Fournier, P. and V. Velasquez S.H. Mexico: Historical Archaeology. In Encyclopedia of Global...

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Claire Smith

Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology

10.1007/978-1-4419-0465-2_1394

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014

Mexico: Historical Archaeology

Patricia Fournier 1 and Verónica Velasquez S. H.2

Posgrado en Arqueología, Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia, México, DF, Mexico

Department of Archaeology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

Patricia Fournier (Corresponding author)Email: [email protected]: [email protected]

Verónica Velasquez S. H.Email: [email protected]

Without Abstract

Introduction

Historical archaeology is a relatively new research field in Mexico. In the past, it was overshadowed by the

archaeology of pre-Hispanic cultures, which served the State purpose of constructing a unified national identity.

Today, the archaeology of the recent past is a well-recognized research strategy and considered necessary for the

protection and investigation of the material remains dating to the Colonial and Republican periods. Initially, the

archaeology of these periods was related to restoration projects and to rescue archaeology in urban centers. Over

the years, however, the number of research projects with scientifically informed questions in both urban and rural

areas has expanded, focusing on regional studies, settlement patterns, excavations at religious and secular sites, and

the exploration of themes related to colonialism, identity, and consumerism, among others. Even though academic

interest in the archaeological study of historical periods has increased over the past decade, there is much to be

done as new research questions and topics arise which aim to contribute to a more complete narrative of Mexico’s

multicultural past and identity (Fig. 1).

Mexico: Historical Archaeology, Fig. 1

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Mexico with areas and important places mentioned in the text

Definition

The term historical archaeology in the New World and specifically in Mexico traditionally refers to the study of the

material remains that pertain to the periods that follow the cultural contact between European and Native

populations and the impact that the colonization processes had on both groups. The subject matter of historical

archaeology in Mexico comprises the archaeological remains and documentary sources of Indigenous and

European origin from the Colonial period (c.1519–1521 to 1820) and to the Republican era (1821 to the present)

(Charlton & Fournier 2008).

Historical Background

Since its early development, archaeology in Mexico has been linked to the interests of the State. The research

agenda and results derived from archaeological research have been used by the State to construct a national

ideology through the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) whose mission is to preserve,

reproduce, and study this identity. Pre-Hispanic remains pertaining to an indigenous cultural heritage have been

used by the State to reaffirm and glorify a native past, and thus, the periods predating the Spanish conquest have

been traditionally considered the subject matter of archaeology. As a result, generally the limited funding destined

for archaeological research has been granted mostly to projects that focus on pre-Hispanic sites, relegating the

study of the postconquest era to local ethnohistorians and historians. This contrasts sharply with projects conducted

by American archaeologists who may be funded with larger resources for the study of the remains pertaining to the

Mexican Colonial and Republican periods (e.g., Charlton & Fournier 2008; Charlton et al. 2009). However, the

situation has been changing in recent times.

Historical archaeology is a relatively new research strategy in Mexico. The first approach to archaeological

contexts from the colonial period dates to the 1930s, represented by studies of historic ceramics found in

excavations in downtown Mexico City designed to understand technological and stylistic changes of postconquest

Aztec ceramics (e.g., Charlton & Fournier 2008). However, it was not until the early 1970s when the archaeology

of historic sites acquired relevance in Mexico. This resulted from the discovery of the Aztec main temple (Templo

Mayor) and from several public works projects in Mexico City, such as the construction of the subway, and from

conservation projects in the Metropolitan cathedral and in the National Palace. The excavations in these sites

uncovered material culture from historical periods that had been overlooked by archaeologists in previous decades

and awoke the interest of some researchers to develop typologies of historic ceramics (e.g., Charlton et al. 2009)

(Fig. 2).


Remnants of the Aztec Main Temple (Templo Mayor) in Mexico City



Since 1972, Mexican legislation requires that archaeologists protect and conduct research of both pre-Hispanic and

historic remains threatened by contemporary public works. This has promoted the interest of Mexican

archaeologists to study them under a legal framework and the supervision of a government agency, the Instituto

Nacional de Antropología Historia (INAH) (Fournier & Charlton 2012). By the late 1970s, historical archaeology

was a consolidated research strategy in Mexico, and trained archaeologists were put in charge of the excavations in

buildings dating to the Colonial and Republican periods that were subject to restoration.

