Geological, mineralogical and geochemical characteristics of oil shale bearing deposits in the...

ELSEVIER PII: SOO16-2361(97)00253-6

Fuel Vol. 77, No. 8, pp. X71-880, 1998 0 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved

Printed in Great Britain 0016-2361/9X $19.00+0.00

Geological, mineralogical and geochemical characteristics of oil shale bearing deposits in the Hatildaa oil shale field, Giiyniik, Turkey

Mehmet Sener and ilker Sengiiler* General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration, Ankara, Turkey (Received 22 May 1997; revised 8 October 19971

The Paleocene-Eocene lacustrine sedimentary succession in the east-west trending Hatildag oil shale field is 800 m thick and divided into the Hasanlar, Kabalar and Daghactlar formations. Oil shale bearing strata is in the middle part of the Kabalar formation. Mineral and maceral types show that the liptinite and bituminite tend to be associated with calcite. The negative correlation between trace elements and organic carbon suggests absence of enrichment of trace elements in oil shales. 0 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved

(Keywords: oil shale; geochemical analysis; petrographic analysis)

INTRODUCTION

During the Paleocene to Upper Miocene, several lacustrine basins were developed in middle and western Turkey. Some of these basins are represented by very important resources of fossil fuel, such as oil shale’,‘. The oil shales in Turkey are generally Middle-Upper Miocene aged, such as Seyitomer-Ktitahya, Beypazari-Ankara, Himmetoglu- Bolu and Paleocene-Eocene aged, such as Hatildag-Bohr, Mengen-Bolu (Figure 1).

This study which has been carried out in the volcanose- dimentary Hahldag-Bolu lacustrine basin of Paleocene- Eocene age, aims to determine lithostratigraphic units and petrographic and geochemical changes in the units and to give detailed descriptions of the organic rocks, emphasizing the relation between organic and inorganic matter.

Geochemical and petrographic analyses have been carried out on the core samples of 10 drillholes from the Hatildag oil shale field in the southeastern Goyniik-Bolu, Turkey. The oil shales occur in a 50-75 m thick calceriferous bituminous limnic series of Paleocene-Eocene age. These series can be divided into two zones: Economic grade oil shale (EGOS) and bituminous marl (BM).

In an attempt to resolve the nature of Hatrldag oil shales, 156 core samples have been analyzed using optical microscopy (under both reflected white light and fluores- cence), XRD, XRF, a.a.s., ultimate analysis and Fischer Assay.

*Correspondence to: MTA Gene1 Miidiirlii$i Eneji Dairesi, 06520 Ankara-Ttirkiye, Tel: (312) 2873430 Ext. 1200; Fax: (312) 2853619; e-mail. [email protected]

TECTONIC SETTING

In northwest Turkey, the Izmir-Ankara suture and ophiolite zone are considered to be lithospheric remnants related to a Jurassic (?Triassic) to Paleocene ocean, the northern branch of Neotethyis3. This ocean which separated the Anatolid platform from Eurasia (Pontides-Sakarya continent), com- menced closure along a north dipping subduction zone in the Late Cretaceous, while initial collision, although poorly constrained, was probably in Paleocene and continued to Early Eocene3.

East and west trending Hatildag oil shale field developed within the Sakarya continent. In the Hatrldag oil shale field, the main tectonic structure affecting the oil shale units is the syncline type folds that is generally parallel to basin axis. The length of this syncline is approximately 16 km and dip of layers 65-70” at the northern part, 30-40” at the southern part of the syncline (Figure 1).

STRATIGRAPHY AND LITHOLOGY

The east and west trending Hatrldag oil shale field is located on the central part of Sakarya continent. The succession is considered to be 850 m in thickness (Izilqay Group) and is divided into Agsaklar, Kabalar and Daghacilar formations of I(lzilGay Group. Red coloured K.rz$ay group has very wide outcrops in the Sakarya continent (Figure 2). The A&klar and Kabalar formations are located in the north and south of Kabalar syncline. The Daghacrlar formation is located in the central part of the syncline.

