Fantasy-Production - Hong Kong University Press

Fantasy-Production SEXUAL ECONOMIES AND OTHER PHILIPPIN E

CONSEQUENCES FO R THE NEW WORLD ORDE R

Neferti Xin a M . Tadia r

# * * , # i b H & Hfct ^ B g g ^ HONG KON G UNIVERSIT Y PRES S

Hong Kon g Universit y Pres s 14/F Hing Wai Centr e 7 Tin Wan Pray a Roa d Aberdeen Hong Kon g

w w w . h k u p r e s s . o r g (secure on-lin e ordering )

© Hon g Kon g University Pres s 200 4

ISBN 96 2 20 9 62 7 1

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— Britta Erickson, The Art ofXu Bing

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Contents

Acknowledgements vi i

Introduction: Dream s 1

Part 1 Fantasy-Production : Bodily Resources and Libidinal 2 5 Dynamics of Nationa l Crisi s and Developmen t

1. Sexua l Economies 3 7

2. Metropolita n Dream s 7 7

3. Domesti c Bodie s 11 3

Part II Desirin g History, Tangential Pursuits : 15 1 Regimes and Heresies of Transformative Action

4. Revol t of the Masses: National Histor y a s Psychology 15 9

5. 'Peopl e Power' : Miraculou s Revol t 18 5

6. Himala, 'Miracle' : The Heretica l Potentia l o f 22 5 Nora Aunor' s Sta r Powe r

Conclusion: Hop e 26 1

Notes 27 1

Index 34 5

Introduction: Dreams

In th e fac e o f th e apparentl y insurmountabl e challenge s o f socia l reality, that in a previous stage drove figures lik e Romaine Rolland and Antonio Gramsci to speak about the skepticism of intelligence, to which they opposed the optimism of willpower, let us also oppose to it the confidence in imagination, that essentially poetic device.

- Robert o Retamar

The project then is to claim for us, the once-colonized, our freedo m of imagination.

- Parth a Chatterje e

Of what consequence are Philippine dreams? Shortly after th e deposing of th e Philippin e dictato r Ferdinan d Marco s and hi s family i n 1986 , a home videotap e o f a carousin g part y hel d o n thei r yach t mad e th e rounds o f th e sam e television s aroun d th e worl d tha t ha d jus t aire d the four-day carniva l of their fall . We are the World,' sang the Marcoses with the gusto and full rhapsodic feeling worthy of this glorious chart -topping World Aid anthem. Tha t video, along with endlessl y replaye d footage o f and jokes abou t Imelda Marcos' s enormous sho e collection , encapsulated fo r th e international audienc e th e ridiculously pompou s yet tawdry dreams of the rulers of this third world nation. In this picture of th e Marcose s drun k wit h power , pursuin g thei r delusion s o f grandeur, th e Philippine s appear s t o b e a countr y dominate d b y misplaced dreams . I t i s a plac e o f ironi c contrast s an d tragi c contradictions, wher e politic s i s a star-studded spectacl e se t amid th e

I 2 J Fantasy-Production

gritty thir d world realitie s o f hunger an d squalor . A third worl d plac e in firs t worl d drag .

Of course , th e generi c imag e o f thi s plac e ful l o f ironi c juxtapositions is apprehended fro m a place presumed t o be free of such unconscious iron y (Al l th e bette r t o appreciat e yours , m y dear!) . T o be ironi c ( a deliberat e act ) i s after al l quite differen t fro m bein g in a n ironic conditio n (a n unwittin g state) . The view of the ironies o f thir d world existenc e come s wit h a lon g histor y o f delightin g i n th e contradictions tha t colonials/traditiona l people s represen t whe n the y bear th e trapping s o f a n alie n modernity . I n image s suc h a s th e ubiquitous Masferre photograph of the g-string clad Ifugao man holding a camera , o r th e generi c photojournalis t snapsho t o f a hijab- wearing Muslim woma n talkin g o n th e cellula r phone , par t o f th e deligh t undoubtedly stems from th e inner knowledge on the part of the viewer that that alien modernity in the hands of the ever non-modern i s really theirs. O r a t leas t i t i s one the y ar e already full y familia r with. 1

Contrary t o wha t on e migh t expect , thi s i s no t a vie w hel d exclusively b y pas t an d presen t colonizers . I t i s als o partiall y share d by present an d wait-listed postcolonials , resident an d non-resident , i n the new home or the old . They too appreciate the irony of seeing street children i n Manil a wearin g t-shirt s wit h Iv y League universit y name s or firs t worl d logo s whose reference s an d connotation s thes e urchin s cannot possibly understand. They too can appreciate the irony of 'more Filipinos singing perfect rendition s o f American songs (ofte n fro m th e American past ) tha n ther e are Americans doin g so .. . [i n spite of ] th e fact tha t th e res t o f thei r live s i s not i n complet e synchron y wit h th e referential world tha t first gave birth to these songs.'2 Havin g read Time travel write r Pic o Iyer' s accoun t o f thi s outlandis h Philippin e predilection fo r mimicking American popular music , Arjun Appadura i can thu s describe th e Philippines i n thi s ironic fashion : a s 'a nation of make-believe Americans, who tolerated fo r so long a leading lady who played th e pian o whil e th e slum s o f Manil a expande d an d decayed'. 3

Evita meet s Les Miserables. To be sure , Appadurai's poin t i n bringing u p th e cas e of Filipino s

singing American songs would appear to be completely opposite to tha t of airin g th e vide o o f th e Marcose s singin g 'W e ar e th e World' . Th e running image s o f th e Marcoses ' cultura l repertoir e an d collection s

Introduction: Dreams I 3

(besides th e shoes , ther e wer e th e tack y lesse r ar t work s b y Wester n 'masters') ar e meant t o hammer i n th e egregiousnes s o f the Marcoses ' fantasy world , th e perniciou s implication s o f thei r derivativ e desire s for and imitative performances o f Western glamour and enlightenment. 4

Appadurai's point , i n contrast , i s t o argu e tha t beyon d th e one-side d story of global 'Americanization', within which Filipino 'mimicry' could only b e a sign o f domination , ther e i s th e muc h mor e comple x stor y of globa l cultura l flow s an d exchanges , withi n whic h suc h imitativ e renditions ca n also be seen a s a form agency , perhaps eve n resistance . Both illustrativ e use s o f th e Philippines , however , deplo y thir d worl d dreams fo r th e ironi c critiqu e o f power . Fo r th e mainstrea m international media , th e ironie s o f rulin g thir d worl d dream s serv e a critique o f despoti c powe r (iron y reveal s deception) . Fo r Appadurai , the ironie s o f subordinat e thir d worl d dream s serv e a critiqu e o f th e masses' suppose d lac k o f powe r and , correspondingly , a critiqu e o f Western hegemoni c powe r (iron y reveal s agency) . I n bot h cases , however, whil e showcasin g th e blurre d boundarie s betwee n Wester n and thir d worl d dreams , iron y a s critiqu e create s a n interpretativ e boundary betwee n dreamer s an d analysts , between thos e wh o drea m and thos e wh o unpac k th e meaning s an d consequence s o f thei r dreamings. I will say more abou t th e political pitfalls o f irony toward s the en d o f thi s book . Her e I hav e n o intentio n o f offerin g a 'reality ' contrary t o th e abov e representations . I n foregroundin g thei r rathe r generic form , I merel y wan t t o ope n u p anothe r purview , on e tha t recognizes tha t thes e representations ar e forms o f dreaming too . More importantly, I wan t t o sugges t tha t thi s divisio n o f effor t wedge d b y irony attest s t o somethin g othe r tha n a reinventio n o f th e divisio n between ideolog y an d critica l consciousness . Th e effort s t o represen t the ironie s o f others ' dream s attes t t o th e ne w importanc e o f dream s and imaginatio n i n today' s world .

Indeed, thi s is the larger point o f Appadurai's Philippine example . As h e writes , 'Th e worl d w e liv e i n toda y i s characterize d b y a ne w role fo r th e imaginatio n i n socia l life.' 5 Imaginatio n ha s becom e socialized, entere d th e everyda y lif e o f ordinar y people . N o longe r confined eithe r t o th e sacrosanc t realm s o f art , myt h an d ritua l o r t o the reactive realm o f ideology o r t o the space of individual desir e (th e last tw o fo r whic h Appadura i reserve s th e ter m fantasy), imaginatio n

4 Fantasy-Production

has becom e a centra l forc e i n th e creatio n o f ne w socia l projects . A s he writes :

No longer mere fantasy (opiu m fo r th e masses whose rea l work i s elsewhere), no longer simple escape (from a world defined principally by more concrete purposes and structures), no longer elit e pastime (thus not relevant to the lives of ordinary people), and no longer mere contemplation (irrelevan t for new forms of desire and subjectivity) , the imagination has become an organized field o f social practices, a form o f work (i n th e sense o f both labo r an d culturall y organize d practice), an d a for m o f negotiatio n betwee n site s o f agenc y (individuals) an d globall y define d field s o f possibilit y .. . Th e imagination i s now centra l t o al l forms o f agency , i s itsel f a social fact, and is the key component of the new global order.6

While I quite agre e with thi s concep t o f imagination a s a form o f work an d a s a for m o f negotiatio n o f agency , tha t is , a s culturally organized social practice, I am less persuaded by the modernist accoun t of imagination' s abrup t historica l emergenc e a s a new socia l force. 7

My own inclination is to understand th e social force of imagination as havin g a longe r history. 8 I f imagination ha s com e t o th e attentio n of socia l analyst s a s a ne w socia l fact , i t i s becaus e i t ha s fo r a lon g while no w bee n a t wor k i n wha t woul d appea r t o b e mor e materia l practices o f economi c productio n an d stat e power . W e hav e onl y t o look at the history of the capitalization of people's dreams in the cinema (as a precursor o f the Internet ) t o see that social imagination ha s been part o f production fo r quit e some time now.9 W e also need t o look n o farther tha n th e making s o f moder n nation s t o recogniz e tha t imagination has also long been part of the organization of communitie s and thei r subjectio n t o th e power s o f th e state . M y poin t i s tha t imagination, a s culturall y organize d socia l practice , i s a n intrinsic , constitutive par t o f politica l economy . Capitalis m an d stat e rule , an d not onl y nationalism , ar e suffused wit h imagination . Unles s we thin k that politica l an d economi c structure s ar e th e sol e invention o f thos e in power, it makes important sense to see the social force of imagination at wor k i n thes e 'structura l realities ' befor e it s expressio n i n recent , more visible 'culturalist' forms such as ethnic nationalism and the active construction o f new diaspori c identitie s throug h electroni c media .

Introduction: Dreams 1 5

I sa y al l thi s becaus e i f imaginatio n ha s onl y no w entere d th e everyday social life of people, in particular, of third world peoples, then they — w e — hav e onl y bee n collectivel y dreamin g th e dream s o f others, trapped i n thei r imaginatio n o f us and ou r worlds . Or perhap s we hav e no t bee n dreamin g a t al l and , instead , hav e live d i n th e rot e mythographies o f our give n socia l identities . I t would see m eve n tha t our imagination s wer e confine d b y th e boundarie s o f ou r politica l territory. An d no w tha t globalizatio n ha s arrived , an d (some ) peopl e have immediat e acces s t o othe r live d imaginarie s throug h ne w telecommunicational technologie s and increased labour migration, we are all of a sudden imagining for ourselves , creatively dreaming beyond our nation-bound imagination s (i f not re-inventing them) an d exertin g that dreamin g o n th e world i n ways tha t we had neve r don e before . I do no t doub t tha t ther e hav e bee n shift s i n th e organizatio n o f th e world, an d tha t thes e shift s ar e a t onc e expresse d an d brough t abou t by ne w form s o f socia l imagination . Bu t t o m y min d th e 'newness ' o f imagination i s t o b e foun d i n it s relativ e autonomizatio n fro m othe r realms o f socia l lif e rathe r tha n it s socialization . I f anything , socia l imagination ha s becom e increasingl y appropriativel y privatized , codified a s a cultural database, invested in and fought over as patentable because expropriateable property. Whence the 'new' — that is, changed — importance an d agenc y o f dreams. 10

The tawdr y dream s o f th e Marcose s t o b e equivalen t wit h worl d power ('W e are the World') a s well as the dreams of 'ordinary' Filipino s singing America n songs , apparentl y nostalgi c fo r a world the y neve r lost,11 ar e deepl y implicate d i n th e dreamwor k o f th e capitalis t inter -state world-system. Suc h dreams are symbolic enactments o f practices of imaginatio n tha t effectivel y operat e i n an d a s th e politica l an d economic organization o f the Philippine nation-state. If we understan d imagination a s a for m o f work , w e mus t se e tha t i t i s wor k tha t i s incorporated int o a system o f production o f universa l value. 12 I n thi s aspect, tha t is, in its role in a global system of production, th e materia l imagination constitutin g th e Philippin e natio n ca n b e see n a s a for m of labour. Inasmuch as the Philippines is, as a supplier o f global labour , a constitutiv e par t o f th e world-system , it s materia l dream s ar e th e consequences o f — a s wel l a s bea r consequence s fo r — tha t international orde r o f political and economi c dreamwork, which I call

j 6 I Fantasy-Production

fantasy-production. 'Fantasy-production ' denote s th e imaginar y o f a regime o f accumulatio n an d representatio n o f universa l value , unde r the swa y o f which capitalis t nation s organiz e themselve s individuall y and collectively in the 'system' of the Free World. While it would see m paradoxical t o use the word 'system ' to describe an order o f 'freedom' , I d o s o no t i n orde r t o substitut e on e totalizin g fantas y o f selectiv e freedom wit h another totalizing fantasy of absolute constraint but rathe r to sugges t th e leve l a t which th e scattere d an d seemingl y arbitrar y o r anarchic action s o f differen t nation-state s achiev e som e measur e o f coordination an d logica l coherenc e t o consti tut e a workin g international orde r (or , a for m o f governmentality) . I use 'system ' t o highlight th e effective horizo n or field o f possibilities within which th e social imagination s o f whol e nation s ar e generated , nurture d an d confined. Th e dream s o f Filipinos , ruler s an d ruled , canno t b e understood apart from th e global material imaginary, this dominant fiel d of reality , o n whic h the y pla y out . T o cas t thes e dream s a s th e expressions o f autonomous, self-containe d Filipin o subject s (whethe r they aspir e t o o r resis t worl d power ) i s t o ignor e th e globa l orde r o f dreamwork i n whic h th e internationa l medi a system , th e sourc e o f many o f ou r interpretativ e representation s o f th e world , play s a constitutive an d paradigmati c role. 13

When I spea k o f dreams , I us e th e ter m loosel y t o indicat e tha t our action s ar e also wishes, the expressio n o f which i s constrained b y the unconsciou s or , mor e accurately , imaginar y structure s an d logic s of organization o f our materia l realities . In my usage, fantasies ar e th e hegemonic forms o f expression of our desiring-actions. Dreams are the concrete work of imagination while fantasies are the abstract forms int o which thi s wor k become s subsume d withi n th e world-syste m o f production. Fantasie s are , on this view, alienated means of production , while the desiring-actions in dreams are living labour. As Marx explains the relation , 'th e mean s o f productio n appea r eminemment a s th e effective for m o f capital confrontin g livin g labour . An d the y no w manifest themselve s moreover as the rule of past, dead labour over th e living.'14 Inasmuc h a s thi s proces s o f subsumptio n i s neve r full y successful, tha t i s to say t o th e exten t tha t ou r dream s ar e never full y captured b y fantasy-productio n bu t ar e als o shape d b y othe r logic s whose calling they heed, dreams will always exceed fantasies . However ,

Introduction: Dreams I 7

to th e exten t tha t dream s fue l an d furthe r th e logic s o f th e dominan t global order , the y perform th e work o f fantasies .

