Exploring geographic origins at Cahuachi using stable isotopic analysis of archaeological human...

Exploring Geographic Origins at Cahuachiusing Stable Isotopic Analysis ofArchaeological Human Tissues andModern Environmental WatersEMILY C. WEBB,a* CHRISTINE D. WHITEa AND FRED J. LONGSTAFFEb

a Department of Anthropology, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canadab Department of Earth Sciences, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada

ABSTRACT In this study, we used oxygen- and hydrogen-isotope data from human bone (d18O) and modern environmentalwater samples (d18O and dD) to investigate geographic origins of individuals buried at Cahuachi, a ceremonialcentre in the Nasca region of Peru (c.AD1-1000). Our objective was to characterise the natural variation in waterstable isotopic composition in the Rio Grande deNasca drainage, and then to use these data to better infer placeof origin for 30 adults interred at Cahuachi. Using the d18O and dD values of 63 modern environmental watersamples, it was possible to differentiate among the northern and southern river middle valleys, and to infer theisotopic composition of drinking water at higher elevations. Over half of the individuals included in this studyhad drinking water oxygen-isotope compositions consistent with places of origin away from Cahuachi duringthe last 10 to 25 years of life, perhaps in the northern river middle valleys or in the upper valleys/sierra. Theenvironmental water stable isotopic baseline developed in this study enabled a better understanding of thenatural variation of waters in the Rio Grande de Nasca drainage. As a result, it was possible to assess thegeographic range of place of origin for these individuals with greater certainty. Taken together, these datasupport the idea of Cahuachi as a place of both local and regional significance, with individuals fromdistant partsof the Rio Grande de Nasca drainage travelling to and/or transporting the dead to the site for death or burial.Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Key words: Cahuachi; geographic origins; oxygen isotopes; hydrogen isotopes; water

Introduction

The investigation of geographic origins and thebiochemical identification of foreigners is possiblethrough the use of stable oxygen-isotope analysis ofhuman bone and enamel. This well-established method-ology has been used in many regions of the world(Schwarcz et al., 1991; Fricke et al., 1995; Dupras andSchwarcz, 2001; Mitchell and Millard, 2009; Perryet al., 2009; Chenery et al., 2010; Smits et al., 2010),including Mesoamerica (White et al., 1998, 2000, 2002,2004a, 2004b, 2007) and the Andes (Henry, 2008;Hewitt et al., 2008; Knudson, 2009; Knudson et al.,2009; Buzon et al., 2011). In the Nasca Region, oxygen-isotope analysis has been used to investigate the presence

of non-locals at cemeteries near Huaca del Loro (Henry,2008) and at La Tiza and Pajonal Alto (Buzon et al.,2011), and to determine the origins of individuals trans-formed into Nasca trophy heads (Knudson et al., 2009).The use of oxygen-isotope analysis to investigate

geographic origin is based on the principle that bioapatiteisotopic compositions reflect the isotopic compositionof environmental water in the place where an individ-ual lived during the period of tissue formation (Luzand Kolodny, 1985; Stuart-Williams and Schwarcz,1997). Establishing local ranges (i.e., a range ofisotopic compositions consistent with a defined area)and assessing natural isotopic variability within a largerregion through analysis of environmental watersamples are thus essential to this type of study.Regional environmental baseline isotopic data enableinterpretations that move beyond comparisons withinor among samples or exclusion from a local population,to assessing broader scales of mobility and evaluatingpotential places of origin.

* Correspondence to: Department of Anthropology, Faculty of SocialSciences, Social Science Centre, The University of Western Ontario,London, Ontario, Canada, N6A 5C2.e-mail: [email protected]

Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Received 27 April 2011Revised 13 September 2011Accepted 24 September 2011

International Journal of OsteoarchaeologyInt. J. Osteoarchaeol. 23: 698–715 (2013)Published online 8 November 2011 in Wiley Online Library(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/oa.1298

Here, oxygen-isotope analysis of bone is used to assessgeographic origins of 30 adults who were ultimatelyinterred at the Nasca ceremonial centre of Cahuachi(Figure 1). Bone isotopic composition reflects a weightedaverage of drinking water oxygen-isotope compositionsduring the last one to two decades of life, and was specif-ically selected to allow investigation of place of residenceduring adulthood for these individuals. In addition,oxygen- and hydrogen-isotope analysis of modern envi-ronmental water samples from different parts of theNascadrainage is used to develop a clearer picture of naturalvariation among different water sources throughout theregion, in order to guide the interpretation of geographicorigins of the individuals studied here. The overarchinggoal of this research is to use these stable isotopic datafrom human bone and environmental water to assess thegeographical scale of Cahuachi’s influence as a cere-monial centre, as well as the scale of interaction amongisotopically discrete locales within the Nasca Region.

Environmental and archaeological context

Regional climate

The Atacama and Peruvian Coastal Deserts, extendingbetween the coastal mountain range and the westernAndes, are among the driest regions in the world. Thecoastal desert atmosphere is unusually stable, whichsignificantly reduces convection and thus precipitation,

and cold offshore currents limit the moisture-carryingcapacity of onshore winds, which creates an inversionthat traps Pacific moisture at low elevations (Cookeet al., 1993; Beresford-Jones, 2005; Houston, 2006). Aswell, the presence of the Andes hampers the movementof moist eastern air masses, creating a rain shadow(Houston, 2006). During the austral winter (approxi-mately May through September), coastal fog condensa-tion (garúa) supports the growth of lomas vegetation(pasture and meadows), notably along the hills of thecoastal mountain range (Beresford-Jones, 2005). Winterrainfall is minimal, generated by northerly and easterlymoving Pacific systems and constituting less than 30%of the total annual rainfall in the driest parts of theAtacama Desert (Houston, 2006).During the summer (December through April),

altiplano rainfall (i.e., above 4000m.a.s.l.) largely origi-nates from Amazonian (eastern) air masses. At loweraltitudes (2000–3000m.a.s.l.), Pacific-derived precipi-tation contributes to total rainfall during the summermonths. There is considerable inter-annual variationin summer precipitation amounts, arising from theinfluence of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO).In the altiplano, the warm El Niño effect tends toproduce drier conditions and the cooler LaNiña produceswetter conditions, which can in turn lead to flooding alower elevations. In contrast, Pacific-sourced coastaldesert precipitation at lower altitudes increases substan-tially during El Niño years, again increasing thelikelihood of flooding in the coastal valleys (Houston,

Figure 1. Map of Rio Grande deNasca drainage. (A) Grande-Palpa water sampling zone; (B) Ingenio water sampling zone; (C) Nasca water sampling zone.

699Exploring Geographic Origins at Cahuachi using Isotopic Analyses

Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 23: 698–715 (2013)

2006; Magilligan et al., 2008). Houston and Hartley(2003) observed that average annual rainfall on the westernslope of the Peruvian Andes increases dramatically withincreasing elevation.