Klzdsay Group: This group covers a large area in the Sakarya continent. In general, red coloured detritic

Fuel 1998 Volume 77 Number 8 871

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,,.,.l,

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’ c

____

____

_~

_.__

. __

_--

__

Figu

re

1 Th

e lo

catio

n an

d ge

olog

ic

map

of

Haf

ildag

oi

l sh

ale

field

Oil shale bearing deposits in Turkey: M. Sener and i. Sengtiler

T F L

G O h

r S I

M i A 1 t

In e Y G C h

0 E

a m In EXPLANAllON U b k 0

t b e I

P’ r 0 n

0

0 I e

S ” S Y

S Nonscale

Silt&one-sandstone

Bkumlnous Marl-Oil shale

Marl-Mudstone

Figure 2 Stratigraphic section of Hatddag oil shale field


Oil shale bearing deposits in Turkey: M. Sener and i. Sengiiler

Table 1 Organic petrographical analyses results of samples from BM ad EGOS

Sample (m) Litbotype

Organic matter type (~01%)

I H L Pb Bi

Mace& of Liptinite group (vol%)

s+p LD L-alg Col-Alg

133-134 BM

138-139 BM

148-149 BM

161-162 BM

164-165 BM

170-171 BM

177-178 BM

187-188 EGOS

201-202 EGOS

205-206 EGOS

210-211 EGOS

211-212 EGOS

212-213 EGOS

213-214 EGOS

214-215 EGOS

215-216 EGOS

216-217 EGOS

217-218 EGOS

218-219 EGOS

219-220 EGOS

220-221 EGOS

221-222 EGOS

222-223 EGOS

223-224 EGOS

224-225 EGOS

225-226 EGOS

226-227 EGOS

227-228 EGOS

228-229 EGOS

229-230 EGOS

230-23 1 EGOS

231-232 EGOS

232-233 EGOS

233-234 EGOS

t r

r

m

st

st

St

a

St

st

St

st

a

st

st

st

St

a

a

a

St

st

St

st

St

st

St

st

a

St

st

st

st

st

a

m

a

m

t

m

t

t

t

m

t t t t t t t t t t t m

t

m

m

t

m

m

m

t t

m a t

St

st

st t st t st

St

St

st

a

st

st

st

St

st

st

St

st

st

St

St

st

St

st

St

St

st

St

st

st

st

st

st

st

EGOS: Economic grade oil shale, BM: Bituminous marl, I: inertinite, H: Humunite, L: Liptinite, Pb: Prebitumen, Bi: Bituminite, S + P: Spor and Pollen, LD: Liptodetrinite, L-alg: Lamalginite, Col-alg: Colonial alginite (Botryoccocus), t: trace, r: rare, m: middle, a: abundant, st: strike, r: rare, m: middle

sediments are typical characteristic features of this group. In the investigated area, this group can be divided into three formations and one member from bottom to top by the authors.

The Agsaklar formation is located on north and south part of the field (Figure 1). It is 300 m thick and shows a general upwards filling sequence from a recrystallized limestone which have been Jura aged and ophiolithic basement originated basal rounded cobble conglomerate unit and coarse to fine grained sandstone and siltstone. They pass upwards into a dominantly marl member of Kabalar Formation.

The Kabalar Formation is divided into the following lithologic members4 by: Marl member, oil shale member and siltstone member. The marl member is the first lacustrine unit that indicates the formation of the Kabalar paleolake in the Paleocene-Eocene period. This unit, with an average thickness of 100 m, consists of green coloured marl and claystone. It begins with red coloured mudstones intercalated with a few tuffs and ends with marl and

