded to the firstcl a sses, voted with them . B u t the con stitution of Serviu s be in g a t first a m i l ita ry org a n iz a tion ,

there is nothing a ston i shin g in the presence of workmen in the tra in o f the lmp l i/es.

5 I n the m a n cip a tio there were witnesses representin g the five c l a sses of the R om a n

people .3 I ll in im a e fi d u cia e. (L i vy,viii .

244 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN GS.

the cen su s by the he a d, l ike sl a ves a n d ca ttle, did n ot serve.

Ma riu s wa s the first who ca lled them to the st a n d a rds ; a n d

from th a t d a y the a rmy lost it s n a tion a l cha ra cter.

LIST OF LIVY} LIST OF DIONYSIUS.

Centuries Of Kn ights 18 Centur ies of K n ights

F m sr cu ss A sse s. Fm sr CL A ss.— 100 M I N A E .

Centuries of Sen iors 4 0 Centuries of Sen iorsCenturies of Ju n iors 4 0 Centuries Of Ju n iorsCenturies of Workm en 2

SE CON D CLA SS. A ssn s. SE CON D CLA SS.— 75 M I N A E .

Centuries of Sen iors 10 Centu ries of Sen iorsCenturies of Ju n iors 10 Centuries of Ju n iors

Centur ies of Workmen

TH I R D CLA SS. A SSE S. TH I R D CLA SS. —50 M I N A E .

Centu ries of Sen iors 10 Centuries of Sen iorsCenturies of Ju n iors 10 Centuries of Ju n iors

F OUR T H CLA SS. A SSE S. F OUR T H CLA SS.— 25 M I N A E .

Centuries of Sen iors 10 Centurie s of Sen iors 10

Centuries of Ju n iors 10 Centu ries of Ju n iors 10

Cen tu ries of Corn icin es a nd T u b icin es 2

F I FT H CLA SS. A SSE S. F I FTH CLA SS — 125M I N A E .

Centuries Of Sen iors 15 Centu ries of Sen iorsCenturies of Ju n iors 15 Centu ries of Ju n iorsCenturies of Corn icin es a nd T u b icines 3

Centuries of A ccensi SI XT H CLA SS‘

Centuries of Ca p ite Censi 1 Centuries of Ca pite Censi

Tota l T ota l

The u n certa in ty of the n u m ber of the cen tu ries a n d of the

b a sis on which the a ssessm en t wa s m a de, does n ot preven t u s from

a ppreci a tin g the pol itica l im porta n ce of this m i lita ry reform . I t is

n o lon ger birth which divides the citizen s in to p a tricia n s a n d

plebei a n s ; it is by fortu n e tha t a re n ow regu l a ted both their“

d ist ri

b u t ion in to cl a sses,thei r pl a ce in the legion s, the n a tu re of their

a rm s, which they mu st procu re for them selves, a n d th e qu ota of

the t a x which e a ch of them mu st pa y. All the cen tu ries m u st

1 The text Of Cicero (d e R ep .,i i. u nfortu n a tely mutil a ted in thi s pl a ce , a s in so m a ny

others of the R ep u b l ic, does no t help u s to m a ke L ivy’

s n umbers a gree with th ose of Dionysiu s.

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246 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN GS.

a n d the grea test p a rt of con qu ered l a n ds were in the h a n ds of the

p a trici a n s, they rem a in ed , a s before , the m a sters of the st a te . These

n ew l a ws, which recogn ized the plebei a n s a s free citizen s of Rome,a n d which

,a s a n a tu ra l con sequ en ce , m u st some d a y c a l l them to

vote on pu blic a ffa irs , did n ot , therefore, in re a l ity ch a n ge th e

existin g con dition of the two orders . A n imm en se step, however,wa s ga in ed in pl a cing the a ristocra cy of we a lth, a v a ri a ble power,a ccessible to a l l

,— b y the s ide of the a ristocr a cy of birth

,- a n

u n a lter a ble power,— these l a ws were prep a ring for th e revolu tion s

which est a blished in repu blic a n Rom e u n ion a n d in vin cible strength.

This con stitu tion stru ck a n other blow a t the a ristocra cy by

in directly a tt a cking clien tship . I t did n ot a bolish p a tron a ge,which

ga ve to the n obles m a teri a l stren gth,Withou t which privileges c a nn otlon g b e defen ded, b u t i t a ssu red a pl a ce in the sta te to th e clien ts

who u n til then h a d l ived u n der the protection of the Qu irites. I t

sep a ra ted them from the ir p a tron s on the d a y of the com iti a , t o

m ix them ,a ccording t o their fortu n e , with the rich or the poor ; it

open ed the roa d t o the Forum for those who h a d n ever foll owed

a ny b u t th a t t o the p a trici a n A trium . An other l a w of Serviu s

a u thorized the freedmen to retu rn t o thei r cou n try, or, i f they

rem a in ed a t Rom e, t o b e in scribed in the city, tribes. This l a w

wou ld h a ve equ a lly recogn ized in plebei a n s the right of p a tron a ge,so tha t the rich plebei a n cou ld from th a t tim e show himself in the

tow n, su rrou n ded like a Fa bius, by a n oisy a n d devoted ba n d. Bu t

clien tship becomes we a ker by diffu sion ; a n d in the cou rse of

cen tu ries, Rom e, the sea t of the em pire, is peopled, to the ru in

of it s in stitu tion s,with freed sl a ves.

This con stitu tion ,which w a s t o u n ite two people hitherto

sepa ra ted , h a d on ly been con ceived with a view t o the a rmy ; a n d

the cen tu ries were ca lled the city a rm y, u rb a nu s exercitu s .‘ The

sen iores gu a rded th e town whilst the j u n iores , or the a ctive a rmy,wen t to meet the en em y. On the field of ba ttle th e legion drew

u p in Serried lin es which reca lled the M a cedon ia n ph a l a n x.2 I n fron t

1 The p a trici a n s cou ld a ccept this reform u n der the title of a m i l ita ry regu l a tion ; theywere too stron g to a ll ow it to b e imposed a s a pol itica l con stitution . N oth ing short of a

revolution wh ich ren dered the he lp of the plebe i a n s n ecessa ry to them , cou ld wring th isconcession from them a s p a yment. (L i vy, i .

2 L i vy, v i i i. 8. [I t m a y origin a ll y ha ve been intended to rewa rd M a st a rn a’s mercen a ries.

- E d .]

CH A N G E S UNDE R TH E TH RE E LAST K IN G S. 247

of the en em y, a n d exposed to th e first on set, were the legion a ries of

the fir st cl a ss, fu lly cl a d in defen sive a rm or ; behin d them ,a n d in a

degree shielded by them,were the secon d

,third , a n d fou rth cl a sses

(following L ivy’

s l ist), while those of th e fifth cl a ss served a s skirmish

ers ; a n d 3 00 horsemen formed the ca v a lry a tt a ched to ea ch legion .

D I A N A W I TH T H E H I N D.

We h a ve seen th a t th e frien d of the Rom a n plebe i a n s wa s a lsof a vor a ble to the L a tin cities , a n d th a t he in vited them to ofi er commonsa crifi ces to Di a n a u pon the Aven tin e .

1 The temple bu i lt by the popul a r kin g u pon th is hill, rega rded a s u n lu cky in m emory of the om en s

seen there by R emu s, wa s a dopted by the sl a ves a s their sa nctu a rv

1 Dionysiu s ( i v. 26) sa ys tha t he sa w the decree conta in ing the cl a u ses of the a ll i a nceengra ved on a bron ze co lum n in a nc ient Greek cha ra cters.

248 R OM E UNDE R TH E K IN GS.

A E S S I G N A T UM . ( A CT UA L S I ZE .)

a n d they offered s a crifices there ,1 b u t th e p a trici a n s d o not seem to h a v

1 F est., s. v. Servorum d ies.

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250 ROME UNDE R TH E \ K IN G S.

governm en t of th e fa m il ies con secr a ted by the gods, a n d of a dopt

in g the prin ciple which is still a pplied in m a ny m odern societies,— th a t power depen ds u pon wea lth . Bu t a t Athen s cu stoms h a d

p a ved the w a y for the reform of Solon , a n d it w a s imm edi a tely

a pplied ; a t Rom e , th a t of Serviu s w a s in a dva n ce of his tim e,

h e cou ld n ot est a blish it ; b u t in the n ext gen era tion it ca m e

a bou t of it s own a ccord.

I I I . TA R QU I N TH E PR OUD ; POWE R OF ROM E A T T H I S E POCH .

I T w a s,in fa ct, the dem ocra tic l a ws of Serviu s which helped

T a rqu in the Prou d,posing t o the p a trici a n s a s the defen der

of thei r threa ten ed privileges,t o dethron e h is f a ther-in -l a w.

H a vin g becom e kin g by a mu rder,he destroyed the t a bles on

which were in scribed the resu lts of th e cen su s, a bol ished the

system of the cl a sses,

a n d forb a de the religiou s g a therings of

the plebe i a n s ;1 then , su pported by h is n um erou s m ercen a ries,

he obliged the people t o fin ish the Circu s, the Ca pitol, a n d the

grea t Clo a c a . Bu t cou n ting too mu ch on his La tin a n d H ern ica n

a ll ies , he did n ot sp a re the p a trici a n s m ore th a n the plebei a n s,a n d to esca pe dea th

,m a ny sen a tors wen t into ex ile . This Oppres

sion wa s l ikely t o u n ite the two orders by a comm on h a tred.

I t l a sted however, u n til the ou tr a ge u pon Lu creti a h a d given th e

mu ltitu de on e Of those exciting proofs of sl a very which, even

m ore th a n bloodshed,brin g a bou t revolu tion s, beca u se the in ju ry

don e to the in dividu a l is felt by a l l .

“ I f the con stitu tion of Serviu s h a d been m a in t a in ed, s a ys

N iebu hr,“ Rom e wou ld h a ve a tta ined, two hu n dred ye a rs soon er,

a n d withou t sa crifices,to a h a ppin ess which she cou ld

recover on ly a t .the cost Of fierce comba ts a n d grea t snfi erin gs.

H a ppily in the hi story of a n a tion,a s in the l i fe of a m a n ,

good Often resu lts from evil. Th is difficu lt stru ggle tra in ed the

you th of Rom e a n d ret a rded it s declin e ; b u t“ woe to him from

whom the ofi en ce ca m e, a n d cu rses on those who destroyed pl e

bei a n l iberty to th e u tm ost of their power !”

Dionys., iv. 4 3 .

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252 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN GS.

the tem ple, which fa ced th e Forum,a n d rose m a jestic a lly a bove

it. Gra ce, however, w a s w a n ting t o this m a jesty . With its short

colum n s a n d qu a dr a n gu l a r form , withou t a correspon din g eleva tion,

the tem ple of Ju piter h a d a hea vy a n d stu n ted a ppea ra n ce .This s a n ctu a ry well su ited a n a tion of soldiers which l a id so

grea t a bu rden u pon the world.

Of a l l T a r qu in’

s works, the m ost im porta n t wa s the Cloa ca

M a xim a . I t s fou n d a tion s were su n k deep u n der th e ea rth, a n d

it s n um erou s bra n ches

brou ght the w a ter a n d

m u d from the low dis

t rict s Of the city a n d

l ed them in to the

Tiber. I t w a s on ly

when this imm en se

work h a d been fin ished

th a t the m a rshy pl a in 1

which exten ded between

CLOA CA M A X I MA ,the Seven Hills w a s

ren dered hea lthy a n d

dry. Su ch wa s the height of the triple v a u lt 2 of the m a in

cha nnel,which wa s bu i lt with lon g ston es of peperin o, l a id with

ou t cem en t, th a t Agripp a en tered it in a bo a t,a n d Pliny a sserts

th a t a c a rt-loa d of h a y cou ld h a ve p a ssed throu gh it . Tr a dition a lso

spea ks,a s in th e ca se of the grea t con stru ction s of th e E gyptia n

kings, Of the m isery of the people con dem n ed to su ch t a sks .

The ru le of Rome,however, w a s then exten sive en ou gh for

the grea tn ess of the st a te to b e shown by the m a gn ificen ce of

it s bu ildin gs. I n the trea ty con clu ded with Ca rth a ge in the very

yea r of the expu lsion of T a rqu in,which Polybiu s 3 tra n sl a ted

1 This pl a in form ed the qu a rters of the V el a bru m , the S u b a ru , the F orum R om a n um , a nd

the Circu s Al a x im u s. Thi s circu s, wh ich wa s 35sta di a in length by 1 in width, cou ld holdor a ccording to others, specta tors.

2 T h e v a u lting is form ed by three concentric a rches, a nd the di a meter of it is 20 f t . I t m a y

b e rem a rked tha t the Greeks on ly bega n to u se the v a u lted a rch a t the time of A lex a nder,a lthou gh M . H eu zey sa w m a ny m ore a ncie nt in E piru s a nd A ca rn a n ia . [Pa u sa n i a s spe a ksa s if the a ncientM iny a n tre a sure-hou se a t O rch omen u s h a d been rea l ly a rched with a keystone ;b u t a ccordin g to Schl iem a n n ’

s rese a rches he m u st ha ve been m i sta ken . — E d .]3 I I I . 2 2. T he a uthenticity of th is tre a ty wou ld , if n ece ssa ry, b e con firmed by the

a ccou nt of L ivy, which represents Ta rqu in a s the recogn i zed chief of the lea gu e Of forty-seven

CH AN G E S UNDE R TH E TH RE E LAST K IN G S. 253

from the origin a l , preserved in the a rchives of the a ediles in the

Ca pitol , a ll the town s of the coa st of L a tium . Arde a , A n t iu m ,

Circei, Terra cin a , a re m en tion ed a s su bjects of Rom e . I n the

in terior of the cou n try, A ricia obeyed her u n der the sa m e title .

Su essa Pom et ia h a d been ca pt iu e d , a n d Sign ia colon ized . Between

the Tiber a n d the Anio, a l l the l ow Sa bin e cou n try belon ged to

her,a n d the stories a bou t Porsen n a prove th a t on the n orth of the

Tiber her fron tier exten ded so f a r th a t t en of h er thirty tribes

h a d their territory in E tru ri a . E ven her n a vy,especi a lly th a t of

her a ll ies, w a s n ot withou t import a n ce, sin ce we ca n con clu de

from the term s of the trea ty th a t merch a n t vessels, which st a rted

from the Tiber or the ports of L a tium ,tra ded a s f a r a s Sicily,

Sa rdin i a , a n d Africa . I t w a s dou btless the ro a d t o E gypt whi ch

the Ca rth a gin i a n s wished to close a ga in st them ,by forbidding to

Rom e a n d her a llies a l l n a viga tion t o th e ea st of the F a ir P rom

on tory. The repu bl ica n revolu tion cost her this dom in ion , which

it cost m ore th a n a cen tu ry a n d a h a lf t o recover .

The Greeks,who represen ted Rom u lu s to b e a descen d a n t of

Aen ea s, N um a a con tem pora ry of Pyth a gor a s, a n d the su ccessor of

A n cu s to b e the son of a Corin thi a n , illu stra ted the history of the

l a st T a rqu in by stories copied from Herodotu s . Thu s Sextu s en ters

in to G a b ii l ike Z opyru s in to B a bylon ,a n d the s ilen t b u t s in gu

l a rly expressive a dvice of T a rqu in to his son is th a t of Thra sy

bu lu s to Peri a nder. Serviu s, they s a id, h a d hon ored the Greci a n

Artemis by r a ising a tem ple t o her on th e Aven tin e ; T a rqu in

hon ored the Hellen ic Apollo by sen din g t o Delphi a n em b a ssy,which in the legen d on ly serves to show the fe igned .m a dn ess of

Bru tu s, — a n echo, perh a ps, of th a t Of Solon . I n f a ct this K in g’ s

cha ra cter h a s been dra wn a fter those of n umerou s tyr a n ts whom

Greece experien ced. E ven h is f a ll rem a in s a problem . Wa s it

Lu creti a,who, by h er gen erou s dea th

,overtu rn ed the powerf ul

m on a rch whose swa y so m a ny cities obeyed, or wa s it n ot the

whole Rom a n people who revolted a ga in st a foreign m a ster ?

I t is diffi cu lt n ot to con sider the time of the roya lty of the

L a tin town s. See L i vy, i. 52 ; Dionys., iv. 48—4 9 . [M omm sem R om . H ist. i. 145, whi leproving from the L a tin form s of Phoen ici a n n a m es the e a rly d a te Of the direct intercour se of

R ome a nd Ca rtha ge , disputes the d a te of this trea ty, which he bel ieves to ha ve been mu chl a ter. B u t his opin ion is mu ch d isputed by other scho l a rs — B i j

254 R OM E UNDE R TH E K IN GS.

T a rqu in a s the period of a n E tru sca n ru le, a ccepted or en du red on

the shores of th e Tiber, a n d the Rom e of T a rqu in iu s Su perbu s a s

the c a pita l of the m ost fa mou s of the lu cu m on ies . Bein g, a s they

were, m a sters of Tu sca ny a n d of Ca m p a n i a , they m u st a lso h a ve

been m a sters of La tium . Their influ en ce a t Rome is m a tter of

h istory on ly a s con cern s the a rts a n d rel igiou s bel iefs which theyca rried thither ; i t w a s prob a bly by a con qu est which R om a n pride

wa s u nwillin g to remember, th a t this influ en ce m a de itself felt.l

Su fficien tly stron g a n d n umerou s to im pose their a u thority a n d

som e of their cu stom s, they h a d n ot the power to ch a nge the l a n

gu a ge,the civil in stitu tion s, a nd the popu l a tion , Which rem a in ed

L a tino-Sa bin e .1 The story Of th e grea tn ess a n d of the fa ll Of the

l a st of the T a rqu in s, a n d of the w a rs u n derta ken by the E tru sca ns

to re-esta blish h im on the thron e, le a ds to the ide a th a t the revol u

tion of the yea r 510 wa s a n a tion a l u prising, c a lled ou t by som e a ct

of in solen ce l ike the ou tra ge u pon Lu creti a . The fortu n e of the

Ra sen a wa s everywhere on the w a n e . They h a d a l re a dy lost the

pla in s of th e Po, a n d were losin g, or a bou t to lose , those of Ca m pa

n ia . This rea ction of the n a tive r a ces rea ched L a tium a n d the city

which wa s it s most flou rishin g c a pit a l. I n the exi le of T a rqu in ,therefore , we m a y see the fa ll of the grea t T iberin e lu cumony a n d

the reviva l of the Ol d Rom a n people .

1 [Cf the interesting a rguments of G a rd th a u sen (M a s ta rn a , p. 5, seq.) to show the

dom in a tion Of the E tru sca n s a bout 6 00 D.C., a n d the rem a in s of E tru sca n n a mes a mongthe L a tin town s.- E d .]

E TR USCA N S I DE BOA R D.

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256 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN GS.

the n a tu r a l en thu sia sm of the Greeks n or their brilli a n t a n d l ively

im a gin a tion , popu l a r son gs n ever cou ld h a ve been a s rich in

deta ils a n d color a s th e school Of N ieb u hr [or M a ca u l a y ’s l a ys]wou ld m a ke u s bel ieve . The l a n gu a ge, m oreover, wa s too poor

t o b e a d a pted to v a ried requ irem en ts : th e fra gm en t which rem a in st o u s Of a hym n of the Fra tres Arva les shows of wh a t little u se

this ru de in strumen t h a d hitherto been .

CA R M E N AR V A LE .

E nos, L a ses , iu v a te.N e ve l u e ru e, M a rm a r, s in s [u sers] in cu rrere in pl eores.Sa tu r f u , fere M a rs. L im en s a l i. St a . Berb er.Sem u n is a ltern e i a d voca pit con ctos.E n os

,M a rm or, iu v a to.

T riumpe.1

I n roya l Rome they m erely kn ew how t o en gra ve l a ws a n d

trea ties on wood or bron ze ; a n d the on ly works which a re m en

t ion ed for th a t time a re the collection of l a ws which P a piriu s

is believed to h a ve m a de a fter th e expu lsion of T a rqu in th e Prou d

(j u s P a p iria ri um ), a n d of the Comm en ta ries of K in g Serviu s,sa id t o ha ve con t a in ed h is con stitu tion ? I t is ch a ra cteristic

th a t L a tin wa s compelled t o borrow from the Greek the words

1[ The hym n , thou gh it h a s su ff ered in tra n sl itera tion , is a good specimen

of ea rly R om a n worship, the ru brica l .direction s to the brethren be ing insepa ra bly u n itedwith in voca tion to the La res a nd M a rs T he most prob a ble rendering is a s fo llows :‘H e lp u s, 0 L a res ! a nd thou , M a rm a r, su ffer not pl a gu e a nd ru in t o a tta ck ou r folk. Be

s a ti a te , O fierce M a rs i Le a p over the thresho ld. H a lt. N ow be a t the grou n d. Ca l l ina ltern a te stra in u pon a l l the heroes. H e lp u s, M a rmor ! Bou n d high in solem n m ea sure.’E a ch l ine wa s repe a ted thrice, the l a st word five tim es . A s rega rds the sepa ra te words,en os — which shou ld, perha ps , b e written e n os — conta in s the interjection a l e, which e lsewhere coa lesces with voca ti ves. L a ses is the older form of L a res. L u e r u e z lu em ruemthe l a st a n O ld word for r u in a m , with the c a se-en ding lost, a s frequ ently, a nd the copu l aom itted, a s in P a tres Conscr ip ti, e tc. M urmu r, M a rmor, or l lf a mor

,is the reduplica ted

form Of M a rs seen in th e Sa bine M a mers. Sins is for sin es, a s a d voca p it for a d voca b itis.

P leores is a n a ncient form of p lu res, a n swerin g to the Greek n h eiova s‘ in form ,a nd to r ob ;

woxhobs,“ the m a ss of the m e a n ing. F u is a shortened impera tive. B erber

is for verbere, impera ti ve of the Old verb verbero, is, a s tr iumpe from tr iumpere z tr iumpha re.

Semu n es from Semo (se-b omo, a p a rt from m a n) , a n inferior de ity M uch Of th isinterpreta tion is con jectura l , a n d other v iews h a ve been a dv a nced with rega rd to n ea rlye very word ; b u t the a bove given is the most proba ble.” CR UT TWE L L : H istory of R om a n

L itera ture, pp. 14 ,2 Pompon iu s, Dig . i. 2, 2 , 2 ; Dionys iu s, iI i. 3 6 ; Cicero, p ro B a bir, 5 L ivy, i. 3 1,

a s,6 0.

MAN N E RS A ND CUSTOM S. 257

for poet a n d poetry ; b u t it possessed those which h a ve t o do

with ru stic lif e or with h a rdy a n d w a rl ike m a n n ers . The comm on

trea su ry w a s a t first a b a sket of wicker-work (fi scu s) the i r

con tr a ct, a stra w broken by the two con tra ctors (s tip u l a ) ; the ir

mon ey, a herd (p ecu s) ; a fin e , a s m u ch m ilk a s a cow gives

(mu lct a , from m u lgeo , t o m ilk) ; w a r w a s a du el (bel lum , from

du el lum ) victory, the a ction of bin din g the con qu ered (,vin cio ,

to bin d) ; a n d a n en emy, the victim reserved for s a crifice“

(victim a ) a n d hos ti a .

The a rts were n o better cu ltiv a ted . I f the w a lls of Rome

a n d the fou n d a tion s of th e P a l a tin e were form ed of squ a red

blocks which m a rked a n a dv a n ce on th e polygon a l stru ctu re of

the precedin g a ge, hu ts covered the slopes a bou t the seven

hill s, a n d we ca n recon stru ct their clum sy form when we see

the Cin era ry u rn s recen tly fou n d u n der the l a v a of the A lb a n

CI N E R A R Y UR N S ,1 R E PR ODUC I N G T H E FOR M OF T H E COT T A G E S CON ST R UCT E D B Y T H E

A N CI E N T I N HA B I TA N T S O F LA T I UM .

Mou n t . Montesqu ieu well observes : We mu st n ot form the idea

Of the city of Rom e a t it s beginn ing from the town s of the

presen t d a y, u n less it b e those of the Crim ea,m a de t o con t a in

plun der, c a ttle, a n d the fru its of the soil .” Th e town h a d n ot

even streets, u n less we give this n a me to the con tin u a tion

of the roa ds whi ch termin a ted therein . The hou ses were very

sm a l l or pl a ced ir regu l a rly. Un til the wa r with Pyrrhu s these

1 Cinera ry urn s in terra —cotta , conta in in g ca lcin ed bones, recently fou n d u nder th edeepest l a v a of the A lb a n M ou nt, con sequ ently of gre a t a nti qu ity, a n d reprodu cing the formof the cotta ges ‘

con stru cted by the most a ncient inha bita nts of L a tium . (R evu e a reke’

olog .,

M a y, 1876 , p.

V OL . I .

258 ROME UNDE R TH E K IN GS.

hou ses were on ly covered with pl a nks,

1 which wou ld give creden ce

to th e tra dition tha t a fter the bu rn ing of Rom e by the Ga u lson e yea r su fficed for it s recon stru ction ?

Athen s con verted h er fea sts in to gre a t n a tion a l solem n ities,

du rin g which the highest plea su res of the m in d were fou n d

a ssocia ted with the m ost im posin g shows of’ rel igiou s process ion s

,

of the m ost perfect a rt a n d of the f a i rest n a tu re. Those of

Rom e were the g a mes Of ru de Shepherds,

or shou ts of the

del ighted crowd, when the soldiers en tered the city with som e

c a ptives, shea ves of whe a t , a n d the ca ttle t a ken from th e en em y,

a ru stic festiv a l , which tim e a n d the fortu n e of Rom e will ch a nge

in to th a t triumph a l cerem ony which is the con tin u a l a m bition of

h er gen era ls a n d on e of the ca u ses of her grea tn ess.

E T R USCA N CUPS, A FT E R M I CA L I’s MON UM E N T S I N ED I T s.

To the n orth a n d sou th of the T iber,however, a m on g the

E tru sca n s, R u tu l ia n s, a n d Volsci a n s, the a rts h a d a lrea dy begu n to

m a ke w a y. Pliny sa w a t Ca ere a n d Arde a som e p a in tin gs still

preserving a l l the freshn ess of the ir colors, which he rega rded a s

a n terior in d a te to Rom e. The n um erou s Objects fou nd in the secon d

of these town s prove tha t it h a d a regu l a r school of a rtists.

Pra en este w a s a lso a city fon d Of works of a rt ; every d a y som e

1 P liny, H ist. .N a t. xvi. 15. 2 P lut., Ca m. 3 2.

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260 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN GS.

where it grew a n d developed ; b u t it cou ld n ot proceed from the

tem ple of Jehov a h, a n d on the soi l of a n cien t Rom e it a lwa ys

rem a in ed a foreign im port a tion .1 E ven a fter the T a rqu in s

, the

im a ges of the gods, the work Of E tru sc a n a rtists, were still m a de

on ly in wood or cl a y, like th a t of Ju piter in the Ca pito l, a n d

like the qu a driga pla ced on the top of the tem ple . E tru ri a

a lso fu rn ished the a rchitects ? who bu ilt the R om a gu a dr a-t a of the

P a l a tin e a n d con stru cted th e first tem ples ; sh e provided even

the flu te-pl a yers n ecessa ry for the perform a n ce of cert a in rites.

I I . PR I VA T E M AN N E R S.

A L L the a ctivity of the Rom a n ten ded t o a pra ctic a l en d,

pu blic a ffa irs, a gricu ltu re a n d domestic c a res. Two words sign ified

T H E PLOUG HMA N .3

for him a l l good qu a lities,a l l virtu esf — vir tu s et p iet a s ; th a t is to

sa y, cou ra ge, force, a n immov a ble firmn ess, p a tien ce in work, a n d

respect for the gods, his a n cestors , his fa therl a n d, a n d his f a m ily,for th e esta blished l a ws a n d disciplin e . Cicero well rem a rks,

5

1 Thi s sterility of Ju d a ea a nd R ome is, of course, on ly shown in pl a stic a rts.2 F a b ris u n d igu e ex E truria a ecitis. (L i vy, i. 56 cf. Pl iny, H ist. N a t. xxx v.3 A fter a n engra ved stone in the coll ection of F lorence.4 A ppel l a ta est ex viro virtu s. (Cic., T u sc.ii . [The pecul i a r R om a n gra vita s shoul d

h a ve been a dded.— E d .]5 T u sc. i. 1. Properly spea king, the origin a l ity of the Greek s exi sts especi a ll y in

politica l con stitution s ; th a t of R ome in civ il l a ws. Cicero s a ys (d e Or a t. i. I ncred ib le

MAN N E R S A N D CUSTOM S. 26 1

withou t undu ly fla ttering th e n a tion a l pride I n scien ces a n d

letters, the Greeks su rp a ss u s b u t there is m ore order a n d

dign ity in ou r cu stom s a n d con du ct. Where else is there to b e

fou n d th a t severity of m a n n ers, th a t firm n ess, th a t gre a tn ess of

sou l,tha t u prightn ess, tha t good fa ith, a n d a l l the virtu es of ou r

fa thersTheir dom estic lif e, in f a ct, w a s sim ple a n d a u stere : n o

lux u r I,

n o idlen ess ; th e m a ster plou ghs with h is sl a ves, the

m istress spin s in th e m idst of her wom en .I Roya l ty, even wea lth

,

does n ot exem pt from l a bor ; like

Berth a the Spin n er,Qu een T a n a qu il 2

a n d Lu creti a set the exa m ple t o the

Rom a n m a tron s. When ou r fa thers,”

sa ys Ca to,“ desired t o pra ise a m a n

of property, they ca l led h im a good

plou ghm a n a n d a good fa rm er ; thi s w a s

th e highest of eu logium s3

[a n d on

m a ny epita phs n oble wom en were pra ised

for ch a stity a n d diligen t spin n ing] .

Then m en lived on their l a n ds,in the

ru stic tribes, which were the m ost

hon or a ble of a l l,a n d they onl y ca m e

4A “( OMA N SP I N N I N G .

to Rom e on m a rket d a ys 6 or a ssem bly

d a ys . I n the vil l a — a m iser a ble c a bin m a de of m u d, r a fters, a n d

br a n ches — n ot a d a y, n ot a momen t, wa s lost. I f b a d wea ther

preven ted work in the fields,there wa s plen ty t o do a t home in

clea n in g the st a bles a n d the ya rd, in m en din g Ol d ropes a n d Old

est en im qu a m sit omne j u s civile, p r a eter hoc n ostrum,incon d itum a c p a en e rid icu lum. H e

went too f a r in thi s contempt for the civ il l a ws of Greece , a s is proved in num erou s worksrecently written u pon th e j uri spru dence of A then s. We even fin d in the Digest the text ofthe A then i a n l a ws wh ich were copied by the R om a n s.

1 Co lum ., (16 R e ru st. x ii.p r a ef .

2 A t the tim e Of V a rro , they showed in the tem ple of Sa ncu s her d ist a fi a nd Spindl e, stillful l, they sa id, of the wool which sh e spu n . (Pl iny, H is t. N a t. vi i i .

3 Ca to, d e R e ru st, p r a ef a t., a n d P l ., ib . xviii . 3 . T he person s of m ost con sidera tion in the

city were the locup letes loci, koc est a g rip len os, a n d the a n n i versa ry of th e fou n d a tion of R om e

wa s celebra ted on th e 2 l st of A pri l , th e d a y of the fe a st Of P a les , th e gu a rdi a n de ity of flocks.4 Ta ken from a h a s-rel ief a t R ome , representin g the a rts of M inerv a .5 N u nd in a e

, every n in e d a ys. A fter the ye a r 287 th e com iti a cou l d b e con voked on

m a rket-d a ys. ATu n d in a rum etia m con ven tu s m a n if es tum est prop terea us u rp a tos , u i non is t a n tum

modo d ieb u s u rb a ne c res a geren tu r , rel iqu is a dmin istra ren tu r r ustica e. (Colum., p ra ef , a nd M a cr.,Sa t. i.

262 ROME UNDE R TH E K IN GS.

clothes ; even on fe a st d a ys on e ca n cu t bra m bles, trim hedges,

w a sh th e flock, go to the city to sel l oil a n d fru its.” 1 I n order to

regu l a te the order of t hese cou n try l a bors,c a len d a rs were a fter

w a rd dra wn u p, which we h a ve fou n d, a n d which a re the pre

d ecessors Of ou r a lm a n a cs .

Here follow the in dic a tion s given by on e of them for the

mon th of M a y

M E N SISM A I V S

DIE S. XXXIN ON . SE PT IM

DIE S. H OR . XI I I I S

N OX. H OR . V I I I I S

SOL T A UR OTUT E L A POL L I N

SE G E T R V N CA N T

OV E S TONDV NTLA N A L A V A TV R

IVVE NCI. DOM A N TVICE A . PA BV L A R

SE CAT V R

SE GE T E S

L V ST R A N T V R

SACR V M . M E R CV R

E T F LOR A E .2

Hora ce does n ot dra w a more a greea ble pictu reof a n cien t city

m a nn ers . “ At Rom e,

”he s a ys, “ for a lon g time a m a n kn ew n o

other plea su re a n d n o other festiv a l tha n t o

Open h is door a t d a wn,to expl a in the l a w

t o his cl ien ts, a n d t o l a y ou t h is m on ey

on good secu rity. They a sked from their

elders, a n d t a u ght begin n ers,the a rt of in

crea sin g their sa vings a n d esca ping ru in ou s

foll ies .” 3 I n this It a ly,so fu ll of su per

st it ion s, Ca to will n ot h a ve the fa rm er loseSYLV A N US-4 hi s tim e in con su ltin g the a ru spices, a u gu rs,

1 V erg ., G eorg . i . 273 Colum .,d e R e ru st. 11. 21, a n d Ca to, d c R e ru st. 3 9.

2 Thi s in scription (Corpu s in sor . L a t. vol. v i. p. 6 3 7) is ta ken from the Ca lend a rium ru sti

cum F a rn esi a n um , a lso ca l led M en olog ium ru sticum Colotia n u m it is a m a rble cu be, be a ringon it s fou r s ides the indica tion of the works a n d festi v a ls for e a ch month.

3 E p. ii. 1, 10 3 —107.

4 Th is bron ze of H a dri a n repre sents Sylv a n u s, the gu a rdi a n Of the rura l dom a in , who forthi s rea son wa s a ssoci a ted with the L a res, dra gging a r a m a n d hol ding the p ed um, or crooked

The M onthof M a y

XI I X I d a ys.The nones fa l l on th e 7th d a y.

Th e d a y h a s 145hours.T he n ight h a s 95hou rs.

Th e su n is in the s ign of Ta u ru s.The month is u n der the protection of A pol lo.

T he corn is weeded.The sheep a re shorn .The woo l is w a shed.

You ng steers a re pu t u n der the yoke.The vetch of the mea dows

is cu t .

The lu stra tion Of the cropsis m a de

Sa crifices to M ercurya nd F lora .

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2 64 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN GS.

a n d a s m a ster, he disposes Of the powers a n d lif e of h is sla ves.

A s hu sba n d,he con dem n s his wife to dea th 1 if she forges f a lse

keys or viol a tes h er vow, a n d h e is exem pt,in h er ca se, from the

rel igion of m ou rn in g, the piety of rem em bra n ce ? A s f a ther,he

kills the child th a t is born deform ed,a n d sells th e others

,a s m a n y

a s three times, before losin g his cl a im s u pon them . N either a ge

n or dign ities em a n cip a te them . Thou gh con su ls or sen a tors,they

m a y b e dr a gged from the pl a tform or the sen a te-hou se, or pu t to

dea th like th a t sen a tor, a n a ccom plice of Ca tilin e, who w a s killed

by h is f a ther . I f h e is rich, he will len d a t 12,15

,or 20 per cen t .

,

for the fa ther of the f a m ily m u st tu rn h is m on ey a s well a s his

l a n ds to a ccou n t , a n d the l a w gra n ts to h im the l iberty a n d even the

life of his in solven t debtor . Fin a lly,a t his de a th

,n either h is children

nor h is wife ca n cl a im a ny of his goods,i f he h a s bequ ea thed them to

a stra n ger for he h a s th e right to dispose of his res a s h e chooses ?

N evertheless the city in clu des a n d ru les th e fa m ily. F or the wish

Of the fa ther t o b e c a rried ou t, it is n ecessa ry for h is will to b e

a ccepted by the Cu ri a e, a n d they do n ot l ike the p a trim ony to dep a rt

from the f a m i ly.

I t is throu gh wom en especia lly th a t m a nn ers ch a n ge,th a t

f a m ilies, cl a sses, a n d fortu n es m in gle ; b u t in this society, so

severe ly discipl in ed, th e wom a n, the ch a n gin g elem en t

,rem a in s

u n der gu a rdi a n ship 4 a l l h er l ife . She belon gs to th e hou se, n ot to

the city,a n d in the hou se Sh e a lw a ys h a s a m a ster, — h er fa ther

when she is a girl ; her hu sb a n d when sh e is m a rried ; her n ea rest

m a le a gn a te when she is a widow. On e of the c a u ses of the ru in

of Sp a rt a wa s the right which Lycu rgu s h a d left t o wom en of

in heritin g a n d disposin g of the ir goods ? At Rom e, if the wom a n

1 Dionys., n . 25 ; Pl ., H ist.N a t. x iv . 13 Su et., T ib . 3 5 ; T a c., A n n . xii i . 3 2 ; Plut., R om.

2 2 ; d a dé u {mofiohg’

j E g n a tiu s I ll ecen iu s u xorem ,qu od vin um b ibisset, f u s l i p ercu ssa m in teremit.

(V a l . M a x ., VI. ii i. [B u t n ot , I fa ncy, without a fa m i ly cou nci l. E d .]2 Uxores viri lug ere n on comp el len tur . Sp on si n u l l u s l u cl us est (Dig . i i i. 2 , a nd

N

e lsewhere , V ir n on l u get u xorem ,

n a l l a m d ebet u xori rel igion em l a ct a s.

3 Uni leg a sset sup er p ecu n ia , tu lel a ve su a e rei, ita j u s esto. (F r. X I I . T a b .) W illsh a d t o b e presented for the sa nction of the Curi a e or a t th e m oment of setting ou t for

a n expedition in p rocin ctu (exercitu s, exp ed it a s, et a rma tu s) . (Ulp., F r. xx . 2 ; G a ins,

i i.‘1 N a l l a m n e priva tum qu id em , rem a gere f em in a s s ine tu lore a u ctore in m a n u esse

p a ren tium, f r a trum virorum . (Ca to, a p. L ivy, xx x iv. The gu a rdi a n h a d over thew a rd the rights of the p a lri a p otesta s . (F est., s . v. R em a ncip a te .)

5 A rist., P ol it. ii . 6 .

M AN N E RS A ND CUSTOM S. 265

Obt a in ed a ny sh a re 1 in the herit a ge of her f a ther or hu sb a n d , she

cou ld n o t,except in the ca se of the Vest a ls, in l ionoreni s a cerd otii ,

either tra n sfer or bequ e a th it withou t the con sen t of her gu a rdi a n s ,th a t is to sa y, of her hu sb a n d, brothers, or h er n ea rest m a le rel a tives

on the p a tern a l side , a l l in terested, a s her heirs, in preven tin g a

s a le or a lega cy. They h a d a lso th e right of opposin g ordin a ry

m a rri a ge (coenip tio vel coha b it a tio). The fa ther on ly, by refu sin g

hi s con sen t, cou l d preven t solemn m a rri a ge which,in a ny c a se, did n ot t a ke pl a ce between a plebei a n a n d a p a trici a n .

Pl a ced u n der perpetu a l tu tel a ge, she cou ld con fer n o right, a n d the

rel a tion ship est a blished by h er h a d n o civil effects ; the chil d fol lowed

the fa ther . I n short, when She p a ssed in to a n other hou se, the

wom a n did n ot t a ke th e l a res of the p a tern a l he a rth , for these

domestic gods n ever wen t to dwel l u n der a stra n ge roof For her

there wa s a n other fa mily, a n d other gods. “ M a rri a ge, sa id th e

l a wyers l a ter,“ is a n a ssoci a tion b a sed on the comm u n ity of the

sa me thin gs,divin e a n d hum a n .

” 3

Bu t , whether m a id or m a tron , th e wom a n wa s tre a ted with

reveren ce . M a rri a ge w a s a holy thin g, con secra ted by religion ;a n d the m other of a fa m i ly reign ed a lon e by the side of her

hu sb a n d in the con ju ga l dwellin g,in which polyg a m y wa s pro

scribed . Like him ,she perform ed th e sa cred rites a t the a lt a r of

the Pen a tes i f he wa s a fla m en , she bec a m e a priestess,fla m in ica

she a lon e h a d the right of we a rin g in the streets the s tol a , which

c a u sed a m a tron to b e recogn ized a t a dist a n ce, a n d a ssu red h er

pu blic respect.

The right of life a n d de a th given to the hu sb a n d over h is

wife w a s origin a lly on ly a pplied in the ca se of pa trici a n m a rri a ge

by conf a rrea tio, the l a w n ot yet con cern in g itself with plebei a n

u n ion s . A s soon a s the betrothed h a d ta sted of a symbol ica l ca ke

(f a r), p a ssed u n der a ca rt-yoke , pu t the a s in the b a l a n ce,on the Pen a tes, on th e threshold of the con ju ga l hou se, a n d pro

noun ced the form u l a , Ubi tu G a iu s, ego G a i a , She fell,a ccordin g

1 The sha re of a chi ld, T ehev‘nj a a w os Toi) dvdpbs Khnpovdpos e'

ye'

ve‘r o xpnuci

‘rwv dis Gvydmp

n a rpds. (Dionys., i i .2 Dionysiu s sa ys of this sort of u n ion th a t it took pl a ce Ka r a vdnovc lepm

'

zs‘

.

3 N up tia e su n t conj u n cl io m a ris ct f emin a e con sor tium omn is vit a e, d ivin i el hum a n i j u riscommu n ica tio. (Dig . xxii i. 2 , Uxor soc-l a l i um a n a e rei a lgu e d ivin a e. (Cod . ix . 3 2 ,

266 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

to the h a rd expression of the l a w, in to the h a n d of her hu sb a n d (inm a num viri), a n d her dowry beca me, like h er person ,

the property

ST OLA .“

(res) of her hu sb a n d.1 The XI I .

T a bles gra n t the sa m e rights to

the plebe i a n m a rri a ge when it

h a s l a sted a yea r withou t in ter

ru ption , u su a nm’

con tinu i in

m a n um convenieb a t.

I n ca se of divorce,the hu s

b a n d kept the dowry. Bu t in

this a ge of h a rsh a n d a u stere

m a n n ers, divorce wa s u n kn own,

3

a n d th e m a tron s h a d n ot yet

ra ised th a t tem ple to Modesty

whose doors were closed a ga in st

th e wom a n Who h a d twice o ffered

the s a crifices of betroth a l.

Cu stom s a n d be liefs, on the

con tra ry, m a de a lm ost a n ecessity

of divorce, when the m a rri a ge

rem a in ed b a rren . F or it w a s

n ot the u n ion of two hea rts,b u t th e a ccom pl ishm en t of a

civil a n d rel igiou s oblig a tion ,to

give n ew defen ders to th e city

a n d perpetu a te for th e dom estic

gods th e rites of th e hea rth

for the a n cestors, th e hon ors of

the tom b . When a f a m ily d is

a ppea red, they sa id “ I t is a

h ea rth extin gu ished .

Aristocra tic a ssoci a tion s in su red to the fu tu re he a d of the

fa m ily — the eldest son — grea ter a dv a n t a ges th a n to his brothers.

1 Omn ia qu a e mu lieris f u emm t, vir a fi u n t, d otis n omin e. (Cic., pro Ca ecin a .)2 Distincti ve ga rment of R om a n m a tron s. Ta ken from the M u s.B orbon . i i i. pl . 3 7.3 T he first divorce m entioned by the A n n a ls, tha t of Sp. Ca rvil iu s I S in the yea r of

R ome 520 “ H e sepa ra ted from h is wife ,” s a ys A u lu s G e ll iu s (IV. iii. “a lthough

he loved her m u ch , beca u se h e cou ld not h a ve children by h er.

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2 68 ROM E UNDE R TH E K IN G S.

th e respect of the plebei a n s for in stitu tion s, even when they wereopposed t o them

,a n d those secession s , u n a ccom p a n ied by pill a ge,

those bloodless revolu tion s,th a t p a cific progress which took pl a ce

gra du a lly in con stitu tion a l w a ys. Hen ce com e,t oo

,in ordin a ry

life , th e su bm iss ion t o ol d cu stom s a n d to the letter of the

l a w, on which it wou ld b e s a crilege to pu t a n ew con stru ction,

th a t blin d f a ith in th e in com prehen sible form u l a e of worship a n d

ju rispru den ce, a n d the a u thority, so lon g recogn ized, of the a cta

legitim a .

The word rel igion sign ifies bon d [or obliga tion ] . I n no

other cou n try, in n o other t im es, h a s this bon d been so strong

a s a t Rom e ; it“

u n ited the citizen s to on e a n other a n d t o the

st a te. A s the Rom a n s sa w gods everywhere ; a s a l l n a tu re, sky,

ea rth, a n d w a ter wa s to them fu l l of divin ities who w a tched over

hum a n beings with ben evolen t or jea lou s eyes,there w a s n o a ct

of life which did n ot requ ire a pr a yer or a n o fferin g, a sa crifice

or a pu rific a tion,a ccordin g t o th e rites prescribed by the m in isters

of religion. This piety, bein g the offsprin g of fe a r,w a s a l l

the m ore a tten tive in observin g sign s con sidered f a vor a ble or

the reverse ; so th a t everything depen ded on religion ,— priv a te l ife,

from the cr a dle to th e tom b, pu blic life , from the“ com iti a t o the

field of b a ttle ; even bu sin ess a n d plea su re .

1 Ga m es a n d r a ces were

celebra ted in hon or of the gods ; the people’

s son gs were hym n s,

the ir d a n ces a pr a yer, their m u sic, u n cou th b u t s a cred ha rm on ies ;

a n d,

a s in the Middle Ages, the e a rliest dra m a s were piou s

mysteries. By the con tin u a l in terven tion of the pon tiffs, who

kn ew the n ecess a ry rites a n d sa cred form u l a e, by th a t of the

a u gu rs,a ru spices, a n d a l l the in terpreters of omen s, this religion ,

devoid of dogm a s a n d of clergy of idea l a n d of love — m a de up

of silly su perstition s, l ike th a t of some of the i1 descen d a n ts — wa s

yet a grea t force of cohesion for the sta te a n d a powerfu l dis

cipl in e for the citizen s.

N o people som e fa mou s exa m ples n otwithsta n ding ever pu shed

so f a r the religion of th e o a th . Nothing cou ld t a ke pl a ce — r a ising

of troops, division of booty, l a wsu its , ju dgm en ts, pu blic a ffa irs, pri

v a te a ffa irs, sa les, con tr a cts, or a nythin g else — withou t the swea ring

1 L i vy wel l sa ys (v i. A u sp ie iis Iza n c a rhem cond ita m esse, a u spiciis bel lo a c p a ce

d omi m il itia equ e omn ia geri, qu is est qu i ig n oret ?

MANN E RS AN D CUSTOM S. 2 09

of e ither fideli ty a n d obedien ce or of ju stice a n d good f a ith, the

gods being ca lled u pon to be a r witn ess to the sin cerity of th e

p a rties . At sa les the“pu rch a ser

,in the presen ce of fiv e citizen s

of fu ll a ge, pu t th e bron ze, the price of the pu rch a se , in to a

ba l a n ce held by the l ibrip en s, a n d tou chin g with h is h a n d the l a n d,

the sl a ve, or the ox which he w a s bu yin g, s a id : “ This is min e

,

a ccordin g to the l a w of the Qu irites ; I h a ve p a id for it in copperdu ly weighed . This right of sellin g or buying by fm a ncip a tion

1

(m a ri a ca p ere, to ta ke with the h a n d), withou t the in terven tion of

a"

m a gistr a te a n d withou t written receipt,wa s on e of th e privileges

of the Qu ir ites, a n d dou btless on e of their most a n cien t cu stom s.

I t expl a in s the im port a n ce of th a t l a w, Uti l ingu a n a n ea p a ssit,

it a j a s es to, su ch a s the word is, so is the right, — which pen e

tra t ed so f a r in to the Rom a n h a bits th a t it m a de them the most

fa ithfu l of a l l n a tion s t o th ei r word , b u t to th e l itera l word, to

the a ctu a l sen se, even shou l d good fa ith b e imp a ired thereby. Thu s

for a loa n i t w a s n ecessa ry to sa y : Da ri sp on d es? Dost thou

prom ise the gift ? A n d th e len der m u st reply : Sp on d eo, I u n der

t a ke to do so. Shou ld either of the two ch a n ge on e of these

words, there wa s n o lon ger a ny con tr a ct, n o creditor or debtor ; a n d

if the mon ey h a d been del ivered it wa s lost . A m a n brin gs in to

cou rt a n eighbor who h a s cu t h is vin es, a n d produ ces a ga in st

him the term s of the l a w ; b u t the l a w spea ks of trees, he

sa ys vin e — the su i t c a nn ot proceed . The lea ders of a sedition,

seein g th a t th e soldiers a re hin dered from join in g : by the o a th

they h a ve sworn to the con su ls,propose to ki ll the l a tter .

“When they a re de a d, sa y they,“ the soldiers will b e free

from their o a th .” At the Ca u din e Forks the gen era ls give the

Sa m ni tes a verba l prom ise ; b u t there is n ot , a s is n ecess a ry to

bin d two n a tion s, a ny trea ty con clu ded by the feti a les with the

sa cred herb, a n d con secra ted by the sa crifice of a victim,there

fore the a greemen t is,a s rega rds rel igion , in va lid, a n d the Sen a te

a nn u ls it .2

This servile a tt a chm en t t o lega l forms c a me from the religiou s

1 Al l objects of property were divided into res m a n cip i ( l a nds,hou ses, sl a ves, oxen ,horses,mu les, a sses) , a nd res n ec m a n cip i. T he possess ion of the l a tter wa s tra n sm itted by th e sim pledeli very t o the pu rcha ser. F or the others, the form a lities j u st described were n ecessa ry.

2 L i vy,i i. 3 2.

Y

270 R OM E UNDE R TH E K IN GS.

ch a r a cter of the l a w a n d from the bel ief im posed by the doctrin eof a u gu ry, th a t the lea st in a dverten ce in the a ccom plishm en t of

rites w a s su fficien t to a l ien a te the good will of the gods. Con

su l s were often obliged to resign on a ccou n t of some n egligen cecomm itted in the con su lt a tion of om en s .

1 H ow often did rel igionitsel f su ffer thereby, when by clever eva sion s the Rom a n s deceived

thei r gods with a n ea sy con scien ce

The prin cip a l occu p a tion of the Rom a n s wa s a gricu ltu re ; forthe sm a ll a m ou n t of m a n u f a ctu re then a t Rom e

,sa ve a few

tra des n ecessa ry to the a rm y,w a s a b a n don ed t o the poor citizen s

a n d stra n gers .2 Bu t a gricu ltu re did n ot en rich the sm a ll pro

prietor ; i t wa s well when it yielded him a livel ihood, a n d he wa s

n ot forced, in order to su pply a deficiency of the crops, to dra w

on the rich m a n ’

s pu rse, — to ha ve recou rse t o the f a t a l a ssist a n ce

of the u su rer. I n l a ter t imes the u su rer w a s a plebei a n kn ight or

a freed m a n . At this epoch he wa s a lm ost a lwa ys a

'

p a trici a n,

3

for to the in com es derived from their est a tes the p a tricia n s u n ited

the profits of m a ritim e comm erce , which they h a d perh a ps reserved

t o them selves . The in solven t debtor h a d n o pity t o expect,for

m ov a ble property w a s a s strictly protected a s l a n ded property.“ I f he pa y n ot

, s a id the l a w,

“ l et h im b e,cit ed in to cou rt.

I f illn ess or a ge hin der, l et h im b e provided with a horse , b u t n ot

a l itter . The debt bein g a ckn owledged a n d ju dgm en t given ,l et

there b e thirty d a ys ’ gra ce . I f he still f a ils to pa y, the creditor

sha ll ca st him in to the erg a stu lum , bou n d with stra ps or ch a in s

weighin g 15 pou n ds. At the en d of s ixty d a ys l et h im b e

produ ced on three m a rket da ys a n d sold beyon d the Tiber. I f

there b e sever a l creditors, they m a y divide h is body ; it m a tters

n ot whether they cu t more or less .” 4 This wa s a da n gerou s a n d

1 Pluta rch , M a rcel l . 5.2 T o N um a , however, is a ttributed the form a tion of n ine corpora tion s (Plut., N um a , 17)

th e flu te-pl a yers, go ldsm iths, ca rpenters, dyers, shoem a kers, turners, copper-workers, a nd

potters ; a l l the other a rtisa n s were u n ited in a .single corpora tion .

3 Dionys., iv. 11 ; L ivy, v i . 3 6. N ob iles d omos u b icumqa e p a tr icia s h a b itet, ib i ca rcerem

priva tum esse.

4 Seca n to, si p lu sve min u sve sceu eru n t, se (for sin e) fra u d e eslo. (F ra g. of X I I .

Ta bles.) I t m a y possibly b e tha t in the fifth centu ry before ou r er a , the sectio no longer referredt o m ore tha n the price of the sold debtor ; b u t for e a rl ier a ges it m u st certa in ly b e ta ken in it sl itera l sen se , a lthou gh , a ccordin g to Dion . (F ra g. who kn ows n oth ing of it , it wa s neverpra ctised.

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SECOND PER IOD.

R OME UNDE R TH E PATRICI AN CONSULS (509— 3 67 B .

STR UGGLE S WITH IN — WE AKNE SS WI TH OUT.

CHAPTE R V I .

INTE R NA L H ISTORY PR OM 509 TO 470.

I . AR I STOCR A T I C CH A R A CT E R or TH E RE VOLUT I ON or 509

TH E CON SULSH I P.

H E K in gs “

of Rom e h a d n ot been m ore fortu n a te th a n the

Ca es a rs were a fterwa rd . Of seven of them, five h a d died,

a s so m a n y E m perors did, a violen t dea th . The rea son wa s th a t

both h a d th e sa m e en em y, — a,powerfu l a ristocr a cy. Moreover

,

th e a bol ition of roya lty is a very comm on historica l in ciden t.

Throu ghou t th e whole G ra eco-It a l i a n world,the kings of the

heroic a ge give pl a ce soon er or l a ter t o the n obles, who, a t

Rome, were c a lled p a trici a n s. Sup erbu s does n ot,perh a ps

,m erit

the repu t a tion tha t legen d h a s a ffixed t o him ; b u t the n obles

did n ot wish for a n other chief who cou ld, l ike Serviu s, prep a re

for politica l l ife the crowd of plebei a n s whom they held in su b

ject ion ,or

,l ike T a rqu in ,

strike .off the higher hea ds . They repl a ced

the K in g by two con su ls or pr a etors,chosen from their midst a n d

in vested with a l l the rights a n d a l l the in sign ia of roya lty, except

th e crown a n d the pu rple m a n tle worked with gold._

At on ce the m in isters a n d presiden ts of the Sen a te, — a dm in is

t ra tors, ju dges, a n d gen era ls, — the con su ls h a d sovereign power,

I NTE RNAL H ISTORY FROM 509 TO 470 . 273

regi a m imp eria m ,

1 b u t on ly for on e ye a r. I n the in terior of the

city th e n obles did n ot a llow them both t o exercise the prero

g a t ives Of their m a gistr a cy a t the s a m e tim e . E a ch h a d the

a u thority, a n d the twelve lictors with their f a sces , for a m on th .

I f they differed in opin ion ,t h e opposition of on e

,in tercessio

,

a rrested the decision s of th e other, — a con

serva t ive m ea su re ; for the in terdict prev a ils over

the comm a n d,tha t is

,the old order prev a ils

a ga in st th e n ew. F or a su dden a tt a ck on the

in stitu tion s they wou ld h a ve n eeded a m ilit a ry

force ; n ow Rome h a d n o soldiers b u t her citi

zen s, a n d n o on e cou ld a ppea r in a rm s within CON SUL B E TWE E N

the pom erium . A s the con su ls were respon sible cndiigsbA

gin s.

for the i r a cts,they were exposed

,on qu it

tin g office,to form id a ble a ccu sa tion s. Thu s the

roy a l a u thority wa s divided, withou t bein g wea k

en ed ; it rem a in ed stron g withou t the power of

a g a in becom in g d a n gerou s, sin ce it wa s ren ewed

yea rly ; a n d by the in tercessio it w a s self-re

stra in ing. Bu t shou ld a d a nger a rise dem a n din gF A SCE S ’

a

th e r a pid con cen tra tion of power,i t rea ppea red complete in the

dicta torship .

The n obles did n ot desi re th a t the revolu tion shou ld exten dto the gods . Cu stom requ ired th a t cert a in s a crifices shou ld b e

offered by a kin g,so they a ppoin ted a rex s a crorum t o perform

them ; b u t a l l a m bition wa s forbidden him,h e wa s decl a red

in c a p a ble of fil lin g a ny other office .

Fin a lly, the cen tu ries of Serviu s were re-est a blished , or

bec a me for the first time the gre a t politica l a ssem bly of the

Rom a n people, u n der gu a ra n ties which preven ted a l l encroa ch

m en t. I n m emory of their e a rly ch a r a cter they m et ou tside the

1 Uzi consu l es potesta tem ha bercn t reg ia m . (Cic., d c R ep . i i. L i vy ( i. 60) sa ysth a t the con su ls were e lected a t Commen ta r iis Servi Tu l l i.

2 Con su l a r co in of On . Pi so. T he fa sces , the in s ign i a of v ictory, were surrou n ded withwre a th s of l a ure l ; the v ictor a n d h is soldiers wore l a ure l too, for it w a s con s idered a pre

serv a t ive a ga in st evi ls, a n d a gu a ra nty a ga in st the shocks of F ortu ne , which is wont to strikemore pa rticu l a rly a t ha ppy people. This co in , given by M ore l]

,a fter G ol tziu s is n o longer

to b e fou nd in a ny co llection .

3 Con sul a r coin of C.N orb a nu s : a fa sces with a n a xe, a ca duceu s, a nd a n e a r of whea t.V O L . x. 18

274 ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

pom erium,in the Field of M a rs, n ot a t the c a ll of the l ictors

,

l ike th e comiti a of the Cu ri a e, b u t a t the sou n d of the trum pet.

Before they m et it wa s n ecess a ry t o con su lt the a u spices, so th a t

religion kept them in depen den ce on the p a trici a n a u gu rs . The

con voca tion m u st b e a n n ou n ced thirty d a ys beforeh a n d (d ies j u s ti),th a t n on e m ight b e u n a w a re of it ; a n d to a void a l l ch a n ce of

su rprise by the en em y, a red fla g floa ted over the Ja n icu lu m

,

which a picket occu pied whil e the com itia l a sted .1

The governm en t rea lly rem a in ed in the h a n ds of the

p a trici a n s . They were m a sters of the Sen a te,the su preme cou n cil

of the city,where in m ost of th e proposition s a fterwa rd l a id before

the com iti a mu st first b e discu ssed , a n d they were predom in a n t in

the a ssem bly of cen tu ries by their wea lth a n d the n u m ber of

the ir clien ts. I f a ny plebeia n s, who h a d by the ir fortu n e rea ched

the highest cl a sses,threa ten ed to ren der th e vote of the cen tu ries

u n fa vora ble, the p a trici a n m a gistra te, who presided over the

com iti a , cou ld a lw a ys, by m ea n s of the a u gu rs , brea k u p the

a ssem bly or a n n u l it s decision s ; or,

"

if i l l om en s fa iled,ca u se a

popu l a r resolu tion to b e rej ected by th e Sen a te .

Rom e h a d,then , a n u pper hou se , which discu ssed th e l a w

twice,

on ce before a n d on ce a fter it h a d been l a id before the

com it i a , a n d a lower hou se,com posed of the whole people

,which

voted,b u t did n ot discu ss. I t w a s som ewha t l ike ou r three

re a din gs . Bu t the l a rgest sh a re of in flu en ce w a s a ccorded to

m a tu rity of m in d a n d to experien ce in pu blic a ffa irs,

sin ce by

it s prel imin a ry a u thori za tion the Sen a te h a d th e in iti a tive in

proposin g l a ws,a n d

,by their right of con firm a tion or rejection ,

the power to a rrest the proceedin gs of a m a gistr a te who h a d

presen ted t o the comitia , a n d ca u sed them to p a ss, a revol u

t ion a ry bill .

A l l w a s don e with the s a me prec a u tion s in the elective

comiti a : the presiden t proposed to the people th e ca n did a tes

whom the Sen a te a n d th e a u gu rs preferred, a n d the a ssembly

1 L i vy,xxx ix. 15 n isi qu a m vex il l a in a rce posito comitiorum ca u sa exercita s ed u ctu s

esset. Cf.A u lu s G e l liu s, xv . 27; Dionys., vi i .59 . (Ti er /rep e’

u n oh e’

iup , a nd M a crob,S a t.1. 16 .

T he com iti a cou ld b e held on ly on set d a ys, d ies f a sti, during which it w a s a ll owa bleto enga ge in sta te a ff a irs. There were a bout 190 of the se d a ys in th e ye a r. T h e d ies nef a sti,or feri a l d a ys, were those on which re ligion c losed the tribu n a ls a nd forb a de a l l pu bl ic tra n s~a ction s. (Va rro, d e L ing. L a t. v i . 29 ; F estu s, s. v. Dies comitia les.)

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276 ROME UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

plebei a n s sa w m en of their own order in the first cl a sses, a n d

p a trici a n s in th e l a st,like Cin cinn a tu s

, who, a fter his son’

s l a w

su it,h a d on ly six a cres of l a n d for h is own property .

’

The Rom a n plebs wa s n ot , however, l ike th a t popul a ce

of grea t cities which is seen ch a fin g,stru gglin g

,a n d c a lm ing

down a t ra n dom ,— a bl in d force

,which on ly becom es form id a ble

when it fin ds a lea der . The plebei a n s, t oo,h a d their n obility ,

their ol d f a m ilies, a n d even roya l fa m ilies ; for th e p a trici a n s of

con qu ered town s, like the M a m il ii,the P a pi i, the Ciln ii, a n d

Ca ecin a e in l a ter tim es, h a d n ot a l l been received in to the

Rom a n p a trici a te. Other fa m ilies, of p a trici a n origin, b u t whom

circumsta n ces u n kn own t o u s drove ou t of the Cu ri a e or hin dered

from en terin g them — the V irg in ii, the G en u cii, the M en ii

, the

Mclii,the Oppii, th e M etel l i

,a n d th e Oct a v ii, pl a ced themselves

a t the hea d of the people ; a n d these m en, who cou ld vie in

n obil ity with the prou dest sen a tors,by jo in in g their fortu n es with

the order in to which they h a d been driven , fu rn ished the plebs

with a m bitiou s lea ders,a n d it s efi orts with skilfu l direction ? A s

the price of the help a fforded t o the n obles a g a in st T a rqu in , they

1 V a l . M a x .,IV. iv. 7.

2 The M ete l l i cl a imed descent from Ca ecu l u s, son of Vu lca n a n d fou nder of Pra eneste.They were plebe i a n s, a n d yet L i vy ca l ls them pa trici a n s ( i v. The g en s F uri a , on the otherha n d , w a s pa trici a n , yet he ca l ls the F uri i plebe i a n s ( ix. 4 2 a nd xxx ix. the M e lii a n d M en ii

were plebe i a n s he ca l ls them pa tric i a n s ( v . the V irg in ii ( v. 2 9) a nd th e A t il ii ( i v. 7) werep a trici a n s he m a kes them plebe i a n s ( v. 13 , a nd x . 2 3 ) the Ca ssii, Oppii, a n d G en u cii a re in l ikem a n n er ca l led by turn s pa tric i a n s a n d plebe i a n s, con su ls a n d tribu n es. O n e bra nch of th e g ens

Sempron i a , the A tr a t in i, a re p a trici a n s ; a nother bra nch, the Gra cchi, a re plebe i a n s. T he ex

pl a n a tion of this pecu l i a rity, which occurs too often to b e d u e to a n error on the pa rt of L i vy,m a y perha ps b e fou n d in the supposition tha t, ou t of reg a rd for [tra d ition a l] n um bers (seep. there rem a in ed outs ide the origin a l Sen a te certa in fa m i l ie s who were yet he ld in a shighcon sidera tion a s those whose ch iefs,ha ving become sen a tors, conferred on the ir descen d a nts then a m e of pa trici a n s. I n tha t ca se th e Curi a e mu stha ve comprised fa m i l ies which h a d the a u spices,a l l the rights of th e sovere ign cl a ss of citizen s, a nd a dm ission to office , withou t be ing pa trici a n ,a nd yet n ot plebe i a n . When two orders on ly ca m e t o b e recogn i zed in th e c ity, some of

these fa m il ies re—entered th e a ristocra tica l body ; others mu st ha ve been thrown b a ck u pon the

people, whose strength they con stitu ted. M embers of these .u ncerta in fa m i l ies m a yha ve evenbeen pl a ced by the cen sors on the l i st of the Sen a te. Thi s wou ld expl a in th e phra se of L i vy(v.12) a bout the plebe i a n L icin iu s Ca lvu s, before the ye a r 3 67B .c. vir n u l l is a n te hon orib u s u su s,

vetu s t a n tum sen a tor. Dionys. (F ra g.x l vi.) a sserts tha t it w a s through fe a r of tribu n iti a n a ccu sa

tion s (see p. 164) tha t some pa trici a n s h a d c a u sed them se lves to b e in scribed a m ong the plebe i a n s.T he re a son is a poor one ; for a n a d op tion w a s n ecess a ry in order to cha nge on e

’

s fa m i ly, a ndin th a t ca se the person a dopted took the n a me of the a dopter. Wh a tever expl a n a tion isa ccepted, however, this m u ch is certa in , a n d we on ly in sist on this importa nt point, tha t therewere , e ither between pa tric i a n s a nd people, or a t the he a d of the people, noble a nd we a lthyfa m i lies interested in overthrowing the distinction between the two orders.

INTE RNAL H ISTORY FROM 509 TO 470 . 277

h a d Obt a in ed the en forcem en t of the con stitu tion of Serviu s.

Herea fter they will extort fu rther con cession s ; for E tru ri a is

a rm in g in the K in g’s c a u se,

a n d behin d the V eien t in es a n d

T a rqu in ia n s m a y b e a lrea dy seen the prep a ra tion s of Porsenn a .

A comm on m isfort im e m a y brin g the two orders n e a rer by

humblin g the milita ry pride of the n obles.

Aristocr a cies d ie ou t when they a re n ot ren ewed, especi a lly

in m il ita ry repu blics, where the n obles a re fou n d in the first

r a n ks of b a ttle, a n d pa y for their privileges with the ir blood .

Decim a ted by w a rfa re a n d by th a t m ysteriou s l a w of developm en t

in the hum a n species which c a u ses the extin ction of Ol d f ami lies, 1

every a ristocra cy which does n ot receive recru its from withou t

it s p a le is soon ex ha u sted a n d destroyed by the a ction of t irn e

a lon e . The Sp a rt a n s of Lycu rgu s were n o lon ger m ore

th a n a t Pl a t a ea , fewer stil l a t Leu ctra a n d a t Sell a sia .

Bu t the n obil ity of Rom e n ever closed it s “ golden book .

”

Un der Tu llu s the grea t fa m il ies of A lb a , u n der T a rqu in a hu n

dred n ew m em bers, h a d been a dm itted t o the Sen a te .’

After the

a bolition of roya lty, the f a thers felt the n eed of strengthen in g

them selves by dra win g tow a rds them a l l the m en of

con sidera tion inthe city t o whom the Cu ria h a d hitherto

been closed ? Bru tu s or V a leriu s restored the Sen a te

to the u su a l n umber of 3 00 m em bers,a s it h a d been

deprived Of m a ny by the cru elty of T a rqu in a n d thecom K EPR E

exil e of h is pa rtisa n s ? At the s a me tim e the Sen a te giagggdistribu ted a m on g the people th e l a n ds of the roya l

dom a in ,a bol ished cu stoms, a n d lowered the price of s a lt

,

5— a clever

1 The pestilences so frequ ent a t R om e a lso contributed to the extinction of fa m il ies. A fterthe pl a gu e of 4 6 2 B. c ., which c a rried off both th e con su ls, severa l pa tric i a n fa m i lies di s a ppe a r.A fter tha t epoch there is n o m ention of the L a r t ii , Com in ii, a n d N um icii , a nd we no lon ger,or on ly ra re ly, meet with pa trici a n s of the n a m e of T u l l iu s, Sicin iu s, Volum n iu s, A eb u t iu s.H erm in iu s, Lu cretiu s, a n d M enen iu s.

2 I ca n not possibly a dmit the stra nge theory, origin a ting in G erm a n y, of the con stitution ,

a fter the ye a r 50 9 , of a plebe io—pa trici a n Sen a te. The who le intern a l h i story of R om e u p to

3 67 n . C. protests a ga in st thi s su pposition .

3 T he exiles were so nu merou s tha t they fou ght in sepa ra te bodies. (Dionys., v. A

p a ssa ge in Cicero (d e R ep . 1. 4 0) shows tha t there w a s a vio lent re a ction a ga in st the fri en dsof th e l a st Kin g .

4 Den a riu s of the Ju n ia n fa m ily.5 L i vy, ii. 9 . F or these proceedings Brutu s h a d re e sta bl ished, or ca u sed to b e con firmed

by the Curi a e , the qu a e stors esta bl ished by the kin gs. (T a c., A nn. x i. Pluta rch referstheir cre a tion to V a leriu s.

278 ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

move in two w a ys, for by sa tisfying the a m bition of th e chiefs, it

sep a ra ted them from the m a sses, which rem a in ed withou t lea ders

,

while a t the sa me time it in terested the l a tter, by in crea sing their

m a teri a l wel fa re , in the c a u se of the n obles .

To the first yea r of the Repu blic, too, a re s a id to belon g the

l a ws of V a leriu s, who, bein g left sole con su l for some t im e a fter the

dea th of Bru tu s, exercised a kin d

of dict a torship, a n d m a de u se of it

t o p a ss l a ws which the in tercessio of

a collea gu e wou ld perh a ps h a ve pre

ven ted. These l a ws pu n ished with

dea th whosoever shou ld a spire t o

roya lty, a n d a u thorized disobedien ce

to a m a gistra te who shou ld con

tinn e his offi ce beyon d the a p

poin ted term . H e c a u sed the f a sces

to b e lowered before the popu l a r

a ssem bly, a n d recogn ized it s sover

eign ju risdiction by c a rryin g the

l a w of a ppea l (p rovoca tio),1 which

w a s to Rome wh a t the ha bea s corp u s

h a s been to E n gl a n d . I n order to

show clea rly tha t the power of l ife

a n d dea th w a s t a ken a w a y from

the con su ls, he took the a xes ou t

of the f a sces within the city a n d

within a mile of it s w a lls. Beyon d

tha t they were restored to th e lictors, for the con su ls on p a ssin g

the first m ileston e 2 recovered th a t u n l imited power which wa s

A M I LE STON E .

1 N equ e en improvoca tion em longiu s esse a b u rbe m il lep a ssu um. (L i vy, i i i. Thi swa s,sa ys Cicero (d c R ep . i i. the first l a w voted by the centu ries. T he a ppea l forba de eum

qu i p rovoca sset virg is ou ed i secu r iqu e n eca r i. (L i vy, x . Compa re V a l .M a x ., i v. 1, a n d Cic.,d c R ep . i i. 3 1. Dionys iu s ( v. 19 ) extends the prohibition to fines. B u t if this occurred, itcou ld on ly b e a fter the decem v ira te. There is a ttributed t o V a leriu s too, a l a w which wou ldthrow open the ca n did a ture for the con su lship. 3 3 cm“ p en eu a t Ka i n a pa

'

y'

ye’

hhew T ois

Bovhop e’

vo ts. (Plut., P op l . i i.) I t is, of course, u nderstood tha t this refers on ly to pa trici a n s whom ight dem a n d of the Se n a te or con su ls to b e in scribed on the l i st of ca n did a tes.

2 The v a lu e of th e R om a n m i le is a bout 16 15 y a rds m etres) . Upon the roa ds whichissu ed from R om e , ea chm il e w a s m a rked by a n umbered post, a n d the d ista nces cou nted from the

ga te of th e c ircu it w a l l of Serviu s. T he post repre sented by the en gra ving, a fter a restora tionof Ca n in a , wa s the first u pon the A ppi a n W a y. I t is mu ch l a ter in d a te tha n ou r present epoch,

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280 ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

h e mu st equ ip himsel f a t h is own expen se, provide his own food

in w a r tim e,a n d yet pa y the t a x

, which wa s rel a tively hea vier for

the poor th a n th e rich , beca u se , bein g b a sed u pon l a n ded property,

i t did n ot a llow for the debts Of the on e cl a ss or the credit of

the other. Bu t if the wa r wa s n ot su ccessfu l ; i f the en emy, who

cou ld in a sin gle d a y tra verse the whole territory of th e Repu blic,

ca m e a n d cu t down th e crops a n d bu rn ed the f a rms ; if t o the

pill a ge of th e people of La tium a n d the Sa bin e l a n d there were

a dded in clemen cy of we a ther, — how w a s the f a rm er t o su pport hisf a m ily or rebu i ld his bu rn ed hom e ?

There were m ea n s of com ing t o som e u n derst a n din g with the

gods . A tem ple w a s prom ised, it m ight b e to som e fore ign deity

whom they felt gu i lty of h a vin g n eglected ; or they offered a

sa crifice, a n d thou ght they h a d set them selves right with th e

ce lesti a l powers . Thu s , a f a m in e h a ving broken ou t du ring the

L a tin wa r, the dicta tor Postum iu s prom ised a sa n ctu a ry t o a

Greek divin ity, Dem eter, who c a u sed the fru itfu ln ess of the

Ca m pa n i a n pl a in s, when ce the Sen a te , n o dou bt, procu red corn . She

took,on the b a n ks of Tiber, the n a m e of a n ol d E tru sca n deity

,

Ceres ;1a n d to m in ister a t h er a lta r a wom a n wa s summ on ed from

N a ples or Ve l i a , who on h er a rriv a l rece ived the rights of citizen

ship,beca u se a Rom a n tongu e on ly cou ld in voke the gods in fa vor

of Rom e .

The u su rer’s a ccou n t w a s a m ore difficu lt m a tter t o settle.

All the h a rd-ea rn ed “

s a vings wen t first, then the booty won in pre

vion s c a m p a ign s, a n d fin a lly the heredit a ry p a trim ony, — the l a st

pledge on which the poor m a n h a d ra ised a loa n a t a n en ormou s

r a te of in terest . Thu s a grea t n umber of plebe i a n s h a d,within

a few ye a rs a fter the expu lsion of the kings, becom e the debtorsof the we a lthy

,like their descen d a n ts, the pe a s a n ts of the Rom a n

Ca m p a gn a , who, -ru in ed by u su ry a n d mon opol ies,se ll their crops

before they h a ve been sown . Bu t the wea lthy were to b e fou n d

especi a l ly a mon g the p a trici a n s. Bein g possessed of v a st esta tes,a n d holding the l a n ds of the pu blic dom a in

,which

,a s it wa s u su a lly

left for p a stu ra ge, h a d l ittle t o fea r from the en emy ’ s r a v a ges,they coul d still export to foreign cou n tries the wool of their flocks

1 Serviu s, a d A en . ii . 3 25. The n a me Ceres h a s no m ea n ing in L a tin .

INTE RNAL H ISTORY FROM 509 TO 470 . 281

a n d the produ ce of thei r l a n d . Their fortu n e w a s less depen den t

on a b a d se a son or a hostile in cu rsion . Thu s they a lw a ys h a d

mon ey for th a t lu cr a tive bu sin ess1 which brou ght in m ore th a n

the best l a n d or th e m ost dogged work . At Rome, a s a t Athen s

before the tim e of Solon ,

a n d a s in a l l the a n cien t

st a tes of Asi a a n d the

North, the l a w a ssign ed

t o th e creditor th e l iberty

a n d l ife of th e debtor ; it

wa s a pledge , a m ort

ga ge held Ou h is person .

I f the debtor did n ot fu l

fi l his obliga tion s within

the lega l period, h e b e

c a me n exu s ,2 th a t is t o

sa y, he bou n d his person

to pa y hi s debt by l a bor.

H e w a s n ot a sl a ve ; b u t

hi s creditor cou ld im pose

servile du ties u pon h im ,

a n d even keep h i m im

prison ed in th e erg a s ia

lum . H is children ,u n less

h e h a d previou sly em a n

cipa t ed them ,Sh a red h is

fa te , for they were his

property ; a n d hi s prop

erty, l ike h is person , CE R E S FOUN D A T OST I A I N 1856. (MUSE UM OF T H E

belonged to h is creditorsV A T I CA N )

un til he h a d freed him self from his debt.

I t wa s n ot n ecessa ry th a t m a ny plebei a n s Shou ld fin d them

selves u n der th e a ction of this severe l a w,t o c a u se a widespre a d

1 Usury wa s a n a tion a l v ice a t R om e. Po lybiu s kn ew thi s so we ll , tha t he hon orsScipio for n ot ha vin g been gui lty of it (xxxii. fr. I 'V e kn ow tha t Ca to th e Cen sorca rried on the m ost disreputa ble form of it ,— m a ritime u sury ; a nd we see in Pluta rch t he

pa rsimony of Cra ssu s, n otwithsta nding h is imm en se fortune.2 See pa ge 3 1. T he n ex um wa s th e verb a l a greement u n derta ken by the creditor, in the

presence of witnesses, to p a y b a ck the loa n .

282 R OM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

irrita tion ; its very existen ce w a s su fficien t . The people soon s a w

tha t the revolu tion h a d m erely su bstitu ted p a trici a n for roya l

a u thority ; a n d they con ce ived a violen t h a tred for these h a u ghty

m a sters, who tre a ted them with the violen ce they them selves h a dsu ffered a t the K in g ’ s h a n ds .1 At first they pea cea bly dema n ded

the a bol ition of debts ; then they refu sed t o obey the con scriptionfor service a ga in st the L a tin s. The Situ a tion seem ed so critica l t othe Sen a te th a t they revived roya lty with a l l it s power for a tim e.

I n 501 B . 0 . they cre a ted th e dicta torship,th e powers of which

were u n l im ited . E lected,on th e in vit a tion of the Sen a te

,

"

by

on e of the con su ls, a n d chosen from a m on g th e consu l a res,the

dict a tor (m a gis ter p op u li)2 h a d

,even in Rom e, twen ty-fou r lictors

bea rin g the a xes in the f a sces,a s a sign of a bsolu te a u thority.

The ordin a ry m a gistr a tes were u n der h is orders,a n d th e right of

a ppea l t o th e people wa s su spen ded ; it w a s l ike ou r decl a r a tionof m a rti a l l a w. H e w a s n om in a ted for six mon ths

,l ike his

lieu ten a n t, the m a g is ter egu itum ,b u t n on e ever ret a in ed these

formida ble powers so lon g. So soon a s th e d a n ger h a d p a ssed

which h a d c a u sed th e su spen sion of pu blic l iberty a n d the

lega l esta blishm en t of this provision a l tyr a nny, the dict a tor

a bdic a ted .3 The Sen a te h a d thu s reserved a n extr a ordin a rym a gistr a cy for these critic a l times from which st a tes often em erge

on ly a t the cost of their liberty. More th a n on ce,in deed

,did

the dicta torship s a ve th e Repu blic f rom the en em y withou t a nd

from the a git a tion s of the Forum within . I f for n ea rly three

cen tu r ies Rome n ever felt the stormy vicissitu des of th e Hellen ic

1 P rop ter n im ia m d omin a tion em p oten t-ium. (Cic., p ro Corn . fr. Sa llu st Spe a ks sim i

l a rly. (H ist.f ra g . i.2 L a rs, in E tru sca n , m e a n s lord a nd m a ster. (Pluta rch , Q u a est. B orn. The express ion

m a g ister p opu l i h a s th e s a me m ea n in g , a n d the dicta torship wa s prob a bly a n im ita tion of

wh a t took pl a ce in E truri a when , in gra ve circum sta nces, she a ppo inted a ta rs , like Porsenn aor T o lum n iu s .

3 Va rro, d e L ing . L a t. v. 82 ; F est, 8. v. op tim a lex. A tra dition , reported by L ivy,wou ld a ss ign a nother ca u se for the cre a tion of this m a gistra cy, — tha t th e two consu ls werep a rtis a n s of the Ki n g. T he Greeks tra n sl a ted the word dicta tor by ndu a pxog a nd a ff r oxptirwp.

Z on a r a s (vii. 13 ) s a ys : 771111 8' e’

x 7779 p ova p a s 颀het a v Heh ow es‘ £11 T a iimv dudu a n

cihom’

o. M a chi a ve lli m a de the fol lowin g rem a rk , which is confirm ed by M ontesqu ieu (E sp.

d es L ois,i i. 3 W ithout a power of th is n a ture , th e sta te m u st e ither b e lost in fo l lowing

the ordin a ry l ines of proceedin g, or e lse qu it them , in order to sa ve itself. B u t if extraordin a ry me a n s d o good for the m om ent, they le a ve a b a d ex a mple, which is a re a l e vil.” The

dicta torsh ips of Sul l a a nd Ca esa r ha ve, of course, nothing in common with the a ncientdicta torship.

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284 R OM E UNDE R T H E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

the pledges of Servil iu s, a n d with a n a rm y of plebei a n sdefea ted the Volsci a n s

,Aequ i a n s, a n d Sa bin es . The people thou ght

tha t they h a d this time secu red the execu tion of the con su l a r

prom ises ; a ga in they were deceived . A few poor m en on ly,it is

sa id, were sen t a s colon ists to V el itr a e . The in dign a n t Va leriu sresign ed, ca llin g to witn ess F id iu s, the god of pledged fa ith

,which

h a d been broken .

BR I DG E OF N OM E N T UM .

To a vert a revolt in the Forum ,the con su ls of

the yea r 49 3 , a v a ilin g them selves of the milit a ry o a th

ta ken to thei r predecessors, forced the a rm y t o go ou t

of th e city. Bu t ou tside the ga tes th e plebei a n s

a b a n don ed th e con su ls , a n d crossing the An io, prob a blyA N N A PE R E N N A .

1

a t th e spot where the br idge of N om en tum w a s bu i lt,they m a rched u n der th e lea dership of Sicin iu s Bel l u tu s a n d Ju n iu s

Bru tu s, to the Sa cred Mou n t,

2a n d en ca m ped there ; those of

1 C. A NN I. T . F . T. N .,tha t is, C. A n n iu s, son of T itu s, gra ndson of T itu s A nn iu s.

H ea d with a di a dem , a ttributed by Ca ved on i to A n n a Perenn a : to the right, a ca duceu s ; onthe left, a pa ir of sca les. Si l ver co in of the A nn ia n fa m i ly.

2 T h e mon s s a cer is a n e long a ted h i l l , sepa ra ted from th e A n io by a mea dow, in whichthere sti l l ex ists the a nc ient bridge, surmou nted by a pon t ifica l bu i lding of the fifteenthcentury. (See cu t .)

INTE RNAL H ISTORY FROM 509 TO 470 . 2 85

Rome withdrew a t the sa m e tim e with the ir fa m i lies t o the

Aven tin e .1 Tra dition h a d i t th a t a n ol d wom a n of Bovil l a e brou ght

them every m orn in g sm oking hot c a kes,which she h a d s a t

up a l l n ight to ba ke : it w a s the Goddess An n a Perenn a ?Un der

this legen d lies hidden a rem em bra n ce of the a ssist a n ce given

to the plebe ia n s by the n eighboring cit ies.

Som e tim e p a ssed in del a y a n d in fru itless n egoti a tion s . At

l a st the p a trici a n s, frighten ed by the m en a cing position of the

legion s, n om in a ted two con su ls, frien ds of the people , a n d sen t

ten con su l a rs a s a depu t a tion t o the sold iers . Am on g them were

three form er d ict a tors , a lso L a rt iu s Postu m iu s,Va leriu s

,a n d the

plebei a n M en en iu s Agripp a , the m ost eloqu en t a n d popu l a r of the

sen a tors. H e told them the fa ble of the bel ly a n d the mem bers,a n d brou gh t b a ck thei r dem a n ds to the Sen a te. They were re

m a rk a b ly modera te . All sl a ves for debt were to b e set free ;the debts them selves

,a t lea st those of in solven t debtors, t o b e

ca n celled ? They did n ot even dem a nd th a t the crim in a l l a w

shou ld b e a ltered ; fifty yea rs l a ter, we Sh a l l fin d i t still in

scribed by th e decem virs on the Twelve T a bles . Bu t they wou ld

n ot con sen t t o com e down from the Sa cred Mou n t u n til they h a d

n omin a ted two tribu n es , Sicin iu s a n d Bru tu s, whose right the

Sen a te Shou ld recogn ize of a ssisting the h a rshly u sed 4 debtor, a n d

of st a yin g by the ir veto the eflect of the con su l a r ju dgm en ts .

I n this w a y those Rom a n s who rema in ed withou t p a trici a n pro

t ect ion ,a n d h a d n o on e t o defen d them, wou ld hen ceforth h a ve two

offici a l p a tron s with whom it wou ld b e n ecess a ry t o reckon .5

These represen t a tives of the poor h a d n either the l a ticl a ve

with a border of pu rple , n or lictors a rmed with f a sces . N o ex

tern a l m a rk distin gu ished them from the crowd , a n d they were

preceded by a sin gle a pp a ritor in pl a in dress . Bu t , a s feti a ls in

a n en emy’

s territory , their person wa s inviol a ble. They devoted to

1 Cic., d e R ep ., 11. 3 7 ; L i vy, 11. 3 2 ; A pp., B el l . Civ. i. 1.

2 O vid, F a s t. i i i. 654 .3 Dionys., v i. 83 .4 A t first th e tribu ne cou l d on ly protect the plebe i a n who h a d been in su lted or struék in

his presence .5 Z on .

,v ii . 15 : n pa c

-rdr a g 8130 ; a nd L i vy , i i. 3 3 ; i i i. 55. T he tribu nes were n ot a l

lowed, except du ring the L a tin g a me s, t o b e a w a y from R ome a t n ight, a nd the ir door a lw a ysrem a ined Open. The ir power en ded one mi le from the w a ll s, where the imper ium of the

consul s beg a n .

286 ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

the gods a ny on e who stru ck them , by sa ying sa cer esto,1a n d his

goods were con fisca ted to the profit of the tem ple of Ceres . N o

p a trici a n cou ld becom e a tribu n e (49 3 B .

By this crea tion of two lea ders of the people (soon a fter

w a rd five, still l a ter t en ) the revolt, pu rely civil, i f I m a y so

term it, in prin ciple beca me a lmost a revolu tion, a n d tu rn ed ou t

t o b e the gre a test even t in the dom estic history of Rom e .“ I t

wa s,”

sa ys Cicero ,2 “ the first redu ction of the con su l a r power

,

in con stitu ting a m a gistra te in depen den t of it . The secon d w a s

the help which it a fforded to th e other m a gistr a tes, a s wel l a s to

the citizen s who refu sed Obedien ce to the con su ls.”

The rich plebe i a n s a dopted the chiefs Of the poor a s bein g

those of the en tire order . Thu s su pported,this protective power

soon bec a m e a ggressive ; a n d we sh a ll see t he tribu n es, on th e on e

h a n d,exten ding thei r veto t o a l l a cts con tra ry t o popu l a r in terests,

8

a n d on the other pol itica lly orga n izin g the people,ou tside the

a u ctorit a s p a trum ,a n d c a u sing the concilia p leb is to a ssert a s

their own the rights of delibera tin g, voting , a n d e lectin g . La teron ,

we sha ll see them effa cing the distin ction between . the orders

by procl a im in g th e prin ciple tha t the sovere ign ty res ides in the

whole people ; a n d then will come the tim e when no on e is so

powerfu l in Rome a s a tribu n e of the people . This power

dou btless committed m a n y excesses . Bu t withou t it,th e Repu blic,

in su bjection t o a n oppressive ol iga rchy,wou ld n ever h a ve fu l

filled it s grea t destin ies . “ Rome ou ght either t o h a ve con tinu ed

a m on a rchy,”

s a id even Cicero,“1 who h a d mu ch person a l grou n d

for com pl a in t a ga in st the tribu n a te, or there w a s n o n eed t o gra n t

the plebei a n s a l iberty which w a s n ot m a de u p of m ere em pty

words .” This l iberty n ow begin s for them , sin ce there is n o

freedom a p a rt from stren gth , a n d there is n o stren gth in societies

except in disciplin e . Discipl in ed by its n ew chiefs,the people

were soon a ble to m a in ta in a regu l a r stru ggle a ga in st the grea t,

1 Z on . (ib id .) expl a in s this expression ,which occurs so often in legisl a tion . The victim ,

led to the a lta r a s a sa crifice, wa s d evoted , i. e. gi ven u p to de a th ; so a lso the m a n decl a red sa cer.2 De L eg . i i i .7. The qu estion how the tribu ne s were nom in a ted between the ye a rs 4 93

a nd 4 71 is very obscure. I d o no t doubt,however, tha t it h a d been from the first reserved tothe con cilium p leb is. See p. 2 95.

2 V a l . M a x .,i i. 7 ; Dionys., x . 2 .

1 De L eg . iii. 10 ; re n on verbo.

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288 ROME UNDE R TH E PATRICIA N CON SULS.

con su lta , a n d th e right of con troll in g the su pply of Rom e with

provision s.1 I n the secon d cen tu ry B . C. the a edileship wa s, a c

cordin g t o Polybiu s, a very illu striou s office,2a n d Cicero ca lls the

grea t Architect of the world the A ed ile of the Un iverse.

I t is certa in tha t the plebe i a n s h a d a lrea dy their own specia l

ju dges, j u d ices d ecemviri, a n d their pu blic a ssem bly, concilium p ichis

the p a trici a n s were n a tu r a lly exclu ded from them,or

,t o spea k

more exa ctly, did n ot con descen d to en ter them ?

We sha ll close with two rem a rks : the tribu n a te is th e m ost

origin a l of Rom a n in stitu tion s , for n othin g like it h a s existede ither a m on g a n cien ts or modern s a n d th e revolu tion when ce it

proceeded did n ot cost on e drop of hum a n blood.

I I I . TH E AG R A R IA N L Aw.

TH E beginn in gs of the tribu n a te were humble a n d obscu re , l ike

those of a l l the plebei a n m a gistra cies.4 Bu t a p a trici a n who h a d

been con su l a n d celebra ted a triumph three tim es —e Spu riu s Ca ssiu s

revea led t o the tribu n es the secret of their power, viz. popu l a r

1 Dionys., v i. 9 0.2 Po lyh., x. 4 .3 L i vy, i i i. 55, a nd 11. 56 , 60 ; Dionys., ix. 4 1.4 T o fill u p the interv a l vo id of a cts which intervenes between th e ye a rs 4 9 3 B.c. a nd

486 B.c., there a re u su a l ly pl a ced, imm edi a te ly a fter the esta bl ishment of the tribu n a te, thetri a l of Corio l a nu s a n d the di sputes of the tribu nes with the con su ls respecting the co lon iesof N orha a n d V e l it ra e , — tha t is t o sa y, th e conqu est for the tribu n es of th e right of spea kingbefore ,the people without interruption , of con voking the com iti a of tribes, of decl a ringplebiscita , of j u dging a n d condemn in g t o de a th pa trici a n s. Thu s we fa i l t o recogn i ze the

humble begin n in gs of thi s m a gistra cy, which in th e first ye a r of it s ex istence wa s certa in lyno t stron g enou gh t o bra ve the Sen a te, the pa trici a n s, a nd the con su ls. B esides th is con

s idera tion m a ny circum sta nces in the story a re a ctu a lly fa lse. Thu s N orh a a n d V el itr a e

were n ot then R om a n co lon ies, b u t in dependent L a tin cities, a s the trea ty of Ca ss iu s withth e La tin s proves ; Coriol i wa s n ot a Volsci a n city ta ken by th e R om a n s

, b u t one of the

thirty L a tin republics. Then Coriol a n u s is s a i d t o ha ve borne when very you n g h is firsta rm s a t the b a ttle of L a ke R egil lu s, in 4 9 6 B.c.

, a n d in 4 9 2 B. 0 . he dem a n ds the con su lsh ipa nd is fa ther of severa l chi ldren . T he tra dition of Corio l a nu s h a s no doubt a h istorica l b a sis ;b u t this proscription of one of the most il l u striou s pa trici a n s , this venge a nce of a ch iefa mong the b a n ished, ou ght t o belong to th e epoch which s a w the condemn a tion of M enen iu s

a n d A ppiu s, the ex i le of Ca eso, a n d the a ttempt of H erd on iu s. N iebuhr a lso be lieves theI cil ia n l a w to b e posterior t o tha t of Volero, a nd H ooke h a d previou sly proved it . I t

w a s, in truth, a plebiscitum , a n d th e people were on ly a ble to pa ss it a fter the a doption of

th e Pu bl il i a n l a w in 4 70 B. 0 . B es ides, the first u se of the I cil ia n l a w w a s m a de on ly in4 2 1 B.C. in con nection with Ca e so (‘hic p r imu s va d es p u bl ico d ed it) ; the tribu nes woul d thu sha ve rem a in ed more tha n thirty yea rs without u sing it.

INTE RNAL H ISTORY FROM 509 TO 470 . 289

a gita tion . H e w a s the first to sta rt a m ongst th e crowd th a t

gra n d w a tchword,“ the a gra ri a n l a w ;

”a n d the tribu n es a fter

him h a d on ly t o pron ou n ce it t o r a ise i n the Forum the most

fu riou s storm s . I n the Middle Ages,t o possess l a n d wa s t o t a ke

r a n k a m on g n obles ; a t Rome, it w a s t o becom e tru ly a citizen , to

h a ve tru e riches, su ch a s a lon e brou ght hon or,possessed en du r a n ce ,

a n d the on ly kin d tha t Rom e , withou t in du stry a n d with b u t little

tra de, cou ld kn ow a n d respect . Hen ce the im port a n ce of the

a gra ri a n l a ws ; for, pol itica l rights bein g in proportion to fortu n e,

to dim in ish th a t of som e a n d in cre a se th a t of others a m ou n ted,in

the order of the soci a l system , to ra isin g the l a tter a n d brin gin g

down the form er . By tou chi n g property they tou ched a lso the

very con stitu tion of the st a te, — they l a id a h a n d on tha t which

religion h a d con secra ted . Of cou rse the u pper cl a sses repelled

a lw a ys,by either force or deception

,those l a ws which sou ght to

give the people, a t their expen se, a little fortu n e a n d power .

The a gra ri a n l a ws did n ot, however, a tt a ck heredita ry p a tri

mon ies,ordin a ril y of sm a ll exten t

,b u t property u su rped from the

st a te,a n d whi ch cou ld b e recovered in it s n a m e from the d is

hon est holder. Like the territory of a l l th e peoples in It a ly a n d

Greece, the a ger R om a nu s h a d been prim itively divided in to equ a l

p a rts a m on g a l l the citizen s ; these a ss igned l a n ds, the lim its of

which th e a u gu rs them selves drew,form ed the in viol a ble a n d

heredit a ry property of the Qu irites . Bu t in this division of the

soil there h a d been reserved for the w a n ts of the st a te a certa in

exten t of l a n d , gen era lly p a stu r a ge a n d forests, which con tin u ed

t o b e the common dom a in,the a ger p u b licu s , a n d on which every

on e h a d the right of p a stu rin g h is flocks (peca s),for the p a ym en t

of a sm a l l ren t (p ecu n i a ). This pu blic dom a in grew with the

con qu ests m a de by Rom e ; for by the right of w a r a l l con qu ered

l a n ds belon ged t o the con qu erors, who gen er a lly m a de of them

a twofold division , — the on e, restored t o the ol d inh a bita n ts or a s

sign ed, a s property of the Qu irites , t o p a rticu l a r Rom a n citizen s

(colon i) ; the secon d , withou t dou bt the m ore con sidera ble, a tt a ched

to th e pu blic dom a in .

I f the a ger p u b licu s h a d con tinu ed wholly comm u n a l,it wou l d

h a ve yielded b u t a sl ight profit . To in crea se its v a lu e,a p a rt of it

wa s en closed ; a n d the st a te,a s proprietor

,received from the

V O L . I . 19

ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

fa rm ers of it a ten th p a rt of th e produ ce . This tithe form ed, downt o the tim e of the V eia n w a r, a lon g with the ren t for p a stu r a ge

,the

prin cip a l reven u e of th e city ; hen ce the im porta n ce of a l l qu estion srel a tin g t o the a ger p u b l icu s . Bu t the f a rm ers

,a t first

,were a l l

pa tricia n s,la n d the Sen a te, forgettin g the in terests of the sta te in

beha l f of those of the ir own order,n eglected

,little by little

, to

dem a n d th e tithes a n d ren ts . This w a s , however, the m a rk which

distin gu ished these le a seholds , a n d , a t a l l tim es, revoc a ble possession s,f rom fu l l qu irit a ry p ossession . So

,on this m a rk dis a ppea rin g

, the

f a rm s beca m e ch a nged in to freeholds,a n d the sta te lost dou bly

,by

the dim in u tion of the ren ts p a id t o th e trea su ry a n d by the lossof the pu blic dom a in, tra n sform ed in to priv a te dom a in s

,

2 withou t the

possessor p a yin g for these u su rped l a n ds - the tribu t a m ex censu which

wa s levied on a l l qu irita ry (freehold) property.

However, a n cien t ju rispru den ce decl a red th a t there wa s n ever

a ny st a tu te Of -lim it a tion a ga in st th e st a te 3 which, therefore,‘ret a in ed

a ll it s rights over these u su rped dom a in s,a n d wa s a ble to resum e

them,whoever m ight b e the holder, the origin a l f a rm er

,his he irs

,

or a ny on e who h a d bou ght from them for re a dy m on ey. F or,in

the ca se of both p a rties,the u n ju st possessor or the bon a fi d e

pu rcha ser, it w a s n othin g else tha n a property held withou t title.

Du rin g the m on a rchy, a gr a ri a n l a ws h a d been frequ en t , b ec a u se

i t w a s the in terest of the kin gs, su rrou n ded by a je a lou s a ristocra cy,to keep frien ds with the p a rtis a n s of the people ; b u t sin ce the

ex ile of T a rqu in there h a d been n o other a ssignm en t th a n th a t of

Bru tu s. H ow m u ch misery,however, h a d n ot th e plebei a n s born e,

du rin g those twen ty-fou r yea rs,from wa r a n d u su ry ! So the most

illu striou s of the p a trici a n s, the on ly on e of thi s epoch who, with

Va leriu s,h a d been three times decor a ted with the con su l a r pu rple,

1 A p a ssa ge of Ca ss iu s H em in a , in N on iu s ( ii. s. v. P leb ita s) le a ds to the be l ief th a tplebe i a n s cou l d n ot b e a dm itted to the occu pa tion of dom a in l a n d. There is certa in lyre a son to believe in the principle here implied , since the plebe i a n s were con s idered a s a

fore ign people. B u t the sa m e p a ssa ge proves tha t there were a lso plebe i a n s holders of

dom a in l a n d Q u icumqu e prop ter p leb it a tem a gro p u b l ico ej ecti su n t a nd Sa llu st (H ist.f ra g . 11)s a ys a lso, tha t some tim e a fter the expu ls ion of the T a rqu in s , they were dri ven from the publicl a nds, a g ro p ettere. We sha ll see L u cin iu s Stolo in the possess ion of 700 a cres.

2 Cf. A ggen u s Urb icu s, d e Con trov. a g ror., a p. G e s., R ei a g r a ria e scrip tores, p. 6 9.N eg a n t il lu d sol um , qu a d solum pop u l i R oma n i esse ca epit, u l lo mod o a s

-ica p i a qu ogu a m mor

te lium p osse.

3 Cic., d e R ep . ii. 14.

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2 92 ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

perished so m a ny popu l a r p a trici a n s, victim s of a powerfu l a ristoc

ra cy . The f a vor of the people is d a n gerou s : it h a s sl a in more

tribu n es th a n it h a s crown ed .

The n obles,on ce rid of Ca ssiu s , sou ght t o preclu de the retu rn

of the d a n ger . The powerfu l hou se of the F a b ii w a s sign a lized

by it s ze a l for the in terests of the Sen a te, a n d it w a s on e of it s

members th a t h a d pronou n ced sen ten ce of dea th a ga in st Ca s

sin s the n obles desired n o other con su ls, a n d du rin g seven yea rs

(484 — 478) a Fa biu s form s a member of the con su l a te. I n va in,

a lso,did the tribu n es ca ll for the a ccepta n ce of the a gr a ri a n l a w.

C. M a en iu s even wished , in 482,to oppose h is veto to the ra isin g

of troops, s in ce the Sen a te wou l d n ot proceed to a division of the

l a n ds . Bu t the con su ls con veyed their tribu n a l ou t of the city,

where the tribu n itia n protection did n ot exten d,a n d summ on ed the

citizen s t o the en rolm en t, ca u sin g, by the ir lictors, the f a rm s

to b e bu rn ed,the fru it-trees to b e cu t down ,

a n d the fields l a id

w a ste of those who did n ot give the ir n a m es . These violen t a cts

m ight prove d a n gerou s : the Sen a te preferred fighting the people

with it s proper wea pon s, by ga in in g som e m em bers of th e college

of tribu n es,whose opposition stopped the vet o of Sp. Licin iu s in

480, a n d of Pon t iflciu s 1 in 479 . Bu t the soldiers took it on them

selves to a ven ge the feeblen ess of the tribu n a te,a n d in 480 the

legion s refu sed t o ga in a victory over the V eien t in es, so a s n ot t o

secu re to Ca eso Fa biu s the hon or of a trium ph .

‘Here the history becomes obscu re . Th e Fa bu,chiefs of the

Sen a te,p a ss over to the people

,a n d then a re forced t o lea ve Rom e .

We ca nn ot b u t see in this ch a n ge on e of those frequ en t revolu tion s

in a ristocra tic repu blics. Withou t dou bt, the p a trici a n s were a l a rm ed

a t seein g the con su l a te becom e the herita ge of on e f a m ily,a n d the

F a b ii were obliged to seek a m on g th e people, n otwithst a n din g their

a m bition,th a t su pport which the Sen a te in ten ded t ow ithd ra w . Won

over by the popu l a r words a n d con du ct of M . Fa biu s the

soldiers prom ised h im,this tim e, th e defea t of the V eien t in es .

The b a ttle w a s bloody ; the con su l ’s brother perished : b u t th e

soldiers kept their word : the E tru sca n s were cru shed .2 On their

return the F a b ii received the wou n ded plebei a n s in to thei r hou ses,

1 L i vy, 11. 4 3 , 44 . 2 L i vy,11. 44 ; Dionys., ix . 6 .

INTE RNAL H ISTORY FROM 509 TO 470 . 2 93

a n d hen ceforth n o fa mily wa s more popu l a r . The n ext ye a r, Ca eso

Fa biu s, h a vin g owed the con su l a te “ ra ther to the people’

s votes

th a n those of the n obles ,” 1 forgot tha t he wa s the a ccu ser of

Ca ssiu s , a n d wished t o extort from the p a trici a n s the execu tion of

the a gra ria n l a w. Sin ce a l l hope of obt a in in g ju stice for the people

wa s lost, the whole gen s, with it s cl ien ts a n d p a rtisa n s, left the

city,where it w a s u se lessly com prom ised in the eyes of the p a tri

cia n s,a n d in order t o b e still u sefu l to Rom e in it s volu n t a ry

exi le, i t est a blished itself before the en emy 2 on the b a n ks of the

Cremera . L a ter on , the pride of the Fa bi a n gens in sisted in seein g

in this exile the devotion of three hu n dred a n d six F a b ii, who

su sta in ed, with their fou r thou s a nd clien ts , on beh a lf of t ot

terin g Rome, the wa r a ga in st th e V eien t in es . On e Fa biu s on ly,left a t Rome bec a u se of h is ten der a ge, preven ted , it is s a id

,the

extin ction of th e whole cl a n .3

After con qu ering in m a ny en cou n ters, they a llowed them selves

to b e dr a wn in to a n a m bu sc a de in which the gre a ter p a rt perished .

The rest took refu ge on a steep hill , a n d fou ght there from morn in g

till even in g.“ They were su rrou n ded by he a ps of dea d ; b u t th e

en emy w a s so n um erou s th a t t he a rrows r a in ed On them like fla kes of

sn ow. By din t Of strikin g, thei r Swords h a d becom e blu n t a n d thei r

bu cklers h a d been sh a ttered . Y et they n ever ce a sed fightin g,a n d

sn a tch in g a rm s from the en em y, th ey fel l on them l ike wild bea sts .

” ‘1

Wh ile these heroi c scen es were go in g on,which rem in d u s of the

exploits su n g in the cha n sons d e ges te, the con su l M en en iu s ca m e

by cha n ce in to the n eighborhood with a n a rmy ; he did n othi n g

to s a ve the F a b ii. Perh a ps thi s f a m ily,so proud , which h a d tried

t o ru le in Rom e by it s con su l a r Offi ce , a n d a fterwa rd by the fa vor

of the people, w a s s a crificed to the jea lou s fe a rs of the Sen a te , a s

a fterw a rd Sici niu s a n d h is b a n d to the terrors of the decemvirs

The pon tiffs in scribed a mong the d ies n ef a s ti tha t on wh ich

1 N on p a trum m a g is qu a m p leb is stu d -it'

s con su l f a ctus . (L i vy, 11.2 Cum f a mil iis su is. (A u l.G e l l., xv ii .8 Dionys., ix . 15 ; L i vy, ii. 50 ; Ovid., F a st. 11. 195, seq. Dionys iu s sa ys four thou sa nd

clients a nd ér a ipo t ; F estu s, five thou sa nd cl ients. T he V itell ii pretended a lso , a ided on ly bythe ir cl ients, to ha ve defen ded a g a in st the A equicol a e a town which took their n a me, V itclli a .

(Su et., V ite l l . i.)4 Dionys., ix . 21.

2 94 ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

the F a b ii h a d perished, a n d the ga te by which they h a d left

w a s cu rsed ; n o con su l wou ld ever cross the en tr a n ce on a n ex

ped it ion .

1 Rom e preserved the m em oria l of it s m isfortu n es, a n d

by this mou rn ing, perpetu a ted throu gh cen tu ries, she preven ted it s

repetition .

I V . R IGH T OF TH E TR I BUN E S TO A CCUSE T H E CON SULS A ND To

B R I N G F OR WA R D PLE B I SCI TA .

TH E people h a d n ot been a ble to preven t the exile of the

F a b ii ; they wished a t le a st t o a ven ge them . The tribu n es a ccu sed

M en en iu s of trea son (476 B . sh a m e a n d grief overca m e him,

he st a rved him self t o dea th . This w a s a con sidera ble su ccess ?

Un til then the power of the tribu n es h a d been con fin ed to thei r

veto,a n d this the con su ls well kn ew how to ren der illu sory ; b u t

we see them n ow a doptin g a n ew wea pon . The dis a ster a t

Cremera a n d the pu blic m ou rn in g helped them to ga in the right of

citing the con su ls to the b a r of ju stice . Hen ceforth the tribu n i

ti a n a ccu sers w a ited for those m a gistra tes who a re opposed to

the a gra ria n l a w,til l they ga ve u p Office . E xclu ded from the

Cu ri a e,the Sen a te, a n d the m a gistra cies a n n u lled in the cen tu ries

by the prepon dera tin g influ en ce of the p a trici a n s ; deprived by

the dict a torship of the tribu n iti a n protection ,— the plebei a n s n ow

fou n d th e m ea n s of in tim id a tin g the ir most violen t a dvers a ries by

summ on in g them before their tribes, concilium p lebis . F or m eeting

a n d a ctin g the tribu n es h a d n eed n either of the perm ission of

the Sen a te n or the con secra tion of the a u gu rs ;3a n d the p a trici a n s

who cou ld n ot preten d to th e tribu n a te did n ot vote in th e popu l a r

a ssem bly, ju st a s E n glish peers do n ot in the election s for the

Lower Hou se of"

Pa rli a men t . I n less th a n twen ty-six ye a rs, seven

1 Dion ., F r. 2 1.

2 F rom th e texts of Dionys. ( ix. 44 , 4 6) a nd Of L yd u s (i. 3 4 , 44) we m ight conclu de th a ta l a w conferred on th e tribu nes this right of a ccu sing the con su ls b u t we ca n not u ndersta ndhow this l a w cou ld h a ve been m a de. We m u st rest content t o b e ignora nt of m a ny th ingsrespecting these old times.

3 M y

'

rr e npoBovheiip a'

r os mir e r a in iepé’

w. (Dionys., ix. P lebeius m a g is tr a tus n u l

l u s a u sp ica to crea tu r. (L i vy, v i.

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296 R OME UNDE R TH E PATRICIA N CON SULS.

were cert a in ly m a de t o effect this en d . Volero wished t o decidethe m a tter by dem a n din g th a t the des ign a tion by the tribesshou ld b e defin itely esta blished . This l a w wou ld restore t o th e

tribu n a te its dem ocr a tic vigor . The p a trici a n s su cceeded du rin g

a yea r in preven tin g i t from p a ssin g. Bu t Volero w a s re

elected,with L a etoriu s a s collea gu e, who a dded to the Pu bl ili a n

proposa l : th a t th e a ediles shou ld b e n a m ed by the tribes,

a n d

the tribes shou ld ta ke cogn i za n ce of the gen era l a ffa irs of the

sta te, th a t is to s a y, the plebei a n a ssembly shou ld h a ve the right

of m a kin g p leb iscita .1 On their p a rt, the Sen a te took ca re th a t

Appiu s Cl a u diu s shou ld secu re the con su lship, a s bein g the m ost

violen t defender of p a trici a n privileges .2 The stru ggle wa s sh a rp ;it w a s the m ost seriou s con test s in ce the crea tion of the trib

sa id the collea gu e of Volero,of Appiu s

,

“ is n ot a con su l , b u t a n execu tio‘

n er of the people . Then ,

sh a rply a tta cked by Appiu s a t the a ssembly : “ I spea k with d iffi

cu lty, Qu irites, b u t I kn ow how to a ct : t o-m orrow I will h a ve

the l a w p a ssed or I will d ie u nder you r very eyes . The n extd a y Appiu s ca m e to th e Forum ,

su rrou n ded by the whole

p a trici a n you th a n d by his clien ts. L a etoriu s a ga in rea d h is

roga tion ,a n d before ca ll ing on the tribes to vote, ordered the

p a trici a n s, who h a d n ot the right of votin g in these comiti a , t o

retire . Appiu s opposed this : The tribu n e h a s n o right over the

p a trici a n s. Besides h e h a d n ot u sed the cu stoma ry formu l a

I f you thin k it good, withdra w, Qu irites .”

To discu ss l a w a n d

lega l form s in the m idst of a revolu tion w a s to in cre a se fu rther

the popu l a r ferm en t. L a etoriu s, in stea d of a n swerin g, sen t a ga in st

the con su l his via tor the con su l, h is lictors a ga in st the tribu n e ;a n d a bloody fight took pl a ce . L a etoriu s wa s wou n ded ; b u t , in

order t o sa ve Appiu s, th e con su l a rs were obliged t o hu rry him

a w a y in to the sen a te-hou se . H e en tered, c a lling the gods t o

u n es .“ This m a n

,

’

1 Dionysiu s, ix. 4 3 ; Z on a r a s, vi i . 17. A s H e a ven wa s not con su lted for the holding of

comitia tribu ta , so n e ither were they preceded by so lem n sa crifices, li ke the comitia cen turia tathey were beyon d the contro l of the a u gurs. (Dionys iu s, ix. 4 1, They were he ld on

m a rket d a ys, in order th a t m em bers of the ru stic tribes m ight a tte nd ; if the deba te h a d not

c losed with su n set, it cou ld n ot b e resumed ti l l the third m a rket d a y following. T he pa trici a n s ,ha vin g in the curies the ir own proper a ssembly, a nd a l l the influ ence in t he Sen a te a nd the

centurie s, did n o t vote in th e com itia trib u ta . (L i vy, i i.2 P ropu gn a torem sen a tu s, m a j est a tis qu e vind icem su ce, a d omnes tr ib u n icios p lebeiosqu e

oppositum tumu l tu s. (L i vy, ii .

INTE RNAL H ISTORY FR OM 509 TO 470 . 2 97

witn ess the wea kn ess of th e Sen a te , who were a llowin g l a ws to

b e im posed m ore severe tha n those of the Sa cred Mou n t

N evertheless , th e people rem a in ed m a sters of the Forum,

voted the Pu blili a n l a w,a n d forced the Sen a te to a ccept it by

seizing th e Ca pitol . Twen ty-fou r yea rs a go , they h a d com pelled

the p a trici a n s to gra n t the crea tion :

of the tribu n a te on ly by

lea vin g the city ; n ow,t o com plete the victory begu n on the Sa cred

Mou n t, it w a s the very cit a del of Rom e tha t they held by a rm s .

Wh a t boldn ess in m en so recen tly en fra n chised ! Wh a t stren gth

in this people , l a tely so hum ble ! The defea t of the a ristocr a cy

h a s,soon er or l a ter

,becom e cert a in ; for the people wil l fin d in

the tribu n a te , hen ceforth free from th e in flu en ce of the n obles,a

su re protection ; in the a ssem blies which h a ve the right of m a kin g

plebiscit a,a m ea n s of a ction ; l a stly, in their n um bers a n d disci

plin e,a n ever-in crea sin g power .

Am on g the tribu n es n omin a ted a fter the a doption of the

Pu bl ili a n l a w w a s Sp. I cil iu s . To preven t the retu rn of fresh

a cts of violen ce,he m a de u se of the right which h a d ju st been

recogn ized a s belongin g t o the comm on a lty, a n d h a d this l a w p a ssed 3

“ th a t n o on e shou ld in terru pt a tribu n e when spea kin g before the

people . I f a ny on e in frin ged thi s prohib it ion ,h e w a s to fin d

secur ity to com e u p for ju dgm en t ; if he f a iled t o do so,he wa s

t o b e pu n ished with dea th a n d his goods con fisca ted .