Rio Grande de Nasca drainage hydrology

The Rio Grande de Nasca drainage is composed of ninetributaries that are confluent, flowing through a singlepass in the coastal mountain range (Figure 1). Typically,the nine tributaries are divided into northern (SantaCruz, Grande, Palpa, Viscas and Ingenio) and southern(Nasca [Aja and Tierras Blancas], Taruga and LasTrancas) groups (Schreiber and Lancho Rojas, 2003).The Southern Nasca Region has been the focus ofextensive archaeological and bioarchaeological research(Carmichael, 1988, 1995; Silverman, 1993; Vaughn,2000; Williams et al., 2001; Kellner, 2002; Orefici andDrusini, 2003; Schreiber and Lancho Rojas, 2003).Archaeological surveys throughout the Nasca drainage(Proulx, 1999; Silverman, 2002; Reindel, 2009) havelocated a considerable number of Nasca settlements fromall chronological periods along the river valleys from thelower desert valleys into the highlands, ranging in sizefrom small villages to more extensive settlements andpopulation centres. The river valleys and washes thatmake up the Rio Grande de Nasca drainage are blockedfrom flowing directly into the Pacific Ocean by a seriesof coastal hills, which are the remnants of an ancientmountain range (Schreiber and Lancho Rojas, 2003).Together, the northern rivers have a higher average

annual flow than the southern rivers. This is becausethe southern catchments are smaller, with fewer tribu-taries at higher altitudes, and because the surface soilincludes large quantities of volcanic ash, which is porousand absorbs river flow and runoff (i.e., has a high rate ofinfiltration). The southern rivers are fed by seasonalhighland rainfall above 2000m.a.s.l., flowing downhilluntil reaching the alluvial soil of the valley bottoms,which has a moderate to high infiltration capacity. Inthe sierra (2000+ m.a.s.l.), rainfall farming is possible,and in the upper valleys (1200–2000m.a.s.l.), sufficientsurface flow is usually available for drinking and agricul-tural purposes. Surface flow is significantly reducedbelow 1200m.a.s.l., disappearing entirely five years outof seven between 800 and 1200m.a.s.l. (zone of infiltra-tion). In the middle valleys (400–800m.a.s.l.), subsur-face flow (the phreatic layer) must be accessed tosupport agriculture and settlements, and the Nascadeveloped puquios (horizontal wells) to accomplishthis, likely during the Middle Nasca period. Influentrivers re-emerge consistently around 400m.a.s.l.. Below400m.a.s.l., traditional irrigation of valley bottoms is

possible, although there are high winds and extremeheat to manage in this zone (Schreiber and LanchoRojas, 2003).There are 37 functioning puquios in the Southern

Nasca Region today, although more are believed tohave existed in the past. A typical puquio consists ofan open trench and/or a subterranean gallery that tapsinto the phreatic layer (Silverman and Proulx, 2002;Schreiber and Lancho Rojas, 2003). Water accessedvia the puquio is directed into a reservoir for storage orinto irrigation canals. Over half of the functioningpuquios are adjacent to riverbeds, and these are typicallythe highest output wells (Schreiber and Lancho Rojas,1995, 2003; Johnson et al., 2002b). Puquios locatedcloser to the margins of the valley are often positionedabove impermeable rock formations near the valleysides; Schreiber and Lancho Rojas (2003) havehypothesised that these formations may act as subterra-nean dams, creating underground reservoirs. Geologicfaults may also direct water into puquios and thephreatic layer (Johnson et al., 2002b), althoughSchreiber and Lancho Rojas (2003) believe that watercontributed by faults is minimal. They have determinedthat there is strong continuity in water levels betweenthe highland precipitation-fed seasonal flow of riversand puquio output.

Cahuachi and Nasca society

A sacred place for over a millennium, the ceremonialcentre of Cahuachi was a prominent, dynamic featureof the Nasca social landscape throughout the Early Inter-mediate Period and Middle Horizon (AD1–1000).Located in the lower Nasca river valley, Cahuachiencompasses approximately 150 hectares. Survey andexcavation at the site have revealed temple mounds,plazas, enclosures and extensive burial grounds, indica-tions of a small resident population, a preponderance ofritual items and evidence for ritual activity (Silverman,1993; Orefici and Drusini, 2003). In archaeologicalresearch, Cahuachi has been described as a centrallocus where activities that integrated dispersed settle-ments and created shared cultural traditions took place(Silverman, 1993; Vaughn, 2005). The site is thoughtto have functioned primarily as a ceremonial pilgrimagecentre, rather than a heavily populated urbanised area.Rituals celebrating cyclical or seasonal agriculturalevents, such as the summer solstice, harvests or highlandrainfall, are suggested to have drawn participants orpilgrims from the surrounding valleys (Silverman, 1993;Valdez, 1994; Silverman and Proulx, 2002).Construction at Cahuachi began during the Proto-

Nasca phase (100BC – AD1), and during subsequent

700 E. C. Webb et al.


centuries, the site emerged as the preeminent ceremonialcentre in the Nasca Region (Early Nasca, AD1–450)(Silverman, 1993). The exercise of power by the smallpermanent elite population at Cahuachi is believedto have been largely non-coercive, achieved in partthrough the ability to attract followers with specialisedknowledge (i.e., about water and agricultural fertility)(Silverman, 1993, 2002; Vaughn, 2000). As well, redis-tribution of elaborately decorated, ritually chargedceramics produced at or near Cahuachi was occurringvia family groups or lineages making pilgrimages tothe site at this time (Vaughn and Neff, 2004; Vaughnet al., 2006; Vaughn and Van Gijseghem, 2007). Thetransitional Middle Nasca period (AD450–550) ischaracterised by dramatic changes in iconography, devel-opment of a complex water management system and thecessation of construction at Cahuachi (Silverman, 1993;Schreiber and Lancho Rojas, 1995; Silverman and Proulx,2002). The impetus for these changes is believed to havebeen increasing environmental instability, leading todissatisfaction with the prevailing ideology of the‘Cahuachi cult’ (Van Gijseghem, 2004).After the Early Nasca period, construction activity

at the site diminished, ritual activities moved awayfrom Cahuachi, and elite individuals began to emergeas new forms of socio-political organisation developedin the Nasca Region. The populace coalesced into afew large settlements during the Late Nasca period(AD650–750), and archaeological research indicatesincreasing social complexity and greater representa-tion of war-related themes on pottery during this time(Schreiber and Lancho Rojas, 1995, 2003; Schreiber,2005). The Wari polity expanded into Nasca c.AD750, marking the beginning of the Middle Horizon(locally the Loro Period, AD750–1000). Wari settle-ments were established throughout the SouthernNasca Region, including a large site (Pacheco) nearCahuachi (Schreiber, 2005). The local population ofthe northern river valleys decreased as Nasca peoplemoved south to the Las Trancas river valley where alarge local centre, Huaca del Loro, was established(Schreiber, 1988, 2001; Conlee and Schreiber, 2006).Cahuachi nonetheless still played an important rolein Nasca society, and burials, deposition of trophyheads, offerings and other ritual activities continuedto take place at the site throughout Middle and LateNasca and the Middle Horizon (Silverman, 1993).Nasca trophy heads, found at Cahuachi and at many

other sites throughout the Nasca Region, are humanskulls removed from the body after death andintentionally modified. Trophy heads are widelyrepresented on Nasca pottery throughout the EarlyIntermediate Period, and the over 150 documented

