Guidelines for the successful integration of ICT in schools in ...

Guidelines for the successful integration of

ICT in schools in Cameroon

Calvain Raoul NANGUE

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

Magister Technologiae

in

Information Technology

in the

School of Information and Communication Technology

Faculty of Engineering , the Built Environment and Information Technology

of the

Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University

Supervisor : Prof D. Van Greunen Co-Supervisor: Ms Karen Church

January 2011

ii

DECLARATION BY STUDENT

FULL NAME: CALVAIN RAOUL NANGUE STUDENT NUMBER: 209080431 QUALIFICATION: M.TECH. IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY DECLARATION In accordance with Rule G4.6.3, I hereby declare that the above-mentioned dissertation is my own work, and that it has not previously been submitted for assessment to another University or for another qualification. SIGNATURE: ____________________________________________ DATE: 21st March 2011

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LIST OF ACRONYMS

ANTIC Agence Nationale des Technologies de l’Information et de la Communication

CMS Content Management System

FS Free Software

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GNI Gross National Income

ICT Information and Communication Technology

LDC Least developed country

LMS Learning Management System

MDG Millennium Development Goals

MINESEC Ministry of Secondary Education

MoE Ministry of Education

MRC Multimedia Resources Centres

NICI National Information and Communication Infrastructure

NRI Networked Readiness Index

TCO Total Cost of Ownership

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

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ABSTRACT

ICT integration in secondary schools in Sub-Saharan Africa is still at an early stage and already

faces several setbacks that may undermine the various initiatives undertaken by governments

and the private sector to promote the use of computers in schools. Based on literature and

other research, this may be attributed to the fact that no guidelines for proper ICT adoption in

secondary schools exist; and furthermore, most integration cases were done haphazardly with

no systematic approach based on the existing frameworks or tailored towards the real context

in the schools concerned.

The present study aimed to provide guidelines for the successful integration of ICT into schools

in Cameroon. A review of some existing frameworks for ICT integrations in schools, as well as

the innovative pathways that some developing countries have taken to ensure the successful

integration of ICT into schools were explored through a literature review, revealing the trends

and challenges of ICT integration in schools in Sub-Saharan Africa.

The current status of ICT in schools in Cameroon being at an introductory stage was established

from the available literature. This led to the use of a single case study from the Western Region

of Cameroon, where four secondary schools were selected from the most advanced schools in

terms of ICT integration. Participants consisting of principals, ICT co-ordinators, teachers, and

students were interviewed, in order to establish the current status of ICT in each school, as well

as those factors affecting or promoting the adoption of ICT.

Teachers’ and students’ surveys, as well as existing documentation were used to triangulate the

data gathered from interviews with school principals and ICT co-ordinators. Data were

descriptively analysed – and the findings revealed that ICT is at the introductory stage of

integration in the Fluck’s Model of ICT development in schools. At school level, the lack of

infrastructure and an ICT adoption plan were found to be the key opposing factors to ICT

integration, whereas several enablers were identified, such as the positive attitude of teachers

towards ICT, the existence of a minimum recurring budget for ICT adoption through parents’

funding, as well as the continually decreasing cost of ICT infrastructure in the market.

Based on the findings and experiences from successfully proven projects, a set of guidelines

were derived for schools’ decision-makers. It is critical to put in place a well-structured policy for

ICT in the school and to recognise all the ICT-related costs.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Above all, my profound gratitude and love are here addressed to God Almighty for making this a

reality and for being on my side throughout the course of this study.

This work would not have been possible without the contribution of the following:

My supervisor, Prof. D. Van Greunen for her professional support and competence in

providing guidance to achieve this work.

To the co-supervisor of this research work Ms K. Church for making my research

experience as enjoyable as I never expected it to be and for providing support all the

way to its completion.

To the entire team of the Information and Communication Technology Advancement

unit for providing all it takes to achieve the best in this research: namely Prof. R. Von

Solms, Prof. R. Botha, Prof. D. Pottas. I thank you all for this opportunity.

The NMMU Research Capacity Development Department for their financial support in

the completion of my research;

My dear parents and grandparents, brothers and sisters, for their constant moral

support.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION .......................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

LIST OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................................ III

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................... IV

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................................... V

TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................................................. VI

LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................................... IX

LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................................... XI

CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION ................................................................................. 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ................................................................... 1

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ................................................................................................................ 3

1.3 STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................ 3

1.3.1 Research Questions ......................................................................................................................... 3 1.3.1.1 Main Research question ................................................................................................................................ 3 1.3.1.2 Secondary research questions ....................................................................................................................... 3

1.3.2 Research Objectives ......................................................................................................................... 4

1.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY......................................................................................................... 4

1.4.1 Philosophy ........................................................................................................................................ 4 1.4.2 Strategies of inquiry ......................................................................................................................... 5 1.4.3 Data Collection Methods ................................................................................................................. 5

1.5 ASSUMPTIONS, SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ........................................................................ 6

1.6 LAYOUT OF CHAPTERS ................................................................................................................... 7

CHAPTER 2 ICT IN SCHOOLS - RATIONALE, TRENDS AND CHALLENGES ................................. 9

2.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 9

2.2 CONCEPTS OF ICT INTEGRATION IN SCHOOLS ....................................................................................... 9

2.2.1 History of Computers in schools ...................................................................................................... 9 2.2.2 What is ICT Integration into Schools? ............................................................................................ 10 2.2.3 Requirements for a successful ICT Integration in schools ............................................................. 11

2.2.3.1 The Curriculum ............................................................................................................................................ 11 2.2.3.2 ICT Infrastructure ........................................................................................................................................ 12 2.2.3.3 Staff development and support .................................................................................................................. 12 2.2.3.4 Organisational change and leadership ....................................................................................................... 13 2.2.3.5 Educational policies and ICT implementation strategies ............................................................................ 13

2.3 ICT IN EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES .................................................................................. 15

2.3.1 Developed and Developing countries ............................................................................................ 15 2.3.2 The focus on ICT integration into schools: moving towards a knowledge society ........................ 16 2.3.3 Justifying ICT Integration in Education........................................................................................... 17 2.3.4 Trends on ICT in Education in developing countries ...................................................................... 18 2.3.5 Major issues and challenges in developing nations ....................................................................... 19 2.3.6 Common factors affecting ICT integration in schools .................................................................... 21

2.3.6.1 Driving Factors ............................................................................................................................................ 22 2.3.6.2 Opposing Factors ........................................................................................................................................ 22

2.4 INTEGRATING ICT IN SCHOOLS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES.................................................................... 23

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2.4.1 Components of a conceptual framework for ICT in schools .......................................................... 23 2.4.2 Sub-Saharan African countries ICT Readiness measurement ........................................................ 26 2.4.3 Level of ICT Integration in selected countries ................................................................................ 28

2.4.3.1 ICT Integration in schools at the Top Level: Lessons from Singapore .......................................................... 29 2.4.3.2 ICT Integration in schools at the middle - level: case of South Africa .......................................................... 31 2.4.3.3 Integration at the bottom - level: most Sub-Saharan African Countries ..................................................... 34

2.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION........................................................................................................... 35

CHAPTER 3 THE CURRENT STATUS OF ICT IN SCHOOLS IN CAMEROON ............................... 37

3.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 37

3.2 CAMEROON: A COUNTRY OVERVIEW ................................................................................................. 37

3.2.1 Cameroon: a country profile: ......................................................................................................... 37 3.2.2 The Cameroon Educational System ............................................................................................... 38 3.2.3 How Networked-Ready is Cameroon?: basic indicators ................................................................ 39

3.3 GENERAL OVERVIEW OF ICT IN SCHOOLS IN CAMEROON ...................................................................... 40

3.3.1 Legal Framework and Policies ........................................................................................................ 41 3.3.2 ICT infrastructure in schools .......................................................................................................... 42 3.3.3 ICT curriculum and professional development .............................................................................. 44

3.4 ICT INTEGRATION IN SCHOOLS IN CAMEROON: WHAT CONTRIBUTES TO THE INERTIA? ........................... 45

3.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................... 47

CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ........................................................ 49

4.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 49

4.2 RESEARCH DESIGN ......................................................................................................................... 49

4.2.1 Overview of research questions and objectives ............................................................................ 49 4.2.2 Philosophical approach .................................................................................................................. 50

4.3 STRATEGIC METHODOLOGY: CASE STUDY ........................................................................................... 51

4.3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 51 4.3.2 Single vs multiple case studies ....................................................................................................... 52 4.3.3 An exploratory case study .............................................................................................................. 53 4.3.4 Case study design ........................................................................................................................... 53

4.3.4.1 The Research Questions .............................................................................................................................. 54 4.3.4.2 Stated purpose of the study ........................................................................................................................ 54 4.3.4.3 Unit of analysis and selection of cases ........................................................................................................ 55 4.3.4.4 Sampling ..................................................................................................................................................... 55

4.3.5 Data gathering methods ................................................................................................................ 57 4.3.5.1 Survey ......................................................................................................................................................... 58 4.3.5.2 Designing Interview instruments ................................................................................................................ 58

4.3.6 Reliability and validity .................................................................................................................... 60 4.3.7 Data triangulation .......................................................................................................................... 61

4.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................... 63

CHAPTER 5 RESULTS AND FINDINGS .................................................................................. 64

5.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 64

5.2 CODING DATA SOURCES ................................................................................................................. 64

5.3 EXPECTATIONS ............................................................................................................................. 65

5. 4 RESULTS FROM INTERVIEWS ............................................................................................................ 66

5.4.1 Teacher’s professional development ............................................................................................. 66

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5.4.1.1 Teachers ICT literacy ................................................................................................................................... 67 5.4.1.2 Teachers’ attitude towards ICT adoption for teaching and learning........................................................... 68 5.4.1.3 Teachers’ willingness to use ICT in teaching or learning. ............................................................................ 74

5.4.2 Infrastructure: Provision and sustainability ................................................................................... 77 5.4.3 Access and use ............................................................................................................................... 81

5.4.3.1 Students' access to ICT ................................................................................................................................ 81 5.4.3.2 Teachers' access to ICT ................................................................................................................................ 83 5.4.3.3 Teacher’s use of ICT .................................................................................................................................... 85

5.4.4 Curriculum ..................................................................................................................................... 85 5.4.5 School Policies and organization .................................................................................................... 86

5.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................... 88

CHAPTER 6 ANALYSIS ....................................................................................................... 89

6.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 89

6.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ................................................................................................................... 89

6.2.1 What is the current status of ICT Integration in schools in Cameroon? (RQ2) ............................... 90 6.2.1.1 The curriculum ............................................................................................................................................ 90 6.2.1.2 School policies and organisation ................................................................................................................. 91 6.2.1.3 Infrastructure and access ............................................................................................................................ 92 6.3.1.4 Staff professional development .................................................................................................................. 93 6.2.1.5 Summary of findings relating to RQ1 .......................................................................................................... 94

6.2.2 What factors enable or prevent ICT integration in schools? (RQ3) ................................................ 94 6.2.2.1 Factors relating to the curriculum ............................................................................................................... 95 6.2.2.2 Infrastructure and access ............................................................................................................................ 96 6.2.2.3 Factors from Teachers' Professional Development ..................................................................................... 96 6.2.2.4 School policies, vision and organisation ...................................................................................................... 98

6.3 GUIDELINES FOR ICT INTEGRATION IN SCHOOLS IN CAMEROON ............................................................. 98

6.3.1 ICT Policies ..................................................................................................................................... 99 6.3.2 Teachers' training......................................................................................................................... 103 6.3.3 Infrastructure plan ....................................................................................................................... 104 6.3.4 Costing ......................................................................................................................................... 105 6.3.5 Funding ........................................................................................................................................ 107

6.4 DATA TRIANGULATION ................................................................................................................. 108

6.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION......................................................................................................... 109

CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................ 111

7.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 111

7.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND OBJECTIVES .......................................................................................... 111

7.3 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ........................................................................................................... 118

7.4 RELEVANCE OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................................ 119

7.5 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ................................................................................... 121

BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................. 122 APPENDIX 3.A Indicators for the country of Cameroon ............................................................................. 127 APPENDIX 4.A Preliminary survey of schools .............................................................................................. 128 APPENDIX 4.B PRINCIPALS’ INTERVIEWS .................................................................................................... 129 APPENDIX 4.C ICT COORDINATORS' INTERVIEWS ....................................................................................... 131 APPENDIX 4.D TEACHERS’ QUESTIONNAIRE ............................................................................................... 135 APPENDIX 4.E STUDENTS’ QUESTIONNAIRE ............................................................................................... 141

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Driving factors affecting the use of new forms of ICT in education (Fisser, 2001), .............................. 22

Table 2.2 Opposing factors affecting the use of new forms of ICT in education (Webb, 2007) ........................... 23

Table 2.3: summary of the key phases of ICT in school development (Fluck, 2003) ............................................ 26

Table 2.4: Network Readiness Index and Environment sun Index in Sub-Saharan African Countries. (World

Economic Forum, 2010) ........................................................................................................................................ 28

Table 2.5: Singapore: stages of ICT integration in education (National University of Singapore, 2008) .............. 31

Table 2.6: Computer summary grid for schools in South Africa .......................................................................... 34

Table 2.7: South Africa current stages of ICT integration in education ................................................................ 34

Table 2.8: Current Status of ICT Integration in schools in Sub-Saharan Africa ..................................................... 35

Table 3.1: Socio-economic Indicators: Cameroon (UNDATA, 2010) ..................................................................... 38

Table 3.2: Cameroon: current level of ICT integration in education .................................................................... 45

Table 4.1: Selected schools in Western region of Cameroon ............................................................................... 56

Table 4.2: Respondents and roles in each school ................................................................................................. 58

Table 4.3: Data collection methods summary ................................................................................................. 60

Table 4.4: Summary of research questions and methodology ........................................................................ 63

Table 5.1: Gender distribution of respondents .................................................................................................... 64

Table 5.2: Data source coding .............................................................................................................................. 64

Table 5.3: Initial expectations ............................................................................................................................... 65

Table 5.4 Teachers' ICT literacy status .................................................................................................................. 67

Table 5.5 Number of teachers who have once used ICT to prepare lessons ........................................................ 67

Table 5.6 Reasons for not using ICT ...................................................................................................................... 68

Table 5.7: Computers could ease my teaching Job (TQ4.1) .................................................................................. 68

Table 5.8: ICT allows finding useful online resources for my teaching (TQ4.2) .................................................... 69

Table 5.9: Teachers' lack of access (TQ4.4) .......................................................................................................... 69

Table 5.10: ICT creating additional workload for teachers (TQ4.7) ...................................................................... 69

Table 5.11: Not knowing what using ICT implies (TQ5.6) ..................................................................................... 70

Table 5.12: Reduced daily charges (TQ5.9) .......................................................................................................... 70

Table 5.13: Students will learn better using ICTs (TQ4.5) ..................................................................................... 70

Table 5.14: Not skilled enough to use ICTs (TQ4.6) .............................................................................................. 70

Table 5.15: A new pedagogical approach (TQ4.9) ................................................................................................ 71

Table 5.16: Lack of support to use ICT in teaching (TQ4.11) ................................................................................ 71

Table 5.17: Feeling aggressive towards computers (TQ4.13) ............................................................................... 71

Table 5.18: Cannot work with computers (TQ4.14) ............................................................................................. 72

Table 5.19: Not interested in problem-solving using computers (TQ4.15) .......................................................... 72

Table 5.20: ICT as a distraction for students (TQ4.10) ......................................................................................... 73

Table 5.21: A mastery of computers needed for jobs' future (TQ4.17) ............................................................... 73

Table 5.22: Learning to use computers will be difficult (TQ4.16) ......................................................................... 73

Table 5.23: Too old to learn about computers (TQ4.18) ...................................................................................... 73

Table 5.24: Age distribution of respondents (TQ1.4) ........................................................................................... 74

Table 5.25: Feeling uncomfortable when talking about ICT (TQ4.20) .................................................................. 74

Table 5.26: Not enough computers for the number of students (TQ5.1) ............................................................ 74

Table 5.27: Lack of proper training to use ICT (TQ5.2) ......................................................................................... 75

Table 5.28: Lack of adequate equipment to use ICT (TQ5.3)............................................................................... 75

Table 5.29 Lack of administrative support to use ICT (TQ5.4) .............................................................................. 75

Table 5.30: Lack of technical support to use ICT (TQ5.5) ..................................................................................... 75

Table 5.31: Lack of official and adequate teaching resources from the ministry of education (TQ5.7) ............... 76

Table 5.32: Lack of ready-made digital content (TQ5.8) ...................................................................................... 76

Table 5.33: Using ICT more easily in other subjects (TQ5.11) .............................................................................. 76

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Table 5.34 Distribution of respondents according to type of subject taught. (TQ1.5) ......................................... 76

Table 5.35: Lack of commitments from schools' authorities (TQ5.13) ................................................................. 77

Table 5.36: Lack of rewards from the ministry of education (TQ5.15) ................................................................. 77

Table 5.37: ICT Procurement in schools ............................................................................................................... 78

Table 5.38: ICT infrastructure plan ....................................................................................................................... 78

Table 5.39: Computer specifications in schools (CQ2.5) ...................................................................................... 78

Table 5.40: Type of Internet connectivity (CQ2.13, CQ2.14) ................................................................................ 79

Table 5.41: Hardware infrastructure in schools (CQ2.6, CQ2.8)........................................................................... 79

Table 5.42: Software resources in schools (CQ2.10) ............................................................................................ 79

Table 5.43: Primary users of ICT resources (PQ2.5) ............................................................................................. 80

Table 5.44: Computer Labs ................................................................................................................................... 80

Table 5.45: Primary users of ICT resources (CQ2.11) ........................................................................................... 81

Table 5.46: Primary users of ICT resources (PQ2.9) ............................................................................................. 81

Table 5.47: Student access to ICT in schools (SQ2.1) ................................................................................................. 81

Table 5.48: Students’ frequency of access to ICT in school (SQ2.2) ..................................................................... 81

Table 5.49: Other Students' access to ICT? .......................................................................................................... 82

Table 5.50: Access to ICT outside school or home (SQ2.6) ................................................................................... 82

Table 5.51: Reason for limited or no access to ICT by students in school (SQ2.3) ............................................... 82

Table 5.52: Students' shared access to computers (SQ3.5) .................................................................................. 82

Table 5.53: Number of students sharing a computer during classes (SQ3.6)....................................................... 83

Table 5.54: Students with email account............................................................................................................. 83

Table 5.55: Places of access to email or the Internet? (SQ2.9) ............................................................................ 83

Table 5.56: Teachers’ access to ICT ...................................................................................................................... 83

Table 5.57: Frequency of teachers’ access to ICT in schools (TQ2.6) ................................................................... 84

Table 5.58 Reason for teachers' limited access to ICT in School. (TQ2.10) .......................................................... 84

Table 5.59: Place of access to the Internet (TQ3.2) .............................................................................................. 84

Table 5.60: Reasons for accessing the Internet (TQ3.3) ....................................................................................... 85

Table 5.61: Computer literacy (TQ2.1, TQ6.2) ...................................................................................................... 85

Table 5.62: Computer training (TQ6.3)? ............................................................................................................... 85

Table 5.63: Number of years of using computers (TQ2.3) ................................................................................... 85

Table 5.64: Use of computer lab .......................................................................................................................... 86

Table 5.65: Top reasons for not using computers in teaching (TQ5.1, TQ5.2, TQ5.7).......................................... 86

Table 5.66: Existence of policy document for ICT in school (PQ3.1) ................................................................... 87

Table 5.67: What prompted ICT integration in schools? (PQ3.3) ......................................................................... 87

Table 5.68: Sources of funding for ICT (PQ3.4) ..................................................................................................... 87

Table 5.69: Schools' ICT priorities (PQ3.2, PQ3.5) ................................................................................................ 88

Table 5.70: Major concerns when integrating ICT in school (PQ3.6) ................................................................... 88

Table 5.71: ICT integration plan and literacy ........................................................................................................ 88

Table 6.1: Status of curriculum at each stage of ICT development in schools ..................................................... 90

Table 6.2: Status of policies and organisations at each stage of ICT development in schools ............................. 91

Table 6.3: Status of infrastructure and access at each stage of ICT development in schools .............................. 92

Table 6.4: Teachers' professional development at each stage of ICT integration in schools ............................... 93

Table 6.5: Quick summary of status of components ............................................................................................ 94

Table 6.6: Guidelines for ICT integration in schools ........................................................................................... 110

Table 7.1: Enabling and opposing factors for ICT development in schools ........................................................ 116

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 2-1 MODEL DEPICTING A CONTINUUM OF APPROACHES TO ICT DEVELOPMENT IN SCHOOLS (UNESCO, 2002) ................ 23

FIGURE 2-2 A GENERAL MODEL FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF ICT POLICIES IN SCHOOLS (FLUCK, 2003) ....................................... 23

FIGURE 2-3: THE NETWORKED READINESS INDEX 2009 – 2010: THE FRAMEWORK (WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM, 2010) ............ 27

FIGURE 4-1: DATA TRIANGULATION .............................................................................................................................. 62

FIGURE 7-1 GUIDELINES FOR ICT ADOPTION IN SCHOOLS AT THE INTRODUCTORY STAGE ........................................................ 118

CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

In the educational sector, ICT is shaping the future of education and learning (Khan, 2008). ICT

will largely contribute to achieving universal education through the delivery of education and

the training of teachers, as well as the offering of improved conditions for lifelong learning. Such

lifelong learning involves people that are outside the formal education process, and thus also

their improving professional skills (UNESCO, 2005).

ICT can improve critical thinking, information handling skills, the level of conceptualization, and

problem-solving capacity (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). When used appropriately,

different ICTs are said to help extend the access to education, strengthen the relevance of

education to the increasingly digital workspace, and raise educational quality by, among others,

helping make teaching and learning into an engaging, active process connected to real life

(Tinio, 2003; Whitworth & Berson, 2003).

The focus today is no longer on whether technology should be integrated into the school

setting, but on how this integration should be done to benefit all parties in a typical school

setting. ICT integration in education – or, in other words, the adoption of computer usage – has

in recent years become the key term in most national policies (Vallance, 2008). Several cases of

successful ICT integration into the classroom are reported, but most of these have been in

technologically advanced countries (Jhurree, 2005). On the contrary, little or no statistics are

available from developing countries to ascertain the level of ICT integration into education in

these countries.

The limited research reports that are available on developing countries, and in Sub-Saharan

Africa in particular, indicate that the implementation of ICT is currently increasing, and has been

introduced in varying degrees at all levels from preschools to university (ERNWACA, 2006).

In a developing country such as Cameroon, President Biya promised the introduction of

computing in schools and the endowment of computer rooms to schools (Mbangwana, 2009).

This promise was followed by public and private initiatives, such as the creation of an official

computer curriculum outline for secondary schools, the donation of some computer labs by

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government (National Agency for Information and Communication Technologies, 2008) and

private bodies (MTN Foundation, 2005). Some ICT-related policies were formulated, strategies

were adopted and legal frameworks were put in place to ensure a step into the “Information

Society era”. The most prominent of these was the Cameroon National Information and

Communication Infrastructure (NICI) policy and plan drafted in 2004.

This policy clearly outlined the government’s resolve to modernise the educational system

through the introduction of ICTs in schools, preparing a sectoral ICT policy for the educational

sector, training teachers in the use of ICTs, equipping all schools with ICT facilities, multiplying

pedagogic resource centres for teachers and students, and providing support for the production

of ICT teaching materials (Tchinda, 2007).

However, a recent report released by the National Agency for Information and Communication

Technologies – a body established to monitor and promote the integration of ICT in the society

– concluded that despite the substantial efforts undertaken so far in the educational sector, the

level of ICT mastery in an emerging knowledge-based society like Cameroon vis-à-vis other

countries at the same level of growth still remained very low; and that it may not be able to

guarantee an adequate training in the mastery and usage of ICTs by the citizens of that country

(National Agency for Information and Communication Technologies, 2008).

In developing countries, the perception of ICT integration in schools still remains the outdated

empirical view that "wiring schools, buying hardware and software, and distributing the

equipment throughout will lead to abundant classroom use by teachers and students and

improved teaching and learning” (Lary, Heather, & Peck, 2001). A view, according to which

policy-makers only could imagine the adoption of ICT into the framework of a school system as

they knew it; the children followed a predetermined curriculum mapped out year by year and

lesson by lesson (Yelland, Neal, & Dakich, 2008).

The effective integration of ICT is a complex, multifaceted process that involves not just

technology, but also a curriculum and a pedagogy, institutional readiness, teacher

competencies, and long-term financing among others (Tinio, 2003) (Fluck, 2003); it is a dynamic

process involving interacting factors over time. (Tondeur, Valcke, & van Braak, 2007).

Frameworks and models have been put in place to ease the numerous aspects of ICT

integration, such as ICT and its uses, teaching, the curriculum and schooling (Robertson, Webb,

& Fluck, 2007).

3

Some very successful cases of ICT Integration in developing countries were based on

frameworks, guided by research, and done by means of a scientific approach. Most of these

cases were based on careful planning and how policy-makers understood and appreciated the

dynamics of such integration (Kok, 2006).

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

ICT integration in secondary schools in Sub-Saharan Africa is still at an early stage, and already

faces several setbacks that may undermine the various initiatives undertaken by governments

and the private sector to promote the use of computers in schools. Based on literature and

other research, this may be attributed to the fact that no guidelines for proper ICT adoption in

secondary schools exist, and most integration cases were done haphazardly with no systematic

approach based on existing frameworks or tailored towards the real context in the schools

concerned.

This research reviews some existing frameworks for ICT integrations in schools – in order to

understand the various approaches in using ICT to improve teaching and learning. The research

explores the innovative pathways some developing countries have taken to ensure successful

integration of ICT into schools. It then establishes the current status of ICT integration in schools

in Cameroon, highlighting the barriers and enablers that hinder or facilitate the integration into

a typical secondary schools; and finally, it proposes – from a close analysis of ICT in selected

schools in the Western region of Cameroon – a set of guidelines and requirements for a

successful integration of ICT into schools.

1.3 STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVES

1.3.1 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1.3.1.1 Main research question

Which guidelines should be followed to ensure a successful integration of ICT in

Cameroonian secondary schools?

1.3.1.2 Secondary research questions

Three sub-questions related to the main study will be addressed:

4

What are the current trends of ICT integration in schools in Sub-Saharan Africa?

What is the status of ICT integration in schools in Cameroon?

What factors promote or hinder ICT integration in Schools in Cameroon?

1.3.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

On the basis of the general research questions, the overall objective of the research is to

suggest guidelines for the successful integration of ICT in secondary schools in the Western

region of Cameroon.

To achieve the above primary objective, the following secondary objectives also need to be

determined:

To understand the trends of ICT integration in schools from Sub-Saharan

Africa;

To establish the current status of ICT in schools in Cameroon;

To determine the possible barriers and enablers of ICT Integration in

selected secondary schools from Cameroon.

1.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1.4.1 PHILOSOPHY

The epistemological position regarding the study is based on the following stance: Data are

contained within the perspectives of people that are involved with ICT integration and its

adoption into schools – either in a decision-making capacity or as participants. Based on this, the

researcher needed to engage with the participants in collecting the data. The phenomenological

methodology is best suited for this type of study.

The intention of this research, since its preliminary stage, was to gather data regarding the

perspectives of the research participants (stakeholders in schools) on the phenomenon of ICT

integration in schools and the factors that promote or hinder this process.

5

1.4.2 STRATEGIES OF INQUIRY

Based on the above research objectives, a thorough literature review combined with a case

study was used to identify the requirements for a successful ICT integration into schools with a

focus on the challenges from developing countries, and to also establish the status of ICT

integration in the schools in Cameroon.

A case study was defined as an empirical investigation of a particular contemporary

phenomenon within its real-life context. This was to be done by using multiple sources of

evidence (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2007). This strategy could be a single case – in which the

phenomenon under study had not been observed by many before – or a multiple-case study –

used when the findings from a particular case are found to occur in other cases – with a view to

generalising them.

The case study was a representative case, intending to show how ICT integration in schools

should be done in a typical region, and with the final aim of suggesting guidelines for ICT

integration into schools in the entire Cameroon. A single case study in a typical region was used

in this study to investigate the factors affecting ICT integration in participating secondary

schools, in which the basic ICT infrastructure exists and an ongoing resolve from policy-makers

to integrate ICT into the entire school system.

1.4.3 DATA COLLECTION METHODS

The nature of the study was mainly exploratory and cross-sectional. The methods used for data

gathering were a combination of the quantitative and qualitative methods. Data were gathered

from three selected sources: interviews with schools principals, ICT coordinators and teachers;

students’ surveys; and finally, from documentation available in the country, from the Ministry of

Secondary Education, and from within the schools themselves.

Sample: The purposive sampling technique was used in the selection of schools with basic ICT

infrastructure as a key criterion. The selection of the schools in the chosen region was further

influenced by the availability of ICT resources, the school readiness to support the research

conducted – by granting access to resources and information, and the limited funds available to

cover schools in regions far apart. Fifteen schools were short-listed from within the case study –

the Western Region. This was carried out by the Regional Department of Education. These

6

schools were recognised as the most advanced schools in the region in terms of ICT

infrastructure. A further assessment was then made to reduce the number of participating

schools to four, based on criteria, such as the accessibility and the willingness of leaders to

adopt the ICT in education change, as well as to be representative of each of the departments of

the region.

Interviews: Interviews may be defined as purposeful discussions between two or more people

(Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2007). This was the method used for primary data collection. In

this research, four components made up the interviews: Interviews with principals aimed at

appraising their willingness to embark on ICT in schools, as well as the institutional policies and

challenges that could possibly be faced; interviews with ICT coordinators, aimed at gaining a

better understanding of the challenges and barriers facing ICT integration into schools. The

teachers’ interviews were administered in the form of questionnaires – to obtain their opinions

and views on the potential challenges and expectations from using ICT in teaching.

Students’ interviews – also administered in the form of questionnaires with closed-ended

questions – aimed at establishing students’ access to and the use of ICT in schools.

A literature review was used to gather secondary data. Data collected by other researchers in

some secondary schools were re-analysed, or simply used, in order to obtain useful insights into

the state of ICT literacy in those schools and in the related countries.

These various methods and analyses conducted will be discussed in more detail in the Research

Design and Methodology chapter of this dissertation.

1.5 ASSUMPTIONS, SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

It was assumed that the schools selected for the study had a basic ICT laboratory in place with at

least the minimum of hardware and resources required.

The study focuses on how ICT integration in schools can be properly planned; and little

emphasis is to be placed on the implementation phase of ICT integration. That could be done in

a more contextual study.

The result from this study will be of value to principals in schools struggling with the challenge of

ICT integration – especially those with little or no knowledge of the possible outcomes.

7

The significance of this study lies in the fact that the guidelines suggested can have a bearing on

how policy-makers and decision-makers view ICT integration. It could even receive a nationwide

acceptance, with subsequent adoption, in secondary schools where the need for ICT integration

is recognised. If proper guidelines for ICT Integration are suggested, then decision-makers will

find it a valuable tool to overcome the setbacks they have so far encountered in strengthening

the quality of education through ICT. With no previous integration process being based on

research, this study could help stakeholders in schools to clearly identify the areas of concern –

many of which were initially ignored.

Ethical considerations

The case studies applicable in this research are government public schools. As such, it was

necessary to obtain the approval of the department of education covering the research area.