This book i s about th e practices o f fantasy-production o n th e par t of th e Philippin e natio n an d th e contribution s o f thi s particula r postcolonial nationa l formatio n t o globa l systemi c transformation s leading to the establishment o f the New World Order , the internationa l division o f labou r an d organizatio n o f multinationa l capitalis t production tha t emerge s a t th e en d o f th e Col d War . I n thi s boo k I propose to view the political and economi c strategies of the Philippin e nation-state a s par t o f th e dream-wor k o f a n internationa l orde r o f production founde d upo n th e conjoined , i f sometime s contradictory , logics of nationalism and multinational capitalism . Fantasy-productio n names this international order of desiring-actions on the part of nations, an order in which gender , sexuality and race are constitutive principle s of organization a s well a s practical effects .

Fantasy-production practice s creat e a commo n imaginar y geography an d histor y — tha t o f th e Fre e World — a s th e groun d o f their operation . I n the multinational er a of the New World Order , thi s common ground is the scene of the International (community ) an d it s privileged actin g figur e i s th e territoria l nation-state . I n th e transnational er a of globalization, that common ground has become th e place o f th e Globa l (network ) an d it s privilege d actin g figure , deterritorialized capital-flows .

Even i f th e new , deterritorialized globa l orde r appear s t o be a de-subjectivized on e (wit h 'economies ' no w replacin g 'nations') , i t nevertheless depend s o n and mobilizes th e subjectifying operation s of signification fundamenta l t o the older, territoria l world order . As I will show, wha t ar e no w widely-accepte d condition s o f a radicall y transformed globa l orde r ar e reconfiguration s o f dominan t strategie s of the nation-state, which is accommodating to changes that it has itself been instrumenta l i n bringing about. 15 Thi s is in itself no t new. In th e so-called postcolonia l world , th e natio n ha s lon g bee n th e agen t an d product o f inter - a s well a s trans-nationa l affair s (whethe r conceive d as imperialist o r not) . This book's focus o n th e Philippines enable s u s to se e wha t th e transformativ e processe s o f globalization , suc h a s 'denationalization' an d deterritorialization, migh t look like on the side of th e imaginar y o f a postcolonia l natio n an d wha t the y migh t entai l

Fantasy-Production

in terms of the resources of that nation. I t also allows us to understan d the ways in which th e nationally-inflected action s of a 'minor' countr y such a s th e Philippine s contribut e t o a n orde r tha t apparentl y transcends an d take s precedenc e ove r it . I t allow s u s t o seriousl y consider th e achievemen t o f global capitalism fro m th e perspective o f the wor k o f imaginatio n o n th e sid e o f a thir d worl d natio n an d it s seemingly nation-boun d people .

When Parth a Chatterje e argue s tha t we , th e once - (an d yet- ) colonized, mus t clai m 'ou r freedo m o f imagination' , h e i s not arguin g only for th e present and the future bu t also and primarily for the past.16

From th e perspective o f transnationalism, nation s ar e precisely thing s of the past. To inquire into th e imaginations o f postcolonial nations i n the momen t befor e th e establishmen t o f th e Ne w Worl d Order , th e moment of inauguration o f globalization, is to probe into the immediate and stil l living pasts o f thi s hegemonic globa l present i n orde r t o fin d the forgotte n creativ e labou r o f othe r dreams . More , i t i s t o fre e thi s forgotten creativ e labour i n ou r ow n presents so tha t we may imagin e the world differently .

METHODS O F DREA M INTERPRETATIO N

In orde r t o prob e th e imaginar y dimension s o f th e politica l an d economic relations and practices of the Philippine nation-state, and i n particular th e organizin g significance o f the logics o f gender, race an d sexuality in these material relations , I have taken critica l resource in a number o f theoretical discourses. As the above discussion demonstrates , I dra w muc h o f m y understandin g o f th e 'work ' an d 'labour ' o f imagination and dreams from Marxis t accounts of the subsumption an d alienation of labour under th e capitalist mode of production. However , in thi s endeavou r I hav e als o ru n u p agains t th e obstinat e refusa l o f more orthodox Marxisms to factor i n the categories of gender, race and sexuality i n thei r conceptualization s o f capitalis t socia l relation s and , consequently, th e limits posed by thei r politica l imaginations o f socia l change.17 I t is for thi s reason tha t while I rely heavily on the analytica l framework o f Marxis m t o mak e m y critiqu e o f th e capitalis t form s structuring Philippin e dreams , I hav e als o draw n o n othe r theories ,

Introduction: Dreams 9~!

which atten d mor e closel y t o th e imaginar y dimension s o f socia l lif e and politica l struggle .

I mak e use , fo r example , o f som e conceptua l instrument s o f psychoanalytic theor y i n orde r t o rende r th e subjectiv e dynamic s enacted o n th e aren a o f internationa l exchanges . Th e concep t o f 'fantasy' tha t I employ her e derive s from Slavo j Zize k who merge s th e two theoretica l discourse s o f Marxism an d psychoanalysi s t o arriv e a t an understanding o f ideology as 'an (unconscious ) fantas y structurin g our socia l realit y itself'. 18 Fantas y i s a field o f symbolically structure d meaning (th e unconscious) tha t shapes an d regulate s ou r desires , ou r modes o f actin g 'i n reality' . I n it s historical , concret e expressio n i t i s an imaginar y framewor k tha t subsist s withi n actua l materia l practice . The 'illusion' is thus not on the side of ideas, consciousness and belief, that is , on the side of 'knowing' , but rather , a s Zizek would say , on th e side o f 'doing'. 19 Thi s concept o f ideological fantasy allow s us t o view the 'wor k o f imagination ' i n th e seemingl y objectiv e practice s an d structures o f politica l econom y tha t determin e a s wel l a s compris e much o f the socia l life an d modern histor y o f nations. Fantasy i s thu s not 'though t divorce d fro m project s an d actions'. 20 Rather , 'i t is belief which i s radicall y exterior , embodie d i n th e practical , effectiv e procedure o f people'. 21

My ow n relianc e o n th e concep t o f fantas y an d othe r concept s drawn fro m psychoanalysi s i s not , howeve r a n applicatio n o f psychoanalytic theor y t o th e fiel d o f internationa l relations . As man y scholars have argued, psychoanalysis emerged out of the same historical conditions tha t gav e ris e t o imperialism . O r pu t mor e forcefully , psychoanalysis i s as much a product an d instrument o f thi s history of imperialism a s i t i s a theor y o f it s subjects . Thi s ha s no t le d m e t o dismiss it s analytica l powe r an y mor e tha n I woul d dismis s th e analytical powe r o f Marxis t socia l theory . Rather , i t lead s m e t o recognize th e worldl y rol e tha t suc h theorie s (o r a t leas t thei r 'applications') pla y in th e practica l shaping o f social forms. 22 Or , seen differently, thi s acknowledgement o f psychoanalysis's historicity allow s me to understand it s objects an d logics (i.e. , desiring subjects an d th e dynamics o f libidina l forces ) no t onl y a s resultin g fro m historicall y contingent an d finit e socia l formations . Thes e object s an d logic s ar e also t o be seen a s discursive product-effect s o f the coding practices o f

I 1 0 I Fantasy-Production

psychoanalysis, which ca n now be deployed a s technologies t o shape , even engineer, not only the social formations ou t of which they emerge but othe r socia l formation s a s well.

Understanding th e socio-historical 'origins ' of both psychoanalysi s and Marxis m allow s m e t o vie w thei r analytica l operation s a s als o historical, social technologies operatin g in th e world. Or , as I put i t in Chapter 2 , it means viewing metropolitan theoretica l regimes as force s of productio n an d instrument s o f stratificatio n tha t periphera l socia l formations suc h as the Philippines have historically been subjected to . Unlike Zize k then , I do no t se e the logic of subjectification, whic h h e argues underlie s th e constitutio n o f particular historica l fantasie s an d identifications, a s obtainin g transhistorically. 23 Instead , I see tha t thi s onto-logic obtain s withi n an d i s delimite d b y th e historica l tim e o f modern imperialism . Now , when thi s history begins and when i t end s is by no mean s a n undispute d matter . M y own vie w is that , i n globa l temporal terms , this history begins in the late nineteenth-century wit h the declin e i n powe r o f th e previou s worl d empire s o f Spai n an d Portugal an d th e rigidl y hierarchica l for m o f territoria l colonia l rul e that they were exemplary realizations of. This beginning is also signaled by the rise of the US empire, which excelled in the new form of colonial rule, characterize d b y th e centra l rol e o f capita l i n th e socia l an d political organizatio n o f it s colonia l possessions . Whil e a majo r geopolitical shif t occurre d afte r th e Secon d Worl d Wa r an d th e emergence o f the Col d War, the history o f modern imperialis m ca n be said t o have continue d throughou t th e twentiet h centur y an d t o onl y now approac h som e closur e (a t leas t o n th e geopolitica l scal e o f th e international order). 24

What I cal l fantasy-productio n i s a mod e o f productio n an d signification whos e histor y approximate s thi s histor y o f imperialis m that I hav e sketched . Elsewhere , I discus s th e beginning s o f thi s 'oedipalization' o f nation s i n th e lat e nineteent h century , b y whic h I mean th e proces s o f symboli c constitutio n o f nation s a s moder n subjects wit h th e imperialis t rivalr y o f Wester n powers. 25 I n thi s dreamwork o f imperialism on e can see the early makings of the 'sexua l economies' o f th e postcolonial , fre e worl d system . I woul d howeve r argue tha t th e logi c o f subjectificatio n an d orde r o f desiring-actions , which I analyze here , begins t o formally 'govern ' th e organization an d


practice of individual nation-states with the decolonization o f Asia and Africa afte r th e Secon d Worl d War . Economically , th e mod e o f production an d significatio n o f the Fre e World fantas y appear s a s th e regulatory ideal and strategy of 'development' propagated an d pursue d by th e Worl d Ban k an d th e Internationa l Monetar y Fun d (bot h institutions establishe d i n 1944) . Politically, i t appears as the structur e and idea l o f a n internationa l juridica l orde r represente d an d implemented b y th e United Nations .

Recognizing th e historicit y o f fantasy-productio n i n it s worldl y compass goe s han d i n han d wit h recognizin g th e sam e fo r it s constitutive subjective dynamics . Feminist, anti-racist , multiculturafis t and postcolonia l socia l theorie s hav e bee n crucia l i n thi s regard , al l challenging th e universa l an d ontologica l pretension s o f dominan t cultures an d thei r rol e i n maintainin g oppressiv e socia l orders . I rely on much of this work — the work for example of Gayatri Spivak, Maria Mies, Angel a Davis , Teres a d e Laureti s an d Donn a Harawa y — t o critique the cultural logics of subjectivity and social relations that obtain in national an d internationa l politica l and economi c structures . Thes e social theorie s hav e greatl y contribute d t o ou r understandin g o f th e dominant working s o f gender, rac e and sexuality in th e structuring o f social relations , no t onl y o n th e leve l o f individual s bu t als o o n th e level o f large socia l collectivitie s suc h a s nations .