claystones. They pass upwards into a dominantly marl unit with oil shale member. The oil shale member 75 m thick and at the middle part of Kabalar Formation. The member is composed of marl, BM and EGOS intercalated with thin bedded tuff and lignite. The varve-like structures formed by light (grey coloured marl) and dark (brownish coloured BM and EGOS) coloured laminae, are the most common sinsedimentary structures (microslump, microfolds etc.) and microtectonic structure5. The bituminous rocks from Hatildag are mostly brown, brownish gray, dolomitic marl and bituminous marl. Stratification is often indistinct. The lithological characteristics mean that the quality of the low (less than 4%) and medium grade (4-10% oil) oil shale, cannot be determined magascopically, where as the high grade oil shale (more than 10% oil) is usually easily recognizable. Although generally increasing in density of brown indicates increasing content of bituminous matter in the sediments. They pass upwards into a dominantly marl unit with oil shale member. This member upwards into a dominantly siltstone member. The siltstone member

874 Fuel 1998 Volume 77 Number 8

Oil shale bearing deposits in Turkey: M. $ener and i. Sengiiler

Table 2 Mineralogical analyses results of samples from SM, BM, EGOS and MM

Ana cc ch do f man m-i q sm PY

SM SD T T D - CD D SD -

BM SD CD T D T - T T SD T

EGOS A D T CD A - T SD SD T

MM CD T SD T CD -

SM: Siltstone, BM: Bituminous marl, EGOS: Economic grade oil shale, MM: Marl, T: Trace, SD: Subdominant, CD: Codominant, D: Dominant, A: Accessory

Table 3 Arithmetic mean values of elements of samples from Hatlldag oil shale field

Si02

Ti02

A1203

Fe203

MnO

WO CaO

Na20

K20

P205

so3

LO1

AS

Ba

Cr

CU

MO

Nb

Ni

Pb

Rb

SC

Sn

Sr

V

Y

Zn

Zr

oc

Cin

stat

Siltstone

Member

30.56

0.45

9.23

5.13

0.1

8.28

14.01

2.7

2.44

0.05

1.55

25.2

118

293

107

62

6

10

91

15

59

15

22

412

112

10

62

59

2.05

4.68

1.23

Bituminous Shale

19.2

0.3

5.84

3.44

0.15

7.04

25.3

1.66

1.2

0.14

1.85

33.7

50

254

82

40 *

5

86

8

38

8 *

499

73

4

18

15

4.78

7.51

1.25

is at the upper part of Kabalar Formation. This member is 75 m thick. The general lithology of this member is an alternation of a green coloured, siltstone with fine to coarse grained sandstone and mudstone.

ANALYTICAL METHODS

The mineralogical composition of about 28 oil shale samples, collected from BG-9 drillcores, was determined by XRD analysis at General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration of Turkey. For the organic petrography, polished samples were made of Hatlldag oil shales according to do the techniques described in Stach et d6 and Hufnagel’. These samples were examined using reflected and fluorescent light microscopy.

Economic Grade Oil

Shale

16.13

0.24

4.67

3.18

0.01

4.3

29.42

1.58

2.1

0.16

2.34

36.7

50.3

235

81

37.7 *

3.95

103

12

29.5

6

*

430

65

5

15

14

5.63

8.81

1.24

Marl Member

20

0.3

6.5

3.2

0.08

15.5

16.5

2.15

1.21

0.03

1.6

32.5

63

250

97

44 *

6

83

10.5

53.5

10.5

25.5

662.5

90.5

6.5

43.5

40

1.78

9.58

1.18

The chemical composition of Hatlldag oil shales were determined on 106 core samples from BG-9 drillholes by XRF analysis.

The calorific value was determined by calorimeters after BIN 51.900*. Following the practice in Turkey the results are given in Kcal/kg and not, as internationally obligatory, in Kj or Mj/kg. The conversion formula for calorie to joule is:

Kjkg-‘= 4.1868 kcalkg - ’

The content of organic carbon (Corg), is also total organic carbon (TOC) and total sulphur (TS) were carried out on 106 core samples from BG-9 drillhole with LECO-CS analyzer removal of carbonate with dilute hydrochloric acid.