This was sought and obtained.

Participants’ rights (not to participate, to withdraw from the project at any given time, not to

answer questions) and their privacy (anonymity, confidentiality) were preserved at all times

throughout the study.

1.6 LAYOUT OF CHAPTERS

Chapter 1: General introduction

This chapter has highlighted the background to the study, and specified the research problems,

as well as the objectives, the research philosophy and the approach used.

Chapter 2: ICT in schools: rationale, trends, and challenges

This chapter will seek to understand the requirements for an effective ICT integration, the

various challenges faced by developing countries, and some successful cases of ICT integration

in schools. A general overview of the current level of ICT integration into schools in the Sub-

Saharan Africa region was investigated.

Chapter 3: Current status of ICT in schools in Cameroon

In this chapter, a cross examination of the context of ICT integration in schools in a Sub-Saharan

Africa country at the initial stages of the process will be made. Cameroon is one of the countries

8

at an early level of ICT integration. It displays a typical status of inertia, as may be observed in

the whole of Sub-Saharan Africa.

Chapter 4: Research Design and Methodology

This chapter will describe the research design, data collection and analysis methods, as well as

the process of data validation and triangulation.

Chapter 5: Results and Findings

The results of the investigation will be provided in this chapter. These will serve as a basis for

the subsequent analysis that will follow thereafter.

Chapter 6: Analysis

In this chapter, analysis of the data collected will be performed – with the aim of formulating

answers to the research questions.

Chapter 7: Conclusion

The major ideas emerging from the study will here be explored further. An overall summary of

the achievement of the objectives and goals will be made, as well as the prescribed guidelines

for an effective ICT integration into classrooms will be suggested. The chapter concludes with

some recommendations for future research.

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CHAPTER 2 ICT IN SCHOOLS - RATIONALE,

TRENDS AND CHALLENGES

2.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter discusses the concept of ICT in schools, its rationale and specific components. A

review of ICT in education in developing countries is made in the second section with a view to

identifying current trends, issues and challenges, as well as common enabling and opposing

factors. A close look at the Networked Readiness Index (NRI) framework and its components

suggests a relationship between countries and their level of ICT integration in schools. The cases

of an NRI top-ranked (Singapore) and middle-ranked (South Africa) countries were investigated

– as well as an overview of the situation in most Sub-Saharan countries.

2.2 CONCEPTS OF ICT INTEGRATION IN SCHOOLS

2.2.1 HISTORY OF COMPUTERS IN SCHOOLS

The issue of ‘computers in education’ started to become popular in educational policy-making in

the early 1980s, when relatively cheap microcomputers became available for the consumer

market. Stimulated by governmental policies and quite often led by the fear of losing the

technology race, many countries started to build their own brand of microcomputers (BBC,

Acorn, Tomson) and distributed these to schools. At the end of the 1980s, the term “computers”

was replaced by ‘IT’ (Information Technology). IT came about in the 1970s to describe

technologies that give the user direct access to a wide range of diverse information types

(Tondeur, Valcke, & van Braak, 2007).

This signifies a shift of the focus from computing technology to the capacity to store and

retrieve information. This was followed by the introduction of the term ‘ICT’ (Information and

Communication Technologies) around 1992, when e-mail started to become available to the

general public. The term ‘ICT’ reflected the common understanding that a computer’s potential

is significantly enhanced by connection to a local network, and even more so by connection to

the Internet. (Fluck, 2003)

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With regard to the early introduction of microcomputers in education, there were high

expectations that it would make education more effective and motivating. However, when

many surveys had shown that computers were used mainly as a supplement to the existing

curriculum, and much less as tools that were fully integrated into the learning of traditional

subject matter, the general feeling among many policy-makers was one of great

disappointment.

Between 1992 and about 1995, the investments in hardware, staff development and research

programmes on ICT decreased (Pelgrum & Law, 2003). With the advent of the World Wide Web,

the political interest in ICT was quickly boosted for a second time. Many have seen ICT as a

formidable tool to close the gap between the developing world and the developed world – by

skipping certain stages of industrial development and leapfrogging into the Information

Economy (Osterwalder, 2007).

This interest was accompanied by a commonly accepted rhetoric that education systems would

need to prepare citizens for lifelong learning in an ‘information society’ (Pelgrum & Law, 2003).

As a result, an information society was to be changed by ICT; citizens in these information

societies would need new competencies that had not yet been sufficiently attained in the

traditional education systems; educational innovations would need to be implemented – with

the aid of ICT – to attain these new skills.

These related but semantically different interests have stirred up the way ICT in education is

perceived in developing nations – preparing students for employment in a globally competitive

environment predicated on the widespread use of ICT, or using ICT to improve educational

outcomes.

2.2.2 WHAT IS ICT INTEGRATION INTO SCHOOLS?

A useful definition of ICT is that which relates to those technologies that are used for accessing,

gathering, manipulating and presenting or communicating information. The technologies could

include hardware (e.g. computers and other devices); software applications; and connectivity

(e.g. access to the Internet, local networking infrastructure, videoconferencing, etc). While the

term ICT effectively refers to a broader domain, in developing nations, ICT still tends to mean

computers and their peripheral devices.

11

These computers could refer to anything from high-speed connected state-of-the art machines

to something which is dated, stand-alone, or poorly maintained (Lloyd, 2005).

ICT integration in schools could be simply viewed as the use of computers in the teaching and

learning process. This view would clearly misjudge the complex nature of the integration

procedure itself. By integrating, we understand combining parts together, so that they work

together to make a whole. The ‘parts to be combined’ include the school context in which

integration is to take place, the technologies provided, the technical skills of teachers, the

technical support provided for the installation, maintenance and upgrading of hardware and

software, the pedagogical preferences and skills of teachers, the availability of appropriate

electronic resources – and finally, the skills and motivation of students.

ICT Integration could be seen as a whole configuration of events, activities, contents, and

interpersonal processes taking place in the context in which ICT is used. However, the right

conditions need to be in place before the educational benefits of ICT can be fully harnessed, and

a systematic approach is required when integrating ICTs into the education system. This fact is

often overlooked, and in their eagerness to jump onto the technology bandwagon, many

education systems end up with technologies that are either unsuitable for their needs or cannot

be used optimally – due to the lack of adequately trained personnel (Ng, Miao, & Lee, 2009).

2.2.3 REQUIREMENTS FOR A SUCCESSFUL ICT INTEGRATION IN SCHOOLS

Several models and frameworks have been formulated to provide a better understanding of the

ICT integration process, to evaluate the positive effects of technology on learning, or to

investigate the kind of enhanced learning environment that technology provides in the

classroom. Pelgrum (2003) identified five key dimensions that should be addressed when

considering ICT Integration in education. These comprise the curriculum, the ICT Infrastructure,

the staff development and support, the organisational change and leadership, and the National

educational policies and ICT implementation strategies.

2.2.3.1 The Curriculum

The curriculum is seen as the content and processes of learning in schools, as well as the

outcome of learning. Three roles are generally differentiated for ICT in the curriculum: “Learning

about ICT”, which refers to ICT as a subject of learning in the school curriculum, such as

12

computer (or ICT) literacy, computer science and information literacy; “Learning with ICT”,

which refers to the use of ICT, including multimedia, the Internet or the Web as a medium to

enhance instruction, or as a replacement for other media without changing the beliefs about the

approaches to, and the methods of, teaching and learning; and “Learning through ICT”, which

refers to the integration of ICT as an essential tool into a course/curriculum, such that the

teaching and learning of that course/curriculum is no longer possible without it.

2.2.3.2 ICT Infrastructure

ICT Infrastructure refers to the hardware, the software and network connectivity. Here, ICT is

used not only to support “learning about ICT”, but also to support “learning with ICT” and

“learning through ICT”, as described in the previous section. Sub-dimensions are identified in

relation to ICT infrastructure in education, such as “the stand-alone versus the distributed”

dimension – if software is only locally available (CD-ROM) or accessible only from remote

locations (Web-based); “the producer versus the consumer “dimension – if the digital materials

are being made by the children and teachers themselves, or if they are made by others and

accessed by the children and the teachers; “the structured versus the learner-controlled”

dimension – the degree to which a pre-determined learning route is designed into materials

(tutorials and some simulations) versus their being used as exploratory environments, or as

hyperlinked encyclopaedias of resource materials.

Issues relating to the quality and the quantity of hardware, the type and cost of equipment

needed, the features of the ICT infrastructure which are crucial, and the guidelines for handling

and maintenance should be addressed at this stage. From the Software perspective, the debate

ranges over the respective pros and cons of using Free Software (FS), and solutions versus

proprietary solutions. At the economic level, the balance goes to the FS solution, while

proprietary software companies claim their Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) is lower (Muller,

Sancho Gil, & Hernandez, 2006).

2.2.3.3 Staff development and support

Teachers play a crucial role in the adoption and implementation of ICT in education, since they

are the key to making learning happen. The lack of ICT knowledge and skills from teachers is

reported to be a major obstacle to implementation; and consequently, this requires the need

13

for further training for teachers. The introduction of computers in schools is a complex

innovation which poses considerable challenges to teachers in their daily work.

Education reforms should require teachers to adopt new roles, since more responsibilities for

learning are given directly to the students. This change requires that teachers be proficient in

advising and guiding students through more autonomous, self-directed learning processes,

while at the same time monitoring the curriculum standards achieved by students. Preparing

teachers for this new role is a major challenge for staff development. Also, while teachers are

often the focus of staff-development provisions, they are not the only stakeholders that require

staff development to cope with the introduction of ICT into schools.

First of all, the presence of large quantities and varieties of ICT equipment in schools has created

the need for dedicated technology co-ordinators and technical support staff. The availability of

support, both technical and pedagogical, is vital for the successful implementation of ICT.

2.2.3.4 Organisational change and leadership

The change brought in by introducing ICT has to be aligned with other institutional priorities, if it

is to be successful. However, case studies of ICT implementation in schools in a number of

countries have indicated that the vision and goal of such implementation can be very different,

even for schools that have been actively engaged in innovation of their traditional educational

practices. (Pelgrum & Law, 2003). It might be expected that changes which do not involve

challenges to the existing educational priorities or beliefs of the school would be relatively easily

implemented.

However, to bring about curriculum change, drastic changes in teaching practices, school culture

and organizational management must be made. Schools need to become “learning

organisations”, i.e institutions that anticipate new challenges and change, and orientate

themselves towards continual renewal and improvement.

2.2.3.5 Educational policies and ICT implementation strategies

In recent years, many governments throughout the world have adopted plans that have, in

varying degrees, addressed the issues relating to ICT integration in schools (Pelgrum & Law,

2003). These plans are largely similar to their intentions in regard to the major direction of

change, and are essentially plans for reforming education from a system which is mainly

teacher-directed to one that encourages more student-centred learning.

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However, the nature and scope of the strategies for initiating, guiding and implementing these

policy plans differ between countries, partly as a consequence of varying socio-economic

circumstances (UNESCO, 2001). This study reviews the kinds of policy goals pursued by some

selected countries, the implementation strategies that have been used at national level to

promote the use of ICT in the curriculum, and the issues and challenges that policy-makers need

to consider when formulating their national ICT in education policies and strategies.

At the school level, policies must be formulated as well. A whole-school ICT policy sets out the

rationale for the teaching and learning of ICT, as well as the aims and objectives for ICT use

within the ethos and wider frameworks of the school. It gives clear guidance on the types of

equipment, programmes and measures that need to be in place if the requirements of the

policy are to be met. The central aim of the policy is to provide a broad, balanced and

challenging range of ICT opportunities for the students – to effectively prepare them for a future

role in society (BECTA , 2009).

An effective ICT policy must be a concise and accessible document that informs and directs the

teaching of ICT within the school. The policy must be subject to initial agreement by the

governing body and the staff, and they should undertake regular reviews in common with all the

other school policies. The priorities need to be reflected in the school's ICT development plan,

and the ICT priorities and associated budget requirements need to be identified in the school

development plan.

Kozma further suggested a classification of these components in a framework for policy

formulation, into two categories, namely: strategic components and operational components

(Kozma, 2008).

Strategic components, such as national policies, are needed to provide a rationale, a set of

goals, and a vision for how education systems might look with the introduction of ICT, and how

students, teachers, parents, and the general population might benefit from its use in schools.

Kozma identified possible alternatives from national policy statements used to justify the

investment of funds in educational ICT. Some of these statements aimed at promoting the use

of educational ICT to support economic growth or promoting social development. Some policies

focus more specifically on the impact of ICT on the education system, either to advance

educational reform or to support education management.

15

Operational policies, on the other hand, are a means of turning the visions provided by strategic

policies into reality. Operational policies—typically framed as action plans, programmes, or

projects—often consist of the following components: content development; pedagogical and

curricular change; technical support; teacher training and Infrastructural development.

2.3 ICT IN EDUCATION FROM DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

2.3.1 DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Developing country is a term generally used to describe a nation with a low level of material

wellbeing. There is no single internationally-recognised definition of a developed country, and

the levels of development may vary widely within so-called developing countries (UNSTATS,

2010), with some having high average standards of living. According to the United Nations

Statistical Division, the designations "developed" and "developing" are intended for statistical

convenience, and do not necessarily express a judgement about the stage reached by a

particular country or area in the development process.

In this view, we have at one end the developed nations – countries that have a high level of

development according to some criteria. Economic criteria have tended to dominate

discussions. One such criterion is income per capita; countries with high Gross Domestic Product

(GDP) per capita would thus be described as developed countries. Another economic criterion is

industrialisation; countries in which the tertiary and quaternary sectors of industry dominate

would thus be described as developed.

More recently, another measure, the Human Development Index, which combines an economic

measure, national income, with other measures, indices for life expectancy and education has

become prominent and is becoming more widely used.

On the other end of the classification, we have Least-Developed Countries (LDC). These are –

according to the United Nations -- countries which exhibit the lowest indicators of socio-

economic development, with the lowest Human Development Index ratings of all countries in

the world. A country is classified as a Least-Developed Country if it meets three criteria based on

low-income (three-year average GNI [Gross National Incom]) per capita of less than US $905,

which must exceed $1,086 to leave the list), human resource weakness (based on indicators of

nutrition, health, education and adult literacy) and economic vulnerability (based on instability

16

of agricultural production, instability of exports of goods and services, economic importance of

non-traditional activities, merchandise export concentration, handicap of economic smallness,

and the percentage of population displaced by natural disasters) (UNITED NATIONS, 2009). A

total of 33 countries from Sub-Saharan Africa constitute the bulk of the 49 LDCs listed.

Countries that have “graduated” from the LDC category or are aspiring to become a Developed

Country could be classified as “Developing countries” or “emerging and developing economies”.

2.3.2 THE FOCUS ON ICT INTEGRATION INTO SCHOOLS: MOVING TOWARDS A

KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY

According to the UNESCO, moves towards “learning societies and organizations” are based on

the need to acquire new knowledge throughout life. More and more opportunities for learning

are currently being offered outside the formal education system, many of them supported by

ICT development and tools (UNESCO, 2007). But as educational demand increases and supply

diversifies, increasing disparities can be observed in respect of access, affordability and quality.

The nature of this ICT take-up in education goes beyond using information and communication

systems to improve education administration, to the large-scale adoption of digital technologies

that impacts on curricular and pedagogical structures.

Some Sub-Saharan developing countries, generally characterised by low income, weak human

resources and high economic vulnerability, are facing critical issues, some of which are outlined

by the UN Millennium Development Goals (MDG) as: ending poverty and hunger, achieving

universal primary education, promoting gender equality and empowering women, reducing

child mortality, improving maternal health, combating HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases,

ensuring environmental sustainability, and developing a global partnership for development

(United Nations).

However, it is maintained that ICTs can be powerful enablers of such developmental goals

(Hameed, 2006) because their unique characteristics can and do radically improve

communication and the exchange of information – to strengthen and create new economic and

social networks. All developing countries, even the poorest, are improving their access to, and

their use of modern ICTs, some at a dramatic rate with a long-term view for improved

education, health, job creation, governance and other services (Rodriguez & Wilson, 1999).

17

But this is not without a confluence of economic, social, and political challenges. On the one

hand, there is pressure for governments to provide education to all members of the population

— even in the face of scarce financial, physical, and human resources — as a precondition for

economic and social development. At the same time, globalization and the shift to a

‘knowledge-based economy’ require that educational institutions develop in individuals the

ability to transform information into knowledge, and to apply that knowledge in dynamic, cross-

cultural contexts.

2.3.3 JUSTIFYING ICT INTEGRATION IN EDUCATION

ICT integration in education should be seen as a support to “attain objectives that have not been

attained efficiently otherwise: expanding access, promoting equality, improving the internal

efficiency of educational systems, enhancing the quality of education, and preparing new and

old generations for a technology-driven market place” (Jhurree, 2005). According to Jhurree

(2005), integrating ICT in education could provide the following benefits to the community and

the society:

An enhanced learning environment for learners: Technology provides a motivating learning

environment, whereby learners are given the opportunity to be constructively engaged with

instruction.

A powerful tool to supplement teachers’ instruction in classroom: If properly used by teachers,

technology can foster more interest in learning on the part of students, and teachers can use it

in the instruction of their respective subjects.

An administrative tool for teachers and administrators: Apart from classroom instruction,

teachers are also involved in class administrative duties, such as students’ record keeping,

lesson planning, preparing handouts, tutorials and slides, preparing examination papers,

marking papers and recording results, performing some type of statistical analyses on marks and

so forth. Administrators are also involved in a variety of work that requires technology, such as

the computation of school performance for a certain year, the keeping of records of employees,

and the preparation of the school budget, among others.

Increased access to education and inclusive education in the school: ICT has been recognised

as providing a means of helping schools achieve the goal of promoting equal access to

18

education. It also has the potential to offer increased access to education to students with

disabilities.

A communication platform: Through the Internet and the networks, schools have an excellent

opportunity to promote collaboration, to share ideas and experiences, and to communicate

with the world. Students, teachers, and administrators can communicate, exchange knowledge

and concerns, meet experts and peers, and share work in collaborative projects through ICT.

2.3.4 TRENDS IN ICT IN EDUCATION FROM DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Developing countries have recognised the fact that successful knowledge economies will require

additional skills to productively transform knowledge and information into innovative products

and services. This aligns with the global trend, observed from a World Bank report highlighting

the focus of governments around the world, on strategies to increase access to and improve the

quality of education (World Economic Forum, 2002). A relevant education is more important

today than ever before, because today’s networked world demands a workforce that

understands how to use technology as a tool to increase productivity and creativity.

Developing countries have, therefore, recently witnessed a considerable commitment and huge

investments by national governments and their partners to improve access, retention and the

quality of education. Despite this, the present state of education in most developing countries

presents a rather bleak picture. Recent studies have indicated that up to as many as 72 million

children worldwide have never been inside a classroom, half of them living in Sub-Saharan Africa

(United Nations, 2009).

This clearly suggests a major concern for developing nations in Sub-Saharan Africa, to provide

access to education for all. From this report, access to education, however, is only part of the

solution, as school systems are chronically underfinanced and under-resourced, and often fail to

deliver a high-quality education. As a result, millions of children start school, but eventually drop

out. These out-of-school children in developing countries are especially vulnerable to poverty,

abuse, violence, hunger and diseases, as not being in school contributes to future generations of

people with limited life choices.

Providing greater access to basic education and ensuring quality education are two paradigms

imposed on developing nations seeking to subscribe to the concept of knowledge-based

societies. Improving the quality of education and training is a critical issue, particularly at a time

19

of educational expansion (Tinio, 2003). Tinio further states that “for developing countries ICTs

have the potential for increasing access to and improving the relevance and quality of

education. It thus represents a potentially equalizing strategy for developing countries”. ICTs can

enhance the quality of education in several ways: by increasing learner motivation and

engagement, by facilitating the acquisition of basic skills, and by enhancing teacher training.

Also, ICTs are a potentially powerful tool for extending educational opportunities, both formal

and non-formal, to previously underserved constituencies—scattered and rural populations,

groups traditionally excluded from education, due to cultural or social reasons such as ethnic

minorities, girls and women, persons with disabilities, and the elderly, as well as all others who

for reasons of cost or because of time constraints are unable to enrol on a campus (Tinio, 2003).

The potential of ICT use in education, however, opens up major concerns to developing nations,

as outlined by a World Bank report (World Bank, 1998):

“*ICTs+ greatly facilitate the acquisition and absorption of knowledge, offering

developing countries unprecedented opportunities to enhance educational systems,

improve policy formulation and execution, and widen the range of opportunities for

business and the poor. One of the greatest hardships endured by the poor, and by

many others, who live in the poorest countries, is their sense of isolation. The new

communications technologies promise to reduce that sense of isolation and open

access to knowledge in ways unimaginable not long ago” (World Bank, 1998).

This predicts that if developing countries do not align with the quest towards the adoption of

new technologies, they will be further isolated.

2.3.5 MAJOR ISSUES AND CHALLENGES FROM DEVELOPING NATIONS

Several issues have been raised from literature pertaining to the adoption of ICT in schools in

developing countries. Well-known issues relate to financial constraints, whereby low-income

developing countries, such as those in Sub-Saharan Africa, have obvious difficulties in escaping

from the low-income, low-technology equilibrium to enter into the ICT realm (LEE, 2001) (Addo,

2001) and the lack of human capacity. LEE questionably states that “even if free computers and

free Internet access are available, they are useless to those individuals who are illiterate or lack

the know-how. The application of ICT technologies requires human capabilities to handle such

technologies”.

20

Apart from these known issues, the use of ICTs in education in developing countries is facing

additional questions and challenges. These include:

The rush to adopt the new technology in education: Developing countries often find

themselves in situations where there is pressure to acquire and adopt new technologies

because of the claims of what these technologies could do to aid and leapfrog their

development, without really understanding the potential and reach of the technologies, or

without having analysed their environments and contexts for appropriateness, applicability and

impact (Swarts).

The Focus on technology: More often than not, computers are installed in schools around the

world without sufficient thought being given to how these computers will be used (Hawkins,

2002). Discussions and planning for ICTs in education are driven by a technological imperative –

with little thought being given to the wider educational context within which the technology is

to be used. The appropriateness of the technology for the purpose is often overlooked in the

rush to acquire this technology.

Technology-generated learning: This widespread notion may lead to a lot of wasted money,

with technologies put into schools being either unused or poorly used (Swarts). For the new

technologies to actually contribute to learning, much more thought needs to be put into the

issues of pedagogy, curriculum, professional development of teachers, software, maintenance,

scheduling, and other issues. Moreover, as Pelgrum suggests, a strongly ICT infrastructure-led

development plan may lead to the wastage of valuable resources if the teachers and principals

are not prepared, or if the understanding of the purpose is merely a technological one, such that

the impact of the introduction of technology becomes rather limited (Pelgrum & Law, 2003).

Taking into account informal learning: Students, even in developing countries have

considerable skills in the manipulation of new technologies, sometimes more so than their

teachers (Swarts). Research findings seem to indicate that informal contact and communication

is the most prevalent form of transferring ICT knowledge (Pelgrum & Law, 2003).

Technology not replacing traditional classrooms: Fears, anxiety, and concern that teachers

have about change must be addressed. Using technology as a teaching and learning tool in the

classroom does bring fear, anxiety and concern to a greater extent – since it involves both

changes in classroom procedures and the use of the often-unfamiliar technologies (Bitner &

Bitner, 2002). Knowledge is expanding rapidly, and most of it is available to teachers and

21

students at the same time. This puts an unavoidable burden on teachers to continue updating

their knowledge and exposing themselves to modern channels of information. Most teachers

now have to learn how to cope with the new technologies in their classrooms, how to compete

with students in accessing the enormous body of information (particularly via the internet), and

how to use the hardware and software to enhance the teaching and learning process.

Frequently, students are more advanced in, and adept at using, the new technologies than their

teachers (Swarts).

Technology and content: Content development is a critical area that is too often overlooked.

The lack of culturally appropriate educational content, particularly for developing countries,

poses challenges. Cultural differences affect learners’ ability to fully understand and benefit

from the lessons and their intended learning outcomes. It is, therefore, clear that content

produced in one context cannot be adopted without some modification into another context.

The bulk of existing ICT-based educational material is likely to be in English, and thus of little

relevance to education in developing countries (especially at the primary and secondary levels)

(Tinio, 2003).

2.3.6 COMMON FACTORS AFFECTING ICT INTEGRATION IN SCHOOLS

Kozma (2003) generally identified three levels of factors which may consequently influence the

ICT use in education. The three levels are:

- A Macro-level refers to system factors, such as cultural norms, social context,

educational policy, and curriculum standards, etc.;

- A Meso-level refers to school factors, such as the IT infrastructure available, IT

integration plans, school leadership, innovation history, parents, etc.;

- A Micro-level refers to individual factors for teachers, such as pedagogical practice,

innovation history, educational background, experience with technology, etc; and

for pupils, such as experience with technology, social and cultural background, etc.

At the Meso- and Micro-levels, several factors are known to enable or prevent ICT integration in

schools. These factors could be identified as driving factors or opposing factors.

22

2.3.6.1 Driving Factors

Fisser ( 2001) identified several driving factors which affect the implementation of new forms of

ICT in education. The following Table 2.1 summarises his findings.

Driving Factors The increasing capacity, flexibility, and suitability of ICT to educational applications;

The continuing decrease in the cost of hardware;

The growth of knowledge, with its attendant consequence of the obsolescence of much what was previously learned, places an ever-increasing pressure on the conventional models of education;

The realisation that the quality of the learning experience can be enhanced by applying ICT;

The demand from isolated learners for more equitable access and service;

The perception of many institutions that the application of ICT would enable them to increase their market share in an environment that is increasingly competitive;

The need to be seen to be ‘keeping up with the competition’;

The expectation of policy makers and administrators that the development of virtual delivery models would reduce costs, increase productivity, and enable expansion without cost increases.

Table 2.1 Driving Factors affecting the use of new forms of ICT in education (Fisser, 2001),

2.3.6.2 Opposing Factors

Difficulties encountered in the process of ICT integration into schools are known as “barriers”

(Schoepp, 2005). Pelgrum (2001) identified these barriers as pertaining to two kinds of

conditions: material and non-material. The material conditions may have been the insufficient

number of computers or copies of software. The non-material obstacles included teachers’

insufficient ICT knowledge and skills, the difficulty of integrating ICT into methods of instruction,

and insufficient teacher time.

Webb (2007) in contrast, identified barriers at three levels: the teacher – usually to do with

competence, motivation and training; the school: especially limited access to ICT and the

absence of an ICT dimension in the overall school strategy; and the school system: rigidity of the

school system, especially when linked with the wider educational framework.

From a global perspective, the most commonly cited barriers identified by Webb (2007) are

summarised in the Table 2.2.

Opposing Factors Access to hardware and software, as well as funding;

Time for planning, personal exploration, online access, and skill development;

Technical and administrative support and resources;

Training and expertise;

Resistance, passivity, school cultures, and the traditions of teaching;

23

Lack of vision and leadership;

Support for the integration of technologies into instruction and the curriculum;

Table 2.2 Opposing Factors affecting the use of new forms of ICT in education (Webb, 2007)

2.4 INTEGRATING ICT IN SCHOOLS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

2.4.1 THE COMPONENTS OF A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR ICT IN SCHOOLS

Fluck (2003) distinguished “ICT Integration” from “ICT effectiveness”, as the first refers to the

degree to which ICT vanishes into the background of the classroom learning activity; while, the

second refers to the degree in which ICT improves or broadens learning outcomes and /or the

rate of their achievement by students (Fluck, 2003). This suggests that the effective integration

process is a transformation process that starts from a basic integration and ends at an effective

use of ICT in the teaching and learning process in a school. And so, ICT development can be

conceived as a continuum along which an educational system or an individual school can

pinpoint the approach that relates to the growth of ICT in their particular context.

This model is referred to as a continuum of approaches to ICT development (UNESCO, 2002),

and it identifies four broad approaches through which educational systems and individual

schools can proceed in their adoption and use of ICT. These four approaches, termed: emerging,

applying, infusing, and transforming, represent a continuum; this is depicted as the model in

Figure 2.1.

EMERGING APPLYING INFUSING TRANSFORMING

Figure 2-1 Model depicting a continuum of approaches to ICT development in schools (UNESCO, 2002)

The Emerging approach is demonstrated by those schools at the beginning stages of ICT

development. Schools exemplifying the Applying approach are those in which a new

understanding of the contribution of ICT to learning has already developed. The Infusing

approach portrays schools involved in integrating or embedding ICT across the curriculum. The

last stage of this continuum is the Transforming approach, and schools here use ICT to rethink

and renew school organisation in creative ways.

Another model proposed by Fluck (2003) could generally specify the stages of effective ICT

Integration. This model has the advantage of being sufficiently general and simple. It accurately

24

describes the integration process in three stages: the introductory, the integrative and the

transformative stages (see Figure 2.2).

The Introductory Phase 1 corresponds to the period where the school, system or participant has

to do with computers in education, as a subject to be studied. The Curriculum component at this

stage merely enumerates a large number of facts and concepts about computers; ICT is taught

as a separate subject, and one could say that at this stage, people “learn about ICT”. ICT

infrastructure remains a key issue and schools begin to purchase, or are donated, some

computing equipment and software. Such computers exist as stand-alone devices or in a single

laboratory network.

Staff development is still a primary concern, as teachers and administrators undergo ICT literacy

programmes and begin to explore the possibilities and consequences of using ICT for school

management – and then adding ICT to the curriculum. Support at this stage can take weeks to

address issues, if at all, and these issues end up being resolved. The school organisation remains

largely hierarchically structured, and the Policy and vision aim at technology literacy and focus

on increasing student enrolments and ICT skills. Schools at this emerging phase are still firmly

grounded in traditional, teacher-centred practice (Wilson-Strydom & Thomson, 2005).

The Integrative Phase 2 describes contexts in which ICT is incorporated into the teaching of

other subjects, and is included in teacher planning. The curriculum identifies key interrelated

concepts and principles that organise the subject area and the curriculum also emphasises deep

Figure 2-2 A general model for the development of ICT policies in schools (Fluck, 2003)

25

understanding of these within and across the subject, as well as their application to solve

complex real-world problems. In schools at this stage, people “learn with ICT”. An authentic ICT

Infrastructure requires additional sophisticated hardware and software for simulation and

multimedia. These will be used to support a deep understanding of interrelated concepts, to

address any misconceptions, explore systems, and solve problems.

Networks will also be used to support collaborative work. Staff development is concerned with

the ability of teachers to develop skills in the use of more sophisticated methodologies and

technologies that would enable them to serve as a guide and manager of the learning

environment and enable students to engage in extended collaborative project-based learning

activities. The school organisation allows teachers some flexibility in implementing the

curriculum and making it responsive to students’ interests, community needs, and

contemporary issues.

Policy goals focus on improving the understanding and problem-solving skills of students and

connecting school learning to real-world problems and contexts.

The Transformative Phase 3 is the most complex of all the three stages. No assumption is made

about the place or timing of learning, since this includes contexts where the topics studied

embrace some of those which are not possible without ICT. The curriculum is flexible and

responsive to student goals and local contexts; and furthermore, it emphasises the development

of collaboration, inquiry, information management, creativity, and critical-thinking skills.

Learning occurs through ICT and can be tagged “learning how to learn”.

The ICT Infrastructure consists of pervasive technologies and the social networks used to

support knowledge production, collaboration, and knowledge sharing by students and teachers.