My own interpretatio n o f the role of gender, race and sexualit y a s organizing principle s o f politica l an d economi c practic e withi n an d among nation-state s depend s o n a n understandin g o f capitalis t production an d stat e powe r as , amon g othe r things , system s o f signification.26 Gender , race and sexuality are categories for signifying , by way of organizing, socia l relations o f power an d production. Whil e they would appear to be only secondary effects o f meaning of practical, material relations , i n thi s book , I view th e logic s o f gender , rac e an d sexuality a s intrinsic t o thos e practical , materia l relations . System s o f production entai l an d ac t a s particula r mode s o f representatio n an d codes o f signification , whic h i n tur n serv e a s medi a o f dream s an d desires.27 A s Artur o Escoba r similarl y argue s abou t th e syste m o f capitalist productio n emergin g ou t o f Europe , 'th e Western econom y must b e see n a s a n institutio n compose d o f system s o f production , power, and signification. Th e three systems, which coalesced at the end

12 I Fantasy-Production

of th e eighteent h century , ar e inextricabl y linke d t o th e developmen t of capitalis m an d modernity . The y shoul d b e see n a s cultura l form s through whic h huma n being s ar e mad e int o producin g subjects . Th e economy i s no t only , o r eve n principally , a material entity . I t i s abov e all a cultural production, a way of producing human subjects and socia l orders o f a certai n kind.' 28 Fantasy-production view s th e form s an d dynamics of subjectivity produced and operating through contemporar y international politic s an d economic s a s emergin g precisel y ou t o f dominant cultures of imperialism. Besides the 'orientalism in economics ' that persists in the world project o f 'development', logic s of patriarchy, sexism, homophobi a an d racis m deepl y infor m an d ar e generate d b y the practices o f accumulation an d powe r o f postcolonial nation-state s acceding t o th e taci t rule s o f the world system. 29

In he r discussio n o f th e prevailin g dichotom y 'betwee n th e "realpolitical" non-West and the "imaginative" West,' Rey Chow argues: 'since th e Wes t own s no t onl y th e component s bu t als o th e code s o f fantasy, th e non-Wes t i s deprived no t onl y o f the contro l o f industria l and commercia l productions , bu t o f imaginary production s a s well.'30

Like Chow , I to o foregroun d th e subjectiv e drama s o f th e 'non-West ' — here , th e Philippine s — i n a n attemp t t o 'ti p th e balance ' o f thi s assymmetrical relation. I would only want t o emphasize tha t while th e West own s th e code s o f fantasy , th e non-West i s no les s an activ e an d willing participan t i n th e hegemoni c mode s o f imaginar y productio n that ar e predicate d o n thes e codes . I n thei r 'realpolitical ' actions , postcolonial nation-state s o f the non-West demonstrate tha t they have acquired a certain fluency in these codes of fantasy o f the West, making full use of them in the pursuit o f their elites ' desires but a t the expens e of th e 'freedo m o f imagination ' o f th e majorit y o f thei r peoples . M y point i s not t o deny the fac t tha t the non-West has many dreams of its own. I t is , rather, t o decry th e fac t that , a s Ngugi wa Thiong'o put s it , 'A post-colonial state often crushe s those dreams and turns people's lives into nightmares.' 31

To offe r a glimps e o f th e earl y wor k o f Philippin e fantasy -production, le t me tur n t o the example o f Carlos P . Romulo, the mos t prominent Philippin e statesma n involve d i n th e worl d projec t o f th e United Nations . Romulo mad e his firs t appearanc e o n the world stag e as aide-de-cam p t o U S Genera l Dougla s MacArthur , i n th e dramati c

Introduction: Dreams [ 1 3

fulfillment o f MacArthur ' s T shal l re turn ' promis e t o l iberat e th e Philippines fro m Japanes e occupatio n o n th e shore s o f Leyt e i n 1944 . In hi s firs t speec h t o th e U S Congres s i n 1944 , Romulo , no w Residen t Commissioner o f th e Philippine s t o th e Unite d State s pai d 'tribut e t o that u n k n o w n soldie r an d thos e lik e h i m wh o ha d carrie d th e firs t principles o f Americanis m int o th e Philippines'. 32 Romul o presume d to spea k fo r th e entir e natio n an d it s dream s whe n h e spoke :

Mr Speaker , twenty-eigh t year s ag o today , upo n thi s floor , America gav e it s firs t pledg e o f freedo m t o th e peopl e o f th e Philippines.

On that day the Congress of the United States approved the Jones Act, promising independence t o the subject Philippines in a covenant that i s without paralle l i n th e world' s histor y

It is not my purpose to review the Filipinos' fight against America during the early days of American occupation , nor stress the fact tha t it too k th e Unite d State s thre e an d a half year s o f actua l fightin g t o subdue th e Philippines. We were not conquered i n the final analysis , by guns , bu t b y th e practica l demonstratio n i n th e Philippine s o f America's concep t o f democracy. America n teacher s brought u s ne w methods o f education . Publi c health , roa d building , governmen t training — such thing s were given us . Graduall y ou r feelin g towar d America change d fro m resentmen t an d suspicio n t o confidenc e an d loyalty

That loyalt y was sealed by th e passage o f th e Jones Ac t .. . The Jones Act was our victory. You let us win i t upon thi s floor .

It was a pledge made , an d Americ a ha s kep t tha t pledg e .. . We Filipinos , too , kep t th e pledge . Yo u gav e u s th e Jones Act .

We gave you Bataan. For, Bataan and Corregido r were dividends paid back ou t o f our loyalt y an d ou r fait h i n America .. .

On tha t bloodstaine d Philippin e peninsul a American s an d Filipinos mus t mee t ove r a commo n grav e wher e li e th e bodie s o f their son s .. .

We will meet , m y fellow Americans , ove r tha t commo n grave . Out o f tha t grave , a dream .

Others hav e die d fo r tha t drea m o f worl d recognitio n o f th e ordinary civilitie s an d th e divin e right s o f man. 33

Romulo wen t o n t o enumerat e thos e wh o hav e die d fo r thi s universa l dream expressivel y fulfille d b y th e exampl e o f America n democracy :


Jesus, Abraha m Lincoln , th e firs t Filipin o Presiden t unde r th e U S Commonwealth, Manuel Quezon, and 'a boy named Jose, from Manila , and anothe r bo y name d Joe , fro m Missouri ' wh o die d fo r thi s sam e dream o n th e peninsula o f Bataan. Thi s speech wa s one o f the firs t o f many tha t Romul o woul d giv e t o rall y U S suppor t fo r Philippin e 'independence' an d 'democracy' .

In thi s speec h on e ca n glea n man y o f th e characteristi c conceit s of the dominant fantasy o f US-Philippine relations in play by 1944 : the mutual covenant consisting of bilateral exchanges of American 'freedom ' for Philippin e 'territory' , th e upholdin g o f 'America' s concep t o f democracy' as a universal good, the Philippines' fraternal loyalt y to and faith i n th e U S a s reciprocit y fo r th e 'gift ' o f independence , an d th e essential identit y o f Filipin o an d America n dreams . I n Romulo' s narrative, moreover , w e se e th e dominan t interpretatio n o f th e mess y and violent history of US-Philippine relations . In this fantasy, th e good conquest of the Philippines by American democracy leads to the mutual recognition o f an d struggl e fo r share d ideal s expresse d i n th e tw o countries unitin g force s agains t th e Japanese durin g th e Pacifi c war . Anti-colonial Filipin o struggle s culminat e i n th e passag e o f th e Jones Act, th e realizatio n o f which woul d coincid e with th e fulfillmen t o f a historical destiny . Romulo' s narrativ e fantas y i s no t onl y a revision o f a mor e troublesom e Philippin e histor y o f violen t colonia l oppressio n and revolutionar y Filipin o desire s i n th e pacifi c term s o f America n understanding ('fo r onl y Americans could comprehend th e democrati c dreams o f ou r Filipin o leaders'). 34 I t i s als o a willfu l prophecy , th e guiding logic of Romulo's future practica l accomplishments and actions in th e spher e o f world politics . 'Ou t o f tha t grave , a dream. '

By the en d o f th e Secon d World War , th e Philippine s wa s indee d already materiall y 'pledged ' t o th e US . Despit e th e provisio n fo r Philippine independenc e i n 194 6 outline d i n th e 193 4 Tydings -McDuffie Law , for which anti-imperialist , protectionis t and racist force s in th e US had lobbied , th e Philippines stil l figured i n the US's postwar vision of a new international order . Two concerns were at the forefron t of thi s vision : economi c prosperit y an d politica l security . I n th e Philippines, thos e tw o concern s wer e addresse d throug h th e passag e of severa l mutua l treaties : th e Bel l Trad e Act , th e Militar y Base s Agreement an d th e Militar y Assistanc e Pact . Th e issue s o f fre e trad e

Introduction: Dreams | 1 5

and security, moreover, were very closely tied. They were the continuin g proof o f Philippin e 'loyalt y an d fait h i n America' , collatera l fo r th e granting o f 'freedom' .

The passag e o f th e Bel l Trad e Ac t i n 194 6 guarantee d th e continuation o f th e 'fre e trade ' agreement s o f th e Commonwealt h period, whic h ha d provide d fo r th e unlimited , tariff-fre e Philippin e importation o f US manufactured good s an d fo r th e limited , exclusiv e export o f Philippine agricultural products (sugar , tobacco, coconut oil , hemp) t o the US. The Bell Trade Act legislated the continuation of these asymmetrical exchange relations beyond Philippine independence. Such 'free trade ' ha d alread y serve d t o enric h an d entrenc h a nativ e rulin g class eage r t o collaborat e wit h th e forme r colonize r a s wel l a s U S corporations invested in local industries and thus had served to destroy local, subsistenc e economie s i n favo r o f th e cas h crop s o f th e agricultural expor t economy. 35 Th e Bel l Trad e Ac t als o grante d American investors and corporations th e same economic privileges and rights a s Filipin o citizen s t o ow n an d exploi t Philippin e natura l resources b y mean s o f a coerce d amendmen t t o th e 193 5 Philippin e constitution, calle d th e Parity Amendment.36 Thi s amendment a s well as th e provisio n tyin g th e Philippin e Pes o t o th e U S Dolla r wer e 'designed t o make American capita l feel a t home i n the Philippines'. 37

Besides these economic dividends, there were also territorial dividend s to b e pai d t o Americ a fo r so-calle d Philippin e independenc e an d th e shared drea m of democracy. The Military Bases Agreement (1947 ) an d the Militar y Assistanc e Pac t (1947 ) provide d for , respectively , th e establishment o f US military bases on Philippine territor y for 99 years and US military aid and logistical , technical and intelligence assistanc e to th e Philippin e military . Thu s wer e th e post-wa r bilatera l 'specia l relations' betwee n th e U S an d th e Philippine s establishe d an d th e 'mutual covenant ' realized . Thes e relations became th e basis for long -standing fraterna l collaboration s betwee n Filipin o elit e rulers an d U S economic an d politica l forces , collaboration s tha t hav e robbe d an d continue t o rob Filipinos o f tru e freedo m ove r thei r historica l fate .

Throughout thes e developments , Romul o playe d th e rol e o f mediator betwee n th e Philippine s an d th e US , i n al l hi s diplomati c actions helping to realize the common destiny of the two countries tha t he espoused . No t onl y was Romul o a signatory o f the United Nation s

16 | Fantasy-Production

Charter (1945) , h e als o serve d a s Presiden t o f th e Genera l Assembl y (1949-50), as Philippine Ambassador to the United States (1952-1962) , and a s Secretar y o f Foreig n Affair s unde r arguabl y th e tw o mos t egregiously corrup t administration s i n th e histor y o f th e Philippin e Republic, tha t o f Elpidio Quirino (1948-1953 ) an d Ferdinand Marco s (1966-1986). I n thes e differen t capacities , Romul o negotiate d agreement afte r agreement , settlemen t afte r settlemen t betwee n th e Philippines and the US, securing the guarantees of mutually-benefitin g ties between th e two governments: from war reparations to rent fo r th e military bases , from a trade agreemen t tha t expande d 'parit y rights ' t o encompass al l Philippine industries (Th e Revised Bell Trade Act, 1954 ) to a treat y tha t continue s t o ensur e join t US-Philippin e militar y operations, from chroni c US financial loans and aid, which underwrot e rampant rent-seekin g i n th e Philippin e government , t o a regiona l military securit y pac t (SEATO , 1954) , which supporte d th e Col d Wa r aims o f th e US. 38 B y servin g a s th e middlema n o f thes e bilatera l transactions, Romul o wa s no t onl y fulfillin g th e fantas y o f US -Philippine relations that he had so affectingly spok e about in his speech to th e US congress. In mediating regiona l and world political-militar y cooperation (beside s bein g instrumenta l i n th e passag e o f SEATO , Romulo wa s twic e Presiden t o f th e U N Securit y Counci l i n 195 7 an d 1980), h e wa s als o helpin g t o la y dow n th e geopolitica l foundation s for th e present-da y fantas y o f th e Asi a Pacifi c communit y (Se e Chapter 1) .

In hi s Pulitze r Prize-winnin g autobiographica l works , Romul o writes o f 'th e immorta l see d o f heroes ' tha t run s throug h hi s Filipin o veins, 'th e mar k o f [his ] manhood , th e symbo l o f [his ] dignit y a s a human being' . He writes o f the fraterna l bond s between Filipino s an d Americans an d th e dee p primordia l satisfactio n o f America n sportsmanship an d fai r pla y tha t becam e a par t o f hi s practic e o f diplomacy. An d h e write s o f hi s ow n persona l struggl e t o b e treate d with respec t an d dignit y a s th e micro-instanc e o f th e struggl e o f hi s country t o be treated 'a s a full-fledged nation ' o n the world stage . Th e particular masculinis t characte r tha t Romulo offer s i n these narrative s as representativ e o f th e natio n demonstrate s precisel y th e gendere d subjective dynamic s o f internationa l relation s tha t he , i n hi s capacit y as Philippine statesman , helpe d t o play out . Tha t i s t o say , while thi s


masculinist posturin g would see m t o be merely a matter o f individua l disposition, i t is in fact th e subjective effec t an d regulative ideal of th e system o f political and economi c relations characterizin g post-Secon d World War Philippines . Politically, the Philippines was now a formall y independent, sovereign nation, and a founding member of the fraternit y of free nations represented by the United Nations. Economically, it was an underdevelope d neo-colon y seekin g competitiv e advantage s i n a n inter-capitalist stat e syste m dominate d b y th e political-militaris t an d economic world power, the US. The Philippine nation-state was in other words no w a mino r playe r i n th e Fre e World , whic h mean t maneuvering withi n a n internationa l fiel d o f normativ e politica l an d economic actions tha t hold particular dominant gendered assumption s and implications . I t i s agains t thi s fiel d tha t w e mus t vie w Romulo' s expressed symboli c an d subjectiv e ideal s o f Philippine nationhood .

Put simply , th e symboli c an d subjectiv e ideal s performe d b y Romulo are instruments for the mobilization of the material institution s — foreign loans , financial an d military aid, state power, a supranational juridical orde r an d internationa l trad e agreement s — tha t suc h ideal s were importan t code s fo r organizing . I n thi s respect , Romulo' s nationalism wa s a mod e o f imaginatio n tha t activel y maintaine d an d indeed helped to internationalize the codes of fantasy of the Free World. I am not saying that thi s state nationalism di d not pose difficulties an d resistances t o U S interests, fo r an y revie w o f th e histor y o f th e post -Second Worl d Wa r perio d wil l sho w th e uneven , acrimoniou s an d violent processe s throug h whic h stat e powe r wa s consolidate d an d bilateral 'agreements ' wer e achieved. 39 However , i t i s precisel y b y working with the codes of the Free World ('parity' , 'free trade' , national and regional 'security' , and later , economic 'protection ' and 'controls') , that is, by trading in the symbolic and material currency of an emergen t international communit y o f exchange, tha t the Philippine nation-stat e contributes t o th e effectiv e hol d an d crushin g effec t o f suc h fantasy -scenarios o n th e res t o f th e nation' s dreams .

