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!!!!!!!!!!!Graduation*Thesis**MA*Translation****Translating*manga*into*Dutch:*an*annotated*translation*of*Paji*by*Takashi*Murakami**__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________!**********Student:*Akane*Luiken*Supervisor:*Dr.*Eric*Metz*Moderator:*Prof.*dr.*Andreas*Niehaus*Subject:*Translation*and*Adaptation***!!!!!!!

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I!would!like!to!thank!my!supervisor,!Dr.!Eric!Metz,!for!his!guidance!and!encouragement!he!has!provided!me!throughout!my!study.!

!I!also!wish!to!express!my!profound!gratitude!to!my!sister!who!has!always!

inspired!me!and!supported!me!in!my!study!and!anything!I!do.!Thank!you!Himiko.!!

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Contents!!!1.! Abstract............................................................................................................................! 4!2.! Introduction!.................................................................................................................! 4!2.1.! !!Brief!history!of!manga!in!Japan............................................................................! 4!2.2.! !!Types!of!manga...........................................................................................................! 5!2.3.! !!Popularity!beyond!print..........................................................................................! 6!2.4! !!Brief!history!on!manga!in!the!West....................................................................! 7!3.! Previous*studies*on*manga*translation.........................................................! 7!4.! Research*questions...................................................................................................! 9!5.! Methodology..................................................................................................................! 10!5.1.! !!Material...........................................................................................................................! 10!5.1.1.! !!Choice..............................................................................................................................! 10!5.1.2.! !!Synopsis..........................................................................................................................! 11!5.1.3.! !!Background!Takashi!Murakami...........................................................................! 11!5.2! !!Process!of!translation!(scantlation)...................................................................! 12!5.3! !!Translation!strategy..................................................................................................! 12!5.3.1.!! !!Page!and!reading!order............................................................................................! 12!5.3.2.! !!Strategy...........................................................................................................................! 12!5.3.3.! !!Process............................................................................................................................! 13!5.4.! !!Methods!of!analysis...................................................................................................! 13!6.! Definitions*of*the*particularities*of*the*Japanese*language..............! 14!6.1.! !!Written!Japanese........................................................................................................! 14!6.2.! !!Onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words....................................................................! 15!6.3.! !!Register!of!spoken!Japanese!.................................................................................! 17!6.4.! !!Gender!and!age!differences!in!spoken!Japanese...........................................! 17!7.! Analysis*of*translation*problems......................................................................! 18!7.1.! !!Onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words....................................................................! 18!7.2.! !!Cultural!categories.....................................................................................................! 20!7.3.! !!Word!play!.....................................................................................................................! 25!7.4.! !!Ateji...................................................................................................................................! 26!7.5.! !!Register...........................................................................................................................! 26!7.6.! !!Gender!and!age............................................................................................................! 27!7.7.! !!Constrained!translation...........................................................................................! 28!7.8.! !!Proper!nouns................................................................................................................! 29!7.9.! !!Typography..................................................................................................................! 30!7.10.! !!Past!tense.......................................................................................................................! 31!8.! Conclusions....................................................................................................................! 31!9.! Bibliography..................................................................................................................!

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! Appendix*A**Original*and*translation*of*Paji%* !! Appendix*B**List*of*all*the*onomatopoeia*and*mimetic*words** !!*

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1.*Abstract**!!!!The!present!paper!is!the!annotated!translation!of!the!manga!Paji!by!Murakami!Takashi!into!Dutch.!The!study!explores!the!translation!problems!that!occur!when!translating!manga!into!Dutch!with!focus!on!onomatopoeia/mimetic!words!and!various!cultural!elements.!The!challenge!in!manga!translation,!or!in!this!case!'scantlation'!(the!word!blending!of!scan!and!translation!where!amateur!translators!digitally!scan!and!translate!manga!to!release!it!online)!is!the!multimodality!of!the!genre!which!combine!text,!images!and!text!as!sound.!On!top!of!this,!space!constraint!cause!difficulties!as!the!result!of!Dutch!(or!any!other!language!written!in!the!Roman!alphabet)!using!more!characters!than!Japanese.!The!aim!of!this!study!is!to!analyze!in!what!manner!equivalence!is!realized!in!the!translation!of!Paji!into!Dutch!and!look!closely!how!this!is!achieved!through!the!translation!of!onomatopoeia/mimetic!words,!realia,!and!humor.!!!Keywords:!Translation,!scantlation,!manga,!Japanese!language,!Dutch,!onomatopoeia,!realia,!humor,!!!2.*Introduction**!2.1*Brief*History*of*manga*in*Japan*!!!!In!Japan!manga!is!everywhere.!They!are!sold!everywhere!from!supermarkets!to!kiosks,!seen!in!the!hands!of!children!and!adults,!used!as!entertainment!as!well!as!education,!and!lie!around!in!doctor's!waiting!rooms!and!restaurants.!There!are!even!manga!cafés!where!one!cat!sit!and!read!manga!for!an!hourly!rate.!This!visual!product!is!a!highly!influential!and!lucrative!business!as!it!reflects!the!history!and!present!of!the!Japanese!societal!landscape.!Its!success!also!relates!to!the!versatility!of!the!product!as!it!covers!a!long!list!of!topics!and!appeals!to!a!wide!audience.!!!!!!''Manga!has!humor,!satire,!exaggeration,!and!wit.!The!comic!art!includes!caricature,!cartoon,!editorial!cartoon,!syndicated!panel,!daily!humor!strip,!story_manga,!and!animation.!Like!any!other!form!of!visual!art,!literature!or!entertainment,!manga!does!not!exist!in!a!vacuum.!It!is!immersed!in!a!particular!social!environment!that!includes!history,!language,!culture,!politics,!economy,!family,!religion,!sex!and!gender,!education,!deviance!and!crime,!and!demography,!Manga!thus!reflects!the!reality!of!Japanese!society,!along!with!the!myths,!beliefs,!rituals,!tradition,!fantasies,!and!Japanese!way!of!life.!Manga!also!depicts!other!social!phenomena,!such!as!social!order!and!hierarchy,!sexism,!racism,!ageism,!classism,!and!so!on''(Ito,!456).!!!!!!This!culture!of!comics!dates!back!to!607!CE!in!the!ancient!capital!of!Nara!where!caricatures!of!people!and!animals!were!found!on!the!ceilings!of!the!temple!(Ito,!458).!The!commercialization!of!manga!however!began!in!the!early!eighteenth!century!and!spread!from!Osaka!to!other!important!economic!centers!(Ito,!459).!!!!It!is!said!that!the!modern!manga!is!a!direct!descendent!from!the!art!form!of!ukiyoe!(‘‘pictures!of!the!floating!world''),!a!traditional!Japanese!art!form!that!was!highly!popular!throughout!the!seventeenth!and!nineteenth!century!and!that!is!now!considered!as!a!sophisticated!artifact.!!

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!!!The!serialized!manga!magazines!as!we!know!now!started!with!the!publication!of!Tobae!magazine!in!1887!by!the!French!George!Bigot;!a!magazine!that!satirized!Japanese!society!and!politics!(Ito,!461).!The!modern!manga!comes!in!different!forms!but!usually!follows!the!pattern!of!being!published!in!weekly!to!monthly!magazines!showing!an!episode!each.!The!success!of!each!comic!by!different!mangaka!(manga!artist)!determines!the!longevity!of!the!series.!Some!manga!even!last!10_20!years.!For!the!collectors!of!manga!or!for!the!audience!that!reads!the!manga!for!the!first!time!after!its!original!publication!in!the!magazines,!the!comics!are!published!individually!in!smaller!pocket_sized!series.!!!!

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!Figure!1.!On!the!right:!thick!magazine!Margaret!(biweekly!since!1963)!that!has!about!300_400!pages.!On!the!left:!the!first!individual!publication!of!the!iconic!series!Berusaiyu!no!Bara!(The!Rose!of!Versailles).!**2.2*Types*of*manga****!!!As!mentioned!earlier,!manga!treats!a!wide!range!of!genres!from!history!to!social!phenomena!such!as!sexism,!ageism!and!social!order.!However,!all!the!different!genres!can!be!roughly!categorized!into!5!types!of!manga!that!are!designated!to!different!ages!and!gender.!!*Kodomo7muke!!*!nci�(etymology:!child!+!aimed)!is!the!genre!for!young!children!with!simple!and/or!imaginative!story!lines!that!usually!aim!to!teach!children!about!morals!and!values.!Popular!works!include!Doraemon,!Heidi!and!Chibimaruko.!Many!school!libraries!hold!manga!biographies!of!historically!important!people!where!children!can!learn!from!in!an!accessible!way.!!!!!!!!

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Figure2.!Manga!biographies!of!Jeanne!d'Arc,!Anne!Frank!and!Martin!Luther!King!*Shōjo!*!tm(etymology:!few!+!girl)!is!the!genre!for!girls!between!the!age!of!10_18.!Storylines!often!cover!romance!and!interpersonal!relationships!in!and!out!of!the!school!environment.!Popular!works!include!Hana!Yori!Dango!(Boys!over!Flowers),!NANA,!and!Berusaiyu!no!Bara!(The!Rose!of!Versailles).!!!Shōnen!*!tw(!etymology:!few!+!years)!is!the!genre!for!boys!under!the!age!of!15.!They!are!characterized!by!a!male!hero,!action,!fighting!and!fantasy!plots.!Popular!works!include!Naruto,!Bleach!and!One7Piece.!!!Jyosei!*!my(etymology:!woman!+!sex)!is!the!genre!aimed!at!adult!women!that!depict!interpersonal!relationships!covering!love,!family!and!work.!Popular!works!include!Loveless,!Paradise!Kiss!and!Honey!and!Clover.!!!Seinen!!*!�w(etymology:!blue/green!+!years)!is!the!genre!aimed!at!boys!between!the!age!of!15_25!but!it!is!very!common!to!have!readers!up!to!the!age!of!50.!Shōnen!mangas!are!more!violent!and!have!a!psychological!and/or!sexual!nature.!Popular!works!include!Akira,!Gantz,!and!Kōkaku!Kidōtai!(Ghost!in!the!Shell).!!!2.3*Popularity*beyond*print*!!!!Manga!is!a!mass_produced/mass_marketed!commodity!that!doesn't!stop!at!the!books!that!are!sold.!Popular!mangas!are!turned!into!animés!(animations),!dramatization,!and!merchandize.!An!iconic!example!is!Hana!Yori!Dango!(Boys!over!flowers).!Hana!Yori!Dango!was!serialized!in!biweekly!magazine!Margaret!from!1992_2003!and!is!collected!into!37!individual!volumes.!Since!then!the!series!have!been!turned!into!anime,!live_action!TV!series!and!movies!in!Japan,!Korea!and!Taiwan.!!!!