Teachers at this stage collaborate with each other, and with outside experts, to build a

professional community. They are engaged in creating and sharing their own body of

professional knowledge and best practices. The school becomes a continuously improving

learning organisation, with teachers engaged in continuous innovation.

Administrators, community members, teachers, and students all create a shared vision and

goals for their learning community. Educational policies focus on the research, development,

generation, and sharing of new knowledge, as well as continuous learning.

26

A summary of the various phases of ICT in school development and the status of the key

components is presented in Table 2.3:

Introduction

Phase 1

Integration

Phase 2

Transformation

Phase 3

Policies and Vision

Technology literacy, student enrolments, ICT Skills

Improving understanding and problem-solving skills of students. Connecting school learning to real-world problems and contexts

Emphasis on Knowledge creation, continuous learning.

School organisation

Hierarchical structure

Standard classrooms

Structural flexibility over curriculum implementation. More time for projects, planning and collaboration

Schools become learning organisations. Continuous innovation from teachers

Staff Development

ICT literacy programs predominate.

Teachers building skills to manage and guide students through collaborative work

Teachers are model learners responsible for their own and each other’s development as colleagues and mentors.

Curriculum

Computers taught as a separate subject.

Learning about ICT

Applying Knowledge. ICT used to solve complex real-world problems

Collaboration, inquiry, information management, creativity and critical thinking skills developed.

Infrastructure

Purchase/donation of computers hardware and software. Low ratio of computers to students.

Simulation and Multimedia are in use. More dedicated and sophisticated hardware in place

Pervasive technologies and social networks.

Table 2.3: Summary of the key phases of ICT in School development (Fluck, 2003)

2.4.2 SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA COUNTRIES ICT READINESS MEASUREMENT

Despite achieving the highest mobile growth rate in the world, Africa’s ICT penetration levels are

still far behind those of the rest of the world, and very few African countries reach ICT levels

comparable to global averages. Less than five per cent of Africans use the Internet, and fixed

and mobile broadband penetration levels are negligible. African countries are facing a number

of challenges in increasing ICT levels. They include the lack of full liberalisation of markets and

the limited availability of infrastructure, such as a shortage of international Internet bandwidth.

In addition, prices for ICT services remain very high, compared with income levels, and

broadband Internet services are out of the reach of most Africans (ITU , 2009).

To provide a quick and relative benchmark of the overall success of a country in participating in

and benefiting from ICT, the World Economic Forum, in its Global Information technology report

(2009 – 2010), put in place the Net-worked Readiness Index (NRI). The NRI Framework attempts

27

to interpret the underlying complexity of the development and use of ICT in an intuitive and

easy-to-comprehend model.

The three key components (Figure 2.3) or sub-indices of this model include: the Environment

component index designed to measure the readiness of an environment for a country to provide

for the development and usage of ICT, the Readiness component index, which measures the

capability of the principal agents of an economy (citizens, businesses, and governments) to

leverage the potential of ICT, and the Usage component index that aims to measure the degree

of usage of ICT by the principal stakeholders in the NRI framework— Individuals, Businesses, and

Governments.

Figure 2-3: The Networked Readiness Index 2009 – 2010: The Framework (World Economic Forum, 2010)

From these sub-indices, - environment, readiness and usage – the results from the environment

index are closely consistent with the overall network readiness index. The environment

component index further consists of three sub-sections, namely: the infrastructural sub-index

defined as the level of availability and quality of the key access infrastructure for ICT within a

country, the market sub-index that assesses whether or not there are appropriate human

resources and subsidiary businesses to support a knowledge-based society, and the

political/regulatory sub-index that measures the impact of a nation’s polity, laws, and

regulations, and their implementation for the development and use of ICT.

Sub-Saharan Africa continues to lag behind the rest of the world by a significant margin, as may

be seen in Table 2.4. Among the 26 countries of the region listed in the 133 countries report,

28

only two – Mauritius 51st and South Africa 52nd - make it into the top half of the NRI, while 18

Sub-Saharan countries rank below the 100th mark.

It should be noted that Mauritius leads South Africa on the overall Network Readiness Index and

tops all Sub-Saharan African Nations. However, the South African environment component is

more conducive to ICT integration, ranking first in Sub-Saharan Africa and 39th in the World.

This is an indication of the quality of infrastructure, political and business sector’s readiness to

use ICT.

Table 2.4: Network Readiness Index and Environment sun Index in Sub-Saharan African Countries. (World Economic Forum, 2010)

2.4.3 LEVEL OF ICT INTEGRATION IN SELECTED COUNTRIES

The Network Readiness Index classification supported the selection of countries in order to

assess the level of ICT adoption in the schools in these countries. Countries from the top, the

middle and the bottom of the network readiness classification were compared, based on the

status of the key components of the ICT Development in the school framework.

Country Environment Component

sub-index

Network Readiness

index

Country Environment Component

sub-index

Network Readiness

index

SELECTED TOP WORLD COUNTRIES Sweden 1 1 Hong Kong SAR 15 8 Singapore 9 2 Netherlands 8 9 Denmark 2 3 Norway 3 10 Switzerland 4 4 Taiwan, China 21 11 United States 10 5 Iceland 7 12

Finland 5 6 United Kingdom 12 13

Canada 7 7 Germany 16 14

....

...

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA Mauritius 42 53 Burkina Faso 100 108 South Africa 39 62 Benin 107 111

Senegal 82 75 Uganda 102 115

Gambia, The 72 77 Mozambique 114 116

Botswana 65 86 Malawi 93 119

Namibia 54 89 Tanzania 103 120

Kenya 91 90 Madagascar 119 121

Mali 101 96 Ethiopia 127 122

Zambia 92 97 Cameroon 103 128

Ghana 89 98 Burundi 131 129 Nigeria 97 99 Zimbabwe 130 132 Cote d'Ivoire 117 104 Chad 133 133 Lesotho 96 107

29

2.4.3.1 ICT Integration in schools at the Top Level: Lessons from Singapore

Singapore is a developing country that has reached the last phase of ICT Integration in Education

through the drafting and implementation of three successive series of Masterplans.

Phase 1: the Singapore Masterplan 1 (MP1): This was a 5-year plan from 1997-2002 by the MoE

to integrate ICT into Education. Its main focus was to build strong ICT foundations for the

smooth carrying out of the subsequent Masterplans. Its four major goals were: i)

Communication and collaboration – teachers and pupils to communicate and collaborate with

other institutions; ii) innovation – innovative processes in education to be generated; iii)

thinking and lifelong learning – to enhance creative thinking, lifelong learning, and social

responsibility; and iv) leadership: promoting administrative and management excellence in the

education system.

These goals aligned with the introductory stage (Phase 1) of the ICT Development in Schools’

model (Figure 2.2) and addressed three key components of the ICT Integration in schools’

process: the Curriculum and assessment component saw ICT used as a tool rather than as a

subject of study, with a balance between the acquisition of factual information and the critical

and creative application of information. ICT was also used for 30% of the curriculum time. From

the physical and technological infrastructural perspective, the money spent on IT hardware and

infrastructure resulted in all schools in Singapore being equipped with computers and Internet

access by 2002. As the MP1 neared its final stage in 2002, many schools began to exemplify

their usage of technology aspects.

The following results were achieved: A 2:1 teacher-to-notebook computer ratio and a 5:1

students-to-computer ratio. Also online materials and courseware (mathematics, Social Studies,

Mother Tongue) were developed. The staff development and support component witnessed the

completion of core ICT training for teachers in every school and the provision of at least one

technology assistant in every school.

By the end of five years of the first Masterplan in 2002, as many as 363 schools had fundamental

building blocks in place to use ICT in the curriculum. The MP1 laid very strong foundations, such

as ICT Infrastructure and the ample training of teachers in ICT. More importantly, MoE achieved

a shift in the mindset of teachers; and ICT became an accepted tool for teaching and learning.

Table 2.5 summarises the achievements of MP1.

30

Phase 2: the Masterplan 2 (MP2) came right after MP1 in April 2003. This was also a five-year

plan. This plan sought to deepen the integration of ICT into daily lessons in schools. The aim was

to generate more interactive and engaging usage of ICT in the learning process. The goals of the

second master plan included: i) Making pupils use ICT effectively for active learning; ii)

enhancing connections between curricula, instruction and assessment with ICT; iii) teachers

using ICT effectively for professional and personal growth; iv) promoting active research in IT in

education; v) ensuring that schools have the capacity and capability in using ICT for school

improvement; and vi) providing an infrastructure that could support the widespread and

effective use of ICT.

These goals are in line with the second stage of ICT integration in Education: the Integrative

Phase. There is an emphasis on information-processing and knowledge-creation, development

of open-ended, flexible and customisable digital content, and self-paced learning – in an effort

to inculcate learner independence and digital competency. There is thus a greater attempt by

policymakers to be more specific in their desired outcomes from education, where technology

becomes integral.

Phase 3: the Masterplan 3 (MP3): This represents a continuum of the vision of Masterplan 1

and 2, and is also scheduled over a five-year period. It aligns with the transformative stage,

where no assumptions can be made about the place or timing of learning; and it includes

contexts where the topics studied include those that are not possible without ICT. The MP3

seeks to achieve greater engagement of students – to encourage more self-directed questioning

and learning. With a Differentiated Professional Development, school leaders can create the

environment for teachers to reflect and learn from each other about effective teaching practices

that incorporate ICT use in the classrooms to achieve desired learning outcomes for their

students.

The four major goals are: i) Strengthening the competencies for self-directed learning; ii)

Providing tailored learning experiences, according to the way that each student learns best; iii)

Encouraging students to go deeper and advance their learning; and iv) Making it possible to

learn everywhere – and not just in the classroom.

An examination of the case of Singapore illustrates one way in which a country can make

significant educational investments that pay off economically through a centralised approach. In

31

Singapore, education decision-making is centralised at the Ministry of Education. Table 2.5

provides a quick overview of the Singapore model of ICT integration.

Table 2.5: Singapore stages of ICT integration in education (National University of Singapore, 2008)

2.4.3.2 ICT Integration in schools at the Middle - Level: case of South Africa

South Africa is a developing country facing two significant challenges: from both a global

perspective and from a national perspective. Internationally, South Africa faces the same global

market competition as countries that are more economically advanced. South Africa has an

advanced telecommunications infrastructure and boasts the highest teledensity in Africa,

ranking 44th in the Information Infrastructure micro-index (World Economic Forum, 2002).

According to the Global Information technology report 2009-2010 (World Economic Forum,

2010), South Africa ranks 39th in the ICT environment component micro-index. This includes the

Market environment, the Political and Regulatory environment and the Infrastructural

environment; this continues to be one of the main strengths of the country, particularly in its

regulatory (21st) and market (29th) components.

Despite this high rank in the ICT environment component, it is seen as having a very poor

individual preparation and uptake of ICT (115th and 89th for individual readiness and usage,

respectively). Individual Readiness measures the readiness of a nation’s citizens to utilize and

leverage ICT. Factors that are used to measure this include: literacy rates, the mode and level of

access to the Internet, and the degree of citizen connectivity.

This might be an indication of the difficulty of developing a universally available quality

education for all socio-economic segments of the country’s population. An attempt to resolve

Master Plan1 Master Plan 2 Master plan 3

Policies and Vision

Building ICT foundation Deepening ICT in lessons Strengthening ICT and knowledge

creation

School organisation

Centralised. Schools exemplify usage.



Staff Development

Basic Staff training, Collaboration

Professional growth and active research through ICT

Differentiated Professional Development

Curriculum ICT from subject of study to tool Enhanced connections

between curricula

ICT used in the planning, design and implementation stages of the

curriculum

Infrastructure All schools equipped with basic

infrastructure Complex, supporting

widespread and effective use. Greater accessibility provided through Mobile infrastructure

32

this rather critical issue has been outlined on the draft White Paper on e-education proposed by

the Department of Education (Department of Education, August 2003). It contains a ten-year

plan for promoting e-education in South Africa. The plan is to be phased in over three stages

and eventually integrated on four levels, namely: school administration, teaching, learning, and

departmental educational management. The primary goal of the White paper is to equip every

Basic and Further Education and Training (FET) learner with the knowledge and skills needed to

use ICT confidently, creatively and responsibly – by 2013.

The Department of Education Draft White paper on e-education starts by contextualising the

use of ICT in society within the broader realities of the digital divide, with increasing disparities

between the rich and the poor, among and within countries. It also outlines the potential of ICT

for development within Africa; and it identifies the current inertia observed in the use of ICT in

education.

The paper identifies the disparities reflected in the South African society, which also find

expression in the ICT Integration into education, with most schools that are equipped with

computers still being found in urban areas, and a vast majority of schools without computers for

teaching and learning in the rural areas. The overall goal – that of having every South African

learner to be ICT-capable by 2013 – is supported by a strong policy framework consisting of four

components: equity; access to ICT infrastructure; capacity building; norms and standards.

The need for an equitable allocation of resources, and to prioritise schools in rural and

underserved communities is highlighted in order to ensure that technology use in the education

sector does not further exacerbate the digital divide within the country.

In order to attain the above e-education policy’s efficiency and likelihood of success, the

Department of Education has identified many enabling factors captured into strategic objectives

such as: ICT professional development for management, teaching and learning; electronic

content-resource development and distribution; access to ICT infrastructure; connectivity;

community engagement; and research and development.

The White paper recognises the fiscal constraints affecting the Government, the vast upfront

investment required for e-education and the need for ongoing and predictable funding sources

for the longer term. Possible sources of funding identified were licensing obligations; private

sector donations, and support from international development assistance agencies; and

appropriate public-private partnerships.

33

The implementation strategies are recognised as being essential in making the ideals expressed

in this paper real for citizens. Three implementation phases were outlined to achieve these

educational goals: The Phase 1 (2004 – 2007) is set to enhance the system-wide and institutional

readiness to use ICTs for learning, teaching and administration. This aligns with the

“Introduction Stage of ICT Development in school”, as suggested by Fluck, 2003. The Phase 2

(2007 – 2010) is aimed at achieving system-wide integration of ICTs into teaching and learning.

ICT is expected to be widely present in institutions, with teachers and managers integrating it

into management and curriculum. The Phase 3 (2010 – 2013) will be attained when ICT is

integrated at all levels of the education system – management, teaching, learning and

administration.

Because South Africa uses a decentralised approach in implementing the policy, some of the

more-resourceful provincial governments and municipalities have invested significantly in

infrastructural development, whilst others with a high number of rural areas could simply not

afford such a huge investment. This has led to the uneven level of infrastructure and advances

obtained country-wide (see Table 2.6).

A study conducted in South Africa highlighted the fact that facilities at rural schools are likely to

be scarce, class sizes are often large; and hence, the use of ICT for teaching and learning, where

available, becomes more challenging (Wilson-Strydom & Thomson, 2005). However, ICT

integration in school has been favoured by a large number of initiatives aimed at providing ICT

infrastructure and Internet access to schools throughout the country.

Although these initiatives have been relatively successful, many schools cannot afford or are

insufficiently skilled to maintain sponsored ICT equipment. It is expected, however, that the

degree of implementation will vary from province to province, depending largely on the

leadership, skill base, and human resource capability available in the Provincial Departments of

Education.

34

Provinces Number of Schools With Computer Centres % with Computer Centres

Eastern Cape 5,715 596 10%

Free State 1,643 353 21%

Gauteng 1,994 1,510 76%

KwaZulu Natal 5,835 982 17%

Limpopo 3,918 428 11%

Mpumalanga 1,540 254 16%

North West 1,740 391 22%

Northern Cape 609 314 52%

Western Cape 1,466 886 60%

Total 24,460 5,714 23%

Table 2.6: Computer Summary grid for schools in South Africa (Department of Education, 2009)

Table 2.7 provides a quick overview of the stages of ICT integration in schools in South Africa,

based on various public and private initiatives and the available literature, as interpreted by the

researcher.

Table 2.7: South Africa’s current stages of ICT integration in education

2.4.3.3 Integration at the Bottom-Level: Most Sub-Saharan African Countries

Sub-Saharan Africa countries constitute more than two third of the LDCs. These countries face

challenges and issues hardly addressed before in this new era of globalisation. A cross-sectional

examination of the available reports from these countries has shown that a vast majority are yet

to engage in the ICT integration in school processes. This is understandably due to

infrastructural challenges, such as the lack of electricity, classrooms, etc. amongst others.

Table 2.8 presents the current trends of ICT Integration in school from the Sub-Saharan African

countries against the developed nations. Countries portrayed here are those ranked in the

Global Information Technology Report 2009 – 2010 (World Economic Forum, 2010). These

results are based on the reviews of national policies for ICT in education and Department

/Ministries of Education reports. It should be noted that the symbols x, xx, and xxx in the table

represent the stages of ICT development in schools for each of the components, namely: the x:

introduction, xx: integration and xxx: transformation stage.

Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

Policies and Vision

Foundation, introduction System-wide integration ( Collaboration) Not yet clearly

identified

School organisation

Decentralised. Schools exemplify usage.

Decentralised. Evolving provincial models. EMIS , EMS Not specified

Staff Development

Basic Staff training, Collaboration

Education portal for continuous Professional Teaching Development

Not clearly Established

Curriculum ICT from subject of study to

tool Enhanced connections between curricula

Infrastructure Basic roll out of infrastructure Scattered initiatives (donors, Government, etc...)

35

Table 2.8: Current Status of ICT Integration in schools in Sub-Saharan Africa

2.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

ICT Integration in schools in Sub-Saharan Africa is at a static phase, despite encouraging

initiatives all across nations and the progress made in isolated countries. The region is widely

known for its serious levels of poverty, hunger and under-development, low school enrolment,

child mortality, and HIV/AIDS pandemic. Governments in these countries are faced with the

challenge of reducing the above concerns; and they are generally reliant on global aid and

funding from developed nations to implement their strategies. ICT has since been recognised as

a catalyst, as it could aid in overturning the current trend and ensure a swift move towards an

SELECTED TOP WORLD COUNTRIES ... SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

Country Policies / vision

Infrastructure Staff Development

School Organisation

Curriculum / content

Sweden xxx xxx xxx Decentralised xxx

Singapore xxx xxx xxx Centralised xxx Denmark xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx

Switzerland xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx United States xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx

Finland xxx xxx xxx Decentralised xxx Canada xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx

...

Mauritius xx xx xx Centralised xx South Africa xx xx xx Decentralised xx Senegal x x x Not defined x Gambia, The x x x Centralised none

Botswana xx xx x Centralised xx Namibia xx xx x Centralised xx Kenya xx x x Centralised xx Mali none x x Centralised none Zambia x x x Centralised x Ghana xx x x Centralised x Nigeria x x x Decentralised none Cote d'Ivoire none x x Centralised none Lesotho x x x Centralised none Burkina Faso x x x Centralised none

Benin x x x Centralised none Uganda x x x Centralised x Mozambique x x x Centralised x Malawi x x x Centralised x Tanzania x x x Centralised x Madagascar none x x Centralised none

Ethiopia xx xx x Centralised x Cameroon none x x Centralised x

Burundi x x x Centralised none Zimbabwe x x x Centralised x

Chad none x x Centralised x

x: in

tro

du

ctio

n s

tage

xx

: in

tegr

atio

n s

tage

xx

x: t

ran

sfo

rmat

ion

sta

ge

36

information society. However, lack of financial resources and poor and inadequate planning and

the under-usage of available resources have resulted in the current status quo. The ICT in

schools is believed to provide an enhanced learning, teaching and administrative environment,

and a greater access to education. Several models suggest a three-phase model for ICT

integration in school in which the key component states are set in slow motion – from initiation

to adoption.

Lessons learned from emerging countries suggest that addressing issues from each of these

components – Policies, curriculum/content, Staff development/support, School organisation,

and infrastructure – in the local context would certainly ensure the proper adoption of ICT in

schools.

In the next chapter, a cross-examination of the context of ICT integration in schools in a Sub-

Saharan African country at the initial stage of the process will be made. Cameroon is a country

at the initial level of ICT integration. This country portrays the typical inertia observed in Sub-

Saharan Africa.

37

CHAPTER 3 THE CURRENT STATUS OF ICT IN

SCHOOLS IN CAMEROON

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides an overview of Cameroon and establishes its current ICT Readiness status

based on the indicators from the World Economic Forum’s NRI. A literature review is made to

reveal the existing legal framework and policies guiding the integration of ICT into education, as

well as the country’s level of ICT infrastructure. Factors revealed that have contributed to the

inertia observed in the development of ICT in education are also presented in the latter part of

this chapter.

3.2 CAMEROON: A COUNTRY OVERVIEW

3.2.1 CAMEROON: A COUNTRY PROFILE:

Located at the heart of Central Africa, Cameroon is at the crossroads of Equatorial Africa to the

South and Tropical Africa to the North. Cameroon’s 475, 442 square kilometres is triangular in

shape, with a coastline bordered to the West by the Gulf of Guinea, with access to the Atlantic

Ocean. Cameroon’s land boundaries are Nigeria to the West, the plains of the Lake Chad basin

to the North, the Republic of Chad and the Central African Republic to the East and Equatorial

Guinea, Gabon and Congo Brazzaville to the South. Plateaus and mountain chains characterise

the terrain of Cameroon.

Cameroon has had colonial and contemporary socio-political and linguistic experiences,

especially her bilingualism in English and French, with ten administrative regions, two of which

are English-speaking (29%) and eight of which are French-speaking (71%). Cameroon has a

population of 19 million. This is made up of about 279 ethnic groups with an annual growth rate

of 2.0%, with 40.6% within the age range of 0-14 years.

Cameroon, a decentralised unitary state, according to its constitution of January 1996, has one

of the best-endowed primary commodity economies in Sub-Saharan Africa – owing to its oil

resources and favourable agricultural conditions. The main exports are cocoa, coffee, rubber,

38

cotton, bananas, petrol, timber and aluminium. It is the leading country in the Central African

region, and recently made it to the Network Readiness Index scale, ranking 128th out of 133

nations worldwide. Table 3.1 provides an overview of a few indicators from this country.

Summary statistics Surface area (square kms) 47,5442

Population in 2008 (millions) 18,9

Economic indicators

Gross domestic product (GDP) (PPP $) 2008 2,139

Total number of telephone subscribers (per 100 inhabitants) 2007 19.7

Mobile Phone suscription (per 100 population) 2008 32.3

Internet users (per 100 inhabitants) 2008 3.8

Social indicators

Population growth rate 2005-2010 (% per annum) 2.0

Population aged 0-14 years in 2008 (%) 40.6

Infant mortality rate 2005-2010 (per 1 000 live births) 87.5

Urban population in 2007 (%) 56.0

Government education expenditure (% of GDP) 3.3

Primary-secondary gross enrolment ratio (women and men per 100) 58.3/70.5

Table 3.1: Socio-economic Indicators: Cameroon (UNDATA, 2010)

3.2.2 THE CAMEROON EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

The Cameroon educational system is subdivided into two sub-systems: the Anglophone sub-

system and the francophone sub-system. In general, the educational system covers three

distinct levels: the preschool and primary level, the secondary level and the tertiary level.

The secondary level of education is the area of focus in this research paper. It covers seven

years divided into two cycles; the first cycle leads to the award of the BEPC Diploma and lasts

four years in the francophone sub-system, or to the award of the GCE O-Level diploma in five

years in the Anglophone subsystem. The second cycle follows the first and leads to the

Baccalaureate in three years in the Francophone sub-system or to the GCE A-Level in two years

in the Anglophone sub-system.

This system applies to both the public and private sector. The Anglophone sub-system is mainly

based in the North-West and South-West regions, and in some schools in major cities of the

country, while the Francophone sub-system is applicable in the remaining eight regions of the

country. In both systems, technical and general education is offered at the beginning of the

secondary level of education. Between 2001 and 2005, the school enrolment rate in these two

systems was 51% for males and 36% for females.

The Ministry of Secondary education was created in 2004, through a presidential decree to be

specifically in charge of the Secondary Education sector. It houses about 30,663 teachers who

39

trained 1,022,807 students in 2003/2004 in both general (75%) and technical (25%) education

systems, with the private sector accounting for 37% of the overall pupils trained.

1,698 secondary schools accommodated the students, with 1,213 of these schools being general

education public or private schools, and 482 being technical education public or private schools.

The private sector accounts for 45% of the total number of schools, while there are

approximately 936 public secondary schools (55%) (ENIET, 2007).

The educational system is weakly supported by the Government. The budget allocated to

education has been consistently weak (2.7% of the national budget), according to a government

report (NICI, 2004). This has led to insufficient care facilities due to the cessation of the

construction of classrooms, the lowering of the teacher/pupil ratio, as a result of freezing the

recruitment of teachers, the lack of teaching materials and other auxiliary teaching and learning.

The difficulties in this sector have also resulted in other ills, including a lack of equity and an

inefficient management system.

The educational system so far has been unable to obtain the necessary financial resources to

meet the costs of quality education; and this has led to a reduced spending per student. This

resulted from a conjunction of several factors that were not adequately anticipated, particularly

as regards technical secondary education and higher education. The deterioration of financial

resources has reached a point where the quality of secondary technical and academic

production is now being strongly felt (CAMEROON, 2006).

In addition to this financially struggling Government, the huge contribution of parents towards

achieving quality education should be noted. About 25% of teachers in primary schools are

supported and paid for by the pupils’ parents associations and the local elites (World Bank,

2004). It has been estimated that households could account for almost 57% of the overall

spending in education per annum, against 43% supported by Government (CAMEROON, 2006).

However, the pupils’ parents association - major stakeholder in education - has been totally

ignored during the drafting of the Policy document for education.

3.2.3 HOW NETWORKED-READY IS CAMEROON? BASIC INDICATORS

The Networked Readiness Index (NRI) framework is a major international assessment of

countries’ capacity to exploit the opportunities offered by ICTs. It remains the first global

40

network to map out those factors that contribute to this capacity. Since its first release in 2001

by the Centre for International Development (CID) in collaboration with the World Economic

Forum, the Network Readiness Index ranking has moved from a set of 75 countries to 133

Countries in 2010. Cameroon made its first entry in 2004, and has since then been at the bottom

of the scale. The inclusion of Cameroon, however, was a clear indication of the recent ICT

progress observed in the country.

The social indicators for Cameroon are above the average of most countries in the Sub-Saharan

Africa region, but they are still insufficient to meet the Millennium Development Goals (MDG)

commitments in education. In addition, other levels of teaching and training requiring the

mobilization of significant efforts and indicators of quality throughout the system are still

relatively low (United Nations Development Assistance Framework, 2007). This however does

not prevent the Cameroon educational system from being ranked 89th in the world (World

Economic Forum, 2010).

This could be misleading, as all other key indicators of the NRI rank Cameroon alongside

countries at the bottom of the scale. Cameroon ranks 126th and 127th respectively in the

Environment and Readiness components of the Network Readiness Index. The poor ranking in

the Environment index (126th) indicates the inertia of the nation towards the development and

usage of ICT. Also the Readiness component indicates the incapability of major stakeholders of

the economy – government, businesses and citizens – to leverage the potential of ICT.

However, the usage component measuring the degree of usage of ICT shows that there is an

increased awareness and improved usage from government, businesses and citizens. This can be

seen in sub-indices, such as the Internet access in schools (109th), personal computers (108th) –

personal computers per 100 inhabitants (2005) – capacity for innovation (78th), government e-

participation index (71st); and finally, Government success in ICT promotion (95th).

A complete table of all the indicators for Cameroon can be found in Appendix 3A.

3.3 GENERAL OVERVIEW OF ICT IN SCHOOLS IN CAMEROON

The use of computers in Cameroon secondary general and technical education is not new.

Unfortunately, no research has been undertaken to find out its current state within the school

system. As a developing country, despite a strong government belief in ICT for development, the

41

rationale around many of the arguments against the use of computers in the school system

focuses more on the deployment of critical resources at times of economic and fiscal hardship

than on a discussion of research projects, which could be selected according to a specific

agenda. However, it would be rewarding to evaluate the current status of ICT in schools in

Cameroon – in order to establish what has already been done – despite the odds faced by

developing countries. There should be a way of recommending and promoting best practices

and proper leveraging of the available scarce resources.

In the following section, an attempt will be made to evaluate the status of the major key

components of ICT integration in Education, such as Policies, infrastructures, Staff Professional

Development, Curriculum and Content development, Funding, Schools’ Organisations and

Support. The cross-examination provided an insight into what was currently being done; and it

describes the current environment for ICT adoption in schools.

3.3.1 LEGAL FRAMEWORK AND POLICIES

Although the Cameroon government officially recognised the need for ICTs in schools in 2001,

there is not yet any specific policy guiding their use and integration into education. Prior to this

date, when educational experts met in Yaoundé in 1995, to see how the educational system

could be improved upon, nothing was mentioned about the application of ICTs in the classroom.

The Cameroon Educational Law 98/004 of 14th April 1998 did not make mention of ICTs in the

school system when it set out to improve the then-current educational system.

The project for introducing ICTs in schools was given an impetus by two presidential statements

in 2001. This brought ICTs into the realm of education at all levels of schooling. These

statements made it clear that imported computers and their accessories were to be duty free

for schools. Moreover, the World Bank in its ICT task-force policy has raised the concept of

cyber education in the global school system – to promote the development of computer

technology, to improve the accessibility of learners to information technology, and to encourage

digital inclusion in developing countries.

Consolidating the presidential statements and the World Bank initiative, the then Ministry of

Education (MINEDUC) authorised the Inspectorate General of Pedagogy in charge of teaching

computer sciences at all levels to design and develop a project on cyber education in Cameroon.

42

In 2004, key strategies on using ICTs in education were highlighted in the first official draft of the

NICI’s (Cameroon National Information and Communication Infrastructure) (NICI, 2004) policy

and plan prepared by the government with support from the United Nations Development

Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA). As

indicated in the NICI plan document, the government has resolved to achieve the following:

• Modernising the educational system through the introduction of ICTs in schools

• Introducing ICT application training modules into national universities

• Preparing a sectoral ICT policy for the educational sector

• Training teachers in the use of ICTs

• Equipping all schools with ICT facilities

• Multiplying pedagogic resource centres for teachers and students

• Establishing distance training facilities

• Providing support for the production of ICT teaching materials

In June 2005, the Prime Minister of Cameroon signed a decree creating and organising the

national sub-committee for the integration of ICTs in education. But to date, a national policy

for ICT in Education has still not been produced.

A further attempt was made to materialise the political will to use ICT in the teaching-learning

educational situation. This was found in the Sectoral Strategy document of Education jointly

drafted by the four Ministries in charge of education - MINEDUB, MINESEC, MINESUP and

MINEFOP - and presented in February 2005 (CAMEROON, 2006). The document highlighted ICT,

first as a factor for improving the quality of teaching and learning in schools; and secondly, as a

means of strengthening the institutional capacity of Ministries of Education.

This document was followed by a decision (No. 249106/MINESDC/CAB) on May 15th, 2006 that

clearly underlined the roles of the media resource centres in schools. However, a recent

government assessment shows that a marginal number of students use ICTs in the learning

situation (National Agency for Information and Communication Technologies, 2008).

3.3.2 ICT INFRASTRUCTURE IN SCHOOLS

With no specific guideline established, the adoption of ICT in schools was on its way to an

unavoidable failure. Three specific approaches to computer procurement in schools were

43

forthcoming. The Government approach, the Private schools and donors, and the Parents’

additional Levy.