To illustrate: th e Philippines ' forma l politica l statu s a s a free an d sovereign natio n an d economi c statu s a s a n independen t nationa l economy were the bargaining means by which conditions for bolstering competitive loca l power s an d capita l wer e secured . I n exchang e fo r 'freely' offerin g Philippin e territor y an d militar y force s t o th e projec t

18 Fantasy-Production

of th e Col d Wa r (fo r example , heedin g Romulo' s advice , Presiden t Quirino sen t 5,000 Philippine troop s t o contribute t o US forces i n th e Korean war), the Philippine state consistently received not only political and military backing but also large financial remunerations tha t became the basis of long-standing rent-seeking clientelist relations between th e Philippines and the US and between the Philippine state and local elites. In exchang e fo r 'parity ' right s an d othe r privilege s accorde d U S businesses, local elites secured thei r monopolies o f agricultural expor t industries, throug h whic h peasan t worker s cam e t o b e increasingl y exploited. When unrestricted fre e trad e combined with massive defici t spending brought abou t a serious foreig n exchang e crisis , nationalis m became onc e mor e th e mean s o f institutin g a syste m o f impor t an d exchange control s (1949-1961) . These controls, however, only served to bolster luxur y goods manufacturing industrie s an d t o increase site s of graf t an d corruption . Th e limit s t o industria l growt h se t b y a dependence o n subsidize d importe d capita l good s an d ra w material s as well as the unabated corruption o f state-connected businesses caused another balance-of-payments crisi s that was answered with US and IMF-sponsored policie s o f renewe d fre e trad e an d decontro l an d th e devaluation of the peso (1962-1972 ) .40 In turn , deepening social crises and labou r unres t fuele d growin g militan t activis t an d revolutionar y movements, whic h le d t o U S suppor t fo r th e dictatoria l regim e o f Ferdinand Marco s (1972-1986) .

While thi s brief outlin e make s quic k summar y o f what were ver y complex an d convolute d historica l developments , I merel y wan t t o point ou t tha t throughou t thes e change s i n nationa l policy , th e ideal s of 'sovereignty' , 'security ' an d 'development ' wer e no t simpl y bandie d about bu t rathe r pu t t o rea l wor k b y representative s o f th e Filipin o polity. That is to say, the Philippine state's deployment and manipulation of th e code s o f internationa l fantas y ha s fundamentall y enable d th e systemic exploitatio n an d oppressio n o f the grea t majority o f Filipin o lives. On e migh t argu e tha t th e codes themselve s hav e no agenc y an d that i t i s th e capitalis t world-syste m an d th e rapaciou s dream s o f it s ruling elites tha t have wrought th e nightmare lives countless Filipino s have live d an d continu e t o live . My ow n view , however , i s tha t suc h codes o f fantas y ar e crucia l component s o f th e world-system an d th e rapacious an d tawdr y dream s o f it s thir d worl d despot s lik e th e

Introduction: Dreams I 1 9

Marcoses. The y ar e no t th e indifferen t mean s o f autonomou s motiv e agencies. The y als o exercis e a captivatin g materia l powe r ove r ou r practical imaginations . Thu s a t thi s momen t whe n I write , a s th e marauding U S state pressures th e United Nation s t o tak e pre-emptiv e military actio n agains t Iraq , th e Deput y Speake r o f th e Philippin e Congress, Rau l Gonzalez , cite s U N Securit y Counci l provision s o f international militar y cooperatio n t o direc t th e rol e o f th e Philippin e nation-state i n th e impendin g war . A s Gonzale z sai d i n behal f o f th e Philippine state , 'This country does not want war an d prays for peace , but i f war i s inevitabl e an d th e U N support s it , we mus t abid e b y it s treaty obligations.' 41 Th e alienatio n o f th e very code s o f internationa l fantasy embodie d i n th e U N tha t th e Philippine s itsel f ha d helpe d t o found an d extend is what allows these treaty obligations t o delimit th e possibilities o f Philippine action t o such disastrous ends . Moreover, a s the rest of this book wil l show, to the extent tha t the organizing code s (as alienate d socia l agencies ) ar e themselve s informe d b y logic s o f gender, race and sexuality , thei r practica l invocation an d mobilizatio n will bear particular consequence s fo r th e social groups the y implicate . On thi s view , th e masculinis t an d fraterna l ideal s hel d b y Romul o a s he participate d i n layin g dow n th e geopolitica l foundation s fo r th e present-day fantas y o f the Asia Pacific ar e important i n accounting fo r the inordinat e burde n tha t Filipin o women hav e ha d t o bear fo r thei r nation's rol e i n th e world .

This boo k thu s take s a s it s centra l concer n th e gendering , racializing and sexualizing significance an d consequence of the practical deployment of the codes of the Free World fantasy in Philippine politic s and economic s i n th e contemporar y period . I n orde r t o offe r a n understanding o f the dynamics of Philippine fantasy-production, I look at a broa d rang e o f phenomen a characterizin g th e contemporar y national formatio n o f th e Philippines , includin g th e prostitutio n economy, th e mas s migratio n oversea s o f domesti c workers , urba n restructuring and the popular revol t deposing the Marcos dictatorship , as well as representational works of art, poetry, historical narrative an d film, whic h tr y t o interven e i n thes e socia l conditions . I analyze ho w the normativ e scenario s an d practica l an d idea l categorie s o f fantasy -production (e.g . 'development ' an d 'growth' , economi c 'interests ' an d political 'security' , 'dependence ' an d 'sovereignty' , etc. ) significantl y


shape th e subjectiv e an d socia l meaning s an d effect s o f thes e ver y different kind s o f activitie s and , further , ho w the y delimi t th e possibilities o f historica l transformativ e agenc y withi n th e form s o f dreaming the y allow . I n thi s way , I delineat e th e contour s o f th e dominant nationa l imaginar y impellin g an d regulatin g th e transformation o f the Philippine economy from a prostitution industr y to a domestic labou r expor t industry , a s well as the transformatio n o f the Philippin e stat e fro m a n authoritarian , cron y capitalis t stat e t o a putatively liberal-economic , elite-democrati c one .

While i t would appea r tha t thi s fantasy-productio n I refer t o i s a unitary system governed by a single, evolutionary logic of progressio n (precisely what I claim it is not but rather how the world is represented to b e an d enjoine d t o behave) , I inten d neithe r t o diminis h no r t o ignore al l th e mishaps , interna l conflicts , faile d a s wel l a s successfu l resistances, differentiations , singularitie s an d shee r chao s an d contingency tha t fil l an d animat e th e ver y movement s ou t o f whic h such a fantasy-history i s erected. Much of this book is devoted precisely to the debris o f fantasy-production, b y which I mean the inassimilabl e remainders o f its operation , an d t o thei r potentia l fo r steerin g histor y away fro m it s presen t victors . I n th e firs t section , fo r example , m y examination o f the crisis management role of the nation-state disclose s some of the social powers beyond its control (the powers tha t it in fac t is a t pain s t o control) . Nevertheless , I fee l i t i s equall y important , precisely in the very affirmation o f these missed potentials, to delineate the point s o f thei r capture . T o dwel l a littl e whil e o n th e horizo n o f their vanishing helps us remember wha t we must wrestle with and fo r whom ( a whom, I should add , tha t i s not full y ther e beforehand, tha t is inseparable fro m th e struggl e fo r it s liberative realization) .

There is more to this reiterative act than political commemoration . Re-staging th e unitar y an d evolutionar y term s o f fantasy-productio n helps to delineate the unsurpassed limit s of present imaginaries , man y of the m no w unde r th e swa y o f wha t Ann a Tsin g call s 'globalis t fantasies'.42 Fantasy-productio n practice s depen d o n a transcenden t field o f meaningfu l action , whic h the y ar e th e ver y proces s o f materializing. Thi s field , conceive d i n a n earlie r momen t throug h th e notion of 'the international community ' and re-conceived in the present moment throug h th e notio n o f 'globa l networks' , i s founde d firs t i n

Introduction: Dreams i 2 1

the physical , substantia l presenc e o f th e earth , an d the n i n th e seemingly immateria l (increasingl y 'wireless' ) bu t nevertheles s stil l substantial presenc e o f globa l communicatio n systems . Generate d b y the ver y sam e practice s tha t mak e i t th e invisibl e o r rathe r vanishin g ground o f their operation , thi s field consist s o f a universal, space-tim e coordinate syste m ( a secularis t spatio-tempora l order ) tha t continue s to go virtually unchallenged a s the locating system for all real, practical, political and/ or economic action, not to mention the basis of any world, or at least worldly, history.43 I t is this abstract system for synchronizin g and chartin g planetary-tim e wit h globa l geopolitica l spac e — a vanishing fiel d fo r th e operation s o f th e globa l marke t a s wel l a s international politic s — tha t enable s fantasy-productio n practice s t o be business a s usual .

'Today', particularl y fo r th e emergin g globa l middl e class , th e fantasy o f th e fre e worl d ha s becom e a s transparen t o r unremarkabl e as the languages o f its production, organizatio n an d dissemination. By transparent 1 mean th e categories and operations of the free world hav e lost their visibility as ideals and projects. To too many they have become nothing mor e tha n th e vehicle s an d rule s o f globa l traffi c — shee r means — fo r wha t woul d appea r t o b e unquestionabl y vita l an d desirable exchanges . I n thi s book , I highligh t th e way s i n whic h categories suc h a s th e nation , th e state , bodie s an d flow s serv e a s figurative medi a o f world-production . Thes e figure s ar e mor e tha n conceptual tools . They ar e socia l technologie s create d ou t o f th e ver y practices they are used to describe.44 Just as feminized 'bodies ' and th e integrity attributed t o them are produced ou t of the 'penetration' o f the national economy (a s itself a consolidated territoria l entity ) by foreig n capital investments , s o i s th e nationa l 'state ' produce d ou t o f th e practices of 'negotiation' with its local and international counterparts. 45

Similarly, the fluidity late r attributed t o such bodies (i n migrant 'flows ' and 'brai n drain ' movement s a s wel l a s 'floatin g populations ' i n 'sea s of development' ) ca n b e viewe d a s th e effec t o f subsequen t politica l and economi c strategie s o f 'channelling ' adopte d t o superced e stat e strategies o f 'containment' .

Although i t would seem , judging fro m th e predominant languag e of globalis t fantasy-production , tha t juridica l subject-form s ar e no w outmoded forms, this book shows that such conceits of so-called 'older '


(or, 'advanced') societies , which are said to be surpassed by new, post-industrial form s o f organization, ar e stil l very much present . The y ar e redeployed in national contexts such as the Philippines as instrumenta l bids to transnational inclusion (sometime s inadequately understood a s third world adoptions of the structures of Western modernity), as when the government or business community present themselves as 'partners' to Wester n nation s i n th e projec t o f worl d development. 46 An d the y are redeploye d i n th e globa l contex t a s partial , flexibl e mean s o f negotiating powe r an d accumulatin g capital. 47 Lik e th e nation-state , 'bodies' an d 'subjects ' hav e no t s o muc h disappeare d a s muc h a s los t their prior, foundational guarantees . This 'freeing up ' of older categorie s allows some 'others' to claim what might have been once unequivocall y denied the m (subjectivity) , thereb y requirin g greate r an d greate r violence t o make th e remaining , a s well new, 'others ' perform wha t i s still a n essentia l materia l concei t (bodies ) fo r th e operatio n o f power . My discussion o f the post-industrial corporea l racialization o f Filipin a domestic workers , i n Chapte r 3 , speaks directl y t o thi s point .

This boo k argue s tha t th e fantasie s o f a postcolonia l natio n lik e the Philippine s ar e a t onc e symptomati c o f an d productiv e o f a n international syste m o f desiring-action s amon g nations . I t doe s no t argue tha t thes e fantasie s ar e merely symptomatic . However , i t doe s make th e cas e fo r th e continuin g powe r o f th e imaginar y o f th e international capitalis t syste m t o shap e an d se t limit s t o th e possibl e imaginings o f th e contemporar y postcolonia l nation-stat e an d it s peoples. Unles s w e seriousl y interrogat e th e exten t t o whic h eve n counter-hegemonic movement s participat e i n a dreamin g tha t wil l ultimately no t b e ours , w e canno t reall y understan d o r harnes s th e cultural resource s fo r othe r kind s o f dreamin g tha t w e hav e a t ou r disposal.

At th e sam e time , Fantasy-Production view s dreaming-action s o f dominant politica l agencie s suc h a s th e stat e a s th e produc t o f a continuing struggl e with contendin g force s fro m below . Al l th e socia l texts I discuss sho w th e power o f people's desire s t o impe l action s o n the par t o f th e stat e an d stat e apparatuses . Indeed , muc h o f th e boo k is devoted t o viewing th e contradictor y demand s tha t thes e dominan t agencies hav e t o accommodat e precisel y i n orde r t o pursu e thei r interests. Tha t thes e contradiction s sho w themselve s i n pathologize d


forms o f 'gender trouble ' — a s in th e 'bulimic ' behaviour o f th e post -authoritarian metropolita n government , whic h I discuss i n Chapte r 2 — is precisely th e consequence o f the normative gende r an d sexualit y logics on which the fantasy-practices o f the Philippine nation-state ar e predicated.

This book offer s the n not only a critique of fantasy-production bu t also a pursuit of alternative imaginaries and the unorthodox possibilitie s for historica l chang e tha t the y migh t bear . Whil e I begi n wit h a n ideological critiqu e o f fantasy-production an d th e rules of its history, I also begi n t o mov e toward s anothe r kin d o f cultura l analysi s an d history, on e tha t i s no t full y caugh t i n th e experienc e o f necessity o r expediency but rathe r take s the risk of faith i n possibility. To this end , I attemp t t o theoriz e an d demonstrat e th e importanc e o f followin g dreaming practice s tha t tangentiall y escap e th e logi c o f desirin g subjects, fo r th e writing an d makin g o f othe r histories .

