Football and Cosmopolitanism: The Essence of the European Experience

Football and Cosmopolitanism:

The Essence of the European

Experience

How Football Illustrates that Europe its Best Defined

through its Diversity

Calabretta & Bandekhodaei Diaz 1

Nick Calabretta and Ismael Bandekhodaei Diaz

Professor Tanya Taylor

HUMA 2195 9.0A

Wednesday, April 18, 2012

Football is the world’s window into Europe and Europe’s

mirror onto herself. Accordingly, European culture is on display

in the football stadia across Europe. It is also in such stadia

were cultural perceptions of what it means to be European are

formulated. Thus, an analysis of football is indispensable for

the task of defining Europe because the culture of football is

the culture of Europe. Contrary to those who propagate the

popular belief that Europe is a homogenous ‘culture-area’;

football illustrates that Europe is distinguished in its

diversity. Hence, it is argued that Europe is best defined not

through opposition to an external ‘other’ but through

cosmopolitanism. However, the reaction of football fans to this

diversity reveals that Europeans are struggling to reconcile the

Europe of the popular imaginary with its cosmopolitan reality.

Therefore, within Europe there is a conflict, visible in

football, between the illusion that there exists a homogenous


European culture and the reality that Europe is characterized by

its cosmopolitan nature. Only if Europe ceases to define itself

against to cultural ‘others’, and accepts its cosmopolitanism,

can Europe accommodate its diversity.

The European Narrative

The Europe of the popular imaginary is believed to

represent a developed culture that can be found in a particular

geographical area. Terry Jordan argues that Europe can only be

differentiated from the rest of the world is if it is defined as

a ‘culture area’. A culture area is a geographical space in which

people of a similar culture have left a visible imprint. He

defines culture as, “a community of people who hold numerous

features of beliefs in common, including ideology, technology,

social institutions, and material possessions” (7). Jordan claims

that people of a European culture are distinguished by their

Christian heritage, Indo-European language, and Caucasian race.

Furthermore, Europeans are said to be characterized by their high

education, urban lifestyle, developed economy and democratic

institutions (14). Hence, wherever the majority of these cultural

traits are present is where Europe can be found throughout


history. Based on this idea there emerged a belief that the

‘core’, or most European part, of Europe can be located in the

Northwest (Figure 1.1). This area is portrayed as the European

heartland set apart by its advanced economy, democracy and

philosophy (12-15). Thus, Jordan’s ideas embody the popular

narrative that has been passed down throughout history in which

the most enlightened and developed areas of Christendom are

considered to be the most European. Nevertheless,

the absence of a homogenous cultural identity has forced Europe

to define itself through the creation of an external ‘other’ in

the East. The idea that there is a common European civilization,

propagated by theorist such as Jordan and Huntington, is

challenged by the reality of the many linguistic, religious and

cultural differences between Europeans. Thus, Europe has defined

itself not as what it is, but against what it is not. “The only

way to forge a single identity was to construct an external

‘other’ against which a homogenous ‘self’ could be constructed”

(Hobson 107). As Christianity was the largest common denominator

the most obvious external other was Islam. Hence, the theme of

uniting Western Christendom against a perceived Eastern Islamic


threat first arose in the middle ages. By creating a threating

other Europeans where united in defending their commonalities

instead of divided in arguing their differences (Hobson 106-111).

Likewise, throughout history the very idea of the East, both

Islamic and Orthodox, was seen as the antithesis to Europe proper

(Leontidou 604). Thus, Europe defined itself through the creation

of a binary opposition in which the West was free, progressive,

and industrialized as opposed to a despotic, backwards and

uncivilized East (Davies 22). Yet, along with this East-West

division there also emerged a North-South split in Europe. After

the Industrial Revolution the underdeveloped and rural South was

externalized by the developed and urban North. Roberto Dainotto

argues that at this point Europeans define themselves not only

against the antithesis of the Orient but also through the

principle of compensatio. Compensatio is a rhetorical figure

whereby an unfavorable aspect of something is balanced by a more

favourable one. Although the South is still understood as part of

Europe, it is seen as less European than the North because it

exhibits fewer ‘European’ traits (379). Hence, because the South

is seen as despotic, passionate and immoral in relation to the


democratic, spirited and virtuous North; it also becomes an

Orient-like ‘other’ (382).