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2.4*Brief*background*of*manga*in*the*West*!!!The!popularity!of!manga!outside!of!Japan!and!Asia!has!been!growing!since!the!1990s!although!there!is!a!clear!dominance!of!manga!in!the!European!market!over!the!market!in!North!America.!In!October!2002,!the!first!independent!Japanese!manga!corner!was!exhibited!at!the!Frankfurt!Book!fair,!one!of!the!oldest!and!biggest!international!book!fairs!in!the!world!that!deals!with!novels,!children's!books,!and!translated!books!(Ito,!472).!By!that!time!manga!had!already!gained!a!lot!of!success!in!France,!Germany,!Spain!and!Italy.!In!2011!50%!of!the!European!manga!market!was!represented!by!France!and!within!France,!manga!represented!40%!of!comic!books!published1.!The!success!of!manga!in!France!has!been!attributed!to!the!already!established!comic!book!culture!(bande!dessinée)!and!the!fact!that!it!is!viewed!as!a!form!of!art.!By!2007!France!had!more!than!ten!established!manga!distributors,!Italy!at!least!seven,!Spain!had!two!and!Germany!had!several!manga!distributors!also!publishing!serialized!manga!magazines!in!German2.!!!3.*Previous*studies*on*manga*translation**!!!!The!translation!of!manga!is!quite!a!new!subject!within!translation!studies!but!the!rise!of!global!popularity!of!Japanese!manga!and!culture!have!inspired!a!few!studies!that!I!would!like!to!discuss!briefly.!!!*On!translation!standards!and!treatment!of!cultural!aspects!*!!!In!her!study!on!Japanese!comics!in!Germany3,!Heike!Elisabeth!Jüngst!identifies!and!discusses!some!translation!problems!found!in!the!manga!version!of!the!literary!classic!The!Tale!of!Genji!by!Murasaki!Shikibu.!Since!The!Tale!of!Genji!is!a!story!about!the!lifestyles!of!the!high!courtiers!in!the!Heian!period!(11th!century),!many!of!the!historical!and!cultural!aspects!have!had!to!be!explicitated!in!footnotes.!Jüngst!also!discusses!that!many!translation!standards!have!been!established!from!the!opinions!of!the!fan!base!of!manga!as!well!as!the!publishers!instead!of!the!translators!themselves.!The!study!showed!that!the!fans!prefer!a!translation!that!is!as!close!as!possible!to!the!original,!even!when!it!creates!clumsiness!within!the!text!and!image.!The!closeness!to!the!TT!is!what!appeals!to!manga!fans!the!most.!!!*!!!!In!two!pilot!studies,!Hiroko!Inose!looked!at!the!informal!learning!environment!that!manga!translation!could!offer!to!amateur!translators!(scantlators)4.!The!first!pilot!study!consisted!of!comparing!the!Japanese!original!to!an!official!English!translation!and!a!scantlation!downloaded!from!a!manga!fan_site.!The!second!study!compared!the!Japanese!original!to!two!different!scantlations.!Both!studies!examined!and!compared!the!level!of!Japanese!language!and!the!overall!quality!of!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1!Pra,!Elvero,!Anime!and!Manga,!AnVi!OpenSource!Knowledge.!p.32!2!Wong,!Wendy!Siuyi.!2007.The!Presence!of!Manga!in!Europe!and!North!America,!RTHK!Media!Digest.!Web.!3!Heike!Elisabeth!Jüngst.!2004.!Japanese!Comics!in!Germany,!Perspectives:!Studies!in!Translatology,!12:2,!83_105!p.!88!4!Inose,!Hiroko.!2012.!"Translating!Japanese!Onomatopoeia!and!Mimetic!Words!in!Manga!into!Spanish!and!English"!in!Zybatow,!L.,!Petrova,!A.,!and!Ustaszewski,!M.!(eds.)!Translation!Studies:!Old!and!New!Types!of!Translation!in!Theory!and!Practice.!Peter!Lang:!Wien:!179_184!

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the!translations.!The!results!showed!that!the!scantlations!provided!by!amateurs!did!have!consequential!errors!caused!by!the!inadequate!level!of!the!Japanese!language.!Linguistically,!the!official!translations!by!professionals!were!of!a!higher!quality.!However,!results!also!showed!an!interesting!pattern!regarding!the!treatment!of!cultural!aspects.!!The!fan!_translators!tended!to!have!a!more!'foreignizing'!strategy!with!cultural!references,!onomatopoeia!and!word!play.!'Foreignization'!(Venuti,!1995)!is!the!effort!to!retain!as!much!of!the!local!color!of!the!original!rather!than!replacing!it!with!the!target!culture!equivalent.!The!explanation!for!the!tendency!for!fan!translators!to!adopt!a!foreignizing!strategy!is!that!they!are!students!of!the!Japanese!language!and!culture!and!feel!that!their!translations!are!a!gateway!to!the!understanding!of!the!culture.!The!study!concludes!that!scantlation!can!be!a!valuable!means!for!learning!Japanese!and!that!the!fan!translators!acquire!many!skills!such!as!speed!of!translation!(online!fan!translations!can!be!published!in!a!matter!of!days!after!the!Japanese!original!has!been!published).!!!!!!In!a!similar!way,!Huang!and!Archer!discuss!the!comparisons!between!official!and!fan!translations!of!manga!in!''Fluidity!of!modes!in!the!translation!of!manga:!the!case!of!Kishimoto's!Naruto5.!They!draw!attention!to!the!fact!that!manga!translation!concerns!multimodal!translation!because!it!combines!text!with!images!but!also!text!that!convey!actions!and!sounds.!This!study!examines!the!relation!between!layouts,!space,!conventions!that!govern!the!reading!path!and!how!sound!effects!are!conveyed.!Huang!and!Archer!found!that!sound!effects!in!fan!translations!were!left!untranslated!and!that!the!layout!was!also!untouched,!whereas!official!translations!changed!the!sounds!and!layout!system!(mirroring!the!pages!and!reading!direction)!for!the!Western!readership.!Where!onomatopoeic!and!mimetic!words!were!left!untranslated,!it!is!argued!that!the!reader!who!cannot!read!Japanese!is!still!able!to!generate!the!sound!effect!from!the!context!of!the!story!as!well!as!the!typography.!!!On!prominent!manga!translation!problems!!!!!A!study!conducted!by!Mikael!Svensson!that!looked!specifically!at!the!translation!of!onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words!from!Japanese!to!Swedish!collected!data!from!four!different!mangas!translated!into!Swedish.!The!results!showed!that!even!though!the!mangas!were!translated!into!Swedish,!many!English!words!were!used!to!translate!onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words6.!!This!study!identifies!several!translation!problems!and!solutions!regarding!onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words.!!!!!!In!a!case!study!of!manga!translation!problems!from!Japanese!to!English,!Per!Gyllenfjell7!identified!ten!different!types!of!translation!problems!and!eleven!different!solutions!to!these!problems.!The!results!showed!the!most!prominent!translation!problems!were!onomatopoeia!consisting!of!63.9%!of!the!total!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!5!Huang,!Cheng_wen.!and!Archer,!Arlene.!2014.!''Fluidity!in!the!translation!of!manga:!the!case!of!Kishimoto's!Naruto''!in!Visual!Communication!13(4),!University!of!Cape!Town:!471_!486!6!Svensson,!Mikael.!2012.!Översättning!till!svenska!av!japansk!onomatopoetikon!i!manga.!Kandidatuppsats,!Göteborgs!Universitet.!7!Gyllenfjell,!Per.!"Case!Study!of!Manga!Translation!Problems."!Thesis.!Dalarna!University,!2013.!Print.!!

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amount!of!translation!problems.!Ateji!was!the!second!most!occurring!problem!with!10%,!followed!by!proper!nouns!at!8.1%.!Ateji!is!the!irregular!pronunciation!of!a!given!kanji.!Gyllenfjell!gives!the!next!example!to!illustrate!the!problem:!!!!!!!!W\D!(ranchi:!luch)!!!!��!(chūshoku)!is!the!Japanese!word!for!lunch.!However,!it!is!very!common!to!say!'ranchi'!borrowed!from!English.!The!kanji!above!can!technically!only!be!read!as!chūshoku,!but!the!furigana/ruby!indicates!that!it!is!supposed!to!be!read!as!ranchi.!This!is!the!author's!stylistic!preference.!!!!!!Although!this!case!study!has!only!collected!data!from!one!manga!that!Gyllenfjell!translated!himself,!he!speculated!that!these!three!main!problems!are!common!to!the!action!manga!aimed!at!adolescent!males.!!!!!!These!previous!studies!have!established!some!of!the!translation!standards!that!have!been!manifested!throughout!the!years!of!manga!translation,!compared!official!and!fan!translations,!and!have!analyzed!prominent!manga!translation!problems!such!as!onomatopoeia.!So!far!there!aren't!any!known!studies!that!have!researched!manga!translations!into!Dutch.!The!present!study!will!analyze!prominent!translation!problems!that!arise!when!translation!manga!into!Dutch!as!well!as!analyzing!the!accompanying!translation!techniques.!!!*4.Research*questions*!The!following!are!the!research!questions!of!this!study:!!!In*what*manner*is*equivalence*realized*in*translating*manga*into*Dutch?**!I. How!are!translation!problems!that!are!the!result!of!the!multimodality!of!

the!manga!genre!(image,!text!and!text!a!sound)!solved?!!II. To!what!extent!is!realia!foreignized!or!naturalized!in!manga!translation!

into!Dutch?!III. How!is!humor!maintained!in!manga!translation!into!a!language!such!as!