modified crania have been the subject of considerablescholarly research (Tello, 1918; Ubbelohde-Doering,1958, 1966; Carmichael, 1988; Drusini and Baraybar,1989; Proulx, 1989, 2001; Browne et al., 1993;Silverman, 1993; Verano, 1995, 2003; Williams et al.,2001; Kellner, 2002, 2006; Forgey and Williams, 2005;Forgey, 2006; Tung, 2007; Knudson et al., 2009). Therole of trophy-taking and trophy heads in Nasca societyis a much-debated question, in part focused on determin-ing if the individuals chosen to be transformed intotrophy heads were venerated ancestors or victims ofconflict. It has been argued that the trophy headsplayed an entirely ritual role in Nasca society, perhapstaken from venerated ancestors and were selected fromthe local Nasca population (Carmichael, 1995;DeLeonardis and Lau, 2004; Conlee, 2007; Conleeet al., 2009). Alternatively, trophy heads may havebeen taken from vanquished warriors, either foreignor from other Nasca groups (Proulx, 1989, 2001), orthrough raiding (Williams et al., 2001). Bone oxygen-isotope data and the environmental water isotopicbaselines presented here can contribute to this debateby indicating likely place(s) of origin for individualsmodified into trophy heads within the Nasca drainage.

Theoretical considerations

Oxygen- and hydrogen-isotope compositions of regionalprecipitation, surface water and groundwater

All oxygen- and hydrogen-isotope compositions aremeasured relative to the VSMOW (Vienna StandardMean Ocean Water) standard and reported as a ratioin per mille (%) using standard d notation. Theisotopic composition of meteoric water (mw= rainand snow; d18Omw, dDmw) is controlled by bothregional processes and local conditions, includingtemperature, distance from the coast, topography andaltitude, relative humidity, source of the air mass andamount of precipitation (Clark and Fritz, 1997; Darlinget al., 2006). Craig (1961) demonstrated a linearrelationship between d18O and dD values at a globalscale, known as the Global Meteoric Water Line(GMWL; dD=8*d18O +10). This relationship is auseful reference against which regional and localmeteoric water lines can be compared, and for inter-preting the isotopic composition of water samples.Based on data reported by Aravena et al. (1999) from

northern Chile, the average �1s summer d18Omw anddDmw values were �15.5� 3.9% and �110� 30%above 3000m.a.s.l. and �6.6� 2.5% and �42� 21%



below 3000m.a.s.l., respectively. Aravena et al. (1999)further noted that, above 3000m.a.s.l., winter rains gen-erally had higher, less variable oxygen- and hydrogen-isotope compositions (�11.1� 1.6% and �76� 12%,respectively) than summer rains. The lower d18Omwand dDmw values of high altitude precipitation are likelya result of rainout from Atlantic/Amazonian-sourcedair masses, whereas the higher d18Omw and dDmwvalues of lower elevation precipitation likely reflect theinfluence of Pacific-sourced air masses and evaporation(Aravena et al., 1999).The isotopic composition of surface waters (e.g.,

rivers, lakes, reservoirs and irrigation canals), althoughstrongly influenced by precipitation and/or ground-water source (e.g., springs or wells), is also influencedby evaporation (Clark and Fritz, 1997; Sharp, 2007).In the nearby Moquegua valley in south-central Peru,Magilligan et al. (2008) observed a strong altitude effecton surface water (i.e., decreasing d18O values withincreasing altitude), and that the d18O values corre-sponded more closely to lower elevation precipita-tion with a Pacific source than the highly 18O- andD-depleted Atlantic/Amazonian-sourced precipitation.As well, the relationship between oxygen- and hydrogen-isotope compositions (dD=5.8*d18O - 27.4) indicatedthat river water was significantly affected by evapora-tion along the flow path (Magilligan et al., 2008).The isotopic composition of groundwater is

expected to be an average of the d18O and dD valuesof precipitation in the recharge region, although somecontribution from deeper, older aquifers is possible.The recharge area may be some distance away andcan include meteoric water (rain, snow, and/or snow-melt) from higher altitudes flowing below the surface.As well, partially evaporated surface water, such asriver flow or run-off water, can be incorporated intogroundwater. Groundwater may also include a mixtureof water from more than one recharge area, and poten-tially can have different isotopic compositions (Clarkand Fritz, 1997; Sharp, 2007). Magilligan et al. (2008)determined that groundwater in Moquegua was largelyderived from Pacific-sourced precipitation, primarilyrecharged during El Niño-associated precipitationevents. Additional potential sources of groundwaterinclude high altitude snowmelt runoff and fog conden-sation. Runoff water from the snowpack is a mixture oforiginal snow and a snow surface somewhat enrichedin 18O and D by sublimation, but snowmelt willultimately contribute low-18O and low-D water tosurface and groundwater. Aravena et al. (1989) deter-mined that coastal fog condensation had high d18Oand dD values (average �1.9% and �3% respec-tively), but that, although the isotopic composition

of lomas vegetation reflected fog condensation, ground-water isotopic composition was not affected.

Oxygen-isotope analysis of bioapatite

Bone is a composite of biological apatite (70%) andcollagen (30%), with bioapatite embedded in and grow-ing around the organic fraction (i.e., collagen). Structur-ally, bioapatite can be loosely described as having achemical formula of Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2, and chemicalsubstitutions can potentially occur in the calcium(Ca2+), phosphate (PO4

3�) or hydroxyl (OH�) posi-tions (Sillen, 1989). Bioapatite phosphate (PO4

3�)can be analysed to obtain its oxygen-isotope compos-ition. Carbonate ions (CO3

2�), substituting in placeof phosphate, permit analysis of both carbon- andoxygen-isotope compositions for structural carbonate(d18Osc; Lee-Thorp, 2002). The oxygen isotopic com-position of bone, a continuously remodelling tissue(i.e., experiencing biochemical turnover), represents aweighted average of drinking water isotopic compos-ition during the last 10 to 25 years of life (Manolagas,2000). Within this estimated window, bone in the axialskeleton typically turns over more rapidly than in theappendicular skeleton (Parfitt, 2002), suggesting thatisotopic compositions of axial bone samples (cranialand rib) may represent a shorter period of time (e.g.,the 10 years preceding death) relative to long bonesamples (Table 1).The use of oxygen-isotope analysis of bioapatite to

determine geographic origins is based on the principlethat bone isotopic compositions primarily reflectthe isotopic composition of drinking water (d18Odw),which in turn reflects the isotopic compositionof environmental water (d18Oew), including bothmeteoric and recycled water (Luz and Kolodny, 1985;Stuart-Williams and Schwarcz, 1997). The isotopiccomposition of recycled water (e.g., surface watersand springs/wells) is linked to that of meteoric water(d18Omw), and is further influenced by additionalfactors (e.g., evaporation, groundwater mixing), theimpact of which can be significant in some regionsand environments. The oxygen-isotope compositionof bone phosphate (d18Op) is determined by d18Obody-