C S Cr Ni cu Zn Ce Nb SC Si Ti Al Fe Mn Na K V Y P U Co As Pb Zr Rb Ba Mg Sr Ca LO

\

\ X 0 0 r ~0s neg x 0 0 Sinifint 0.34 X X

X 0 ----\ x 0 Very Siinificant 0.66 0 0

Very Very Siinificant 0.06 W W

x x 0 0 X oxow xxooow xxoxow X oxow xx0000 xoowo

x x x 0 0 0 0 000000x 0 0 w oooowoxo oxow

x x 0 x 0 x00000 X

x x 0 xxx000 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

x x X oxow owwwwo owwo X oxow owowwoxowwo

x x x x x x x x 0 x X X 0 X

x x x x x 0 x 0 0 owoooxoooox x x 0 0 x 0

oxoxow x 0 w w w w 0 0 0 0 x x w 0 x o\ C S Cr Ni Cu Zn Ce Nb SC Si Ti Al Fe Mn Na K V Y P U Co As Pb Zr Rb Be Mg Sr Ca LOI

Figure 3 Correlation matrix of main and trace elements from XRF and a.a.s. analyses of bituminous rocks in Hatddag oil shale field

The content of retortable oil was determined on 22 selected core samples from BG-7, BG-8, BG-9 drillholes by the classical Fischer and Schrader classical method (IS0 647-1974)9. The water content was determined by centrifugation.

The characterization of the so-called economic grade oil shale, which theoretically can be utilized as fuel or for retorting, must be based on the one hand on the quality of the oil shale and on the other hand on the mining properties, mainly the thickness of the layers in question. A minimum content of 4% oil and a minimum thickness for open cast mining, 5 m assumed are internationally accepted for economical and technological utilization of oil shale, corresponding approximately to 750 kcal/kg (dry) of the oil shale from Hatildag7.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Hatrldag oil shales are composed of liptinite ( > 80%), bituminite (5-10%) and humunite (5-10%). The liptinite group consists of lamalginite ( > 80%), liptodetrinite (.5-10%) and colonial alginite (5-10%). Sporinite is trace amount (Table 1). Bituminite is secondary occurrence which is derived by lamalginite. Classification of oil shales, BS and EOS are lamosite’O.

The siltstone member of Kabalar formation derive mostly from the weathering of the basement rocks. The silt and sand fractions in the study area are composed of quartz and feldspar (50-90%), calcite (20-40%), and trace amounts of dolomite ( < 5%). The clay fractions ( < 2 pm) in this member are composed of smectite ( > 60%), mica- illite (20-40%) and trace amount of chlorite ( < 5%).

The bituminous marl member of Kabalar formation has detritic and authigenic minerals. Detritical minerals are calcite and smectite (40-60%) and trace amount of quartz, mica-illite, chlorite and feldspar. Authigenic minerals are composed of dolomite ( > 60%), analcime (20-40%) and pyrite ( > 5%).

Economic grade oil shales in the oil shale member of Kabalar formation has different mineral assemblages of the other units. The mineral assemblages are composed of calcite ( > 60%), dolomite (40-60%), quartz and smectite (20-40%), accessory amounts of analcime and feldspar (10%) and the trace amounts of chlorite, mica-illite and pyrite ( < 5%). From these minerals; dolomite, analcime and pyrite are authigenic minerals.

The marl member of Kabalar formation has various detritic minerals which are composed of calcite, quartz ( > 50%), magnesite (20%) and trace amounts of feldspar and mica-illite (Table 2).

These minerals assemblages show that the clay minerals are to a large extent of volcanic origin which were deposited as tuffite (smectite and mica-illite). Through the disintegra- tion of Mg-rich mineral such as analcime and chlorite, the formation of dolomite and even magnesite, which was subdominated in the marl member.

XRF and a.a.s analyses were carried out on 106 core samples (Table 3). From these analyses, correlation coefficients between main and trace elements calculated and correlation matrix diagram were prepared (Figure 3).