Figure 1.1: The Core of Europe

People believe the myth that there exists a European core

with an advance culture because they witness the dissemination of

such ideas in society though means such as football. To

illustrate consider that the most successful European footballs

clubs are: AC Milan, Liverpool FC, Bayern Munich, FC Barcelona,

Ajax of Amsterdam, and Manchester United. Only Real Madrid has

been highly successful while originating from outside the “core”

of Europe (Radnedge 73-83). The national leagues in Italy and


Germany further convey this idea. Figure 1.2 (below) demonstrates

that it is not a coincidence that the majority of Italian teams

are in the north and that the vast majority of German teams are

in the former West Germany. (As of 2011-12 only the struggling

Hertha Berlin remains in the top flight from East Germany.) The

absence of teams from these peripheral regions increases the

belief that such areas are of little economic and cultural

significance (Radnedge 250, 255). Even UEFA has inadvertently

spread the notion that there exists a high European culture found

in the Northwest. For example, the UEFA Champions League anthem

is an adaptation of Handel's Zadok the Priest as it was intended to

represent ‘classical’ European culture. Yet, the chorus is only

in English, French and German despite the fact that competition’s

most successful teams have come from Spain and Italy (uefa.com).

Finally, football shows the persistence of the idea of a

backwards East as there is widespread concern that this year’s

national championships in Poland and Ukraine will be poorly

organized and plagued by hooliganism (Roan).


Figure 1.2: The Location of Top Division Teams in Germany and Italy

Europe’s Cosmopolitan Reality

However, through an examination of football it can be seen

that Europe is not homogenous but is made up of people with

various nationalities and ethnicities. Unlike with the EU,

membership in UEFA is a choice of individual members. Thus, UEFA

has amongst its members the likes of: Turkey, Russia, Israel,

Cyprus, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan and Armenia. Hence, it often

happens that teams from Turkey will play in ‘European’

competitions against teams from Israel (uefa.com). The

multiculturalism within UEFA leads to increased national and


religious diversity within football. Moreover, football clubs

themselves are becoming more multicultural. This diversity is a

recent phenomenon which can be traced to the Bosman Ruling of the

European Court of Justice in 1995. The Bosman Ruling allowed teams

hire as many EU national as they pleased, while permitting up to

three non-EU players on any team. Thus, the number of non-

Europeans playing in Europe increased dramatically (Radnedge 31).

However, football’s multiculturalism is a fair reflection of the

growing ethnic diversity in Europe itself. The forces of

globalization have led to increased immigration into and within

the EU. As a result, boarders can no longer keep cultural

‘others’, be they of the Eastern, Islamic or ‘non-European’

variety, from entering into European society (Beck 114). Thus,

the more interaction there is between peoples of distinct

cultures, the less cultural homogeneity there is in Europe.

Football also shows that Europe is further divided along

ideological lines. European football is unique in that through it

political and cultural associations are formed. Many clubs have

socio-political identities to which their fans adhere too. It has

been argued that in today’s post-nationalist Europe, it is the


identities created by football clubs which most strongly appeal

to the passions of their followers (King 427). The fact that

rival clubs portray rival ideologies often leads to conflicts

amongst opposing fans. For example, in Glasgow Protestant fans of

Rangers often violently clash with Irish Catholic supporters of

Celtic in one of Europe’s fiercest rivalries (Foer 36). Apart

from religious identities many clubs, particularly in Spain, also

have separatist or nationalist ideologies. In Barcelona, RCD

Espanyol represents those in Catalunya who support federalism,

while FC Barcelona is a symbol for Catalan nationalism (Figure

2.1). Likewise, the Athletic Bilbao club has always been a

supporter of Basque separatism (Foer 199). Finally, Europe’s

political diversity is also expressed through football. For

instance, Roman club Lazio is supported by many current members

of the fascist party. Likewise, Real Madrid’s Ultras often arrive

to matches with fascist banners (Figure 2.2). Contrarily, fans

from clubs such as Rayo Vallecano in Madrid and FC St. Pauli in

Hamburg often expose a strong leftist political stance (Foer 200-

4). Thus, through football one discovers that there is no

uniformity in European culture.


Figure: 2.1

Figure 2.2

Therefore, Europe is a diverse entity that is best defined

through the cosmopolitan interaction of its distinct cultures.

“The descriptive meaning of cosmopolitanism refers to existing

forms, processes and experiences of cultural diversity,

coexistence, hybridisation and communication within and between

societies” (Roche 5). Europe is cosmopolitan because, as has been

shown, it consists of various national, ethnic, religious and

political differences. Accordingly, Europe can no longer define

itself against the ‘other’, either through binary opposition or


compensatio, because in a cosmopolitan society the ‘other’ is

both everywhere and nowhere. Hence, Europe must accept its

diversity if it is to become an open and tolerant society. Yet,

cosmopolitanism is not new in Europe. Regional and religious

differences have always existed, even within the supposedly

homogenous nation-states. Furthermore, European culture arose

from the interaction of various distinct cultures. All advances

that have occurred in Europe have been the result of the exchange

of ideas both within and beyond Europe (Eliot 114-119).