Dutch!that!is!typologically!and!culturally!significantly!far!from!Japanese?!IV. To!what!extent!can!onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words!be!translated!into!a!

language!such!as!Dutch!that!make!little!use!of!onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words?!

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5.*Methodology**!5.1*Material***5.1.1*Choice*!!!!First!and!foremost,!I!chose!to!translate!Paji!into!Dutch!because!of!my!familiarity!with!this!manga.!I!have!read!it!many!times!in!my!childhood!and!have!had!many!discussions!with!my!sister!who!is!also!a!big!fan!of!this!work.!It!is!a!work!that!has!many!themes!such!as!life!after!loss,!struggles!of!raising!children,!interaction!between!the!elderly!and!youth,!struggles!and!how!to!cope!when!there!isn't!enough!money,!and!of!course!the!mundane!happiness!of!everyday!life.!All!of!these!themes!are!and!will!stay!relevant,!as!they!are!universal!across!cultures.!I!believe!this!work!is!a!good!mixture!of!universality!across!cultures!and!''otherness''!that!will!allow!readers!to!relate!and!enjoy!learning!something!about!the!unknown.!I!also!saw!a!good!challenge!of!translating!this!work!since!humor!plays!a!big!role!along!with!the!bittersweet!happiness.!Another!challenge!in!translating!Paji!is!the!fact!that!it!attracts!a!large!demographic!ranging!from!children!to!adults!up!till!the!age!of!50.!It!was!originally!published!in!Weekly!Young!Jump,!a!manga!magazine!for!men!between!15_50,!and!ran!for!6!years!before!it!was!published!on!its!own.!When!it!was!published!on!it's!own!as!a!serialized!manga,!it!attracted!an!even!wider!audience!of!girls!and!women!and!this!can!also!been!seen!in!how!the!books!were!bound.!!!

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Figure!3.!From!the!left:!Weekly!Young!Jump!August!1995,!three!standard!publications!of!serialized!comics!from!manga!publisher!Jump!Comics,!inside!a!standard!manga!

publication!!!!!The!above!three!images!show!how!seinen!mangas!published!in!magazines!such!as!Weekly!Young!Jump!look!like.!The!cover!of!the!weekly!magazine!appeals!to!men!and!once!they!are!serialized!on!their!own,!they!have!a!standard!form!of!174mm!by!112mm!printed!on!light!and!cheaper!paper.!!!!!!When!Paji!first!appeared!as!a!weekly!comic,!it!was!published!in!a!magazine!such!as!shown!here!above!on!the!left.!When!it!got!published!on!its!own,!it!was!published!in!a!bigger!format!on!whiter!and!thicker!paper!and!overall!had!a!more!sophisticated!look!as!shown!on!the!next!page.!!!

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!!!!!!!!!!!

Figure!4.!Serialized!books!of!Paji!published!by!Young!Jump!Comics!!!!5.1.2*Synopsis**!Paji*by*Takashi*Murakami**!!!!Paji!is!a!slice_of_life!story!about!a!75!year_old!grandfather!and!his!4!year_old!granddaughter!Momo.!Paji!is!what!Momo!calles!her!grandfather!because!he!is!both!her!father!(papa)!and!grandfather!(jīchan!in!Japanese).!The!two!live!together!ever!since!her!parents!passed!away!and!the!story!centers!on!Paji's!happiness!and!struggles!of!raising!Momo.!Having!experienced!the!Great!Hanshin/Kobe!earthquake!that!hit!in!1995,!the!author!created!this!story!with!the!thought!of!depicting!the!treasures!of!the!mundane!everyday!life!you!experience!with!family.!Momo!and!Paji!live!in!an!unnamed!city!in!an!old!house!surrounded!by!their!friendly!neighbors.!They!aren't!affluent!and!this!also!plays!a!major!theme!in!the!story.!!!5.1.3*Background*Takashi*Murakami**!!!Takashi!Murakami!(�_���)!is!a!mangaka!(manga!artist)!born!in!1965!in!Osaka.!Although!he!did!not!graduate,!he!studied!economics!at!Kyoto!University.!While!he!was!studying!at!Kyoto!University!in!1985,!he!debuted!his!first!work!IP>SK����!(namakemono!ga!miteta!/!''the!sluggard!was!watching'')!with!Young!Jump!Comics!owned!by!Japans!most!biggest!publisher!���(Shueisha!Inc.)!Until!Murakami!wrote!Paji!in!2000,!his!works!were!focused!on!the!;T=��(gyagu_manga)!which!is!humorous!manga!with!one_line!gag!jokes.!Paji!was!thus!a!turning!point!for!the!mangaka!and!his!work!received!a!prize!at!the!fourth!Japan!Media!Arts!Festival.!!Murakami's!international!recognition!came!in!2013!when!he!was!selected!in!the!top!ten!of!the!Great!Graphic!Novels!for!Teens!by!YASLA!(Young!Adult!Library!Services!Association)!for!his!work!~p2�!(hoshimamoru!inu)!or!Stargazing!Dog!(NBM!Publishing,!2011)!in!English.!This!work!is!also!highly!popular!in!Japan!and!a!movie!version!of!the!story!was!made!in!2011.!!!

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!!**********Figure!5.!On!the!left:!Murakami's!debut!work!Namakemono!ga!miteta.!On!the!right:!Hoshimamoru!Inu!1&2.!!*5.2*Process*of*translation*(scantlation)**!!!!I!have!translated!roughly!half!of!the!first!volume!of!Paji.!The!process!was!as!follows:!!!1.!Scan!the!pages.!2.!Remove!all!the!Japanese!text!with!a!software!called!GIMP.!!3.!Correct!the!color!and!size!in!PowerPoint.!!4.!Fill!in!the!translated!texts!using!PowerPoint.!PowerPoint!shows!the!total!word!count.!!5.!Where!it!was!possible,!I!expanded!the!textboxes!(using!GIMP)!since!Dutch!uses!more!characters!than!Japanese.!!!5.3*Translation*strategy***5.3.1*Page*and*reading*order*!!!!The!Japanese!pages!are!read!from!right!to!left!and!texts!are!read!from!top!to!bottom.!When!manga!was!first!translated!into!English,!the!pages!were!generally!mirrored!so!that!the!English_speaking!consumer!would!be!able!to!read!it!from!left!to!right.!However,!with!the!huge!popularity!of!Japanese!culture,!publishers!stopped!mirroring!the!pages!to!deliver!a!product!that!was!more!authentic!to!the!consumer!who!craved!for!a!product!that!was!closest!to!the!original.!Since!this!is!now!the!norm!in!manga!translation,!I!also!have!chosen!to!keep!the!reading!direction!as!the!original!(Sell,!101)!!*5.3.2*Strategy**!!!!Since!manga!translation!is!quite!constrained!because!of!the!images!and!limited!space,!I!haven't!adopted!one!single!strategy.!Where!the!image!and!space!allowed,!I!have!domesticated!aspects!so!that!lengthy!explanations!and!clumsy!wording!wouldn’t!interrupt!the!reading!and!humor.!However,!where!the!story!couldn't!be!translated!without!explanation,!and!where!I!personally!wanted!to!maintain!the!specific!cultural!aspect,!I!adopted!foreignizing!procedures.!!!

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!!!My!mixed!strategy!is!due!to!my!intended!readership,!which!is!a!Dutch_speaking!readership!that!already!has!an!interest!in!Japanese!comics!and!culture.!!5.3.3*Process*!!!!I!had!the!choice!of!either!translating!Paji!into!English!or!Dutch!but!after!having!translated!some!sections!in!both!languages,!I!judged!that!the!transfer!to!Dutch!suited!the!nuance!of!this!work!more!than!English!did.!However,!in!some!cases,!I!have!translated!from!Japanese!to!English,!and!then!Dutch!to!find!the!most!suitable!translation.!!!!!!The!reason!I!chose!to!translate!Paji!into!Dutch!instead!of!English!is!a!highly!personal!preference.!!My!two!maternal!languages!are!Japanese!and!Dutch!and!the!interaction!I!have!had!as!a!child!with!elderly!people!was!mostly!in!either!Japanese!or!Dutch.!!Moreover,!when!translating!Momo's!speech!into!Dutch,!I!would!think!of!what!my!two!3_year_old!nieces!would!say!in!Dutch.!Dutch!came!more!naturally!to!me!when!translating!for!these!reasons.!Another!reason!for!choosing!Dutch!was!the!option!to!use!the!diminutive,!as!it!is!a!good!alternative!to!express!the!difference!in!registers!that!Dutch!can't!express!grammatically.!!!!!One!of!the!big!problems!I!faced!during!translation!was!onomatopoeia.!I!will!elaborate!further!on!this!in!the!analysis!section!but!in!cases!where!I!couldn't!find!anything,!I!took!inspiration!from!the!following!comics:!!!_!Suske!en!Wiske!!_!Flaters!te!koop!!!_!Naruto!translated!into!Dutch!!*5.4*Methods*of*analysis***!!!For!the!analysis!of!my!translation!of!Paji,!I!will!apply!Vinay!and!Darbelnet's!model!as!it!effectively!categorizes!what!happens!in!interlingual!translation.!I!have!also!applied!Newmark's!model!since!it!is!very!similar!to!that!of!Vinay!and!Darbeltnet!but!is!more!elaborate!on!the!cultural!aspect!of!translation.!!!*

• Vinay*and*Darbelnet's*strategies*and*procedures*!1) Borrowing*The!SL!word!is!directly!transferred!to!the!TL!to!fill!a!semantic!gap!or!to!add!local!color.!!2) Calque*This!is!a!type!of!'borrowing'!where!the!SL!expression!or!structure!is!transferred!in!a!literal!translation.!!3) Literal*translation*This!is!'word_for_word'!translation,!which!occurs!commonly!between!languages!of!the!same!family.!4) Transposition*This!is!a!change!of!one!part!of!speech!for!another!!(e.g.!verb!for!noun)!without!changing!the!sense.!!5) Modulation*This!changes!the!semantics!and!point!of!view!of!the!SL.!!

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6) Équivalence**Vinay!and!Darbetnet!use!this!term!to!refer!to!cases!where!languages!describe!the!same!situation!by!different!stylistic!or!structural!means.!This!is!not!the!same!as!'equivalence'!used!in!the!more!common!translation!theory.!!7) Adaptation*This!procedure!changes!the!cultural!reference!when!a!situation!in!the!source!culture!does!not!exist!in!the!target!culture.!!