Like th e notio n o f marginality , tangentialit y refer s t o wha t i s essential t o the governmental power o f prevailing orders but fall s fro m its valorizing purview. Unlike marginality , however , tangentialit y doe s not designate positions, places or identities, whose prior and continuin g exclusion from field s o f power is the instrument an d effect o f the logic of domination . I t doe s no t designate , i n othe r words , th e product -objects o f a productiv e repression . I t refer s rather , t o force s an d movements tha t ar e harnessed t o compris e th e substantive conten t o f universal structure s (suc h a s 'th e nation') , but , a t ever y poin t o n th e boundaries o f which , ten d elsewhere , a t onc e exceedin g an d fallin g short o f thei r universa l function. 48 Wha t I refer t o as tangential, then , are th e collectiv e drea m force s an d movement s tha t ar e harnessed fo r the constructio n o f hegemonic subject s an d thei r counter-hegemoni c opposition, an d ye t escap e th e universa l an d universalizin g form s o f both.

To give an exampl e fro m th e book, agains t th e hegemonic 'stron g man' regim e o f th e dictato r Ferdinan d Marco s (1972-1986) , whic h engineered th e 'prosti tution ' econom y o f th e natio n an d th e 'feminization' o f Philippin e labour , ros e th e counter-hegemoni c 'feminine' popula r uprisin g symbolicall y le d by Corazo n Aquin o (se e Chapter 5) . However , betwee n thes e tw o antagonisti c representativ e subjects o f th e nation , whos e dramati c confrontatio n i n th e televise d


event o f th e 198 6 'EDS A revolution ' mad e nationa l an d internationa l 'history', w e ca n see , i n th e phenomena l mas s followin g o f th e fil m actress, Nora Aunor , a n emergin g socia l movement , coursin g throug h but tangentia l t o both . T o m y thinking , th e subjectiv e invention s o f Nora's mass following, which consisted almost exclusively of lower-class women, helpe d se t th e stag e fo r th e people' s performanc e o f power , which depose d th e Marco s regime . Thes e life-invention s o f disenfranchised wome n provide d primar y resource s fo r th e reorganization o f labour under th e subsequent governmen t o f Aquino, which oversa w th e nationalizatio n o f th e domesti c labou r expor t industry. A s I wil l argu e i n th e las t chapter , i t i s th e captur e o f th e heretical, 'feminine ' powe r o f thi s tangentia l socia l movemen t figure d by the persona o f Nora Aunor tha t fuel s an d shapes th e foundation o f a ne w nationa l a s wel l a s globa l politica l economi c orde r vi a th e production o f a new socialit y — domesti c labour .

The emergenc e o f thi s tangentia l socia l movemen t (a s Foucaul t reminds us, emergence 'always occurs in the interstice') i s not, however , a spontaneou s an d pur e self-presencin g o f 'th e people'. 49 I t i s the by -product o f th e constitutiv e contradiction s o f fantasy-productio n claiming the privileged place of its dreaming, in this case, the revoltin g community represente d b y Aquin o takin g th e plac e o f th e state . Tangential movement s are , i n thi s way , th e unrul y produc t (an d unrecognized mediator ) o f dialectical struggle.50 However , they are also what fal l awa y from 'history ' a s i t has dialecticall y com e t o be.51

'Following' suc h movement s i s mor e tha n th e democrati c restoration o f diversity and heterogeneity t o the world. Both furtherin g and divergin g fro m secularist , critica l realis t historie s tha t se e thi s restoration a s thei r end , I propos e heretica l vision s i n pursui t o f impeded historie s a s wel l a s histories ye t t o be made . Suc h visionar y pursuits ar e no t impelle d b y Utopia n hope . Rather , the y ar e th e liberating, creative acts of an impossible yet mundane faith . I f cultura l criticism is to participate in the sway of history in directions tangentia l to the dominant aim s of fantasy-production, i t must heed th e wayward dream-acts of living social movements, such as Filipinas dreaming new tastes, trying out new lives. Fantasy-Production thus ends by explorin g the potential of such dream-acts to serve as the practical and theoretica l means o f a liberative rephrasin g o f history .

Notes

INTRODUCTION

1 W e might even say, in the contemporary contex t when th e West's right t o world hegemon y ha s never bee n mor e besieged , i t i s also th e enjoymen t of seeing th e afterlif e o f one' s ol d possessions , n o longe r th e pleasur e o f imperialist nostalgia but rather a certain jouissance in watching the tragic-comic play of 'dispossessions o f empire. ' 'For th e foreigner , romances / of "Aloha,"/ For Hawaiians, / dispossessions o f empire. ' Haunani-Kay Trask , 'Writing i n Captivity : Poetr y i n a Time o f Decolonization ' i n Inside Out: Literature, Cultural Politics, and Identity in the New Pacific, ed . Vilson i Hereniko an d Ro b Wilson (Lanham , Maryland : Rowma n an d Littlefiel d Publishers, Inc. , 1999) , p. 22 .

2 Arju n Appadurai , Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis an d London : Universit y o f Minnesota Press , 1996) , p . 29 .

3 Ibid. , p . 30. 4 Se e for exampl e th e portrai t o f th e Marcoses draw n b y James Hamilton -

Paterson who writes, 'if nothing els e is clear, we at least have to recogniz e the centralit y o f fantasy t o thei r regime . Ont o Ferdinand' s an d Imelda' s carefully edite d pasts were grafted various myths and fragments o f myths, ranging fro m th e conquerin g her o t o Cinderella , fro m cosmogon y t o Camelot, whic h i n tur n encapsulate d snippet s o f th e Ab e Lincol n log -cabin-to-President mythology tha t Lyndon Baines Johnson also laid clai m to Jame s Hamilton-Paterson , America's Boy: The Marcoses and the Philippines (London: Granta Publications , 1998) , p. 359. While Hamilton -Paterson see s fantasy a s a general conditio n an d practic e o f the heads o f nation states , recalling how Ronald Reagan for example 'was equally dee p

\~272~] Notes to Pages 3-5

in a fantas y tha t ha d com e t o hi m vi a Hollywood , hi s "Sta r Wars " o r Strategic Defense Initiative, ' thi s example becomes the measure by which the Marcose s particula r fantasie s appea r t o b e 'smal l beer , eve n quit e touching' (p . 360) .

5 Appadurai , Modernity at Large, p. 31. 6 Ibid. , p . 31. 7 Th e conflation between imagination as analytical category and as historical

object i n th e abov e formulatio n o f imagination' s 'newness ' i s telling . Distinguished from olde r analytical notions of cultural practice (in Marxist, Freudian, modernization theories) , imagination is not only a new concep t (no longe r 'fantasy ' a s false consciousness ) bu t als o a new thin g ( a for m of work) . Whil e thi s conflatio n migh t b e tru e o f al l paradigm-shiftin g efforts, thi s account obscures the participatory role of scholarly discours e in th e making o f real things , in thi s case the objectification o f imaginar y practices a s labour . Instead , th e analys t emerge s onc e agai n a s on e wh o is merely findin g theoretica l adequatio n fo r a changed realit y tha t h e o r she ha s n o rol e i n making . Appadura i argue s tha t imagination' s ne w importance i n socia l lif e i s due t o tw o features o f our presen t da y world : electronic mediatio n an d mas s migration . Technolog y an d diaspori c movements are the privileged forces tha t have brought about this historical rupture i n globa l conditions . W e migh t say , the y ar e th e ultimatel y determining instanc e i n hi s theor y o f historical transformation .

8 Appadura i differentiates hi s theory of a rupture from olde r social theorie s of th e rupture s o f modernizatio n b y recours e t o th e negative : i t i s no t teleological, no t a projec t o f social-engineering , no t prognosti c an d no t national (p . 9) . Nevertheless , thes e difference s d o no t see m t o m e t o override some important share d modernis t features suc h as the notion of a radical break and the privileging of technology as historical determinan t and signifie r o f thi s break .

9 Fo r a discussio n o f th e value-productiv e activit y o f spectatorshi p (a s a dominant form o f social imagination), see the important work of Jonathan Beller, especiall y 'Cinema , Capita l o f th e Twentieth Century, ' Postmodern Culture, Vol . 4, No . 3 (Ma y 1994) : 'The Spectatorship o f th e Proletariat' , boundary 2, Vol. 22, No. 3 (Fal l 1995) : 171-228 and 'Numismatic s o f the Sensual, Calculu s o f th e Image, ' Image [&] Narrative 6: Medium Theory (2003).

10 The y d o no t onl y becom e th e ne w objec t o f economi c an d politica l ventures, the y als o serv e a s the new objec t o f scholarly inquiry .

11 A s Appadura i represent s thei r performance . M y ow n vie w i s tha t thes e songs ar e no t performe d i n th e mod e o f nostalgia . I f ther e i s a nostalgi c resonance, i t issue s ou t o f a sensibility o f th e 'lack ' an d 'loss ' in Filipin o

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Notes to Pages 5-8 | 27 3 ;

life tha t th e performanc e o f U S plenitud e an d powe r implies . Fo r a n excellent critical exegesis of a contemporary Filipino popular song's parody of thi s 'lack' , se e B . Carl o M . Tadiar , '"Pich a Pie, " Mar x an d Freud, ' Philippine Daily Inquirer Interactive (http://www.inquirer.net/issues / aug2000/aug21/lifestyle/entertainment/ent_6.htm)

12 'I t i s precisel y a s value-creating tha t livin g labou r i s continuall y bein g absorbed int o th e valorizatio n proces s o f objectifie d labour . I n term s o f effort, o f the expenditure o f his life's energy , work i s the personal activit y of the worker. But as something which creates value, as something involved in th e process o f objectifying labour , th e worker's labour become s on e of the modes of existence of capital , i t is incorporated int o capita l a s soon a s it enters the production process. ' Karl Marx, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, Volume I (Ne w York: Vintage Books , 1977) , p. 988.

13 I t is to obey one of the fundamental axiom s of fantasy-production, whic h posits that , lik e individua l subjects , nation s an d people s ar e thei r ow n causes, thei r live d condition s determine d b y thei r ow n interna l constitution. Thi s axiom i s closely related t o the firs t o f two axioms tha t Samir Amin argues underwrites th e Eurocentric vision of the world: 'Th e first i s tha t interna l factor s peculia r t o eac h societ y ar e decisive fo r tha t comparative evolution. The second is that the Western model of developed capitalism can be generalized to the entire planet.' Eurocentrism (New York: Monthly Revie w Press , 1989) , p . 109 . Fo r th e rol e o f th e internationa l media system , se e Edwar d W . Said , Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World (New York: Vintage Books, 1997) . Sai d argue s tha t th e consensus , whic h US-dominate d international media 'feel themselves to be clarifying, crystallizing , forming, ' works by setting limits and maintaining pressures rather than by dictating content (pp . 52-3) . The global orde r o f dreamwork works similarly . As I argue below , th e limit s an d pressure s tha t i t set s appea r i n th e share d language o f international politica l an d economi c exchange .

14 Marx , Capital, p . 988. 15 Man y scholars, following th e activists, have argued this . See for example ,

the wor k o f Saski a Sassen , wh o argues , 'tha t mos t globa l processe s materialize i n nationa l territorie s an d d o s o t o a considerabl e exten t through nationa l insti tutiona l arrangements. ' ('Spatialitie s an d Temporalities of the Global: Elements for a Theorization', paper presente d at th e conferenc e o n 'Place , Localit y an d Globalization' , Universit y o f California, Sant a Cruz , 2 8 Octobe r 2000) .

16 Chatterjee' s tas k is to demonstrate the creativity of anti-colonial nationalis t imagination befor e th e expressio n o f nationalis m i n prope r politica l movements and , more , th e inherin g o f thes e other , subalter n form s o f

http://www.inquirer.net/issues/

1 274 | Notes to Pages 8-10

imagination withi n universa l form s o f moder n regime s o f power . A s h e writes, thi s tas k 'migh t allo w us th e possibilit y no t onl y t o thin k o f ne w forms o f th e moder n community , which , a s I argue , th e nationalis t experience i n Asi a an d Afric a ha s don e fro m it s birth , but , muc h mor e decisively, t o think o f new forms o f th e modern state. ' The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories (Princeton , NJ : Princeto n University Press , 1993) , p. 13 .

17 A s Ari f Dirli k argues , 'Becaus e Marxis m i s crucia l t o an y critiqu e o f capitalism, no consideration of the future ca n afford t o overlook the critica l premises within th e theory. Marxism as a guide to the future , however , i s another matte r entirel y fro m Marxis m a s critiqu e o f capitalism . Th e Marxist visio n o f th e futur e ha s bee n distorte d b y it s internalizatio n o f capitalist spatialit y and temporality ; thu s Marxism, a s we have known it , however effectiv e a s a critique of capitalism, does not promise a viable o r a desirabl e alternativ e t o th e capitalis t mod e o f production. ' After the Revolution: Waking to Global Capitalism (Hanove r an d London : Wesleya n University Press , 1994) , p. 15 .

18 Slavo j Zizek, The Sublime Object of Ideology (London and New York: Verso, 1989), p . 33.

19 Revisitin g Althusser's invocation of Pascal's 'Act as if you believe, pray, kneel down, and belief will come by itself,' Zizek clarifies the relationship between 'knowing' and 'doing' or conscious belief and practical ritual as a matter of 'an intricate reflective mechanism of retroactive "autopoietic" causality, of how "external " ritua l performativel y generate s it s ow n ideologica l foundation: kneel down, and you shall believe that you knelt down because of our belief— that your kneeling was the effect/ expression of your inner belief.' 'Class Struggle o r Postmodernism? Yes , please!' in Judith Butler , Ernest o Laclau and Slavoj Zizek, Contingency, Hegemony, Universality: Contemporary Dialogues on the Left (Londo n and New York: Verso, 2000), p. 118.

20 Appadurai , p . 7 . 21 Zizek, Sublime Object of Ideology, p. 34. 22 Thi s is one of the insights of Michel Foucault's History of Sexuality, trans .