I n the stru ggle, L a etoriu s h a d been wou n ded, perh a ps kil led .

4

Bu t Appiu s h a d been hum bled a s p a trici a n a n d con su l ; the dea th

of a tribu n e did n ot s a tisfy h is wou n ded pride . A n in v a sion of

Aequ i a n s a n d Volsci a n s pl a ced th e plebei a n s a t h is m ercy,by

obligin g them to lea ve Rom e u nder h is comma n d . N ever'

h a d

a u thority been m ore im periou s or a rbitra ry.“ My soldiers a re

so m a n y V ol eros,”

sa id he , a n d he seemed t o try,by din t of h is

u n ju st severity, to drive them in to revolt. Whether it w a s tre a son,

or a p a nic, or the ven gea n ce of soldiers who wished to dishon or

1 Dionys., ix . 48.

2 These plebiscita were n ot then obl ig a tory on t he two orders ; b u t in formu l a ting thewi shes of the people , they g a ve them a force wh ich it w a s diffi cul t to resi st for long .Leg a lly, these plebi scita requ ired t he sa nction of the

,Sen a te a n d the Cu ri a e .3 Dionys., ,v ii. 17. This I cil ia n l a w is common ly a ss igned to the time of the tri a l of

Coriol a n u s ( see p. 288, note -"

e conform ,in pl a cin g it here, t o the opin ion of N iebuhr

a nd the logica l conca ten a tion of fa cts.4 A t le a st he does n ot a ppea r a ga in .

ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

their gen era l,‘

is u n cert a in ; b u t a t th e first ch a rge a ga in st the

Volsci,they threw down their a rm s a n d fled to the Rom a n terri

tory. There they a ga in en cou n tered Appiu s a n d his venge a n ce .

The cen tu rion s, the officers who h a d a b a n don ed the st a n d a rds,

were pu t to dea th , a n d the soldiers decim a ted . This bloodshed

a ton ed for th e l a st plebe i a n victories.

Appiu s re—en tered Rom e, certa in of the fa te which a w a ited

him,b u t sa tisfied with h a ving

,a t th e price of h is life, on ce a t

lea st su bdu ed this people . Sum m on ed , on qu ittin g his con su lship,

before the popu l a r com iti a , h e a ppea red in th e ch a ra cter of a ccu ser

a n d n ot of su ppli a n t , in veighed a g a in st the tribu n es a n d the a ssem bly,

a n d m a de them yield by h is h a u ghtin ess a n d boldn ess . The d a y

of ju dgmen t w a s pu t off : h e did n ot w a it for it ; a volu n t a ry

dea th foresta lled h is con dem n a tion ,a n d th e crowd a dm irin g

, in

spite of itself,this in dom it a ble cou r a ge

,hon ored the fu n er a l of

Appiu s by a n imm en se a tten d a n ce L ivy m a kes him d ie of

s ickn ess : this is less dra m a tic, b u t m ore prob a ble .

1

I n 493 th e tribu n es h a d on ly their right of veto ; in 476

they a cqu ired the right of a ccu sin g con su l a rs,a n d in 471 tha t

of p a ssin g plebiscit a by th e people . Thu s t wen ty-three yea rs h a d

su fficed for orga n izin g th e pol itica l a ssem bly of the plebei a n s,

a n d for m a kin g it a l rea dy,within cert a in l im its

,a legisl a tive

a n d ju dicia l poyver . A s rega rds the a gra ri a n l a w, it h a d beenrejected

,a n d

,in spite of so m a ny high-sou n din g words a n d

prom ises, the people con tin u ed in poverty. Bu t it w a s in excitin gthe crowd by this delu sion a bou t the equ a l ity of property th a t

the tribu n es h a d ga in ed their pl a ce in the st a te a n d som e tru st

worthy gu a r a n ties . So it h a s been ,a n d a lwa ys will b e .

1 Dionys., ix. 54 ; L i vy, n . 6 1.

2 A BD. Pl. ( a ed iles p leb is). H e a d of Cere s. T he reverse , M . F A N . L. CR T . R A .

M a rcu s, F a n n iu s, a nd Lu ciu s Criton iu s, a ediles of th e people . Si l ver m oneys of the fa m i liesF a n n i a a nd Cr iton ia . W

'

e sha ll return t o this m a tter when th e cre a tion of th e curu lea edilesh ip ta kes pl a ce.

PLE BE I A N A E D I LE S.“

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3 00 ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SU LS.

Porsenn a a im ed a t con qu ering La tium,which three cen tu ries

ea rlier the E tru sca n s h a d V ictoriou sly tr a versed , a n d a t open in g

I f“

PHOE N I CI A N CUP FOUN D A T PR A E N E ST E .

u p a rou te tow a rds the lu cum on ies of the V u l tu rnu s. The Greeks

of Ca m p a n i a sa w with terror the prep a r a tion s for this n ew inv a

sion,a n d t o preven t it they ca m e t o th e help of the La tin

cities which were resisting the E tru sc a n s. A ricia , which h a s

a r t . They rec a ll , by the ir Orienta l sta m p, oth er finds m a de in Cypru s or Greece. Our pa terais a n im ita tion of the E gypti a n . The centre is fi l led with a wa r scene. A prince is in the a ct

of puttin g to de a th'

som e ca pt ives. B efore him sta n ds th e G od H oru s : behin d a w a rrior ina rm s, who brings other victim s. A bove, a spa rrow-ha wk with outsprea d win gs. The borderis fil led with symbolic scenes. F our sa cred ba rks a re symmetrica l ly d isposed ; on two of them

M I LITARY H ISTORY OF ROM E FROM 495 To 451. 3 0 1

bequ ea thed it s n a m e to the pictu resqu e vill a ge of L a ricia on the

sou thern slopes of the Al b a n Mou n t, n e a r the ch a rm ing L a ke of

N em i,w a s then the most flou rishin g city in L a tium . I t h a d re

sisted T a rqu in Su perbu s, a n d when the son of the K in g of Clu siu m ,

Aru n s , a ppe a red before it s w a lls with a powerfu l a rm y, the

inh a bita n ts m et him bra vely in the field with thei r L a tin a n d

Greek a llies . Bu t they were u n a ble to withsta n d the ch a rge of

the E tru sc a n ph a l a n x, a n d they were a lre a dy retirin g in disorder,when the m en of Cum a e, by a skilfu l m a n oeu vre , cha rging the

en emy in the re a r, ch a n ged h is victory in to defea t .1 Aru n s w a s

sl a in ,a n d there a re shown n ea r L a ricia the ru in s of a tom b ,

bu ilt in the E tru sc a n ma n n er, where they a llege tha t he wa s

bu ried ? The d ébm’

s of h is a rmy took refu ge in Rome, which

profited from this reverse to rise in in su rrection ; the E tru sc a n

ru le w a s driven ba ck a ga in beyon d the Tiber .

Rom e recovered it s l iberty, b u t n ot it s power ;3 for the

E tru sca n s con tin u ed m a sters of the right ba n k of the river, a n d

is the sca ra b a eu s, symbo l of the su n a nd imm orta l ity ; in" the two others some div in ity.Between the ships a re thickets of lotu s a nd a wom a n who is n urs in g a b oy.

“ Two circle s of hieroglyphic wr itin g a re rou n d these scenes ; b u t th e whole is co a rse lyim ita ted ; the hieroglyphs give n o sen se .

The spa rrow-ha wk is surmou nted by a Phoen ici a n in scri ption which M . R en a n rea dsE sckm u nj a ir b en I scheto ( E schm u n j a ir, son of I scheto) .

The se words a re engra ved in a very de lica te cha ra ct er. They determ in e conclu s i ve ly thePhoen ic i a n origin of the tre a su re of Pra eneste a nd of other sim i l a r fin ds. B u t , bes ides , theyhe lp to fix the d a te with a l l b u t certa inty.

The cha ra cter of the letters does not perm it u s to ca rry down th e compos ition of the

in scription lower tha n the s ixth century B. c. T he h ieroglyphics le a d to the sa m e conclu s ion.M . M a spero finds a mong them n o sign which a ppe a rs in the texts from the twenty-se venthdyn a sty on ( a bout the fifth century) . T he in scription furn ishes u s a ga in with a n indica tionof a nother sort. M . R en a n tra n sl a tes the l a st proper n a me by the work of H im (of G od ) ,a n d compa res it to a n a logou s n a m es su ch a s A bdo ( th e serv a nt of H im ), etc., e tc. N ow the

pronou n su ffix of H im ,

’ which is written in Phoen ici a n by a v a v, the Ca rtha gin i a n s ren der bya lef . O u r in scription writes it by th e l a tter letter. Then a g a in , on a cup of the s a me sort, b u twithout in scription , fou n d in the sa m e pl a ce , a re seen fo l lowin g, in a circu l a r desi gn , th e differen t events of a roy a l h u nt. N ow a mon g the a n im a ls hu nted by the K ing is a l a rge a pe , proba bly the goril l a , u n known in E gypt a nd in Syri a . I t resu lts from thi s tha t these pl a tes or

cu ps a re most likely of Ca rtha gin i a n origin . A s ou r m a n u fa cturers im ita te for the slop tra dethe produ cts of Chin a a nd J a pa n , so the Ca rtha gin i a n m ercha nts h a d m a de go ld a nd s i lvera rticles b a dl y copied from the Phoen ici a n or E gypt i a n styles. Ou r im ita tion Poca o-E gypti a ncup, bou ght from the sa i lors of th e co a st by some rich inha bita nt of P a lestrin a , is a proof of thea ctiv ity of the Ca rth a gin i a n comm erce with the L a tin cities. [Cf M . Clermont-G a nne a u ’

s

rem a rk a ble tra ct on the secon d cup, representing th e a dventure with the colossa l a pe.— E d .]1 Dionys., v. 3 6 .Ca n in a h a s given the restora tion of it.

3 This clea rly resul ts from the wa r a ga in st Ve i i in 483 , a nd from the redu ction of the

ROME UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

on the left b a n k wa s recovered on ly the ol d a g a r R om a nu s,

l im ited on the sou th by the l a n ds of the L a tin s of G a b ii,

Bovil l a e, Tel l en a e, a n d Tu scu lum .

From the lofty cit a del of thi s l a st-n a m ed city, which rises

15 m i les off from the w a lls of Serviu s, ca n b e seen a l l who

lea ve Rom e by the por t a Ca p en a b u t from th a t dist a n ce a l so

2 2 E 20 35 R OMA N M I LE S

MA P or m e"

Aces R om u us

the Tu scu l a n s, their fa ithfu l a llies, sign a lled, by two bea con -fires

on the ir r a m p a rts,the a pproa ch of th e Aequ ia n s a n d V olsci a n s.

On the e a st some su ccessfu l expedition s in to the Sa bin e

territory extended the Rom a n fron tier t o the n eighborh ood of

3 0 tribes of Serviu s to 20 , the n umber which is fou n d a fter the expu lsion of the kings. I n

4 95 a re n a m ed 21 (L i vy, i i. 2 1) a n ew tribe, ca l led Cru stum in ia n , from the n a m e of a conqu eredcity, h a ving been formed a fter the Sa bine wa r. F id en a e, which wa s reduced on ly in the yea r4 26 , is two lea gu es from R ome.

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M IL ITAR Y H ISTORY OF ROM E FROM 495 TO 3 0 3

E retum ,which rem a in ed free.1 Tibu r

,n e a re r Rom e

,from w hich

it w a s sep a ra ted on ly by 2 0 m iles,a lso kept it s i ndepen dence , a n d

promised t o defen d it bra vely by t he worship which it p a id to

it s civic divin ity, Hercu les of the Rocks,H ercu les Sa cra -

nu s, whose

tem ple rose a bove the Fa ll s of the An io . A n d it did in re a l ity

defen d it for m ore th a n a cen tu ry a n d a h a lf ? On the n orth

the fron tier rea ched sc a rcely beyon d the J a n icu lum . Rom e wa s a t

T USCULUM. R E STOR E D BY CA N I N A .

th a t tim e n o lon ger a grea t st a te, b u t it w a s a lwa ys on e of th e

grea test of th e It a l i a n cities, a n d this m a de it s fortu n e . Within

it s cir cumferen ce , a n d on this territory of on ly a few lea gu es in

exten t , were reckon ed , if we believe Dionysiu s of H a l ica rn a ssu s ,3

fightin g m en,

m en u nder the com m a n d of the

con su ls,directed in tim es of peril by on e will

,a n d a lw a ys u n der

1 Since the w a r durin g which the Sa bin e A t tu s Cl a u su s settled a t R ome ( see p. 177, n .there w a s n o independent Sa bine town ne a rer R ome tha n E retum .

2 I t w a s n ot ta ken t i l l 3 3 5.3 Dionys., v. 20 ; he sa ys, a ccording to the cen su s-lists.

3 04 ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

excellen t disciplin e . T h a n ks to the con cen tr a tion Of their forces,

the Rom a n s were a ble t o a tten d s a fely to their in tern a l dispu tes ;for, thou gh they expen ded in their Forum the en ergy which they

shou ld h a ve tra n sferred m ore a dv a n t a geou sly to fields of b a ttle,

yet they were too stron g t o b e overwhelm ed by a ny en em y who

m ight a tta ck them ,— a seriou s w a r a lw a ys brin ging ba ck u n ion ,

a n d with it in vin cible power . Thu s they n ever cea sed h a vin g

T USCULUM. PR E SE N T ST A T E .

con fiden ce in their good fortu n e ; from the e a rl iest d a ys of the

Repu blic they h a d r a ised a tem ple to Hope .

Their en em ies were a bove a l l th e Aequ i a n s a n d Volsci a n s.

Mou n t a in eers , poor a n d fon d of pill a gin g , a lw a ys thre a ten ing a n d

yet in a ccessible, to—d a y in the pl a in bu rn ing the crops, t o-m orrow

stron gly en tren ched or hidden a m on g th e mou n ta in s , th e Aequ i a n s

were,if n ot the most d a n gerou s , yet a t lea st thei r most trou ble

som e en emy. The Volsci a n s, n um erou s, rich , a n d possessing a

fert ile territory, ou ght t o h a ve c a u sed m ore a l a rm ,h a d they

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R OM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

in the v a lley of the Treru s,h a d to su ffer d a i ly from their depre

d a tion s. This a lli a n ce d a ted from a n cien t tim es (f eria e L a tin a s).

PLA N OF TH E CI TY OF V E I I .1

Un der the l a st T a rqu in it wa s ch a nged on Rome’

s side in to a

domin a tion which the exile of the kin gs rem oved, a n d which the

1 Thi s pl a n h a s been dra wn u p by Ca n in a , who h a s m a rked on it the tombs discoveredin the N ecropolis, a n d the pa rt of the c ity where were fou n d som e column s, h a s-re li efs, a nd a

colossa l sta tu e of T iberiu s, which is in th e Ch i a ra m onti M u seum. Ve i i , which rem a in edde serted ti l l Ca esa r’s time , rece i ved from h im , a nd l a ter on from A u gu stu s, a . co lony, a nd

N ew Veii seem s to h a ve continu ed severa l centu ries .

M IL ITARY H ISTORY OF ROM E FROM 495 TO 451. 3 07

ba ttle of L a ke R eg il lu s did n ot re-esta blish . Rom e a n d the La tin scon tin u ed sep a ra te

, b u t the in crea sin g power of the Volsci a n s a n d

the ra v a ges of the Aequ i a n s drew them closer . I n 49 3 B . c .,du ring

his secon d con su l a te , Sp. Ca ssiu s sign ed a tre a ty with the 3 0 L a tincities, e ither design edly omitted, or m isu n derstood by the Rom a n

histori a n s, beca u se it be a rs witn ess t o their feeblen ess a fter the

w a rs of the kin gs ; b u t there cou ld still b e rea d , in the time of

Cicero ,1on a bron ze colum n :

“ There sha ll b e pea ce between the

Rom a n s a n d the L a tin s so lon g a s the sky rem a in s a bove the

ea rth a n d th e ea rth u n der the su n . They sh a ll n ever a rm a ga in st

e a ch other ; they will n ot a ff ord a ny p a ssa ge t o the en emy a cross

their territory , a n d they will brin g a id with a l l their force

when ever they a re a tt a cked All booty a n d con qu ests m a de in

comm on a re t o b e divided . An other witn ess 2 en a bles u s t o a dd :

“ The comm a n d of th e com bin ed a rmy sha ll a ltern a te e a ch yea r

between the two peoples .

Seven ye a rs l a ter, du ring h is third con su lship, some tim e

before proposin g his a gra ri a n l a w , Ca ss iu s con clu ded a l ike tre a ty

with the H ern ica n s.3 From th a t tim e the Aequ i a n s a n d Volsci a n s

cou ld m a ke n o m ovem en t which H ern ica n or La tin m essen gers did

n ot a t on ce a n n ou n ce a t Rom e,a n d the legion s h a sten in g e ither

u p or down the Va lley of the Treru s were a ble to thre a ten the

very hea rt of th e en emy’

s cou n try . These two tre a ties a dded

m ore to th e gra n deu r of Rom e th a n a ny of those which it sign ed

ever a fter ; for.

they a ssu red it s exi sten ce a t a tim e when it s

power m ight h a ve been n ipped in the b u d . The whole weight of

the wa r a ga in st both Aequ i a n s a n d Volsci a n s fell u pon it s a ll ies,

a n d on th is s ide it gen er a lly pl a yed the p a rt of a m ere a u x il ia ry .

Hen ce the little im porta n ce of these w a rs, i n spite of the a cts of

heroism a n d devotion , the grea t n a m es,a n d the m a rvellou s stories

with which the a nn a li sts h a ve a dorn ed them .

1 Cic., pro B a lbo, 2 3 L ivy , ii 3 3 .2 Cinciu s, m entioned by F estu s, s. v. P r a etor a d port a m Q u o a nno R om a nos impera

tores a d exercit a m oporl eret.

8 I t is by v irtu e of this tre a ty tha t the colony of A n t ium wa s di vided between the R om a n s,L a tin s, a nd H ern ica ns : 38056 T?) fiovhfi e

’

m '

rpéJ/a t A a'

r fuwu 76 m i‘

E pm’

xwu 70 2: Bovhop e’

uo ts

‘rrj s dn o txia s pere

'

xew. (Dionys., ix.

R OM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SU LS.

I I . COR I OLA N US A N D T H E V oL scI A N s ; CI N CI N N A TUS AND T H E

TH E V olsci a n s, est a blished a m on g mou n t a in s (m on ti lep in i),which rea ch a height of feet, a n d whose w a ters form th e

CE R E S ?

Pon tin e M a rshes,h a d th e

twofold a m bition of stretch

in g a t on ce a lon g th e

fertile Va lley of the Tiber

a n d a lon g th a t of th e

Lir is . After the fa ll of

T a rqu in,they h a d ret a ken

th e cities which th a t K in g

h a d con qu ered from them .

Stopped , on the sou th,by

th e stron g position of

Circei, which , n evertheless,fel l in to their power

,a n d

by the imp a ss a ble.

a n d

sterile cou n try of the

A u ru n ci, they threw them

se lves u pon the rich pl a in s

of La tium ,took V el it r a e

a n d Cora , in spite of thei r

powerfu l fortifica tion s , a n d

c a r r i e d t h e i r ou tposts

W ithin t en m iles of Rom e .

1

The m ost fortu n a te of

their in v a sion s, a n d tha t

to which .a l l the ir con

qu ests h a ve been a tt a ched,wa s l ed by a n illu striou s Rom a n

,

a n exile of the gen s M a rci a .

H e wa s, s a ys the legen d, a p a trici a n distin gu ished for h is

1 A t Bovil l a e, which they took (Plut., Cor. a s wel l a s Corioli , L a vin i um , Sa tricum , a nd

V elitr a e. (L i vy, i i.2 T a ken from a n a n cient p a intin g in the mu seum a t N a ples.

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ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

t o m eet Vetu ri a , a n d ordered the f a sces to b e lowered in h er

presen ce : “ Am I fa ce t o f a ce with my son, or with a n en emy ?”

s a id the dign ified m a tron . The wife did n ot d a re t o spea k, b u t

threw herself weepin g in to the a rms of h er hu sb a n d, a n d h is

children clu n g to him : he w a s overcom e,a n d withdrew. The Rom a n

wom en h a d s a ved Rom e the secon d tim e .

The story is bea u tifu l , b u t sca rcely credible . Tired of w a r

a n d l a den with booty, or fin ding th a t res ist a n ce grew stron ger

a s they a ppro a ched Rome, the Vo lsci a n s withdrew t o their cities.

The legen d a dds th a t they did n ot p a rdon Coriol a n u s for thu s

stoppin g them in the m iddle of their reven ge, a n d th a t they

con dem n ed him t o dea th . Accordin g t o Fa biu s,he l ived t o

a n a dv a n ced a g e, excl a im in g : E xile is very h a rd u pon a n Ol d

m a n .

”

We ca n h a rdly refu se to be lieve tha t Rom e w a s redu ced t o

the l a st extremities , a n d th a t th e Volscia n s were est a blished in

the cen tre of L a tium ; b u t i t w a s a p a trici a n who h a d con qu ered,

a n d thu s hon or w a s sa ved .

Coriola n u s,on h is p a rt

,h a d rea son t o fin d a str a n ger ’ s brea d

very bitter,for exi le a t Rom e w a s both a civil a n d religiou s

excomm u n ica t ion . The exi le lost n ot on ly h is cou n try a n d prop

erty, b u t h is hou sehold gods, h is wife , who h a di

the right of

re—m a rryin g, his children , t o whom he beca m e a stra nger, his

a n cestors, who were n o lon ger to receive fu n era l sa crifices a t h is

h a n ds . Ou r civil dea th is less terrible .1

The m ou n t a in s which sep a ra te the'

b a sin s of the rivers Lirisa n d An io descen d from the borders of L a ke F u cin u s to Pr a en este

,

where they term in a te a t A l g idu s by a sort of prom on tory which

comm a nds th e pl a in a n d v a lley of the Tiber. By followin g the

hidden m ou n t a in p a ths, the Aequ i a n s cou ld rea ch Mou n t A lgid u s

u n perce ived,th e woods of which stil l covered thei r m a rch a n d

a m bu sca des ? Then ce they bu rst u n expectedly on the La tin l a n ds ;

1 Cicero wishes th a t he cou ld b e pu t t o de a th, for the re a son tha t this is a more su ita bleend for the bra ve : H u ic gen eri mor tis potin s a ssen t

-ior ; b u t A tticu s a n swers : “ I t is tru e tha trhetorici a n s a re a llowed to l ie in history if the ir a r t g a in s by it !” (Concessum est rlmtorib us

emen tir i in historiis u t a l iqu id d icere possin t I f we compa re this with wha tis c ited from L i vy a bove, p. 185, we sha ll find tha t these R om a n s h a d a stra nge ide a of the

duties of a n histori a n .

2 N igr a e f era cif ron d is in A lg id o. A few ye a rs a go A lg id u s wa s still the ha u nt of briga ndswho infested the neighborhood of Pa lestrin a a nd F resca ti.

M IL ITARY H ISTORY OF ROM E FROM 495 To 451. 3 11

a n d i f they were in su fficien t n um bers, or th e en emy t oo ca u tiou s,

they were soon in the m idst of the Rom a n territory . E very

ye a r these in cu rsion s were ren ewed . I t wa s n ot w a r ; b u t it wou ld

h a ve been f a r better t o h a ve seriou s en g a gem en ts th a n these

u n cea sing a cts of briga n d a ge . The La tin s were ren dered so wea k

th a t the Aequi a n s were a ble t o ta ke severa l of the ir cities ? A o

cordin g to the trea ty of Ca ssiu s, Rom e w a s bou n d to sen d a l l

their forces to thei r he lp . The i r in tern a l dissen sion s a n d the

d a ngers they r a n on the side of Ve ii,kept the legion s in the

city or to th e n orth of the Tiber. However, the Sen a te felt

a l a rm ed when it s a w th e Aequ i a n s esta blished on Mou n t Al gidu s,a n d the Volsci a n s on th e Alba n Mou n t, sep a ra tin g the La tin s from

the H ern ica n s a n d thre a ten in g two peoples a t the s a m e tim e? A

forty yea rs’ tru ce

,which the V eien t es h a d ju st sign ed a n d

the a doption of the Pu blili a n l a w by en din g for a t im e

the E tru sca n wa r a n d the trou bles of the Forum ,en a bled them

to l isten t o the com pl a in ts Of their a llies .

Two m em bers of the gens Q u in ct ia , Ca pitol in u s a n d Cin cin

n a tu s,ga in ed the hon ors of this w a r .

T ., Q u in ct iu s Ca pitol in u s, a popu l a r p a trici a n

,h a d been the

collea gu e of th e im periou s Appiu s . While the V ol eros of th e

l a tter a llowed them selves to b e bea ten by the Volsci a n s, Q u in ct iu s

seized the booty g a in ed by the Aequ ia n s a n d re-en tered Rom e

with the title of.

F a ther of the Sold iers . Con su l a secon d

tim e in 467, he took possession of A n t ium,a p a rt of whose

territory w a s distribu ted a m on gst som e Rom a n colon ists,a n d he

h a d on h is retu rn so brillia n t a trium ph th a t he obt a in ed the

su rn a m e of Ca pitol in u s. The Aequ i a n s contin u ed in a rm s . Fou rtim es the ir a ctive b a n ds a u d a ciou sly pen etra ted in to the Ca m p a gn a

of Rom e : on e d a y they even su rrou n ded the con su l F u riu s in

a n a rrow gorge . Two legion s were on the po in t of destru ction :

Ca pitol in u s s a ved them . At th e n ews of the d a n ger, th e Sen a te h a d

in vested the other con su l with dict a tori a l power by th e form u l a :

Ca vea t con su l n e gu icl d etrim en ti resp a b lica ca p i a t, a n dl

it w a s

1 I n the legen d, a l l these town s , even Gorbio, beyond the A n io, a re t a ken by the Volsci ;a l l the su ccess i ve conqu ests of both Vo lsc i a nd A equ i were a ttributed to the R om a n exi le.

2 These two m ou nta in s a re the w a tershed between the ba sin s of the Tiber a nd the L iri s,a nd they domin a te the whole L a tin pl a in .

R OM E UNDE R TH E PATR ICIAN CON SULS.

employed on ly to ch a rge Ca pitol inu s with the diffi cu lt du ty

of del iverin g the con su l a r a rm y.

N ever h a d Rom e , sin ce Porsen n a , b een so seriou sly thre a t

en ed ; in tern a l trou bles h a d begu n a g a in respectin g the prOposa l

of Teren till u s. The pestilen ce wa s r a gin g with a violen ce so

mu ch m ore fa t a l bec a u se the in roa ds of the en em y filled the

city,du ring the hea t of summer, with m en a n d troops a ccu stomed

to th e pu re m ou n ta in a ir ? I n 462 a n a rm y of Aequ ia n s a n d

Vo lsci a n s en ca m ped on ly three m iles from the E squ i lin e G a te ;three ye a rs l a ter a n ight a tt a ck del ivered th e Ca pitol for a mom en t

in to the h a n ds of the Sa bin e H erdon iu s ; the yea r followin g

A n t ium revolted,a n d the con su l M in u ciu s a llowed him self on ce

more t o b e shu t in to a defile by t he Aequ i a n s . Cin cin n a tu s

a lon e seem ed a ble to s a ve the Repu blic. H e retook the Ca pitol,a n d restored to the Rom a n s the fortress which w a s a lso their

s a n ctu a ry. I n this m a tter h e m a de him sel f con spicu ou s by a

severity which ga in ed the con fiden ce of the Sen a te : he wa s m a de

dict a tor.

The sen a tors who were sen t to in form him of this election

fou n d him a cross the Tiber in the field which wa s n a m ed for a

lon g tim e the mea ds of Qu in ct iu s . H e wa s d iggin g a ditch, a n d

h e received them restin g on h is sp a de. After the a ccu stom ed s a lu

t a t ion s,they requ ested him to a ssum e his toga , in order t o

receive a commu n ic a tion from the Sen a te .“ H e is a ston ished,

a sks i f a l l is n ot well,a n d sen ds his wife B a cil i a t o fin d his

toga in the hu t . H a vin g pu t it on,a fter h a vin g bru shed off

the du st a n d perspir a tion ,he retu rn s t o th e depu ties, who sa lu te

him dicta tor,presen t their con gra tu l a tion s, a n d press him t o retu rn

to th e city.

” 2 I f th is scen e is n ot historic, it is a t le a st a ccord

ing to the m a n n ers of the time a n d th e ch a ra cter of the m a n .

Wh a t fo llows shows the p a tricia n,

so prou d of h is descen t,t a kin g possession of power with the s a m e s im plicity which he

h a d shown in qu ittin g his plou gh a n d displ a yin g th e a ctivi ty a n d

en ergy of m en born to comm a n d. A boa t a w a i ted him on the

Tiber ; h e em b a rked a n d w a s received on the left b a n k by his

three son s, his rela tives, a n d the grea ter p a rt of the sen a tors.

1 L ivy, iii. 6. 2 I bid., iii. 26.

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3 14 ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

I n spite of this su ccess, which n a tion a l v a n ity h a s thu s em

b el l ish ed,

a s is the ca se in so m a ny other poin ts of Rome ’ sm ilit a ry history, the wa r wa s n ot en ded ; the Aequ i a n s kept

possession of A lg id u s, a s did the Volsci a n s of the Alb a nMou n t.

Du rin g the h a lf cen tu ry tha t h a d el a psed sin ce the expu lsionof th e kin gs, the deca den ce of Rom e

’

s power wa s n ot a rrested

on e in st a n t . I n 493 its territory w a s a t lea st protected by the

R U I N S O F A T E MPLE N E A R S E ZZE .

La tin s ; b u t of the thirty L a tin cities which h a d sign ed the trea ty

of Ca ssiu s , thirteen were n ow either destroyed or held by the

en em y, a n d a m on g them som e of the stron gest pl a ces of Ita ly,

su ch a s Circeii, a t th e foot of it s prom on tory, Seti a , Cora , a n d

N orb a,

1a l l three in the m ou n ta in s of th e V olsci a n territories a n d

su rrou n ded by stron g w a lls. I f the a ger R om a n a s w a s n ot yet

en cro a ched u pon,th e b a rrier which ou ght to h a ve protected it h a d

been p a rtly destroyed . Wa s Rome m ore fortu n a te in the n orth

a ga in st th e E tru sca n s ?

1 Other L a tin c ities ta ken or de stroyed : V e li tr a e, T olin a , Orton a , Sa tricum , L a b icum,

Pedum , Coriol i, Ca rven tum , Gorbio. (Dionys. a n d L i vy, p a ssim.)

M IL ITARY H ISTORY OF ROM E FROM 497 TO 451. 3 15

111. WA R A GA I N ST‘VE I I .

A G R E A T pa rt of E tru ri a h a d t a ken p a rt in the expedition of

Porsen n a ; sin ce th a t tim e the in v a sion s of the Cis a lpin e Ga u ls

a n d the in crea sin g power of th e Greeks a n d Ca rtha gin i a n s h a d

divided th e a tten tion a n d forces of the E tru sca n cities ; som e of

them w a tchin g, on the n orth, the p a sses of the Apen n in es ;others , in the west, on the coa sts threa ten ed by the Ligu ri a npir a tes, a n d on the sou thwest over the ir own colon ies

,which

, on e

by on e,were sl ippin g from the ir h a n ds. The ol d lea gu e wa s

'

d is

solved , a n d a l l idea of con qu est in the direction of L a tium h a d

been a b a n don ed . Bu t Ve i i, a t a dist a n ce from the Ga u ls a n d

the sea,w a s t oo n e a r Rom e n ot to profit by it s wea kn ess .

The w a r,however , did n ot brea k ou t till 482 B . C. I t l a sted

n in e yea rs .

Two in ciden ts on ly h a ve been preserved of this w a r, f a r

m ore seriou s for Rom e th a n the in cu rsion s of the Aequ ia n s a n d

Volsci a n s, — the fou n da tion by the Rom a n s of a fortress on the

b a n ks of th e Crem er a , from when ce they exten ded their r a v a ges fortwo yea rs u p to the w a lls of V e ii , a n d the occu p a tion of the

J a n icu lum by the V eien t in es . We h a ve a lrea dy seen th a t the

Rom a n a n n a l ists d o grea t hon or t o th e p a triotic devotion of

the Fa b ii for h a vin g held in check a l l the en em y ’ s forces, til l the

d a y when ,su rprised by a n a m bu sca de

,th e whole gens perished

?

The V eien t in es in thei r tu rn bu rn ed up everything a long both

b a n ks of the Tiber, a n d est a blished them selves on the J a n icu l um ,

from whence they s a w Rom e a t their feet . On e d a y they crossed

the strea m a n d ven tu red to a tt a ck the legion s on the Field of

M a rs . A vigorou s e ffort repu lsed them ; the n ext d a y they wereca u ght between two con su l a r a rm ies, a n d a t l a st driven from the

da n gerou s post which they held . The w a r w a s ca rried u p t o

the very w a lls of Vei i ; a forty yea rs ’ tru ce left the two peoples

in the position which they held before hostil ities bega n (474 B . C.)I n this wa r Ve ii h a d n ot been su pported by th e grea t

lu cumos of the n orth, whose a tten tion wa s a t th a t time ca lled

1 See p. 2 94.

3 16 ROM E UNDE R TH E PATR ICIAN CON SU LS.

elsewhere,where the f a te of their riv a ls w a s bein g decided . While

in fa ct Rom e w a s rehea rsing h er p a rt for fu tu re grea t n ess by

these obscu re con tests , a n d for the pill a ge of the world by the

ca rryin g Off som e ru stic plu n der, the a rm ies Of Xerxes weresh a kin g Asi a , a n d three hu n dred thou s a n d Ca rth a gin i a ns, his a llies

,

m a de a descen t O I I Sicily The a bil ity of Them istocles a t

Sa l a m is s a ved Greece ; th a t of Gelo a t Him era a ssu red the wel fa re

of Syr a cu se a n d of th e I t a l iot Greeks who dispu ted with the E tru s

ca n s th e comm erce oi the Tyrrhen i a n Sea a n d the Adri a tic. At

first the Greeks closed a ga in st them the Str a its of Messin a ; then in

the yea r which preceded the forty ye a rs’ tru ce they a n n ihil a ted their

fleet in the vicin ity of Ca pe M isen u m ? Hiero est a blished in the I sle

of Ischi a a st a tion for h is ga lleys,which cu t the comm u n ica tion s

between the E tru sca n cities of the V u l tu rn u s a n d those of the

Arn o . Thu s the m ost d a n gerou s en em ies of the a n cien t su bjects

of Porsenn a were w a sting their forces in these dist a n t w a rs, a n d

this en a bled the Rom a n s t o in du lge with im pu n ity in a l l the

disorders which a ccom p a ny growing liberty .

Du rin g these first yea rs of the Repu blic,SO fru itfu l for Rom e

’

s

in stitu tion s, n othin g h a d been don e to exten d it s power. Rom e,

a t a l l even ts,h a d l a sted

,ga in in g d a ily stren gth

a n d con fiden ce . I t s territory,properly so ca lled

,

h a d n ot been im p a ired,a n d the popu l a tion grew

w a rl ike in these stru ggles which were n ot rea ll y

d a n gerou s. The soldiers whom Appiu s decim a ted

withou t resist a n ce,whom Cin cin n a tu s lo a ded with

five sta kes, the ir a rm s,a n d their victu a ls , for a

m a rch of n e a rly twen ty m iles in fou r hou rs, were

a lrea dy the legion a ries who cou ld con qu er the

Sa mn ites a n d Pyrrhu s . Rom e n eed n o lon ger fea r

for her existen ce, a s in the tim e of Porsenn a , a n d she h a s the

right to grea t expect a tion s.

HOPE .2

1 See p. 79 .2 C a b in et d e F r a n ce, N o. 94 in the Ca ta logu e : ca meo of a rch a ic style , representing H ope

sta nding, with a di a dem , liftin g u p the skirt of her tu n ic with the left h a nd, a n d holding inher right the flower which prom ises to be a r fruit.

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CHAPTE R V I I I .

THE DECEMV I R S AND CIV IL E QUALITY (451

I . B I LL OF TE R E N T I L I US.

P to the tim e of Volero a n d L a etoriu s, the people h a d on ly

won the m ea n s of fighting ; a n d the stru ggle , in spite of

the violen ces which h a d a lrea dy t a ken pl a ce, h a d n ot yet seriou sly

begu n . The a ristocra cy preserve a l l the ofli ces which they held

a fter the exile of the kin gs , th e su prem e comm a n d , the m a gisteri a l

offices,religion ,

ju stice ; b u t the plebe i a n s were form erly withou t

gu ida n ce a n d Object : n ow their chiefs a re m ea su r ing th e dista n ce

which sep a r a tes them from power.

The in tern a l history of Rom e is tru ly of a n a dm ir a ble sim plicity .

First of a l l,a n a ristocra cy which form s by itself the whole st a te

a n d below,f a r below,

stra n gers , fu gitives, m en withou t fa m i ly a n d

a lm ost withou t gods . Bu t then the plebei a n s,u sed a s in strum en ts

for con qu ests,see the ir n um ber a s well a s their worth a n d the ir

stren gth in cre a se by these con qu ests . I t com es t o p a ss th a t they

help the n obles t o drive ou t a tyr a n t ; n ext d a y they a re forgotten :

they fly to the Sa cred Mou n t from ' their m isery a n d servitu de ,a n d discover chiefs who discipl in e this m ob

,hitherto u n tr a in ed

,

exercise it in the conflict,a n d gra du a lly a rm it a t a l l poin ts .

Presen tly they p a ss from the defen sive t o a tt a ck the ir foe .

I n 462 the plebei a n s dem a n ded the revision of the con stitu tion

a n d a written code ? This w a s too m u ch to a sk a t on ce,for they

were n ot stron g en ou gh to trium ph a t on ce . So then victoryw a s ga in ed piecem ea l, so t o spea k

,a n d n eeded more th a n a cen tu ry

1 L eg ibus d e imp erio consu l a ri scribend r’

s (L i vy, ii i. a nd fu rther on ( iii F ons

omn is p u b l ici priva tiqu e est j u ris ; a n d 'Dionys., x. 3 : r oil s fm e‘

p dm ixrr a w ru inou s, r a w r e s ou/(Bu

m i 76 11 285m l . L a stly, Z on a r a s, vii . 18 r r’

w n ohvr eia v l a w‘r e

'

pa u n ocrj a a oem édl qcb lo a w o.

ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SU LS.

t o complete it . I n 450 they extorted civi l equ a lity ; in 3 67 a n d

3 3 9 pol iti c a l equ a lity ; in 3 00 , rel igiou s equ a l ity. The decem vira te

w a s the con qu est of equ a l ity in civil a n d pen a l l a w .

I n th e con stitu tion n othin g wa s written or determ in ed ; n o on e

kn ew where the ju risdiction of the m a gistra tes , where t he powers

of the Sen a te ce a sed . L a w w a s n ot right,rectum ,

or,a s the ju ris

con su lts of th e E m pire defin ed it,the goOd a n d th e ju st, a rs bon i

cl a egu i : it w a s the order im periou sly given , j a s , by th e stron ger

t o the wea ker, by the priest t o the l a ym a n ,by the h u sb a n d to the

wife a n d children ? Besides, to fu lfil the ir du ty, to protect the

plebei a n s a ga in st in iqu itou s h a n dlin g of t he l a w , the tribu n es

n eeded to kn ow it , a n d i t con tin u ed in th e u n cert a in a n d floa ting

st a te of cu stom . The ju dge g a ve sen ten ce,“a ccording to t he u sa ge

of their a n cestors , ex m ore m a j or a m ,

‘ th a t is , a fter the p a rtic’

u la r

l a w of a n a n cien t sovereign people of whom the n ew people"

kn ew

n othin g . The tribu n e C. Teren t il iu s Arsa w a s determ in ed to destroythis u n cert a in ty a n d the a rbitr a ry con du ct it a u thori zed . Ab a n

don in g the a gra ri a n l a w,which w a s becom in g sta le , he dem a n ded

in 462 th a t five m en shou ld b e n om in a ted to dra w u p a code of

l a ws,which shou ld determin e

,by lim itin g it

,the power of the

con su ls ? A plebiscitum h a d n o force over the p op u lu s the Sen a te

w a s then a ble to a void con siderin g this proposition ,b u t i t a t

tempted to stop the tribu n e by the veto of on e of his collea gues.

Bu t they h a d a l l sworn t o rem a in u n ited , a n d n e ither thre a ts n or

evil om en s cou ld tu rn them from their pu rpose .

The le a der of these a cts of p a tricia n violen ce w a s the son

of Cin cin n a tu s, Ca eso , a you n g m a n prou d of his power, his

explo its, a n d his high ra n k . At the he a d of the you n g pa;

t ricia n s he distu rbed the delibera t ion s, a tta cked th e crowd,a n d

m ore th a n on ce drove the tribu n es from the Forum . This m a n

seem ed t o con t a in in him self a l l dict a torships a n d con su la tes,a n d h is a u d a city m a de th e tribu n iti a n power u seless . A tribu n e

d a red n evertheless to m a ke u se of th e Ju li a n l a w. V irg in iu s

a ccu sed Ca eso of h a vin g stru ck on e of h is collea gu es in spite

1 F or the a ristocra tic i de a of order, j u s from j u beo, we ha ve su bstituted th e ide a of j u st ice.T he F ren ch word d roit com e s from the L a tin rec/um a n d ( l irectum

,in Ita li a n d iretto, in Spa n ish

d erecho, in G erm a n reckt, in E n gl ish r ight, a mong the Sca n din a v i a ns rel. The Sl a ve st a r t'

from

a nother idea , not th a t of rectitu de , b u t of truth , p r a wd a .

2 L ivy, iii. 9.

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ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

tribu n es were re-elected for the third tim e . So they were in the

yea rs following, u p to the fifth tim e ; a n d with them wa s brou ght

forw a rd the h a tefu l bill , in spite of a n ew dict a torship of Cin

cinn a tu s, who em ployed his a u thority t o exile withou t a ppea l thea ccu ser of his -

son (458 B .

This sta te of thin gs kept men ’

s m in ds in su ch a con tin u a l

fermen t , th a t the Sen a te thou ght it pru den t t o con sen t t o n om i

n a tin g for the fu tu re t en tribu n es , two for ea ch cl a ss The

people, a bove a l l those of the lower cl a sses, expected from this

in crea se m ore effica ciou s protection ,the p a tricia n s grea ter f a cility

for bribin g som e m em bers of the college . Other con cession s

fol lowed .

I n 456 the tribu n e I cil iu s dem a n ded th a t the l a n ds of the

pu blic dom a in on th e Aven tin e Shou ld b e distribu ted a m on g th e

people ? I n v a in th.

e p a trici a n s trou bled the a ssem bly a n d u pset

the voting-u rn s ; the tribu n es, su pported by the br a ve Sicin iu s Den

t a tu s, con dem n ed sever a l you n g p a trici a n s to con fisca tion of their

property a s a u thors of these violen t a cts . The Sen a te secretly

bou ght b a ck thei r l a n ds a n d restored them . Bu t the tribu n es

h a d proved their stren gth ; they secu red the a ccept a n ce of the l a w

by th e tribes, com pelled the con su ls to t a ke i t to the Sen a te,a n d I cil iu s obt a in ed the right t o en ter the cu ri a to defen d h is

plebiscite . From this in nova tion spr a ng th e right for the tribu n es

t o Sit a n d Spea k in th a t a ssembly ; l a ter on , they h a d even , a s

h a d the con su ls a n d pr a etors, th a t of ca llin g it together ? The

l a w p a ssed . M a n y of the poor who l ived ou tside the citv wen t

to l ive on the Aven tin e , a n d the force of the plebs in crea sed by

the n umber of those who were a ble t o hu rry t o the Forum a t

the first ca l l of the tribu n es . The popu l a r b il l wa s covered with

plebe i a n hou ses . The citizen s t oo poor to bu ild on e from their own

resou rces u n ited with others ; ea ch fla t h a d in this w a y it s pro

prietor,— a cu stom which still exists a t Rom e, in Corsica , a n d even

in some cities of Fra nce. A s the pu blic dom a in reta in ed n ot

1 Dionys., x. T he con dition of a ger pu b l ica s, preserved by the A ventine up t o 456 ,

contra dicts the tra dition re l a ti ve to the e sta bl ishment, on this h il l , of the L a tin s conqu ered byA ncu s. (Cf. p.

2 We see them , after the decemv irs, in fu ll possession of this right. Cf. L i vy, i i i. 6 9 ;

v. 1, 2 , 3 , 6 , 2 6 , 3 6 , e tc. T r ib u n is p lcb is sen a tu s li a bc-

nd i j u s era t, qu a mqu a m sen a tores non

essen t, a n te A tin ium pleb iscitum. (A u l . G e ll., x i v.

DE CE M VIRS A ND CIVI L E QUALITY FROM 451 TO 449. 3 2 3

a foot of soil,there the p a trici a n s cou l d n ot st a y ; a n d this hil l

bec a me a sort of fortress of the people . Un der the decem virs i t

W i s the a sylu n'

I of plebei a n l iberty ?

\V A LL O F T H E A V E N T I N E .

I n 454 a l a w presen ted to the cen tu ries by the con su l Ater

n iu s recogn ized in a l l the m a gistra tes, even in the tribu n es a n d

a ediles, the right of pu n ishin g by fin e those who did n ot Show

1 T he I cil ia n l a w w a s pl a ced a mong th e num ber of the leges s a cr a ta c, fo l lowing L i vy ( ii i.b u t L a nge ( R d /n iscltc A l lerl/zi imer, i . 519 a nd 53 2) th ink s with rea son tha t L ivv h a s con

fou nded this l ca ; [cil ia with the I cil ia n plebiscitum of 4 71, which w a s in fa ct a 10 3; s a cr a t a .

(See p. 297, n . Up t o tha t tim e a gre a t n umber of plebe i a n s inha bited , a s ten a nts, hou sesbe long ing t o the pa tric i a n s ; the l a tter lost by this l a w the in flu ence thev u sed to exerc ise ,u n der th e title of l a ndlords, over a certa in n umber of the plebs.

2 A fter a photogra ph by Pa rker. T he A ve ntine , formerly covered with temples a nd

thi ckly popu l a ted, wou ld b e a mere sol itude without two or three con vents which rise on it

a bove the T iber.

ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SU LS.

t o them the respect -'

a n d Obedien ce Which the ir office dema n ded ?

T h e lowes t fin e'

w a s fixed a t on e sheep,a n d the m a xim u m

,which

cou ld b e rea ched on ly by a n in crea se of a he a d for ea ch d a y of

refu sa l,a t two oxen a n d thirty sheep . At the sa m e tim e this

l a w pu t a l imit t o the a rbitra ry m a nn er in which the con su ls

h a d u p t o tha t tim e fixed the a m ou n t of the fin es.

A short tim e a fter a n Offi cia l coin a ge beg a n . The st a te h a d

a t first on ly certified the qu a l ity of the m et a l 2 by sta m pin g the

pieces of bron ze,a es

,the weight of which w a s a fterw a rd deter

min ed by the bu yer’

s b a l a n ce , when ce the form of pu rcha se ca lled

m a ncip a tio p er a es cl l ibr a m :3 I t a ke this object bou ght with

this bron ze du ly weighed .

”To this first w a rr a n ty there w a s

a dded a n other in the tim e of t he decem vi.rs,

4 — the eviden ce of

weight ; they ra n in a m ou ld pieces of bron ze of a circu l a r form ,

bou n d to weigh twelve ou n ces .

5 This wa s the a s l ibra le,which

ca rried a st a m p with a figu re in dica ting it s v a lu e, a n d which wa s

divided a s follows

A s 1 pou n d , b ea r in g th e he a d of J a n u s.Sem is J u p iter.Tr ien s 1} M in erv a .Qu a dra n s 4 H ercu l es.Sexta n s 4 M ercury.

Unci a ou n ce 11? Rom e.

The a ppea r a n ce of m on ey is on e of the grea t even ts in hi story.

For m ore th a n a cen tu ry a n d a h a l f,to the yea r 268 B . C. the

Rom a n s were s a tisfied with their hea vy bron ze mon ey,whil e for

1 Dionys., x . 50 ; Cic., ( l e R ep . i i. 3 5.2 Th e prim iti ve bron ze w a s of a lmost pure copper : of copper a nd of t in .

3 T he R om a n pound , which w a s div ided into 12 ou nces, we ighed gra mm es.4 I n the T we lve T a bles th e pen a lties a re given in a ses cf. G a iu s, i i i. 2 2 3 .5 I t is bel ieved tha t n o single a s re a ched this we ight ; the gre a ter number in rea lity

we ighed 9 to 10 ou nces. B u t in 1852 there were fou n d a t Cerve t ri 1575 a scs , m a ny of whi chwe ighed 3 12 gra mm es ; whence it m u st b e inferred tha t the gre a ter pa rt of the a ncient a xesh a d a bout the n orm a l we ight (see p. 6 3 0 , N o. R especting the su ccess i ve redu ction s of

th e we ight of th e a s , which fe l l to 4 ou n ces a t the en d of the Sa m n ite W a r ; to 2 ou nces

a t the en d of the F irst Pu n ic W a r ; t o 1 ou nce in 2 17; a nd l a ter on t o 4, 4, during theea rly E mpire ; even in the m iddle of the 3 d century to g a nd 3

15

of a n o u nce ,— see Pl iny ,

I I ist. N a t. xxx iii . 5 ; F estu s, s. v. Sex l a n ta rii a ses ; M omm sen , H z

’

s l . of R om. jl fl on eg ; a n d

M a rqu a rdt, H a n d b . i i. p. 9 cl seq. I t is e a sy t o tel l by a cursory in spection of the t a bleon p. 6 3 0 a n d by the fin ish of the work Of the sta mped u ses , tha t these co in s a re Of m u chl a ter d a te tha n the a ses which were ca st. T he form er d a te, in . fa ct, on ly from the secondcentury B .C.

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DE CE M VIRS AN D CIVI L E QUALITY FROM 459 TO 44 9 . 3 25

a long tim e Greece , Sicily, a n d Sou th Ita ly were coin ing Silver

m on ey, which is the m ost bea u tifu l yet kn own . H ow wretched the

comm erce for which su ch m ea n s of excha n ge su fficed ! L et the a s

ca st 1 a t Rom e b e comp a red with the coin s of Thu rii a n d Syra cu se ,a n d we ca n m ea su re th e dist a n ce which then sep a ra ted the Rom a n s

from the G reeks l

The division of the l a n ds of the Aven tin e wa s a tru e a gr a ri a n

l a w,a n d the lex A tern ia repressed on e of the m ost crying a bu ses l

which Teren t il iu s h a d a tt a cked . The Sen a te

hoped in this w a y to im pose u pon the people ,a n d to del a y, by these p a rtia l s a tisf a ction s,two form id a ble dem a n ds

, the a gra ri a n l a w a n d

the lea : Teren tili a . Bu t the tribu n es wou ld

n ot tolera te e ither tru ce or respite ; the two

proposa ls were imm edi a tely resum ed, a n d to

get them p a ssed there w a s elected t o theC I V I C CR OWN wim

tribu n a te the most ren own ed a n d popu l a r of LA UR E L L E A V E S "

the plebei a n s, Sicin iu s Den t a tu s, a n ol d cen tu rion who h a d been

presen t in 120 b a ttles, followed 9 trium phs, s l a in 8 of the en em y

in single com b a t, received 45 wou n ds, a l l in fron t

,

ea rn ed 183 n eckl a ces, 160 gold bra celets, 18 l a n ces,25 su its of a rm or

,a n d l a stly 14 civic crown s for

the sa me n um ber of citizen s whom he h a d sa ved .3

E m ployin g a m ea n s of in timid a tion which his pre

d ecessors h a d a lrea dy employed, Sicin iu s con dem n ed

two con su ls t o fin es . Th e Sen a te s a w the n ecessity of givin g u p

force withou t exclu din g diplom a cy, in order to divert the revolu tion .

I t a ccepted the proposition of T eren t il iu s, which the tribu n es h a d

ch a n ged in to a dem a n d for a complete revision of the con stitu tion .

5

On e of the con su l a rs con demn ed,R om il iu s, h a d su pported the

bill,n o dou bt hopin g th a t the n ew legisla tion wou l d ta ke from

C I V I C CR OWN ?

1 The importa nce of th i s l a w wil l b e fe lt if we reca ll th e effect tha t w a s produced inE ngl a nd by the pen a lties e nforced by the G overnment of Cha rles I. A t R ome in 4 3 0 the

pen a ltie s in k in d were con verted into pen a lties in money.2 OB CIV IS SE R V A TOS, a l a rge

’

b ronze of A u gu stu s’ tim e.

2 A u l . G e l l.,i i. Dionys., x . 3 7.

4 A V GV STO OB O.S. (ob cives serva tos) in a crown of oa k. R everse of a gold coin of

the fa m i ly P etm n ia .

5 The l a wgivers were to seek qu a e a egu a n d a e l iberta l is essen t. (L ivy, i i i.

3 26 R OM E UN DE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

the h a n ds of th e. tribu n es,if it did n ot destroy th e tribu n a te

itself,this terrible right of a ccu sa tion before the people ? The

a ston ished Den t a tu s pr a ised h is cou r a ge,a bju red their ol d h a tred

,

a n d in the n a m e of the people rem itted the pen a lty which ou ght

t o ha ve been p a id in to the trea su ry of Ceres . “ This m on ey,”

replied R om il iu s,“ belon gs n ow t o th e gods ; n o on e h a s the

right to dispose of it ;”

a n d he refu sed the boon .

However, three comm iss ion ers were n a m ed, Sp. Postum iu s

,

A . M a n l iu s, a n d P . Su lpiciu s, t o go, perh a ps to Athen s,2

a t a ny

r a te t o the Greek cities of It a ly,t o collect the best la ws . To

give th e stra n gers a high idea of the Rom a n people,the qu a estors

c a u sed the vessels in which the a m b a ssa dors sa iled to b e richly

decora ted .

Rom e wa s a t pe a ce du rin g the a bsen ce of the three depu ties.

On their retu rn (452) som e discu ssion a rose respectin g the com

position of the legisl a tive comm ission . This w a s where th e n obles

determ in ed t o fa ce the tribu n es . The qu es tion wa s in deed very

seriou s, for a l l a n tiqu ity thou ght th a t the legisl a tor ou ght to b e

in vested with u n l im ited power. The con su ls, th e tribu n es, the

a ediles, the qu a estors were then t o give wa y to t en m a gistr a tes

cha rged with dra wing u p the n ew code. The most preciou s of the

repu blica n con qu ests, the p rovoca tio, wa s even su spended ; b u t the

rights a cqu ired by th e plebei a n s du rin g the l a st 50 yea rs were

reserved !3 Besides, before the n ew l a ws cou ld b e pu t in force they

wou ld h a ve to rece ive the a pprob a tion of the Sen a te a n d the

s a n ction of the people . Rom e did n ot then give u p h er liberties.

I n plea din g their a cqu a in t a n ce with l a w,the p a trici a n s kept the

ten pl a ces of legisl a tors for them selves . This first choice decided

th a t the reform Shou ld n ot ha ve a pol itic a l ch a r a cter .

Dionys., x. 48 a nd 58.

2 L i vy a ffirm s it , A tticis leg ib u s ( i i i . Ta citu s (A nn . i i i . 27) s a ys on ly cl a ccitis

qu a e u sgu a m egreg ia . [T he n a ture a nd du ties of the cen sorship (cf . be low, p. 3 45, seq.) m a keit very prob a ble tha t the fin a nc i a l me a sure s of the decem virs were borrowed directly from thosea dopt ed by the A then i a n s, who then ru led over a gre a t m a ritime power. E d .]

3 T he l a w d e A ven tino p u b l ica n d o a nd th e leges sa cr a l a e were , however, removed fromthe right of genera l re vi s ion gra nted to the decem virs. T he sentence w a s terrible for

a ny who shou ld ha ve viol a ted these l a ws : S a cer a l icu i (l ea -

rum s it.cum f a m il ia p ecu n ia gu e.

(Cf. F est., 8. v., -a nd Livy, iii.

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3 28 ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

a n d on ly a llowed those t o b e n om in a ted who were devoted t o him .

H e did n ot fea r t o collect votes for himself, thou gh, a s presiden t

of the comiti a , cu stom forba de h is re-election . H is n ew collea gu es,

obscu re m en , su bmitted t o his a scen den cy . Preceded by 120 l ictors

[a n inn ov a tion ] , with the rods a n d a xes,they seem ed t o b e t en

kin gs,1a n d they were so in pride .

Like their predecessors, they were u n a n im ou s,for they h a d

m u tu a lly prom ised th a t the opposi tion of n on e of them Shou ld

check the a cts of h is -collea gu es ;?a n d this a greemen t con solid a ted

the ir power . Hen ceforth, the fortu n e, hon or , a n d th e l ives of

the citizen s were a t their mercy. The Sen a te m ight n ow h a ve

pl a yed a splen did p a rt,tha t of defen din g th e pu blic liberties. I t

preferred giving w a y to the old Spirit of r a n cor, a n d h a iled this

tyr a n n y a risin g from a popu l a r l a w. The p a trici a n you th, for a

lon g time a ccu stomed, u n der Appiu s a n d Ca eso, t o violen ce , beca m e

for the city a sort of decem vir a l a rmy,a n d the sen a tors, desertin g

their posts in the sen a te-hou se , retired to their cou n try hou ses .

However, the decem virs pu blished two n ew t a bles

,

“ filled,

sa ys Cicero,3 “ with u n ju st l a ws ,

”a n d the ye a r en ded withou t

the ir expressing a ny in ten tion of a bdica ti ng . Rom e h a d given

herse lf m a sters . There existed,in f a ct

,n o leg a l m ea n s of depriving

a m a gistra te of his imp erimn,i f he did n ot

,of his own a ccord,

com e t o the Forum a n d decl a re th a t h e resign ed h is Office,a n d

swe a r th a t h e h a d don e n othin g con tr a ry to the l a ws : j a r a re in

leges . Fortu n a tely,th e Sa bin es a n d Aequ i a n s ren ewed the wa r.

The Sen a te h a d to b e con voked .

Free st a tes, which ch a n ge cha r a cter a n d sen timen ts .by force of

extern a l or short-lived im pu lses, owe their st a bility t o th e existen ceof hou ses in which the prin ciples a n d opin ion s of their foref a thers

a re perpetu a ted, a s a herita ge tr a n sm itted to the l a test posterity.The popu l a r p a tricia n s did n ot on this occa sion f a ll short of their

n a m e . A V a ler iu s rose, a s soon a s the session wa s Open ed, a n d

in Spite of Appiu s, who refu sed t o l et him spea k, he den ou n ced

th e con spir a cy form ed a ga in st liberty .“ These a re the V a l erii a n d

Hora tii who expelled the kin gs,

”s a id Hora tiu s B a rba tu s ;

“ their

1 Dionys. (x.58) prete nds th a t three were plebe i a n s L i vy (v.7) m a kes them a l l pa trici a ns.2 L i vy , i i i. 3 6 : ‘in tercession em con sen su su stu ler a n t.

2 De R ep . i i . 3 7: d u a b u s ta b u l is in igu a rum l eg um a d d il is.

DE CE M VIR S A ND CIVIL E QUALITY FROM 451 TO 449 . 3 2 9

descen da n ts will n ot stoop their hea d u n der the T a rqu in s . The

decem virs in terru pted a n d threa ten ed him ; they threa ten ed to hu rl

him from the T a rpei a n rock ; b u t even the u n cle of Appiu s decl a red

a ga in st h im . Still tim id cou nsels prev a iled,a n d , a t the en d of a

stormy sittin g, t en legion s were in tru sted to the decem virs . Two

a rm ies left Rom e ; bein g ba dly l ed , a n d disloya l t o their chiefs,they were bea ten . I n on e Den t a tu s served

,who did n ot hide his

h a te . I n order to get rid of h im,the decem virs sen t h im t o

choose a site for a ca m p,a n d ga ve him a s escort some soldiers

ordered to a ss a ssin a te h im . The Rom a n Achill es on ly su ccumbed

a fter h a vin g killed fifteen of the tr a itors. The report w a s circul a ted

th a t he h a d perished in a n a m bu sc a de ; b u t n o on e dou bted th a t

he h a d been s a crificed to the fe a rs of the decem virs. An other crime

a t l a st brou ght a bou t their f a ll .

From th e elev a tion of his tribu n a l Appiu s h a d seen , severa l

tim es, a be a u tifu l you n g’

girl,h a rdly grown u p, goin g to on e of

the pu bl ic schools,held by freedm en in the Forum ; a n d a crim in a l

p a ssion seized him . She w a s the d a u ghter of on e of the highest

plebei a n s, V irgin iu s, who w a s then with the a rmy of A lg idu s, a n d

the a ffi a n ced of th e form er tribu n e I cil iu s . The decem vir su born ed

on e of h is clien ts,M a rcu s Cl a u diu s

,a n d cha rged him to l a y

before him a su it which wou ld brin g Virgin i a in to his power . The

scen e is very Rom a n,a n d well told by Livy. N o sedu ction n o

a bdu ction or Open violen ce : the in iqu ity is a ccom plished with the

observ a n ce of leg a l forms which disgu ise the “viol a tion of the l a w .

A str a n ger, ign or a n t of the rea l m otive of the su it, wou ld h a ve

a dm ired in Appiu s the impertu rba ble m a gistr a te in the midst of

popu l a r cl a mor .

On e d a y Cl a u diu s sei zed th e m a iden u n der preten ce th a t She,

being the child of on e of his sl a ves,belon ged

“

to him . The te a rsof Virgin i a , the cries of her n u rse

,stirred u p the crowd . H er

fa ther’ s frien ds protested a ga in st this in solen t a n d fa lse preten ce ;b u t Cl a u diu s ca lled on A ppiu s t o h a ve h is rights respected, a n d the

in iqu itou s ju dge,con tr a ry to the very l a w which he h a d him self

p a ssed , a dju dged provision a l possession to h is a ccom plice . I cil iu s

cried ou t,a n d the crowd grew a gita ted Appiu s

,with a hypocritica l

a ppea ra n ce of leg a li ty, con sen ted to let Vi rgin i a free till the

m orrow, t o hea r th e f a ther’

s deposition,a n d determin e. the qu estion

3 3 0 R OM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

of her p a tern ity. Bu t a t the s a m e tim e he desp a tched a secret

em issa ry t o the chiefs of the legion s of the A lg id u s t o en jointhem to preven t V irg in iu s lea ving the c a mp . The frien ds of

I cil iu s forest a lled the messenger , a n d in the morn in g the f a ther

w a s a t the Forum with his d a u ghter a n d n eighbors dressed in

m ou rn in g. H is presen ce did n ot stop Appiu s . All the a v a il a ble

fighting m en were in th e a rmies ; in Rome there rem a in ed on ly

women , ol d m en,a n d in fa n ts ; a n d the decem vir bel ieved th a t h is

l ictors a n d clien ts wou l d b e a ble to keep in check this t im id

crowd . So when Cl a u diu s h a d expl a in ed h is c a se,he decl a red

,

withou t a llowin g the f a ther to spe a k , tha t the proof wa s complete ,a n d tha t Virgin i a w a s a sl a ve . Cl a u diu s wished t o ca rry her off ;

the women who su rrom i d ed the d a msel repu lsed him,a n d Vir

g in iu s, ra ising a ga in st Appiu s his a rm s m en a cin gly,cries : “ I t is

to I cil iu s th a t I ha ve a ffi a n ced my child, a n d n ot to you ! I t is

for m a rri a ge,a n d n ot for sha me , th a t I h a ve brou ght h er u p !

”

A n d he a dded, poin ting to the u n a rm ed citizen s : “Will you

perm it it ? Perh a ps ; b u t su rely those who h a ve a rms will

not !”

Appiu s, c a rryin g ou t h is p a rt a s m a gistr a te occu pied on ly

with a dmin isterin g ju stice a n d order in th e ci ty,deign s t o a n swer.

“ Secret meetings,

sa id he,

a re held the whole n ight lon g in the

city t o stir u p sedition ; I kn ow it , n ot by the in su lts of I cil iu s

yesterd a y, by the violen ce of V irg in iu s to-d a y, b u t by su re proofs .

Therefore I a m prepa red for the stru ggle, a n d h a ve come down t o

the Forum with m en -a t-a rm s to,

check , in a ma n n er worthy of my

powers , those who distu rb the pu blic pea ce .” A n d he en ded by

sa yin g : Citizen s,keep qu iet, it is the wisest cou rse ; a n d you ,

lictor, go, disperse the crowd,a n d m a ke wa y for the m a ster to

seize his sl a ve .”

At these thre a ten in g words the m u ltitu de dispersed of it s

own a ccord . Then V irg in iu s, desp a irin g of a id,a ddressed the

decemvir : “ Appiu s, s a id he,“ p a rdon the grief of a f a ther,

a n d permit m e, here in the presen ce of my child, to a sk her

n u rse th e whole tru th !” A n d he l ed Virgin ia tow a rds a corn er

of the Forum where wa s a b u tcher’

s st a ll : h e t a kes u p from it a

kn ife, a n d strikes her to the hea rt, preferring to see her de a d

tha n dishon ored ; then , covered with her blood, he fled,to the

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3 3 2 ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIA N CON SU LS.

i f they f a iled, to the gen tiles : th e l a w did n ot a s yet recogn izethe cogn a ti, or rel a tion s of the wife ?

The Twelve T a bles did n ot in trodu ce, a s h a s been sometim es

m a in ta in ed,a ny n ew l a w con cern in g the f a m ily

,gra n tin g m ore

l iberty t o th e wife a n d son . The em a n cip a tion of the son by

these preten ded s a les freed him , it is tru e, from th e p a tern a l

a u thority,b u t deprived h im of h is inherit a n ce ; for he su ffered

by em a n cip a tion a dim in u tion of civil rights,

ca p itis el im in a tio ,

which in dica ted cert a in disa bilities ; a s, for exa m ple , in heritin gfrom h is f a ther, bein g gu a rdi a n of h is n ephews

,posterity

,etc.

,

sin ce the ca p itis d im inu tio destroyed the j a s a gn a l ion is . . M a rri a ge,

on the con tr a ry, by coh a bit a tion or pu rch a se , coemp tio, wa s r a ised,so f a r a s the hu sb a n d wa s con cern ed

,t o th e strictn ess of the

p a trici a n m a rri a ge : u s a a nn i con tinu i in ni a n a m conven ieb a t ? The

plebe ia n h a d from this tim e, over wife a n d children , the p a tern a l

a n d con ju ga l powe r which the p a trici a n h a d hitherto possessed,

a n d which l a ter on the provin ci a l cou ld Obt a in on ly by the

gift of civic freedom . I t is the civil m a rri a ge which receives

the sa n ction of th e l a w, a n d which is pl a ced , so f a r a s its resu lts

a re con cern ed , on a level with the rel ig iou s m a rri a ge,3 which will

u ltim a tely qu ite disa ppea r. I n fou r yea rs Ca n u l eiu s m a de u se of

the rights recogn ized in the plebei a n m a rri a ge t o su ppress the

in terdiction preserved in the Twelve T a bles, of u n ion s between

the two orders . Thu s the ga tes of the p a tricia n city will open

first t o the plebei a n s of Rom e , then t o the I ta l i a n a l l ies,a n d

fin a lly to the ir su bj ects in the provin ces .

Th e a n cien t p a trici a n gen s m u st h a ve been copied ea rly in

the f a m i lies of rich plebei a n s ; b u t th e bon ds of the cl ien tel a bein g

gra du a lly rel a xed, the Twelve T a bles tried to stren gthen this

soci a l in stitu tion of ol d It a ly.“ I f the p a tron does a n in j u ry to

h is clien t,

” it is sa id therein ,

“ l et him b e a ccu rsed .” I t w a s a

l a st e ffort to t ie up t o his con dition the clien t ; who, fin din g.

in the

l a w th a t protection which he h a d form erly sou ght from the gre a t

1 A s rega rds property, the om n ipotence of the fa ther wa s, in the 2d century B . c .,

restra ined by lex F u r ia , which forb a de m a king a bequ est of m ore tha n a ses to the sa me

person , in order to prevent the a bu se of lega cies, which'

cu t up properties a nd impoverishedthe o ld fa m i lies.

2 G a iu s, i . 111, a nd Cic., p ro F l a cco , 3 4 .2 On the m a rri a ge by conf a rrea tio, ~see p. 19 6, n . 2.

DE CE MV IRS A ND CIVIL E QUALITY FROM 451 To 449 . 3 3 3

m a n,drif ted a w a y from the gen s in to the comm on crowd , where

he fou n d m ore l iberty . Soon he espou sed it s in terests a n d p a ss ion s,a s th e clien ts of Ca m illu s did

,who voted a g a in st him . This w a s

a n u n felt a n d yet profou n d revolu tion , for a p a rt of the forces b e

lon ging to the a ristocra cy thu s p a ssed over t o the plebeia n c a mp .

Property rem a in ed a lso u n der the s a m e con dition s : it wa s

either pu blic or priv a te . A S to the first,there w a s n ever a ny

freehold,bec a u se the sta te cou ld n ot lose it s rights ; a s for the

second, two yea rs su fficed to a cqu ire it,for th e st a te w a s in

t erested in this, th a t the l a n d Shou ld n ot rem a in withou t cu ltu re .

I f it w a s a qu estion of person a l property or of Sl a ves, on e ye a r

wa s en ou gh . Bu t a g a in st a foreign possessor the l a w w a s a lw a ys

open : a d eers a s l ios l ein a etern a a i lctori l a s ? Hen ce the e fforts of

provin ci a ls, when Rom e h a d exten ded her con qu ests t o a dista n ce ,t o obta in the title of citizen

,which

,a m on g other privileges, ga ve,

a fter a n en joym en t for two yea rs, the right of property over those

u n certa in l a n ds, so n um erou s everywhere where the legion s h a d

p a ssed .

I n the heroic a ges the l a w protected person s b u t l i ttle,bec a u se they kn ew how to defen d them selves

,a n d bec a u se cou ra ge

w a s respected even to the exten t of V iolen ce . The Twelve T a bles

h a ve, then ,com p a ra tively light pen a lties for a tt a cks on the person .

Bu t — a n d this is ch a r a cteristic of Rome — a tt a cks a ga in st property

a re severely pu n ished . Theft becom es in them a n im piety ; for

property is n ot on ly the power of the -rich a n d the l ife.

of th e

poor, b u t a ll th e goods which the hou se con ta in s a re a gift of

the Pen a tes, a n d the h a rvest is even Ceres herself . “ A ny on e

who sha ll h a ve bewitched or u sed m a gica l a rts (exea n z‘

a sset, p el lex

erit) a ga in st a n other’

s crops,or who

'

sh a l l h a ve ca rried off,du rin g

the n ight, the p a stu re of th e flocks of h is n eighbor or cu t h is

crOp,2 l et him b e devoted t o Ceres

,Cereri neca tor . At n ight l et

th e robber b e killed with im pu n ity ; du ring the d a y, if he m a ke

resist a n ce . L et him who sha ll set fi re to a Shock of corn b e

bou n d, bea ten with rods, a n d then bu rn ed. The in solven t debtor

1 On the synonymy of hosp es, or pereg rin u s, a nd of liostis, cf. Cic.,( le. Ofi. i. 12 ; V a rn ,

d e L ing . L a t. v. 1. T he stra nger is a n en em y : this wa s for the R om a n s the first prin cipleof the l a w of n a tion s.

2 I n the Twe lve T a ble s, sa ys Pliny (xviii. it is a more seriou s crim e tha n hom icide.

R OM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

Sh a ll b e sold or cu t in pieces.” 1 Y et the Twelve T a bles h a d

m odera ted the severity of Num a’

s l a w respectin g the rem ov a l of

bou n d a ries . I t wa s n o lon ger a ca pita l crime ;2

soon it beca m e

sim ply a m isdem ea n or ; a n d th e M a m il ia n l a w (2 3 9 or 165 B . C.)lim ited the pu n ishm en t of the ofi en d er to a fin e. I t wa s in evi

t a ble tha t tim e a n d the revolu tion a ry spirit of the plebei a n s shou ld

a lter the sa cred cha ra cter of property of form er times .

F or offen ces reg a rded a s less gra ve, two m odes of pu n ishmen t

were in u se a mon g a l l b a rb a rou s peoples : the lex t a lion is, or cor

pora l reprisa ls,

a n d the priv a te in demn ity.“ H e who brea ks

a ny on e’

s l im b sh a ll pa y 3 00 a ses t o the in ju red p a rty ; if he do'

n ot com pou n d with him,l et him su bm it t o the t a l io.

”

L et u s rem a rk th a t this severe people yet h a d rel a tively spea k

in g some very m ild l a ws . I t kn ew n othing a s yet of tortu re,n or .

con demn ed either to imprisonmen t or pen a l servitu de . All offen ces,even a good p a rt of wh a t we shou ld ca ll crim es, were com pou n ded

for by fin e,— a pu n ishm en t n ot l iked by u s

,bec a u se it a ffects n ot

on ly the gu ilty,b u t the f a mily ; a pu n ishmen t which the Rom a n s

preferred , beca u se a l l the members of a f a m i ly were con join tly

respon sible . I n rega rd of crim es they trou bled themselves on ly

with those which a fi ect ed the pu blic pe a ce , a n d they h a d on ly

two forms of pu n ishm en t for them : dea th a n d b a n ishmen t . The

con demn ed were thrown from the T a rpei a n rock, stra n gled in the

Ta l lia niwn,or bea ten with rods a n d behe a ded . The Porcia n l a w in

the n ext cen tu ry su ppressed pu n ishmen t by dea th for the citizen .

Cicero h a s preserved for u s som e cu riou s direction s a bou t

fu n er a ls . “ Y ou rem ember,”

sa ys he,“ th a t in ou r in f a n cy we

were m a de to recite the Twelve T a bles, which n ow h a rdly a ny

on e kn ows . After h a vin g redu ced lu xu ry t o three mou rn ing

robes, three b a n ds of pu rple , a n d t en flu t e-pl a yers, they pu t down

the l a men ta tion s : “ L et the women n o lon ger tea r their cheeks ;l et them n o lon ger u se the lessu s a t fu n era ls 3 Pra iseworthydirection s, for they a pplied a like to rich a n d poor, which is very

1 See p. 270 .

2 Cf.Trotz, d e Termino moto. I t is the esta bl ishm ent of the iter l imit a re. By me a n s of

th is a rra ngement the need of a pplying N um a’

s l a w occurred b u t ra re ly, a nd this l a w fe ll intodisu se .

2 N eve lessum f u n cris ergo ha ben to. Cicero a dds : L ess a m qu a si lug ub rem ej u l a tionem,u t vox ip s a sign ifi ca l . (De L eg. i i.

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ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

L et n ot th e wood b e pol ished with iron ,— a u seless lu xu ry?

L et fu n era l fea sts b e su ppressed , a s well a s the throwin g of

perfumes in to the fl a m es ; in cen se-boxes2a n d cha plets

,except th a t

which the decea sed sha ll h a ve ga in ed by h is cou ra ge, a n d which

m a y, on the d a y of the fu n era l, b e pl a ced

on h is hea d,

—'

preca u tion s t o restra in the

pom p u sed by th e grea t in these cerem o

n ies . “ L et n ot the bon es of the decea sed

b e kept for the pu rpose of perform in g the

obsequ ies l a ter on,

”a prohibition a g a in st

celebra ting severa l tim es the obsequ ies of

the s a m e person , a n d of dra win g,by this

repea ted Show, th e a tten tion of the city t o

the s a m e hou se .

The grea ter p a rt of these regu l a tion s

were borrowed from the l a ws of Solon , who

himself a lso h a d a im ed a t dim in ishing the

influ en ce of the E u p a trida e by restra in in g

Show a t f un era ls . Bu t we Sha ll see tha t

A PR I E ST PR E SE N T I N G TH E th e severities Of the l a w W ill 110 1: prev a ilm CE N SE —B OX

over m a n n ers . The fu n er a ls of the grea t

were a lw a ys a t Rom e a m on g the m ost pom pou s cerem on ies of

the city,a n d by the ir tom bs th e Rom a n s ha ve crea ted a kin d

of a rchitectu re,which we still copy.

Two qu estion s of m ore import a n ce from a n historica l poin t of

View a re : th e in trodu ction of severa l l a ws m ore f a vora ble t o the

poor or the en tire order of plebei a n s, a n d the gen era l ch a r a cter

which l a w t a kes in the Twelve T a bles .3

Here were a rra n gemen ts f a vor a ble to the plebei a n s : “ Whoever

Sh a ll len d m on ey a t m ore th a n 84 per cen t sh a ll restore it fou r

fold ; tha t the n eoca s (the sl a ve for debt) b e n ot con sidered

1 A n d perha ps a religiou s idea . We ha ve seen tha t not a s ingle n a il wa s u sed in the

con struction of the Su b l icia n bridge.2 A cerr a ,

incen se-b ox ; on e of these is represented in the engra ving, wh ich h a s beencopied from a pa inted v a se in the N a ples M u seum , which represents the prepa ra tion s fora sa crifice.

3 I n the t ext, so f a r a s it h a s been m a de ou t , there is m u ch u ncerta inty in the order ofthe contents ; b u t the order, which h a s mu ch importa nce for the j ur iscon sul t, h a s n one for

the histori a n .

DE CE M VIRS A ND CIVIL E QUAL ITY FROM 451 To 44 9. 3 37

inf a mou s . This wa s a protection for the debtor a g a in st the u su rer.“ I n st a te m a tters l et them a d ju dge provision a lly in f a vor of

l iberty,

— a protection for the we a k a ga in st the stron g. “ Th a t

it b e perm issible to form corpor a tion s or colleges,provided th a t

n othin g he don e a g a in st the l a ws a nd the pu blic wea l . This

w a s the right to the lower cl a sses to form a ssoci a tion s . “ L et the

fa lse wi tn ess a n d the ju dge who h a s t a ken bribes b e thrown

from the-

rock ,”— a protection to the poor defen da n t a ga in st the

r ich su itor a n d the p a trici a n ju dge .“ Th a t there b e a lw a ys right

of a ppe a l to th e people from the sen ten ces of the m a gistra tes .”

This is a fresh s a n ction t o the Va leri a n l a w, a n d a restriction pu t

on the Im l im ited power of th e dicta torship ? Th a t the people on ly,in the com itia cen turia ta , h a ve th e power of condem n a tion t o dea th .

”

This wa s a gra n t t o the people of crim in a l ju risdiction ,t a ken

f rom the con su ls, to whom the lea : V a leria d e p rococa tione h a d left

the ju dgm en t in the first in st a n ce ? I t w a s to the a ssembly of

the cen tu ries , where a l l p a trici a n s a n d plebe i a n s a re m in gled a c

cordin g t o sc a le of property, th a t the power p a sses . The Twelve

T a bles c a l l it m a x im um com iti a tum , the tru e a ssem bly of the

Rom a n people .

Thi s wa s th e gen er a l ch a ra cter of the l a w :“ N o m ore

person a l l a ws ; n e p rivileg ia inrog a n to . The civil legisl a tion of

the Twelve T a bles recogn izes Rom a n citizen s on ly . I t s regu l a tion s

a re m a de n either for a n order, n or a cl a ss,a n d it s form u l a is

a lwa ys : si gu is,— if a ny on e ; the p a trici a n a n d the plebei a n

, the

sen a tor a n d the pon tiff, the rich a n d the prolet a ri a n ,a re equ a l in

it s eyes . F orti s a n a tiga e id em yu s esio.3 Thu s by this blotting ou t

of di stin ction s, f orm erly so deep,

! the fin a l u n ion of the two

peoples is a t l a st procl a imed, a n d this n ew people, form ed by the

en tirety of the citizens, h a s n ow the sovereign a u thority which

h a d til l then rem a in ed in the h a n ds of the p a trici a n p op u lu s.

“Wh a t th e people Sh a ll h a ve ord a in ed fin a lly sh a l l b e l a w.

”

1 Fest., Op tim a lex : L ivy, iii . 55 ; Cic., d e R ep . i i. 3 1 : a b omn i j u d icio p a en a gu e p rovoca ril icere.

2 Cicero s a id of thi s l a w : a dm ir a n d um , ta n tu m m a j o-res in posterum provid isse. The

Sen a te decl a red in 3 10 B. c . j u d icium pop u li rescind -i a b sen a tu non posse. (L i vy, iv. The

election s a nd the l a ws were a lone subm itted to the a u ctor ita s p a lrum.

2 L et the strong a nd the wea k ha ve the sa me right. See in F estu s, v. Son a tes, theexpla n a tion of this word.

V O L . I .

3 3 8 ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

Two rem a rks mu st b e m a de on this a xiom : the first is tha t

th e l a w is n o lon ger th e revel a tion of the n ym ph E geri a or the

in spir a tion of gods which shou ld con tin u e m ysteriou s a n d u n ch a n ge

a ble ; the people who h a ve m a de it ca n u nm a ke i t ; The secon d

is the clea r a n d simple defin ition which is given of it. The

Rom a n s h a ve n ot sou ght for it in philosophica l con sidera tion s .

They d o n ot defin e a prin ciple : they a ssert a f a ct,— a n ew proof

of th a t pra ctica l spirit which dem a n ds from li fe a n d society on ly

those u sefu l resu lts which they m a y a fford .

The people h a d a lso obta in ed by the Twe lve T a bles some

m a teri a l a m elior a tion s,a n d , if n ot pol itic a l equ a l ity — from which

the poor cou ld sc a rcely profit, a t lea st equ a lity before the civil

a n d crim in a l l a w,which gives even t o the m ost wretched the

feelin g of dign ity a s a m a n .

The a ristocra tic Spirit tra n spires,however

,in this code dra wn

up by p a trici a n s :“ L et the rich ple a d for th e rich ; for the poor

a ny on e who will .” 1 This is on ly con tem ptu ou s ; b u t the l a w is

very severe a ga in st a u thors of scu rrilou s verses, a n d those who

m eet secretly a t n ight ;2

a n d in on e of the l a st a rticles a dded

by Appiu s i t s a n ction ed the in vidiou s exclu siven ess of form er

d a ys : “ L et there b e n o m a rri a ges between p a tr ici a n s a n d

plebei a n s . I t is a protest of the ol d m a sters of Rom e a g a in st

the n ew ch a r a cter of the l a w,in the n a m e of their a n cestors

,of

the n obility of the ir r a ce,the rel igion of their fa m i lies, a n d the

speci a l protection which the gods gra n ted them . L et there b e

equ a lity,sin ce they cou ld n ot preven t it ; l et the s a m e ju dges

,the

s a m e l a w, the s a m e pen a lty strike Fa biu s a n d I cil iu s b u t n o

mésa ll ia n ces. Ou tside the tribu n a l l et the on e return t o the crowd

f rom which he ca m e,the other to the cu ria , the tem ples of the

gods, the heredit a ry a trium !

The p a tricia n s h a d,in f a ct

,a llowed n othin g to b e ch a n ged in

th e con stitu tion : they rem a in ed con su ls a n d sen a tors, a u gu rs a n d

pon tiffs,ju dges especi a lly ; a n d by the mu ltifold form s of pro

ced u re of which the plebei a n s were ign ora n t, they were a ble t o

1 A ssid u o vin d ex a ssid u u s esto proleta r io qu ivis volet vind ex esto.

2 Q u i ca ctu s n octu rn os a g il a verit, ca p it a l esto. F or a l l the se c ita tion s from the TwelveT a bles I ha ve fo ll owed the text given by R eiske in hi s edition of Dionys iu s of H a l ica rn a ssus,pp. 2 3 66

- 2 3 81.

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B OlWE UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

Still the n ew legisl a tion h a d fou n ded the civil l a w of

R om e fou r cen tu ries a fter, Cicero still recomm en ded its stu dy,

ca rm en n ecess a rium ,

‘a n d G a iu s, u n der the An ton in es

,drew up

a lon g commen t a ry on the Twelve T a bles. This reform did

n ot s a tisfy a l l the hopes of the people ; b u t the decemvirs

h a d n evertheless given a n impu lse to the plebei a n power, if n ot

by their l a ws, a t lea st by the a cts of violen ce of their closin g

d a ys .

1 De L eg . n . 4 , 2 3 .

2 A wom a n hold ing a . b a l a nce a nd a stick, wh ich is doubtless a .mea sur e, th e p ertica , or10 R om. ft. 3 yd s. 8

SI LV E R PE N NY or A N T ON I N US PI US.2

CHAPTE R I X.

EFFOR TS TO OBTA IN POL ITICAL E QUAL ITY (449

I . R E -E STAB LI SHM E N T OF TH E TR I BUN A T E A ND CON SULA T E .

H E revolu tion of 510 B . c., m a de by the pa trici a n s, h a d ben efited

the a ristocra cy ; th a t of 449 , m a de by the people, profited

the people . The decem virs h a d a bdica ted, a n d two popu l a r

sen a tors, Va leriu s a n d Hora tiu s, h a d gon e t o the Sa cred Mou n t to

prom ise th e re-esta blishm en t of the tribu n a te a n d right of a ppea l,

exten ded to a l l th e citizen s,with a n a mn esty for those who h a d

ta ken p a rt in the revolt . The people retu rn ed to the Aven tin e,a n d in order to b e a ssu red tha t these promises wou ld b e kept

,

occu pied on ce m ore the Ca pito l .1 Bu t n o on e drea m t of dispu tin g

the victory. The Pon tifex M a ximu s held the com iti a for the

election of t en tribu n es,then Hora tiu s a n d V a leriu s were a p

poin ted con su ls, who by sever a l l a ws gu a r a n teed the recovered

liberty.

The first of these l a ws prohibited , u n der p a in of de a th, the

crea tion a t a ny tim e of a m a gistra cy withou t a ppe a l .2 The secon d

ga ve the force of l a w t o the p leb iscit a , tha t is to s a y, th a t resolu

tion s p a ssed in the a ssembly of the tribes shoul d n o longer n eed

the sa n ction of the Sen a te, a s did the resolu tion s of the cen tu ries,

to become gen er a l l a ws.3 The third ren ewed the a n a them a pro

nounced a ga in st a ny who ou tra ged the tribu ni tia n in viol a bility.

1 Cic., p ro. Cornel. i. F r. 25.2 L i vy, ii i. 55.8 Tfiv a irrfiv 3xow a s dfiua pw r ois e

’

v f a ts R oxin ow e’

xxhq a t s‘r eeq a op e

'

vow. (Dionys. , x i .M .W i llem s (L e Droit p u b l ic R om a in , p. 6 1) th in ks th a t from this m oment th e pa trici a n s a ndthe ir cl ients were a dm itted, if not by right, yet a t le a st in f a ct, to the concil ia p leb is. The

centuries preserved j u dgm ents for ca pita l crim es, e lection to the ch ief m a gistra cies, the right ofm a king th e most genera l l a ws, a nd of deciding for pe a ce or w a r. T he legisl a ti ve power of thetribe s wa s pu t in force respecting qu estion s of intern a l order, a nd especi a lly for the m a inten a nce

3 42 ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

The fou rth ordered th a t a copy of a l l the Sen a tu s-con su lta,cou n ter

sign ed by th e tribu n es with the letter T ,

It o preven t a l l f a l sifica ~

tion,shou ld b e in tru sted to the plebei a n a ediles a n d kept by them

in the tem ple of Ceres on the Aven tin e . An other copy w a s,

withou t dou bt, kept by the qu a estors in the tem ple of Sa tu rn .

The tribu ne Du il iu s h a d this l a w p a ssed : th a t the m a gistr a te

who n eglected t o hold the com iti a a t the en d of the yea r,for

th e election of the tribu n es of the people,

shou ld b e pu n ished

with the rod a n d a xe .2

Liberty w a s a ssu red ; b u t the blood shed ca l led for ven ge a n ce.

V irgin iu s a ccu sed th e decem virs . Appiu s, their chief, killed him sel f:

in prison before the tri a l ; Oppiu s , th e secon d in u n popu l a rity,

died in the sa m e w a y. Th e others were exiled ; their propertywa s con fisc a ted to the tem ple of Ceres. The people were sa tisfied

with these two victim s,a n d Du il iu s decl a red th a t he wou ld oppose

his veto to a ny fu rther a ccu sa tion .

However, th e two con su ls h a d resumed m ilit a ry oper a tion s

a ga in st the Aequ i a n s a n d Sa bin es , a n d the l a tter were so

thorou ghly bea ten by Hor a tiu s, th a t they rem a in ed a t pe a ce with

Rom e for a cen tu ry a n d a h a l f. On their retu rn the con su ls

dem a n ded a trium ph ; u p t o th a t tim e th e Sen a te a lon e h a d the

right t o gr a n t it, a n d ref used . The tribu n e I cil iu s h a d it decreed

by the people , a n d “ the con su ls trium phed n ot on ly over the

en em y, b u t the p a trici a n s a lso .

”I t w a s th e tribu n es a lso who,

gra du a lly brin gin g the people in to the m ost im port a n t sta te

a ff a irs,decided in the deb a te between Ardea a n d A ricia .

3

This m a tter is worth a m om en t ’s de l a y, for it h a s given.

occ a sion t o on e of those very r a re stories which show u s the:

in terior of the I ta l i a n cities . Ardea , a very ol d La tin city, fou r

m i les from th e sea , a n d A ricia,

celebra ted in a n tiqu ity for its

terrible tem ple . of Di a n a , a n d in m odern tim es by it s ch a rm in g

L a ke N emi,dispu ted a bou t the territory of the city of Corie li,

a nd exten sion of pu b l ic rights. A u l . Cell in s (N oct. A ttic. X. xx. 6) defines the plebi scitum[ex qu a m p lebes, non p op u lu s , a ccip it.

1 V a l . M a x .,II. i i. 7; L i vy ( i i. 55) s a ys : Sen a tu scons u l ta qu a e a n tea a rb itrio consu lum

s upp rimeb a n tu r vitia b a n tu rqu e.

2 L i vy, ii i. 55 ; Diod ., x ii . 25. A nother l a w, proposed by Treboni u s, requ ired the

a ppo intm ent of ten tribu n es a nd forb a de co—opta tion .3 L ivy, ii i. 71.

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3 44 ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

em ployed the rest of their en ergy to com plete the work of the

decem virs a n d c a rry ou t the Teren t il ia n l a w. The p a trici a n s h a d

more tha n on ce tried t o slip in to the tribu n a te ; the Treb on ia n

l a w closed it a ga in st them for ever. They h a d reserved to them

selves the ju dici a l power, except in the c a se of a ca pita l sen ten ce

a ga in st a cit izen ,a n d th e a d min istr a tion of the fin a n ces

,by

lea vin g to the con su ls the right of a ppo in tin g qu a estors of the

trea su ry. The tribun es obt a in ed in 447 B . C. th a t the gu a cs tores

p a rm’

cid ii et qu a es tores a er a rii shou ld b e for the fu tu re elected

in the comiti a tribu ta , a lthou gh these two ofii ces rem a in ed

p a trici a n .1

Two thin gs m a in t a in ed the in su ltin g distin ction between the

two orders : the prohibition of m a rri a ge between p a trici a n s a n d

plebei a n s, a n d the ten u re of a l l the m a gisteri a l offices by those

who formed sin ce the origin of Rom e the sovereign people of the

p a tres . I n 445 B .C. the tribu n e Ca n u l eiu s dema n ded the a bol ition

of the prohibition rel a tive to m a rri a ges,a n d h is collea gu es a sh a re

in th e con su l a te. This wa s a dem a n d for pol itica l equ a l ity.

I I .— N EW CON ST ITUT ION on TH E YE A R 444.

WE kn ow n ow th a t every a ristocr a cy which closes it s ra nks

soon perishes, beca u se tim e a n d power qu ickly exh a u st pol itica lf a m il ies . Withou t kn owin g it

,the Rom a n p a trici a te a cted a s if it

com prehen ded this tru th, a n d this perception of pu blic n ecessities

m a de the grea tn ess of R om e . After a resist a n ce skilfu lly ca l

cu l a t ed for opposin g to the popu l a r torren t a d a m which broke

its force withou t excitin g it,the n obles a lw a ys yi elded ; b u t , like

a disciplin ed a rm y which n ever becomes broken ,they retrea ted

in order to m a ke a stron g defen ce a t the n ext poin t . Thu s

wa s prolon ged this in tern a l wa r, which m ou lded the robu st you th

of the Roma n people .

When th e p a tres hea rd this n ew a n d a u d a ciou s dema n d of

the tribu n e , their in dign a tion bu rst forth Thu s then ,”

sa id

Cl a u diu s, with his heredit a ry pride, thu s n oth in g will rema in

1 T a c., A n n . xi . 22.

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3 46 R OlVLE UNDE R TH E PATR ICIAN CON SULS.

list of sen a tors a n d kn ights .

1 I n this w a y they gra du a lly a tt a in ed

the first r a n k in th e st a te,a n d re-election t o a n Office which

beca m e the highest hon or in the city w a s presen tly forbidden .

There rem a in ed of the con su l a r power it s m ilit a ry fu n ction s,

civil ju risdiction , th e design a tion of n ew sen a tors, the presiden cy in

th e Cu ria e a n d the com iti a , the c a re Of the city a n d the l a ws.

These powers were given , b u t su b -divided , withou t cu ru le hon ors,with six lictors in pl a ce of twelve, a n d u n der the plebe i a n n a m e

of tribu n e, to three , fou r , or six gen era ls . To these m il it a ry

tribu n es , elected withou t a u spices,2 rel igion forb a de a t first on e Of

the most im port a n t preroga tives of the con su ls,viz .

, the design a

tion of a dict a tor .3 Mere l ieu ten a n ts,so t o s a y, of a n in visible

m a gistr a cy, b u t which the Sen a te kn ows a n d in spires

,they did

n ot fight u n der their own a u spices , a n d n ever did they Obt a in th e

m ost envied of milita ry rew a rds, the trium ph .

4 Wh a t power they

h a ve is a lso divided a m on g them a ccordin g to thei r n um ber. On e

m a rches a t the hea d of the legion s, a n other comm a n ds the reserve,

a n other the veter a n s, a n other a ga in w a tches over th e a rsen a ls a n d

provision in g of the troops. On e on ly is in vested with the rel igiou s

a n d ju dici a l fu n ction s of the con su ls,viz ., the p r a ef ectu s u rb is

,

presiden t of th e Sen a te a n d the com iti a , gu a rdi a n of rel igion,the

l a ws, a n d a l l the in terests of the city.

5 Also the/

Sen a te took

ca re th a t these preroga tives, in clu din g the du ties given l a ter

on to th e pr a etors , with ,the im port a n t privilege of n a m in g the

1 P a sture s, woods, fi sheries, sa lt m ine s, m ines, ha rbor du es, etc. (L i vy, xxx i i . .7 x1.

On th e dutie s Of th e cen sors, see Cic., ( l e L eg. i i i . 3 H ist. A u g . V a ler. 2. B u t a l l these dutieswere not the irs fromthe begin n in g. L i vy sa ys ( iv. 8) R es a p a rva orig in e ort a . T he firstm ention of a l ectio scn a tu s by the cen sors is from th e ye a r 3 12 B . C. (L i vy, v i i i . 2 9 wh ich

,

however, does not m e a n tha t there h a d n ever been on e before. [I t a ppea rs from the re se a rchesof Solta u a t the Ca rlsruhe Con gre ss of Philo logists tha t the cen sora te w a s directlyim ita ted from the chief a dm in istra tor (6 e

’

1ri Ot o txfio ewg) of the A then i a n tributes. Th e

dir ect influ ence of Greece on R om e is proba bly o lder a nd gre a ter tha n is u su a l ly thou ght. E d .]2 This ca n b e inferred from th e speech of A ppiu s (L i vy, v i. n u l l u s a u spica lo. A t le a st

they h a d n o t the m a x im a a u sp icia . (A u l . G e l l. x i i i. L ivy even sa ys (v. 18) th a t th ey werenom in a ted in the profa n e a ssembly of the tribes ; b u t he contra dicts h im self e lsewhere (v.

8 R el ig io obst a rei (L i vy, i v . H owever, in 4 2 3 B. c ., in a press ing d a nger, thea u gurs rem oved this prohibition , a n d the con su l a r tribu n e , pra ef ectu s u rb is, Corn . Cossu s,nom in a tes a dicta tor.

4 Z on a r a s, vii . 19 , confirmed by th e s i lence of the triumpha l fa sti..

The triumph wa sa ccorded t o those on ly who h a d con qu ered su is a u sp iciis.

5 Li vy,v i.5. I n 4 24 , four tribu nes, e gu ib u s Cossu s pra ef u it Urbi the sa me in 4 3 1 B.c.,

in 3 83 , etc.

E FFORTS TO OBTAIN POLITICAL E QUALITY 3 47

ju dges, rem a in ed in the h a nds of a p a trici a n .

1 When the

plebei a n s u ltim a tely ga in ed en tr a n ce in to the con su l a r trib u n a te ,

on e pl a ce a t le a st wa s a lw a ys reserved for a c a n did a te of the

other order.2

Ou t of the con su l a te three Offices a re form ed : the qu a estor

ship, the cen sorship , a n d th e con su l a r tribu n a te . The two form er

a re exclu sively p a tricia n . The m il it a ry tribu n es,in rea l ity pro

con su ls con fin ed , with on e exception , t o the comm a n d Of the

legion s, cou ld n ow b e chosen withou t distin ction from the two

orders. Bu t the l a w,in n ot requ i rin g th a t every ye a r a fixed

num ber Of them b e plebei a n s,a l lowed them to b e a l l p a trici a n s ;

a n d they rem a in ed so for n ea rly fifty ye a rs ?

I n spite of su ch skilfu l preca u tion s,the Sen a te d id n ot give

u p the con su l a te . I t heli n reserve a n d pu re from a l l ta in t the

p a trici a n m a gistra cy,hopin g for better d a ys . The dict a torship,

which w a s n ot e ffa ced from the n ew con stitu tion a l code, a n d the

right Of opposition from the p a tres, rem a in ed a s a l a st resou rce for

extrem e c a ses . Religion in fin e a lw a ys fu rthered the in terests of

the a ristocra cy ; a n d i f,in spite of the in flu en ce of

the n obles in the a ssem blies,in spite of the a rbitra ry

power of the presiden t of th e com itia , who h a d the

right to refu se votes for a hostile ca n did a te , the

m a jority of votes were in f a vor Of a n ew m a n,his

election cou ld still b e qu a shed by a n a dverse decision of the

a u gu rs . I f n ecessa ry,Ju piter thu n dered .

JUP I T E R .‘

1 Once , in 3 9 6 , Li vy n a m es six plebe i a n s. B u t in the pl a ce Of P. M a eliu s the n ew fra gments of the F a sti a nd Diod oru s (x iv. 9 0 ) n a me Q . M a n l iu s.

2 A s reg a rds the frequ ent v a ri a tions in the number o f the con su l a r tribu n es, a thing sostra nge in R om a n a ntiqu ity, they a re expl a in ed by m a king the con sul a r tribu n es to b e on lygenera ls. The ir n umber grew a ccording t o the

.

n eed. F rom 44 3 B. c. to 4 3 2 they a re three ,two for the legion s, one to rem a in a s prefect in the c ity. I n 4 25, a fter the decl a ra tion of wa r

a ga in st Ve ii , four a re n a med. I f the n umber re a che s six in 4 04, it is sti l l for the V ei a n w a r.

l -V hen they a re e ight, it is . perha ps, a s Perizon iu s h a s m a inta ined, beca u se the cen sors wereinclu ded.

3 F rom 4 44 to 4 00 B. c.4 Ju piter with t he sceptre a nd thu nderbolt. A nti q u e inta gl io from the F rench N a tion a l

Co llection , N O.

3 48 ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

I I I . ST R UG GLE F OR TH E E XE CUT I ON OF T H E N E W CON ST I TUT I ON .

WH A T E VE R skill h a d been exhibited by the Sen a te, th e prin

cipl e of politic a l equ a l ity h a d ju st triu m phed,

a n d the divis ionof the cu ru le m a gistra cies wa s on ly a qu estion of tim e . Thistim e w a s long ; for th e qu estion here w a s n o lon ger t o s a tisfy

gen er a l in terests, b u t on ly the a m bition of som e chiefs of the

people . Thu s the a tt a ck, thou gh spirited, w a s i ll-su st a in ed ; a n d

th e plebei a n s, con ten t with the n a m e of equ a lity,

n eglected for

a lon g tim e t o gra sp the re a l ity .

l We sh a ll see them a t the

crisis re a dy to a b a n don Licin iu s Stolo a n d the con su l a te for a few

a cres of l a n d .

The con stitu tion of 444 B . c. a u thori zed t h e a ppo in tm en t of plebei

a n s t o th e con su l a r tribu n a te down to 400 B . 0 . n on e Obt a in ed it ;a n d du rin g the seven ty-eight ye a rs th a t this office con tin u ed

, the

Sen a te twen ty-fou r tim es a ppoin ted con su ls ; th a t is t o s a y, it.

su cceeded , on e yea r in three , in its a ttem pts to re-est a blish the

a n cien t form Of governm en t .2

These perpetu a l oscill a tion s en cou r a ged the a m bitiou s hopes of

a rich knight, Spu riu s M a el iu s (43 9 B . H e thou ght th a t the

Rom a n s wou ld willingly resign in to his h a n ds thei r u n qu iet l iberty,

a n d du ring a fa m in e he ga ve very libera lly to the poor . The

Sen a te bec a m e a l a rm ed a t this a lm sgiving,wh ich w a s:

n ot a t a l l in a ccord a n ce with the m a n n ers Of th a t

tim e,a n d r a ised to the dict a torship Cin cin n a tu s, who,

on t a kin g Office , pra yed the gods n ot t o su ffer th a t

com o r SE W .h is ol d a ge shou ld prove a c a u se Of hu rt or d a m a ge

A H A L A ‘

S

to the Repu blic . Summon ed before the tribu n a l Of the

dicta tor, M a el iu '

s refu sed t o a ppea r,a n d sou ght protection a g a in st

1 Li vy sa ys , it is tru e , imper io ct in sig n ib u s con su l a r-{b u s u sos ; b u t a l l tha t precedes, shows.without dou bt the inferiority Of the tribu nes t o the consu ls. If the n a m e a lon e h a d beencha nged, the tribu ne s of the people wou ld n ot ha ve shown su ch obstin a cy in dem a nding thecon su l a te itse lf. “ I t wa s n e ver a m ere q u a rre l of word s ,” sa ys M a d a me d c Sta el.

2 I t w a s on the proposition of th e Sen a te tha t the centu ries decided e a ch ye a r whetherthey wou ld e lect m i l ita ry tribu nes or con su ls. I t did n o t gen era l ly propose tri bu n es exceptwhen th ey were threa ten ed with w a r : th e ordin a ry form u l a a t the time of the e lection of

con su ls w a s , p a r ct otium, d om i f or isqu c.3 A I —IA LA . H e a d of Serviliu s Aha l a on a si lver coin of the Servil ia n fa m i ly.

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ROM E UNDE R TH E PATR ICIAN CON SULS.

repu t a tion of the tribu n a te equ a lled it s power, a n d few yea rsp a ssed withou t th e plebe i a n s Obt a in in g som e n ew a dv a n t a ge .

Three yea rs e a rlier the tribu n es , jea lou s of see in g the votesa lwa ys given t o the n obles

,h a d proscribed the white robes

,which

m a rked ou t from a dist a n ce,to a l l eyes

,the p a trici a n ca n dida te ?

This wa s the first l a w a ga in st u n du e c a n va ssin g .

I n 43 0 a l a w pu t a n en d to a rbitra ry v a lu a tion s Of pen a ltiesp a ya ble in kin d .2

I n 427 the tribu n es, by opposin g the levies,obliged the Sen

a te t o ca rry to the comiti a cen tu ri a t a the qu estion of the wa r

a ga in st Veii .3

I n 42 3 they revived the a gra ri a n l a w,a n d dem a n ded th a t th e

tithe shou ld b e m ore pu n ctu a lly p a id in . the fu tu re by the occu piers

Of dom a in la n d,‘

a n d a pplied to the pa y of the troops .

They m isca rried this tim e ; b u t in 421 it seem ed n ecessa ry

to r a ise the n umber Of qu a estors from two to fou r. The people

con sen ted t o i t on ly on the con dition th a t the qu a estorship b e

a ccessible to th e plebe ia n s.

Three yea rs l a ter a cres of th e l a n ds of L a b icum were

distribu ted to fifteen hu n dred plebei a n fa m ilies . I t wa s very

little ; so the people l a id cl a im ,in 414

,t o the division of the

l a n ds of Bol a,t a ken from the Aequ i a n s . A m ilit a ry tribu n e

,

Postum iu s,bein g violen tly Opposed to it

,w a s sl a in in a n ou tbrea k

of the soldiery. This crim e,u n he a rd Of in th e history Of Rom a n

a rm ies, did h a rm t o th e popu l a r c a u se ; there wa s n o distribu tion

of l a n ds,a n d for five ye a rs the Sen a te wa s a ble t o a ppoin t

the con su ls. The p a trici a n re a ction produ ced a n other a ga in st it

which en ded in the thorou gh execu tion Of the con stitu tion of

the yea r 444 . A n I cil iu s in 412,a M a en iu s in 410 B . C. took u p

a ga in the a gra ri a n l a w a n d Opposed the levy . The ye a r followin g

th ree of the I cil ia n f a m ily were n a m ed a s tribu n es . I t w a s a

m en a ce to the Other order. The p a trici a n s u n derstood it, a n d in

410 three plebei a n s Obt a in ed th e qu a estorship .

1 I n 4 3 1 ; cf. L i vy, i v. 25.2 Cic., d e R ep . ii . 3 5 ; L i vy, i v. 3 0 . The l a w fixed the v a lu e in si lver of a n ox a nd a

sheep : a n ox equ a l led 100 a ses, a sheep 10 .

a L i vy,iv. 3 0 . I n 3 80 it wa s the tribes who decided tha t wa r shou ld b e m a de on the

Volsci a ns. (L i vy, v i.

E FFORTS TO OBTAIN POLITICAL E QUA LITY. 3 51

I n 405 pa y wa s esta blished for th e troops, a n d the rich

u n dertook to pa y the l a rger portion of i t .

Fin a lly, in 400 , fou r m il it a ry tribu n es ou t of six were

plebei a n s .

The chiefs of the people thu s Obt a in ed th e pu blic Offices, a n d

even pl a ces in the Sen a te, a n d the poor Obt a in ed a n in dem n ity

which su pported their f a m il ies while they served with the colors .

All a m bition s,a l l desires a re a t presen t s a tisfied . Ca lm a n d u n ion

retu rn ed to Rome ; we ca n see i t in the vigor of the a tt a cks

on extern a l foes.

R OM E FOLLOWE D B Y A MA G I ST R A T E . B A S-R EL I E F I N T H E LOUV R E

CHAPTE R X.

MIL ITARY HI STORY FR OM 448 TO 3 89

I . CON QUE ST OF AN K UR OR TE R R A OI NA

N the middle of the fifth cen tu ry B . c.,a t the period which

precedes a n d fol lows the decem vira te , the La tin con feder a tionw a s dissolved a n d the Rom a n territory Open to a l l a tt a cks. E very

yea r the Sa bin es descen ded from the m ou n t a in s of E retum,the

Aequ i a n s from A l gid u s, the Volsci a n s from the Alb a n Mou n t, a n d

the E tru sca n s distu rbed th e right b a n k of the Tiber . I t seem ed

a s if a l a st effort mu st b e m a de t o set Rom e free from her

en em ies . Bu t the people h a d ju st m a de in thei r tu rn a plebei a n

revolu tion . Con fiden ce grew a ga in ; the lea ders were popu l a r ;th e wa r beca me su ccessfu l . Du rin g h a lf a cen tu ry R ome fou ght

on ly for existen ce ; a fterwa rd she fou ght for em pire. She wa s

helped by two powerfu l m ea n s , which th e kings seem to h a ve

a lrea dy employed , —m il it a ry pa y, which a llows longer ca m p a ign s

a n d stricter disciplin e ; the colon iza tion of ca ptu red cities,which

a ssu red the possession Of con qu ests a n d prep a red the wa y for

n ew on es. Thu s, in the sp a ce Of fifty ye a rs, the Sa bin es, the

Aequ i a n s,a n d th e V olsci a n s l a id down their a rm s

,Vei i d is

a ppea red, a n d the L a tin s bec a m e the su bjects Of Rom e.

The first expedition,a fter the re-est a blishm en t of l iberty

, wa s

sign a lized by a victory over the Sa bin es, which . con fin ed them for

a cen tu ry a n d a h a lf t o the A pen n in es . Perha ps it wa s n ot the

terror in spired by th e Rom a n a rm s which deserves credit for this

resu lt, so m u ch a s the circumsta n ces which Offered to the Sa bin es

more lu cra tive en terprises .

1 I t is necessa ry for a l l these w a rs to keep in v iew the m a p wh ich we ha ve given of the

A ger R om a n u s, p. 3 0 2 , a nd th a t of Centra l Ita ly.

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ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

I n th e in terv a l between these two E tru sca n w a rs,the Aequ i

a n s a n d Volsci a n s h a d t a ken u p a rm s ; a n d the dict a tor a ppoin ted

a ga in st them , A . Postu m iu s Tu b ertu s, g a ve the first ex a m pleof th a t inflexible discipl in e which form ed the best in fa n try in

the world . H is son h a d fou ght withou t orders a n d retu rn ed

a s victor ; b u t he h a d him behe a ded 1 (43 1 B . Tu b ertu s

R U I N S CA LLE D T HOSE OF T H E T E MPLE OF JUP I T E R F E R E T R I US.

ga in ed on Mou n t A l g idu s, over the a ll ied a rm y, a grea t

b a ttle,which ga ve som e respite t o th e Rom a n s . A tru ce of

e ight yea rs,

a n d then in testin e division s which en feebled the

Volsci a n n a tion , su spen ded hostilities in this direction . The

Aequ i a n s,left to themselves, lost severa l cities,

2 — a m on g others

L a b icum,— whither the Sen a te h a sten ed t o sen d a colony of fi f

teen hu n dred m en ,which b a rred the w a y a ga in st these tu rbu len t

1 V a l .M a x., I I . vi i. 6 A u l . G el l ., XVI I. xx i. l .

2 I n 4 18 L a b icum , where they sent a colony in 4 14 Bol a ; in 4 13 , F eren tinum , which theH ern ica n s re-entered.

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ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CONS ULS.

I I . CA PTUR E OF VE I I (3 95 B .

TH E s iege of Vei i bega n in 405. Th e city w a s on ly fou r

lea gu es from th e Servi a n w a lls, a n d from the top Of it s w a lls

cou ld b e seen the seven hills . SO lon g a s it rem a in ed sta n ding

on it s esc a rped rock , overlookin g a n d thre a ten in g the right b a n k

of the Tiber,the Rom a n s cou ld n ot l ive in pea ce a n d secu rity.

Therefore they em ployed a l l the ir stren gth a n d a l l their perse

v era n ce in the en terprise from which n othin g su cceeded in tu rn in g

them a side .

This wa r w a s their I l i a d ; heroes a nd prodigies , the in ter

v en t ion of the gods, a resista n ce for t en yea rs,gre a t m isfortun es

a fter the victory , — n othing w a s l a ckin g to enn oble the stru ggle

which m a de Rom e the prepon dera tin g power of Cen tra l I t a ly.

From the first ye a r th e w a r wa s cen tred a bou t Veii . Two

Rom a n a rm ies en ca m ped u n der it s w a lls , — the on e to redu ce it

t o st a rva tion ,th e other t o preven t a l l su ccors. Bu t Ve i i w a s

a ba n don ed : the E tru sc a n s a ssem bled a t the tem ple of V ol tum n a

a n d decl a red the le a gu e dissolved ; the Fa l isca n s a n d the Ca

pen a tes,bein g n e a rer t o the d a n ger , m a de som e isol a ted e fforts ;

they broke u p on e of the two c a m ps,a n d Open ed comm u n ica tion

for som e tim e between th e bes ieged a n d the cou n try. The T a r

qu in ia n s a lso in va ded the Rom a n territory, b u t were repu lsed

with loss .

The c a ptu re of A n xu r h a d been a terrible blow to the

power of the Volsci . Rom e n ow h a d a fortress from which

t o a tta ck in the re a r this people whom the L a tin s f a ced a n d

the H ern ica n s thre a ten ed in , fla n k . I n 402 the Rom a n ga rrison

h a d been su rprised ; two yea rs l a ter the Rom a n s re-en tered the

pl a ce ; a n d in 3 97 the Vo lscia n s l a i d siege to the town whilst

th e Aequ i a n s were a tt a ckin g Bol a . I t w a s the critic a l tim e Of the

s iege of Vei i ; Rom e wa s u n a ble to sp a re a soldier. Fortu n a telythe La tin s a n d H ern ica n s su ccored th e pl a ces threa ten ed ; a n d

on th e n ews th a t the gre a t E tru sca n city wa s givin g wa y, the

two hostile n a tion s begged for a tru ce . I n order to in su re their

posi tion a t A n xu r, the Sen a te sen t a colony to the n eighboring

M I LITARY H ISTORY FROM 448 To 3 89. 3 57

Circei ; a second , est a blished a t V itel l ia , in the ch a in of high hills

which sep a ra tes the Va lley of the An io from tha t of the Treru s,

closed fin a lly a ga in st the Aequ i a n s the issu e from the ir m ou n

t a in s .

F or the first tim e the Rom a n s h a d con tin u ed hostilities du ring

the win ter. Bu t the ir su ccess did n o t equ a l the i r persevera n ce .