*• Newmark's*translation*methods*

*1) Transference**Transference!(emprunt!or!loan!word)!is!the!process!of!transferring!a!SL!word!to!a!TL!text:!same!as!borrowing.!!2) Cultural*equivalent*This!is!an!approximate!translation!where!a!ASL!culture!word!is!translated!by!a!TL!culture!word:!same!as!adaptation.!!3) Neutralization*(functional*or*descriptive*equivalent)**This!common!procedure,!applied!to!cultural!words,!requires!the!use!of!a!culture_free!word,!sometimes!with!a!new!specific!term;!it!therefore!neutralises!or!generalises!the!SL!word!4) Naturalization**This!procedure!succeeds!transference!and!adapts!the!SL!word!first!to!the!normal!pronunciation,!then!to!the!normal!morphology!(word_forms)!of!the!TL.!5) Deletion*This!is!the!cutting!of!redundant!stretches!of!language!in!non_authoritative!texts,!especially!metaphors!and!imensifiers.!!6) Paraphrase,*gloss,*notes**This!is!an!amplification!or!explanation!of!the!meaning!of!a!segment!of!the!text.!!

!6.*Definitions*of*the*particularities*of*the*Japanese*language*!6.1*Written*Japanese****!!!Before!discussing!the!translation!shifts!from!Japanese!to!Dutch,!it!is!important!to!understand!how!Japanese!is!written.!Japanese!uses!three!different!systems!of!writing:!kanji,!hiragana!and!katakana.!Kanji!is!a!writing!system!borrowed!from!Chinese!and!contains!meaning!(�/kun)!and!sound(�/onn).!!!!!!For!example,!the!kanji!for!river(v/kawa)!has!one!meaning!but!several!sounds.!v(kawa)!is!the!kun_reading!since!it!contains!the!meaning!of!'river'.!In!compound!nouns!such!as!uv(sansen),!a!noun!made!up!from!the!kanji!u(yama)!meaning!mountain,!and!the!kanji!v(kawa)!makes!up!the!word!'mountain!river'.!The!reading!of!v(kawa)!is!now!'sen'!because!it!is!read!in!its!on_reading(sound!reading).!v(kawa)!also!has!the!on_reading(sound)!of!'ka',!'ko'!and!'sawa'.!With!names,!it!can!even!be!more!complicated!because!parents!can!designate!a!non_general!on_reading!to!the!kanji!of!their!liking.!For!instance,!someone!named!their!child!Tiara,!as!in!the!crown,!and!has!written!it!with!the!kanji!d(kannmuri),!which!means!'crown'!in!English.!!!

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!!!The!two!other!writing!systems!are!Japanese!syllabaries!hiragana!and!katakana.!These!syllabaries!are!purely!phonetic!and!each!have!the!same!set!of!50!letters!and!even!more!sounds!in!combination.!Hiragana!is!mainly!used!for!grammatical!purposes!and!katakana!on!the!other!hand!is!used!for!borrowed!words,!foreign!names!and!to!transliterate!foreign!languages.!!!For!reference:!!!English:!Good!morning!!Transliteration!hiragana:!��!+]#5(guddomōnin)!Transliteration!katakana:!=EHS]J\(guddomōnin)!!Hiragana!is!also!used!to!write!furigana,!or!ruby,!which!is!a!reading!aid!printed!

on!top!of!or!next!to!kanji!to!indicate!its!accurate!pronunciation.!Children's!literature!or!textbooks!use!this!often!since!children!have!not!learned!all!the!kanji!yet,!but!it!is!also!used!in!adult!literature!for!difficult!kanji!that!aren't!used!on!a!daily!basis.!Official!documents!always!have!a!column!to!write!one's!name!in!kanji!and!ruby!because!there!isn't!only!one!way!to!pronounce!the!kanji.!!!

!!↵!hiragana!as!ruby!

(Minji!Jiro)!!↵kanji!(Minji!Jiro)!!!

Figure!6.!Sample!of!how!to!fill!in!a!name!on!official!documents!!!In!the!case!of!the!name!Tiara,!ruby!is!needed!for!'accurate'!pronunciation!of!d

(kannmuri).!!!���0� � ↵(Tiara)!in!hiragana!� d� !!!!!!!!!↵!kanji!for!'crown'!generally!pronounced!as!kannmuri!!!Grammatically,!there!is!no!reading!of!the!kanji!d(kannmuri/crown)!as!'tiara',!

but!these!rules!can!be!bent!for!names!and!for!word!play.!!!6.2*Onomatopoeia*and*mimetic*words*!Japanese!is!a!language!that!uses!onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words!in!high!

frequency!in!all!registers!of!spoken!and!written!language.!Many!languages!such!as!English!or!Dutch!reserve!the!use!of!onomatopoeia!largely!for!informal!use!or!for!rhythmic!poetry!and!comics.!This!is!why!onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words!cause!the!most!problems!in!the!translation!from!Japanese!to!Dutch!or!most!of!the!other!languages;!there!simply!aren't!enough!literal!equivalents.!!

!!Kojien!(5th!edition!1998),!one!of!the!most!reputable!Japanese!dictionaries,!gives!

the!following!definitions!of!Japanese!onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words!(translated!by!Inose):!!

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!• Giseigo:!Words!that!imitate!human!and!animal!voices.!Kyaakyaa![female!

high!voice,!laughing!or!shouting],!wanwan,![dog!barking]!and!so!on.!!• Giongo:!Words!that!imitate!real!sounds.!Sarasara![sound!of!stream],!

zaazaa![sounds!of!showering!rain],!wanwan![dog!barking]!and!so!on.!!• Gitaigo:!Words!that!describe!visual,!tactile,!and!other!non_auditory!

sensitive!impressions.!Niyanniya![smiling!ironically],!furafura![state!of!not!being!able!to!walk!steadily],!yuttari![state!of!being!relaxed]!and!so!on.!!

!!!!Thus,!giseigo!and!giongo!imitate!real!sounds!and!can!be!categorized!as!onomatopoeia,!whereas!gitaigo!is!the!phonetic!expression!of!the!phenomena!or!the!states!that!do!not!produce!sounds.!The!latter!can!thus!be!categorized!as!mimetic!words.!(Inose,!p.98)!The!reason!that!wanwan!is!both!giseigo!and!giongo!is!because!all!giseigo!are!giongo!because!they!all!imitate!real!sounds.!Giseogo!is!a!specific!giongo!that!imitates!sounds!made!by!the!living.!!!!!!In!some!translated!manga!such!as!the!Dutch!version!of!Naruto!by!Masashi!Kishimoto,!some!onomatopoeic!and!mimetic!words!are!left!untranslated!but!transcribed.!Because!the!text!in!manga!is!being!treated!as!an!extension!of!the!imagery,!readers!can!deduce!the!meaning!of!the!Japanese!onomatopoeia!by!image!and!context8.!!*****************************************Figure!7.!Dutch!translation!of!Naruto!by!Masahi!Kishimoto!**********!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!8!Huang,!Cheng_wen.!and!Archer,!Arlene.!2014.!''Fluidity!in!the!translation!of!manga:!the!case!of!Kishimoto's!Naruto''!in!Visual!Communication!13(4),!University!of!Cape!Town:!471_!486!

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6.3*Register*of*spoken*Japanese**!!!!The!register!of!spoken!Japanese!is!a!very!complex!and!elaborate!one.!The!register!reflects!the!speaker's!age,!gender,!and!position!among!other!things.!The!difference!in!register!is!both!grammatical!and!lexical.!!!!!!Honorifics!in!Japanese!is!referred!to!as!keigo!(|�,!respect!+!language)!and!have!three!categories:!!!

• Sonkeigo!(s|�),!respectful!language!!!• Kenjōgo!(���),!humble!language!!• Teineigo!(^r�),!polite!language!!

!!!!The!two!first!honorifics!are!used!for!someone!being!talked!about!and!the!last!one!is!used!for!someone!being!talked!to.!The!main!difference!between!sonkeigo!and!kenjōgo!is!the!visible!hierarchy.!Sonkeigo!is!used!to!talk!about!the!actions!of!a!superior!as!to!'elevate'!that!person,!whereas!kenjōgo!is!used!to!talk!about!the!person!speaking!as!to!'lower'!your!own!position!in!the!hierarchy.!!!!!!An!example!to!illustrate!the!importance!of!understanding!the!register!with!the!verb!'to!say':!!!Sonkeigo:!ossharu/iwareru!!Kenjōgo:!mōsu!Teineigo:!iimasu!!!!!If!the!person!who!is!speaking,!let's!say!a!salesperson,!says!'I!said'!using!the!verb!ossharu,!this!would!be!very!embarrassing.!The!correct!verb!would!be!mōsu!when!talking!about!your!own!actions.!In!Dutch!or!English,!'I!say',!'!you!say',!'he!says',!all!used!the!same!verb!unlike!Japanese.!This!causes!translation!problems!where!the!nuance!and!register!is!essential!in!understanding!relationships.!Possible!solutions!for!the!consequential!translation!loss!could!be!compensated!by!overly!polite/rude!language!and/or!adjusting!the!vocabulary!accordingly!to!the!speaker's!background!and!attitude.!!*6.4*Gender*and*age*differences*in*spoken*Japanese**!!!!In!the!same!manner,!gender!and!age!differences!in!speech!cause!translation!problems!between!Japanese!and!Dutch.!There!are!specific!ways!in!which!a!certain!age!group!or!gender!express!themselves!not!only!lexically!but!also!grammatically.!These!differences!can!be!expressed!by!suffixes!and!verb!endings.!With!Paji!specifically,!there!is!a!lot!of!translation!loss!in!the!aspect!because!the!main!characters!differ!so!much!in!age.!The!play!on!these!registers,!gender!and!age!differences!that!are!used!to!create!humor!tend!to!get!lost!in!translation!too.!!!****

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7.*Analysis*of*translation*problems***!!!!All!the!references!to!the!page!numbers!from!here!on!can!be!found!in!appendix!A!(ST&TT).!!!7.1*Onomatopoeia*&*mimetic*words***!!!This!category!was!where!the!most!translation!problems!occurred.!In!70!pages,!there!were!123!onomatopoeic!and!mimetic!words!of!which!71!were!onomatopoeia!and!52!mimetic!words.!The!following!pie!charts!show!how!these!problems!were!solved:!!