Through INAH’s Office of Salvage Archaeology, historical archaeology has been linked to rescue and salvage

excavations conducted in religious and secular buildings in Mexico City. An interesting case study is that of the

convent of La Encarnación where the skeletal remains of nuns were discovered in graves (e.g., Charlton et al.

2009). Some important projects have been developed in areas outside the capital, for example, at the site of El

Olimpo in the main square of Mérida, Yucatán, the city of Campeche, and in the Soconusco region in Chiapas,

where a Dominican church was explored archaeologically prior to the construction of a dam (e.g., Charlton et al.

2009; Fournier & Velasquez in press). Also, the rescue excavations at the site of Santa Inés, located in the

neighboring area of the Augustinian monastery of Zempoala, Hidalgo, revealed a late postclassic and early colonial

indigenous town inhabited by the Otomí. The archaeological materials that were recovered at this site suggest that

the life of the native inhabitants of this settlement continued after the conquest without major changes (Fournier &

Charlton 2012). Moreover, the INAH Project for urban archaeology has excavated extensively the historic center

of Mexico City. Even though the main purpose of this project is to uncover material remains from the Aztec

occupation period, research on historic ceramics and zooarchaeological and botanical remains has also been

conducted (e.g., Fournier & Velasquez in press) (Fig. 3).


Santa Inés site, Hidalgo. Excavation of early colonial houses and patios

Many historical archaeology projects have also developed from the need to preserve and restore monasteries,

convents, hospitals, churches, and palaces in urban centers. These projects adapt the buildings to public or private

use such as museums, universities, banks, government offices, or hotels and to promote tourism in Mexico City,

Oaxaca, Puebla, and Cuernavaca, in the State of Morelos (e.g., Charlton et al. 2009; Fournier & Charlton 2012).

These investigations have integrated archaeological, documentary, and ethnohistorical data in the study of material

remains from the sixteenth to the twentieth centuries (Charlton & Fournier 2008). A good example of how

archaeological research was conducted parallel to the agenda established by architectural restoration can be

observed in the convent of San Jerónimo in Mexico City (e.g., Charlton et al. 2009). Here, the main objective of

the project was the restoration of the architectural complex, but also archaeological remains were excavated and

ceramics, glass, and human remains analyzed. Another example of how this research strategy was parallel to

restoration projects is the monastery of Santo Domingo de Guzmán in Oaxaca (Fernández Dávila & Gómez Serafín

1998) (Fig. 4).




Glazed earthenware bathtub excavated at one of the cells of the convent of San Jerónimo, Mexico City

Key Issues/Current Debates

Regional Studies

The most relevant regional studies of historical archaeology are those by Thomas H. Charlton in the Otumba area

in the Basin of Mexico. They include intensive surface surveys, surface collections, and excavations along with

ethnohistorical studies of the region. The project aimed at reconstructing aspects related to the cultural contact

between Indigenous and European populations, acculturation processes, demographic collapse, ecological change,

and the development of rural settlements (e.g., Charlton et al. 2005). Another important regional study attempted to

reconstruct the changes in settlement patterns, ceramic diversity, and consumption from the postconquest period to

the twentieth century in the northwest of the States of Puebla and Tlaxcala and in southern Hidalgo (e.g., Fournier

& Charlton 2012). Also in the Basin of Mexico in the case of rural Xaltocan, the work by Rodríguez-Alegría

(2010) contributed to the understanding of how indigenous groups utilized Hispanic ceramics as symbols of social

status. His research has enabled the comprehension of changes in labor patterns and demography by examining the

production of obsidian tools during the postconquest period (Rodríguez-Alegría 2008).

In the Mezquital Valley, Hidalgo, research projects with an interdisciplinary approach, addressed the construction

of Otomí indigenous identities and the emergence of resistance strategies to the Spanish conquest. These

investigations considered the agave exploitation and the consequences of the introduction of ideological and

economic systems, marked by Otomí family chapels and rural settlements, as well as the development of privately

owned rural residential estates associated with animal husbandry and agricultural activities (haciendas) and

ranches resulting in landscape transformations and the marginality of the indigenous population in this region (e.g.,

Mondragón et al. 1997; Fournier & Mondragón 2003) (Fig. 5).