water (which reflects the isotopic composition of drink-ing water) and by body temperature (Stuart-Williamsand Schwarcz, 1997). For animals with constant bodytemperature, d18Op values are determined by input(drinking water, food, air) and output (breath, urine,water vapour), which in turn vary with body size,metabolism, and water requirements and conservation(Luz and Kolodny, 1985; Bryant and Froelich, 1995).Primarily, however, the d18Op values of human bone



bioapatite are reflective of drinking water, and thusenvironmental and meteoric water. Within-populationvariability of a low-mobility sample has been found tobe approximately 1–2% for both humans (Whiteet al., 1998, 2000) and wild fauna (Longinelli, 1984).Phosphate-oxygen in bioapatite has undergone meta-

bolic isotopic fractionation, and a correction for thiseffect must be applied to the data in order to related18Op values to drinking water. There are several equa-tions that model this correction (Longinelli, 1984; Luzet al., 1984; Levinson et al., 1987), with no clear consen-sus as to the preferred relationship. Daux and colleagues(2008) recently compiled previously published and newdata and developed a model that potentially allowsmore accurate (�0.5%) prediction of d18Odw valuesover a larger range of d-values, and that reducesintra-sample variability compared to the older equa-tions. Daux et al.’s Equation (6) has been used in severalstudies elsewhere (e.g., Mitchell and Millard, 2009;

Perry et al., 2009; Smits et al., 2010) and is adopted inthis paper:

d18Odw ¼ 1:54d18Op � 33:72

[Equation 1]

Methods

Sampling

Bone samples were collected at the State Collection forAnthropology and Palaeoanatomy (SAPM), Munich,Germany in February 2008. The remains are fromHeinrich Ubbelohde-Doering’s 1932 field season,during which he excavated approximately 50 Nasca-affiliated graves in the Rio Grande de Nasca drainage(Ubbelohde-Doering, 1958, 1966; Kroeber andCollier, 1998). Bone samples were collected from 30adults buried at Cahuachi (CAH; Figure 1).

Table 1. Oxygen-isotope results for Cahuachi bone samples

Sample ID Age (Sex) Bone Sampled d18Op (%, VSMOW) Yield CO21 CI2 d18Odw (%, VSMOW)3

Cahuachi (CAH)483* Adult (F) cranial 13.4 4.8 2.8 �13.0492 Adult (M) mandible 12.4 4.8 2.7 �14.6493* Adult (M) cranial 13.0 4.9 2.8 �13.7496 Adult (M) cranial 13.4 4.8 2.7 �13.1497* Adult (M) cranial 15.7 4.7 2.7 �9.5505 Older Adult (?) cranial 14.0 4.9 2.7 �12.1506 Adult (?) rib 13.1 4.9 2.8 �13.6512 Adult (M) long bone 12.2 4.9 2.5 �14.9513 Adult (M) mandible 15.1 4.7 2.6 �10.5523 Adult (M) cranial 13.5 4.9 2.9 �13.0527 Adult (?) long bone 11.9 4.9 2.8 �15.4532 Adult (M) cranial 16.2 4.9 3.9 �8.8534 Adult (M) cranial 16.3 4.8 3.5 �8.6535 Older Adult (M) cranial 16.1 4.8 3.7 �9.0536 Adult (F) cranial 15.9 4.7 2.6 �9.2539* Adult (M) cranial 13.1 4.6 2.6 �13.6540* Adult (M) cranial 12.2 4.9 2.8 �15.0541a Adult (M) cranial 12.0 5.0 2.6 �15.2541b Adult (M) long bone 11.9 5.0 2.7 �15.4543a Adult (M) rib 13.2 4.9 2.6 �13.4543b Adult (M) rib 12.5 5.0 2.6 �14.5547 Adult (?) long bone 13.1 4.9 2.7 �13.6548 Adult (?) mandible 11.5 4.8 3.0 �16.1554* Adult (M) cranial 13.8 4.7 2.5 �12.5555 Adult (M) cranial 12.3 4.7 2.7 �14.7558* Adult (?) cranial 13.7 4.9 2.8 �12.6566 Adult (?) long bone 12.3 4.8 2.6 �14.8570 Adult (?) mandible 13.1 4.6 2.6 �13.6572 Young Adult (?) long bone 13.9 4.7 2.7 �12.3581* Adult (M) cranial 12.2 4.8 2.7 �15.0Average 13.4 4.8 2.8 �13.0Standard Deviation 1.4 0.1 0.3 2.2

*modified as Nasca trophy heads1CO2 yield in mmol CO2/mg Ag3PO42Crystallinity Index3calculated using Equation (1)



The remains and excavated burials are poorly docu-mented archaeologically, and published field reportsare incomplete. As such, it is not possible to assignindividuals to a specific period during the Early Inter-mediate Period/Middle Horizon Nasca chronologicalsequence. Individuals were selected based on the qualityof preserved skeletal material. Sex, age and style ofcranial modification were determined when possibleusing the appropriate methodology for whatever skeletalremains were present, and crania modified as Nascatrophy heads were identified (n= 8; Williams et al.,2001). Of the 30 adults sampled, 19 are male, twoare female and nine individuals were of indeterminatesex. This skewed representation does not appear tobe a curation or excavation bias, since both sexesare represented from other Nasca Region sites thatare part of the SAPM’s collection of skeletal remainsfrom Ubbelohde-Doering’s expedition. The dominantcranial modification style practiced by the Nascawas fronto-occipital deformation (Carmichael, 1988;Kellner, 2002; Torres-Rouff, 2003). Only 12 of 30individuals in this paper had crania sufficiently intactto assess shape, and all of those presented fronto-occipital modification.

Analytical procedures

All analyses were performed in the Laboratory forStable Isotope Science at The University of WesternOntario. For each bone sample, 30–35mg of powderwas dissolved in 3M acetic acid. Through a series oftreatments (using lead phosphate and lead sulphate),calcium and organic material were removed, andsilver orthophosphate (Ag3PO4) was precipitatedusing the ammonia volatilization method (Firsching,1961; Stuart-Williams and Schwarcz, 1995). TheAg3PO4 was reacted with bromine pentafluoride(BrF5) at 600 �C for at least 16 h, and then convertedto CO2 over red-hot graphite (adapted from Claytonand Mayeda, 1963; Crowson et al., 1991). The averageCO2 yield was 4.8� 0.3mmol/mg, which compares wellwith the theoretical yield of 4.8mmol/mg determined forthis procedure. Oxygen-isotope ratios of CO2 weremeasured using an Optima dual-inlet triple-collectinggas-source isotope-ratio mass-spectrometer.The efficacy of the Ag3PO4 precipitation was tested

by examining the relationship between the amountof Ag3PO4 precipitated and the d18Op values. Nosignificant correlation was found (Spearman’s r=0.27,p=0.079), indicating that one isotope (16O vs. 18O)was not preferentially precipitated. The consistency ofoxygen extraction was monitored by includingan Aldrich Ag3PO4 standard in each run, for which

reproducibility was �0.4% (1s). Methodologicalreproducibility and analytical precision, determinedthrough duplicate sample precipitation, extractionand analysis, was �0.2% (1s). Each bone samplewas also assessed for the extent of post-mortem recrys-tallisation of bioapatite via Fourier transform infraredspectroscopy (FTIR) and calculation of crystallinityindices (Weiner and Bar-Yosef, 1990; Surovell andStiner, 2001).