The divided comm a n d a m on g the m ilita ry tribu n es ca u sed defea t

or chilled the a rdor Of the troops . I n 400 B . c.,the people

,

su spect ing som e trea son,

a t l a st chose fou r pleb eia n s t o the

con su l a r tribu n a te . Fortu n e did n ot ch a n ge ; two tribu n es, on e

of whom died on the field of b a ttle, were a ga in overcom e, a n d

the Sen a te thou ght a l l E tru ri a wou ld rise ; i t a ppoin ted a s

dict a tor a p a trici a n who h a d held with dist in ction the highest

ofii ces,— M . F u riu s Ca m illu s Ca millu s c a lled ou t a l l the

citizen s a ble to be a r a rm s,summ on ed con tin gen ts from the L a tin s

a n d H ern ica n s,a n d l ed them a ga in st the victoriou s en emy. After

a bloody stru ggle the Ca pen a t es a n d Fa lisca n s withdrew to the ir

cities,a n d th e Rom a n s were a ble to press on a Ot ively the Siege

of Vei i .Tra di tion preserves th e story of a m in e ca rried ben ea th the

w a lls,throu gh which the Rom a n s pen etra ted to the m idst of

the city. Bu t i t records m a ny other m a rvels,— the overflow of

the Alb a n La ke in the m iddle of a scorchin g su mm er,a n d the

thou s a n d ca n a ls d u g to preven t the w a ter rea chin g the sea ;1the

fa t a l im pru den ce of the Tu sca n h a ru spex who betr a yed h is people ’ sse crets ; a n d the men a cing prophecy of a n E tru sca n chief respect

ing th e G a ll ic in v a sion .

“

At the t a kin g of the city the recorded

prodigies con tinu e . The min e l ed t o the s a n ctu a ry of Ju n o , the

gu a rdi a n divin ity of Vei i . I n the m idst Of the d in Of a gen era l

a ss a u lt, Ca m illu s pen etra ted by the tu nn el right to the tem ple .

The V eia n K in g w a s con su ltin g the gods. “ The victor, cried

the h a ru spex, “ wil l b e he who sha l l offer on th e a lta r the

1 The outlet of th e A lb a -n L a ke , cu t throu gh the volc a n ic rock for a length of y a rds,5 feet wide , a nd hi gh enou gh for a m a n t o pa ss a long it , is a very a nc ient work , proba blya nterior to R om e. There m a y h a ve been m a de , a t thetim e of the s iege of Veii , some repa irsshown to b e necessa ry by the severe winter o f 4 00 , wh ich a ccum u l a ted deep snow on the

mou nta in s, a nd the scorchin g summer wh ich fol lowed. This ca n a l is sti ll in u se, a nd the

strea m which esca pes by it fa lls into the T iber be low R ome. Sir Wm . G el l’

s Top og ra phy ofR ome, pp. 3 9 a nd 53 .

ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

en tra ils Of the victim . At these words Ca millu s a n d the Rom a n sbu rst in to the s a n ctu a ry a n d fin ished the s a crifice . The plunder

w a s imm en se ; Ca m i llu s h a d ca lled together the whole peoplet o the pill a ge . The sm a ll n u m ber Of in h a bita n ts who esca ped

m a ss a cre were sold . Me a nwhile,from the t op of the cita del

,

Ca m il lu s w a s prou dly con tem pl a tin g the gra n deu r of the city

thu s becom e his con qu est , a n d the richn ess of th e spoils ; b u t

h e rem em bered th e fra il n a tu re of the m ost brilli a n t prosperity,

a n d,veil in g h is he a d, he pra yed the gods to tu rn from h im a n d

the Repu blic the i lls in store for m orta ls of exceedin g good fortu n e.I n tu rn in g rou n d , a ccording to th e ritu a l prescribed for solem n

pra yers, he stru ck his foot a ga in st a ston e a n d fell. Bu t he

rose fu ll of joy.“ The gods a re s a tisfied

,sa id he ; this f a ll h a s

expia ted my victory.

Rom e,in con qu erin g cities , a lso con qu ered their gods

? Ca m illu s

h a d prom ised to the V eia n Ju n o a tem ple on the Aven tin e , on

con dition th a t she con sen ted to le a ve the hostile city t o follow

him to Rom e . Bu t n o on e d a red t o tou ch the s a cred im a ge .

Som e you n g kn ights,pu rified a ccording to th e rites

,a n d clothed

in their fest a l dress,ca m e t o the temple t o a sk the goddess

if she con sen ted to go t o Rom e .“ 1 will d o so

,

”sa id a vo ice ;

a n d th e st a tu e a ppea red t o follow of itself those who were

t o m ove i t .

The credu lou s Plu t a rch does n ot kn ow wh a t to thin k Of su ch

prodigies . H e sa ys : “ Others a llege sim il a r m a rvels , — th a t im a ges

ha ve exu ded drops Of swe a t ; th a t they h a ve been hea rd to sigh ;th a t they h a ve m oved , or m a de sign s with the ir eyes : b u t there is

d a n ger in bel ievin g too ea sily’

su ch thin gs, a s well a s in n ot b el iev

in g them ,beca u se of the fr a ilty Of hum a n n a tu re . Hen ce, to b e

ca u tiou s , a n d t o go to n either extrem e,a s in everythin g else , is

still th e best .” 2 I n this m a tter Livy is n ot ca u tiou s, l ike the pru

den t Plu ta rch . H e tre a ts the m ira cle a s a fa ble ,3 - which , how

ever,does n ot preven t h im from promising Ju n o Regin a tha t her

tem ple a t Rom e sha ll b e a n etern a l a bode, — a etern a 7n seclei n sn a m .

1 L i vy, v. 2 1 ; V erg ., A en . i i i. 2 2 2 ; Pliny, H ist. N a t. iii. 5, 9 ; M a crob ., S a t. i i i. 9 .

E voca re d eos. — Solere R om a n os rel ig ion es n i‘bium ca p ta r a m p a rtim priva tim p er f a mil ia s

sp a rgere, p a rtim p u b l icc con secra re. (A rn ob ., iii.

2 Ca m , 6.

3 I n d e f a b u l a e (v.

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M I LITARY H ISTOR Y FROM 448 TO 3 89 . 3 59

Of this etern ity n othing n ow rem a in s,

s a ve perh a ps a few ol d

m a rble colum n s which a dorn a tem ple dedica ted to a n other wor

ship, —'

the chu rch of Sa n t a Sa bin a .

The territory of Ve i i w a s divided a m on g the citizen s,b u t

the city rem a in ed a desol a te w a ste for cen tu ries . Propertiu scou l d sti ll write, in the tim e of Au gu stu s :

“ O Ve i i , thouwa st a kingdom

,a n d in thy forum stood a golden thron e !

To-d a y the pipe of th e idle shepherd resou n ds within thy w a lls ,a n d in thy fields the h a rvest covers th e bon es Of thy citi zen s !” 1

O L D G A T E O F T H E C I T A D E L O F F A L E R I I .

I t recovered u n der the E m pire, on ly to f a ll on ce m ore . I n the

tim e of it s power it s w a lls con t a in ed a hu n dred thou sa n d sou ls ;a t presen t the sp a ce which is occu pied by its cit a del — so lon g

the riv a l of the Rom a n Ca pitol — wou ld b e f a r t oo l a rge for th e

eighty in ha bit a n ts of t he Isol a Fa rn ese ?

The fa ll of Vei i brou ght th a t of Ca pen a a n d Fa leri iw a s g a in ed

,it is sa id

,by the gen erosity Of Ca millu s , who h a d

sen t b a ck t o their fa thers the children of the prin cip a l people

of the city,whom the schoolm a ster h a d given u p to h im

1 Ca rm . IV. x. 2 7. 2 See p. 3 0 6 , th e pl a n of Ve i i .

3 60 ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

Two or three yea rs a fter, the ca ptu re Of N epete a n d Su t rium

ca rried the Rom a n fron tier, tow a rds the n orth, u p to the d a rk

Cim in ia n forest,which w a s thou ght a t Rom e to b e imp a ssa ble .

The legion s ven tu red , however, t o cross it to a tta ck the Sa l

pin a tes a n d V u l sin ia n s,who Obta in ed a tru ce of twen ty yea rs

,by

the in dem n ity of a ye a r’

s pa y to th e Rom a n a rm y

So from 450 to 3 90 B . C. the Roma n s h a ve resum ed the Offen sive .

They a re est a blished in the m idst of the Volscia n s by m ea n s of

colon ies or the ga rrison s of Circei a n d A n xu r ; by those of Bol aa n d L a b icu m they h a ve gu a rded the ir territory a ga in st th e

Aequ i a n s . Bu t th e l a tter con tin u e still in possess ion of A lg id u s,

a n d h a ve destroyed V it el l ia,which m ight h a ve b a rred their

wa y to it . I f th e resu lt is n ot yet settled between Rom e

a n d it s two in defa tiga ble en em ies, the pos ition is a t le a st the

reverse of wh a t it w a s a t the comm en cem en t of this period .

Fea r a n d c a u tion a re tra n sferred t o the Volsci a n side . Besides,

Rom e h a s exercised a n in crea sin g a scen den cy over wha t rem a in s

of th e thirty La tin tribes . Accu stom ed t o b e defen ded by her,

they h a ve lea rn ed the h a bit of Obedien ce . The a n cien t equ a l ity

is forgotten ,a n d Rom e h a s u n ited t o her own territory tha t of the

L a tin cities which she recovered from the en emy . To the n orth

of the Tiber she ca n boa st of a brilli a n t trium ph, a n d the

con qu est of th e V eia n cou n try h a s dou bled her own territory .

Bu t in this direction her victories produ ced a gre a t d a nger, sin ce

they brou ght her f a ce to fa ce with the Ga u ls ; a n d she h a d ju st

lost her best gen er a l, — Ca m illu s w a s a n exile.Wh a t w a s the ca u se Of this exile ? The prou d m a gn ificen ce

of h is triu m ph , when he wen t u p to the Ca pitol in a ca r dra wn

by fou r white horses, the equ ipa ge given t o th e Su n—god , his

pride,a n d the vow tha t he h a d secretly m a de t o con secra te to

the Pythia n Apollo the tithe of the booty of Ve ii, a n d fin a lly,his opposition to the project of the tribu n es to tra n sfer to tha t

city a pa rt of th e Sen a te a n d people,

1 h a d,it is sa id, excited

a ga in st h im the people ’

s h a tred . Th e l a st proposition wa s very

d a ngerou s, sin ce i t wou ld thu s h a ve set u p a ga in the a n ta gon ism

which h a d on ly been destroyed by despera te efforts ? I t is

1 L i vy,v. 24 . 2 See p. 3 6 9 .

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3 62 ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

of Aristides, b u t which the Greeks h a ve inven ted to brin g ou t

the tru e gra n deu r of the ir Athen i a n hero, a n d t o presa ge the

terrible dra m a of the G a ll ic in v a sion .

F or the s a m e ye a r the Ga u ls en tered Rom e .

I I I . CA PTUR E OF ROM E B Y T H E GA ULS I N 3 90 B . O.

N E A R LY two cen tu ries h a d el a psed sin ce the G a u ls h a d m a d e

a descen t in tO'

I t a ly, a n d they h a d n ot d a red a ga in to en t a n gle

them selves in the Apen n in es ; b u t t he m ost ven tu rou s Of the ir

b a n ds,by keepin g close t o the Adri a tic shore, wen t t o g a in , in

the service Of the cities Of M a gn a G ra ecia , l a rge m il it a ry pa y, or t o

pill a ge on their own a ccou n t this bea u tifu l cou n try. Y et we ca n

h a rdly bel ieve th a t the Sen on es — who h a d sin ce the tim e of

T a rqu in iu s Su perbu s re a ched the b a n ks Of A eSiS — con tin u ed m ore

th a n a

'

cen tu ry withou t covetin g E tru ri a , t o which they were so

n ea r, a n d with whose Opu len ce they were we ll a cqu a in ted . Here

a re still the two prin cip a l rou tes Which lea d from Tu sca ny in to

the Rom a gn a . To the ea st of Peru sia the Apen n in es Sin k,a n d

over severa l ridges ofler e a sy p a ss a ges ; the Ga u ls le a rn ed ea rly

t o,cross by them ; a n d this circumst a n ce expl a in s why the E tru sc a n s

Of the n orth a n d e a st , being m en a ced by these tu rbu len t n eighbors ,a b a n don ed those Of the sou th when a tta cked by Rom e . The siege

Of Clu siu m w a s on ly the m ost im port a n t a n d best kn own of these

expedition s .Clu sium,

bu i lt on a height a bove the Cl a n is (l a Chi a n a ), a n

a fflu en t of the Tiber, h a d been in Porsen n a ’

s time the m ost

powerfu l of the E tru sca n l u cum on ies . I t w a s still flou rishin g ,'

a n d

rich with a thou sa n d Objects of a rt,— v a ses

,ca n del a br a , bron zes

Of a l l sorts,som e of which ha ve been recovered

,a n d which ex

cited the covetou sn ess of the Ga u ls a s m u ch a s d id the fertility

of the l a n ds . Thirty thou sa n d Sen on es dem a n ded a sh a re of its

territory. The Clu sia n s shu t their g a tes, a n d begged su ccor from

Rom e . The l a tter sen t three a m b a ssa dors,F a b ii, to Offer th e

m edi a tion of the Roma n s “When they h a d expl a in ed thei rmessa ge t o the Ga ll ic cou n cil ,

”sa ys L ivy,

“ the l a tter replied

th a t ‘thou gh they h a d n ever he a rd of th e'

Rom a n s before,they

M IL ITARY H ISTOR Y FR OM 448 TO 3 89 . 3 63

m u st con clu de them t o b e bra ve m en,

s in ce the Clu sia n s

h a d begged their a id . Nor

wou ld the proposed pe a ce

b e rejected , if the Clu sia n s ,

who h a d too m u ch l a n d ,

wou ld yield a p a rt t o the

G a u ls,who h a d too l ittle

otherw ise pea ce will n ot b e

gra n ted . L et them a n swer

u s in the Rom a n s’ presen ce ;

if n ot,we will fight u n der

the ir eyes, a n d they will b e

a ble to go a n d tell a t Rom e

how m u ch the Ga u ls su rp a ss

other m en in bra very .

’

‘Bu t by wh a t right do you

a tt a ck the E tru sca n s a sked

Q . A m b u stu s . ‘This right,’

replied th e Senon i a n B ren n u s,‘we c a rry

,a s you Rom a n s

d o, a t the po in t of ou r

swords : everythi ng belon gs

t o th e bra ve ’ ”The F a b ii

were a nn oyed a t the h a u gh

t in ess of this b a rb a ri a n ,who

da red to a ssert th a t the ir

n a tive city h a d m a de so

l ittle n oise in t he world,

th a t its n a m e h a d n ot yet

rea ched the pl a in s of the

PO . Forgettin g their ch a r

a cter of a m b a ss a dors,they

join ed the besieged in a

sortie ; a n d Q . Am b u stu s

slew,in sight of the two

a rm ies, a G a llic chief, whom he despo iled of his a rm s.

0CA N D E LA B R UM OF B R ON Z E FO UN D A T C I I I U SI .l

1 A tla s Of the In st. a rcheol. of R ome for 1851. Chiu si h a s preserved non e of the splendor

3 64 ROM E UN DE R T H E PAT R ICIAN CON SULS.

The b a rb a ri a n s immedi a tely cea sed hostil ities a ga in st Clu sium ,

a n d dem a n ded rep a r a tion a t Rom e . The whole college Of feti a les

in sisted , in th e n a me of religion , th a t ju stice shou ld b e don e .

Bu t the credit Of the gens Fa bi a prev a iled ; the gu ilty were

a bso lved, a n d the people, a s if stru ck with ma dn ess, ga ve them

three ou t of the six a ppoin tm en ts a s m ilit a ry tribu n es .

On hea rin g this,the Sen on es, rein forced by some b a n ds

from the ba n ks of the PO, commen ced their m a rch on Rom e,

withou t a tta ckin g a sin gle

city, withou t pill a gin g a

vill a ge . They descen ded a lon g

the Tiber, when , bein g then

eleven m i les from the Ca pi

tol , n e a r the strea m Of the

All i a,

1 they sa w on th e

other b a n k the Roma n a rmy

exten ded in lin e,the ir cen tre

in the pl a in , their right on

the heights , their left covered

by the Tiber. The a tta ck

commen ced from t he side of

the hills,where the left

wing, composed Of vetera n s , kept firm ; b u t the cen tre,frigh ten ed

by the shou ts a n d s a v a ge a spect of these m en , who seem ed t o

them of giga n tic proportion s, a n d who a dv a n ced, strikin g their

bu cklers with their a rm s, broke their r a n ks, a n d threw them selves

in disorder on the left win g. All who cou ld n ot swim a cross the

T iber, a n d t a ke refu ge behin d the stron g w a lls of Ve ii, perishedin the pl a in

, on the ba n ks,a n d in the b ed of th e river ; the

right wing, u nbroken ,

bea t a retrea t to Rome, a n d withou t m a nn in g

G A ULS ?

of Clu s ium , except a number of tombs with a qu a ntity of sepu lchra l urn s a nd bron zes decora tedwith figures in re l ief a n d mon sters of a n Orienta l cha ra cter. By the side of the se objects,wh ich ha ve nothing in comm on with Greek a r t , ha ve been fou n d some pa inted v a ses o f

H e l len ic production or im ita tion . (Cf.Denn is, E tr u ria , ii. pp. 3 25 [The ca nde l a brumin the cu t shows a thorou ghl y Greek a nd we l l-de signed ch a ir a d a pted to a n a bsurd pu rpose ,—th e su pport of a pi l l a r on a s ittin g wom a n ’

s he a d.1 A ccording to M . P ietro R ossa , the Sca nn a b ecch i, wh ich com es down from the Cru s

t umin ia n H i lls.Group ta ken from a h a s-rel ief fou n d a t R ome, decora tin g th e sa rcoph a gu s ca l led th a t

of A mmend ol a Vi ll a .

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ROM E UNDE R TH E PATR ICIAN CON SU LS.

performed expi a tory sa crifices . Then he retu rn ed ca lm ly a n d

slowly by the s a m e w a y he h a d t a ken . Adm irin g h is cou r a ge,

or stru ck with su perstitiou s fea rs, the G a u ls h a d a llowed him t o

p a ss ?

The gods were a ppea sed ; fortu n e w a s a bou t t o ch a n ge . I n

their w a n t Of foresight, the b a rb a ri a n s h a d provided n either pro

vision s n or shelter ; a ra iny a u tum n brou ght disea ses which

decim a ted them,a n d f a m in e obliged them t o scou r the cou n try

in b a n ds . The L a tin s a n d E tru sca n s,who a t first rejoiced a t

the m isfortu n es of their t oo powerfu l n eighbors, were in their

tu rn a ffrighted . The best gen er a l of Rom e wa s then a n exile inArdea ; this city ga ve h im som e so ldiers with which h e su rprised

a n d m a ssa cred a G a llic deta chm en t . Th is first su ccess en cou r a ged

resist a n ce ; on a l l sides the pea sa n ts rose, a n d the Rom a n refu gees

a t Vei i procl a im ed C a m illu s dict a tor. The sa n ction of the Sen a te

a n d of the Cu ri a e wa s n eedfu l to con firm the e lection a n d restore

t o Ca m illu s the civic rights which he h a d lost by h is exi le . A

you ng plebei a n , Com iniu s, crossed the Tiber by n ight, swimm in g or

floa ting on the b a rk of a cork-tree, esc a ped th e en emy’

s sen tin e ls,

a n d by th e a id of som e briers a n d shru bs which clothed the

esca rped slopes, he rea ched the cit a del . H e retu rned with the

sa m e good fortu n e , a n d brou ght to Ve i i th e a ppoin tm en t which

pu t a side a l l the scru ples Of Ca m illu s . Bu t the G a u ls h a d Observed

his footprin ts . On a d a rk n ight they clim bed t o the very foot

of the r a m p a rt ; they h a d a l rea dy tou ched the b a ttlem en ts,when

th e ca cklin g Of som e geese, sa cred t o Ju n o,a woke a p a trici a n

ren own ed for his strength a n d cou ra ge, M a n liu s, who hu rled from

th e t op Of th e w a ll the forem ost a ss a il a n ts . The g a rrison soon

m a nn ed the r a m p a rt,a n d b u t a sm a ll n um ber Of G a u ls rega in ed

their ca mp . The Ca pitol w a s s a ved, tha n ks t o Ma n l iu s b u t the

provision s were exh a u sted , a n d Ca m illu s did n ot a ppea r. The

m ilit a ry tribu n e Su lpiciu s tre a ted with B renn u s, whom a n a tt a ck of

the Ven eti summ on ed t o h is cou n try,

2a n d whose a rmy the m a l a ri a

1 Th e a ct of this F a biu s wa s perha ps less won derf u l tha n L i vy woul d m a ke ou t : the

Q u irin a l wa s th en jo ined to the Ca pito l by a ridge which l a ter on w a s cu t , a nd which F a biu sfo llowed. The enterpri se w a s n ot less a u d a ciou s, a nd m ight ha ve ended b a dl y, b u t for there l igiou s a ston ishment of the G a u ls a t this a ct of coura ge a nd piety.

2 Po lyh., H ist. ii. 18.

G E E SE OF T H E CA P I TOL.

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3 68i

ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SU LS.

The a n n a l ists m a de a m en ds for this p a in fu l a dm iss ion,by ma king,

ou t of som e sl ight su ccesses over stra gglers,so com plete a victory

th a t n ot a b a rb a ria n esca ped the a ven gin g sword of Ca m il lu s .

P R I SON E R . FR OM A G E M I N T H E CA B I N E T D E F R A N CE , N O . I N T H E

CHA DOU I LLE T CA T A LOG U E .

CHAPTE R XI .

MILITARY H ISTORY FR OM 3 89 TO 3 43 .

I . RE BU I LDI N G OF T H E CI TY ; TH E ROM A N LE G I ON .

F the Ca pitol w a s sa fe , Rom e w a s I n ru i n s. Severa l tribu n es

brou ght forw a rd a ga in ,it is s a id

,the proposition of tra n sferring

a p a rt of th e plebeia n s to Ve ii , whose thick w a lls a n d hou ses were still

sta n ding. Bu t t o a b a n don pl a ces where so m a n y records stirred

p a triotism , where dwelt the civic divi nit ies a n d the hou sehold

gods, where the empire h a d been fou n ded , a n d when ce dom in a tion

wa s exten ded over the su rrou n din g peoples ; to qu it th e sovereign

city for the conqu ered town ,— wou ld n ot this ha ve been a sh a m e

,a

crim e tow a rds the gods , a n d a grea t politica l blu n der ? Ca m illu s

sa id so, a n d so the Sen a te thou ght ; a fort im a t e om en,the “ L et

u s sta y here !”

Of the cen tu rion who w a s crossin g the Forum ,deter

m ined th e still irresolu te people t o rebu ild th e city . A ye a r su fficed,for the Sen a te ga ve th e bricks, th e wood a n d ston es, t a ken ,

dou btless,from Veii , which w a s dem ol ished to fu rn ish m a teri a ls . These m ea n s

were cleverly chosen to preven t the people from ever con veyin g

thither thei r Pen a tes . On ce m ore, the stea df a stn ess of the Sen a te

sa ved the destin ies of Rom e?

I n the m idst Of‘

the ruin s they h a d fou n d the a u gu r a l st a ff

Of Rom u lu s,the Twelve T a bles

,som e fra gm en ts of roya l l a ws

,a n d

som e trea ties . This w a s a l l th a t seemed to rem a in of th e Ol d Rom a n

society. Rebu ilt a t r a n dom ,withou t pl a n , withou t d irection ,

a t

the ca price of every on e , Rom e presen ted in it s m a teri a l a spect the

con fu sion which soon a ppe a red in it s politica l st a te . I n p a ssing

1 The project Of tra n sferring R om e t o Ve i i is prob a bly on ly a n ora torica l invention , inwhich w a s fou nd a pretext for e loqu ent speeches, l ike the story th a t Jul iu s Ca esa r thou ghtof tra n sferrin g it to Il ium . A l l re l igion , a l l rites, were tota ll y opposed to it : wha t woul dTerm inu s a nd Jupiter Ca pitolinu s ha ve sa id ?

V O L . I . 24

3 70 ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIA N CON SULS.

over the so i l, the Ga llic in v a s ion h a d levelled it ; when the torren t

h a d disa ppe a red, a n ew city a n d a lm ost a'

n ew people a ppea red .

The sword of th e ba rb a ri a n s h a d m a de som e gre a t ga ps in

th e popu l a tion ;1t o fil l them u p a n d preven t a d a n gerou s revolt

of the ir su bj ects, th e freedom Of the city wa s gra n ted to the

in h a bit a n ts Of th e territory of Veii , Ca pen a , a n d Fa lerii a n d the

first cen sors a ppoin ted a fter the retrea t of t he G a u ls form ed of

them fou r n ew tribes ? I t wa s a very seriou s step t o c a ll a t on ce

so m a ny m en to a sha re Of the sovereign ty,a n d t o give form er

su bj ects fou r votes ou t of twen ty-five ; b u t i t w a s im poss ible for

Rom e otherwise t o esca pe from the perilou s situ a tion in which

the G a u ls h a d left it, a n d the Sen a te did n ot hesita te to m a ke

the n ecessa ry s a crifice . I t wa s a t on ce rew a rded ; for dou btless

this con cession grea tly helped the su ccess of th e Rom a n s , n ow

left withou t a llies by the defection of p a rt of the L a tin s a n d H er

n ica n s,3a n d a tt a cked , before they were f a irly ou t of the ir ru in ou s

sta te , by a lmost a l l their n eighbors.

I n refu sin g to go to Veii , the Rom a n s took u pon them selves the

work of recon stitu ting both their city a n d the ir em pire ; a n d,in

spite of con tr a ry a ppe a ra n ces, the dou ble work of recon stru ction wa s

n ot beyon d their strength . Thei r n eighbors a n d en em ies h a d a lso

su ffered from the in v a sion ,especia lly th e Aequ i a n s

,throu gh whose

cou n try the G a u ls h a d perh a ps p a ssed t o rea ch Apu l i a,a n d who

seem ed to h a ve lost their a ccu stom ed bo ldn ess . Besides, these w a rs

were a lw a ys m erely p a rti a l or b a dly orga n ized a tta cks. Wh a tever

in certa in c a ses m ight b e the su periority in n u m ber, the R om a n s

h a d th a t u n ity of feeling in the soldiers a n d of comm a n d in the

chiefs which dou bles the stren gth of a rmies .

Still, the circu m st a n ces were very critica l . Rom e h a d n ever

p a ssed throu gh a m ore d a n gerou s m om en t . Ca m illu s, who a ppea rs

con sta n tly a t the he a d Of the legion s,then ga in ed, b u t with m ore

ju stice th a n in the G a llic wa r, the title of secon d fou n der Of Rom e .

4

At hom e,h e stim u l a ted a l l pa rties t o u n ion by his pa triotic

cou n sels, or he sou ght, by his firmn ess,to im pose on them pe a ce.

1 T a i v E l sie-n or R ON -r a y dwohwhdrwu. (Diod ., x iv. 116 ,

2 Stell a tin a , T romen t in a , Sa b a tin a , a n d A rn ien sis (L i vy, vi. 5) in 3 87.3 L i vy

,vi. 2 d ef ection e L a tinorum H ern icor umqu c.

4 L i vy,v i. 3 5—4 2.

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3 72 R O IVI E UN DE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

in w a rdin g off gre a t disa sters . I n 3 79 th e Pr a en estin es pen etr a ted

to the Collin e ga te , a n d ra v a ged a l l the cou n try between th e

Tiber a n d An io . Overt a ken a n d bea ten on the b a nks of the

Alli a by the dict a tor T . Q u in ct iu s , they lost eight Cities, a n d

begged for pea ce. Three yea rs a fter , a two d a ys’

ba ttle en ded th e

wa r a g a in st the A n t ia t es, a n d the m il it a ry tribu n e Serviu s Su lpiciu s

relieved the f a ithfu l Tu scu l a n s, who h a d been a tt a cked by the

A MPH I T HE A T R E OF SUT R I UM .

L a tins. These were im port a n t su ccesses ; b u t V el it ra e a n d Circei

h a d n ot been pu n ished for their defection ; Pr a en este , A n t ium ,a n d

the Volsci did n ot a ckn owledge the ir defe a t : Rom e wa s n ot a t

tha t tim e su re Of the L a tin pl a in .

To these w a rs belon gs a legen d which perh a ps covers a n

historic f a ct which th e Rom a n writers refra in “ from tel l ing u s.

After th e retre a t Of the G a u ls , the F id en a t es, in lea gu e with som e

o ther peoples,h a d pen etr a ted t o th e edge of the Servi a n w a lls ; a n d

a s th e price of withdra w a l , they dem a n ded th a t the m ost n oble

M I LITARY H ISTORY FROM 3 89 TO 3 43 . 3 73

m a tron s shou ld b e del ivered u p t o them . Sh a m e a n d a n xiety fil led

the city , when a fem a le s l a ve,whose devotion procu red for h er the

n a m e Tu tel a , off ered t o su rren der herself to the en em y, together

with th e m ost bea u tifu l of her com p a n ion s,clothed a s m a tron s . The

Sen a tors a greed, a n d the F id en a tes, f ul l of boa stin g a t this hu m i l ia

tion of Rome,celebra ted it by orgies which con tin u ed for som e time .

When dru n ken n ess h a d closed their eyes,Tu tel a

,h a vin g clim bed

t o the t op of a wild fig—tree,

1 c a lled the Rom a n s,who trium phed

ea sily over their u n a rm ed a dversa ries . This L a tin Ju dith a n d those

who h a d followed h er were em a n cip a ted,a n d dowered a t the pu blic

expen se. E very ye a r , on the n on es (7th ) of Ju ly, the wom en sl a ves,

dressed in the m a tron’

s stol a , a n d ca rryin g br a n ches of the fig—tree

,

celebra ted , by a sa crifice in the tem ple of Ju n o Ca prot in a , the

m emory of those who h a d s a ved the hon or of the Rom a n l a dies.2

I I . RE TUR N or T H E GA ULS I N TO LA T I UM ; MA N LI US VAL E R I US

COR VUS .

TH E Sen on es, who h a d retu rn ed t o the ir own cou n try with the

plu n der of Rom e , h a d very soon recomm en ced their a dven tu rou s

expedition s . I n 876 they took

the im porta n t town of Ari

m in um,

a n d we h a ve a ses

of th a t city represen tin g a

Ga llic hea d,ea sily recogn iza ble

by the m ou st a che a n d the

n eckl a ce th a t it bea rs . Of

their exploits on the Adri a tic

coa st we kn ow n othin g ; b u t

they h a d n ot forgotten the

rou te throu gh the La tin d is

triet, which they h a d withnnpun ity r a v a ged for sevenm on ths. Twen ty-three ye a rsa fter the siege of th e Ca pitol

,they rea ppea red , a n d rea ched the

A S OF A R I M I N UM .

1 E x a rbore ca p rg'

fi co. 2 S a t. I. x i. 3 5—40 .

ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIA N CON SU LS.

en viron s of the Alb a n Mou n t, where Ca m illu s ga in ed a grea t

victory over them ,th a nks to the ch a n ges he h a d effected in the

equ ipm en t of the soldiers Polybiu s does n ot spe a k , it is

tru e,of this l a st trium ph of the octogen a ri a n dict a tor ; b u t h e is

qu ite ign ora n t of m a ny others which Rom a n v a n ity gives in det a il .

I n 3 61,sa y th e a n n a lists, the G a u ls en ca m ped on the via Sa l a ria

,

n ea r the An io . A bridge sep a r a ted them from the legion s, a n d

every d a y a w a rrior of gig a n tic sta tu re ca m e there to in su lt th e

Rom a n s . The legion a ry tribu n e M a n l iu s a ccepted th e cha l len ge

slew the Ga u l, a n d sn a tchin g from h im his gold n eckl a ce (torqu es ,when ce Torgu a tu s), pu t it, a l l covered with blood, on h is own n eck.

However, th e b a rba ri a n s, a pp a ren tly in vited or su pported by Tibu r,

Pra en este, a n d the H ern ica n s,who were frighten ed by the in crea sing

stren gth of Rom e, r a v a ged a l l th e cou n try t o the ea st of the city,

a n d,p a ssin g between two con su l a r a rm ies , re a ched the Collin e ga te .

1

A dicta tor w a s a ppoin ted ; the whole body of you th were a rm ed ;a n d the b a rba ri a n s were

.thrown b a ck in disorder u pon the a rmy

of th e con su l Poet il iu s, who pu rsu ed them a s f a r a s the environ s of

Tibu r, whose in ha bita n ts, ha vin g gon e t o the help of the G a u ls,

were in volved in their fl ight . The con su l a t h is trium ph obta in ed

lea ve t o m en tion a m on g the n a mes of the v a n qu ished th a t of the

Tibu rtin es. This bra ve popu l a tion of on e of the sm a llest cities in

th e n eighborhood of Rom e protested th e followin g ye a r, by in su lt

in g th e w a lls of Rom e,a ga in st this hon or

,decreed a t it s expen se ;

a n d th e G a u ls,est a blished in a stron g position a rou n d Pedum ,

2

behin d a n en tren chm en t form ed by the ir w a r cha riots, set ou t from

there for in cu rsion s in to La tium a n d Ca m p a n i a . So a lso, in the

Middle Ages, th e N orthm en threw them selves a u d a ciou sly in to the

m idst of the en emy ’

s cou n try, a n d , m a kin g a ca m p of the ir ships

m oored on the shore of the rivers, wen t forth t o pill a ge f a r a n d

wide .

To this L a tin a n d G a ll ic w a r w a s a dded a n other m ore terrible,ca lled forth by religiou s f a n a ticism a n d pol it ica l h a te : the people of

T a rqu in ii decl a red wa r (3 58 B .

All w a s in a sta te of confla gr a t ion a rou n d Rom e . F or three

ye a rs th e Ga u ls were en ca m ped in th e m idst of La tium , a n d Tibu r,

1 L i vy,v i i. 11.

2 G a l los circa P ed um. (Livy, vi i. H e sa ys e lsewh ere of Tibur, a rm G a l l-lei bel l i.

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3 76 R OM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

their forces to th e legion s,a n d the G a u ls were cru shed . I n their

joy the Rom a n s rega rded this victory a s equ a l to th a t of Ca m illu s .

Fortu n e retu rn ed ; the H ern ica n s were this s a m e yea r bea ten a n d

su bjected ; the Volsci a n s cru shed so com pletely, th a t this bra ve

people,who h a d for so long a tim e a rrested the fu tu re of Rom e

,

n ow disa ppe a rs from history . I n order to preserve these a dva n

t a ges, a n d to prepa re n ew resou rces for th e fu tu re, th e Sen a te

form ed of a l l the inh a bit a n ts of the Pom ptin e cou n try betweenA n t ium a n d Terra cin a

,two n ew tribes . This policy, which h a d

WOUN DE D G A UL .1

proved so u sefu l in 3 86 B . c.,h a d n ow the sa me su ccess. Th e

Privern a tes, whose city w a s situ a ted on the Am a sen u s, which com es

down t o Terra cin a , were a nn oyed a t seeing Rom a n colon ies so

n ea r them ; b u t their defea t a ssu red the tr a n qu illity of the a n cien t

Volsci a n cou n try. The inh a bit a n ts of Tibu r a n d Pra en este, tru stin gto their rocks a n d w a lls

,preserved a threa ten ing a ttitu de. I n 3 54

they decided t o trea t for pe a ce on the con dition of keepin g their

in depen den ce, which theSen a te thou ght it best t o respect. FromRom e t o Terr a cin a a l l w a s a t pea ce .

1 This be a utifu l sta tu e from the Ca pito l ine M u seum wa s long ca l led the Dying G l a d ia tor.I t is a G a u l, a s is e a s ily seen by the col l a r he we a rs.

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ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SU LS.

b a rb a ri a n fell , the bird resu m ed it s flight a n d dis a ppea red tow a rds

the e a st . The soldiers bestowed the su rn a m e of Corvu s u pon the

victor, a n d fel l u pon the en emy in fu ll

a ssu r a n ce of victory . This ba ttle, ga in ed

by the son of Ca m illu s, pu t a n en d to

the Ga llic inv a sion s . The b a rb a ri a n a rm y,

driven ou t of L a tium,boldly threw itsel f

in to Ca m p a n i a , a n d pu shin g forw a rd , with

ou t thin kin g of it s retu rn,pen etr a ted a s

f a r a s Apu l i a . E ight cen tu ries l a ter the

Fra n ks ren ewed these d a ring r a ids withthe sa m e ca reless con fiden ce

,a n d st a rtin g

from the b a n ks of the Meu se, wen t stra ight

before them till they were stopped by the Str a its of Messin a .

The hero of this l a st con test , Va leriu s Corvu s, w a s chosen

con su l a t the a g e of twen ty-three (in t o su ppress som e

m ovem en ts a m on g the Volsci a n s . H e bu rn ed

Sa t ricu m,which the A n t ia t es h a d rebu i lt . I n

the followin g yea r the ta kin g of Sora on the

Liris,

2a t the extrem ity of the Volsci a n cou n try

,

a n d a victory over the A u ru n ci, who inh a bited

E T R USCA N WA R R I OR .1

a grou p of volc a n ic mou n t a in s on the left b a n k

of th e s a m e river,3

Open ed the ro a d to Ca m

p a n i a t o the Rom a n s .

These w a rs a re a s toilsom e t o rea d a bou t a s

they were t o fight ; a n d even the a rt of Livyh a s n ot su cceeded in m a kin g them in terestin g.

Bu t a grea t n a tion h a s a right to the s a m e

cu riosity a s is a ccorded t o th e obscu re origin of a gre a t m a n ,

E T R USCA N A R CH E R .‘i

T a ken from Den n is, Cities a n d Cemeteries of E tru ria .2 F our m iles be low Sora , a fter it s j u nction with th e F ib renu s, the L iri s form s , n e a r the

v il l a ge of Isol a , on e of the most be a utifu l ca sc a des in Ita ly. The ri ver there fa l ls from a

tota l he ight of m ore th a n 10 0 feet. (Cra ven , A bru zzi, i . Cicero h a d a hou se n e a r thespot, on th e Iso l a S a n P a o lo , which is surrou nded by the F ib ren u s. H e wa s born there(d e L eg . i v. a n d it wa s a bou t this v il l a tha t he uttered the be a u tifu l words we h a vequ oted on p. 210.

3 On one of these mou nta in s, now ca l led M onte d i Sa nta Croce , th e highest pe a k of wh ichri ses t o a h e ight of n e a rly feet a bove the se a , the A u ru nci h a d bu i lt the ir fir st ca pit a l,A uru n ca , wh ich th e Sid icin i destroyed in 3 3 7.

4 T a ken from a pa inting on a n E tru sca n tomb a t Ca cre.

M ILITARY H ISTORY FROM 3 89 TO 3 43 . 3 79

a n d we m u st n ot show ou rselves m ore in di fferen t th a n Ca rth a ge

a n d Athen s were t o the phen om en on of su ch ten a ciou s per

sever a n ce . Alre a dy the blows stru ck a t the foot of the

Apen n in es were he a rd a fa r , Greece grew in terested in the

defea ts of the Rom a n s a s well a s in their victories ,1a n d Ca rth a ge

h a d recen tly ren ewed th e trea ty which'

she h a d con clu ded with

them a cen tu ry a n d a h a lf e a rl ier. A hu n dred a n d sixty-fiveyea rs of fightin g were n eedfu l for them t o rega in the fron tiers

a n d a ll i a n ces of which the a bol ition of roya lty h a d deprived

them . The power of this people h a d grown very slowly ; b u t in

the midst of these d a ngers a n d m iseries it s stu rdy you th h a d

been form ed ; a n d it is by slow growth th a t m en becom e stron g,a n d grea tn ess du ra ble.

1 The ca pture of R om e by the G a ul s wa s kn own in Greece shortly a fter the event.Ar istotle, who m ention s it , n a mes one Lu ciu s a s the sa vior of the city. N ieb uhr thinks tha tLu ciu s wa s the son of th e grea t Ca mil lu s a n d the victor of 3 4 9.

G ALLI C T OR Q U I S, TA KE N FR OM T H E MUSE UM OF SA I N T-G E R MA I N.

CHAPTE R XI I .

ACCE SSION OF THE PL EBE IANS TO CUR UL E OFF ICE S.

I . TH E LI CI N I A N LAWS ; D I VI SION OF T H E Con su L SH I Ps .

I L E Rom e wa s m a kin g su ch perseverin g e fforts to re-est a blish

her power withou t, within the city the tribu n es con tin u ed the

stru ggle a ga in st the p a trici a te . A s i t h a d been a cen tu ry ea rlier ,so n ow debts were the c a u se of n ew dissen s ion s. The l a n d-t a x

bein g the prin cip a l revenu e Of the sta te, the m isfortu n es Of w a r ,

e speci a lly when i t d rew n e a r to Rom e,h a d the dou ble resu lt

o f obligin g th e tre a su ry to m a ke grea ter dem a n ds on property,

a n d of dim in ishing a t th e s a m e tim e the v a lu e of th e l a n d a n d

its produ ce . The t a x beca me hea vier, a n d th e resou rces which

served t o pa y i t, sm a ller. Hen ce c a m e debts, a s n um erou s a fter

the Ga llic in v a sion a s they h a d been a fter the roya l w a rs, a n d

the two revolu tion s which they occa sion ed, — th e on e giving rise

to the tribu n eship, the other which resu lted in the sh a ring of

th e cu ru le o ffices .

I n 3 89 B . c. it beca m e n ecess a ry to rebu ild the bu rn ed town .

Dou btless the hou se of a plebei a n cost b u t l ittle to recon stru ct .

Bu t when ce wa s a m a n who h a d lost everythin g, fu rn itu re a n d

flocks,to dra w the me a n s of gettin g h is l ittle field u n der cu l tiva

tion a ga in, shelterin g his f a m ily, bu yin g a few ca ttle

,a n d p a ying

the w a r t a x,the t a x for the Ca pitol

,

1th e t a x for re-bu ilding the

tem ples a n d w a lls,u n less he drew it from his p a tron

’

s pu rse ?

The a llotmen t of l a n ds m a de to the plebei a n s in th e territory of Veiih a d been a n other c a u se of borrowin g. A s the sta te on ly ga ve the.

1 N ew con stru ction s were erected there , to render it in a ccessible from the Tiber, onwhich s ide it h a d been con sidered , u nti l the G a ll ic in v a s ion , tha t the ri ver suffi ciently defendedthe a ppro a ches.

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ACCE SSION OF TIIE PLE BE IAN S To CURU LE orr icns. 3 81

l a n d , i t w a s often n ecess a ry for som e rich m a n to a dv a n ce th e

fu n ds for the a gricu ltu ra l implem en ts , flocks , a n d seeds n ecessa ry

to stock the seven j u gera . Bu t the r a te of in terest w a s hea vy,the creditor pitiless : the erg a s tu le were a ga in crowded : Ca m illu s

him sel f wa s distin gu ished for h is cru elty .

Here we com e u pon a n obscu re story. L ivy, the u n con sciou s

b u t con st a n t echo of p a trici a n h a tred, rel a tes th a t M a rcu s M a n liu s

Ca pitol in u s, je a lou s of the glory of Ca m illu s,a n d i rrit a ted a t bein g

overlooked in the distribu tion of offices,con stitu ted him self the p a tron

of the poor, a n d del ivered a s m a n y a s fou r hu n d red debtors from

prison . E very d a y the crowd in cre a sed a rou n d him a n d h is

hou se on the Ca pitol . The grea t Oppress a n d ru in you ,

”he

u rged ; n ot sa tisfied with a ppropri a tin g the st a te l a n ds, they

em bezzle the pu blic m on ey. They a re hidin g th e m on ey re

c a ptu red from the G a u ls,a n d while you a re exh a u sting you

l a st resou rces in restorin g to the tem ples their trea su res , they

reserve for their plea su res the m on ey which they receive for a

sa cred work . Aga in s t him a s m u ch a s a ga in st the Volsci a n s a

dicta tor w a s a ppoin t-ed,Corn el iu s Cossu s, who on his retu rn from

the c a m p a ign c a st h im in to prison . A sen a tu s-con su l tum h a ving

restored him t o l iberty,two tribu n es

,won over by th e p a trici a n s

,

Or them selves jea lou s of his popu l a rity , a ccu sed h im of high

trea son . I n the com iti a cen tu ri a ta M a n l iu s reca lled his exploits :he d ispl a yed the a rms of thirty en em ies sl a in by him

,eight

civic crown s,thirty-two m ilit a ry rew a rds

,the wou n ds wh ich

covered h is brea st, a n d th e Ca pitol which he h a d sa ved ! Thissight

,these words, excited the com p a ssion of the people

,a n d he

wou ld h a ve been a cqu itted , when the a ssem bly wa s broken u p,

a n d the ju dgm en t deferred til l a n other d a y. I n a m eetin g of

the people held in a pl a ce when ce the cit a del of Rom e cou ld

n ot b e perce ived, or a ccordin g to others by the sen ten ce of

the Du um virs,1 he w a s con dem n ed t o dea th . By DiOn ’

s a ccou n t,Ma n liu s , h a vin g occu pied the Ca pitol with his p a rtis a n s, w a s

precipit a ted from the T a rpei a n rock 2 by a tra itor whom he

tru sted. H is hou se on the Ca pitol w a s r a zed to the grou nd , it

wa s forbidden for a ny on e ever t o bu ild on tha t h ill,a n d the gen s

1 Du umviri perd u el l ion is. 2 See p. 3 3 5.

ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SU LS.

M a n lia , decided th a t n on e of it s mem bers shou ld hen ceforth bea r

the pr a en om en of M a rcu s

M a n l iu s, who sh a red the f a te of Ca ssiu s a n d M a el iu s, m u st

h a ve been sa crificed like them t o the h a tred of the n obles ;2 b u t

he wa s dou btless on ly a v ulga r a git a tor : C. Licin iu s Stolo a n d

L . Sex t iu s were tru e reform ers . They were rich a n d n oble

plebeia n s, t o whom th e equ a l ity of the two orders throu gh the

m ilit a ry tribu n eship on ly a ppea red a pol itica l l ie : from 400 to

3 67B . 0 . there h a d been on ly fifteen plebe i a n s elected to the m il it a ry

tribu n eship . Livy, who l ike so m a ny other histori a n s is fon d of

a ssign in g gre a t even ts t o sm a ll ca u ses,3 rel a tes “ th a t a sen a tor,

Fa biu s A m b u stu s, h a d m a rried the elder of h is two d a u ghters t o

the p a trici a n Serv . Su lpiciu s,a n d the . secon d t o a rich plebei a n ,

Licin iu s Sto lo . On e d a y the two sisters were con versin g in the

hou se Of Su lpiciu s, when he,

a t th a t tim e m i l it a ry tribu n e,retu rn ed from the Forum preceded by h is l ictor

,who

,a ccording

t o cu stom,kn ocked a t the door with h is rod . At this n oise

the you ng Fa bi a grew distu rbed ; then she expressed a ston ishm en t

a t the n um erou s retinu e which followed the tribu n e . The

elder l a u ghed a t both her a ston ishm en t a n d ign ora n ce, a n d her

r a illeryshowed th e wide gu lf pl a ced between her a n d her sister

by m a rri a ge,which h a d l ed the l a tter in to a hou se wherein

honors cou ld n ever en ter . Fa bi a w a s so hu rt by this, th a t her

fa ther n oticed h er vexa tion ,a n d prom ised her th a t she shou ld

on e d a y see in h er own hom e the dign ities which she h a d seen

a t her sister’

s . From th a t tim e he bega n t o con cert pl a n s with

h is son -in -l a w a n d a n other you n g m a n of stron g en ergy,L .

Sex t iu s .”

I t is a pretty in ciden t ; Livy is n ever loth t o sc a tter a

few flowers throu gh the severe history of the lea st rom a n tic of

n a tion s ; a n d we do the sa m e , b u t withou t a ny bel ief in them .

The you n g Fa bi a h a d often a t her f a ther ’s hom e or a t the hou ses

of fa m ily frien ds he a rd the l ictor’

s kn ock, a n d h a d often seen the

re tinu e which a lw a ys followed m a gistra tes a n d person s of im port a n ce.

N othin g of a l l this cou ld h a ve su rprised her, then , a n d she well

1 L i vy,v i. 14—20 .

0

I n im icorum oppressu s f a ct-ione. (Serv ., in A en . v i i i.

3 P a rva , a t p lerumqu e solet, rem ing en tem mol iu n d i ca u sa in terven it. (L i vy, v i.

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ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

were on the poin t of betra ying thei r own c a u se : they n o lenger

dem a n ded m ore th a n the two l a ws con cern in g debts a n d l a n d,

which the p a trici a n s were disposed to yield . Bu t the tribu n es

decl a red the three propos ition s in sep a ra ble : they m u st b e a dopted

Or rejected together . The com iti a of tribes voted for them ,the

Sen a te a ccepted them ,a n d the cen tu ries procl a im ed Lu ciu s Sex t iu s

,

On e of the two tribu n es, con su l . I n their Cu ri a e the p a trici a n s

refu sed the imp erium t o the plebei a n con su l , a n d the b a ttle,which w a s on the poin t of en din g

,bega n a ga in m ore fiercely

tha n ever. The deta ils Of this l a st stru ggle a re l ittle kn own .

There is v a gu e m en tion of terrible thre a ts,a n d of a n ew seces

sion of th e people . Ca m i llu s in terposed . H e h a d ju st won h is

l a st victory over the G a u ls ; five tim es dict a tor,seven times

m ilit a ry tribu n e, fu ll of glory a n d hon ors,he desired a repose

worthy of h is sixty yea rs of service . Won over by his cou n sel

a n d exa m ple , the Sen a tors yielded,the election of Sext iu s w a s

r a tified,a n d Ca m illu s, closin g the a ge of revolu tion s for a cen tu ry

a n d a h a lf, vowed a tem ple to Con cord (3 66 B .

The ga tes of the politica l city,then

,were a t l a st forced ;

the plebei a n s n ow in tu rn t a ke the ir sea t on the cu ru le ch a ir.

I n token of the a dm ission Of these n ew-comers in to the rea l

Rom a n people,there wa s a dded to the three festa l-da ys of the

gre a t g a m es held in hon or of the three a n cien t tribes,a fou rth

d a y for the plebei a n s.2

I I . TH E PLE B E I A N S G A I N ADM I SSI ON T O A L L OF F I CE S.

TH E a doption Of the Licin ia n l a ws m a rks a n ew er a in the

history of the Repu blic. Bu t were these l a ws f a ithfu l ly observed ?

a n d wh a t were the con sequ en ces t o the gre a t, to the popu l a ce,a n d to the fortu n e of Rome ? These a re the qu estion s which

1 T he m a gn ificent ru in s wh ich sti ll rem a in of the T em ple of Concord d o n ot belon g to theedifice erected by Ca m i llu s, which a ppe a rs t o h a ve been bu ilt a t the Ca pito l (O vid, F a st. i.

a nd of which nothi ng is left, n or to tha t of F l a viu s, which, a ccording to Pl iny (xxx i i i.G, w a s on ly a bron ze ch a pe l ra ised on the V u lca n a l , a bove the Com itium ; they form ed pa rtO f a temple of Concord, of which m ention is often m a de in the l a st d a ys of the R epu b lie,_ a nd

which w a s situ a ted a t the foot of the T a bu l a rium .

2 Dionys., vii . 4 1.

ACCE SSION OF TH E P LE BE IAN S TO CURULE OFFICE S. 3 85

we a re a bou t t o exa m in e ; sep a ra tin g, for grea ter clea rn ess,the

pol itic a l l a ws from soci a l, or su ch a s re l a ted to debts a n d

property.

The p a trici a n s n ever fra n kly a ccepted popu l a r victories . On

the m orrow of their defea t they'

b eg a n a ga in dispu ting step by

step the grou n d they h a d lost on the precedin g d a y, m u ltiplyin g

Obst a cles in order to pu t Off the evil d a y, when the equ a l ity

which they looked u pon a s sa crilege m u st b e fin a lly a chieved .

This tim e they yielded the con su lship itself,b u t the con su lship

dism em bered . Two n ew p a trici a n m a gistra cies were , in f a ct,

crea ted a t it s expen se , — th e p ra etorship ,for the a dm in istr a tion of

ju stice,the form u l a e of which were u n kn ow n t o the plebei a n s,

a n d the cu ru le a ed ileship ,

1 for the city pol ice Cl a ss in terest

wa s, for this on ce,in a ccord with pu blic in terest . Th e p a trici a n s

ga ve their own order thr ee n ew Offi ces,b u t they g a ve the Repu blic

three n ecessa ry m a gistr a cies .

The grea t pre-occu p a tion of m odern governmen ts is , or ou ght t o

b e,t o protect the fortu n e a n d l ife of citizen s, to develop in stru ction

a n d comm erce,t o dim in ish m isery a n d vice . The Rom a n s of the

ea rly tim es h a d n o su ch c a res . They con s idered thei r t a sk en ded

when they h a d provided for in tern a l pea ce a n d the secu rity of the

fron tiers ; the rest con cern ed on ly in dividu a ls. The Rom a n s of

the tim e of which we spea k were begin n in g to u n derst a n d tha t

it w a s for the in terest of th e trea su ry t o est a blish a su pervi

s ion over their pu blic bu i ldin gs, which were n ow r a pidly in crea s

in g in n u m ber ; a lso th a t their c ity,a s i t grew l a rger, requ ired

a n org a n ized protection in the streets a ga in st fires , in the m a r

kets a g a in st fra u d , in the ba ths,t a vern s, a n d d a n gerou s qu a rters,

a ga in st bra wls . Fin a lly,in times of sc a rcity it w a s n ecessa ry

to b uy whea t a broa d, a n d sell it t o the people a t a l ow

price.2 The plebei a n a ediles n o lon ger su fficed for this work ,a n d it w a s well t o dou ble their n u mber. “ The Sen a te h a vin g

decreed,

”sa ys Livy

,

“ th a t in order to th a n k the gods for the

re-est a blishm en t of con cord between the plebs a n d the p a tricia te

a four th d a y shou l d b e a dded t o the Rom a n ga mes, the plebe i a n

1 Qu od p ro con su le u no p lebeio tres p a tricios m a g istr a tus n ob il ita s sz'

bi s umpsisser.

(Li vy, vu . T he curu le a ed il eship formed a co llege composed, like th e plebe i a n a edil eshi p,of two members ; a t fir st there wa s on ly one pra etor.

2 Cicero (d e L eg. i i . 3 ) n a mes the a ed iles : Cu r a tores urb is , a n non a e, lu d orumqu e sol emn ium.

V OL . I .

ROM E UN DE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

a ediles refu sed t o sa n ction this expen ditu re, a n d in order to a void

the om ission Of this hon or towa rds the imm orta l gods, som e

you n g n obles Offered t o t a ke the expen se u pon them selves, on

con dition th a t they shou ld b e a ppoin ted a ediles .

1 Here a g a in

we fin d a n ecdote t a kin g the pl a ce of history . We h a ve ju st seen

the seriou s rea son s which l ed t o this crea tion . Moreover, th e

n ew m a gistr a cy beca m e a lm ost imm edi a tely comm on t o th e two

Orders .

The pra etorship wa s I n l ike m a n n er a n ecessa ry du plic a te of

the con su lship . A s the sta te beca m e grea ter,m ore frequ en t a n d

m ore dist a n t w a rs left th e first m a gistra tes of the Repu blic b u t l ittle

tim e to occu py them selves with civil ju stice,

a n d th e recen t

a gra ri a n l a w of Licin iu s Stolo w a s su re to m u ltiply l a w-Su its

to a n extr a ordin a ry degree . Althou gh the div ision of power

w a s n ot a very Rom a n idea,m en s a w the u tility of in su ring

the regu l a r cou rse of ju stice by a lw a ys h a vin g a t Rom e a

m a gistra te ch a rged with it s a dm in istra tion ,to su pplem en t th e

a bsen t con su l . I n order - t o m a rk the su bordin a te ch a r a cter Of

the pra etor, on ly six l ictors were a llowed h im .

2 Bu t he w a s

elected,l ike the con su l

,in the com it i a cen tu ri a t a a n d with the

s a m e a u spices ; he presided,in the con su l ’s a bsen ce

,a t the

m eetin gs of the people a n d th e Sen a te ; a n d the imp erium ,which

he possessed from the ou tset,a ll owed h im in l a ter tim es to

a ssum e the fu n ction s of lea der of the a rm y a n d of provin ci a l

govern or . H is ju dici a l competen ce w a s summ ed u p in three words

Do,I give the ju dge a n d the m ode Of procedu re ; Dico, I

decl a re th e right ; A d d ico, I a dju dge the object of the su it.

On h is en try in to office, the pr a etor gra du a lly fell in to the

h a bit of pu blishin g a n edict,in which he in dica ted th e ru les

Of ju rispru den ce which he in ten ded to follow ; we sh a ll see th a t

this ed ictum p ra etorium by degrees tr a n sformed a l l the Rom a n

legisl a tion .

So m u ch good resu lted from this in stitu tion , th a t twen ty

yea rs l a ter there w a s a ppoin ted a secon d pr a etor for dispu tes b e

tween citizen s a n d foreign ers , — the p r a etor p eregrinn s . H e mu st,

1 Livy, v i. 4 2 ; V I I . 1. p ostea p romiscu um f wit.2 There were two pra etors in 3 4 2 B. c.,

four in 2 27, six in 197, e ight u nder Syll a . “76

sh a ll see l a ter the re a son s for the se d ifferent a u gmenta tion s.

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ACCE SSION OF TH E P LE BE IAN S TO CURULE OFFICE S. 3 87

by rea son of h is o ffice,b e versed in fore ign cu stom s

, j n s gen

timn ,a s wel l a s n a tion a l u s a ges

, j a s crud e,a n d h is edicts prep a red

the w a y for the fu s ion of these rights . Rom e possessed,then

,

from this tim e forth,the two workm en who were slowly col lect

in g the num berless m a teria ls wherewith the ju riscon su lts were t o

con stru ct the m a gn ificen t m on umen t of the P a nd ects .

The con su ls ret a in ed the comm a n d of the a rm ies,the presiden cy

of the Sen a te, a n d the r a ising of troops. These were stil l too high

preroga tives for the p a trici a n s n ot t o seek to recover them . The

dicta torship w a s left them ; they m a de u se

of it e ither to preside over the com i ti a a n d

influ ence the election of con su ls,or to sn a tch

from a plebe i a n gen er a l th e hon ors of a su c

cessfu l w a r . Between 3 6 3 a n d 3 44,a period

of . on ly twen ty yea rs,there were fou rteen

dicta tors . S E A T F OR A

The on e who stood a t the he a d of this lon g L E CT I ST E R M UM ’

I

list w a s Ma n l iu s I mperiosu s . The pl a gu e wa s r a ging with mu rder

ou s in ten sity, a n d h a d c a rried Off Ca m illu s ; the Tiber overflowed

its ba n ks ; a n e a rthqu a ke h a d open ed in the midst of the Foruma n a byss in to which Cu rtiu s is sa id to h a ve lea ped fu lly

a rm ed . I n order t o a ppe a se the a n gry gods,n ew g a m es, dr a wn

from E tru ri a,h a d been celebra ted

,m in gled with son gs a n d d a n ces

to the sou n d of the flu te ; then the sta tu es of th e grea t gods

h a d been l a id on beds a n d invited , a s a pledge of recon cil i a tion ,

to a sa cred b a n qu et M a n liu s ha ving been a ppoin ted

dict a tor in order to drive the s a cred n a il in to the tem ple of Ju piter ,refu sed, when the cerem ony wa s en ded , to resign h is powers ; h e

reta in ed his twen ty-fou r l ictors,a n d a n n ou n ced a levy a ga in st

the H ern ica n s . This prolon ged su spen sion of the con su l a r power

coin cided too well with the views Of the Sen a te, which wa s rea dy

to respect the dict a toria l power u n der su ch circum st a n ces. Bu t

the tribu n e Pompon iu s a ccu sed the dict a tor. Am on g other

griev a n ces he reproa ched h im with h is con du ct tow a rds his own

son, b a n ished from the dom estic Pen a tes, exiled to the fields ,

a n d con dem n ed to servile l a bors . “ This son of a dict a tor

1 M a rble se a t, preserved in the G lyptothek a t M u n ich, on which w a s pl a ced the sta tu e of

a god in the ceremony of th e lectisl ern ium.

3 88 R OM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS .

lea rn ed,by a d a ily pu n ishm en t , th a t h e wa s born of a f a ther

worthy Of his su rn a m e (I mp er ios a s ). A n d wh a t wa s h is crim e‘7

'

H e h a d a difficu lty in expressing him self . In stea d of correctin g

this n a tu ra l defect by edu c a tion , M a n l iu s a ggr a v a tes the evil ;he ret a rds still fu rther this du l l spirit ; a n d wh a tever viv a city a n d

in telligen ce rem a in to h is son will b e extin gu ished by the ru stic

h a bits which he im poses on h im . A sin gu la r reproa ch in th e

m ou th of a tribu n e ! Bu t every kin d of wea pon wa s em ployed .

Moreover the Rom a n s l ike the E nglish of ou r own‘ d a y, were

prou d of their n obility, a n d were u nwillin g th a t a ny you n g

p a trici a n shou ld b e brou ght u p in a m a n n er u nworthy of h is birth .

While a l l the people were in dign a n t with M a n l iu s,th e victim

,

grieved a t be in g a su bject of prosecu tion to his fa ther,con ceived

a project which set a n exa m ple, to b e comm en ded,indeed

,b u t n ot

withou t d a nger in a free city . Un kn own to a ny on e,with a

d a gger hidden u n der his rob e , he ca m e t o the hou se of Pompon iu s

on e m orn in g,ga ve h is n a m e

,a n d in sisted on being a dm itted .

E very on e retired , in order to lea ve h im a lon e with the tribu n e .

Then he drew his d a gger , a n d thre a ten ed to sta b Pompon iu s, who

wa s still in b ed , u n less he swore,in term s which h e dicta ted t o

him,

“n ever to convoke a n a ssem bly of the people to a ccu se the

dicta tor .” The tribu n e , fin din g him self a t the m ercy of a n a rm ed

m a n,you n g a n d powerfu l , grew frighten ed , a n d repea ted the oa th

imposed on h im . The people were dissa tisfied t o see their victim

esc a pe,b u t they willin gly rew a rded the you ng m a n

’

s fil i a l piety

by a ppoin tin g him legion a ry tribu n e ” 1 The chiefs of the plebs ,who kn ew how t o profit n ot on ly by their h a tred, b u t by their

a ffection s,seized this opportu n ity t o cl a im for the com itia the

n om in a tion of six of those Officers (3 62 B .

Fou r tim es m ore,in th e fou r fo llowing yea rs, the Sen a te h a d re

cou rse t o the dicta torship . Bu t this su prem e Office w a s itself in va ded .

I n 3 56 2the d a n ger of the w a r a ga in st the E tru sca n s c a u sed the

1 L i vy,vn . 4 , 5.

2 T he precedin g ye a r wa s m a rked by the esta bl ishment of a t a x of 5 per cent on enfr a n

chisem en t s. This t a x w a s esta bl ished in conn ection with Pr ivern i a n prisoners, re le a sed on

ra n som by the so ldiers of the con su l M a rciu s. H is col le a gu e , M a n l iu s, h a d ca u sed it t o b e votedby the a rmy enca mped ne a r Su t rium . T he tribu nes a ccepted the l a w, b u t in stituted th e pu n i shm ent of dea th for a ny on e who shou ld ren ew this d a n gerou s precedent of ca ll ing on h is a rmyto d iscu ss pu blic a ff a irs. (L i vy , v i i. L e t u s n otice th a t this t a x m u st b e pa id in go ld, a nd

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3 90 ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

by cohorts. Bu t they re-a ssem bled a t the d efi les of L a u tu l a e, p a sse

d i P or tel l a , a n a rrow p a ss between the sea a n d the m ou n t a in s,

which it w a s n ecessa ry t o tr a verse in goin g from Fu n di to Ter

r a cin a , th a t is t o sa y, from Ca m p a n i a in to L a tium .1 When the ir

ba nds rea ched th e proportion s Of a n a rmy, they m a rched u pon

Rome to the n um ber of twen ty thou sa n d , ca llin g on a l l who were

en sl a ved for debt to join them . N e a r Bovil l a e they fortified a

c a mp,r a v a ged the n eighborin g l a n ds ; a n d h a vin g fou n d a

p a trici a n,T . Q u in ct iu s, in h is v il l a n ea r Tu scu lum ,

they com

pel led h im t o pu t him self a t the ir hea d . A revolt of the plebeia n s.

respon ded t o th a t of the soldiers . They m a rched ou t of Rom e a n d

ca m ped fou r m iles from it s w a l l s . A popu l a r dict a tor, Va leriu sCorvu s, w a s a ppoin ted ; b u t his soldiers

,in stea d of fightin g

, sided

with their com r a des ; a n d a l l together dem a n ded a n d ob t a in ed z2

1. A g en er a l a mn esty a n d com plete forgiven ess of t he p a st.

2 . A m il it a ry regu l a tion providin g th a t the legion a ry servin g

u n der the st a n d a rd shou ld n ot , withou t h is own con sen t,b e era sed

from the registers,— th a t is to s a y,

b e deprived of the a dva n t a ges

a tt a ched to milit a ry service ,3 — a n d th a t on e who h a d served a s

tribu n e shou ld n ot b e en rolled a s cen tu rion .

3 . A redu ction in the pa y of the kn ights .

The plebe i a n s on their pa rt, h a vin g retu rn ed in to the city, voted,on the proposa l of the tribu n e Genu ciu s, the fol lowin g l a ws, which

h a d the dou ble obj ect of relievin g the poor a n d preven ting Offices

becom ing the heredita ry p a trim ony of a few fa m il ies (3 42 B . C.)4 . N o on e shou ld b e re-eligible for the s a m e office t il l a fter a n

in terv a l of t en yea rs , a n d n o on e shou ld b e in vested with two

m a gistra cies a t the s a m e tim e .

5. Both the con su ls m ight b e plebe ia n s .

6 . Loa n s on in terest a n d debts to b e a bol ished,the n ext to b e

relea sed .4

I n these gra ve circu m st a n ces the Sen a te h a d shown a spirit of

1 The pa ssa ge is so n a rrow, th a t a tower a n d a ga te a re enou gh to close it . I t wa s, n ot .

long since , the bou n d a ry between the Sta tes Of the Church a nd the N e a po lita n K in gdom .

2 L i vy, vi i . 3 8, 4 2 : L ea : s a cr a ta m il ita ris.3 T he legion a ry serving u nder th e sta n d a rd cou ld no t b e pu rsu ed by h is creditors ; a nd

if the ca m pa ign w a s su ccessfu l, he fou n d him se lf a b le, with his sha f e of th e booty, to pa yor dim in ish h is debts.

4 T a c., A n n . vi. 16.

ACCE SSION OF TH E PLE BE IAN S To CURULE OFFICE S. 3 91

con cili a tion , Of which I t a ga in m a de proof two ye a rs l a ter , when it

a llowed the plebei a n dicta tor, Pu b l il iu s Philo, to strike the l a st blow

a t the Ol d re'

g iin e by the su ppression of the legisl a tive veto o f the

Sen a te (3 3 9 B . The follow ing l a ws were a l so pa ssed :

1. The plebiscita shou ld b e bindin g on a l l .1

2 . E very l a w presen ted for th e a ccept a n ce of the com iti a

cen tu ri a t a shou ld b e a pproved beforeh a n d by the Sen a te ?

3 . On e Of the cen so rs m u st b e a lw a ys chosen from the plebei a n s ;both con su ls m ight belon g to th a t order.

The l a st Of these l a ws w a s the a ppl ica tion to the cen sorship

of the Licin i a n l a w on the con su lship . By m e a n s of the other

two, Pu b l il iu s Philo wished t o con cen tra te the legisl a tive power

in the cen tu ries a n d tribes,in order t o a vert the possibil ity of

a conflict between the two sovereign a ssem blies a n d the Sen a te .

The l a tter n o lon ger ret a in ed a ny Sign of it s a n cien t power ,sa ve the p rel im in a ry a pp rob a t ion of the plebiscit a a n d l a ws Of

the cen tu ries ; a n d this Obliga tory a pprob a t ion a ppea red to b e a

m ere form a l ity . Bu t the Sen a te m a de a rra n gem en ts with the

con su ls for dr a win g u p the l ist of con su l a r a n d pra etoria n

ca n did a tes presen ted t o the cen tu ries,a n d for a pprovin g before

ha n d the proj ected l a ws t o b e ca rried be fore them . On a fu tu re

d a y, when the tribun es m a de comm on ca u se with the n obles ,the Sen a te pu rsu ed the sa m e cou rse in respect to the plebiscit a ,a n d in this wa y a ga in beca m e for a tim e m a ster of the R e

pu bli c.3

L et u s n ote,a t the m om en t when th e reciproca l rights of

the a ssem blies a n d the Sen a te a re bein g determ in ed , th a t while

the Cu r i a discu ssed a su bject before voting u pon it , the Com iti a

voted withou t discu ssin g it. F or popu l a r a ssem blies the Rom a n s

h a d wisely sep a ra ted discu ss ion a n d decision — certa in ly a very

u sefu l preca u tion a ga in st the su dden a n d violen t excitem en t

1 T he l a w of H ora tiu s a n d Va leriu s h a d gi ven the force of l a w to the reso lution s of th e

tribes, by su bm itting them to th e s a nct ion of the Sen a t e, p a trum a u ctorita s. Pu b l il iu s freedthem from the s a nction post even tum , by su bm itting them , l ike the l a ws of th e centurie s, t o the

‘

prel im in a ry a pprob a tion of the Sen a te. A s a n e lectora l power, the com iti a by tribes a ppo intedthe a ediles , q u a estors , a n d tribu n es.

2 Ut l eg um qu a e comiti-is cen tu r ia tis f erren tu r, a n te in it um s ufi ra g ium p a tres a u ctoresfi eren t. (Li vy, v i ii.

3 This new deve lo pment wil l b e expl a in ed in vol . I I . of this work.

3 92 ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

th a t a glowing speech m ight produ ce ju st before the b a llot .1

Y et the resolu tion s Of the cen tu ries a n d tribes were n ot t a ken

till the citizen s h a d b een en lighten ed by a con troversi a l deba te

a t a con tio,— a free a ssem bly presided over by a m a gistra te

,

a n d which a m a gistra te of su perior r a n k m ight forbid ? I t

w a s there th a t the m ea su res t o b e proposed to the com iti a were

discu ssed . I n ou r [Fren ch] a ssem blies there is a lw a ys a right of

replyin g t o a m in ister ; in the con tio the m a gistra te spoke l a st.3

This m ea n s th a t with u s m ore l iberty is a llowed for a n a tt a ck

on the Governm en t ; wherea s a t Rom e i t w a s r a ther sou ght to

defen d it . This sin gle fa ct shows the differen ce between th e two

sta tes .

The con sequ en ces which followed the revolt of th e Ca m p a n i a n

legion s prove th a t the rebels h a d n o in ten tion of comm ittin g the

l a wless violen ce which som e h a ve su pposed ; b u t tha t they were

c a rryin g ou t a pl a n form ed by the popu l a r lea ders t o com plete

th e revolu tion t o which Licin iu s Stolo h a d given a n“ irresistible

im pu lse . I n 3 3 9,in deed, en ds the pol i tic a l strife, which th e

secession of the people t o the Sa cred Mou n t h a d comm en ced a

cen tu ry a n d a h a lf e a rlier . I f the plebei a n s a re still exclu ded fromsom e offices

,they ga in a ccess to them gra du a lly —d withou t com

motion s, withou t stru ggles — by the sole force of the n ew

con stitu tion — whose spirit is equ a lity, a s th a t of the ol d wa s

privilege . Thu s Pu b l il iu s Philo Obta ined the pra etorship in 3 3 7,

a n d in 3 26 the . procon su lship, — which office wa s con sequ en tly

open t o plebei a n s from it s fou n d a tion . At a n u n cert a in d a te,a fter

3 66 , b u t before 3 12 , the Ovin ia n plebiscitum threw the Sen a te open

t o plebe i a n s ;4a n d in the yea r 3 00 th e L ex Og u l n ia decreed tha t

1 Cic., pro F l a cco, 7: 0 morem pr a ecl a rum d iscipl in a mqu e, qu a m a m a j orions a ccep imu sN u l lmn il l i . vim con tion is esse vol u eru n t, etc. ; a nd he com p a res a l l the preca ution s ta kenby th e a ncient R om a n s with the tum u ltu ou s a ssemblies of the Greeks, where m en voted byshow of ha nds a s soon a s th e ora tor h a d fin ish ed spe a king.

2 A u lu s G e l l iu s, x i i i . 15. I n eed n ot a d d tha t it often ha ppened, in the l a st centurieso f th e R epu bl ic, tha t the de l ibera ti ve a ssembly immedi a te ly preceded th a t in which the

votes were ta ken , -which m u ch d im in i shed the v a lu e of the preca ution s ta ken in o ldentim es.

8 Dion .,xxx ix. 3 5 : ididrr a t g 1rp6 r a w cipxa s

‘ éxdwwv 6 Aé‘

yos e’

dido‘ro.

‘1 This l a w tra n sferred from the consu ls to the cen sors -the right of dra wing u p the list ofSen a tors, b u t obl iged them to choose the n ew members, ex omn i ord in e op timum qu emqu e, froma mon g the O ld cu ru le m a gistra tes, qu a e stors , plebe i a n a ediles, a nd tribu n es. Thu s, in the spa ceof a lu strum ,

there were 50 tribu nes a n d 10 a edi les, so tha t the plebe i a n s were not long in finding

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3 94 ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIA N CON SULS.

E mpire did not com pletely sweep them a wa y. Three cen tu riesa fter Au gu stu s there w a s a Sen a te, which a t tim es resum ed its

pol itica l ch a ra cter in e a rn est,a n d Ju stin ia n sti ll a ppo in ted con su ls.

Thu s the Cu ri a e stil l con tin u ed , preserved, l ike the sta tu es of

the kings,by the respect in which m en a n d thin gs of a n cien t

tim es were held by a l l , b u t redu ced t o in sign ific a n t civil a n d

religiou s preroga tives, a n d represen ted by thirty lictors,u n der the

presiden cy of the high pon t ifi .

By this down fa l l of the Cu ri a e , a l l the a ristocra tic stren gth

of the governm en t w a s con cen tr a ted in the Sen a te, in to which a

grea ter n u m ber of plebe ia n s en tered da ily throu gh the m edium of

O ffice.

From 3 02 t o 286 c a m e ren ewed . con firm a tion of the fu n d a

m en ta l l a ws,which were the M a gna Ch a rta , a s it were, of plebe i a n

l iberties.

I n 3 02 there wa s a con firm a tion of the Va leri a n l a w, which ,by the right of a ppea l, g a ve the a ccu sed h is peers a s ju dges.

I n 299 there wa s a con firm a tion of the Licin i a n l a w,for the

division of the con su lship , a n d con sequ en tly of every Office.

I n 286 the l a ws of the plebei a n dic t a tor, Horten siu s, which

r a tified a l l form er victories,con firm ed the Pu blil ia n l a vr rel a tive t o

the Obliga tory ch a ra cter of plebiscit a , a n d freed them from the

prel im in a ry a u thoriza tion of the Sen a te ?

G ra ve circum st a n ces h a d l ed t o this l a st dict a torship : the

people,h a vin g a ga in risen in revolt on the su bject of debts ,

2 h a d

withdra wn to the J a n icu l um . They on ly dem a n ded the re-en force

m en t of the l a ws a ga in st creditors ; b u t the ir chiefs desired m ore .

In terested a s they a lw a ys a re in c a u sing pol itica l revolu tion s by

which they profit,they turn ed the a tten tion of the m u ltitu de from

their m isery t o thei r o ffen ded dign i ty. The Horten si a n l a ws h a d

thu s qu ite a differen t bea rin g from wh a t the first le a ders of the

crowd h a d in ten ded . Debts were a bol ished or dim in ished, i t is

tru e, b u t the plebei a n rights were a lso con firm ed a ga in ; a n d in

order to effa ce the l a st distin ction which still sep a r a ted the two

orders, the nnnd in a e were decl a red n ot to b e holy d a ys. I t wa s

on the n u n d in a e, or m a rket d a ys, th a t the tribes a ssem bled, beca u se

1 I ta qne eo mod o l egions p leb iscita exa equ a ta su n t. (G a iu s , I nst. i.2 See p a ges 4 0 3 —4 05.

ACCE SSION OF TH E P LE BE IAN S TO CURULE OFFICE S. 3 95

on those d a ys the cou n try people c a m e t o Rom e . The p a trici a n s,u nwillin g in their pride t o h a ve a nything in comm on with the

plebe i a n s, a n d in order th a t the l a tter m ight n ot b e a ble t o cou n t

the ir sma ll num ber in the Cu r i a e,or a w a it the decis ion s Of the

Sen a te, or in a men a cin g crowd a tten d the ju dgm en ts Of the ir

tribu n a ls,h a d con secra ted the n n n d in a e to Ju piter

,a n d h a d for

bidden them selves du rin g them a l l del ibera tion a n d a l l bu sin ess?

An other a rr a n gem en t is,however

,a ttribu ted t o th e dict a tor

Horten siu s, which wou ld Show a s incere desire t o preven t excessesa m on g th e dem ocra cy by stren gthen in g th e a ristocra tic elem en t in

the con stitu tion : sen a tu s—con su lt a were t o b e r a ised t o the r a n k

of gen era l l a ws, a n d , l ike the plebiscit a,t o b e bin din g on a l l

orders ? The thin g is n ot certa in ; b u t hen ceforth the legisl a tive

power of th e Sen a te is seen to exten d m ore a n d m ore .

There is a crea tion of this period which h a s n o politic a l

Ch a ra cter, b u t wh ich ou ght t o b e pl a ced a t it s proper d a te . Abou t

the yea r 2 92 B . C. there w a s in stitu ted a m a gistra cy Of secon d a ry r a n k,

the trim n viri ca p ita les ,3 who repl a ced the qu a es tores p a rrieid ii . A p

poin ted in a n a ssembly of the people presided over by th e pra etor,

they were ch a rged with the in vestiga tion of crim es,the receivin g

Of eviden ce a ga in st the gu ilty, a n d,a fter the tri a l

, th e su pervision

of the c a rrying ou t of the sen ten ce . They a ssisted the a ediles in

the m a in ten a n ce of pu blic order, a n d in Obt a in ing the p a ym en t of

the fin es which the l a tter h a d inflicted , a n d they cou ld h a ve. sl a ves

a n d com m on people bea ten for a ny offen ce . Pl a u tu s in h is tim e

knew of them : I f the trium virs m et m e a t this hou r of the n ight,

”

he m a kes Sosi a sa y,4 they wou ld cl a p m e in to prison ,

a n d t o-m orrowI shou ld b e dra gged ou t of their c a ge, a n d they wou ld give m e

the stirru p-le a thers withou t listen in g t o my re a son s . E ight stron g

fellows wou ld be a t the a n vil on my b a ck . We kn ow th a t they

h a d N a eviu s pu t in to fetters to pu n ish the boldn ess of his verses .

By the a ggreg a te Of l a ws prom u lga ted sin ce the yea r 3 67B . c.,

1 IV u nd in a s Jovi sa c-

re s esse. (M a cr S a t. i .2 Theophi lu s, on e of the l a wyers of Ju stin i a n , in Bk. i . t it . 2 , 5, of his very u sefu l G re ek

p a ra phra se of the In stitutes, spe a ks of H orten s iu s a s a tru e friend of h is cou ntry, who pu ta n end t o th e century-lon g qu a rre l s of the two orders.

8 L i vy, E pit. x i., a nd Dig . I. i i. 2 a n d 3 0 : Tr iumvir i ca p ita les qu i ca rcerz’

s cu stod ia m

ha beren t a t, cum a n im a d verti op or teref, in terven tu eoru m j ieret.

‘1 A mphitr . I. i. 3 —6.5 A ul u s G el liu s, ii i. 3 . H e l a mpooned the M e tel l i, who were powerful pa trici a n s.

3 96 ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

n ot on ly h a d pol itica l equ a l ity been won,b u t th e a dv a n t a ge wa s

n ow on the side Of the plebei a n s . E ligible for a l l m a gistra cies,

with th e right Of occu pyin g a t on ce both the posts of con su l a n d

cen sor,they kept exclu sively plebei a n the offices of tribu n e a n d

plebei a n a edile . Th e tribu n es cou ld. by their veto,

a rrest the

decrees Of the Sen a te , the a cts of th e con su ls,a n d legisl a tive

proposa ls ; by their right of a ccu sa tion they pl a ced u n popu l a r m a gis

tr a tes u n der the threa t of“

a n in evit a ble con dem n a tion . The

a ssem blies of Cu ri a e were a n n u lled, a n d the com iti a of tribes bou n d

a l l the orders by their plebiscita . Y et even the a ristocra cy itself ,a n d , a bove a l l

, the fortu n e of Rom e,were t o ga in by this equ a l ity

so u nwillin gly yielded . The a ristocra cy w a s in deed thrown open

to a l l ; b u t it wa s in order t o a ttra ct a n d to a bsorb in to it s bosom ,

to th e profit of it s power, a l l t a len ts — a l l a m bition s . Sep a r a ted

from the people, it wou ld soon h a ve f a llen in to we a kn ess ; hen ceforth

th e best plebei a n blood rose to th e summ it ; l ike a bra n ch gr a fted

on a vigorou s tru n k, it w a s n ou rished by a fertilizin g s a p, a n d the

tree, whose roots re a ched deep in to the soil, wa s stron g en ou gh t o

sprea d it s br a n ches a f a r .

A n Obscu re f a ct shows tha t,i f the l a w h a d decreed equ a l ity

b y a llowin g a m a n Of t a len t a n d cou r a ge to a spire t o a nythin g,

which is on e gre a t a dv a n t a ge to a st a te , society preserved it s f a m ily

tr a di tion s,which a re a n other . I n th e yea r 2 95 the Sen a te, in

order t o a vert the e ffect of evil om en s, h a d prescribed two d a ys

of pu blic pr a yers. On this occ a s ion a dispu te a rose a mon g

th e Rom a n l a dies in the l ittle tem ple Of p a trici a n Cha stity. A

p a trici a n wom a n,

n a m ed Vi rgin i a,h a d m a rried a plebei a n ,

the

con su l L . Volum n iu s . I n order to pu n ish h er for this més a lli a n ce,the m a tron s forb a de h er to join in their sa cred cerem on ies . She,

a n gry a t this a ffron t,bu i lt a tem ple t o plebe i a n Cha stity, esta b

l ish ed the sa m e rites,

a n d a ssem bled a l l t he m a tron s of her

order there , sa yin g t o them :“ L et there b e hen ceforth n o less

em u l a tion a m on g th e wom en in cha stity, th a n there is a mong the

m en in cou ra ge ; a n d l et this a lt a r b e hon ored m ore devou tly

th a n the other.” “ The right to s a crifice here ,”

a dds Livy, “ w a s

on ly gr a n ted t o wom en of a ckn owledged ch a stity, a n d who h a d

been on ly on ce m a rriet .

” 1

1 L i vy, x. 2 3 .

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ACCE SSION OF PLE BE IAN S TO CURULE OFFICE S. 3 97

The story is edifying, a nd the Virtu e of the m a tron s is con

spicu ou s ; b u t there a re a lso j ea lou s riv a lries disclosed,which the

wom en a t lea st n ever forgot, a n d tha t respect for blood a n d ra ce

which a lwa ys preven ted Rom a n society from f a l l in g a prey t o

dem a gogu es . Moreover, the le a ders of the plebs, ha ving n o lon ger

a nythin g to a ppropria te or destroy, n ow bec a m e con serv a tives

,in

a ccord a n ce with the logic of the p a ssions a n d of history .

From the l a ws con cern in g the sta te,l et u s p a ss to those which

rel a te to priv a te for tu n es .

1 The co in be low repre sents a n a l t a r , on wh ich is the sta tu e of Cha stity sta n ding on a

curu le cha ir. R everse of a den a riu s of Plo t in a , wife o f Tra j a n . T he legen d be a rs thesewords Ca esa r A u gu stu s G erm a n icu s Da cicu s, fa ther of hi s cou ntry, for the s ixth time con

su l ; which fix es the co in ing of the piece between 112 a nd 117 A . D.

A LT A R O F CH A ST I T r .l

CHAPTE R XI I I .

THE AGR AR I AN L AW AND THE ABOL ITION OP DEBT.

I . AG R A R IA N L AW OF LI CI N I US STOLO .

I V I L equ a l ity gives, even to the poorest, n ew a n d n ob l e sen

t im en t s ;1 bu t wea lth is n ot on e of the good things which

it a ssu res . Those whom the l a w decl a red equ a l in th e Forum,

rem a in ed cla ssed in ordin a ry life a ccordin g t o the ir fortu n e ; the

r ich a bove, n ea r t o th e hon ors, the poor below ,in m isery

Accordin gly the tribu n es h a d a lw a ys h a d in view a dou ble obj ect

t o a tta in,by a sh a re in offices, pol itica l equ a l ity, a n d by gra n ts of

l a n d to m itiga te the distresses of the poor.

A s the workm a n n ow dem a n ds work a n d remu n er a tive w a ges,so th e poor m a n formerly dem a n ded la n d . The a gra ri a n l a ws which

so long trou bled th e Rom a n Repu blic a re thu s the a n cien t form

of the socia l qu estion s which a git a te m odern society ? Sin ce the

problem is the sa me, — to dim in ish m isery, a n d con sequ en tly to

dim in ish th e evil p a ssion s which m isery too often sows in the

m in ds of the poor a ga in st th e rich, - we a re l ed by more th a nm ere cu riosity to stu dy closely this history of the ol d Rom a n

prolet a ria t.

1 E verywhere where civ i l ineq u a l ity ex ists, wh a tever gre a tness it m a y deve lop a m ong afew by the a id of pri v i lege , it enta i ls a corru ption pecu l i a r to itse lf, which d isfig u res the mosta dm ira ble societies, a nd spo i ls the best a nd most generou s n a tures.”— De R ém u sa t

,E ssa is d e

P hilosophie. [T he distin ction of freemen a n d s l a ves introdu ced th is in equ a l ity into a l l a ncientsta tes, however complete ly th e freem en m a y ha ve e qu a l ized the pri v ileges a mong them se l ves.Thu s th e pu rest a n c ient dem ocra cy w a s rea l ly a n a ristocr a cy r u l ing a popu l a tion gre a ter th a nitse lf , which h a d n o ci v il rights. E d .]

2[This form ,

however, sti ll ex i sts in Ire l a n d, a nd wi ll presently re a ppea r in SouthernIta ly, where gre a t esta tes ha ve m onopo lized th e m e a n s of l i v in g in a . cou ntry without m a nu-o

fa ctures, or else where m a nu fa ctures h a ve been su ppressed. E d .]

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400 R OME UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

of occu pyin g in the in terests of their em pire stron g m il it a ry

position s . Bu t this exile a m id con qu ered r a ces a n d the d a n gers

which th e colon ist r a n of bein g driven ou t or m a ss a cred by th e

a n cien t in ha bit a n ts,l ren dered these gra tu ities f a r from popu l a r.

“ They preferred ,”

s a ys Livy, “a skin g for l a n ds a t Rom e

,to pos

sessin g them a t A n t iu m . Deprived of a portion of his rights a s

citizen ,the colon ist wou ld h a ve left the city with regret even

thou gh h e might fin d on the two or fou r j i tger a ? a ssign ed t o h im

so f a r a w a y, e a se a n d s a fety .

Accordin gly , a lthou gh co lon ies m u ltiplied with fresh con qu ests,

the tribu n es well u n derstood th a t som ething m ore w a s n eeded t o

u proot the evil of p a u perism,a n d Licin iu s Stolo proposed to d is

tribu te a m on g the poor a portion of the“

st a te l a n d which h a d been

u su rped by the n obles .

H is proposed l a w a ppea rs to h a ve been thu s con ceived °

No cit izen sha ll possess m ore th a n “

500 j ugera (3 3 0 a cres) of

st a te l a n d ;3

Non e sh a ll keep on the pu blic p a stu res more th a n 100 h ea d

of n e a t a n d 500 hea d Of sm a ll c a ttle ;Of the l a n ds restored t o th e st a te , there sh a ll b e t a ken su ffi

cien t to distribu te to every poor citizen seven j u gera , (a bou t fou ra n d a h a lf a cres) ;Those who rem a in in possession of pu b l ic l a n d sh a ll pa y t o

the pu blic trea su ry a tithe of th e fru its of the ea rth, a fifth of the

produ ce of the Ol ives a n d vin es, a n d the ren t d u e for ea ch

he a d Of c a ttle. At e a ch lu strum these t a xes sh a ll b e f a rm ed ou t

to th e highest bidder by the cen sors, who sh a l l a pply the proceeds

to the pa y of the troops.

E a ch proprietor sh a ll b e obliged to em ploy on his l a n d a

certa in n um ber of free l a borers, in proportion to the exten t of

the est a te .

I t h a s been shown (p . 289 ) th a t the a gra ria n l a ws a m ong

th e Rom a n s, sin ce they on ly a pplied to pu blic l a n ds,4 were a s

1 A s a t Sora (L ivy, ix.2 3 ) a t F id en a e (iv.17) a t A n tium ( i i i. a nd a t V e litr a e (v ii i.2 A s a t L a b icum 2 13} a cre) a t A nxu r, 3 g a cres). (L ivy, v ii i. The j uger um

squ a re feet.2 We give this recon stru ction of the L icin i a n l a w a ccordin g to N iebuhr, b u t bel ieve he

h a s introdu ced into it too m a ny tra ces of the l a w of the Gra cchi.4 A ll the a gra ri a n l a ws denote by the word possessio the portion of the a ger p u b l icus

TH E AG R AR IAN L Aw AN D TH E ABOLITION OF DE BT. 401

ju st a s they were n ecess a ry ; b u t their execu tion a lm ost a lw a ys

in ju red rights con secra ted by tim e . H ow w a s a pu blic est a te t o

b e recogn ized when the l a n dm a rks h a d been displ a ced , a n d the

tithe w a s n o lon ger p a id ? H ow w a s a sta te property t o b e

discovered a m id l a n ds th a t h a d been h a n ded down a s priv a te

property for m ore th a n a cen tu ry,or sold , bequ ea thed, given a s

dow er,left by will , twen ty tim es over ? The rich kn ew well

wh a t in su per a ble difficu lties wou ld b e fOIm d in a pplyin g the

Licin i a n l a w,when a fter t en ye a rs they a t l a st a ccepted it . They

kn ew,t oo , how to ev a de it

,by em a n cip a tin g the ir son s before

they c a m e Of a g e , so a s to a ssign them the 500 j u gera a llowed ,or by ret a in ing u n der a n a ssum ed n a m e wh a t they shou ld h a ve

retu rn ed to th e st a te . The exa m ple of Licin iu s,who w a s him self

con dem n ed in 3 57 B . C . to pa y a fin e Of t en thou s a n d a ses for

h a ving in his possess ion j u ger a (660 a cres) of pu blic l a n d ,500 of which he held in the n a m e Of h is em a n cip a ted son

, proves

how n um erou s th e eva s ion s were , sin ce the a u thor of the l a w , a

m a n of con su l a r ra n k , cou ld e lu de it withou t feel in g a ny sha m e .

The dom a in con tinu ed,then

,to b e en cro a ched u pon by the n obles

,

who,by a ppropri a tin g It a ly t o them se lves, l a id the fou n d a tion s

of those colossa l fortu n es, which ca n on ly b e u n derstood n ow by

com p a rison with th e E n glish a ristocra cy . E ven in 2 91 B . C . two

thou s a n d workm en were n eeded by on e con su l to clea r his woods.

The provision of the Licin i a n l a w rel a tive to t ithes a ppe a rs

to h a ve been better Observed,s in ce from this tim e forth we hea r n o

m ore of those com pl a in ts a ga in st the t a xes which were form erly so

rife ; a n d hen ceforth Rom e is a ble to bea r the expen ses Of the longestw a rs. Bu t it w a s n ot so with th a t which lim ited the qu a n tity

of c a ttle t o b e sen t to the pu blic p a stu res . These p a stu res grew

d a ily l a rger, for from the en d of the fifth cen tu ry‘

of Rom e therecom es a f a t a l ch a n ge in a gricu ltu re

,—n a m ely, the su bstitu tion of

occu pied by a ny individu a l , a nd the Digest esta blishes the diff erence between p ossess io a n d

propriet a s . Qu icq u id a pprehen d im u s cuj u s p roprieta s a d n os n on p er tin et, a n t n ec potest

pertinere, hoe p ossessionem a pp el l a mu s. (Digest, L. 16,

A t R ome (Li vy, iv . a s

a lmost a ll l a n ds were those which h a d been conqu ered , the her ita g es were on ly sm a ll fields.A ccordin gly, those who did n ot wish to en croa ch on the pu bl ic dom a in ha ve on ly 4 to 7j a g/er a ,like Cincinn a tu s , F a bric iu s, Coru n ca n iu s, A em iliu s P a pu s , M . Curin s , R egu lu s, F a biu s Cu netator, e tc. (Cf. V a l . M a x., i v. 4 a nd I t w a s certa in ly on ly a t the expe n se of the pu bl ic l a ndth a t the grea ter pa rt of th e p ossession es of 50 0 j ug er a a nd more cou ld ha ve been form ed.

V OL . I . 2 6

402 ROM E UNDE R TH E PATRICIAN CON SULS.

gra zin g for a ra ble l a n d ? H ow,in deed, w a s it possible t o sow,

pl a n t , or bu ild f a r from Rom e,a n d beyon d the protection of the

legion s or fortresses du rin g th a t Sa m n ite w a r which seem ed

a s thou gh it wou ld n ever en d ? Where were h a n ds t o b e fou n d

to brin g a l l the con qu ered l a n d u n der cu ltiv a tion ? Sl a ves were

sca rce , a n d m ilit a ry service ret a in ed the free l a borers u n der

the sta n d a rds . There wa s n othin g to b e don e , then ,b u t lea ve

these l a n ds for p a stu re, sin ce it wa s im possible t o prep a re them

for seed,or to w a it a yea r for the h a rvest . I f the en em y

a ppea red , the flocks dispersed a m on g th e m ou n t a in s,a n d in stea d of

crops a n d f a rm s, n othin g w a s left to bu rn or pill a ge b u t th e poor

hovels of the shepherds . To h a ve gra zin g l a n ds,or t o h a ve flocks

feedin g on the pu blic grou n d,w a s a clea r a n d a we sou rce of

reven u e,which drea ded n ei ther the en em y n or b a d sea son s, a n d

which a l l wished to en joy. Accordin gly , the Licin i a n l a w w a s

soon forgotten ? n otwithsta n din g th e fin es in flicted by th e a ediles .

Bu t l a rge flocks drive ou t sm a ll on es . Moreover, th e poor m a n’

s

cow cou ld n ot go 3 0 or 40 m iles from Rom e every d a y to

p a stu re ; even withou t a ny violen ce , th e sta te gra zin g l a n ds were

on ly of u se t o those who cou ld a fford t o pa y shepherds,a n d bu ild

on the heights c a stles or stron g hou ses which served a s . a re fu ge

in ca se Of hostile in v a sion .

3

The n ew a ristocra cy,however

,while it a ppropri a ted the

‘

b est

l a n d s for itself,did n ot forget tha t the su rest m ea n s of preven tin g

trou ble a bou t it s u su rp a tion s w a s t o d o som ethin g for th e welf a re

of th e people . Du rin g the Sa m n ite w a r n u m erou s co lon ies were

fou n ded ; in to the three town s of Sora , Alb a , a n d Ca rseol i a lon e

there were sen t a s m a ny a s fou rteen thou s a n d plebe i a n f a m il ies ;4

a n d Cu rin s Den ta tu s twice,in his first con su lship a n d a t the en d

1 Ca to ( tl e R e ru st. pl a cing the l a n ds in order of the ir v a lu e , puts the corn-be a ringl a nds on ly in the s ixth ra n k ; V a rro ( i i i. 3 ) puts m e a dows in the first.

2 I n the ye a r 29 8 there w a s pron ou n ced a con dem n a tion a ga in st those who p l u s qu a mqu a d leg e fi n itum er a t a g ri possid eren t. (L i vy, x . 13 ; cf. x. N ew fin es were imposed,in 2 9 6 a n d 2 9 3

, on p ecu a rii. T hese fin es were so n um erou s a nd so he a vy, tha t they servedt o bu i ld temples, ce lebra te ga m es, a n d m a ke prec iou s offerings : pa tera e of go ld to Jupiter,bra zen g a tes for the Ca p ito l , th e wolf of R om u l u s

,the temple of Concord of F l a viu s , the

pa ving of the A ppi a n W a y, e tc. Those qu ota tion s wou ld b e f a r more n umerou s, h a d we

n o t lost the secon d deca de of L i vy.3 L i vy, v. 4 4 . [The sa me ch a n ge h a s ta ken pl a ce , from econom ica l ca u ses, in Scotl a nd,

a nd is t a kin g pl a ce in Ire l a n d — E m]4 The older colon ies were f a r sm a ller, u su a lly 3 0 0 fa m i lies. (Dionys., n . 3 5,

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404 ROME UNDE R THE PATR ICIAN CON SULS.

a ga in st in solven t debtors . I n 3 26 B . C. the violen ce of P a piriu s

tow a rds the you n g Pu b l il iu s excited su ch in dign a tion,th a t in

order t o a ppea se it the Sen a te were obliged to revive the ol d l a w,

a ttribu ted to Serviu s, th a t the goods, a n d n ot the body, of the

debtor shou ld a n swer for his debt . This w a s a re a l ben efit.

From tha t d a y,”

s a ys Livy,

“ there comm en ced for the people a

n ew l iberty .

” 1

Bu t in pu rely a gricu ltu ra l st a tes, wh a tever preca u tion the l a w

m a y t a ke , sm a ll properties a re a lwa ys devou red by u su ry. T a xest a ke the l ittle m on ey the hu sb a n dm a n possesses ; a n d shou ld there

com e a b a d sea son ,shou ld a h a rvest b e lost, h e m u st n ecess a rily

,

sin ce he h a s n o reserve fu n d , h a ve recou rse t o the u su rer ? At

the close of the Sa m n ite wa r, a fter s ixty ca m pa ign s, there were

very m a ny poor a t Rom e,— prison ers whose a l l h a d been sw a llowed

u p by th e p a ym en t of their ra n som s ; the sick, the wou n ded, who

were u n fit for work ; a n d la stly, those who h a d squ a n dered their

sh a re Of the plu n der while their fields rem a in ed u n tilled .

Misery re a ched even som e of the grea t fa m il ies . On e V en

tu rin s,the son of a m a n of con su l a r r a n k , n ot h a vin g been a ble to

pa y for h is f a ther’

s fu n er a l cerem on ies, wa s kept in the erg a s tu ln in

by C. Pl a u tiu s, h is creditor . On e d a y he m a n a ged t o esca pe from

prison , a n d ra n t o the Forum , a l l covered with blood , like the

cen tu rion in the yea r 49 3 , where he im plored the protection of

th e tribu n es .

This period is l ittle kn own to u s ; it seems, however, th a t

the tribu n es proposed a n a bol ition Of debts ,3 th a t the rich resisted,

a n d th a t there were long distu rb a n ces ; b u t the people m a rched

ou t of Rom e a n d en ca m ped on the Ja n icu lum F or the l a st

tim e this m ea ns su cceeded ; for the fron tier wa s still so n ea r thetown th a t the n obles d a red n o t risk a civil wa r

,of which the en emy

wou ld n ot h a ve fa iled t o t a ke a dv a n t a ge . At this m om en t, too,

E tru ria bega n to bestir itself : a dict a tor w a s a ppoin ted,a plebei a n

Qu od n ecti ( lesieru n t. (L i vy, viii . Y et th e in so l ve nt debtor,if he rem a ined

free , w a s non e th e less.inf a mis , expe l led from h is tribe, a nd depri ved of a ll pol itica l rights.

(Cf. Cic., p ro Q u in ctio,2 Thi s is stil l th e sta te of the fa rm ers of R om e, who h a ve been often kn own t o sel l the

h a rvest before seed-time. The popu l a tion beca m e t oo numerou s for,

l a rge fa rm s, a n d whenredu ced t o sm a ll plots, were su bj ect to a l l the distresses of the sm a ll fa rm ers rou n d A ncientR ome.

2 V a l .M a x ., V I . i. 9 ; Z on a r a s, v ii i. 2 ; L i vy, E p it. x i. : post long a s ct gr a ves sed itiones.

T H E A G R -ARIA N L AW A ND TH E A BOL ITION OF DE BT. 405

n a m ed Horten siu s . I ve kn ow h is pol itica l l a ws ;1the fol lowin g

provision s a re a lso a ttribu ted to him

Abol ition or dim inu tion of debts

Distribu tion Of seven a cres t o e a ch citizen ;A ren ewed con firm a tion Of th e L ex P a piria Poet el ia

,which h a d

(in 3 26) forbidden sl a very for debt .

Debtors were thu s protected a ga i nst . the ir creditors, sin ce the

u su rer, who w a s cou n ted th e m ost da n gerou s of robbers,w a s

con dem n ed,

sa ys Ca to, t o pa y a fin e of fou rfold, wherea s the

robber on ly p a id dou ble of wh a t he took . Thu s u su ry m u st d ie

ou t,— a t lea st the l a w h a s sa id it ; b u t the la w decl a res th a t a l l

cit izen s of Rom e a re equ a l , which is a lega l fiction . The poor citizen s a re n o m ore gu a r a n teed a g a in st u su ry th a n they a re a l l

m a de con su ls a n d sen a tors . The u su rer, driven from the pu blic

pl a ce, a n d pu n ished by th e l a ws , hides him self, a n d becom es m ore

exa ctin g th a n ever ;2 for he mu s t n ow b e p a id , beyon d the price of

his m on ey, the risks tha t h e ru n s, a n d the dishon or which f a lls

on h im .

Bu t these a re evils which hum a n wisdom ca n n ot cu re . I n

equ a l ity is too m a rked in n a tu re for society to -

a void it s im press .

At Spa rt a , where equ a l ity w a s pu rsu ed with sa v a ge en ergy, even

a t the expen se of m or a lity a n d liberty, the most gl a rin g in equ a l ity

resu lted from the l a ws of Lycu rgu s .3 L et u s n ot,therefore ,

a ccu se these u psta rt n obles of h a ving forgotten,in their

“

cu ru le

ch a irs, the people from whom they spra ng . By givin g l a n d to

the poor,by proscribin g u su ry a n d especi a lly the deten t ion of the

person,they h a d don e a l l tha t the l a w a n d pol itica l wisdom cou ld

do to a mel iora te the l ot of the plebei a n s . The la tter bore it in

m in d for m ore th a n a cen tu ry,a n d th a t cen tu ry w a s the golden

a ge of the Repu blic.

1 See p. 3 94 .

2 E ven the l a w fell into disu se. The a ncient u sa ges re a ppe a red veteri j a m more f oen u srecep t a m er a t. (A ppi a n , d e B etlo civ. i . 54 ; cf. T a c.

, A n n . vi . 16 , M oreover the L a tin s ,the a l lies, served a s nom in a l debtors. (L i vy , xxxv. Brutu s lent a t 4 8 per ce nt withcompoun d interest. (Cic., a d

'

A tt. v. T he pra etor Sempron iu s , be ing desirou s of puttin gthe l a ws into force a ga in , wa s sl a in by hi s creditors. (A pp. ib id .) The a bo l ition of debts a ndof lo a n s on interest w a s a revolution a ry m ea sure which cou ld no t l a st. I t fa iled a t R ome it

wil l fa il everywhere , beca u se it is a ga in st the n a ture of things.8[Th a t Lycurgu s esta bli shed equ a lity of property is m ore tha n doubtfu l.— E d .]

406 R OM E UNDE R TH E PATR ICIAN CON SULS.

I I I . TH E A E R A R I I ; CE N SOR SH I P OF APPI US

TH E two orders , however, h a d n o t yet term in a ted their a n

cien t qu a rre l, when there a ppea red on the scen e those who were

t o overthrow t he p a trici a te,the plebe i a n n obility

,a n d l iberty.

Bene a th the plebei a n s who h a d becom e Qu irites,ou tside the p a le

of the cen tu ries a n d tribes, l ived the freedm en , who were a lrea dy

m u ltiplyin g,t he cr a ftsm en

,the m erch a n ts

,th e in ha bita n ts of m u n i

cipa l it ies sine suf r a gio, who h a d settled a t Rom e , a n d l a stly the

a er a rii,1a l l Of them citi zen s

,b u t l ivin g u n der politica l disa bilities,

exclu ded from the legion s,disqu a l ified for holdin g Offi ce

,a n d n ever

a llowed t o vote . Orga n ized in to corpor a tion s? h a vin g a ssem blies,a n d dou btless h a vin g lea ders t oo , cou n tin g a mon g them wea lthy

,

a ctive,a n d in tell igen t m en

,they form ed a cl a ss so m u ch the m ore

d a n gerou s a s they represen ted more tru ly th a n the re a l plebe i a n s

b y the diversity of their origin a n d the st a in of their birth or

profession s — the revolu tion a ry prin cipl e which wa s t o throw Rom e

Open to a l l n a tion s. I n 3 12 B . C. they n e a rly obta in ed possession

of power .

Appiu s wa s then cen sor . H e w a s on e of th e most d is

t in gu ish ed m en of his tim e,a grea t ora tor

,a grea t

]

la wyer a n d

poet ; b u t h e wa s a lso the prou dest of the h a u ghty r a ce of the

Cl a u d ii, who cou n ted a m on g them five d icta torships, thirty-two

con su lships, seven cen sorships, seven trium phs, a n d two ov a tion s,a n d who en ded with fou r emperors. Con tr a ry t o cu stom , Appiu s

h a d c a n v a ssed for the cen sorship before the con su lship . This

irrespon sible office,which g a ve in to a m a n

’

s power the m on eys“

1 A era pro ca p ite pr a ebeb a n t. They were on lv a rm ed in ca ses of extrem e peri l , a nd theywere su bj ect t o a n a rbitra ry t a x , hea vier in proportion tha n tha t of the c iti zen s. (Cf.Dionys .,iv. 18 ; ix. 25 ; a nd L i vy, iv. 24 ; v ii i. 2 0 ; ix. 4 6 ; x l i i. 2 7, T he inha bita nts of townswhich h a d the right of citi zen ship sin e sufi i

'

a g io, the Ita l i a n s who h a d settled a t R om e , a fterha ving rece ived the j u s commercii a nd even the j u s con nu b ii, were in th e s a me c a tegory.

2 I ’V e ha ve spoken of th e corpora tion s of N um a , which we a g a in fou n d in the centurie s of

workmen of Serviu s (see p. 244 , sea ) . F ortu nes a re now e stim a ted a ccording to the sum

tota l of property m ov a ble or immov a ble. A t R ome a l l tha t w a s recogn ized by the cen sorsin the ir estim a tes wa s q u irita ri a n property, tha t is to s a y, a l l the res m a n cip i (co ined bron ze,hou ses , fie lds

,sl a ves, be a sts of burden ) . M a ny mercha nts, u surers, creditors, shipowners,

a rtis a n s, in direct ho lders of the dom a in (for the a era riu s h a d n o direct sha re in the con qu eredl a n ds , s ince he did not serve) m ight b e very rich, a n d ye t find them sel ves cou nted a m ong thea era ru .

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408i

R OM E UNDE R TH E“PATRICIAN CON SULS.

the cen su s th e a er a rii who were exem pt from milit a ry service.

Thispol icy wa s h a tefu l to those who , throu gh their f a thers or

them se

lves, h a d striven a ga in st a l l n ovelties ; b u t i t ca u sed the

gre a tn ess of Rom e, by procl a iming th e spirit of a ssim il a tion with

foreign r a ces in ste a d Of a n a rrow a n d je a lou s p a triotism . A s for

CAUSEWAY

I N T H E V A LLE Y OF A R I C I A F O R T H E PA SSA G E OF T H E A PPI A N W A Y .1

th e son s Of freedm enca l led t o th e Sen a te by Appiu s, they m u st

havebeen

very few,for there I s n othin g s a id a bou t their expu l

sion by th e su cceeding cen sors, — thou gh , of cou rse , this m a yh a ve

t a ken pl a ce withou t a ny n oise .

The l a w a llowed th e cen sors; wh o were a ppoin ted every five

ye a rs, to reta in Office for on ly.eighteen mon ths ; a n d Appiu s is

accu sed

Of n ot h a vin g a bdic a ted till th e en d of five yea rs . H e

could on ly h a ve comm itted this bre a ch of l a w by the su pport Of

apowerful p a rty in t h e Sen a te a n d a m on g the people ; b u t it is

1 A tl a s of the B u l l . a rche'o l . vol . 11. pl . 3 9 .

TH E AGRARIAN L AW A ND TH E ABOLITION OF DE BT. 40 9

more th a n prob a ble th a t in order t o a llow h im to com plete his

imm en se works , he w a s fu rn ished with a comm ission which w a s

looked u pon a s th e con tin u a tion of his cen so rship . Wha tever m a y

b e the tru th a bou t these a ccu s a tion s a n d ou r hypotheses , posterity

owes hon or to the m a n who, a fter ha vin g t a u ght the Rom a n s the

im porta n ce to em pire a n d comm erce of r a pid m e a n s of comm u

n ica t ion ,bu ilt th e first of those a qu edu cts which l ed the w a ter of

n eighborin g hills to Rom e“on trium ph a l a rches . H is w a s

su bterr a n e a n ,b u t most of the other thirteen , which were bu ilt

l a ter, were n ot so ; a n d their coloss a l ru in s give t o th e desert of

the Rom a n Ca m p a gn a th a t solem n a n d gra ve a spect whi ch rem in ds

u s th a t a grea t people h a s l ived there .

With Appiu s a n d his reform s is a ssoci a ted the clerk Fl a viu s,him sel f the son of a freedm a n

,a n d m a de a sen a tor by Appiu s.

The pu blica tion of the c a len d a r of the pon ti ffs a n d of the secret

form u l a e of lega l proceedin gs (j u s F l a via num ), which he h a d m a n a ged

to discover by a tten di n g l a w-su its,h a d ga i n ed him th e gra titu de

of bu sin ess m en , who , forced h im in to the tribu n eship, h a d h im

twice a ppoin ted trium vir ,1a n d prom ised him thei r voices for the

cu ru le a ed ileship . The who le n obili ty,those who were a lrea dy

ca lled “ the better cl a sses, were m oved a t thi s str a n ge n ovelty, a n d

the presiden t of th e elective com it ia'

t ried t o refu se votes given for

him When h is election wa s kn own ,the sen a tors, in grief

a n d sh a m e,took off the ir golden rin gs

, the kn ights th e orn a m en ts

of their w a r-horses,a n d the first tim e he en tered hi s colle a gu e ’ s

hou se,

2n o on e rose to yield him a pl a ce . Bu t he h a d h is cu ru le

cha ir brou ght in,a n d those who scorn ed the u pst a rt were obliged

to ben d before the m a gistr a te .

These br a v a dos m ight stir u p p a ss ion s ; b u t Fl a viu s displ a yedthe tem per of a st a tesm a n

, a n d n ot th a t of a n a m bitiou s u psta rt .

H e spoke of pe a ce, of con cord,a n d

,like Ca m illu s , vowed a tem ple

to the recon ci li a tion of a l l the orders . A s the Sen a te wou ld n ot

give him the m on ey n ecessa ry for the bu ildin g of the tem ple, he

employed u pon it the proceeds of fin es,a n d the people forced

1 Tr iu nwir n octum u s a nd tri

umvir colon ia e d ed u cend a e. (L ivy, x i. 4G.)2 L ivy, ibi d.; P lin y, N a t. H ist , xxxi ii 6 ; Cic., d e Ora l. i. 4 1 ; E 1) . a d A l l . v i. 1. H is

collea gu e, Q. A n iciu s of Pra ene ste , h a d on ly been a R om a n citizen for a few yea rs. The ircompetitors were two plebe i a ns of con su l a r fa m i ly, Poeteliu s a nd Dom itiu s. (Pliny, ih. xxxi ii.

410 ROME UNDE R TH E PATRICIA N CON SULS.

the chi ef pon ti ff, who h a d a t first refu sed, t o con secra te the

bu ildin g .

The m e a su re t a ken by Appiu s in respect to the a er a rti w a s a

ju st a n d good on e ; b u t the m a n n er in which it h a d been ca rried

ou t ren dered it d a n gerou s. I f sprea d throu gh the thirty-fivetribes, the popu l a ce wou ld h a ve becom e m a sters of a l l the votes .When , in 3 04

, Fa biu s, the m ost illu striou s of the p a tricia n s,a n d

Deciu s, the chief of the plebei a n n obility,h a d been a ppoin ted

cen sors, they a llowed the a er a ri'i to reta in the rights which Appiu sh a d given them ; b u t they en rolled them in th e fou r city tribes

,

where, n otwithst a n din g their n umber, they h a d on ly fou r votesa ga in st thirty-on e . This mea su re “ga in ed for Fa biu s a m on g th e

p a trici a n s the su rn a m e of M a ximu s,which his victories h a d n ot

con ferred on him,a n d the city tribes were then ceforth held to b e

deba sed ; it beca m e a pu n ishm en t t o b e en ro lled in them by the

cen sors. Appiu s wa s right in do ing a w a y with the civic degr a d a

tion of a num erou s cl a ss, a n d Fa biu s in t a kin g prec a u tion s lest the“n ew socia l stra tum ”

shou ld stifle the ol d .