Government approach: This was supposed to be the most effective way of integrating ICT into

schools. This was Government planned – through the cyber education project prepared by the

Ministry of National Education – in collaboration with external partners and support from the

presidency to establish Multimedia Resources Centres in several schools. In 2002, a ministerial

decision (Decree N°2002/004 of the 4th January 2002) establishing a General pedagogical

Inspectorate in Charge of Computers in Education was released and the conditions for the

creation of Multimedia Resources Centres (MRC) in government secondary schools were

published. In this context, 100 Multimedia Resource Centres – ten in each of the ten provinces –

were to be established by the year 2007.

These were to be modern Computer Laboratories with state-of-the-art computer desktop

facilities, educational and human resources; and they were due to serve the schools and the

surrounding communities. With only 17 MRC established since 2002 across the nation – which is

approximately 2% of the entire public secondary schools in Cameroon, the government

incapacity to meet its target of 100 MRC by 2007, was clearly demonstrated. This led private

donors, Non-Governmental Organisations (NGO) and even parents to step in.

Private Schools and Donors: Several Private Secondary schools and colleges have taken it upon

themselves to acquire and equip a Computer Laboratory. This was in most cases aimed at

offering better returns, with schools having a computer laboratory believed to be able to attract

a greater number of students. Some private schools acquired, in one way or another, computer

equipment, be it state-of-the-art or obsolete, the idea being to lure students in and justify the

resulting tuition increase.

Some private schools have well-established partnerships with Western institutions. These, in

turn, provide quality infrastructure and support. The private educational sector – accounting for

45% of the entire secondary schools in Cameroon – plays a vital role in ICT integration in

schools. These establishments make up the largest percentage of schools that have been

equipped, and are now the best-provided with ICT equipment with very low student to

computer ratios (Matchinda, 2008). Efforts made by this sector could significantly influence the

entire process of ICT implementation in schools.

44

Parents’ additional levy: In line with the trend and excitement of ICT use in school, a vast

majority of cases arose, where either the government was unable to equip secondary schools

with access to ICT infrastructure, or where there was an absence of donations from private

individuals or entities (NGOs, APEE ...). In such cases, parents were called upon to reach into

their pockets to allow their children to benefit from computer courses in school.

This request was further institutionalised through a series of decrees and circular letters from

the MINESEC, such as the circular letters No. 26/05/MINESEC/IGE/IP-INFO of 07/11/2005 and

No. 20/07/MINESEC/CAB of 12/09/2007, the latter being amended by the Ministerial Instruction

No. 7.27 / MINESEC / IGE / IP-INFO of 19/11/2007. These letters defined the procedure for

obtaining approval by Private Business operators to provide their services to schools. These

mandates included providing equipment on a short-term lease basis or long-term purchase.

This procedure has seen schools procure computers in most cases second-hand, with parents

paying a standard compulsory fee per annum.

3.3.3 ICT CURRICULUM AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

The official ICT curriculum in secondary school was released in 2003, through a decree

(N°3745/P/63/MINEDUC/CAB of the 16th of June 2003) published by the Ministry of National

Education (presently MINESEC, the Ministry of Secondary Education). The decree introduced the

official ICT curriculum in education and made it clear that ICT would become a compulsory

subject in all schools from September 2003. This initiative could not be supported with training

resources and the necessary material to implement the curriculum, leading schools to use

inadequate teaching materials for a curriculum already becoming obsolete.

Some schools adopted teaching books from private schools, since the Ministry of Education

could not provide any alternative literature.

With this lack of material resources, the lack of human resources to teach the curriculum

exacerbated the situation. The Ministry of Secondary Education reorganised itself in 2003 to

include a National Pedagogy Support Unit (Cellule d’Appui à l’Action Pédagogique). This unit was

to be equipped with a distance training unit and was expected to ensure the training and

capacity-building for teachers, which included distance learning. But in a context where even in

the teachers’ training colleges, no provision was made for ICTs application, the scenario was set

45

to produce for some years to come a teaching corps, which to a great extent was computer

illiterate (ROCARE, 2005).

However, ICT was introduced as a major course in the Teacher’s Training College in Yaoundé in

2007; and the first batch of graduates from the Department of Computing Sciences and

instructional Technology have just been assigned to schools (in March 2010) (DITE, 2009).

Despite this breakthrough, teaching the ICT curriculum in a vast majority of schools is still

contracted out to computer sciences graduates or technicians with little or no ability to teach

and with unstructured approaches towards delivering the curriculum.

In other cases, teachers with basic computer literacy acquired on a personal level are often

called in to assist. This lack of co-ordination observed here has also been sustained by the fact

that ICT remained an elective subject in most schools’ programmes, as well as during national

secondary schools examinations.

3.4 ICT INTEGRATION IN SCHOOLS IN CAMEROON: WHAT CONTRIBUTES

TO THE INERTIA?

The current level of ICT integration in Cameroon was established from the status of the five

basic components of ICT development in schools, according to Fluck’s Model. These are: i)

Policies; ii) curriculum; iii) professional development; iv) infrastructure; and v) school

organisation. The previous sections identified Cameroon as being at the initial stage of ICT

integration, as shown in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2: Cameroon: current level of ICT integration in education

A close look at each of these components reveals the possible causes of the current inertia

observed ten years after the government expressed its commitment and resolve to make ICT

the key to a move towards an information society.

Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 2

Policies and Vision

No National ICT policy for Education - -

School organisation

Highly Hierarchical structure - -

Staff Development

Basic ICT Literacy programmes are yet to be implemented nation-wide

- -

Curriculum Computer literacy is taught as a separate subject. - -

Infrastructure Purchase/donation of computers. Low ratio of student to computers.

- -

46

Policies and vision: “The Cameroon government, anxious to promote the development of new

information and communication technologies in the educational system, reaffirms its options

regarding their use as a factor in improving the quality of teaching and learning in schools...”

This is an extract from the Cameroon Educational Sector Strategy document, adopted in 2006. It

clearly indicates an interest to promote quality education through ICT. However, in the absence

of a National ICT policy regulating the Integration of ICT in teaching and learning, the purpose of

ICT in school is not clearly defined, and the current informal and chaotic situation observed will

simply be ongoing (Tchinda, 2007).

Infrastructure: ICT infrastructure in schools remains led by the vision, according to which wiring

schools, buying hardware and software, and distributing the equipment throughout will lead to

abundant classroom use by teachers and students and improved teaching and learning. No

thought has been given to what sort of technology is needed, or for what it will be used. What

type of hardware? What type of software would be needed to ensure adequate teaching and

learning? However, due to limited or inexistent ICT budgets and refurbished materials, in most

cases donated or purchased, these are highly unsustainable – as their life span is always very

limited. Guidelines should, however, be put in place to guide school principals (who often lack

computer literacy) in the procurement of computers. Limited or non-existent budgets could also

account for the lack of support or simply the additional running costs brought in by this

equipment (Tchameni, 2007).

Curriculum: The official outline of the curriculum adopted by the Ministry of Education is far

from what is actually being taught in schools or found in Multimedia Resource centres. The

reliance on contents from the internet leads to the use of unstructured and often inadequate

resources for course delivery. This has spawned a wide range of criticisms by teachers and

administrators over the need for local content development (Tchameni, 2007). A Cameroon

government report highlights the fact that available content is derived from scattered, generally

non-sustainable initiatives – due to the absence of a national approach to content production

(National Agency for Information and Communication Technologies, 2008).

However, as has been revealed from the literature, content development remains one of the

major challenges for African ICT Integration in schools (Hawkins, 2002).

Professional Development: In a context where teachers are expected to spare extra funds to

embark on a basic ICT literacy programme, where the lack of financial resources oblige some

47

contract teachers to experienced delayed salaries, where the inadequate number of teachers in

traditional subjects requires that teachers must deal with oversized classes or extra teaching

hours, many of those teachers perceive the introduction of these new technologies as a threat.

As they remain one of the key components of ICT integration in school, strategies must be

adopted – at national and school level – in order to change the mindsets and the level of

confidence of teachers towards ICT.

School organisation: Without a national vision and policy, schools are often left with the huge

challenge of defining where they want their school to be at a certain point in the future, through

ICT. Most schools embark on ICT with no specific shared vision among the stakeholders, such as

parents, local business, local community, staff and students. This often leads to ICT being

underutilised where it exists. There is this action-before-thoughts approach, where computers

are brought in before any thought is given to who it is going to use them, what additional costs

will be incurred, what skills are needed to use them, and above all, what goals are expected to

be achieved.


A recent NRI classification – which appraises the progress made by countries towards using ICT

for development – included Cameroon in its ranking. With the fast growth of mobile telephone

subscribers (ITU , 2009), as well as some positive social indicators (educational system quality

ranking 84th on NRI), it is believed that the integration of ICT into education in Cameroon could

boost/create the much-needed dynamics required in the entire Sub-Saharan Africa region.

Despite the need for ICT in education, strongly expressed by the Cameroon government, ICT

integration in schools in Cameroon still remains at the initial introductory stage of the Fluck’s

model of ICT development in schools (Fluck, 2003), with a government report clearly indicating

that the educational sector may not be able to guarantee an adequate training in the mastery

and usage of ICTs by her citizens. This is necessary, in order to be competitive in the emerging

global knowledge society.

The challenges faced by Cameroon are more or less common to the sub-region: lack of financial

prowess, poor basic infrastructure and human resources; inexistent policies, a paucity of vision

and the necessary legal and regulatory framework for ICT in schools; unsupported curriculum

48

with school administrators still being unaware of the rationale for ICT in school, as well as the

low level of expectations.

Understanding the current situation of ICT in the educational sector will yield a more

appropriate and context-oriented framework for ICT in schools in Cameroon. This must

encompass the existing challenges and ensure its successful implementation. With the ongoing

decentralisation of the Cameroon institutions to a regional level, local communities will be

responsible for the development and outcome of their educational system.

The next chapter will describe the research design, the data collection and analysis methods, as

well as the process of data validation and triangulation.

49

CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH DESIGN AND

METHODOLOGY

4.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter describes the research design, the data collection methods, the data analysis

methods, as well as the limitations and ethical considerations of the study. Firstly, the

philosophical approach in the study, which uses a phenomenological paradigm is discussed. This

is followed by a discussion on the choice of a case study, as the main research methodology

reflects the use of both quantitative and qualitative approaches. The mixed method approach

initially used a quantitative survey to evaluate the level of ICT usage in the concerned schools.

A cross-sectional approach was adopted. This makes use of a purely qualitative approach, with

open-ended questions, eliciting descriptive responses from decision-makers and ICT managers

in the selected schools, on specific aspects of ICT adoption. Semi-structured interviews with

principals and ICT teachers were analysed so as to obtain factors affecting ICT adoption in their

respective schools. The use of different methods allowed for methodological data triangulation.

4.2 RESEARCH DESIGN

4.2.1 OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND OBJECTIVES

The overall research question was formulated in Chapter 1 as:

“Which guidelines should be followed to ensure a successful integration of ICT in

schools?”

In view of this research question, three research sub-questions were forthcoming; and these

were formulated as follows:

RQ1: What are the current trends of ICT integration in schools in Sub-Saharan

Africa?

RQ2: What is the status of ICT integration in schools in Cameroon?

RQ3: Which factors promote or hinder ICT integration in schools in Cameroon?

50

To answer the above research questions, and to verify the trends, as found in Chapters 2 and 3,

a case study (see Section 4.3) was conducted in the Western Region of Cameroon with

participants from four selected schools. The following sections give an overview of the

application of case study research. They describe the different case-study approaches, and

which to apply. Next, the components and the units of analysis of a case study are described and

ways to collect, to analyse and to present the data and the results are discussed.

4.2.2 THE PHILOSOPHICAL APPROACH

The choice of which method to employ is largely dependent on the nature of the research

problem; and (Creswell, 1994) argued that the actual suitability of a research method derives

from the nature of the social phenomena to be explored. There are basically two

methodological traditions of research in the social sciences, namely: positivism and

phenomenology.

Positivism is an approach to the creation of knowledge through research. It emphasizes the

model of natural science: the scientist adopts the position of the objective researcher, who

collects facts on the social world and then builds up an explanation of social life by arranging

such facts in a chain of causality (Finch, 1986).

In contrast, phenomenology is about a reality which is socially constructed rather than

objectively determined. Hence, the task of the social scientist should not be to gather facts and

measure how often certain patterns occur, but rather to appreciate the different constructions

and meanings that people place on their experiences (Noor, 2008).

Positivism, which is based on the natural science model of dealing with facts, is more closely

associated with the quantitative method of analysis. On the other hand, post-positivism that

deals with understanding the subjectivity of social phenomena, requires a qualitative approach.

The researcher’s epistemological position is based on the following stance: Data are contained

within the perspectives of people that are involved with ICT integration and adoption in schools,

either in a decision-making capacity or as participants; and based on this, they need to be

engaged in the collection of data. The phenomenological methodology is best suited for this

type of study. In contrast to positivists, a phenomenologist believes that the researcher cannot

be detached from his/her own presuppositions, and that the researcher should not pretend

otherwise (Hammersley, 2000).

51

The intention of this research, since its preliminary stage, has been to gather data regarding the

perspectives of the research participants (stakeholders in schools) on the phenomenon of ICT

integration in schools and the factors that promote or hinder this process.

4.3 STRATEGIC METHODOLOGY: A CASE STUDY

4.3.1 INTRODUCTION

“The essence of a case study, the central tendency among all types of case study,

is that it tries to illuminate a decision or set of decisions: why they were taken,

how they were implemented, and with what result” (Yin K. R., 2009).

Having long been considered as the exploratory stage of some other type of research method

rather than a research method itself, case study methods have failed to be recognized as a

distinctive form of empirical inquiry. Critics have emphasized the lack of rigour of the method,

where the investigators were sometimes found to be sloppy, with biased views – or not

following systematic procedures. Another concern about case studies is that they provide a poor

basis for scientific generalization, with critics wondering how one could generalize from a single

case.

Other concerns focused on the duration of case studies, as they were simply too long and

resulted in massive, unreadable documents. Despite these critics, researchers still continue to

use the case-study research method with success, in carefully planned and crafted studies of

real-life situations, issues, and problems (Soy, 1997).

A case study may be defined as an empirical investigation of a particular contemporary

phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between the

phenomenon and its context are not always clearly defined. Yin (2009) presented at least four

applications for a case-study model:

To explain the presumed causal links in real-life interventions too complex for the survey or experimental strategies;

To describe an intervention and the real-life context in which the intervention has occurred;

To illustrate certain topics within an evaluation;

To enlighten those situations in which the intervention being evaluated has no clear, single set of outcomes.

52

It may be argued that the integration of ICT in schools involves all four of the above categories.

By doing a case study the relation between what is currently being done with regard to ICT in

schools and what the expected outcome should be, is established. However, some of the

criticism against case studies relates to single-case studies. One of the most pertinent comments

made is that if a single case study is used, the research will be incapable of providing a

generalizing conclusion; but in contrast to this criticism, Yin (2009) has argued that the relative

size of the sample does not matter.

The goal of the study should establish the parameters, and then be applied to the research. In

this way, even a single case could be considered acceptable, provided it has met the established

objectives. This raises some questions about single or multiple-case designs and approaches.

4.3.2 SINGLE VS MULTIPLE-CASE STUDIES

Our strategy could be a single case – in which the phenomenon has not been observed by many

before – or a multiple case, which is used when the findings from a case occur in other cases

with a view to generalising them. In multiple-case study design, a replication rather than a

sampling logic must be followed; and when no other cases are available for replication, the

researcher is limited to single case designs (Yin K. R., 2009)

A single case study is an appropriate design under several circumstances, and Yin (2009)

identifies five different rationales. One rationale for a single case study is when it represents the

critical case in testing a well-formulated theory. A second rationale is where the case represents

an extreme case or a unique case. Then, the third rationale for a single case is the

representative or typical case. Here, the objective is to capture the circumstances and

conditions of an everyday common place situation.

A fourth rationale for a single-case study is the revelatory case; and a fifth rationale is the

longitudinal case: studying the same single case at two or more different points in time.

The case study was a representative case – with a view to showing how ICT integration in

schools could be done in a typical region and with the final aim of suggesting guidelines for ICT

integration in school in the entire country. A single case study in a typical region was used in this

study to investigate the factors affecting ICT integration in participating secondary schools in

which basic ICT infrastructure exists, and an ongoing resolve from policy-makers to integrate ICT

into the entire school system.

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4.3.3 AN EXPLORATORY CASE STUDY

Yin (2009) suggested that there are three case study approaches: exploratory, explanatory and

descriptive. In exploratory case studies, the fieldwork, and the data collection may be

undertaken prior to definition of the research questions and hypotheses. In an exploratory case

study, the collection of data occurs before theories or specific research questions are

formulated. The aim is to look for patterns, ideas or hypotheses – rather than testing or

confirming a hypothesis.

In exploratory research the focus is on gaining insights and familiarity with the subject area – for

more rigorous investigation later. Descriptive research design goes a bit further, and tries to

describe the different characteristics of a phenomenon. Descriptive case studies require that the

investigator begins with a descriptive theory. This implies that in this type of study, hypotheses

with cause-and-effect relationships are formed.

A descriptive research goes a little further than an exploratory case and requires a theory to

guide the collection of data. An explanatory research is suitable for doing causal studies and can

be used when the research field has matured. This design tries to explain the course of events

and relate how things have happened.

The overall approach of this research is exploratory, as there are few or simply no previous

studies – aimed at establishing the status of ICT integration in the country – to which references

could be made for information. We shall be analysing the various initiatives, looking at factors

that enable or hinder the integration of ICT in schools, rather than testing an existing integration

process in place.

4.3.4 CASE-STUDY DESIGN

A research design could be defined in its simplest form as the logical sequence that connects the

empirical data to a study’s initial research questions -- and ultimately, to its conclusions (Yin K.

R., 2009). This could further be seen as a blueprint for the research, dealing with at least four

problems: what questions to study, what data are relevant, what data to collect, and how to

analyse the results (Philliber, Schwab, & Sloss, 1980).

The primary aim of a research design is to help avoid a situation in which the evidence does not

address the initial research questions.

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Unlike other research methods, a comprehensive “catalogue” of research designs for case

studies has yet to be developed (Yin K. R., 2009). It is often used to maximise construct validity,

internal validity, external validity and reliability. Case-study designs have always been

considered a subset or variant of the research designs used for other methods, such as

experiments, until recently. With the lack of adequate codification for case-study research

designs, Yin (2004) recommended, as part of a carefully designed research project, the use of a

case-study protocol consisting of five major components: The study’s questions, its propositions

(if any), its unit(s) of analysis, the logical linking of the data to the propositions, and the criteria

to be applied for interpreting the findings.

Another approach was presented by Soy (1997), who drew upon the work of (Stake, 1995), and

Yin (2004). Soy proposed six steps in conducting case-study research. These include:

determining and defining the research questions, selecting the cases and determining data

gathering and analysis techniques, preparing to collect data, collecting data in the field,

evaluating and analysing the data, and preparing the report.

A combination of both approaches was used for the design of the case studies. In the

description of the design of the case study in this chapter, attention was paid to the research

questions, the stated purpose of the study, the units of analysis, the process of data collection,

the instrumentation for data collection, the method of quantitative and qualitative data analysis

and to presenting the results.

4.3.4.1 The Research Questions

The main aim of the case study was to find answers to the overall research question: Which

guidelines should be followed to ensure proper ICT in school integration? To complement this

primary research question, three sub-questions were posed, namely:

RQ1: What is the status of ICT integration in schools in the Sub-Saharan African region?

RQ2: What is the status of ICT integration in schools in Cameroon? and;

RQ3: What factors affect ICT integration in schools in Cameroon?

4.3.4.2 Stated Purpose of the study

The case study, being exploratory, had its purpose clearly stated, as suggested by Yin (2009) and

Tellis (1997). The purpose of this study was to determine how ICT integration was currently

55

being implemented in schools in Cameroon – and to suggest how it should be done. Answering

RQ1 gave us a clue of the general trends of ICT in schools in the Sub-Saharan region, and it was

expected that the case of Cameroon would not deviate from this trend. Understanding the

factors affecting each component of the process of ICT integration in schools in Cameroon will

certainly lead to the establishment of appropriate guidelines for effective ICT integration in

schools in the country.

4.3.4.3 Units of analysis and the selection of cases

The Unit of Analysis is a critical factor in a case study. Often simply referred to as the case, Yin

suggests that the term may be an individual, a group of individuals or even some event or entity

(Yin, 2004). Case studies tend to be selective, focusing on one or two issues that are

fundamental in understanding the system being examined.

As stated earlier, case studies could be single-case studies or multiple cases. These can further

be classified as holistic or embedded. In an embedded case study, the case is split into multiple

units of analysis, while a holistic case study has one unit of analysis for each case. Our case study

may be classified as a single case study, as discussed in a previous section.

This case is about ICT integration in schools in a typical region of Cameroon. However, this single

case study could be referred to as embedded, since it involves many schools (sub-cases) within a

region (holistic single case) in which ICT integration is ongoing.

Cameroon is divided into ten provinces currently known as Regions. The West Region consists of

eight divisions or departments (departments), each headed by a senior divisional officer.

4.3.4.4 Sampling

The cost of studying an entire population to answer a specific question is usually prohibitive in

terms of time, money and resources. Therefore, a subset of subjects, representative of a given

population must be selected; this is called sampling. The most commonly used sampling

techniques in qualitative research are the non-probability sampling methods, where the

samples are gathered in a process that does not give all the individuals in the population equal

chances of being selected.

In contrast with probability sampling, non-probability sample is not a product of a randomised

selection processes. Subjects in a non-probability sample are usually selected on the basis of

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their accessibility or by the purposive personal judgment of the researcher (Castillo, 2009).

There exists several sampling techniques, such as convenience sampling, where the samples are

selected because they are accessible to the researcher; consecutive sampling, very similar to

convenience sampling, except that it seeks to include ALL accessible subjects as part of the

sample; Quota sampling, in which the researcher ensures equal or proportionate representation

of the subjects, depending on which trait is considered as the basis of the quota; Snowball

sampling, usually done when there is a very small population size and where the researcher asks

the initial subject to identify another potential subject who also meets the criteria of the

research; and finally, the Judgmental sampling, more commonly known as purposive sampling.

In this type of sampling, subjects are chosen to be part of the sample with a specific purpose in

mind (Castillo, 2009). With judgmental sampling, the researcher believes that some subjects are

fit for the research in contrast to other subjects. This is the reason why they are purposively

chosen as subjects.

Purposive sampling technique was used in the selection of schools with basic ICT infrastructure

as a key criterion. The selection of the schools in the chosen region was further influenced by

the availability of ICT resources, the school readiness to support the research conducted by

granting access to resources and information, and the limited funds available to cover schools in

regions far apart. Fifteen schools were short-listed, and selected from within the case – the

Western Region – by the Regional Department of Education.

These schools were recognised as the most advanced schools in the region in terms of their ICT

infrastructure. A further assessment was then made to streamline the number of participating

schools to four, based on criteria, such as the accessibility and the willingness of leaders to

adopt the ICT in education change, as listed in Table 4.1 – in no specific order. Two of the

selected schools are from a semi-urban area and two from an urban area.

Name of School Type of School No of Students Area

Collège St Thomas d’Acquin De Bafoussam Private 1000 Urban

Lycée Bilingue de Baham Public 1700 Semi-Urban

Lycée Classique de Dschang Public 2500 Urban

Lycée Classique de Bangangte Public 2000 Semi-Urban

Table 4.1: Selected schools in Western Region of Cameroon

57

4.3.5 DATA-GATHERING METHODS

Stake (1995) and Yin (2003) identify six sources of evidence that can be collected during case

studies, each having their strengths and weaknesses. The first is documentation, which is stable

because it can be reviewed repeatedly; it is unobtrusive; it is exact and it has a broad coverage

and can assist in confirming the evidence from other sources. However, it can also be difficult to

retrieve; the selection and reporting can be biased; and the access can be deliberately blocked.

The second is archival records, which is the same as documentation; but in addition, it also has

the advantage of being precise and quantitative, and the disadvantage of being difficult to

access due to privacy reasons. The third is direct observations, which have the advantage of

being real-time and contextual, but they can be time-consuming, selective, and the observed

event may react differently due to the observation. The fourth is participant-observation, which

has the same characteristics as direct observations.

They have the extra advantage of being insightful into interpersonal behaviour – and an extra

disadvantage of the possibility of being biased – due to manipulation. The fifth is physical

artefacts. They are insightful into cultural features and technical operations; however, selectivity

and availability are disadvantages. The sixth and last source of evidence is interviews. Interviews

are one of the most important sources of case-study information (Tellis, 1997).

There are several forms of interviews that are possible: Open-ended, focused, and structured or

survey. In an open-ended interview, the key respondents are asked to comment on certain

events. The researcher must avoid becoming dependent on a single informant; and must seek

the same data from other sources to verify its authenticity. The focused interview is used in a

situation where the respondent is interviewed for a short period of time, usually answering set

questions. This technique is often used to confirm data collected from another source.

The structured interview is similar to a survey in which the questions are detailed and

developed in advance. Interviews, despite being targeted and insightful, could have

disadvantages, because they can be biased – due to poorly constructed questions or poor

responses; and they can be inaccurate, due to poor recall.

In this study, two major sources of evidence were used: documentation and interviews. Existing

reports, administrative documents, circulars and decrees were reviewed and a total of 100

respondents were interviewed from all four schools. Four (4) of the respondents were the

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principals of each school; four (4) other respondents were the ICT co-ordinators of each of the

schools (in charge of both educational and technological support), forty-two (42) teachers, and

fifty (50) students. The respondents tasks were categorized as follows: The principals are in the

role of “Policy”; the ICT co-ordinators are in the role of “support”; teachers and students are

placed in the role of “education”, as shown in the Table 4.2.

Respondents Role

Principals Policy

ICT Co-ordinators Support

Teachers Education

Students Education

Table 4.2: respondents and roles in each school

To help establish construct validity and reliability of the case-study evidence, the principle of

multiple sources of evidence, as suggested by Yin (2009), guided the choice of the sources of

evidence. Its main advantage is that it allows for the development of converging lines of inquiry.

In collecting case-study data, the main idea is to “triangulate” or establish converging lines of

evidence – to make the findings as robust as possible (Yin, 2004). In this case, structured

interviews (surveys) with close-ended questions were used to obtain quantitative data from

students and teachers. These data validated the data collected from semi-structured interviews

with principals and respondents from the support unit.

4.3.5.1 Survey

Initially, a preliminary survey had to be conducted in recommended schools – to obtain

information on whether ICT was actually being used in the school in any form and whether the

decision-makers had an established drive to use ICT for improved learning in the near future.

Such information obtained (as depicted in Appendix 4.A) included:

The type of School (public or private) The existence of a computer Lab The purpose of the Lab Number of computers used at school The availability of Internet access The number of students in the school

4.3.5.2 Designing Interview instruments

The aim of the study being to establish the current level of ICT integration in schools in

Cameroon, to identify factors that affect ICT integration in schools in Cameroon and to suggest

59

guidelines that would allow for proper ICT integration in schools; some sets of questions were

devised to guide interviews aimed at addressing these objectives. These interviews focused on

the major components of ICT integration, such as the school ICT policies and organisation, the

ICT infrastructure, ICT use and access, curriculum content and delivery, teacher/staff readiness

and support. Principals, ICT co-ordinators, teachers, and students from each school were the

major respondents during the four series of interviews.

These interviews aimed at providing insights into the above issues; they could be grouped into

four categories:

Interviews with Principals: These aimed at gaining a better understanding on the possible

impact of the use of ICT in the school. The questionnaire (see Appendix 4.B) designed to this

effect sought to gain insights into the history, culture, and vision of the school in relation to the

incorporation of ICT. A key point of the interviews was the expectations of the schools in

relation to the use of ICT. Other discussion points were:

The school ICT policy The expected role, rationale and importance of ICT The history of ICT in the school current arrangements Current strategies and associated developments being undertaken

Interviews with ICT coordinators: The second component of the interviews was addressed to

the ICT co-ordinator; the questionnaires (see Appendix 4C) were used in order to gain a better

understanding of the challenges and barriers towards ICT integration in schools. Discussion in

these interviews included:

The school ICT practices The existing infrastructure and the requirements The degree or level of support The curriculum implementation Accessibility

Interviews with Teachers: The third component of the Interview was addressed to teachers to

evaluate their readiness for accepting a challenge: in using ICT for teaching. A semi-structured

questionnaire (see Appendix 4D) was preferred, in order to obtain teachers’ opinions and views

on the potential challenges and expectations from using ICT. This also validated the data

obtained from prior respondents and policy documents.

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The emphasis in these interviews was placed on:

The teachers’ access and use of ICT The ICT literacy level The teachers’ perception of ICT

The data obtained from the previous respondents were validated at this stage with teachers

more likely to reflect – based on their real-time experiences, rather than some policies.

Interviews with students: The fourth part of the interview is concerned with students’ access to

ICT, and to the uses of ICT (see Appendix 4E). These interviews were more structured and were

used to gather details about:

The student’s access to ICT in schools or (if any) at home The frequency of usage of ICT The purpose for using ICT in schools

Table 4.3 provides a summary of the data-collection methods used with the following key

focuses:

1. The level of ICT integration in schools

2. Factors affecting ICT Integration in schools

Method Data Collection Instrument Resultant data

Surveys Preliminary Survey School overview Basic ICT Infrastructure

Documentation

Schools practices

Policies Survey

ICT’s access and use

Skills and readiness Interviews

Policies

Curriculum

Access to ICT

Infrastructure

School context

Funding

Student Questionnaire

Access to ICT Use of ICT

Teachers Questionnaire

Access to ICT Curriculum Skills and readiness Support

Co-ordinators Interviews

Support Infrastructure Curriculum Policies

Principal Interviews (telephone and face-to-face)

Policies, Vision Expectations Strategies School context Funding

Table 4.3: Data-collection methods, a summary

4.3.6 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY

According to Yin (2007), because a research design is supposed to represent a logical set of

statements, the quality of any given design can be judged according to certain logical tests. Four

of such tests have been commonly used to establish the quality of any empirical social research:

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Construct validity – which identifies correct operational measures for the concepts being

studied; internal validity – which seeks to establish a causal relationship, whereby certain

conditions are believed to lead to other conditions; external validity – which defines the domain

to which a study’s findings may be generalised; and reliability which demonstrates that the

operations of a study – such as the data collection procedures – can be repeated, with the same

results.

The construct validity test was applied in this research through the use of multiple sources of

evidence, such as documentation (policy and strategy documents), interviews (student,

teachers, ICT co-ordinators and principals), observations (laboratory structure and environment)

and surveys. The use of these multiple sources of evidence provided for converging lines of

inquiries or a process of triangulation. As information was collected from multiple sources of

evidence, but aiming at corroborating the same phenomenon, we had here a triangulation of

data sources (data triangulation).

In this case, structured interviews (surveys) with close-ended questions were used to obtain

quantitative data from students and teachers that validated the data collected from semi-

structured interviews with principals and ICT co-ordinators.

Reliability is explicitly linked to notions of consistency, dependability, accuracy, and

predictability. Case-study notes were used throughout the investigation, so as to achieve

reliability. The case-study notes contained information that became available informally and

independently of the above data-collection instruments.

4.3.7 DATA TRIANGULATION

Recognising the imperfections in each data-collection method, a triangulation approach was

used to cross-check the gathered data (Figure 4.1). Data collected from interviews with key

informants, such as principals and ICT co-ordinators on access to and the use of ICT

infrastructure, curriculum implementation or staff professional development, were verified

against data gathered from teachers and students’ surveys.