Environmental water sample collection and analysis

As part of the larger Andean Water Isotope Study beingconducted by the Laboratory for Stable Isotope Scienceat The University of Western Ontario, 63 water sampleswere collected in January–February and July 2009. Inorder to characterise the isotopic variability of environ-mental water within the Rio Grande de Nasca drainage,water samples were collected from various sources (e.g.,wells, canals, rivers and springs) in three sampling zones:(A) Grande-Palpa; (B) Ingenio; and (C) Nasca, includingthe Aja and Tierras Blancas rivers (Figure 1). Sampleswere collected in both summer and winter to allowestimation of the amplitude of seasonal variation inoxygen- and hydrogen-isotope compositions. All watersamples were analysed using the Picarro L2120-i dDand d18O Analyser. Accuracy was assessed using a setof standards in each run and was found to be �0.1%(1s) and �0.5% (1s) for oxygen- and hydrogen-isotope compositions, respectively. Analytical precisionas determined through duplicate sample analyseswas �0.1% (1s) for both d18O and dD values.

Results

Sample preservation

The average FTIR crystallinity index (CI) for Cahuachibone was 2.8� 0.3 (Table 1), and there was no signifi-cant correlation between bone CI values and d18Opvalues (Spearman’s r= 0.27, p= 0.124). Crystallinityindices for fresh bones are approximately 2.8 to 3.0.CI values typically range from 3.5 to 4.8 for archaeo-logical samples, and CI values higher than 4.3 suggestextensive recrystallisation and poor bioapatite preserva-tion (Wright and Schwarcz, 1996; Stuart-Williamset al., 1998). Significant post-mortem recrystallisationis therefore unlikely, and biogenic isotopic composi-tions are assumed to be retained.



Bone phosphate and predicted drinking wateroxygen-isotope compositions

Bone oxygen-isotope (d18Op) data are summarised inTable 1 and presented in Figure 2. All data are reportedone standard deviation (1s) unless otherwise noted.The average d18Op value for Cahuachi bone samples is13.4� 1.4% with a range of 11.5–16.3%. There is nostatistically significant difference between trophy headand general burial sample bone d18Op values (Mann–Whitney, p=0.937). The oxygen-isotope compositionof water drunk by individuals in this sample was calcu-lated using equation 1 (Table 1, Figure 3). The averaged18Odw value for Cahuachi bone samples is�13.0� 2.2%[�16.1 to �8.6%]. The range of d18Odw values exceedsthat of the environmental water samples collected in the

Rio Grande de Nasca drainage (�12.5 to �8.7%;Table 2) as well as the expanded range of d18Oew values(�12.5 to �7.9%) produced by inclusion of data fromBuzon et al. (2011) and Johnson et al. (2002a; Table 3).

Stable hydrogen- and oxygen-isotope compositions ofenvironmental water

Sampling zones for environmental water are shown inFigure 1, and the d18O and dD values of winter andsummer environmental water samples collected in thisstudy are summarised in Table 2. Additional oxygen-and hydrogen-isotope data from Johnson et al. (2002a)from parts of the Nasca drainage not covered by theAndean Water Isotope Study samples are presented inTable 3. The average summer and winter d18Oew values

Figure 2. The d18Op values for Cahuachi bone samples.

Figure 3. Predicted human d18Odw values and environmental water hydrogen- and oxygen-isotope results fromTables 2 and 3. The dotted line is the GlobalMeteoric Water Line (see text). 1: Nasca wells; 2: Grande wells; 3: Palpa wells and surface water; 4: Ingenio surface water; 5: Grande surface water; 6: Palpasurface water; 7: Co. Colorado (Nasca river); 8: Co. Colorado (Grande river); 9: Coyungo (Grande river); 10: Monte Grande; 11: Co. Colorado springs.



Table

2.Oxy

gen

-an

dhy

drogen

-isotop

eresu

ltsforwinteran

dsu

mmer

environm

entalw

ater

samplesco

llected

forthis

stud

y(N

=63

)

Geo

graphicLo

catio

n(Zon

e)Sou

rce

Geo

graphicLo

catio

nd1

8O

water

(%,V

SMOW)

dDwater

(%,V

SMOW)

Latitud

eLo

ngitu

de

Altitude

(m.a.s.l.)

PalpaRiver

Valley(A)

Sum

mer

Sprin

gPalpa

�9.9

�75

�14.52

3584

�75.18

5480

376

Well

Palpa

�10.3

�76

�14.52

5991

�75.18

8617

369

Winter

Sprin

gPalpa

�9.8

�75

�14.52

3583

�75.18

5317

380

Well

Palpa

�10.0

�78

�14.52

6000

�75.18

8500

370

Palpariv

erPalpa

�10.9

�81

�14.53

0500

�75.18

7133

350

Sum

mer

Avg

.�1s

�10.1�0.3

�76�1

WinterAvg

.�1s

�10.2�0.6

�78�3

Grand

eRiver

Valley(A)

Sum

mer

Grand

eriv

erLa

Isla

�10.1

�73

�14.44

1271

�75.19

0262

447

Can

alSan

taRos

a�1

0.2

�74

�14.47

7765

�75.19

2360

397

Well

San

taRos

a�9

.5�7

1�1

4.48

1601

�75.19

0306

407

Can

alSan

Jacinto

�10.0

�76

�14.50

6356

�75.19

9205

362

Grand

eriv

erGrand

e�1

0.0

�76

�14.51

9072

�75.21

1454

338

Grand

eriv

erLo

sMolinos

�10.2

�76

�14.55

3813

�75.22

4663

301

Can

alLo

sMolinos

�10.0

�76

�14.54

3951

�75.22

1287

318

LaFlorita

lagoo

nLa

Florita

�10.3

�77

�14.50

9119

�75.20

8994

351

Winter

Grand

eriv

erLa

Isla

�8.9

�67

�14.44

1217

�75.19

0450

453

Can

alSan

taRos

a�9

.9�7

2�1

4.46

6000

�75.19

3900

407

Well

San

taRos

a�9

.5�7

3�1

4.46

6383

�75.19

4050

411

Can

alSan

Jacinto

�8.7

�69

�14.50

3500

�75.19

7067

375

LaFlorita

lagoo

nLa

Florita

�9.5

�74

�14.50

9367

�75.20

8750

356

Grand

eriv

erGrand

e�9

.5�7

1�1

4.51

9067

�75.21

1600

339

Can

alLo

sMolinos

�9.4

�72

�14.54

9917

�75.22

2817

317

Grand

eriv

erLo

sMolinos

�9.4

�72

�14.55

0833

�75.22

3800

298

Sum

mer

Avg

.�1s

�10.0�0.2

�75�2

WinterAvg

.�1s

�9.4�0.4

�71�2

Ingen

ioRiver

Valley(B)