I n order to in crea se the extern a l splen dor of the n obility,

the sa me cen sors in stitu ted a n a n n u a l review of kn ights . On the

15th of Ju ly they proceeded on horseb a ck from the Temp le of M a rs

to the Ca pitol,cl a d in white robes striped with pu rple

,we a rin g

ol ive crown s on the ir he a ds , a n d be a rin g the m il it a ry rew a rds

a ccorded to their v a lor. Thu s every yea r this brilli a n t a rra y of

you th p a ssed , prou d a n d glo riou s, before the eyes of the people,

in spirin g them with respect a n d a we. This w a s the festiva l of the

Rom a n n obility .l

We did n ot wish , by the n a rra tion of the com plica ted w a rs

of this period, t o dra w ofi a tten tion from the developm en t of the

Rom a n con stitu tion from the tim e of the tribu n e Licin iu s to tha t

of the dicta tor Horten siu s (3 67 N ow th a t we kn ow the

1[I t wa s proba bly a .direct im ita tion of the Pa n a then a ic festi v a l a t A then s, which we see

in the frieze of the P a rthenon . E d .]2 There ha ve been reckoned for the fifth century n e a rly two hu ndred pa trici a n s who h a d

borne office ; for the fourth n ot m ore tha n ha lf this n umber a re fou n d , a n d m ore tha n fortyplebe i a ns obta ined m a gistra cies. I n 2 95 the form er sti ll h a ve a m a jority in the Sen a te (Livyx. b u t the ir n umber contin u a lly dim in ishes , where a s tha t of the plebe i a n s, a fter the Ovin ia n

l a w, in cre a se s u nce a s ingly. (See p. I n 179 , ou t of 3 04 sen a tors , M . W i l lem s, in hisrem a rk a ble essa y on the Sén a t d e l a R épu bli q u e R om a ine, p. 3 66 , finds e ighty-e ight p a trie i a u s a nd two hu ndred a nd sixteen plebe i a n s.

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THI RD PER I OD.

WAR OF I TALI AN INDE PE NDE NCE, OR CONQUE ST

OF ITALY (3 43

CHAPTE R XI V .

WAR S WI TH THE SAMNITE S AND L ATINS ( 3 43

I . FI R ST SA M N I T E WA R ACQU I SI T I ON or CA PUA (3 43

INCE the Licin i a n l a ws h a d re-esta blished con cord in the city,

Rome displ a yed a form id a ble en ergy a broa d . I n the sp a ce of

twen ty-three ye a rs sh e h a d freed hersel f from the Ga u ls for the

n ext h a lf cen tu ry ; the on ly E tru sca n town s which h a d d a red to

a tta ck her h a d le a rn ed f a ta l eviden ce of their wea kn ess ; a n d

the whole pl a in of L a tium w a s occu pied by Roma n citizen s a n d

a llies. I f there stil l rem a in ed in the m ou n t a in s a ny in depen den t

a n d secretly hostile L a tin or V olsci a n cities, th e Sen a te kept them

su rrou n ded by the ga rrison s est a blished"

a t Terra cin a on the sea ,

a n d a t Sora in the Va lley of the Liris. Within the city the

pa trici a n s h a d f a i led in their cou n ter-revolu tion a ry a ttem pts,a n d

the l a ws of Gen u ciu s a n d Pu b l il iu s were a bou t to com plete th e

plebe i a n revolu tion .

1 Nothin g, however, foretold, except perh a psthe stron g org a n iz a tion of this li ttle n a tion , th a t it s fortu n es wou ld

ever exten d beyon d these n a rrow lim its . I t wa s the b a ttles

a ga in st th e Sa m n ites th a t decided the fu tu re of Rom e. Hitherto,

from the t ime of the kings, sh e h a d with difficu lty defen ded

herself. The n ew stru ggle,in wh ich her very existen ce is a t

st a ke, a n d a t the en d of which she fin ds herself m istress of It a ly,

1 See ch a p. x i ii.

I VARS W ITH SAM N ITE S AN D LATIN S FR OM 3 43 TO 3 12 . 413

mu st n eeds m a ke her a con qu ering st a te . The fight on Mou n t

G a u ru s is the first b a ttle of a w a r which en ds on the su m m i ts o f

Atl a s a n d the b a n ks of the Rhin e, the D a n u be , a n d E u phra tes .

We h a ve seen1wh a t the cou n try of the Sa m n ites wa s : sn owy

pea ks , wild v a lleys , where life w a s h a rd a n d m a n n ers w a rlike , a n d

the n eed of pu tting u n der con tribu tion the pl a in s a t the foot of

the Apen n in es ever pressing . They loved wa r , a n d in order to

su cceed in it,they h a d rea ched a pitch of m il it a ry orga n i za tion

sca rcely in ferior t o th a t of the Rom a n s . Bu t,be in g sca ttered

a m on g the m ou n t a in s, they h a d n either a ny gre a t town to serve

a s a cit a del , n or a pol itica l org a ni za tion which m ight u n ite the

inha bit a n ts of the territory in close bon ds . Som etim es a tem por a ry

le a gu e u n ited thei r forces , a n d for a ny en terprise on ce determ in ed

they chose a chief t o lea d the ir w a rriors ; b u t of a ny execu tivepower like th a t of the con su ls

,or perm a n en t cou n cil like th e

Sen a te , or a ny sovereign a ssem bly like th e com iti a of Rom e,th a t

is to s a y, of on e of the m ost vigorou s poli tic a l con stitu tion s of

a n tiqu ity, - they kn ew n othin g .

While Rom e a dv a n ced towa rds L a tium, Sou thern E tru ri a , a n d

the Sa bin e cou n try, secu rin g every step by the occu p a tion of a l l

str a tegic position s, a n d lea ving a s l ittle a s possible to ch a n ce,the

Sa mn ites wen t in se a rch of a dven tu res . Now they con qu ered Ca m

p a n i a ; a ga in M a gn a G ra ecia ; b u t no t ie a tt a ched these n ew settle

m en ts t o the mother cou n try, a n d the ir colon ies soon forgot the

people when ce they h a d spru n g ; so th a t,thou gh Sa m n ite b a n ds

m a de rich ca ptu res a n d took possession of fertile l a n ds, the Sa mn ite

sta te in cre a sed n either in size n or strength. Strictly spe a kin g, i t

did n ot exist . A n d yet these turbu len t mou n t a in eers h a d grea t

a mbition . When they s a w the Rom a n s est a blished a t Sora , a few

steps from their territory,they wished t o t a ke u p a posit ion

between Ca m p a n ia a n d La tium,by seizin g the cou n try of ~ the

Sid icin i. T ea n u m,the ca pit a l of this people

, w a s situ a ted on a

grou p of m ou n t a in s shu t in between the Liris a n d the sem icircu l a r

cou rse of the V u l tu rnu s ; from it s w a lls m ight b e seen Ca pu a , beyon d

the V u l tu rn u s,a n d M in tu rn a e, a t the m ou th of the Liris . These

two pl a ces a n d the roa d between L a tium a n d Ca mp a n i a wou l d

1 Pa ge 88 seq.

414 CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

h a ve been a t the m ercy of the Sa m n ites, if they h a d m a de the

con qu est of the cou n try of the Sid icin i. Accordin gly, the Ca pu a n s

prom ised a id t o Te a n um . Bu t their en erv a ted troops cou ld n ot

withst a n d th e a ctive m ou n ta in eers ; they were twice bea ten , a n d

driven b a ck in to Ca pu a , which the Sa m n ites, en ca m ped on Mou n t

Tif a t a,a m i le from it s w a lls

,held ‘

a s it were besieged .

l I n this

extrem ity th e Ca m p a ni a n s sen t a n em ba ssy to Rom e E leven

yea rs before, a comm on h a tred of th e Vo lscia n s a n d th e fea r of th e

Ga ll ic b a n ds h a d dra wn the Rom a n s a n d Sa m n ites together ; a

tre a ty h a d been con clu ded . This w a s the pretext which th e Sen a teu sed t o rej ect the first dem a n ds of the Ca m p a n i a n s

,a n d m a king

them b uy a id a t a high price .“ Well !” sa i d the depu ties

,

“ will you refu se to defen d wh a t belon gs t o you? Ca pu a gives

herself t o you with h er l a n ds, her tem ples, everythin g,s a cred a nd

prof a n e . The Sen a te a ccepted ; b u t when it s en voys ca m e to bid

the Sa mn ite gen era l s desist from a tt a ckin g a town which h a d

becom e Rom a n property, the l a tter replied by orderin g the r a v

a gin g of the Ca m p a n i a n l a n ds ; a n d a w a r of s ixty-eight yea rsbega n .

Sta te rea son s were dou btless in voked to brea k off the trea ty

so recen tly con clu ded with the Sa m n ites. I t w a s im possible

t o a llow the en feebled n a tion s of th e Volsci a n s a n d A u ru n cia n s,

of the Sid icin i a n d Ca m p a n i a n s, to b e repl a ced a t the very ga tes of

L a tium by a bra ve a n d en terprisin g people ; i f this torren t were

n ot con fin ed to th e m ou n ta in s,soon n o d a m wou ld b e a ble to

restra in it . The L a tin s believed this. Accordin gly, the w a r wa s for

them a n a tion a l on e, a n d they en tered in to it with m ore a rdor

th a n th e Rom a n s h a d d esired. Three a rm ies were set a foot . On e,

u n der th e comm a n d of Va leriu s Corvu s, wen t t o rel ieve Ca pu a ;a n other, l ed by Corn el iu s

,pen etr a ted in to Sa m n ium while the

L a tin a l l ies crossed th e Apenn in es in order t o a tta ck the Sa m n ites

in the re a r , throu gh the cou n try of the Pelign i .The histori a n s of Rom e h a ve

, of cou rse , preserved n o record

of the oper a tion s of th e L a tin a rm y. Rega rdin g th e Rom a n

legion s, on the other h a n d,deta il s a re given in a bu n d a n ce .

2 L et

L ivy, V I I . 2 9 , seq. immin en t-is Ca pu a e col les, n ow ca lled M on te d i M a d d a lom'

.

H a n n ib a l esta bl ished his ca mp there in 215.

9 L i vy , v i i. 3 2, seq.

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416 CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

of the dis a rr a y of the en emy . The Sa m n ites, a tt a cked before

they h a d recovered from the ir su rprise,were defe a ted, their ca m p

w a s t a ken,a n d the Rom a n s inflicted a fea rfu l sl a u ghter on them .

On the m orrow the con su l comm en ded Deciu s in th e presen ce

of th e whole a rmy. Besides th e cu stom a ry m il it a ry presen ts,he

ga ve him a golden crown,a hu n dred oxen ,

a n d a white bu l l with

gilded horn s '

a n d t o ea ch of h is soldiers a n ox , two tu n ics, a n d

a dou ble r a tion of whea t for his whole life . After the con su l, the

legion s which Deciu s h a d sa ved from de a th or dishon or,a n d the

det a chm en ts which he h a d dra wn ou t of a d a n gerou s position,

were a lso a n xiou s to rew a rd the ir del iverer a n d a m id u n iversa l

a ccl a m a tion s the obsid ion a l crown w a s pl a ced u pon his hea d . I t

w a s on ly m a de of gra ss or wild herbs,b u t it w a s th e grea test

m i lit a ry hon or th a t a citizen cou ld obt a in , a n d the a rmy a l on e

h a d the right to bestow it. Decora ted with these in sign i a , Deciu s

s a crificed the bu ll with the gilded horn s before a ru stic a lta r of

M a rs, a n d presen ted the hu n dred oxen t o the p rin'

czpes a n d ha s t a ti

who h a d followed him . To ea ch of these sa m e soldiers the

other legion a ries ga ve a pou n d of me a l a n d a m ea su re of win e.

Wh a t won derfu l m en they were,to whom gra titu de w a s a s n a tu ra l

a s devotion ! I t is ea sily u n derstood how the mem ory of tha t

gloriou s d a y colored the whole l ife of Deciu s,a n d in spired him

with the idea of his crown in g sa crifice .

All the hon or of this c a m p a ign wa s reserved for the other

con su l, Va leriu s Corvu s. H e,with M a n l iu s

,of whom we sha ll

see m ore presen tly,w a s th e hero of th e Ga l lic w a rs . Beloved by

th e people , a s were a l l of his hou se , h e still reta in ed a m id the ca m p

a n d u n der the con su l a r robe his popu l a r m a n n ers, a ffa ble with

the soldiers, sh a ring their priva tion s a n d f a tigu es, a n d settin g a l l

a n exa m ple of cou r a ge. Six tim es he obta in ed the cu ru le a edile

ship, the pra etorship a n d con su lship, twice th e dicta torship a n d a

trium ph .

1 H e h a d seen Ca mil lu s d ie,a n d the Rom a n s trembling

before a few G a llic ba n ds ; h e s a w the close of the Sa m n ite wa r,which ga ve Rom e the ru le of a l l I ta ly, a n d h e a lmost sa w the

com m en cemen t of the Pu n ic w a rs, whi ch left in her h a n ds the

em pire of the world. A n d du rin g the cou rse of th is cen tu ry

1 P liny, N a t. H ist. vn . 48.

WAR S W ITH SAM N ITE S A ND LATIN S FROM 3 43 TO 3 12 . 417

lon g life he n ever fa iled the Repu bl ic on e d a y, in a ction or in

cou n cil . I n 3 43 he w a s i n his third con su lship . Bein g cha rged

to drive t he Sa m n ites ou t of Ca m p a n ia,h e wen t to seek them

n ea r Mou n t Ga t un s,

a n d in spired his troops with su ch a rdor,th a t a fter the fight the prison ers con fessed , s a ys Livy

,

1 th a t th eyh a d been terror-stru ck when they sa w the legion a ries ’ eyes fla sh

like fi re ben ea th the ir helm ets . All Ca pu a ca me ou t to m eet the

con qu eror. At Rom e a trium ph a w a ited h im,ga in ed by a secon d

victory n e a r Su essul a . These su ccesses resou n ded fa r a n d wide ; th e

Fa lisca n s a sked to ch a n ge, the tru ce in to a n a lli a n ce ; a n d the Ca rth a

g in ia n s, frien dly towa rds a power which w a s risin g between thei r

riv a ls,the Greeks a n d E tru sca n s , sen t a n em b a ssy to congra tu l a te

the Sen a te, a n d to pl a ce a crown of gold in the Ca pitol .

I V hen win ter ca m e on,the Rom a n s

,a t the requ est of the

in h a bita n ts, pl a ced ga rrison s in the Ca m p a n i a -n town s . we h a ve

rel a ted the revolt of these legion a ries a n d it s con sequ en ces .

2

Wh en the sed it ioi i w a s p a cified , the Sen a te , who felt th a t th e

st a te w a s sh a ken,a n d th a t the L a tin s thre a ten ed trou ble , ren ou n ced

the Sa m n ite w a r , on ly requ irin g a yea r’

s pa y a n d three m on ths ’

provision s for the a rmy of the con s u l A em il iu s F or this

price they a b a n don ed Tea n u m a n d Ca pu a to the Sa m n ites . The

L a tin s con tin u ed hostilities on the ir own a ccou n t , in le a gu e w ith

the Volsci a n s , A u ru n ci, Sid icin i, a n d Ca m p a n i a n s ; a n d when the

Sa m n ites ca m e to Rom e to com pl a in ,the Sen a tors were obliged

t o a n swer th a t they h a d n ot the right to preven t the ir a ll ies from

m a kin g w a r on whom soever they chose .3

I I . TH E LA T I N WA R (3 40

SI N CE the first G a ll ic in v a sion . Rom e h a d a lwa ys fou n d

en em ies in La tium . Thou gh comm on d a n gers h a d dra wn sever a l

cities closer to her in 3 57, these did n ot a ccept h er su prem a cy

with the s a m e resign a tion a s in the da ys when the legion s yea rly

1 L i vy,vn . 3 3 , 3 8.

2 See p. 3 3 2 .3 I n f oed ere L a tin o n ihil esse, qu a bel l a re cum qu ib us {psi vel i-n t prohibea n tu r . (L ivy,

viii .V O L . I .

418 CON QU E ST OF ITALY.

c a me t o defen d them a ga in st the Aequ i a n d th e Volsci. T he

en feeblem en t of those two n a tion s a n d th e dep a rtu re of the G a u lsh a vin g removed the fe a rs of th e La tin s

,their j ea lou sy a woke ;

a n a lli a n ce with the Sid icin i a n d Ca m p a n i a n s,whom Rom e h a d

a b a n don ed, in crea sed their con fiden ce , a n d the su ccessfu l issu e of

the revolt of the cohorts in.

Ca m p a n i a l ed them t o bel ieve tha t

their own defection wou ld a lso b e su ccessfu l . Soon there a rrived

a t Rom e two L a tin pra etors, A n n iu s of Seti a a n d N um iciu s of

Circeii. They dem a n ded wh a t the plebei a n s h a d ju st obt a in ed,

equ a lity of pol itic a l rights , — th a t is, tha t on e of the two con su ls

a n d h a lf the sen a tors shou ld b e t a ken from a m on g the L a tin s . On

these con dition s Rom e wou ld rem a in the c a pit a l of L a tium . The

n a tion a l pride r evolted . “ He a r these bl a sphem ies,O Ju piter !”

cried M a n l iu s ; a n d he swore to sta b th e first La tin who shou ld

com e to t a ke his sea t in the Sen a te.

A n n iu s replied with in su ltin g words a ga in st Rom e a n d her

Ju piter Ca pitol in u s . Bu t the l ightn in g fl a shed,s a ys tra dition ; pea ls

of thu n der shook the Cu ri a a n d a s A n n iu s qu itted the Ca pitol

to descen d the flight of a hu n dred steps,he m issed his footin g

a n d rolled t o the bottom , where he l a y l ifeless. The god h a d

a ven ged him self .1

Wa r w a s decl a red Rom e wa s n ow,by th e defection

of th e L a tin town s,obliged to fight with m en a ccu stom ed t o h er

disciplin e , her a rm s, a n d her t a ctics .2 The d a n ger w a s im m en se ;

b u t m en’

s cou r a ge rose with th e d a n ger. The con su ls a t tha t

tim e were M a n liu s, whose severity ga in ed him th e su rn a m e of

I m periosu s , a n d Deciu s M u s,of th a t n oble plebe i a n f a m i ly

,in

which devotion to their cou n try bec a m e heredit a ry . While the

con su ls ra ised the best levies,stren gthen ed disciplin e , a n d m a de a l l

prep a r a tion s with the a ctivity a n d resou rces which a cen tra li zed

power a fford, the Sen a te kept u p it s a lli a n ce ' with Osti a ,

L a u ren tum,Arde a , th e H ern ica n s

,a n d perha ps L a n u vium ,

a n d

secu red the n eu tr a l ity of Fu n di a n d F orm ia e, a n d the fa vor a ble

rega rds of the Ca m p a n i a n a ristocra cy. Bu t the most im porta n t

a id rea ched it from Sa m n ium,th e trea ty of pea ce between the

1 L ivy (vii i. who wishes to bring this legen d in tohistoric possibility, on ly spea ks of afa l l fol lowed by a swoon .

2 L i vy, v ii i. 12, 13 .

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420 CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

bega n to give w a y. The con su l ca lled the high pon tiff to him,

a n d with veiled he a d a n d a j a velin u n der h is foot h e in voked Ja n u s,

M a rs, a n d Be llon a ,1

a n d pron ou n ced th e sa cred form u l a e which

for the sa fety of the legion s, dedic a ted him self a n d the hostile

a rmy t o the gods of the lower world . Then , m ou n ted on h is wa r

horse , a n d cl a d in a l l his a rm or,with h is tog a girt a bou t h im

,

2

he ru shed in to th e midst of the en emy’

s r a n ks,where he soon

fell,pierced with m a n y blows . This rel igiou s prep a ra tion , this

heroic devotion ,witn essed by both a rm ies , the belief tha t the

blood of this volu n t a ry victim h a d redeem ed th a t of the Rom a n

a rm y, in spired the con su l a r legion s with the certa in ty of victory,a n d the La tin s with a s grea t a cert a in ty of defea t . Three

qu a rters of the L a tin a rm y were left . u pon the field of b a ttle,

a n d Ca m p a n i a w a s recon qu ered a t a blow. A skilfu l m a n oeu vre

on the p a rt of M a n l iu s, who brou ght u p his reserves a fter the

L a tin s,deceived by a stra t a gem

,h a d en ga ged a l l. their forces, h a d

decided th e victory. The rem n a n t of th e be a ten a rmy r a llied a t

Vescia a m ong th e A u ru n ci. N u m iciu s l ed thither som e levies

h a stily r a ised . Bu t a secon d victory, which threw open L a tium ,

broke u p the le a gu e ; sever a l town s ten dered thei r su bm ission ; a n d

on the 18th of M a y M a n l iu s en tered Rom e in triu m ph

The wa r w a s n ot yet fin ished ; the Sen a te h a sten ed, however,to a w a rd the pu n ishm en ts a n d rew a rds . Ca pu a lost th e Fa lern i a ncou n try

,so n oted for it s win e ; b u t sixteen hu n dred Ca m p a n i a n

kn ights,who h a d rem a in ed f a ithfu l to the ca u se of Rom e

,received

the rights of citizen ship,with a n a n n u a l pa y of 450 den a ri i ea ch

,

levied on th e rest of the inh a bit a n ts . ThisI

w a s a bou t

of E n glish m on ey,p a id a n n u a lly by the Ca m p a n i a n people for the

tre a son of it s a ristocr a cy . The L a tin cities which h a d ju st su b

m it ted were a lso deprived of a portion of their l a n d . This wa s

distribu ted a m on g the citizen s,givin g 2 j u gera a hea d in L a tium ,

a n d 3 in the Fa lern i a n cou n try .

3

Me a nwhil e M a n l iu s,h a vin g f a llen sick

,a ppoin ted Cr a ssu s

1 J a n u s, Jup iter, M a rs P a ter , Qu ir in u s, B el lon a , L a res, (Hui N ovens iles,( I i I n d igetes , d ivi,

qu orum est p otest a s n os trorum .hostiumqu e, Diiqu e M a n es. T he gods n a m ed by Deciu s a re

the o ld Ita l i a n di vin ities, with J a n u s a t their hea d : th e d ivi N oven siles a re the new gods.Cf Cinciu s, a p . A ru ch., i i i . 3 8.

I pse in cin cl us cinctu G a b ino. (L i vy, vi i i.3 L ivy, vii i. 11.

WARS W ITH SAM N ITE S A ND LATIN S FROM 3 43 TO 3 12 . 421

di cta tor to com plete the redu ction of La tiu m . A n expeditiona ga in st A n t ium , which led to n o resu lts

,w a s a n en cou r a gem en t

for the town s which h a d rem a in ed in a rm s . A victory g a in ed byPu b l il iu s Philo did n ot effa ce a check su st a in ed by h is collea gu e

a t the siege of Pedum f The Repu blic, it is tru e , w a s a t this

period di stu rbed by trou bles which l ed t o the dict a torship a n d

T E MPLE OF T H E G I A N T S A T CUMA E .1

l a ws of Pu b l il iu s ; b u t it w a s th e l a st a ct of this lon g dra m a .

Revolu tion ,su ccessfu l a t hom e, w a s su ccessfu l , t oo. a broa d ; a n d th e

first even t of the n ew era w a s th e tot a l su bm ission of L a tium .

A n t ium , on the coa st , a n d Pedu m,situ a ted in fron t of Mou n t

A l g idu s , were the l a st two bu lw a rks of the lea gu e . The con su ls

of the ye a r 3 3 8 divided between them the a tt a ck on these two

pl a ces . M a n l iu s m a rched a g a in st the first , a n d be a t the L a tin s in

the pl a in n e a r Astu ri a ; F u riu s took the secon d , in spite of a l l the

1 Ta ken from th e B ib l iotlzequ e n a tion a le. I t shou ld ra ther b e ca l led the tem ple of th e

G i a nt, for these ru in s be long to a sm a l l edifice from which wa s ta ken a co lossa l sta tu e of

Jupiter sea ted, which is n ow in the m u seum a t N a ples.

422 CON QUE ST or ITALY .

efforts of the L a tin s of the m oun t a in s . From this tim e resist a n ce

cea sed, a n d a l l the town s on e a fter a n other open ed the ir ga tes .

I t w a s n ecessa ry to decide on the f a te of th e v a n qu ished .

This w a s the first time th e Sen a te ca m e t o settle m a tters of su ch

gr a ve in terest . They did it with su ch pru den ce , th a t the mea su res

t a ken on this occa sion in su red the fidelity of the L a tin s for ever,

a n d were in va ri a bly repea ted for three cen tu ries in a l l cou n tries

con qu ered by th e Repu blic. I n the first pl a ce,the in h a bit a n ts

were forbidden gen er a l a ssem blies , lea gu es, to m a ke w a r,con tr a ct

m a rri a ge , or a cqu ire l a n ded property ou tside their territory ?The

L a tin con federa tion“

w a s thu s dissolved, a n d Rom e h a d n ow before

h er n othin g b u t sm a ll town s con dem n ed to isol a tion ; the Sen a te,m oreover, a w a ken ed, by a n u n equ a l distribu tion of o ffices a n d priv

il eges, those riv a lries a n d m u n icipa l jea lou sies a lw a ys so rife in

Ita l i a n cities . The town s n ea rest Rom e were a tta ched to her

fortu n es by the con cession of the rights of citizen ship a n d of

votin g. Tu scu lu m go t the first of these.

rights, n ot

the secon d . L a n u vium, A ricia , Pedum , N om en tum ,

a n d d ou btless G a b ii,h a d both

,a n d in the yea r 3 3 2

two n ew tribes,M a eci a a n d Sca p tia , were form ed of

SER PEN T OF thei r in ha bit a n ts . With L a n u vium th e con su ls st ipuJUN O SOSPI T A '

2

la ted th a t they shou ld h a ve free a ccess to the tem pleof Ju n o Sospit a

,in which the con su ls ca m e yea rly to offer solem n

s a crifices . I n this sa n ctu a ry wa s n ou rished a serpen t, which is

of ten represen ted on the coin s.

Beyon d this first lin e of town s, which h a d becom e

Rom a n,

a n d which protected the c a pit a l from the

sea to the mou n t a in s of th e Sa bin e cou n try,Tibu r

a n d Pra en este 3 reta in ed their in depen den ce,b u t lost

T H E R OST R A .4

a p a rt of thei r terri tory, Privernu m lost three qu a r

ters, V el it ra e a n d A n t ium th e whole . A n t iu m del ivered u p her

1 Ca eter is L a tin is p op u l is conn u bia commercia qu e et concil ia in ter se a d emeru n t. (Li vy,v ii i.

2 G irl a ppro a chin g the serpent of Ju no Sospita ; be low, F A BA T I . R everse of a si lverco in of th e R osci a n fa m i ly. F or th e worsh ip of Ju no Sospita , see p. 2 00 .

8 R om a n citizen s con dem ned to ex i le cou ld retire into these two t own s.4 Th e co in wh ich represents them is a den a riu s of M . Lol l iu s P a l ica n u s, who , be in g tribu ne

in the ye a r 71, restored t o the tribu ne ship the powers of wh ich Su l l a h a d depri ved it . The

gens L u l l ia con secra ted this memory by a co in be a ring on one s ide a .he a d of Liberty, a nd onthe other the pl a tform for speeches, the rostra , restored to im porta nce by P a lica nu s.

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CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

Va leriu s Corvu s . Ca les w a s t a ken ,

la n d gu a rded by a colony of

m en ; Tea n um dou btless a sked for pe a ce , — a t le a st,

a fter

this period there is n o m ore m en tion of the Sid icin i. The

Au son es a lso dis a ppe a r ; the Volsci a n s ha ve n ot been m en tion ed

sin ce th e di sa ster of A n t ium the Ru tu l i n o lon ge r give a ny sign s

of l if e ; m ost of the L a tin s a re citizen s of Rom e ; the Aequ i,Sa bin es, a n d H ern ici rea ppea r on ce m ore , som e to rel a pse imm e

d ia t ely, v a n qu ished a n d broken,in to th e obscu rity of m u n icip a l

in depen den ce , others to lose them selves in the grea t city. Thu s

the st a te of Cen tra l Ita ly w a s sim plified : to a v a riety of n a tion s

there su cceeds Rom a n u n ity. From the Cim in ia n forest to the

b a n ks of th e V u l tu rn u s,

a sin gle n a tion ho lds sw a y. Bu t the

m a l a ria follows th e legion s . The bu sy cities of th e L a tin a n d

Ca m pa n i a n coa st lose the ir a ctivity with the ir in depen den ce . The

stru ggle a ga in st this in v a din g n a tu re rel a xes , the h a rbors b e

com e blocked,the ca n a ls a re choked u p, th e rivers sprea d a broa d

in to u n recl a im ed sw a m ps , which, ben e a th a fiery sky, con tinu a lly

produ ce a n d destroy in n um er a ble orga n ism s,fill in g th e a ir in their

decom position with the seeds of de a th . I n these depopu la ted

cou n tries fertile fields becom e dea dly sol itu des .

Rom e herself su ffered by it . I n the yea r 3 3 1 a pestilen ce

desol a ted the city . N u m bers of the Sen a te h a d a lrea dysu ccum bed,when a sl a ve ca m e t o the a ediles a n d decl a red th a t the victim s h a d

died by po ison . A n in qu iry w a s he ld ; a n d in their terror people

fou n d som e on e on whom to l a y th e gu ilt, a s in ou r own d a ys the

m ob do , even in P a ris,when cholera decim a tes them . A hu n dred

a n d n in ety m a tron s were con dem n ed . After this holoca u st h a d

been offered to terror a n d folly,it w a s thou ght th a t so m a ny

dom estic crim es m u st a rise from th e a n ger of the gods ; a n d in

order to a ppea se them,a dict a tor w a s a ppoin ted

,who

,with a l l

rel igiou s pom p,wen t solem n ly to drive a n a i l in to th e w a ll of t he

tem ple of Ju piter ?

A few yea rs previou sly (3 3 7) Rom e h a d a ga in a fforded on e of

those s a d spect a cles which we ha ve a lre a dy described ? The Vesta lMin u ci a

, who h a d a w a ken ed su spicion by a n over-a tten tion to her

1 L i v viii. 16 ; in 3 3 5. 3 See 2 28,22 9 .Y PP

2 Li vy,v i i i. 18.

WAR S W ITH SAMN ITE S AN D LATIN S FROM 3 43 To 3 12 . 425

dress,w a s a ccu sed of h a vin g viol a ted her vows . She rece ived a n

order from the pon ti ffs to cea se the disch a rge of her du ties, a n d

n ot to en fra n chi se a ny of her sl a ves , in order th a t they m ight b e

exa min ed by tortu re . The eviden ce con firm in g the ch a rges,a s i t

a lwa ys did in these c a ses , the u n h a ppy girl w a s bu ried a l ive n ea r

the Coll in e G a te ? These priests,who were su ch vigil a n t gu a rdi a n s

of th e pu rity of the worsh ip of Vest a , were a s pitiless a s their

fierce goddess .

I I I . SE COND SA MN I T E WA R (3 26

WH I LE th e resu lts of the L a tin w a r ga ve the Repu blic a

territory 140 m iles in exten t , from n orth-e a st to sou th-west,a n d

58 m iles from ea st t o west,

2a kin g of E piru s

,Alexa n der the

Molossi a n , u n cle t o Alexa n der the Grea t,w a s a ttemptin g to do in

the West wh a t the son of Phil ip a ecom

pl ished in the E a st . H a vin g been

in v ited t o a id the T a ren tin es, h e bea t

the L u ca n ia n s a n d Sa m n ites n e a r P a estum

,a n d con sequ en tly a t the very door

of Ca m p a n i a , m a de them deliver u p

t o h im three hu n dred hosta ges whom he sen t in to E piru s, a n d

deprived the Bru t t ia n s of Terin a a n d Sipon tum . After he h a d

con qu ered, he wished t o org a n ize ; a n d en de a vored t o con stitu te

a t Thu rium a n a ssem bly of the n a tion s of Sou thern It a ly,in

th e hope of govern in g it a s the kings of M a cedon i a sw a yed

the syn od a t Corin th .4 I n the L a tin wa r the a l li a n ce of the

‘

Sa m n ites h a d sa ved Rom e ; b u t s in ce there w a s n o longer a

hostile n a tion between th e a llies,their jea lou sy re-a w a ken ed .

Accordin gly, th e su ccess of Alexa n der w a s h a iled with joy a t

Rom e ; a n d a s th a t prin ce h a d com pl a in ed of the pira cies of

the A n t ia t es, who, in spite of the severe ch a stisemen t they h a d

A L E x A N DE R .8

1 L i vy,vi ii. 15.

2 F rom Sora to A n t ium .

8 L a urel-crown ed he a d of Jupiter ; on the reverse , A AE E AN A POY TOY N E OI I’

I‘

OAE M OY ,

Al ex a nder, son of N eopto lem u s, a nd brother of O lym pi a s. Thu n derbolt a nd l a nce-hea d.Sil ver coin of A lex a n der I ., ki ng of E piru s.

4 L i vy, vi i i. 17.

426 CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

recen tly received, con tin u ed t o sweep th e sea s , the opportu n ity

wa s se ized for m a kin g a trea ty w ith him Som e yea rs

l a ter Alexa n der w a s tre a cherou sly killedby a L u ca n ia n (3 26) the dom in ion tha t

he h a d esta blished fe ll with him ; a n d

Rom e ga in ed n o profit by the a lli a nce,sa ve in in dica tin g to the Greeks of tha t

region whither they m u st look for

help a ga in st th e b a rba ri a n s who su rrou n ded them . Abou t the

sa m e d a te Athen s, seized with a su dden retu rn of desire for con

qu est settled som ewhere On th e shores of th e Adri a tic, a t a spot

which ca n n ot b e determ in ed,a m il ita ry a n d tra din g colony for the

protection of_

her comm erce a g a in st th e pira tes of the E tru sca n

town s of A tri a a n d Spin a . The decree of fou n da tion ,of which

a fra gm en t h a s been discovered , w a s worthy of th a t city,still

gre a t in her deca y.“We desire , it sa ys,

“ th a t a l l who s a i l in thi s sea,whether Greeks

or ba rb a ri a n s,m a y fin d s a fety there u n der the

protection of Athen s .

” 3 I ta ly a n d Greece,

who divided the a n cien t world between them ,

were en t a n glin g their in terests m ore a n d m ore.

CO I N OF PA E STU IvI .2

I n a few yea rs a Sp a rta n com es t o seek his

fortu n e on the shores of the Adri a tic, a nd

Pyrrhu s ren ews the a ttem pt of A lexa n der th e Molossia n u pon

the Ita li a n pen in su l a .

Shortly a fter the trea ty con clu ded with the K in g of E piru s,the Sen a te h a d secu red the a lli a n ce of the Ga u ls

‘

. This lea gu e of

the Rom a n s with the b a rba ri a n s on the n orth of It a ly,a n d with

a prin ce who wa s the represen ta tive , a s it were , of a l l the Greeks

settled in the sou th of the pen in su l a , wa s a threa t to a l l the

Sa belli a n tribes . The two peoples a t first kept u p a n u n decl a red

wa r , which en ven om ed thei r h a tred withou t deciding a nything. I n

3 3 1 th e Sa m n ites crossed th e Liris a n d d estroyed F regel l a e. The

Sen a te wou ld n ot con sider it a ca su s bel li b u t a Rom a n colony

1 Polyh., H ist. 11. 18.2 PA I ST A N O. H ea d of Ceres crown ed with whe a t ; on the reverse, two horsemen

ra cing. Si l ver didra chm a .

8 Decree of 3 29 see B u l l . d e l I nst. a rcke’

ol ., 183 6 , p. 13 2 , seq.

4 E ngra ved gem from th e Berl in Co l lection .

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WARS W ITH SAM N ITE S A ND LATIN S FROM 3 43 TO 3 12. 427

wen t a n d qu ietly rebu ilt the w a lls. The Sa m n ites threa ten ed

F a b r a t eria ; the Sen a te decl a red the town t o b e u n der Rom a n

protection . I n 3 3 3 they h a d secretly stirred u p the Sid icin i ; Rom e

su bdu ed this n a tion , a n d colon ized Ca les . I n 3 2 9 they a rou sed

the Privern a tes ; Vitru viu s V a ccu s , a n oble of Fu ndi , dou btless a t

their in stiga tion ,drew Fu n di a n d F orm ia e in to the m ovem en t .

These two town s ca rried on the w a r withou t vigor, a n d soon

dropped it . Privern um,left a lon e, held ou t a ga in st the two

con su l a r a rm ies for m a ny m on ths . V a ccu s , who h a d t a ken refu ge

there , w a s l ed in the trium ph of th e con su ls, a n d then behea ded ,a n d the sen a tors of the town were deported a cross the Tiber. A s

for the rem a in der of .the in ha bit a n ts,the ir f a te w a s discu ssed in

the Sen a te . “ Will you b e fa ithfu l ? a sked the con su l of thei r

depu ties . “ Y es,

” they replied,

“ if you r con dition s a re good ;otherwise the pea ce will n ot l a st lon g . The Sen a te were desirou s

of ga in in g over these m en ,so prou d in defe a t ; Privernum wa s

a llowed the rights of the city withou t the su ff ra ge, b u t it s w a lls

were destroyed ?

Thu s th e Sa m n ites h a d fa iled a t F regel l a e, F a b r a t eria , Ca les,a n d Privern um . A s f a r a s the V u l tu rnu s a l l w a s n ow Rom a n ;

they tu rn ed to Ca m p a n i a to fin d en em ies t o the Repu blic .

On the fa lse report th a t the pl a gu e w a s desol a tin g the city,a n d th a t w a r h a d been decl a red a ga in st the Sa m n ites , the Greeks

of P a l a eopol is2 h a d a tt a cked the Rom a n s sc a ttered through Ca m

p a n i a . When the her a lds ca m e to dem a n d ju stice, they on ly m et

with ch a llen ge a n d in su lt, a n d fou r thou sa n d Sa mn ites en tered in to

the pl a ce . To the compl a in ts of the Rom a n s a bou t this viol a t ion

of trea ties, the Sa m n ites replied by a dem a n d for the ev a cu a tion of

F regel l a e ; the depu ties offered t o su bmit the a ffa ir t o the decision

of a n a rbitra tor . “ L et the sword decide it,

sa id the chiefs ;“ we

a ppoin t a meeting with you in Ca m p a n i a .

” 3

A n im posin g religiou s cerem ony preceded the hostilities . The

gods were t a ken from the inm ost sa n ctu a ries where thei r sta tu es

were set u p, were l a id on cou ches covered with su m ptu ou s

1 T he Privern a tes were comprised in the Ufen t ine tribe, formed in 3 18, a t the sa m e timea s the F a leri a n tribe. F est., s. v. Uf en tin a ; L i vy, ix. 20 ; Diod ., x ix. 10 ; V a l . M a x .

, V I . i i. 1.2 P a l a eopol is, or the Ol d T own, a colony of Cum a e , in the n e ighborhood of N ea p ol is

(N a ples) , the N ew T own .3 L ivy, vi ii. 2 3 .

428 CON QUE ST OF ITA LY.

ta pestry, a n d in vited t o a fea st served by th e priests,the lecti

stern ium . The tem ples were thrown open,th e roa ds were blocked

with the fa ithfu l , who ca m e to behold with devotion the god whomthey con fou n ded with his im a ge . A s n o u n lu cky om en stopped thea ccom plishm en t of these rites, the divin e gu ests of Rom e seem ed

to h a ve a ccepted her o fferin g a n d prom ised their a id .

Th e w a r d a l l ied, however, in the first yea r a lthou gh the

Sen a te h a d secu red the su pport of the L u ca n ia n s a n d Apu li a n s,who

were to t a ke the Sa mn ites in the rea r . The L u ca n ia n s,bein g

persu a ded by the T a ren tin es, a lrea dy j e a lou s of the Rom a n power,

cha n ged sides a lm ost imm edi a tely ; b u t th e in du striou s a n d com

m ercia l popu l a tion of Apu l i a h a d t oo m u ch t o fe a r from the

n eighborhood of the Sa m n ites n ot to rem a in in a llia n ce with

Rom e,a t lea st so lon g a s fortu n e fa vored her. The defection of

the L u ca n ia n s w a s, m oreover, com pen s a ted by the ca ptu re of

P a l a eopol is a n d th e a llia n ce with N a ples,

— th a t is t o sa y, with a l l

the Ca m p a n i a n Greeks .

The block a de of P a l a eopol is h a d been th e occa sion of a n

im port a n t inn ov a tion . I n order to con tin u e the oper a tion s a ga in st

th a t town,Pu b l il iu s Philo h a d been con tin u ed in h is comm a n d

u n der the title of p ro-con su l ? By p a yin g the s a m e so ldiers

,the

Sen a te were a ble to ret a in them u n der the sta n da rds so lon g a s

pu blic n ecessity requ ired it ; by the pro-con su lship

,i t cou ld lea ve

a t their hea d the le a ders who h a d ga in ed it s con fiden ce a n d theirs .

The a n n u a l election of the m a gistr a tes gu a r a n teed l iberty,b u t

en d a n gered em pire . The in stitu tion of the pro-con su lship

,withou t

a ffectin g this grea t prin ciple of Rom a n governm en t,destroyed the

d a nger of it. The G en u cia n l a w wa s thu s h a ppily ev a ded ? I t is

a lm ost a lwa ys pro-con su ls who fin ish the w a rs

,m ore especia lly

ou tside It a ly, in cou n tries whose resou rces a n d disposition s m u st

b e leisu rely stu died by the gen era ls , where n egotia tion s a n d fight

in g m u st b e ca rried on a t th e s a m e tim e. Fa biu s R u l l ia n u s,

Scipio , Fl a m in inu s, Su ll a , Lu cu llu s, Pom pey , a n d Ca esa r h a d on ly

this title when they ga in ed their m ost brillia n t victories .

The tre a ty with the Ca mp a n i a n Greeks h a d driven the

Sa m n ites ou t of Ca m p a n i a a n d a m ou n ta in w a rfa re,th a t is,

1 [T he L a tin form is not p ro-con su l, b u t p roconsu le, a ccording to the best M SS.— E d .]

2 See p. 3 90 .

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43 0 CON QUE ST OF ITA L Y.

con su ls, obey, — I wou ld fa in kn ow of thee if thou thin kest it right

or n ot th a t a chief of ca va lry shou ld su bmit t o it s orders ? I

a sk thee , moreover, if, con vin ced a s I wa s of the u n certa in ty of

the a u spices, I ou ght to ha ve left to ch a n ce the s a fety of the st a te

in despite of ou r holy cerem on ies, or ren ewed the a u spices,in

order t o d o n othin g withou t a clea r kn owledge th a t the gods were

on ou r side ? I a sk thee, fin a lly, if, when a rel igiou s scru ple hin

ders the dict a tor from a cting, the chief of ca v a lry cou ld h a ve a ny

excu se for doin g so ? An swer ; b u t a n swer on ly this,a n d n ot a

word beyon d .” Fa biu s wou ld h a ve spoken of h is victory. P a piriu s

in terru pted him,a n d ca l led th e l ictor : “ Prep a re the rods a n d the

a x e !”

sa id he . At these words m u rm u rs were hea rd,a n d a

sedition w a s on the poin t of bre a kin g ou t a m on g the legion s .

H a ppily n ight c a m e on,

a n d the execu tion w a s, a ccordin g to

cu stom , deferred to the m orrow. I n the in terva l Fa biu s esca ped

from th e c a m p,a n d a rrived a t Rom e , where , by virtu e of h is

office, he ca lled together the Sen a te . H is fa ther, who h a d been

dicta tor a n d thrice con su l,bega n to in veigh a ga in st the violen ce

a n d in ju stice of P a piriu s, when th e n oise of the l ictors w a s he a rd

a s they drove a side the crowd, a n d the dicta tor a ppea red . I n v a in

the sen a tors tried t o a ppe a se his wra th ; h e ordered th e cu lprit

t o b e se ized . The elder Fa biu s then descen ded to the,

com itium ,

whither the people h a d flocked, a n d a ppea led t o the tribu n es .“ Rods a n d a xes, he cried,

“ for a victor ! Wha t pu n ishm en t

wou ld he then ha ve reserved for my son if the a rmy h a d

perished ? I s i t possible tha t he throu gh whom the town is n ow

fu ll of joy, for whom the tem ples a re n ow open a n d th a n ksgivin gs

a re bein g retu rn ed t o the gods, — is it possible th a t this m a n shou ld

b e stripped of his ra im en t a n d la cera ted by the rods u n der the

eyes of the Rom a n people , in view of th e Ca pitol , of it s gods,whom in two com ba ts he in voked, a n d n ot in v a in ?” The

sen a tors , the tribu n es , the people them selves were for the gloriou s

cu lprit ; Pa piriu s rem a in ed in flexible . H e c a l led to m in d the

s a n ctity of the a u spices a n d the m a jesty of the im perium , which

m u st b e respected ; he showed the con sequ en ces of a n a ct of d is

obedien ce left u n pu n ished . “ The disciplin e of the fa mily, the

city, a n d the ca m p a re a l l closely con n ected ,”

sa id he ; will you ,tribu n es of the people, b e respon sible t o posterity for the evils

WARS W ITH SAM N ITE S A ND LATIN S FROM 3 43 TO 3 12 . 4 3 1.

which wil l follow a ny in frin gem en t of the ru les of ou r a n cestors

Then devote you rselves t o l a stin g reproa ch to redeem the f a u l t

of Fa biu s .” The tribu n es, trou bled a n d u n ea sy, kept s ilen ce ;b u t the whole people betook them selves t o su pplica tion ; the a ged

Fa b iu s a n d his son fel l a t the dicta tor ’s feet . “ I t is well,

sa id Pa piriu s ; m il it a ry disciplin e a n d the m a jesty of comm a n d,

which to d a y seem ed so n e a r perishin g,h a ve trium phed . Fa biu s

is n ot a bsolved from h is f a u lt ; h e owes h is p a rdon to the Rom a n

people,t o the tribu n iti a n power which h a s a sked for m ercy a n d

n ot ju stice . The p a rdon w a s n ot,however

,com plete . Pa piriu s

a ppoin ted a n other chief of ca v a lry , a n d forb a de Fa biu s,whom he

cou ld n ot depose , t o exercise a ny m a gisteri a l a ct ?

A fin e story a n d a splen did scen e ! P a piriu s, con ten din g a lon e,in the n a m e of the l a w,

a ga in st the Sen a te, the tribu n es, a n d the

people itself , well represen ts th a t Rom a n firm n ess which yielded

n either to n a tu re,n or fortu n e

,n or the efforts of m en . Su ch a

rock wa s n ecessa ry t o be a r the em pire of the world . Bu t to

ga in th a t em pire there w a s n eeded,too

,the respect for soci a l

disciplin e a n d the profou n d sen se of respon sibility,which is in

cum ben t in pu blic life u pon on e a n d a l l . This is why the ol d

story is a lw a ys good to rea d .

On his retu rn to the ca m p P a piriu s bea t the Sa m n ites, who

su ed for pea ce On ly a tru ce wa s con clu ded, which wa s a s

n ecess a ry to the Rom a n s a s to thei r en em ies. Disqu ietin g symp

tom s seem ed t o a nn ou n ce th a t a ren ew a l of th e L a tin w a r wa s

a pproa chin g. Tu scu lum, on e of the oldest a ll ies of Rome, w a vered

in it s fidelity ; V el itra e a n d Privern um cl a im ed the recovery of

their in depen den ce . The wisdom of the Sen a te a verted the storm .

In ste a d of em ployin g force,they disa rm ed the rebel cities by

con cedin g them the fu ll rights of citizen ship . A n d the m a n who

in 3 2 3 wa s dicta tor of Tu scu lum,is seen , a few m on ths l a ter,

se a ted in the Sen a te a s con su l of the Rom a n people .

I n this s a m e yea r Alex a n der died a t Ba bylon . Sever a l I t a li a n

n a tion s h a d sen t a m b a ss a dors t o h im there .

The tru ce h a d n ot expired before th e Sa m n ites took u p a rm s

a ga in , en cou r a ged by the defection of a p a rt of the Apu li a n s.

Fa biu s broke up this coa lition by a victory, a n d by the rec a ptu re

1 L i vy,vi i i . 3 0—3 5.

CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

of L u ceria r a ised Rom a n influ en ce in Apu l i a . The Sa m n ites werethu s driven b a ck both ea st a n d west in to their m ou n t a in s

, a n d n ot

a s ingle a lly,even in the M a rsic con feder a t ion , decl a red for them .

On ce m ore they a sked for pea ce ; a s they cou ld n ot del iver u p

Bru n iu s P a piu s, the:

a u thor of the l a st ou tbrea k, a l ive — sin ce he

h a d killed him self — they sen t h is body t o Rom e. A refu s a l re

a w a ken ed their en ergy. They pu t a t thei r hea d C. Pon tiu s of

Telesi a , the son of the sa ge H eren n iu s, whom Cicero con sidered

V A LLE Y OF T H E CA'UD I N E FOR KS, N E A R CA S E R T A 1

to h a ve been the frien d of Archyt a s a n d Pl a to . The two con su l a r

a rm ies were in Ca m p a n i a . Pon tiu s h a d con veyed to them the

f a lse in telligen ce th a t L u ceria , h a rd pressed by the whole Sa m n ite

a rm y,w a s a bou t t o Open it s ga tes i f su ccor were not promptly sen t

1 T a ken from th e B ib l iothequ e n a tion a le. B u t there is m u ch u ncerta inty a s to the truepos ition of the F u rcu l a e Ca u d in a e. T he m ost re l i a ble opin ion pl a ces the v a lley betweenSa nta A ga t a a nd M oira n o , on the ro a d to B eneven tum ; a l ittle river, the Isolero, ru n sthrough it . (Cra ven ,

T ou r throu gh the Sou thern P rovin ces of the K in gd om of N a p les, pp.

12 A s t o the lost town of G a u dium , it w a s s itu a ted , a ccording to the R om a n itinera ries,on the A ppi a n W a y, 2 1 m i les from Ca pu a , a n d 11 from B eneven tum .

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CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

ch a ra cter of a n a m b a ssa dor ; l et the Rom a n s a ven ge this in su lt ;they ha ve n ow a ju st m otive for w a r .

“ I s it perm itted thu s to

m ock the gods ?”

cried the Sa mn ite gen era l in in dign a tion ; “ t a ke

you r con su ls b a ck a ga in ,a n d l et the Sen a te keep th e sworn pea ce

,

or l et them sen d the ir legion s b a ck to the Ca u din e Forks .”

Fortu n e rew a rded in ju stice . The Sa m n ites,it is tru e

, su rprised

F regel l a e a n d m a ssa cred it s defen ders, in spite of their c a pitu l a tion ,

a n d they rou sed L u ceria ; b u t th e Sen a te , boldly resum in g the

offen sive , sen t th e two con su ls in to Apu l i a , which they did n ot

a ga in le a ve till they h a d given these fa ithless a llies a bloody

lesson . Pu b l il iu s , a t the he a d of the legion s of Ca u d ium,bea t a n

a rm y in Sa m n ium ,a n d set ou t for Apu l i a t o rejoin P a piriu s, who

h a d h a u ghtily repu lsed the in terven tion of the T a ren tin es,dispersed

the en emy by a n im petu ou s a tta ck,a n d reca ptu red L u ceria ? H e

h a d there fou n d the six hu n dred host a ges, th e a rm s a n d st a n d a rds

lost a t Ca u d ium , a n d h a d p a ssed u nder the yoke seven thou sa n d

Sa m n ite prison ers,with their chief

,the n oble, b u t im pru den t

Pon tiu s H eren n iu s

The su ccesses of this c a m p a ign a re a too brilli a n t rep a r a tion

of the disa sters of the preceding yea r n ot t o le a d u s to su spect

the fidelity of th e a n n a ls . A S forty ye a rs l a ter the Rom a n s

preten d t o h a ve wiped ou t the disgra ce of the Alli a, so they

wou ld f a in h a ve wiped ou t. in 3 2 0,th a t of the Ca u din e Forks ;

a n d,in order tha t this reven ge m ight n ot b e dispu ted, they

showed how Apu l ia imm edi a tely en tered in to a lli a n ce with them

a ga in,a n d how the Sa mn ites were obliged

,in the ye a r 3 18

,to

a sk for a tru ce of two yea rs . These h a sty su ccesses a re dou btfu l ;a n d this dou bt is a u thorized by th e even ts which followed .

The Sen a te h a d ju st sen t a prefect t o Ca pu a t o dispen se

ju stice there,— ih rea l ity t o su pervise a n d restra in those restless

spirits . This wa s t o deprive the Ca m p a n i a n s of a right a l lowed

to the m ost obscu re of th e v a n qu ished,a n d provoke a discon ten t

of which the Sa m n ites took a dv a n t a ge ? I n r a pid su ccession Rome

hea rd of the ca ptu re a n d destru ction of Pl ist ia , tha t Fregel l a eitself h a d been occu pied, th e colon ists of Sor a m a ssa cred

,a n d

Sa t icu l a,s itu a ted a few lea gu es from Ca pu a , swept in to the revolt.

1 Diod oru s (xx . 72) sa ys tha t L u ceria w a s reconqu ered in 3 14 .2 N u ceria , on the Sa rn u s, to the southe a st of Ca pu a , h a d j u st revolted. (B iod., x ix.

WARS W ITH SAM N ITE S A ND LATIN S FROM 3 43 TO 3 12 . 4 3 5

A di ct a tor wa s a t on ce sen t a g a in st Sa t icu l a , which w a s strictly

invested a n d t a ken ,a fter a v a in a ttem pt on the p a rt of the n ew

a ll ies to brea k throu gh th e Rom a n l in es . Bu t th e Sa m n ites ,ca l ling to a rm s every m a n of a n a g e to fight

,forced the dict a

tor t o retire u pon the d efi l es of L a u tu l a e,between Terr a cin a

a n d Fu n di . Whilst they followed Fa biu s in this direction ,they

left Apu l i a open to th e con su ls , who h a sten ed thither t o reca p

tu re L u ceria . Two roa ds l ed from Rom e in to Ca m p a n ia , the

u pper on e by the Va lley of the Treru s,a tribu t a ry of the Liris ;

the lower on e , whi ch w a s a fterw a rd the Appi a n W a y, a cross th e

Pon tin e M a rshes . F regel l a e, which the en em y he ld,closed the

form er ; by the secon d , Fa biu s rece ived a n um erou s body of m en

from Rom e, who , com in g u p su dden ly in the middle of the

a ction a ga in st the Sa m nites, secu red th e v ictory for the Rom a n s

E a ch of the I t a l i a n cities, grea t or sm a ll,h a d two fa ction s,

a s Rome u sed to h a ve, b u t a s,fortu n a tely for her , she h a d n o

longer,— the p a rty of the n obles

,a n d th a t of the people . The

Rom a n Sen a te, which held the direction of it s extern a l pol icy ,w a s n a tu r a l ly l ed t o seek the a l li a n ce of the a ristocr a tic p a rty .

The popu l a r p a rty in cl in ed to the opposite side ; so th a t when

wa r broke ou t between the two .most powerf ul n a tion s in th e

pen in su l a , e a ch town h a d a Rom a n a n d a Sa m n ite f a ction . Hen ce

the con tin u a l defection s which a re seen in fa vor of on e a dversa ry

or the other,a ccordin g to th e p a rty which ru led for the m om en t

in the city.

At Ca pu a,for in sta n ce

, the Rom a n s h a d gra n ted t o the rich,privileges which m u st n ecessa rily h a ve ca u sed grea t irrit a tion

a m ong the rest of the popu l a tion . Accordin gly,a con spir a cy w a s

form ed there for ca ll in g in the Sa m n ites . The m ovem en t —spre a d

to the town s of the lower L iris,in the cou n try of the A u ru n ei ~ 1

b u t in La tium n o distu rba n ce occu rred . The Sen a te h a d tim e to

a ssem ble it s forces a n d t o m a n a ge in trigu es which Open ed t o it s

legion a ries the ga tes of A u son a , Min tu rn a e, a n d Vescia,th e iii

ha bit a n ts of which were m a ssa cred . After this w a r the n a m e

of the A u ru n ci disa ppea rs from history ? Ovin s a n d N oviu s, the

1 Diod ., x ix . 7G. L ivy is m u ch less explic it.2 Livy, ix. 25 N u l l us mod u s ca ed ib u s f u it, d eleta qu e A u son um gens.

CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

lea ders of th e revol t of Ca pu a,killed them selves . Sora a n d

F regel l a e fel l in to the h a n ds of Rom e a ga in,a n d those of their

in ha bit a n ts who h a d betr a yed the Rom a n colon ists were t a ken to

Rom e a n d there behea ded . I t w a s a holoc a u st offered t o the

people ; for by this terrib le execu tion th e Sen a te decl a red t o a l l

m en th a t th e ci tizen sen t t o a colony m ight cou n t on w a tchf u l

protection while he l ived a n d a n in exora ble ven gea n ce if h e weres la in ; a n d the a n cien ts loved venge a n ce .

Accordin g t o Livy, th e a rm y,

a fter h a vin g recovered Ca m

p a n i a , wen t in se a rch of the Sa m n ites n ot f a r from Ca u d ium,a n d

killed thirty thou sa n d of them , a grea t sl a u ghter,pl a ced too

n ea r th e Ca u din e Forks for u s n ot to su spect th e histori a n , or

the chron iclers copied by h im,

of h a vin g inven ted a dou ble

expi a tion of th e in su lt there don e to Rom a n m il ita ry honor

Th e legion s, however , a ctin g on a pl a n wisely com bin ed

a n d perseverin gly followed ou t,su cceeded in on ce m ore drivin g the

Sa m n ites in to th e Apen n in es,a n d there en closin g them ,

e a st a n d

west, with a l in e of fortresses . Su essa Au ru n ca , In ter a m n a on

the Liris , Ca sin u m ,a n d L u ceria in Apu l i a ,

rece ived Rom a n co lon ies . I n order t o keep

w a tch over the T a ren tin e corsa irs who swept

th e Tyrrhen i a n Sea , the Sen a te a lso sen t on e

to the Isl a n d of Pon ti a .

"

This m e a su re wa s

con n ected with the recen t cre a tion of a

n a vy a n d the n om in a tion of two m a ritim e

prefects ?

I n the m idst of these a ccou n ts of wa r

Livy pl a ces a grotesqu e in ciden t,“ l ittle

worthy of recita l,

s a ys h e,“ i f it did n ot

refer to rel igion .

”I t is

,in f a ct, a det a il

which is n ot devoid of in terest in the his

tory of the m a n n ers of so gra ve a n d yet

so frivolou s a n a tion . Religiou s festiva ls,

sa crifices, a n d even the Observ a tion of hea ven ly s ign s a n d fu n era l

cerem on ies,requ ired the presen ce of flu te-pl a yers, who h a d

F L U T ia -PLA YE R .2

1 Du um viri n a va les. (L i vy, ix.2 Bron ze figurine from the N a tion a l Col lection of Fra nce, N o. of Ch a b ouil let

’

s

ca ta logu e .

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CHAPTE R XV

COAL ITION OF THE SAMNITE S, E TR USCANS, AND SENONES (3 11

I . TH I R D SA M N I T E WA R (3 11

OR sixteen ye a rs the Sa m n ites fou ght a lon e ; b u t a t l a st the

other n a tion s bega n to sti r. The forty yea r s ’ tru ce with the

T a rqu in ia n s wa s dra win g to a n en d,

a n d th e E tru sca n cities,

which n o longer hea rd the Ga llic b a n ds thu n derin g on the other

side of the Apenn in es, s a w with drea d the fortu n e of Rome 1n

crea sin g with‘

every ca m p a ign . Sa m n ite em issa ries excited them,

a n d the a n cien t lea gu e of the lu cum on ies w a s a ga in form ed .

While th e legion s were deta in ed in Sa m n ium a t the

.

siege of

Bovia n um,

fifty or sixty thou s a n d E tru sca n s c a m e a n d su rrou n ded

Su trium,the fortress which protected the a pproa ches to Rom e

from th e n orth .

’

I f this pl a ce were ca rried,it wa s b u t

,

a few

hou rs ’ m a rch t o the foot of the Ja n icu lum . Sin ce'

the‘

ba ttle of

the Alli a the Sen a te a lw a ys kept two’

l eg ion s I n the city. This

reserve a ttem pted to r a ise the block a de of Su trium a n in decisive

b a ttle kept the en emy in check u n til th e a rriv a l of rein forcem en ts

l ed by Fa biu s, the hero of this w a r . The ca ptu re of Bovia n um

ren dered the other con su la r a rmy a v a i l a ble, a n d the Sen a te w a s

desirou s of sen ding th a t a lso t o the besieged town . Bu t the

Sa m n ites broke in to Apu l i a ; i t w a s n ecessa ry t o follow them .

Fa biu s wa s thu s left a lon e . The E tru sc a n l in es were too strong

to b e ca rried,a n d they declin ed t o b e dra wn from them . Fa biu s

left them there,w a rn ed the Sen a te to protect Rom e with a re

serve a rmy,a n d then

,withou t a wa itin g the ch a n ce of a n order

th a t might u pset h is bold pl a n ,he crossed the Cim in ia n

forest,which his brother h a d explored in the disgu ise of a

Tu sca n shepherd , pen etr a ted the rich l a n ds of Cen tra l E tru ri a ,p a ssing n e a r Ca stel d ’ Asso a n d Norchia , — n ow cities of the dea d,

COALITION OF TH E SAM N ITE S, E TC, FROM 3 11 To 280. 43 9

b u t then flou rishin g town s — a n d slew sixty thou s a n d Um bri a n s or

E tru sca n s n e a r Peru gi a . Three of the m ost powerfu l cities , Peru gi a ,Corton a , a n d Arretium ,

a sked a tru ce of thirty yea rs . Su trium w a s

sa ved , the con federa cy disso lved ,la n d the m a ssa cre of th e gen s F a b

ft

'

a

on the b a n ks of the Crem era,in 479 B . c.

,-w a s a t l a st a ven ged .

Me a nwhile M a rcu s Ru tilu s , who h a d been sen t a ga in st the

Sa m n ites, h a d a lm ost f a llen in to a n other Ca u din e Forks : he h a d

on ly esc a ped from th e field of b a ttle by a pa rti a l defea t ; a n d

Sa m n ium w a s m edit a tin g a n heroic e ffort . Wa r w a s a rden tly

a dvoc a ted a l l throu gh the mou n t a in s ; the bra vest were c a lled

u pon to t a ke th e o a th of the holy l a w . The Sen a te h a d recou rse

to th e m a n who h a d rep a ired the disa ster of Ca u d ium ,the a ged

Pa piriu s? A g e h a d weighed down hi s body, bowed his lofty

st a ture , a n d chilled his stren gth ; he wa s n o lon ger the Rom a n

Achilles, b u t he w a s still on e of the first gen era ls in the Repu blic .

The a ppoin tm en t of a dict a tor belon ged . t o Fa biu s, a n d the con su l

h a d n ot forgotten the resen tm en t of the form er chief of c a v a lry.

H e hesit a ted a whole d a y ; b u t p a triotism a t len gth preva iled, a n d

a t midn ight , f a r from a l l profa n e eyes a n d e a rs, he n a m ed P a piriu s .

Ju n iu s Bu bu lcu s, the con qu eror of Bovia n um , Va leriu s Corvu s, a n d

a Deciu s were h is lieu ten a n ts . Th e Sa m n ite a rmy wa s rea dy.

Num bers of w a rriors h a d sworn before the a lt a rs,a m id im posin g

cerem on ies, the solemn oa th t o con qu er or d ie ; a n d wea rin g their

m ost Splen did a rm or,som e, bright-colored cloa ks a n d golden shields ,

others, white tu n ics . a n d silver shields, a l l w ith the ir helm ets

crested with brilli a n t plum es,they m a rched t o b a ttle

,a dorn ed

for the sa crifice a s if for a.

trium ph. They fell ; a n d when

Pa piriu s wen t u p to the Ca pitol,long tr a in s of cha riots p a ssed

a long the triumpha l wa y loa ded with the a rm s of the Sa m n ite

d evoti . T he .sho'

ps of the Forum were decora ted with them ,a n d

the Ca m p a n ia n a ll ies c a rried som e Of them ba ck to their town s

a s gloriou s trophies

1 Diod ., xx.' 3 5. A ccord ing t o L i vy, the b a t t le took pl a ce ne a r Su trium , on the return of

the leg ion s from E truri a . H e stra nge ly ex a ggera tes th e terror in spired by the Cim in ia nforest, which wa s dre a ded by m ercha nts, a s a re

-a l l m a rches, l ike the Scotti sh border, b u t

which a n a rm y h a d a lr e a dy tra versed in a w a r a ga in st the V ul sin ii, in 3 90 . T a rquin ii itse lfis situ a ted n orth of the southwest por t ion '

of the Cim in iu s s a l tus , now M onte di V iterbo.2 ‘

The R oma n s h a d n a m ed h im Cu rsor, l ike A chi ll e s, a nd wou ld ha ve opposed him to

A lex a nder, sa ys L i vy, h a d tha t prince tu rned his a rm s westw a rd.

CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

The fea rs of the Sen a te were n ot yet dissip a ted ; P a piriu s

ret a in ed th e dict a torship a l l tha t ye a r, a n d Fa biu s rem a in ed a s

procon su l a t the he a d of th e legion s in E tru ri a ; there were n o

con su l a r election s .

Between the Tiber a n d the Cim in ia n forest wa s a l a ke,

which P liny the you n ger describes with childish sa tisf a ction,

‘

E T R USCA N WA R R I OR (ST A N DA R D-BE A R E R ). SA MN I T E WA R R I OR .8

a n d which is n ow on ly a pool of su lphu rou s w a ter, the l a ghetto

d i'

B a ss a n o,form erly the l a cu s V a d im on iu s , f a m ou s for h a vin g twice

seen th e fortu n e of E tru ri a fa il u pon it s shores . The rea son is

tha t the defile,sca rce a m ile wide , which exten ds from the l a ke

to th e spu rs of th e Cim in o , is th e ea siest pa ssa ge th a t lies open

to a n a rmy desirou s of goin g from Rom e t o the u pper v a lley of

th e Tiber .4 The E tru sca n s h a d h a sten ed thither for a l a st effort.

1 E p ist. v ii i. 20 ; cf. De n n is , E tru ria , i . 167.F rom a v a se in the Ca m pa n a Co ll ection .

3 A tl a s of the B u l l . d e l’

I n st. a rche’

oL , vo l . vi i i . pl . 21.4 The M on s Cim in iu s , which in a nc ient times wa s covered with a th ick forest, is now

qu ite ba re , which cha nge s the a spect o f the pl a ce.

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442 CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

on the retu rn of sprin g, he fou n d n othin g b u t people a n xiou s to

n egoti a te.

Fa biu s h a d gon e to c a rry h is fortu n e, tha t is , h is ren owna n d persevera n ce , in to Sa m n ium. The M a rsic con feder a tion h a d

SA M N I T E H OR SE MA N (A FT E R A V A SE I N T H E CA MPA N A COLLE CT I ON ).

fu rn ished the Sa mn ites with n umerou s volu n teers, b u t it h a d n ot

open ly decl a red for them . A s in the ea rly d a ys of Rom e,her

en em ies were prep a ring victories for her by the ir w a n t of u n ion .

When the Sa mn ites were en feebled a n d the E tru sca n s overwhelmed,the M a rsi a n s a n d Pel ign ia n s sa w th a t the ir ca u se wa s tha t of a l l

I t a ly. Bu t it wa s too l a te . Fa biu s overca me them, su bdu ed

COALITION OF TH E SAMN ITE S, E TC., FROM 3 11 TO 280 443

Nu ceria , which h a d revolted seven ye a rs befo re , a n d, le a rn in g

th a t h is collea gu e wa s retrea t in g before a l a rge body of Um bria n s,

he wen t to h is a id,dispersed th e Um bri a n a rmy, a n d received the

su bm ission of their town s A fresh pro-con su lship ga ve

him a n opportu n ity for fresh victories . H e su rrou n ded a Sa m n ite

a rmy n ea r A l l ifa e , a n d obliged it t o su rren der before the eyes of

the T a ren tin e a m b a ss a dors, who , delu ded by their pride , wished t o

t a ke u pon them selves the offi ce of m edi a tors

Am on g the prison ers were som e Aequ i a n s a n d H ern ica n s.1

A n in qu iry ordered by the Sen a te drove the l a tter t o a rm s .

H a ving m et in the grea t circu s of An a gn i,they resolved to

su pport their brothers of the m ou n t a in s ; b u t M a rciu s h a d tim e

to be a t the H ern ica n s in three en cou n ters, a n d to oblige the n a tion

to su bmit to the discretion of the Sen a te, who

deprived it s town s,with the exception of three

whi ch h a d rem a in ed fa ithfu l,of their in d epen

den ce a n d a portion of thei r territory .

2 Then ce

M a rciu s ha sten ed to set free his collea gu e Cor

n el iu s, who w a s block a ded by the Sa m n ites,

a n d slew thirty thou s a n d of them . F or five

m on ths the legion s overra n Sa m n ium , burn in g

hou ses a n d fa rm s,cu tt in g down fru it-trees,

ki llin g even the a n im a ls .

3 On their retu rn

their gen era l h a d a triumph,a n d a n equ es

tria n sta tu e wa s erected t o him (3 06 B . C).

The plebei a n s were desirou s of glorifyin g

by this hon or a con su l of their own order ;a n d to the credit of the Sen a te it m u st b es a id

,th a t when in l a ter tim es the st a tu es

which en cum bered the Forum were removed, tha t of M a rciu s wa sret a in ed ; Cicero sa w it there.

‘5

E T R USCA N MA R S.4

1 Li vy , ix. 4 2.2 L i vy, ix . 4 3 . They rece i ved the rights of citiz en ship without the su ffra ge, a nd with a

prohibition of a ny intercourse between them . The town s excepted were A l a trium , F erent in um ,

a nd V eru l a e. These preserved the j u s connu bii ct commercii a m ong them se l ves.3 Diod ., x x. 90 . I t is, s a ys Po lybiu s, a cu stom of the R om a ns ; they de sire thereby to

inspir e a more profou n d terror.4 Or w a rrior with a h elmet surm ou n t ed by a h igh-crested ridge ; bron ze figure from the

Ca binet d e F r a nce, N 0 . in Ch a b ou il let’

s ca ta logu e.5 P hil ipp . vi. 13 .

444 CON QUE ST or ITALY.

The Sa m n ites he ld ou t for on e

‘

m ore ca m p a ign,in spite of

the r a va gin g of the ir l a n ds . I t wa s on ly when they s a w their

stron gholds in the h a n ds of the legion s tha t they decided to su e

for the term in a tion of a wa r which h a d l a sted m ore tha n a

gen era tion . They reta in ed the ir territory a n d a l l the ou tw a rd

sign s of in depen den ce , b u t a ckn owledged the m a j esty of the Rom a n

people . Circum sta n ces were to defin e wh a t th e Sen a te m e a n t by

th e Rom a n m a jesty

This pe a ce left th e E tru sca n s isol a ted,a n d exposed t o the

a n ger of Rom e . F or m ore th a n a cen tu ry this restless n a tion

h a d a llowed them selves t o b e forgotten . Driven ba ck by the

Ga ll ic in v a sion s in to th e m ou n t a in s to the west of L a ke F u cin u s;a n d restra in ed by Tibu r a n d Pra en este

,which b a rred the roa d

in to L a tium a ga in st them,they h a d ta ken n o p a rt in the L a tin

w a r . Bu t th e Sen a te , rem em berin g th a t som e Aequ i a n s h a d fou ght

in the Sa mn ite r a n ks a t A l l if a e , sen t a ga in st them th e legion s

which h a d ju st retu rn ed from Sa m n ium . I n fifty d a ys forty-on e

pl a ces were t a ken a n d bu rn ed ; then a p a rt of the ir territory wa s

con fisca ted, a n d they were a llowed th e citizen ship withou t the

su ffra ge,which pl a ced them in th e con dition of su bjects

Five ye a rs l a ter , owing to th e fea r of a G a l lo-Sa m n ite coa l it ion ,

they were ra ised to the r a n k of citi zen s, a n d form ed in to two

n ew tribes , the A n ien sis a n d Teren t in a . A

short w a r with th e M a rsi,who h a d been rou sed

by the est a blishm en t of a Rom a n colony a t

Ca rseol i,a n d a tre a ty con clu ded with th e Vestin i

a n d Picen i, a re the sole even ts of the follow

W A R V ESSEL wm aing yea rs . Rome thu s pl a ced a whole m a ss of

B E A 1f< ( R OST R U A‘4 frien dly n a tion s between th e E tru sca n s, the

Ga u ls,a n d the Sa mn ites, whom she h a d con qu ered, b u t n ot dis a rm ed .

A n episode of this tim e m a kes u s thin k of ou r own tra gic

story of the ca ves of D a hra . Rom e did n ot disd a in t o w a tch over

those a gita tion s with which w a rs en d,b u t with which they a lso

recomm en ce . M en wh om Livy ca lls briga n ds, b u t who were

dou btless p a triots refu sin g t o a ccept a foreign yoke , overra n the

Umbri a n cou n try in b a n ds. Two thou sa n d of them h a d ta ken

1 L i vy ( ix. 45) sa ys : f oed u s a n tiqu um red d itum.

2 E ngra ved gem from the B erl in M u seum .

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COALITION OF TH E SAM N ITE S, E TC.,FROM 3 11 To 280 . 445

refu ge in a deep ca vern . A con su l tra cked them thither ; a n d a s

the soldiers who tried to pen etra te in to it were driven b a ck with

stones a n d a rrows, wood wa s piled u p a t the two extrem ities a n d

set a light,a n d the fire wa s kept bu rn ing till a l l h a d pe rished ,

stifled by the sm oke or the hea t .1

I n the sa m e yea r a n a dven tu re h a ppen ed which the P a du a nLivy tells with grea t s a tisfa ction . Cleonym u s , t he gra n dson of a

Spa rt a n kin g, h a d com e with a fleet t o seek his fortu n e in the

Adria tic. H e seized vessels a n d pill a ged the co a sts . Fin din gthose of the Sa l l en t in e cou n try we ll gu a rded by the Rom a n legion s,he pu shed on a s f a r a s the he a d of the gu lf

,a nd pen etra ted by

the l a goon s of the Bren t a t o the Ven eti a n s , whose territory he

ra va ged . The protection of Rom e did n ot yet exten d so f a r ; b u t

the Pa du a n s,a ccu stom ed

,from the proxim ity of the G a u ls, to the

u se of a rm s,fell on these m a r a u ders, killing som e

,a n d pu rsu in g

others t o their ships , severa l of which were t a ken . Very prou dof this su ccess ga in ed over the L a ced a em on i a n s, P a du a depositedthe a rmed prows of their vessels in h er tem ple of Ju n o , a n d

in stitu ted a fea st,

sti ll celebra ted in the tim e of Au gu stu s, a t

which a n a v a l com ba t on the Bren t a rec a lled the victory over the

pir a tes of Cleonym u s .

I I . SE COND COAL I T I ON OF SA M N I T E S, E T R USCA N S, UmB R I A N s ,A ND GA ULS (3 00

I N the l a st forty ye a rs the Sa m n ites h a d been often bea ten .

Nothin g, however, h a d yet been decided , a n d the recen tly con

clu ded pea ce w a s on ly a m om en t a ry repose before the fin a l

stru ggle. Betwixt Rom e a n d Sa m n iu m i t w a s n o lon ger a riv a lry

of power, b u t a qu estion of l ife or dea th ; for Rom a n a m bition

increa sed with su ccess, a n d A ppiu s h a d ju st decl a red th a t the

sw a y of the Repu blic shou ld re a ch a s f a r a s I ta ly rea ched . Wa r

wa s sm ou lderin g everywhere ; a n d the p a rti a l fires which broke ou t ,

— the w a r with the Aequ i a n s,th e Ma rsi

,a n d soon a ga in st Arre

tium a n d N a rn i a,— a nn ou n ced a fresh confla g ra t ion . At Arretiu m

the powerfu l f a m il y of the Ciln ii ca l led in a Rom a n a rmy, which

1 L ivy, x. 1.

446 CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

helped t o su bdu e the people of th a t town . The Ciln n a n d the

people beca m e recon ciled,sa ys Livy ;

b u t m ost prob a bly this u n ion, effected

by the foreign er,took pl a ce to the

profit of Rom e ; a n d here, a s a t

Ca pu a , a s in deed everywhere, the

It a l i a n a ristocra cy sold the in d epen

den ce of the people to the Sen a te inorder to s a ve it s own privileges a n d

power.1 At lea st it is im possible to

expl a in the stra n ge con du ct of the

E tru sca n s in this l a st period of the

Sa m n ite wa r , except by in tern a l

trou bles, by a deplora ble riva l ry b e

tween the Rom a n a n d the n a tion a l

p a rties, on e desirou s of pea ce , the other

wa r, when ce c a m e en dless broken

tru ces a n d ill-con du cted c a m p a ign s .E A R T H E NWA R E O F A

2

R R E T I UMThe Ga u ls a t this tim e bega n a ga in

(A R E ZZO) .to m a ke

.a stir in the world. Their

wa rlike hordes were movin g in the D a n u be Va lley, when ce theyissu ed to ra v a ge Greece a n d Asia Min or. Ita ly felt the rea ction

of these m ovem en ts ; a few ba n ds a ga in crossed the Alps, a n d

th e Sen a te, u n ea sy a bou t the disposit ion of th e Sen on es , m a de

prep a r a tion s for protectin g themselves from a su dden in v a s ion .

I n 3 00 B . c. we fin d the con su ls besiegin g the Um bri a n town of

N equ inum (N a rn ia ). Bu ilt on a rock a bove th e N a r,this pl a ce

comm a n ded the p a ssa ge from Um bri a in to the Va lley of the Tiber ;it wa s on e of the m ost im port a n t m il ita ry pos ition s in th e n eigh

b orhood of Rom e . The Sen a te there esta blished a stron g ga rrison .

With Ca rseol i a n d Alba F u cen t ia , which h a d been colon ized a little

ea rl ier, this pla ce com pleted the lin e of defen ce which su rrou nded

the ca pit a l of L a tium .3

1 L ivy (x l ii. 3 0) sa ys l a ter on a bout a nother people a nd a nother n obi l ity : p lebs

omn is,u t sol et, d eterioris er a t p rincip um d ivers a s tu d ia p l u res ex it

'

s ita , Si p ra ecip u a m

oper a m n a va ssen t, poten tes sese in civil a tib u s su is f u tu res ra ti

2 Va se of red e a rthenw a re in re l ief, from the Ca mpa n a M u seum .

8 Su trium , N a rn i a,Ca rseol i, A l ba F u cen tia , a nd th e colonies of the L iris Va ll ey, Sora ,

Atin a , Ca sin um , Intera mn a , e tc.

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CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

th e very n a m e of su ch a n a dversa ry, a llowed it s coun try to b e

deva st a ted withou t riskin g a b a ttle The Sa mn ites h a d sen t

a n a rmy in to Lu c a n i a , to a id the ir p a rty. Rom e sum m on ed them

to reca ll it ; they wou ld not l isten even to the hera lds. The

con su l Fa biu s immedi a tely m a rched u pon Bovia n u m bea t

TOMB OF SCI P I O B A R B A'

I‘

U S.

the en emy, whom he sever a l tim es dece ived by h is str a tegy, a n d

took th e town ; while h is colle a gu e, Scipio B a rb a tu s, ga in ed a

victory over the E tru sca n s n ea r V ol a terra e . These su ccesses

were n o dou bt less th a n they a re represen ted,1or else the people

1 We h a ve the in scription from the tom b of thi s con su l. I t is th e m ost a n cient m on umentof the L a tin l a ngu a ge with a settled d a te tha t we possess [the a bl a ti ve G n a iuod en din g in dis pecu l i a rly interesting. E d .]

Cornel iu s L u cius Scipio B a rb a tu sGn a ivod p a tre progna tu s, f ort is vir s a piensqu e,

Quoins f orm a virtu tei p a risum a f u it .

Consol , censor,a z

'

d l l is qu ei f u l l a pu d ros

T a u r a s ia Clsa u n a Sa mn io cep it

S ub z’

g it omne L a u ca n a ops id csqu e a b dou cz'

t.

Tha t is :Cornel iu s L u ci-u s Scipio B a rb a tu s ,S on of Cneu s ; va l ia n t a nd wise ,

H is bea u ty equ a l led his va lor.

H e wa s consu l,censor

,a ed ile,

T ook T a u r a sz'

a a n d Cisa u n a in S a mn ium,

S u bd ued a l l L u ca nia ,a nd brought b a ck host a ges.

The om ission of the v ictory over th e E tru sca n s, re l a ted by Li vy, proves th a t th a t his.

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CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

fel l u pon it. Volum n iu s ha sten ed b a ck in to his provin ce,bea t the

en emy there, a n d del ivered s even thou sa n d fou r hu n dred prison ers .

This victory dim in ished the terrors of the city,a n d w a s celebra ted

with pu blic pra yers .

Appiu s,however

,w a s left in a d a n gerou s position : in fron t

of him the Sa m nite E gn a tiu s, by his a ctivity a n d h a tred,a n im a ted

the coa l it ion of a l l the n a tion s of the n orth of the pen in su l a,

hu shin g riv a lry , prea ching u n ion , a n d gu idin g the terrible Sen on es

in to th e d efi l es of the Apen n in es . The yea r 2 95 B"

. C. w a s critic a l ;a ccordin gly, a l l votes ra ised Fa biu s a n d Deciu s t o the con su lship.

N in ety thou s a n d m en a t le a st,divided in to five a rm ies

,were set

a foot . On e of these a rm ies in v a ded Sa m n ium,whilst

,u n der th e

n a m e of colon ies, two g a rrison s'

occu pied M in tu rn a e a n d Sin u essa ;

a n other, en c a m ped a t the foot of the Ja n icu lum,covered the city ;

th e third , esta blished n e a r Fa lerii,protected the a ppro a ches t o it ;

the fou rth , comm a n ded by Scipio B a rb a tu s, took u p a position

in the territory of the Ca m ert in i, when ce i t w a tched the m ove

men ts of the Ga u ls a n d fin a lly, the fif th, form ed of the con su l a r

legion s,kept the field .

When Fa biu s ca m e to t a ke the comm a n d, Appiu s w a s keeping

this l a st a rmy shu t u p in a ca m p,the defen ces of which h e d a ily

stren gthen ed . The n ew gen era l scorn ed these prec a u tion s, which

frighten ed the soldiers, tore down the'

p a l is a des, a n d took the

o ffen sive a ga in . Mea nwhile the G a u ls a tt a cked a legion posted

by Scipio n ea r Ca m erinum,killed them to the l a st m a n

,a n d ,

h a vin g forced the p a ssa ge of the Apenn in es, sprea d over the

pl a in,c a rrying a t their s a ddles a n d on their pikes the bleeding

he a ds of the legion a ries . I f the con qu erors shou ld effect a ju n c

tion with the Umbria n s a n d E tru sc a n s, it w a s cle a rly a l l over

with the con su l a r a rm y ; b u t Fa biu s by a diversion rec a lled the

E tru sca n s t o the defen ce of their hom es, a n d then ha sten ed in

sea rch of the Ga l lo-Sa m n i te a rmy in the pl a in s of Sen t in um . The

shock wa s terrible ; the wa r-ch a riots of the ba rb a ri a n s pu t the

Rom a n c a v a lry to fl ight,a n d broke th e first l in e of the legion s.

Seven thou sa n d Rom a n s on the left win g,comm a n ded by Deciu s,

h a d a lrea dy perished , when th e con su l,followin g his fa ther

’

s

exa m ple, devoted him sel f for the legion s . Before m e,

”he cried,

a fter h a ving pron ou n ced the s a cred form u l a e,“ m a y terror a nd

COALITION OF TH E SAM N ITE S, E TC.,FROM 3 11 TO 280. 451

flight,blood a n d dea th

,the ra ge of the gods of ' hea ven a n d hell

d a sh onw a rds ! M a y the brea th of destru ction a n n ihil a te the

hostile a rm s a n d sta n d a rds !” a n d he hu rled him self in to the

thickest of the fr a y . The sa crifice of the fir st Deciu s h a d trou bled

the L a tin legion s ; b u t the G a u ls were in a ccessible to these rel igiou sterrors

,a n d this f a ll of the con su l served on ly to a n im a te the ir

cou ra ge . The who le left wing wou ld ha ve been cru shed , h a d n ot

Fa biu s , who h a d overcom e the Sa m n ites,h a sten ed u p. Su rrou n ded

on a l l sides,the b a rb a ria n s retired withou t disorder

,a n d

,a b a n don

ing a ca u se in which they were on ly a u xil i a ries, they rega in edtheir own cou n try . Twen ty-five thou sa n d Ga llic a n d Sa m n ite

corpses covered the field of ba ttle ; eight thou s a n d prison ers re

ma in ed in the h a n ds of the Rom a n s ; E gn a tiu s h a d perished ; on ly

five thou sa n d Sa m n ites wen t b a ck t o the ir m ou n ta in s . Fa biu sa ga in bea t a n a rm y th a t h a d issu ed from Peru gi a

,

1a n d then wen t

to Rom e to en joy h is trium ph . Behi nd his ca r the soldiers sa ng

the pr a ises of Deciu s : this w a s the ju stice of‘

the people (295 B .

The co a li tion w a s dissolved . I t rem a in ed to cru sh su ccessively

those who h a d t a ken p a rt in it,whose n a mes th e Sen a te n ever

forgot . Bu t the Sa mn ites,in spite of so m a ny defea ts , were yet

form id a ble .

2 Like . a l ion stricken to d e a th,this in dom it a ble

n a tion did n ot perish withou t inflictin g cru el wou n ds . I n the

followin g yea r they bea t a con su l . I n a n other en cou n ter A t il iu s

Regu lu s fou n d him self so n ea r a defea t, tha t h e vowed a tem ple

to Ju piter St a tor ; a n d a s the win ter a pproa ched , the Rom a n s d a red

n ot rem a in in Sa m n ium . A diversion of the E tru sc a n s rem a in ed

withou t a ny su ccessfu l resu lts . The colle a gue of A t il iu s h a d forced

a tru ce of forty ye a rs u pon them .

The wa r w a s n ow a bou t to con cen tra te in the Apenn in es. The

son of Pa piriu s wa s sen t thither with Sp. Ca rvil iu s . A s they h a d

don e fifteen yea rs before,so n ow the Sa m n ite chiefs c a lled rel igion

to the a id of p a triotism a n d u n ion . The a ged Ovin s P a cciu sa ssem bled forty thou sa n d w a rriors n ea r Aqu ilon i a . I n the cen treof the ca m p wa s a ten t of l in en cloth ; in th e m iddle of the ten ta n a lta r ; a rou n d the a lt a r s tood soldiers with n a ked swords .

1 H e slew of the Peru gi a n s, sa ys L i vy (x. four thou s a nd five hu ndred m en , a nd ca pt u red one thou sa nd seven hu ndred a nd forty, who p a id e a ch for his ra n som 510 a ses.

2 Dura il l a p ectora . ( I d ., ib id .)

452 CON QUE ST or ITALY.

After mysteriou s sa crifices , the bra vest were l ed thither, on e by

on e,l ike so m a ny victim s ;

1a n d ea ch wa rrior, repe a ting the drea d

im preca tion s of Pa cciu s, devoted him self, his fa m ily, a n d a l l h is

r a ce t o th e a n ger of the gods , if he revea led these mysteries or

refu sed t o follow his chiefs everywhere, if he fled from the fight

or did n ot him self sl a y those who fled . Som e refu sed , a n d were

pu t to de a th . On their bodies,pl a ced with those of the victim s

,

the others swore . Then from a m on g these the gen era ls a ppoin ted

t en , who in tu rn chose t en w a rriors, a n d so on u p to s ixteenthou sa n d . This w a s the L in en legion , the soldiers of which , cl a d

G A LL I C CA R T (MUSE UM O F SA I N T - G E R M A I N ) .

in fla shing a rm or,were a l l the bra vest a n d n oblest w a rriors of

Sa mn ium . They kep t their word . Thirty thou sa n d Sa m n ites

rema in ed on the b a ttle-fiel d of Aqu ilon ia , where P a piriu s h a d

displ a yed his f a ther’

s t a len ts .

A defection of the Fa l isc a n s ca lled Ca rv il iu s in to E tru ria .

A few da ys su fficed to drive b a ck the E tru sca n s, ever the en em ies

of Rom e,a n d ever fe a rfu l of a decisive com b a t . The Fa l isca ns

ga ve a ye a r ’ s pa y to the a rmy, a n d p a id a fin e of pou nds

weight of copper (2 93 B .

At his triu m ph P a piriu s displ a yed pou nds weight

of copper,resu ltin g from the sa le of the prison ers, a n d

1 N obil issimum qu emqu e gen ere f a ctisqu e m a g is u t victim a , e tc. (L i vy, x.

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454 CON QUE ST OF ITALY .

prison of A n cu s .1 They wen t their w a y ; on e t o ren der tha n ks to

th e gods,the other t o yiel d

'

h is h e a d t o the execu tion er .Two cen tu ries l a ter , th e Rom a n who kn ew m ost of ju s

tice,who h a d th e ten derest sou l , still spoke of pu n ishm en ts d u e

t o the v a n qu ished ? An cien t w a rf a re w a s cert a in ly a m erciless

du el .

F or on e yea r m ore th e legion s pu rsu ed the rem n a n ts of the

Sa m n ite a rm ies , till Cu riu s a t length extorted from this n a tion

th e a ckn owledgm en t of their defe a t . A trea ty,th e cl a u ses of

which we do n ot kn ow, cl a ssed them a m on g the a ll ies of Rom e

(2 90 B . To keep them in restra in t, Ven u si a , between Sa mn ium

a n d T a ren tum ,w a s occu pied by a n um erou s co lony.

We kn ow ju st a s little of the Opera tion s of Cu rin s in the

Sa bin e cou n try . I t is on ly m en tion ed th a t the Sa bin es p a id for

the a id they h a d so ta rdily a fforded the Sa m n ites with a con

sid er a b l e portion of the ir l a n ds . On h is retu rn,

a fter h a ving

pen etra ted a s f a r a s th e Adri a tic,Cu rin s u ttered these words

,

which show how Rom e con du cted a w a r : I h a ve con qu ered so

m a ny cou n tries, tha t those region s wou ld b e b u t a v a st sol itu de , h a d

I less prison ers to people them with . I h a ve su bdu ed so m a ny

m en,th a t we shou ld n ot kn ow how to feed them h a d I n ot

con qu ered so m a ny l a n ds . Accordi ngly,he distribu ted seven

ju ger a t o every citizen . F or him self he wou ld a ccept n o other

recom pen se . The Sa bin es h a d the rights of citi zen ship withou t

the su ffra ge ; b u t Re a te,N u rsi a , a n d perh a ps A m it ern um

,re

m a in ed sim ple pra efectu res .

3 Ca strum a n d H a dri a,on the Adri a tic,

were colon i zed. Cu rin s trium phed twice in th e s a m e yea r . This

hon or, hitherto u n preceden ted,

a n d the respect which a tt a ched

to h is n a m e, procl a im grea t services . The tru e Sa m n ite wa r w a s

over .

F or other r ea son s Cu riu s well deserved t o trium ph twice, for

he h a d con qu ered n a tu re a s well a s the Sa m n ites . H e tu rn ed the

V el in u s a side in to the N era,a n d cre a ted the m a gn ificen t ca sca de

1 The T u l l ia n um .

I

See in Sa l lu st (Ca t. 55) the description of the pl a ce where execu

t ion s took pl a ce .2 Cic., in V errem , I I . v. 3 0 : Supp l icia qu a e d eben tu r hbs tib u s victis.

3 F est ., s. v. P ra ef ectu r a ,

‘ A u r. V ict., vi i i. 3 3 ; Ve ll. Pa tere ., i . 14 . The lon g pea cewhich the Sa bine cou ntry h a d en joyed h a d incre a sed the we a lth of its inha bita nts. I t wa s

a fter the conqu ests of Cu rins,sa ys Stra bo, tha t the R om a n s beca me opu lent.

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456‘

CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

I I I . COA LI T I ON OF TH E E TR USCA N s A ND SE N ON E s ; WA R

A GA I N ST TH E L UCA N I AN s (283

LA T I UM , Ca m pa n i a , Apu li a , a n d Sa mn ium su bm itted to the

ru le or the a lli a n ce of Rome . Bu t on the n orth a pa rt of

the E tru sca n s were hostile , a n d the G a u ls h a d qu ickly for

gotten their defea t a t Sen t inum . On the sou th, a lthou gh the

Sa m n ite n a tion h a d l a id down their a rm s,there rem a in ed som e

b a n ds which , rejectin g a l l pe a ce with Rom e,wen t to seek

refuge a m on g the ru gged mou n ta in s . of Ca l a bri a . There a re to

b e fou n d imm en se forests, where by degrees a n ew n a tion wa s

form ed , the Bru t t ii, whom the Greeks a n d Rom a n s disd a in fu lly

ca lled revolted sl a ves . Greeks a n d L u ca n ia n s s a w with drea d

the Rom a n ru le dra wing n ea rer t o them ,- T a ren tum especi a lly

,

which showed a growin g jea lou sy of the su ccesses of the b a r

b a rou s city on the b a n ks of the Tiber. Bu t how‘

were so

m a ny tribes t o b e u n ited for common a ction ? Pyrrhu s a n d

H a n n ib a l him sel f cou ld n ot effect it . Rom e a lon e worked this

mir a cle , beca u se she a ppl ied t o the work two grea t forces,— wisdom

a n d time.

There w a s on ly a n in sta n t of seriou s da n ger . Arretium ,

tha n ks t o the Ciln ii,h a d rem a in ed fa ithfu l to the a lli a n ce of

Rome ; som e E tru sc a n s , su pported by a n a rmy of Sen on es,ca m e

a n d besieged it . The legion s h a sten ed t o th e su ccor of the pl a ce ;b u t their le a der, seven tribu n es, a n d thir teen thou s a n d soldiers,fell on the field of ba ttle ;

1the rest were t a ken prison ers

This w a s on e of the m ost bloody defea ts th a t the Rom a n s h a d

ever su ffered ; it served t o in crea se the a l a rm tha t the simple

a n n ou n cem en t of a G a ll ic w a r ca u sed a mon g them . When the

Sen a te ca u sed com pla in ts t o b e brou ght before the cou n cil of the

Sen on es,the ir chief

,Britom a r, whose fa ther h a d been sl a in in the

b a ttle Of Arre tium ,replied by killing the depu ties a s expi a tory

victims, whom he offered to the p a tern a l m a n es. In dign a tion

1 Polybiu s, u . 19 Orosiu s, iii. 22.

COA L ITION or THE E TR USCAN s, E TC.,FROM 283 To 281. 457

dou bled the stren gth of Rom e, a n d two powerfu l a rm ies were ra ised .

With on e of them on e of the con su ls restr a in ed or overca m e the

E tru sca n s ; with the other Dol a b el l a,qu ietly cross in g the Sa bin e

cou n try, en tered the territory of the Sen on es by Picen u m , bu rn ed

their vil l a ges,

slew the m en,sold the wom en a n d children , a n d

on ly qu itted the cou n try when he h a d m a de it a desert . H e

h a d born e thither the vengea n ce of Rom e,which

,when the

son s of the con qu erors of the Alli a were exterm in a ted , n o

longer blu shed for the ra n som ca rried off from the Ca pitol .

I n order t o preven t the Cis a lpin e G a u ls from repl a cin g the

Senon es in this sol itu de, the Sen a te sen t colon ists to gu a rd

the cou n try, settlin g them a t Sen a , on the n orth of An con a ,a t Ca strum ,

a n d a t H a dri a,in Picen um . A s the sw a y of

the Rom a n s h a d crossed the Apenn in es on th e sou th by the

occu p a tion of Ven u si a,so it crossed them on th e n orth by settle

m en ts on the Adri a tic, when ce she cou ld w a tch over th e Va lley of

the Po .

The Boii , whose territory exten ded from P a rm a to Bologn a,

grew a l a rm ed a t this exterm in a tion of a Ga ll ic tribe . With

those of t he Sen on es who h a d esca ped the Rom a n sword, they

entered the Va lley of the Arn o by the d efil es which l ed from

the Rom a gn a t o Floren ce,a n d p a ssed throu gh the whole of

E trur i a, summ on in g a l l those who were still en em ies t o Rom e .

Bu t n ot f a r from N a rn i a , n ea r a sw a mpy m a rsh ca lled La keV a d im on , they were stopped by a defe a t with fea rfu l sl a u ghter .

Stre a m s of blood ra n a s f a r a s the Tiber, a n d redden ed it s

wa ters .

I n the following ye a r the Boi i m a de pe a ce (282 B . F or

two yea rs lon ger the Sen a te w a s obliged t o sen d a rm ies in to

E tru ri a . The victory of Coru n ca n iu s over th e V u l cien t es pu t a n

end to this w a r, which h a d begu n a lm ost with the begin n in g of

Rom e. From the ye a r 280 the n a me of E tru sca n s n o lon ger

a ppea rs in the triu m pha l records .

Sin ce the d a y when Fa biu s p a ssed the Cim ini a n forest , the

Tu sca n a u gu rs cou ld predict t o their n a tion tha t the en d of it s life

wa s dra win g n ea r, a n d th a t the ten th cen tu ry — in which , a ccordin g

to a n cien t prophecies, it s n a tion a lity wa s to perish — h a d a rrived .

Resign a tion wa s ea sy t o them . Their gods h a d spoken , a n d the

458 CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

Rom a n s h a d fu lfilled the ora cle . Why shou ld they resist destiny,

especia lly when Rom e dem a n ded so l ittle , when l i fe w a s so sweet,

a n d n a tu re so fru itfu l in tha t l a n d of plen ty,where n othing

wa s l a cking for plea su re a n d lu xu ry ? On e of the a n cien ts

s a id of the E tru sca n s : “ Ren ou n cin g the virtu es of which their

a n cestors were so jea lou s , the Tu sca n s p a ss their l ives in fea st

ing or in w a n ton ple a su res ; they ha ve

thu s lost the gloriou s ren own of their

f a thers .” 1 We m a y write here, then ,F in is

E tru r ia e.

Du rin g these oper a tion s in th e North,

hostilities h a d been a ctively ca rried on in

the Sou th . The Greek town of Thu rium

(Thu rii) h a d im plored th e a id of Rom e

a ga in st the L u ca n ia n s, who ra v a ged their

l a n ds every su mm er. A first expeditiona ga in st these pilla gers effected n othin g ; b u t

in 282 Fa b riciu s open ed h is w a y a s f a r a s

Thu rium,the block a de of which he ra ised,

a n d left troops there. Locri, Croton a , a n d

perh a ps Rhegiu m ,a lso received

,

Rom a n g a i

rison s. On his retu rn,Fa briciu s pu t 400

t a len ts in to th e trea su ry : with the re

m a in d er.

of the booty he p a id l a rge gra

tu it ies to the soldiers, a n d restored to the

E T R USCA N FUN E R A L U R N citizen s wh a t they h a d p a id for the

(M u se‘

gngf

égfiegggzse ’ ca m “

m il ita ry t a x tha t yea r. Su ch produ ctive

ca m p a ign s .m a de m en love w a r ; the a m

bitiou of the grea t a n d the greed of the poor fou n d it to their

a dv a n t a ge .

Pea ce w a s a pp a ren tly restored in the pen in su l a , a n d from the

Ru bicon to the Stra its of Messin a a l l except T a ren tum a ckn owl

edged the m a jesty of th e Rom a n people, or su bmitted to a llia n ce

with it ; b u t the powerfu l city on the b a n ks of the T a ra s, proud

of it s Sp a rta n origin , its riches, a n d the n um erou s vessels tha t

crowded its h a rbor,the m a re P iccolo, wa s a bou t to in stiga te a

1 B iod., v. 4 0 . Theopompu s a nd T im a eu s sa id m u ch m ore f a mu l a s n u d a s min is

tra re viris commu nes m a l ieres, e tc., A then ., Deipnosoph. x i i. 14 , a nd iv. 3 8.

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CHAPTE R XV I .

WAR WITH PYR R HUS (280

I . RUPTUR E WI T H TA R E N TUM ; FI R ST CA M PA I GN or PY R R H USI N ITA LY (282

E h a ve re a ched the m om en t when Rom e a n d Greece a re a bou t

to cl a sh . Greece w a s then m oribu n d , a n d h er en d m a rked

the com pletion of a n ew period in the l ife of hum a n ity. By a llow

in g in dividu a l gen iu s it s f ull flight,by le a vin g it u n tra m m elled

by the bon ds of priestcr a ft or of a n oversh a dowin g a ristocra cy,Greece h a d crea ted pol itica l liberty, a rt , a n d scien ce ; b u t from a n

excess of l iberty soci a l a n a rchy h a d a risen . The Greeks'

were

a grea t people ; E u rope owes her civili z a tion to them ; b u t they

n eve r were a grea t st a te . Th a t is why others inherited the ir l a bors.

Rom e represen ts a secon d a ge of the E u rope a n world, -m a nhood

a fter you th , the people of a ction a fter the people of theory,a m bition a fter en thu si a sm ,

disciplin e a n d order a fter l iberty a n d

a n a rchy. Pla to a n d Aristotle,

1 tr a cin g th e ide a l of a Greek city,a dm it therein on ly a few thou s a n d citizen s, a n d even con demn

fru itfu ln ess in women . Rom e m a kes citizen s even of her en em ies,a n d prep a res her su bjects to becom e so. Accordin gly, h er pros

perity en du res for a ges, whilst tha t of the Greek cities h a d l a sted

b u t a few yea rs. Sp a rt a h a d su cceeded to Athen s, Thebes to

Sp a rta , Ma cedon ia to a l l three . Then when Alexa n der died, a nd

1 Pl a to wou ld ha ve no m ore tha n citizen s (L a ws, Chi ldren born of p a rentswho a re blem ished or too old , sa ys h e , n a tu ra l chi ldren or deformed, shou ld b e exposed. The

repu blic m u st n ot b e burdened with th em (R ep . A ristotle dem a nds tha t the n umberof m a rri a ges a n d the n umber of children to b e ra ised in e a ch hou sehold shou ld b e fixed. I f

the l a w of the cou ntry forbids th e exposure of chi ldren , s a ys h e , l et a bortion b e pra ctised(P ol it. v i i . 14 , H e wou ld ha ve the n umber of c iti zen s su ch tha t they m ight a ll knowone a nother ( I b id ., V I I . I n a n other pl a ce he m ention s th e m ea n s employed hy t he Creta nsto stop the incre a se of popu l a tion . (P ol. i i. 7,

WA R W ITH PYRRH US, FROM 280 TO 272 . 461

his v a st design s with h im,

a hu ge disorder h a d sh a ken his

empire, from th e In du s to the Adri a tic ; con fu sion devoid of

grea tn ess, ch a os when ce l i fe cou ld n ever spring ! Mora l ity wa s d eba sed

,n a tion a lities were forgotten ; every

m a n’

s h a n d w a s a ga in st h is n eighbor ’ s

for a l ittle gold or power ; w a r beca m e

a tra de, a s in I t a ly a n d in Germ a ny

a t the m ost disa strou s periods of their

history ; a n d a few mercen a ry soldiers bestowed or took a w a y

CO I N OF H I CE T A s.l

crown s .

This gen era l dec a y of th e Greek r a ce h a d rea ched Sicily a n d

M a gn a G r a ecia . I n Sicily the brilli a n t rul e of Aga thocles h a d

ju st closed,a n d everywhere petty

tyra n ts a rose : 2 H icet a s a t Syra

cu se,Phin t ia s a t A g rig en tu m ,

Tyn d a rion a t T a u rom en ium ,Hera

clides a t L eon t in i,etc. On th e

west, Ca rtha ge w a s stren gthen in g

herself ; on the n orth,the m er

cen a ries of Aga thocles took possession of Messin a by trea son ,m a s

sa cred the m a le in h a bit a n ts, a n d then ce exten ded their ra ids over

the whole isl a n d a s f a r a s Gel a a n d

Ca m a rin a,which they pill a ged .4 On

the n orth of the stra its Rhegium , so

h a rdly trea ted by Dionysiu s the E lder ;Locri , ru in ed by h is son ; M et a pon tum ,

a lm ost destroyed by Cl eonym u s a n d

Aga thocles ; Thu rium,which h a d repl a ced Syb a ris withou t su c

ceed in g to it s power ; Croton ,thrice t a ken by Aga thocles a n d

Dionysiu s, — a l l these, su rrou n ded by L u ca n ia n s a n d Bru t t ia n s,

CO I N OF CA MA R I N A .3

CO I N OF PH I N T I A s.6

1 H e a d of Ceres crowned with e a rs of whea t ; beh ind, the torch lighted by Demeterin her se a rch for her d a u ghter Proserpin a ; the legend E Y PA KOE I Q N ; co in of the Syracu sa n s. On the reverse, a V ictory in a cha riot, dra wn by two horses ga lloping ; a bove,a sta r a nd the words E H I I KE TA ; u nder the re ign of H icet a s. G old coin .

2 Diod ., F ra gm. xx ii. E xcerp t. H oeschel ., p. 4 95.

3 KA M A PI N A ( l a w) , co in of Ca m a rin a ; he a d of H ercu les with the lion ’

s skin . On the

reverse , figure on a qu a drig a crowned by V ictory, prob a bly in commemora tion of a prizewon in the cha riot-ra ce a t O lym pi a .

‘1 Diod ., F r a gm . xx i. E xcerp t. H oeschel ., p. 4 9 3 .

5 L a ure l-crowned hea d of A poll o. On the reverse, BA E I AE OE <I >I NT I A , Phin t ia s beingkin g, a nd a wil d boa r. Bronz e coin .

462 CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

l ived a misera ble li fe a midst con tin u a l a l a rm s . T a ren tum w a s

a n exception ;1 b u t these Doria n s, who h a d becom e the richest

m erch a n ts of I ta ly, h a d f a llen .

in to a dissolu ten ess of m a n n ers

which m a de them in c a p a ble of

su st a in in g a seriou s stru ggle . Y et

they h a d the h a u ghtin ess whichG E LA wea lth brin gs, a n d were a n gry

a t hea rin g a l l It a ly resou n d with the n a m e of these b a rb a ri a n s

HA R BOR OF‘ TA R E N T UM.

on the b a n ks of the Tiber, who were a s in ca p a ble of execu tin g

a work of a rt a s of a rra n gin g a festiv a l .

The Sen a te ha d a dded t o the Rom a n ga rrison of Thu rium

a squ a dron of t en g a lleys t o cru ise in th e gu lf . On e d a y, a s the

people of T a ren tum were a ssembled in th e the a tre f a cin g the se a ,

the Rom a n vessels a ppea red a t th e en tr a n ce of the port . A d em

a gogu e, n a m ed Phil och a ris, cried ou t th a t, a ccordin g to a n cien t

1 T a rentum wa s the on ly port on this co a st ; Croton h a d on ly a summer ro a dste a d(Po lyh .

,x. F r a gm . T h e principa l indu stry of Ta rentum wa s th e m a n ufa cture a n d dye

ing of woo llen stu ff s. H ence it s re l a tion s with the Sa mn ites, of whom it bou ght thewool. T he l a tter took in excha nge s a lt, fish , a n d m a n ufa ctured obj ects. (Cf. Stra bo, v.

p.

2 I‘

E A A E . G e l a wa s the n a me of the torrent which r a n a t th e foot of the w a l ls of the

town , n ow the F iume d i Terra nova . T he god of this torrent w a s repre sented u nder th e formof a n ox with a m a n

’

s he a d. Thu s ou r si lver tetra dra chm a of the town of G e l a shows it :On the reverse , a cha riot, or b ig a , a nd a figure crowned by a Victory, — a token of a prizega ined in the O lympic ga m es .

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CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

a lre a dy don e thrice, when they h a d ca lled in A rch id a m a s,king

of Sp a rta , Alexa n der of Molossu s, a n d the L a ced a em on ia n Cleonym u s. The discu ssion l a sted sever a l d a ys in the Sen a te . The

wa r p a rty a t l a st pre

v a iled,a n d the con

su l A em il iu s m a rched

t h r o u g h S a m n i u m

a ga in st T a ren tum . Be

fore a tt a cking it he

com O F PYR R HUS 1on ce m ore ofi ered

p e a c e . T h e n o b l e s

a ccepted it ; b u t the popu l a r p a rty, who were th e tru e m a sters of

the st a te , rejected a l l proposa ls,a n d in vited Pyrrhu s to m a ke a

descen t u pon I ta ly

Pyrrhu s, n ephew of Oly mpi a s,a n d son of Ae a cides

,kin g of

E piru s,w a s perh a ps the a blest of a l l those who cl a im ed to b e the

heirs of Alexa n der . Tried,however

,by the m ost diverse fortu n es,

h a vin g a lre a dy twice lost a n d rega in ed h is kingdom,a n d con qu ered

a n d a b a n don ed M a cedon i a , h e h a d a cqu ired a restless a m bition which

a l l h is life lon g im pelled h im from on e en terprise t o a n other . At

Ipsu s (3 01) he h a d fou ght for An tigon u s a ga in st Seleu cu s, L ysim

a chu s,a n d Ca ssa n der . A s Asi a fe ll t o these , h e d re a in ed of the

con qu est of Rom e, Sicily, a n d Ca rth a ge ; he desired t o b e the

Alexa n der Of the West. Method w a s w a n tin g in a l l h is design s ;a ccordingly

,he l ived a n d died less l ike a kin g tha n a n a dven tu rer.

I n other respects,brilli a n t in m in d a n d cou ra ge , l ike his cou sin

Alexa n der ; like , him t oo , beloved by his people , even to th e m ost

en tire devotion ; a spoi led child of fortu n e,which so often sm iled on

h im a n d so often deserted h im ; u pright of hea rt,open to a l l n oble

feel in gs,history a t on ce loves a n d con demn s him . When he sa w

Fa briciu s,he desired to h a ve h im for a frien d ; when he kn ew the

Rom a n s,he w a s e a ger to ha ve them a s a llies ; a n d he n everfi l u sh ed

a t h a vin g been con qu ered by them .

The T a ren tin es sp a red n either presen ts n or prom ises . H e wa s

to fin d in I ta ly foot soldiers a n d c a v a lry. I n spite

of the w a rn in gs of h is frien d, the Thessa l ia n Cin ea s, Pyrrhu s

1 H e a d of Ju piter crown ed with oa k. On the reverse , BA S I AE Q E I I YPPOY , Pyrrhu sbe ing ki ng.

WA R W ITH PYRK I-I US, FROM 280 To 272. 465

a ccepted, a n d imm edia tely sen t off Milo with three thou sa n d m en

t o occu py the cit a del of T a ren tum . Du ring the win ter he prepa red

a con sider a ble a rm a m en t inf a n try, ca v a lry ,

a rchers, 500 sl in gers , a n d 20

eleph a n ts . I n crossin g, a t em

pest dispersed the fleet a n d

a lmost d a shed the roya l vessel

on the co a st of the Mess a pi a n s.

When Pyrrhu s a rrived a t

T a ren tum ,b e closed th e b a ths

a n d the a tres, obliged the citizen s

to t a ke a rm s,a n d exercised them

pitilessly, like m ercen a ries . The

town of ple a su re h a d become a

pl a ce of w a r. M a ny T a ren tin es

fled (280 B .

At Rome i t wa s desired to

open the c a m p a ign with a sol

em n decl a r a tion of w a r a ga in st

Pyrrhu s ; b u t E piru s wa s f a r

a w a y,a n d t im e pressed . They

esc a ped from th e diffi cu lty , a s a t

Ca u d iu m,by a su bterf uge . A n

E pirote deserter bou ght a field ,a n d on this field. th e hera lds

solem n ly ca rried ou t the rel igiou s

cerem on ies . The letter of th e

l a w w a s fu lfilled . The gods

ou ght t o con sider them selves

s a tisfied . The pu blic con scien cePY R R H US

J

a sked n o m ore . H a ppil y, the prep a r a tion s for w a r were m ore

seriou s . The con su ls en rol led , a s in a l l t im es of extreme d a n ger,a l l the c a p a ble m en , even of th e proleta ri a t . The freedom of Rom e ,

recen tly gra n ted to severa l tribes,th e colon ies sprea d over Ca m

pa n i a , Sa mn ium ,a n d Apu li a , especi a lly th a t of Ven u si a

,which w a s

so n umerou s, a n d the ga rrison s in the a dva n ced posts of Locri a n d

1 Sta tu e in the Ca pito line M u seum .

V OL. I . 3 0

466 CON QUE ST OF ITALY .

Rhegium , secu red the fidel ity of the a ll ies. Moreover, to keep

them from th e sight of hostile sta n d a rds,L a ev inu s m a rched to

m eet the K in g a s f a r a s the ba n ks of the Siris . I n v a in did

Pyrrhu s strive to n egotia te,con

descen din g t o a ct the p a rt of

m edi a tor ; the Rom a n s repelled

every offer : they n e ither wou ld

n or cou ld a llow a stra n ger to in

t erfere in the a ffa i rs of It a ly. The

first b a ttle w a s fou ght n ea r Heracle a , ha lf wa y between Thu rium a n d T a ren tum . The eleph a n ts

,

which were n ew to the Rom a n s,threw their r a n ks in to disorder.

They left fif teen thou sa n d m en on th e field of b a ttle . Bu t Pyrrhu sh a d lost thirteen thou sa n d ? “ An other su ch victory

,

”sa id the

l a tter,“a n d I retu rn withou t a n a rm y to E piru s.”

H e him self wa s n ea rly sl a in by th e F ren t a n ia n

V u l sin iu s ; a n d on e of h is officers, whom h e h a d

equ ipped with h is own wea pon s a n d roya l m a n tle,

h a d fa llen , covered with wou n ds.

This h a rd-ea rn ed victory,the very d a n gers he

igfg’

fggfi

, h a d ru n,a n d wh a t he h a d le a rn ed a bou t Rom e,

in spired th e Greek K in g With a n e a rn est rega rd

for these b a rb a ri a n s , Whose ta ctics . were so excellen t . H e h a d

reckon ed,when crossin g the Adri a tic

,on a n e a sy w a r , a n d h e m et

with the m ost redou bta ble a dversa ries ; on n um erou s a u xili a ries,a n d

the I ta l i a n s h a d left him to fight a lon e a t Hera clea . After this

b a ttle, Locri h a d open ed it s ga tes t o h im ; the Ca m p a n i a n legion ,

in ga rrison a t Rhegium ,m a ssa cred the i nha bit a n ts of th a t city a n d

took the i r pl a ce,a s the Ma m ertin es h a d don e a t Messin a . Som e

L u ca n ia n s a n d Sa m n ites c a m e t o his ca m p ; b u t this w a s very f a r

from th e three hu n dred a n d seven ty thou s a n d m en who h a d been

prom ised .