Ruins of a nineteenth century ranch in the Mezquital Valley, Hidalgo

Other examples of regional studies integrating surface surveys, excavations, and documentary evidence were

conducted in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Oaxaca (Zeitlin 2005), the Soconusco region, Chiapas (Gasco 2005), and

the Maya region (Alexander 2012). These investigations examined changes in social inequality, land tenure,

landscape, settlement patterns, and ecology to address the transformations that occurred in indigenous communities

during the colonial period. In the case of western Mexico, regional projects in the Pátzcuaro Basin, Michoacán,

have approached the political, economic, and ecological impact of colonial rule and the conflict between Tarascan

indigenous groups and Spanish settlers (Pollard 2005). In the port of San Blas, on the coast of Nayarit, a major

trading post connecting the Pacific Coast of New Spain with the California missions, surface surveys have

provided information on the daily lives of the inhabitants of this bay and aspects related to the trans-Pacific trade

networks between Mexico and Asia (e.g., Fournier & Charlton 2012).

The study of Jesuit missions, particularly the Jesuit College of San Felipe and Santiago in Sinaloa de Leyva and

towns in the neighboring region of El Fuerte, Sinaloa, has contributed significantly to the archaeology of

northwestern Mexico (e.g., Fournier & Charlton 2012). These research projects have provided information on the

changes from pre-Columbian to historic indigenous and Hispanic ceramic traditions, and on the changes in

subsistence strategies and settlement patterns during the colonial and Republican periods (Fig. 6).


Excavations at the Jesuit church of Sinaloa de Leyva

Rural Settlements. Ranches and Haciendas

Studies with a regional scope and that have focused their interest on rural settlements like ranches and haciendas

are part of a growing field in the archaeology of Mexico. Several projects have been developed in the Mezquital

Valley, State of Hidalgo (Fournier & Mondragón 2003); in the hacienda of San Miguel Acocotla, Puebla (Newman

2010); and in the hacienda de Pánuco, Zacatecas, founded for smelting and refining silver (Fournier & Blackman



2010). The research undertaken in these areas relate to the construction of ethnic identities, the economic activities,

and the life of workers, administrators, and owners at the haciendas (Fig. 7).


Ruins of the hacienda de Pánuco, Zacatecas

Other projects have concentrated in Yucatán. These investigations aim to understand the social and economic

changes that occurred during the past 500 years related to settlement patterns, towns, and the exploitation of natural

resources. The investigations combined documentary sources with settlement patterns and household archaeology.

Major contributions to the archaeology of this region addressed the changes in the economic and political

landscape during the Caste War (1847–1901) and the correspondence regarding place, identity, agrarian practice,

and landscape since the Spanish conquest (Alexander 2012). Furthermore, in Hacienda Tabi, Sweitz (2012)

examined the lives of the workers and explored the built environment to address power relations and changes in

social status, production, and the organization of labor in the context of capitalism.

Colonialism, Production, and Consumerism

Studies that have dealt with the impact of Spanish colonialism have addressed changes in the production and

consumption of material culture, namely, ceramics and other products like salt. These investigations have focused

their attention on the changes in indigenous technologies, the introduction of European techniques, and the use

given to local and imported ceramics by colonial society.

Artifacts such as Aztec tradition ceramic figurines from the Basin of Mexico have been studied, illustrating

changes and continuities in styles and techniques as well as the appearance of European dress and facial features

substituting pre-Columbian deities in the case of anthropomorphic figurines (Charlton et al. 2005). Research on the

impact of colonialism on indigenous ceramic production and consumption is well exemplified by studies that have

considered the red wares from Cuauhtitlán. The results of these studies suggest that ceramic traditions from the late

postclassic period suffered only minor changes during Spanish rule and that this ware was popular among members

of the Hispanic elite who used it for lavish display (e.g., Charlton & Fournier 2011). Furthermore, the patterns of

consumption of this ware have enabled the exploration of the relationship between these ceramic objects and the

construction of power, social status, and ethnic identities. The changes that were introduced by the Spanish

colonizers to indigenous ceramic technologies, vessel forms, and decorative styles in central Mexico have also

been the subject of an extensive study by Hernández (2012). Other examples of this approach include studies of

indigenous plain or painted wares from Oaxaca (Zeitlin 2005) and brown wares from northern Mexico (Brown et

al. 2004) (Figs. 8 and 9).