Nevertheless, the adoption of cosmopolitanism does not mean the

rejection of the idea of Europe as it still possesses a

collective memory, world view and way of life that separates it

from the rest of the world. Cosmopolitanism simply seeks to

accommodate for the diversity of values and incorporate into the

idea of Europe, through means such as hybridisation, those whose

cultural outlook may differ from the norm (Beck 112-115). Within

football one can witness an attempt to create such a cosmopolitan

understanding. UFEA’s pan-European tournaments, such as the

Champions League, Europa League and the national championships,

encourage the idea that there is a cultural identity that is


‘European’, while at the same time embracing the diversity within

that identity.

Racism: The Struggle to Reconcile Cosmopolitanism

As Europe becomes more diverse through

integration and immigration; Europeans who feel threated by this

diversity seek to combat it through racism. Their goal is to

purify a homogenous European identity that does not and has never

existed. Hence, racism is the result of Europe being defined

against an external ‘other’. When that ‘other’ attempts to form a

part of society, Europe’s own perception of its identity is

threatened. As a result, racism towards foreign players,

particularly Africans and Muslims, has grown over the past few

seasons. For example, RCD Espanyol’s goalkeeper Carlos Kameni was

once thrown bananas during a match; an incident that has since

been replicated numerous times (Figure 3.1). Likewise, the

growing Islamophobic sentiments in Europe have also penetrated

into football. Many Muslim players are now the subject of

Isamophobic chants from opposing fans. Such was the case in 2007

when Middlesbrough’s Egyptian-born player Mido was racially

abused by Newcastle fans in the local derby (Figure 3.2). The


“Mido affair” illustrates how football hooligans use popular

sentiments expressed by society at large to harass opposing

players. The Mido incident thus occurred due to the elevated

Islamophobia in British society after the London bombings

(Millward). Hence, these recent terrorist tragedies only

intensify racist opinions and decrease the popular acceptance of

cosmopolitanism.

Figure 3.1

Figure 3.2


Due to the current widespread belief in myth of a homogenous

European culture it has been argued that Europe cannot be defined

through cosmopolitanism. The Islamophobia which sparked the “Mido

affair” was the result of a popular narrative that unites

Christian Europe in opposition to a perceived Islamic threat.

Hence, the idea of Islam as the natural enemy of Europe means

that Muslims themselves can never be considered European. Under

this narrative everything that is European cannot be Muslim. If

Europe is secular and democratic then Islam must be fanatical and

despotic (Asad 12-14). “The ‘inside’ cannot contain the

‘outside’; violent cultures cannot inhibit a civil one – Europe

in brief cannot contain non-Europe” (Asad 18). Therefore, it has

been argued that in order for Muslims -and other cultural

‘others’- to integrate into European society they must discard

their own cultural identities. However, the false notion that

Europe cannot make room for others goes against its cosmopolitan

nature. Hybridization: Acceptance is Possible

There is hope for the reconciliation of

Europe’s cosmopolitanism through the hybridization of its

cultures; as can be witnessed in football. Firstly, it is


possible for Muslims, and other non-Christian groups, to find a

place for themselves in European society without sacrificing

their identity. Since European legislation is secular there is

nothing preventing Muslims from practising their religion while

considering themselves as equal citizens (Ramadan 252-3).

Therefore, Muslims can become Muslim Europeans if they engage in

European cultural practises and synthesize elements of Muslim

culture with that of Europe. Through such hybridization

ghettoized communities, such as Muslims and Afro-Europeans, can

break the negative perceptions that exist about their cultures

(Taylor). Football, being the universal language that it is,

provides an excellent opportunity for such cultural synthesize to

occur. Consider the case of the French national team that won the

World Cup on home soil in 1998. Key to that success was a

Frenchmen of Algerian parentage by the name of Zinedine Zidane.

His two goals in the final instantly made him a national hero.

Nevertheless, the French national team of 1998 was noteworthy as

the majority of its players where of Muslim or Afro-European

descent (Figure 4). Their success and subsequent adoration by the

French public opened the way for the acceptance of cultural


minorities in French society (Radnedge 48-9). Likewise, the

current German national team is the most multicultural it has

ever been and its star player, Mesut Ӧzil, is a practising Muslim

of Turkish descent. Although the success of multiculturalism on

the field does not directly translate into equality in society,

it does give other cultures the opportunity to find a place form

themselves in the European narrative. Hence, the multiculturalism

in European football is helping to bring forth a cosmopolitan

understanding of European society.