Pyrrhu s ren ewed h is first offers, — th a t the Rom a n s"

shou ld

le a ve free T a ren tum a n d a l l the Greeks of I ta ly, a n d restore to

CO I N O F T H E L UCA N I A N H E R A CL E I A .1

1 H e lmeted h e a d of M in erv a ; the reverse , H ercu les choking a l ion , the hero ’s club a nd

M inerv a ’

s bird, the owl . Si ver coin .

2 These a re the figures, the l a tter certa in ly fa lse, given by Dionys iu s of H a lica rn a ssu s.3 G em in the Ca b inet d e F r a n ce, N 0 . in Ch a b ou il let

’

s ca ta logu e.

O

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468 CON QUE ST OF ITALY .

they were m a de t o st a y in the en em y’ s territory,l ivin g on wh a t

they cou ld plu n der.

The Sen a te, n evertheless, decided t o ra n som the prison ers .

These were, for the m ost p a rt , c a v a lry, whom their horses, being

sca red by th e eleph a n ts, h a d thrown . They belon ged,besides

,t o

the best hou ses in th e city . Three commission ers wen t to trea t

of thei r ra n som or exch a n ge, A em il iu s P a pu s, Corn . Dol a b el l a,

a n d Fa briciu s, the hero of the legen ds , which we a re com pelled

to follow du rin g this period , when Dion ysiu s a n d Livy fa i l u s,

a n d a fter which Polybiu s begin s . Pyrrhu s refu sed ; b u t , from

esteem for Fa briciu s, whom he in v a in tried to bribe,he a llowed

his prison ers to go to Rom e t o keep the Sa tu rn a l i a . Not

on e of them f a iled t o retu rn . I n the spring of the ye a r 279 he

resumed hostilities in Apu l i a,a n d besieged A scu lum

,which the

two con su ls, Su lpiciu s Sa v errio a n d P . Deciu s,determ in ed to sa ve

by a ba ttle . The report wen t a broa d , it is sa id,in the two

a rmies tha t Deciu s wou ld im ita te the exa m ple of h is f a ther a n d

gra n dfa ther. The K in g ga ve his troops a description Of the

costum e which the con su l wou ld wea r,a n d ga ve orders t o seize

him a live a n d u nwou n ded. At the sa m e tim e he w a rn ed the

Rom a n gen era ls th a t a fter the b a ttle he wou ld pu t the d evoted to

a n ign om in iou s de a th, a s a m a n pra ctisin g sorcery a n d w a ging

u n fa ir wa r.1

The fra gmen t of Dion ysiu s of H a lica rn a ssu s, fou n d la tely

a t Mou n t Athos, does n ot sa y a word of the dea th of Deciu s ,2 b u t

rel a tes the b a ttle in a w a y which seem s t o in dica te a sort of

offici a l desp a tch . I t is in deed prob a ble th a t Dionysiu s, who kn ew

the Comm en t a ries written by Pyrrhu s , h a d borrowed from them ,a t

lea st p a rtly,this a ccou n t of the b a ttle , which we give a bridged ?

“ Hera lds h a d fixed beforeh a n d the tim e a n d pl a ce of comba t . The

1 Z on a r a s, v i i i. 5.2 V a leriu s M a x . (V. i v. 5

,6) spea ks on ly of th e Decn , whose de a th in the La tin wa r a nd in

th e E tru sca n we h a ve re l a ted. A t A scu l um Dionys iu s shows the two con su ls a cting in concertright to th e en d Of the b a ttle. Cicero does the sa m e in (l o Ofiic. ( ii i. 4 ) a nd ( l e Senect. ( 20) b u t

in T u sc. Disp . ( i. 3 7) a nd in d e F in ib u s ( i i. 19) he a dm its the de a th of three Decn . Thesediscrepa nc ies con firm th e opin ion of V a leriu s M a x imu s a n d Dionys iu s.

2 Dionysiu s a nd Pluta rch cite the Commen t a r ies ( bn ouvfiu a m ) of Pyrrhu s. H e h a d likewi se written a tre a tise on the a rt of w a r , which Cicero re a d. ( F a m. ix. [I ha ve evena bridged it further in the tra n sl a tion , a s the deta ils a re qu ite con v en t ion a h a n d of no m oment inexpl a in ing to u s th e rea l po ints of stra tegy employed by e ither side . E d .]

WA R W ITH PYRRH US, FROM 280 To 272 . 469

Ma cedon i a n in fa n try were on th e right with the Ita l i a n m ercen a ries

a n d“

the a u xi li a ries Of B ru t t ium a n d Lu ca n ia ; the Aetoli a n s a n d

Aca rn a n i a n s filled th e cen tre . The left win g w a s form ed by the

Sa m n ite b a tt a l ion s. The ca v a lry, eleph a n ts, a n d l ight-a rm ed soldiers

covered th e two extrem ities of the lin e , which rea ched a terr a ce of

l a n d ra ised a bove the pl a in . A reserve of two thou s a n d ca v a lry

wa s u n der the direct orders of Pyrrhu s . The con su ls a dopted a

sim il a r order. I n th e sp a ce between the fou r legion s,they pl a ced

the con tin gen ts from L a tium a n d Ca m p a n i a a n d their other a llies.

They di stribu ted equ a lly their ca v a lry on the two fla n ks of the

a rmy . Three hu n dred fou r-whee led w a r-ch a riots, bristl in g with

scythes a n d l a n ces , were in ten ded to t a ke p a rt this tim e in the

a ction . They h a d been fu rn ished with lon g mov a ble poles,c a rry

in g a t on e en d bu n dles of t ow steeped in pitch, in order th a t

when in fla mes the sm oke a n d the sm ell woul d rou t th e

eleph a n ts .

Pyrrhu s h a d in fa n try, of whom were Greeks,

who h a d crossed th e Ion i a n Sea ; the con su ls h a d n e a rly a s m a ny,

of whom were Rom a n citizen s a n d horse . The K in g

h a d r a ther more ca v a lry, a n d n in eteen eleph a n ts .

On th e sign a l bein g given ,the Greeks sou n ded th e p a ea n

,a n d

the c a v a lry Open ed th e a ction . I n the roya l a rmy the prize for

v a lor wa s ga in ed by the M a cedon i a n s, who m a de the first legion

a n d the L a tin a llies retrea t ; in the Rom a n a rm y it w a s m erited

by the secon d legion ,who drove b a ck the Molossi, Thesprot es, a n d

Ch a on ia n s.

“ The b a ttl e w a s m a in t a in ed with this a ltern a tion of diverse

fortu n e, when a n u n expected su ccor rea ched the Rom a n s . A body

of fou r thou s a n d inf a n try a n d fou r hu n dred horsem en from th e

city of Arpi , seekin g t o join the con su l s, rea ched the high grou n ds

a t the re a r of the K in g’

s ca m p, a n d a tt a cked it . W a rn ed by a

soldier, Pyrrhu s ordered hi s br a vest horse to h a sten t o the c a m p

with som e eleph a n ts, a n d drive a w a y th e pill a gers. Bu t the la tter

h a d a lrea dy set fi re t o it ; a n d,on seeing the troops desp a tched

a g a in st them ,they retired to a steep hill

,whi ch the ca v a lry were

u n a ble t o clim b .

However, in th e pl a in th e fight con tin u ed. The K ing w a s the

first t o grew tired, a n d bega n,a t the declin e of d a y, t o withdr a w.

470 CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

The Rom a n s a lso withdrew ; they crossed the river, a n d retu rn ed

t o their ca m p . Pyrrhu s did n ot fin d h is own a ga in ; the ten ts a n d

h is b a gg a ge were bu rn ed , a n d m a ny of the wou n ded perished throu gh

f a ilu re of su ccor ;1 b u t he rem a in ed m a ster of the fi eld of b a ttle .

I f the Rom a n s were worsted, they h a d , a t a l l even ts, yielded

a victory dea rly bou ght

F or Pyrrhu s this w a r w a s decidedly very seriou s a n d very

slow. H e desired n othing m ore th a n a pretext to give it u p with

hon or . Fa briciu s h a vin g forewa rn ed him th a t his physici a n,

Philip,sou ght t o poison him ,

he sen t b a ck a l l the prison ers with

ou t r a n som After this excha n ge of a m en ities it w a s h a rd

t o fight a ny longer. So, le a ving Milo in th e cit a del of T a ren tu m,

a n d h is son Al exa n der a t Locri,he crossed in to Sicily, whither the

Greeks h a d invited h im a ga in st the M a m ertin es a n d Ca rtha gin i a n s.

I I . PY R R H US I N SI CI LY ; CA PTUR E OF TA R E N TUM

CA R TH A G E‘

h a d recen tly sen t a fleet to Osti a of a hu n dred a n d

twen ty ga lleys,o ffering help to the Sen a te a ga in st

Pyrrhu s . The Sen a te h a d declin ed it , a t the s a m e

tim e ren ewin g the ir a n cien t a ll i a n ce . The two

repu blics seem ed t o h a ve then the sa m e in terests ;they stru ggled a g a in st the s a m e en em ies : the on e

a ga in st the Greeks of I t a ly,the Other a g a in st

those of Sicily . The Ca rth a gin i a n s were a ga in

A LE X A N DE R I L .4

besiegin g Syra cu se . I t is t o the su ccor of thisK I N G O F EPI R US'

city th a t Pyrrhu s,

5a s son -ih -l a w of Aga thocles,

wa s in vited . H e r a ised the block a de, a n d drove the Africa n s b a ck

1 Dionys., A n t. R om , excerp ta ex l ib ro, xx. 1, 3 .2 A ccordin g t o the R om a n a n n a l ists, th e ir cou ntrymen h a d m a de a gre a t ca rn a ge of the

Ki ng’s troops. A contem pora ry, H ieron ymu s of Ca rdi a , fol lowing the Commenta ries of Pyrrhu s,

m a kes th e loss of th e R om a n s six thou sa n d m en ,tha t of the E pirotes three thou s a n d five

hu ndred a n d six . [Cf M ul ler, F ra g. H ist. Grcec. i i . 4 54. —E d .]3 These deta il s a re too strongly ou t of cha ra cter with the w a rs which precede or fol low a nd

with a ncient m a n n ers, which possess n othing chiv a lrou s in them ,to b e a ccepted without

su spic ion . Th e story of Pyrrhu s’ phys ic i a n is a n evident rem in iscence of the story of

A lex a n der’s phys ici a n .4 A lex a nder, son of Pyrrhu s a nd La rissa , with a h ea d-dress from the h ide of a n e leph a nt’!

he a d. G em from the Ca bin et d e F r a n ce, N 0 . in Ch a b ou ill et’s ca ta logu e .

5 Pyrrhu s h a d m a rried h is d a u ghter La riss a or L a n essa ; cf.Diod ., xx ii. 14.

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472 CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

Den ta tu s wa s then in comm a n d of the Rom a n a rmy . The legion

a ries h a d becom e a ccu s

t om ed to the L a con ia n

oscen ,

1a s they n a m ed

th e elepha n ts ; they

kn ew how to keep them

off by a shower of

d a rts,

or by bu rn in g

br a n ds : their victory

w a s complete . E ven the roya l c a m p fell in to the ir h a n ds

Pyrrhu s w a s u n a ble lon ger t o keep in It a ly ; he

left a g a rrison a t T a ren tum , a n d crossed in to E piru s

(274) with a n a rmy redu ced to e ight thou sa n d

m en,

a n d withou t m on ey t o pa y it. H e l ed it

t o fresh enterprises,tried .to recon qu er M a cedon i a

from An tigon u s G on a t a s, wa s procl a im ed kin g there

p T OL E M Y for the secon d tim e, then m et a n ign oble de a th , a t

PH I L A DE L PH US°8

the a tta ck on Argos,from the h a n d of a n old

wom a n

The followin g in scription h a s been recen tly fou n d a t Dodon aK ing Pyrrhu s a n d the E pirotes h a ve dedic a ted to Ju piter N a

'

ios

these spoils of the Rom a n s

[

a n d their

a ll ies. Whilst these lyin g trophies

were hu n g up in the m ost ven er a ble of

the s a n ctu a ries of Greece , Cu riu s wa s

trium phin g a t Rome on a ca r dra wn by

fou r eleph a n ts, a n d a n a m b a ss a dor from

the K in g of E gypt, Ptolemy Phil a delphu s, c a m e to con gra tu l a te

the Sen a te a n d to a sk it s frien dship . The a ll i a n ce of the two

sta tes beca m e a ru le of n a tion a l policy, a t Rom e a s a t Alexa n dria .

CO I N OF A N T I G ON US G ON A'r A s .

2

DE M E T R I Us POL I OR CE T E S .5

1[A form a tion ' like turkey-cock or N il-pferd.

2 Co in of A ntigonu s G on a t a s. B u st of P a n , with the pcd um (see p. 2 62) on a M a cedon i a n shield ; the reverse , BA E I A E Q E A NT I F ON OY . M inerv a w a lking ; beside her , a he lmet a ndmonogra m . T etra dr

'

a chm a in si l ver of A ntigon u s Con a ta s.3 F rom th e qu a dru ple sta ter of go ld of Ptolemy Soter, B eren ice , Pto lemy Ph i l a delphu s,

a n d A rs inoe.4 By M . Ca r a pa n os , the a ble a n d le a rned exca va tor of Dodon a , the resu lts of which he

h a s pu bl ish ed in a m a gn ificent work .5 On the right, the he a d of Dem etriu s Po l iorce te s the reverse , BA E I A E Q E A H M H TPI OY

a horse-so ldier (Demetriu s ? ) with a M a cedon i a n he lmet a nd a rm ed with a l a nce. Goldsta ter.

WA R W ITH PYRRH US, FROM 280 TO 272. 473

Some yea rs before , Demetriu s Po l iorcet es h a d sen t b a ck to the

Sen a te some prison ers m a de on the It a l i a n ships which cru ised

in Greek w a ters. Thu s,the prin ces of the E a st tu rn ed the ir

eyes tow a rds this n ew power , Which they s a w se izin g the

dom in ion of I ta ly . Bu t in Pyrrhu s the Rom a n s h a d con

qu ered in a dv a n ce a l l the su ccessors of Alex a n der . The Rom a n s

h a d triu m phed over the M a cedon i a n ph a l a n x a n d the eleph a n ts,those livin g engin es of wa r be lon ging to the Asi a tic a n d Africa n

a rm ies .

Hostilities, b u t of n o im porta n ce, l a sted for som e yea rs longer

in the sou th of It a ly. A victory of Pa piriu s Cu rsor a n d Spu riu s

QUI N CUSSI S WI T H T H E F I G UR E O F A N E LE PHA N T .1

Ca rviliu s dis a rmed the l a st Sa mn ite h a n d s . This people a t len gth

su bmi tted , a n d ga ve n um erou s host a ges. I t wa s seven ty yea rs

a go sin ce the b a ttle of Mou n t G a u ru s h a d been fou ght ; a n d

in thi s lon g wa r the con su ls obt a in ed the trium ph twen ty-fou r

times.

The s a me ye a r Pa piriu s received the su bmission of the L u ca n ia n s ,

a n d Milo (272) del ivered u p T a ren tum ,the w a lls of which were

destroyed,it s a rm s a n d vessels t a ken a w a y. The cit a del wa s

preserved,in to which the Sen a te pu t a ga rrison t o hold the city ,

which w a s con dem n ed t o a n a n n u a l tribu te , a n d t o keep a w a y

the Ca rth a gin i a n s from the best p a rt of Sou th It a ly . Pyr rhu sh a d

,in fa ct

,h a rdly left

,before distru st grew u p between the two

repu blics. Du rin g the s iege of T a ren tum by the Rom a n s a

1 Th is money, worth five-twelfths of a libra , w a s coined in memory of the victory g a inedOver Pyrrhu s.

474 CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

Ca rtha gin i a n fleet a ppea red ou tside the port,

loff erin g a ssista n ce .

Pa piriu s h a d don e a l l he cou ld t o keep Off this form id a ble a id,

a n d the city owed t o these fea rs the fa ct of it s be in g less h a rshly

tre a ted . Before eight yea rs were gon e by, this m istru st cha n ged

in to a terrible wa r .

The stru ggle for the rul e of I ta ly w a s en ded . Mea su resr a ther of policy th a n of w a r will a ccou n t for som e a git a tion s,which a re the l a st p a roxysms of this grea t body of It a li a n people.The Sen a te kn ows th a t there a re n o en em ies to b e despised

,a n d

tha t grea t confla gra t ion s a re often produ ced from m ere sp a rks.Pl a ced in the cen tre of It a ly, it cou ld hea r the le a st sou n d

a n d w a tch every movemen t . N othin g esca ped this su rveill a n ce,which n ever slept in times of su ccess, a n d a s soon a s d a n ger

showed itself, stron g forces were a t on ce sen t t o th e threa ten ed

poin t .

Thu s, in the yea r th a t followed the c a ptu re of T a ren tum, the

con su l Genu ciu s wen t t o dem a n d reckon in g for their misdeeds of

the revolted legion a ries of Rhegium . Three hu n dred of them,

be in g sen t to Rom e, were scou rged a n d behea ded . The rest h a d

a lmost a l l perished in the a tt a ck ?

I n 269 a Sa mnite host a ge, Loll iu s, esca ped from R om e, col

l ected a few a dven tu rers, a n d tried t o r a ise th e Ca r a cen i in the

high v a lley of the Sa gru s. The two con su ls a t on ce sen t a ga in st

him qu ickly stifled this re-open in g w a r .

The yea r a fter, it is the Picen t es who a re stru gglin g with

two other con su l a r a rm ies, a n d who a re com pelled to su bmit a t

the m ercy of the Sen a te ; then the Sa rsin a t es a n d the whole

Um bri a n n a tion ,which rece ives the fin a l stroke ; a n d l a stly, in the

sou th of I t a ly the Sa l en t in es a n d Mess a pi a n s, who su ffer th e a tt a ck

of the legion s less on a ccou n t of their a lli a n ce with Pyrrhu s th a n

beca u se they possess the port of Bru n d u sium ,th e best p a ss a ge

from Ita ly t o Greece. Alre a dy the Sen a te tu rn ed it s eyes in this

direction . Som e distu rba n ces were a rising a lso in certa in vill a ges

1 There a re, a s to th is fa ct, gre a t v a ri a tion s between Orosiu s ( i v Zoh a ra s (vi i i.the E pitom e of L i vy a nd Dion Ca ssiu s. I n L ivy (xx i. H a n no gives a s the ca u se

Of the F irst Pu n ic W a r a n a tta ck on Ta rentum projected by the Ca rth a gin i a n s ; b u t it is

L i vy who m a kes h im sa y it .

2 Polyh ., i . 7; V a l .M a x., I I . V I I . 15.

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CHAPTE R XV I I .

OR GANIZ ATION OF ITALY BY THE R OMANS.

I . TH E FR E E DOM OF T H E CI TY,A ND TH E TH I R TY-F IVE TR I B E s.

HILE Rom e wa s brin ging It a ly i n to su bj ection,the Greeks

were overtu rn in g the Persi a n m on a rchy. To the l a tter,

a few yea rs in on e hu m a n l ife h a d su fficed to con qu er from the

Adri a tic t o the In du s. Rom e requ ired a cen tu ry t o stretch fromth e Ru bicon t o the Str a its of Messin a . I f sh e a dva n ced on ly

step by step, sh e kn ew a t lea st how to keep wh a t she took ;while Greece, a t

'

the en d of a few gen er a tion s, h a d lost a l l , evenher liberty.

I n tha t immov a ble E a st, where governmen ts ,p a ss a w a y

like the w a ter of th e stre a m s which a re lost in the desert,b u t where m a n n ers l a st like u n ch a n ge a ble N a tu re

, the rev

ol u t ion which tr a n sferred the em pire from the Pers i a n s t o the

M a cedon i a n s h a d n o l a stin g resu lts, a n d th a t Ol d world w a s a gita ted

on ly on the su rfa ce. The Greeks fou n d them selves n either

n umerou s n or stron g en ou gh t o orga n i ze a fter h a vin g con qu ered ,t o est a blish a fter h a vin g destroyed . Left

,a fter Alexa n der

,withou t

gu id a n ce ; lost, so to spe a k, in the midst Of Asi a tic popu l a tion s,they exercised on the l a tter on ly a feeble influ en ce

,a n d by their

im pru den t division s they en cou ra ged revolts . Wha t th e con

qu eror might h a ve perh a ps kn own how to d o,— t o bin d together

a l l these n a tion s, whose bon ds the Persi a n mon a rchy h a d brokenin it s f a ll

,n ot on e of h is su ccessors a ttem pted .1 There , a s elsewhere,

1 [I n eed ha rdly s a y tha t the text gi ves ra ther a rhetorica l tha n a n h i storica l v iew of the

Di a dochi. They e a ch strove t o recover for them se l ves the who le dom in ion of A lex a nder, — a t

le a st Perd icca s d id , a n d A ntigonu s, Dem etriu s, a nd Se leu cu s. B u t th ey were too even ly m a tched,a n d were on e a nother ou t in mutu a l confl icts. Ptolemy a lone of the le a ding m en

I

cou fincd

h im se lf to E gypt a nd the surrou ndin g co a st, a nd so H e l len i zed E gypt very complete ly. Bu t,

ORGAN IZATION OF ITALY. 477

Greece w a s convicted of in a bility to orga n ize a nything grea t, ou t

side Of the petty sta tes which , sm a ll a s they were , were yet too

l a rge for her philosophers a n d pu blic m en . I n the pol itica l world ,therefore , there resu lted from this con qu est n othing b u t a v a st

con fu sion ; a n d i f, in m ora ls,there grew u p between these m en of

two hitherto sep a r a ted worlds, a u sefu l in terch a n ge of doctrin es ;if from the com p a rison of their system s of religion a n d philosophy

there proceeded a rich in tellectu a l developm en t, — it w a s the West

onl y th a t profited thereby , s in ce on ly in the West w a s Rom e a ble

t o esta bl ish the order a n d u n ity of power.

The Rom a n st a te grows slowly. H er territory becomes wider

on ly a s her popu l a tion a u gm en ts ; before she m a kes a cou n try in to

a provin ce,she prep a res lon g in a dv a n ce her su pport there ; sh e

crea tes therein a Rom a n popu l a tion,— Rom a n e ither in in terest

or by origin . In to the midst of twen ty in depen den t n a tion s she

throws ou t a colony,

a n a dva n ced sen tin el,forever on gu a rd .

Of on e city she m a kes a n a lly ; to a n other she gra n ts the hon or

of livin g u n der qu irit a ria n l a w,— here

,with the right of su ffra ge ,

there,with the loca l governm en t preserved . Mu n icipi a of v a riou s

gra des,L a tin colon ies

,Rom a n colon ies

,prefectu res, a ll ied cities.

free cities,a l l isol a ted by the differen ce in their con dition

,a l l

un ited by their equ a l depen den ce u pon the Sen a te, they form a

grea t n etwork en twin ed a bou t the It a li a n peoples u n til the d a y

when , withou t fu rther stru ggles , the la tter a w a ke to fin d them

selves su bjects of Rom e . L et u s exa m ine thorou ghly th is

policy which m a de Of a l ittle city th e grea test em pir e of the

world .1

An cien t p a triotism h a d som ething m a teri a l a n d n a rrow in it . The

cou n try which a m a n cou ld see a n d tou ch,whose exten t cou ld .b e em

bra ced with the eye from the summ it of Ca pe Su n ium ,from Mou n t

T a ygetu s, or from the Ca pitol , w a s the rea l fa therl a n d, the he a rths

a n d the a lt a r for which he ou ght to d ie : p ro a ris et f ocis . Bu t

those in visible ties of a comm on l a ngu a ge, of the sa me idea s a n d

indeed, so did th e Se le ucid a e H e llen ize Syri a , a n d even a s f a r a s the Pu n j a b , Gree k influ ence swere deep a n d l a sting — B i j

1 T a citu s sa ys so (A n n . x i. Q u id a l iu d er itio L a cetl a emon iis cl A then ia ns

f uit, qu a n qu a m a rmis pol l eren t, n isi (11t 0 tl victos p ro a l ien igen is a rceb a n t ? A t con t/[tor

nostri R om u lus t a n tum s a p ien tia va lu it,

u t p l erosqu c p op u los eod em (l ie li ostes, d ein cives

ha b u erit (Speech of Cl a u diu s).

478 CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

sen timen ts a n d m a n n ers a n d in terests,— this p a triotism ,

born of

Christi a n brotherhood a n d m odern civi liz a tion, wa s u n kn own in

a n tiqu ity ? E a ch w a s of his own tribe, his c a n ton ,or his city. Like

Sp a rt a , Athen s, a n d Ca rtha ge , like a l l the con qu erin g repu blics of

a n tiqu ity, Rom e did n ot desire her sovereign ty to p a ss beyon d her

Forum a n d her sen a te-hou se. These cities were n ot c a pita ls, b u t the

en tire st a te. There were citizen s 2 on ly in side these w a lls or on the

n a rrow territory which l a y a rou n d them ; beyon d were on ly con

qu ered l a n ds or su bj ects . Accordin gly, Sp a rta , Athen s, a n d Ca rth a ge,which n ever ga ve u p this mu n icip a l pride, were n ever m ore th a n

cities, a n d perished ? Rom e, which often forgot it, beca me a grea t

people,a n d l ived twelve cen tu ries.

The pol itica l wisdom of the Rom a n s n ever rose, however,to the idea of cre a tin g a n I ta li a n n a tion . To deprive the v a n

qu ished of the right of foreign policy bec a u se it wa s Rom e’

s

in terest to su ppress loca l w a rs in I ta ly, a s l a ter on she pu t

them down in the world ; to pl a ce them in v a ried con dition s

of depen den ce, so th a t a n u n equ a l pressu re m ight preven t a

d a ngerou s con cert ; in short, to m a ke u se of them t o prom ote

Rom a n secu rity a n d gra n deu r by requ irin g their a ssista n ce a ga in st

every foreign en em y,— this wa s the design of the Sen a te when

the legion s h a d con qu ered Ita ly . To com prehen d a n d con trol

this situ a tion the Sen a te h a d m erely to review it s own history.

Two very a n cien t idea s in spired it s con du ct . A s rega rds pol itica l

rights, it pl a ced the Ita li a n s, tow a rds the people of Rom e, in the

position which the plebei a n s h a d so lon g occu pied in their rel a tion

to the p a tricia n s, th a t is to sa y, it m a de them a su bordin a te people.

1[Th is ignores the P a n-H e l len ic sentim ent so prom inent in the pol icy of Pericles, the

letters of Isocra te s, the speeches of Dem o sthenes, a n d e lsewhere — E d ]2 T he m a x im um of the n umber Of c itizen s wa s a t A then s (Thu cyd .

,n . 13 ;

Demosth ., a d o. A ristog . i. ; cf. B oeckh , i. 7 “ The l im ita tion of the n umber of citiz ens

w a s the b a sis of the governm ent of Greece. (L e t ron ne , A ca d . d es I u ser. vi.3 A ccordin g to the pu blic l a w of Greece , th e con qu ered were e ith er m a ssa cred, a s the

Pl a ta e a n s a n d M e li a n s, or dri ven a w a y, a s th e Po t id a e a n s, the Scyre a n s, the Ca ri a n s of

Lem nos, e tc. (Th u cyd ., ii. 27; Diod . Sic., x i i . 4 4 ; Corn . N ep., Cim . 2 , a nd I ll il t.

or en sl a ved , a s the Do lopes, th e Pe l a sgi a n s of Lemnos a nd Imbros (Thu cyd ., i. 98 ; Diod .,x i. 6 0) a nd the a ncient inha bita nts of Crete u nder the Dori a n s (A then .

, or m a de s l a ve sof the so i l, a s the H e lots, the Penest a e , th e M a rya n d in ia n s a mong th e H er a cleotes of Pontu s,the Gym nesii a t A rgos. (M il ll er , Dor. i i. p. Others , m ore fortu n a te , were su bjectedon ly to tribute a nd some hum i li a ting con dition s, a s the M essen i a n s , the Lesbi a n s, etc.

(P a n s , M essen . ; Thu cyd ., iii. A l l thi s wa s f a r from the sta te Of things in th e R om a n

policy.

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CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

with the Rom a n spirit . The br a vest a n d n e a rest en tered it first.I t w a s

,withou t dou bt, for the Rom a n s a p a rtition of the profits

of victory ; so a lso w a s it, by dou bling thei r n um ber, a n a ssu ra n ceof n ew victories a n d du ra ble con qu ests . Between 3 84 a n d 264

twelve tribes were crea ted , a n d the a ger R om a nu s sprea d from

the Cim in ia n forest to the middle of Ca m p a n i a . On this territory

the cen sors reckon ed fightin g m en,

17. e., a popu l a tion

of sou ls close a rou n d Rom e,which w a s certa in ly strong

CHE ST OF PR A E N E ST E .2

en ou gh to keep the rest of I t a ly in a we .3 Two cen tu ries before

,the

m i l it a ry popu l a tion did n ot exceed m en .

‘1 I n spite of the

losses from the G a ll ic a n d Sa m n ite w a rs,the force of Rom e in

citizen s, a n d con sequ en tly in soldiers, in crea sed in the proportion

1 Cen su s m a de a t the comm encement of the F irst Pu n ic I lV a r. ( E p it. L i vy, xvi. ; cf.E ntrop., i i.

2 Thi s che st, ta ken from the A tl a s of the B u l l . A rch , vol . v i i i. pl . 8, h a s u nfortu n a telybeen cu t , no dou bt to lessen it s h e ight. T he pa rt which rem a ins represents A en e a s killingT urn u s, Ca m i l la on her cha riot, e tc. I t is the ol d legen d of the Troj a n origin of R ome,

tre a ted by a Greek a rti st. We sh a l l see l a ter a t wh a t period the legend beca me e sta bli shedin L a t ium .

8 I fol low , for th e ev a lu a tion of the whole popu l a tion , the ru le a dopted by Cl inton in hisF a s ti H el len ici. I hne (R em. G eseli . i . 4 65) stretches these fi g ures, a n d rea ches a popu l a tionof a m i l l ion a nd a ha lf, for wh ich he gives h a lf a m i ll ion of sl a ves. I thin k both thesen umbers ex a ggera ted , e speci a l ly th e l a tter.

4 Cen su s of 4 6 3 (L ivy, iii. T he num ber in 3 3 8 w a s stil l on ly before thegre a t a nn ex a tion s which th e su ccess of the wa r , then comm en cing, a dm itted.

ORGAN IZATION OF ITALY 481

of 1 to 3 . The ol d Rom a n stock cou n ts for sca rcely h a l f of this

num ber. Bu t it s 2 1 tribes 1 ga ve 21 votes, a n d t he n ew citi zen s,

perh a ps m ore n u m erou s, cou n ted a s 12 on ly ; the districts of Sou th

E tru ri a , Rom a n sin ce 3 87 B . c .,h a d 4 votes ; t he La tin s, Volsci a n s ,

Au son es, a n d the Aequ i a n s , 2 e a ch ; the Sa bin es in 241 form ed n o

more th a n two tribes ? L e t u s a dd th a t the dista n ce from Rom e

of the n ew citizen s did n ot perm i t them,withou t costly jou rn eys ,

to a tten d the com i ti a t o vote in the cen tu ries . Thu s while

dou blin g her m il it a ry stren gth, while decl a rin g th e peoples est-a b

lished a rou n d her a s f a r a s 50 , 6 0 , or 100 m iles from her w a lls

mem bers of the sovereign st a te, Rom e pru den tly reserved t o h er

a n cien t citi zen s their legitim a te influ en ce. She sa tisfies the v a n ity

of her su bjects withou t a lterin g the fu n d a m en t a l n a tu re of h er con

stitu t ion ; she rem a in s a city,a n d is a lre a dy a lm ost a n a tion ; she

h a s the stren gth of n um bers a n d th a t of u n ity .

This un ion , however, wa s n ever so com plete b u t th a t there

rem a in ed a t the very ga tes of Rom e som e in depen den t town s . I n

every direction the territory of the 3 5 tribes, a gcr R om a n u s,wa s

intersected by foreign territories , a ger p eregr in u s . At Tibu r,

a t

Pra en este,the Rom a n exiles fou n d a n in viol a b le a sylum ; for the l a w

which in terdicted them fi re a n d w a ter w a s u n a ble t o tou ch them

beyon d the l a n ds of the Repu blic ? While m a king their own Forumthe on ly thea tre of politica l discu ssion s , the on ly pl a ce from the

Um bro t o the V u l tu rnu s where lofty a m bition a n d grea t t a len ts

cou ld fin d scope , th e Sen a te w ished t o lea ve som e en cou ra gem en t

to this Ol d love of the It a l i a n s for m u n icip a l in depen den ce .

M a ny a town of L a tiu m ,n om en L a tin um

,

4still con tin u ed a foreign

1 F our ur ba n the E squ il in e, Col l in e, Su b ura n , a n d P a l a tin e 17rura l : A em il i a, Ca m il ia ,

Cl a u d ia , Corn el ia , Cru stumin a , F a b ia , V a leria , H or a ti a , L em on ia , rkl en en ia , P a p ir ia , P ol l-l a ,

P upin ia , R omil ia , Serg ia , V e tu r ia , a n d V ol tin ia . T he four u rb a n tribes ha ve geogra phica ln a mes ; the seventeen rura l tribes, one on ly excepted, Cr u stu m in a , be a r th e n a mes of

pa tric i a n gen tes.

2 E tru sca n ; S tel l a tin a , Tromen tin a , S a b a tin a ,A rn iensis, in 3 87 (L i vy, vi . Volsc i a n

Pomp tin a a nd P u blilia , in 3 58 (L i vy, v ii . L a tin s : zl fl a ecia a nd Sca p tia , in 3 3 2 (L i vy ,vii i. A u sones, Ouf en t in a a n d F a ler in a , in 3 18 (L i vy , ix . A e qui , A n ien s is a n d

Teren tin a , in 2 9 9 (L ivy, x. Sa bines, '

el in a a n d Qu ir in a , in 24 1 (L i vy , E p it., x ix )3 The sa m e a t N a ples.4 T he n omen L a tin um n ow inclu de s wh a t rem a ined of th e a ncient La tin peoples not ye t

a tta ched to the R om a n c ity, a n d those who h a d rece i ved the j u s L a tii, a s colon ies of the L a tin

n a me ; b u t a m on g these people of the L a tin n a m e there were a lso diff erences some keptsome of th e priv il eges from the a ncient a ll i a n ceconclu ded by Sp.Ca ssiu s others , wh o perha ps

V O L . I . 3 1

CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

city, a n d yet a tta ched by divers bon ds to the grea t a ssocia tion

of peoples a n d cities which form ed th e Rom a n Repu blic. Lessh a rdly trea ted in gen er a l th a n the other peoples of Ita ly, su r

rou n ded by Rom a n citizen s, possessin g the s a m e m a teri a l in terests,

the sa m e l a n gu a ge , the s a m e m a n n ers,Often th e sa me civil l a ws ,

with the right of tra de, j u s comm ercii

,a n d m a ny fa ci lities for

Obt a in ing the freedom of the city, the L a tin s h a d n o .other fe el ings

tha n those of Rom a n citizen s . The election of their m a gistra tes

a n d sen a tors (d ecu rion es), th e l iberty left them of m a king l a ws of

loca l in terest, of a dm in isterin g their reven u es, of coin in g,1of w a tch

in g over the worship a n d pol ice of their city,

2occu pied m en

’

s life in

these l ittle cities. Their pol itica l spea king,less f a r-rea ching th a n

the Rom a n deb a tes, w a s n ot less im p a ss ion ed . Before seein g a t

Rome th e riv a lry of M a riu s a n d Syll a ,Cicero h a d seen a t A rpin um

the heredita ry stru ggles of his a n cestors a n d of those of M a riu s ?

Bu t the Sen a te took good c a re n ot t o forget these con su ls, these

m u n icip a l cen sors in thei r own m u n icip a l ity. I t h a d a ppoin ted

th a t the exercise of a m u n icip a l Office shou ld give the freedom of

4the Rom a n city ; in this w a y a tta chin g to the fortu n e a n d in terests

of Rom e wh a tever m en of wea lth, n obility, or a m bition were in the

L a tin town s. To disa rm the plebei a n s, it h a d t a ken their chiefs

in to it s bosom ; t o dis a rm the La tin s,it summ on ed theI r n obility to

Rom e .

This freedom of the city , which the Sen a te kn ew so well how

were a t first th e inha bita nts of the twe lve L a tin co lon ies fou n ded since 2 68, h a d not the rightof co in a ge , excepting copper, a n d reta in ed the j u s commercii with restriction s. H ence one

distinction between th e L a tium m a j u s a n d the L a tium m in u s, which spre a d grea tly u nder theE mpire. This L a tium min u s opened t he R om a n city to those of th e L a tin s who h a d borneon e of the grea t m u n icipa l offices or con victed a R om a n m a gistra te of pecu l a tion .

1 I t seem s tha t from 2 68 the La tin s ce a sed the co in a ge of s i lver m on ey, a n d th a t theissu in g of the ir bron ze coin stopped a fter the Secon d Pu n ic W a r . (M omm sen , H ist. of R om a n

Jll on cy, i i i. 1882 A u l . G e l l., N oct. A tt. xv i. 13 leg ib u s su is et su o 7t l 7

‘

e uten tes. See ib id ., iv. 4 , the proofof the ex istence a m ong the L a tin s of a c iv i l l a w disti n ct

;from th a t of R ome for m a rri a ges,

a nd in L ivy (xxxv. 7) for debts . T he Ju li a n l a w destroyed this speci a l l a w.

3 De L eg ., i i i. 16 . A rpinum , on a b ill wh ich overha ngs the L iris n e a r its conflu ence withthe F ib renu s, w a s su rrou n ded by Cyclope a n w a lls with a rem a rk a ble ga te ( see th is ga te,p. 4 7

,N o . Cicero bu i lt for h im se lf, q u ite nea r, a vil l a on one of the isles of the F ib renu s.

See the ch a rm ing description which he gives Of it in d e L eg ib us, ii. 1. I t is in th ispa ssa ge th a t th e be a utifu l words a re fou nd , c ited on p. 210.

‘1 Stra b., i v. p. 187 ; A pp., B el l . Civ. i i. 2 6 : 2

1211 3 0 0 i xa‘r’

é’

r os‘ ijpxov e

’

yiyuovro‘

Pwu a iwv

woAZr a t ; G a iu s, i. 9 6 : H i qu i vel m a g istr a tum vel honorem ger a n t a d civita tem R om a n a m

perven z’

u n r.

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ORGAN IZATION OF ITAL Y. 483

to u se for stim u l a tin g zea l , recom pen sin g services, or soften in g the

regret of lost liberty,1 im plied for h im who h a d obt a in ed it a b so

lu te a u thority over h is children , wife , sl a ves,

a n d property, the

gu a r a n ty of person a l l iberty, of rel igion,of the right of a ppea l ,

a n d th a t of voting u p t o 60 yea rs of a ge ;2 fitn ess for office , in

scription on the cen sor.’

s l ists, a n d the obliga tion of m ilit a ry service

in the legion s ; th a t of permission to b uy a n d sell a ccordin g t o th e

l a w of the Qu irites ; exem ption from every im post except th a twhich citizen s p a id ;

4 l a stly,the u sef ul right of p a rticip a tin g in the

en joymen t of the dom a in l a n ds or in the fa rm ing ou t of the

ta xes,

- in a word , the ben efit of the civil, politic a l , a n d re

l ig iou s l a ws of the Rom a n s . Am on g these l a ws, som e a ffect the

f a m ily a n d property, —these a re in clu ded u n der the n a m e of j u s

Qu iritium others a ffected th e St a te, —this is the j u-s civit a tis a l l

together, they form ed the freedom of the city in it s fu ln ess , — j u s

a nimus Op tim a j u re.

I I . MUN I CI PI A , PR E F E CT UR E S, AN D ALLI E D TOWN S .

TH E Sen a te con ferred on th e Ita l i a n s ou tside th e 3 5 tribes

either the civi l rights of the Ca erites 6 a fter the G a ll ic in v a sion , or

pol itica l rights in their fu l l exten t. Som etim es the Sen a te gra n ted

on ly the right of tr a de (comm ercium ), or of m a rria ge (connu b ium ) ;a n d in this ca se children fo llowed the con dition of the f a ther .6

F a r from dishon orin g the freedom of the city by a n im pru den t

libera l ity,the Sen a te pa rcelled it ou t in order to v a ry the concession s

1 H owe ver, som e Ita li a n s refu sed this so en vied hon or. (L i vy, ix. 45 ; xxii i.2 M a crob ., S a turn . i . 5 ; Pl iny, E p . i v. ‘2 3 F estu s, s. v. Sezra g cn a r ios.3 P a lri a p otes t a s, j u s conn u b ii

,leg itim i d om in ii, test a m en ti

, hered it a tis, l ib er l a tis, pro

voca tion is, s a crorum ,sufi

‘

r a g ii, honorum vel m a g istr a tu um,cen su s, commercii, m il itia e.

4 Tha t is to s a y, a modera ted im post, som e rights of cu stom s, a n d exc i se of one twentiethon the sa le a n d setting free of sl a ve s.

5 A s they cou l d ne ither vote n or hold a ny office , the cen sors, in order to pu n ish a c itizen ,inscribed him in ta b u la s Coer ira m . B u t th is l ist of Ca erites h a d a t first been a title of honor,when the inha bita nts of Ca cre were a ssocia ted

‘

to the R om a n sta te , e a cond ition e u t semper rem

pu blica m sep a r a ta m a p op u lo R om a no ha beren t. (F e stu s , s. v . 111m ; ice/m.)6 G a iu s, I n st. i. 77. “Then m a rria ge h a d ta ken pl a ce between person s n ot ha ving the j u s

con n u bii’

, the condition of the chi ldren w a s fixed by tha t of the mother ; in the e a se of a m a r

ria ge of a fore igner with a R om a n , n a tum (Zeler ior is p a ren tis cond itionem sequ i j u bet l ea : M en s ia .

(Ul p., L ib . reg . v. 8 ; cf. G a iu s, I n st. i. 78, 81,

484‘

CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

which en a bled it t o rep a y ze a l or pu n ish lu kew a rmn ess, a t the s a me

tim e m a kin g everywhere in equ a l ity.

These con cession s were m a de som etim es to a m a n , or a f a m ily,

or a n en tire cla ss ; m ore often to a whole city. M u n icip i a wa s the

n a m e given t o the cities thu sa n n exed to the grea t Rom a n

society. They were of threekin ds 1

1. Mu n icipia op tim a j u rc,whose in h a bit a n ts h a d a l l

the rights a n d oblig a tion s of

Rom a n citizen s. Their in ter

n a l governmen t wa s copied from tha t of Rom e, b u t they cea sed to

b e a n in depen den t st a te,cicit a s , sin ce they form ed p a rt of the Repub

lic, a n d h a d n ot the right of coin in g m on ey, which the federa ted

cities a n d L a tin colon ies possessed .2 . Mu n icipia withou t the right of su ffra ge

,whose in h a bit a n ts

were in the sa m e con dition a s th e a n cien t plebei a n s of Rom e,

bore the title of citizen s, served in the legion s, b u t cou ld n ot

hold office or vote .

3

3 . Town s h a vin g a trea ty of a ll i a n ce with Rom e, who bou nd

them t o her fortu n e withou t a lterin g their l a ws a n d in stitu tion s.Below the m u n icipi a ca m e

,in this soci a l hier a rchy

,the p r a ef ect

u r a c, which h a d n o loca l m a gistra tes a t a l l ; a prefect, sen t ye a rly

from Rom e, a dm in istered ju stice a n d did a l l the pu blic bu sin ess ;then cities s a n k t o the sta te of sim ple cou n try town s, m

’

ci.4

CO I N or A MUN I CI P I UM.2

1 F est., 8. v. M u n icipium. When th e people , on rece i vin g the freedom of th e city, a doptedthe R om a n l a ws, ben efi cio p ap a l-i R om a n i

,it wa s ca ll ed f u n d u s, a n d its citizen s a dj u sted

th e ir a ction s-a t-l a w to the R om a n l a w, sometim es before a pra ef ectu s j ure d ie -

u n d o, who

wa s ca l led the pra etor u rb a n u s. So it wa s a t A rpinum , whose inha bita nts h a d the right ofvotin g a t R om e a nd in severa l other cities. L e t u s note , too, in pa ssin g, tha t the prefects,wh a tever the ir fun ction s, a nd these were very v a ri a ble , — were a lw a ys a ppo inted, a nd not

e lected.2 L a u re l-crowned hea d of A u gu stu s, with the legen d, A V GV ST V S P. P. I M P. (A u gu s

tu s, P a ter p a tri a e , Impera tor) . On the reverse , M V N . (m u n icipium ) in a crown of l a ure l , a ndthe n a m e of th e m u n icipium , TV R I A SO. M edium-s ized bron ze co in , of coa rse workm a n sh ip,stru ck in a Sp a n ish city.

8 F est ., s. v. M u n icip es cives cra nzci in leg ion e m ereb a n t, sed d ig n ita tes n on ca p ieb a nt.

The Ca m p a n i a n s were in this cl a ss ; it is for th is re a son tha t Polybiu s cou nts them with theR om a n s. Cf. L ivy, vii i. 14 ; F est., 8. v. P ra ef ectu s.

4 in qu ib u s et j us d iceb a tu r cl n u nd in a e a geb a n l u r n equ e ta men m a gistr a tu s suos

h a beb a t. (F est., ib id .)

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486 CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

T a ren tum wa s free , l ike the H ern ica n cities ;1 b u t it s dem olished

w a l ls, it s cita del occu pied by a Rom a n legion,told pl a in ly wha t

sort of l iberty it w a s . N a ples w a s the a lly of Rom e,a s a lso

Vel ia , N ol a , Nu ceria , the M a rsi a n d Pel ign i,a n d a n um ber of

other peoples, b u t they were obliged in a l l w a rs to give vesselsa n d pa y for the t rOOps .

2 The Ca m ert in es a n d H er a cl eot es h a d

trea ted on a n equ a l footin g, a egu o f oed ere- 3 Tibu r

,Pr a en este

,h a d

preserved a l l the extern a l sign s of

in depen den ce,l ike the gre a ter p a rt

of the E tru sca n a n d Greek cities,a n d seem ed like foreign st a tes. Bu t

these a ll ies of Rom e h a d prom ised

t o respect “ the Rom a n m a jesty,”

CO I N o r N UCE R I A .4

wh i ch I n terdi cted them from every

en terprise a ga in st the fortu n es of the Rom a n people .

5 The term,

m oreover, w a s v a gu e enou gh to l et the Sen a te extr a ct from i t a l l

the obliga tion s which su ited them ; a n d a s in every city Rom e h a d

crea ted frien ds by su st a in in g the p a rty of the n obles a ga in st the

popu l a r p a rty,from which som e fool ish heroism 6

w a s a lw a ys a ppre

hen ded,wh a t cou ld this equ a l ity b e between som e obscu re cities a n d

the m istress of I t a ly ? Wha t w a s this in depen den ce , d u e sim ply to

the disd a in fu l or pol itic m odera tion of the con qu eror ?’

Su ch , then ,w a s the pol icy pu rsu ed by the Sen a te in its

trea tm en t of the v a n qu ished : the respect of loca l liberties in a l l

the cities where pa rticu l a r circum sta n ces h a d n ot dem a n ded

severity, b u t n o gen era l trea tm en t which wou ld h a ve u n i ted wha t

the Sen a te wished to keep sep a ra te : on the con tra ry,form a l

in terdiction of every le a gu e, of a l l comm erce, even of m a rri a ge,between the Ita l i a n s of cities or differen t ca n ton s ;

7a n d for every

1 They h a d a u ton omy. (L ivy, ix 4 3 )2 L i vy, xxvi i i . 4 5. R hegium , Ve li a , Pa estum ,

ren dered ships a lso (xxvi. L ikewiseT a rentum (xxxv. Locri (xxxv i . Uri a (x l i i . ct a l ia c civita tes ej u sd em j u ris. Cicerosa ys, spe a king of these duties imposed on the a ll ied cities : I n er a t n escio qu o mod o, in il lo

f oed ere societ a tis, qu a si qu a ed a m n ol a sem il u t'is. (I I . in V err. v.3 Cic., p ro A rch. 4 ; p ro B a l bo, 20 , 2 2 ; L i vy, xxvi i.4 6 .4 H e a d of a you n g wom a n with a ra m ’

s horn ; O sca n legen d ; behind the he a d a do lphin ,

a nd on the reverse a Dioscuros sta nding, h oldi n g his horse by the bridle, a nd a sceptre. Si lverm oney of N u ceria .

5 U!p op u l i R om a n i m a j esl a l em com iler con serva ret. (Dig . x l ix. 15, 76 A t Ca pu a , durin g the Secon d Pu n ic W a r, the nobles rem a in ed fa ithf u l to the R om a ns ;

the people were for H a n n ib a l .7 Cf. L ivv.vi i i. 14 ix. 45 ; x lv. 29.

OR G A N IZATION OF ITALY. 487

people who su bm itted , speci a l con dition s ; for every ci ty a speci a l

trea ty !1 To j u dge from a ppe a ra n ces, on e m ight t a ke I ta ly

for a con feder a tion of free sta tes,on e of which in the cen tre

su rp a ssed the others on ly in power a n d ren own . The f a te o f

the L a tin le a gu e h a s t a u ght u s a lre a dy wha t m u st b e th a t o f

the Ita li a n con feder a tion .

The prohibition which broke every bon d between the cities

wa s politica l, a n d is ea si ly com prehen ded ; th a t which a u thorized

the exercise t o the I ta l i a n of the j u s comm ercii on ly within the

lim its of h is own territory wa s econ om ic,a n d h a d gra ve resu lts,

which d o n ot a ppe a r a t first sight . The Rom a n s , bein g a lon e

a ble to b uy a n d sell throu ghou t the pen in su l a , a n d m eetin g with

a .very lim ited com petition from the inh a bita n ts of the pl a ce where

the tr a n sa ction w a s m a de, possessed a privilege which perm itted

them by degrees to u n ite in thei r own ha n ds a gre a t pa rt of the

It a l i a n l a n ded property. This l im ita tion certa in ly con tribu ted

m u ch to the form a tion of th e l a tiflm d’ia ,which

,in the cen tu ries

followin g, est a blished , for the profit of the Rom a n s,imm en se

d om a in s cu ltiv a ted by a rm ies of sl a ves .

There were, however, con dition s comm on to the whole of I ta ly .

Thu s pru den ce cou n selled n ot to su bject the It a li a n s t o a l a n d-t a x ;a nd this exem ption bec a m e on e of the m a rks of the I ta l ia n l a w

u nder the E mpire . Bu t citizen s p len o j u re, citizen s sin e suf m gio,a ll ies or socii, a n d civit a tes f oed em t a e, a l l were su bjected to m il ita ry

service, which these w a rl ike peoples sc a rcely rega rded a s a bu rden ;a n d the ir con tin gen ts h a d to b e r a ised, a rmed, p a id , perh a ps even

su pported,a t the expen se of the cities

,

2 — which w a s n ot u n ju st, s in ce

Rom e a t fir st dem a n ded them on ly for the comm on defen ce.

1 F or town s be a ring the sa m e title some diff erences ex isted . Thu s M ess in a a nd Ta uromen ium beca m e du rin g the F irst Pu n ic W'

a r f oed er a ta e ; b u t th e former furn ished a ship,

a nd th e other w a s n ot expected to d o so. (Cic.,II. in V err. v.

2 F or the incorpora tion of the Ita l i a n s into th e R om a n a rmy, see Polyb ., vi . F ra g . 5. H e

sa ys tha t R om e g a ve gra tu itou sly corn a nd b a rley to the Ita li a n a u x i li a ries p . wh il eshe reta in ed the cost of it ou t of the pa y of the R om a n citizen s. we infer from this pa ssa getha t she did not u nderta ke th e pa y of '

the a u x ili a ries, a lthou gh she di v ided the booty withthem. B u t their ch iefs, p ra ef ecti sociorum ,

were R om a n citiz en s. (L i vy, xxiii.

CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

I I I . COLON I E S A ND M I LI TA R Y ROA DS .

AF T E R h a vin g divided the in terests, there w a s n eed t o preven t

them from becom in g reu n ited : the colon ies foresta lled this d a n ger .

The Greek colon ies were som etim es fou n ded with a comm er

cia l en d in V iew,like th e three hu n dred tr a din g-posts of Miletu s ; b u t

n ever for a pol itic a l Object , u n less it were to rid the m other

cou n try of a su rplu s popu l a tion or a tu rbu len t crowd . Like the

swa rm driven from the hive , th e colon ists beca m e stra n gers to

their m etropol is ;1the u tm ost they owed to it wa s

in rel igiou s m a tters — som e m a rks of deferen ce a ndfil i a l respect . The civil l a w expl a in s th e politica l

l a w ; a t Athen s, th e son , in scribed in th e p lir a tria ,

bec a me a citizen,a n d n o on e h a d a u thority over

him . At Rom e, t he f a ther w a s m a ster of the l ife

a n d property of h is son,even if sen a tor or con su l.

I n the colony born of Rom e,3em a n cip a tion cou ld n ever com e.

From the Sen a te it rece ived it s mu n icip a l l a w ; it s in tern a l

orga n iza tion w a s sketched on th a t of the m other cou n try ; it h a d .

CO I N OF A

COLON Y.2

sen a tors or d ccu riones, con su ls or d u umvirs, cen sors Or d u u nwir i

qu in qu enn a les b u t in ca se of w a r it h a d t o pa y a tribu te to the

Rom a n trea su ry,a n d to the legion s even the very l a st of it s a ble

bodied m en .4 The a n cien t Rom a n colony wa s tru ly n othin g b u t

a ga rrison,

5sen t ou t to the st a te l a n ds

,a n d

,a s M a chi a vell i term s

it, a sen tin el.6 I t did n ot esta blish itself a t ra n dom 7 in som e

1 The KAUPOOXOI. m u st b e a lw a ys excepted. A th en s entered u pon th is system a fter theM edi a n w a rs, a n d t o it owed the power tha t she en joyed during h a lf a century. The tru eGreek colon i st w a s in a sta te of inferiority in respect t o h is m etropo l is (Thu c.

, i. H e of

A then s, if he retu rn ed t o A ttica , w a s n othin g more tha n a ne'

r oucos. See on this qu estion the

lea rn ed m em oir of M . F ou ca r t on les Co lon ies a lkc’

n iennes of the 5th a nd 6 th centuries.2 R everse of a bron ze stru ck a t Ca rtlca go JVova . Two m i l ita ry en sign s, a nd a rou nd , C.

A QUI N V S M E LA I I V I R Q V I N ( ( l u umvir qu in qucn n a l is) .3 T he co lon ies were reflection s of R om e. E x civit a te qu a si p rop a g a ta e su n ! et j u r a in

stitu ta qu e omn ia pop u l i R om a n i ha ben t cuj u s ist a e colon ia e qu a si efi g ies p a rva e simu l a cra qu e

esse vid en tu r. (A u l . G e l l., N oct. A l l . XVI. x i i i. 84 M il ites p ecu n ia mqu e d a ren t. (L ivy, xx ix .5 N on ta m oppid a I l a lia e qu a m p ropu gn a cu l a imp er ii. (Cic., in H u l l . i i .6 T he expression is Cicero ’s. I n the speech p ro F on teio h e ca ll s N a rbonne : Sp ecu l a

pop u l i R mn a n i et p rop ugn a cu l um .

Serviu s ( in A en ., i . 12 ) defines a co lony d ed u cl i s u n t in locum cerium a ed ifi ciis m u nitum.

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490 CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

the first,they were few in n u m ber ; in the cities of L a tium a n d

th e Sa bin e territory there were three hu n dred fa m il ies ; l a ter on,

when there w a s n eed t o occu py im porta n t m il it a ry fron tiers, a ctu a l

a rm ies wen t forth : six thou sa n d m en wen t to Ben even t um , to

cover Ca m p a n ia ; still m ore t o Ven u si a , t o thre a ten M a gn a G r a ecia ,

to defen d Apu l i a , to check the L u ca n ia n s a n d the Sa m n ites of

the sou th . I t is thou ght th a t the colon ists, on ce esta blished a t

the expen se of the form er in h a bit a n ts , a n d con sequ en tly su r

rou n ded by en em ies, were

n ot a llowed to desert their

post a n d go t o vote a t

Rom e,a n d th a t

,l ike a l l

the soldiers with the col

ors, th e l a w deprived

them of the right of de

l iber a tin g. We h a ve n o

express eviden ce th a t they did n ot preserve the plen itu de of

the ir privileges a s Rom a n citizen s . Bu t thou gh they preserved

them,they h a d som ethin g else to do th a n in crea se th e d in a n d

crowd of the Foru m . The Repu blic requ ired them to ren der it s

con qu ests du ra ble ; t o w a tch over th e v a n qu ished a n d preven t

revolts ; t o ca rry throu ghou t Ita ly the l a n gu a ge , m a nn ers,l a ws

,

a n d blood of Rom e a n d L a tiu m .

2 This they secu red so well, th a t,within a few yea rs, there w a s born in the depths of Apu li a the

m a n whom the Rom a n s styled the fa ther of their l itera tu re,E nn iu s nos ter

, the poet who sa ng in e ighty-on e books the grea t

deeds of their a n cestors .

CO I N O F T H E DE CU R I ON s.1

Thr ee m a gistra tes were genera l ly cha rged with condu ctin g them , a n d during the first yea rsu pervisin g the ir w a nts : triu mviri d ed u ccnd is co lon iis , qu i p er trien n ium m a g is tr a tum lmbercn t.

(Li vy, xxx i i. T he co lon ies ca lled m a ritime (n o t a l l the colon ies on the sea were so, b u t

on ly those which gu a rded a n importa nt port a t th e m outh of a ri ver) were exempt from l a ndservice , a n d som etimes tha t by se a : s a cro-sa n cta va ca tio. (L ivy , xxvi i. 3 8 ; xxxvi . Theywere requ ired a bove a ll to defend th e po sition which h a d been intru sted to them , a n d th isinterest a ppe a red so con s idera ble , tha t the m a ritime co lon ies were composed of R om a n

c iti zen s.1 Co in stru ck by decree of th e decurion s DD (rl ecrcto ( l ecu r ionum ) a t A pa mea in B ithyn i a

u nder Ca ra ca l l a . L a rge bron ze .

2 A scon iu s ( in P ison .) reckoned before t he Secon d Pu n ic W a r 53 colon ies, twenty-threeof which h a d the j u s L a l ii. M a dvig a n d M omm sen ha ve en umera ted the n a m es of thirty-oneor thirty-two R om a n colon ies a n d of th irty-n ine L a tin co lon ies. I n the l a tter not on ly L a tinsa n d Ita li a n s were a dm itted , b u t a lso plebe i a n s from R ome, who preferred a property in a

co lony to the exerci se of po l itica l rights in the F orum .

ORGAN I ZATION OF ITALY. 49 ]

Followin g a cu stom derived from Older It a ly , the colon ists.where the con qu ered h a d been sp a red

,to ok u su a lly a third Of the

territofy 5 the n a tives sh a red the re st. a n d h a d in their own city

on ly a n in ferior pos ition , like th a t of the plebe i a n s of Rom e when

the l a tter were still withou t the j u s sufira gii a n d the j u s li on orum .

Thu s revolts were frequ en t , a n d m a ny a tim e were th e colon istsdriven a w a y or su rprised a n d m a ss a cred by the ir su bjects . Bu t

tim e a n d comm u n ity of in terests eff a ced,a s a t Rom e , these d if

ferences . Th e colon i a l p op u lu s a n d p leb s en ded by be ing fu sed in

the equ a l ity of m u n icip a l rights,to which w a s often a dded equ a l ity

of rights with Rom e, in virtu e of a plebiscite which en rolled the

city in on e of the thirty-five tribes . Then the re rem a in ed n o other

division tha n the n a tu r a l on e between th e rich a n d poor,the a ssid u i

a n d the a cr a rii , the l ion estiores a n d the l ium il iores , which form ed

the grea t soci a l division in th e l a st d a ys of the Repu blic a n d u n der

the E m pir e .

With the Gra cchi a n ew sort of colon ies bega n,— th a t of poor

people to whom l a n ds were given ; a n other a ga in with Ma riu s a n d

Syll a , — th a t of soldiers who obt a in ed l a nds a s a m i lit a ry prize

two very differen t proceedin gs , which we sha ll discu ss i n du e

tim e .

To com plete this Sketch of th e a n cien t colon ies,l et u s see wh a t

posts the Sen a te g a ve them t o gu a rd .

Till the Sa m n ite wa r,Rom e

,m ore en ga ged in ga in in g pe a ce

within th a n con qu ests w ithou t , h a d form ed a sm a ll n um ber on ly

of these est a blishm en ts a like pol it ica l a n d m il it a ry . I n E tru ri a,

Su t rium a n d N epete a t the p a sses of the Cim in ia n forest ; a m on g

the Ru tu l i,Ardea a n d Sa t ricum ; a m on g the Volsci

,A n t ium t o

wa tch the coa st ; V e l it ra e , N orb a , a n d Seti a , t o keep in check the

mou n t a in district.

I n the w a r with Sa m n ium the legion s h a d con qu ered in v a in ;the w a r wou ld n ever h a ve en ded , h a d n ot the Sen a te , by it s

colon ies,gra du a lly m a de th e en em y retre a t to the Apen n in es .

By Terra cin a , on the Appia n Wa y, it closed the rou te from Ca m

pa n ia in to La tium ; by F regel l a e i t b a rred the Va lley of th e Treru s,

which l ed t o Pr a en este a n d the Alba n Mou n t ; by Sora , In ter a m n a ,

Min tu rn a e, a l l on the Li ris, i t covered the cou n try of the Volsci a n dof the H ern ica n s .

492 CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

A secon d lin e defen ded the fi rst ,— Atin a , A qu in um , Ca sin um ,

in the mou n t a in ou s cou n try which sepa ra tes the V u l tu rn u s from

the L iris, closed the p a sses which the Sa m n ites h a d m a ny a

tim e followed t o descen d in to the

va lley of this l a tter river, a n d then ce

effect a ju n ction with the revolted

peoples of L a tium . Vesci a , Su essa

Au ru n c a , Te a n u m ,a n d Ca les a m ong

the Sid icin i, kept the cou n try between

the Lower Liris a n d the V u l tu rn u s.

This dou ble lin e , which en circled L a tium on the sou th a n d

sou the a st, w a s con n ected on th e ea st by Alba F u cen t ia a m on g the

M a rsi,A esu l a a n d Ca rseol i a m on g the

Aequ i,with the im porta n t position of

N a rn i a , which covered the rou te from

Um bri a towa rds Rom e,a n d with the colo

n ies of E tru ri a,N epete

, Su t rium ,Cosa

,

Alsium ,a n d F regel l a e . Behin d this r a m

p a rt Rom e cou ld bra ve every en emy . H a n n ib a l a n d Pyrrhu s, who

on ce crossed this form id a ble circle , b u t withou t ha ving broken it,did n ot d a re t o rem a in in the m idst of it .

I n the rest of Ita ly the colon ies were less n umerou s : the

popu l a tion of Rom e a n d it s L a tin a ll ies wou ld n ot ha ve been suf

fi cien t t o form so m a n y ga rrison s b u t

by the ir strength a n d good position

they were en a bled t o comm a n d a wide

CO I N o r A Q U I N U M .l

CO I N or COSA .2

a re a . Thu s Sa m n ium h a d on ly two,

— a t

A esern ia a n d B en even tum , from when ce

st a rted a l l the high roa ds of Sou th It a ly ;Picen um ,

three, — H a dri a , Firmum,Ca strum ; Um bri a , fou r, r a n ged

a long the rou te of the Ga u ls,— N a rn ia , which b a rred the m iddle

va lley of the Tiber ; Spol etum ,which covered this pl a ce a n d

CO I N or A E SE R N I A .3

1 H e a d of M inerv a . R everse, A QV I N , a cock a nd a sta r ; sm a ll bron ze of A qu inum on

the via L a tin a , the ru in s of wh ich a re t o b e seen sti l l in the v icin ity of the m odern town of

A qu ino. I t wa s the n a ti ve pl a ce of Ju ven a l [a nd of the gre a t St . Thom a s.2 H e a d of M in erv a . On th e reverse , bu st of a horse , CO ( sa )N O . Sm a ll bron ze.3 H e a d of Vu lca n : VOLCA N OM ; behind , pin cer-s. On the reverse , A I SE R N I NO a nd

a you ng wom a n dri ving a biga . Sm a ll bron ze of A esern ia , in the Va ll ey of the V u l tu rnu s,

now Isern i a .

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4 94‘

CON QUE ST OF ITA LY.

Pa estum . More to the sou th , T a ren tum ,L Ocri

,Rhegium

, on the

Stra its, a n d som e other pl a ces,h a d ga rrison s .

To bin d together a l l these p a rts,a n d to tr a n sport the legion s

r a pidly .t o m en a ced poin ts, gre a t m il it a ry roa ds were l a id ou t fromon e extrem ity of the pen in su l a t o the other . I n the m iddle of the

Sa m n ite w a r, in 3 12 , the cen sor Appiu s h a d begu n the Appi a n

T H E A PP I A N G A T E ( R E ST OR E D) .l

W a y, which l ed a cross th e Pon tin e M a rshes from Rom e t o Ca pu a .

This grea t exa m ple w a s followed ; a n d from tha t tim e the cen sors

em ployed for works of pea ce the resou rces of the trea su ry . They

set with su ch a ctivity t o work , th a t before the Secon d Pu n ic Wa r the

V a leria n Wa y tra ve rsed Tibu r, the colon ies of Ca rseol i a n d,Alb a ,

a n d re a ched Corfin iu m ,on th e other side of the Apen n in es the

Au rel i a n Wa y ra n a lon g th e coa sts of E tru ri a,a n d th e Fl a m in i a n

a n immense em inence , wh ich a n oa k covered with its thick sh a de. I t wa s the tomb of Dervcen nu s , a former king of L a u ren tum .

1 Ca n in a , g l l E l f/[fig] ( l i R om a . pl . 270 .

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496 CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

Besides the m il it a ry colon ies sen t t o th e stron gest pl a ces of

I t a ly, Rom e h a d in the cou n try esta blishm en ts of a n other kin d, a n d

which helped the sa m e resu lt, — the sprea d of the L a tin r a ce overthe whole pen in su l a . The a ger R om a nu s stopped a t th e V u l tu rn u s ;

b u t th e rest of It a ly wa s covered with l a n ds a ssign ed to the pu b l icdom a in of the Rom a n people . The Bru t t ia n s h a d ceded h a lf of theSi l a forest ;

1the Sa m n ites a n d the L u ca n ia n s

, who h a d recogn ized

the m a j es ty of the R om a n p eop le, the Sa bin es a n d Picen t in es,de

spoiled by Cu riu s , the Sen on es , exterm in a ted by Dol a b el l a , h a d lostm ore still ; a n d the ha lf, perha ps, of the best l a n ds of the pen insu l a h a d becom e Rom a n property. The cen sors h a d l et them ;

2a nd

shepherds a n d Rom a n l a borers, bein g sprea d throu ghou t the cou n try,

were u n cea sin gly be in g fu sed with the Ita li a n popu l a tion s.

I n order to in su re the pa ym en t of the t a x im posed on the

l a nds of the dom a in ,the Sen a te divided the pen in su l a in to fou r

gra n d division s , to which were sen t fou r qu a estors,who resided a t

Osti a a n d Ca les for the provin ces which l ie tow a rds the Tyrrhen i a n

Sea ; in Um bri a a n d Ca l a bri a for the districts a long the Adria tic.3

To the cities of differen t r a n ks which we h a ve n a m ed a re a t

t a ched the c a n ton s, p a gi, a n d the cou n try town s,u ici

,which h a d

their a n n u a l m a gistra tes ; a lso the f or a a n d con cilia bu l a . I n the d is

t rict s where the popu l a tion wa s n ot den se , cert a in pl a ces/

bec a me the

M i l a n , a nd from thence r a n westw a rd to T urin , to the e a st a s f a r a s T rieste. A cross—ro a d,V ia P ostumia , went from G eno a t o Veron a .VI. V I A CA SS I A led a cross Centra l E truri a , by Ve i i , Su trium , V u l sin ii, a nd A rretium to

Lu n a , where it jo in ed the A ure l i a n W a y. On e of it s bra n ches, via A merin a , went to Tu dor a ndPer u sia ; a n other V ia Clod ia , u n ited R u sel l a e a n d T a rqu in ii, a n d the V ia Cimin a crossed themou nta ins of Viterbo, Cim in u s m ons.

VII. V I A A UR E L I A , le a ving R om e by the J a n icu lum G a te , tou ched A lsium , a nd followedthe E tru sca n coa st to G en oa a n d F re j u s. T he V ia P or tu en sis fol lowed the right b a n k of theT iber to Portu s A u gu sti ; the

‘

V i a Os tien sis , the left b a n k t o Osti a , whence it turned to the

south, keeping, u n der th e n a me of V ia Sever ia n a , a lon g the coa st to T erra cin a ; the roa dsL a u ren tin a a n d A rd ea tin a in dica te th e route by the ir n a mes.

Thu s seven gra n d ro a ds sta rted from R om e ,— two, App ia a n d L a tin a , to the south ;

two, V a ler ia a n d S a l a ria , t o the A dri a tic one , F l a m in ia , to th e northe a st ; two, Ca ss ia a nd

A u re l i a , to the n orthwest ; a n d the V ia A emili a serves for both b a n ks of the PC. See on th isq u estion the cl a ss ic work of B erg ier , H istoire (l es g r a n d s chem in s cl e l

’

emp ire rem a in , a nd the

T a b le cl e P eu tinger, ed . E rne st De sj a rdin s.1 Dionys., E xcerp t a ex l ib ro xx. 15 ( 20 ,2 I n m a ny pl a ce s th e It a l i a n s were a dm itted a s fa rm ers, a nd thi s w a s one m ore bond

between them a n d R ome ; b u t tha t d a tes, dou btless , from a l a ter period. A t the time of theGra cch i, m a ny o f them a re holders of dom a in l a n d. (Cic., d e R ep. i i i.

8 L ivy,E p it. xv. ; T a c., A nn. i v. 27.

ORGAN IZATION OF ITALY. 4 97

comm on m a rket-pl a ce , f or um , a n d the poin t of reu n ion , con cil ia bu lu m ,

of the whole ca n ton .

1Comm u n i ties were there form ed which

beca m e by degrees cici, or even cities ; a n d the n om a d shepherd o f

the Pon tin e M a rshes , a s we ll a s the m ou n t a in eer whose hu t l a y

hidden in the m ost retired v a lleys of the Apen n in es, wa s a tt a ched

to this m u n icipa l ru le, of which Rom e,while respectin g it, m a de

a n in strum en t of dom inion .

I V . RE L I G I OUS SUPR E MA CY ; ROM E GOVE R N S, AN D DOE S N OT

A DM I N I ST E R .

RE L I G I ON exercised too gre a t a n influ en ce throu ghou t the whole

pen in su l a for the Rom a n s,while disciplin in g Ita ly, t o n eglect the

disciplin e a lso of it s rel igion s . We h a ve seen2 tha t the protectin g

divin ities of con qu ered cities were often worshipped a t Rome . When

the ir gods were left t o the v a n qu ished , it w a s u su a l t o su bject the

priests of these gods t o the con trol of Rom a n priests , who cl a im ed t o

b e the sole possessors of the scien ce of a u gu ry . From the Ru bicon

to the Str a its of Messin a , n ot a prodigy h a ppen ed th a t wa s n ot im

m edi a tely referred by th e trem blin g people t o the Rom a n Sen a te

in terpreted by it s a u gu rs,a n d expi a ted a ccording to their direction s.

By this the loca l clergy w a s dispossessed of it s prin cipa l m ea n s of

influ en ce , a n d the Rom a n s held It a ly by religion,a s they did by

pol icy a n d a rms . Presen tly,we sh a ll fin d the rel igiou s feelin g

grow wea k,a n d a m ongst som e disa ppe a r . N ow it w a s still power

fu l,a n d th e Rom a n s ga ve a n ex a m ple of piety. I t is com pu ted th a t

from 3 02 t o 2 9 0 t en tem ples were bu ilt by them in their city .

The other gre a t n a t ion s of a n tiqu ity h a d kn own wel l en ou gh

how to con qu er ; n ot on e kn ew how to preserve it s con qu ests ,beca u se n on e wou ld forego the rights which victory h a d given them .

1 The comm issioners nom in a ted in the ye a r 2 11 for the recruiting, go p er f ora et con

cil ia bu l a . Cf. L ivy p a ss. a nd F estu s s. v . These f or a ct con cil ia b u l a were pl a ces where a

rura l popu l a tion , n ot ha ving a city, tra n sa cted the ir re l igiou s or j u d ic i a l a ffa irs, a n d he ld the irmeetings a nd m a rkets. I ha ve cou nted a m on g the a nc ient c itie s of Ita ly m ore tha n thirtyfora , m a n y of which to this d a y keep the n a m e : F orli , F orl im popo l i, F ossom brone. e tc.

2 Pa ge 3 58, n . 1.

3 L ivy, xxi . 6 2 : lectistern ium Ca cre imp er a tu m ; x

‘x i i. 1, (l ecretum est Ju -non i L a n u vii

s a cr if ica re l u r Decem uir i A rd e a e in f ore m a j orib u s hos tiis sa crifica ru n t. Cf. xxxi ii . 3 1.See especi a ll y in the next volume the sen a tu s—cons u l t a m a ga in st th e B a ccha n a ls.

V OL . I . 3 2

CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

Un der h er kin gs, Rom e ca lled in stra n gers to u n ite with her ;n ow,

popu lou s en ou gh , in the Sen a te’

s ju dgm en t, she crea tes Rom a n

citizen s ou tside her w a lls ; a n d to stim u l a te zea l, she holds up, beforethe eyes of a l l , this title which ra ises to the r a n k of m a sters of It a ly

,

which relea ses from ma ny t a xes, which gives a ccess to Office, a n d ihvites to a sha re in the distribu tion s of l a nds a n d t o the en joym en t of

the pu blic dom a in . I t is the coin in wh ich sh e repa ys a l l services,

preciou s m on ey , which sh e distribu tes in order t o g a in by it a grea ter

n um ber t o her ca u se . Therefore if it is tru e th a t the Rom a n people,terrible a ga in st the strong, a n d pitiless on th e field of b a ttle , ca rried

destru ction wherever it fou n d a keen resista n ce, a t le a st, when wa r

w a s over, it spon t a n eou sly,in the in terest of it s grea tn ess, r a ised

up the en emy which it h a d ju st stru ck down ; it w a s ple a sed , a sthe poet sa ys, p a rcere su bj ectis ci d ebel la re sup erbos . Sa tisfied with

h a vin g destroyed th e politica l power of it s a dversa ries,it gen era l ly

respected , in thi s first period of it s con qu ests, their m a n n ers, their

l a ws , a n d their governm en t. I t kn ew th a t a people cou ld b e re

sign ed to the loss of it s in depen den ce,th a t is t o s a y, t o a con ies

sion of it s we a kn ess,b u t n ever to the con tem pt of th e cu stom s of

it s a n cestors . The cen tr a liza tion w a s pol itica l,n ot a dm in istra tive ;

a n d the grea ter pa rt of the cities,preservin g their m a gistr a tes,

2 l a ws,rel igion

,fin a n ces , in tern a l pol ice, a llowed t o con fer mun icip a l free

d om,to a dm in ister crim in a l a n d civi l procedu re,

3 in short,t o give

them selves l a ws, — rega rded themselves r a ther a s a ssoci a ted with

the splen dor of the Roma n n a m e th a n su bject t o it s power. The

bu stle of their comiti a m a de them be lieve them selves free . All the

l ivin g forces of Ita ly were cen tra l ized in the ha n ds of the con su ls ;th e Sen a te disposed of its five hu n dred thou sa n d soldiers, it s ca v a lry,it s n a vy

,a n d yet politica l l i fe wa s n ot extingu ished in the m u n icip ia ;

th e blood did n ot lea ve the extremities t o ru sh t o the he a rt, a s

is the ca se a cen tu ry a n d a h a lf l a ter, when those tem pests; a rise

in which the Repu blic will fou n der . We a re still in the a ge of

moder a tion a n d wisdom.

See p. 4 83 . A fter th e w a r a ga in st Perseu s, the citizen s h a d no ta xes wh a tever toP3 )“

2 E ven the simple town s : m a g istri vici, item m a g istri p a gi qu ota n n is j iu n t. F est ., s. v.V icu s.

3 E xcept for the m u n ic ipi a op tim a j u re. A R om a n citizen cou ld , in a crim in a l m a tter,b e j u dged onl y by the who le people a ccording t o the T we lve T a ble s.

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INTER NAL STATE OF R OME DUR ING THE SAMNITE WAR .

I . MA N N E R S.

H I S period h a s been rega rded a s the golden a ge of the

Repu blic. Accordin g t o the Ol d a n d hon ora ble cu stom of

pr a isin g bygon e d a ys , a l l the virtu es h a ve been a scribed to the

Rom a n s of this period ; a n d virtu es they in deed possessed, especi a lly

those which m a ke good citi zen s . The con qu erors of the E tru sca n s

a n d T a ren tum did n ot despise poverty ; the plebei a n s, who h a d

a sserted so m a ny rights,a ccepted a l l their du ties

,a n d their p a triot

ism h a d th e force of a rel igiou s feel ing . Two Decii ga ve their

lives for the Rom a n a rmy ; Postum iu s a n d M a n l iu s ea ch Sa cri

ficed a son to discipl in e . The cen sor R u t il iu s,‘

re-elected on lea v

in g office ca lled together the people,a n d cen su red them

stron gly for h a vin g con ferred twice in su ccession on the sa me

citizen those im port a n t fu n ction s . I f Corn . R u finu s, in spite of

two con su l a tes,a dict a torship, a n d a trium ph

,w a s expe lled “

the

Sen a te for h is t en pou n ds of silver pl a te,when th e l a w perm itted

on ly eight ou n ces ;1 if th e con su l Postu m iu s forced two thou sa nd

legion a ries t o cu t his corn or clea r h is woods,— A t il iu s Serra n u s

rece ived a t the plou gh the con su l a r pu rple , a s Cin cin n a tu s did

form erly the dict a torship . Reg u lu s, a fter two con su l a tes, possessed

on ly a little field with a Sin gle sl a ve, in the sterile territory of

Pu pin ia e ; a n d Cu riu s, with h is trium ph a l h a n ds, l ike Fa briciu s a n d

A em il iu s P a pu s, prep a red his coa rse food in wooden vessels . The

sa m e Cu riu s who decla red a citizen t o b e d a n gerou s to whom seven

a cres were n ot en ou gh,

2 refu sed th e gold of th e Sa m n ites Fa briciu s

1 L i vy, E p . x i v. R a ther, perha ps, for hi s plu ndering. The a n swer wh ich F a b ricius

m a de h im (Cic., d e Ora t. i i . 6 6) represents h im a s a plu n derer.2 Pliny

, N a t.H is t. xvi ii . 4 .

INTE RN A L STATE OF ROM E DURIN G SAM N ITE WA R . 50 1

tha t of Pyrrhu s ; a n d Cin e a s , when in trodu ced to the Sen a te,thou ght he sa w there a n a ssem bly of kings .

“ At tha t time,”

s a ys Va leriu s M a xim u s,

“ there w a s l ittle

or sca rcely a ny m on ey, som e sl a ves , seven a cres of poor l a n d ,poverty in fa m i lies, fu n era ls p a i d for by the sta te, a n d d a u ghte rs

withou t dowry ; b u t illu striou s con su la te s , won derfu l dict a torships ,in n u m era ble trium phs , — su ch is the pictu re of these o l d tim es !

” 1

L et u s sa y m ore t a m ely th a t, th a nks to the Licin i a n l a w of the

lim it a tion of property,2 Rom e h a d n either the extrem e we a lth which

som etim es produ ces in solen t pride , n or the extrem e poverty which

ca u ses the growth of en vy a n d the spirit of revolt . The grea test

n um ber wa s in th a t ha ppy “

m ea n which excites t o l a bor , gives

v a lu e t o a sm a ll possess ion , a n d pu ts in to the hea rt the desire of

en ergetica lly defen din g it .

Thi s people h a d it s f a u lts : it liked work, b u t a lso booty , u su ry,litiga tion ; it h a d in its blood th e sh e—wolf

’

s m i lk . The creditor w a s

ha rd to the debtor, the f a ther t o h is son , the m a ster to his sl a ves,

the con qu eror to the conqu ered . They h a d the l im ited in tell igen ce

of the pea sa n t, who lives with his hea d ben t over the fu rrow,with

the bru t a l pa ssion s of du l l n a tu res a n d th e v ulga r pride of physic a l

force . There w a s n othing gen erou s, n othin g e lev a ted , sa ve in the

very few ; n ei ther a r t, pl l l lOSOpl1y,

'

110 1‘ tru e religion ; a s it s ide a l

,

ga in , a n d power , which is the po litica l form of covetou sn ess . Wa s

their dom estic l ife more edifyin g th a n i t is in the sequ e l ? E vil

is bette r seen in the societies which a re in fu ll light of d a y, th a n in

those whose d a rkn ess history ca n h a rdly pen etra te . Bu t there a re

vices which excess of we a lth, the ple a su res of a too ea sy existen cea nd of too n um erou s tem pt a tion s, develop ; with these the Rom a n s

of the fou rth cen tu ry before Christ were certa in ly u n a cqu a in ted .

They were u pright , a n d kept their pl ighted word .“ Tru st ,

sa id a l a ter proverb ,“a trea su re to a Greek , t a ke t en su reties

,ten

sign a tu res a n d twen ty witn esses : h e will rob you . At Rom e,a

m a gistr a te h a d in his h a n ds a l l the pu blic wea lth , a n d to preven t

1 V a l .M a x ., IV. iv. 6 a nd 11. The triumph of Curin s introdu ced. by wha t F loru s sa ys,gre a t riches into the c ity. Si l ver wa s soon so a bu nd a nt tha t, three ye a rs a fter the t a king ofT a rentum , s i lver coin w a s stru ck. Up to tha t time there h a d been on ly a ses o f bron ze.Polybiu s (xviii . 2 ) sti l l pra ises the poverty of Pa u l u s A em il iu s a nd o f Scipio A em il ia n u s .

2 E 0 a n n o p lerisqu e ( l ies d icta a b a ed il ib u s, qu ia p l u s gu a m qu od lege fi n itum er a t, a g ri

possid eren t. (Li vy, x.

502 CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

h is em bezzling it,hi s o a th w a s su fficien t .1 This good f a ith of the

in dividu a l , t his probity of th e m a gistra te , were th e reflection of a

m ore gen era l virtu e whi ch existed in the whole body of citizen sa bsolu te respect for l a w

,a spon t a n eou s obedien ce t o esta blished

a u thority,with th e right of a ppea l from a n a rbitr a ry order . The

people most jea lou s of it s l iberty which the world ever s a w w a s

a t th e sa m e tim e the m ost su bm issive t o it s m a gistra tes a n d to

l a wf ul power .” 2 Bossu et w a s right in bringin g together these two

idea s,which t o so m a ny m en a re con tr a dictory : it is the ir un ion

which m a kes citi zen s tru ly free , a n d st a tes rea lly stron g .

The Rom a n is n ot lov a ble , b u t he extorts a dm ira tion ,beca u se

,

in th a t society,if th e m a n is little

,the citizen is grea t . H e is so

by those civic virtu es throu gh which he deserved em pir e, by the

in dom it a ble cou ra ge which ga ve it him , by the disciplin e,in the

best sen se of the word, a n d b y th e pol itica l wisdom whi ch preserved it t o him . Thu s h is history, in which th e poet a n d a rtist

fin d so little in terest, wil l b e a lw a ys the proper school of pu blic

m en .

I I . TH E CON ST I TUT I ON ; BA LA N CE OF FOR CE S.

TH E d a ngers of the Sa m n ite w a rs h a d restored pea ce between

the two orders . Little riv a lries h a d ce a sed when th e grea t in terest

of the pu bl ic s a fety w a s con cern ed, th e pol itic a l em a n cip a tion of

the plebei a n s w a s fu l ly a ccom plished , a n d th e n ew gen era tion of

p a trici a n s, brou ght up in c a m ps, h a d lost the rem em bra n ce of the

popu l a r vi ctories . The n ew m en were n ow a s n um erou s in the

Sen a te a s th e descen d a n ts of the ol d f a m ili es ; a n d the services a s

well a s th e glory of P a piriu s Cu rsor, Fa biu s Ma xim u s, Appiu s

Ca ecu s,a n d Va leriu s Corvu s

,effa ced n either th e services n or the

glory of the two Decii,P . Philo , fou r tim es con su l , of C. M a en iu s,

tw ice dict a tor of Ca ecil iu s Metellu s,who comm en ced th e ren own

of this fa m ily, of whom N a ev iu s is obliged t o sa y :“ Th e M et el li

1[This st a tement m a y h a ve been Often tru e , b u t suff ered m a ny sa d exception s. There

w a s gre a t corru ption a mong R om a n pu blic m en l a ter on , a n d it is n ot certa in tha t their politica lm ora l ity

,when sta te interests were concerned , w a s higher tha n tha t of Demosthenes. Cf.

my Socia l L if e in G reece, fourth edition , p. 4 24 .— E d .]2 B ossu et, Disc. su r I ’kis t. u nfu , pa rt 3 , ca p. v i.

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504 CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

him in a con tinu a l su spen se . La stly,when his term of office h a s

expired,he m u st ren der a n a ccou n t t o the people t o receive their

pl a u dits,which prom ise him fresh Offices, or reproa ches a n d m u rm u rs,

which for ever close a ga in st h im en tra n ce t o high office, som etimes

even a pen a lty which ru in s a n d dishon ors him .

1

Su bjects, a ll ies, a n d foreign sovere ign s, n ever received by the

Sen a te b u t when a ssem bled in th e‘

tem ple of Bellon a,to rem in d

them tha t Rom e w a s a lw a ys prep a red for w a r,

2who sa w it settling

their di fferen ces,replyin g t o the ir depu ties

,sen din g a m on gst them

commission ers , a n d gra n ting or refu sin g the trium ph t o the gen era ls

who h a d con qu ered them,looked on this body a s the m istress of

the Repu blic .3 E ven a t Rom e the sen a tors,a ppea rin g a lwa ys clothed

in the roya l pu rple ; holdin g their sittin gs in the tem ples ; d iscu ss

in g im porta n t a ffa irs , — th e pl a n s of gen era ls a n d the governm en t

Of con qu ered cou n tries ; a ble t o a djou rn th e a ssem blies of the people

or p a ss decrees h a vin g the force of l a w ;4 rece ivin g th e reports

of the cen sors a n d qu a estors a u thorizing ou tl a ys,pu blic works

,a n d

a lien a tion s Of the dom a in l a n ds ; w a tchin g over the con serva tion

of the rel igion of the st a te, the prosecu tion of public cr lm es,the

celebr a tion of ga mes a n d solem n sa crifices ; fin a lly,decreein g, in

ca se of peril, su pplica tion s to th e gods a fter victory, a cts of th a nks

givin g,a n d regu l a tin g even the a ffa irs of Hea ven by gr a n ting

tem ples ' a n d the freedom of the city to fore ign divin ities , the

sen a tors, I s a y, seem to b e the chiefs in the st a te by the exten t ofthe ir pu blic rights

,a s they were by their dign ity a n d th e respect

which w a s a tta ched to their n a m e . Bu t,

su bjected to the irre

spon sible con trol Of the cen sors , th e Sen a te is still presided over by

1 Postum iu s, on qu itting oflice , w a s con dem n ed to pa y a ses (L ivy, E p itome, x i ) ;Ca m i llu s n a rrowly e sca ped being fined the sa me a mou nt.

2 This temple , vowed by A ppiu s in 29 0 (Li vy, x. 19 , a nd Pl iny, xxxv. w a s bu i lt outsidethe c ity, in the F ie ld of M a rs. The Sen a te m et there t o rece i ve fore ign a m ba ss a dors a nd the

con su ls who a sked of it a triumph. A t the entra nce of this tem ple w a s the co lumn which the

feti a l stru ck with a j a ve l in when the en em y wa s too di sta nt to perm it him to decl a re wa r fromthe R om a n people. (See p.

3 I n E n gl a n d a lso the people a re l ittle concerned with fore ign a fi a irs, the direction of

wh ich they genera lly le a ve to the m in istry.4 M on tesq , E 81) 7

'

. d 68 L ois , v . 8. Lega lly the legisl a ti ve power of the Sen a te w a s exer

cised on ly in m a tters of a dm in istra tion . B u t th e l im it w a s very di ffi cu lt t o fix,a nd m ore th a n

one sen a tu s-con su l t um trespa ssed on the territory of the l a w. T he Sen a te l a ter on took theright of giving d ispen sa tion from keeping the l a ws. (Cic., pro leg e M a n . On the form a litie s foll owed for dra wing u p a sen a tu s-con su l tum , see F ou ca rt , Zlf e

'

m. su r u n sen a tu s-cons.,

in e’

d it d e l’

a n 170 .

INTE RNAL STATE OF ROM E DU R IN G SAM N ITE WA R . 505

the con su ls. who direct it s del iber a tion s a s they ple a se . Shou ld

they b e a greed , yet wou ld i t n ot b e possible,withou t the con sen t

of the tribu n es, e ither to a ssem ble or p a ss a decree ; a n d the legis

l a tive om n ipoten ce of the people pl a ces t he Sen a te in dependen ce

on the cen tu ries a n d tribes . All it s m em bers a re, b esides ,in directly n om in a ted by the people , sin ce it is they who

“ r a ise to

office, a n d it is by office th a t the Sen a te is a tta in ed .1

With u s th e execu tive ca n b e qu estion ed respectin g it s a cts a s soon

a s they a re don e ; in cert a in c a ses even before the ir execu tion ,a n d

this ca n stop them. At Rom e th e m a gistra te ren ders a n a ccou n t on ly

a fter the expira tion Of h is m a gistr a cy. H e is inviol a ble, sa cro

sa n ct ,2a n d yields on ly to the in terferen ce of a collea gu e , the veto

of a tribu n e, or th a t of the a u gu rs . N or ca n he b e proceeded

a ga in st even for a crim e in“ comm on l a w .

The people , the highest ju ry,3

a n electora l a n d legisla tive

body,

4 — in a word, the tru e sovereign in the Forum , fin ds in the

civil tribu n a ls, sen a tors a s ju dges, in the a rmy,con su ls a s gen era ls,

the form er a rmed with the a u thority of the l a ws a n d of th a t d is

cretion a ry power which a n u n cert a in a n d obscu re legisl a tion g ives ;the l a tter with a disciplin e which comm a n ds a blin d obedien ce .

The plebei a n will a void oflen d in g those who cou ld b e a venged on

1 We sha l l see l a ter how F a biu s B uteo fi ll ed u p the Sen a te a fter Ca nn a e . So a lso the

sen a tors a re often represented a s chosen by the people. (L i vy, i v. 4 ; Cic., p ro Ser l io, 65 ; p ro

Cl u en t., I n d e L eg ions (ii i. 3 ) Cicero sa ys the Sen a te m u st b e composed of a l l th e formerm a gi stra tes, a nd Syll a pa ssed a l a w in this sen se. Y e t the cen sors cou ld in scribe on the ir l ista ny whom they ple a sed ; b u t th e [ex Ovin ia (p. obliged them to summ on form er m a gistra tes first. Thi s it is which m a de the Sen a te so experien ced a n a ssembly.

2 L ivy,ix. 9 . T he pra etor Lentu lu s , a n a ccomplice of Ca til ine , cou ld on ly he proceeded

a g a in st a fter he h a d a bdica ted h is Offi ce. (Cic., Ca til . iii.3 A t the he a d of the R om a n con stitution Cicero (d e L eg ., i i i. 3 ) puts the preciou s right of

a ppe a l [l ike ou r H a bea s corp us . E d ] .

4 T he people , a ssembled by tribes, a ppoin ted th e tribu n es, a edi les, qu a estors , a pa rt of thelegion a ry tribu n es, the chiefs of co lon ies, the comm iss ion ers for the a gra ri a n l a ws, the d u u mvir im a r itim i (A ul . G el l., x i i i. 15 ; L i vy, v ii. 5, ix. I t del ibera ted in the con cion es a n d votedin the a ssembly of the tribe s ( p leb iscitum ) .on the propos ition s of the tribu n es , which som etim es

referred to the gra vest interests of th e sta te ; on the gra ntin g the freedom of the c ity (L i vy,xxxvii i. on the powers of m a gi stra te s (L i vy , m ci i . 25, ‘

2 6 , F l a m in iu s brou ght h isa gra ri a n l a w to the ir vote. T hey h a d a lso a j udic i a l power (L i vy, xxvi . 3 , 4 ; A pp.

, B el l .

Civ. i . I n th e com iti a centuri a ta the people a s a legisl a ti ve power m a de l a ws , decidedpe a ce a nd w a r, ra ti fied tre a tie s, a n d recei ved the a ccou nts of the m a gistra te s ; a s a n e lectora lbody it n om in a ted to the le a di ng ofiices ; a s supreme tribu n a l it rece i ved a ppe a ls from a ll

the courts, pron ou nced on the life of c itiz en s , on th e crime of high tre a son (L ivy, vi. 20 ,xxvi . 3 ; Cic.

,d e L eg . iii. 4 , 19 ; p ro Sex l . 44 , B u t we know tha t in these a ssembl ies the rich

a nd the high cl a ss e a s il y predom in a te , a nd tha t the m ultitu de is reduced to a n u n importa nt p a rt.

506 CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

h im a s su itor or legion a ry for h is hostile vote a s citizen . I n the

com iti a even , where the people is su preme,n othing is left to the

h a za rd of th e m om en t. The m a gistra te who ca lls together the a s

sem b ly l im its the deb a te ; he a sks e ither a Y es or a N O ; h e a llowsn o in qu iries ; a n d the people reply, Ul i rogers [a s you propose] , fora pprov a l ; A n tiqu e [I a m for the ol d ] , for rejection . We shou ld sa y

n ow th a t the a ssem bly h a d n either the right of a men dm en t n or

qu estion . Discu ssion occu rred on ly in the conciones,— a sort of pre

p a ra tory a ssem blies, where n o voting took pl a ce . I f,n evertheless

,

the sovereign people sou ght to m a n ifest it s sovereign ty,it cou ld b e

stopped by a dou ble veto : in the com iti a tribu te by tha t of the tri

bu n es in the cen tu ries by th a t of the gods expressed by the a u g urs.L a stly, the f a rmers of the reven u e a n d con tra ctors for pu blic works— a l a rge cl a ss Of citizen s a n d a m on g the richest — were still moredepen den t u pon the Sen a te a n d th e cen sors, w ho decide u pon bids

,

a llow commission s, pu t off th e pa y-d a y, or brea k the lea se.1

There were n on e, even to the poorest, who h a d n ot their d a ysof roya lty. On the eve of the com iti a the p a trici a n sinks his

n obility t o mix with the crowd , to c a ress these kin gs of a few

hou rs who give pl a ce,power, a n d glory. H e t a kes the h a rd p a lm

of the pea s a n t , c a lls the m ost Obscu re citizen by h is n a m e,

2a n d

,

l a ter on,he will restore to the people for on e election a l l th a t he

a n d his fa thers h a ve sa ved ou t of the pill a ge of m a ny provin ces.

Ca n va ssin g, which a cen tu ry l a ter wa s pu n ished a s produ cing

ven a li ty, ten ded a s yet on ly to d ra w the rich a n d poor together,a n d t o give a lesson in equ a l ity t o the grea t

E verybody in the st a te,”

sa ys Polybiu s,

m a y, therefore,d a m a ge a n other or serve it ; hen ce a rises their h a rm ony a n d the

in vin cible strength of th e Repu blic.

A mora l power, the cen sorship, itself irrespon sible a n d u n

lim ited in its rights, w a tched over the m a in ten a n ce of this

1 Polyb . v i. 7, 11. I cou ld ha ve qu oted h im for a lmost every deta i l of thi s picture of -the

R om a n con stit ution . When we compa re it with tha t which Cicero h a s dra wn in hi s tre a tised e L egions ( i i i . we see tha t the form er wa s written by a sta tesm a n , the l a tter by a j uriscon su lt a nd a ph ilosoph er, who, in the fir st book a t lea st, is pre-occu pied with a m a tter forwhich a ncient R ome h a d no thou ght, n a tura l l a w.

‘2 Cf. L i vy, p a ssim ,Plu ta rch, in the L ife of COI iol a nu s a nd th e curiou s book of Qu intu s

Cicero, On the C a n d id a l u refm the Con su l a te. [The a uth or m ight ha ve cited the ca n v a ssingOf gre a t E ngl ish nobles a t p a rli a menta ry e lections, especi a lly before th e introdu ction of the

b a l lot. — E d .]

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508 CONQUE ST or ITA LY.

equ estri a n order, or deprived them of their pol itica l rights,a n d in

th e re-p a rtition of cla sses “ they exercised legisl a tion even over the

body which h a d the legisl a tive power, a n d they pl a ced their

a cts u n der th e s a n ction of religion , by Offerin g a t the closing of

the cen su s the solem n s a crifice Of the su ovet a u rilia . By their

u n con trolled power they ca m e to the a id of the execu tive power,

— a lw a ys so wea k in dem ocr a cies.

I n every st a te it is a gra ve qu estion t o kn ow in whose ha n d

the ju dici a l power shou ld b e pl a ced . This qu estion trou bled the

la st cen tu ry Of the Rom a n Repu blic ; in a n terior periods it h a d

received a n origin a l solu tion . The con su l, a n d then the pra etor,

did n ot him sel f ju dge . F or e a ch ca se h e g a ve the ru le of l a w

which ou ght to b e a pplied,a n d th e ju dges [ju ry] a ppoin ted by

him,with the a greem en t of th e p a rties , decided the qu estion of

fa ct . Thu s the process w a s dou ble , in j u re before the pra etor, in

iu d icio before th e j u dges [ju ry] . F or im porta n t c a u ses th e ju dges

were chosen from the Sen a te ; for less im porta n t m a tters from the

body of cen tum v irs selected to the n um ber of three by e a ch of

th e thirty-five tribes . Thu s,the orga n iz a tion of civil ju stice wa s,

in som e respects , th a t which we h a ve for crim in a l ju stice ; the

m a gistra te decl a red the a pplica tion of the l a w,a n d j u d ices or ju rors

pron ou n ced on th e poin t of f a ct.

Crim in a l j u stice w a s exercised by the people. Whoever h a d

viol a ted th e pu blic pea ce , w a s a m en a ble to the sovere ign a ssem bly,

which a lso received a ppe a ls brou ght a ga in st th e decision s“

Of the

m a gistra tes ; th e l a tter, in virtu e Of their ' d u ty t o m a ke the l a w

respected , pu n ished o ffen ces, a cert a in n u m ber ofI

Which wou ld b e

rega rded by u s a s crim es . The ch a stisem en t wa s the rod for the

lower cl a sses ; for the others,a fin e . The con su ls a n d pra etors h a d ,

besides,preserved from roy a lty the right of n om in a tin g

,for gra ve

a n d pressing ca ses, crim in a l qu a estors, — a n exception a l j u risdiction

which beca m e perm a n en t, qu a es tion es p erp etu a t e. However, crim in a l

ju stice w a s r a rely exercised,for dom estic ju stice dea lt with the

crim es of the sl a ve, of the son,if he were n ot em a n cip a ted, a n d

of the wife in me nu . The m a ster, the f a ther, a n d the hu sba nd

pron ou n ced in the in terior of the hou se the sen ten ce, a n d h a d it

1 M ontesqu ieu , E sp r it d es L ois, Bk. x i. ca p. xvi.

INTE RNAL STATE OF ROM E DURIN G SAM N ITE WA R . 509

execu ted . There w a s n ot then , a t the period of Rom a n history

n ow re a ched, a body of citizen s who were in vested with j u dici a l

a u thority , a n d who , th a n ks to th a t privilege,cou ld m en a ce the

l iberty of the other cl a sses . Ju stice w a s,therefore

,n ow equ a l to

a l l ; in a cen tu ry it wa s so n o m ore .

This so well b a l a n ced con stitu tion,however, exposed the

sta te t o som e grea t perils . I t w a s n ot written down ; a n d the

rights of the a ssem blies or the m a gistra tes h a vin g n ever been

clea rly defin ed, it cou ld h a ppen th a t the di fferen t ju risdiction s

shou ld cl a sh,a n d hen ce ca u se distu rb a n ce ; or th a t on e

,.a ided by

circum st a n ces, shou ld ga in a d a n gerou s prepon der a n ce in th e st a te .

Thu s , Horten siu s ga ve a n equ a l a u thority to t he decision s of the

Sen a te a n d of the people . L et these two powers a rra y them selves

a ga in st e a ch other,a n d there is n o lega l force in the st a te, sa ve the

violen t a n d tem pora ry rem edy of the di ct a torsh ip,which ca n en d

this stru ggle withou t con flicts . Bu t th e pru den ce of the Sen a te w a s

a ble for a centu ry a n d a ha lf t o a void the d a n ger . I t c a u sed a

division to b e m a de between itself a n d the people of the m a tters

respecting which legisl a tive om n ipoten ce shou ld b e exercised . To

the people fel l the election s a n d the l a ws of in tern a l orga n i za tion °

to the Sen a te , the a dm in istra tion of fin a n ce a n d foreign a ffa irs ;to the m a gistr a tes

,the u n l im ited rights of the imp orta n t for the

exercise of the execu tive power .Then

,too , if this people w a s con tinu a lly u rged on by n ew

w a n ts,it w a s con st a n tly a lso held in check by it s respect for

a n cien t tim es . A s long a s R om-

e rem a in ed herself,she h a d

,l ike

the im a ge of her god J a n u s, h er eyes tu rn ed a t the s a m e tim e

tow a rds th e presen t a n d the p a st . The cu stom of their a ncestors ,

m os m a j or a m ,preserved a n a u thority which Often perm itted the

su pplem en tin g or ev a ding of the written l a w ; a n d this a u thority

of cu stom wa s a powerfu l prin ciple of socia l con serva tion .

I I I . MI L I TA R Y OR GA N I ZA T I ON .

AB R OAD,this governm en t w a s protected by the best a rm ies

yet kn own . No a dversa ry, n o en terprise cou ld a ffright the con

qu erors of the Sa mn ites a n d Pyrrhu s . They h a d trium phed over

510 ;

CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

a l l en em ies a n d obst a cles ; over Greek t a ctics 1 a s well a s Ga llic

d a sh a n d Sa m n ite obstin a cy ; th e. e leph a n ts of Pyrrhu s h a d a s

ton ished them on ly on ce .2 Su rrou n ded by en em ies

,the Roma ns

h a d,for three qu a rters of a cen tu ry

,kn own n o oth er a rt tha n wa r

,

n o other exercise tha n a rm s . They were n ot on ly the bra vest

soldiers, the best disciplin ed in It a ly,b u t the m ost a ctive a nd

stron g. The a ver a ge m il it a ry m a rch w a s 24 m il l ia in 5 hou rs

(n ea rly 3 m iles per hou r), a n d du rin g these m a rches they ca rried

their a rm s, ra tion s for five d a ys, sta kes for en ca m pin g

,— in a l l

, a t

lea st 60 Rom a n pou n ds .

I n the in terv a ls between the ca m p a ign s drill w a s con tin u ed inthe Field of M a rs. They shot j a velin s a n d a rrows

,fou ght with

the sword, r a n a n d le a ped in fu l l a rm or,or crossed the Tiber

swimm in g, em ploying for these exercises wea pon s of a weight dou ble

th a t of ordin a ry a rms. The n oblest citizen s took p a rt in these

g a m es ; con su l s, those who h a d trium phed,con ten ded in strength

,

a ddress a n d a gility,showin g to this people of soldiers tha t the

gen era ls h a d a lso the qu a l ities of th e legion a ry.

All other Powers fou ght a t th a t tim e with m ercen a ries ; Rom e

a lon e h a d a n a tion a l a rmy,from which the foreign er

, the freedm a n ,

the proleta ry were exclu ded,

a n d which h a d a lrea dy esta blished

th a t devotion to the colors which h a s wrou ght su ch m ir a cles .3

All th e wea lthy citizen s h a d t o p a ss throu gh this ru de school

of disciplin e, devotion , a n d self-den i a l . N O on e, s a ys Polybiu s,

ca n b e elected t o a m a gistra cy who h a s n ot been in t en ca m pa ign s.

1 The M a cedon i a n pha l a n x h a d it s force m ere ly from impetu s ; b a rb a ri a n a rm ies fromthe in div idu a l coura ge of the ir so ld iers. I n the one th e indiv idu a l wa s nothin g, a nd the m a sseveryth in g ; in the others, th e m a ss noth ing, the in dividu a l everything. T he legion , by itsdivis ion into m a n iples, left fu l l swing t o in di v idu a l coura ge , a nd preserved fu l l a ction to the

m a ss. H a n n ib a l him se lf did hom a ge to the org a n i z a tion of the R om a n a rm ies by a rm ing hisvetera n s like th e legion a ries. (Polyb ., xv i i i. [The power of the pha l a n x is perh a psu nderra ted here. A s a form a tion ,

l ike the modern co lum n, inten ded to brea k the ol d ex

ten ded l ines, it wa s most effecti ve , a n d it wa s su perior to the R om a n order of ba ttle when theym e t on even grou nd. B u t th e difficu lty of m a rch ing it throu gh a ny rou gh or u neven grou ndm a de it Often u se less, a n d so it wa s tha t A lex a n der n ever won a ba ttle with his pha l a nx, b u ta lw a ys u sed it a s the d ef ensive a rm of his l ine of b a ttle , the ca v a lry a nd light footgu a rds beingthe offen s ive. A t the very time of h is de a th h e w a s devi sing m e a n s to m a ke the pha l a n x moreservice a ble , a nd resolv a ble into sm a ll er a n d more a cti ve su bdivi sion s when n eed a rose. E d ]

2 I t h a s a lw a ys been sa id th a t Pyrrhu s ta u ght the R om a n s how to pitch a ca mp. The

description of Po lybiu s m a kes one think of the u rbs qu a dra ta of the E tru sca n s ; a nd he himselfcontra sts the regu l a rity of a R om a n ca mp to the confu sion which preva i led in a Greek one.

3 On the return from every ca mpa ign the sta nd a rds were pl a ced in the a era rium.

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512:

CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

400 dra chm a e, a n d who were reserved for th e n a vy. Whenn ecessity a rose, even they were t a ken for the in fa n try, a n d thentheir m il ita ry obliga tion wa s twen ty yea rs ’ service .

E a ch legion h a s six tribu n es, who comm a n d the legion by tu rn s

for two m on ths u n der the su perior ordersof the con su l ; a n d c a re is t a ken th a t this

body of Offi cers is m a de u p in a lm ost equ a l

proportion s of you n g a n d veter a n trib u n es.

When there is n eed to m a ke a levy,

ordin a rily of fou r legion s,a l l Rom a n s of

a ge to bea r a rm s a re summ on ed to the

Ca pitol . There the m ilita ry tribu n es dr a w

the tribes by -lot a n d choose in the first

fou r m en equ a l,a s f a r a s possible

,in

height,

a ge, a n d stren gth. The tribu n es

of th e first legion m a ke thei r choice first,

then those of the secon d, a n d so of the

rest. After these fou r other citizen s com e

forw a rd ; it is then the tribu n es of the

secon d legion who m a ke their choice the

first ; those of the third a fterwa rd ; a n d

so of th e rest . The sa m e ord er is oh

served till the fin ish,when ce the resu lt

is th a t ea ch legion is m a de u p of m en Of the s a m e a ge a nd

stren gth,gen era lly to the n um ber of fou r thou sa n d two hu ndred,

a n d of five thou sa nd when d a nger presses .2 I n respect of the

horse the cen sor selects them a ccordin g t o the st a te of the revenu e,three hu n dred to ea ch legion . When the levy is over the tribu n es

a ssem ble the ir legion,a n d

,choosin g on e of the bra vest, they m a ke

him swea r th a t he will Obey the orders Of the chiefs a n d do a l l

he ca n to ca rry them ou t . Th e others, p a ssin g in tu rn before

the tribu n e,t a ke the sa m e oa th by pron ou n cing the words, [d ent

in m e. [I t wa s equ iv a len t to ou r form u l a,I swea r it.3 ]

R OMA N SOLD I E R .1

1 L ind en schm id t , op . cit.

2 A ccording to L i vy ( vi ii. 8) five thou s a nd wa s the regu l a r n um ber ; l a ter on it re a chedsix thou sa nd. (Cf. Li vy, x l i i. 3 1 a nd Su id a s, s. v. keyed»; éga m xou m .)

8 Thi s oa th wa s ca l led sa cr a men tum , beca u se he who took it beca m e cursed or devoted tothe infern a l gods if he broke, it. Seneca sa ys

, too : prim a m m il itia e vin cu lu m est rel ig io ct

Signorum a mor cl d eseren d i nef a s. (E p.

INTE RNAL STATE OF ROM E DURIN G SAMN ITE WA R . 513

At the s a m e tim e the con su ls ga ve in form a tion to the ci tiesof It a ly , when ce they wish to dra w a u xili a ries, a s to the n um ber

of m en they requ ire , the d a y, a n d pl a ce of a ssembly. The levy

ta kes pl a ce in these ci ties

a s a t Rom e,the s a m e or

der, the sa m e oa th . A chief

a n d qu a estor is given t o

these troops, a n d they a re

ma rched Off.

The tribu n es,a fter a d

min istering the oa th,in form

the legion s of the d a y a n d

pl a ce where they m u st a s

sem ble_withou t a rm s ; then

he dism isses them . When

a ssem bled on the d a y fixed,

of the youn gest a n d poorest

the vel ites were form ed ;those who followed them in

a ge form ed the h a s t a ti,the

strongest a n d m ost vigorou s

com posed th e p rin cip es a n d

the oldest were ta ken to

form the tria rii. Thu s ea ch

legion w a s com posed of fou r

sorts of soldiers,who di ffered in n a m e

,a g e , a n d a rm s : 6 00 tri a rii

prin cipes,a s m a ny h a st a ti ; the rest form ed the vel ites .

The velites were a rm ed with a helm et withou t crest , a sword,

a roun d bu ckler, 3 feet in di a m eter, severa l j a vel in s, th e wood of

which w a s 2 cu bits lon g a n d a n in ch thick . The poin t,9 in ches

lon g,

2 is so t a pering th a t a t the first stroke it w a rps,so t h a t the

en emy is u n a ble to u se it .3

“ The h a sta ti h a ve com plete a rm or, th a t is to sa y, a convexbu ckler, 2% . feet bro a d a n d 4 lon g . I t is m a de of two pl a n ks

glu ed together, a n d covered ou tside with lin en ,then with ca lf

R OMA N HOR S E -SOLD I E R .

1 L ind en schm id t,op . cit.

2 T he Greek foot : 1 f t . in . the digitu s=.7584 in . ; the spitha me in . ;

the cubit= 1 f t. in .

8 L i vy,xxv i. 4 , sa ys tha t the velites e a ch h a d seven of these d a rts.

V OL . I . 3 3

514 CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

skin . The edges Of this bu ckler a bove a n d below a re mou n ted

with iron , a n d the con vex p a rt is covered with a pl a te of the

sa m e m eta l, to w a rd Off d a rts sen t with grea t force . The h a s t a ti .

ca rry their sword on the right thigh ; th e bl a de is stron g, a n d

strikes both cu t a n d thru st .1 They h a ve, besides two p ilot, a

bron ze ca squ e a n d bu skin s . On e of these two j a velin s is rou n d

or squ a re, a n d 4 digits thick ; the other is lighter,b u t the st a ff of

both is 3 cu bits lon g, a n d the iron a s mu ch .2 On the ir helm et is a

red or bl a ck plum e, form ed of three str a ight fe a thers, a cu bit high

,

— a thin g which m a kes them a ppea r t a ller a n d m ore form id a ble.The poorer soldiers wea r , besides, on the brea st a pl a te of bron ze

,

which is 12 digits in di a m eter. Bu t those whose wea lth exceedsdra chm a s ha ve , in ste a d of this brea stpl a te

,a co a t of m a il.

The p rin cip es a n d tria rii h a ve the sa m e a rms,on ly the l a tter h a ve

b u t on e l a n ce (h a s te: or 8opu ).“ I n ea ch of these three bodies they se lect — pu ttin g a side

the you ngest — twen ty of the most pru den t a n d br a ve, to m a ke

them cen tu rion s . The first chosen h a s a voice in the cou n cil .

There a re twen ty other officers of a n in ferior ra n k, op tion es, who

a re chosen by the first twen ty t o le a d th e rea r-gu a rd . E a ch

corps is divided in to t en m a n ip les ,3 with the exception of the

vel ites,which a re divided in equ a l n um bers a m on g th e three

other corps . The cen tu rion s choose in their com p a n ies two of the

1 Thi s sword of which Po lybiu s spea ks w a s the Spa n ish sword, a dopted by the R om a n sdurin g the Secon d Pu n ic W a r, ju st a s they m u st ha ve ta ken the p il um from the E tru s

ca n s. There h a s been fou n d a t Vu lci , a m on g som e old E tru sca n a rm s, a n iron p il a m

hea d.2 Tha t wou ld m a ke 6 cu bits or 9 feet ; b u t a s a p a rt of th e ir on entered the wood

,where

it w a s fa stened by a socket, the p ilmn wa s somewha t shorter. Po lybiu s m a kes it a lso too

he a vy for the thickn ess whi ch h e gives it , u n less h e m e a nt t he p il um mu ra le,which pl a yed

the pa rt of ou r siege m u skets, wh ich a re m u ch l a rger tha n the ordin a ry m u sket. We sh a l lsee th e cha ng es m a de by M a riu s a nd Ca esa r in the p il a m,

— the a rm with which the R om a nsconqu ered th e world.