Robert Hurle y (Ne w York : Vintag e Books , 1980 ) wit h regard s t o psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysi s i s one o f the technologie s tha t constitut e the represse d desirin g subject .

23 Thi s i s als o Althusser' s position . Se e hi s famou s essay , 'Ideolog y an d Ideological Stat e Apparatuses ' i n Lenin and Philosophy, and Other Essays, trans. Ben Brewster (Ne w York, Monthly Revie w Press , 1972) .

24 O n othe r scales , suc h a s tha t o f th e natio n o r o f th e individua l subject , this histor y nevertheles s continues . B y thi s I mea n tha t th e political , economic, social and subjective structures and technologies of dominatio n

Notes to Pages 10-13 [ 27 5

that emerge d ou t o f Wester n imperialis m continu e t o b e 'internally ' deployed by postcolonial nation-states in relation to their subaltern classes, and b y individua l postcolonia l subject s i n relatio n t o thei r ow n residua l affective an d psychica l subalternity .

25 Se e m y 'Th e Dream-Wor k o f Modernity : Th e Sentimenta l Educatio n o f Imperial France, ' boundary 2, vol . 22 , no. 1 (1995) : 143-83 .

26 Fantasy-production i s precisel y abou t productio n a s significatio n an d signification a s production . Whil e Marxis m ha s ofte n separate d thes e questions, foregroundin g th e determinat e characte r o f productio n and , among literar y an d cultura l critics , secondarily linking i t t o questions o f signification, notabl y throug h th e categorie s o f ideology , aesthetic s an d politics, Mar x himself , mos t famousl y i n hi s analysi s o f commodity -fetishism, critique s thei r inextricabl y intertwine d operatio n (mone y a s sign, commodit y a s representation) .

27 M y thinkin g o n th e inextricabl e relatio n betwee n productio n an d signification, an d th e rol e o f desir e a s a forc e coursin g throug h bot h i s also indebted t o the work o f Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari , especiall y Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, trans . Rober t Hurley , Mar k Seem and Helen R. Lane (Minneapolis , MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1983) an d A Thousand Plateaus, trans . Bria n Massum i (Minneapolis : University o f Minnesota Press , 1987) .

28 Artur o Escobar , Encountering Development: The Making and Unmaking of the Third World (Princeton, NJ : Princeton Universit y Press , 1995) , p. 59 .

29 I n tracin g th e dominan t logic s o f gender , rac e an d sexualit y t o historie s and culture s o f imperialism , I d o no t wis h t o impl y tha t thes e hav e effectively wipe d ou t local systems of gender, race and sexuality. I merely want t o emphasiz e th e cultura l powe r tha t internationa l politica l an d economic system s exercise , before an d beyond th e particular content s o f what woul d b e conventionall y understoo d a s form s o f cultura l imperialism. Unde r th e swa y o f internationa l capitalis t culture , loca l gender, race and sexuality practices become subaltern practices. How such subaltern activit y persists in th e interstices o f capitalis t socia l relations i s a concer n tha t I a m currentl y addressin g i n th e wor k tha t follow s thi s one, entitled Things Fall Away.

30 Re y Chow, Woman and Chinese Modernity: The Politics of Reading Between West and East (Minneapoli s an d London : Universit y o f Minnesot a Press , 1991), p . xiii .

31 Ngug i Wa Thiong'o, Penpoints, Gunpoints, and Dreams: Towards a Critical Theory of the Arts and the State in Africa (Oxford : Clarendo n Press , 1998) , p. 20 .

32 Carlo s P . Romulo, My Brother Americans, excerpte d i n Liana Romulo an d

2 7 6 1 N otes to Pa §es 13 ~18

Marivi Soliven-Blanco , ed . The Romulo Reader (Manila : Bookmark , Inc. , 1998), p . 48.

33 Excerpte d i n The Romulo Reader, pp. 49-52 . 34 Ibid. , p . 50 . 35 Se e Amad o Guerrero , Philippine Society and Revolution (Manila : Pulan g

Tala Publications, 1971) and Renato Constantino, A Past Revisited (Quezon City: Tala Publicatio n Services , 1975) .

36 Philippin e Congres s manage d t o pas s thi s ac t onl y b y oustin g eleve n Democratic Alliance senators and congressme n who oppose d it s passage. Supported by the HUKBALAHAP, the anti-colonial people's army founde d under Japanese occupation, these senators and congressmen were accused of electora l fraud .

37 Nic k Cullather , Illusions of Influence: The Political Economy of United States-Philippines Relations, 1942-1960 (Stanford , CA : Stanford Universit y Press , 1994), p . 37 .

38 'Romul o shuttled between New York and Washington, keeping close touch with America n official s an d speakin g wit h the m o n variou s topics : th e politics o f th e Unite d Nations , France' s trouble s i n Indochina , th e rehabilitation o f Japan. Romulo often reminde d the Americans of Filipinos' attachment t o "ou r commo n ideology. " H e misse d fe w opportunitie s t o stress th e "urgency " o f th e Philippines ' financia l situation . Bu t mos t important, Romul o tracke d th e bloo d pressur e o f [U S Secretary o f Stat e Dean] Acheson and other s in the American administration, and he issued warnings t o Manil a whe n apoplex y approached . Th e accurac y o f hi s analyses was reflect in the fact tha t for all their fulminations th e Americans always stopped shor t o f pulling th e plug o n aid. ' H . W. Brands, Bound to Empire: The United States and the Philippines (Ne w Yor k an d Oxford : Oxford Universit y Press , 1992) , p . 235 . Brands' history i s in th e servic e of the tenacious argumen t tha t 'America's treatment o f the Philippines , a t least after th e suppression o f resistance to annexation, was gentle and well received' (p . 353) . Hence , i t tend s t o underpla y th e pernicious , violen t side o f US involvement i n Philippin e affairs .

39 Th e 194 9 presidential electio n tha t brought Quirin o t o power was one of the bloodies t an d mos t terroristi c i n Philippin e history . I t wa s durin g Quirino's regime tha t th e formidabl e peasan t Hu k rebellio n wa s crushe d (with the crucial help of CIA counter-insurgency intelligence and logistica l support) an d th e US-Philippine Mutua l Defens e Treat y ratified .

40 Josep h Y . Lim , 'Ou r Economi c Crisis : A Historica l Perspective, ' i n Synthesis: Before and Beyond February 1986, ed . Lili a Quindoz a Santiag o (Quezon City : Th e Interdisciplinar y Foru m o f th e Universit y o f th e Philippines, 1986) .

Notes to Pages 19-22 277

41 Quote d in 'Salonga: No State of War, No Use of Air Space,' Philippine Daily Inquirer (1 7 Septembe r 2002 ) [http://www.inq7.net/nat/2002/sep/17 / nat_3-2.htm]

42 'Th e Global Situation,' paper presented at the conference o n 'Place, Locality and Globalization' , University of California, Sant a Cruz , 28 October 2000 . The features o f globalist fantasies which are critically described by Tsing, namely, futurism , geographica l an d ideologica l conflation s an d th e valorized focus on circulation, can be seen to be shaped by the assumptio n of a common field , whic h Tsin g calls attention t o in asking , 'wha t i s thi s thing w e cal l th e globe? ' I n a relate d vein , Kuan-Hsin g Che n ha s commented o n globalizatio n a s a structure o f feeling . Inter-Asi a Cultura l Studies Conferenc e 2000 , 1- 3 Decembe r 2000 , Kyush u University , Fukuoka, Japan .

43 Ther e is hardly any serious questioning of the 'real time' in which we live. Exceptions includ e Fatim a Mernissi' s discussio n o f th e imperialis m o f secularist, Wester n time , th e universa l tim e standar d institute d b y th e atomic clock . Merniss i suggest s tha t thi s temporalit y i s th e military -secured temporalit y o f globa l capitalism . Fo r discussion s o f histor y a s encounters betwee n conflict s o f time , see Enriqu e Dussel , The Invention of the Americas: Eclipse of "The Other" and the Myth of Modernity, trans . Michael D. Barber (New York: Continuum, 1995 ) and Dipesh Chakrabarty , 'The Tim e o f God s an d th e Tim e o f History ' i n The Politics Of Culture In The Shadow Of Capital, ed . Lis a Low e an d Davi d Lloy d (Durham , NC : Duke Universit y Press , 1997) .

44 Economist s have begun to recognize the ways in which thei r theories help to mak e th e world s the y describe . Se e Donald MacKenzie , "Fea r i n th e Markets" in London Review of Books online [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v22/n08 / mack2208.htm] an d Michae l Perelman , The Invention Of Capitalism: Classical Political Economy And The Secret History Of Primitive Accumulation (Durham , NC : Duk e Universit y Press , 2000) . Perelma n describes th e agency o f classica l politica l econom y in th e furthering , no t merely th e explanation , o f th e developmen t o f moder n capitalism . Thi s was, o f course , alread y a crucia l insigh t o f Marx .

45 Se e Patrici o J . Abinales , Making Mindanao: Cotabato and Davao in the Formation of the Philippine Nation-State (Manila : Atene o d e Manil a University Press , 2000) fo r a n insightfu l discussio n o f the making o f th e Philippine colonial-stat e i n th e peripher y a s a prehistory o f th e 'strong ' state inhabited b y th e Marco s regime .

46 Se e Anthon y Giddens , The Consequences of Modernit y (Stanford , CA : Stanford University Press, 1990). A considerable body of postcolonial work argues tha t suc h 'reproductions ' ar e no t i n fac t 'reproductions ' bu t

http://www.inq7.net/nat/2002/sep/17/

http://www.lrb.co.uk/v22/n08/

278 Notes to Pages 22-24

'alternative' form s o f modernity . See , fo r example , Dili p Parameshwa r Gaonkar, ed . Alternative Modernities (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001).

47 Se e Aihwa Ong, Flexible Citizenship: The Cultural Logics Of Transnationality (Durham, NC : Duke Universit y Press , 1999) .

48 I us e 'universal ' her e i n th e sens e o f mone y a s a universal , wher e a generalized abstractio n ha s reached a level of operational effectivit y a s to make i t a fundamenta l thoug h invisibl e (i.e . transparent ) 'command -control point ' o f dominant systemi c practices and relations . The softwar e categories an d hardwar e component s o f fantasy-production ar e precisel y ideologically authoritativ e an d politicall y an d economicall y forcefu l bid s to 'universality' . W e might like n them , respectively , t o 'the window-icon -menu-pointer (WIMP ) interfac e o f th e Ma c an d Windows , a culturall y specific and , i n th e event , interculturall y normativ e visua l vocabulary a s powerful a s colonia l English ' an d th e US B port . Sea n Cubitt , Digital Aesthetics (London : Sag e Publications, 1998) , p. 2 .

49 Quote d b y Judith Butler , 'Restagin g th e Universal : Hegemon y an d th e Limits of Formalism' in Contingency, Hegemony, Universality: Contemporary Dialogues on the Left, ed . Judith Butler , Ernest o Lacla u an d Slavo j Zize k (London an d Ne w York: Verso, 2000) p . 38.

50 Deconstructio n ha s show n th e limit s o f th e dialectica l mod e bu t a t th e same tim e ha s perhap s give n i t shor t shrift , b y no t recognizin g th e creativity 'internal' to it. It has also overestimated th e power of the agencies of thi s creativit y (o r rather , assume d to o quickl y tha t thei r potentia l wa s already power , ignorin g th e ver y field s o f meanin g an d orde r whic h determine wha t effectivel y ca n ac t powerfully , an d therefor e be power). As a consequence, i t has largely been conten t t o poin t t o thei r presence , and to remain theoretically unswayed by the acting claims of such creativ e agencies. Moreover , b y conveyin g a generalize d subjection , i t help s t o realize th e ne w religio n o f fantasy-productio n throug h a huma n predication o n the artifices (linguistic , social, epistemological) o f its ow n making. A s Wla d Godzich' s extollin g o f th e merit s o f deconstructio n makes clear : 'Th e epistemologica l groun d favore d b y deconstructio n permits th e assertio n o f an equalit y between al l human being s by virtu e of thei r dispossessio n fro m th e domai n o f meaning . Th e insistenc e o n aporia, undecidability th e fact of the dependence o f our thought processe s upon languag e an d it s tropologica l games , al l conve y th e sam e sor t o f human powerlessness tha t obtained within religious thought , without an y of th e latter' s transcendenta l dimension. ' Wla d Godzich , The Culture of Literacy (Cambridge , MA : Harvard Universit y Press , 1994 ) pp . 243-4 . I t is thi s generalizatio n o f dispossessio n an d th e concomitan t

Notes to Pages 24-26 \ 27 9 j

undertheorization o f peculiarit y (no t particularity ) tha t make s th e deconstruction o f nationhoo d an d o f othe r hegemoni c form s o f postcoloniality the theoretical supplement of globalist fantasy-production . Or, more accurately, as the endpoint o f cultural analysis, the generalizatio n of subjection (advance d by expansionist theories ) mark s the limits set by fantasy-production, limit s beyon d whic h w e mus t g o i f w e wan t t o d o something els e beside s giv e th e ne w globalis t fantasy-productio n a symbolic adequatio n o f itsel f (wha t migh t hav e onc e bee n calle d a 'consciousness'). Whil e I recogniz e tha t deconstruction , lik e historica l materialism, (whos e symboli c technologie s I dra w heavil y upon ) stil l crucially enable s politica l actio n an d socia l concern , I a m als o arguin g that thes e theorie s nee d t o connect , throug h th e mediatin g involvemen t on th e par t o f cultura l analyses , t o th e waywar d theoretica l claim s performed i n people' s action s a s wel l a s articulate d b y intellectual s becoming-people. Se e Walte r Mignolo' s relate d argumen t abou t th e imperative t o ac t o n colonia l differenc e i n 'Dussel' s Philosoph y o f Liberation: Ethics and the Geopolitcs of Knowledge' in Thinking From The Underside of History, ed . Lind a Marti n Alcof f an d Eduard o Mendiet a (Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers , Inc., 2000). As interpreters, we mus t g o close r t o th e creatio n o f meanin g (rathe r tha n remai n it s discoverers), i f we ar e t o participate i n th e breaking o f new path s takin g place al l around us . I elaborate o n thi s point i n th e conclusion .