Sum

mer

Ingen

ioriv

erIngen

io�9

.7�6

4�1

4.64

8534

�75.05

6281

472

Can

alTu

lin�9

.6�6

6�1

4.65

4113

�75.08

9582

417

Can

alEstud

iante

�9.7

�67

�14.66

1086

�75.11

0578

388

Can

alSan

Jose

�8.9

�66

�14.67

0490

�75.12

5539

365

River

San

Jose

�9.3

�67

�14.68

0369

�75.14

0290

337

Winter

Ingen

ioriv

erSan

Jose

�10.7

�82

�14.68

0483

�75.14

0300

330

Can

alSan

Jose

�10.3

�81

�14.67

6733

�75.12

6700

359

Can

alEstud

iante

�10.8

�81

�14.65

3700

�75.10

0983

419

Can

alTu

lin�1

0.3

�80

�14.64

5833

�75.06

4050

457

River

Ingen

io�1

0.8

�81

�14.64

1800

�75.04

3000

489

Can

alIngen

io�1

0.6

�81

�14.64

1533

�75.04

3267

486

Sum

mer

Avg

.�1s

�10.6�0.2

�81�1

WinterAvg

.�1s

�9.4�0.3

�66�1

Nas

caRiver

Valley(C

)Sum

mer

Aja

river

Nas

ca�1

0.0

�66

�14.82

5314

�74.95

8173

565

Aja

river

Nas

ca�1

1.1

�74

�14.81

9364

�74.92

9552

619

(Con

tinue

s)



Geo

graphicLo

catio

n(Zon

e)Sou

rce

Geo

graphicLo

catio

nd1

8O

water

(%,V

SMOW)

dDwater

(%,V

SMOW)

Latitud

eLo

ngitu

de

Altitude

(m.a.s.l.)

TierrasBl.riv

erCan

talloc

�9.2

�65

�14.82

2994

�74.91

4894

643

Well

Nas

ca�1

2.5

�90

�14.82

5877

�74.95

7130

572

Well

Nas

ca�1

2.4

�89

�14.82

5790

�74.95

7358

570

Well

Nas

ca�1

1.9

�88

�14.82

6087

�74.92

7725

610

Well

Nas

ca�1

1.7

�87

�14.82

6097

�74.92

7393

616

Well

Nas

ca�1

2.0

�88

�14.82

3428

�74.92

7508

621

Well

Nas

ca�1

2.2

�88

�14.82

2961

�74.92

8878

624

Well

Nas

ca�1

1.7

�86

�14.82

3379

�74.92

8460

624

Can

alCan

talloc

�12.5

�90

�14.82

6367

�74.91

1500

617

Can

alCan

talloc

�12.1

�88

�14.82

4261

�74.91

4930

643

Well

Can

talloc

�12.2

�90

�14.82

6168

�74.91

5076

654

Well

Can

talloc

�12.1

�86

�14.82

4847

�74.91

6287

653

Well

Can

talloc

�12.1

�89

�14.82

5608

�74.91

6483

648

Winter

Well

Nas

ca�1

1.8

�88

�14.82

6083

�74.95

5283

570

Sprin

gNas

ca�1

1.4

�86

�14.82

5117

�74.93

1333

577

Well

Nas

ca�1

1.3

�86

�14.82

2950

�74.92

8917

618

Well

Nas

ca�1

1.7

�88

�14.82

3350

�74.92

8483

621

Well

Nas

ca�1

1.9

�86

�14.82

6067

�74.92

7433

624

Well

Nas

ca�1

1.5

�86

�14.82

6117

�74.92

7817

617

Well

Nas

ca�1

1.8

�86

�14.82

6283

�74.92

7567

617

Can

alNas

ca�1

1.4

�86

�14.82

4550

�74.93

1633

610

Can

alNas

ca�1

1.6

�86

�14.82

0467

�74.92

9083

605

Well

Can

talloc

�11.7

�89

�14.82

7817

�74.91

4650

637

Can

alCan

talloc

�12.0

�88

�14.82

7350

�74.91

4300

649

Can

alCan

talloc

�12.0

�89

�14.82

6733

�74.91

3483

653

Can

alCan

talloc

�12.4

�89

�14.82

6583

�74.91

0183

655

Can

alCan

talloc

�12.3

�89

�14.82

5550

�74.91

6550

646

Well

Can

talloc

�11.6

�86

�14.82

4900

�74.91

6183

631

Well

Can

talloc

�11.6

�86

�14.82

4983

�74.91

6333

630

Sum

mer

Surface

Avg

.�1s

�10.1�1.0

�68�5

Sum

mer

Can

alAvg

.�1s

�12.3�0.3

�89�1

Sum

mer

Groun

dwater

Avg

.�1s

�12.1�0.3

�88�1

WinterCan

alAvg

.�1s

�12.0�0.4

�88�1

WinterGroun

dwater

Avg

.�1s

�11.6�0.2

�87�1



for northern river valleys are: Ingenio: �9.4� 0.3%and �10.6� 0.2%; Palpa: �10.1� 0.3% and �10.20.6%; and Grande: �10.0� 0.2% and �9.4� 0.3%.Although there are seasonal differences, they are notlarge compared to the magnitude of seasonal amplitudesin other regions globally. The dD versus d18O values areshown in Figure 4, which also illustrates the GMWL,the Local Meteoric Water Line constructed usingChilean, Bolivian and Peruvian altiplano precipitation(dD=7.8 * d18O +9.7; Aravena et al., 1999) and the LocalSurface Water Line (dD=7.3 * d18O �0.5), determinedusing surface water samples (e.g., rivers and open canals)collected from the Nasca Region during this study.Nasca river valley samples (sampling zone C) were

collected between 570 and 655m.a.s.l. in the dry middlevalley, and thus predominately comprise well or canalwater. The average seasonal amplitude in isotopiccomposition was very small (less than 0.5% for oxygen).The average summer and winter oxygen-isotope resultsare: wells:�12.1� 0.3% and�11.7� 0.2% and canals:

�11.6� 1.3% and �12.0� 0.5%. River samples couldonly be collected during the summer because of lack ofsufficient surface water. The Aja and Tierras Blancassummer average oxygen-isotope result for rivers is�10.11.0%. These data, along with the dD values, areillustrated in Figure 5 together with the Local SurfaceWater Line (described earlier) and the Local Ground-water Line (dD=6.0 * d18O �16.1), the latter deter-mined using data for well and spring water samplesfrom the Nasca Region.