Secondary data gathered from the existing literature and the ministry of education decrees

were checked against key informants’ interviews. These interviews were conducted to

corroborate and complement findings from the literature, as well as teachers and students’

surveys. The study also relied for some data on a single collection method.

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Figure 4.1: Data Triangulation

63


This chapter has presented the methodology used, and is summarised in Table 4.4. The

strategies used to answer each research question, as well as the chapters in which this took

place, are illustrated.

Research Questions Methods Used Chapter

Main Research Question Case Study Literature review

Chapter 6

RQ1: What are the current trends of ICT integration in Schools in Sub-Saharan Africa?

Literature Review Chapter 2

RQ2: What is the current status of ICT in schools in Cameroon?

Literature Review Case Study

Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 6

RQ3: What are the barriers and enablers of ICT integration in schools

Case Study Chapter 6

Table 4.4: Summary of research questions and methodology

A single embedded case study design was preferred, with four schools being investigated within

a single holistic case, namely the Western region. In each of the schools, data collection

methods, such as interviews (principals, ICT co-ordinators), surveys (teachers and students), and

documentation were used. The reasons for choosing the particular approaches were provided,

as well as the characteristics and limitations of the methods and associated instruments used to

carry out these investigations.

In the next chapter, the results of the investigation will be provided as a basis for the

subsequent analysis that follows. This is aimed at formulating answers to the research

questions.

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CHAPTER 5 RESULTS AND FINDINGS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The research methodology used to gather information related to ICT integration in a typical

school in the Western region of Cameroon was presented in the previous chapter. Over the

course of the investigation, some data-collection techniques were selected and structured in

order to gain insight into factors affecting ICT integration in schools, as well as the level of ICT

integration.

This chapter summarizes the results of questionnaires and interviews conducted during the

course of the study. Four schools were investigated with questionnaires collected in each school

from students and teachers, and interviews conducted with ICT co-ordinators and school

principals, as shown in the Table 5.1.

Population Students

(N=50) Teachers

(N=42)

Co-ordinators

(N=4)

Principals

(N=4)

Gender Male

(N=36) Female (N=14)

Male (N=36)

Female (N=6)

Table 5.1: Gender distribution of respondents

The results revealed that the basic implementation of ICT in schools is a complex and

challenging task in developing countries. As elaborated in the following sections, a preliminary

survey confirmed some expectations on the level of ICT integration. Several important inter-

related themes emerged from the interviews conducted, including how participants used ICT,

the different ways and levels of access, the challenges involved – particularly those relating to

limited funding and the lack of resources and training.

5.2 CODING THE DATA SOURCES

The sources of data used throughout this chapter were coded and summarised in Table 5.2

Instrument Code

Student Survey SQ

Teachers’ Survey TQ

Co-ordinator Interviews CQ

Principal Interviews PQ

School Documentation SD

Table 5.2: Data-source coding

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There were four participating schools, and in each school four categories of respondents were

interviewed, namely: teachers, principals, ICT co-ordinators and students.

The instruments provided a rich source of data from multiple complementary and overlapping

perspectives. For example, the data gathered from students using the student Interview

instrument were closely related to the data gathered from interviews (CQ, TQ) and the school

documentation (SD).

5.3 EXPECTATIONS

According to the Fluck’s transformation model of ICT adoption, the integration process is

thought to be carried out in three stages: the introductory, the integrative and the

transformative. A review of the literature revealed that the level of ICT integration can be

obtained from the status of the major components of ICT adoption (curriculum, schools

organisation, policies, infrastructure and access to ICT, and Staff Professional Development) in

the selected schools. Furthermore, from the available literature, ICT adoption in schools, in most

Sub-Saharan African countries and particularly in Cameroon, is expected to be at the

introductory phase.

This early phase of ICT adoption is characterised by patchy unco-ordinated provision and use,

leading to some enhancement of the learning process, some development of e-learning, but

little transformed learning and teaching (Balanskat & Blamire, 2007). This implies initial

expectations for the major components of ICT Integration in Cameroon to be as summarised in

Table 5.3.

Component Expectation

Curriculum ICT is taught as a separate subject and not embedded into the school curriculum

Learning to use or Learning about ICT

Professional Development

Teacher’s readiness and skills, ICT literacy programs predominate.

Teachers’ perception of ICT still uncertain and ambiguous

Access and Use High student to computer ratio, Scanty access, only during class periods; other informal ways of access

Use for teaching basic computer skills, email or Internet browsing

Policies and School organisation

Technology Literacy, student enrolments, ICT Skills

Hierarchical structure, no flexibility over curriculum implementation, Standard classrooms

Infrastructure Uncoordinated provision, Purchase/donation of computers hardware and software.

non-existent infrastructure plan, low ratio of student to computers

Table 5.3: Initial Expectations

This chapter presents the results emerging from interviews conducted within a sample of four

purposefully selected schools in the Western Region of Cameroon. The data collected during

this phase were obtained from these schools known to have acquired a computer laboratory for

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computer courses. The study focused on various issues regarding the major components of ICT

integration into schools, as mentioned earlier, and led to the emergence of the following

themes.

The themes related to the factors that could hinder or facilitate ICT integration in schools, as

well as the current level of ICT use of respondents. These were:

TH1. Access to and use of ICT: challenges and enablers, extent of use;

TH2. Professional development: teacher’s readiness and confidence;

TH3. School organisation: Governance and policies in school context;

TH4. Infrastructure: cost and effectiveness;

TH5. Curriculum: content.

While these themes may not have been in linear order, they however were inter-related and

interdependent. For example, shortage of ICT infrastructure could impact access to and use of

ICT in schools. Similarly, the lack of confidence from teachers may be as a result of inadequate

school policies and suchlike. The following sections will present the results, as they were

reported within the specified themes.

5. 4 THE RESULTS FROM INTERVIEWS

5.4.1 TEACHERS’ PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

This section presents the findings related to the level of teachers’ readiness and the factor

associated with their adoption and the implementation of ICT. A total of 42 teachers completed

the teachers’ questionnaire. The Teachers’ Questionnaire (TQ) collected the data on the

teachers’ experiences, beliefs, and practices with regard to ICT adoption in their respective

schools. As discussed in Chapter 2, key factors relating to teachers have been identified as

principally: (i) ICT Literacy or basic ICT skills; and (ii) teachers’ attitude towards ICT adoption for

teaching and learning. This section presents the findings from the teachers’ questionnaire, as

well as the Principal Questionnaire (PQ), as they relate to these two key issues.

67

5.4.1.1 Teachers’ ICT literacy

In order to use ICT effectively for teaching, there is a common agreement in literature that

teachers must possess basic ICT skills. Teachers’ professional development has been identified

as a key factor in the successful integration of ICT in schools (Fluck, 2003) (Pelgrum & Law, 2003)

(Webb, 2007).

TQ2.1 knowing how to use a computer: basic ICT skills

As noted in Chapter Three, the government effort to provide ICT skills to teachers was still at an

early stage and focused mainly on the next generation of teachers (teachers in Teachers’

training colleges). Currently, active teachers often acquire ICT skills through informal learning;

self-sponsored training courses or institutional support. Predictably, Table 5.4 shows that a vast

majority (83.3%) of teachers interviewed claimed to know how to use a computer. These

findings reveal that 26.2% of teachers had attended a formal computer training course.

Furthermore, 83.3% of teachers agreed that knowing how to use computers is absolutely

essential.

School 1 (14)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (42)

Know how to use computers(TQ2.1) 11 9 8 7

35 (83.3%)

Have attended a formal computer training course (TQ6.2)

2 4 2 3 11

(26.2%)

Strongly Agree that knowing how to use computers is very useful (TQ4.12)

13 10 7 5 35

(83.3%)

Table 5.4 Teachers ICT literacy status

TQ2.7 ICT pedagogical skills: Using ICT to prepare lessons

ICT pedagogical skills refers to the use of ICT for the purpose of teaching. Table 5.5 shows that

only 42.9% of respondents said they had once used a computer to prepare lessons. The reasons

for this reduced number are summarised in Table 5.6, with the most commonly cited reasons

being the non-existence (66.7%) and inaccessibility (51.9%) of ICT infrastructure, or the lack of

any technical support (51.9%).

School 1 (14)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (42)

I have used ICT to prepare lessons at least once (TQ2.7)

5 5 5 3 18

(42.9%)

Table 5.5 Number of teachers who have once used ICT to prepare lessons

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Reasons for not using ICT? School 1

(10) School 2

(6) School 3

(5) School 4

(6) Total No

(27) non-existence 5 4 4 5 18 (66.7%)

Inaccessibility 3 6 2 3 14 (51.9%)

Don’t know how to use them 1 1 1 0 3 (11.1%)

I lack skills to use them 3 3 2 2 10 (37%)

I lack technical support 3 5 3 3 14 (51.9%)

No time 1 0 0 1 2 (7.4%)

Others 2 0 0 0 2 (7.4%)

Table 5.6 Reasons for not using ICT

5.4.1.2 Teachers’ attitude towards ICT adoption for teaching and learning

It was found from literature that one of the barriers towards ICT adoption is the fear, anxiety

and concern that teachers have. Bitner and Bitner (2002) stated that using technology as a

teaching and learning tool in the classroom brings fear, anxiety and concerns to a greater

extent, since it involves both changes in classroom procedures and the use of often-unfamiliar

technologies (Bitner & Bitner, 2002). During interviews with teachers, a 5-point Likert-type scale

(Strongly agree - completely disagree) was used to obtain their views on ICT in schools. The

findings are reported in Tables 5.7 – 5.23.

TQ4.1 ICT could ease my teaching job

Table 5.7 shows that all interviewed teachers in all four schools acknowledged the importance

of ICT in their teaching, with 78% of the teachers strongly agreeing that ICT could ease their

teaching burden.

Computers could ease my teaching Job

School 1 (13)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (41)

Strongly agree 11 10 6 5 32 (78.0%)

I agree 2 1 3 3 9 (22.0%)

Neutral 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%)

I disagree 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%)

I totally disagree 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%)

Table 5.7: Computers could ease my teaching load (TQ4.1)

TQ (4.2, 4.4) ICT useful but lack of access

One of the benefits of ICT in schools is the ability it has to provide access to pedagogical

resources that could supplement teaching. This view is shared by 97.6% of teachers interviewed,

as indicated in Table 5.8. This positive belief in ICT is somehow overshadowed by the lack of

infrastructure or access to ICT. Table 5.9 shows that more than half of the teachers interviewed

(53.6%) did not have the required access to ICT. This proportion is higher in schools with no

Internet access (School 3) or in schools in semi-rural areas (School 1).

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ICT allows finding useful online resources for my teaching

School 1 (13)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (41)

Strongly agree 10 10 4 6 30 (73.2%)

I agree 3 0 5 2 10(24.4%)

Neutral 0 1 0 0 1 (2.4%)

I disagree 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%)


Table 5.8: ICT allows finding useful online resources for my teaching (TQ4.2)

ICTs are useful but we lack access School 1

(13) School 2

(11) School 3

(9) School 4

(8) Total No

(41) Strongly agree 1 6 0 0 7 (17.0%)

I agree 5 2 4 4 15 (36.6%)

Neutral 1 3 2 3 9 (21.9%)

I disagree 4 0 3 1 8 (19.5%)

I totally disagree 2 0 0 0 2(4.9%)

Table 5.9: Teacher’s lack of access (TQ4.4)

TQ (2.7, 5.6, 5.7) Teachers’ ICT usage

There is a common view from literature that ICT could increase the existing load on teachers

and may constitute a barrier towards ICT adoption. Findings at this stage tend to disagree with

this view, as the reports show that views are equally shared among teachers who consider the

additional burden from the introduction of ICT, and those who do not, with 22% of teachers

opting for a neutral view, as shown in Table 5.10.

Using ICT adds additional workload for teachers

School 1 (13)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (41)

Strongly agree 2 0 0 0 2 (4.9%)

I agree 3 5 3 1 12 (29.3%)

Neutral 0 4 3 2 9 (22%)

I disagree 6 2 3 4 15 (36.6%)


Table 5.10: ICT creating additional workload for teachers (TQ4.7)

This neutral position may be attributed to the fact that teachers are still at the early phase of ICT

adoption, and are not yet fully aware of the challenges they will be facing when undergoing full

integration of ICT in the curriculum. Table 5.11 shows that 85% of teachers confess not knowing

what is required for ICT integration into the curriculum, and 57.5% agree that they would use

ICT if they knew what it implied. The uncertainty observed is further confirmed in Table 5.12,

where teachers equally agree (34.2%) or disagree (34.1 %) that they would embark on using ICT

if their daily tasks were reduced to accommodate the extra workload.

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I would have used ICT if I had known what it implied and what was required

School 1 (12)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (40)


I agree 7 3 3 3 16 (40.0%)

Neutral 1 3 5 2 11 (27.5%)

I disagree 0 0 1 3 4 (10.0%)


Table 5.11: Not knowing what using ICT implies (TQ5.6)

I would use ICT if our daily chores were reduced

School 1 (13)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (41)


I agree 7 0 1 2 10 (24.4%)

Neutral 1 5 4 3 13 (31.7%)

I disagree 1 5 4 3 13 (31.7%)


Table 5.12: Reduced daily chores (TQ5.9)

TQ4.5 Students would learn better using ICT

In Table 5.13, the view that students would learn better with ICT is shared by 90.2% of the

teachers interviewed. This confirms their early view of ICT as being valuable tools for their

teaching.

Students would learn better using ICTs

School 1 (13)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (41)

Strongly agree 7 9 1 2 19(46.3%)

I agree 3 1 8 6 18 (43.9%)

Neutral 1 0 0 0 1(2.4%)

I disagree 2 1 0 0 3 (7.3%)


Table 5.13: Students would learn better using ICTs (TQ4.5)

TQ4.6 Not skilled enough to use ICT

Contrary to earlier expectations, teachers strongly refuted the idea of lacking the necessary

skills to use ICT. Table 5.14 shows that a total of 68.3% of teachers claimed they are skilled

enough to use ICT, while barely 31.7% admitted not being skilled enough.

I am not skilled enough to use ICTs School 1 (13)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (41)


I agree 3 3 4 1 11 (26.8%)

Neutral 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%)

I disagree 4 6 2 5 17 (41.5%)


Table 5.14: not skilled enough to use ICTs (TQ4.6)

TQ2.9 Using ICT implies a totally new pedagogical approach

According to the literature, the use of computers per se cannot make up for poor pedagogy and

content. Two types of pedagogy, namely instruction and construction, are currently being

practised. The former is the approach usually followed by traditional classroom teaching; the

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latter refers to a way of teaching that facilitates a full exploitation of the potential of ICT, but

demands rethinking and a redefinition of the traditional approach in education, as well as of the

teacher-student relationship (UNESCO, 2010). From these findings, 85.4% of teachers agreed

that a new pedagogical approach would be required to integrate ICT into their teaching.

Using ICT implies a totally new pedagogical approach

School 1 (13)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (41)


I agree 7 9 8 4 28 (68.3%)

Neutral 0 0 1 1 2 (4.9%)

I disagree 2 0 0 2 4 (9.8%)


Table 5.15: A new pedagogical approach (TQ4.9)

This positive view remains eclipsed by the lack of both technical and administrative support, as

may be seen in Table 5.16, where 70.8 % of teachers agreed to not having enough support to

use ICT in teaching.

We do not have sufficient support to use ICT in our teaching

School 1 (13)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (41)

Strongly agree 5 4 2 1 12 (29.3%)

I agree 5 6 4 2 17 (41.5%)

Neutral 2 0 3 4 9 (22%)

I disagree 1 1 0 1 3 (7.3%)


Table 5.16: Lack of support to use ICT in teaching (TQ4.11)

Most research into the barriers to the integration of ICT into schools found that teachers’

attitudes and an inherent resistance to change were significant barriers (Schoepp, 2005).

However, findings show a positive perception of ICT from the teachers interviewed.

TQ(4.13, 4.14, 4.15) attitude towards Computers

Table 5.17 shows that 92.9% of teachers refuted the idea of feeling aggressive towards

computers, with a similar proportion (92.7%) disagreeing with the fact that they could not work

with computers (Table 5.18).

I feel aggressive towards computers School 1 (14)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (42)


I agree 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%)

Neutral 0 0 0 2 2 (4.8%)

I disagree 8 5 3 2 18 (42.9%)


Table 5.17: Feeling aggressive towards computers (TQ4.13)

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I do not think I can work with computers

School 1 (13)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (41)


I agree 1 1 0 0 2 (4.9%)

Neutral 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%)

I disagree 5 6 1 6 18 (43.9%)


Table 5.18: Can’t work with computers (TQ4.14)

Table 5.19 displays a similar response (92.7%) obtained, when asked if they were not interested

in problem-solving with computers.

I am not interested in problem-solving using computers

School 1 (13)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (41)


I agree 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%)

Neutral 2 0 0 1 3 (7.3%)

I disagree 4 5 1 3 13 (31.7%)


Table 5.19: Not interested in problem-solving using computers (TQ4.15)

TQ4.10 Computers could be a distraction for students

With the ever-increasing debate over technology as a distraction to students, where concerns

are expressed on issues, such as technology in the classroom distracting learning, because

students may access the Internet instead of paying attention to teachers. The following excerpt

was obtained from a teachers’ online group discussion:

“If you are asking how the internet can be a distraction, if it allows students to log in and go online instead of doing their work, the answer is simple: Not enough monitoring and not enough opportunity for exploration. The current practice of 21st century teaching and learning suggests that at least every student in a middle school and high school should have access to online research. If the teacher is not specific about where to go and what to do, and does not put time limits and rubrics, the students will definitely move away from the lesson and do whatever they want. However, if the teacher has a well-prepared lesson plan and knows which sites are going to be used, for how long and with what purpose, the students would never have enough time to do research, present results, and edit and publish and on top of that go and waffle around online. So, it is up to the educator to decide how to discipline the classroom”.

(enotes.com, 2010)

The findings in Table 5.20 show that 65.9% of teachers disagreed with the idea that technology

could distract learners.

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Computers could be a distraction for students

School 1 (13)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (41)


I agree 5 0 0 1 6 (14.6%)

Neutral 2 0 3 1 6 (14.6%)

I disagree 4 7 6 6 23 (56.1%)


Table 5.20: ICT as a distraction for students (TQ4.10)

TQ4.17 I need a mastery of computers for the future of my job

Table 5.21 indicates a near total agreement (97.5%) that a mastery of computers is needed for

the future of their jobs; 95.3 % of teachers interviewed disagreed that learning to use

computers would be very difficult for them (Table 5.22).

A mastery of computers will be necessary for the future of my job

School 1 (13)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (41)

Strongly agree 5 5 2 4 16 (39.0%)

I agree 7 6 7 4 24 (58.5%)

Neutral 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%)

I disagree 1 0 0 0 1 (2.4%)


Table 5.21: A mastery of computers needed for job’s future (TQ4.17)

This is a rather positive view, as expectations would have been that teachers think they are too

old to use computers (83.4% disagreed with this view) and could not afford returning to

schooling (Table 5.23).

Learning to use computers would be difficult

School 1 (13)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (41)


I agree 0 1 0 0 1 (2.4%)

Neutral 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%)

I disagree 7 4 2 4 17 (40.5%)


Table 5.22: Learning to use computers would be difficult (TQ4.16)

TQ 4.18 I am too old to learn about computers

Findings in Table 5.23 reveal that 83.4% of teachers disagreed that they are too old to learn

about computers, with 73.8% aged 31 and above (Table 5.24).

I am too old to learn about computers

School 1 (14)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (42)


I agree 1 0 0 3 4 (9.5%)

Neutral 0 1 0 1 2 (4.8%)

I disagree 5 1 1 0 7 (16.7%)


Table 5.23: Too old to learn about computers (TQ4.18)

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Age distribution of respondents School 1

(14) School 2

(11) School 3

(9) School 4

(8) Total No

(42) 21 - 25 1 0 0 2 3 (7.14%)

26 – 30 1 1 3 3 8 (19.1%)

31 – 35 6 2 2 1 11 (26.2%)

36 – 40 1 5 3 1 10 (23.8%)

+41 5 3 1 1 10 (23.8%)

Table 5.24: Age distribution of respondents (TQ1.4)

TQ 4.20 Feeling uncomfortable when others speak about computers

Table 5.25 indicates that 85.4% of teachers feel comfortable when their colleagues speak about

computers, contrary to earlier expectations that the lack of infrastructure and access could

instead lead to frustration and rejection.

I am feeling uncomfortable when my colleagues speak about computers

School 1 (13)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (41)


I agree 1 1 1 0 3 (7.3%)

Neutral 2 0 0 1 3 (7.3%)

I disagree 5 1 2 4 12 (29.3%)


Table 5.25: Feeling uncomfortable when talking about ICT (TQ4.20)

5.4.1.3 Teachers’ willingness to use ICT in teaching or learning

The following section reports and highlights the extent of readiness of teachers regarding the

use of ICT in teaching and learning. Participants were asked to respond to 11 Likert-type

statements dealing with their readiness for ICT in education.

TQ5.1 Using ICT if there are enough computers

Table 5.26 shows that 73.2% of teachers agreed that they would use ICT if there were enough

computers for the number of students. Only 17.1% of the teachers interviewed disagreed with

this idea, and 9.8% opted for a neutral position.

I would use ICT if there were enough computers for the number of students

School 1 (13)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (41)

Strongly agree 3 9 3 1 16 (39.0%)

I agree 4 1 5 4 14 (34.2%)

Neutral 2 1 1 0 4 (9.8%)

I disagree 1 0 0 3 4 (9.8%)


Table 5.26: Not enough computers for the number of students (TQ5.1)

TQ5.2 Using ICT if trained for that purpose

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Table 5.27 shows that 90.2% of teachers interviewed agreed they could use ICT in teaching if

they received proper training for the purpose.

I would use ICT if I had received a proper training for that purpose

School 1 (13)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (41)


I agree 5 4 2 0 11(26.8%)

Neutral 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%)

I disagree 2 1 0 0 3 (7.3%)


Table 5.27: Lack of proper training to use ICT (TQ5.2)

TQ5.3 Using ICT if there were adequate equipment

As many as 78.1% of the teachers thought that the lack of adequate equipment would hinder

their adoption of ICT into teaching and learning, as shown in Table 5.28.

I will use ICT if there were adequate equipments

School 1 (13)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (41)

Strongly agree 4 10 4 0 18 (43.9%)

I agree 4 1 5 4 14 (34.2%)

Neutral 1 0 0 2 3 (7.3%)

I disagree 2 0 0 2 4 (9.8%)


Table 5.28: Lack of adequate equipment to use ICT (TQ5.3)

TQ(5.4,5.5) Using ICT if administrative and technical support is provided

Table 5.29 and Table 5.30 reveal that the lack of administrative support (80.9%) and technical

support (85.4%) could negatively impact their attempt to use ICT in teaching.

I would use ICT if I received the required administrative support

School 1 (13)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (41)

Strongly agree 6 10 4 0 20 (47.6%)

I agree 5 1 4 4 14 (33.3%)

Neutral 1 0 1 2 4 (9.5%)

I disagree 1 0 0 2 3 (7.1%)


Table 5.29 Lack of administrative support to use ICT (TQ5.4)

I would use ICT if I received the required technical support

School 1 (13)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (41)

Strongly agree 7 10 4 2 23 (56.1%)

I agree 3 1 5 3 12 (29.3%)

Neutral 2 0 0 1 3 (7.3%)

I disagree 0 0 0 2 2 (4.9%)


Table 5.30: Lack of technical support to use ICT (TQ5.5)

TQ5.7 Using ICT if official teaching resources are available from the Ministry of Education

It was found from Chapter Three that the context of ICT integration in the region was affected

by the lack of educational materials from the MINESEC in a teaching environment strongly

reliant on official educational resources. Table 5.31 reveals that 80.5% of teachers would expect

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to receive adequate teaching resources from the MINESEC before embarking on using ICT for

teaching purposes.

I would use ICT if I had obtained official and adequate teaching resources from the MINESEC

School 1 (13)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (41)

Strongly agree 3 7 1 0 11 (26.8%)

I agree 7 3 7 5 22 (53.7%)

Neutral 0 1 1 1 3 (7.3%)

I disagree 2 0 0 2 4 (9.8%)


Table 5.31: Lack of official and adequate teaching resources from the Ministry of education (TQ5.7)

TQ5.8 Using ICT if I received ready-made digital content

Table 5.32 indicates that 68.3% of teachers would, however, expect ready-made digital content

as being requisite before embarking on the adoption of ICT in schools.

I would use ICT if we had received ready-made digital content

School 1 (13)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (41)

Strongly agree 4 5 0 1 10 (24.4%)

I agree 7 6 2 3 18 (43.9%)

Neutral 1 0 6 1 8 (19.5%)

I disagree 0 0 1 3 4 (9.76%)


Table 5.32: Lack of ready-made digital content (TQ5.8)

TQ5.9 Using ICT in teaching their subject is rather difficult

A total of 65.9% of teachers disagreed that they would use ICT if they were teaching some other

subject where using ICT would make it easier. This shows that despite 80.5% of teachers

teaching non-computer classes (Table 5.34), there is a positive belief that computers could be

used in teaching other subjects (Table 5.33).

I would use ICT if I were teaching a subject where its use could be much easier

School 1 (13)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (41)


I agree 3 0 0 3 6 (14.6%)

Neutral 2 2 0 2 6 (14.6%)

I disagree 4 9 9 3 25 (61.0%)


Table 5.33: Using ICT easier in other subjects (TQ5.11)

Distribution of respondents according to type of subject taught

School 1 (14)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (42)

Scientific subjects 5 6 3 2 16 (39.0%)

Art and Literature 5 5 5 2 17 (41.5%)

Computers 3 0 1 4 8 (19.5%)

Table 5.34 Distribution of respondents according to the type of subject taught (TQ1.5)

TQ (5.13, 5.15) Using ICT if authorities showed more commitment towards ICT integration

77

With 83% (as seen in Table 5.35) of teachers expecting more commitment from the school

authorities towards ICT integration, stronger expectations were formulated towards the

MINESEC. Table 5.36 shows that 92.2% of teachers could use ICT in teaching, if provision for

rewards were made by the MINESEC.

I would use ICT if the school authorities showed more commitment towards ICT integration

School 1 (13)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (41)


I agree 6 7 8 4 25(61.0%)

Neutral 1 1 0 2 4 (9.8%)

I disagree 0 0 0 1 1 (2.4%)


Table 5.35: Lack of commitment from school authorities (TQ5.13)

I would use ICT if provision were made for rewards by the Ministry of education

School 1 (10)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (38)

Strongly agree 6 3 2 0 11 (29.0%)

I agree 4 7 6 7 24 (63.2%)

Neutral 0 1 1 0 2 (5.3%)

I disagree 0 0 0 1 1 (2.6%)


Table 5.36: lack of rewards from the Ministry of education (TQ5.15)

5.4.2 INFRASTRUCTURE: PROVISION AND SUSTAINABILITY

This section presents findings related to the current existing infrastructure and

procurement methods. Basic ICT Infrastructure remains the starting point for most ICT in

schools’ initiatives. ICT co-ordinator (CQ) and Principal Interviews (PQ) were used to gather data

on key issues relating to ICT infrastructure in schools, such as provision and maintenance. It has

been identified from the literature that ICT infrastructures in schools in Cameroon are acquired

through three primary channels, namely: private donors, government or parents’ associations.

The following sections report findings in relation to ICT provision and the existing

hardware and software infrastructure.

PQ1.1 Provision for ICT in schools

Table 5.37 shows that Parents’ Associations play a major role in funding ICT procurement in

schools. ICT provision in some schools is completely supported by parents’ associations, while in

some other instances private donors are invited to participate. It should be noted that there is a

total lack of support from Government in the provision for ICT to the respective schools.

78

How did the school acquire its computers School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4

Donors (Private)

Parents Contribution

Government

Internal Budget

Table 5.37: ICT Procurement in schools

ICT infrastructure plan for the school (PQ, CQ)

Table 5.38 presents the findings from Principal and ICT co-ordinators’ interviews, and it reveals

that all schools lacked an infrastructural plan. With the parents’ association support, schools had

a minimum budget for ICT infrastructure procurement (School 1, School 2, and School 3) and ICT

maintenance (School 2, School 3 and School 4).

However, all school principals acknowledged that the existing ICT infrastructure does not align

with the school’s needs. This was confirmed by a principal stating that, “Donated computers

easily become obsolete and hard to maintain” (PQ-School 1).

ICT infrastructure plan School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4

Is there any ICT infrastructure plan for the school? (PQ2.1)

Do you have a minimum budget for ICT infrastructure procurement (PQ2.2)

Do you have in place an appropriate budget for ICT maintenance (CQ3.5)

Does the existing ICT Infrastructure align with the school’s needs?(PQ2.3)

Table 5.38: ICT infrastructure plan

CQ2.5 What computer specification do you have?

Table 5.39 confirms the earlier view from the principal in School 1, with all computers found in

schools having a configuration not higher than Pentium III. This implies that more advanced and

recent educational tools would simply not be compatible with the existing computers.

Computer specification in schools School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Less than Pentium 2

Pentium 2 or equivalent



Intel Core 2 duo processors

Most recent processors

Table 5.39: Computer specification in schools (CQ2.5)

CQ(2.13,2.14) What Type of Internet connection do you have?

Two of the schools had Internet Access, with School 2 being equipped with a VSAT access, and

School 4 with a Dial-up access. The VSAT access in School 2 was due to the partnership signed

with a major Internet service provider.

79

What type of Internet Connection do you have? School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4

ADSL

Satellite (VSAT)

Wireless (Radio)

Dial up

No Internet Access

Others

Table 5.40: Type of Internet connectivity (CQ2.13, CQ2.14)

CQ (2.6, 2.8) What additional hardware do you have?

The most commonly found additional hardware in the schools was the Inkjet Printer. This is

known to be a low-cost printer with a basic capacity. No projector was found in any of the

schools visited and the presence of a Network was only found in the schools that had Internet

connectivity (School 2 and School 4).

Hardware infrastructure in schools School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Laser Printer

Inkjet Printer

CD Writer

Retro projector

Video Projector

Digital Interactive boards

Scanner

Photocopier

Laminating Machine

Are computers on a network?

Table 5.41: Hardware infrastructure in schools (CQ2.6, CQ2.8)

CQ2.10 What software resources do you have?

Table 5.42 reveals that the major software found in all schools surveyed was the basic Microsoft

Office Suite. It should also be noted that the existence of a digital Encyclopaedia in schools with

basic internet connectivity is regarded as being very important.

Software resources in schools School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4

Office Suite

Encyclopaedia

Tutorials

Educational Software

Simulation tools

Access to Digital Libraries

Audiovisual educational materials

Educational games

Others

Table 5.42: Software resources in schools (CQ2.10)

80

PQ2.5 What is your major concern regarding infrastructure?

All principals’ stated that there was an inadequate ICT infrastructure in schools, as indicated in

Table 5.43. The quality, maintenance, and even the need for support were not yet seen as

priorities by the principals interviewed.