51 A s Michae l Hard t an d Antoni o Negr i write , i n thei r critiqu e o f Satrea n cultural politics: 'The power of the dialectic, which in the hands of colonial power mystified th e reality of the colonial world, is adopted again as part of a n anticolonia l projec t a s i f th e dialecti c wer e itsel f th e rea l for m o f the movement of history. Reality and history, however, are not dialectical , and n o idealis t rhetorica l gymnastic s ca n mak e the m confor m t o th e dialect.' Empire (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000), p. 131.

PARTI

1 Ther e is , I believe, a Latin America n (probabl y Mexican ) versio n o f thi s joke. Th e origi n i s les s importan t tha n wha t i t illuminate s i n it s dissemination.

2 Inasmuc h a s h e i s perceive d t o hav e bee n portraye d a s a pacifis t an d a reformist desirin g integratio n int o th e West , i n contras t t o Andre s Bonifacio wh o has been generally portrayed as a revolutionary who calle d for a n arme d separatis t struggl e (se e Chapte r 4) . Nevertheless , Riza l i s generally credite d wit h ideologicall y spearheadin g th e revolutionar y

Index

Abad, Gemin o 32 4 agency 31 , 71, 124-125, 153 , 189,

190, 22 3 Agoncillo, Teodoro 157 , 159-18 4 Aguinaldo, Emiliano 162-163 , 177 AIDS 63 , 288 Albar, Syed Hamid 7 2 Althusser, Loui s 2 9 Amin, Sami r 281 , 338 Anderson, Benedic t 105 , 210-21 1 Ang Asawa Ko Ay DH (M y Wife i s a

DH [domesti c helper]) 132-13 5 APEC 6 9 Appadurai, Arjun 2-4 , 27 2 Aquino, Corazon 33 , 51, 107, 184,

190-223 Aquino, Benigno 145 , 191-22 3 Arroyo, Gloria Macapagal 102-104 ,

106 ASEAN 46 , 65 , 72 Asia-Pacific regio n 16 , 37-40 , 45 ,

65-74 Atsay 22 7 Aunor, Nor a 24 , 107 , 157-15 8

faith an d 240-246 , 258-25 9 fetishism an d 232-233 , 237 -

238, 250 , 253-258 , 261-26 2

heretical mass following of 232 -240, 253-25 8

hysterical mas s followin g o f 225-229

irony an d 247-25 3 and martyrdo m 227-228 , 235 ,

256 authoritarianism 73-7 4 'axis o f evil ' 6 8 Azurin, Arnol d 17 5

Bachelard, Gasto n 97-9 8 Balibar, Etienn e 26 6 Bell Trade Act, th e 14-1 5 Berlant, Laure n 2 7 Bernal, Ishmael 15 7 Big Men, theorie s o f 104-112 , 12 9 body 21 , 113-150 ,

of domesti c helper s 112-121 , 144-147

in feminis t representatio n 131 -147

metropolitan 92-9 7 subjective potentia l o f 135-13 6

Bonifacio, Andre s 159-168 , 175 -177, 18 1

Bulatao, Jaime 111-11 2

346 Index

Cajipe-Endaya, Imeld a 132-13 6 Caoili, Manuel 108-10 9 capital 7

crisis o f 8 3 global 10 2 human 6 3

capitalism flows 256 , 25 9 capitalization o f dream s 4 commodity fetishis m 11 7 contradictions o f 62 , 77-85 ,

87 post-industrial 3 9 transnational mode of production

87 care 13 9 Chakrabarty, Dipes h 16 7 Chatterjee, Parth a 8 , 156 , 274 Chow, Rey 1 2 Chen, Kuan-hsin g 2 8 children, exploitatio n o f 62-6 6 civil society 31 , 35, 102-106, 111-

112 Cold War , globa l orde r 10 , 39, 66 ,

69 commodification, o f Filipino wome n

113-121, 13 9 community

Asia-Pacific 37-38 , 41, 68 alternative 64-65 , 192 , 195 ,

204, 207 , 218-219 , 224 , 'imagined' 153 , 155 , 210 , 214 ,

216 international 7 , 20 , 29 , 31, 38-

40, 61 , 85, 95, 217, 222-22 3 transnational 10 4

Confesor, Nieve s 11 4 Constantino, Renat o 15 4 Contemplacion, Flo r 124-127 ,

129, 14 7 Corpuz, Arturo G . 10 9

crisis and 'peopl e power ' 191 , 197 ,

199, 203 , 223-22 4 of postcolonia l nation s 152 ,

154-155 of the stat e 87 , 112 , 11 8 Philippine 29 , 32-35 passim, 37,

74, 83 , 108 , 114 , 147-14 8 Cronyism 17 9 culture 119 , 240-246 , 26 9

of imperialism 11-1 2 integral importanc e i n politica l

and economi c theor y o f 2 9 of masses 24 1 -243

Davis, Angela 144-145 , 34 4 debt, foreig n 47 , 5 0 De Lauretis , Teresa 18 8 democracy 105 , 10 9 del Mundo , Luz 45-4 6 de Vera, Adora Fay e 13 5 deconstruction 22-2 3 desire 28-29 , 102 , 105-106 , 14 0

colonial 42-4 5 and 'peopl e power ' 202 , 206 -

224 forces o f 11 1 global 4 0 hegemonic 20 3 for histor y 156-15 7 desiring-actions 3 0 and flo w 86-8 8 Pacific 39-4 2 patriotism an d 210-21 1 of Philippines fo r wes t 2- 3 and urban restructuring 79 , 86-

89 deterritorialization 7 , 35, 55, 62, 96,

112, 12 9 development 31 , 51-52 , 54 , 88 ,

97-98, 109 , 111 , 167-16 8

Index | 34 7

Free World fantas y an d 1 0 imaginary o f 3 0 of Manila 8 1 national dream s o f 30-3 1 uneven 9 9

difference 117-11 9 domestic worker s 113-149 , 243 -

246. See also labour dreams 1-24 , 267-26 8

alternative 22 4 dream-acts 15 8 of Asia Pacifi c regio n 65-7 4 and civi l society 102-10 8 dream interpretatio n 8 dreamwork 5-6 , 30 , 110 , 22 4 of domesti c helper s 140-141 ,

149 imperialist 4 4 method o f interpretation 8-2 0 'metropolitan' 77-11 2 national 26-3 2 new importanc e o f 5 and Philippin e relatio n t o

modernity 1- 2 and th e rea l 323-32 4 relation t o fantasy 6

Dussel, Enrique 24 2

economy as cultura l productio n 1 2 desire 86-8 9 global 86-8 8 sexual economies and geopolitica l

figurations 37-7 6 and urba n restructuratio n 86 -

92 EDSA, Epifanio d e los Santos Avenue

108-110 EDSA revolution . Se e Februar y

Revolution Endaya, Imeld a Cajip e 132-13 6

Enrile, Juan Ponc e 219-22 0 Escobar, Artur o 11 , 30

imaginary o f development 29 3 Estrada, Josep h 32-34 , 53 , 103 -

104, 14 6 European Economi c Unio n 6 9 eventfulness 185-192 , 235-23 6 excess

and Agoncillo' s historiograph y 170-172

feminized sta r power i n exces s of commodity fetishis m 240 -246, 153-15 4

urban 80-82 , 87 , 90-97 , 99 , 106-111

experience as transformativ e activit y 140 -

142 historical 198 , 230 metropolitan 78 , 85 , 89 , 292 ,

295, 29 6 of communit y 190 , 214 , 21 9 of'following' 25 1 of History 190 , 20 4 of necessity 23 , 18 8 of people powe r 213 , 216, 22 3

faith 23 , 240-246, 25 6 and peopl e powe r 199 , 2 0 1 -

209, 221-22 2 family

Asia-Pacific regio n 40-46 , 62 -66

daughters 6 2 effects o f expor t labo r o n 13 0 exploitation throug h familia l

dynamics 62-6 6 figure o f famil y i n 'Peopl e

Power' 211 , 213-215 ideal figur e o f fathe r 46 , 234 ,

241

348 j Index

ideal figur e o f mother 234 , 24 1 Japan-US 'marriage ' 40-42 , 7 1 of nations 62 , 6 9 oedipalization 4 6 and patriotis m 21 1 and chil d prostitutio n 62-6 6 Philippines a s mistress 42-4 6 sons 53 , 55, 62

fantasy 4-21 , 19 of Asia Pacific region 66-74,22 4 codes o f 1 7 contesting, of Philippines 65-6 6 distinction betwee n dream s an d

3 of East-West globa l relations 6 9 'Free World ' 10 , 17-19 , 21 , 28,

32, 37-38 , 63-65 , 66 , 68 , 99, 105-106, 146-148 , 187 , 203 , 224

global 26-29 , 38 , 66-7 5 intersections o f nationalis m an d

Christianity i n 195-19 6 of North-Sout h globa l relation s

69 of 'th e people ' 2 9 and Romul o 15-1 9 sexual antagonis m i n 192-193 ,

212 of US-Philippine s relation s 26 -

29 fantasy productio n 5-12 , 19-22 ,

96, 244 , 267 , 27 5 alternative mean s o f 11 1 of Asia-Pacific 65-6 6 and domestic workers 145-147 ,

168, 188 , 26 7 heteronormative, internationa l

37-76 historicity o f 10-1 1 and history 157 , 168, 185, 188-

189

and international community 8 5 intrinsic rol e o f gender , rac e an d

sexuality i n 1 1 and 'Peopl e Power ' 185 , 188 ,

195-197, 206 , 210-213 , 216 , 223

in US-Philippine s relation s 26 -34, 67-7 0

See also subjectivity , dreams , imagination, psychoanalysi s

February Revolutio n 24 , 33 , 107 , 110-111, 157 , 184, 185-225, 241

feminist art about domestic helpers 131 —

142 feminist hop e 26 5 feminist iron y 26 5 feminist powe r 23 7 mainstream feminis t theor y 33 7 US feminist fil m theor y 23 1

femininity 2 3 codes o f 7 5 of Corazon Aquino during Peopl e

Power 33 , 194-21 2 and fluidity 9 5 sphere of in international relation s

61 feminization 23 , 48-50, 52, 61-63 ,

72, 74 , 114 , 121 , 126-127 , 147-148, 174 , 287, 304, 30 6

fetishism commodity 49 , 117-118 , 237 -

238, 242-24 3 and iron y 247-25 3 and 'sta r power ' 232-233 , 237 -

258, 261-26 2 Flaubert, Gustav e 58-5 9 flows/fluidity 2 1

cultural 3 and gendere d labou r 74-7 5 investment 46-4 8

Index j 34 9

trade 5 8 and urba n developmen t 78-79 ,

86-112 flyovers 34 , 77-85 , 87 , 89-91 , 97 ,

98, 110-11 1 followers/non-followers 107-108 ,

111 Foucault, Miche l 2 4 Freud, Sigmun d 211-21 2 Fukuyama, France s 15 2

Garcellano, Edel 169-17 0 gender 10-11,16-17,30-31,33-3 5

gendered revol t 194-21 2 'heresy' 225-26 1 and domesti c slaver y 117 , 121,

125-126 and export labor/domestic helper s

57-62, 71-72 , 113-12 1 'gender trouble ' 22-23 , 74 , 106,

112, 125 , 14 7 and historiograph y 172-175 ,

180-184 and 'Peopl e Power ' 206-21 1 and the state 53-56 , 71-75, 95-

96, 106 , 113-130 , 147-148 , 172-173, 181 , 184, 218-22 3

systems o f 11 7 and urba n restructurin g 92-96 ,

106-107 of developin g labou r 53-6 2 of Japan 38-4 2 of th e natio n 5 3 of Philippine s 42-52 , 124-130 ,

147-148 See also Corazo n Aquino ,

Nora Aunor , domesti c helpers, feminization , labour , prostitution, sexualit y

gentrification 8 3 Giedon, Sigfrie d 8 9

Gilmore, Rut h 29 0 globalization 105 , 112 , 29 0

global capita l 81-8 4 global networks 2 0 and gende r 56 , 243-24 4 geopolitical fantas y 7 , 66-7 4 and imaginatio n 5-7 , 38-3 9 and dream s 240-24 6 and postcolonia l imaginar y 7 urban restructurin g 86-8 7

Godzich, Wlad 27 8 Gramsci, Antonio 187 , 19 0 Gulf Wa r 199 1 37,7 2

Haraway, Donna 73 , 261-262, 26 5 Hardt, Michae l 27 9 Hau'ofa, Epel i 67-68 , 26 2 Hegel, Geor g Wilhel m Friedric h

193 heresy 232-24 0 heretical mod e 254-26 6 heroicization 147-14 9 Himala 157 , 225-25 4 history 152-18 4

alterity/excess 172-17 5 and biograph y 16 1 and developmentalism 161-16 6 from belo w 166-16 8 and gende r 172-175 , 180-18 4 ilustrado 160 , 162-164 , 1 7 1 -

175, 177-17 8 national 152-158 , 161-164 ,

168, 183-18 4 and 'Peopl e Power ' 186-19 0 postcolonial desir e for 151-15 8 principalia 16 2 and psycholog y 161-18 0 'rules o f 161-16 6 sentimental 177-18 2 and subj ective struggles 179-18 4 and tim e 165-16 6

1 350 1 Index

'unfinished' 166-169 . Se e also modernity

historiography struggle fo r sovereig n 15 6

hope 261-26 9 house, imag e o f

and urba n restructurin g 90-9 2 as ilustrado idea l 171-17 2

Hukbalahap rebellio n 8 2 human 61-62 , 30 3

agency 18 9 capital 6 3 humanity, universa l 3 5 'peopleness' 26 4 potential 131-13 5 rights 134-135 , 30 8 time 137 , 14 2 value 120 , 14 2

humor 26-28. See irony, feminist irony hysteria, o f mas s followin g 181 ,

225-232, 24 3

ideology 9 critiques o f 2 3

Ileto, Reynaldo 107 , 153, 156-157, 162, 166-169, 177-178 , 183-184 , 198, 31 3

imaginary global/transnational 5- 7 national 15 5 Noranian 229-23 2 oceanic 67-6 8 of 'people power ' 189 , 197 , 202 and nationalis m 21 0 present imaginarie s 2 0 US/Philippine relation s 26-2 8

imagination academic 10 6 counter-hegemonic 2 3 in th e everyda y 3- 4 international 105-10 6

as labour 5 new importanc e o f 3- 5 and th e stat e 5- 8 of United State s 15 2 work o f 8 , 15 8

immobility 11 6 imperialism 1 0 import liberalizatio n 5 6 Inang Bayan 23 7 Insiang 22 8 International Monetar y Fun d 11 ,

30, 42 , 51-5 2 investment, i n Philippine s 42 , 49 ,

59, 63 , 93, 10 4 irony 1-3 , 205 , 247-25 3

feminist 26 5 Iyer, Pico 2

Jameson, Fredri c 18 8 Japan 39-63 , 72 , 142-14 4 Jocano, F Land a 119-12 0 Jones Act 13-1 4 jouissonce 212 , 21 4

Katipunan 159-162 , 174 , 176 , 180 , 319

Keynesian economic s 5 1 King, Anthony 7 9

labour alienation o f 8 creative 8 , 13 7 division o f 8 5 exploitation o f 43 , 50 export 57-6 2 flexibiiization 11 7 and gende r 53-6 4 human 5 5 migrants/domestic workers /

OCWs 113-121 , 123-124 , 135, 144-148 , 243-24 6

Index ["35 ?