Discussion

Bone d18Op values

If individuals interred at Cahuachi are from both localand more distant locations within the Rio Grande deNasca drainage, then within-sample variability ind18Op values greater than 2% is expected. The overallrange of d18Op values at Cahuachi was 4.8%. For

Table 3. Summary of oxygen- and hydrogen-isotope results for environmental water samples from Johnson et al. (2002a)

Geographic Location Source Altitude (m.a.s.l.) d18Owater (%, VSMOW) dDwater (%, VSMOW)

Nasca River ValleyCerro Colorado near Agua Dolce river 189 �10.0 �69

spring 211 �9.9 �65Grande River ValleyCerro Colorado (north) river 164 �9.2 �66

spring 204 �8.1 �58Cerro Colorado spring 176 �9.6 �66Cerro Colorado (south) river 165 �9.4 �65Coyungo river 140 �9.2 �61Monte Grande river 75 �7.9 �47

Figure 4. Hydrogen- and oxygen-isotope results for environmental water samples from northern river valleys (sampling zones A and B). Open pointsindicate groundwater sources. The black dashed line is the GMWL, the solid line is the Local Meteoric Water Line and the dotted line is the LocalSurface Water Line.



comparative purposes, d18Osc values from the regionreported by Buzon et al. (2011), Henry (2008) andKnudson et al. (2009) were converted to d18Op valuesusing the following relationships, as appropriate:

d18Osc VSMOWð Þ ¼ 1:03091d18Osc VPDBð Þ þ 30:91

[Equation (2); Sharp, 2007]

d18Op VSMOWð Þ ¼ 0:98d18Osc VSMOWð Þ � 8:5

[Equation (3); Iacumin et al., 1996]

These data are summarised in Table 4. The overallrange of Knudson et al.’s (2009) d18O values fromCahuachi is 6.5% with an average of 13.6� 1.8%.This compares well with the average d18Op values forbone analysed in this study. The average range andstandard deviation for the four time periods sampledby Henry (2008) in the Las Trancas valley are 3.9%and 1.0%, respectively. In Buzon et al. (2011), theoverall range at La Tiza is 2.6� 0.8%. The numberof samples available for La Tiza was relatively small(Buzon et al., 2011; n= 7), which may have contributedto the lack of variability observed in that dataset.Previous biogeochemical analysis of enamel from

trophy heads and individuals from burial populations

Figure 5. Hydrogen- and oxygen-isotope results for local groundwater and surface water (sampling zones A, B and C). The dotted line represents theLocal Surface Water Line (dD=7.3*d18O �0.5) and the solid line represents the Local Groundwater Line (dD=6.0*d18O �16.1).

Table 4. Summary of published oxygen-isotope results for archaeological human bone and enamel from the Nasca region

d18Op �1s and [Range] (%, VSMOW)

Henry (2008):Cemeteries near Huaca del Loro – Las Trancas River Valley1

Early Nasca 15.1�1.6% [3.3]Middle Nasca 14.4�1.2% [5.5]Late Nasca 14.2�1.1% [4.7]Middle Horizon 13.6�0.6% [2.1]Knudson et al. (2009)Cahuachi and other sites – Nasca River Valley2

All Samples 13.4�1.6% [6.5]Trophy Heads 13.6�2.0% [6.5]Cahuachi Burials and Trophy Heads 13.6�1.8% [6.5]Buzon et al. (2011)La Tiza and Pajonal Alto – Nasca and Taruga River Valleys3

All Samples 14.8�0.8% [2.6]

1mean and range exclude two outliers from Middle Nasca and Late Nasca(outliers are defined as falling outside mean� 2s range)2adjusted downwards for breastfeeding effect using accepted fractionation values of 0.7% for permanent 1st molars and 0.35% forpermanent canines and premolars (White et al. 2000, 2004b); this reduced the overall mean by 0.3%, the standard deviation by0.1% and the range by 0.4%. Mean values exclude outlier FMNH 171008.3adjusted for breastfeeding effect (see previous); this reduced the overall mean by 0.4%, the standard deviation by 0.0% and the rangeby less than 0.1%.



from the Kroeber collection (Knudson et al., 2009) didnot reveal a consistent difference in childhood place oforigin or diet. Here, bone d18Op values are used toassess adulthood place of residence for eight individualstransformed into trophy heads. There is no significantdifference in oxygen-isotope compositions betweenthe trophy head and general burial population samples,nor can any trend towards residence in a particular partof the Nasca Region be observed. These oxygen-isotopedata suggest that individuals from across the Nasca Re-gion were chosen to be transformed into trophy heads.Based on the oxygen-isotope analysis of the samples

included in this and Knudson’s studies, it is likelythat the individuals interred at Cahuachi representdiverse locations. The range of d18Op values exceeds2%, which is the degree of variation expected forlow-mobility populations. Moreover, the observedrange was defined by a large number of samples, ratherthan a few outlying values. That said, the observedvariability could also be caused in part by temporaldifferences in isotopic composition of drinking water.An additional source of variation in d18Op values maybe the exploitation of water sources that are geograph-ically close to each other, but isotopically dissimilar. Inorder to evaluate the significance of this source of vari-ation, environmental water samples from different partsof the Nasca Region were analysed to assess naturalisotopic variation in potential drinking water sources.

Environmental water oxygen- and hydrogen-isotopecompositions

Because of the extreme aridity of this region, the isotopiccompositions of surface water almost certainly have beenaffected by evaporation. The relationship between dDand d18O values expressed in the Local Surface WaterLine (dD=7.3*d18O �0.5; Figures 3–5), with a moder-ately lower slope than the Local Meteoric Water Line(LMWL; dD=7.8*d18O +9.7; Figure 4), supports thisassumption. For environmental water samples from thenorthern river valleys (sampling zones A and B, Figure 1),there is a close agreement in isotopic compositionamong water sources in close proximity to one another(Table 2). Oxygen- and hydrogen-isotope compositionsbetween the two sampling zones overlap to some extentduring the year. Additional oxygen- and hydrogen-isotope data reported by Johnson et al. (2002a) for watersamples from the Grande river west of Cerro Colorado(Figure 1) are also shown in Figure 3 to extend environ-mental water baseline coverage in that area. These datareveal a general trend towards higher d18Oew and dDewvalues for both surface water and groundwater as thecoast is approached (Table 3).

In the Nasca river valley sampling zone (zone C,Figure 1), there is less similarity between surface waterand groundwater isotopic compositions. Surface waterisotopic compositions are similar to those found inthe northern river valleys, but groundwater sampleshave lower d-values, as also observed by Buzon et al.(2011) for this area. Buzon et al. (2011) also sampledNasca river water after it re-emerges below Cahuachi.The isotopic composition of this water sample moreclosely approximates that of groundwater samples thansurface flow upstream. In this part of the Nasca rivervalley, surface water flow has always been irregular,and the majority of water travels below ground. For thisreason, drinking water was likely obtained primarilyfrom wells (e.g., puquios), which are isotopically similarto each other, but distinct from other sampled zones.The groundwater isotopic compositions deserve

special comment. Groundwater is commonly less evap-orated than surface water in many parts of the world,but this is not true in the Nasca Region. The lower slopeof the groundwater line (dD=6.0*d18O�16.1; Figure 5)suggests that precipitation that contributed to thegroundwater reservoir may have experienced differentevaporative conditions than the surface water duringrainout and/or infiltration. The dominant source ofenvironmental water in the Nasca Region is precipitationfalling above 2000m.a.s.l. during periods of seasonalrainfall. Such precipitation may have undergone evapo-ration and hence 18O- and D-enrichment during lowintensity rainfall through colder, drier air at higher eleva-tions. Perhaps of even greater importance was additionalevaporation during runoff and stream flow prior toinfiltration in the Southern Nasca Region, and then againas groundwater was cycled through open irrigationcanals and eventually back into the phreatic layer.Based on the environmental water samples analysed