Primary users of ICT resources School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4

Insufficient

They are of poor quality

Expensive to maintain

Lack of support for proper use

Other concerns

Table 5.43: Primary users of ICT resources (PQ2.5)

PQ (2.6, 2.7, 2.8) CQ (2.1, 2.3) Computer Laboratories

With all schools having at least a computer laboratory, the findings (Table 5.44) revealed that

the lab was meant for both teachers and students, with no dedicated lab or section for teachers.

There was, however, potential for expansion, as all the principals interviewed acknowledged

that there was space available for expansion if the need arose.

Computer Labs School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Do you have a computer lab? (CQ2.1)

Is there a dedicated lab or section for Teachers (PQ2.6)

Are the labs used for administrative purposes? (CQ2.3)

Do you have enough room for expansion of computer Labs (PQ 2.7)

Are you aware of the actual cost of setting up a computer lab? (PQ2.8)

Table 5.44: Computer Labs

CQ2.11, PQ2.9 Primary user of ICT and student to computer ratio

According to Table 5.45, access to ICT resources and laboratory is primarily aimed at teachers

and students. However, the ratio of student to computers – being defined as the ratio of the

number of students in the school to the number of computers available to them – is very high –

and does not truly permit proper access for both teachers and students. Table 5.46 shows that

the average student-to-computer ratio was 87:1, with schools in semi-rural areas having a

higher ratio than those in the urban areas.

Primary users of ICT resources School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4

Teachers

Students

Administrative staff

Teachers and Students

81

Table 5.45: Primary users of ICT resources (CQ2.11)

Primary users of ICT resources School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No Number of Students 1700 2000 2500 1000

Number of Computers 15 21 35 20

Student to computer ratio 133:1 95:1 71:1 50:1 87:1

Table 5.46: Primary users of ICT resources (PQ2.9)

5.4.3 ACCESS AND USE

A large body of literature indicates that the access to ICT is a prerequisite for its integration and

adoption by schools members (UNESCO, 2010). Access to ICT can be done in a formal way in a

school environment, as well as in a less co-ordinated manner from homes and cybercafés. This

section presents the findings relating to where, when, and how access to ICT takes place.

Findings associated with the various uses of ICT in the school will also be reported. Data were

gathered from PQ, TQ, CQ, as well as SQ.

5.4.3.1 Students’ Access to ICT

SQ (2.1, 2.2) Student access and frequency of access to ICT in School

It is reported from Table 5.47, that 86.9% of students have access to ICT in schools, but this

access was in 86.9% of the cases less than once a week (Table 5.48).

Student access to ICT in school? School 1 (16)

School 2 (10)

School 3 (13)

School 4 (11)

Total No (50)

Do you have access to computers in Schools? 13 10 13 7 43

(86.9%)

Table 5.47: Student access to ICT in school (SQ2.1)

How often do you have access to ICT?

School 1 (16)

School 2 (10)

School 3 (13)

School 4 (7)

Total (46)

Everyday 0 0 0 1 1 (2.2%)

A few times a week 3 1 1 0 5 (10.9%)

Once a week 2 9 9 2 22 (47.8%)

A few times a month 9 0 3 0 12 (26.1%)

Once a month 2 0 0 4 6 (13.0%)

Table 5.48: Students’ frequency of access to ICT in school (SQ2.2)

Student access to ICT at home and outside school or home

Table 5.49 shows that a number of students have access to ICT at home (42%). However,

cybercafés remain the major point of access to ICT by students (71.8%), as indicated in Table

5.50. Cybercafés are Internet access centres where, for a fee, students can connect to the

internet with no known restrictions.

82

Other students’ access to ICT? School 1 (16)

School 2 (10)

School 3 (13)

School 4 (11)

Total No (50)

Access to computers at home? (SQ2.4) 3 5 3 10

21 (42.0%)

Access to computers outside school or home? (SQ2.5) 14 4 10 11

39 (78.0%)

Table 5.49: Other students’ access to ICT?

Access to ICT outside school or home

School 1 (14)

School 2 (4)

School 3 (10)

School 4 (11)

Total No (39)

Cybercafé 5 4 9 10 28 (71.8%)

Friend’s place 6 3 4 6 19 (48.7%)

Private training centres 0 0 1 2 3 (7.7%)

Others 3 0 0 4 7 (18%)

Table 5.50: Access to ICT outside school or home (SQ2.6)

SQ2.3 Reasons for limited/no access to ICT by students in schools

Table 5.51 shows that 65.2% of students said they were not granted access to the lab outside

class periods. The insufficient time in labs (30.4%) and the lack of infrastructure (21.7%) were

other reasons mentioned by students as hindering their access to ICT in schools.

Reason for limited or no access to ICT by students in school

School 1 (11)

School 2 (0)

School 3 (4)

School 4 (8)

Total No (23)

Lack of skills 3 0 1 1 5 (21.7%)

Lack of interest 2 0 0 0 2 (8.7%)

Insufficient time in labs 4 0 0 3 7 (30.4%)

Lack of infrastructure 4 0 0 1 5 (21.7%)

School does not grant access after class periods 3 0 4 8 15(65.2%)

Table 5.51: Reason for limited or no access to ICT by students in School (SQ2.3)

SQ(3.5,3.6) Do you share your computer with other students during classes?

The high ratio of students to computers observed earlier is being confirmed by the findings

reported in Tables 5.52 and 5.53.

Students shared access to computers

School 1 (16)

School 2 (10)

School 3 (13)

School 4 (11)

Total No (50)

I share a computer with other students 16 10 12 11 48 (96.0%)

Table 5.52: Students’ shared access to computers (SQ3.5)

A high of 96% of students admitted sharing computers. The number is almost proportional to

the student-to-computer ratio in the school: a ratio of 7.6 students shared a computer in school

1; 3.6 in school 2; 2.38 in school 3; and 1.8 in School 4.

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Number of students sharing a computer during classes

School 1 (16)

School 2 (10)

School 3 (13)

School 4 (9)

1 – 2 1 2 7 9

3 – 4 1 8 6

5 – 6 2

7 – 8 12

Average Number of students sharing 7.6 3.6 2.38 1.8

Table 5.53: Number of students sharing a computer during classes (SQ3.6)

Students’ access to the Internet

Table 5.54 and Table 5.55 show that all students interviewed in school with Internet access had

an E-mail account and access to Internet in school. In schools with no Internet access, answers

varied according to whether in a semi-rural (6.25%) or urban area (76.92%). The most preferred

place of access to e-mail was the Cybercafé (75%).

School 1 (16)

School 2 (10)

School 3 (13)

School 4 (11)

Total No (50)

Do you have an E-mail account? (SQ2.5) 1 10 10 11 32

6.25% 100% 76.92% 100% (64.0%)

Internet in school?(CQ2.13)

Table 5.54: Student’s with e-mail account

Where do you access your email or the Internet?

School 1 (1)

School 2 (10)

School 3 (10)

School 4 (11)

Total No (32)

Home 0 0 1 1 2 (6.3%)

School 0 9 0 2 11 (34.4%)

Cybercafé 1 4 10 9 24 (75.0%)

Friend’s place 0 0 0 2 2 (6.3%)

Cell phone 0 0 0 1 1 (3.1%)

Table 5.55: Places of access to e-mail or the Internet? (SQ2.9)

5.4.3.2 Teachers’ Access to ICT

TQ2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 3.1 Teachers’ access to ICT

A different access picture is expected from teachers, where 95.2% (as reported in Table 5.6) did

have access to ICT in school, with 62.5% of them, however, having access less than twice a week

(see Table 5.57). It should be noted that there is a high access rate (83.3%) to the Internet, as

well as the average number of teachers owning a computer (54.8%).

Teachers’ access to ICT School 1 (14)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (42)

Own a computer at home (TQ2.4) 7 5 5 6 23(54.8%)

Have access to ICT in school (TQ2.5) 12 11 9 8 40(95.2%)

Have access to the Internet (TQ3.1) 9 11 8 7 35(83.3%)

Table 5.56: teachers’ access to ICT

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Frequency of teachers’ access to ICT in school

School 1 (12)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (40)

Rarely 3 2 2 0 7 (17.5%)

Once a week 0 2 1 0 3 (7.5%)

Once or twice a week 1 5 5 4 15 (37.5%)

Many times a week 2 2 0 1 5 (12.5%)

Every day 2 0 0 1 3 (7.5%)

At will 4 0 1 2 7 (17.5%)

Table 5.57: Frequency of teachers’ access to ICT in school (TQ2.6)

Table 5.58 highlights some of the reasons why teachers have limited or no access to ICT in

schools. The most frequent reason mentioned by those concerned the non-existence (66.7%)

and inaccessibility (51.9%) of ICT. The lack of technical support (51.9%) was also stated as one

key reason.

Reason for teachers’ limited access to ICT in school

School 1 (10)

School 2 (6)

School 3 (5)

School 4 (6)

Total No (27)

Non-existence 5 4 4 5 18 (66.7%)

Inaccessibility 3 6 2 3 14 (51.9%)

Don’t know their use 1 1 1 0 3 (11.1%)

I lack skills to use them 3 3 2 2 10 (37%)

I lack technical support 3 5 3 3 14 (51.9%)

No time 1 0 0 1 2 (7.4%)

Others 2 0 0 0 2 (7.4%)

Table 5.58: Reason for teachers’ limited access to ICT in School (TQ2.10)

TQ (3.2, 3.3) Teachers’ places of access to the Internet

Table 5.59 shows that the access to the Internet by teachers is primarily made from cybercafés

(54.3%), schools (25.7%) or homes (20%).

Where do you access the Internet? School 1 (9)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (8)

School 4 (7)

Total No (35)

Home 1 2 3 1 7 (20.0%)

School 0 7 0 2 9 (25.7%)

Cybercafé 8 2 5 4 19 (54.3%)

Friend’s place 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%)

Cell phone 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%)

Table 5.59: Place of access to the Internet (TQ3.2)

Table 5.60 highlights the major reasons behind accessing the Internet by teachers where E-mail

(94.3%), pedagogical resources (77.1%) as well as communication (65.7%) appear to be the top

reasons for access.

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For what reasons do you access the Internet?

School 1 (9)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (8)

School 4 (7)

Total No (35)

E-mail 8 11 8 6 33 (94.3%)

Pedagogical resources 7 6 7 7 27 (77.1%)

News 5 3 5 4 17 (48.6%)

Classes preparation 6 4 5 6 21 (60.0%)

Collaboration with teachers 3 0 0 2 5 (14.3%)

Distance Learning 1 1 1 3 6 (17.1%)

Entertainment 5 0 3 3 11 (31.4%)

Communication 5 9 6 3 23 (65.7%)

Others 1 0 9 0 10 (28.6%)

Table 5.60: Reasons for accessing the Internet (TQ3.3)

5.4.3.3 Teachers’ use of ICT

TQ (2.1, 6.2) Knowing how to use a computer

Table 5.61 shows that 83.5% of teachers claim to know how to use a computer. However, only

26.2% of these teachers had attended a formal computer training course and 63.6% of the

training was self-sponsored (Table 5.62).

School 1 (14)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (42)

Know how to use computers (TQ2.1) 11 9 8 7

35 (83.3%)

Have attended a formal computer training course (TQ6.2)

2 4 2 3 11

(26.2%)

Table 5.61: Computer Literacy (TQ2.1, TQ6.2)

How was your training sponsored? School 1 (2)

School 2 (4)

School 3 (2)

School 4 (3)

Total No (11)

Self-sponsored 0 4 2 1 7 (63.6%)

Sponsored by the school 1 0 0 0 1 (9.1%)

Sponsored by the MINESEC 0 0 0 2 2 (18.2%)

Sponsored by a private body 1 0 0 0 1 (9.1%)

Others 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%)

Table 5.62: Computer training (TQ6.3)?

Table 5.63 shows that 61.1% of the teachers had used ICT for two to five years. Number of years of using computers? School 1

(11) School 2

(9) School 3

(8) School 4

(7) Total No

(35) 0 – 1 year 1 1 0 0 2 (5.6%)

2 – 5 years 3 7 7 5 22 (61.1%)

6 – 10 years 5 1 1 2 9 (25.0%)

11 – 15 years 2 0 0 0 2 (5.6%)

+ 15 years 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%)

Table 5.63: Number of years using computers (TQ2.3)

5.4.4 CURRICULUM

The curriculum is seen here as the content and processes of learning in schools, as well as the

outcome of learning. ICT could be used in the curriculum in three major ways: learning about

ICT, learning with ICT, or learning through ICT (Fluck, 2003). Data collection on the use of ICT in

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the curriculum in the selected schools was achieved through TQ and CQ,, and the results

reported.

CQ (5.9, 5.10, 5.11) Computer literacy taught as a subject in school? (CQ)

Computer literacy is taught as a subject in all four schools that were investigated. This confirms

earlier expectations from literature. Also, computer labs were not used for other subjects in all

schools, as shown from Table 5.64.

School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4

Computers taught as a subject (CQ5.9)

Computers used to teach other subjects?(CQ5.10)

Are computer labs used by other teachers for their subject? (CQ5.11)

Table 5.64: Use of computer Lab

TQ (5.2, 5.2, 5.7) Why am I not using computers in teaching my subject?

The major reasons for not using computers in teaching other subjects were the lack of training

(90.2%), lack of technical and administrative support (85.4%), lack of digital content from the

Ministry of Education (80.5%), or simply the lack of computers (73.2%), as may be seen in Table

5.65.

Top reasons for not using computers in teaching their subject?

School 1 (13)

School 2 (11)

School 3 (9)

School 4 (8)

Total No (41)

There are not enough computers (TQ5.1) 7 10 8 5 30 (73.2%)

No proper training to do so (TQ5.2) 10 10 9 8 37 (90.2%)

No official digital content from MoE (TQ5.7) 10 10 8 5 33 (80.5%)

No administrative / technical support (TQ4.11) 10 11 9 5 35 (85.4%)

Table 5.65: Top reasons for not using computers in teaching (TQ5.1, TQ5.2, TQ5.7)

5.4.5 SCHOOL POLICIES AND ORGANISATION

As stated in Chapter 2, the change brought in by introducing ICT has to be aligned with other

institutional priorities if it is to be successful (Pelgrum & Law, 2003). The present section will

present findings relating to how ICT implementation relates to the school’s overall vision and

policies. It is interesting to note how schools reorganise themselves to take up ICT, despite a

non-existent national policy for ICT in education. Data relating to school ICT policies and

organisation were collected from the principal and ICT co-ordinators’ Interviews.

PQ 3.1 Existence of policy document for ICT in school

Table 5.66 shows that no schools were found with a policy for ICT adoption.

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Is there any policy document? School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Is there a policy document guiding the adoption of ICT in schools?

Table 5.66: Existence of policy document for ICT in schools (PQ3.1)

PQ(3.3, 3.4) How was ICT in schools initiated?

Table 5.67 reveals that, apart from a desire to stay competitive, the ICT integration in schools

was prompted by requests and funding from parents. Parents Associations play a critical role in

the country and constitute a major source of funding for projects, such as building classes or

paying additional temporary teachers to supplement the shortage of permanent teachers. They

contribute by accepting to pay an extra fee each year for funding such projects.

In each of the schools surveyed, an extra compulsory computer fee was charged per annum to

support ICT procurement in the school, as well as curriculum delivery. Table 5.68 reveals

parents’ associations as being a major source of funding in the selected schools.

What prompted ICT integration in school? School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Donated computers

Desire to stay competitive

Government funding

Parents’ request and funding

School vision and careful planning

A compulsory ministerial decree

Table 5.67: What prompted ICT integration in school (PQ3.3)

What are your sources of funding for ICT? School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4

Private donors

Parents associations

Government

School internal budget

Others

Table 5.68: Sources of funding for ICT (PQ3.4)

PQ (3.2, 3.5 – 3.9) Future of ICT in schools

Table 5.69 indicates some key priorities identified by principals with respect to the future of ICT

in their schools. They are:

- Acquiring more computers

- Training teachers in basic ICT skills

- Getting Internet access

- Networking the school

- Providing computers for teachers

It should be noted that no emphasis has yet been placed on policies.

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What are the school’s ICT priorities in the next 3 years? School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4

Getting more computers

Training Teachers (basic ICT skills)

Training teaching on how to use ICT in teaching

Content production

Getting more specialised hardware and software

Getting an Internet Access

Networking the school

Providing computers for administration

Providing computers for Teachers

Drafting a policy document on ICT in the school

Others

Table 5.69: School’s ICT priorities (PQ3.2, PQ3.5)

What are your major concerns experienced when integrating ICT in school?

School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4

Lack of Infrastructure

Inadequate infrastructure

Lack of teachers’ training

Cost of Maintenance

Lack of support

Lack of integration plan

Lack of funds to carry out integration

Table 5.70: Major concerns when integrating ICT in school (PQ3.6)

The lack of infrastructure, teachers’ training, funds and an ICT-integration plan are among the

major challenges schools faced while integrating ICT (Table 5.70). However, even as principals

recognise the need for an Integration plan, they seem to have no clue on how to prepare such a

document (Table 5.71).

ICT integration plan and literacy? School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Do you know what is required for an ICT integration plan? (PQ3.7)

Are you computer literate? (PQ3.8)

Have you received any formal computer training course? (PQ3.9)

Table 5.71: ICT integration plan and literacy


In this chapter, the major results obtained through the data-collection instruments have been

presented. Specific instances were provided to indicate where supporting data were gathered.

Emphasis was placed on the key components of ICT development in schools. However, these

instances are simply examples limited to the case study, and a full set of all the possible results

might be beyond the scope of this study.

In the next chapter, the data obtained and reported on will be analysed – with the aim of

providing answers to the formulated research questions.

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CHAPTER 6 ANALYSIS

6.1 INTRODUCTION

In the previous chapter, the main results of the school interviews were presented. Four schools

were successfully investigated with a total of 100 participants falling into four categories:

students (N=50), Teachers (N=42), ICT Co-ordinators (N=4) and School Principals (N=4).

Interviews were conducted through the use of Questionnaires, face-to-face or telephone

Interviews. In this chapter, the data are analysed, in order to answer the research question. The

analysis of the results suggests guidelines for the successful integration of ICT in schools by

revealing factors that hinder or impact ICT integration in schools, as well as establishing the

current level of ICT integration in the selected schools.

6.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The main research question guiding the study was to determine: “What were the guidelines for

a successful integration of ICT in schools?”

Three research sub-questions were formulated as:

RQ1: What are the current trends of ICT integration in schools in Sub-Saharan Africa?

RQ2: What is the status of ICT integration in schools in Cameroon?

RQ3: Which factors promote or hinder ICT integration in Schools in Cameroon?

With RQ1 already answered in Chapter 2, the data analysis provided answers for RQ2 –

establishing the current status of ICT in schools in Cameroon – and RQ3 – identifying barriers

and enablers of ICT integration in schools.

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6.2.1 WHAT IS THE CURRENT STATUS OF ICT INTEGRATION IN SCHOOLS IN CAMEROON?

(RQ2)

As reported from the Literature Survey (Chapter Two), the level of ICT integration in schools can

be obtained by establishing the current level, in each school, of the major components of ICT

integration in schools. Such components are: the curriculum, staff Professional Development,

infrastructure and access, school policies and organisation.

The three stages of ICT integration in schools were identified to be: the introduction stage, the

integration stage, and the transformative stage (see section 2.4.1). The status of each

component of ICT integration at each of these stages differs; and this could easily lead to

establishing the level of ICT integration in the school. A look at each of these components in the

selected schools in the region could define the level of ICT integration in the schools.

6.2.1.1 The curriculum

The use of ICT in the curriculum constitutes one of the major components of ICT integration in

the school. It is seen here as the content and processes of learning in schools, as well as the

outcome of learning. According to the literature, three key roles are generally associated with

ICT and the curriculum. These are: “Learning about ICT”, which refers to ICT as a subject of

learning in the school curriculum, such as computer (or ICT) literacy; “Learning with ICT”, which

refers to the use of ICT, including multimedia, the Internet or the Web as a medium to enhance

instruction, or as a replacement for other media without changing the beliefs about the

approaches to, and the methods of, teaching and learning; and “Learning through ICT”, which

refers to the integration of ICT as an essential tool into a curriculum, such that the teaching and

learning of that curriculum no longer becomes possible without it.

According to Table 6.1, the status of the curriculum at each stage of ICT integration in schools is

presented.

Introduction Phase 1

Integration Phase 2

Transformation Phase 3

Curriculum

Computers taught as a separate subject. Learning about ICT

Applying Knowledge. ICT used to solve complex real-world problems. Learning with ICT

Collaboration, inquiry, information management, creativity and critical thinking skills developed. Learning Through ICT.

Table 6.1: Status of curriculum at each stage of ICT development in schools

From the findings obtained from the Co-ordinators’ Interviews, computers are taught as a

separate subject (CQ5.9) with no other subject taught in computer labs using computers

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(CQ5.10). This could be attributed to the fact that teachers lack sufficient skills/training (TQ5.2)

and the necessary technical support to do so (TQ4.11), as well as the insufficient number of

computers and infrastructure in the schools (TQ5.1). With the present findings, the curriculum

could be said to be at the Introduction phase.

6.2.1.2 School Policies and Organisation

The literature highlights the point that changes brought in by introducing ICT have to be aligned

with other institutional priorities if they are to be successful. A whole-school ICT policy is a

statement of the beliefs, values and goals of a school's staff working co-operatively in the

context of using ICTs. Like any other formulated strategy, this is a management tool. The level of

ICT integration in schools is determined by the observation of major institutional changes. Table

6.2 highlights the major changes expected at each stage with regard to the school policies and

organisation.


Integration Phase 2


Policies and Vision

Technology Literacy, student enrolments, ICT Skills

Improving understanding and problem solving skills of students. Connecting school learning to real-world problems and contexts

Emphasis on Knowledge creation, continuous learning.

School organisation

Hierarchical structure Standard classrooms

Structural flexibility over curriculum implementation. More time for Projects, planning and collaboration

Schools become a learning organization. Continuous innovation from teachers

Table 6.2: Status of Policies and Organisation at each stage of ICT development in schools

Results obtained in Chapter Five reveal the non-existence of a school ICT policy (PQ3.1).

Principals interviewed identified as their primary priorities the training of teachers on basic ICT

skills, the provision for more computers in the school, as well as the connectedness to the

Internet (PQ3.2, PQ3.5). These stated goals clearly align with those found in schools at the early

level of ICT adoption (see section 2.3.1). Moreover, teachers seemed to be reliant on the official

curriculum resources (TQ5.7) and seemed to lack “authority” to independently implement any

changes at their local level (TQ5.4).

Such hierarchical rigidity is reinforced by the lack of government policies for ICT in education, as

well as the lack of school policies clearly stating how teachers should go about implementing

such changes.

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6.2.1.3 Infrastructure and access

ICT Infrastructure here refers to hardware, software and network connectivity, and should be

used in schools not only to support “learning about ICT”, but also to support “learning with ICT”

and “learning through ICT”, as described in the previous section. The key issues relating to

quality and quantity of hardware, the type and cost of equipment needed, the features of the

ICT infrastructure which are crucial, and the guidelines for handling and maintenance should be

addressed when planning ICT in schools.

The access to ICT from basic access to “always and anywhere” access could be an indicator for

achieving ICT integration in schools (see Table 2.3).

As with the previous components, the level of ICT integration may be determined from the

status of the ICT infrastructure in the schools. Table 6.3 provides a snapshot on what may be

expected from the infrastructure at each stage of ICT development in schools.


Integration Phase 2


Infrastructure

Purchase/donation of computers hardware and software.

Simulation and Multimedia are in use. More dedicated and sophisticated hardware in place

Pervasive technologies and social networks.

Access

Scanty access. High student to computer Ratio

Widespread and effective access Anytime, anywhere. Mobility

Table 6.3: Status of infrastructure and access at each stage of ICT development in schools

The status of infrastructure and access could be obtained from CQ, PQ, TQ and SQ. The lack of

ICT infrastructure in schools has been highlighted from several sources throughout our

investigation (TQ2.9, TQ5.1, PQ2.3, PQ2.5, PQ3.5, PQ3.6, SQ2.3, SQ3.5,). All schools investigated

have set as one of their priorities for the next three years the acquisition of more computers

and basic ICT infrastructure (PQ3.5).

With teachers still worried about gaining basic ICT skills (TQ5.2), the use of simulation and

multimedia resources is practically non-existent in all the schools surveyed (CQ2.10).

A direct consequence of this shortage of infrastructure is the very limited access to ICT

observed; 86.9% of the students interviewed had access to ICT less than once a week (see

section 5.4.3.1), while 62.5% of the teachers were found to have access less than twice a week

(see section 5.4.3.2). The ratio of students to computers in all schools was very high (see section

5.4.2) with an average ratio of 87:1. This was further confirmed by the students’ usage in the

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laboratories, where in some cases eight students would have to share a computer during classes

(SQ3.6).

With the very high ratio of students to computer (PQ2.9) and the existing focus on acquiring

more computers to support teaching and learning (PQ3.2), the status of the curriculum in the

observed schools could be said to be at the early introductory stage of ICT development.

6.2.1.4 Staff professional development

The role of teachers in the ICT adoption into the school process has been recognised in

literature as a key. They play a crucial role in the adoption and implementation of ICT in

education, since they are the keys to making learning happen. The lack of ICT knowledge and

skills from teachers is a major obstacle to the implementation, and adoption of ICT in schools

(see section 2.3.4). With the introduction of ICT in schools, teachers are required to adopt new

roles, as more responsibilities for learning are given directly to the students.

This change requires that teachers be proficient in advising and guiding students through more

autonomous, self-directed learning processes, while at the same time monitoring the curriculum

standards achieved by students. Preparing teachers for this new role is a major challenge for

staff development. Also, while teachers are often the focus of staff-development provisions,

they are not the only stakeholders that require training to cope with the introduction of ICT into

schools. First of all, the presence of large quantities and varieties of ICT equipment in schools

has created the need for dedicated technology co-ordinators and technical support staff.

The availability of support, both technical and pedagogical, is vital for the successful

implementation of ICT.

The staff development, like the other components of ICT adoption in school, is said to take place

in stages. Table 6.4 shows the status of Staff Development at the various stages of ICT

development in schools.


Integration Phase 2


Staff Development

ICT literacy programs predominate.

Teachers building skills to manage and guide students through collaborative work

Teachers are model learners responsible for their own and each other’s development as colleagues and mentors.

Table 6.4: Teachers’ professional development at each stage of ICT integration in schools

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The results reveal that from Principals (PQ3.8) to Teachers (TQ5.2), there is a strong need for ICT

literacy programmes. All principals interviewed were found to not possess ICT skills (PQ3.8),

while 90.2% of teachers admitted they required training to be capable of using ICT in teaching

and learning. Furthermore, ICT literacy programmes were found to be in the top priority list of

each principal for the next three years.

6.2.1.5 Summary of Findings relating to RQ1

Schools could either be at the introductory phase of ICT integration, at the Integration phase or

at the transformation phase. At each of these stages, the key components of ICT integration in

schools undergo changes; and these changes would determine the level of ICT integration in

such schools. The following Table 6.5 summarised the findings relating to the status of each

component in all the schools under study.

Component Status

POLICIES AND VISION Focus on Technology Literacy, ICT Skills No existing Policy Document

SCHOOL ORGANISATION Hierarchical structure Standard classrooms

STAFF DEVELOPMENT ICT literacy programs predominate.

CURRICULUM Computers as a separate subject. Learning about ICT

INFRASTRUCTURE AND ACCESS Concerns about Purchase/donation of computers hardware and software. High ratio of student to computer. Scanty or limited access

Table 6.5: Quick Summary of status of components

The status of these components matches that of schools at the introductory level of ICT in

schools. This will prompt our next investigation, which is: What factors prevent or could enable

the integration process in each school?

6.2.2 WHAT FACTORS ENABLE OR PREVENT ICT INTEGRATION IN SCHOOLS? (RQ3)

Factors affecting the integration of ICT in schools fall into two major categories: enabling factors

– which tend to promote and facilitate the integration of ICT – and opposing factors – that tend

to prevent the adoption of ICT in the schools concerned. Kozma (2003) further classified these

factors according to three levels: Macro-Level factors (or systemic factors) such as Educational

Policies or Social contexts, Meso-level factors (or school factors) such as ICT infrastructure,

Integration plan, school leadership, parents, etc., and Micro-level factors such as teachers’

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pedagogical practice, innovation history, educational background, experience with technology

or students’ social and cultural background, experience with technology, etc...

The focus was on School factors (Meso-level), with components such as ICT infrastructure, ICT

Integration Plan, School Leadership, Teachers, Parents etc. being scrutinised.

In the course of analysis, enabling and opposing factors of ICT in schools were looked at in each

key component of ICT development in schools. The following sections will analyse the results

obtained, so as to identify the driving and opposing factors.

6.2.2.1 Factors relating to the curriculum

The curriculum in the schools was identified to be at the initial introductory phase of ICT

integration, being mainly characterised by ICT being taught as a separate subject.

Drivers

a. The existence of a National Syllabus for ICT in school. The existence of a compulsory

national curriculum (CQ5.3) is a major driving force, as most schools strive to ensure its

delivery.

b. Teachers’ positive feelings about using ICT to teach their subjects. It was found in

section 5.4.1.3 that as many as 65.5% of teachers believed they could actually use ICT in

teaching their subjects.

Opposing factors

a. The lack of ICT infrastructure hinders teachers from using ICT in teaching their subjects

(TQ5.1).

b. The lack of proper training to use ICT in the curriculum constitutes another setback in

the use of ICT in teaching the curriculum (TQ5.2).

c. The non-availability of digital resources from the Ministry of Education was also

identified by teachers as a preventing factor for the use of ICT in teaching the curriculum

(TQ5.7)

d. The lack of administrative and technical support was mentioned by 85.4% of the

teachers interviewed, as being a hindrance in their use of ICT in teaching (TQ4.11).

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6.2.2.2 Infrastructure and access

ICT infrastructure at the initial stage of ICT adoption in schools remains the most significant

challenge; and this challenge has the potential to affect all the other components. The shortage

of ICT infrastructure could have a negative impact on the entire integration process. The

following enabling and opposing factors relating to ICT infrastructure and access in the school

were identified.

Drivers

ICT infrastructure procurement could be funded through Parents’ Associations, as shown

in Table 5.37, with a minimum budget available yearly(PQ1.1);

A continuing decrease in the cost of hardware and software could make procurement

easier (SD2);

Students’ access to ICT is possible from home (42.0%) and from other places, such as

cybercafés, as shown in section 5.4.3.1;

As many as 54.8% of teachers own a computer at home, and this could possibly

leverage the need for basic infrastructure;

There is enough room for expansion within the school for additional computer

laboratories (PQ2.7).

Opposing factors

The lack of ICT infrastructure is the major opposing factor (PQ2.5, TQ5.1) and this leads

to the high ratio of students to computer observed in all the schools.

The lack of ICT infrastructure plan does not allow for the right priorities to be set

(PQ2.1).

Donated computers often become quickly obsolete (CQ2.5).

6.2.2.3 Factors from Teachers’ Professional Development

Teachers play a crucial role in the adoption and implementation of ICT in education, since they

are the key to making learning happen. It is widely believed that all education professionals

need to be equipped with technological skills and capabilities to support the delivery of high

quality education in the 21st century (BECTA , 2009). The identification of the factor influencing

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teachers’ adoption of ICT is capital to the successful implementation, and adoption of ICT in

schools. Several enablers have been reported from previous findings.