3 Th e legion h a d then thirty m a n iples di vided into two centuries, ea ch comm a n ded by acenturion , so tha t there were s ixty of these offi cers to a legion . T he cen tu rio prior comm a ndedthe first m a n iple, a nd wa s pl a ced a t the hea d of the right wing ; the cen tu rio posterior serveda s his l ieu ten a nt, if needfu l, t ook h is pl a ce, a n d h a d h is pl a ce in b a ttle a t the left wing. The

distincti ve s ign of the centu rion w a s a vine-stock, with which he m ight strike the so ldiers.The a l l ies, in ca se of fa u lt, were be a ten with rods : qu em m il item extra ord inem d eprehen d it, si

R om a n u s esset, vitibu s, si extra n eu s, f u stibu s cecid it. (L i vy, E p . lv i i.) A cohort wa s the

u n ion of a m a n iple of ha s ta ti with a nother of p rincip es a nd a third of tria rii, e a ch withthe vel ites which belon ged t o them. Th e cohort wa s therefore the redu ction to the tenthof the whole legion. (Cinciu s, a p . A u l. G e ll. xvi.

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516 CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

6 deep. I n close order, conf er tis ord in ibu s, the soldiers weresta tion ed 3 feet a p a rt, in every direction , so a s t o h a ve en ou gh

sp a ce for u s in g the ir a rm s. A sim ila r in terv a l sep a r a ted the ten

m a n iples of ea ch lin e , so tha t the fron t of a legion in b a ttle a rr a y

wa s a bou t 617 ya rds, withou t cou n tin g the sp a ce reserved for the

ca v a lry,which the gen er a l gen era lly pl a ced a t the win gs

, a n d

which took u p a sp a ce of n e a rly 5 feet for ea ch horse . I n

exten ded order, lema tis ord in ibu s , the soldiers were sep a ra ted from

on e a n other by a n in terva l of 6 feet, which dou bled the l in e of

fron t .

To e a ch m a n iple of h a s t a ti a n d p rin cip es were join ed forty

vel ites,who form ed behin d the hea vy in fa n try a sixth a n d seven th

ra n k of l ight troops . The vel ites p a ssed throu gh th e in terv a ls to

comm en ce the a ction a s skirm ishers,re-en tered a ga in when the

ha st a ti closed with th e en em y,or form ed with them

,if they cou ld

still hu rl the ir d a rts to a dva n t a ge a ga in st the en emy. The

Rom a n s did n ot em ploy sl in gers a n d a rchers till l a ter . I f the

h a s t a ti ga ve wa y, they retired by the in terv a ls between the p rin cip es

in their rea r ; a n d while the la tter fou ght, the tria rii, kn eeling

a n d protected by their bu cklers, w a ited the m om en t for com ing

in to a ction .

“ The position for the c a mp is chosen with gre a t c a re . When

on ce the site h a s been design a ted, the spot is selected from which

th e gen era l ca n m ost ea si ly see everythin g ; a n d there is fixed

a sta n d a rd . Arou n d is m e a su red off a squ a re sp a ce, ea ch side

of which is dista n t a hu n dred feet from the st a n d a rd ; this is the

pr a etorium . To the left a n d right of the pra etorium a re the f orum ,

or m a rket, a n d th e qu a es torium , i. c., th e trea su ry a n d a rsen a l . The

legion s a re st a tion ed on the side which is m ost con ven ien t for getting

w a ter a n d fora ge. The twelve tribu n es, if there a re on ly two legion s,a re lodged in a right lin e , p a ra llel t o the pr a etorium

,a n d a t a d is

t a n ce of fifty feet,their ten ts f a cing the troops, whose ten ts begin a

hu n dred feet f a rther off, in a l in e a lso p a r a llel .l The chief street V ia

P rin cip a l is), a hun dred feet wide , exten ds a cross the ca m p in fron t

of the tribu n es’ ten ts ; the V i a Qu in ta n a , p a r a llel to this, is fifty

feet wide ; a n d n a rrower w a ys (u ia e) in tersect these a t right a ngles.

1 The t ents, m a de of sk in s , u phe ld by po les, e a ch he ld ten men . [F or further deta i lso f the a rra n gement of the troops, see the pl a n ]

IN TE RNAL STATE OF ROME DURI N G SAMN ITE WA R . 517

P LA N OF T H E O R D E R O F BA TT LE .

518 CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

From the en tren chmen t 1 t o the ten ts there is a dista n ce of200 feet ; this sp a ce serves to f a cilita te the en tra n ce a n d dep a rtu reof the troops . Ca ttle a n d wha tever m a y b e ta ken from the en e

mya re a lso pu t there . An other con sidera ble a dva n ta ge is th a t inn ight a tt a cks n either fire nor d a rt ca n ea si ly re a ch the ten ts.

I f it h a ppen tha t fou r legion s a n d two con su ls camp

together, the a rra ngemen t is the s a m e for e a ch a rm y ; on ly we mu st

R OMA N CA MP.

7. Q u a estorium . 13 . E qu ites ex tra ord .8. Tribu n i. 14 . Ped ites ext ra ord .

9 . P ra efect i sociorum . 15. A u x i li a .10 . Lega ti . 16 . P ed ites sociorum .

l l . P ed ites d el ect i. 17. E qu ites sociorum .

12 . E qu ites d el ect i. 18. H a sta ti.

ima gin e two a rmies tu rn ed tow a rds on e a nother, a n d join ed where

the extra ord in a rii of both a re pl a ced,— tha t is to sa y, by the rea r of

the c a m p ; a n d the l a tter then forms a n oblong, covering a sp a ce

dou ble the first .

1 The ca m p w a s defended by a d itch 9 , 11, 12 , 13 , or 17 feet broa d, a nd 8 or 9 deep.Th e ea rth which wa s d ug up wa s thrown inside the ca mp in su ch a wa y a s to form a n em

b a nkm en t 4 feet high, on which wa s fixed pa l isa ding strong ly interl a ced. The‘

su t lers a nd

serva nts enca mped outs ide th e g a tes in the procestri a .

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520 CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

t a ken from the m a n iples . Ordin a rily three sen tries a re given to

the qu a estor. The gu a rd of e a ch corps is t a ken from the corpsitsel f. The exterior sides a re con fided to the c a re of the velites

,

who du rin g the d a y m ou n t gu a rd a lon g the en tren chmen t ; therea re besides, t en a t ea ch ga te of the ca mp .

The ca v a lry m a ke the rou n ds . I t is the first m a n iple of

the tri a rii whose cen tu rion is ch a rged t o sou n d the tru m pet a t

every hou r when th e gu a rd mu st b e mou n ted. The sign a l given ,

the horsem a n on whom the first gu a rd h a s f a llen m a kes the

rou n d,a ccom p a n ied by some frien ds whom he u ses a s witn esses

,

a n d he visits n ot on ly the gu a rds posted on the en tren chm en t a n d

a t the ga tes,b u t a lso a l l those who a re a t ea ch com p a ny of foot

a n d horse . I f he fin ds the sen tin els of the first w a tch on the a lert

he receives from them a sm a ll piece of wood,on which is written

the n a m e of the legion ,the n um ber of the m a n iple a n d cen tu ry of

which th e soldiers on gu a rd m a ke p a rt . I f a ny on e is a sleep or

a bsen t h e ca lls to witn ess those who a ccomp a n ied him,a n d retires.

The other rou n ds a re m a de in a simil a r wa y.

‘

At ea ch w a tch they

soun d the trum pet,so tha t those who h a ve to m a ke the rou n d a n d

those who form the gu a rd m a y b e w a rn ed a t the s a m e tim e.

Those who h a ve m a de the rou n d,ca rry

,a s soon a s the

m orn in g bre a ks, the l ittle pieces Of wood which they h a ve received

t o th e tribu n e. I f they brin g less tha n the n um ber of gu a rds, the

writin g on ea ch of them is exa m in ed ; wha tever gu a rd h a s n ot beenfou n d a t it s post, a n d the cen tu rion a n d m en who form ed the

gu a rd, a re ca lled to con fron t him who m a de the rou n d, who

produ ces his witn esses,withou t which he a lon e bea rs a l l the

pen a lty. Immedi a tely “

a cou rt-ma rti a l is c a lled. The tribu n es

ju dge, a n d the gu i lty on e h a s to ru n the ga u n tlet.

This pu n ishm en t is thu s inflicted : the tribu n e, t a king a

sma ll red,simply tou ches the crim in a l ; a n d imm edi a tely a l l the

legion a ries fa l l u pon him with blows from sticks a n d ston es in

su ch a wa y tha t he frequ en tly loses his l ife du rin g the pu nish

men t . I f he d o n ot d ie, he rem a in s m a rked with in fa my. H e is

n ot a llowed t o retu rn t o his n a tive l a n d, a n d n o rel a tion or friend

of his wou ld d a re to Open his hou se t o him . SO severe a pu n ish

m en t c a u ses the disciplin e a s rega rds the n ight w a tches t o b e

a lwa ys exa ctly observed . The sa me pu n ishm en t is inflicted on

INTE RNAL STATE OF ROM E DURIN G SAM N ITE WA R . 52 1

those who stea l in the ca m p , who give fa lse witn ess , or h a ve been

c a u ght three tim es in the s a m e fa u lt . There a re a lso m a rks Of in

f a my for a ny on e who bo a sts f a lsely to the tribu n es of a n exploit,

who a b a n don s his post, or throws a w a y his a rm s du rin g b a ttle .

So th a t from the fea r of bein g pu n ished or dishon ored,the

soldiers bra ve a l l perils .

1

Shou ld it ha ppen th a t whole m a n iples h a ve been driven

from thei r post, the tribu n e a ssem bles th e legion ; the gu ilty a re

brou ght forw a rd ; he m a kes them dra w lots,a n d a l l who produ ce

the n um bers 10 , 20, 3 0 , etc.,a re m a de to ru n th e ga u n tlet . The

rest a re con dem n ed t o receive b a rley in pl a ce of whea t,a n d to

ca m p ou tside the r a m p a rt,a t the risk of bein g ca rried off by the

en em y . This is c a lled d ecim a ting . When soldiers, on the con

t ra ry, distingu ish them selves,whether i n single com b a t with the

perm iss ion of the gen era l, or in a skirm ish where the Offi cer

im poses n o obliga tion of fightin g, the con su l p a r a des the legion,

c a lls ou t the soldiers,a n d h a vin g first bestowed grea t pr a ises on

them ,m a kes a presen t of a l a n ce t o him who h a s wou n ded the

en em y, Of a' cu p or a bre a stpl a te if he h a s kill ed a n d despoiled

him.

After the ca ptu re of a city,those who first sea l ed the w a ll

rece ive a golden crown .

2 There a re a lso rewa rds for the soldiers

who sa ve citizen s or a ll ies . Those who h a ve been del ivered them

selves,crown their l ibera tor. They owe them du rin g their whole

l ife fil i a l respect a n d a l l the du ties which they wou ld ren der a

f a ther. The legion a ries who h a ve received these rew a rds h a ve

the right, on their retu rn from the c a m p a ign,t o b e presen t a t

g a m es a n d f étes, clothed in a dress on ly worn by those whose

bra very the con su ls h a ve honored . They besides h a n g u p, in

the m ost con spicu ou s pl a ces of their hou ses, the spoil s which they

h a ve t a ken from th e en em y, a s monum en ts of thei r cou ra ge .

“ After a victory or the ca ptu re Of a city the division Of

the booty is m a de with the sa m e regu l a rity. H a lf the soldiers

gu a rd the c a mp ; the others disperse for pill a ge , a n d e a ch brin gs

1 The con su l Pet il iu s ha ving been sl a in in 176 by the L iguri a n s , the Sen a te decided tha tthe legion which h a d n ot been a ble to defend its genera l shou ld no t rece ive the pa y of the

ye a r, a nd tha t tha t ca mpa ign shou l d n o t b e reckoned to a ny one qu ia pro sa l u ti imper a toris

hostium tel is se non ob tu ler a n t. (V a l .M a x . I I . vi i . 15 cf. L i vy,x l i .

2 Th e obsid ion a l crown wa s for a long time m a de s im ply of gra ss.

522 CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

t o his legion wh a t he h a s been a ble to get . This booty is sold

by a u ction , a n d the tribu n es divide the proceeds equ a lly a m ong

a l l,in clu din g the sick a n d those who a re a bsen t on le a ve .

“ The pa y of the foot-soldier is two obols per d a y.1 The

cen tu rion h a s dou ble , the c a v a lry treble, or a dra chm a . Th e ra tion

of brea d for the in fa n try w a s two thirds of a n Attic m ed im nu s of

corn per m on th, th a t of the horse 7 m ed im n i of b a rley a n d 2

of whea t .2 The in f a n try of th e a ll ies h a d the sa me r a tion s a s the

Rom a n s ; their c a v a lry 1 medim n u s, a n d a third of whe a t a n d 5 of

b a rley . This distribu tion w a s m a de the a ll ies withou t ch a rge ;b u t a s rega rds the Rom a n s, a cert a in fixed sum wa s dedu cted

from their pa y for the victu a ls, dress, a n d a rm s which were

a ssign ed them.

A s the ca m p wa s a lwa ys a rra n ged a s h a s been expl a in ed,

a n d a s ea ch corps holds the sa m e pl a ce in it,a l l th a t wa s n eedfu l

wa s th a t the a rmy, on re a chin g the pla ce of en ca m pm en t,shoul d

see the white fla g w a vin g which m a rks the spot where the

con su l’

s ten t is pitched, in order tha t a l l th e m a n iples shou ld

kn ow where to h a lt . The soldiers t a ke their pl a ces a s i f en tering

their n a tive city, ea ch goin g stra ight t o his dwelling withou t

possibility of mist a ke . Thu s the Roma n s h a ve n o n eed t o sea rch,a s the Greeks h a d , for a pl a ce ‘ fortified n a tu r a lly ;

’ they

cou ld c a mp everywhere ; a n d everywhere, when the en emy wished

t o try a n ight su rprise, they fou n d them est a blished in a fortress,where the wa tch w a s wel l kept.” 3

We see th a t in the a rm y of those d a ys there wa s n o

qu estion respecting the distribu tion Of th e soldiers a ccording to

the order of cl a sses . The legion of th e first a ge of the Repu blic

wa s con stitu ted a ristocr a tica lly, a ccording t o wea lth. After the

1 The obol wa s one s ixth of a dra chm a ; a nd Polybiu s rega rds the Greek dra chm a a s equ a lto the R om a n den a riu s, which contin u ed to b e con s idered, for the pa y of troops, a s equ a l to10 a ses, thou gh, from 2 18 B . c. onw a rd (Pl. N a t. H ist. xxxi i i. it wa s worth 16 in com

m erce. F or a ye a r of 3 6 0 d a ys, the pa y of a foot-soldier wa s therefore 120 den a ri i,th a t of

the centu rion a n d horse-soldier from 240 to 3 60 den a ri i. The den a riu s, conta in ing a bout thistim e 58 gra in s of fi ne silver (H u ssey, A ncien t IV eights) , h a d a n a bsolute v a lu e of 88 centimes(81d ) , a n d a poss ible v a lu e m u ch gre a ter. M . d e VV it te ra ises the intrin s ic v a lu e of the

e a rly den a ri i , stru ck a t th e ra te of 72 to the lh., to fra ncs ; th a t Of the l a tter, 84 of

which went to the lh ., a t a bout 821centim es (81d )2 This ra te is somewha t hi gher tha n tha t a dopted for the F rench a rmy.3 Compa re with th is description th a t which Josephu s (B el l . Ju d . iv. 5) gives more th a n

two cen turies a fter Polybiu s.

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CON QUE ST OF ITALY.

su bdu ed a n d orga n ized the whole pen in su l a,from the Ru bicon to

the Stra its of Messin a . I n presen ce of these splen did resu lts of

hum a n a ctivity a n d pru d en ce , rem em berin g wha t Rom e h a d on ce

been , we sh a ll s a y with Bossu et : Of a l l the peoples of the world

th e Rom a n people h a s been the prou dest a n d ha rdiest, the m ost regu

l a r in its cou n sels, the m ost con st a n t in it s prin ciples, the m ost pru

den t,the m ost l a boriou s , — fi n a l ly, the m ost p a tien t . From a l l this

h a s been form ed th e best m ilita ry power a n d th e m ost pru den t, firm ,

a n d logic a l politica l system which h a s ever existed .”

These a re very gloriou s destin ies a n d a very grea t history.

Y et if in Rome we h a ve fou n d m a ny grea t citizen s , we ca n n ot sa y

th a t we h a ve , thu s f a r, m et with on e re a lly gre a t m a n . This em pire

w a s, a s Bossu et shows, in spite of him self, the work Of tim e,of his

torica l circu m st a n ces, a n d Of the collective wisdom of the Sen a te

a n d people . The u n ion exis ting between those who del ibera ted inthe cu ri a a n d those who voted in the com iti a , the spirit of sa crifice

a n d the spirit of disciplin e , tha t is t o sa y, the grea t civic virtu es,— these ga ve to Rom e the victory over the Sa mn ites a n d Ita ly,these g a ve h er the victory over Ca rth a ge a n d the world . This

history is then the trium ph of good sen se a pplied with persever

a n ce to pu blic a ffa irs ; it is a lso the most brill ia n t protest a ga in st

the ol d doctrin e of the governm en t of the world by the gods,a n d

a ga in st the n ew theory which a ttribu tes a l l hu m a n progress to

grea t m en . They do m u ch,dou btless

,a n d in the works Of a rt

a n d thou ght they do a l l ; b u t in pol itics there a re n o other grea t

m en th a n those who a re the person ifica tion of the w a n ts of their

tim e,a n d who direct the socia l forces in the direction these forces

h a d a lrea dy t a ken . We sh a ll on e d a y see Rom e,in ca p a ble of gu iding

her destin ies, a b a n don herself in to the h a n ds of her milit a ry chiefs ;b u t , for a cen tu ry lon ger , h er in stitu tion s a n d her ol d spirit preserved

her from these d a n gerou s lea ders.

1 Coin of Loll iu s P a lika nu s, the reverse of which represents the rostra . (See p.

HE A D O F L I BE R TY.1

FOURTH PER IOD.

T H E PU N IC WAR S ( 2 6 4

CHAPTE R XI X.

CAR THAGE .

1. COMM E R CI A L E M PI R E OF TH E PUN I c RA CE .

HI L E Rome w a s a dva n cin g slowly by wa r from the he a rt of

L a tium to th e Stra its of Messin a , on the other coa st of

the Mediterra n ea n ,f a cin g It a ly

,less th a n 3 0 lea gu es from Sicily,

the Ca rth a gin i a n power wa s growing by mea n s of in du stry a n d

comm erce .

Tod a y,on a desert stra n d , 4 lea gu es from Tu n is

,a re t o b e

seen fra gm en ts Of colum n s,the ru in s of a Rom a n a qu edu ct

, som e

reservo irs h a lf filled u p, a n d in the sea the rem a in s of piers which

the w a ves h a ve destroyed . This is a l l tha t rem a in s of Ca rth a ge,1

1 The most con s idera ble ru in s a re those o f the a qu edu ct wh ich crossed the isthm u s a nd

supplied the c ity. A t its extrem ity a re som e deep pa ra l le l cistern s, which a re su n k u nder thegrou n d. A t a l ittle d ista nce from the cistern s, a n d comm a n ding the se a by a he ight of 205feet,a hi ll ri ses, where K ing Lou is Phi l ippe h a s h a d a sm a ll cha pe l bu i lt in honor o f Sa int Lou is.This is, without dou bt, the s ite of Byrsa , the cita de l of Ca rtha ge. M . B eu lé (F ou il les (l e

Ca rtha ge) thou ght he fou n d th e fou nd a tion s of the w a ll s on th e decl i v ity of the hi ll ; b u t theresu lts of h is exca v a tion s ha ve on thi s point been stron gly comb a ted by M r. Da vis (C a rtha gea nd her R em a in s) . The tem ple of the gre a t goddess of Ca rtha ge, Ta n it, whom the R om a n s

su ccess ive ly ca l led Ura n i a , Ju no , a nd the H e a ven ly V irgin , occu pied, a ccording to the a ccou ntsof a ncient a uthors, a nother hi l l a lm ost a s exten si ve a s Byr s a , from which it wa s sepa ra ted on lyby a low street. There h a s been fou n d on the who le brea dth of the spa ce com prised betwee nthe cha pe l of St . Lou i s a nd th e se a , b u t principa lly in the v icin ity of the cha pe l , a q u a ntityof ex-votos be a ring dedica tion s in the Phoen ic i a n l a ngu a ge to T a n it a n d Bfia l- l l a mmon , whichmu st come from the temple o f this goddess.

The situ a tion of the ports le a ve s room for less doubt ; they were to the south of Ca rtha ge.

52 6 » TH E PUN IC WARS FROM 264 To 201.

etia m p eriere ru in a e. A n d yet twice, Ca rth a ge lived gloriou sly,first a s a Pu n ic city, a n d then a s a Rom a n . H er towers roseto 4 stories ; her triple w a lls rea ched t o 3 0 cu bits ; a n d su ch

w a s the stren gth of her w a lls, th a t the room s m a de in their

m a son ry cou ld shelter three hu n dred eleph a n ts Of wa r,fou r

thou sa n d horses, a n d twen ty-fou r thou sa n d soldiers with their

provision s, equ ipm en t, a n d a rms .1 Gold pl a tes covered her tem pleof the Su n , whose st a tu e of pu re gold weighed, it is s a id ,t a len ts ; a n d in her squ a res, which re-echoed with twen ty l a n

gu a ges, were t o b e m et the h a lf-n a ked Numidi a n a n d Moor, theIberi a n dressed in white

,th e G a u l in his brill ia n t sa gum

, the

stou t Ligu ri a n , the a ctive B a lea ric, Greeks com e to seek their

fortu n e in the grea t city, N a s a m on es a n d Lotu s-ea ters ca lled

from the region of the Syrtes,_— in short,a l l those who ca m e

to Ca rth a ge t o sell their cou ra ge, pa y their tribu te , or to bring

t o this comm erci a l cen tre of a l l l a n ds, civilized a n d ba rb a rou s,

the produ cts of three con tin en ts . I n it s l a st d a ys,a fter the

stru ggle of a cen tu ry, Ca rtha ge still con ta in ed seven hu n dred

thou sa n d people ?

a n d opened not u pon the L a ke of Tu n is, b u t u pon the se a , in front of the l ittle port G o letta .There were two, on e behind th e other ; b u t on e open ing g a ve entra nce t o both. T he first

,wh ich

comm u n ica ted directly with the se a , wa s th e comm erc i a l port ; the other, the n a va l port, wa ssm a l ler a n d circu l a r : a n i s l a n d occupied it s centre. These ports h a d been cu t ou t of the rock,a s were a gre a t m a ny of the Phoen ic i a n ha rbors ; a n d they were thu s defended on the ir s ides bya n a tura l w a l l ; tow a rds the south they were closed by a n iron cha in .

T he Phoen ic i a n s ca rried the ir re ligion with them . Wherever they went they ra isedch a pe ls, or con secra ted in the temples of fore ign div in ities ex-votos to the ir n a tion a l di vin ities.SO in a lmost a ll the ir commerci a l sta tion s a re to b e fou nd tra ces of th e worship of M elka r t a nd

A sta rte , or H ercu les a nd Venu s, a s the Greeks a nd R om a n s ha ve a lw a ys c a l led the ir gods.T he P ortu s H ercu l is, P ortu s H ercu l is M onoeci (M on a co) , a nd the P ortu s V eneris (Port Vendres)ha ve this origin .

T he Ca rtha gin i a n in scription s m a ke known to u s, bes ides priests properly so ca l led, theex istence of hi erodu les a tta ched to the service of the different temples who m u st ha ve formedregu l a r confra tern ities. T he temple w a s the ir fa m i ly ; they h a d n o a ncestors ; thu s more th a nonce is seen on the s tel a e the n a me of the city of Ca rtha ge in the pl a ce of the son a nd of the

a ncestor of h im who m a de the offering. T he in scription s perm it u s a lso t o ca tch glim pses of are ligiou s orga n iz a tion outside the sa cerdota l body ; on two or three l a rge in scription s we see

represented the ‘ ten m en pl a ced over the sa cred thin gs.’ This m u st h a ve been a sort of

rel i giou s m a gistra cy a n swering t o th e centum viri or th e su ffetes. F in a l ly, it te lls u s the n a mes

of a certa in n umber of su ffetes, H a n n ib a l,M a go , Bom ilca r b u t the ir n a mes were very

widespre a d, a nd the tota l a bsence Of d a tes prevents u s from dra wing a ny resu lt re l a ti ve to the

history of Ca rtha ge. (N ote comm u n ica ted by M . B erger.)1 T he triple e nclosu re of which A ppi a n spea k s w a s perha ps on ly the extern a l w a ll , then

the two w a l ls of ca sem a tes sepa ra ted from th e first by a covered ro a d.1 I t s Pu nic n a me wa s K ir ia th-H a d e sh a t, or the N ew City, which wa s prob a bly pro

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528 TH E PUN IC WARS FR OM 264 To 201.

the gra n dest things : from Attica, th e civi liza tion of the world ;

from P a lestin e, the religion of Christ .

The G reeks h a ve been the a rtists, the thin kers, a n d the poets

of th e a n cien t world ; the Phoen ici a n s were on ly the tr a ders,1 b u t

with so mu ch cou r a ge, persever a n ce, a n d skill , tha t they h a ve

t a ken , in the history of the hu m a n r a ce, a pl a ce a m on g its

civil izin g peoples . I n their dista n t expedition s these gold-seekers

A Q UE DUCT S OF CA R T HA G E .2

h a d fou n d wh a t they did n ot seek , — th e a rts a n d scien ce of E gypt

a n d of Assyri a , which they ca rried a w a y in their c a ra v a n s a n d on

their ships.I

TO the Greeks they tra n smitted th e hier a tic writing

of the Pha ra ohs, the m etric system of the B a bylon i a n s, a n d m a ny

religiou s doctrin es a n d a rtistic methods, which were felicitou sly

1 R espectin g the commerce of the Phoen ici a n s , see the m a gn ificent od e by E zekie l (ch a p.

x xvn .) 0 T yre ! thou ha st sa id , I a m of perfect be a uty ,”e tc.

“

2 These a qu educts be longed to R om a n Ca rtha ge. Dra wing ta ken from the work by

Da v is, Ca rtha ge a n d her R em a ins ; see p. 52 9 , n . 2.

CARTHAG E . 52 9

modified by the bright a n d ch a rm ing gen iu s of the r a ce beloved by

Min erv a .1 To the Africa n s a n d Sp a n i a rds they ta u ght the a gr icu l

C I S T E R N S O F CA R T HA G E .

tu re of Syr i a a n d of the N ile Va lley ; everywhere they brou ght theprodu cts of a n a dva n ced in du stry

,which a w a kened the n a scen t

indu stry of b a rb a rou s cou n tries .

1 [The Phoen ici a n influ ences on Greek a nd R om a n cu lture a re here we l l sta ted , a n d ha vebeen of l a te proved f a r gre a ter tha n wa s su pposed by the e a rl ier stu dents of Greece a n d R om e.

The Greek um“

: reta in s its B a bylon i a n n a me ; th e Greek a lph a bet h a s n ow been proved (by DeR ouge) t o ha ve com e from E gypt thr ou gh the Phoen ic i a n s, who re-n a m ed the letters ; the

tombs of P a lestrin a , e tc., show th e spre a d of Phoen ic i a n workm a n ship over I t a l v . H ow m u chGreek a n d even R om a n re l igion owed them is u ncerta in , b u t the debt wa s certa in lyl a rge. E d .]

2 These c istern s, bu i lt on the e a st of the c ita del , a ppe a r t o ha ve been 14 0 feet long,50 wide , a nd 3 0 high ; the w a ll s were 5 feet thick. T he Ca rtha gin i a n ci stern s beca m e insufficient for R om a n Ca rtha ge . H a dri a n sou ght for a su pply a t Z a ghw a n a nd Djongh a r,a bout 68 m iles di sta nt, a n d constru cted a gig a ntic a q u edu ct a cro ss mou nta in s a n d v a ll eys. I t

h a d a m e a n he ight of a bou t 113 feet, a nd a sepa ra tion of on ly 9 feet between the su pports.There ex i sts a bove the B a rdo, a t a bout on e ho ur’ s di sta n ce, a pa rt of the a rche s to a n extent ofa bout 800 y a rds. The ca n a l, which the a qu edu ct ca rried, wa s v a u lted, a nd high enou gh for a na vera ge m a n to w a l k a l ong without stooping.

V OL . I .

53 0 . TH E P UN IC WAR S F R OM 264 TO 201.

A s there w a s n o l a n d for th e Phoen ici a n s on their b a rren stra nd,

they h a d t a ken th e sea for thei r dom a in ; they covered it with their

fleets, a n d pl a n ted colon ies on a l l its coa sts, n ot a fter the f a shionof Rom e

,a s fortresses in ten ded to

secu re em pire a n d the u n i ty of

the con qu ering people,b u t a fter

th e Greek m a n n er,a s a n overflow

of popu l a tion left to it s own re

sou rces, a n d so mu ch the better

pu rsu in g it s own fortu n e. There

wa s a tim e when the Mediterra n ea n m ight b e styled the Phoen ici a nSea . The legen d, summ ing up, a s it a lw a ys does, the a n cien t

history of a people in th a t of a

mythic hero,represen ted the su cces

sive sta ges of progress of Phoen icia n

CO I N OF S I DON .1

colon iza tion by the sym bol ic voya ge

of the god M el ka rt . The Tyria n

Her a cles,le a din g a powerfu l a rmy

,

h a d crossed the n orth of Africa ,Sp a in ,

Ga u l,Ita ly

,a n d Sicily, su bdu in g n a tion s

,fou ndin g cities

,

a n d tea chin g to the con qu ered the a rts of pea ce . Sa rdin i a still

CO I N OF SA R D I N I A .

possesses the stra nge

mon um en ts r a ised by

the Phoen ici a n colon ists,the N u r a ghe

fi

I n the Aege a n Sea

the Phoen ici a n s retiredbefore the w a rlike r a ces

of Hella s ; a n d lea ving

t o them the n orth of

th e Mediterr a n ea n,they

kept on ly Africa a n d

Sp a in . From Tyre t o Ca diz, for lea gu es, the Phoen ici a n

N UR A G HE O F SOR I .

1 H ea d crowned with towers, person ifica tion of the city. On the reverse , the n a me

Sidon i a n s, a n e a gle with a p a lm a n d it s foot on a ship’

s prow ; in the fie ld a m onogra m a nd

the d a te E , ye a r 5 of the Sidon i a n er a , or 10 6 B. C.

2 SA R D. PA T E R . H e a d of the god Sa rd u s ; on the reverse, the he a d a n d n a me of A t iu s

B a lb u s, pra etor in Sa rdin i a , a nd gra ndf a ther of A u gu stu s. R om a n bronze co in .

3 [Tha t these N a ra gb e were bu i lt by Phoen ic i a n s is m ore tha n dou btfu l ; they prob a bly d a tefrom e a rl ier, or a t lea st ru der ra ces. E d .]

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582 TH E PUN IC WARS FROM 2 64 TO 201.

beca me the Tyre of th e West, a n d in colossa l proportion s, beca u se

Mou n t Atl a s, with it s in tra cta ble m ou n ta in eers , wa s n ot l ike

Leba n on t o Tyre,close to its w a lls, b a rring the wa y a n d

l im iting it s sp a ce ;beca u se it w a s n ot

e n c i r c l e d,l i k e

P a lmyra,by the

d e s e r t a n d i t s

n om a ds ; beca u se,in short

,i t w a s

a ble,restin g on

l a rge a n d fertile

provin ces,

2to ex

ten d over the va st con tin en t lyin g behin d it,withou t bein g

stopped by powerfu l st a tes . The Greeks of Cyren e were kept.

in check, th e in terior of Africa crossed t o the N ile a n d N iger,

Sen ega l 3 discovered,Sp a in a n d

Ga u l explored,the Ca n a ries

discovered , Am erica perh a ps

su rm ised a n d a n n ou n ced to

Christopher Colum bu s by th a t

st a tu e on the Isle of Ma deira

com O F CA R T H A G E -4 which, with exten ded a rm

,

poin ted to the West. This

is wh a t th e colony did which wa s pl a ced by Tyre a t Ca pe Bon .

com o r CA R THA G E .1

1 H e a d of the n ym ph A rethu sa ; on the reverse , Pega su s. T he in scription , B A R A T ,

sign ifies the We l ls, a n d perha ps more ex a ctly B i A R A T , a t A ra t,” a Pu n ic n a m e of Syra cu se ,which possessed the fa m ou s fou nta in of A rethu sa . L a rge si lver piece , certa in ly stru ck inSicily, a nd prob a bly a t Syra cu se. (N ote of M . d e Sa u lcy.)

2 The Z eu g it a n a a n d the Byza cene districts, the extreme ferti l ity of which Polybiu s (xi i .Diod oru s (xx. a nd Scyl a x pra ise, a nd whose soi l is even n ow of inconce iv a ble ferti l ity.N inety

-seven e a rs ha ve been cou nted on a sin gle root of b a rley, a nd the n a tives ha ve a ssuredSir G . T emple (E xa m -

s. in the Al ed it. i i. 108) th a t there ha ve often been a s m a n y a s 3 0 0. A t .

the A lgeri a n E xhibition of 1876 som e clu sters of ba rley grown in the ditches of T ou ggourt,a n d springing from a single gra in , bore e a ch 78, 84 , a nd even 118 e a rs.

3 H a n no, cha rged with the ex a m ina tion of the west co a sts of Af rica , ca m e t o a stop»

throu gh w a nt of provis ions between the 7th a nd 8th degree of N . l a t ., in the G u lf of Sherb oro,which he ca lled the H orn of the South, N d'r ou k e

’

pa r. H e settled co lon ists, m en a nd women , ondivers po ints of the co a st, from 10° N . l a t. t o the Pi ll a rs of H ercu le s.

4 H e a d of A rethu sa . On the reverse , a free horse , with h is b a ck a g a in st a pa lm-tree,a sym bo l essenti a l ly Ca rtha gin i a n . A fra ction of the former piece . T h e in scription h a s thes a m e m ea n ing, which a ssign s the sa me Sici li a n origin to this p iece. A n e lectrum co in . (N oteof M . d e Sa u lcy.)

CARTHAG E . 53 3

There w a s a m om en t when this com m ercia l em pire fou nded

by the Pu n ic r a ce , with it s two grea t ca pita ls,Tyre a n d Ca rtha ge ,

exten ded, a s did a thou sa n d yea rs l a ter th a t of the ir Ar a b

brothers,from the Atl a n tic Ocea n a s f a r a s the In di a n . Bu t this

ru le h a d two im pl a ca ble en em ie s,— in

the ea st the Greeks , in th e west th e

Rom a n s . With Xerxes the Phoen ici a nships ca m e a s f a r a s Sa l a m is ; with

Alexa n der th e Greeks a ppea red u n der

the w a ll s of Tyre,which they over CO I N O F CA M 'I A G E °

tu rn ed. When,however

,they fou n ded An tioch a n d Alex a n dri a ,

Phoen ici a,stra iten ed between these two cities, sa w the comm erce

of the world dep a rt. Wha t Alex a n der h a d don e t o Tyre,Aga thocles a n d Pyrrhu s a ttem pted a ga in st Ca rtha ge .

Bu t Greece looks tow a rds th e ea st ; here sh e h a d

g a in ed her brilli a n t victory ; Pyrrhu s m isca rried incom com }

the west a ga in st the Phoen ici a n colon ists ; it re

qu ired a stron ger h a n d to sn a tch Sicily from the Ca rth a gini a n s .

I I . CA R TH A G I N I AN S AN D L I BY-PH OE N I CI A N S ; COM M E R CI A L POL I CYOF CAR T H A G E .

LI K E Rom e, Ca rtha ge h a d the m ost obscu re beginn ings. She

took fou r cen tu ries to fou n d her em pire. N ot a l l the N umidi a n s

were , a s thei r Greek n a m e wou ld seem

t o in dica te , n om a ds . M a ny of the

Libya -u s were devoted to a gricu ltu re ;m a ny a lso w a n dered a bou t, l ike the

presen t Algeri a n s, with their flocks .

She con qu ered the form er a n d g a in ed

or restra in ed the l a tter by the a ll ia n ces whi ch she ca u sed their

CO I N O F L I BYA .2

1 On the right, a pa lm . On the reverse , the he a d of a horse. Co in of recent period.2 H ercu les-M el ka rt , h a vin g the he a d covered with a l ion ’

s skin . On the reverse , a l ionw a lking. B e low the n a me of the L iby a n s. A bove, the Pu n ic letter correspon din g to M , th e

a bbrevi a tion of the word M A KH N A ’

I‘

, which s ign ifie s ca mp. The piece m u st b e , then , a mon et aca s tren sis speci a l to the L iby a n s. (N ote of M . d e Sa ul cy.)

53 4 TH E PUN IC WARS FROM 264 TO 201.

chiefs to con tr a ct with the d a u ghters of h er richest citizen s.1 She

en cou ra ged the cu ltu re o f the soi l. a n d h er colon ists,m ixing with

the n a tives , form ed in tim e one people with t hem, the Liby

PO R T S o r cru xr rm ca c2( T A K E N FR OM DA V I S) .

Phoen ici a n s .3 B u t the Rom a n colon ies, a lwa ys a rmed, en circled

their metropol is with a n im pen etr a ble girdle . The esta blishm en ts

1 See in L ivy the history of SOpli on isb a , a n d in Po lybiu s tha t of N a r a v a s ( i. 78Oes a lce s , K ing of the M a ssyl ia n s , m a rried a lso a n iece of H a n n ib a l. (L i vy, xx ix.

2 T he ha rbors of Ca rtha ge were s itu a te t o th e southe a st of S a int Lou is’ cha pel , a t thepoint where the B ey ’s cou ntry-hou se sta nds. T he two l ittle l a kes n ow to b e seen there a re

not rem a in s of the ports, b u t a n a ttem pt a t restora tion , m a de some ye a rs a go by the son of

the prim e m in ister. (De Sa inte-M a rie, L a Tu'

n isse

3 A rist., P ol . vi. 3 . L e t u s note tha t between the Ca rtha gin i a n s a nd the A fric a n s therew a s a diff erence of origin , l a ngu a ge , a nd m a n ners which did n ot ex ist, a t le a st to the sa me

degree, between R om e a n d the Ita l i a n s, e ven if th e fa mou s n a rra tive of Procopiu s (De B .

V . i i . 20 ) shou ld b e a dm itted respecting the pre sence in A frica o f Ca n a a n ites, tha t is t o sa y, ofm en of Phoen ici a n l a n gu a ge a n d ra ce before the a rri v a l of co lon ists from Sidon a nd T yre . I n

Ita ly the fu s ion w a s possible ; it w a s so in A frica on ly by tha t interm edi a ry ra ce the L ibyPhoen ici a n s.wh ich wa s s low in form ing, a nd wh ich h a d no t the sa me interests a s Ca rth a ge.Ju st a s the E n gl ish a re fore igners in Indi a , so the genu ine Ca rtha gin i a n s a lw a ys rem a ined forAfrica . I n L i vy the a mb a ssa dors of M a s in issa repro a ch them with it .

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53 6 TH E PUN IC WARS FROM 2 64 TO 201.

Mediterra n ea n : Ca rtha ge sou ght to possess the other . Sa rdin i a,

Corsica , a n d the B a lea ric Isl a n ds comm a n ded it s n a viga tion ; she

took possession of them . Sicily wa s

better defen ded by the Greeks of

Syr a cu se ; she k ept them in check

by t a king u p h er position a t Ma lta,

where sh e kept two thou sa n d m en

a s ga rrison ,a t G a n l os, a t Cossu ra

,

which tou ch it,a t th e Aega tes a n d the Lip a ri Isl a n ds, which

dom in a te it s coa st on th e west a n d n orth , in Sicily itself,'

two

thirds of which she fin a lly occu pied . Wherever she ru led a s

sovereign,h a rd l a ws — a s m ercha n ts h a ve a lw a ys prescribed, even

in ou r d a ys, to defen d their m on opolies — oppressed th e con qu ered .

Whilst a rou n d h er own w a lls sh e con demn ed the Libya n s t o workfor her profit, it wa s forbidden , i f we m a y be lieve the Greeks,

the inh a bita n ts of Sa rdin i a , u nder

p a in of dea th , to cu ltiv a te the soil .2

I n Afric a , whose stormy coa st she

h a d fringed with her n um erou s f a c

tories in Sp a in ,where a n cien t

PO E N O-R OMA N CO I N OF G A U L os .1

Phoen ici a n colon ies served a s com

m ercia l sta tion s , — she profited by

the ign ora n ce of the b a rb a ri a n s t o m a ke good b a rga in s with them .

She lost n either her tim e n or strength in con qu ering or civil izing

them ; she preferred'

to crea te w a n ts for them ,a n d to im pose on

them bu rden som e exch a n ges,t a kin g

,for som e sl ight tissu es m a de

a t M a lt a,the gold du st of the Af rica n or silver of the Sp a n i a rd ;

a lw a ys g a in in g on everythin g,a n d with a l l m en .

PO E N O-R OMA N CO I N O F COSSU’ R A .

8

1 H ea d of M e l ka rt . B efore it , a ca d u ceu s, symbol of commerce . On the reverse, a n

object, th e m e a n in g of wh ich is lost, a nd in a R om a n crown of l a u re l the words “ the ships."Bron ze m on ey u sed for pa yin g sa i lors.

A not. d e Jl/[ir a b . 104 . This is a m ista ke Sa rdin i a furn ished m u ch corn to the fleets a nda rm ie s of Ca rtha ge (Diod .

, x iv. G3 , B u t the Ca rtha gin i a n s Spre a d th is report to keep off

fore ign ships from the i sl a nd , which wou ld ha ve supported Ca rtha ge if a revolt or w a r deprivedthem of the corn of A frica . I n the first trea ty with R ome , the R om a n s were a l lowed t o tra dein Sa rdin i a ; in the second, th is perm iss ion w a s withdra wn . (Polyb ., i i i . 2 2

3 H e a d of a ve i led wom a n , im a ge of the tutel a ry de ity of the is l a nd , crowned by a Victory.R everse , COSSUR A , a nd the representa tion of T a n it in a crown of l a urel ( see p. 54 2 , n .

Bron ze co in of Cossu r a . These three co in s show the two is l a n ds su bm itting to th e tripleinflu ence of Phoen ici a , E gypt, a nd R ome a nd a s two a t lea st a re of the R om a n period, theyprove a lso the pers istence of the Pu n ic n a tion a l ity.

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TH E PUN IC WARS FROM 264 TO 201.

H I . ME RCE NA R I E S.

To give it s commerce scope a n d secu rity to b e m istress of the

sea s , Ca rth a ge on ly w a n ted qu iet possession of the isles a n d coa st

lin e . However restricted these preten sion s were,a rm ies were re

qu ired to rea lize them . Bu t a s soon a s w a r becom es sim ply a

comm ercia l m a tter, a m e a n s of a ssu ring the retu rn of ca pit a l a nd

the sa le of m erch a n dise , why shou ld n ot the m erch a n ts pa ysoldiers a s they pa y a gen ts a n d clerks ? Ven ice

,Mil a n , Floren ce

F I G UR E S PLA CE D A T T H E PR OWS OF PUN I C SH I PS.1

a l l th e I t a l i a n repu blics of the 15th cen tu ry h a d con d ottieri E ng

l a n d h a s Often bou ght them . I t wa s a Phoen ici a n pr a ctice : “ The

P ersi a n s, Lydia n s, a n d the m en of L ibya,

s a id E zekiel to the city

of Tyre,

“ were in thin e a rmy,thy men of wa r : they h a nged the

shie ld a n d helmet in thee ; they set forth thy comel in ess .” 2 Ca r

th a ge h a d , therefore, its m ercen a ries. Horses were bou ght a n d ships,

1 We m a y suppose th a t Ca rtha ge fo llowed the u sa ge of T yre a n d Sidon , who pl a cedmon strou s dw a rfs a t the prow of the ir ships (M a sc

'

e N a p ole’

on , vol . iii. pl. See (p. 542)wha t is sa id of Ca rtha gin i a n a rt .

2 xxvi i. 10 .

CARTHAG E .

which they a rm ed a t the prow with deformed dw a rfs to excite

terror ; they a lso bou ght m en , a n d from the Alps a n d Pyren ees t o

the Atl a s Mou n ta in s there were plen ty of swords for hire ! E ve ry

on e of Ca rth a ge'

s fa ctories beca m e a recru itin g office . The prices

were low,for the em u l a tion w a s gre a t a m on gst the poor a n d

greedy b a rb a ri a n s who en circled th e n a rrow border of th e Ca r

th a g in ia n possession s . Besides , Ca rth a ge u n derstood h er bu sin ess .

She shipped the wom en,children ,

a n d even the effects of her

m ercen a ries, — they were so m a ny host a ges of thei r fide lity ; or a fter

OFFE R I N G ( E x-vor o.)l

T H E G ODD E SS T A N I T ( E X-V OTO) .

a mu rderou s c a m p a ign they fell to the trea su ry. N o on e w a s

refu sed , n either the B a lea ric sl in ger,3n or the N um idi a n horsem a n

,

“

a rmed with a bu ckler of eleph a n t’

s hide a n d covered with th e skin

of a l ion or p a n ther, n or the Spa n ish a n d Ga ll ic foot-soldier,n or the

Greek , whom they employed in every c a p a city,

spy, sa ilor, bu ilder,in tim e of n eed even gen era l .5

The m ore differen t r a ces there were in the Ca rth a gin i a n

1 A Ca rth a gin i a n m a king a n off ering before a n a lta r.2 T op of a s lele of the temple of T a n it, where the goddess, who w a s “ th e Splendor of

B a a l,

” tha t is to sa y, the m oon ,is reflection of the god , whose wife sh e wa s, is repre sented

ho lding a chi ld. T o th e right a nd left on th e a croter ia the crescent m oon a bove the su n ’

s disc.3 T he reputa tion of these sl ingers is known . Stra bo sa ys ( i i i . 168) tha t the B a le a re s g a ve

brea d to the ir chi ldren on ly by pl a cing it on a spot which they h a d to re a ch by the s lin g. Cf.

F loru s ( ii i. Lycophron (A lexa , p. 6 3 a nd Diod oru s (v. wh o sa y the s a me thi n g.4 Polyh., i. 15.5 X a n th ippu s. Polyh., i.7. See in the ch a pter fo llowing the history of the R hodi a n of

L ilyb a eum .

540 TH E PUN IC WAR S FR OM 2 64 To 201.

a rmy, the m ore con fiden ce Ca rth a ge felt ; a revolt seemed im

possible a m on g m en who cou ld n ot u n derst a n d e a ch other’ sspeech . Besides , the gen era l , h is prin cip a l officers a n d his gu a rd

,

ca l led the s a cred b a tta lion ,

1 were Ca rtha gin i a n s a n d the sen a tors

a lw a ys kept som e of their colle a gu es n ea r him,t o w a tch over his

con du ct, a n d m a ke su re th a t a l l these m en were well e a rn ing

the ir pa y. Th e love of fa m e a n d of cou n try , devotion to the sta te,

— a l l those gra n d words,which a t Rom e wrou ght mira cles

,h a d

n o cu rren cy with the Ca rth a gin i a n Sen a te . There w a s mu ch ta lk

of rece ipts a n d expen ditu res — very little of n a tion a l hon or ; hen ce

the resou rces of th e cou n try were exa ctly mea su red by those of the

tre a su ry . When th a t wa s fu ll, soldiers were l a vished with ca re

less prodiga lity ; when it w a s exh a u sted, Ca rth a ge yielded, or

n egoti a ted : the tr a n sa ction h a d been a f a ilu re. I n ca se of su c

cess,the disbu rsem en ts were qu ickly m a de good

,a n d the de a d

m ercen a ries forgotten . Wha t m a tter if there were forty or fifty

thou sa n d ba rb a ri a n s less in the world ! These m ercen a ries m ight

som etim es b e d a ngerou s ; b u t in th a t c a se i t wa s ea sy to get

rid of them, witn ess the fou r thou sa n d G a u ls given u p to

the sword of the Rom a n s,the troop a b a n don ed on the desert

Isle of Bon es,2

a n d X a n thippu s, who perh a ps perished like

Ca rm a gn ol a .

Su ch a system m ight l a st,so long a s dista n t exped ition s on ly

were con cern ed ; b u t the m om en t th a t"

w a r drew n ea r her own

w a ll s, Ca rth a ge w a s lost. H er citizen s, h a vin g comm itted to m er

cen a ries the c a re of the ir defen ce,fou n d few resou rces in them selves

when they stood a lon e in fa ce of the en em y. E ven i f they h a d h a d

a sen a te a ble t o sen d to the Rom a n s, when m a king a descen t on

Af rica,the a n swer of Appiu s to the K ing of E piru s, still they

cou ld n ot ha ve m a de legion a ries,like those of A scu l um a n d Bene

ven tu m, ou t of their shopboys . “ A crowd of virtu es belongs to

the pu rsu it of a rms 3a n d w a r, while a grea t misfortu n e, gives to

1 F or the Ca rth a gin i a n c itizen m i lita ry service wa s so meritoriou s tha t he des ired to keepperpetu a l remembra n ce of it . T he l a w con si dered th a t to gird the sword wa s qu ite a n

explo it, a n d a uthorized the c itiz en t o we a r a s m a ny rings a s he h a d m a de ca mp a ign s. (A rist.,P ol il . vii. 2 ,

2 Diod ., v . 11.3 Ch a te a u bri a n d sa ys : A people a ccu stomed to see on ly the va ri a tions of the funds a nd

the y a rd of cloth sold, if it find itse lf exposed to a disturb a nce, wil l b e a ble to show ne ither the

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542 TH E PUN I C WARS FROM 264 TO 201.

Ca rtha ge too m u ch opu len ce a nd t oo little of tha t high spirit which

ra ises the sou l a bove fortu n e . This grea t city h a d skilfu l m er

ch a n ts, bold voya gers, wise cou n sellors, a n d incom p a ra ble gen er a ls ;we ca n n ot n a m e a poet, a n a rtist , or a philosopher.1 I t will b e

qu ite en ou gh t o see th e reprodu ctionwhich we give of som e specim en s of

the three thou sa n d ex—votos fou n d a t

Ca rth a ge, t o lea rn th a t,tru e t o it s

origin , this people h a d n o m ore a rt

th a n their m etropolis . I t wa s a ctive

en ou gh, b u t n ot thou ghtfu l ; a n d its

religion ,a t on ce licen tiou s a n d s a n gu in

a ry, a n d for th a t rea son very ten a ciou s,E xw om OF T H E T E M PL E OF exercised n o m ora l in flu en ce on priv a te

“ N I T ' l ife , n o u sefu l influ en ce on the govern

m en t ; whilst th a t of the Rom a n s prom oted virtu ou s con du ct, a n d

it s priests, n ea rly a l l m a gistra tes or sen a tors, spoke in the n a m e

of Hea ven to give s a n ction s to pol itica l wisdom .3

1 I n spite of the lu xu ry of the temples a n d pa l a ces, a rt wa s a t R ome , a s a t T yre, on lya fore ign importa tion . I n the temple of M elka r t a t Tyre , where H erodotu s ( i i. 4 4 ) sa w a go ldco lum n a nd on e of emera ld, there w a s n o im a ge of the god . The sa me in the t emple of G a de s :

n u l l a efi ig ies , s imu l a cra ve nota ( leorum

M a j est a te locum z'

mp levere t imore .

S I L I US I T A L I CUS : P u nz'

ca , i i i. 3 0 .There were some books a t Ca rtha ge , s ince the Sen a te g a ve them to M a s in i ss a , a nd Sa l lu st(Ju g ., p. 17) sa w them b u t there is no l itera ry work exta nt b u t M a go ’s trea tise on a gricu lture.I t h a s been thou ght tha t the scu lptor B o

'

ethos w a s a Ca rtha gin i a n ; b u t the best edition s ofPa u sa n i a s h a ve the re a di ng Xa hq duto s‘ in pl a ce of Xa pq dwos‘, which m a kes Boéthos to

b e a Greek of Cha lcedon ( see th e Pa u s a n i a s, ed . Didot, V. xvi i. They m a ke Cl itoma chu s a lso a Ca rtha gin i a n , one of the chiefs of th e N ew A ca demy ; b u t he l ived a long timea t A then s, a nd there su cceeded ( in 129 B. c .) Ca rne a des. H e w a s stil l te a ching there in 111(Cicero, De Or a t. i . a nd h e is tra ced there a s f a r a s the yea r 10 0 . H e wa s a Greek , a tlea st in educa tion , a s a n other Ca rtha gin i a n , T erence , w a s a R om a n .

2 A pediment som ewha t Greek , the n two figures of geometrica l a ppe a ra n ce , a nd wh icha re, in fa ct, the ru dim enta ry representa tion of the s a cred cone (Ven u s of P a phos, Ta c it., H ist.i i. 3 , bl a ck ston e of E m esa , Cybe le , wh ich wa s the im a ge of Ta n it, of wh om the Gra ccoR om a n s ha ve m a de the H ea ven ly V irg in .

“ There , indeed, wh ere th e Ary a n m in d sees a t

mosph eric phen omen a , the Sem ite sees person s, who becom e u n ited a nd beget others. The

open h a n d seen from th e front is the ha n d of the d ivin ity which blesses.” (B erger, L esE x-voto d a temp le d e T a n it, p.

3 N ote exp l a n a tory of thefi g u res of the p l a te (p. 54 3 ) N o. 1, A ttitu de of a dora tion ; N o.2,H a n d of the goddess bless ing; whose power is indica ted by the immodera te s ize of the thumb, onwhich is gra ven it s im a ge ; N o. 3 , The ca rs of the god

“ who he a rs,” a n d h is mon th,

“ whichblesses N o. 4 , Di sk of Ven u s su rmou ntin g the globe of the su n , with two u r a ei, symbols ofB fia l—H a mmon , form ed by two crown ed serpents surrou ndin g the sol a r disk N o. 5, in the centre

A DO R A T I ON . N o . 2. D BLE SS I N G . N o. 3 . E x—vor o.

N o. 4 . D I SK OF V E N US. PA LM—T R E E A N D E N S I G N S.

N o. 6 . SH I P. N o . 7. CHA R I OT .

N o. 8. T R OPHY. No. 9. PLOUG H. N o. 10. CA N DE LA BR UM .

R E M A I N S OF CA R T HA G I N I A N A R T (SE E PA G E 542 , N OT E

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546 TH E PUN IC WARS FROM 264 TO 201.

a ccou n t ; they m a de u se of this right to con trol a l l the m i lit a ry

forces of the Repu bl ic. I n tim e the other m a gistr a tes a n d the

Sen a te itself fou n d them selves su bjected to their con trol .1 A s

sen a tors, they filled the committees form ed in the Sen a te to con trol

ea ch of th e bra n ches of the a dm in istra tion,— the n a vy

,in tern a l

police , m ilita ry a ffa irs, etc., a n d a s cen tu m viri they exercised,m ore

over,su pervision over these comm ittees . Fin a lly

,they form ed the

tribu n a l before which were brou ght ju dici a l m a tters,— perh a ps in the

comm ittee of the Thirty, whose m em bers were for l ife,

2a n d who

seem to h a ve been a privy cou n cil .3 The n om in a tion to offices a n d

the right of in terven in g, in ca se of disa greem en t,between the

su ffetes a n d th e Sen a te con stitu ted the sole preroga tives of the

pu blic a ssem bly.

We ca n n ot b e qu ite su re th a t wh a t h a s ju st been sa id is a

fa ithfu l summ a ry of the Ca rth a gin ia n con stitu tion . Th e in form a

tion of the a n cien ts is in su fficien t,a n d on m a ny poin ts con tra d ic

tory ;4 b u t they a gree in showing the lon g-con t inu ed prepon dera n ce

in this Repu blic of the ol iga rchy,which

,to keep a w a y the poor

from the governm en t,h a d m a de, a s a t Rom e , a l l pu blic fu n ction s

u n sa la ried,a n d perm itted the s a m e citizen s to hold severa l offices

a t the sa m e tim e . To select sen a tors a n d ju dges Athen s con su lted

the l ot,which is very dem ocra tic ; Ca rth a ge con su lted We a lth on ly,

which is n ot so .

The Sen a te, a n d in the Sen a te th e cen tum virs , were for a lon g

tim e the sole m a sters of governm en t. I f l iberty,a s the Greeks

1 L i vy,xxx . 16 ; xxx i i i. 4 6 . The tri bu n a l of th e F orty a t Ven ice u n ited a lso a l l the ir

powers. (See Da ru , bk xxx ix. A rist. (P ol . i i. 8) spe a ks of the o va o-i-n a r a w e

'

r a ipié w.) Thesea ssoci a tion s, where they prep a red su bj ects for de l ibera tion in the Sen a te , — in circu lis con viviis

qu e celebra ta sermon ib u s res est, d eind e in sen a tu qu id a m (Li vy, xxx i v. —were a n e lement ofstrength to the a ri stocra cy, which wa s beside s ren ewed by th e a cce ss ion of the n ewly becomerich. Observe tha t the Ca rtha gin i a n s h a d n o t fa m i ly n a me s a ny m ore tha n“

the Jews.2 Ju stin , x ix.42 , 5, a nd L i vy, xxx i i i. 4 6 res f a m a vita qu e onin ium in il lorum potesta te

er a t. Q u i u nu m ej u s ord in is q f en d isset, omn es a d versos h a beha t.

3 T rig in ta sen iorum pri ncipes : id er a t sa nctiu s a p u d il los, con silium ,m a xim a qu e a d

ipsum sen a tum regen d um vis. (L i vy, xxx.4 T he two m en who ha ve spoken with the grea test a uthority respecting th e in stitution s of

Ca rth a ge, A I isto t le a n d Polyb ins, a re sepa I a ted by two centuries, since the form e I d ied I n 3 2 2,a nd the l a tter I n 12 2. The one kn ew Ca I th a ge I n prosperity, a nd fin ds its government excellent ;the other sa w it s ru in , a nd bl a mes it s in stitution s. Both spe a k tru ly, thou gh incon sistently ;a nd th is differen ce 15 expl a in ed by the diff erence of the times when they l i ved. Y e t A ristotleh a d sa id . If ever a ny gre a t reverse h a ppen to them , if the ir su bj ects refu se them obedience,the Ca rtha gin i a n s wil l find n o mea n s in their constitution to s a ve them se lves.”

CARTHAG E . 547

of the deca den ce u n derstood it,

suffered, empire profited , for

the Ca rth a gin i a n Sen a te h a d the imm u t a ble pol icy be lon gin g to

grea t a ristocra tic bodies,which

,pu rsu ing the sa m e design s with

en ergy a n d pru den ce for severa l gen era tion s,do m ore for th e fu tu re

of st a tes th a n the often -ch a n ging influ en ce of popu l a r a ssem blies .

I t m a in t a in ed du rin g on e whole

wa r the sa m e gen era ls in office,

for exa m ple,H a n n ib a l

,

1the d e

fen der Of A g rigen tum Ca rth a l o ,

the destroyer of th e Rom a n fleet

a m on g the rocks of Ca m a rin a ; Adcom O F “ MA R I N A ,

herba l,the con qu eror a t Drepa n u m

H im il co,who for n in e yea rs held L ilyb a eum ; a n d . a bove a l l ,

Am ilca r Ba rca, over whom for six ye a rs a l l the e fforts of his

powerfu l a dversa ries cou ld n ot trium ph . Bu t i t w a tched thei r

a cts a n d pu n ished their fa u lts,n ot a lw a ys their m isfortu n es ;

thu s he who w a s con qu ered a t Myl a e, be in g su rprised by a n

u nu su a l m a n oeu vre, did n ot lose it s con fiden ce . I t is bl a m ed

for som e rigorou s decision s ; it w a s right to rem ove from com

m a nds the in ca p a ble,or t o strike a m bitiou s fools, who deserve

the extremest severities when they h a ve lost the a rm y or

com prom ised the sta te . I n hom e a ffa irs i t did n ot , like Athen s,give u p the tribu n a ls to the people , — th a t is to sa y, ju stice to

popu l a r p a ssion s ; a n d so well did it defen d the civil power

a ga in st milit a ry chiefs a n d d em a gogu es,th a t there w a s n ot seen

to a rise, du rin g a sp a ce of five hu n dred yea rs, on e of th ose

tyra n n ies which were so Often bred elsewhere from the fa vor

of the a rm y or dem a gogic excesses .3 The popu l a ce,restra in ed

by a whole system of a ristocra tic in stitu tion s, a tta ched to the

1 The fol lowing a re t he m e a n ings, a s given by M . d e Sa u lcy, of some Ca rtha gin i a n n a mes

H a nn ib a l (kh a n n i-B a a l) “ B a a l h a s ta ken m e into fa vor ; ” A sd ru b a l (fia zeron -B fia l ) B a a lh a s protected him , or protect-s h im g” A m ilca r (fib d -M elk a r t ) ,

“ the serv a nt of M e lka rt ;

H a n non (kh a n nou n ) , the gra ciou s ; M a h a rb a l (m a h a r-B fi a l ) , present from B a a l B odostor ( a b d -A sta roth) , “ the serv a nt of A sta rte ; B om ilc a r ( a b d -Vl elk a r t) , the serv a nt of

M el ka r t .”

2 Thea tric a l m a sk or he a d of M edu sa ; on the reverse , six globu les, m a rk of the 51h.

( 6 oun ces) . Very a n cient bron ze coin of Ca m a rin a .2 Two a ttempts a t u surpa tion a re qu oted. A ri stotle Spea k s of a H a n no , whom he compa re s

t o P a u sa n i a s, a nd who, in 3 40 , w a s pu t to de a th, a fter frightfu l torture s, with h is whole fa m i ly ;a nd , a ccor ding to Ju stin ( xx i . Bom il ca r a lso a ttempted , in 3 08, to ca u se a revolution .

548 TH E PUN IC WARS FROM 264 TO 201.

governmen t by the opu len ce of the ch a rit a ble esta blishm en ts,

1

wa s a lso periodica lly en feebled by the sen din g a bro a d of n um er

ou s colon ies . Ca rth a ge thu s got rid of this popu l a ce,withou t n a

tive ties a n d withou t gods, which collects in grea t m erch a n t cities,

a n d in which low in stin cts, bru t a l p a ssion s , h a tred, en vy,a n d a l l

covetou sn ess were a t work. Wa r st epped this cu rren t of em igra

tion,a n d seditiou s mobs g a thered in Ca rth a ge . I f we believe

the wisest histori a n of a n tiqu ity,the Pu n ic w a rs

,which a t Rome

con sol id a ted u n ion ,m odified th e con stitu tion for the profit of the

m u ltitu de . H e sa ys,

“ Am on g th e Ca rtha gin ia n s, it w a s the people,before the wa r Of H a n n ib a l , wh o decided a l l ; a t Rom e it wa s the

Sen a te . So the Rom a n s,often bea ten

,triu m phed a t l a st by the

pru den ce of their pl a ns.” 2

Polybiu s, this grea t f a ll of Ca rth a ge to its dem a gogu es : they h a ve

c a u sed th a t of m a ny other sta tes.

We m u st a ttribu te , if we follow

1 The Ca rtha gin i a n s ha ve rich esta bl ishments, where they ta ke ca re to pl a ce a l a rgen umber of citizen s of the lower cl a ss. I t is thu s tha t they rem edy the fa u lt of the irgovernment, a nd a ssure tra nqu i l l ity a t home. (A rist., i i .

2 Polyh., v i. “

51 ; cf. x v. 3 0 .

HE A D OF A POLLO CR OWN E D W I TH LA U R EL ; ON T H E R E V E R SE , AI'

AYBA I I'

I‘

A N A N D A

LYR E . BR ON ZE CO I N O F L I L Y B A E UM .

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550 . TH E PUN IC W ARS FROM 264 TO 201.

a n d Terra cin a , n or t o a ny other La tin people su bject t o Rome.They sha ll a bsta in from a tta ckin g (in tha t p a rt of It a ly) thecities n ot su bj ects of the Rom a n s ; i f they t a ke on e

,they sh a ll

rel in qu ish it t o the Rom a n s withou t doing it d a m a ge . They

sh a l l n ot bu i ld a ny forts in L a tium,

a n d if they d isem b a rk

in a rm s u pon La tin territory,they sh a ll n ot p a ss the n ight

there .

”

This trea ty shows wh a t degree of power Rom e h a d rea ched

u n der it s kin gs, .how it then protected its su bjects a n d L a tin

a llies , a n d wh a t a dva n t a ges it a ssu red their comm erce even‘

on the

dista n t shores of Libya , withou t , however , Obta in in g from Ca rth a ge

for their ships free en tra n ce in to the Lev a n t .1

1[R a ther from enterin g the G u lf of Ca rtha ge , a nd proceeding to the rich cou ntry a bout

the Le sser Syrtes, Byr a cium , a n d E m pori a . T he gen u ineness of this tre a ty, a s to a ge , be inga tta cked by M omm sen , h a s been recently defended by m a ny schol a rs , a nd seem s fa irly esta bl ished . Of. the a ccou nt in N eum a nn

’

s Z eita l ter d er P u n . K r iege, pp. 53—58, where the editor

(F a ltin ) c ite s the recent l itera ture on the su bj ect, espec i a l ly N issen in the J a hrb il cher f K l a s.

P kil. for 186 7, pp. 3 2 1 seq.— E d .]

THE F IRST PUN IC WA R FROM 264 To 241. 551

The secon d tre a ty is l a ter by m ore th a n a cen tu ry a n d a

h a lf (3 48 B . Rom e h a d em pl oyed the hu ndred a n d sixty-twoye a rs in recoverin g tha t which the settin g u p of the Repu blic

h a d cost . Ca rth a ge , on the con tra ry, secu re from revo lu tion s

u nder it s a ristocra tic governm en t , h a d grow n in stren gth a n d

riches . Am ong it s a ll ies it n a m es this tim e Utica a n d Tyre,

beca u se it n ow represen ts a l l the a m bition s of the Phoen ici a n r a ce ,u n ited a ga in st those Greeks who com e in to so ru de a riva l ry with

the a n cien t m a sters of the Mediterra n ea n,who dispu te with them

Sicily, a n d threa ten a t the s a m e tim e the Rom a n coa st of L a tiuma n d th e Pu n ic fa ctories of th e Tyrrhen i a n Sea . So its words a re

more h a u ghty a n d it s con cession s less fa vora ble . By the form er

trea ty it in terdicted the Rom a n s from n a viga tin g the E a stern

Mediterra n e a n ; it m a in ta in s this prohibition,a n d a dds a n other

,

th a t of n ot p a ss ing the P i ll a rs Of Hercu les . I t t a kes from them

the right of tra ffic in Sa rdin i a a n d Africa,a n d n o longer enga ges

n ot t o molest the L a tin cities which it m ight t a ke ou tside the

Rom a n territory. I t still con sen ts , in deed , to give u p su ch town s

t o its a llies , b u t clea red of gold a n d ca ptives,which this tim e it

in ten ds t o keep .

1

The thir d trea ty is in the ye a r 279 B . Pyrrhu s being thenin Ita ly, a n d distu rbin g both Ca rth a ge a n d Rome , these two citiesren ewed their ol d com p a ct Of frien dship . They stipu l a ted th a t

n either Of the two n a tion s shou ld a ccept from the K in g con dition s

con tr a ry to the a lli a n ce , a n d tha t if on e of the two peoples were

a tt a cked by the E pirot s , th e other shou ld h a ve the right t o he lp

it .s “ Ca rth a ge sh a l l f urn ish tra n sport ships for the voya ge ou t a n d

ba ck,b u t the a u xili a ries sh a l l b e p a id by the sta te which sen ds

them . The Ca rth a gin i a n s sh a ll brin g help to the Rom a n s on sea,

shou ld the l a tter n eed it ; yet the ships’ crews sh a ll n ot b e forced

t o l a n d if they ref use .

”

These trea ties were con firm ed by o a ths . The Ca rth a gin i a n s

swore by the gods of the ir f a thers ; the Rom a n s,in the form er

1[This tre a ty w a s m a in ly concerned with intern a tion a l lim ita tion s of pira cy, which, since

th e fa l l of th e E tru sca n a nd Dionysi a n n a v a l powers, w a s restricted by n o powerfu l m a rine ,a nd w a s pa rticu l a rly in j uriou s to the R em a n s, who h a d no fleet to overcom e it . Cf. L i vy,vii. 2 6 , a n d N eum a n n , op . cit. p. 6 0 , seq. E d .]

2[R e a lly th e fourth. T he third wa s in 3 0 6 B. C. ; b u t it s term s a re u nknown . E d .]

3 iu a e’

grj 6 0 176€ l M rj hot g. (Polyh., iii.

552 . TH E PUN IC WARS FR OM 264 To 201.

trea ties by Ju piter L a pis, in the l a st by M a rs a n d E nya liu s.1 The

oa th by Ju piter L a pis wa s thu s t a ken : The feti a l t a kes a ston ein his h a n d

,a n d

,a fter h a vin g sworn by the pu blic fa ith th a t the

con ven tion s sh a ll b e f a ithfu lly kept , he a dds : I f I spea k the

tru th,l et h a ppin ess b e min e ; i f I thin k d i fferen tly from wh a t I

sa y, l et every on e else preserve in pea ce, in his own cou n try a n d

u n der it s l a ws,his property

,

pen a tes, a n d their tombs ; a s for

myself, l et m e b e c a st a w a y a s‘

I

c a st a w a y this ston e .

’

A n d whilesa yin g these words he throws the

ston e f a r a w a y .

”

We h a ve seen tha t the Ca rtha gin i a n s, to fu lfil on e of the

cl a u ses of the trea ty, before it h a d even been requ ested by Rom e,

Sen t to Osti a a hu n dred a n d twen ty g a lleys .

3 The Sen a te did n ot

a ccept this help ; u n der their refu s a l wa s hidden th e con fiden cewhich the Rom a n s h a d of con qu erin g a lon e

,or th e distru st with

which su ch forw a rd a ll ies in spired them . From Osti a the a dm ira l

sa iled t o T a ren tum , a n d o ffered h is m edi a tion to Pyrrhu s } The

Ca rth a gin i a n s were eviden tly very desirou s to restore the K in g t o

the del ights of his E pirot roya lty ; H e, on the con tra ry

,drea m t

on ly of b a ttles ; he p a ssed in to Sicily, m a de w a r there for three

yea rs, a n d when qu ittin g the isl a n d excl a im ed : Wh a t a fa ir

b a ttle-fiel d we a re lea ving to the Roma n s a n d Ca rth a gin i a n s 1 5

CO I N OF SI CI LY.2

I I . OPE R A T I ON S I N SI CI LY (264 B . c.)

NE I TH E R Rome n or Ca rth a ge could yield to a riva l power the

fine isl a n d situ a ted in th e cen tre of th e Mediterr a n ea n,which

a djoin s It a ly,

a n d from which Afric a is a lmost visible. I f

1 E ny a liu s, or the b el l icose, w a s.

a t first a su rn a m e of M a rs ; l a ter on they m a de him a

son of tha t god . He holds prob a bly, in the l a ngu a ge of Po lybiu s, the pl a ce of Qu irinu s,

2 Wom a n’

s hea d (prob a bly the qu een Ph il ist is, whom som e a ssign a s wif e to H iero I I .)ve iled a n d crown ed with corn ea rs ; behin d, a lea f. On the reverse , Z I K'

E A I Q TA N a n d a

monogra m . V ictory in a qu a driga . Co in of the Sici li a n s.8 Ju stin , xv ii i. 2 .Ju stin , xv ii i. 2 . L i vy tells of presents which Ca rth a ge sent in the yea rs -2 a nd 3 0 6 to

R om e , in congra tu l a ting them on the ir su ccesses over th e Sa mn ites , v i i. 3 8 ix. 4 3 .5 A qu a rre l h a d a lrea dy been n ea r brea kin g ou t on th e subj ect of Ta rentum . See p. 473 .

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554 TH E PUN IC WAR S FROM 264 TO 201.

The M a m ertin es were n otoriou s pilla gers. Wh a t the ga rrison of

Rhegium ,so severely pu n ished, h a d ju st don e on on e of the

1

S c a l e 156—

0 0 0

6 to

TH E ST R A I T S O F M E SS I N A (PR E S E N T ST A T E ).

coa sts of the Stra its, the M a m ertin es h a d don e, a n d very mu ch

worse, on the other s ide . The Sen a te hesita ted a t u n derta king

TH E F IRST P UN IC WA R FROM 264. To 241. 555

eir defen ce .- The con su ls, less scru pu lou s, ca rried the m a tter

fore the people . They rec a lled the equ ivoc a l con du ct o f the

a t T a ren tum,a n d poin ted ou t the est a blishm en ts

s people in Cors ica , in Sa r

in the Lip a ri I sl a n ds, in

l ike a ch a in which a lre a dy

the Tyrrhen i a n Sea , a n d

m u st b e broken . The a m

Of the Rom a n s w a s a mix

f pride a n d a v a rice . They CO I N 0 1“ A G A T H OCL E S ‘

I

to comm a n d,beca u se they con sidered them selves to b e

the gre a test people of the e a rth ; they wished to con qu er,fy their t a ste for plu n der ; Sicily a n d Ca rth a ge were su ch

The people decided tha t su ccor shou ld b e sen t t o

the con su l desp a tched in gre a t h a ste the legion a ry

to Messin a .

1 those of h is ra ce, a n en ergetic m a n, who

he cou ld ga in h is en d .

He p a ssed the Stra its

a t the risk of be in g

seized by th e en em y,a n d on h is a rriv a l a t

Messin a fou n d H a nn o

est a blished in the

cit a del which a f a c

tion h a d delivered t o him .3 Cl a u diu s wished to brin g over troops ,

b u t th e Ca rth a gin i a n vessels closed the Stra its .“ Not a ship sh a ll

pa ss, s a id H a n n o ,“a n d n ot on e of you r soldiers Sh a ll ever w a sh

his h a n ds in the w a ters of Sicily . However, he con sen ted to

a n in terview with the tribu n e ; in the m idst of the con feren ce

Cl a u diu s c a u sed him to b e se ized, a n d t o Obt a in his l iberty,H a n n o su rren dered the cit a del. On h is retu rn to Ca rth a ge h e w a s

CO I N O F L I PA R I .2

1 KOPA S . H e a d of a Proserpin e the reverse , V ictory setting u p a trophy ; in th e fie ld thetriqu etra . A s in scription , A PA G OKA E I OE . Sil ver co in of A ga thocles , Kin g of Syra cu se .

2 H e a d of Vu lca n ; on the reverse , A I H A PI ON a nd a prow of a ve sse l with th e a cros to l ium ,

a n orn a ment which term in a tes a ship’

s prow ; th e six globu les a re the m a rk of the a} den a ri u s,

L a rge-s ized bron ze m oney of L ipa ri.3[N o dou bt this pa rty a rgu ed tha t the ex a mple of R hegium m a de the R om a n s m ore

un s a fe a l lie s tha n the Ca rth a gin i a n s.— E d .]

556 TH E PUN IC WARS FROM 264 To 201.

cru cified ; b u t R ome h a d commen ced th e period of it s grea t w a rsby a n a ct of perfidy, which, W ith m a n y others, w a s forgotten by

h er ora tors when they a rra ign ed

Pu n ic f a ith ”in the Sen a te a nd

the Forum.

Hiero a n d the Ca rth a gin i a n su n ited in l a ying s iege t o Messin a .

With horrible preca u tion , th e Ca r

th a gin ia n s m a ssa cred the ir I ta li a nmercen a ries ; b u t a s the stra i t w a s sca rcely more th a n two m iles inthe n a rrowest p a rt, the a ll ies cou ld n ot preven t the con su l Appiu sCa u dex 2 ta king a dv a n t a ge of a d a rk n ight t o sen d a cross twen ty

thou sa n d m en on b a rks a n d sm a ll boa ts, len t by a l l the cities on

the co a st. Appiu s defea ted or cowed the two besieging a rm ies,

CO I N O F T H E M A M E R T I N E S.l

which were n ot very con sider a ble,for Polybiu s does not sa y th a t

their retrea t w a s the resu lt of a

victory by the Rom a n s. The con

su l pu rsu ed Hiero a s f a r a s the

w a lls of Syra cu se ; the pl a ce wa s

t oo stron g to b e t a ken by a

su dden a tta ck , a n d the m a l a ria from the m a rshes of/

the A n a pu s

forced him to retire H e retired to Messin a,where he left

a ga rrison .3 The occu p a tion of this n a tu r a l a n d secu re h a rbor,

l a rge en ou gh to hold six hu n dred ga lleys of the a n cien ts, a nd

deep en ou gh to receive the l a rgest of modern vessels, wa s worth

more to Rom e th a n a victory. She possessed there the port of the

isla n d, a n d She took m ea su res for it s sa fe preserv a tion . This pros-I

perou s comm en cem en t en cou ra ged the Sen a te t o pu sh on th e wa r

vigorou sly. The two con su ls a n d thirty-six thou sa n d legion a ries

p a ssed the followin g yea r in Sicily, where sixty-seven town s, a n d

a m ongst them Ca t a n a,a t th e foot of E tn a , fel l in to

Segesta , the m ost a n cien t a lly of Ca rth a ge in the is]

CO I N OF G E LA .

1 L a u rel led h e a d of you ng M a rs a nd h is Greek n a me , A PE OE ;-ou the reve

T I N ON . A n e a gle on a thu n derbolt. Bron ze co in of the M a mertine s.2 F rom the n a me of hi s tra n sport-ships, cou d -éca ria e. [M ost writers ca l l him

3[R a ther he wa s defe a ted a nd driven into M essin a , where h is siege wa s

v ictory of the su cceeding con su l (M ess a ll a ) . I n thi s ye a r, too, the fir st R om a nCf. N eum a n n

, op . cit , p. 86.— E d .]

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558 TH E PUN IC WAR S FROM 264 TO 201.

The tre a ty with Hiero a ssu red t o the Rom a n s the a lli a n ceof the n a tion a l p a rty in Sicily, a n d rel ieved them from the

n ecessity of sen din g from L a tium provision s a n d stores,which

th e en emy’

s fleet wou ld h a ve been a b le'

t o in tercept. The a mbi

tion of the Sen a te in crea sed , a n d it resolved t o drive ou t the

Ca rth a gin ia n s from the whole isl a n d, where the excesses of their

ba rb a rou s ba n ds for two cen tu ries h a d m a de their ru le odiou s.

PLA N O F A G R I G E N T UM .

A grigen tum ,fa m ou s a m on g a l l the Sicili a n town s by th e n um

b er a n d the colossa l proportion s of it s m on umen ts, wa s a very

strong posi tion ,a n d th e Ca rth a gin ia n s h a d m a de their a rsen a l in

the isl a n d . Bu ilt on rocks,of which som e

,those of the cita del,

seem ed cu t perpen dicu l a rly, a n d Su rrou n ded by two w a tercou rses,

which, u n itin g below it, fell together in to the sea , fi um e d e Girgen tz

'

,

i t wou ld h a ve been im pregn a ble, i f it s dista n ce from the shore

TH E FIRST PUN IC WA R FROM 264 TO 241. 559

sta di a , or a bou t 2 m iles — h a d n ot ren dered its re-victu a ll in g im

ssib l e .l The Rom a n s besieged it . Not knowin g ye t how to t a ke a

he a id of en gin es Of w a r,which the Greeks h a d lon g sin ce

t a b l ished them selves a t the ea st a n d west of the town in

hich a dou ble lin e of defen ces protected a g a in st sorties

su ccors from withou t . There they st a yed for seven m on ths,fa m in e open ed the g a tes for

Withou t Hiero,they wou ld

selves, m ore th a n on ce , h a ve

from sca rcity . H a n n ib a l,

son of G isco, defen ded the

with a strong ga rrison ; theCO I N O F A G R I G E N T UM .

sion s therein dim in ished the

qu ickly . Ca rth a ge sen t a n a rmy to su ccor it u n der H a nn o ,seized on Her a clea a n d H erb essu s, where th e two con su ls

the ir stores ; the con voys of Hiero m a in ta in ed a bu n da n ce in

Rom a n ca m p, a n d H a n n o w a s com pe lled to risk a ba ttle,

lost in spite of h is e leph a n ts . Sin ce the tim e of

u s the legion s n o longer fe a red

;hese clum sy en gin es of w a r . They

tilled thirty of them ,a n d took eleven

tlive . Profitin g by the d a rkn ess of a

vin t er’

s n ight, a n d by the n egligen ce

)f th e sen tin els ren dered over-con fid en tCO I N O F E N T E L L A ’

)y the l a te victory, H a n n iba l crossed the Rom a n lin es with a p a rt

)f hi s troops . The u n fortu n a te town w a s sa cked by the con qu erors,

vho sold a s sl a ves twen ty-five thou sa n d of it s inha bit a n ts . These‘

b ree ca m p a ign s a n d this lon g Siege h a d a lre a dy tried the fin a n ces

>f Ca rth a ge, a n d she wa s for a while com pe lled to stop the pa y

)f h er m ercen a ries . To get rid of th e too-spirited com pl a in ts of

fou r thou s a n d Ga u ls, who threa ten ed t o go over to the en emy, a

Ja rth a g in ia n gen er a l promised them the pill a ge of E n t el l a . They

i a st en ed thither ; b u t h e h a d secretly w a rn ed th e Roma n gen era l,

1 [The s ite of A gr igen t um is pecu l i a r. I t is a gre a t ov a l pl a te a u , with sca rped edges l a id ,ill the slope of a hi l l , a n d re a ching from the summ it ha lf w a y t o the se a . A long the lower edge>f thi s pl a te a u there is a splendid row of temples, from which you look over the descending l pe

o the se a . Syra cu se h a s s im il a r fe a tures on it s l a nd s ide, th a t is to sa y, a t the summ it of th e.lope there is th e sa me kin d of steep rock , protecting the c ity from the l a nd s ide. Pin d a r seem s.

'

0 ha ve thou ght A g rigen tum the most be a utif ul of Greek town s. E d .]

560 TH E PUN IC WAR S FROM 2 64 TO 201.

a n d the Ga u ls,h a vin g fa ll en in to a n a m bu sca de, were killed a lmost

to a m a n . The legion a ries were a lso withou t pa y ; b u t n ot a com

pl a in t w a s hea rd a m on g the a rmy of citizen s . Before A grigen tum ,a

n u m ber of soldiers su ffered them selves to b e killed a t the ga tes

Of the ca m p to give the dispersed legion s the tim e t o_

r a lly ; a nd

if a ny qu a rrels a rose between them a n d their a llies,it wa s to

Obta in th e m ost perilou s post in th e b a ttle .1

From the third ye a r of the w a r , Ca rth a ge possessed on ly

som e m a ritim e pl a ces in Sicily . Bu t her fleets r a v a ged the

coa sts of I t a ly, closed the Stra its , a n d ren dered a l l con qu est preca riou s .2 The Sen a te u n derstood th a t it m u st a tta ck the en emy on

his own elem en t Thu s their object wa s en l a rged a s it

con st a n tly receded . I t w a s a t first to preven t the Ca rth a gin i a n s

from gettin g possession of Messin a ; then t o drive them from the

isl a n d ; n ow the Sen a te wished t o sweep them from the se a .

I I I . MA R IT I M E OPE R A T I ON S ; LA NDI N G OF T H E ROM AN S

I N AF R I CA (260

TH E Rom a n s were n ot so ign ora n t of m a ritime a ffa irs a s h a s

been su pposed . They were a cqu a in ted with the con stru ction a n d

th e m a n a gem en t of trirem es ; i t m u st b e rem em bered th a t the

a ppea r a n ce Of a Rom a n fleet in the h a rbor of T a ren tum h a d

provoked the w a r with Pyrrhu s . Bu t they did n ot like th e se a ;

they distru sted the “ trea cherou s elem en t ; a n d a s their milit a ryl ife w a s spen t on l a n d

,they h a d n o perm a n en t fleet, a lthou gh

they elected m a gistra tes, d u umviri n a va les,

3t o w a tch over the

m a in ten a n ce of a fixed n a v a l stock . Also,when they h a d n eed

of vessels,they dem a n ded them of the ir E tru sca n a n d Greek

su bj ects. Bu t in the stru ggle a g a in st Ca rth a ge they requ ired

ships of the l in e, th a t is t o s a y, vessels with high bu lwa rks

a n d five r a n ks of rowers. A Ca rth a gin i a n qu in qu ereme, which

h a d fou n dered on the coa st of I ta ly, served a s a m odel. Su ch

wa s then the im perfection of th is a rt , which h a s b ecome so

1 Polybiu s, i . ‘

17.

2[H ence Pliny .(xvi. 192) sa ys they bu ilt a fleet in 45 d a ys a g a in st H iero, viz. 263

1’ [Viz., d u umviri cl a ssis orn a nd a e refi cien d a eque ca u sa , in 3 11 B.(3 . -E d.]

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T H E FIRST rUN I O WA R FROM 264 To 241. 56 1

el a bora te, th a t two m on ths su fficed t o fell the wood , bu ild a n d

l a u n ch on e hu n dred a n d twen ty ships,a n d to form a n d tr a in

the crews .1 Al l these sa ilors were n ot n ovices ; the a ll ies h a d

fu rn ished m a ny se a m en a n d experien ced pilots. They n evertheless

n eeded cou ra ge t o m a ke a n a tt a ck with su ch a fleet on the first

m a ritim e power in the world . The con su l Cn . Corn eliu s Scipio w a s

t a ken ,it is tru e , with seven teen vessels in a n

a ttem pt on the Aeol i a n Isl a n ds (Lip a ri) ; b u t his

colle a gu e Du il l iu s defea ted n ea r Myl a e (Mil a zzo),the Ca rth a gin ia n fleet

I n the n a v a l b a ttles of a n tiqu i ty, th e vesse ls ,a rm ed with a r a m a t th e prow ,

sou ght to strikeW A N G » wm r A

ea ch other a t the w a ter—lin e ; the l ightn ess of DOUB L E B E A K' H E A D-Q

the ship a n d the a ctivity of th e s a ilors were then a s a t presen t , the

first con dition s of su ccess , a n d th e g a lley-sl a ves did more th a n

the soldiers em b a rked on boa rd,ordin a rily few i n n um ber . Athen s

u sed t o pu t b u t t en on the ir trirem es with 200 rowers .3 After the.

first c a m p a ign the m ilit a r r gen iu s Of th e Rom a n s

inven ted a n ew form of t a ctics . The ir vessels ,rou ghly con stru cted of green tim ber, were hea vy

m a chin es,which cou ld, however, by the a id of

c a rs,b e forced str a ight a t th e en em y. At the

bows Of the ship Du il l iu s pl a ced a ga n gw a y,

4B E A Kfl E A D 0 1.

which, fa llin g u pon a n en emy ’

s g a lley, seized it A SH I P }

with it s gra pplin g- iron ,held it f a st

,a n d m a de a bridge for the

soldiers . The scien ce of the Ca rth a gin ia n pilo ts bec a m e u seless ; it

wa s a m ere l a n d b a ttle, in which th e legion a ries rega in ed thei r

a dva n t a ge,a n d Du il l iu s h a d a s m a ny a s a hu n dred a n d twen ty

on boa rd e a ch ship .6 When the Ca rth a gin i a n s sa w the Rom a n

1 A few m onths suflice th e Ca rtha gin i a n s to open a new outlet t o the ir intern a l ha rbora nd t o bu ild a fleet with the d ebris of the ir hou ses. On e ca n n ot b u t b e a ston ished a t a n a rt

rem a in ing so long in it s infa ncy, which w a s pra ctised by so m a ny people.2 E ngra ved gem of t he M u seu m Of B erlin .

3 During t he Pe lopon n esi a n W a r. T hu cyd . n . 2 3, 10 2 ; i i i. 91, 95 ; a nd i v. 76 , 10 1. Cf.

B oeckh , S ta a tsh. i. 3 9 0 .4 A ccording to th e de scription , a l ittle obscure , of Polybiu s, this bridge , which w a s c a lled

corvu s, a n d which worked a l l rou nd,w a s u sed a t the prow , stern , or a t the s ide s.

5 R everse of a sexta n s of bron ze of the town of T u d er.6 There w a s less tha n this n u mber a t E enom u s (Polyb ., i. Others give 200 a s the

number of soldiers Du ill iu s pu t on bo a rd e a ch Ship.V O L . I . 3 6

‘

562 TH E PUN IC WARS FROM 2 64 TO 201.

fleet a dv a n cin g , t hey ca m e on a s i f t o cert a in victory. Thirty

Ships,which form ed the v a n gu a rd, rea ched it first . Se ized by the

gr a pples,n ot on e esca ped . The a dm ira l

’

s ga lley, with seven rows

of o a rs,w a s itself t a ken

,a n d H a n n iba l , the former defender of

A g rig en tum ,who w a s on boa rd

,h a d b u t tim e to esc a pe in a boa t.

H e directed, however, his other ga lleys to th e fl a n k a n d a stern of the

Rom a n vessels. Bu t, despite the r a pidity of their evolu tion s, the

form id a ble gra pple w a s a lwa ys rea dy for them . Twen ty ga lleys

more were ta ken ; three thou sa n d m en were killed,a n d Six thou sa n d

R OMA N G A LLE Y. (CA ST FR OM MUSE UM OF s . G E R MA I N .)

m a de prison ers ; the rest fled in terror . The l a n d a rmy ra ised in

a l l h a ste the siege of Segesta ; th e troops which were defen ding

M a cell a a llowed the pl a ce t o b e t a ken by storm ; a n d the Ca rth a

gin i a n gen er a l, ha vin g retired to Sa rdin i a with som e troops, wa s

cru cified there by the mu tin ou s m ercen a ries .

These su ccesses were the m a teri a l resu lt of the victory ; b u t

there w a s a grea ter . The prestige of the m a ritim e su periority

of Ca rth a ge wa s dispelled ; a n d wha tever dis a sters b efell the

Rom a n fleets in the fu tu re did n ot c a u se the Sen a te t o give

u p the sea . They kn ew n ow th a t Ca rth a ge cou ld b e con qu ered ;a nd the l a te even ts m a de them u n dersta n d tha t the con quest

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564 . T H E PUN IC WARS FROM 264 TO 201.

they were on ly a ble to esca pe throu gh the devotion of Ca l

pu rn iu s F l a mm a . H e wa s a legion a ry tribu n e, who Offered to

occu py, with fou r hu n dred m en,a hill

,from when ce he cou ld

cover the retrea t a n d stop the en em y.“ I give my l ife to thee

a n d to the Repu blic, s a id h e to the con su l . All fell except thetribu n e

,who wa s fou n d a l ive u n der a hea p of corpses . H e

received a crown of gra ss. “ At tha t tim e ,

”sa ys Pliny

,

“ it w a s

the highest rew a rd .” 1 Ca to com p a res him to Leon id a s, a n d com

pl a in s Of the ca price of fortu n e which h a s left h is n a m e in

obscu rity. H e forgot tha t.

it is the en d for which we d ie which

gives imm orta lity to the victim . Ca lpu rn iu s, l ike so m a ny soldiers

in ou r a n n a ls, sa ved on ly on e legion

~

Leon ida s h a d s a ved

his cou n try,the who le of Greece

,a n d the civil iza tion of th e world .

N otwithst a n din g, the wa r l a n gu ished ; Am ilca r destroyed the

town of E ryx, Of which h e left st a n d

in g on ly the tem ple,b u il t

, ,

it wa s s a id ,in hon or of his divin e m other

,Venu s

E rycin a , whom the Phoen ici a n s con

fou n ded with their goddess Ast a rte . H e

c a rried the popu l a tion 10'

Drepa n um ,

a n d con cen tr a ted h is forces in th a t town a n d in L ilyb a eum ,

two impregn a ble pl a ces, the a ppro a ches to which were protected

by the sea a n d by severa l cities which the Ca rth a gin i a n s still

occu pied on the coa sts a n d in the in terior .

V E N US E R YC I N A .2

The fortu n e of Rom e seem ed declin in g, a n d som e d a n gerou s

defection s resu lted . I n the cen tre of the isl a n d, E n n a . th e s a cred

town whose civic divin ity, Ceres, wa s hon ored throu ghou t Sicily, on

the sou thern coa st the gre a t city of Ca m a rin a,a n d even A grigen tum ,

ca m e rou n d to the Ca rth a gin i a n s. I f the legion s h a d return ed t o

Rome a t the en d of the summ er, a ccording t o cu stom,a n d h a d

n ot W in tered in the isl a n d,a l l wou ld h a ve been lost . Bu t the

con su l of 258 retook th e lost pl a ces, pu tting t o dea th the prin

cipa l citizen s, a n d sellin g the rest . I t w a s the cu stom ,a n d wa s

1 Pl iny, H is t.N a t. xx i i. 11 A u l . G el l. ( i i i. 7) ca l ls him Ca ecid iu s, others L a b eriu s.2 On the obverse , Venu s E rycin a , di a demed, a nd crowned with myrtle or l a ure l, a nd the

in scription , C. CON SI DI . N ON I AN I . S. C. On the reverse , E R V C, a nd the temple of

Ven u s. Si lver m oney of the fa m i ly Con sid ia . T he coin represents the temple a t the summ itof the hi l l w ith the deep enclosure which surrou nded it, a nd which the a rtist, to render hisdra wing l ighter

,h a s represented a s open work.

TH E FIRST P UN IC WA R FROM 2 04 TO 241. 565

pra ctised on both sides . Am on g the a n cien ts , when the city fell,

the individu a ls perished . Fortu n e destroyed , f a m ily lost, n o hom e.

no hou sehold gods ; yesterd a y en joying the hon ors of th e

pa trici a te , to-m orrow in the m iseries of Sl a very : su ch wa s

lot of the con qu ered , when on

the d a y of defea t they h a d n ot

fa llen ben e a th the sword Of

the soldier or u n der the a xe

of the l ictor . By w a y of com

pen s a t ion th e fierce ch a r a cter

Of w a r ga ve t o p a triotism a n

en ergy lon g sin ce p a ssed a wa y .

These su ccesses in th e in

terior of the isl a n d , a n d a

fresh n a v a l b a ttle,which the

con su l A t il iu s cl a im ed to h a ve

ga in ed n e a r Lip a ri , decided the

Sen a te to the boldest en terprise .

Three hu n dred a n d thirty ves

sels were equ ipped , on e hu n dred

thou sa n d sea m en a n d soldiers,

a n d the two con su ls,M a n l iu s

V u l so a n d A t il iu s Regu lu s,em ba rked with the determ in a

t ion of pa ssm g throu gh the

Ca rth a gin i a n fleet a n d m a kin gA ST A R T E .

1

a n a tta ck on Afr i ca .

The two fleets m et off E en om u s .2 I t w a s the grea test spect a cle

1 Sta tu ette fou n d in Phoen ici a (cf . A ca d . d es Scien ces d e S a in t-Pe’

fersbou rg , 7th serie s,vol . xix . N o. 4 , p. 1, fig. a nd which does n o t give a very grea t su periority to the a rtists of

the m etropo l is over those of Ca rtha ge. “ T he goddess is sta ndin g in fu l l dress ; on the

forehea d a rich fil l et. The ha ir fa l ls in m a ny tre sses behind a nd_

ou e a ch side , on the necktwo symbol ica l neckl a ces ; a circle Shu t by a squ a re beze l , a n d a triple row of pe a rls. The

ba re fore a rm is orn a m ented u p to the wrists with open bra ce lets, clos in g by a cl a sp, thetwo e nds of wh ich a re decora ted with hea ds of a nte lopes. A n u pper dre ss, m a de of a su pplea nd fin e m a teri a l , open s in front, form ing on e a ch Side symmetric a l l ittle fo lds. Sleeves withcl a sps cover the top of the a rm . T he robe, fa ll i n g from the n eck t o the feet, covers the hee ls ,a n d is provided with a tra in which the left h a nd holds. a n d brings to the front. T he b a re feetha ve sa nd a ls with stra ps. The whole of this dress is he a vy, a n d seem s stra nge. T he goddessthu s resembles th e squ a w of a R edskin .

"

(G eorges Colon n a Cecca ldi , R evu e a rche’

ol . d e j a nvier.1878, p. 16 , n ote

2 A m ou nta in between G e l a a n d A g r igen t um .

566 T H E PUN IC WARS FROM 264 TO 201.

the Mediterra n e a n h a d yet seen ; three hu ndred thou s a n d m en werea bou t t o fight on its wa ves . The Rom a n vessels , form ed in to a hollow

tri a ngle, with dou ble b a se, a n d it s poin t directed tow a rds the en emy’ s

l in e, a dv a n ced ste a dily , a n d the Ca rth a gin i a n s,despite a clever

m a n oeu vre to dra w off the v a n of the hostile fleet a n d sep a ra te it

from it s powerfu l rea r-gu a rd , lost n in ety-fou r Ships ou t of threehu n dred a n d fifty ; twen ty-fou r Rom a n g a lleys on ly were su n k

The rem a in s of the con qu ered a rmy fled t o Ca rth a ge. Som e

vessels were equ ipped there in a l l h a ste,a n d troops r a ised to

gu a rd the co a st . Bu t the grea test con fu sion still reign ed in the

town when it w a s le a rn t tha t the Rom a n s,ha vin g disem b a rked

n ea r th e prom on tory of Mercu ry (Ca pe Bon ), were a l rea dy b e

siegin g Clype a . Regu lu s h a d on ly t a ken su fficien t tim e to rep a ir

his dis a bled ships a n d to get provisions . The troops bega n t o

b e a fra id of a w a r in Afric a,— th a t l a n d of m on

st ers , when ce su ch terrible t a les rea ched them,

Af r ica p or ten tosa

m u rm u r . Regu lu s thre a ten ed h im with the a xe ,

even a tribu n e h a d d a red t o

a n d the a rm y, despite it s su perstitiou s fea rs , set

ou t .

‘

Clypea h a vin g been t a ken , a n d n o posi tion,

R EG ULUS . n o a rmy,protecting the cou n try

,the Rom a n s sprea d

over these rich pl a in s, which, sin ce A ga thocles,h a d n ot seen a n en emy , a n d whose fertility w a s secu red by a

good system of irriga tion . I n a few d a ys they took twen ty

thou sa n d prison ers a n d imm en se booty .

The Sen a te , deceived by it s first su ccesses , reca lled Ma n l iu s

a n d h is legion s ; it wa s a m ist a ke . Regu lu s him self, i t w a s sa id,h a d requ ested to retu rn ,

b eca u se the f a rm er whom he h a d left to

cu ltiv a te a field of seven a cres,h is sole p a trim ony, h a d run a w a y

a n d t a ken the plou gh a n d oxen . The Sen a te replied th a t a l l shou ld

b e re—pu rch a sed for h im,h is field cu ltiv a ted, a n d his wife a n d

children kept a t the expen se of the trea su ry. H e rem a in ed in

Afric a with fifteen thou sa n d m en a n d five hu n dred horses . These

forces were su ffi cien t for h im t o defea t the en emy on a l l sides, to

1 L i vy,xxx i v. 6 2. Su ch is th e su spiciou s history of the serpent of B a gr a d a s, a b u n

dred a nd twenty feet long, a n d whose hea d , sent to R ome , wa s sti l l shown there in the t imeof the N um a n tia n wa r. (Cf. F lor., i i. Polybiu s does n ot m ention it . H owever, su ch l a rgeserpents now ex ist in the highl a n ds of A l geri a , th a t it m a y on ly ha ve been a n ex a ggera tedfa ct.

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568 TH E PUN IC WARS FROM 264 TO 201.

Ca rtha ge w a s s a ved . However, the victoriou s a rmy wa s

repu lsed a t the siege of Clypea , a n d a Ca rth a gin i a n fleet w a s a ga inbea ten in s ight of this pl a ce. Bu t the destru ction of th e Wholeof a n a rmy

,the ca ptu re of a con su l, a n d the d iflicu l ty of crossing

i ncess a n tly a stormy sea , in order t o re-victu a l th e legion s of

Clype a , decided the Sen a te to rel in qu ish Afric a . At the sa m e

tim e a frightfu l dis a ster closed the wa y. Two hu n dred a n d seven ty

FR I E Z E OF SE L I N US, T A K E N FR OM PHOT OG R A PHS , DA T I N G A BO UT 4 60

(SE E PP. 570

g a lleys were sh a ttered by a tem pest a lon g th e coa sts of Ca m a rin a ;it wa s n ea rly the whole fleet . Th e Ca rth a gin i a n s h a sten ed t o pu t

down their rebel su bjects ; the chiefs were cru cified ; th e town s

g a ve t a len ts a n d twen ty thou s a n d oxen ; then the prep a r a

tion s were pu shed forw a rd with vigor for ca rrying the/

w a r a ga in

in to Sicily

I V . TH E WA R I s CA R R I E D BA CK I N TO SI CI LY (254

A N E W fleet, a n ew a rm y, a n d on e hu n dred a n d forty eleph a n ts

set ou t from Ca rth a ge . A g rig en tum w a s re-ta ken . On her side,Rome, in three m on ths, bu ilt two hu n dred a n d twen ty ga l leys,a n d the con su ls, proceedin g a lon g th e . n orthern co a st of Sicily,took by trea chery the stron g position Of Ceph a l oed ium ,

1a n d th a t

of Pa n orm u s, which ga ve them a n excellen t port . Those of the

in h a bit a n ts Of Pa n ormu s who were u n a ble t o pa y a r a n som of

two s ilver m in a e (200 dra chm a s, or n ea rly eight gu in e a s) were sold

a s sl a ves . There were thirteen thou sa n d of them .

The following yea r the fleet r a va ged the coa st of Africa ; b u t

1 I t wa s bu i lt on. a steep promontory, whence its Greek n a me sign ifying he a d it is now

Cefa lu .

T H E FIRST PUN IC WA R FROM 264 To 241. 569

a tempest on it s retu rn a ga in destroyed on e hu n dred a n d fi fty

vessels n ea r Ca pe Pa l in u ru s , on the co a st of Lu ca n i a These

repe a ted disa sters seem ed a m en a ce of the gods ; the Sen a te ga ve

up the se a, a s it h a d given u p Africa

The two a dversa ries, we a ried ou t by the stru ggle , which h a d

a lrea dy l a sted eleven yea rs , rested on their a rm s t he Ca rtha gin i a n s ,in a stron g position ,

which they occu pied a t the western extrem i ty.Of Sicil y ; the legion s, a t som e dista n ce in the rea r, on the heights ,from whi ch they w a tched the en emy . This in a ction bec a m e d etri

m en t a l to the Rom a n disciplin e . I t w a s n ecess a ry a t on e tim e t o

degra de fou r hu n dred ta g-

nites , who h a d refu sed to obey the con su l ,a t a n other tim e to m a ke a m i l ita ry trib u n e of the i llu striou s hou se

of Va leriu s ru n the g a u n tlet .‘ Ca r

th a ge, on h er Side, occu pied withou t

dou bt in recon stitu tin g in Africa her

ru le , which the Rom a n in v a sion h a d

sha ttered, con fin ed herself in Sicily

to a pru den t defen sive . She even

m a de n o effort in 252 t o preven t Scipio , who wa s con qu ered 111

the first n a va l a ction,from t a kin g h is reven ge a t Lip a ri, by se

'

z

in g u pon this isl a n d w ith the ships len t by the f a ithfu l Hiero .

The blow wa s a severe on e , for from Lip a ri her priv a teers in cessa n t ly c a m e forth

,r a va gin g the I ta li a n co a sts . Accordingly, the

yea r a fter,Ca rth a ge m a de a vigorou s effort . H a sd ru

b a l,with two hu n dred vessels

,c a rryin g thirty thou sa n d

m en a n d on e hu n dred a n d forty eleph a n ts, a ttem pted

to reta ke P a n orm u s . The pro-con su l

,Metellu s, kept

his a rmy shu t u p there ; b u t , by m e a n s of his lightcom COM M EM _

troops, he ch a llen ged the en em y,a n d drew them to

T

O

H

R

F

‘

fgl‘

éfithe foot of the w a ll ; a n d while the eleph a n ts, pierced O F M E T E LLUS-3

with d a rts, ru shed fu riou sly b a ck on the Ca rth a gin ia n a rmy,which

they threw in to disorder,Metellu s a tt a cked with a l l his forces .

CO I N O F CE P I—I A L O E D I UM .

‘

1 V a l .M a x ., I I . ix. 7; F ront. Stra t., iv. T he kn ights were degra ded to the ra nk of a er a r ii.

I n 252 , A ure li u s Pecu n iol a h a ving , in the a bsence of the con su l , Cotta , his cou s in , perm ittedthe burn ing of a redoubt, a nd a lmost lost h is c a mp before L ipa ri , Cotta h a d him flogged , a n dredu ced h im to the ra n k of a common so ld ier. (V a l . M a x .

, I I . v ii.2 H ea d of Ju piter, crowned with l a ure l ; on the reverse , KE T A . G oa tskin

, clu b , a nd q u i ver.Bron ze money.

2 M E T E LLUS in a ca r dra wn by eleph a nts, a nd crowned b v V ic torv. The reverse of a

piece of s i lver money of the Ca eci l i a n fa m i ly.

570,

TH E PUN IC WARS FROM 264 T o 201.

Twenty thou sa n d Africa n s perished ; on e hu n dred a n d fou r eleph a n tswere t a ken ; they were

con du cted t o Rom e,where

they fol lowed the ca r Of

the‘

con qu eror ; a n d a s it

wa s fou n d too expen sivet o keep them

,they were

hu n ted down in the grea t

circu s,tha t the people by

fa m il i a rity m ight cea se to

drea d them

On h is retu rn to Ca r

th a ge , the in ca p a ble H a s

d ru b a l w a s cru cified . At

Rom e

.

Metellu s received

grea t hon or . H e w a s twice

m a de con su l , dict a tor, sov

ereign pon tiff ; a n d when ,in

a fi re in the temple of Vest a ,h e lost his eyes in sa vin g the P a ll a dium , th e people ga ve him the

right,which n on e h a d u p to this tim e Obt a in ed , Of goin g in his

ca r t o the Sen a te . I n th e fu n era l ora tion which the Son of the

con qu eror of P a n orm u s del ivered in hon or of his fa ther, we ca n

see wh a t a Rom a n of this tim e esteem ed a s the sovereign good .

“ H e a tt a in ed,

”he sa id “

a n d in perfection , t en very gre a t things,which the wise p a ss their l ife in seekin g . H e wished to b e

the best soldier, the first of or a tors, th e a blest of gen era ls, the

m ost em in en t of sen a tors,a n d he desired t o con du ct u n der h is

a u spices the gr a vest a fla irs,to a tt a in to th e highest m a gistr a cies,

to su preme pol itic a l wisdom , a n d a gre a t fortu n e a cqu ired by honor

a ble m e a n s, a n d fin a lly to le a ve behin d him m a ny children , a n d to

b e the m ost respected of a l l his fellow-citizen s.” 2 This is th e idea l

of Rom a n virtu e . I t is n ot a very elev a ted on e ; b u t if it did n ot

m a ke s a ges in the tru e sen se of the word,i t m a de grea t citizen s.

M a ny n oble Ca rth a gin i a n s h a d been m a de prison ers before

Pa n orm u s ; others h a d lon g been so. The Ca rth a gin i a n s , we a re

M E T OPE FR OM T H E LA T E ST T E MPLE A’

I‘

SE L I N US.1

1 I t represents H era cles fighting a n A m a zon. The setting of the exta nt scu lptures is therestora tion in th e M u seu m a t Pa lermo.

2 Pl iny, N a t. H ist. v i i. 45.I

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572 . TH E PUN IC WAR S FROM 264 To 201.

Polybiu s reproa ches Regu lu s with n ot h a vin g kn own how to

gu a rd him self a ga in st the in con sta n cy of fortu n e, with h a vin g

im posed t oo severe con dition s, etc. N O dou bt he wou ld h a ve beenwiser t o restr a in him sel f within bou n ds ; b u t wha t gen er a l wou ld

h a ve a cted otherwise ? I t w a s by a im in g a t a very lofty idea l,often

even a bove their powers,tha t

the Rom a n s d id su ch grea t

things . A n a tion does n ot

becom e grea t by m erely being

a lw a ys a n a tion Of wise m en .

The victory of P a n orm u s

pu t a n en d t o the grea t b a ttles .

The Ca rth a gin i a n s on ce m ore

fell b a ck to the western ex

trem ity of the isl a n d,t o Dre

p a n um a n d L ilyb a eum ,whither

they tra n sported a l l the in

h a bita n ts of Sel in u s , a fter

h a vin g d estroyed the ir town .

ZE US A N D H E R E (SE E p ,L ilyb a eum ,

su rrou n ded on two

sides by a se a ren dered d a n

geron s, even to the m ost skilfu l pilots

,by s a n d-b a n ks, reefs ju st

ben ea th the su rfa ce,a n d r a pid cu rren ts, w a s shu t in on the

l a n d side by a high w a ll,

a n d defen ded by a very wide a n d

deep ditch . I n the a u tumn of the yea r 250 two con su ls, fou r

legion s, a n d two hu n dred ships of w a r block a ded the pl a ce ,a n d a n ew s iege of Troy bega n . The Rom a n s a t first tried to

close the en try to the port by sinkin g fifteen vessels loa ded with

ston es there ; b u t the cu rren t swept them a l l a w a y. The p a ss a ge

rem a in ed Open,

a n d fifty vessels,bea rin g provision s a n d t en

thou s a n d soldiers to L ilyb a eu m ,were a ble t o p a ss throu gh it

u n der the very eyes Of the powerless Rom a n fleet . On the l a nd

s ide the Rom a n s in sever a l pl a ces filled u p the ditch a n d m in ed

the w a lls ; b u t when their b a tterin g-r a m s h a d m a de a bre a ch, they

fou n d them selves f a ced by a n other w a ll which H im ilco h a d r a ised.

Som e m ercen a ries plotted the su rren der of the town ; H im ilco.

discovered the con spira cy, a n d bu rn ed the engin es of the Rom a n s in

a sortie, thu s obligin g them to ch a nge the siege in to a block a de.

TH E FIRST PUN IC WA R FROM 2 64 TO 241. 573

When the n ew con su l, P . Cl a u diu s, son of Appiu s the cen sor,

ca m e t o t a ke the comm a n d, sickn ess h a d a lrea dy ca rried Off m a ny

Of the soldiers. The Ca rth a gin i a n fleet w a s st a tion ed in the n eigh

borin g port of Drepa n um . Cl a u diu s W ished to f a ll u pon it by

su rprise. The om en s were sin ister ; the s a cred chicken s refu sed to

e a t .“ We ll

,l et them drin k, then , sa id the con su l, a n d he h a d

R E MA I N S OF SE L I N US.

them thrown in to the sea . The a rm y wa s bea ten beforeh a n d by

this impiou s a ct,which Cl a u diu s cou ld n ot rep a i r by the cleverest

m a n oeu vres : 1 n in ety-three vessels t a ken or su n k , eight thou s a n d

m en killed , a n d twen ty thou s a n d prison ers, — su ch were the resu lts

of the b a ttle of Drepa n u m Ju n iu s Pu l lu s, the colle a gu e

of Cl a u diu s, h a d n o better fortu n e . H e w a s a t Syr a cu se with

eight hun d red m erch a n t vessels destin ed for the revictu a ll ing of

the ca m p a t L ilyb a eum . Ca rth a lo, who w a tched h is dep a rtu re

1 Polybiu s knows noth ing of th is story of the sa cred chicken s, b u t Cicero re l a te s it.

574 . TH E PUN IC WARS FR OM 2 64 To 201.

from th e coa st Of A grigen tum , first in tercepted severa l con voys,a n d then by a clever m a n oeu vre drove th e whole Of Ju n iu s

’

s fleet

in to the m idst Of th e reefs of Ca m a rin a , where fu riou s win ds broke

it u p, while he him sel f, ru n n in g before th e storm , wen t a n d shel

t ered his vessels behin d Ca pe P a chyn um . All th e tra n sports a n d

a hu n dred a n d five ga lleys h a d been destroyed . The occu p a tion of

the high hill n e a r Drepa n um ,on which stood th e fortified tem ple

of V enu s E rycin a , w a s n ot com pen sa tion for SO m a ny sa d losses.

The dis a ster of the yea r 249 , the sa ddest in a l l th e wa r for

Rom e, com pelled the Sen a te

a g a in t o ren ou n ce the idea of

fleets . Cl a u diu s w a s reca lled,

a n d obliged t o n a m e a dict a tor.

H e chose the son of a freed

m a n,n a m ed Cl a u diu s G l icia , his

cl ien t a n d clerk. The Sen a te

a n n u l led the in su ltin g choice,

a n d a sen ten ce p a ssed by the

people severely pu n ished this

bold con tem n er of things

hum a n a yd divin e . Ju n iu s,

a ccu sed,l ike h is colle a gu e , of

h a vin g despised the a u spices,M E T OPE O F T E MPLE A T SE L I N U S (N ow A T killed him self before h is con

PA L E R M O) .l

d em n a t ion ; Cl a u diu s h a d , per

h a ps , set him the exa m ple of a volu n t a ry dea th . Three yea rs

l a terwa rd s a n other sen tence stru ck th e h a u ghty ra ce . The sister

of Cl a u diu s,

fin ding herself on e d a y pressed by the crowd,cried ,

“ Wou ld it m ight plea se the gods tha t my brother shou ld still

comm a n d the a rm ies of the Repu blic . The a ediles pu n ished this

hom icida l wish with a fin e .

By a sin gu l a r f a ta l ity, a t the tim e when Rom e cou ld n o lon ger

fin d a ny b u t in ca p a ble lea ders, Ca rth a ge pl a ced a ble gen era ls a t

the hea d of her forces,— H im ilco

,the defen der of L ilyb a eum ;

H a nn iba l , who h a d so su ccessfu lly revictu a lled tha t pl a ce ; A dher

b a l , the con qu eror of Drepa n um ; Ca rth a lo, who , before destroyin g

1 [Th is very a rch a ic scu lpture is one of th e m ost rem a rk a ble rem a in s of n a scent Greek a rt ,a n d d a tes from th e 7th century B.C. I t represents H era c les ca rry ing off the KerkOpes.— E d .]