Figure 4: The Victorious French National Team of 1998

Football shows that Europe can become an open and accepting

society if it embraces the principle of cosmopolitanism. Those

who believe the myth that Europe represents a homogenous culture


situated in the Northwest are mistaken. Europe is and always has

been the sum of its distinct parts. Thus, diversity – not

commonality – is the unifying feature of the European experience.

Once Europe ceases to define itself in opposition to ‘others’ and

celebrates its differences then it will, like the French squad of

1998, achieve greatness. Therefore, the way to a more prosperous

future in Europe is to follow in the motto of the European Union

and truly be “United in Diversity”.

Works Citied

Asad, Talal. “Muslims and European Identity: Can Europe RepresentIslam?” Cultural Encounters: Representing Otherness. Eds. Elizabeth Hallamand Brain V. Street. New York and London: Routledge, 2000. 11-27.

Beck, Ulrich. “Re-Inventing Europe: A Cosmopolitan Vision.” Cambridge: Polity Press, 2007. 109-116.

Dainotto, Roberto M. “A South with a View: Europe and Its Other.”Nepantla: Views from the South. 1:2 (2000): 375-90.

Davies, Norman. “Introduction.” Europe: A History. London: Pimlico, 1996. 7-31.

Eliot, T.S. “The Unity of European Culture.” Notes Towards the Definition of Culture. London: Faber and Faber, 1948. 110-24.


Foer, Franklin. How Soccer Explains the World: An unlikely theory of globalization. New York: Harper Collins, 2004.

Hobson, John M. “Inventing Christendom and the Eastern Origins ofEuropean Feudalism, c. 500-1000.” The Eastern Origins of Western Civilization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. 99-115.

Jordan, Terry G. “Europe Defined.” The European Culture Area: A SystematicGeography. 2nd edition. New York: Harper and Row, 1988. 1-20.

King, Anthony. “Football fandom and post-national identity in theNew Europe.” The British Journal of Sociology. 51. 3 (2000): 419-442. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-4446.2000.00419.x.

Leontidou, Lila. “The Boundaries of Europe: Deconstructing Three Regional Narratives.” Identities: Global Studies in Culture and Power. 11 (2004): 593-617.

Millward, Peter. “Rivalries and Racisms: 'Closed' and 'Open' Islamophobic Dispositions Amongst Football Supporters.” Sociological Research Online. 13.6 (2008). DOI:10.5153/sro.1816

Radnedge, Keir. The Complete Encyclopedia of Soccer. London: Carlton Books Ltd, 2010.

Ramadan, Tariq. “Immigration, Integration and Cooperation Policies – Europe’s Muslims Find a Place for Themselves.” To Be a European Muslim: A Study of Islamic Sources in the European Context. The Islamic Foundation, 1999. 249-55.

Roan, Dan. “Can Euro hosts create history together?” BBC Sports: Football Blogs, 2 Dec. 2011.

<http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/danroan/2011/12/euro_2012s_hosts_emerge_from_b.html>


Roche, Maurice. “Europe, ‘the Cosmopolitan Condition’ and international sport: ‘Cultural Europeanization’ and EU regulation in the case of European football.” Working Paper

presented at ‘Europe and Cosmopolitanism’ conference. LondonUniversity, London. April 2004.

Taylor, Tanya. “Multicultural Europe?” York University, Toronto.15 March 2012.

Uefa.com. “UEFA Champions League Anthem” and “UEFA Member Associations”. 9 Feb. 2012. <http://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/season=2012/music/index.html>

Images

Title Page: <http://www.mad-blog.com/2009/02/20/adidas-mapping-out-the-european-football-landscape/>

Figure 1.1: Jordan, Terry G. “Europe Defined.” The European Culture Area: A

Systematic Geography. 2nd edition. New York: Harper and Row, 1988 p. 15.

Figure 1.2: Radnedge, Keir. The Complete Encyclopedia of Soccer. London: Carlton Books Ltd, 2010 pp. 250, 255

Figure 2.1: < http://www.totalbarca.com/2009/news/el-clasico-

match-preview-barcelona-vs-real-madrid/>

Figure 2.2: <http://graneyandthepig.wordpress.com/2009/01/26/real-madrid-fined-for-fascist-fans/>


Figure 3.1: <http://ibnlive.in.com/news/football-also-hit-by-racism/18046-5.html>

Figure 3.2: <http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sport/football/article-478479/Action-demanded-Mido-abuse.html>

Figure 4: <http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sport/football/article-1175092/THE-LIST-Nos-20-11-greatest-football-teams-time.html>

Football and Cosmopolitanism: The Essence of the European Experience

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