Drivers

A high of 83.3% of teachers agree to having basic knowledge of computers and admit

that learning about computers is useful. (TQ2.1, TQ4.12). This positive attitude will

certainly facilitate any literacy programme to be put in place.

All the teachers interviewed admitted that computers would be the key for the future of

their job (TQ4.1, TQ4.17).

As many as 90.2% of the teachers interviewed believed that students would learn better

if ICT were used (TQ4.5).

According to 85.4% of the teachers interviewed, a new pedagogical approach will be

required when using ICT in teaching (TQ4.9). The wide acceptance of this fact should

easily facilitate the introduction of new pedagogical skills into the teachers’ community.

A total of 92.7% of teachers admitted to being ready for the ICT uptake in their teaching

(TQ4.13, TQ4.14, and TQ4.15).

Opposing factors

Despite the claims of being computer-literate (TQ2.1), only 26.2% of the teachers have

actually attended any formal training course (TQ6.2). The absence of formal training

could cast doubts on the actual skills possessed by the teachers.

The non-existence and inaccessibility of ICT infrastructure, as well as the lack of training

and technical support prevents the use of computers in preparing lessons (TQ2.7).

Despite the positive belief about ICT in their careers, there are still 56.2% of teachers

that think or remain undecided as to whether ICT would be an extra burden on their

daily task (TQ4.7). This could be justified by the fact that teachers are still at the early

phase of ICT adoption, and are not yet fully aware of the challenges they will be facing

when undergoing full integration of ICT into the curriculum. As shown in section 5.4.1.2,

85% of teachers admit to not knowing what is required for ICT integration into the

curriculum.

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Section 5.4.1.3 reveals that a considerable percentage of teachers (68.3%) still believe

that they will need ready-made digital content in order to use ICT in the curriculum

(TQ5.8).

6.2.2.4 School Policies, vision and organisation

The school policy or vision of ICT is perceived from literature to be the most crucial point from a

strategic perspective. A whole-school ICT policy sets out the rationale for the teaching and

learning of ICT and the aims and objectives for ICT use within the framework of the school. It

gives clear guidance on the types of equipment, programmes and measures that need to be in

place if the requirements of the policy are to be met. The following sections reveal factors that

impact school policies and organisation.

Drivers

There is a strong commitment from parents towards the uptake of ICT in schools

(PQ3.3).

There is a positive perception of ICT and a readiness from teachers in the schools (TQ4.1,

TQ4.5, TQ4.13, TQ4.14, TQ4.15, and TQ4.17).

A possibility of a minimum budget to plan for ICT infrastructure procurement (PQ2.2).

A positive commitment to embark on ICT uptake from the school’s leadership, despite

setbacks (PQ3.5).

A driving desire to stay competitive (PQ3.3).

Opposing factors

The lack of school ICT policies (PQ3.1).

The non-existence of an ICT integration plan (PQ3.6).

The reliance on sponsors and donors who could not always be guaranteed (PQ3.3, PQ3.4).

6.3 GUIDELINES FOR ICT INTEGRATION INTO SCHOOLS IN CAMEROON

A number of schools have recently recognised the need for ICT integration for teaching and

learning. They have committed themselves by acquiring computers and engaging in a basic

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computer-literacy programme for students. The previous sections revealed a stand-still at the

ICT introduction stage in all schools, or sometimes a decline after a few years of attempting to

bring about such an introduction. What is it that school principals and education stakeholders

need to know when considering the introducing of computers into schools? The following

section will provide complete guidelines that address the issues relating to each component of

ICT integration in school. The guidelines have been developed from the initial findings, as well as

from published documentation from the BECTA schools Project’s report, or experiences in the

Asia-Pacific region, a region similar to Sub-Saharan Africa and comprising developing countries

(UNESCO, 2010).

At the Introductory stage of ICT development in schools, four key themes that need to be

absolutely addressed emerged from the literature: Policies; Teachers’ training; infrastructure

and funding. Each of these themes will be examined with regard to schools in Cameroon and

guidelines will be suggested.

6.3.1 ICT POLICIES

Our findings (PQ3.1) revealed an absence of policies in all schools during our investigation. With

policies regarded as a compulsory guide for the integration process, principals and school

decision-makers should consider this as a first step towards the adoption of ICT into their

respective schools. The preparation of ICT policies could be done in four distinct steps:

Step 1: Develop a vision

Where are we and where do we want to be? A vision for implementing technology across the

school must first be established. This vision is important, as it defines the outcomes for learning

and teaching, relationships and behaviours (BECTA , 2009). An effective vision for technology

supports and enhances the school’s aims, in terms of learning, teaching, management and

administration. A vision must be inspiring, helping the transformation of education to take

place, and achievable.

In the case of the investigated schools, a school’s vision is generally aligned with that of the

Ministry of Education; and in the absence of such (PQ3.1), decision-makers must develop a

whole-school vision for ICT. This must set broad goals relating to:

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- The use of technology for learning: This should be tailored towards providing access

to high quality learning materials, providing a safe environment and preventing

access to unsuitable material or the inappropriate use of systems, allowing the

learner to have access, so that they can study at any time, anywhere, evaluating

their level of ICT skills over time.

- The use of technology for teaching: Emphasis could be laid on ensuring that all staff

are skilled and stay motivated in the use of ICT, enabling a culture of continuous

development of technical skills, enabling access to a wide range of multimedia and

digital resources, enabling teachers to create, use and adapt teaching resources

created by themselves and others, and supporting work planning and monitoring,

for groups and individuals.

-

- The strong desire of teachers to use technology in their teaching (TQ4.1, TQ4.17)

should be maintained by ensuring that their doing so is in line with the whole-school

vision.

- The use of technology for management: This should: i) Allow for integrated

personnel and timetabling arrangements; ii) enable the aggregation and analysis of

data to provide timely information about course effectiveness, staff and learner

performance, attendance and discipline; iii) use the students’ performance data to

inform decisions about staff development; iv) support timely communication with

parents about students’ attendance, behaviour and attainment; v) be accessible to

all who need to use it, including the Regional Department of education.

A vision should be endorsed by all stakeholders; and to achieve this, a consultation with parents,

staff (teaching and non-teaching), students, local community representatives and sponsors must

be made and documented in the vision document.

Step 2: Performing an ICT audit

An ICT audit aims at establishing the current status of ICT in a school. It should reveal

information regarding the access, use and opportunities provided by ICT within the school. Such

information should focus on:

- A whole community: Do the community and staff endorse the school vision?

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- The School: This provides the current state of ICT use in the school, such as to

provide information on what ICTs are being used, where, how, by whom and how

often they are being used. A complete inventory should include even less obvious

resources, such as networks and cabling systems, links to other places and ducts for

cables which exist, but may not yet be in use.

- The teaching staff: The strengths and weaknesses of the teaching staff must be

revealed, including their level of skills, confidence, attitude to change, an

understanding of pedagogical issues (constructivists, active, higher-order learning or

collaborative learning). This audit should also reveal whether teachers use

computers at home or in school, as well as the related technologies. The sort and

type, the use of these technologies, the challenges, as well as achievements must be

documented.

- Students and their access to ICT at home: This includes how many and what types of

students have access to information technology equipment at home. What

equipment do they have? How is it used? -- and whether there is an existing Internet

connection.

- Students and access to ICT at School: What is the current use of ICT? What are their

views on the current ICT provision and use in the school, as well as their

expectations?

The information collected here could be done through the use of surveys, questionnaires, visits,

workshops or facilitated meetings. The internal audit reveals the ICT in the school’s strengths,

weaknesses, opportunities and threats, and also the various expectations from stakeholders.

Step 3: Developing the School ICT Policy

BECTA (2009) suggested two approaches when preparing ICT policies for secondary schools: The

first approach is a cross-curricular delivery model, where consideration is given to ensuring that

subject teachers have the necessary ICT skills and knowledge to deliver the ICT learning

objectives. The second approach is a discrete delivery model, where ICT is taught as a

timetabled subject. This approach is the recommended approach for an introductory stage, due

to the prevailing limited resources. It requires that: i) Enough specialist staff are available to

deliver the courses; ii) sufficient time can be created from within the existing timetable; and iii)

enough ICT venues and equipment for the ICT lessons exist (TQ6.4). The approach can also be

used to effectively prepare for a transition towards the second stage of ICT development in

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schools; that is the Integration stage. The content of the policy at this early stage should provide

a framework for (UNESCO, 2010):

What is taught, how it is taught and the rationale for what and how it is taught What ICT equipment is required and how the hardware and software are deployed A strategy for implementation Staff development and training issues The distinctive contribution of ICT to the school’s aim and the curriculum Addressing issues associated with ICT, including e-safety, general health and safety The setting of high expectations for using ICT which are then formalised in the acceptable policies for staff, students and parents Monitoring and review and how progress will be assessed After-hours and community use Leadership and management roles

It is suggested that during the development of the school’s policy, a working committee that

reflects the breadth of the school and representatives of the relevant stakeholders (ICT

coordinator, Parents, teachers, ICT teachers, and technicians) must be set up. They must agree

on the process and procedures for the group and establish a timescale for the completion and

submission of the draft to staff and stakeholders.

Step 4: Setting targets and performance indicators

Based on the above, some strategic targets and associated performance indicators could now be

set up by the school. These will start to make the vision a reality by providing a set of

measurable achievements. This would also assist in assessing which projects and initiatives are

more likely to contribute towards the overall success of the adopted plan. Strategic targets are

simply areas where there are significant gaps between the school’s vision and the current use of

ICT. Performance indicators describe performances the school wishes to measure. These should

be worded so as to indicate the sort of data which need to be collected, so that progress can be

evaluated against strategic targets.

Annual targets break down the strategic targets into measurable sections that can be evaluated

at the end of each year – with revisions held every 3 to 6 months. In the context of the schools,

the non-documented strategic target that was recurrent in the discussions with principals was

the ability of students to conveniently use ICT to access, organise, retrieve and present

information in all areas of the curriculum. Annual targets here could be set as follows:

Year 1: 20% of students and 50% of teachers make basic use of ICT Year 2: 50% of students and 75% of teachers make basic use of ICT

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Year 3: 80% of student make basic use of ICT and 20% of teachers use ICT in the curriculum. ...

Infrastructure-related performance indicators could be the student-to-computer ratio or the

extent of connectivity. Performance indicators relating to staff-professional development could

be: i) The number of trained and ICT-certified staff; ii) the extent to which teachers use

multimedia resources in teaching the curriculum; iii) the extent to which teachers participate in

professional development activities; iv) the extent to which teachers are able to identify

opportunities where ICT can improve the learning environment; or v) implement appropriate

ICT solutions to improve learning.

Indicators for the curriculum component of ICT integration in school could be the ability of

students to use ICT to present work for assessment in digital format (e.g. as word-processed

documents or interactive multi-media); ICT Policy documents or additional sources of funding

could be indicators for the policy component.

6.3.2 TEACHERS’ TRAINING

The outcome of ICT in Education projects ultimately depends on those at the heart of education:

Teachers (UNESCO, 2010). Quite a number of driving factors were found in the schools with

respect to teachers’ professional development. With quite a number of teachers claiming to

have received basic informal computer literacy skills (TQ2.1, TQ4.12), a process to formalise

their skills through a computer literacy programme should be much easier than might be

expected.

With teachers recognising the need for computers in their future career (TQ4.1, TQ4.17), the

impact it may have on student’s learning outcome (TQ4.5), and the need for a new pedagogical

approach (TQ4.9), the immediate recommendation would be to plan a learning platform

directed to teachers, so as to facilitate collaborative work and simulate the future learning

environment for students.

Based on the above, teachers’ training should not only be on basic computer literacy courses,

but could also address key issues on using ICT for teaching. A recommendation, therefore,

would be that a stand-alone technology course should be given that addresses the instruction of

the use of technology in teaching. This should be possible due to the fact that teachers have

already gained informal skills, and are more excited about discovering the impact this could

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have on their teaching. This approach would give them a good overview and sufficient

opportunities right from the onset.

6.3.3 INFRASTRUCTURE PLAN

ICT infrastructure has been identified in the previous sections as a key enabler, and at the same

time, as the main opposing factor of ICT development in school. The lack of ICT infrastructure

causing a high ratio of students to computers, the lack of ICT infrastructure plan, or simply

donated computers that often become rather quickly obsolete – were among the major

infrastructure-related factors observed in all schools. This was probably due to the fact that no

ICT infrastructure plan was in existence in all the schools visited.

Schools need to plan the development and management of their ICT infrastructure carefully. ICT

infrastructure planning should be driven by the broader strategic goals and needs of the school

(Autralia Department of Education, 2009). Plans that are developed should also be consistent

with the policies and advice of the school system, or the sector to which the school belongs.

Planning for the development and management of ICT infrastructure should be undertaken with

a clear understanding of:

- The school’s goals and needs - The extent of the current ICT infrastructure, generally documented through

infrastructure plans and registers. - The extent to which the current ICT infrastructure conforms to basic infrastructure

management principles, such as those identified by BECTA (2009), by being reliable, coherent, affordable and sustainable.

- The advice and services for technical support that are provided by the school system or sector to which the school belongs

- Its functional requirements

Several considerations should be made when planning for infrastructure in schools. These

include (Autralia Department of Education, 2009):

- Access devices: the items of ICT equipment (including the associated operating

software) that are directly used by students, teachers and school staff. Decisions

about access devices, including the types to be acquired or replaced, the number

and their placement, the need to be driven by the teaching, learning and

administrative practices that the school intends to support.

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- Network infrastructure: This connects the different access devices throughout the

school to the required tools, services and digital resources, many of which will be

located outside the school. Decisions about the network infrastructure need to

reflect the requirements for connecting these access devices.

- Application software: This provides specific functionality for teaching, learning or

administration, including:

o content-management systems

o learning systems

o finance and assets systems

o staff and student management systems

o assessment and reporting systems

- Support resources: Including people and skills, processes, externally provided

services and financial resources.

It is recommended to document the plan after it has been made. The documentation should

include:

- A diagram for the deployment of access devices to learning and administrative spaces throughout the school

- A detailed development of the school’s network infrastructure - The use of new application software packages - The provision of technical support - Changes to key procedures, including security and cyber-safety procedures - The procurement of required technical products and services - The disposal of redundant components - Changes to facilities, furniture and fixtures - Expenditure, including budgets for current and future costs

6.3.4 COSTING

ICT costing was identified in the previous sections as an opposing factor, since most principals

are ignorant of its exact cost. The cost of ICT in the schools visited was always associated with

acquiring ICT equipment. The following cost categories should be taken into account when

planning ICT development in schools:

- Hardware: Hardware costs, as annualized investment costs in schools; and these costs

should average 30 – 40% of the total costs of the ICT in any school project (Bakia, 2002). The

estimates provided here are obtained from the Asia-Pacific experience (UNESCO, 2010).

Schools should also consider using diskless desktop computers (thin clients), as they cost

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less than PCs. This should only be considered when using a centralised laboratory model, as

is the case in the schools in the case study. A more diffuse classroom model may require a

more technically proficient network administrator and high-speed terminals – due to the

heavy traffic created. It should also be noted that with a centralised laboratory model, the

overall total number of computers required is significantly reduced, as lab venues could

simply be booked when required.

- Software: No Educational software was found in any of the schools investigated (CQ2.10).

Software costs are annualised investment costs and vary with the intended use of the

computers. While it is apparent that a large pool of software resources involves higher costs,

it must not be overlooked that hosting a wide range of software applications can increase

the amount needed for training and support as well. Freeware can solve parts of this cost

problem. Another problem found here could be the scarcity or high cost of software in

languages other than English. Software for instruction and networks usually incurs greater

expenses than server and other administrative software.

With regard to the hardware and software infrastructure, some "gifts" to schools from donors

were found to actually be more costly to accept than to reject, because older or used

equipment and software may require too much time, adaptation, and cost for upgrades to be

practical (CQ2.5). Most schools are not used to turning down "gifts" – even when they are too

expensive to accept.

- Maintenance and support: The number of support staff required depends on the number of

computers, the number of software applications, and the abilities of the intended users. The

estimated cost of maintenance largely depends on the state of computers during acquisition

and also on the level and usage of such equipment. Most schools have no maintenance plan;

and the decision to repair faulty computers depends on the availability of funds and the

critical nature of the fault. The recurring maintenance costs should be anticipated and

generally average about 20% of the overall cost of ICT in any school plan (Bakia, 2002).

-

- Connectivity: The cost of connectivity depends on the expenses involved in preparing a

building for connectivity, namely heating, ventilation, and security requirements, the costs

of equipment and installation, and on the costs of recurrent connectivity charges. When

choosing a connection model, factors such as the amount of information to be transported,

the reliability requirements, potential partnerships with other users, characteristics of the

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terrain, and distances – should all be taken into account (UNESCO, 2010). In one of the

school surveyed, most teachers had access to the Internet from Cybercafés or homes

(TQ3.2), while there was an existing Internet connection in school. The most recurring

complaint from teachers was the need for a permanent fast internet connection in the

school (TQ6.4).

- Professional Development: The costs for staff training are annualised investments and

sometime recurrent. They include the costs of organising training sessions or sending

teachers out for training.

- Central Management: This is a recurring cost of planning for ICT in the school. Such costs

may run throughout the year and these include evaluation and monitoring activities. All

working sessions towards ICT integration in schools should be prepared.

- Facilities and renovations: These are annualised investment costs in schools that relate to

securing, upgrading, and maintaining computer lab facilities. Principals in all schools have

acknowledged having enough room for future expansion. But such venues – originally

designed as classrooms – would have to be renovated, so as to accommodate ICT

equipment and resources.

6.3.5 FUNDING

Funding for ICT development programmes has been a key issue in all the schools investigated.

The Ministry of Education, realising Government’s incapacity to provide funds for ICT

development in schools, published a decree that allowed for schools to gather minimum funds

through a compulsory ICT fee to be paid yearly by students. A contribution of up to $10 per

student per annum is expected to provide a means of funding ICT in schools-related initiatives

(SD6). Principals could, consequently, have a minimum budget to invest in procuring ICT

equipment, and consider other alternatives for funding. However, they often rely on

partnerships with private business entities that supply the computers and sign an agreement to

deliver the curriculum.

With no infrastructure plan in mind from the school principals, the business partners appear to

be the sole stakeholders of the ICT integration in schools, delivering a few used computers to

the school and reaping huge benefits. A proper tool for principals to resolve this issue is to have

a proper ICT infrastructure plan resulting from the whole-school policy. A knowledge of the

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exact costs of acquiring ICT could result in a more comprehensive and feasible plan over the

years.

In addition to this, it would be inappropriate not to consider other sources of funding, as it

remains one of the most important ingredients in the successful integration of ICT in schools.

Additional possible sources of funding are identified here apart from the school budget (Jhurree,

2005):

1. Educational collaboration: Through collaborative efforts among schools and other

organisations, both local and foreign, funds can be raised and provided to schools. This

could be confirmed from the existing partnership between a school and a prominent

Service Provider in the region that leads to the school having a full multimedia

Laboratory.

2. Corporate Grants: Many wealthy companies receive tax deductions, along with Societal

recognition and customer markets, for the help, in funds or other financially quantifiable

terms, they give to institutions to achieve the latter’s goals. Such avenues should be

considered and the necessary contacts made.

3. Private gifts: Financial support can also be obtained from private sources, such as

parents-teachers associations – as is already the case in all of the case-study schools. It

should be noted that other sources in this category should be contacted, such as other

associations, civic groups, individuals, alumni or special fund-raising events.

4. International donor organization: UNESCO, the World Bank, USAID, etc. can be exploited

to obtain funds for the equipment of schools with computers. Hawkins (2002) suggested

that opening school computer laboratories after school hours to the community could

also be a source of finance.

6.4 DATA TRIANGULATION

Triangulation was the data interpretation method used to establish the current status of ICT

integration in schools, as well as the factors affecting or promoting ICT adoption. Five themes

emerged from the literature (as discussed in section 5.3) as key components of ICT integration,

and each of them were investigated through primary interviews with key informants, such as

principals and ICT co-ordinators. Using the triangulation approach, the interpretation of the

acquired data through these interviews was supported by data gathered from students’ and

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teachers’ survey. The curriculum was found to be taught as a separate subject from the

interviews with the ICT co-ordinators combined with teachers’ and students’ surveys. These

triangulated data also confirmed most of our earlier expectations from the literature review

(see Section 5.3). They showed that – in terms of access and use – there was a significant high

student-to-computer ratio in all schools, resulting in scanty access from students and teachers.

The data revealed the non-existence of an ICT policy document – leading to principals not

knowing how to proceed and what outcome was expected.

In terms of the infrastructure, our expectations of a state of acute shortage of basic ICT

infrastructure was met with a prevalence of obsolete donated computers. These findings led us

to the conclusion that ICT in the visited schools was at the introductory stage of the ICT

development process in schools (in Cameroon).

To investigate factors affecting or promoting ICT in schools, data (teachers’ readiness/literacy

and attitude towards ICT, teachers’ and students’ access and the use of ICT) gained from

teachers’ and students’ questionnaires were used to confirm early interviews with key

informants (principals and ICT co-ordinators). The documented structured questionnaires with

students and teachers revealed several driving factors, such as teachers’ positive attitude

towards ICT and increased ownership of computers at home, as well as opposing factors, such

as high student-to-computer ratio, lack of infrastructure, training (teachers) and support. These

triangulated data were verified against similar studies (Webb, 2007; Wilson-Strydom &

Thomson, 2005; Fisser, 2001; Pelgrum & Law, 2003; Schoepp, 2005) and presented with

similarities.


A detailed analysis of the results provided answers to RQ2, regarding the current level of ICT

integration in schools. It was found that the level of ICT adoption in the selected schools was at

the introductory phase of Fluck’s model of ICT development in schools. This was largely

supported by the status of the key components of ICT integration in schools. A quick review

demonstrated that ICT was still being taught as a subject, while the teachers’ professional

development was still a pending issue, due to the lack of infrastructure and of any technical

support. The high ratio of students to computers led the school leadership to set priorities on

the procurement of equipment.

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Several factors were identified as being capable of driving or opposing the development of ICT in

schools. Some of the most significant enablers were the generally positive attitude of

stakeholders towards ICT uptake in schools, as well as the strong involvement of parents as a

reliable source of funding. Opposing factors, such as the lack of ICT school policies which implied

a lack of vision, did not favour the existing momentum, however.

In the light of the above, a remedy to this problem was to provide principals and decision-

makers in schools with a set of guidelines that would enable them to embrace ICT integration.

These guidelines are summarised in Table 6.6.

STEP 1 STEP 2 STEP 3 STEP 4 STEP5 School’s ICT

Vision Perform an ICT Audit

Develop School’s ICT policies

Setting strategic targets

Performance Indicators

Review and Evaluation

ICT for management ICT for teaching ICT for learning

Review, Current use, expectations challenges

Requirements, goals, Security and safety, Monitoring and evaluation, Use policies

Infrastructure ICT Infrastructure plan: Access / Network devices, Software / LMS/ CMS

Student to computer ratio, connectivity

Re

vi

ew

a

nd

E

va

lu

at

io

n

Costing Hardware and software, management, connectivity, training, support

Professional Development

In-Service training [teachers, non- academic and technical staff]

Number of trained and certified staff

Curriculum Learning about computers ICT in teaching

Ability to use ICT for assessments or finding online resources

Policies ICT Regulatory framework

ICT Policy document

Funding/ support Considering other sources of funding

Funding sources and partnerships

Table 6.6: Guidelines for ICT integration in schools

In the next chapter, the major ideas emerging from the study will be explored further. A

summary of the findings is provided and appropriate recommendations are made, as well as

possible avenues for further studies are suggested.

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CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION

7.1 INTRODUCTION

There is only a limited literature available on the status of ICT in education in Sub-Saharan

African countries; and therefore, there was a need to investigate the status of ICT integration in

Sub-Saharan Africa for teaching and learning purposes. The present chapter summarises the

findings of the study regarding the status of ICT adoption in schools in Cameroon, and those

factors preventing a further transition into higher stages of ICT development in schools. Based

on the findings, guidelines that could assist decision-makers in the planning and implementation

of ICT in schools are suggested.

Recommendations are made with regard to the future areas of research.

A report (UNESCO, 2005) stated that ICT integration in secondary schools in Sub-Saharan Africa

is still at an early stage; and already, it faces several setbacks that may undermine the various

initiatives undertaken by governments and by the private sector to promote the use of

computers in schools. In an attempt to identify the depth of this situation, understanding the

current status of ICT in the Sub-Saharan Africa region was necessary.

From the existing literature, the current status of ICT education in schools in Sub-Saharan Africa

could not be visibly ascertained. Furthermore, several factors promoting or opposing ICT in

education in schools were broadly identified at a global level; and any attempt to link these to

the specific context of schools in Sub-Saharan Africa could have been misleading, with no

context-specific study of these factors.

The following section provides a detailed summary of the research questions, and how they

were answered.

7.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND OBJECTIVES

In response to the above, three key research questions were formulated to answer the overall

research question:

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1. RQ1: What are the current trends of ICT integration in schools in Sub-Saharan

Africa?

The corresponding research objective was to investigate the current status of Sub-Saharan

African countries in terms of ICT adoption in school. The answer to this first research question

was sought from the literature. The Network Readiness Index (NRI) – a framework that provided

a benchmark of the overall success of a country participating in and benefiting from ICT – was

relied upon to obtain the global ranking of Sub-Saharan African countries in terms of

environment, readiness and usage sub-indices.

The environmental sub-component of the NRI was of specific interest. It provided a metric for

the measurement of the conduciveness of an environment in providing for the development

and usage of ICT. The environmental sub-index was further based on three sub-indices: Market,

regulatory and infrastructural sub-indices. A closer look at the Infrastructural sub-index –

defined as the level of availability and quality of the key access infrastructure for ICT within a

country, further revealed a pattern of variation similar to that of the overall Network Readiness

Index.

Using Fluck’s model for ICT development in schools (Fluck, 2003), a literature review was carried

out on the status of each component of ICT development for countries at the top, middle and

bottom level of the Network Readiness Index – with a view to establishing their level of ICT

integration in schools. The levels of ICT adoption in top-ranking countries, such as Singapore, or

medium-ranking countries, such as South Africa, were established as 3rd stage (final

transformation phase) and second stage (integration stage), respectively for these countries,

which closely matched the expectations from the NRI ranking.

However, due to the very limited available literature, Sub-Saharan countries in the same

manner were thought to be at the early stage (introduction phase) of ICT development in

schools, as they ranked bottom in the Network Readiness Index table. A further look at the

status of ICT in schools in one bottom-ranking country – Cameroon – appeared to be necessary.

2. RQ2: What is the status of ICT integration in schools in Cameroon?

The main research objective associated with the second research question was to establish the

level of ICT integration in schools in Cameroon. To achieve this objective, the insufficient

literature available suggested that the country was still at an early stage of ICT development in

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school, but that information could not be totally relied upon. This constituted our primary

hypothesis, as the study embarked on a case study of selected schools in a typical region of the

country Cameroon. The aim of this study was to establish the status of ICT development in

selected schools – thought to have embarked on the ICT adoption process by the regional

Department of Education – as well as to provide answers to the third Research Question: the

factors promoting or opposing ICT development in schools.

The findings revealed that all schools surveyed were at the initial level of ICT adoption, the

introductory phase. This was ascertained by considering the key components of ICT integration

in schools.

Curriculum:

An investigation into the curriculum component in each school showed that computers were

taught as a separate subject, and ICT was not being used for teaching other subjects. This was

merely due to the fact that a key priority of the schools was to provide basic computer training

for students, as promised to their parents, who were the major stakeholders in funding for

computers in schools. Another reason for this was that the computer subject was to be made an

examination subject during the national examination (PQ4.1).

One principal noted that with computers being an examination subject, teaching computers

from the initial grade would give enough experience to the student to face national exams – a

statement that was made when this principal was asked what his future plans were regarding

the curriculum.

Staff Professional development:

With no formal ICT training courses for staff held in all schools, a vast majority of the teachers in

each of these schools was able to gain basic IT skills informally (TQ2.1, TQ6.2). This self-

development of teachers simply reflected their overall positive attitude towards computers, and

the use of computers in teaching. However, this positive self-confidence was overshadowed by

the significant lack of support, training and infrastructure, among other challenges.

There was no mention of training for non-academic staff in any of the schools, as the use of

computers was centred on students (CQ2.11). Therefore, it was determined that Staff

Professional Development toward ICT in all the schools was only at the introductory stage of the

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Fluck’s model; and this was characterised by a focus on the Basic ICT literacy program for

teachers.

Infrastructure and access

A common characteristic of schools at the early stage of ICT adoption is the focus on acquiring a

basic ICT infrastructure. A significant shortage of ICT infrastructure was recorded in each of the

schools, with very high student-to-computer ratios. However, other forms of access to ICT were

found in all the schools; and Cybercafés were the most common places of ICT access by

students, driven by the Internet push.

Also a significant number of students and teachers were found to have access to ICT at home,

which could be further seen as a way of alleviating the impact of the lack of infrastructure in the

schools.

Policies and school organisation

It was ascertained that the lack of policy and vision strongly impacted on the ICT-adoption

process. With most teachers being willing to adopt ICT in school, they were faced with the

barrier of not knowing how to proceed, since they required support from both the school and

the Ministry of Education. ICT policies set out the rationale for teaching and learning how to use

ICT. With no clearly defined policy, teachers could show a reluctance to engage in ICT use in

teaching – especially in a very hierarchical school system.

These results helped in establishing that the selected schools – recommended as some of the

most advanced schools in the region in terms of ICT adoption in schools – were, in fact, still at

the early introductory stage of ICT development.

3. RQ3: What are the factors promoting or opposing ICT integration in schools in

Cameroon?

Identifying factors that could promote or aid ICT adoption in schools, as well as any possible

barriers, became the objective of the third research question. These factors affecting the

integration of ICT in schools fell into two major categories: enabling factors – which tend to

promote and facilitate the integration of ICT – and opposing factors – which tend to prevent the

adoption of ICT in the schools concerned. This study focused on school factors, seen as factors

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relating to components, such as ICT infrastructure in school, schools’ ICT policies and integration

plan, school leadership and organisation, teachers’ professional development, and suchlike.

In the course of the analysis, facilitating and opposing factors of ICT in schools were considered

in each key component of ICT development in schools. The lack of ICT infrastructure, the

absence of ICT-policy documents to guide the integration process, and the lack of training and

support were among the prominent opposing factors identified. While dealing with these

factors was the key challenge to overcome in order to achieve ICT adoption, several unnoticed

ICT driving factors also emerged.

These unexpected factors included the very positive attitude of teachers and staff towards the

use of ICT in teaching, and the possibility for ICT procurement through parent-teachers’

associations. Table 7.1 provides a summary of the various facilitating and opposing factors in the

investigated schools.

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Table 7.1: Enabling and opposing factors for ICT development in schools

4. Main Research Question: Guidelines for successfully integrating ICT in schools A set of guidelines was suggested for schools at the introductory stage of ICT adoption – to

facilitate the process. These schools had already committed themselves to acquiring ICT with no

clearly predefined vision or specified outcome. The guidelines addressed four key areas, such as:

policies -- Teacher’s training – infrastructure – funding. Policies were found to be a compulsory

guide for the integration process, and the first step towards adoption of ICT in schools.

Preparing ICT policies implied developing a clear vision that clearly specified the outcome of

learning and teaching, as well as the relationships and behaviours.

The vision was to set goals relating to the use of ICT for learning, teaching, and for management.