The elemental composition of the complete Kabalar formation varies from marl member to oil shale member and siltstone member. The arithmetic mean SiOZ is 30.56% for SM, 19.2% and 16.13% for oil shale member and 20%



Table 4 Distribution of calorific values of samples from Hatlldag oil shale field

Economic grade oil

Bituminous shale member shale

Drilling No

BG-1

BG-2

BG-3

BG-4

BG-5

BG-6

BG-7

BG-8

BG-9

BG-9

Depth (m)

From To

234 350

119 239

160 260

110 204

137 195

103 193

15 75

50 76

130 238

130 238

Thickness

116

120

100

94

58

90

60

26

100

100

Upper calorific value Depth (m) Upper calorific value @afig) (kcmg)

Min Max Mean From To Thickness Min Max Mean

0 712 20, ***** ***** ***** ***** ***** *****

0 1130 463 159 174 15 613 1130 800

0 1477 532 160 205 45 433 1477 773

0 1861 371 148.1 179.5 31.4 0 1861 771

0 1834 628 137 161.6 24.6 535 1834 980

0 1122 398 136.3 154.5 18.2 500 1122 776

0 2017 503 50 75 25 0 2017 764

0 1649 716 50 733 23 87 1849 754

0 2080 504 186 191 5 679 927 771

0 2080 504 196 234 38 0 2080 793

BG5 BG2 BG1

Figure 4 Stratigraphic correlations of the drill holes in the Hatlldag oil shale field. SM: Siltstone, BM: Bituminous marl, EGOS: Economic grade oil shale, MM: Marl (none scale)

for marl member. Similarly, the other elements content from SM to BM and EGOS, the OC content increases and decreases from SM to oil shale member and increases from from BM and EGOS to MM, the OC content decreases oil shale member to marl member. in the Kabalar formation.

These data show that all the trace elements have a negative correlation with OC and the trace amount of trace elements does not depend on deposition of OC and/or organic matter. Rb, V, Cu, Cr, Pb, Zn, and Ni occur in smectite, Ba and Sr in calcite-dolomite and As in pyrite, because of the chemical composition of these minerals.

In the Kabalar formation, the total sulphur content varies from 0.05-3.61%. The average values are 4.68% for SM, 7.51% for BM, 8.8% for EGOS and 9.58% for MM.

The OC content of the Kabalar formation various from 0.19-16.20%. The arithmetic mean OC is 2.05% for SM, 4.78% for BM, 5.63% for EGOS and 1.78% for MM. Thus,

The oil shale member from BG-7, BG-8 and BG-9 boreholes was almost completely analyzed to determine the calorific value. Altogether 185 determinations were carried out. The range of variations and the upper calorific value of the boreholes is shown in Table 4 and Figure 4. The arithmetic mean of all core samples is 504 k&/kg (dry)



Table 5 Oil content values of samples from Hatrldag oil shale field

Sample well Cm) Lithology

BG7 53-54 EGOS 9.8

BG7 54-5.5 EGOS 10

BG7 55-56 EGOS 11.2

BG7 59-60 EGOS 17

BG7 61-62 EGOS 11.6

BG7 70-7 1 EGOS 6.4 BG7 71-72 EGOS 6.3 BG8 49.5-50 BM 5.4 BG8 59-60 EGOS 13.6

BG8 63-64 EGOS 12.2

BG8 65-66 EGOS 14.1

BG8 70-7 1 EGOS 6 BG8 75-76 BM 5.9 BG9 187-188 EGOS 6.2 BG9 190-191 EGOS 5.5 BG9 213-214 EGOS 9.2 BG9 218-219 EGOS 10.7

BG9 219-220 EGOS 16.1 BG9 224-225 EGOS 5.6 BG9 225-226 EGOS 13.2

BG9 226-227 EGOS 6.7 BG9 229-230 EGOS 5.6

Oil (wt%) Original JW

9.9 10 11.2

17

11.7

6.4

6.4

5.5 13.8

12.3 14.9

6 5.9

6.2

5.6

9.2

10.7 16.1

5.6

13.2

6.8

5.6

Water (wt%)