!

!

Verb!27%!

Omission!!17%!Mimetic!

word!13%!Adverb!

5%!

Onomatopoeia!6%!

Description!!6%!

Punctuation!mark!6%!

Interjection!!6%!

Neologism!6%!

Proper!noun!2%!

Adjective!2%!

English!!2%!

Noun!!2%!

Chart*2:*Translation*solutions*for*mimetic*words*

Onomatopoeia!46%!

Omission!!16%!

Interjection!!13%!

Verb!8%!

Neologism!7%!

English!6%!

Mimetic!word!3%!

Adjective!1%!

Chart*1:*Translation*solutions*for*onomatopoeic*words*

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***As!it!can!be!seen!on!the!charts,!the!three!most!occurring!solutions!for!onomatopoeic!words!were!1)!onomatopoeia,!2)!omission,!and!3)!interjection.!A!lot!of!the!onomatopoeic!words!that!I!have!used!in!my!translation!have!been!inspired!from!Dutch!comic!books!such!as!Suske!en!Wiske.!The!three!most!occurring!solutions!for!mimetic!words!were!1)!verb,!2)!omission,!and!3)!mimetic!words.!The!interesting!thing!is!that!although!the!123!Japanese!onomatopoeic!and!mimetic!words!were!all!different,!the!translation!uses!the!same!word!for!several!different!Japanese!words.!The!subtle!differences!in!words!that!can!be!expressed!in!Japanese!were!somewhat!lost.!The!detailed!list!of!these!words!can!be!found!in!appendix!B.!!!!!!All!the!page!references!made!from!here!refer!to!the!ST!and!TT!in!appendix!A.!!*Onomatopoeia**ST:!(�(�!Pusu!pusu!(sound!of!sharp!needle!like!object!piercing!through!something)!!TT:!Prik!prik!prik!!(Refer!to!p.34)!!ST::UE� :UE!Kyu!kyu!(sound!of!something!being!polished)!TT:!Poets!poets!!(Refer!to!p.38)!!!ST:5�.� 5�.!Nnsho!Nnsho!(sound!one!makes!when!using!great!effort)!!TT:!Wiebel!wiebel!!(Refer!to!p.44)!!!!!!In!all!the!above!cases,!an!onomatopoeic!word!is!translated!using!the!stem!or!imperative!of!a!Dutch!verb.!Here!we!speak!of!transposition!where!there!is!a!change!in!one!part!of!speech!for!another!without!changing!the!sense.!What!also!happens!here!is!that!the!translations!of!the!onomatopoeic!words!become!mimetic!words!because!the!words!made!from!the!stems!of!verbs!in!Dutch!do!not!produce!any!sounds.!!*Mimetic*words**ST:!!!��5�?ZX �5�!/!��5�OZX �5�!� � Otōsan!ga!korori!to!shinde!/!okāsan!ga!porori!to!shinde!!!!!!!!!!!Father!(sound!of!something!falling)!dead!/!Mother!(sound!of!teardrop)!dead!TT:!Vader!ging!zomaar!dood/!Moeder!ging!zomaar!dood!!(Refer!to!p.3)!!!!!!The!understanding!of!the!introduction!of!Paji!is!very!important!as!it!sets!the!scene!in!merely!5!sentences.!The!tone!of!the!story!is!bittersweet!as!Momo!and!Paji!live!a!very!blissful!live!together!but!the!reason!for!this!is!because!she!has!lost!her!parents.!But!the!way!her!parents'!death!is!being!announced!is!very!nonchalant!and!has!a!hint!of!humor!in!it.!It!might!even!been!seen!as!morbid!that!

! 20!

a!4_year_old's!parent's!death!is!being!described!like!this!in!a!humorous!manner.!Thus,!the!word!choice!is!very!important.!Korori!means!effortlessly!or!suddenly,!but!it!is!also!used!to!describe!sound!of!rolling!down!or!falling!down!nonchalantly.!Porori!has!the!same!nuance!but!this!mimetic!word!is!used!for!the!sound!of!a!tear!or!water!drop!dropping.!The!image!these!two!words!create!is!that!Momo's!parents!died!in!an!unexpected!way!and!very!suddenly,!yet!keeping!the!tone!very!light.!One!of!my!first!options!was!to!translate!it!as!''Vader!en!moeder!gingen!zomaar!dood''.!The!reason!for!this!is!that!I!wanted!to!maintain!the!word!''dead''!like!the!ST!to!keep!the!morbid!humor.!However,!I!wanted!to!find!a!solution!where!the!effect!of!the!mimetic!words!could!be!recreated.!I!focused!on!finding!words!that!would!convey!the!manner!in!which!they!died!and!that!would!rhyme!at!the!same!time.!''Vader!ging!grifweg!dood/!Moeder!ging!losweg!dood''!was!the!second!option.!Whilst!searching!for!these!words,!I!came!across!the!work!'grif'!with!the!synonym!'kwiek'.!Although!I!had!lost!the!word!''dead''!I!felt!that!this!translation!was!most!suitable!since!the!words!both!have!one!syllable!and!look!like!they!might!be!mimetic!words.!I!presented!the!translation!to!a!three!Dutch!speakers!and!received!feedback!that!'grif'!and!'kwiek'!were!first!of!all!words!that!are!not!used!daily!and!that!therefore!the!meaning!of!these!words!were!very!vague.!At!the!end,!I!chose!the!very!first!option!where!I!would!use!the!word!'dead'!but!lose!the!mimetic!word!with!the!reason!that!it!is!straightforward!and!is!still!close!to!the!ST.!!*7.2*Cultural*categories***!!!Culturally,!the!Japanese!and!Dutch!have!a!significant!gap,!which!creates!many!translation!problems!in!this!text.!Newmark!defines!culture!as!the!''way!of!life!and!its!manifestations!that!are!peculiar!to!a!community!that!uses!a!particular!language!as!its!means!of!expression''!(Newmark,!p.94).!He!divides!cultural!translation!problems!into!the!following!five!categories:!!!

1) Ecology:!Flora,!fauna,!winds,!plains,!hills!etc.!2) Material!culture!(artifacts)!

a. Food!b. Clothes!c. Houses!and!towns!d. Transport!!

3) Social!culture!_!work!and!leisure!!4) Organizations,!customs,!activities,!procedures,!concepts!

a. Political!and!administrative!!b. Religious!c. Artistic!!

5) Gestures!and!habits!!!!!The!following!are!some!of!the!examples!of!cultural!translation!problems!found!in!Paji:!!!!!

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1)*Ecology*!Ginnan*!ST:!;\I\!!!!!!!!Ginnan!!TT:!Ginkonootjes!(Refer!to!p.60)!!!!!!Ginnan!is!the!fruit!of!the!ginko!biloba!tree!(Ichō!in!Japanese).!In!Japan!it!is!commonly!known!to!have!a!strong!odor,!but!despite!the!odor,!it!is!considered!a!delicacy!when!cooked.!In!the!Western!world,!the!word!'ginko'!evokes!health!supplements!and!not!the!tree,!the!fruit!or!the!odor.!To!avoid!having!to!explicitate!ginnan,!I!first!considered!translating!ginko!to!a!functional!equivalent!as!'durian',!a!fruit!I!was!sure!people!knew!to!be!the!world's!smelliest!fruit.!I!had!changed!the!setting!where!Momo!found!the!ginnan!during!a!walk!to!a!setting!where!they!tried!exotic!fruit!at!the!kindergarten.!Being!familiar!with!toddlers,!I!felt!it!was!very!believable!that!Momo!would!keep!a!piece!of!fruit!in!her!pocket!for!Paji!to!taste.!However,!when!I!gave!the!material!to!read!to!a!few!Dutch!speakers,!they!did!not!know!the!fruit!durian.!Finally,!I!changed!the!setting!back!to!its!original!and!explicitated!the!Japanese!word.!The!solution!I!found!was!to!naturalize!the!word!ginnan!to!ginko,!add!'nootjes'!to!so!that!the!reader!understood!it!was!something!edible,!and!further!gave!an!explanation!in!a!footnote.!!!2)*Material*culture***Gyōza%!ST:a}$��%;V]A���� )]�!!!!!!!Kyō!no!okazu!wa!gyōza!!!!!!!!!!Itadakimāsu!!!!!!(Today's!side!dish!is!dumplings!!Let's!eat)!!!TT:!Croissantje!voor!ontbijt!!Bon!appetit!)!!(Refer!to!p.22)!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Figure!8.!''Spelen!MET!Paji''!p.22!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Although!the!Asian!food!culture!is!becoming!very!popular!in!the!Netherlands,!since!the!average!Dutch!person!doesn't!make!dumplings!at!home,!the!image!that!goes!with!making!them!(illustrated!on!the!picture!on!the!right)!wouldn't!evoke!the!same!effect!as!it!does!for!the!Japanese.!A!croissant!is!an!adequate!functional!equivalent!to!replace!gyōza!as!it!fits!the!image!of!Momo!playing!with!Paji's!hand.!The!translation!of!'bon!appetit'!is!the!cultural!equivalent!for!itadakimasu!(literaly:!I!humbly!receive).!The!choice!of!'bon!appetit'!over!'eet!smakelijk'!is!to!fit!the!imaginary!game!Momo!is!playing!where!she!is!'making'!something!French.!!!!!!!!!!