Early colonial ceramic figurines from Mexico City


Early colonial redware tripod plate depicting an Aztec Warrior, found in excavations in Mexico City

The application of archaeometric techniques through neutron activation analysis of glazed wares has provided rich

insights into the relationships between production, distribution, consumption, and technological change of Spanish

colonial wares. Another important ongoing research deals with the identification of production centers of majolica,

its commercialization in the Viceroyalty of New Spain, and aspects related to consumerism and the construction of

identities. Potters in New Spain adapted European ceramic technologies to the new environment in order to

manufacture objects in a style that emulated Spanish majolica and by the 1600s Chinese porcelain in order to

satisfy local consumers (e.g., Fournier et al. 2009). The identification of production centers in Spain and Mexico

have enabled the construction of the geographical distribution of majolica and aspects related to commercialization

and consumption, indicating that the value attached to majolica by colonial elites as a symbol of social status and

identity impacted the production of this ware (Fig. 10).


Seventeenth-century Kraak porcelain dish and Puebla Blue-on-White majolica dish emulating Chinese patterns

In addition to these studies, the work by Gasco (1992) explored cultural continuity in Ocelocalco, Chiapas. At this

site, indigenous communities were active participants in the colonial economic system through the cacao trade. The

control exercised by these groups over cacao production enabled them to consume large quantities of majolica and



Chinese porcelain. Gasco’s work has contested traditional views that have established a straightforward

relationship between ethnic identity and material culture of a Hispanic tradition. Also, within the field of

colonialism and consumerism, Palka (2005) examined the responses of Lacandón Maya in Chiapas to colonialism

during the nineteenth century that resulted in culture change, transformations in settlement patterns, and

consumption of local and imported material culture. Finally, Kepecs (2005) explores aspects related to the

commercialization and consumption of salt, for example, and the impact of European incipient capitalism on Maya

economy in the Peninsula of Yucatán.

Missions, Presidios, Reales, and Roads

Historical archaeology at missions (European religious foundations in indigenous settlements), presidios (forts that

housed soldiers who protected the inhabitants from Indigenous assails), reales (mining centers), and roads is

mainly concentrated in northern Mexico, including Chihuahua, Baja California, Sinaloa, Sonora, and Zacatecas.

The research conducted at mission sites offers a valuable opportunity to explore the religious, economic, and social

transformations in the lives of indigenous populations as a result of the Spanish conquest. Acculturation processes,

the degree of interaction between native and Hispanic communities, the transformations in social organization,

settlement patterns, subsistence and the introduction of agricultural practices, and the development of ceramic

traditions are some of the major research topics conducted at mission sites (e.g., Brown et al. 2004; Fournier &

Charlton 2012; Fournier & Velasquez in press).

The missions and the presidios were connected with other regions of New Spain and with the reales in the north

through major roads, like the Royal Road or Camino Real de Tierra Adentro and its branches, over which the silver

extracted from the mines in the north was transported to Mexico City and the merchandises made in the

Viceroyalty or imported from Europe and Asia were distributed, supplying avid consumers all over Mexico. The

archaeological research at these sites has contributed significantly to the reconstruction of changes in the

production and commercialization of products throughout the colonial period (e.g., Brown et al. 2004; Fournier &

Velasquez in press).

The African Diaspora

There are few projects dedicated to the study of the African descendants in Mexico. This is due in part to the

difficulty encountered in the identification of the material culture of groups with African ancestry in the

archaeological record because of the interracial and cross-cultural processes among African, Indigenous, and

Hispanic groups throughout the colonial period. Despite this, Fournier and Charlton (2008) have addressed how

slaves and their offspring who served Spanish women, for example, were richly attired for public display and stood

as symbols of social status in urban settings. Other investigations have focused on the analysis of the remains of

Africans and mulattos contributing to the understanding of their lifestyles (e.g., Gallaga Murrieta 2009).

International Perspectives

Historical archaeology projects in Mexico have been confined largely to the study of sites located within the

geographical boundaries of the country, although there have been exceptions to this, where Mexican and American

archaeologists have collaborated to expand investigations into the United States. Researchers in Mexico seldom

expand their area of interest to regions that were at one time under the political control or responsibility of New

Spain, for example, Guatemala and Florida, respectively, and that were part of a complex network that connected

individuals and products. These regions have an enormous potential for exploration of processes like the

establishment of religious and secular institutions, commercial relationships, conflict, navigation, regionalism, and

the construction of ethnic identities, among others.