2.1

2.6

1.6

1.7

2.4

3

2.5

4.9 4.4

3.4 2.2

3.2

3.8 1.2

1.3 1.4

1.4

1.3

1.2 1.2

1.8

1

Spent shale Gas and loss (wt%) (wt%)

82.3 5.8

84.7 2.7

84.8 2.4

78.1 3.2

82.9 3.1 87.1 3.5

87.9 3.3 87.5 2.2

78.3 3.7

82.3 3.1

80 3.7

88.4 2.4 87.9 2.4

90.1 2.5

90.2 3

86.2 3.2 84.7 3.2 77.3 5.3

93.2 0 82.8 2.8 88.1 3.4 91.3 2.1

Table 6 The elementel, the total extract and hydrocarbon yields of samples from Hahldag oil shale

C H N 0 S As Sat AI0

Het Asph Loss

HAT-l HAT-2

82.44 81.77 11.31 11.4

1.48 0.93 2.51 4.35 2.37 1.32

**** **** 30.8 35.6 31 23.1 31 30.1

0.7 1.8 6.5 9.4

(=2.11 MJ/kg). The absolute maximum is 2080 kcal/kg ( = 8.7 MJ/kg) from BG-9 for EGOS. But on the whole the quality of the BM from Hatildag is relatively poor and more than 80% of the core samples analyzed are below 750 kcal/kg.

The analyses for oil content were made on 22 selected core samples (Table 5). Oil contents vary from 5.5% to 17% (air dried basis) in the Kabalar formation. The arithmetic means are 10.37% for EGOS from BG-7 borehole, 9.73% for EGOS from BG-8 borehole and 8.77% for EGOS from BG-9 borehole but 5.3% ( = 58 h/ton) for the study area.

The elementary composition of the oil shale was determined on 2 samples from the BG-9 borehole (Table 6). The sulphur content varies from 1.32 to 2.37% which is relatively high. The concentration of arsenic, harmful as a catalyst poison, is below the detection limit of 0.05% These figures suggest that the shale oil from the EGOS as a possible syncrude needs no special upgrading before further utilization. The density of shale oil at 15°C is 0.912 g/ml.


The organic-geochemistry of shale oils from EGOS was investigated by Dr Wehner (BGR in Germany). The composition of the different hydrocarbon classes varies considerably, depending partly on the chemical composition of the oil shales and partly on the usual variation of the applied technique analyses (TubZe 6). The samples exhibit the typical properties of the organic material:

relatively high amount of unsaturated hydrocarbon and asphaltene is very low amount.

In general the content of OC of a sediment depends on the amount, type and maturity of the organic matter. It is similar to the calorific value, a parameter of the total energy content of the rock. In a bituminous sediment the OC composes pyrolizable, mainly bituminous and non- pyrolizable organic matter. The proportion of pyrolizable to non-pyrolizable OC depends on the kind and maturity of the organic material and is constant if the composition is homogenous. Consequently, the content of OC is a useful parameter for the quality of a bituminous sediment or an oil shale”.

Although the organic matter of the bituminous beds from Hatildag formed in a lacustrine and limnic environment are of relatively heterogeneous composition and origin. The content of OC correlates with the oil content and calorific value. These relationships can be used to estimate the oil content (Figure 5) and the calorific value (Figure 6) from the content of OC for the Hatlldag bituminous rock. The relationships between calorific value and the oil content to the content of OC must however be established for each deposit by a sufficiently large number of analyses of the different parameters on identical samples. Then the content of OC alone may be sufficient to estimate the calorific value and the oil content.