in this study and by Buzon et al. (2011) and Johnsonet al. (2002a), it is possible to broadly differentiatebetween the northern river valleys above 300m.a.s.l.(average �9.9� 0.5%; Water Sampling Zones Aand B) and the Grande river below 300m.a.s.l. (�8.90.7%; Johnson et al., 2002a), and the Nasca rivervalley (average �11.9� 0.4%; Zone C data andBuzon et al.’s (2011) data). It is not, however, possibleto unequivocally assign any individual to one of thesethree areas. Although the water samples collected forthis research are numerous, not all potential sourcesof potable water have yet been examined. Further-more, because the water samples were collected onlywithin a single year, the extent of inter-annual ordecadal variability in water source isotopic compositionis undetermined. Nonetheless, contemporary andEarly Intermediate Period– Middle Horizon climate in



the Nasca Region is broadly similar (i.e., very arid), sug-gesting that modern environmental water samples willprovide a reasonable approximation of natural isotopicvariability during this time period. Eitel et al. (2005;Eitel and Mächtle, 2009) determined that the RioGrande de Nasca drainage became increasingly aridfrom c.AD250 until the end of the Middle Horizon(c.AD1000). Following the more humid Late Interme-diate Period (AD1000–1450), regional climate againbecame arid, and this has prevailed since the late 14th

century. Moreover, given the role of El Niño-derivedprecipitation in replenishing groundwater aquifers, it isimportant to recognise that the cyclical pattern ofENSO-related phenomena is believed to have beenpresent for at least the last 5000 years (Rodbell et al.,1999; Magilligan et al., 2008). Finally, as collection ofbaseline stable isotopic data for water in the Andes con-tinues, there will undoubtedly be some overlap of thedata reported here and d18Oew and dDew values for watersamples from outside the Rio Grande de Nasca drainage.

Geographic origins of Cahuachi individuals

The range of drinking water oxygen-isotope composi-tions for individuals interred at Cahuachi greatlyexceeds that of the environmental water data reportedhere. Accordingly, we suggest that the variation ind18Odw values observed at Cahuachi likely indicatesthe presence of individuals from outside the localNasca river valley sampling area. For 13 individuals,the d18Odw values predicted for bone samples fallwithin the fairly narrow range of �13.7 to �12.1%.The upper portion of this range matches environmentalwater d-values from water sources in the Nasca rivervalley. The d18Odw values at the lower end of the rangefor these samples may indicate a place of residenceduring the last 10 to 25 years at somewhat higherelevation, or they may reflect small fluctuations in theisotopic composition of groundwater (and of precipita-tion in the recharge area) over extended periodsof time. These data indicate that almost half of theindividuals in this study spent the last 10 to 25 yearsin an area with d18Oew values similar to those deter-mined for environmental water samples in the Nascariver valley sampling zone.For six individuals, the d18Odw values predicted for

bone fall between �10.5 to �8.6%. These data couldindicate places of residence with d18Oew values in thenorthern river valleys and/or the Grande river valleybelow 300m.a.s.l. Alternatively, these individualsmay have been consuming drinking water that wasenriched in 18O as a result of evaporation, such aswater stored in open reservoirs or containers, or chicha,

a boiled and fermented beverage widely consumed inAndean societies. Finally, for 11 individuals, predictedbone d18Odw values are lower than the local Nasca rivervalley water sources, ranging from �16.1 to �14.5%.Drinking water was thus likely obtained from sourcesnot sampled in this study, which may be at higherelevation(s), outside of the Rio Grande de Nascadrainage, and/or which may have been considerably lessenriched by evaporation. Given the general influence ofaltitude and hydrology on the isotopic compositions ofwater illustrated in this paper, we hypothesise that alikely place of residence for these individuals in theNasca drainage is in the upper valleys and/or nearbysierra. In summary, more than half of the individualsincluded in this study likely spent some portion of theirlifetime (e.g., during their last 10 to 25 years) away fromthe local Nasca river valley and the vicinity of Cahuachi,travelling or being transported to the ceremonial centrefor death or burial.There is considerable archaeological evidence dem-

onstrating the socially and ideologically dynamic natureof Nasca society (Silverman and Proulx, 2002).Although the ancient Nasca were responsive to chan-ging environmental and socio-political conditions, adistinct, fundamental Nasca identity was maintainedthroughout the Early Intermediate Period. After theEarly Nasca period, Cahuachi largely ceased to be aprimary ideological focus. Nevertheless, the perceptionof Cahuachi as sacred is believed to have been retainedinto the Middle Horizon even though the scaleand nature of the activities taking place at the sitechanged (Silverman, 1993; Silverman and Proulx,2003). Contextual limitations for this sample do notallow us to identify trends in geographic origin amongtime periods. Even so, from the data presented here, itis clear that Cahuachi had both local and regionalimportance, with a considerable representation of indivi-duals from distant parts of the Rio Grande de Nascadrainage travelling to and/or transporting the dead fordeath or burial. A pattern of intra-regional movement,with Cahuachi as the focal point, is suggested by thevaried places of adulthood residence of the individualsburied at the site. The influence of Cahuachi wasthus both temporally and spatially extensive, whichattests to the importance of the site and the beliefs,whether static or mutable, that the ancient Nasca peopleassociated with it.

Conclusion

Although the d18Op values alone revealed that indivi-duals with a variety of geographic origins were interred



at Cahuachi, inferences about place of residence werelimited to relative comparisons within or amongsamples, and generalities based on known effects ofclimate, topography and hydrology on the isotopiccomposition of environmental and drinking water. Theoxygen- and hydrogen-isotope baseline for environmen-tal water presented in this study enables improvedunderstanding of the natural isotopic variation of watersin the Rio Grande de Nasca drainage. This understand-ing is far from complete, given the complexity of boththe physical landscape and climate in Nasca andthroughout the Andean region as a whole. Even so, byusing the baseline data to guide interpretation of thecalculated d18Odw values, it was possible to demonstratethat almost half of the individuals buried at Cahuachiwere likely from the local Nasca river valley zone orother middle valley settlements in the Southern NascaRegion. Moreover, many individuals interred at Cahuachilikely spent the last 10 to 25 years of their lives in eitherthe northern river valleys or the Grande river valley, or ina part of the Nasca drainage containing waters that weremore depleted of 18O, perhaps in the upper valleys orsierra. By demonstrating the spatial breadth of thegeographic origins of individuals interred at Cahuachi,this study supports the regional significance and use ofCahuachi as a place of burial.

Acknowledgments

We thank Dr. Gisela Grupe and Dr. George McGlynn(Ludwig-Maximilians Universität) and the State Collec-tion for Anthropology and Palaeoanatomy, Munich,Germany, for providing archaeological samples for ana-lysis, and Dr. Jean-Francois Millaire (The University ofWestern Ontario) for facilitating collection of modernenvironmental water samples in Peru. This research wassupported by the Social Sciences and HumanitiesResearch Council of Canada, the Natural Sciences andEngineering Research Council of Canada, and theCanada Research Chairs Program, and utilised infrastruc-ture made possible by the Canada Foundation forInnovation. This is Laboratory for Stable Isotope ScienceContribution # 270.

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