Since the 1970s, processualist, materialist, structuralist, and, to a lesser extent, postmodernist frameworks, derived

from American, English, and French traditions, have permeated the theoretical development of archaeology in

Mexico. However, while these approaches are familiar to most archaeologists in the country, they are seldom

applied to specific research questions or to the interpretation of the results. Moreover, as opposed to the United

States and Europe where there are important theoretical contributions, in Mexico, there is an urgent need to protect

the cultural heritage and to develop more theoretical and methodological schemes. A critical situation that has

affected the dissemination of methodological developments and the results derived from research projects

conducted by Mexican students and professional archaeologists is that their work is seldom published in languages

other than Spanish, or presented at international symposia, and thus their international impact is limited.



Future Directions

In the future, historical archaeology in Mexico should develop investigations with specific research questions with

an emphasis on studies with a regional scope in rural areas as most projects have concentrated in urban centers,

mostly in Mexico City. The design of projects with specific research questions should provide better results that

are often not attainable through salvage and rescue excavations, as the results of these are often limited to the

production of descriptive field reports. The archaeological materials recovered at these excavations are processed

but seldom subject to further analysis and interpretation. This is a crucial task for the development of the

discipline, since it is a fertile setting where contemporary theoretical and methodological approaches can be

applied.

INAH’s need to protect the cultural heritage and construct a common past, largely based on pre-Hispanic cultures,

has relegated the study of the Colonial and Republican periods to historians and ethnohistorians. This constitutes a

major hindrance for students and scholars who are interested in conducting archaeological research of the

postconquest and modern periods. Therefore, it is necessary to emphasize the potential that this research strategy

has for the study of the recent past. This could be attained through the dissemination of the results through a wider

variety of local journals and finding new forums in which to present them to the public. While there are some

optional modules on historical archaeology offered at the National School of Anthropology and History in Mexico

City and at the University of the Americas, in Puebla, it is necessary to create compulsory theoretical and practical

modules as part of undergraduate programs to train students in this research area.

Interdisciplinary approaches have been traditionally employed in the historical archaeology of Mexico, by

integrating archaeological, ethnohistorical, historical, ethnographic, and zooarchaeological studies. Human

osteology and bioarchaeology are usually applied to the analysis of human remains pertaining to historic periods to

explore health conditions, life expectancy, nutritional aspects, and the effects of toxic agents on the populations

under study (e.g., Fournier & Charlton 2012). However, these studies are usually conducted by physical

anthropologists and done independent of archaeological studies and thus their scope is limited to understanding the

social context. In recent years, the application of GIS and geophysical techniques have been applied often in rescue

and salvage excavations and in the restoration of buildings. However, the main objective has been to recover as

much data as possible without further archaeological interpretation of the results, thus limiting the potential that

these techniques have. In the future, it will be necessary to apply them to well-defined research questions.

There are few investigations that have been conducted at industrial sites. To date, they include a paper mill in

Mexico City, leather tanneries and bottled soda factories in Puebla (e.g., Fournier & Charlton 2012), surveys,

excavations, and PIXE analyses of artifacts at the mining district of Real del Monte close to Pachuca, Hidalgo

(e.g., Oviedo Gámez et al. 2010). This research has aimed at reconstructing the productive processes and studying

in detail the artifacts associated with the end products. However, it is necessary to conduct more studies in this

field that focus on aspects related to the life of workers and artisans as these provide insights into an important

component of the past of Mexico that is seldom the subject of research projects.

As historical archaeology expands in Mexico and stands as a recognized research strategy, more Mexican students

and scholars can become aware of the need to conduct archaeological research on the Colonial and Republican

periods and can begin to realize that the study of the recent past is as important as that concerned with pre-Hispanic

cultures. If this is acknowledged, then historical archaeology research projects could be incorporated into the

institutional agenda. This would enable the reassessment of the national discourse that aims to construct a unified

identity, based on the ancient indigenous past, and include a more culturally diverse one. Also a larger

collaboration between Mexican scholars and scholars abroad should be aimed at developing projects with a wider

regional scope. The potential that historical archaeology has for exploring topics that are relevant to local and

international debates such as colonialism, racism, plantation archaeology, identity, gender, and conflict among

others is yet to be explored.

Cross-References

African Diaspora Archaeology

Archival Research and Historical Archaeology

Ceramics: Majolica in Colonial Latin America

Ceramics: The Ibero-American Shipping Container

Charlton, Thomas H.

Chinese Porcelain: Late Ming (1366–1644) and Qing (1644–1911) Dynasties



Fournier, Patricia

Goggin, John M.

Industrial Archaeology

Mission Archaeology in North America

Museos de Real de Monte

New Spain: Forts and Transport Archaeology

Oral Sources and Oral History

Plantation Archaeology

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Further Reading

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