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Depāto%*ST:!/�,FM]G����-3��!Yosh,!depāto!de!katteyarou!!(All!right,!I'll!buy!it!for!you!at!the!department!store)!!TT:!Goed,!dan!gaan!we!naar!de!Harrods!!!(Refer!to!p.52)!!!!!In!this!story,!Momo!and!Paji!wake!up!early!to!get!a!deal!on!a!doll!she!wants.!Unfortunately,!the!dolls!at!the!special!price!are!out!of!stock!and!Paji!suggest!they!go!to!a!department!store!to!buy!it!for!its!original!price.!A!department!store!evokes!a!sense!of!luxury!in!Japan!and!well!as!in!Holland.!Bijenkorf!for!example!would!be!a!perfect!equivalent!to!a!luxury!department!store!in!Japan.!However,!considering!my!foreignizing!strategy,!it!would!be!unfit!to!convert!depāto!(a!generic!term)!to!something!so!culturally!specific!to!Holland!such!as!Bijenkorf.!The!reason!for!the!choice!of!Harrods!is!because!this!specific!department!store!conveys!the!luxurious!sense!and!is!widely!known!to!the!Japanese!as!well!as!the!Dutch.!Moreover,!it!is!a!believable!conversion!as!Harrods!has!popup!stores!in!Japanese!department!stores.!This!conversion!is!an!adaptation!of!a!cultural!reference.!!!!3)*Social*culture***Senko%hanabi%!ST:!x���4-1)��!!!!!!!!Niwa!de!hanabi!wo!yarimashita!******(They!did!fireworks!in!the!garden)!!TT:!Zomer!is!het!seizoen!voor!vuurwerk!!(Refer!to!p.49)!!!!!!In!Holland,!fireworks!are!associated!with!New!Year’s!Eve!whereas!in!Japan!it!is!in!the!summer!when!firework!shows!are!held.!In!Holland!some!fireworks!are!even!illegal!and!use!of!fireworks!on!an!individual!basis!is!often!associated!with!'hangjongeren'.!In!Japan,!family!pack!firework!sets!can!be!bought!at!supermarkets!and!it!often!goes!hand!in!hand!with!barbeque!gatherings.!Although!the!sentence!in!the!TT!is!not!a!translation!of!the!ST,!it!gives!cultural!information!for!the!reader!who!might!find!it!peculiar!that!Momo!and!Paji!are!playing!with!fireworks!when!it's!not!even!New!Year's!Eve.!This!procedure!is!called!gloss,!which!is!a!part!of!paraphrasing!where!there!is!an!amplification!of!the!meaning!of!a!unit!of!text.!!!!!!!

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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Figure!9.!''Vuurwerk'',!p.49!!4)*Customs,*activities,*procedures*and*concepts***Honoring*the*ancestors**!ST:!e��!!!!!!!!Odekake!!!!!!!!(Outing)!!TT:!Papa!en!mama's!graf!bezoeken!(Refer!to!p.41)!!!!!Throughout!the!series,!Paji's!storyline!is!chronological!in!following!the!seasons.!In!chapter!five!(p.34),!it!is!clear!for!the!Japanese!reader!to!know!that!the!story!is!in!the!month!of!August!because!of!the!shyōryō7uma!(see!p.34).!At!the!end!of!the!chapter!on!p.41,!Momo!and!Paji!visit!the!grave!of!her!parents.!This!scene!has!only!two!lines!of!dialogue,!which!makes!it!difficult!to!incorporate!explanatory!lines!in!the!dialogue.!The!title!of!the!original!translates!to!'an!outing',!but!this!might!be!insufficient!for!the!Dutch!reader!to!understand!what!is!going!on.!Without!much!dialogue,!the!image!of!the!water!splashing!on!the!tombstone!and!the!onomatopoeia!of!the!train!sounds!and!crickets!evoke!the!feeling!you!have!on!a!hot!summer's!day!when!you!take!a!trip!outside!of!the!city!to!honor!the!grave!of!your!ancestors.!That!is,!for!the!Japanese.!Adopting!a!very!oblique!procedure!of!translation!using!explicitation,!I!have!immediately!placed!the!setting!in!the!title!where!normally!images!would!be!enough!for!the!Japanese!reader.!The!tranfser!to!TT!involved!paraphrasing.!!!!!!

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Meimei%*ST:� kh�9R�!!!!!!!!!Meimei!''ga7me''!!!!!!!!!(naming!''ga_me'')!TT:!Hoera!een!schildpad!!We!noemen!hem!Pad!Sakita!!(Refer!to!p.12)!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Figure!10.!''Huis_pad'',!p.12!!!!!!When!a!baby!is!born,!cards!like!the!one!on!the!right!are!made!to!announce!the!newborn's!given!name.!kh simply!means!'naming'!and!is!made!up!out!of!the!characters!'life'!and!'name'.!It!makes!the!naming!of!their!pet!turtle!somewhat!of!an!official!happening.!I!considered!''De!heilige!doop!:!Pad!Sakita''!because!this!had!the!ceremonial!effect!that!kh(meimei)!has.!However,!the!religious!side!of!''de!heilige!doop''!would!be!a!mismatch!to!the!story's!setting.!Compensating!for!the!lost!humor!in!other!scenes,!I!added!''hoera!een!schildpad!''!as!it!would!if!it!were!a!birth!card!announcing!the!sex!and!name!of!a!newborn.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Figure!11.!An!example!of!a!typical!Japanese!birth!card!!5)*Gestures*and*habits***The*bow**

*********!

Figure!12.!''Warenhuis!1'',!p28!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Figure!13.!''Proeven'',!p.!68!!!!!Bowing!is!a!versatile!gesture!used!by!the!Japanese.!It!can!serve!as!a!greeting,!an!acknowledgement,!an!apology!and!is!even!used!to!show!gratitude.!The!subtle!differences!can!be!understood!from!the!context!but!since!bowing!isn't!a!gesture!that!Dutch!readers!are!accustomed!to,!I!have!added!an!explanatory!phrase!on!page!28!to!show!what!the!bow!means.!In!the!above!picture,!Paji!says!''het!spijt!ons!!''.!However,!in!the!original!words!of!apology!are!not!expressed.!The!bow!of!the!manager!in!this!scene!expresses!that!he!really!doesn't!want!Paji!and!Momo!doing!labor,!and!thus!is!begging!them!to!stop.!To!express!this,!I!have!added!'alstublieft'.!!!!!!On!page!68,!Paji!and!Momo!actually!say!�����)���(gochisōsamadeshita),!which!literary!means!'it!was!a!feast'!but!used!to!express!

! 25!

gratitude!for!a!meal!as!well!as!praising!the!meal.!Momo!places!her!hands!together!and!slightly!bows!showing!gratitude.!I!opted!for!''Dank!u!wel''!instead!of!''het!was!lekker''!to!focus!on!Momo's!gesture!of!gratitude.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!*7.3*Word*play***ST:!��&���j5�2¡!!!!!!!!!!''Kaba''!tte!yonderu?!TT:!Noem!je!haar!''Kaba''?!� !(Refer!to!p.26)!!!!!!Here!I!have!translated!it!in!the!same!way!as!I!did!the!name!and!title''Paji''!using!explicitation.!The!joke!in!this!section!is!that!the!combination!of!mother!and!grandmother!in!Japanese!in!the!same!manner!as!''Paji''!makes!''Kaba'',!and!that!kaba!means!hippopotamus!(which!the!grandmother!resembles...).!Although!having!to!explain!the!joke!might!affect!the!humor,!the!readers!will!still!be!able!to!understand!why!it!would!be!so!funny!in!Japanese.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Figure!14.!''Nori's!oma'',!p.26!!!!!A!similar!problem!occurs!where!explicitation!is!necessary!for!understating!on!page!68.!''Momo''!is!a!homonym!for!peach!and!thighs!in!Japanese.!Momo!sees!''momo''!written!on!the!packaging!of!chicken!thighs!but!because!she!is!not!able!to!read!the!word!'chicken'!which!is!written!in!kanji,!she!thinks!that!they!all!belong!to!her.!In!order!to!make!it!clear!that!Momo!is!only!able!to!read!her!name!that!is!written!in!hiragana!without!having!to!explain!the!writing!systems,!I!have!translated!it!as!below.!!!!ST:!++�,5%�o�*"�!!!!!!!!Momo7chan!wa!kanji!yomenai!!!!!!!!(Momo!cannot!read!kanji)!TT:!Ze!kan!alleen!''momo''!lezen!!(Refer!to!p.!68)!*!!!Since!she!is!only!4!years!old,!it!is!understandable!that!she!would!only!recognize!her!name!that!has!been!written!on!all!of!her!things!in!the!kindergarten.!!****The!next!example!is!a!sound/word!play!that!I!have!translated!literally!using!borrowing.!!*!!!Since!the!Dutch!reader!will!most!likely!not!know!what!senko7hanabi!is!(which!I!have!explicitated!as!a!footnote),!they!will!also!not!know!what!kind!of!sounds!are!associated!with!this!particular!type!of!firework.!The!word!play!here!is!that!Paji!thinks!that!she!is!being!poetic!but!Momo!literaly!hears!''paji,!paji''!when!the!firework!is!burning.!A!burning/buzzing!sound!in!Dutch!could!be!conveyed!by!''bzzzzp!bzzzp''!but!then!the!essence!of!this!story!would!be!lost.!Hence,!I!have!

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transliterated!and!have!spelled!''paji''!in!a!way!that!it!both!sound!like!'Paji'!and!something!burning!(please!refer!to!page!49).!!*!7.4*Ateji**!� � PC(maji)!!ST:!��-   !!!!!!!!!Honkki!ya...!TT:!Het!is!menens!!!!(Refer!to!p.62)!!!!!!In!this!case,!there!is!a!difference!between!the!spelling!and!the!traditional!reading!of!the!word!��(honki),!which!means!'serious'.!PC(maji)!has!the!same!meaning!but!falls!under!the!category!slang!as!it!does!not!have!its!own!kanij!and!is!written!in!katakana.!The!effect!this!non_traditional!reading!of!the!word!��(honki)!creates!is!humor!because!it!comes!from!an!elderly!man.!The!gap!between!expectation!and!reality!cannot!be!transferred!into!Dutch!in!the!same!manner.!In!Dutch,!''het!is!menens''!is!not!used!regularly!and!is!now!considered!somewhat!of!an!old!expression.!I!chose!to!use!this!expression!because!it!conveyed!the!meaning!of!the!ST!and!because!it!worked!as!a!compensation!for!the!loss!of!'old_man!speech''!in!all!the!previous!stories.!!� � !

!!!!!!!!!!

Figure!15.!''11.!Sportdag!!'',!p.62!*7.5*Register**ST:!�)1#"1)���¡!Okimari!ni!narimashitaka?!TT:!Meneer,!heeft!u!al!een!keuze!kunnen!maken?!(Refer!to!p.6)!!ST:!g���%�2�!���!Onaji!shurui!wa!arukedo...!TT:!Jawel,!ik!heb!wel!zo'n!schildpad...!(Refer!to!p.7)!!!!!!