COMPONENT DRIVING FACTORS OPPOSING FACTORS

Curriculum

• Existence of a National Syllabus for ICT in school. • Teachers’ positive feeling about using ICT to teach their subjects.

• The lack of ICT infrastructure hinders teachers from using ICT in teaching their subjects • The lack of proper training to use ICT in the curriculum • The non availability of digital resources from the Ministry of Education •The Lack of administrative and technical support prevents the use of ICT in teaching.

Infrastructure and access

• ICT infrastructure procurement could be funded through parent-teachers’ associations • A continued decrease in the cost of hardware and software could make procurement easier (SD2). • Students’ access to ICT is possible from home (42.0%) and from other places such as cybercafés • 54.8% of teachers own a computer at home • There is enough room for expansion within the school for additional computer laboratories.

• The lack of ICT infrastructure leads to the high ratio of student-to-computer observed in all schools. • The lack of ICT infrastructure plan does not allow for the right priorities to be set. • Donated computers often become quickly obsolete

Teachers Professional Development

• Most teachers agree to have basic knowledge of computers and admit that learning about computers is useful. • Teachers admit that computers would be key for the future of their job and that students would learn better if ICT were used. • Teachers agree that a new pedagogical approach would be required when using ICT in teaching which would facilitate the infusion of new pedagogical skills. • 92.7% of teachers admitted to being ready for the ICT uptake in their teaching

• Only 26.2% of the teachers have actually attended a formal training course which may cast doubts on the actual skills possessed by the teachers. • The non-existence and inaccessibility of ICT infrastructure, as well as the lack of training and technical support prevents the use of computers in preparing lessons. • Teachers are still not fully aware of the challenges they will be facing when undergoing full integration of ICT in the curriculum. •Teachers (68.3%) still believe they will need ready-made digital content in order to use ICT in the curriculum.

School Policies, vision and Organisation

• Strong commitment from parents towards the uptake of ICT in schools. • There is a positive perception of ICT and readiness from teachers within the schools. • Existence of a minimum budget to plan for ICT infrastructure procurement. • A positive commitment to embark on ICT uptake from the school leadership despite setbacks. •A driving desire to stay competitive

• The lack of School ICT policies. • The non-existence of an ICT integration plan •The reliance on sponsors and donors which could not always be guaranteed.

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The next step following establishing a clear vision was developing the policy document for ICT in

school. An ICT audit is required to establish the current status of ICT in the schools and this must

reveal key information on all ICT-related issues involving the community, the school, the staff,

and students’ access and expectations. The content of the policy document would then be

drafted, to define how and when ICT would be used, who would use it, and the type of

equipment required.

A strategy for implementation should emerge from this document, as well as procedures for

monitoring and evaluating the progress made. The recommendation here was for the

involvement of all relevant stakeholders’ representatives in the working committee responsible

for drafting the school’s ICT policy document. Strategic targets should be put in place to provide

a set of measurable achievements and performance indicators, defining what needs to be

measured.

Teachers’ training was found to be important, as teachers are the basis of making any learning

take place in the classroom. With several teachers claiming basic ICT skills, it is recommended

that teachers’ training should be a stand-alone technology course devoted entirely to the use of

technology in education. This approach would provide teachers with a good ICT overview in a

uniform and structured manner.

Knowing the right cost and requirements for Infrastructure would provide a proper starting

point for most development plans. The lack of ICT infrastructure, any ICT infrastructure plan and

the predominance of obsolete and donated computers were the major infrastructure-related

opposing factors in all the observed schools. This investigation revealed that the cost of ICT in

most schools visited was associated with acquiring ICT equipment (hardware and connectivity);

and these costs were usually overestimated.

Other costs, such as maintenance and support, professional development costs, management

costs, or facilities and renovation costs were simply ignored. The lack of support and difficulties

in maintaining obsolete computers were among the major complaints received from teachers

(TQ6.4) and principals interviewed. Appropriate costing is essential in the context of limited

sources of funding.

Funding for ICT development programs has been accomplished by an annual compulsory

contribution of parents amounting up to $10 per student (SD3). With this approach, principals

could have a minimum budget to invest in procuring ICT equipment, and would probably need

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to consider other alternatives for funding. However, with no infrastructure plan in mind,

principals are often misled by business partners who become the sole stakeholders responsible

for providing ICT equipment and training to schools – in the hope of reaping huge financial

benefits.

Figure 7.1 provides an overview of the guidelines for ICT adoption and development in a school

at the introductory stage.

7.3 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

This study was conducted in four selected schools in the Western Region of Cameroon, a region

generally known for its high level of literacy. Five schools were to be selected from a group of 15

schools from the Regional Department of Education; and this was later reduced to four schools,

since during the course of the investigation, one of the schools was robbed of its entire ICT

infrastructure overnight. This prompted their opting out of the research. The selection of the

four schools was influenced by the responses, showing the readiness of the school authorities to

facilitate this study, and also on the recommendation of the regional Department of Education.

Figure-7.1 Guidelines for ICT adoption in schools at the introductory stage

119

The findings here are the outcomes of considering the answers that the participants indicated or

said in relation to their use of ICT; and the only verification of such data was made by matching

data from different categories of respondents. For example, the self-perceived “ICT-literate”

from teachers could have been understood as merely having once used a computer.

ICT integration in schools is clearly a complex issue, being influenced by numerous factors at

macro-level (National policies, etc.) or micro-level (individual level). The focus in this study was

limited to factors at the school level that would allow schools to complete the early stage of ICT

integration and move to the second level: the integration stage.

As a result of the pronounced lack of ICT infrastructure in the various schools investigated, this

study, therefore, did not attempt to address how effectively ICT was being used. Rather, the aim

has simply been to gain insights into the current status of ICT in the schools, as well as the

factors that would influence, promote, and constrain the use of ICT. This study does not

guarantee that under optimal infrastructural conditions, the effective use of ICT in teaching

would automatically be met.

7.4 RELEVANCE OF THE STUDY

Subject to the above limitations, this study may be considered significant, for three reasons:

Firstly, this is the first study of its kind conducted in secondary schools in the region, in order to

appraise the extent of ICT in schools and suggest guidelines for the integration of ICT into

schools. A situation similar to the one described in the above schools could be expected from

other schools in the region.

Secondly, the findings from this study should enable a more-focused adoption of ICT in schools,

as the opposing factors found here could be separately addressed, and the enabling factors

could be fostered in those schools already engaged in the process.

Thirdly, for schools considering the adoption of ICT for teaching and learning, an isolation of the

constraints observed earlier, together with an adoption of the recommended guidelines would

provide a better chance of success.

The following recommendations are here made for the future of ICT in schools in Cameroon:

120

1. To Principals and Policy-makers: Policies are meant to define the rationale for using ICT

in schools, as well as to provide guidelines for their implementation and use. The

resources for the use of ICT must be organised, so as to provide access to hardware,

software, information, facilities, services and support. These goals could only be

achieved if proper policies were put in place. The guidelines suggested in the study could

aid in the establishment of those policies that would facilitate the adoption of ICT in

schools.

Principals also have to deal with issues when planning for ICT in their respective schools,

and should find in these recommended guidelines a valuable tool to pursue their ICT

integration goals. With a confirmed lack of knowledge on what is required, they were

often easy victims of businessmen seeking to dispose of obsolete equipment.

2. To teachers: The recommended guidelines finally recognise their role in the integration

process, and may contribute to removing their fears of technology replacing instruction.

The need for ICT-skilled teachers is more than merely mandatory; and it remains a key

point in the ICT-development plan.

3. To parents: Parents will better understand the impact of ICT adoption in schools, as they

will have a say in adopting the vision and drafting policies. They would also have a clear

insight on what their expectations should be with respect to the use if ICT at home and

in the school.

4. To sponsors and donors: sponsors will realise through these guidelines, that donations

of obsolete materials to the schools do not facilitate the integration process, and they

should also understand that ICT in school is not simply about having computers, but

involves other significant issues and costs, such as maintenance, teachers’ training,

management or renovation. These costs simply cannot be supported by the school

alone.

5. The Department of Education: the Regional Department should understand that

provision of ICT needs to be seen as an ongoing management process, and not just as

121

being limited to selecting, purchasing, and installation of hardware and software. They

should realise that it needs to be managed as a process that includes arrangements for

training, ongoing maintenance, the provision of consumables, the care and distribution

of shared resources and the evaluation of effectiveness. Most decrees released by the

Ministry of Secondary Education were concerned with the provision of ICT.

Through these guidelines, a necessity to address all the relevant factors – to ensure a

successful integration – should be made. With the ongoing decentralisation of the

Cameroon institutions to a regional level (Cheka, 2007), local communities will be

responsible for the development and outcome of their educational system. The

proposed guidelines will come as a handy tool for decentralised regional government

policy-makers, when planning for ICT to improve teaching and learning.

7.5 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

As this is the first exploratory study conducted in this region, further studies might evolve from

the findings – to refine, extend and/or challenge this research. There are matters of

generalisation and verification that could indicate the need for further research.

Firstly, the scope of the study narrowed the investigation down to a meso-level (school level),

and further research at the micro-level (individual practices) might reveal a different output.

Secondly, this study has identified factors that hinder ICT in schools; but it does not suggest

means to eradicate these hindrances. A further investigation of the impact of each of these

factors on the ICT integration process could be carried out, in order to suggest appropriate

corrective measures.

Thirdly, no metrics have been suggested with regard to investigating professional learning or

evaluating learning outcomes. Such measure should clearly provide a better understanding of

the successful completion of the introductory phase of ICT integration in schools.

122

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APPENDIX 3.A INDICATORS FOR COUNTRY CAMEROON

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APPENDIX 4.A PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF SCHOOLS

PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF SCHOOLS

(Version June, 2009)

Institution Identification

Historical Data

1 Institution Name : __________________________________________

2 Geographical Location: __________________________________________

3 Title and Name of contact person: __________________________________________

4 Contact / address: __________________________________________ __________________________________________

5 How would you classify your institution/organization?

(Primary/Secondary School, Community College, University, Vocational/Technical, Non-Governmental Agency, State/College, Federal/Government, Other)

__________________________________________

6 Total Number of Students : Males Vs Females

__________________________________________ __________________________________________

7 Is your institution a Public or Private school?

__________________________________________

Basic ICT INFRASTRUCTURE:

1 Do you have a computer Lab? __________________________________________ 2 If Yes, What is the Primary purpose of

the Lab? __________________________________________

3 Do you have Internet Access? If Yes what is the Bandwidth?

__________________________________________ __________________________________________

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APPENDIX 4.B PRINCIPALS’ INTERVIEWS

INTRODUCTION HEADING FOR INTERVIEWS

This research is conducted in the context of a study led by the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan

University in conjunction with the Regional Department of Education in the Western Region and the

Regional Cisco Networking Academie IUTFV of Bandjoun – Cameroon.

The study aims at investigating the factors that could enable or prevent a successful integration of

ICT in schools in Cameroon. It will provide a set of guidelines that will be valuable to decision-makers

when considering integrating ICT into their respective schools.

The information gathered throughout this study will remain confidential; and no participant’s name

will be used in any report of the study. Also all participants have the right to voluntarily opt out of

the study while it is yet under way.

The researcher is Raoul Calvain Nangue (An MTech student at the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan

University) and the supervisor of the study is Prof. Darelle Van Greunen, who may be contacted for

more information regarding the study:

Email: [email protected] Tel: +27 41 5042090 Address School of ICT P O Box 77000 Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University Port Elizabeth, South Africa, 6031

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PRINCIPALS’ INTERVIEWS

Questions’ Guide

This guide was used to record Principals’ responses during the Interviews:

After the formal introductory sequence, the Interview went as scheduled:

Date:

School:

Interviewer:

Q1-1 How was ICT provision made in the school?

Q1-2 Are there ongoing ICT-projects within the school? If so, name them and give their status?

Q1-3 Do you have any partnership with external organizations? If so describe each of them.

Q1-4 Do you have a unit responsible for ICT in your school? If so describe it.

Q1-5 Have you tried to secure funding through external sources? What were your difficulties?

Q2-1 Is there any ICT infrastructure plan for the school?

Q2-2 Do you have a minimum Budget for ICT infrastructure procurement ?

Q2-3 Does the existing ICT Infrastructure align with the school’s needs?

Q2-4 Are you considering using ICT for administrative work?

Q2-5 What is your major concern regarding infrastructure?

Q2-6 Is there a dedicated lab or section for teachers?

Q2-7 Do you have enough room for the expansion of computer Labs?

Q2-8 Are you aware of the actual cost of setting up a computer Lab?

Q2-9 What is the ratio of students-to-computers in your school?

Q3-1 Is there any policy document guiding the adoption of ICT in the school? Q3-2 What is your primary focus in terms of ICT?

Q3-3 What prompted ICT integration in your school?

Q3-4 What are your sources of funding for ICT? Q3-5 What are the school’s ICT priorities during the next 3 years? (Choose from the List)

Getting more computers - Training Teachers (basic ICT skills)- Training teaching on how to use ICT in teaching - Content production - Getting more specialized hardware and software - Getting an Internet Access - Networking the school - Providing computers for administration - Providing computers for Teachers - Drafting a policy document on ICT in the school- Others

Q3-6 What are your major concerns experienced when integrating ICT in school? (Choose from the list)

Lack of Infrastructure- Inadequate infrastructure- Lack of teacher’s training- Cost of Maintenance- Lack of support- Lack of integration plan - Lack of funds to carry out integration – others

Q3-7 Do you know what is required for an ICT integration plan? Q3-8 Are you computer literate? Q3-9 Have you received any formal computer training?

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APPENDIX 4.C ICT CO-ORDINATOR’S INTERVIEWS

ICT CO-ORDINATOR’S INTERVIEW

This questionnaire is divided into six Sub-sections:

Section 1: Personal information Section 2: Computer Access Section 3: Internet Access Section 4: Human Resources Section 5: The Curriculum Section 6: Training Please answer all the following questions.

I. PERSONAL INFORMATION

Key Description Question Type

Q1-1 To which school do you belong?

⃝ Lycée Classique de Bafang (1)

⃝ Lycée de Bayangam (3)

⃝ Lycée Classique de Dschang (5)

⃝ Lycée Bilingue de Baham (2)

⃝ Lycée Classique de Bangangté (4)

⃝ St Thomas d’Acquin de Bafoussam (6)

Q1-2 What are your functions in school?

⃝ Teaching computers (1)

⃝ Head of division (3)

⃝Academic support(5)

⃝Managing the computer Lab(2)

⃝Teacher (4)

II. COMPUTER ACCESS

Q2-1 Do you have one or more computer Labs?

⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)

Q2-2 If YES to Q2-1, What are the dimensions of your Lab?

⃝ Less than 50 square metres (1) ⃝ 50 -100 square meter (2)

Q2-3 What is the most current use of the Lab?

⃝ Practical and classes (1)

⃝ Other training (3)

⃝ Cyberspace (2)

Q2-4 How many computers are there in the Lab?

Q2-5 What are the specifications of your computers?

⃝ Less than Pentium 2 (1)

⃝ Pentium 2 or equivalent (2)



⃝ Intel Core 2 duo processors (5)

⃝ Most recent processors (6)

Q2-6 What additional hardware do you have?

⃝ Laser Printer (1)

⃝ Inkjet Printer (2)

⃝ CD Writer (3)

⃝ Retro projector (4)

⃝ Video Projector(5)

⃝ Digital Interactive boards(6)

⃝ Scanner (7)

⃝ Photocopier (8)

⃝ Laminating Machine (9)

Q2-7 What computer accessories do you have?

⃝ Printing Paper (1)

⃝ Ink cartridge /toner (2)

⃝ Blank CDs/DVDs (3)

⃝ Floppy Disk (4)

⃝ USB memory (5)

⃝ Folders(6)

132

Q2-8 Are your computers connected to a Network?

⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)

Q2-9 If No to Q2-8, what are the reasons? (Tick all that applies)

⃝ Lack of funds(1)

⃝ under consideration(3)

⃝ Lack of expertise (2)

⃝ What is a network used for? (4)

Q2-10 What software resources do you have? (tick all that applies)

⃝ Office suite(1)

⃝ Tutorials (3)

⃝ Simulation tools(5)

⃝ CD/DVD, Video & Audio (7)

⃝ Digital Encyclopaedia (2)

⃝ Educational software (4)

⃝ Digital Library access (6)

⃝ Interactive Games (8)

Q2-11 Do you have Licences for the software above?

⃝ Yes all licences (1)

⃝ NO, no license at all (3)

⃝ Technicians never told us about Licences (4)

⃝ YES but only a few (2)

⃝ We only use Freeware (4)

Q2-13 Do you have an Internet connection?

⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)

Q2-14 If YES to Q2-13, what type of Internet Connection is that?

⃝ ADSL (1)

⃝ Radio /Wireless (3)

⃝ Others (5)

⃝ VSAT (2)

⃝ Dial up (4)

Q2-15 Do you have a Website?

⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)

III. ACCESS TO INTERNET

Q3-1 How is computer maintenance carried out?

⃝ Systematic by private company (1)

⃝ Systematic by school personnel (2)

⃝ curative by private company (3)

⃝ curative by school personnel (4)

⃝ No specific type of maintenance (5)

Q3-2 What is your level of satisfaction with the present type of maintenance?

⃝ Very satisfied (1)

⃝ Satisfied (2)

⃝ Not satisfied (3)

⃝ very ineffective(4)

Q3-3 What is the percentage of working computers compared with the initial number?

⃝ Less than 10%(1)

⃝ Between 10 and 25%(2)

⃝ Between 26 and 50% (3)

⃝ Between 51 – 75% (4)

⃝ More than 75% (5)

Q3-4 What are the most recurring problems? (Tick all that applies)

⃝ Internet connection(1)

⃝ Viruses (3)

⃝ Network connection (5)

⃝ Memories (7)

⃝ Keyboard/Mouse (9)

⃝ Operating systems (2)

⃝ Application Software (4)

⃝ Hard drives (6)

⃝ Power Supply (8)

⃝ Others (10)

Q3-5 Do you have a maintenance budget?

⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)

Q3-6 How do you think maintenance could be improved?

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IV. Human Resources

Q4-1 How many staff are trained to use ICT?

Q4-2 How many staff are trained in computer maintenance?

Q4-3 How many staff are trained to browse the Internet?

Q4-4 Do you have any staff in charge of ICT?

⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)

Q4-5 If YES to Q4-4, what is his level of study?

⃝ Secondary School(1),

⃝ GCE (2),

⃝ GCE + IT Experience (3),

⃝ University Diploma (4),

⃝ First Degree (5)

⃝ Engineer or more (6)

Q4-6 Have you recently held any ICT training session for your staff?

⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)

Q4-7 If YES to Q4-6, what was the training about?

⃝ Basic ICT training (1),

⃝ Basic Office training (2),

⃝ Educational Software (3),

⃝ Web Browsing for information (4),

⃝ ICT use in specific subjects (5),

⃝ Using a school management tool (6),

⃝ Creating and using Email (7),

⃝ Others (8)

Q4-8 How many Computer teachers do you have?

Q4-9 How many of them are temporary staff members?

Q4-10 How many are permanent staff members?

Q4-11 How many of them teach other subjects as well?

V. THE CURRICULUM

Q5-1 The official curriculum is too old to be implemented

⃝ Strongly Agree (1),

⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),

⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)

Q5-2 There are no teaching resources for the official curriculum


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q5-3 The official curriculum is still elective and each teacher gives what he finds right


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q5-4 The content of the official curriculum does not match our daily expectations


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q5-5 Temporary teachers do not have the required pedagogy to teach the curriculum

134


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q5-6 The curriculum should be based on basic IT skills


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q5-7 The curriculum should include advanced concepts in computing


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q5-8 The curriculum is too complex to be generalised


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


VI. TRAINING

Q6-2 Have you attended a formal computer training course?

⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)

Q6-3 If Yes to Q6.2, under which initiative?

⃝ Self sponsored (1)

⃝ Sponsored by the school (2)

⃝ Sponsored by MINESEC (3)

⃝ Sponsored by a private body (4)

⃝ Others (5)

Q6-4 What are your expectations from the school with regard to ICT?

135

APPENDIX 4.D TEACHERS’ QUESTIONNAIRE

TEACHERS’ QUESTIONNAIRE

This questionnaire is divided into six sub-sections:

Section 1: Personal information Section 2: Computer Access

Section 3: Internet Access Section 4: What you think about computers

Section 5: Your view on the use of ICT in school Section 6: Your use of ICT

Please answer all the following questions.



Q1-1 What is your Gender?

⃝MALE(1), ⃝FEMALE(2)

Q1-2 In which school do you teach?


⃝Lycée Classique de Bangangté (3)



⃝ Lycée de Bayangam (4)


Q1-3 How long have you been teaching?

⃝ 0 - 1 YEAR (1)

⃝6 - 10 YEARS (3)

⃝+ 15 YEARS (5)

⃝2 - 5 YEARS (2)

⃝11 - 15 YEARS (4)

Q1-4 What is your Age Range?

⃝21 - 25 YEARS (1)

⃝31 - 35 YEARS (3)

⃝+ 41 YEARS (5)

⃝26 - 30 YEARS (2)

⃝36 - 40 YEARS (4)

Q1-5 What type of subject do you teach?

⃝ SCIENTIFIC (Maths, Physics, etc.) (1)

⃝ INFORMATIQUE (3) ⃝ ARTS (History, Languages, Geography, etc.) (2)

II. COMPUTER ACCESS

Q2-1 Do you know how to use a computer?

⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)

Q2-2 If NO to Q2-1, what are the reasons?

⃝ Lack of skills (1),

⃝ Lack of time (3),

⃝ Lack of infrastructure (5),

⃝ Lack of interest (2),

⃝ Lack of funds for training(4),

⃝ No computers in schools (6)

Q2-3 If YES to Q2-1, for how long have you been doing so?

136

⃝ 0 - 1 YEAR (1)

⃝ 6 - 10 YEARS (3)

⃝ + 15 YEARS (5)

⃝ 2 - 5 YEARS (2)

⃝ 11 - 15 YEARS (4)

Q2-4 Do you own a computer at home?

⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)

Q2-5 Do you have access to computers in school?

⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)

Q2-6 If YES to Q2-5, at what frequency?

⃝ Very rarely (1)

⃝ Once a week (2)

⃝ Once to twice a week (3)

⃝ Many times a week (4)

⃝ Every day (5)

⃝ At will (6)

Q2-7 Do you use ICT in teaching?

⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)

Q2-8 If YES to Q2-7, what Technologies? (tick all that applies)

⃝ Tutorials(1)

⃝ Retro/Video projector (3)

⃝ Digital Interactive boards (5)

⃝ Video Conference (7),

⃝ Printers (9),

⃝ Scanner (2)

⃝ CD ROMS (4)

⃝ Digital Camera (6)

⃝ CD Writers (8)

⃝ USB Memory (10)

Q2-9 If No to Q2-7, What are the reasons? (Tick all that applies)

⃝ They are non-existent(1)

⃝ I don’t know their utility (3)

⃝ lack of technical support (5)

⃝ Others (7)

⃝ inaccessible (2)

⃝ Not skilled enough (4)

⃝ Lack of time (6)

Q2-10 Do you use the following resources for teaching? (Tick all that applies)

⃝ Word-processing tools(1)

⃝ Educational software (3)

⃝ Digital Encyclopaedia (5)

⃝ Spreadsheets (2)

⃝ Simulation tools (4)

⃝ Others (6)

Q2-11 For what purpose are you using these resources? (Tick all that applies)

⃝ Personal Use (1)

⃝ Administrative (marks, reports) (3)

⃝ Preparing classes, teaching (2)

⃝ Others (4)

Q2-12 If you are not using any of the resources above, state why? (Tick all that applies)

⃝ They are not available (1)

⃝ Not skilled enough (3)

⃝ Quite expensive (5)


⃝ inaccessible when in need (2)

⃝ Not quite adequate (4)

⃝ lack of technical support (6)

⃝ Others (8)

III. ACCESS TO INTERNET

Q3-1 Do you have access to the Internet?

⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)

137

Q3-2 If YES to Q3-1, where do you access the Internet?

⃝ Home (1)

⃝ School (2)

⃝ Cybercafés (3)

⃝ Friends’ (4)

⃝ Mobile phone (5)

Q3-3 For what purpose are you accessing the Internet? (Tick all that applies)

⃝ Email (1)

⃝ News (3)

⃝ Collaboration with teachers (5)

⃝ Entertainment (7)

⃝ Others (9)

⃝ Searching for teaching resources (2)

⃝ Class preparation (4)

⃝ Distance Learning (6)

⃝ Communication (Telephony, chat, etc.) (8)

Q3-4 If NO to Q3.1, For what reasons? (Tick all that applies)

⃝ No Internet in school(1)

⃝ Lack of Interest (3)

⃝ too expensive from home (5)

⃝ Willing to, but don’t know how (7)

⃝ Lack of funds (2)

⃝ Too expensive for its use (4)


IV. WHAT DO YOU THINK ABOUT COMPUTERS

Q4-1 Computers could make my work easier!


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q4-2 Computers could help find useful resources for teaching.


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q4-3 I find them more useful for tasks not related to my work


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q4-4 They are useful, but we do not have any access


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q4-5 Students would learn better using computers


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q4-6 I am not skilled enough to use computers


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q4-7 They create an additional workload for teachers

138


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q4-8 Too much information, so that we do not know what to choose.


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q4-9 They imply a new pedagogical approach


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q4-10 They will distract students


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q4-11 We lack support to use them


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q4-12 Knowing how to use computers is useful


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q4-13 I feel hostile and aggressive towards computers


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q4-14 I am not so sure of being able to use computers


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q4-15 I am not interested in problem-solving using computers


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q4-16 Learning to use computers will be difficult for me


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q4-17 I need to master computers for the future of my job


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q4-18 I am too old to learn about computers

139


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q4-19 I do not see how computers will be useful for my job


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q4-20 I am not comfortable when my colleagues speak about learning to use computers


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


YOUR VIEW ON THE USE OF ICT IN SCHOOL

Q5-1 There are not enough computers for the students


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q5-2 I need to receive proper training to be able to use ICT in teaching


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q5-3 We do not have an adequate infrastructure for ICT to be used in teaching


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q5-4 I will use ICT in teaching if the appropriate administrative support is provided


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q5-5 I will use ICT in teaching if the appropriate technical support is provided


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q5-6 We do not know what it takes to use ICT in teaching


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q5-7 We need adequate teaching and learning resources from the MINESEC


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q5-8 We need ready-made digital content to be able to use ICT in teaching

140


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q5-9 We would need a reduction of our daily workload to be able to use ICT in teaching


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q5-10 We need a financial reward from the school to use ICT in teaching


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q5-11 I would have used ICT if I were teaching a different subject


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q5-12 School authorities are not too committed towards ICT.


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q5-13 I will use ICT in teaching if online resources were more appropriate


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q5-14 I would use ICT if our efforts were well rewarded


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


Q5-15 I would use ICT if the MINESEC made provision for rewards for ICT usage in teaching


⃝ Agree(2),

⃝ Neutral (3),

⃝ Disagree (4),


V. USE OF ICT

Q6-2 Have you attended a formal computer training course?

⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)

Q6-3 If Yes to Q6.2, under which initiative?

⃝ Self-sponsored (1)

⃝ Sponsored by the school (2)

⃝ Sponsored by MINESEC (3)

⃝ Sponsored by a private body (4)

⃝ Others (5)

Q6-4 What are your expectations from the school with regard to ICT?

141

APPENDIX 4.E STUDENTS’ QUESTIONNAIRE

STUDENTS’ QUESTIONNAIRE

This questionnaire is divided into three Sub-sections:

Section 1: Personal information

Section 2: Computer Access

Section 3: Your use of ICT

Please answer all the following questions



Q1-1 What is your Gender?

⃝MALE(1), ⃝FEMALE(2)

Q1-2 In which Grade are you?

⃝Junior Level (1), ⃝Senior Level (2)

Q1-3 What is the name of your school?


⃝Lycée de Bayangam (3)



⃝ Lycée Classique de Bangangté (4)


II. ACCESS TO COMPUTERS

Q2-1 Do you have access to computers in school?

⃝ YES (1) ⃝ YES (1)

Q2-2 If YES to Q2-1, at what frequency?

⃝ Every day (1)

⃝ A few times a week (2)

⃝ Once a week (3)

⃝ A few times a month (4)

⃝ Once a month(5)

Q2-3 If NO to Q2-1, What are the reasons?

⃝ Lack of skills (1),

⃝ Lack of time (3),

⃝ School does not grant access(5),

⃝ Lack of interest (2),

⃝ Lack of infrastructure (4),

⃝ Others (6)

Q2-4 Do you have access to computers at home?

⃝ YES (1) ⃝ YES (1)

Q2-5 Do you have access to computers outside the school or home?

⃝ YES (1) ⃝ YES (1)

142

Q2-6 If YES to Q2-5, please choose all that applies from the following places

⃝ Cybercafés (1)

⃝ Private Institute (3)

⃝ Friends’ (2)

⃝ Others (4)

Q2-7 Do you use the Internet in school?

⃝ No Internet in school(1)

⃝ Sometimes (3)

⃝ Very often (5)

⃝ Very rarely (2)

⃝ Only during class periods (4)

⃝ At will (6)

Q2-8 Do you have an E-mail account?

⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)

Q2-9 If YES to Q2-8, where do you read your mails from? (Tick all that applies)

⃝ Home (1)

⃝ School (2)

⃝ Cybercafés (3)

⃝ Friends’ (4)


Q2-10 What is your primary activity on the Internet?

⃝ E-mail (1)

⃝ Searching for information (3)

⃝ Online Games (5)

⃝ Chat (2)

⃝ Facebook /Hi5, etc.(4)

⃝ Training and course materials (6)

Q2-11 Do you have a Cellphone?

⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)

Q2-12 If YES to Q2-11, for what purpose do you use your cell phone? (Tick all that applies)

⃝ Calls (1)

⃝ Music and Videos (3)

⃝ Recording (5)

⃝ Internet (2)

⃝ Photos (4)

⃝ Data Storage (6)

Q2-13 Do you have a USB flash?

⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)

Q2-14 If YES to Q2-13, for what purpose? (Tick all that applies)

⃝ Save and copy music (1)

⃝ Data transfer only (3)

⃝ Internet Downloads (5)

⃝ Store course materials and assignment (2)

⃝ Listening to music (4)

⃝ Others (6)

143

III. USE OF COMPUTERS

Q3-1 Where did you use computers for the first time?

⃝ Home (1)

⃝ School (2)

⃝ Cybercafés (3)

⃝ Friends’ (4)


Q3-2 Do you have a computer Laboratory in school?

⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)

Q3-3 For what primary reason do you use a computer?

⃝ Learning tool (1)

⃝ Research Tool (3)

⃝ Games (5)

⃝ Internet (Email, chat) (2)

⃝ Entertainment (Music, films) (4)

⃝ Others (6)

Q3-4 Is Computers a compulsory subject in your school?

⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)

Q3-5 Do you share your computer with other students during classes?

⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)

Q3-6 If YES to Q3-5, how many are you when sharing?

⃝ 1 (1)

⃝ 3 (3)

⃝ 5 (5)

⃝ 7 (7)

⃝ 2 (2)

⃝ 4 (4)

⃝ 6 (6)

⃝ 8 (8)

Guidelines for the successful integration of ICT in schools in ...

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