Organic petrography studies are mainly restricted to the


0 500 1000 1500 2cm 2soo

CaIortIk Vdua ( KaUkg)

Figure 5 Relationship of the oil content from the gross calorific value 0 5lm loo0 1500 2cm 2YJo

upper-v~(Kcaykg)

bituminous sequence of BG-9 which is a good example for the oil shale deposit of Hatlldag, since all types of bituminous sediments might occur in this profile like the chemical analyses, the petrographic whole rock sections were also prepared from the same representative 1 m core samples. Therefore it is possible to compare chemical and organic petrographical results.

The organic matter of the bituminous sediments or the oil shale from Hatlldag mainly consist of liptinitic components, which are derived from hydrogen-rich organic remains, like algae and pollen. Humic organic material, derived from plant fragments that originally contained lignin, carbohydrates or tannins, occurs with one exception secondary constituent. Bituminite originated from lipidic floral and fauna1 source material by microbial activity during sedimentation or in early diagenesis.

The liptinitic organic matter is composed of material of different origin. The pollen as allochthounous component is derived mainly from trees which mostly grew apart around the lake, whereas the algae can be considered as authoctounus lake element. The algae can generally be classified as unicellular, colonial and laminated types. The former two classes are mainly of planctonic origin, the latter covered mainly the surface of the lake bottom forming occasional mats. The colonial algae from Hatildag consist mainly of Botryococcus”.

From the organic petrographic studies several conclu- sions can be drawn:

The main source material for the oil yield by retorting and also for the total energy content is the liptinitic organic matter. Apart from the laminated algae, unexpectedly the conifer pollen is important, especially in the low grade oil shale where it is the only source. Laminated algae are present in the whole section, but occur in considerable amounts in the EGOS level. When the laminated algae are the main component of the organic material, the content of OC and the oil content can reach considerable amounts. This is the case from 210-220 m where the laminated algae occur nch forming. Normally the organic material was sedimented in a lake-like environment together with a variable amount

Figure 6 Relationship of the gross calorific value from the organic carbon

of clay (smectite, mica-illite and chlorite) and the other inorganic constituent (analcime, quartz, calcite, dolomite, feldspar, etc.).

The water depths of the lake are not known, but a variable thickness between some dm and some m is very probable, bigger depths are unlikely. During the deposition of the sediments between 210 and 220 m the water layer was very thin to form algal mats and even drying off should have been possible.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful for many helpful discussion with Dr H. Hufnagel, Dr J. Koch and H. Hildebrand of BGR, Germany. Their thanks are also extended to Dr H. Wehner of BGR and Professor Dr M.N. Giindogdu of Lafarge, France.

REFERENCES

1 Sener, M., Sengiiler, 1. and Kijk, M., Fuel, 1995, 74(7), 999.

: s ener, M. and Giindogdu, M.N., Fuel, 1996,75( 1 l), 1313.

$engGr, A.M.C. and Yllmaz, Y., Tectonophysics, 1981, 75, 181.

4 Sener, M. and Sengiiler, i., MTA Technical Report, 1992, 9445.

5 Sener, M., Ph.D. Thesis, Hacettepe University, Ankara, 1992.

6 Stach, E., Mackowsky, M., Teichmuller, M., Taylor, G. H., Chandra, D. and Teichmuller, R., Coal Petrology, 3rd edn., Bomtraeger, Stuttgart, 1982.

7 Hufnagel, H., Investigation of oil shale deposits in western Turkey. Technical report part 2, Project No. 84. 2127.3. BGR, Hannover, 1991.

8 DIN 51 900. Priifung fester und fliissiger Brennstofe- Bestimmung des brennwertes mit dem Bomben- Kalorimeter und Berechnung des heizwertes. Teil 1 bis 3. Berlin 1977.



9 180-647-1974 (E): Brown coals and lignites-deter- 10 Hutton, A.C., Abstract booklet of composition, geochemis- mination of the yields of tar, water, gas and coke try and conversion of oil shales; NATO Advanced Study residue by low temperature distillation. First Edition. Institute, Turkey, 1993. 1974. 11 Hufnagel, H. and Porth, H., Geol. Jb., 1989, B70, 348.


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