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!*********

Figure!16.!''Paji!koopt!een!huisdier'',!p.!!!!!!!''Een!schildpad!verzorgen'',!p.7!!!!!The!shopkeeper!of!the!pet!store!where!Paji!buys!Momo!the!turtle!addresses!Paji!and!Momo!in!two!different!registers.!It!is!required!from!people!to!speak!in!a!respectable!and!polite!manner!to!clients!but!within!this!hierarchy,!there!is!also!the!question!of!age.!On!page!6,!the!shopkeeper!uses!sonkeigo!when!addressing!Paji!whereas!when!talking!to!Momo!on!page!7,!he!doesn't!because!she!is!a!child.!Momo!at!age!4!however!does!address!the!shopkeeper!in!keigo.!As!the!register!difference!cannot!be!expressed!grammatically!for!the!shopkeeper’s!speech,!I!have!added!the!word!'meneer'!and!'u'!to!reflect!his!politeness!towards!Paji.!On!page!7,!Momo!also!addresses!the!shopkeeper!as!'meneer'!but!it!should!be!noted!that!this!is!a!direct!translation!from!the!word!��5(ojisan),!which!means!uncle!but!is!used!by!children!to!address!any!man!who!is!older.!However,!it!would!be!rude!for!the!shopkeeper!to!address!Paji!in!this!manner.!!*7.6*Gender*and*age***a.!ST:![B!!!!!!!!!!Washi!!!!!TT:!Ik!!!!!(Refer!to!p.6)!!!b.!ST:�.� ���5�,�$�   !!!!!!!!!!!Chotto!chigaun!jyaganou...!!!!!TT:!Dat!was!niet!echt!de!bedoeling...!!!!!(Refer!to!p.34)!!c.!ST:X@7<Y��zb1L9:4��1)�$/!!!!!!!!Risaikuru!shite!tezkuri7hagaki!wo!tsukurimasunoyo!!!!!TT:[bij!ons!thuis]!recyclen!we!het!naar!handgemaakte!postkaartjes!!!!(Refer!to!p.58)!!!!!!The!above!three!examples!illustrate!the!translation!loss!as!a!result!of!the!difference!in!speech!regarding!age!and!gender.!In!Japanese,!the!word!'I'!takes!different!forms!according!to!who!is!speaking.!Watashi,!boku,!ore,!watakushi,!washi,!atashi,!are!all!first!person!pronouns.!They!are!designated!to!certain!genders!or!age!but!they!are!also!subject!to!preference.!In!example!a,!it!is!Paji!who!refers!to!himself!as!washi,!a!first!person!pronoun!generally!used!for!elderly!men.!!!!

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!!!Another!way!kids!say!'I'!in!Japanese!is!to!simply!say!their!name!in!third!person.!The!rather!eloquent!Momo!does!this!quite!frequently!and!this!is!almost!the!only!indication!in!her!speech!that!reminds!us!she!is!4!years!old.!!!!!!As!in!example!b,!Paji's!sentences!usually!end!in!the!suffix!''jyanou''!or!''jyaganou''.!This!is!typical!for!elderly!men!but!also!some!women,!although!is!its!characterized!as!masculine.!However,!Haru,!the!only!elderly!woman!in!the!story,!is!portrayed!as!a!soft!and!elegant!lady!and!her!speech!reflects!this!too.!Her!sentences!usually!end!with!the!suffix!''noyo''!and!this!is!characteristic!to!feminine!speech!no!matter!what!age.!!!!!!All!three!examples!above!were!subject!to!translation!loss!since!there!is!no!grammatical!equivalent!in!Dutch.!Thus,!the!subtle!difference!in!speech!between!the!characters!that!form!their!identity!is!lost!in!Dutch.!!!7.7*Constrained*translation***!!!Typologically!speaking,!Japanese!writing!uses!less!space!and!less!individual!characters!than!any!other!language!written!in!roman!letters.!Added!to!this,!the!speech!bubbles!and!text!boxes!(narration)!are!more!vertically!oriented!because!Japanese!is!read!from!top!to!bottom.!This!creates!many!problems!when!translating!because!of!the!limited!space.!!!Solution!1:!Oblique!translation!using!fewer!words!!!ST:wq1��l`��f���   !Toshiyori!ga!entenka!de!undō!shisugi...!(He's!doing!too!much!exercise!for!an!elderly!under!the!blazing!sun)!!(Voor!een!bejaarde!onder!de!felle!zon!doet!ie!te!veel!aan!oefeningen)!!TT:!Paji!heeft!zich!te!veel!uitgesloofd!onder!de!felle!zon…!(Refer!to!p.42)!!!!!!This!strategy!worked!the!best!with!space!constraint!because!rewording!or!finding!shorter!synonyms!would!shorten!the!text!so!that!it!would!fit!in!one!box.!Although!some!words!are!lost!in!the!translation,!the!general!idea!is!transferred.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

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Solution!2:!Widening!the!narrator's!box!!!

!!!

!Figure!17.!''11.Sportdag!!’’!p.62!!!!!!Where!it!was!possible!for!me!to!widen!the!narrator's!textbox!without!affecting!the!images!too!much,!I!used!the!same!software!GIMP!so!that!the!translated!text!would!fit!in.!!!!Solution!3:!Omission!!!!!!Where!the!space!was!too!small!to!fit!the!complete!translation,!words!were!omitted!if!the!story!still!made!sense!without!them.!In!the!scene!on!the!right,!the!space!didn't!allow!the!word!'uitlaten'.!!!ST:!�¡{�¡!!!!!!!!E!?!Sanpo?!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Figure!18.!''Een!schildpad!verzorgen''!p.7!!!!!!!(What!?!A!walk?)!!TT:!Wat...?!!(Refer!to!p.7)!!!!7.8*Proper*nouns***ST:!!'�!!!!!!!!!Paji!!TT:!Paji!!(Refer!to!p.3)!!!For!the!title!character!I!chose!to!borrow!the!word!with!the!reason!that!it!isn't!even!a!real!word!in!Japanese.!This!word!is!the!combination!of!''papa''!and!''ojīchan'',!which!is!the!Japanese!word!for!grandfather.!As!my!intended!audience!is!one!with!an!interest!in!Japan!and!its!culture,!I!have!explicitated!the!meaning!of!

! 30!

ojīchan!underneath!the!box!so!that!the!reader!would!understand!where!the!sound!of!'ji'!came!from.!!!ST:!9R!!!!!!Ga7me!TT:!Pad!!(Refer!to!p.12)!!!!!!The!humor!in!the!fact!that!little!Momo!names!her!pet!turtle!''ga_me''!comes!from!the!fact!that!the!turtle's!biological!name!in!Japanese!is!QBBEN]68QQ9R(!Mississippi!aka!mimi!ga7me,!''Mississippi!red!ear!turtle').!Ka7me!means!turtle!in!Japanese!but!the!consonant!changes!to!g,!ga7me,!when!it!becomes!a!conjoint!noun.!She!thinks!about!it!for!a!while!and!comes!up!with!an!abbreviation.!But!she!simply!names!him!'Ga7me'!which!has!nothing!to!do!with!the!other!information!they!got!from!the!encyclopedia.!The!childlike!simplicity!of!Momo!naming!the!turtle!''Ga7me''!after!having!asked!for!its!official!name!is!an!unexpected!turn,!which!creates!humor.!Although!'Pad'!isn't!the!actual!word!for!turtle,!I!thought!the!simplicity!of!taking!the!last!syllable!of!the!word!schildpad!was!an!appropriate!translation.!!This!procedure!could!be!called!a!calque!since!it!is!a!type!of!borrowing!the!SL!word!structure.!!!!7.9*Typography**

Figure!19.!''Beertje''!p.35!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Figure!20.!''Paji!koopt!een!huisdier''!p.6!!!!!Where!the!translations!of!mimetic!words!were!unusual!for!the!Dutch!reader,!I!have!used!typography!to!reinforce!the!nuance!the!Japanese!mimetic!words!create.!!!ST:��]5!!!!!!!!Gudeen!(Mimetic!word!to!describe!something!or!someone!in!an!exhausted!state)!!TT:!Flop!!!!!Adjusting!the!typography!here!helps!create!the!image!that!Momo's!teddy!bear!can't!sit!straight!up!and!that!it!is!worn!out.!!!ST:!�]����!!!!!!!!!Jī!(Mimetic!word!to!describe!someone!staring)!!TT:!Staar...!!

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!!!Elongating!and!forming!the!word!'staar'!around!Paji's!face!expresses!that!his!gaze!is!fixed!and!long.!This!effect!helps!with!the!understanding!of!Paji's!action!because!'staar'!is!not!a!mimetic!word!one!would!come!across!in!a!Dutch!comic!book.!!!!7.10*Past*tense**

Fig.!21,!22,!23.!''Warenhuis!1''!p.28,!''Een!anzicht_kaart!maken!!''!p.58,!''Schoenen''!p.38!!!!!All!the!square!boxes!in!the!story!is!the!narration!of!a!very!present!third!person.!As!in!the!second!image!above,!the!narrator!even!gives!comments!towards!the!characters.!In!Japanese,!it!is!very!common!to!use!the!past!tense!in!story!telling.!However,!for!the!Dutch!reader!it!might!seem!uneasy!that!the!present!and!past!tense!are!used!together!in!the!same!situation.!I!have!chosen!to!keep!the!tenses!in!the!past!just!like!the!original!because!this!is!a!characteristic!feature!of!Japanese!writing!and!my!translation!leans!towards!a!more!exoticizing!approach.!For!these!cases,!I!have!adopted!a!more!literal!translation!to!keep!the!texts!''Japanese_ness''.!!**8.*Conclusions**!In!what!manner!is!equivalence!realized!in!translating!manga!into!Dutch?!*****Equivalence!is!a!key!concept!in!translation!studies!that!have!sparked!many!debates!and!is!the!evolved!theory!of!the!opposing!'literal'!and!'free'!translation.!Jakobson!distinguishes!the!difference!between!linguistic!meaning!and!equivalence;!Nida's!concept!is!between!formal!and!dynamic!equivalence,!and!Newmark!refers!to!this!as!semantic!and!communicative!translation.!The!theory!of!equivalence!is!based!on!the!theory!of!language!by!linguist!Saussure!who!distinguished!between!the!linguistic!system!which!he!called!langue,!and!specific!individual!utterances!which!he!called!parole.!In!this!theory,!there!is!a!clear!difference!between!the!'signifier'!(the!spoken!and!the!written)!and!the!'signified'!(the!concept),!which!create!the!linguistic!‘sign’!(Munday,!59).!When!this!theory!is!applied!to!translation!studies!in!respect!of!equivalence,!it!means!that!a!TT!can!convey!the!meaning!and!have!the!equivalent!effect!the!ST!has!without!being!linguistically!equivalent.!For!Nida,!an!adequate!translation!achieved!equivalent!effect!or!response!and!there!are!four!basic!requirements!for!a!translation!to!achieve!this:!!!