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576 . TH E PUN IC WARS FROM 264 TO 201.

of Ca m p a n i a .1 For six yea rs there were con tin u a l a n d bloody

fights. They were l ike two a thletes of equ a l stren gth wrestling

on a rock high a bove the w a ves ?

The a rm ies were b u t a few st a di a a p a rt ; they drew still n ea rer.

Amilc a r took the town Of E ryx by su rprise, a n d pl a ced h imself

between the two Rom a n ca m ps est a blished a t th e b a se a n d on

R E MA I N S OF T H E T OWN O F E R YX.3

the summ it of the mou n t a in . The w a r a dv a n ced n on e the qu icker ;

a n equ a l ten a city p a ra lyzed every effort. At l a st the soldiers,

we a ry of u seless conflicts, a n d ea ch side esteem in g equ a lly the

v a lor of the other,“ pl a ited

,

”s a ys Polybiu s,

4 “ th e s a cred crown ,

”

which w a s off ered to the gods when t he victory rem a in ed u n de

cided,a n d a bst a in ed by comm on a ccord from fightin g.

1 T he se cru ises obliged the Sen a te to fou n d severa l m a ritime colon ies a t A ls ium , F regell a e,

a n d B ru nd u sium .

2 Po lybiu s , i. 56 , 57.3 T a ken from M onum. d el l a Sicil ia of F r . Ca v a ll a ri, pa rte t a v. 26 . There is no more

mention of E ryx in R om a n hi story a fter its destruction by A m i lca r.4 Polybiu s, i. 58.

TH E FIRST PUN IC WAR FROM 264 TO 241. 577

Sin ce the comm en cem en t of hostil ities the Rom a n s h a d lost

m a ny m ore ga lleys tha n the Ca rth a gin ia n s. Bu t for Rom e,a con

t in en t a l power, vessels were b u t so m u ch wood a n d iron,which

were ea sily repl a ced ; wherea s for Ca rth a ge, a m a ritim e a n d com

m ercia l power, they were stren gth a n d richfi

ds . The on e then

wa s like a ship stru ck in a vita l p a rt ; the other like a fortress, Of

which on ly a few ba ttlem en ts h a d fa llen . This w a s pl a in ly seen

V I E W FR OM MOUN T E R Y x (MON T E SA N G I UL I A N O) .1

when ,in 241, the Sen a te decided u pon a fresh effort. I n order t o

a void expen ses which n o longer a ppea red n ecessa ry,a n d to p a ss

them over to their comm erci a l fleets, the m erch a n ts of Ca rth a ge

h a d di sa rm ed a l l the ir rem a in in g wa r vessels ; a n d lea vin g Am ilca r

a lon e to keep in check from his mou n t a in -top a l l the forces of

Rom e,they h a d resum ed their long voya ges

,their bu sin ess rel a

tion s with the whole world. They willin gly forgot tha t dev a st a ted

isl a n d , withou t in du stry or comm erce,when ce there ca m e on ly

1 T a ken from the B ib l iothequ e N'

a tz'

on a le. (See p. 575, n .

V O L . I . 3 7

578 . TH E PUN IC WARS FROM 264 To 201.

trou blou s sou n ds of w a rf a re a n d cea seless dem a n ds for m on ey.

The sea rem a in ed free, a n d a Rom a n fleet re a ppea red . I t h a d

been n ecess a ry t o m a ke a n a ppea l to the devotion of the citizen s

t o bu ild it . The trea su ry wa s em pty ; p a triotism ,th a t wea lth

which excels a l l ofher, replen ished it. The rich len t mon ey to

the st a te, or bu i lt vessels a t their own expen se . M a ny a rm ed

priva teers.1 Two hu n dred vessels were on ce m ore l a u n ched . L u

t a tiu s took the comma n d, a n d l ed them t o Drepa n um . I t wa s n ea r

the en d of win ter. The fleet, which for econ om i ca l re a son s the

Ca rth a gin i a n s reca lled du ring th a t sea son,h a d n ot yet retu rn ed,

G R E E K T OMB-B E L I E FS (N OW I N T H E MUSE UM OF PA LE R MO) .

SO th a t L u t a t iu s h a d n o difficu lty in m a king him sel f m a ster of the

port,a n d closely belea gu erin g the pl a ce . Ca rth a ge in a l l h a ste

sen t ships l a den with provision s, b u t with no soldiers,

a s the

a dm ira l w a s t o t a ke on boa rd Am ilca r’

s vetera n s . I n order t o

rea ch B rete he h a d t o p a ss before Drepa n um . L u t a t iu s ba rred the

w a y by pl a cing himself n e a r th e Aega tes. “ N ever w a s fou ght a

m ore fu riou s n a v a l b a ttle,

”sa ys Floru s . The Ca rth a gin i a n vessels

were overl a den with provision s, a rm s, a n d en gin es of a ll kin ds.

The Rom a n fleet,

on the other h a n d, brisk, a ctive, a n d l ight

,

resem bled a l a n d a rmy. I t w a s l ike a c a va lry a ction . Ou r ships

obeyed the oa r a s a horse does the bit, a n d with their mov a ble

1 Zon a r., v ii i. 16.

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580 TH E PUN IC WAR S FROM 2 64 TO 201.

mu ch blood how m a ny tea rs, a n d wha t ru in were n ecess a ry to

erect the edifice of Rom a n grea tn ess,h e wou ld dou btless h a ve

replied : “ Before Rome a s m u ch blood h a d flowed ; withou t h er,more wou ld h a ve flowed.” In deed, a fter her fin a l victory

, she

a llowed n on e to b e shed for cen tu ries .

1 This A frica n e leph a nt differs from the A s i a tic one in he ight, which is less, a nd his e a rs,wh ich a re l a rger, be ing a s mu ch a s 4 feet 5 inches in length, a nd 4 feet in bre a dth. L iv ingstone sa w a negro she lter him se lf from the ra in bene a th this stra nge cover. The a n cientengra ver h a s fa ithf t reprodu ced this ch a ra cteristic fea ture.

E L E PH A N T s (A FR I CA N ).1

CHAPTE R XXI .

CONQUESTS OP R OME AND CAR THAGE BETWE EN THE TWO PUNICWAR S (240

I . E xPE DI T I ON s OUTSIDE OF ITA LY AND I N TO GA LLIA CI SA LPI N A .

OME h a d ju st displa yed a n a dmira ble con st a n cy ; b u t it seem ed

a s thou gh , a fter su ch lon g efforts,she mu st b e exh a u sted .

The popu l a tion h a d , in the sp a ce of five yea rs,f a l len from

fightin g m en to Seven hu n dred w a r-ships h a d been

destroyed, with a n imm en se n u m ber of ships of bu rden ;2the

tre a su ry wa s loa ded with debts t o priva te

person s who h a d a dv a n ced m on ey ; a n d,

in order t o fu rn ish m ea n s for so bu rden

som e a w a r, th e Sen a te h a d been obliged

to h a ve recou rse t o the d a n gerou s ex

pedien t of deb a sin g the cu rren cy. The

weight of the a s h a d been su ccessively redu ced from 12 ou n ces to

6,4,3,a n d 2 a n d a s the sta te, on a ccoun t of it s a rm a men ts

,wa s

the un iversa l debtor, this deprecia tion of the coin a ge ga ve i t a

profit of five Sixths of it s debts, or m ore th a n 80 per cen t ., — a n

Oper a tion which, a s f a r a s it s creditors were con cern ed , wa s

equiva len t t o a n a ctu a l b a n kru ptcy.4 There wa s the s a me dim inu

1 L i vy, E p it. xv iii. a nd x ix . The l a tter figure — is th a t of the yea r 24 7. The

loss of th e R om a n s during this wa r h a s been set down a t men.

2 Polybiu s,i. 6 3 .

8 On th e obverse , he a d of R om e or Pa ll a s ; behi n d, th e m a rk xvi . On the reverse ,C.T I T IN I, a nd in the exergue, R OMA ; Victory in a . biga . Sil ver den a riu s of the T itini a n

fa mil y.4 1t qu inqu ep a rtes lu cri f a cta e d issol u l umqu e a es a l ien a m . (Pl iny, xxxi ii. 13 .)

S I LV E R DE N A R I US OF 16 A SE s.3

582 TH E PUN IC WAR S FROM 264 TO 201.

tion of we ight in th e silver coin a ge . I n 269 , forty den a rii wen t

to th e pou n d ; in 244,seven ty-five ; in 241, e ighty-fou r thou gh

the den a riu s a lw a ys represen ted t en a ses .1

Bu t the strength of Rom e didi

n ot con sist in it s wea lth ; a s

for th e popu l a ce , the fou n da tion of sever a l colon ies,a very libera l

distribu tion Of l a n d, a n d the form a tion ,in 241

, of two n ew tribes,

V elma a n d Qu irin a , recon stitu ted the cl a ss of sm a ll proprietors,

which the wa r h a d decim a ted ? Accordin gly, Rom e soon fou n d

herself rea dy for fresh w a rs .

The First Pu n ic Wa r h a d cost Ca rth a ge Sicily a n d the em pire

Of the sea ; this wa s t oo grea t a sh a m e a n d loss to b e en du red ;

E TN A ,FR OM T A OR M I N A .

the pe a ce which h a d ju st been sign ed w a s, in f a ct, n othing b u t

a tru ce . The Sen a te u n derstood this, a n d employed the twen ty

three yea rs Of it s du r a tion in fortifyin g the ir position in the

pen in su l a by occu pyin g a l l th e poin ts from which it cou ld b e

m en a ced, Sicily, Corsica , Sa rdin i a , Cisa lpin e Ga u l, a n d Illyri a .

They desired to m a ke I ta ly a fortress.

1 B u t the a s wa s then a t two ou nces . I n 2 16 it is no longer m ore th a n one ou nce ; in 89 ,

ha lf a n ou nce. Y et during the R epu blic, thou gh th e we ight w a s a ltered, the n a me wa s not , a nd

the co in s were a lm ost free from a l loy. M . d’

A rcet fou n d .983 to b e the m ea n v a lu e of the

sil ver coin a ge. Th e si lver den a riu s w a s origin a l ly worth 10 pou n ds of copper, d en a henceit s n a m e .

2 This distribution , the d a te of which is u ncerta in , b u t which mu st ha ve occu rred a t t he

end or in the l a st d a ys of the F irst Pu n ic W a r , wa s so gre a t th a t fifteen comm issioners weren eeded for the di vision . A mong them Plin y (vii. 45) n a m es L.M etel lu s, the conqu eror of

Pa norm u s.

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CON QUE STS OF ROME AND OF CARTHAG E . 585

Sicily, th e the a tre Of th e First Pu n ic Wa r,h a d seen h er town s

tu rn s t a ken a n d ret a ken ,often pill a ged, a n d their in h a bit a n ts

d . F or twen ty-three ye a rs she h a d exh a u sted h er fields t o su p

fleet s a n d a rm ies, which som etim es cou n ted m ore th a n two

red thou sa n d m en ; b u t this l a n d, so a dmira bly fertile,soon

red it s losses . The Sen a te h a sten ed t o decl a re it a Rom a n

-1 this w a s a n ew con dition . I t wa s n ot n eedf u l,in poin t

t o em ploy with th e Sicil ia n s the sa m e pol itica l c a u tion a s

Rom a n s h a d u sed with th e n a tion s of Ita ly. Now th a t the

cen tre of their em pire w a s protected by m u n icip a lities, colon ies , a n d

a l lies,there m u st b e ou tside n othin g b u t su bjects l i a ble to t a xa tion

a n d dru dgery ? L u t a t iu s disa rm ed a l l the in h a bit a n ts, a n d m a de

pa rt of it pu blic dom a in ; a n d two hu n dred town s on ly recovered

their territory on con dition of p a ying a tribu te, to b e fixed every

ye a r by th e Rom a n cen sors, a n d the tithe of a l l the produ cts of

the soil , — often ,in deed, the Sen a te ex a cted a dou ble tithe . L u t a t iu s

a lso wrote the f orm u l a , givin g the su bject cities a u n iform orga n iz a

tion ,in whi ch, followin g the exa m ple Of Rom e, a ristocra tic prin

cipl es predom in a ted . E a ch yea r a pra etor wa s sen t in to the n ew

provin ce with a bsolu te power, from which there w a s n o a ppe a l

till a fter it s execu tion . Tru e t o it s m a xim of n ever l a yin g a n

equ a l yoke on a l l , the Sen a te a ccorded privileges to cert a in chosen

town s,— which were few in n um ber, however, for Sicily wa s too

rich for Rom e t o deprive hersel f of the right Of despoilin g it a t

leisu re . Thu s Pa n orm u s, E gesta , Cen tu ripa , H a l a esa,a n d H a l icya e

were free, a n d exem pt from the tribu te , b u t bou n d to m ilita ry

service ; the little repu blic of T a u rom en ium a n d th a t of the

M a mertin es rem a in ed in depen den t, a s w a s the kin gdom of Syra cu se ;l a ter on , too, there were colon ies. Messin a owed th a t f a vor to

the p a rt it pla yed in the First Pu n ic Wa r ; Syr a cu se to the long

1 F estu s deri ves this word from provicit, for a n te vieil ; N iebuhr from proven tu s. I n the

form er ca se the word province wou ld ha ve rem inded men tha t the R om a n s cl a imed to exercisein the provinces a ll th e rights of con qu est ; in the second, th a t the provinces , n ot ha ving theright to possess a rm s

, wou l d serve the sovere ign sta te in a n exclu si ve ly fin a nci a l m a n ner. B u t

p rovincia m ore e speci a l ly denotes a n oflice which one h a s en ga ged u pon o a th to fu lfi l, a nd con

sequ ently th e obj ect of th a t office ; thu s it me a n s the duty of holdin g e lection s (L i vy, xxx v.20 ) to m a n a ge the w a ter supply (Cic., in V a t. The form a l orga n iz a tion of the provinceof Sicil y did n ot ta ke pl a ce till 2 27 B.C.

2 L i vy, xxx i. 3 1 civita tes stip end ia ria s a c vectig a les. We will return t o the su bject of thecondition of these provinces l a ter on.

TH E PUN IC WARS FROM 264 TO 201.

fidelity Of Hiero . A s for T a u rom en ium,bu i lt on a m ou n ta in 900

feet a bove the se a, a n d defen ded by a cita del bu il t 492 feet

higher, on a n a lm ost in a ccessible rock,it h a d doubtless displ a yed

in those tim es the sen tim en ts which it m a n ifested in l a ter d a ys toMa rcellu s, a n d which ga in ed it the title Of civit a s f oed er a t a .

A s h a d been don e for the gre a ter pa rt Of the It a li a n s, so hereit w a s forbidden t o the inh a bita n ts to a cqu ire a ny possession sbeyon d the territory of their cities . Then ce there c a m e a grea t

TH E A T R E OF T A OR M I N A .

f a ll in the price Of l a n d,

of which the Rom a n specu l a tors, who

cou ld b uy a nywhere,took a dv a n t a ge to m on opolize the best

est a tes. From d a y t o d a y the n u m ber of in digenou s proprietors

dim in ished , a n d Cicero cou ld sca rcely fin d a few in e a ch town .

With the sm a ll properties, the cl a ss of free hu sb a n dm en disa ppea red

from the whole isl a n d . Immen se fa rm s, cu ltiva ted for rich Rom a n

kn ights by a n in n u m er a ble mu ltitu de of Sl a ves ; h a rvests, b u t n o

m ore poets or a rtists, — su ch is hen ceforth the sta te of Sicily.

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CON QUE STS OF ROM E A ND OF CARTHAG E . 589

g becom e the gra n a ry of Rome, She s a ves the people a n d

from fa m in e more th a n on ce . Bu t from her bosom , too,

issu e the Servile w a rs, the cru el expi a tion of im pol itic

m ea su res. I t is a l a w of hum a n ity,— evil breeds evil . We h a ve

seen it in ou r own d a ys in I rel a n d,which h a s long been , from a n a lo

gou s ca u ses, a thorn in E ngla n d’

s side.

Sa rdin i a a n d Corsica were a cqu ir ed a t the cost of a piece of

tre a chery. At the n ews tha t the m ercen a ries of Ca rtha ge, who h a d

been l ed b a ck from Sicily in to Afric a , h a d revolted ,1 those left in

Sa rdin i a h a d m a ss a cred the ir lea ders a n d a l l the Ca rth a gin i a n s

in the isl a n d ; a risin g of th e inh a bit a n ts a ga in st thi s soldiery

1 See p. 60 4 .

590 TH E PUN IC WARS FROM 264 To 201.

obliged it to pu t itself u n der the protection of Rom e . The Sen a te,which h a d su pported the soldiers in Afric a in their revolt by

a llowing provision s to b e t a ken t o them from a ll the ports of

I ta ly,1 d id n ot hesita te to t a ke a dv a n ta ge of the emb a rra ssm en t of

their r iv a l t o decl a re th a t a s the ru le of Ca rth a ge h a d cea sed in

the isl a n d , they cou ld, withou t a brea ch of tre a ty,t a ke possession

of Sa rdin i a . Then , on the report th a t Ca rth a ge w a s m a kin g som e

prepa ra tion s, they preten ded t o thin k t h a t It a ly wa s threa ten ed,a n d decl a red wa r . The ir wr a th w a s a ppe a sed by the Offer of

t a len ts a n d the a b a n donmen t of Sa rdin i a . I t wa s sti ll

n ecess a ry to con qu er the Sa rdin i a n s, whom their ol d m a sters pro

b a bly su pported in secret. The Sen a te em ployed eight yea rs over

it,a n d two con su ls ca me ba ck then ce t o trium ph . On e of these,

Pompon iu s M a tho, in order t o tra ck the isl a n ders to their remotest

retrea ts, h a d m a de u se of dogs tr a in ed to hu n t m en ,— a n expedien t

which the Sp a n ia rds ren ewed in the N ew World. Thi s con qu est

en ded,a s it h a d begu n , by h a tefu l m e a n s .

Corsica sh a red the f a te of the n eighboring isl a n d ; the .Sen a te

decl a red it a Rom a n provin ce . I n rea lity it preserved th a t liberty

which n o en em y d a red t o spo il, in the depths of its im pen e

t ra b l e coverts ? Too wild a n d too poor to fu rn ish tribu te in

whea t, l ike Sa rdin i a , Cors ica p a id it in th e hon ey of it'

s bees ; it

prom ised pou n ds of it .s The crea tion of these two pro

vin ces obliged the n um ber of pra etors to b e r a ised t o fou r ; two,

the p r a etor u rb a nu s a n d the p r a etor p eregrinu s , rem a in ed a t Rom e ;

the other two were a ppoin ted , on e t o govern Sicily, the other Sa r

din i a a n d Corsica (227 B .

Sicily, Sa rdin i a , a n d Corsic a bein g su bdu ed, the Tyrrhen i a n

Sea beca m e a Rom a n l a ke . On the other sea the co a st wa s

gu a rded from Rim in i t o Bru n d u sium by six colon ies.4 Bu t the

coa st of I llyri a , with its n um berless isl a n ds, h a s been inh a bited

in a l l a ges by d a n gerou s pira tes. At the time of which we

a re spea kin g th e Adri a tic wa s inf ested with them. N othin g

1 Polybiu s, i. 83 . They forb a de it when the m ercen a ries were on the point of

triumph in g.2 L i vy s a ys e ven of the Sa rdin i a n s in the time of A u gu stu s : gen te ne n u nc qu id em p a ca ta .

(xi .2 V a l .M a x., iii. 5 ; Pl iny, N a t.H ist. xv. 2 9.4 A rim in um , Sen a , H a dri a , Ca strum N ovum , F irm um , Bru nd u sium .

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592 TH E PUN IC WARS FROM 2 64 TO 201.

su ccess. I n order to give a grea t ide a of their power, they sen t

a ga in st these m isera ble en em ies two hu n dred vessels, twen ty

thou sa n d legion a ries, a n d the two con su ls They h a d n ot

don e so m u ch a g a in st Ca rth a ge a t first.

Corcyr a wa s given u p by a tra itor,

Dem etriu s ; the Il lyria n s were besieging

I ss a in the isl a n d of the s a m e n a m e

(Liss a ) : they were driven from it ; a n d

n ot on e of the pl a ces th a t a ttem pted

resista n ce cou ld hold ou t . Teu t a , in a ff right,yielded a l l th a t

R om e dem a n ded,— a tribu te, the cession of a p a rt of I llyri a , a

prom ise not to sen d m ore th a n two vessels to se a beyon d the

L issu s,a n d th e he a ds of her chief

cou n cillors, in order to a ppea se with

the sheddin g of th eir blood th e irri

t a t ed m a n es of th e you n g Coru n ca n iu s

The Greek town s su bdu ed by

the I llyri a n s, Corcyra a n d Apollon i a ,were restored to their in depen den ce.3

The con su ls h a sten ed t o m a ke this trea ty kn own to the

Greeks, rem in din g them tha t it wa s for the ir protection they h a d

crossed the sea . The depu ties showed themselves in every town

a m id the a ppla u se of the crowd. At Corin th they were a dm itted

to the I sthmi a n ga m es, a t Athen s th e citizen ship wa s bestowed on

them ,a n d they were in itia ted in to the m ysteries of E leu sis . Thu s

bega n the fi rst pol itic a l rel a tion s between Rome a n d Greece .

The Roma n s h a d given Dem etriu s the Isl a n d of Ph a ros a n d

some districts of I llyri a . Not con sidering himself su fficien tly

com OF A CA R N A N I A .l

com or I SSA .2

1 A KA PNA N Q N . H e a d of the R i ver A chel oiis, with two horn s , wh ich figure the

ra pidity of it s current, or ca l l to m in d th a t h e ch a n ged him self into a bu l l to fight H ercu les.The hero tore off one of h is horn s, whi ch beca me the horn of plenty, — a plea sing im a ge of the

works executed in order t o emba n k th e river a n d restore v a st tra cts t o a gricu lture ; bene a th ,a serpent, a nother symbol of the winding course pf the stre a m . On the reverse, the n a me of

a m a g ist r a te, M E N N E I A S , a ndbehind A pollo, who is se a ted on a rock a nd ho lds a b ow ; in

th e fie ld, a torch. Si l ver co in of the A c a rn a n i a n s.2 On the obverse , a wom a n ’

s he a d a n d th e n a m e of th e town . On the reverse, a sta r.Bron ze coin . Iss a wa s a n importa nt i sl a nd on th e Il lyri a n co a st. T he R om a n s, whom it

h a d fu rn ished with th e opportu n ity of a cqu iring a v a lu a ble province, exempted it from a l l

tribute (L ivy, xl v. a nd it s inh a bita nts a fterw a rd rece ived the j u s civita tis. (Plin y, N a t.

H ist. i i i.3 Polybiu s, n . 11 Z on a r a s, viii. 19. Cf. for this wa r, A ppi a n , I l lyr.7.

CON QUE STS or ROM E A ND or CARTHAG E . 593

recom pen sed , h e join ed the corsa irs, a n d l ed K ing Pin eu s in to revolt

with h im . The G a ll ic w a r , of which we sh a ll presen tly spe a k , w a s

en ded,a n d the Sen a te , free from a l l disqu ietu de in It a ly, w a s a ble

t o sen d a n other con su l in to I llyri a .

Dem etriu s took ref uge with the K in g

of M a cedon i a , whom he soon a fter

w a rd in du ced to t a ke a rm s a ga in st

the Rom a n s,a n d Pin cu s su bm itted to

th e con dition s of the form er trea ty

Rom e thu s possessed good

ports a n d a v a st provin ce on the Greek m a in l a n d, — a kind of

ou tpost , which protected I ta ly a n d threa ten ed M a cedon i a . The

Adri a tic w a s p a cified like the Tyrrhen i a n Se a , a n d the merch a n t

cit ies of I ta ly he a rtily u n ited them selves with the fortu n e of

a Governm en t which ga ve secu rity a n d im pu lse to their com

com or PH A R OS.1

merce .

2

From Sicily to the n orthern extrem i ties of Umbri a a n d E tru ri a

the Rom a n sw a y w a s a ccepted or en du red in silen ce . Beyon d the

Ru bicon a n d th e Apen n in es a l l rem a in ed free ; Cisa lpin e G a u l , n ot

withst a n din g the defe a t of the Boi i a t L a ke V a d im on in 283 ,

h a d n ot been su bju ga ted . The fertility of these pl a in s,which

m a ke Lom b a rdy a ga rden , a ston ished Polybiu s,even a fter he h a d

seen Sicily a n d Africa .“ Su ch a bu n d a n ce of gra in

,

”sa ys he

,

“ is

rea ped there when the l a n d is cul tiv a ted,th a t we h a ve seen a

mea su re of whe a t a t 4 obol i, a n d on e of b a rley a t h a lf tha t price.

A m e a su re of win e is exch a n ged for a n equ a l m e a su re of ba rley.

Millet grows there in a bu n d a n ce . N um erou s woods of oa k fu rn ish

su ch qu a n tities of m a st th a t the pl a in s of the Po produ ce a grea t

p a rt of the pork of which so mu ch is u sed in I ta ly, either for the

n ou rishm en t of the people or th e provision in g of the a rm ies . I n

short, on e ca n sa tisfy a l l the n eeds of life for so sm a ll a n expen d i

tu re, th a t tr a vellers who stop a t the hostel ries d o n ot offer a

sep a ra te price for ea ch thing provided, b u t pa y their reckon in g

1 L a ur e l-crown ed he a d of Ju piter. On the reverse , Q A PI Q N ; goa t sta nding before a

serpent. Bron ze co in of Pha ros.2 Th is commerce wa s m u ch more con si dera ble tha n is supposed , a nd R ome protected it

most energetica lly. The moti ve of the w a r decl a red a g a in st Ca rth a ge durin g the mercen a rywa r wa s the ca pture of a gre a t number of m ercha nt vesse ls belongin g t o Ita ly ; a nd th e

pir a cies of Tenta ’s su bjects on Ita l i a n commerce were th e first ca u se of the Dlyria n wa r.

V OL . I . 3 8

594 TH E PUN IC WARS F ROM 264 TO 201.

by the hea d ; a n d it often h a ppen s tha t they settle the wholebill with the fou rth p a rt of a n obolu s.” 1

I n this fru itfu l cou n try th e Ga ll ic r a ce h a d in cre a sed with

in credible fertility. Ca to cou n ted on e hu n dred a n d two Bo i a ntribes . Polybiu s

,who sa w them a lm ost a cen tu ry a fter the period

t o which ou r story h a s l ed u s,fou n d them in h a bit a n ts of u nw a lled

vill a ges, sleepin g on gr a ss or str a w ,withou t a ny

fu rn itu re , a n d e a tin g on ly m ea t . W a rf a re wa s the ir

prin cip a l occu p a tion , gold or c a ttle the on ly we a lth

which'

they esteem ed , beca u se they cou ld tr a n sport it

wherever their a dven tu rou s life l ed them .

In testin e w a rs, a risin g from the riv a lry of their

chiefs, the jea lou sy Of th e tribes, the h a tred of the

T a u rin i a ga in st the I n su b res,Of the Cen om a n i a ga in st

the Boi i, of the Ven eti a n s a ga in st them a l l,a n d the

lu cra tive service in the a rm ies of Ca rth a ge , which a ttra cted the

most restless of these a dven tu rers, h a d for forty-five yea rs sa ved

the pen in su l a from the d a n gers of a Ga llic in v a sion . The repose

which the pea ce of 241 h a d restored t o the world did n ot su it

these ca m pa ign ers. I n 2 3 8 two Boi a n chiefs, su pported by the

you th of the l a n d, were a n xiou s,in spite of the ol d m en

,to

dra g thei r n a tion in to a w a r a ga in st Rom e . They ca l l ed'

in some

tribes from the Alps a n d fell u pon Arim inum . Bu t the pea ce

p a rty ca rried the d a y ; the two chiefs were m u rdered,their

a u xi l i a ries driven a w a y, a n d c a lm res tored before the legion s cou ld

rea ch the fron tier.

At this time the expedition s to Sa rdin i a a n d I llyria h a d n ot

commen ced ; the Ga u ls a ppea red in timid a ted, a n d Ca rth a ge w a s

defe a ted ; the Sen a te closed the tem ple of Ja n u s, for the first

tim e sin ce Num a . Alm ost imm edi a tely trou bles broke ou t on a l l

sides, a n d Rom e a ga in beca m e th e city of M a rs .

The Ligu ria n s descen ded from their m ou n ta in s a n d pill a ged the

E tru sca n pl a in s ; to drive them b a ck a ga in requ ired six ye a rs a n d

the t a len ts of Fa biu s. This wa r wa s on ly tediou s ; th a t a ga in st the

CO I N OF T H E

13 0 11 ?

1 Polybiu s, n . 15,17. This picture is t o th is d a y pa rtly tru e. One ca n l i ve very

chea ply in the pl a in of the Po outside the grea t hote ls, a n d B ologn a sen ds its sa u sa ges a l l

over E u rope.2 On th e obverse , here represented a bove , a n u ncerta in object. On the reverse, 3 .ra in~

b ow a bove a boa t. G old co in of the B oii.

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596 TH E PUN IC WARS F ROM 264 TO 201.

for a lon g tim e com e to a n u n dersta n ding with the form er ; theothers h a d a lw a ys been hostile to the Cis a lpin e Ga u ls . Thisdiversion obliged the conf edera tes to lea ve a portion Of their

forces for the protection of the ir hom este a ds ; the rem a in der,

con sistin g of foot-soldiers a n d horsem en , or soldiersm ou n ted on wa r-ch a riots, set ou t for Rom e . The Cisa lpin es were

comm a n ded by Britom a r, the I n su b ria n ; the G a es a t es, a rm ed with

the g a is , a blu n t sword , sha rp on ly on on e edge,followed their

kin gs Concol it a n a n d A n eroestu s . All h a d sworn ,lea ders a n d

soldiers , n ot t o ta ke off thei r b a ldrics til l they h a d a scen ded the

Ca pitol .

Terror w a s a t it s height in th e town ; the Sibyllin e books

were con sul ted, a n d dem a n ded the sa crifice Of a G a ll ic m a n a n d

wom a n a n d a Greci a n m a n a n d wom a n . They were bu ried a l ive

in the m idst of the Forum Boa rium,a n d the ora cle which a n n ou n ced

th a t th e Ga u ls a n d Greeks shou ld t a ke possession of the Rom a n

soil wa s thou ght t o b e a ccom plished . Bu t a ccordin g t o the popu

l a r bel ief the se u n ha ppy beings m ight a fter their dea th becom e

form id a ble ; so in order t o a ppe a se their a nger,

a s a crifice w a s

in stitu ted,which w a s yea rly celebra ted “

on the G a ll ic gra ve.”

H a vin g thu s settled a ccou n ts with th e gods a n d thel m

‘

u rderedvictim s

,Rome set herself a bou t w a rdin g off the da n ger . Va in

terrors did n ot b a n ish m a n ly resolu tion s ; sh e tru sted to the gods,

b u t especia lly to hersel f ; a n d this wa s wh a t m a de her so grea t, in

spite of her su perstitiou s spirit .

The Sen a te decl a red tha t there wa s a tum u l tu s, a n d every m a n

fit t o c a rry a sword took a rm s,even su ch of the priests a s the l a w

dispen sed from service ; soldiers were dra wn u p before

Rome,a n d fu rn ished by the a llies

,were held in reserve .

The Sa m n ites h a d prom ised foot a n d horse ; the

L a tin s,

foot a n d horse ; the I a pyges a n d Mess a pi a n s,foot a n d horse ; the L u ca n ia n s, foot a n d

horse ; the M a rsic con federa tion ,foot a n d horse .

The Rom a n s a n d Ca m p a n i a n s a lon e cou ld fu rn ish m en .

Thu s the whole of It a ly rose to defen d Rome, a n d drive ba ck the

ba rb a ri a n s.

Two rou tes l ed from Upper Ita ly in to the V a lley of the T iber.

I n order to close them ,on e of the con su ls sta tion ed him self on

CON QUE STS OF ROM E A ND OF CARTHAG E . 597

st of the Apen n in es before Arim inum ; a pra etor est a blished

f on the west,n e a r F a esu l a e, with E tru sca n s a n d

s,a n d the other con su l a r a rmy w a s reca lled in h a ste from

ia,w ith orders to l a n d a t Pis a , a n d gu a rd the p a sse s of the

in es in Ligu ria , if it w a s n ot too l a te .

prep a ra tion s a lm ost tu rn ed ou t u seless .

So m a ny prec a u tion s

The G a u ls, cross ing

Apen n in es a t a pl a ce where the legion s did n ot expect them ,

behin d them the pra etori a n

y which gu a rded th e m ou n

pa ssa ge on the Um bri a n

a n d a rrived within three

m a rch of Rom e . The

pr a etor h a d followed them ;

they tu rn ed u pon h im, kil led

six thou sa n d of hi s m en ,a n d

hemm ed in th e rem a in s of his

legion u pon a hill. Fortu n a telythe con su l A em il iu s a rrived

du rin g the n ight, h a vin g h a s

ten ed from Arim in u m a t the

n ews of this bold m a rch . The

G a u ls,being em b a rr a ssed with

imm en se plu n der a n d m a ny

c a ptives, were desirou s of

pl a cin g their a cqu isition s in

s a fety a t hom e,then to retu rn

a n d en g a ge in b a ttle . ThisE T R USCA N WA R R I O R .

1

resolu tion w a s their ru in . They were m a rchin g a lon g the co a st,

followed by A em il iu s, in order to rea ch Ligu ri a , when the con su l

A t il iu s, h a ving l a n ded a t Pis a with h is legion s, fe ll u pon thei r

v a n gu a rd n e a r Ca pe Tel a m on (n e a r the m ou th of the Om b ron e).

The G a u ls were ca u ght between three a rm ies. They st a tion ed

the ir ch a riots on the fl a n ks t o protect them ,their booty a n d

ca ptives they pl a ced on a hill in their m idst ; a n d whilst the

G a esa t es a n d I n su b res fa ced A em il iu s in the rea r,the Boii a n d T a n

risei resisted the con su l A t il iu s in the fron t . “ I t wa s a stra nge

1 F rom a h a s-re lief fou nd a t F a esu l a c. M ica h , 1. i i. fi e . 3 .p o

598 TH E PUN IC WARS FROM 264 TO 201.

sight ; inn um era ble trum pets a n d the w a r-cries of the b a rba ria n sfill ed the a ir with fea rfu l n oises, which the hills re-echoed

, a n d

the grea t n a ked figu res were seen violen tly bra n dishing their a rm s.

Bu t if their shou ts ca u sed terror, the golden coll a rs a n d bra celetswhich lo a ded their a rms a n d n ecks ga ve hope of a rich booty.

”

The con su l A t il iu s wa s killed in a ca v a lry skirm ish which preceded

the gen era l a ction . The l a tter wa s comm en ced by the a rchers of

the legion s, who showered u pon the en emy’

s l in e a h a il of a rrows,n ot -on e of which wa s lost, for the G a es a t es, who, with osten ta tiou scou ra ge , a n d in order to b e more free in t heir m ovem en ts

,h a d

stripped Off their clothing down to their be lts,cou ld n ot shelter

them selves u n der the ir sm a ll shields. After the a rchers the in fa n

try,cla d in exce llen t a rm or, c a me on a t r a cing speed

,a n d fel l t o the

a tta ck with their short stron g swords wel l sh a rpen ed on ea ch edge

a n d a t the poin t. The Ga u ls, whose s a bres ben t a t every blow,

for some tim e resisted by their m a ss a n d their in dom ita ble cou ra ge.“ I f they h a d h a d th e wea pon s of the Rom a n s, they wou ld h a ve

ga in ed the victory. A n d Polybiu s,in so s a ying, expressed the

opin ion of the oldest histori a n of Rom e, Fa biu s Pictor, who h a dbeen presen t a t th e b a ttle 1 when the Rom a n c a va lry

,brea king

throu gh the l in e of ch a riots, ch a rged them on the fla n k, a n d a

frightfu l con fu sion broke ou t in th e b a rb a ri a n a rmy,thu s pressed

from before , behin d , a n d on the side . Forty thou sa n d b a rb a ri a n swere left on the b a ttle-fi el d : t en thou sa n d were m a de prison ers .

On e of the Ga llic bren n s, Concol it a n , wa s t a ken ; a n other, A n e

roestu s, slew with his own h a n d those of his devoted ba n d who

h a d su rvived the com b a t , a n d sta bbed him self The fa te

of Britom a r is n ot kn own . The c a ptives kept their oa th ; they

a scen ded t o the Ca pitol wea rin g the ir ba ldrics, b u t precedin g the

trium ph a l ca r of Aem il iu s. Midwa y they l a id them a side to en ter

the Tu l l ia n um,when ce n on e c a me ou t a l ive.

Rome h a d been frighten ed. The Sen a te decided to free I t a ly

from su ch fea rs ; a n d in the following yea r sen t the two con su ls

in to Cisa lpin e G a u l to begin the conqu est of i t. The Ga u ls on the

sou th of the Po,en feebled by the grea t disa ster of Tel a mon

,ga ve

hosta ges, a nd del ivered u p three of their strongholds to the Rom a n s,

1 Q u i ci bel lo in terf a it. (E ntrop., i i i.

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600 TH E PUN IC WAR S F ROM 264 TO 201.

cou ld on ly esca pe condem n a tion by a victory. H e im pressed then ecessity of it u pon his soldiers, postin g them in fron t of a deep

river, a n d brea kin g down t he bridges behin d them . The swordsof th e b a rb a ri a n s, b a dly tem pered a n d poin tless

,grew blu n t a n d

ben t ea sily. After the first blow the soldiers were obliged to

press them a ga in st the grou n d a n d stra ighten them with their

feet. H a vin g observed this a t the b a ttle Of Ca pe Tel a m on, the

tribu n es distribu ted the pikes of the tria r ii a m on g the m en of

the first r a n k, with orders n ot t o a tta ck with th e sword till

they sa w th a t the s a bres of the Ga u ls h a d been ben t by strikin g

on the i ron of the pike . The I n su b res lost eight thou s a n d de a d,

a n d t en thou sa n d prison ers (22 3 B .

They a sked for pe a ce ; a n d, on the

refu sa l of the Sen a te, h a stily c a lled

in from th e Tra n sa lpin e region s

thirty thou sa n d G a esa t es,comm a nded

by K ing V ird um a r, who c a m e a n d

prou dly l a id siege t o the strong

hold of Cl a st id ium,on the sou th

of the Po, which, in the ha n ds of

Rom e,h a d becom e on e of the

TOMB OF T H E G E N S F UR !“fetters of Cisa lpin e Ga ul. The

Rom a n con su l,M a rcellu s

,he who

som e yea rs l a ter won , a g a in st H a nn ib a l, th e su rn a m e of the Sword

of R om e, h a sten ed to relieve i t. A s he w a s dra win g u p his l in e

of ba ttle,h is horse , frighten ed by the con fu sed cries of the

ba rba ri a n s, su dden ly tu rn ed a n d ca rried him ,in spite of him self,

to th e rea r. With su ch su perstitiou s soldiers a s th e Rom a n s were ,this n a tu r a l in ciden t m ight b e t a ken for a presa ge of defe a t

,a n d

m ight lea d to it . Ma rcellu s, on the con tr a ry, tu rn ed it to a d

v a n t a ge . H e preten ded to b e a n xiou s t o a ccom plish a rel igiou s

a ct,m a de his horse complete the circle, a n d when h e h a d retu rn ed

in fron t of the en emy,worshipped the su n . After th a t they cou ld

fight ; it wa s on ly on e of the ordin a ry cerem on ies of the a dora

tion of the gods. When the K in g of the G a esa tes perceived

Ma rcellu s,ju dgin g by the splen dor of h is a rm s th a t he mu st b e

1 T he F urn a ppea r to ha ve been origin a lly from T u scu lum , where the rem a in s of a tombof tha t fa m ily a re seen .

CON QUE STS OF ROM E A ND OF CARTHAG E . 601

chief, he spu rred h is horse ou t of the r a nks,a n d ch a l len ged

to sin gle com b a t between the two a rm ies .

con su l h a d j u st vowed t o Ju piter F eret riu s the m ost

a rm s th a t shou ld b e t a ken from the en emy. At th e

this Ga u l, whose a rm or wa s resplen den t with the bl a ze

il ver, a n d pu rple, M a rcellu s h a d n o dou bt th a t these were

ised spoils, a n d th a t the gods h a d sen t the ba rb a ri a n to

en ea th his blows. He ru shed stra ight a t h im a t the fu l l

of his horse, a n d stru ck him w i th his l a n ce right on the

with su ch force tha t the cu ira ss w a s pierced , a n d V ird um a r

Before he cou ld rise , Ma rcellu s de a lt him a n other blow ; then

0 th e grou n d, tore off h is a rm s, a n d , r a ising them tow a rds

cried : “ Ju piter, rece ive the spoils which I o ffer thee,a n d

deign to gr a n t u s like fortu n e in the cou rse of this w a r . The

Rom a n s, excited by the exploit of the ir lea der,fell impetu ou sly

on the en em y . After a bloody a ffra y th e G a esa t es took to flight .

Desp a ir se i zed the I n su b res. They yie lded them selves t o the d is

cretion of the Sen a te, who m a de them pa y a hea vy in dem n ity , a n d

con fisc a ted a p a rt of their territory, in order to est a blish colon ies

there

A l l th a t w a s m ost m a gn ificen t in the a rra ngem en ts of the

Rom a n festiv a ls w a s em ployed to celebra te the victory of M a rcellu s,— the third who h a d trium phed with the sp ol i a Op im a . Th e streets

throu gh which th e procession 1wa s t o p a ss were strew n with flowers

,

a n d in cen se sm oked everywhere . A n u m erou s b a n d Of m u sici a n s

led the m a rch ; then ca m e the oxen for sa crifice,with their horn s

gilded, a n d , a fter a lon g string of ch a riots , bea rin g the a rm s t a ken

from the en emy,the G a ll ic c a ptives

,whose high sta tu re a n d m a r

ti a l bea rin g stru ck every eye . A clow n,dressed a s a wom a n , a n d

a troop of s a tyrs,in su lted their grief by joyfu l songs . Fin a lly

,

a m id the smoke of perfu m es, there a ppea red the trium pher,cl a d in

a pu rple robe embroidered with gold,h is hea d crown ed with l a u rels

a n d hi s fa ce p a in ted with verm il ion like the sta tu es of the gods ;on his shou l der he bore the helm et

,cu ira ss

,a n d tu n ic of V ird um a r,

1 The procession wa s formed on the F ie ld of M a rs,a nd crossed the F l a m in ia n Circu s, the

Triumpha l G a te, where the sen a tors a nd m a gistra tes a w a ited it , then the Circu s M a x im u s, a n d

by the v a ll ey which sep a ra ted the Ca e l i a n from the Pa l a tine re a ched the V i a Sa cra , a nd

a rri ved a t the Ca pitol by the cl ivus V ictoria e. See the pl a n of R ome .

602 TH E PUN IC WAR S FROM 264 TO 201.

a rra n ged rou n d the tru n k of a n oa k . At the sight of this gloriou strophy the crowd m a de the a ir resou n d with the cry of Triumph !

triumph ! in terru pted only by the w a rrior hym n s of the soldiers.“ A s the trium ph a l ca r bega n t o tu rn from the Forum towa rds

the Ca pitol,M a rcellu s m a de a sign , a n d th e flower of the Ga llic

ca ptives were l ed to a prison , where the execu tion ers were w a iting,

a n d a xes prep a red ; then the procession wen t, a ccordin g t o custom,

t o w a it on the Ca pitol in the tem ple of Ju piter til l a lictor shou ld

bring the n ews th a t the b a rba ri a n s were despa tched . Then

M a rcellu s in ton ed the hym n of pra ise , a n d the sa crifice w a s over.

Before lea ving the Ca pitol the trium pher with h is own ha nds

pla n ted his trophy in the precin cts of the tem ple. The rest of

the d a y p a ssed in rejoicin gs a n d festivities, a n d on the m orrow

perh a ps som e ora tor of the Sen a te or people a ga in bega n the

cu stom a ry decl a m a tion s a ga in st th a t Ga l lic ra ce which mu st b e

exterm in a ted, beca u se it bu tchered it sprison ers a n d o ffered the blood of m en

t o it s gods .” 1

M a rcellu s h a d promised on his vic

tory to r a ise a tem ple to Honor a n dM A R C

fSIfIU

T

S

E

OF Cou ra ge . The pon tiffs refu sed,

t o u n ite

the two deities in the sa m e s a n ctu

a ry.“ Shou ld the lightn ing f a ll there

,

”sa id they

,

“or shou ld

som e prodigy b e m a n if ested , it wou ld b e d ifli cu l t t o m a ke the

expi a tion s, bec a u se it wou ld n ot b e kn own to which god to off er

the s a crifice, a n d th e rites d o n ot perm it t o imm ol a te th e sa me

victim to two deities . M a rcellu s dedic a ted th e tem ple to

Hon or, a n d bu i lt a n other to Cou ra ge, which h is son dedic a ted

seven teen yea rs l a ter.3

The defea t of the I n su b res a dv a n ced th e con qu est of Cis

a lpin e Ga u l . I n order t o con solida te the ir power there, the Sen a te,in 2 18

,sen t two colon ies

,e a ch of six thou sa n d Rom a n fa m il ies,

t o Crem on a a n d Pla cen ti a ; they were to gu a rd the lin e of the

Po,a lrea dy defen ded by T a n n etum

,Cl a st id ium

,a n d Moden a . The

1 A m e’ dee Thierry, H ist. d es G a u lois, i . 257.

8 M A R CE LLIN V S. H ea d of M a rce l lu s. Behin d, the tr iqu etra (see p. 110 , noteO n the reverse , M A R CE L L V S COS. Q V I N Q . (con su l for the fifth time) ; M a rce llu s be a ringa trophy to the temple Of Jupiter F ere triu s. Sil ver den a riu s of the Cl a u di a n f a m i ly.

8 L i vy , xxvii. 25, a nd xx ix. 11.

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CON'QUE STS OF ROM E AND OF CARTHAG E . 60 3

mil it a ry ro a d comm en ced by the cen sor Fl a m in iu s , le a ding a cross

th e Apen n ines from Rom e a s f a r a s th e m iddle of the cou n try of

the Sen on es, w a s con tin u ed in order to con n ect these

a dv a n ced posts with the grea t pl a ce of A rim in um .

l

Thu s th e Rom a n sw a y drew n e a r the Alps, th a t

bu lw a rk r a ised by a divin e h a n d,”

sa ys Cicero ,“ for

the defen ce of It a ly, — a n d the plou gh w a s a bou t

to fin ish the work Of the sword in Cis a lpin e G a u l, H

gfgfugfjl)

when the a rriv a l of H a n n ib a l pu t a stop t o everything.

I n 221 the Rom a n s h a d a lso occu pied Istri a ; there they were

m a sters of on e of the ga tes of Ita ly, a n d they est a blished them

selves on th e n orth of M a cedon i a , which they

a lrea dy m en a ced on the side of Illyri a .

Sin ce the defea t of Pyrrhu s they h a d

m a in t a in ed frien dly rel a tion s with the kin gs

of E gypt. The l a tter n a tu ra lly drew n e a r

a people who m ight som e d a y becom e a

form id a ble a dversa ry to the en em ies th a t the

Ptolem ies h a d in Greece . After the First m om my m , s um m u m?»

Pu n ic Wa r E u ergetes ren ewed the a lli a n ce

th a t h is f a ther h a d con clu ded with Rom e . The Sen a te offered h im

troops a s a u xili a ries a ga in st An tiochu s of Syri a .4 H e refu sed them ,

b u t rema in ed f a ithfu l t o his frien dship with the Rom a n s .

I I . CA R TH A G E : WA R OF T H E ME R CE NA R I E S ; CON QUE STOF SPA I N .

DUR I N G these twen ty-three yea rs so well em ployed by Rom e,

Ca rth a ge h a d a lso exten ded her em pire ; b u t on ly a fter h a vin g

p a ssed throu gh a crisis which n ea rly destroyed her, a n d which ga ve

h er con stitu tion a l a stin g shock.

I Stra bo (v. 217) a ttributes to A em iliu s, who wa s con su l in 187, the A em ili a n W a y,

wh ich led from A rim inum to Bonon i a a n d A q u ile i a , go in g rou n d th e m a rshes, a nd foll owingthe foot of the A lps.

2 H O. V I R . L a ure l-crowned he a d Of H onor, with the helmeted he a d of V irtu e (V a lor)bene a th, the word K A L E N I , the surn a m e of the T ru fi a n fa m i ly, who h a d thi s silver co instru ck.

11 B u st of Pto lemy E u ergetes , with a sceptre a nd the a egis. F rom a gold tetra dra chm a .4 Zon a r., v ii i. 6 ; E ntrop., ii i. 1.

604 » TH E PUN IC WAR S FR OM 264 TO 201.

When Amilc a r sign ed the pea ce with L u t a t iu s,there were

in Sicily twen ty thou sa n d m ercen a ries, who h a d long been p a id

with n othin g b u t words . When th e w a r w a s en ded they cl a im ed

the execu tion of these promises a n d their pa y. G isco,the govern or

of L ilyb a eu m ,sen t them ba ck t o Ca rth a ge by det a chm en ts, in order

to give the Sen a te tim e t o s a tisfy or disperse them. Bu t the

tre a su ry wa s em pty. All were a llowed to a rrive , a n d when they

were a ssem bled the'

d istress of the Repu blic w a s pictu red t o them,

a n d a n a ppe a l wa s m a de to their disin terestedn ess ; yet gold a n d

silver shon e on a l l sides in this Opu len t m etropol is of Afric a . The

m ercen a ries beg a n to pa y them selves with their own h a n ds . The

Sen a te fea red a pill a ge ; they ordered the Officers t o lea d the a rmy

to Sicca , givin g ea ch soldier a piece of gold for the m ost pressing

n eeds . The Ca rth a gin i a n s m ight h a ve deta in ed their wom en a n d

children a s hosta ges ; b u t they sen t them a w a y, tha t these foreign ers

m ight n ot b e tem pted t o com e b a ck in sea rch of them . Then,

closin g their ga tes,they be l ieved themselves t o b e sheltered from

a l l a n ger behin d their high w a lls.

The m ercen a ries, sa ys Polybiu s, whose a ccou n t we a re a bridging,m et a t Sicca . F or su ch troops idlen ess is a n evil cou n sellor. They

bega n to reckon a n d to exa gger a te wh a t w a s owin g t o them,a n d

wh a t h a d been prom ised them in hou rs of d a nger ; a nd in those

greedy sou ls there spr a n g u p v a st desires .

H a n n o wa s sen t to them ; who, in stea d of bringin g gold,a sked

for sa crifices,spea kin g hum bly of the destitu tion of the Repu blic.

Citizen s might h a ve u n derstood this l a n gu a ge. The m ercen a ries

grew irrit a ted , a n d sedition broke ou t . First the m en of e a ch n a tion

g a thered together, then a l l the n a tion s u n ited . They cou ld not

u nderst a n d ea ch other, b u t they a l l a greed in hu rling a thou sa n d

im preca tion s . H a nn o essa yed to spea k t o the soldiers throu gh their

lea ders ; the lea ders repe a ted qu ite differen t thin gs from wha t w a s

s a id t o them , a n d the a n ger of the crowd in cre a sed . “ Why, too ,”

a sked the m ercen a ries, “ h a d there been sen t them, in stea d of the

gen er a ls who h a d seen them a t work, a n d who kn ew wha t wa s

d u e to them,H a nn o

,who kn ew n othin g a bou t them ?

”They

stru ck their ca mp, m a rched u pon Ca rth a ge, a n d stopped a t a

hu n dred a n d twen ty sta dia from the town , a t the pl a ce ca lled

Tu n is.

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606 TH E PUN IC WARS FROM 264 TO 201.

G isco pu t off till a n other time the p a ym en t for provision s a n d

horses, the Libya n s a ssem bled tum u ltu ou sly. They wou ld hea r

on ly Spen d iu s a nd M a tho ; if a ny other or a tor a ttem pted to spea k,

he w a s imm edi a tely ston ed . A sin gle word w a s u nderstood by

a l l these ba rb a ri a n s : Strike ! A s soon a s a ny on e sa id Strike !they a l l stru ck, a n d so qu ickly, tha t it w a s im possible to esca pe.

M a ny soldiers, a n d even le a ders , thu s perished ; a n d a t length

Spen d iu s a n d M a tho were chosen gen era ls .

G isco kn ew th a t if on ce these ferociou s bea sts were l et loose,Ca rth a ge wou ld b e lost. At th e peril of h is lif e he rem a in ed in

the ca m p , tryin g to brin g b a ck the lea ders to rea son . Bu t on e

d a y,when the Africa n s , who h a d n ot rece ived their pa y, in solen tly

dem a n ded it, h e told them t o a ddress them selves to M a tho . At

these words they fell u pon the m on ey, seized G isco a n d h is com

p a n ion s, a n d loa ded them with ch a in s .

Ca rth a ge w a s in terror. All bru ised a n d bleedin g yet from

her defea ts in Sicily, she h a d hoped, when pea ce w a s on ce m a de

w ith Rom e , for a l ittle rest a n d sa fety, a n d here wa s a w a r

brea kin g ou t m ore terrible th a n ever ; for it wa s n o lon ger a

qu estion of Sicily, b u t of the sa fety a n d even the existen ce of the

cou n try. She h a d n ei ther a rm y n or fleet ; her gra n a ries were

em pty , her trea su ry exh a u sted , h er a llies in d ifi eren t or hostile.

H er sw a y over the n a tion s of Africa h a d been cru el. I n the l a st

wa r she h a d exa cted from the in h a bita n ts of the cou n try h a lf

the ir in com es,a n d dou bled the t a xes in the town s ; L ept is Pa rva

owed her a t a len t a d a y. The poorest cou ld hope for n e ither gra ce

n or m ercy from the Ca rtha gin i a n govern ors ; for to b e popu l a r a t

Ca rth a ge it w a s n ecess a ry t o b e pitiless towa rds her su bjects,a n d

extra ct l a rge sum s of m on ey from them .

Accordin gly, a s soon a s M a tho h a d stirred u p th e town s of

Af rica to revolt, the very wom en, who h a d so often seen thei r

hu sba n ds a n d kin dred dra gged t o prison for the p a ym en t of the

t a x ,swore a m on g themse lves to hide n on e Of their effects ; they

ga ve a l l they h a d in the w a y Of fu rn itu re a n d orn a men ts,a n d

m on ey a bou n ded in the ca m p of the mercen a ries . Their troops

were a u gm en ted by n um erou s a u xili a ries, the a rmy rose to seven ty

thou sa n d m en,with whom they l a id siege t o Utica a n d Hippo,

the on ly two town s which h a d n ot responded t o the ir a ppea l.

CON QUE STS OF ROM E A ND OF CARTHAG E . 607

The Ca rtha gin ia n s a t first con fided the condu ct of the w a r

to H a n n o ; b u t he twice l et sl ip a n occa sion to destroy the en emy .

Am ilca r w a s pu t in h is pl a ce . 1Vi th t en thou s a n d m en a n d seven ty

five eleph a n ts he m a n a ged to m a ke the m ercen a ries r a ise the siege

of Utica , free the a pproa ches of Ca rth a ge,a n d ga in a secon d ba ttle

a g a in st Spen diu s. Then the N u m idi a n s wen t over to him,he fou n d

him sel f m a ster of the cou n try, a n d the m ercen a ries bega n t o l a ck

provision s. At the s a m e tim e he showed m u ch m i ldness with

rega rd to h is prison ers . The chiefs fea red defection s ; in order to

preven t them ,they a ssem bled the a rmy

,a n d brou ght forwa rd a

m a n who they preten ded h a d j u st a rrived from Sa rdin ia with

a letter, in which the ir frien ds in vited them to keep a close w a tch

u pon G isco a n d th e other prison ers, t o m istru st the secret pra ctices

goin g on in the c a m p in f a vor of the Ca rth a gin i a n s . Spen d iu s

then a ddressed them ,poin tin g ou t the perfld iou s m i ldn ess of Am i l

ca r, a n d the d a n ger of sen din g b a ck G isco . H e w a s still spea king,when a fresh messen ger, who s a id he h a d a rrived from Tu n is,brou ght a n other letter in simil a r terms to the first. A u t a ritu s

,

chief of th e Ga u ls , decl a red th a t there w a s n o sa fety except in a

ru ptu re beyon d rep a r a tion with the Ca rth a gin i a n s,tha t a l l those

who spoke otherwise were tra itors, a n d tha t in order to a void a l l

a greem en t it wa s n ecess a ry to sl a y G isco a n d the other prison ers.

This A u t a ritu s h a d the a dva n ta ge of spea kin g Phoen ici a n ,

a n d thu s m a kin g himself u n derstood by the gre a test n um ber ; for

the len gth of the wa r gra du a lly m a de Phoen ici a n the comm on

l a n gu a ge , a n d the soldiers gen er a lly sa lu ted in th a t l a n gu a ge :

After A u t a rit u s , m en of every n a tion spoke who h a d obliga tion s

towa rds G isco, a n d who dem a n ded th a t he shou ld b e a t lea st

sp a red tortu re ; a s they a l l spoke together,a n d ea ch in h is own

l a ngu a ge,n othin g they s a id cou ld b e u n derstood ; b u t a s soon a s

it wa s perce ived wh a t they wished to s a y, a n d som e on e cried,

K ill ! kill ! these u n h a ppy in tercessors were stru ck down with

ston es. Then G isco w a s t a ken with h is com p a n ion s , to th e n u m ber

of seven hu n dred ; they were l ed ou t of the ca m p,the ir ha n ds a n d

e a rs cu t Off, their legs broken ,

a n d th ey were thrown a l ive in to

a ditch . When Am ilca r sen t t o dem a n d a t lea st their corpses,

th e b a rb a ri a n s decl a red th a t the depu ties shou ld b e trea ted in the

sa me m a nn er, a n d procl a imed a s l a w th a t every Ca rth a gin i a n

6 08 TH E P UN IC WAR S FROM 264 TO 201.

prison er shou ld perish by tortu re , a n d th a t every a lly of Ca rth a ge

shou ld b e sen t b a ck with his h a n ds cu t off ; a n d this l a w wa s

rigorou sly Observed . Amilca r in reprisa l threw a l l his prison ers

before th e elepha n ts .

The a ffa irs of the Ca rth a gin i a n s were a ssum in g a f a vor a ble

a spect,when su dden reverses threw them b a ck in to their e a rlier

sta te . Sa rdin i a revolted ; a tem pest s a n k a grea t con voy of pro

vision s ; Hippo a n d Utica revolted a n d m u rdered their g a r

rison s ; a n d M a tho a lrea dy drea m t of lea din g his m ercen a ries to

the foot of the w a lls of Ca rth a ge . Bu t Hiero, whom the fin a l

victory of this b a rb a ria n a rm y wou ld h a ve m en a ced,a fforded a l l

the help th a t the Ca rtha gin ia n s dem a n ded ; even Rom e [n ow]showed herself f a vor a ble . The Sen a te restored wh a t rem a in ed of

th e prison ers ta ken in Sicily, a llowed It a l i a n m erch a n ts to bea r

them provision s,a n d refu sed the o ffer of the in h a bit a n ts of Utica

t o give them selves to the Rom a n s. A secon d tim e Am ilca r drove

the m ercen a ries from the n eighborhood of Ca rtha ge,a n d , with

his N u m idi a n c a v a l ry,forced them in to th e m ou n ta in s

,where he

su cceeded in en closin g on e of the ir two a rm ies in the d efi l es of

the A xe . There, u n a ble to fight or flee,they fou n d them selves

redu ced t o e a tin g on e a n other. The prison ers a n d sl a ves wen t

first ; when this resou rce f a iled, Spen d iu s, A u t a ritu s , a n d the other

lea ders, threa ten ed by the m u ltitu de , were obliged to a sk for a

s a fe-con du ct t o go in se a rch of Am il c a r. H e did n ot refu se it,

a n d m a de a n a greem en t with them tha t, with th e exception of t en

m en whom h e shou ld choose,he wou ld sen d a w a y the others

,

le a vin g ea ch of them a co a t . When the trea ty w a s con clu ded,Am ilca r sa id t o th e en voys : You a re a m ong the ten !

”a n d he

det a in ed them . The m ercen a ries, on le a rn in g the a rrest of their

lea ders, thou ght they were betra yed, a n d ru shed t o a rm s ; they

were so su rrou n ded,th a t of forty thou sa n d n ot on e esca ped .

Mea nwhile M a tho, who wa s besieged in Tu n is, offered a n en er

getic resist a n ce ; in a sortie he ca ptu red H a n n iba l, the collea gu e

of Am ilca r,

a n d bou n d him to the cross of Spen d iu s . Thirty

of the prin cip a l Ca rth a gini a n s perished in fea rfu l tortu res ; b u t ,

bein g dra wn in to the level coun try, he w a s overcom e in a grea t

b a ttle, l ed to Ca rtha ge , a n d given up to the people for the ir

sport.

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610 TH E PUN IC WAR S FROM'

264 TO 201.

a ccu sa tion s.1 The a rmy a n d the people were for him ; b u t , either

throu gh p a triotism ,or a con sciou sn ess of the stren gth which the

p a rty which in su lted him still reta in ed, or a desire t o in crea se h isren own a n d the influ en ce of h is p a rty by fresh victories, he a llowed

him sel f t o b e exiled with his victoriou s troops, a n d set ou t to

su bdu e for Ca rth a ge the coa sts of Afric a a n d Sp a in . This con qu est

wou ld, it w a s thou ght, b e a com pensa tion for the loss of Corsicaa n d Sa rdin i a .

2

Amil ca r spen t there n in e ye a rs,’

du ring which, sa ys Polyb iu s. he su bdu ed a gre a t n um ber of n a tion s by a rm s a n d by

trea ties, til l he perished in a b a ttle a ga in st the Lu sit a n i a n s,on the

b a n ks of the Gu a di a n a . The booty won in Sp a in h a d served to

b uy the people a n d a p a rt of the Sen a te .

3 The B a rcin e f a ction

in crea sed ; a n d a s it s prin cip a l su pport w a s in th e people, i t

f a vored th e en cro a chm en ts of the popu l a r a ssem bly, which by

degrees c a me to prepon dera te in the Governm en t .4 Accordin gly,

H a sdru b a l , the son -in -l a w of Am ilca r,a n d fa vorite of the people

a t Ca rtha ge, su cceeded to h is f a ther-in -l a w ’

s comm a n d,in spite of

the Sen a te .

5 H e con tin u ed h is con qu ests W ith a n a rmy of fi fty—six

thou s a n d soldiers a n d two hu n dred e leph a n ts,pu shed on a s f a r

a s the E bro, where the Rom a n s,frighten ed a t h is progress

,stopped

him by a trea ty a n d,in order t o con sol id a te his power,

fou n ded Ca rtha gen 'a6 in a well-chosen position ,

in the m iddle of

the Sp a n ish coa st, fa cin g Africa , a t a l a rge h a rbor, a n d n ea r m in es

which da ily yielded h im 3 00 pou n ds ’ weight of si lver. Imm en se

works m a de a grea t town of it in a few ye a rs ; it wa s, a s it were,the ca pit a l of the fu tu re sta tes of th e B a rcin e hou se .7

1 Corn. N epos, A m ilca r.2 A ccording to A ppi a n , he set ou t , in spite of th e Sen a te, for Spa in , where Ca rth a ge

a lre a dy h a d some possession s a nd commerci a l re l a tion s.3

p ecu n ia tota m locupleta vit Af r ica m. (Corn . N ep., A m ilca r,4

r r‘

wn h efm u Ouva pw e’

v Tois‘ St a Bovh i'

o ts‘ 6 drj pos ,

u e’

retkr'

jd xt (Polyh., vi . 51 cf.

A ppi a n , vi . 5 ; see p. The First Pu n ic W a r , by sta ying th e course of em igra tion , whichperiodic a l ly removed a pa rt of the poor from the town s, a u gmented the influ ence of the people.

5 F a ction is B a rcin a e op ib u s, qu a e a p u d m il ites p lebemqu e p l u s qu a m mod ica e era n t, b a u d sa n e

vol u n ta te prin cip um ,in imp erio potitu s. (Li vy , xx i. A ccordin g to Corne liu s N epos (A m il

ca r, l a rg ition e vetu stos p ervertit mores.6 G a de s w a s the Phoen ic i a n ca pita l of Sp a in ; b u t th e B a rca s desired a new town . G a des,

m oreover, occu pied too eccentric a pos ition , a nd preserved the bitter regret of its ind ependence , which H a sdrub a l h a d su ppressed.

7 H a nn o, in oppos in g him se lf t o H a n n ib a l ’s be ing sent to H a sdru b a l sa id : A n b oc timemus,

n imis sero imp eria immod ica ct reg n i p a term’

sp eciem vid e a t 9 A nd he a dds in

CON QUE STS OF ROM E AN D OF CARTHAG E . 611

H a sdru b a l w a s,however, a ss a ss in a ted by a Ga ll ic sl a ve

,who

a ven ged on him the de a th of his m a ster, sl a in by trea son . The

soldiers elected in h is pl a ce H a n n iba l, the son of the ir a n cien t

comm a n der,who h a d fou ght in thei r ra n ks for three ye a rs . The

people con firm ed ,1a n d the Sen a te a ccepted th e n ew kin g. Sp a in

a n d the a rmy were,in fa ct, n o longer a nythin g b u t a herit a ge

of the Ba rc a s .2

Su ch w a s,in 219

, the s itu a tion a t Ca rth a ge . E verythin g

a n n ou n ced a com in g tra n sform a tion in th a t a n cien t repu blic. Bu t

H a n n iba l,like Ca esa r two cen tu ries l a ter, n eeded soldiers a n d

victories to en a ble him to re-en ter h is f a therl a n d a s it s m a ster .

Ca esa r won the dict a torship in Ga u l ; H a n n ib a l sou ght it in this

Secon d Pu n i c Wa r, which his f a ther h a d bequ e a thed h im .

spea king of A m ilca r : cuj u s reg is a nd of the a rmy : hered ita rii exercit a s (L ivy ,xxi . These speeches of H a nno a re m a de by L i vy, b u t they represent the opin ion which theR om a ns he ld, a nd which, a ccording t o a ll in dica tions, we m u st our se lves ho ld , of the a mbitionof the B a rca s. A m il ita ry ch ief

, M a lchu s, h a d a lrea dy led h is a rmy a g a in st Ca rtha ge , a n dta ken the town , without, howe ver, procl a iming him se lf k in g. B u t he wa s con dem n ed, a ndpu t to de a th on the a ccu sa tion of ha v in g a spir ed to the tyra n n y. (Ju stin .

,xviii .

1 Polybiu s, iii. 13 .2 The histori a n F a biu s, a contempora ry of A m ilca r a nd sen a tor of R ome , expressly s a i d

th a t H a sdr u ba l, a fterha ving tried to se i ze th e tyra n ny of Ca rtha ge eis pova pxi'

a u m pim-rj cr a t

76 fl oAfT evp a r a w K a pq oz/i'

cou,h a d beha ved in Spa in a s if the cou ntry be lon ged t o him :

rd Ku rd ‘n‘

w'

IBept'

a v xetpifew k a‘

r d Tfiv a ff rofi wpoa fpecrw, of; Wpoo éxov'r a 7T?) o

-vvedpi

'

cp 76 m Ka pxrr

80 1/w . (Polyh., iii. Polybiu s him self sa ys (x. 10 ) of H a sdru ba l, tha t he h a d bu ilt a kinglypa l a ce a t Ca rtha gen a : Ba a i'h eta xa

‘r e a xez

’

za a'

ra t fl ohvrehé s‘, c'

z'

(pa a w tron-10 m , POV GPX‘K’igdpcydp evou £50 vm

'

a s.

CH APTE R XXI I .

I NTE R NAL STATE OF R OME I N THE INTE R V AL BE TWE EN THE TWO PUNI CWAR S.

I . COMM E NOE M E NT OF R OM AN L I T E R A TUR E ; POPULA R GA M E SAN D FE ST I VAL S .

O f urni sh It a ly with her n a tu r a l a dju n cts, Sicily, Sa rdin ia , a n d

Corsic a , a n d m a ke these isl a n ds the ou tposts of the n ew

E m pire,t o protect her comm erce a ga in st the pir a tes of I llyri a ,

her qu iet a n d fortu n e a ga in st the l a n d-pira tes settled in.

Cis a lpin eGa u l

,Rom e h a d fou ght n um erou s b a ttles a n d set imm ort a l lesson s

of persevera n ce. From these terrible stru ggles She h a d issu ed

with a n a ssu r a n ce of her own strength a n d of the fidel ity of her

su bj ects : this is the golden a ge of h er repu blic a n existen ce .1

Mea nwhile, sin ce the Sa mn ite Wa r, everythin g

,— m a n n ers, re

l ig ion ,a n d politic a l orga n iz a tion , — h a d m a de a step in a dva n ce.

The riches fou n d in the pil la ge of indu striou s comm erci a l cities,the tribu te p a id by Sicily a n d Ca rth a ge, the idea s a cqu ired by

con ta ct with so m a ny m en a n d thin gs, produ ced n ovelties t o which

the Rom a n s in sen sibly grew a ccu stom ed. I n less th a n three

qu a rters of a cen tu ry Rom e is n o longer in R om e. L et u s follow

these slow in fi l t ra t ion s of foreign ide a s a n d cu stoms,which a re

a bou t to modify so profou n d ly the L a tin o-Sa bin e society of ea rly

times . I n the stu dy of these in evita ble tra n sforma tion s lies the

in terest a n d profit of h istory.

The L a tin l a n gu a ge, tha t son orou s b u t imperfect in strum en t,preserved the comm a n ding m a jesty which is so clea rly m a rked

1 Polybiu s sa ys of th is government (vi.57) Gi

H v Ka i mikN o-r ov Ka i réhet ov e

’

u 7079’

Amrt,8t a r< ois

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614 TH E PUN IC WAR S FR OM 2 64 TO 201.

plebei a n high pon tiff Coru n ca n iu s, h a d ju st Open ed a schoolof ju rispru den ce,

1 th a t is to s a y, for expl a in ing the l a w to a l l who

presen ted them selves, instea d of a dmittin g,like his predecessors ,

on ly those p a trici a n s who cou n ted u pon ca n v a ssin g for a pl a ce inthe college of pon tiffs . These schools m u ltipl ied, a n d therein w a s

form ed the on ly scien ce which the Roma n s cre a ted,

~ — ju rispruden ce .

Ora l tra dition preserved m a ny thin gs, b u t in tellectu a l n eeds

were so l im ited th a t the recit a ls of the a trium a n d the hea rth 2

su ffi ced for a cu riosity which wa s seldom stim u l a ted .

Rome existed for five hu n dred yea rs withou t m a kin g

a book or a poem , or even on e of those soldier-son gs,

on e of those w a rrior l a ys,which a re fou n d a m on g a l l

com o r p . n a tion s. The first pl a y of Liviu s An dron icu s,the

FI CT OR '

S

T a ren tin e , who h a d been set free by a m a n of con su la r

r a n k,w a s represented in 240 , a t th e celebr a tion of the Rom a n

ga m es ; th a t of the Ca m pa n i a n N a ev iu s a ppea rs t o belon g t o 2 3 1 ;a n d in the in terv a l between th e two Pu n ic w a rs, Fa biu s Pictorbega n his books of An n a ls.4 They open ed with the a rriv a l of

Aen e a s in L a tiu m,a n d the soldier of Thr a sim en e con tinu ed them

down to the even ts which h e him self h a d witn essed .5 Polybiu s,

1 Dig. i. ‘2 , 8, 3 5.

2 Ca to, however, s a ys tha t the gu ests u sed to sin g in rou nd , t o the sou n d of flutes, the ex

ploit s a n d virtu e s of th e ir a nce stors. (Cic T u se. i v. 2 , a n d V a l . M a x.,II. i. H ora ce bea rs

witness tha t thi s w a s a n a ncient cu stom,more p a trum (Ca rm. IV. xv. 26 There were

a lso N em'

a e, or fu nera l w a il ings. B u t tra dition , u su a ll y so ten a ciou s in pre serving popu l a rsongs, h a s reta in ed n othin g of these ru de poem s of R om e, which le a ds u s t o think th a t theyn ever stirred the n a tion a l Spirit very deeply.

3 On the obverse , a hea d of P a l l a s, which we d o n ot give. On the reverse, R om e hold inga n a p ex a n d a spe a r ; behin d her, a shi e ld, with th e word Q UIR INUS, a nd the legend,F AB IUS PICTOR . I t is n ot certa in tha t this co in is ou r histori a n ’

s ; it be longs a t le a st tosom e one of his fa m i ly.

‘1 A fter th e b a ttle of Ca nn a e, F . P ictor wa s sent to De lphi to con su lt the ora cle of A pol lo.Polybiu s ca l ls him a sen a tor.

5 A bout th e time of Pyrrhu s the be lief in the Troj a n origin of R ome wa s a lre a dy esta blished , a n d a t the en d of the F irst Pu n icW a r the R om a n s cl a imed, on the strength of it , a rightto intervene in Greece in fa vor of the A ca rn a n i a n s. (Dion ys., i. 52 Ju st ., xxvi i i. N a ev iu s,

E n n iu s, a n d F a biu s Pictor h a d n o dou bt a bout it . On a b ox l a te ly fou n d a t Pra eneste , with a llit s contents, a n Ita l i a n a rtist, in spired by Greek a r t , h a s depict ed this legen d a nd the com ba ts ofTurnu s a n d A en e a s, a century a nd a h a lf before Vergil. A s the u pper p a rt of the cist no longerex ists, on ly one h a lf of the fight a n d the comb a ta nts is seen (see p. b u t the l id repre

sents the l a st scene. A ene a s h a d dem a n ded the h a n d of La v in i a , the d a u ghter of L a t im u s a nd

A m a ta , b u t the l a tter, who h a d prom ised her to T u rnu s, refu ses. A ene a s wou nds T ur nu smorta l ly ; Am a ta kil ls herse lf ; a nd L a vin i a m a rries A enea s, who m a kes pe a ce with L a tin u s.

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618 TH E PUN IC WARS FROM 2 64 TO 201.

The Roma n s certa in ly h a d m a ny very solem n festiv a ls, a n d in

their religiou s process ion s choirs of boys a n d m a iden s sa n g piou shym n s th a t every ea r might hea r. Livy men tion s severa l Of

them,

1a n d Ca tu llu s h a s preserved u s on e,

— which is,however, the

poet’

s own [a d a pted from Sa ppho] .“We who h a ve vowed

"

ou rselves to the worship of Di a n a,

m a iden s a n d boys Of pu re hea rts, we celebr a te her pr a ises.

O mighty d a u ghter of Ju piter ! Thou who reign est over

the m ou n t a in a n d the green forests, the mysteriou s groves a n d re

sou n din g billows ;“ Thou whom women invoke in the p a n gs of l a bor ; thou ,

too, mighty Hec a te, to whom the su n

len ds h is light ;“Who in thy m on thly cou rse

t r a cest the circle of the yea r, a n d

fi l l est with a n a bu n d a n t h a rvest the

b a rn of th e ru stic hu sb a n dm a n ;0 m ost holy ! By wh a tever

n a me it m a y plea se thee t o b e in

D I A N A , OR T H E M oON .2

voked, b e, a s thou ever w a st

,helpfu l

to the a n cien t r a ce of R omu lu s .” 3

Bu t these people, who were so piou s a n d h a bitu a lly gra ve,were a t the sa me time very coa rse . They loved a t on ce the solemn

a n d th e grotesqu e. Am id th e triumph a l pom p which we pictu re

t o ou rselves, with the triple m a jesty of the Sen a te, the people, a n d

the a rmy,a dv a n cin g between two rows of temples tow a rds the

Ca pito l of the hu n dred steps, there m a rched giga n tic d a n cing

figu res a n d m a sks,L a m ia e with poin ted teeth, a kin d of v a m

pire, ou t of which were t a ken a l ive the children whom they

h a d devou red} a n d M a n d u cu s , a coloss a l bogy, which a dv a n ced

with l a rge,bro a d , a n d horrible j a ws

,well provided with teeth,

a bove a s well a s below ,which by m ea n s of a l ittle h idden

cord were m a de to click on e a ga in st the other in a terrible

1 L iv iu s A n dron icu s composed one , P. L ic in iu s Tegu l a a noth er, a t the commencement ofthe wa r a ga in st M a cedon i a in 20 0 , to a vert evi l presa ges. (L i vy, xxx i.

2 Di a n a, or the m oon , in a ca r, dra wn by two horses, wh ich she herse lf dri ves. The god

dess h a s h er h a ir bou n d u p with a di a dem , a nd is cl a d in a long robe. Ca meo in the Ca binet d e

F ra n ce.

8 Ca m . xxx i v.4

p r a n sa e L a mia e vivum p a cra m ex tra ka t a lvo. (H or., A rs P oet.

INTE RNAL STATE OF ROM E . 619

m a n n er.” 1 The mon strou s m a chin es m a de the children cry, the

women shriek , a n d the m en l a u gh, a n d the fea st w a s com plete .

We l ike the soldier who, behin d the trium ph a l ca r,m a kes h is

gen era l pa y with keen s a rca sm s the ra n som of h is glory,a n d who ,

in order to b e more free in his ra ilin g verse, hides him self in

COM I C SCE N E .2

a bu ck ’ s skin a n d covers his hea d with a tu ft of bristly fu r .

3

We love,too, t o hea r

.

the sl a ve a ppoin ted t o hold the go lden

crown over the trium pher’

s he a d m u rm u r in h is e a r,

“ Remem ber

th a t thou a rt a m a n .

” 4 Bu t Petreia , the dru n ken ol d wom a n

who le a ds the procession,is on ly disgu sting ; a n d the rema rks

which Cit eria , the gossip with the sh a rp tongu e, throws a t the

spect a tors a s she p a sses, wou ld n ot a m u se u s .

5

1 R a bel a is, P a n ta gru el , i v. 59 .2 Ta ken , a s is a lso the en gra ving on the fol lowing p a ge , from two E tru sca n v a ses. (A tl a s

d a B u l l . a rche'ol ., vol . vi.~ vii. pl .

3 Dion ys iu s of H a l ica rn a ssu s, v ii . 74 .4 T ertu l l ., A pol . 3 3 .

,

5 F e stu s , s . These two women were two m a sks. We know tha t e a ch gre a t town in

Ita ly h a s sti ll it s own ,— Pu lcine ll o a t N a ples ; Pa squino a t R om e ; Stenterel lo a t F lorence ;

6 20 TH E PUN IC WARS FR OM 264 TO 201.

They a fforded grea t a m u sem en t t o the Rom a n s, who

, the

mom en t they cea sed to b e seriou s,desi red coa rse l a u ghter

, sha rp

words, a n d biting epigra ms . The refin ed Hora ce disliked thesebold a n d rib a ld im provisa tion s, which, expressed in the freest of

verse, the Sa tu rn i a n ,a ssumed a n a ppe a r a n ce of l itera tu re

,— a very

l ow l itera tu re, it is tru e, b u t so n a tion a l in I t a ly th a t it is still

the del ight of the m a sses , som etim es even th a t of m en of letters.“ The hu sba n dm en of former tim es ,

”s a ys he

,

“ robu st a n d ea sily

COM I C SCE N E .

con ten ted,recrea ted them se lves

,when the h a rvest w a s ga thered

,

by fe a sts . With thei r s l a ves, children ,a n d wives they offered

a hog to th e ea rth , m i lk to Silv a n u s, a n d flowers a n d win e to

the gen iu s of the hea rth . The Fescen n in e licen se springing from

these festiv a ls pou red ou t it s ru stic sa rc a sm s in dia logu e . At

first it w a s on ly a g a y p a stim e ; b u t this jestin g en ded by becom ing

spitefu l, a n d a ss a iled the most hon ora ble f a m ilies. Those whom

this cru el tooth h a d wou n ded obta in ed the pa ssin g of the l a w 1

which forb a de,u n der p a in of ch a stisem en t

,a ny person a l a tt a ck.

The cu stom wa s cha n ged for fea r of the rod .

” 2 Bu t the rod

A rl equ ino a t B erga mo P a nta lon e a t Ven ice , etc. We ha ve seen , on p.4 3 7, tha t the Tu b icin eson certa in d a ys r a n throu gh the streets in a l l sorts of costum es, even in women ’

s clothes, uttering a thou sa n d bu ffooneries , — su ch, n o dou bt, a s a re stil l hea rd during the R om a n ca rn i v a l.Cf . Cen sor, De Die N a t. 12

,1.

1 I n th e T we l ve T a bles.2 H ora ce, E p . II. i. 13 9 , seq.

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622 TH E P UN IC WARS FROM 264 To‘

201.

The gr a n d period of the Atell a n e fa rces com es l a ter th a n the

tim e of which we a re n ow spea kin g,b u t the person a ges a lrea dy

h a d the ir tra dition a l costum e a n d ch a r a cter . M a ccu s wa s the good

for-n othin g, whom his glu tton y a n d lu xu ry were a lwa ys getting

in to scr a pes ; Bu cco, the p a r a site,the im pu den t a n d clever

glu tton ,who a lw a ys m a n a ged t o fin d a din n er ; P a ppu s, th e ol d

miser, in sea rch of h is wife a n d h is m on ey,

which he h a d been robbed of ; a n d Dossenn u s,

a philosopher, who a fforded grea t l a u ghter by the

con tr a st between his con du ct a n d his Speeches.

Fescenn in e verse a n d Atell a n e fa rces m in gled in

the scen ic ga m es . I n 3 64 a pestil en ce desol a ted

Rom e . They h a d recou rse t o the gods,who

tu rn ed a dea f ea r ; then t o the E tru sca n s, who

h a d the repu ta tion of bein g a ble to a vert pl a gu es.

They replied tha t the gods wou ld be sa tisfied if

they were honored by scen ic ga m es,a n d

,th a t

COM I C A CT OR }

the Rom a n s m ight b e a ble to celebra te these

ga m es, they sen t them a t the s a m e tim e a ctors, who execu ted

religiou s d a n ces to th e sou n d Of the flu te . A s the pestilen ce then

en ded, the rem edy a ppe a red effica ciou s,a n d the cou n sel w a s fol

lowed . You n g Rom a n s lea rn ed the d a n ces in trodu ced from , E tru ria ,

a n d m a rked the rhythm of them by son gs,often im provised , which

en ded by being a ccom p a n ied with a ction .

2 R om a n com edy w a s d is

covered ; b u t it rec a lled the fa ct th a t i t h a d spru ng from the pl a ys

of mou n teb a nks,till the d a y When a poet of gen iu s, Pl a u tu s, took

possession of it, or r a ther, tu rn ed it in to the streets

,by produ cing

in the the a tre Greek com edy,— which he m a de su fficien tly Rom a n

for u s t o fin d the m a n n ers of the Rom a n s here a n d there.

The flora l ga m es d a te from the presen t epoch. They were

in stitu ted in 2 3 8 in order to in du ce Flora , the goddess of

Spring, t o gra n t tha t a l l the flowers wherewith the fields were

covered on the d a ys of her festiv a l 3 shou ld bring forth fru it .4

1 F igure fou nd a t R ome, N 0 . in the Ch a b ou il le t ca ta logu e.2 T h is m ixture of m u sic, words, a nd d a n cin g wa s ca ll ed a s a tu r a . The sa tu r a , wh ich m u st

not b e confou n ded with the sa tire, long rem a ined the tru e R om a n dra m a . The a ctors whoa fforded this divers ion were pa id by the a ediles.

2 Prom the 28th of A pril to the 3 rd of M a y.

2 U! omn ia bene d efloresceren t. (Pl iny, N a t.H ist. xviii .

INTE RNAL STATE OF ROM E . 623

Goddess of joyou s fru itfu ln ess,Flor a in spired n o gr a ve thou ghts ;

her ga m es were celebra ted w i th n oisy m a gn ificen ce, a n d a l iberty

which presen tly p a ssed in to a l l l icen se . I n the following cen tu ry

the d a n cin g-girls Of Flora a ppe a r u n ve iled before

the spect a tors,

a n d Ca to the cen so r,in Order to

a void pl a cin g a ny restr a in t on the ple a su res o f the

people , who wou ld n ot d a re t o dem a n d these

t a b lea u x oir a n ts be fore so gr a ve a person a ge,lea ves

the the a tre before th e d a n ce rs showed them selves .

2 FLO R A }

The postu res a n d words of the m im es were a s b a d a s the ba llet

d a n cin g, a n d l a ter on even worse .

Th e festiv a ls of An n a Peren n a, the goddess of life , were a n

occa sion for joyou s ga therin gs in the m ea dows which the Tiber

wa shes with his etern a l w a ters (p eren nes). I n these festivities,to

drin k till they lost their rea son,a n d to ca ll to m in d in the freest

verse the m ist a kes Of Ma rs in t a kin g a decrepit godd ess for the

bea u tifu l Min erv a,were looked u pon a s piou s works, a n d th e ca re

of s in ging this story fell t o you ng m a iden s .

3

G E N I I O F T H E CHA R I OT -R A C E S.2

The n a tive m odesty of wom a n n o dou bt protested in som e

c a ses , b u t the a n cien ts u n derstood this sen tim en t otherwise th a n

1 Si l ver co in of the Servil ia n fa m i ly, presentin g on th e obverse , to the right, the legen dF L OR I A L ( ia ) PR IM V S ( f ecit, u nderstood) . H e a d of F lora crown ed with flowers behin d ,the l itu u s or a ugura l rod . A fter be ing su spended d uring the long woes of the Secon d Pu n icW a r, these g a m es were re—esta bl ished, a fter a b a d ha rvest, in 173 . on the order of the Sen a te ,by th e a edile C. Servil iu s.

2 V a l . M a x . II. x. 8 ; hI a r t ., i . pr.3 Ovid , F a st. i i i. 675—676

Zva ne inf/i i, cur ca ntcn t , s uperest , ob scen a pu el/a e,

Dicere : n a m coe'

u nt , cert a q ue probr a ca nu nt.

4 B a s—re lief in th e Lou vre , N o. 44 9 , Cl a ra c ca ta logu e. We h a ve expl a ined on p. 128

the doctrine of the gen i i which the R om a n s of l a ter a ge s developed. B u t in this b a s-rel ief, a sin m a ny pa intings a t Pompe i i , the a rtist h a s on ly employed Cupids for the obj ect Of a gra cefu l,

624 TH E PUN IC WARS F ROM 264 TO 201.

we ; they did n ot pl a ce it in the “ blessed ign ora n ce of the

m a iden ,b u t in the fidelity of the wife. Lu creti a wa s the m odel of

m a tron s, a n d sin gle m a rri a ges ga in ed the n a m e of ch a stity for theu nioir a wom a n .

1 The b a sis of p a ga n ism bein g the worship of life,

to tra n sm it it bec a m e a du ty a n d a qu a si-re ligiou s a ct . E ver

where wa s seen the expressive sym bol, a n d the

a llu sion s m a de t o it were l isten ed to withou t

virtu e being trou bled thereby ; a s in the tim e of

the Trou veres a n d of Ra bel a is, of Mol iere a n d

L a F on t a in e, ou r gra n dmothers he a rd m a ny

thin gs which wou ld shock u s n ow.

The grea t Rom a n g a m es were m ore a n cien t ;the in stitu tion of them w a s referred to the first

T a rqu in . They con s isted of ch a riot-ra ces a n d

pu gilistic con tests,a n d were celebra ted in the

Circu s M a xim u s,between the Aven tin e a n d the

P a l a tin e,in hon or of the three civic deities of

Rom e,— Ju piter, Ju n o, a n d Min erva . The citi

zen s were presen t a t them ; b u t , u n like the

Greeks,d id n ot descen d in to the a ren a

,which

wa s given u p to p a id groom s a n d profession a l

coa chm en .

2

I t is well t o n otice this origin of the

V I C'

ro m o u s A THLE T E .“pu blic ga m es of Rom e,which were a l l esta b

l ished with a V iew of a ppe a sin g the gods or of

ga in in g the ir f a vor ;4

a n d it m u st b e born e in m in d,in order to

u n dersta n d how,even a t the period of th e grea test excesses

,they

a lw a ys preserved the ch a ra cter of n a tion a l a n d rel igiou s festiv a ls.

them e for decora tion . We recogn i ze the diff erent deta i ls of the circu s, — the sta tu e of Di a n a ,the dolph in s h a lf hidden by on e of the ru n ners, the bou nd a ries, met a squ e im ita t a cupressus(Ov id, M et. x. pl a ced a t e ither extrem ity of the Sp in a , which divided the circu s in two,

a nd fin a l ly,the co lumn s su pporting the seven ova wh ich served to m a rk the number of tim es

tha t the cha riots h a d m a de the circu it of th e Sp in a .

1 Coron a p u d icitia e honor a b a n tu r. (V a l .M a x .,II. i.

2 The citizen s onl y took pa rt in the consu a lia , ra ce s ce lebra ted in honor of the god Consu s, who a fterw a rd beca m e the equ estri a n N eptu n e. T he E qu ir ia e (F estu s, s. v. E qu iria ,a n d V a rro, d e L ing . L a t. v i. 13 ) were prob a bly ra ces of free horse s, like those of the b a rberiin the m odern Corso.

3 Sta tu e foun d in the ru in s of the F orum , A rchemorium. Lou vre M u seum ,N o. 70 2 in th e

Cl a ra c c a ta logu e.4 L u d orum primum in itium p rocu r a nd is relig ion ibu s d a tum. (L ivy, vu .

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62 6 TH E PUN IC WARS FR OM 264 To 201.

Rom u lus a n d T a tiu s were represen ted withou t a ny clothin g, a s the

Greek heroes a lwa ys were.

With the produ ct of the fin es the a ediles widen ed the streetsof a n cien t Rom e, which were so n a rrow th a t the vest a ls a nd

m a tron s a lon e h a d the right t o p a ss thr ou gh them in cha riots toa tten d rel igiou s solem n ities, a n d

,a fter the exa m ple set by Appiu s

,

1

the bold con stru ctor of the Appi a n Wa y a n d of the first Rom a n

SH E -WOLF OF T H E CA P I T OL.

a qu edu ct, a p a rt of the st a te resou rces wa s em ployed in the com

pl et ion of grea t works of pu blic u til ity . Ma n iu s Cu rin s h a d,a fter

the secon d wa r of Pyrrhu s , con stru cted a secon d a qu edu ct ; a n d

Fl a min iu s, a fter th e defea t of the I n su b res, comm en ced a secon d

m il ita ry roa d,the vi a F l a m in ia , which st a rted from Rom e a n d

rea ched beyon d the Apenn in es t o Arimin um,the Adri a tic

,a n d

G a lli a Cis a lpin a , a s the vi a App ia wou ld lea d a cross the Apenn in es

on the sou th to (Ben even tum ,Bru n du sium ,

a n d the Ion i a n Sea .2

I n tim e, both were bordered with m a gn ificen t tombs, a n d the

1 See p. 407.2 F l a m in iu s a lso built a t R om e the circu s which bea rs his n a me, a n d procured the m e a n s

necessa ry for these gre a t works by rigorou sly ga thering in the t a xes which the holders of sta teforests, pa sture—l a n ds, a nd m in es owed to the trea sury, a nd which, by the con n i v a nce of the

Sen a te , they sometimes forgot to pa y.

INTE RNAL STATE OF ROM E . 627

tra veller a rrivin g from the sm il in g cities of Ca m p a n i a . m et the

grea t dea d of Rom e before seeing her con su ls a n d her em perors .

The tom bs of th e Fl a m in i a n Ro a d h a ve been repl a ced by the pros a ichou ses of t he Corso, b u t the Appi a n l V a-ty reta in s som e of those

u pon it ; a n d before these ru in s,to which the m a jestic hori zon

of the La tin m ou n ta in s form s so fi n e a fra m e, we forget the

vu lg a r side of Rom e’

s m a n n ers to con tem pl a te the so lem n ity o f

her spirit .

The tem ples a lso m u ltipl ied ; a l l con su ls were n ot like the

p a rsim on iou s P a piriu s , who , on the d a y of the ba ttle of Aqu ilon i a ,

prom ised Ju piter a cu p of good win e i f the legion s were victoriou s,a n o fferin g.” s a ys Livy gra vely

,

“ which w a s well received byt he god .

” 1 E a ch tim e th a t a gen era l fou n d him self in a diffi cu lty

he prom ised som e deity t o bu ild h im a sa n ctu a ry on con dition th a t

he ga ve him the victory. Rom e, the city of the three hu n dred

a n d s ixty-five chu rches , possessed a lm ost a s m a ny tem ples when

Ju piter re ign ed there . The p a ga n s h a d en ou gh gods a t the ir d is

position for dedica tion s , a n d when a ny were w a n tin g a ppropri a te to

th e c ircum st a n ces,a n epithet a dded to the n a m e m a de a n ew god

of a n ol d on e . Ju piter,Ju n o

,Fortu n e

,etc.

,h a d thu s a n in fin ity

of su rn a m es . I do n ot kn ow whether piety ga in ed m u ch thereby,b u t f a m ily v a n ity fou n d a n a dv a n t a ge in it . These mon um en ts

,

which cea selessly reca lled the glory of those who h a d r a ised them ,

prep a red f a vor a ble election s for them se lves a n d their children .

When there were n o lon ger a ny com itia a t Rom e,to decora te on e

’

s

town with a tem ple or a divin e im a ge w a s still,in the town s of

the Upper E m pire , the su rest m e a n s of ga in in g pu blic f a vor .

Priv a te in dividu a ls sou ght for them selves th a t lu xu ry which wa sform erly on ly displ a yed for the gods . Greek a rt ga in ed en tr a n ce in to

Rom e,where i t decor a ted the v a st tom b which the Scipios h a d ra ised

t o them selves,a n d som e hou ses

,s a ys Floru s

,a lrea dy showed gold,

pu rple,st a tu es, a n d a l l the refin em en ts of the lu xu ry of T a ren tum .

Th e words tem ples a n d st a tu es m u st n ot,however, give u s the

idea of a town in which civiliza tion h a d a lrea dy obta in ed it s

citizen ship . I n the first pl a ce,there n ever w a s a Rom a n a rt ,

1 I d votum d ifs cord i f u it (x . P a piriu s j udged of Ju piter’s ta stes by h is own ; he wa sa c cu sed of loving win e ; a nd L i vy sa ys of him : f er-a n t cib i vin ique ca p a ciss im um ( ix. 16 ;Dion .

,fr.

628 TH E PUN IC WARS FR OM 2 64 To 201.

SUN -D I A L O R A ST R OLOG I CA L A LT A R O F G A B I I .1 (MUSE UM OF T H E LOUV R E .)

a lthou gh there were, a t a l a ter d a te, m a gn ificen t monumen ts

in spired by the gen iu s of Rom e. I t is a singu l a r thing tha t

1 A monument u n iqu e of its k ind, fou n d a t G a b ii in 1792. It is composed of two independent pa rts,— first , a p a tel l a (h ollow pl a te) , a rou n d which a re ca rved the he a ds of the twe lve

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63 0 TH E PUN IC WAR S FROM 264 To 201.

b a rba ri a n s with their m edicin es ; they m a ke u s pa y de a rly f orobt a in in g ou r con fiden ce, a n d poison u s the m ore e a si ly . My son

,

remember th a t I forbid thee doctors .“ H e thou ght

,

”a dds Pliny

,

“ th a t m edica l services ou ght t o b e gra tu itou s ; a n d th a t is why,

thou gh they in vited Aescu l a piu s t o Rom e

the Rom a n s relega ted him t o a tem plebu ilt ou tside the g a tes

,on the Tiberin e

isl a n d .” 1

N eeds were felt which h a d form erly

been u n kn own ,a n d which showed th a t

the econ om ic con dition s of society were ch a n gin g. I n 2 68 silverm on ey h a d been coin ed

'

; in 2 07 gold m on ey is requ ired .3 The

dict a tor F u riu s (3 50) h a d vowed a

tem ple to Ju n o Mon eta,a n d h a d

bu ilt it on the Ca pitol, on th e pl a ce

where the hou se of M a n l iu s h a d b een

JUN O MON E T A .2

ra zed .

4 Du rin g the w a r with Pyrrhu s there Wa s a dded t o i t a m in t.5

a n d “ th e good cou n sellor ” b eca m e

the protectress of coin ers,— which

ca u ses n o su rprise in a cou n try

where Ju piter Heroin s, th e protector

of property,a lso took the

,

su rn a m e

A R G E N T A R H '

G

of P ecu n ia , the g od of ga in .7

Fin a lly, th e a rgen t a n t h a d long en cum bered the Forum ; a n d“

,

a n other Sign of the tim es,the n obles h a d so com pletely forgotten

the a n cien t preju dices a ga in st comm erce,th a t a l a w h a d ju st been

1 N a t.H is t. xx ix. 6—8. The form of a vesse l h a d been given to th a t is l a nd, a nd there m a ysti l l b e seen scu l ptu red on its ston e prow th e sta ff of A escu l a piu s a nd the serpent twisted rou n dit . A s for the temple , there were fou n d in th e ru in s a q u a ntity of ha n ds, feet, etc., tha t is tosa y, ere

-vote off erings, a s certa in of ou r chu rches ha ve.2 M ON E TA . H e a d of Ju n o M oneta . On th e reverse, T . CA R I SI V S. L a ure l led coin ,

with a n vi l between a pa ir of pincers a nd a ha mm er. Si l ver coin of the Ca r isia n fa m i ly.3 Pliny, ibid . xxx i i i. 3 . The si lver den a rii stru ck in 2 68 were worth '

10 a ses of bron ze of

a pou n d e a ch. See, p a ges 6 3 1 a nd 6 3 2 , the series of go ld a nd sil ver coin s.4 L i vy

,V I I . 28.

5 We give here the ta bles of the series of gold a nd s i l ver coin s struck a t th is period.6 B ottom of a p a inted v a se. A cha n ger se a ted nea r a t a ble covered with pieces of money ;

a m a n sta n ding in front of h im offers others on a tra y ; behind, b a g s on wh ich a re in scribedthe a mou nts of the sum s they conta in .

7 St . A u gu stine , d e Ciu.Dei,vii. 12.

A s (CAS T ).

(ST R UCK).

T R I E N S (CA ST).

T R I E N S (ST R UCH ) .

Q UA D R A N S (CA ST).

OUN CE (CA ST).

Q UA D R A N S (ST R UCK). OUN CE (ST R U CH ).

T A BLE OF B R ON ZE CO I N S.

SE M I S (CA ST).

SE M I S (ST R UOH ) .

SE XTA N S (CA ST ).

SE XT AN S (ST R UCK).

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63 2 TH E PUN IC WAR S FROM 264 To 201.

SE R I E S O F G OLD CO I N S.

INTE RNAL STATE OF ROM E . 6 3 3

m a de t o forbid sen a tors to h a ve a t sea a ship of m ore th a n three

hu n dred a mphor a e in freight . This prohibition served the pu rpose

of the freedm en a n d a er a rti, who cou ld then mon opol ize a l l the

comm erce of the Repu blic. Sin ce

sha m e h a d a tt a ched t o u su ry,it

w a s they especi a lly who l ived by

this lu cra tive tr a de . Form erly the

in debted proprietor rem a in ed in

his cl a ss ; a fter the Poet el ia n

l a w (3 26) the creditor h a d in

scribed to h is a ccou n t the pro

perty which h e h a d received a s

secu rity,so th a t he ga in ed a t on ce both the in terest of h is m on ey

a n d pu blic con sidera tion , s in ce his soci a l con dition rose in proportion

A R G E N T A R H )

a s h is debtor’

s sa n k . Th e gre a t w a rs in which Rom e n ow fou n d

herself en ga ged in cre a sed the in flu en ce of bu sin ess m en ; they

in stitu ted them selves a rm y-con tr a ctors, a n d by a n a greem en t a m on g

them selves form ed a n order drea ded even by the Sen a te . I V e sh a ll

see l a ter on the in solen ce of the comm issa ry,Postu m iu s of Pyrgi ,

a n d the circum spection of th e sen a tors, qu i ord in em . pu b lica n orum

ofi ensum noleb a n t .2

Grievou s sym ptom s reve a led the d a n gers to which the con qu est

of the world wou ld expose Rom a n m a n n ers . Thirteen sen a tors h a d

been degra ded by the cen sors of th e ye a r 252 ; a n d a gen era l ,P a piriu s M a tho

,t o whom th e Sen a te h a d refu sed a n ov a tion for

h is victories in Sa rdin i a , wen t t o h a ve his trium ph on the Alba n

Mou n t, before other gods tha n those of the Ca pitol .3 Som e

p a trici a n s ren ou n ced the severe form a l ities of m a rri a ge by con

f a rrea tio in fa vor of the u n ion con clu ded by pu rch a se, coemp tio

it w a s in som e sort civil m a rri a ge repl a cin g rel igiou s m a rri a ge .

V a leriu s M a ximu s a sserts th a t the divorce of Ca rv il iu s Ru ga (2 3 3 )c a u sed gre a t in dign a tion . There is n o rea son for seein g in this

a ny sym ptom of a wea ken in g of cu stoms. Ca rv il iu s h a d sworn

before the cen sors th a t in repu di a ting h is sterile wife he h a d n o

1 B a s-re lief from the Va tica n . Cha nger sea ted behind a cou nter. On h is left a wiregra ting very sim i l a r t o those stil l employed in esta bl ishm ents of tha t k ind. On the right a hea pof money, a nd a figu re ca rrying a b a g.

2 xxv. 3 .2 L ivy

, E pit. xvi i i . V a l .M a x. iii. G.

63 4 TH E PUN IC WARS FROM 264 TO 201.

other motive th a n th a t of fu rn ishing th e Repu blic with citizen s.1

M a ny others before him h a d repe a ted t o their Wives the form of

repu dia tion : T a ke wh a t belongs t o thee, a n d give u p the

keys ;”for in a society in which the hu sb a n d h a d the r ight of

l i fe a n d dea th over his wife,h e m u st n ecessa rily h a ve a lso the

right of divorce, — which, in deed , the Twelve T a bles recogn ized.2

I t wa s lon g a fter the period a t which we h a ve a rrived th a t

d ivorces, by their mu ltiplic a tion , in trodu ced d isorder in to f a m il ies.Fin a lly, the severities of Ca m illu s a ga in st cel ib a cy, which were

ren ewed by the cen sors of this sa m e ye a r, were less a m ea su reof m or a l th a n of m ilita ry order .

Religion“

preserved it s ch a r a cter of in terested worship . I t

crea ted n either a body of doctrin es n or mora l tea chin g,

3a n d h a d

a lw a ys on e single a im,— t o kn ow the will -of the gods, in order to

try a n d ben d them . Bu t s in ce the a u gu ries,a b a n don ed to the

plebei a n s, h a d cea sed to b e a pol it ica l in strumen t, they h a d lost

m u ch Of their a u thority. The gods h a d so often deceived the hopes

of their worshippers,th a t some a lre a dy dou bted

,a n d

‘

the priests

sou ght t o a vert the effects of this dou bt by m itig a tion s of th e

a n cien t severity. Th e ritu a l prescribed the cessa tion of a l l work

on feri a l d a ys,on p a in of prof a n a tion . This rigor w a s a voided

by clever in terpret a tion s . “ Wh a t is it perm itted to d o on a

fea st-d a y w a s a sked of the high pon ti ff, Sc a evol a . All tha t

c a n n ot b e n eglected withou t h a rm . The piou s Vergil sa ys“ N othin g hin ders from w a shin g the blea tin g flock in th e whole

some w a t er Of th e river ;”

a n d V a rro :“ I n w a r there is n o n eed

to m a ke a ny distin ction between d ies f a s ti a n d n ef a s ti.” 4 I n fa ct

Fa biu s Cu n ct a tor decl a res th a t everythin g servicea ble t o the Repu blic

is a ccom plished u n der good a u spices : everythin g th a t is con tra ry

to it s u n der evil a u spices ; a n d Fl a m in iu s bo ldly br a ves them .

The sign s h a d been a con tin u a l ca u se of preoccu p a tion a n d

terror ; M a rcellu s, who beca m e five tim es con su l, a n d who w a s

1 I d . i i. 1 ; A u l . G ell ., i v. 3 .2 Cic., P hil. ii . 28. The Sca n t in ia n l a w, to repress shock in g vices, is of u nknown d a te

it ex isted in the t im e of Cicero ( a d F a m. vii i . 12) b u t I d o n ot thin k it exi sted two centuriesea rlier.

3 S a cr a min u s a d homin es mel iores f a ciend os qu a m a d volu n ta tem d eorum con cili a n tl a m

specta b a n t. (H ol tiu s, H ist.j u r. R om. l inea m. p.

4 M a crob . S a tu rn . i . 16 .5 Cic.,

(l e Sen cor. 4 .

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63 6 TH E PUN IC WAR S FROM 264 TO 201.

thou ght t o b e the dedica ting of Apollin a ri a n g a m es t o the “god

who sa ves,d eu s sosp it a lis . I n 2 9 3

,a fter a v iolen t pestilen ce

,

a mba ssa dors h a d gon e to E pid a u ru s to dem a n d the serpen t of

Aescu l a piu s,1which wa s

a t on ce both the ima gea n d the gen iu s of the

g od who a ppea red to b e

in ca rn a te in him .“ Ou r

vigil a n t pon tiffs on con

su l t in g the Sibyllin e

books, s a ys Va leriu sM a xim u s

,

2 “ fou n d th a t

the on ly m ea n s of re

storin g hea lth in Rom e

w a s t o brin g Aescu l a piu s

him self from E pid a u ru s .

The Repu bl ic,whose

a u thority wa s a l rea dy

im m en se throu ghou t the

world, w a s persu a ded

tha t she wou ld obta in

by a n emba ssy the on ly

remedy in dica ted by the Fa tes. Su ccess a n swered this a ttempt .

A s soon a s they a rrived,the depu ties were l ed by th e E pi

d a u ria n s in to the tem ple of Aescu l a piu s,wh ich is situ a ted five m iles

from their town,a n d in vited them t o t a ke therefrom a l l th a t they

thou ght wou ld b e u sefu l to the hea lth of the ir cou n try. The god

ra tified the words of the m ort a ls ; for the serpen t, which r a rely

a ppea red to the E pid a u ria n s, b u t a lw a ys to a n n ou n ce som e good

PR I E ST o r A POLL0 .3

1 The serpent, which silently gl ides u n der the gra ss, a n d a fter it s winter s leep strips off

it s skin to a ssum e a n ew one , w a s in the eyes of the a ncients a wise cre a ture, which kn ewthe simples when ce hea lin g juices a re ta ken , a nd the symbo l of renewed l ife a fter i llness ordea th.

2 L i vy, 1. vi ii. 2.

3 F rom the b a se of a tripod which is. in the Lou vre M u seum , N o. 89 in the F rb’

hn er

ca ta logu e. The qu in d ecemvir s,sa cris f a ciu n d is, who were u ndou btedly on ly ra ised from t en

t o fifteen by Su ll a , were th e priests of A po llo, whose festi v a l they ce lebra ted from the 4 th to

the 15th of Ju ly. They wore the Greek costume, with a crown m a de of the fol i a ge of the

tree sa cred t o A pol lo, the l a ure l. E a ch of them h a d in h is hou se a bron ze tripod on wh ichevery m orn ing. b e burned incen se a n d ca ll ed u pon h is god . (Servi u s, a d A en eid . iii.

INTE RNAL STATE OF ROM E . 6 3 7

fortu ne to them ,a n d which they worshipped a s Aesc u l a piu s

beg a n to p a ss throu gh the m ost frequ en ted qu a rters of the t own .

After h a ving thu s for three d a ys offered him sel f t o the rel igiou s

a dm ira tion of the crowd, he directed h is cou rse tow a rds the Rom a n

ga lley,testifyin g by joyou s m ovem en ts the desire which he h a d

for a more gloriou s res iden ce . H e en tered the vessel in the

presen ce of the a ffrighted sa ilors , re a ched

the ca bin of the a m ba ssa dor, Q . Ogu l n iu s ,

a n d,rollin g him self i nto n u m erou s folds

,

he rem a in ed there in profoun d tr a n qu il

l ity. The a m b a ssa dors, h a vin g obta in ed

their u tm ost wishes, retu rn ed th a n ksgivings

to the gods ; a n d a fter h a vin g lea rn ed

the m a n n er of p a ying hon or t o the ser

pen t, h a sten ed to lea ve E pid a u ru s . A

fortu n a te voya ge soon l a n ded them a t

A n t ium . There th e serpen t left the vessel a n d took h is w a y t o

w a rds the vestibu le of th e tem ple of Aescu l a piu s , where stood

a p a lm-tree,the crest of which rose m a jestica lly a bove a bu shy

m yrtle . H e rolled him self rou n d the tru n k of the tree , a n d

rem a in ed there three d a ys,du rin g which tim e food w a s brou ght

t o h im . The a m b a ssa dors fe a red tha t he wou ld n ot a ga in retu rn

in to the ga lley ; b u t , qu ittin g the hospit a ble lodgin g of the tem ple ,h e wen t a n d resum ed his form er pl a ce

,to b e ca rried to Rom e .

Fin a lly, the depu ties h a d sc a rcely set foot on the b a n ks of the

Tiber,when he swa m t o the isl a n d

,where a tem ple w a s a fterw a rd

dedic a ted to him,a n d his a rriv a l rem oved th e horrible scou rge

a ga in st which h is a id h a d been employed .

”

On the isl a n d of the Tiber there w a s a lrea dy a s a n ctu a ry of

Fa u n u s,

2who , l ike Aescu l a piu s, ga ve ora cles by sen din g drea m s ; a n d

the ora cles of the a n cien t L a tin deity cou ld on ly h a ve been recipes

for cu rin g m a n a n d bea st . The residen ce of the god of E pid a u ru s

w a s thu s settled beforeh a n d ; b u t popu l a r im a gin a tion cou ld n ot

a llow th a t h e h a d en tered Rom e in a simple m a n n er ; hen ce, the

CO I N or COMMODUS.1

1 This coin represents the a rriv a l of A escu l a piu s on the i sl a n d of the Tiber in the formof a serpent.

2 See l a ter on a dou ble H ermes in the Ca b in et d e F ra n ce, representing on on e s ide thehe a d of F a u n u s, a nd on the other tha t of T u t a n u s M utinu s.

63 8 TH E PUN IC WAR S FR OM 2 64 To 201.

m a rvellou s circumsta n ces which we h a ve ju st rel a ted. This a ccou n t

form s pa rt of Rom a n history, a n d even of the history of the hum a n

min d ; for the specta cle of this stra n ge su perstition a m ong a people

so wise in cou n cil, so resolu te in a ction , who left n othing to

ch a n ce, — th a t is t o s a y, t o the providen ce of their gods, a n d who

a ppea red t o dem a n d everythin g of them ,— shows th a t there is n o

a ge of the world in which m a n’

s min d c a n n ot a ssoci a te opposites,— the m ost resolu te thin kin g a n d m ost pu erile credu l ity.

The Sen a te ga ve a n other proof of this a t the m om en t when

there wa s a bou t t o t a ke pl a ce the grea test even t in Rom e’

s

history, a n d a pledge of the con qu est of the world . I n 20 3 ,

on the eve of Za m a a n d of the fa ll of Ca rth a ge,they sen t, by

th e order of th e Sibyllin e ora cles,to seek in As i a Min or a

Phrygia n divin ity held in grea t renown a mon g the n a tion s of

the pen in su l a .

This sin gu l a r goddess, diffi cu lt to com prehen d, _who wa s

origin a lly, n o dou bt, a represen ta tion of the e a rth, a n d whom

the Greeks h a d m a de the mother of the gods, cou ld n ot en ter

Rom e in a m a n n er less mir a cu lou s th a n Aescu l a piu s . She a lso

received the hon or of a legen d . “ Five of the n oblest person s in

the Repu blic bein g sen t t o Delphi, they received this a n swer :‘K in g Att a lu s will c a u se the Rom a n s t o obta in wha t they ,

d esire,

a n d the goddess, tra n sported to Rom e,m u st receive hospita l ity there

from the m ost virtu ou s of the citizen s ! The K ing of Perga m u s,

who w a s a t,

wa r with Philip of M a cedon i a,h a d n eed of the frien d

ship of the Rom a n s ; it did n ot seem to this sceptica l Greek th a t

he wou ld pa y too dea rly for it a t the price of a sa crilege, a n d he

persu a ded the priests of Pessin u s to give up the im a ge of their

divin ity,the Ida e a n Mother.’ These priests form ed a rich cor

pora t ion ,whose chief wa s a sort of sovereign . Bu t

, su rrou n ded by

Ga u ls , who cl a im ed to m a ke Pessin u s on e of their c a pit a ls,they

cou ld refu se n othin g t o a prin ce who wa s him self the en emy of the

Ga l a ti a n s, a n d whose protection w a s so n ecessa ry to them . They

ga ve the idol , a nd m a de a rra n gem en ts to persu a de the devotees

th a t Cybele, a lthou gh she h a d set ou t for the ba n ks of the Tiber,rem a in ed on those of the Sa n g a riu s.

At Rom e it rem a in ed t o a ppoin t the most virtu ou s m a n in

the Repu blic, th a t he might receive the goddess. M a ny com petitors

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640 TH E PUN IC WAR S FR OM 2 64 TO 201.

str a ngely with the gra vity of Rom a n solem n ities. Accordin gly,

a lthou gh the Rom a n Pa n theon open ed t o this foreign divin ity, the

p a trici a n s did n ot open the ir ra n ks t o her priests,a n d refu sed t o b e

h er pon tiffs. A citi

zen wou ld h a ve been

dishon ored by the

m u til a tion t o which

the Phrygi a n Ga lli

c o n d e m n e d them

selves ; the l a tter re

m a in ed the m in isters

of the ir divin ity .

E a ch ye a r Cybel e took

a mystic b a th a t the

ju n ction of the An io

a n d the Tiber. A

priest clothed in pu r

pl e w a shed the s a cred

ston e therein , while

the G a l l i m a de a grea t

n oise with flu tes a n d

t a mbou rin es, u ttered effem in a te shrieks, a n d scou rged themselves

with whips fu rn ished with kn u ckle-bon es .