Philippines 4 3 power 55 , 115 , 117-11 8 prostitution a s 50-56 , 62-66 ,

117 reproductive 5 5 and slaver y 33 , 35 , 113-121 ,

144-148 surplus 94 , 11 9 time 123-124 , 135 , 13 7 unregulated 54-55 , 80-83 , 9 3 and urbanizatio n 81-85 , 94-9 5

Lacan, Jacques 212 , 32 3 lack

and histor y 156-157 , 17 0 international 105-106,156-15 7 and libidina l dynamics o f Peopl e

Power 194,199,211,216,22 3 and urbanizatio n 8 0

Laurel, Salvado r 325-32 6 Lefort, Claud e 25 3 liberalization 51-5 2 Lim, Alfredo, S . 83 , 89, 92, 95-9 6 love, an d libidina l dynamic s o f

'People Power ' 196 , 198 , 199 , 203-214

Lumbera, Bienvenid o 248-24 9

Mabanglo, Rut h Elyni a 135-14 2 mail-order brid e 5 0 Manila 34 , 52, 77-95, 83-102, 11 1 Marcos, Ferdinan d

masculinization o f 192-194 , 200-201, 209-212 , 21 9

Marcos, Imeld a 1 , 3 , 52 , 82-84 , 193-194

Marcos regim e and developmen t 51-5 2 departure o f 214-21 9 dreams o f 1- 3 and history 154-155 , 184, 271-

272

and martia l law , chec k 23 , 50 -52, 82-84 , 88 , 90 , 105 , 108 , 184, 24 1

and urba n developmen t 77-78 , 82-84, 105 , 108 , 15 4

Marianism 221 , 223, 237 martyr

Nora Auno r a s 22 7 Flor Contemplacio n a s 124 -

127, 129 , 14 7 hero an d marty r 147-14 8 Ninoy a s Christia n 196-206 ,

209-210, 212 , 216 , 218, 223-224

Marx, Kar l 6 , 27 5 Marxism 8-1 1 masculinity 16-17 , 19 , 30, 53 , 61,

71, 72 , 95 , 186 , 192-194 , 200 -201, 209-212 , 21 9

masses 31,106 , 159-160,166-168 , 185, 190, 221, 227-228, 232-233, 251, 253-254 , 266 , 29 3 and women 172-174 , 18 4 and elite s 178 , 18 3

Matsui, Yayori 6 1 Mbembe, Achille 29 8 McClintock, Ann e 3 0 McKinley Willia m 31 1 media 86 , 110 , 122, 124, 130 , 132,

189, 191 , 218-219, 229 , 34 0 international 3 , 6 , 217 , 27 3 of fantasy-productio n 11 , 21 ,

111,210 rumors a s revolutionary 17 2 women a s 181 , 256 star powe r an d socia l mediatio n

227, 230-234 , 237-239 , 241 -246, 253 , 258

role in peopl e powe r 18 9 role o f i n ne w imaginarie s 4 ,

6

352 I Index

memory collective rememberin g 187 ,

203-204 historical 15 2

Mga Liham ni Pinay 137-14 2 Mies, Maria 30 3 middle class , Filipino 34-3 5 militarism 52 , 71 , 286 military, Philippine s 210-21 3 mimicry 2- 3 miracles 225 , 243-24 8 mobility 64 , 90 , 9 7 modernity 2 , 156 , 168-16 9 modernization 51-52 , 55 , 88, 11 1 Mojares, Resi l 107 , 18 1 mourning 198-20 0 multiculturalism 26 7 Mundo, Lu z de l 45-4 6 Muto, Ichiy o 263-264 , 26 6

NAFTA 6 9 narcissism 211-21 2 nation 21 , 160-17 5

fantasies o f 22 , 26-3 1 and gende r 53-56 , 95-125 ,

124-130, 14 7 in globa l econom y 29 , 59-6 0 and histor y 152-15 8 ideal image s o f 9 3 relation t o multinationa l bodie s

58-60, 7 4 narration o f 105-10 6 national bod y 11 3 national elit e 31 , 51-52, 10 6 national imaginar y 7- 8 nation-state a s drea m wor k 7 ,

102 nation-state, rol e o f i n globa l

economy 12 9 oedipaiization 10 , 45-50 , 62 -

64

and prostitutio n 57-6 2 and regulatio n o f domesti c

workers 124-12 9 nationalism 1 7

and gende r 5 3 economic 11 2 and histor y 152-153 , 161-164 ,

168 and religio n 196-19 9

necessity 14 0 Negri, Antonio 132 , 27 9 neo-colonialism. See fantasy , fre e

world Ness, Sally 92 , 9 9 New People' s Army 110,18 4 New World Orde r 7-8 , 37 , 66, 69 ,

266 NIC 3 7

objectification 14 0 OECD 3 7 O'Hanlon, Rosalin d 14 8 Ong, Aihwa 30 2 Orientalism 48-49 , 57-6 2 OCWs/overseas contac t workers. See

domestic workers , labou r

Pacific Wa r 4 0 pedophilia 63-6 4 Pertierra, Rau l 240-24 1 perversion 4 9 People's Plan 21 , 263 People Powe r 2 , 33-34, 103 , 110 -

111, 185-224 . Se e also Februar y Revolution

people, th e 24 , 31 , 67 , 165-166 , 173, 182 , 190-192 , 201-202 , 210-212 as event 24 2 See also masses

Perfumed Nightmare 10 0

Index j 35 3

Philippine Aid Pla n 46-4 7 Philippine Revolutio n (1896 ) 15 7 Pinay 138-14 2 political scienc e 105-107 , 29 8 popular socia l movement s 24 , 66 -

69, 73 , 81-83, 85 , 109-110 , 154 , 263. Se e also Hukbalaho p Rebellion, women' s movements , February Revolution , Peopl e Power 2

popularity and urbanizatio n 81-83 , 8 5

Powell, Coli n 7 2 power 43 , 11 9

fascist 253-25 8 'star power ' 225-23 0 transformative 19 0 See subjectiv e potential , peopl e

power prison syste m 144-4 5 privatization 52 , 64, 87-8 8

of imagination 5 prostitution

of childre n 62-6 4 and international relations 55-6 2 of Philippines 42-5 2 and urba n developmen t 74-75 ,

93,96-97 psychoanalysis 9-10 , 98 , 211-21 3

and peopl e powe r 210-21 3 and urba n developmen t 97-9 9

psychology, an d histor y 161-18 0

Quezon Cit y 10 8

race 10-11 , 30-31 , 3 5 and domesti c slaver y 116-118 ,

145 fantasy productio n an d 7 the Filipino 'race ' 19 9 systems o f 117-11 8

racialization and migran t labo r 116-11 7 and prostitutio n 57-6 1

Rafael, Vincen t 156-157 , 19 8 Ramos, Fide l 73 , 124 , 22 0 rape 48 , 57-58, 115-116, 123-124 ,

302-303 realism 24 , 105 , 250, 262 , 34 3 'reality' 29 , 67, 145, 187, 247, 262-

263 dominant fiel d o f 6 and fantas y 29 , 205 , 22 4 mythical 25 2

religion and Corazon and Benigno Aquino

196-206, 217-21 8 and Nor a Auno r 225-25 6 biblical time s 20 4 image o f Chris t 196-206 , 209 -

210, 212 , 216 , 218 , 223-224 , 228, 25 6

Christian love and 'People Power ' 210-213

conversion 44-45 , 210-21 1 faith 24 , 203 , 240-246, 25 6 Marianism 221-22 3 Mary Magdalene 25 4 miracles 225-23 0 and Peopl e Powe r 210-21 3 Virgin imag e 194-197 , 202 -

206, 220-222 , 234-238 , 25 8 See also fait h

representation 3 , 32-3 3 reproduction 5 5 Revolt of the Masses 159-184 . See

also history Rizal, Jose 26 , 53 , 152-153 , 160 ,

173, 19 8 roads 109-11 2 Romulo, Carlo s P . 12-1 9

3541 Index

Salazar, Zeu s 15 3 San Fernando 100-10 2 Santiago, Lilia Quindoz a 173-17 4 Schor, Naom i 250 , 26 5 security 31 , 42-43, 47 , 64, 67, 7 2 sex industry. Se e labour, prostitutio n sexual antagonis m 41 , 47 , 192 -

194, 200-201, 209-212 , 219-22 5 sexual economie s an d internationa l

relations 10 , 37-7 6 sexuality

and natio n 211-22 1 and peopl e powe r 210-21 3 and Filipino leadership 218-22 3 and th e stat e 94-9 5

Sin, Cardina l 101 , 107 slavery, discourse of 33 , 35, 59-60,

113-121, 144-14 8 Smith, Nei l 74 , 78 , 84 Sorkin, Michae l 84-8 5 sovereignty 15 6

fantasy idea l o f 18 , 28 , 31-33 , 306-307

national 42 , 52-53, 74-75 , 125-126, 129 , 146 , 153 , 162 , 17 8

of women 235,33 6 space

global geopolitica l 2 1 imaginary geograph y 7 privatization o f 90-9 5 production o f urban 78-88 , 9 1

Spillers, Hortense 12 1 squatters 82-8 3 state 2 1

gender troubl e o f 22 , 72 , 96 , 112, 23 5

and heroicizatio n 14 7 international powe r o f 4 1 imagination 5 , 22, 3 1 and Marcos regime 50-52 , 213-

217

masculinity o f 19 3 saving actions o f 125-12 9 'state bulimia ' 23 , 92-9 4 strengthening o f 7 0 and urba n restructurin g 78-82 ,

88-95, 106-11 0 weak/strong 70-77 , 102-112 ,

125 See also Corazo n Aquino , Glori a

Magapel Arroyo , Josep h Estrada, Ferdinan d Marcos , Fidel Ramo s

'strong-man' regime 23 , 33, 52-56, 105-112

struggle anti-colonial 1 4 over histor y 152-15 6 social 64-65 , 69 , 10 9 of state 7 5 subjective an d histor y 181-18 4 urban spac e a s site o f 7 9

subjection of OCWs 124-13 0 and slaver y 144-14 7

subjectivity 21 3 of domesti c worker s a s natio n

124-130 and globa l fantas y productio n

29-31, 70-7 1 historicity o f 11-12 , 9 8 and histor y 148-149 , 15 7 and 'non-West ' 1 2 and popula r revol t 186-18 8 and Philippin e nationhoo d 17 ,

32 and urbanization 79-80 , 89-92,

102-103 subjective potentia l 132 , 142 , 34 2

and Nor a Aunor 225-24 7 of domesti c helpe r 114 , 131 -

142, 14 8

Index 355

of religion 202-20 6 and urba n form s 106-11 0 women an d popula r movement s

206-209 symptom 19 3

Filipino peopl e a s 203 , 212 , 217, 22 4

Philippines a s 26-28 , 106 , 26 5 of th e masses 228-22 9

syncretic sociabilit y 13 8

Tahimik, Kidla t 10 0 tangentiality 23-24 , 106 , 157-158 ,

234-235 technocracy 5 1 terrorism, wa r o n 37 , 68-7 2 theory, Western 9 8 Thiong'o, Ngug i Wa 12 , 26 8 time

abnormal 165-166 , 17 4 experiential 13 6 historical 167-16 8 human 130-13 7 labour 130-13 7 planetary 2 1

Toure, Sekou 2 2 tourism 50-52 , 9 2 trade 48 , 52 , 58 traffic 86-89 , 9 8 tragedy 124-127 , 172 , 181 , 247 Trask, Haumami-Kay 27 1 Tsing, Anna 2 0

unconscious 9 , 181 , 242 lack of , i n Metr o Manil a 97-9 8

UNICEF 6 3 US militar y assistance/agreement s

15 US-Philippine relation s

fantasy o f 12-1 6 imaginary realit y o f 26-3 3

Philippine-American 'romance ' 42-54

Romulo's formulatio n o f 12-1 9 sovereignty 33-3 4 treaties an d agreement s 15-1 6 in US history 15 4 US imperial fantasie s 39-4 0

urban excess 80-82 , 92-97 , 106-11 0 development an d flo w 86-9 4 development an d gende r 92-9 7 development an d metropolita n

form 77-8 5

value exchange 12 3

human 14 2 moral 93-9 4 spectacular 23 8 surplus 56 , 93-94 , 118 , 120 ,

125 systems o f 79 , 86, 88, 13 5 universal 6 , 8

violence 34 , 14 8 bodily 112-12 7

war o f pacification 4 0 Wigley, Mark 91 , 95 Williams, Raymond 14 8 women

creativity o f 131-13 5 movements o f 75 , 206-20 8

World Bank 11 , 30, 42, 51-53, 56 , 82, 28 5

World Trade Center attack s 69-70 , 152

Yudice, George 9 3

Zizek, Slavo j 9-10 , 192-193 , 28 1

Fantasy-Production - Hong Kong University Press

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