1) making!sense;!2) conveying!the!spirit!and!manner!of!the!original;!3) having!a!natural!and!easy!form!of!expression;!4) producing!a!similar!response.!!

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!!!I!have!translated!Paji!with!these!requirements!in!mind!whilst!having!a!specific!audience!in!mind,!which!is!a!readership!with!an!existing!interest!in!the!Japanese!language!and!culture.!!!!!In!conclusion,!I!will!answer!the!following!questions!in!order!to!draw!a!global!conclusion!on!the!research!question!here!above.!!!I. How!are!translation!problems!that!are!the!result!of!the!multimodality!of!

the!manga!genre!(image,!text!and!text!a!sound)!solved?!� � � !!!!!Dutch!used!more!characters!and!space!than!Japanese!does!and!this!meant!that!space!limit!was!a!constraint!in!many!cases.!Where!the!image!allowed!for!manipulation!without!interfering!with!the!story,!speech!boxes!could!be!widened!with!a!software!called!GIMP.!All!the!three!elements!of!image,!text!and!text!as!sound!had!to!be!in!sync!in!the!TT!and!how!this!was!achieved!is!explained!further!where!realia!and!onomatopoeia!is!discussed.!!

!II. To!what!extent!is!realia!foreignized!or!naturalized!in!manga!translation!

into!Dutch?!!

!!!The!extent!to!which!realia!is!and!can!be!foreignized!or!naturalized!depends!on!the!skopos!(aim!or!purpose!of!translation).!In!this!translation,!the!aim!was!to!translate!the!work!for!an!audience!that!has!an!already!existing!interest!in!the!Japanese!culture!and/or!language,!thus!maintaining!the!local!color!of!the!work.!However,!in!order!to!for!the!TT!to!make!sense!and!be!read!effortlessly!while!having!to!place!the!text!in!a!limited!space,!realia!have!had!to!be!naturalized!where!the!images!allowed!it.!The!main!difference!between!realia!that!have!been!foreignized!and!naturalized!is!their!value!in!the!context!and!for!the!whole!story.!!Realia!that!did!not!have!a!significant!cultural!value!and!for!which!there!was!an!adequate!equivalent!existed,!and!that!also!matched!the!images!were!translated!using!the!adaptation!procedure.!For!the!realia!that!were!judged!essential!for!the!story!and!spirit!of!the!original,!several!explicitation!procedures!were!applied!such!as!explicitation!using!a!footnote,!incorporating!information!in!the!speech!boxes!or!clarifying!the!situation!of!event!in!the!title.!For!the!translation!of!Paji,!the!majority!of!the!realia!were!maintained!and!explicitated.!!

!III. How!is!humor!maintained!in!manga!translation!into!a!language!such!as!

Dutch!that!is!typologically!and!culturally!significantly!far!from!Japanese?!!

!!!Linguistic!universalism!considers!that!even!though!languages!can!differ!in!the!way!they!communicate!meaning,!there!is!a!more!or!less!shared!way!of!thinking!and!experience!the!world!(Munday,!59).!This!universalism!offers!the!ability!of!humor!to!be!translated!into!another!language.!However,!humor!is!not!merely!subjective!but!often!culturally!subjective.!Where!language!linguistic!transfer!wasn't!sufficient!and!where!untranslatability!occurred,!explicitation!was!used.!Explanation!often!takes!away!the!humor!of!jokes!but!since!the!untranslatable!humor!often!involved!world!play!specific!to!Japanese,!explicitation!in!footnotes!was!appropriate!for!the!intended!audience.!!!!!!IV. To!what!extent!can!onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words!be!translated!into!a!

language!such!as!Dutch!that!make!little!use!of!onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words?!

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*!!!The!result!of!the!translations!of!onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words!was!quite!surprising!in!the!sense!that!omission!occurred!far!less!than!expected.!!In!70!pages,!there!were!123!onomatopoeic!and!mimetic!words!of!which!71!were!onomatopoeia!and!52!mimetic!words.!The!three!most!occurring!solutions!for!onomatopoeic!words!were!1)!onomatopoeia,!2)!omission,!and!3)!interjection.!Although!omission!came!in!as!the!second!most!used!procedure,!it!equaled!to!16%!of!total!of!onomatopoeic!words!and!17%!for!mimetic!words.!!46%!of!the!cases!of!Japanese!onomatopoeia!were!translated!into!Dutch!onomatopoeia!and!13%!into!interjections.!Many!of!the!TT!onomatopoeia!were!inspired!by!existing!words!taken!from!Dutch!comic!books!such!as!Suske!en!Wiske.!The!difference!between!the!Japanese!and!Dutch!onomatopoeia!is!that!the!Japanese!onomatopoeia!are!frequently!used!in!daily!life!whereas!Dutch!onomatopoeia!isn't.!Other!procedures!included!using!verb!stems!and!neologisms!that!would!have!a!similar!effect!as!well!as!using!English!onomatopoeia.!The!result!is!that!although!a!Dutch!readership!would!not!immediately!recognize!all!the!solutions!of!the!Japanese!onomatopoeia,!the!meaning!is!transferred!in!combination!with!the!images!and!context.!The!same!goes!for!mimetic!words!where!non_mimetic!words!were!used!as!a!translation.!What!was!very!effective!was!to!use!the!stems!or!imperatives!of!Dutch!verbs!to!create!'mimetic!words'.!The!translation!of!Japanese!onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words!into!Dutch!proved!to!be!very!realizable!because!of!the!image!that!is!provided!with!it.!Thus,!this!is!applicable!to!manga!translation!but!would!be!very!difficult!to!employ!with!prose!and!poetry!without!images.!!*!!!Although!all!the!mentioned!translation!problems!and!solutions!might!not!appear!in!all!manga!translations!into!Dutch,!it!gives!an!idea!of!how!a!scantlator!might!solve!certain!difficulties.!The!importance!of!knowing!how!to!tackle!a!translation!problem!is!to!have!a!clear!idea!of!who!the!intended!audience!is.!!!!!From!the!findings!on!onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words!of!this!study,!it!could!be!an!interesting!topic!to!conduct!further!research!on!how!the!translations!of!these!words!are!received!by!a!Dutch!audience!with!particular!regards!to!onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words!created!from!verb!stems,!adverbs!and!adjectives!as!well!as!neologisms.!!!!****************

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9.*Bibliography**Baker,!Mona,!and!Kirsten!Malmkjær!(eds).!Routledge!Encyclopedia!of!Translation!Studies.!London:!Routledge,!2001.!Print.!!Bouissou,!Jean_Marie.!''Japan’s!growing!cultural!power.!The!example!of!manga!in!France''.!Berndt,!Jaqueline,!Richter,!Steffi.!Reading!Manga:!Local!and!global!Perceptions!of!Japanese!Comics,"Leipziger"Universit"̈atverlag,"pp.149_165,!2006.!<hal_00972716>!!!Edström,)Bert.)1989.)“Japanese!onomatopoetic!words:!A!research!note”.!Orientaliska!Studier!65:!35–52.!!Flyxe,!Martin.!2002.!“Translation!of!Japanese!onomatopoeia!into!Swedish!with!focus!on!lexicalization”.!Africa&Asia!2:!54–73.!

Gyllenfjell,!Per.!"Case!Study!of!Manga!Translation!Problems."!Thesis.!Dalarna!University,!2013.!Print.!!Heike!Elisabeth!Jüngst.!2004.!Japanese!Comics!in!Germany,!Perspectives:!Studies!in!Translatology,!12:2,!83_105!p.!88!!Huang,!Cheng_Wen.!"Fluidity!of!Modes!in!the!Translation!of!Manga:!The!Case!of!Kishimoto's!Naruto."!Visual!Communication!4th!ser.!13!(2014):!471_86.!Academia.edu.!University!of!Cape!Town.!Web.!21!Feb.!2016.!!!Inose,!Hiroko.!2012.!"Scanlation!7!What!Fan!Translators!of!Manga!Learn!in!the!Informal!Learning!Environment".!In!the!Proceedings!Book!of!IICS!International!Symposium!on!Language!and!Communication:!Research!trends!and!challenges.!Izmir,!Turkey!(June!2012):!73_84!!Inose,!Hiroko.!2008.!Translating!Japanese!Onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words!in!Pym,!A.!y!Perekrestenco,!A.!(Ed.)!Translation!and!Research!Project!1!(2008),!Tarragona:!Universitat!Rovira!i!Virgili:!97_116!

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Munday,!Jeremy.!Introducing!Translation!Studies:!Theories!and!Applications.!London:!Routledge,!2008.!Print.!!Newmark,!Peter.!A!Textbook!of!Translation.!Hemel!Hempstead:!Prentice_Hall!International,!1987.!Print.!!Pra,!Elvero,!Anime!and!Manga,!AnVi!OpenSource!Knowledge.!p.32!!Sell,!Cathy.!"Manga!Translation!and!Interculture."!Mechademia!6.1!(2011):!93_108.!University!of!Minnesota.!Web.!!Svensson,!Mikael.!2012.!Översättning!till!svenska!av!japansk!onomatopoetikon!i!manga.!Kandidatuppsats,!Göteborgs!Universitet.!*Wong,!Wendy!Siuyi.!2007.The!Presence!of!Manga!in!Europe!and!North!America,!RTHK!Media!Digest.!Web.!!****