Au gu stu s a llowed the Sh a peless im a ge of the Idea n Mother

to b e pl a ced u pon on e of h is coin s ; H a dri a n ,better a dvised

,

borrowed the type of the Greeks, who represen ted th e goddess

sea ted on a thron e with a m u ra l crown on h er brow a n d l ion s

cou ched a t her feet .

After the Greci a n a n d Phrygi a n gods ca me those of the Pu n i c

A N A R CH I —G A LLUS.1

of l a v a ; a lmost th e who le of Phrygi a is of volca n ic origin . A rnob iu s (A d v.g en tes, who sa w

it , s a ys tha t it wa s sm a l l , smooth , a nd of bl a ckish color. I t w a s pl a ced before the m outh of

th e sta tu e of Cybe le.1 B a s-re l ief in the Ca pitol in e M u seum . N ot ice shou ld b e ta ken of th e eff em in a te ch a ra c

t er of this priest-eu nu ch, whose e a rs a re

' lo a ded with pe a rls. On h is hea d he we a rs threem ed a ls, on e of Id a e a n Ju piter a nd two of A tys, tha t Phrygi a n shepherd of m a tchle ss bea utywhom Cybele h a d con secra ted t o h er worsh ip, a nd to whom m yth ogra phers h a ve a ttributedtra gic a dventures wh ich m a ke him a n in vo lu nta ry hero of cha stity. On the priest’s bre a sta ga in is hu ng the im a ge of A tys , with the Pers i a n m itre on h is hea d. I n h is right h a nd heh olds o l ive-bra nches ; in the left, a b a sket of fru it, from which issu es the whip furn ished withknu ckle-bones ; on the w a l l, cymba ls, a drum , two flutes, a n d the mystic c ist.

INTE RNAL STATE OF ROM E . 641

r a ce . I n 217 the erection of a tem ple to Ven u s E rycin a wa s

decreed , who w a s then for th e first tim e a dm i tted t o a se a t a m on g

the gre a t La tin gods a t the rel igiou s rep a st of the lectis tern ium .

This Ven u s w a s the Celestia l Virgin of Ca r

th a ge a n d Tyre ; b u t a t Cypru s she h a d b e

com e Qu een of P a phos a n d of Love ; a t

R om e,t oo

,she wa s soon m a de goddess of

volu ptu ou sn ess .

“We h a ve ju st spoken of th e lectis tern ium .

This cu stom ,l ike so m a ny other a n cien t on es

,

a ston ishes u s ; b u t by sa crifices the f a ithfu l

en tered in to comm u n ion with the god , toCY B E L E I

whom they off ered a p a rt of the victim . I n fun er a l rep a sts offerin gs

were m a de to the dea d ; in dom estic on es l iba tion s were pou red ou t

t o the L a res ; on grea t occa sion s the whole town, or the sen a tors, a s

it s represen t a t ives, comm u n ed with the civic divin ities by a pu blic

fea st. I t w a s a rel igiou s a ct,a n d it w a s thou ght n ecessa ry t o the

s a fety of th e city th a t it shou ld b e a ccom plished .2 We sh a ll a ga in

fin d this u sa ge comm a n ded by religion in the fu n era l a ssem bl ies of

th e E m pire a n d in the love-fea sts of the e a rly Christi a n s.

All this shows tha t the rel igion of the st a te wa s tottering,

a n d th a t the Orien t a l rel igion s , which were to prove f a t a l to the

L a tin spirit, were a lre a dy m a kin g a n e ffort to inv a de the ci ty of

J a n u s . Bu t th e terrors of the Secon d Pim ic Wa r a ga in stren gth

en ed the a n cien t worshi p . Th e n ea rer H a n n ib a l a ppro a ches to

Rom e,the m ore do omen s mu ltiply, a n d the m ore does fa ith revive .

L a ter on we sh a l l see wha t victory, s a fety, a n d n ew spiritu a l

n eeds m a ke of it .

I n the n ew pol itica l orga n iz a tion a grea t ch a nge h a d a lso

t a ken pl a ce . The people h a d e ffa ced from the con stitu tion the

tim ocr a tic prin ciple which Serviu s h a d in trodu ced in to i t. The

cen tur ies of kn ights h a d been preserved , b u t the cl a sses were

a bol ished,a n d th e a ssembly of cen tu ries di ffered from the a ssembly

of tribes on ly by a divi sion which the heredit a ry respect of a l l

Rom a n s for a ge a n d experien ce imposed (cen tu ria e j u n iorztm et

1 Cybe le on a lion , holding a sceptre a nd the tymp a non , or drum of the priests. R everseof a bron ze coin of Sa bin a , the wife of H a dri a n .

2 E a rn jpt a m ikeo u m iud a n'

va . (A then ., Deip nos. v. 186V OL . I . 4 1

642 TH E PUN IC WAR S FROM 264 To 201.

sen iorum ).1 This wa s the defin ite triumph of th e prin ciple of

equ a l ity, in the n a m e of which the tribu n es h a d a lwa ys fou ght.

1 The u n ited texts of L ivy, Cicero, a nd Dionys iu s u nf ortu n a te ly on ly throw pa rti a l l ight onthe tra n sform a tion of the a ssemblies of centuries. They sa y enou gh,however, to pl a ce it beyon ddou bt. (Cf. L i vy, i. 4 3 , xx i v. 7, xxvi. 2 2 , xxvi i. 6 ; Cic., d e L eg . a g r. i i. 2 , P ro P l a n e. 20

,De

L eg . i i i.4 , a nd every pa ge of the Dem a nd of the cons. Dionysiu s, iv. 2 1 Polybiu s, v i. 4 , etc.)B u t it seem s tha t two a ttem pts were m a de t o effect th is cha nge . During the w a r with H a nn ib a l a n d up to the yea r 179 , — a tim e a t which he spe a ks of a gre a t cha nge in the su ffra ge,— L i vyfrequ ently (xx i v. 7, xxvi. 2 2 , xxv i i. 6) gives to the centuries the n a me of tribes. I n the e lectionof 2 11 e a ch tribe a ppe a rs divided into two centuries, one of j u n iores, a n d on e of sen iores,

which con firm s the pa ssa ge in L i vy ( i. 4 3 ) trib u s n umero ea rum d up l ica to, cen tu r iis j u n iorum et

sen iorum . A t wh a t period did this cha n ge ta ke pl a ce ? N ece ssa ri ly a fter the H ortens i a n l a w,

a n d a ccordin g to L i vy, p ost exp let a s qu in qu e cl tr ig in t a trib u s. Perha ps in 220 , durin g thecen sorship of F l a m in iu s, by whom , sa ys the 2oth E p itome, l ibertin i in qu a tu or trib u s red a cti

su n t, qu um a n tea [since 3 04 ] d isp ersi per omn es f u issen t. A l l the G erm a n writers differ on thisd a te , beca u se they d o n ot see tha t there m ight ha ve been two cha nges a t diff erent time s.

F ra nke gives 4 95 ; W a lter a nd Peter, 450 ; N iebuhr, 3 05 ; N obbe, 288 ; Ihne , 24 1 ; G oet t l inga n d G erl a ch , 2 20 ; Schu lze , 181. I t seem s to m e , however, th a t we ca n n ot go f a r wron g inpl a cing this cha n ge in the interva l between the two Pu n ic w a rs. T he n umber of thirty-fivetribes w a s on ly com pleted in 24 1, a nd in 2 15 centuries of tribes a re a lre a dy seen . A t this tim e

of republica n equ a l ity, of poverty a n d h ero i sm , th e timocra tic princ iple of the cen su s m u stnecessa ri ly ha ve been efi a ced . I t h a d a lre a dy di sa ppe a red from the legion s, whose orga n iz a tionn o longer depended on the di v is ion into cl a sses esta bl ished by Serviu s ; the plebe i a n s, who h a dl a te ly won equ a l ity on a ll points, cou ld e a si ly ca u se it to di sa ppe a r from the F orum t oo. M oreover, by the depreci a tion of the a s , then redu ced to the s ixth of the v a lu e which it h a d stil l h a dbefore the F irst Pu n ic W a r (Pl iny, N a t. H ist. xxx i i i. 13 ; Va rro , ( l e R e ru st , i.a ses represented in 240 on ly of th e a nc ient on es , to which the rise in the price of com

mod it ies ga ve a n infin ite ly sm a l ler v a lu e tha n in the tim e of Serv iu s. T he resu lt of th is wa stha t the s a m e fortu n e wh ich u n der Serv iu s wou ld h a ve a dm itted a m a n into the fif th cl a ss,ra i sed him in 24 0 to the first. I n fa ct, th e cl a sse s no longer ex isted, sin ce a n immen se m a jorityof the citizen s fou n d th em se lves in the first ; there wa s, therefore, no need of a revo lutionto a bo lish them , a n d the ir su ppress ion pa ssed u n noticed. W ithout cl a sses there cou ld b e n o

centuries. T he old div ision , known a nd loved by th e people , into j u n iores a nd sen iores, w a s,

however, preserved.B u t the d a ngers of the Second Pu n ic W a r in vested the Sen a te with a kin d of dicta torship,which th ey were u nwilli ng t o give u p a fter ha ving exerci sed it for fifteen yea rs ; the nobi l itywa s re-orga n ized, a cqu ired confidence in itse lf, a nd , in order to fortify it s growing power, wa sdes irou s of re-e sta bl i shin g the ca tegorie s of fortu n es. L i vy sa ys of the cen sors of the ye a r 179M u ta r u n t sufi

‘

r a g ia , reg ion a timqu e gen erib u s homin um ,ca n sis et qu a estib u s, tribu s d escrip seru n t

(x l . 51) a nd th enceforth the cl a sses which indeed h a d a lw a ys ex isted on th e cen sors’ books ,s ince the t a x wa s proportion a l to fortu ne — resum ed the ir pol itica l cha ra cter. I n 16 9 he spe a ksof the centuries of kn ights a n d of m a n y centuries of the first cl a ss. A t the e lection of

Dol a b el l a Cicero (P hil . i i. 3 3 ) cites the preroga ti ve century, the vote of the first, second, a ndrem a in in g cl a sses. I n a l l h is speech es he m ention s nothi ng b u t cl a sses, thou gh he looks u ponthe tribe s a s the fu n d a menta l d ivision of the R om a n people. I t is these tribes tha t he su b

div ides into cl a sses a nd centurie s : cen sores p a rtes p op u l i in tribus d escr ib u n to, exin p ecu n ia s,a evita tes, ord ines p a r tiu n to (d e L eg. iii. 3 ) a nd numerou s testimon ie s con firm th ese words. (Cf.

Dionys., v. 21 Sa ll u st, d e 0 rd . rep . i i. 8 ; A u lu s G e l l iu s, v i i. 13 , on the subject of the V ocon ia nl a w a nd the figu ra ti ve expression , t o be lon g to the fifth cl a ss, in Cic., A ca d . ii. I n the

two l a st centu rie s of the R epu blic, then , the centuries a nd cl a sses ex isted a s they h a d formerlydone , a nd rested on the sa m e principle a s the a ncient division of Serviu s. Dionys iu s a ccording ly sa ys : “ The a ssemb ly by centur ies is n o t destroyed, b u t modified ; it h a s becom e more

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644 THE PUN IC WARS FROM 2 64 TO 201.

a ristocra cy h a d a dva n ced so f a r in m a n n ers,th a t even a t the time

when equ a lity w a s procl a im ed a s the prin ciple of Roma n society,

a n ew n obil ity rose on the ru in s of th a t which th e l a ws of Licin iu s,

Pu bl . Philo, a n d Horten siu s h a d destroyed . I f there were still a nyp a trici a n s, the p a trici a te n o longer existed a s a pol itic a l body. I n

the Sen a te a n d in high offices plebei a n s were n ow more n um erou s

tha n the d escen d a n ts of the p a trici a n f a milies . I n 205 the two

con su ls were plebei a n s ; b u t these n ew m en h a d on ly en tered on e

a fter a n other in to the Sen a te ; f a r from m odifying th e spirit of it,

they h a d yielded to it s influ en ce a n d a ccepted th a t a n cien t pol icy

which kept the pu blic within the wise l im i ts of a modera te

dem ocra cy. Comm u n ity of in terest l ed to fa m i ly a ll i a n ces,which

u n ited the n ew n obility with the ol d ; a n d the Rom a n a ristoc

ra cy fou n d itself n ot destroyed,b u t ren ewed by a l l these popu l a r

l a ws .

Those whose a n cestors h a d striven most vigorou sly for equ a l ity

h a sten ed to ra ise a b a rrier between them selves a n d the people, by

u sin g the j u s im a gin a m which every cu ru le office ga ve .“ When

som e person of high r a n k dies a t Rom e,

”s a ys Polybiu s, he is

solemn ly born e to the Forum with the im a ges of h is a n cestors,preceded by the f a sces a n d a xes , a n d covered with a pra etext a , a

robe of pu rple or gold cloth , a ccording a s he h a d held the,con su l

ship or the pra etorship, the cen sorship, or h a d the trium ph . At

the foot of the or a tors ’ pl a tform they a re pl a ced on ivory se a ts,a n d the son of the dea d m a n rel a tes his exploits, a n d then those

of his a n cestors . Thu s the repu t a tion of grea t citizen s is ever

ren ewed ; their glory becom es immorta l,a n d the people c a n n ot

forget it . The cold Polybiu s him self grows a n im a ted a t the

sight . “ I t is the most excitin g scen e, cries he . I t wa s a lso

th e su rest m ea n s for the n obles t o ju stify their a m bition , even in

the eyes of the people,by cea selessly remin ding them of their

services . Jea lou s a s th e p a trici a te h a d formerly been of‘

keeping

n ew m en from hon ors,they h a d decided sin ce the First Pun ic Wa r

th a t th e a ediles, a n d n ot the trea su ry, shou ld hen ceforth bea r a l l

the expen ses of the pu blic ga m es. Now i t wa s n ecess a ry to p a ss

throu gh the a edileship before a tta in in g the high offices. I t wa s

thu s closin g the a ccess t o them a ga in st a l l who h a d n ot a su fficien t

fortu n e to d a re to ca n v a ss for this on erou s m a gistra cy.

I N TE R N A L STATE or ROME . 645

To the a scen den cy which fortu n e , bi rth , the ha bit of comm a n d,a n d

the exclu sive kn owledge of th e form u l a e of l a w 1 ga ve them,there w a s

a dded,for a grea t n um ber

,the p a tron ship of the a ll ies . E very free

n a tion of Ita ly h a d a t Rom e a p a tron who represen ted it s in terests.

a n d in ca se of n eed defen ded it before the Sen a te or the people .

The Sen a te h a d,it is tru e , reserved the right of ju dgm en t on

differen ces between the town s , of decidin g on the com pl a in ts of

citizen s a ga in st their city,on crim es a ga in st Rom e , on in tern a l

discords,etc. , b u t , gen era lly spea king

,they left this c a re to the

p a tron s,

2 who were a lw a ys chosen from in flu en ti a l fa milies. This

cl ien tship of a city or of a whole people in cre a sed the con sider a tion

a n d the p ower of the n obles in a m a n n er d a ngerou s to l iberty.

Accordingly,in 2 3 4

,a p r a etor p ereg rin u s w a s crea ted , who exten ded

h is ju risdi ction over fore ign ers,a n d who, bein g pl a ced between

them a n d the n obles , restra in ed the p a tron a ge of the a ll ies within

l im its in which it cou ld on ly b e u sefu l to the Repu blic .

From a n other poin t of view this in stitu tion h a d gra ve soci a l

con sequ en ces. The p ra etor p eregrinu s , n ot being a ble to a ccord to

foreign ers the ben efits of the civil l a ws of Rom e, wa s obliged t o

seek,a m on g the ru les of right or prin ciples of n a tu ra l equ ity

,

common to m a ny n a tion s,which con stitu ted a n ew ju ridic a l dom a in ,

th a t of the right of n a tion s. Then ceforth the j u s gen tiu m did n o t

cea se t o m a ke in roa ds u pon the j u s civile, or pecu l i a r right of

Rom e, the n a rrow en closu re of which it fin a lly c a rried by storm ,

a n d with it fell the privileges of the Qu irites.Thu s

,sin ce the l a ws of Horten siu s, the con stitu tion h a d b e

com e more democra tic,

a n d still the a ristocra cy h a d been re

org a n ized. The p a trici a te h a d been destroyed a s a privileged

c a ste ; the n obility w a s a llowed to con tinu e a s a cl a ss in vested

with hon or a ble distin ction .3 I n a word

,the l a ws were democra tic

,

the cu stom s were n ot ; a n d this con tra st,f a r from being a c a u se

A fter F l a viu s (p. 4 0 9) th e nobles h a d in vented new form u l a e ; b u t they were divu lgeda bout 20 0 , j u s A em il ia n um. (Pompon iu s, on the Dig . I. i i. 2 ,

2 Cl a u d ii beca m e the pa tron s of th e inha bita nts of M essin a ; M in u t ia n u s o f fifteen Umbri a ntribes the M a rce ll i of the Sici l i a n s the F a b ii of th e A ll obroge s ; the Gra cchi of the Spa n i a rdsCa to o f the Ca ppa doc i a n s a nd Cypriotes, e tc. : tum p lebem,

socios, reg n a colere ct col i

l ic-itwm. ( T a c., A n n . i i i .3 The se di stinction s, sa ys Po lybiu s , a re a gre a t e ncoura gem ent to v irtu e ( vi. This w a s

N a po leon ’

s thou ght when he destroyed the feu d a l nobi l ity a nd cre a ted the Legion o f H onor.

646 TH E P UN IC WAR S FROM 264 TO 201.

of wea kn ess to Rome, ga ve her gre a t stren gth, sin ce it thu s u n ited the

a dv a n ta ges of a popu l a r governm en t with those of a n a ristocra tic

st a te, withou t the in conven ien ces occa sion ed by the exclu sive predomin a n ce of on e

’

or other of these politica l form s. I f, however,

the e a rly tribu n es h a d been u n a ble to plu ck the a ristocr a cy ou t

of the hea rt of Rom a n society ; if, desertin g the people, they them

selves h a d gon e -over to the hostile ca m p , — they h a d su ccessors in

the tribu n eship who con tin u ed their work. They h a d a bol ished

cl a sses,a n d h a d on ly left the n obles tha t influ en ce which every

where a tta ches to grea t n a m es a n d t o grea t fortu n es. At the sa m e

tim e the cen sors h a d driven ba ck the freedm en1 in to the fou r city

tribes. The n obility a n d the foreign m a sses were thu s restr a in ed,a n d the tru e Roma n people ru led m a sterfu lly in the Forum , fa ithfu l

to it s gods, it s m a n n ers, a n d it s disciplin e , bec a u se these n ew n eeds ,“

this growin g love of lu xu ry, this contem pt of a n cien t cu stom s

a n d a n cien t beliefs,which we h a ve spoken of a bove, h a d n ot yet

descen ded to the hea rt of the n a tion . This m iddle cl a ss which

h a d con qu ered the Sa mn ites,Pyrrhu s, a n d Ca rth a ge , wa s still a s

devoted, a s bra ve, a n d even a s n um erou s . F or i f the a gr a ri a n l a w

w a s n ot fa ithfu lly observed , a t lea st the w a tchfu ln ess a n d the fin es

of the a edi les preven ted the con cen tra tion of property, whilst the

distribu tion s of la n d m u ltipl ied sm a ll herit a ges a n d form ed th a t

n u rsery of Rom a n soldiers when ce Rom e soon dra ws twen ty-three

legion s .

This period is th e best a ge of Rom a n l iberty. Bu t i t m u st

b e well u n derstood th a t this l iberty wa s n ot like th a t which we

love ; for the Rom a n citizen ,whom we pictu re to ou rselves so

prou d of his rights, wa s n ot su re of his socia l r a n k , which a t

ea ch lu strum the cen sor might deprive him of withou t tri a l, or

of the in depen den ce of a priva te l ife in to which the s a m e m a gis

tr a te pen etr a ted , a rm ed with th e severities of h is irrespon sible

m a gistra cy. This repu blica n wa s the serf of the sta te, a n d every

1 L i vy, E pit. xx. The wea lth a m a ssed by the a era rii, a nd the ir con sta nt efforts to spre a d

them se lves throu gh a l l the tribes, n o dou bt contributed to th e a bol ition of the cl a sses. M en

s a w the necessity of restricting the exercise of pol i t ica l rights to the plebe i a n proprietors a n da gr icu l tors, who in tha t qu a l ity were interested in the preserv a tion of the sta te a nd of l iberty ;b u t the a era r iz

'

cea selessly strove a ga in st this l im ita tion , which w a s renewed in v a in in 3 04 , in2 20 , prob a bly in 181, a n d in 168. Clod iu s wished to di stribute them through a ll the tribes.Un der N ero they fi ll ed the equ estri a n order a nd the Sena te. (T a c., A nn. x i ii . 26 ,

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CHAPTE R XXI I I .

THE SECOND PUNIC WAR UP TO THE BATTL E OF CANNA E (218

I . HA NN I BAL I N SPA I N .

F the Sen a te, in a n swer to the a ppea l of Utica a n d the mercen a riesdu rin g the revolt of the a rmies of Ca rth a ge , h a d sen t them

two legion s, it wou ld h a ve been a l l over with the grea t Africa ncity ; Am ilca r wou ld n ot ha ve u n dert a ken the con qu est of Sp a in

,

H a nn ib a l wou ld n ot h a ve a ttempted tha t of I ta ly,a n d in fin ite il ls

wou ld h a ve been sp a red to n umberless popu l a tion s. Rome l a cked

boldn ess . I t wa s n ot respect for good f a ith which st a yed her ;

h er priests a n d a u gu rs wou ld ea sily h a ve fou n d the m e a n s to set

a t rest a con scien ce th a t w a s n ot over scru pu lou s . Bu t on the

m orrow of the Pu n ic Wa r sh e h a d to bin d up h er wou n ds ; a n d a s

she d a red n ot risk a grea t in iqu ity, she con ten ted herself with a

sma ll on e , — the in direct help given t o th e m ercen a ries in Africa

a n d the sei zu re of Sa 1d in ia . A m ilca r h a d tim e to sa ve Ca rth a ge

a n d to dou ble her em pire .

1

I n the yea r 218, on the eve of the Secon d Pu n ic Wa r,the

possession s of the Ca rth a gin i a n s were dispersed from th e Cyren a ica

t o the mou ths of the T a gu s a n d Dou ro, on a l in e of from eight to

n in e hu n dred lea gu es, b u t n a rrow , withou t depth, a n d lia ble a t a ny

momen t to b e cu t , e ither by th e Africa n n om a ds in their ra pid

in cu rsion s, or by a n en em y who cou l d a lw a ys fin d m ea n s t o l a n d

on this imm en se stretch of coa st. The Rom a n Repu blic,on the

1 F or the Ca rth a gin i a n n a m es I now follow the u su a l orthogra phy. I f H a n n iba l,H a sdrub a l, A m il ca r were obscure person a ges, it wou ld b e n eedf u l to ca l l them by

'

their tru en a m e s, which a re given in Pu n ic in scription s, H a n n ib a a l , A zrou b a a l , a nd A hm ilca r or A bm ilca r ,

— the L a tin form ,A m i lca r, a n swering to two diff erent n a mes, one of wh ich sign ifies brother

( a h) , the other serv a nt ( a bd ) , of M el ka r t. T o write H a sdru b a l a nd H a m i lca r is a re a l m ista ke , for the a spira tion in these two n a m es is too feeble to b e m a rked by a n 71 ; on the otherha n d

,it is very strong in H a n n ib a l, whi ch ou ght to h a ve one. (N ote by M . d e Sa u l cy.)

TH E SE COND PUN IC WA R FROM 218 TO 216 . 649

con tr a ry , presen ted th e a spect o f a regu l a rly con stitu ted em pire,

Rom e pl a ced in the m iddle of the pen in su l a ; the pen in su l a itself,protected by three se a s ; a n d . beyon d these three se a s

,l ike so m a ny

ou tposts gu a rdin g the a ppro a ches of l.ta ly,— I llyri a

,when ce the

legion s kept w a tch over M a cedon i a a n d Greece ; Sicily , when ce

they observed Africa ; a n d Co rsica a n d Sa rdin i a,in the m iddle o f

th e roa d to Spa in or Ga u l , a n d comm a n din g the n a viga tion of the

Tyrrhen i a n Se a .

Wha t a dded force t o this ru le w a s tha t throu ghou t the grea t

est pa rt of I ta ly it wa s a ccepted , i f n o t with love, a t le a st

with resign a tion .

1 Poor a n d w a rlike n a tion s prefer to pa y tribu te

with blood r a ther th a n with gold ; a n d Rom e on ly a sked soldiers

of the Ita li a n s . I n exch a n ge for their stormy in depen den ce she

h a d given them pea ce ,2 which fa vored the developm en t of popu l a

tion ,a gricu ltu re , a n d comm erce . They were no longer in drea d

lest som e n ight a hostile troop shou ld com e a n d rea p thei r fields,

strip the ir .vin es a n d fru it—trees , ca rry off their flocks,bu rn their

vill a ges, a n d le a d the ir wom en a n d children in to sl a very . Rom e

h a d pu t a n en d to these evils a n d terrors , which before her tim e

h a d been d a ily ren ewed a t m a ny poin ts in I ta ly . H er cen sors

covered the pen in su l a with roa ds, dra in ed the m a rshes , bu ilt bridges

over the rivers,a n d erected tem ples , porticos , a n d sewers in th e

Ita lia n cities, so th a t Rom e w a s n ot the on ly on e to ben efit by the

spoils of the world .3 To defen d the coa sts a ga in st the descen ts of

l L i vy sa ys of the a l lies before Ca n n a e : j usto et mod em /o mycb a n tu r imperio ; n ee

a bnu eb a n r, qu a d u n um vin cu lmn fi d ei es l , vzzcl iorib us p a rere (xx i i . a n d Po lybi u s , spe a king ofH a n n iba l ’ s ra v a ges , exten ded a s f a r a s Ca m pa n i a without a s ingle town go in g over to h im

,sa ys

’

E § a w Ka i fl a pa a qp rjva tr'

(i v T LS‘ TY

‘

W Ka rén hqgw Ka i Ka r a gt'

coo w 7ra pé ‘

r ois‘ o vyh dxo t s‘ 70 5Pwya imu

woh tr eép a roc (i i i . See in L ivy the con du ct of N a ple s a nd P a e stum a fter T h r a s im e ne ; of

Ca n u sium ,Ven u s i a , N u ceria , a nd A cerra e a fter Ca n n a e ; of Pe te l ia , Con senti a , a nd Corton a

a fter th e defection of B ru tt ium ; the hero ic res ista nce o f the so ldiers of Pra e neste a nd Peru gi ain Ca sil in um , a n d the coura ge of a cohort of Pe l ign ia n s, who were the first to e nter the ca mp

of I I a n n o. I n Sicily a n d in Sa rdin i a , whe n the pra etors dem a nd money a nd provis ion s for the irsoldiers , th e Sen a te reply tha t they ha ve nothing to sen d them , a nd the a ll ies ha ste n to fu r

n ish a l l tha t is n ece ss a ry , (Livy , xxxi i i. F or Pe tel ia , compa re espec i a l ly Po ly-b iu s, vi i.fr. 1. I t res isted for e leven m onth s, a n d the inha bita nts a te even le a ther a n d the b a rk of trees.I t w a s two squ a dron s o f Sa m n ites (L i vy , xxvii . 4 4 ) who led the m essengers of H a sdrub a l toN ero , a nd tha t genera l in h is m a rch from Ca n u sium to the M eta uru s w a s a ble to show h isso ldiers qu a concu rs -

u , qu a a dm ir a l ion e, q uo f a rm-e hom in u m iter su u m celeb ra tu r. A ll a long

the route n umerou s vo lu nteers jo in ed h im . F in a l ly, we know tha t a n a rm y a n d a fleet werefurn ished to Scipio by th e a ll ie s.

2 By forbidding w a rs between town a nd town .

3 The consu lship o f Corn . Cethegu s w a s pa ssed in dra in ing a .pa rt of the Pontine m a rshes

TH E PUN IC WAR S FROM 264 TO 201.

en em ies or pir a tes, the Sen a te h a d l a tely l in ed them with m a ritimecolon ies ; to protect the It a li a n m ercha n ts they h a d decl a red wa ra ga in st the I llyri a n s a n d Ca rth a ge .

1 Som e a m on g the n obles m a dea n oble u se of their title of p a tron s of town s t o ca rry ou t imm en se

works for the profit of the a llies. Thu s Cu rins h a d becom e the

protector of Re a te by cu ttin g a ca n a l throu gh the rock of a m ou n

t a in t o lea d . in to the N era the overflow of L a ke V el inu s .2 I f

we still possessed the secon d Dec a de of Livy, we shou ld n o dou bt

fin d there m a ny fa cts simil a r t o these, which wou ld prove tha t

this dom in a tion , thou gh esta blished by force, a n d som etim es

even by violen ce a n d perfidy, wa s excu sa ble by the ben efits it

con ferred .

The glory of Rom e,m oreover, wa s reflected u pon the I t a lia n s,

a s th a t of Athen s a n d Sp a rt a h a d been a n . hon or t o Greece. All,

in spite of the diff eren ces of their con dition,closed rou n d her a t

the n ews of a G a llic in va sion , a n d we sh a ll see the victoriou s H a n

n ib a l rem a in -in g two yea rs in the m idst of Ita ly withou t fin ding

a sin gle a lly there . Time h a d cemen ted th e edifice con stru cted by

the Sen a te du rin g th e Sa m n ite w a r a n d h a d u n ited a l l the Ita li a n

n a tion s in to a‘

com p a ct a n d imm ov a ble m a ss. I n the l a st cou n tries

su bdu ed, however, there still lingered a m on g the popu l a ce, whose

p a triotism is often m ore disin terested th a n th a t of the grea t, regrets

for lost l iberty .3 Bu t everywhere the n obility h a d freely ra llied

rou n d the Rom a n s,a s a t V ol sin ii

, Ca pu a , Nol a , T a ren tum ,a n d in

Lu c a n i a ; f a m ily a lli a n ces between this It a l i a n n obility a n d tha t of

Rom e drew these ties closer . At Ven ice the n obles of th e Golden

Book scorn ed those of the m a in l a n d; b u t a t Rom e A p. Cl a u diu s took

sicca ta e, a g erqu e ex fis f a ctu s. (L i vy, E p it. x lv i.) F or a l a ter epoch see the work s of A em .

Sca u ru s in Cisa lpin e G a u l du rin g h is cen sorship (Stra bo, V. i. a n d in L i vy (xl i. 27) thelong enum era tion of con struction s m a de in R ome a nd in severa l town s of Ita ly by the cen sorsof the ye a r 174 .

1 During the wa r of the m ercen a ries. L a ter, in 179 , a s Ta rentum a n d B ru n d u sium com

pl a ined of the Il lyri a n pira tes, th e Sen a te a rm ed a fleet ; they did the sa m e for the M a ssa liotes,

whose comm erce w a s trou bled by the L igu ri a n pira tes. (L i vy, x1.2 Cic., a d A tt. i v. 15. See pa ges 454 a n d 457. The R om a n s h a d a lso lowered the leve l

of the L a ke of A lba , wh ich frequ ently thre a ten ed to in u nd a te L a tium .

3 Un us vel a l morbu s inva ser a t omn es I ta l ia e civita tes, u i p lebes a b op tum a tibu s d issen tiren t

sen a tu s R oma n is f a veret, et p lebs a d P oenos rem tr a heret. (L i vy, xx i v. A t Ca pu a , durin gthe revolt, it wa s m en of

'

the lower cl a ss who governed. Th e a uthor of the movemen t wa s ,it is tru e, a n oble , b u t before the s iege one h u ndred a nd twe lve kn ights p a ssed over to theR om a ns.

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652 TH E PUN IC WARS FROM 264 TO 201.

tribes h a d been con qu ered, b u t n ot su bdu ed ; a n d the R om a n

gen era ls cou ld m a ke a n a ppe a r a n ce there a s l ibera tors of the

pen in su l a m u ch m ore ea sily th a n H a nn iba l in It a ly .

1

H a milca r h a d brou ght u p his son s in h a tred Of Rom e . These

a re fou r lion s’ whelps

,

”s a id he, poin tin g t o them , who will grow

u p for her ru in ; a n d H a n n ib a l in his Ol d a ge u sed to tell K ing

An tiochu s th a t before settin g ou t for

Sp a in ,his f a ther

,in the m idst of a

so lem n sa crifice,h a d m a de him swea r

etern a l h a tred to the Roma n s .

From the time of his a rriv a l in the

ca m p of H a sdru ba l, s a ys Livy, he

drew a l l eyes tow a rds h im . Old

soldiers thou ght they sa w H a m ilc a r

in h is you th a g a in there w a s on his

f a ce the sa m e expression of en ergy,the s a m e fi re in his gl a n ce . H e

presen tly n eeded n o rem em br a n ce Of

his f a ther t o ga in their fa vor.N ever w a s there a m in d more fitted

for two Opposite thin gs, t o Obey

a n d to comm a n d ; so th a t it wou ld

h a ve been difficu lt to decide whichcherished him more, the gen er a l or

the a rmy. H a sdru ba l n ever chose

a ny other le a der when there w a s

some vigorou s blow to b e stru ck ; a n d u n der n o other did the

soldiers Show more con fiden ce. In credibly hold in con fron ting

d a n ger, he ret a in ed ma rvellou s pru den ce in peril . N o la bor

we a ried his body or prostra ted his spirit . H e su pported hea t a n d

cold equ a l ly well. F or his food, he sa tisfied n eed, b u t n ever

plea su re . H is w a kefu ln ess a n d his sleep did n ot depen d u pon d a y

a n d n ight. When his work w a s fin ished,he sou ght repose n either

HA N N I BA L.2

a .

1 See Polybiu s ( ix. 11, a n d x. 18, 3 5) on the ha u ghtin ess a n d ex a ction s of the Ca rth a gin i a ngenera ls. H a sdru ba l-C i sco h a d forced I nd ib il is, M a nd on iu s, a nd E d eco to pa y h im gre a tsum s, a nd t o give him the ir wives a nd d a u ghters a s hosta ges ; a n d these l a tter h a d mu ch tocompl a in of in th e con du ct of the Ca rth a gin i a n s tow a rds them .

2 B u st in th e N a ple s M u seum . Proba bly the on ly thing a bout it be longing to H a nn iba lis the n a me it bea rs.

TH E SE COND PUN IC WA R FROM 218 TO 216 . 653

on a soft cou ch n or in s ilen ce . Often he wa s seen ,covered with

a soldier’

s cloa k, stretched on the e a rth between the a dv a n ced sen

tin els or in the m idst Of the ca m p . H is dress did n ot distin g uish

him from his com p a n ion s ; h is who le lu xu ry wa s in h is horses a n d

a rm s . At on ce the best of horsem en a n d of foot-soldiers , he wen t

in to the fra y first, a n d retired from i t l a st . So m a ny good qu a l ities

were a ccom p a n ied by grea t vices, fierce cru elty,a m ore th a n Pu n i c

perfidy, n o fra n kn ess, n o m odesty, n o fe a r Of the gods,n o respect

for the fa ith Of a n o a th , n o rel igion . With this m ixtu re Of virtu es

a n d vices h e served three yea rs u n der H a sdru b a l withou t n eglecting

a nyth in g tha t a fu tu re gen era l of the Ca rth a gini a n a rmies ou ght to

see a n d he a r .” 1

Livy certa in ly exa gger a tes H a n n ib a l ’ s vices , a n d on ly pu ts in

rel ief the qu a l ities Of the soldier.‘

The history Of the Second Pu n icWa r will show u s the gre a t ca pt a in . He ir of the a m bition Of the

B a rc a s,with m ore gen iu s a n d boldn ess , H a n n ib a l strove t o crea te

for him self a t Rome’

s expen se a n em pire which he w a s n ot stron g

en ou gh t o crea te a t the expen se of Ca rth a ge .2 A n I ta lia n w a r

w a s , m oreover, a gloriou s m e a n s of pu ttin g a n en d to the strife

which h is f a m ily a n d his p a rty were su st a in in g ; a n d in spite Of

trea ties, in Spite of the c a u tiou s p a rt of the Sen a te,

3 he b eg a n it .

H e a sked n othin g of Ca rth a ge, a n d pu t tru st on ly in him sel f a n d his

Own ; then ,bringin g over Sp a n i a rds a n d G a u ls on his rou te

,he

crossed the Alps . H is con du ct before Sa gu n tum the choice of the

rou te which he took, so a s n ot to pl a ce himself in depen den ce on

the fleets of Ca rth a ge ; hi s promises t o h is troops ;4 h is tre a ty with

Philip ; the forlorn sta te in which Ca rth a ge left him a fter Ca n n a e ;the a lm ost u n lim ited power which , when con qu ered, he yet seized

in his own cou n try, — show his secret design s, a n d wh a t he

1 [This cha ra cter seems written by L i vy pure ly from a rh etorica l po int of view, a nd

determ ined simply from the R om a n view of the grea t w a r. Su ch fee l ings a s j u stice to a

noble foe, or re a l interest in the cha ra cter of the wonderfu l Phoen ici a n , were qu ite fore ign to

the vu lg a r pa triotism of the histori a n . E d .)2 Ju venemfla gr a n tem cup id in e regm

'

. (L ivy, xx i.3 F a biu s sa id : o fzfiéva dgi ohdywu. (Polyh., i i i . I n L i vy (xxx. 2 2) the a mb a ss a dors

a greed, a fter Z a m a, th a t the w a r w a s on ly between R ome a nd H a nn ib a l, a nd tha t Ca rtha ge h a d

no pa rt in it . T he Pu n ic w a rs a re in deed genera l ly a wa r of ra ces b u t the secon d is essenti a llythe confl ict of H a nn ib a l a nd R om e.

4 See p. 659. A s reg a rds the tre a ty with Phi l ip, it sta ted tha t Ita ly shoul d be long toH a nn iba l a nd the Ca rtha gin i a n s ; to Phil ip a ll the booty.

654 TH E PUN IC WARS FROM 264 TO 201.

wou l d h a ve ma de of tha t cou n try ’s l iberty h a d he retu rn ed a s

victor. The Secon d Pu n ic Wa r is on ly a du e l between H a n n i

b a l a n d Rom e ; a n d in this a ssertion we do n ot m e a n t o dim in

ish th e im porta n ce of the stru ggle , beca u se it will show wha t

strength a n d in exh a u stible resou rces there a re in the gen iu s

Of a gre a t m a n,a s in the in stitu tion s a n d m a n n ers of a grea t

people .

1

Before comm en cing this w a r it w a s n ecess a ry to secu re

Spa in . The Sou th a n d E a st were su bdu ed ; b u t the m ou n ta in eers

of the cen tre a n d the u pper v a lley of the T a gu s were still resist

in g . H a n n ib a l cru shed the Olca d es in the v a lley of the Xu ca r

the V a cca e a n s in tha t of the Dou ro,a n d the Ca rpet a n i on

th e b a n ks Of th e T a gu s in the en viron s of Toledo The

Lu sit a n ia n s a n d the tribes of G a lici a con tin u ed free, a n d H a n

n ib a l took ca re of w a sting a ga in st them his tim e a n d forces . A S

fa r a s the E bro Sp a in seem ed su bm issive ; this wa s su fficien t for

his design s .

I n the trea ty im posed by Rom e on H a sdru ba l,the indepen den ce

of Sa gu n tum t o the sou th of the E bro h a d been form a lly gu a ra n teed .

I n order to force on wa r , H a n n iba l besieged tha t pl a ce , which wou ld

h a ve served a s a n a rsen a l a n d a poin t of su pport to the legion s if

h e h a d left them tim e for a rrivin g in Sp a in . This con du ct

w a s u n ju st, b u t‘

cl ever .2 Sa gu n tu m ,a Greek comm erci a l city

,h a lf

w a y between the E bro a n d Ca rth a gen a , ca m e in to com petition on

this co a st with the . Ca rth a gin ia n m erch a n ts . H a n n ib a l desired

to Offer it them a s a victim,in exch a n ge for the wa r which he

forced them t o a ccept . By. the pill a ge Of on e of the l a rgest

cities in the pen in su l a h e reckon ed a lso on bu yin g beforeh a n d

the devotion of h is soldiers. Rom e sen t some depu ties to h im ;

he refu sed to receive them , u nder th e pretext th a t he cou ld n ot

a n swer for their lives if they risked them selves a m on g so m a ny

soldiers who were b a rb a ri a n s. The depu ties wen t t o Ca rth a ge

t o dem a n d th a t the a u d a ciou s gen era l shou ld b e delivered u p t o

them .

1 Polybiu s s a ys th is : “ After Ca n n a e , wha t m a de R ome trium ph wa s the vita lity of its

in stitution s,” 70 13 woh t r eép a roc za usmn ( i i i.2[I t ca nnot possibly ha ve been rega rded u n ju st by those who remembered the R om a n

a n nex a tion of Sa rdin i a . A ll w a rs a re begu n by vio l a ting tre a ties imposed by previou s necess ities. E d .]

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656 TH E PUN IC WARS FR OM 264 TO 201.

fea r of fire , to throw a w a y h is a rm s a n d expose him self u n de

fen ded to the blow of the en emy .

”

These a tt a cks took pl a ce before the a rriv a l of the Rom a n

depu ties a t the ca m p of H a n n ib a l a n d a t Ca rth a ge . They bega n

a ga in a fter the brea kin g off of the n egoti a tion s , a n d to excite thea rdor of the soldiers

,H a n n ib a l prom ised them the whole booty

of the city. “ Du rin g the tru ce the Sa g u n t in es h a d r a ised a n ew

R E MA I N S OF T H E THE A T R E OF SA G UN’I‘

UM .1

w a l l behin d the brea ch , b u t the a ssa u lts beca me m ore terrible th a never ; the cou n tless Pu n ic a rmy su rrou n ded a lm ost the en tire circu it.

The besieged being n o lon ger a ble to defen d the a ppro a ch to the ir

w a ll , a l a rge open ing wa s m a de by which the en emy en tered the

city. Bu t a hou se-to-hou se fight bega n ; a n d the Ca rtha gin i a n s

h a vin g su cceeded in getting hold of a height, su rrou n ded it with

a w a ll, a n d m a de it a cita del wh ich they held in the city itself ,

1 De L a borde , V oya ge d ’

E sp a gn e.

TH E SE COND PUN IC WA R FROM 218 210. 657

a n d which comm a n ded it . The Sa g u n t in es on their s ide covered

with a n ew w a ll wh a t they still held of the ir city . Shu t u p m ore

closely d a y a fter d a y, they sa w their destitu tion in crea sin g a n d the

hope of su ccor v a n ishin g . Con fiden ce retu rn ed for a While when

it bec a m e kn own th a t H a n n iba l w a s obliged t o m a rch a g a in st

the Oret a n s a n d the Ca rpet a n s , who broke ou t in to revol t a t the

severity of the levies. Bu t Sa gu n tum ga in ed n othin g from the

a bsen ce of the gen era l ; M a h a rb a l , ch a rged with th e prosecu tion

of the siege , showed su ch a ctivity, th a t n e ither besiegers n or

besieged were con sciou s of their chief’

s a bsen ce . Then two m en,

Alcon of Sa gu n tu m a n d the Sp a n i a rd A lorcu s,tried t o brin g

a bou t a n a ccommod a tion . The con dition s dem a n ded by the con

qu eror were su ch tha t Alcon did n ot even d a re t o report them .

H a n n iba l left to the in ha bita n ts on ly l ife a n d two ga rm en ts

they m u st del iver u p a rms,riches

,lea ve the ir ci ty

,a n d with

dra w t o a pl a ce which he wou ld poin t ou t . A lorcu s, who h a d

form erly b een th e gu est of the Sa g u n t in es , O ffered t o ca rry these

h a rd terms t o . them . H e a dva n ced in open d a y tow a rds the

en em ies ’ sen tin els,t o whom h e ga ve u p his a rms, a n d , h a vi ng

crossed the en tren chm en ts,h a d him self con du cted t o the chief

m a gistr a te,who in trodu ced h im to the sen a te . H e h a d sca rcely

fin ished spe a kin g, when th e lea din g sen a tors ca u sed a fu n era l pile

t o b e ra ised in the pu blic pl a ce , on i t they threw th e gold a n d

Silver of the pu blic trea su ry,then their own ,

a n d l a stly them

selves . This sight h a d a lre a dy sprea d con stern a tion in th e crowd

when cries a rose ; a tower fell, a n d a Ca rth a gini a n cohort, d a shin g

forwa rds on the ru in s,in form ed th e comm a n der-in -chief th a t

the pl a ce w a s divested Of it s defen ders . H a n n ib a l h a sten ed in

with a l l h is troops, a n d comma n ded a l l to b e sl a in who were

of a n a ge to ca rry a rm s,“a cru el mea su re , sa ys Livy,

b u t

it s n ecessity wa s proved by the even t ; for how cou ld m en b e

sp a red who bu rn ed them selves in their hou ses with their wives a n d

children,or who

,with a rms in the ir ha n ds, fou ght to the l a st

brea th (219)

1 L ivy,xx i. 6-14 . H e sa ys tha t a l l the defenders of the pl a ce were k ill ed, bel l i j u re (xx i.

b u t he him self re l a tes l a ter on tha t one of th e first ca re s of the Sc ipios w a s to ra n som the

Sa gu n t in es. A ll,therefore

,h a d not perished. N e ither w a s Sa gu n t um de stroyed , for the

Scipios took it in 2 15, a n d the R om a n s m a de a co lony of it , which wa s stil l ex isting u n derV OL . I . 4 2

658 TH E PUN IC WAR S FR OM 2 64 To 201.

Thi s heroic resist a n ce , of which Spa in a ffords other exa mples,

h a d l a sted eight m on ths . A p a rt Of the riches from Sa gu n tum

sen t to Ca rth a ge redu ced the n um bers of the pea ce p a rty ; a n d when

a secon d emba ssy ca m e from Rome to dem a n d a solem n repa r a tion ,

it wa s the Rom a n s

whom they a ccu sed

Of viol a tin g trea ties .

The discu ssion wa s

pro lon ged in the Cou n

cil of the An cien ts.

At l a st Fa biu s,hold

ing ou t a fold of his

toga,sa id :

“ I brin g

here pea ce or w a r ;

choose ! Choose

you rself !” w a s the

r e s p o n s e from a l l

sides . “ Well , then ,

wa r !” replied Fa biu s.H a nn iba l h a sten ed

h is prep a r a tion s . H e

sen t fifteen thou sa n d

Sp a n i a rds t o keep g a r

rison in the pla ces

in Africa,

a n d he

c a lled in to Sp a in fi f

teen thou s a n d Af

ric a n s ; both wou ld

serve a s hosta ges for

the fidel ity of the two

cou n tries . H is a rmy

rose to foot, with horse a n d 58 eleph a n ts . A n a v a l

defea t wou ld h a ve irretriev a bly ru in ed h is projects, a n d the fleet

Of Ca rth a ge n o lon ger wa s mistress on the Mediterra n e a n . H e

F IGUR E I N TOG A .

the E mpire . One of its co in s, of very co a rse workm a n ship, represents on the fa ce T iberiu s ;on the reverse a ship’

s prow. I ts ru in s m a y sti ll b e seen ne a r M urviedro (M a ri V eteres) , a nd

the Spa n i a rds th ere su sta ined a s iege in 1811 a ga in st M a rsha l Su chet. T he the a tre bu il t onthe slope of a h i l l wa s then pa rtly destroyed, it s stones ha ving been u sed in the fortifica tion s .

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660 TH E PUN IC WAR S FR OM 264 TO 201.

When b e con ce ived this bold pl a n , H a n n ib a l w a s on ly twen ty

seven ye a rs of a ge ; the a ge of Bon a p a rte a t Lodi .1

I I . H A N N I BA L I N GA UL ; CR OSSI N G OF TH E ALPS.

AF T E R a solem n sa crifice O ffered a t G a des t o M elk a rt,th e gre a t

god of the Phoen ici a n ra ce, H a n n ib a l set ou t from Ca rth a gen a in

the Spring Of the yea r 218,a n d rea ched the b a n k of the E bro

with m en . On the other side of this river th e cou n try

is difficu lt, bristlin g with m ou n t a in s,on e of which , Mon tserr a t,

a bou t feet high,is a lm ost im pr a ctica ble. H e p a ssed with

th e bu lk Of his forces between it a n d the se a,in the direction of

E mporium,whilst det a ched corps wen t tow a rds the n orth-west

t o drive b a ck the m ou n t a in eers in to their high v a lleys . H e w a s

obliged t o fight his wa y throu gh this region , with loss Of twen ty

thou s a n d m en . Moreover, m a ny of h is Spa n ish soldiers deserted,a n d of those who rem a in ed

,a con sider a ble n um ber open ly expressed

their discon ten t . Upon this he vo lu n ta rily sen t b a ck eleven thou

s a n d ; a n d in tru sting t en thou s a n d foot a n d a thou sa n d horse to

H a n n o,a Ca rth a gin i a n Officer

,t o keep the p a sses, he en tered Ga u l

with fifty thou sa n d foot a n d n in e thou s a n d horse , a l l vetera n sol’diers

devoted to h im . Th irty-seven elepha n ts a ccom p a n ied the a rmy.

On lea vin g Ca rth a ge, th e Rom a n a m b a ss a dors wen t t o Ga u l

t o persu a de th e b a rb a ri a n s to close the Pyren a ea n p a sses a ga in st

the Ca rtha gin i a n s. “ At this proposition t o fight for the people

who h a d a b a n don ed Sa g un tu m a n d oppressed the It a li a n Ga u ls,

there a rose in the a ssem bly of the Bebryces (Rou ssi llon ) su ch

l a u ghter,”

s a ys Livy,2 “ m ixed with a n gry cries, th a t the Ol d

m en h a d difficu lty in ca lm in g the you nger.” On the ir retu rn to

Rom e,th e depu ties decl a red tha t in a l l the Tra n sa lpin e cities,

a lso from Polybiu s, whomh e so often copies without a cknowledgment. A ppi a n h a s fo llowedF a biu s Pictor, a lso a contempora ry. Corne l iu s N epos gives very little inform a tion in hi s li vesof H a n n ib a l a n d A m ilca r. The li ves of F a biu s a nd M a rce ll u s in P luta rch a re rich in

deta ils. Sil iu s Ita l ien s h a s pu t L i vy into verse. [L ivy’

s sources often serve to correct Polyb iu s. E d .]

1 Cl inton (F a sti H el l. i i i . 2 0 , 52) pl a ce s h is birth in 24 7. H e w a s then on ly twentysix ye a rs ol d when th e soldiers m a de h im the su ccessor of H a sdruba l, a nd twenty-sevenwhen he su bdu ed Spa in .

2 T a n tu s cum fremit a risus d icitu r a rms . (L i vy, xx i.

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662 TH E PUN IC WAR S FROM 2 64 TO 201.

The n ext d a y five hu n dred Num idi a n s descended th e Rhon e

to reconn oitre the river lower down . They fell in with a recon

n oitrin g p a rty of three hu n dred Rom a n kn ights l ed by Ga llic

gu ides in the pa y Of M a rse il les. The two troops ch a rged. There

retu rn ed on ly three hu n dred N um idi a n s ; the Rom a n s h a d lost a

hu n dred a n d Sixty m en,b u t they h a d rem a in ed m a sters of th e

b a ttle-fiel d .

The qu estion m a y h a ve occu rred to H a n n ib a l ’s m in d whether he

Shou ld pu rsu e his m a rch, or retu rn a ga in st the con su l

, who wa s

r a isin g his ca m p t o com e a n d a tt a ck him . Bu t a victory in Ga u l

wou ld ha ve decided nothing ; besides , a Boi a n chief h a d ju st com e

to the ca m p , O fferin g gu ides a n d the a lli a n ce Of his people .

H a n n ib a l drew f a rther a w a y from the con su l by a scen din g the

river’

s cou rse .l Wh a t rou te did he t a ke ? Here Polybiu s a n d Livy

differ, a n d a fter them a l l m odern writers .2 Polybiu s h a d visited

infl a ted skin s, l ike ou r fi shermen’

s bu oys for n ets, is we l l expl a ined in M . L en théric’

s ch a rm in gbook on th e ol d de lta of the R hone a n d the R om a n rem a in s in Provence.

1[H e m e a nt ev idently to a scen d the V a ll ey of the Du ra nce, which is the m ost southern

a fflu ent of the R hon e, a nd this wou ld ha ve m a de h is jo urney m u ch shorter. H e wa s obligedto ta ke the n ext ri ver-course , tha t of the Isere.— E d .]

2 Ou t Of 90 di sserta tion s which a ppe a red before 183 5, 3 3 of them a re in fa vor of the

L ittle St . B ern a rd , which, ha ving on ly feet of e lev a tion , is the ea s iest p a ssa ge of the

who le cha in ; 2 4 a re for M ou nt G enevre ; 19 for the Gre a t St . B ern a rd ; 11 for M ou nt Cen is ;a nd 3 for M ou nt V i so. H ow m a ny others since tha t d a te The pa ss a ge by the Simplon , whichh a s a lso been n a m ed , H a n n ib a l wou ld h a ve re jected a s too f a r tow a rds the north a n d ea st, a sit wou ld h a ve m a de h im lose m u ch v a lu a ble tim e ; the pa ss a ge by the Gre a t St . B ern a rd isvery diffi cu lt, especi a l ly a t the begin n ing of October. H is I n su b ria n gu ide s mu st ha ve knownthe shortest route , a nd this w a s tha t of the L ittle St . B ern a rd, by which H a n n ib a l a rri vedin a stra ight l ine from the V a ll ey of the Isere to the ne ighborhood of the I n su b re s, h is

a ll ies. T he imm en se detou r which some propose to ga in the R i ver Dur a nce by very d ifficu lt cou ntry, a nd where Scipio, whom he wa s a voiding, wou ld ha ve been a ble from M a r

se i l les e ither to hinder h im or come up with him , m a de him debou ch by M ou nt G enevre or

M ou nt V i so on the l a n ds of L igures Ta urin i , the enem ies of his a l l ies. F rom this side h e h a dt o fe a r tha t th e T a urin i, directly thr e a ten ed by hi s a pproa ch, wou ld ha ve summ oned to themse lves the m a ss of the Li guri a n popu l a tion of tha t region . H is gu ides cou ld not ha ve po intedou t t o h im su ch a route. H is a im w a s to re a ch Ita ly a s qu ickly a s poss ible , a nd to descendinto a friendly cou ntry in order to ha ve time to refresh his a rmy before fighting. Points of

stra tegy ou ght t o prev a i l over geogra phica l a dv a nta ges, wh ich , m oreover, a re u ncerta in .

H owever, the theory of th e p a ssa ge by M ou nt G enevre h a s fou n d a ga in qu ite l a tely som e

c lever defen ders in M .Desj a rdin s ( Ge’

ogra phie d e l a G a u le R om a ine, vol . i. pp. 86 a nd

H en n ebert (op . cit. vol . ii p. 4 3 et seq) . W ithout wishing t o dra w a ny con clu s ion re l a ti ve toH a n n iba l ’ s cross ing, I notice the fa ct th a t the route by the L ittle St . B ern a rd wa s so mu chem ployed from high a ntiqu ity, th a t it h a d been con secra ted by a .m ega l ith ic m on ument.O n the m ost e lev a ted po int of the pa ss , a t a he ight of feet, ex ists a crom lech , or circleof ra i sed stones, wh ich is two hu ndred a nd thirty feet in di a meter, a nd which the routecrosses. There h a s been fou nd no tra ce of sepu lture or worship, a nd it cou ld not b e a

pl a ce of meeting for the deputies of the ne ighboring peoples. Wh a t does th is monument

TH E SE COND PUN IC WA R FROM 218 TO 216. 66 3

the pl a ces a n d qu estion ed the mou n t a in eers who h a d seen the

expedition p a ss ; h is n a rra tive ou ght t o b e followed ; u nh a ppily he

does not rem ove a l l the difficu lties,which will dou btless rem a in

in su rm ou n ta ble .1 Besides

,whether H a n n ib a l crossed by Mou n t

Cen is , Viso, Genevre, or the Little St . Bern a rd is of sm a l l con

sequ en ce to history , which is a bove a l l in terested in the resu l t ;n a m ely , the Alps boldly crossed by a l a rge a rmy .

After fou r d a ys’ m a rch , H a nn iba l en tered “ Isle of the A 110

b roges,” which is form ed by the Rhon e a n d Isere . Two brothers,

in this cou n try, were dispu ting for the su preme power ; he took

the p a rt of the elder,helped him t o conqu er, a n d received in

retu rn food a n d clothing, Of which the soldiers wou ld soon h a ve

su ch n eed . The su ccessfu l chief,with a l l h is b a rb a ri a n s

, a ccom pa

n ied H a n n ib a l a cross the pl a in , to the very foot Of the m ou n t a in s.

Alrea dy were the Alps in sight,with the ir etern a l sn ows a n d

threa ten in g pe a ks . Bu t H a n n iba l h a d ca u sed th e speech of the

Boi a n depu ties t o b e tra n sl a ted to h is troops,

— their prom ise of

gu iding the a rm y by a Short a n d su re rou te , the pictu re which they

drew of the m a gn ificen ce a n d richn ess Of the cou n try beyond the

Alps. Thu s the sight of these dre a ded m ou n ta in s, f a r from depress

in g their Spi rits, a n im a ted the sol d iers 2 . a s i f they sa w the goa l Of

the wa r,a s i f in crossin g them they wou ld b e, a s H a n n iba l expressed

it, sc a ling the very w a lls of Rom e .

I t wa s in the m iddle of October th a t the Ca rth a gin ia n s en tered

a m on g the Alps .3 The sn ow a lre a dy hid the p a stu res a n d p a ths,a n d n a ture seem ed stru ck with torpor. A p a le a u tum n su n on ly

p a rti a lly dissip a ted the thick fog which every m orn ing en veloped

the a rmy ; a n d the lon g cold n ights,distu rbed by the solemn sou n ds

commemora te ? I d o n ot know. M . A l . B ertra n d, the le a rn ed cura tor of the M u seum of

St. G erm a in,thi nks this crom lech very a ncient. I t is one proof the m ore tha t thi s pa ss w a s

known a nd u sed before H a n n ib a l.1 [On the other ha nd, it is the opin ion of N eum a n n (Da s Z eita l ter d er P u n . Krieg e,

p. 286) th a t Livy fo ll ows better sources, a nd is ou r be st a uth ority.— E d .]2 Po lybiu s m a kes light beforeh a n d of the decl a m a tion s written a n d u nwritten a bout the

terrors Of the Al ps : moles prop e ca elo immixta e, e tc ,The sight o f high m ou nta in s, f a r from

repel l ing, a ttra cts. Spa in , besides, a n d the Pyrenees , whence sta rted H a nn ib a l ’s so ldiers,

conta in pea k s a s impos ing a s those of the A lps. T he Cerro d e M u l ha cen , which they h a dse e n in B a etica , is on ly feet less tha n M ont B l a nc.

3 Ide ler., Chronol . vol . 1. p. 24 1. Da u de d e L a v a lette (R echerches su r l’

hz’

stoir e d a p a ss

a ge d’

A nn ib a l d’

E sp a gne en I t a l ie) m a kes him re a ch the summ it of the A lps on the 26 th of

October.

664 TH E PUN IC WAR S FROM 264 TO 201.

of di sta n t a v a l a n ches a n d the roa r of torren ts in ch a sm s f a r below,

chilled the l im bs of these m en Of Africa . Y et the cold a n d sn ow,

the precipices a n d th e u n trodden pa ths,were n ot the gre a test

Obsta cles ; for the m ou n ta in eers a ttem pted severa l times to b a r the

rou te a ga in st the Ca rth a gin ia n s . On e d a y H a n n ib a l fou n d him self

in fron t Of a defile gu a rded by the Allobroges, a n d which w a s

comm a n ded i n it s whole len gth by perpen dicu l a r rocks crown ed

with en em ies . H e stopped a n d,h a d a ca m p pitched ; fortu n a tely

the G a ll ic gu ides in formed him th a t a t n ight the b a rba ri a n s wou ld

retir e to their town . Before the n ext d a y he held the defile

a n d heights with light troops. Stil l there w a s a bloody fight,

a n d'

terrible con fu sion for som e hou rs. M en ,horses

,bea sts of

bu rden rolled down the precipices ; a n u m ber of Ca rth a gin i a n s

perished . However,the a rm y p a ssed, took th e town , a n d fOIm d

in i t victu a ls a n d horses,which repl a ced those they h a d lost .

Fa rther on a nother tribe a ppea red before H a n n iba l,ca rryin g

br a n ches a s a sign of pea ce,a n d Offering host a ges a n d gu ides.

H e a ccepted them,b u t took c a re n ot

.

to b e dece ived . The

c a v a l ry a n d eleph a n ts,the very sight of which frighten ed th e b a r

b a ria n s, form ed th e a dv a n ced gu a rd ; the in fa n try w a s in the

rea r,the b a gga ge in th e cen tre . On the secon d d a y the a rmy

en tered a n a rrow gorge,where th e m ou n t a in eers a tt a cked it, hidden

in the cl efts of the rocks . “

F or a n ight H a n n ib a l w a s cu t Off

from his a dva n ced gu a rd ; it w a s the l a st a tt a ck . After nin e

d a ys’ m a rchin g he rea ched the summ it of th e p a ss, a n d there

stopped two d a ys t o give rest t o his troops. From then ce he

po in ted ou t t o them the rich pl a in s of the PO, a n d in the

dista n ce th e w a y tow a rds Rom e, their prom ised prey. The

descen t w a s difficu lt ; in a ttem ptin g t o cross a gl a cier covered

a fresh with sn ow, m en a n d horses were en t a n gled . E lsewhere the

p a th wa s so n a rrow th a t the eleph a n ts cou ld n ot p a ss : three

d a ys were lost in m a king a roa d broa d a n d fi rm en ou gh for

them . At la st, fifteen d a ys a fter his depa rtu re from the

Rhon e,he

’

rea ched th e l a n ds of the I n su b res, in the vicin ity of

the territory of the T a u rin i .1 Th e crossin g h a d cost him , by

h is own a dmission ,twen ty thou sa n d .m en . H e h a d rem a in in g

1 eis r c’

z wepi 76V [I cifiou web’

fa Ka i TO 763 1) fi ve épfip a w (Polyh., i i i .

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TH E SE COND PUN IC WA R FROM 218 TO 216 . 665

on ly twen ty thou s a n d foot a n d six thou sa n d horse .

l N a poleon ,

who pl a ced H a n n ib a l higher th a n a ny other gen era l of a n tiqu i ty,

s a id : H e bou ght his b a ttle-fiel d a t the price of h a l f h is

a rm y.

I I I . HA N N I B A L I N CI SA LPI N E GA UL ; BA TTLE or T I CI N US ;

BA T T LE OF T R E B I A

HA N N I BA L h a d t a ken five m on ths t o d o the 400 le a gu es which

sepa r a te Ca rth a gen a from Tu n is ; he h a d , therefore , m a rched on the

a ver a ge a t the ra te of on ly three lea gu es a d a y. This slow pa ce,

which is qu ite explic a ble , h a d given the Rom a n s tim e to stren gthen

their position s in Cisa lpin e G a u l so a s to restra in Ga lli c tu rbu len ce .

2

So, in spite of the prom ises of th e Boi a n depu ties, n o people

h a sten ed to join th e Ca rth a gin i a n s ; besides , fa ith f ul even in the

presen ce of the legion s t o thei r heredita ry h a tes, these tribes

con tin u ed n a tu r a lly hostile . The T a u rin i , a t this very tim e,

a tt a cked the I n su b res . H a n n iba l proposed to form a n a ll i a n ce

with them , a n d on their refu sin g took their ca pit a l by a ss a u lt ;a l l who were in i t were sl a in . This ra pid a n d sa n gu in a ry expedition a ttra cted some volu n teers, b u t the Rom a n legion s were ca m p

in g on the ba n ks of the Po ; the Ga u ls before join in g H a n n ib a l

w a ited for victory t o decl a re in h is fa vor . Sa tisfied , moreover,with h a vin g a ttra cted the Ca rth a gin i a n a rmy in to I ta ly , they d e

sired to l et these two grea t n a tion s , whose h a n d weighed so he a vily

on a l l the b a rb a ri a n s of the West , enga ge in th e stru ggle , per

h a ps with the secret thou ght tha t , a s th e resu lt of the m u tu a l

exh a u stion of their en em ies,they m ight b e a ble som e d a y t o pl a y

th a t p a rt in It a ly which th e Ga l a ti a n s,their brethren , were pl a ying

in Asi a with so m u ch profit .H a n n ib a l m u st ga in a victory . I n order, s a ys Livy, to spe a k

in a l a n gu a ge to his soldiers which a l l m ight u n derst a n d , he ra n ged

1 H e h a d ca u sed these figures to b e cu t on a co l um n in th e temple of L a cin ia n‘

Ju no Po lyb iu s sa w them . I n the w a rs of the a nc ients, a s in ou r own down to the 17th century , th ewou n ded a nd s ick r a n gre a t cha nce of perishing ; in a m a rch l ike th a t of H a nn iba l, tho semere lyr l a m e were lost ; he m u st ha ve h a d a lso a good m a ny deserters.

2 See p. 6 61.

666 f TH E PUN IC WARS FROM 264 TO 201.

his a rmy in a circle , a n d brou ght in to it s m idst som e you n g

mou n t a in eers who h a d been m a de prison ers,

a l l covered with

wou n ds , loa ded with iron s, a n d wea ken ed by hu n ger. H e showed

them som e brilli a n t g a rm en ts,rich a rm s , w a r

-horses,a n d a sked them

if they were willin g to fight together . The con qu eror sh a ll h a ve

l iberty a n d these presen ts ; dea th will free the con qu ered from

the horrors of ca ptivity. They joyfu lly a ccepted , fou ght ha rd , a n d

trium phed or died cheerfu lly . H a n n iba l,then a ddressin g him se l f

t o his soldiers, showed them in these prison ers, in this fightin g,

their own ca se . Shu t in between two sea s a n d the Alps,they

.ca n n ever see their n a tive l a n d a ga in ,u n less they open u p

the ro a d by victory. E ither le a d a wretched life in sl a very, or

d ie gloriou sly, or con qu er a n d win the riches of It a ly . To the

spoils of Rom e he will a dd l a n ds in Sp a in , I ta ly , Africa , every

where where they sh a ll a sk them ; a n d h e will m a ke them , i f

they desire it, citizen s of Ca r tha ge.‘ M a y th e gods sl a y h im , if he

f a il in these prom ises, a s he him self sl a ys this l a m b ; a n d , se i zin g

a ston e , h e cru shes th e .hea d of the victim a ga in st th e a lt a r ,

The a ctivity of H a n n ib a l h a d discon certed the pl a n s of the

Sen a te ; the qu estion w a s n o longer of fighting in Spa in or of

besiegin g Ca rth a ge, b u t of sa vin g Ita ly . Sem pron iu s, whose fleet

h a d a lrea dy ga in ed a n a v a l victory a n d t a ken M a lta , w a s rec a lled ;Pu bliu s Scipio , a fter h is fu tile a ttem pt t o check H a n n ib a l by

a b a ttle on the b a n ks o f the Rhon e , h a d volu n t a rily left his prov

in ce, sen t h is brother Gn a eu s in to Sp a in with h is legion s, a n d took

th e rou te to It a ly by sea . H e hoped to rea ch the foot of the

Alps in time to cru sh th e a rm y in it s descen t , while distressed

by fa tigu es a n d. priva tion s . This tim e,a ga in

,in spite of h is

‘

d il i

gen ce,he a rrived t oo l a te . From Pisa he h a d rea ched Pl a cen ti a ,

t a ken the comm a n d of the Rom a n forces sca ttered a lon g the Po ,

a n d crossed th a t river in order t o pl a ce him self behin d the Ticin u s ,between th e Ca rth a gin i a n s a n d . I n su b res. With it s sou rce a t th e

St . Gotha rd , th e Ticin u s form s,

a t the foot of th e Alps, La go

1 A grum sese d a t a r a m esse in I ta l ia,Afi

‘ ica , H isp a n i a , u b i qu isqu e vel it, immu n em ip s i,

qu i a ccep z'

sset, l iber isqu e qu i sociorum cives Ca r th a g in ien ses fi eri vel len t, p otes t a tem f a p

ctu rum.

(L i vy, xx i. N e ither B on a pa rte n or Ca e sa r wou ld ha ve d a red to spe a k with su ch disd a inof the rights of th e rea l sovere ign power, — the people , the sen a te , a n d the l a w. B u t in L ivy

’

s

ca se on e a lw a ys enterta in s som e scru pl es f were these the words of the gen era l, or of h is

hi stori a n ? They te ll u s, a t lea st,Wha t L i vy thou ght of the Ca rtha gin i a n hero.

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668 TH E PUN IC WARS FROM 264 TO 201.

su rrou n ded this pl a ce,frighten ed or ga in ed over the comm a n d a n t

, a

n a tive of Bru n du siu m,a n d en tered it

,— a preciou s a cqu isition for

him,a n d a very gre a t loss to the Rom a n s. Sem pron iu s on his a rriv a l

w a s on ly the m ore ea ger to fight,a n d re a dily fell in to a sn a re l a id

for him by th e Ca rth a gin i a n gen era l . On e m orn in g th e N umidi a n s

drew n ea r to provoke the ca m p before the hou r when the soldiers

took their mea l, a n d drew them on a cross the icy w a ters of th e Treb ia 1

a s f a r a s a pl a in where H a n n ib a l h a d hidden,in the b ed of a torren t

,

two thou sa n d m en, in tru sted to h is brother M a go . Wea ken ed by

hu n ger,the cold, a n d the sn ow

,which the win d bea t in to their f a ces

,

the Rom a n s were a t a grea t dis a dv a n t a ge when they c a m e u p with

the whole Ca rth a gin i a n a rmy,who, in good con dition

,fresh from

their ten ts, stood dra wn u p in b a ttle a rra y t o receive them . They

m a de a ga ll a n t res ist a n ce , however, a n d th e fortu n e of the d a y wa s

still u n decided, when M a go with his b a n d bu rst u pon them,a n d a

rou t comm en ced .

N ea rly twen ty-five thou s a n d Rom a n s perished or disa ppea red ;t en thou s a n d on ly

,with Sem pron iu s, broke throu gh the Ga u ls of

H a n n iba l 2 a n d rea ched Pl a cen ti a,— where , when n ight ca m e on .

1[A di versity of opin ion ex i sts a s to the position of the R om a n a n d Ca rth a gin i a n ca mps,

a nd the loca tion of the pl a in on which w a s fou ght the b a ttle of the T reb ia . I t is a greed tha tthe two ca mps were s itu a ted on e on e a ch s ide of the stre a m

,a nd tha t the b a ttle took pl a ce

on the side occu pied by the Ca rtha gin i a n s. L i vy directly a sserts tha t th e Ca rtha gin i a n c a mp

wa s on the e a st b a n k of the T reb ia ; b u t this V iew of the situ a tion emb a rra sses th e story withcon s idera ble difficu lties. Of these the m ost seriou s seem s t o b e th e qu estion how Sempron iu swa s a ble t o effect a j u nction with Scipio without a ny opposition from H a n n iba l, s in ce if thel a tter wa s enca mped u pon the e a st b a n k , the R om a n con su l, in a dv a ncing from th e A dri a ticto join h is col le a gu e , m u st ha ve been compe l led to le a d h is l a rge a rmy throu gh a cou ntry ,”s a ys Dr . A rnold, “ u n v a ried by a s ingle hi l l, pa st the Ca rtha gin i a n ca mp, a n d we l l w ith inra nge of the incessa nt recon no itring of H a n n ib a l ’s N um idi a n c a v a lry. “ B u t so m u ch in wa rdepen ds u pon trifl in g a ccidents ,” continu e s A rno ld, dism is s ing the qu estion , tha t it is v a in togu ess where we a re without inform a tion. We on ly know tha t the two con su l a r a rm ies wereu n ited in Sc ipio ’s pos ition on the left (west) b a nk of the T reb ia .

”Other difficu ltie s con n ected

with L ivy’s sta tem ent con cern the retre a t of the R om a n s a fter the b a ttle, the ir crossing a n d

re-crossing th e ri ver, a nd fin a l ta kin g she lter in Pl a centi a . L ivy’

s view h a s been very gener a l ly a ccepted, however, by the older writers b u t the m odern school , represented by M omm

sen , fra nkly di sca rd it , a n d a ssert tha t th e phra se of Polybiu s on wh ich L ivy fou n ds h istopogra phy of the b a ttle-grou n d w a s m isu n derstood by th e l a tter a u thor. S a ys M omm sen

Po lybiu s ’ a ccou nt of the b a ttle of the T reb ia is qu ite cle a r. If Pl a centi a l a y on th e rightb a nk o f the T reb ia where it fa l ls into the Po, a n d if th e b a ttlew a s fou ght on the left b a n k(both of wh ich po ints h a ve been disputed, b u t a re n e verthe less indisputa ble) ” A nd

l a ter, “ The erroneou sn ess of the v iew of L i vy which tra n sfers the Phoen ici a n ca mp to the

right a n d the R om a n t o the left, h a s been repea tedly po inted ou t .”

I f the opin ion of

M omm sen b e a ccepted, the m a rch of Sempron iu s a n d the R om a n retre a t a re renderedcomprehen sible, a s wi l l b e seen by a reference to th e m a p ]

2 A ccordin g to Polybiu s, a lmost a l l the de a d on H a n n ib a l ’s side were G a ul s.

TH E SE COND PUN IC WA R FROM. 218 To 2 16 . 66 9

Scipio collected som e fu gitives , those who h a d been a b le to reg a in

t he ca m p . This gre a t su ccess w a s d u e to the N u m idi a n ca v a l ry

a t presen t three tim es m ore n um erou s tha n th a t of the legion s,

which h a d thrown the two wings in to disorder, while M a go ’

s

horse threw the m a in body in to con fu sion by a tta ckin g it in the

re a r.

The defea t a t the Ticinu s h a d repu lsed the Rom a n s a cross the Po ;tha t of the Treb ia repu lsed them beyond the Apen n in es . E xceptPla cen tia ,

2 Crem on a,a n d Moden a

,Cis a lpin e G a u l w a s lost to them .

So f a r , H a n n iba l’

s pl a n h a d su cceeded ; a n d the fa m e of the l a te

victory,sprea din g throu ghou t Cisa lpin e Ga u l

,ca u sed the tribes who

h a d rem a in ed u n decided a t on ce to sen d in their a llegi a n ce,with

prom ise of troops for the spring ca m p a ign . Bu t while he w a s

thu s open ing the rou te to Rom e, Cn a eu s Scipio in Sp a in closed

a ga in st H a sdru ba l th a t in to Ga u l . Troops sen t in to Sa rd i ni a ,Sicily, T a ren tu m ,

ga rrison s pu t in to a l l the stron g pl a ces , a n d

a fleet of sixty ga lleys , cu t h is com m u n ic a tion s with Ca rtha ge .

This ca u sed h im l ittle fea r, for the Ga u ls were flockin g in crowds

t o his st a n d a rd,a n d the It a l ia n prison ers

,trea ted kin dly

,then re

lea sed withou t r a n som,were goin g

,so he thou ght, t o ga in over

the peoples Of the pen in su l a . Of the two rou tes which l ed thither,thou gh he took the m ore di fficu lt

, yet it w a s shorter ; a n d in spite

of the a dv a n ced sea son ,he tried to cross the Apen n in es . A terrib le

storm,like those which som etim es bu rst forth in these m ou n t a in s

,

drove him b a ck . H e retu rn ed t o Cisa lpin e G a u l a n d w a ited,in

the mea n t ime blocka ding P l a cen ti a .

,for the retu rn of spring .

I V . TH R A SI M E N E A ND CA N N A E

N A POLE ON h a s sa id,

I f you hold N orth It a ly,the rest of

the pen in su l a f a lls l ike a ripe frui t. Tha t w a s tru e of h is tim e,

1 A ccu stomed t o fight in a m ou nta ino u s cou ntry, th e R om a n s h a d on ly a sm a l l force of

ca v a lry ; a t the T reb ia , horse to foot, or 1 to 9 . H a n n ib a l h a d m ore tha nt o foot, or 1 to 2 . N a po leon a lso gre a tly incre a sed the proportion of ca v a lry in the

F ren ch a rm ie s, a nd m i lita ry writers a gree in l a ying down the princ iple tha t the ca v a lry oughtto b e to the inf a ntry a s 1 to 4 , 5, or 6 , a ccordi ng to the n a ture of the grou nd where theyfight.

2 Sempron iu s, shut u p in th is city, g a in ed, however, som e a dv a nta ge s over H a nnib a l.( L i vy, xx i . 57,

670 TH E’

PUN I O WARS FROM 2 64 To 201.

when on both s ides of the Apen n in es a l l w a s ripe for a speedyfa ll ; b u t n ot so in H a n n iba l

’

s tim e,beca u se a bra ve , disciplin ed

peopl e,resolved on con qu est

,a w a ited there the inv a der behin d

the triple a n d im pregn a ble ra m p a rt of cities su rrou n ded by cyclo

pe a n w a lls , a n d con n ected with ea ch other by good roa ds .

The G a u ls h a d reckon ed on a r a pid expedition,on obt a in ing

booty ; a n d it fell to them to feed the a rmy a n d su bm it to d iscipl ine. This discon ten t l ed to m a ny plots

,from which H a n n ib a l

esca ped , so i t is sa id , on ly by con tin u a l disgu ises, a ppea rin g a t on e

tim e a s a you n g m a n,a t a n other a s a n Ol d m a n ,

a n d thu s b a ffl in g

the plots or in spiring in these ru de m in ds a sort of rel igiou s

respect.l A s soon a s the cold we a ther broke u p he determ in ed

to g o in to E tru ri a in sea rch of those legion s which h a d n ot

d a red t o dispu te Cis a lpin e G a u l . To dece ive them a g a in,h e

took the m ost difficu l t rou te,by plu n gin g in to the m idst of im

m en se m a rshes,where for fou r d a ys a n d three n ights the a rmy

m a rched in w a ter a n d m u d. The Africa n s a n d Sp a n i a rds,pl a ced

in the v a ngu a rd , p a ssed withou t seriou s loss ; b u t the G a u ls , who

followed on grou n d a lre a dy bea ten in,kept sl ipping a t every step

a n d fa lling. Withou t t he c a v a lry , who followed them close , they

wou ld h a ve retrea ted ; m a ny perished . Alm ost a l l the'

b a gga ge

a n d bea sts of bu rden stu ck in the . m a rsh . H a n n ib a l him sel f,

m ou n ted on h is l a st eleph a n t,lost a n eye by the w a tchings ,

fa tigu es,

a n d d a m pn ess of the n ights .2 On lea ving these qu a g

m ires,which were dried u p when the A em il ia n Wa y w a s a fterwa rd

l a id down,h e en tered the Apen n in es

,clea red them a t the defile of

Pon trem ol i, a n d descending in to the Va lley of the Arno, m a rched

by F a esu l a e on Arretiu m .

I f the Rom a n s,w a tching a l l his m ovemen ts, h a d come a n d

a tt a cked h im on l e a vin g the m a rshes or the m ou n ta in s, they

m ight h a ve checked h is a dva n ce . Bu t they did n ot kn ow how

t o m a ke w a r with this foresight . E n c a m ped u n der the w a lls of

Arretium a n d Arimin um ,they p a tien tly a w a ited the a ppe a ra n ce

of the en emy by the u su a l rou tes, forgettin g th a t the Ga u ls, eight

1 ’E 86K0 vv du o

-r e

'

pa g (prim a cy Aa xefu. (A pp. B el l . A n n .

2 The se m a rshe s a re ge nera l ly pl a ced with L i vy to the south of the A penn ines in the v a lleyof the A rno. M ica l i m a inta in s ( 2d pa rt, c a p. xv .) tha t they were on the other s ide of the

m ou nta in s,in the territory o f F a rm s. a nd M odena . Po lyb iu s ’ n a rra ti ve is no t opposed to this,

a nd Stra bo (V. i . 11) s a ys so expressly .

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672 TH E PUN IC WA R S FR OM 264 To 2 01.

a pu rpose in produ cin g them,a n d a l l a ccepted by popu l a r credu lity

,

n a y, even by the m ost seriou s people .

At L a n u viu m , Ju n o h a d sh a ken h er l a n ce ; bu rn in g ston es

h a d f a llen a t Pra en este,a n d m eteors h a d

shon e a t sea . I n the cou n try of A m i

t ern um white ph a n toms h a d been seen ;

a t Fa leri i the lots h a d grown thin,

a n d on on e of them w a s re a d, M a rs

br a n dished his l a n ce . At Ca ere the

w a ters h a d rolled with blood ; a t Ca pen a

two m oon s were seen in the sky.

“

I n

Sicily there h a d been seen fla mes on the

poin ts of l a n ces ; in G a u l a wolf h a d

sn a tched a w a y a sen tin e l’

s sword ; bu ck

lers h a d swea ted blood ; ea rs of corn h a d

fa llen covered with blood u n der the s ickle,— foolish fe a rs born of str a n ge beliefs or

frights ca u sed by m isu n derstood phen o

men a,a n d which prove th a t the hum a n

min d ca n brin g forth silly fa n cies even

a m on gst a people th e m ost disp a ss ion a te

in the world . I n the n a m e of the Sen a te

the pra etor of the city prom ised rich

offerin gs t o the gods if they wou ld

preserve th e Repu blic for t en yea rs in

her whilom sta te ; the m a tron s dedica ted a bron ze st a tu e t o

the Aven tin e Ju n o a n d con tinu a l sa crifices,solem n pra yers filled

the city a n d a rmy with su perstitiou s fe a rs . The n ewly-elected

con su l did n ot t a ke these in to con sider a tion . Certa in of bein g

deta in ed a t Rom e by fa lse a u spices,2 he set ou t secretly from

th e city withou t h a vin g been in vested a t h is own hou se , a ccord

ing to cu stom,with the tog a p r a etext a , the b a dge of office ,

withou t h a vin g put on a t th e Ca pitol the p a lu cl a m en tum ,or

m ilita ry robe, or h a vin g offered u p on the Alba n Mou n t the

du tifu l s a crifice t o Ju piter L a t ia ris.

JUN O }

1 Af ter a sta tu e wh ich is a t R ome. (M en a rd, l a M yth. d a ns l ’ a r t a ncien et mod ern e,

fig.2 A u spiciis emen tz

’

en d is . (Li vy, xx i . Th e tribu ne H erenn iu s a ccu sed th e a u gurs th eye a r a fter of piou s fra u ds. (Li vy, xx i i.

TH E SE COND PUN IC WA R FROM 218 TO 216 . 673

To ju stify this n eglect of th e gods a n d of very ol d cu stom s,

a victory wa s n ecessa ry . Polybiu s s a ys th a t h e sou ght on e

with presu m ptu ou s im pru den ce . Y et we see him a w a iting in h is

ca m p a t Arretium H a n n iba l ’ s a tt a ck,a n d when the Ca rth a gin i a n

,

who, bein g withou t siege-tra in, w a s a ble n e ither t o ta ke a city

n or storm a ca m p , h a d p a ssed by h im , the Rom a n slowly follows his

en emy, in form s h is colle a gu e,who se ts forth from Arim in um with

a l l h is forces, so th a t he cou ld hope

t o ren ew the c a m p a ign so . h a ppily t er

m in a t ed l a tely a t Tel a m on . To con

cl u d e,he w a s n ot the a ssa il a n t a t La ke

Thra sim en e . Bu t Fl a m in in s w a s wron g,

a n d he p a id for this with h is li fe , in n ot

m a kin g a more ca u tiou s m a rch, a n d in

fa llin g blin dly in to the sn a re Which h isclever a dversa ry l a id for h im . H a n n i

b a l h a d left behin d him the high w a lls

of Arretiu m a n d Corton a , when , 7m iles

sou th of this l a tter ci ty , he fou n d him

self, by goin g rou n d a spu r of th e m ou n

t a in s,on the b a nks of L a ke Thr a sim en e

(L a go d i P eru gia ), a sheet of w a ter

n ot deep, b u t 8 m iles broa d a n d 10

miles lon g. On the side where the

roa d p a sses, th e hills of th e G u a l a n d ro

(M on ies Cor tonenscs) form a sem icircle,

the en ds of which gra du a lly f a l l tow a rds

the l a ke , n ea r two vill a ges , — Borghetto

on the n orth,a n d Tu ore on the sou th .

I t is a n a tu r a l thea tre en closin g a l ittle pl a in ,in visible till you

en ter it. A s the rou te r a n by the side of the l a ke , Fl a m in iu s ,Who wa s pu rsu in g the Pu n ic a rmy

,wou ld of n ecessity b e en t a n

gled in this sn a re withou t mea n s of esca pe .

2 H a n n iba l there

a w a ited him . H e pl a ced his hea vy in fa n try a t the en d of the

pl a in to close the w a y t o the sou th , dispersed h is slingers over

the he ights a n d in th e hollows of the grou n ds, a n d hid his N um i

PA LUDA M E N T UM.1

1 A fter a h a s—re lief of Tra j a n ’

s Co lumn2 loca n a ta ins id u s. (L i vy, xxn .

V OL . I .

674 T H E PUN IC WAR S FROM 264 TO 201.

di a n s a n d the G a u ls behin d the hills which comm a n ded the

n orthern p a ss .

Fl a m in iu s kn ew these p a rts, which he h a d tra versed in order

to join the .ca m p a t Arretium ; b u t milita ry in stin ct fa iled him .

There where H a n n iba l h a d fou n d a field of b a ttle a dm i ra bly pre

p a red, he h a d seen n othin g,

except w a ter a n d heights which

S c a l e 11 250 00 0

LA K E T H R A S I M E N E .

em ba rra ssed his m a rch . At d a ybre a k , withou t a t a l l su spectin g

the grea t m ovemen t of'

m en which w a s t a kin g pl a ce a rou n d him,

he fell in to the sn a re. A thick fog rose from the l a ke a n d covered

the pl a in ,whilst on the hills, where the a ir wa s qu ite clea r, the

en emy were m a kin g, withou t be in g perce ived, their fin a l a rra n ge

m en ts. Su dden ly lou d cries resou n ded in the fron t, rea r, a n d

fla n k of the Rom a n a rmy, which wa s a tta cked from a l l s ides b e

fore the soldiers cou ld ta ke u p their a rm s a n d the legion s ch a n ge

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676 T H E PUN IC WARS FROM 264 TO 201.

his m ercen a ries with booty . Wh a t a s ingu l a r hom a ge ren dered

by th e con qu eror a t Thr a sim en e to the m i lita ry orga n i za tion of the

Rom a n s : he a rm ed his Libya n in fa n try with the short sword a n d

l a rge bu ckler of the legion a ries !1

At Rome , a fter the b a ttle a t Treb ia , the exten t of the dis a ster

wa s kept secret ; a fter th a t of Thra sim en e they did n ot da re t o hide

a nyth ing. We h a ve been bea ten in a gre a t b a ttle .

” These words,fa ll in g on the m u ltitu de l ike a n im petu ou s win d on the wide sea

,

sprea d con stern a tion . F or two d a ys the Sen a te delibera ted withou t

lea vin g the sen a te-hou se , a n d provided for everythin g. The bridges

over the T iber were broken , the ga tes a n d w a lls pu t in to a st a te

of defen ce, projectiles piled u p on the r a m p a rts. N ot a soldier wa s

rec a lled from Sicily, Sa rdin ia , or Sp a in ; b u t , a s in other m om en ts of

grea t pu blic d a n ger, it wa s resolved t o con cen tr a te the whole power

in the h a n ds of on e chief . The dict a tor ou ght l a wfu lly t o b e

n om in a ted by a con su l : Fl a m in iu s h a d perished, a n d i t w a s im

possible to comm u n ica te with Sem pron iu s. The Sen a te decided

th a t the people shou ld b e a sked to n a m e a pro—dict a tor. I n this

w a y, while brea kin g the letter, they kept the spirit of the l a w ; a n d

a s it w a s the sovereign power itsel f tha t m a de this m odifica tion in

the cu stom, the citizen s owed obedien ce t o the n ew m a gistra te ;the god s

,their a id . Rome w a s a t th a t tim e a dm ira ble for pol itica l

good sen se. Before the common d a n ger, p a rty spirit w a s wiped

ou t th e people elected a s pro-dict a tor the chief of the n obility,

a mem ber of on e of the m ost fa m ou s Rom a n f a m ilies,Fa biu s

M a xim u s, a n d the a ristocra cy a ccepted,a s M a ster of the Horse,

M in u ciu s, on e of the fa vorites.

Of the m u ltitu de . There w a s

n eed t o persu a de the people th a t it h a d been con qu ered sim ply

from the im piety of Fl a m in iu s . Fa biu s c a u sed the pu blic pra yersa n d s a crifices t o b e ren ewed ; they celebra ted a Zectt

’

s tern ium

in hon or of the twe lve gods ;2 there w a s vowed to them a

s a cred sprin g,they were prom ised ga m es

,temples ; a n d a pra etor

1 [H e prob a bly h a d n o otherme a n s of repl a cing those broken or worn ou t in Ita ly. —E d .]2 The followin g is the a rra n gem ent of the gu ests a t this divine fea st : Sex p u lvz

’

n a ria in

con spectu f u eru n t Jovi a c Ju non i u n um, a l terum N ep tu n e a c M in crva e, tertium [Ma rti cl V ener i,qu a r tum Apol l in i a cDia n a e, qu in twn V u lca n o a c V esta e, sex tum 111ercu r io a c Cereri. (L ivy, xx i i.

A fter the ex a mple of R om a n wom en , f em in a e cum viris cu b a n tibu s sed en tes coen ita b a n t,

the goddesses be ing se a ted in sel l a s, the gods recl in ing in l ectu lum. (V a l .M a x .,II. i. See

pp. 2 3 4 a nd 3 87.

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678 TH E PUN IC WARS FROM 264 To 201.

shou ld b e pu t to th e people : I f five ye a rs from n ow the Rom a n

people of the Qu irites com e prosperou sly ou t of this w a r, a re you

willin g,do you order th a t there b e m a de t o Ju piter a n offerin g

of a l l th a t th e sprin g sh a ll ha ve produ ced, — of pigs, sheep,goa ts

,

a n d oxen , to comm en ce from a d a y fixed by the Sen a te a n d

people ? ” The preposit ion h a vin g been a ccepted , every citizen felt

him self lega lly bou n d to

fu lfi l this vow a t the

a ppoin ted tim e . Y et

the chief priest took

ca re to en um er a te the

ca ses in which the

sa crifice wou ld n ot b e

“ legitima te,

”in order

th a t the Rom a n people

m ight n ot b e respon sible

for a ny irregu l a rities

tow a rds th e gods, a n d

th a t the l a tter shou ld

b e obliged to keep th e

A LT A R OF T H E TWE LV E G ODS.‘ a greem en t Which the

priests h a d ju st con

clu ded in their n a m e . F or them, hom a ge, hon or ; for Rome ,victory ; a n d they wou ld h a ve willin gly sa id to their gods a s

the A rra gon ese did to their kin gs : I f n ot , n o .

We a re su rprised th a t H a nn ib a l a fter Thra sim en e did n ot

a ttempt t o cru sh the other con su l a r a rmy . On the b a nks of the

Po he h a d not ta ken the fortresses by which Rom e gu a rded

there expl a ined. I n N o. 3 a re seen : A poll o, whom on e wou ld ta ke , from his costume , for a

goddess ; Di a n a with her b ow ; Vu lca n ho lding h is pl iers, b u t ha ving n othing of the cha ra cterwh ich tra dition a ssigns him ; M in erv a a rm ed with a l a nce . I n N o. 4 , M a rs, Ven u s, M ercury,a nd Vesta . I n N o. 5 a re the three Se a son s , Spring, Summ er, a nd A utumn , recogn iz a ble by theflowerin g bra nch , by the vine-stock , a nd the ea r of corn which they a re c a rrying ; in N o. 6 the

E umen ides ha ve the sceptre surmou nted by the pomegra n a te flower, the symbol of the ir power,a nd the left h a n d open to sign ify tha t they a re a lw a ys re a dy to obey Destiny. M . F r

'

dhner’

(N otice d e l a Scu lp tu re a n tiqu e d a fll u se’

e n a tion a l d a L ou vre) rega rds this tripod b a se a s a rura lca len d a r. I n a ny ca se these b a ss-re l iefs form a l ittle mytho logica l poem .

1 L a rge tri a n gu l a r b a se of a tripod, ca lled the A lta r of the T we lve Gods, in the Lou vreM u seum . A bove , Jupiter a rm ed with th e thu nderbo lt a nd th e hea d turn ed tow a rds Ju no ; ont he left of Ju n o , N eptu n e or the oce a n , a nd Ceres or the ea rth ; be low the three Gra ces. See

the other fa ces on th e preceding pa ge.

TH E SE COND PUN IC WA R FROM 218 TO 216 . 679

Cisa lpin e G a u l . Sa tisfied with cru shin g wh a tever a ttem pted to

stop h is m a rch forwa rds, he showed n o concern for wh a t he left

in his re a r. The rea son is tha t he wa s in h a ste to re a ch Sou th

Ita ly,in the m idst of peoples whom he tho u ght disposed to -join

h im,n ea r Sici ly, which he hoped to u rge in to revo lt

,n ot f a r from

Greece , Spa in ,a n d Africa , with which he w ished to secu re e a sy

a n d su re commu n i ca tion s. I V h il st he wa s rea ching the Adri a tic,wh en ce b e desp a tched a vesse l t o Ca rth a ge which con veyed the

first n ews thither of h is a stou n din g su ccesses , Sem pron iu s crossed the

Apen n in es a n d ca m e down the v a l ley of the Tibe r a s f a r a s Ocricu

l um ,where he e ffected a ju n ction with the dicta tor

’

s a rmy .

Fa biu s, a t the hea d of fou r legion s, wen t in se a rch Of H a n

n ib a l,who

,

h a d followed the Adria tic coa st in to Apu l i a , in the

hope of r a isin g revolt in M a gn a G ra ecia a s he h a d don e in Cisa lpin e

Ga u l. On h is m a rch h e h a d com m itted frightfu l r a v a ges withou t

det a chin g a sin gle a lly from Rom e ; for, a t the hea d Of h is n u m erou s

Cis a lpin e a u x il i a ries,h e seem ed t o . b e re a lly a t the he a d of on e of

those Ga ll ic in v a sion s so fe a red by the I t a li a n s . The sa v a ge a spect

of h is Afric a n s frighten ed the inha bita n ts . H e wa s a ccu sed of

feedin g h is soldiers on hum a n flesh ,1

a n d he w a s rega rded a s

m a kin g a sa crilegiou s w a r2

a ga in st the gods of I ta ly. E xceptT a ren tum

,too hu m il i a ted n ot to desire the a b a sem en t of Rom e

,a l l

the Greeks Offered u p V OWS for the defea t of the Ca rth a gin i a n s,their ol d en em ies . Those of N a ples a n d P a estu m sen t gold from

the ir tem ples to the Sen a te , who a ccepted on ly a very sm a ll p a rt, in

order th a t th e pu blic trea su re m ight seem to h a ve in exh a u stible re

sou rces , a n d th a t this con fiden ce m ight in crea se the fidel ity of thei r

a ll ies. Hiero, su re of Rom e’

s good fortu n e , even a fter Thra si

men e , ofi ered a gold sta tu e of Victory of 3 20 l b s . weight, a

thou sa n d a rchers or sl ingers,three hu n dred thou sa n d bu shels of

corn , two hu n dred thou s a n d bu shels Of b a rley,a n d prom ised to sen d

1 See the picture tha t V a rro p a ints of thi s “ ferociou s a nd s a v a ge a rmy, which m a kesbridge s a n d ditches with he a ps of de a d bodies, a nd feeds on hum a n fle sh." B u t it is L ivy(xx ii i. 5) who thu s spe a ks. “Te shou ld therefore be l ieve tha t he gi ve s u s words fo r fa cts, ifPolybiu s h a d n ot sa id tha t one of H a n n ib a l ’s gen era ls h a d a dvised h im t o h a bitu a te h is so ld iersto this k in d of food [which d oe s no t m a ke it the le a st m ore credible ]. We know, be sides, withwha t cru e lty the A frica n s m a ke w a r. Cf. H ora ce , Ca r in . III. v i. 3 6 A n n ib a lcmq u e d ira m a n d

E pod . xvi . 8. [The story is worth citin g, to show wha t credu lity m a y b e a ttributed to the

hi stori a n s of the period. E <l .]2 V a s t a t a P oen or um ( um u l tu f a n a . (H or., Ca rm. IV. iv. Cf . L i vy, xxvi ii . 4 6 ; Cicero,

d e Divin f i. 24 ; Po lyh., i i i. 3 3 .

680“

TH E PUN IC WARS FROM 264 TO 201.

victu a ls in a bu n d a n ce wherever the a rmies shou ld h a ve n eed

of them . Fa biu s h a d stru ck ou t a n ew pl a n of ca m p a ign : t o

ca u se a l l,both m en a n d provision s, to b e hou sed in the fortified

pl a ces, t o l a y w a ste

the level cou n try,

a n d refu se everywhere

to fight, b u t follow

th e en em y, step by

step , f a ll u pon his

fora gers , cu t off his

provision s , h a ra ss him

cea selessly,destroy

h im in det a il . H a n

'

n iba l, — withou t pl a ceof retrea t

,withou t

a llies, m on ey, su recon voys, a n d withm e r c e n a r i e s who

,

seekin g in wa r on ly

for ple a su re a n d the

booty of the d a y a fter

victor a re a lw a ys

rea dy to cry ou t

“ D i s c h a r g e o r

b a ttle !” 1— cou ld n ot

for lon g sta n d a ga in st

these pru den t t a ctics

of Fa biu s M a xim u s .

V i crom r.2 Va in ly H a n n ib a l ra v

a ged u n der h is eyes

D a u n i a , Sa m n ium ,a n d Ca m pa n ia ; Fa biu s followed him on the

m ou n ta in s,hidden in the clou ds a n d m ists

,in sen sible a s wel l t o

the in su lts of the en emy a s to the r a illery of h is soldiers .3 On e

d a y, however, H a n n iba l, deceived by his gu ides, bec a m e involved

1 L ike the Swiss mercen a ries in the Ita l i a n w a rs of Lou is XII. a nd of F ra ncis I.2 Sta tu e in the M u seum of the Lou vre, ca l led the V ictory of Bresci a .3 Cic.

, d e Sen eci. iv. 17 ( the express ion is from E nn iu s) : N on rumores p on eb a t a n tesa lu tem. I n a s im i l a r spirit Cl isson s a id to Cha rles V. when ,

from the top of the towers of

the Lou vre , he ga zed -a t the ra v a ges of the E nglish :“ A ll this fi re a nd smoke wi ll n o t ca u se

you to lose your herita ge.”

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682 T H E PUN IC WAR S FROM 264 TO 2 01.

Rom a n s ; in Ga lli a Cis a lpin a the Ga u ls,s a tisfied a t fin din g them

selves free a ga in,forgot H a n n ib a l a n d Ca rth a ge i tself , which on ly

sen t a few vessels to comm it pira cies on thei r coa st, when ce thefleets of Sicily a n d Osti a qu ickly drove them a w a y . A R om a n

squ a dron which wa s retu rn in g from pu rsu in g them a s f a r a s Afric a

h a d ta ken the Isl a n d Cossu ra (Pa n t el l a ria ), a n d levied on Cercin a

a hea vy w a r con tribu tion . E verywhere, except in fron t of H a n

n ib a l, th e Rom a n s a ssum ed the offen s ive a n d t ook bold me a su res .

Ot a cil iu s, the pra etor of Sici ly, h a d orders t o p a ss over in to

Africa ; the Scipios received su ccors ; Postum iu s Albin u s with a n

a rm y kept w a tch over the Cis a lpin e G a u ls ; a n d a m b a ssa dors h a d

been sen t to Philip of M a cedon t o requ ire the extra dition of Dem e

t riu s of Ph a ros, who w a s u rgin g him to w a r ; t o Pin cu s , kin g of

I llyri a,t o cl a im the tribu te which b e del a yed p a yin g ; a n d t o the

Ligu ri a n s,to dem a n d a n a ccou n t of th e help fu rn ished by them to

the Ca rth a gin i a n s .

1 There is som ething gra n d‘

in this a ctivity “

of

the Sen a te, p a yin g a tten tion to the m ost dista n t cou n tries in the

m idst of a form id a ble w a r c a rried on a t the very ga tes of the city,

a n d n ever perm i ttin g the fortu n e or the power of Rome to b e

d ou bted for a n in sta n t . This Sen a te, which wa s so prou d tow a rds

the foreign er, showed a con cili a tin g tem per with the people ; i t

rem in ded a l l of the n ecessity of m u tu a l con fiden ce by ra is ing

a n ew tem ple to Con cord , a n d pl a ced it within the bou n ds

of the cit a del ,2 in order th a t every on e shou ld u n derst a n d th a t

the stren gth of Rom e depen ded on the spir it in spired by this

divin ity.

The con su ls who comm a n ded the a rm y in th e l a st mon ths of

217, a fter the a bdica tion of Fa biu s, followed the dict a tor’

s t a ctics ;a n d this wise del a y wou ld dou btless h a ve ru in ed H a n n iba l . Bu t

cou ld the ru lers of Ita ly, u n der the eyes of their a llies a n d with

su perior forces , a lw a ys declin e b a ttle ? Sem pron iu s a n d Va rro

a re con dem n ed a fter the even t. T he defe a ts of Treb ia a n d

Ca n n a e weigh u pon their m em ory. Y et the people , the a rmy,a n d perh a ps the tru e policy 3 dem a n ded a b a ttle. The Sen a te

itsel f.

decided u pon it . Bu t t here wa s n eeded a n a ble a n d ex

1 Livy,xx i i. 3 3 . 2 I n a rce. (L i vy, xxn .

3 B efore Ca n n a e the le a ders of the a rm y write to the Sen a te : ma y a vupdxmv mi wmv

per eépa we'm r a is‘ d i a l/a im s. (Polyh., iii.

T H E SE COND PUN IC WA R FROM 218 TO 216 . 683

perien cedlea der ; a n d thou gh the n obility m a n a ged to obt a in the

election of Pa u lu s A em il iu s , a pu pil o f F a biu s , who h a d a lrea dy

dist in gu ished him self in the I llyri a n w a rs , the popu l a r p a rty ga ve

him a s col le a gu e it s lea der , T eren t iu s Va rro , th e son of a bu tcher,

who h a d n ever seen a . ba ttle .

1Un ion wa s n ecessa ry between t he

R U I N S O F CA N N A E fl

le a ders , a n d P a u lu s A em il iu s a n d V a rro , who were pol itica l en emies ,3

con tin u ed their qu a rre ls in the a rmy,the on e a lw a ys wishin g to

fight,the other t o del a y. A s the comm a n d a ltern a ted every d a y

between the two con su ls,Va rro l ed the a rmy so n e a r the en em y

tha t retre a t w a s im possible ; a n d on the n ext d a y b u t on e , in the

m orn in g he h a d the pu rple m a n tle , the sign a l for the fight, d is

1 [N everth e less , L i vy te lls u s h is fa ther h a d m a de m on ey, a n d the con su l h a d re a ched h iscon sul a te throu gh the regu l a r prom otion , ha ving been qu a e stor, a edi le , a nd pr a ctor , withoutdi spl a ying a ny incompetence . E d .]

2 The a rch, of which the rem a in s a re seen , is wrongly ca l led the A rch o f Va rro.3 I p a ss over in si lence the decl a m a tion s of V a rro a nd H erenn iu s on the tre a son of the

n oble s, who were a nx iou s to spin ou t the wa r . A t th is period the reproa ch is a bsurd ; twentyye a rs l a ter it is tru e .

684 TH E PUN IC WARS FROM '

2 64 TO 201.

pl a yed before h is ten t . H e h a d eighty thou sa n d inf a n try,

1a n d

,

n otwithst a n din g the rem em bra n ce of the three b a ttles a l rea dy lost ,on ly six thou sa n d horse . I n a n a rmy of fifty thou s a n d m en , H a n

n ib a l h a d t en thou sa n d .2 H is forces were on ly h a lf those of the

con su ls ; b u t he h a d l ed them to a b a ttle-fiel d of h is own choosing,

a t Ca nn a e in Apu l ia , n ea r the A u fid u s , in th e middle of a n im

men se pl a in , which wa s fa vora ble t o h is c a v a lry, a n d in a position

where the su n , shin in g in th e f a ces of the Rom a n s, a n d the win d,

c a rryin g the du st a ga in st the ir lin e, fou ght for him .

I n this level pl a in a n a m bu sca de a ppea red im possib le . Bu t

five hu n dred N um idi a n s presen ted themselves a s deserters, a n d

du rin g the a ction they fel l u pon the rea r of the Rom a n a rm y. At

Ca n n a e, a s a t Thra sim en e a n d “

a t Treb ia , th e sm a ller n um ber su r

rou n ded th e grea ter. I n order to offer more resist a n ce t o the

ca v a lry,Va rro h a d dim in ished the exten t of h is lin e a n d in crea sed

its depth . By this a rra n gem en t m a n y soldiers beca m e u seless .

H a nn ib a l, on the con tr a ry,ga ve his a rmy a fron t equ a l t o th a t of

the en emy, a n d drew it u p in a crescen t,so th a t the cen tre

,com

posed of Ga u ls , projected from h is l in e of b a ttle . Behin d them

the Africa n veter a n s were dra wn u p a lon g the cu rve, the two

extrem ities of which exten ded to the ca v a lry on the two win gs .

Whilst the Rom a n s a tt a cked the Ga u ls with fu ry, a n d th e l a tter,l ed by H a n n iba l himself, were slowly f a llin g b a ck u pon th e

secon d lin e, H a sdru b a l ,3 with his Ga u l ish a n d Sp a n ish horsemen

dra wn u p in deep m a sses, cru shed the legion a ry ca v a lry on the

left,a n d M a go with h is N um idi a n s ren t ed the a llies on the

right. Lea vin g the N um idi a n s t o pu rsu e a n d sl a y those who

h a d n ot fa llen a t th e first shock , H a sdru b a l a tta cked in the

rea r the Rom a n in f a n try, which the Africa n s, by the b a ckw a rd

1 T en thou sa n d were left in th e two con su l a r ca m ps.2 L i vy

purposely ex a ggera tes th e critica l position of H a n n ib a l before the ba ttle. H e h a d ,

s a ys he , on ly t en d a ys’ provis ion s. T he with fa m ine, were re a dy tobetra y h im ,

a nd H a n n ib a l w a s a lre a dy thinkin g how to rea ch G a u l. There is nothing of a l l

this in Polybiu s ( i i i. who spe a k s of him a s m a king imm ense m a ga z ines a t G eron ium , of

which h e h a d g a in ed possession , a nd a s h a ving ta ken , a few d a ys before the b a ttle, the ca stleof Ca n n a e, in wh ich the R om a n s h a d th e ir su ppl ies of provision s, a rm s, a nd en gines. I t wa s

the ca pture of Ca nn a e, indeed , which deci ded the Sen a te to a ll ow a b a ttle. M oreover, withh is ca v a lry H a n n ib a l wou ld a lw a ys ha ve f oun d provis ions.

8 [N ot H a n n iba l ’s brother, who sti ll rem a ined in Spa in , b u t a n officer of grea t a bility whoa t this time h a d the chief direction of m i l ita ry works ]

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TH E SE COND PUN IC WA R FROM 2 18 TO 216. 685

m ovem en t of the Ga u ls, h a d a lrea dy t a ken in fla n k . The e ighty

thou s a n d Rom a n s,

shu t in on a l l s ides,

soon form ed on ly a

con fu sed m a ss,

on which every blow told,

a n d which cou ld

give few in return .1 By the a ccou n t of Polybiu s

,seven ty-two

thou sa n d Rom a n s a n d a llies , with on e of the con su ls,P a u lu s

A em il iu s, who h a d refu sed to fly,two qu a estors

,e ighty sen a tors ,

som e ex-con su ls, a m ong them M in u ciu s, a n d on e of the con su ls

of th e precedin g ye a r, twen ty-on e legion a ry tribu n es, a n d fin a lly a

whole crowd of kn ights, were left on the field of b a ttle (A u g .

2,

The Rom a n n obil ity libera lly p a id their debt of blood

to their cou n try. H a n n iba l h a d n ot l ost six thou s a n d m en ,of

whom fou r thou sa n d were Ga u ls . This n a tion w a s the in st ru

men t of a l l his victories .

2 A prediction of this grea t defea t w a s

a fterwa rd a ttribu ted t o a f a m ou s divin er,M a rciu s

,who l ived

before th e Secon d Pu n ic Wa r .“ Rom a n , son of Troy

,a void the

River Ca n n a ; bew a re lest str a ngers force thee t o join b a ttle in

the field of Diom ede . Bu t thou wilt n ot believe m e till thou

h a st filled the cou n try with thy blood ; till thy citizen s h a ve

f a llen by thou s a n ds, a n d the river be a ring them f a r from the

fru itfu l l a n d h a s given them up for food for the fowls of the a ir ,

for the wild be a sts on it s b a nks a n d the fishes of the v a st sea .

Thu s h a s Ju piter spoken to m e .

”

This prophecy, m ore precise th a n those which precede the

even t , s a tisfied the n a tion a l pride,“

a n d a t the s a me tim e served

the pol icy of the Sen a te , whose in terest it w a s tha t m en shou l d

bel ieve in ora cles . Rom e wa s willing to see in her defea t n ot

a fa i l in g in cou ra ge , b u t a decree of destiny ; sh e a ttribu ted

the victory to the gods m u ch more th a n to H a n n ib a l , a n d she

stren gthen ed a preciou s in strum en t of governm en t, fa ith in div in a

tion,by lea di n g m en to thin k tha t the divin er h a d foreseen th e

fu tu re.

1 These a re the figures g i ven by Po lyb iu s. Livy on ly sa ys dea d, a n d

prisoners. H e ra ises to the n umber of H a n n iba l ’ s de a d, which Po lybiu s redu ces to

[Thi s v ictory, l ike m ost others won in a fa ir fie ld a g a in st su perior n umbers, wa s wonby m a king the enemy “

j a m" him self, — a fa ta l m ista ke. A s soon a s troops , however good ,

ge t so crowded a s t o ha ve no room for the ir evo lutions, they becom e a m ere he lple ss m a ss.T o m a ke a n en emy f a r superior in numbers thu s pa ra lyze h is force s is the a rt

,oi a con summ a te

t a ctici a n . E d .]3[Thou gh the G a u ls often bore the bru nt of the b a ttles, a nd incu rred m ost loss, there is no

dou bt th a t the Sp a n ish infa ntry a nd the A fric a n vetera n s were the flower of the a rmy. E d .]

686 TH E PUN IC WAR S FROM 2 64 TO 201.

The b a ttle of Ca n n a e deprived th e Rom a n s of m ore stren gth

th a n it ga ve H a nn iba l . Som e tribes of Ca m p a n ia a n d M a gn a

G ra ecia decl a red for h im , b u t on con dition of a ccordin g h im fewer

m en a n d sm a l ler su bsidies th a n they h a d fu rn ished to Rom e ;1a n d

Ca rth a ge, which looked u pon this bold expedition on ly a s a u sefu l

diversion ,left him t o his own resou rces .

2 E n feebled even by his

victories,he wou ld b e obliged to divide h is forces if h e wou ld pro

teet the town s which h a d ju st yie lded them selves t o h im . H e

wou ld thu s h a ve a n a rmy t oo wea k t o ren ew the strife of Thra sim en e

a n d Ca n n a e. Moreover, the con su ls , ren dered pruden t by experif

en ce,wou ld pl a ce the sa fety of the Repu blic in following Fa biu s ’

system . Stra n ge to s a y, wa r on a l a rge sc a le is en ded in I ta ly

a fter the b a ttle of Ca n n a e . Hen ceforth there is n othin g b u t sieges

of town s, str a t a gem s, m a ny a tta cks a n d com b a t s withou t resu lts .

I n this wa r of str a tegy H a n n ib a l shows himself the a blest le a der

of a n cien t tim es . Bu t th e con test h a s no longer m ore th a n a

secon d a ry in terest , except for th e gra n deu r of the spect a cle pre

sen ted by th is m a n , a b a n don ed by his own cou n try , in the m idst of

a hostile people , fa ce to f a ce with th e bra vest a n d best-org a n ized

n a tion then in existen ce , a n d who, n evertheless , w a s a ble for th irteenye a rs to m a ster the in su bordin a tion of his mercen a ries

,t o keep a l ive

the prec a riou s fidel ity of his a llies, t o fu rn ish occu p a tion for Rom e’

s

best troops ; besides a l l this, t o stir u p the world with his n egot ia

tion s, to excite revolt in Syra cu se, Sicily, Sa rdin i a , a n d to ca ll his

brother from Sp a in ,a n d Philip from M a cedon , to join him in I ta ly

,

th a t he m ight cru sh Rome with the u n ited weight of Africa a n d

E u rope hu rled u pon her.3

1neve civis Ca mp a nu s invit a s mil it a ret m u n u sve f a cerct. (Tre a ty of Ca pu a with H a n

n ib a l , L i vy, xxiii . p r'

rr e ¢6povs u pdfe a fia t xa'rd p qdéva Tpdfl

'

ov, ma r s (770 0 pqde'

u c’

m

‘réifew T a pa w iuot s K a pxndom’

ovs. (Tre a ty of H a nn ib a l w ith T a ren t um , Polybiu s, viii .2 H e rece i ved on ly t en thou sa n d m en from it during the whole w a r.3 “ If I were a sked," sa ys Po lybiu s

,who wa s the soul of thi s w a r, I shou l d sa yH a nn ib a l.

( ix . fr. H ere we u nfortu n a te ly lose this conscientiou s hi stori a n . Af ter the b a ttle of

Ca nn a e there on ly rem a in fra gm ents of him.

E ND OF V OL . I .