Environmental magnetism Á Geochemistry Á Lake sediments Á Retrospective exposure

ORIGINAL PAPER

Using urban man-made ponds to reconstruct a 150-yearhistory of air pollution in northwest England

Ann L. Power Æ Ann T. Worsley

Received: 6 March 2008 / Accepted: 4 July 2008 / Published online: 13 November 2008

� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2008

Abstract A regional pollution history has been

reconstructed for the borough of Halton (northwest

England) from four urban ponds in north Cheshire and

south Merseyside, using environmental analyses of

lake sediment stratigraphies. Mineral magnetism,

geochemistry and radiometric dating have produced

profiles of pollution characteristics dating from the

mid-nineteenth century to present day. These pollu-

tion profiles reflect the atmospheric deposition of a

range of pollutants over 150 years of intensified

industry. Distinct phases of pollution deposition and

characteristics are identified reflecting: (1) intensifi-

cation of industry in the nineteenth century; (2)

expansion of industry during the twentieth century;

(3) post 1956 Clean Air Acts. This work promotes the

potential use of these pollution archives for use in

epidemiology to better understand links between

human health and environmental pollution, especially

for diseases with long latency times, where retrospec-

tive pollution exposure assessments are important.

Keywords Atmospheric particulate pollution �Environmental magnetism � Geochemistry �Lake sediments � Retrospective exposure

Introduction

Associations between air pollution and health

Associations between ill health and air pollution have

been recognised since the intensification of industry

in the nineteenth century (Dingle 1982; Stone 2002).

In recent years relationships between air pollutants

and disease have been widely reported, which has

revealed the importance of particulate matter emis-

sions (Brunekreef and Holgate 2002; Le Tertre et al.

2002; Harrison 2004). Particulates with an aerody-

namic diameter of \10 lm (PM10) are especially

important since, due to their small size, are able to

penetrate deep into the human lung and are thought to

cause cardiorespiratory mortality and morbidity

(Peled et al. 2005; Englert 2004). Further size

divisions of fine PM2.5 and ultrafine PM0.1 (particle

diameters\2.5 and 0.1 lm, respectively) are increas-

ingly raising concerns because of their higher burdens

of toxicity (heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons) and their ability to become absorbed

into the body, potentially targeting specific organs

(Morawska and Zhang 2002; Oberdorster 2000).

An important factor in understanding relationships

between disease and pollutants in epidemiology is

exposure assessment. For diseases with long latency

times, such as cancer, it is necessary to understand

the historical account of pollution exposure as well

as that of the present day (Ahrens and Stewart 2003).

This requires investigating pollution levels that

A. L. Power (&) � A. T. Worsley

Department of Geography, Natural Geographical and

Applied Sciences, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk,

Lancashire L39 4QP, UK

e-mail: [email protected]

123

Environ Geochem Health (2009) 31:327–338

DOI 10.1007/s10653-008-9215-4

extend far back in time beyond the current technol-

ogies of monitoring ambient air quality (i.e., pre-

1990s). Such retrospective exposure assessments are

difficult as they rely upon inconsistent historical

pollution records and emissions estimates to reflect a

complex history of pollution determined by various

types and rates of industrial emissions, transport

activities, air quality legislations and specific pollu-

tion episodes. The use of lake and pond sediments

from within urban environments to generate archives

of historical pollution has rarely been utilised;

furthermore, it is an inexpensive and reliable method

to reconstruct detailed pollution trends.

Urban lake sediments as pollution archives

Urban ponds are unique as they can provide historical

atmospheric fallout records of the complex PM emis-

sions experienced in urban areas. Lacustrine sediment

accumulation occurs over time, trapping atmospheric

particulates within sediment stratigraphies (Vesely

et al. 1993; Oldfield 1990; Rose and Harlock 1998).

The composition of urban PM is complex and includes

particles ranging from 0.001 to 100 lm composed of

minerals, heavy metals, organics, magnetic spherules

and persistent organic pollutants (Gao et al. 1996;

Allen et al. 2001; Phalen 2002). The application of a

wide range of environmental analyses to urban pond

sediments allows the reconstruction of datable, high-

resolution, detailed changes in these pollution charac-

teristics and their deposition rates spanning the last

200–300 years from pre-industrial times to present

day (Worsley et al. 2005; Norton 1986; Renberg 1986;

Griffin and Goldberg 1983). These historical environ-

mental profiles can reveal the combination of

pollutants experienced in the area, and pollutant source

(from a range of combustion processes) can be

distinguished via distinct elemental, magnetic and

grain-size signatures of PM (Hunt 1986; Flanders

1994).

The potential for urban ponds to be used in this way

has only recently been recognised (Worsley et al.

2005, 2006; Charlesworth and Lees 1997; Merilainen

et al. 2003). The majority of environmental recon-

struction has used sediment from rural locations,

however, as urban ponds are set within the populations

most at risk of exposure to pollutants, the data they

yield offer potential benefits to epidemiology, such as

understanding birth-to-death exposure of PM for a

contemporary population and for previous generations.

Halton

The health implications of long-term exposure to

pollutants are an increasing concern, especially for

populations in areas where large-scale industrial

activity occurs (Sainsbury et al. 1996; Staples et al.

2003). The borough of Halton encompasses the two

towns of Widnes and Runcorn, separated by the River

Mersey (Fig. 1). Renowned as ‘chemical towns’, an

extensive amount of industry (mainly chemical

manufacturing) has occurred here since the early

1800s. Consequently, environmental pollution has

been, and is, a persistent problem with a mixture of

Fig. 1 Map of Halton and

location of pond sites

328 Environ Geochem Health (2009) 31:327–338

123

contaminants released to air, water and land over the

past 200 years (Halton Borough Council 2003).

Recent concerns have arisen over the potential links

between environmental pollution and the high rates

of mortality and morbidity experienced in Halton.

Compared to boroughs throughout England and

Wales, Halton demonstrates the highest premature

death rates from cancer and has the second lowest

female life expectancy (APHO and Department of

Health 2007). Associations between health indicators

such as these and the environment have not been

evaluated due to insufficient spatial and temporal

pollution data (Burgess et al. 2003; Hodgson et al.

2004, 2007). This has prompted Halton Primary Care

Trust to fund this work, reconstructing an historical

regional pollution profile for the area.

Materials and methods

Site selection

Small lakes at Daresbury Delph [National Grid

Reference (NGR): SJ 574 819], Windmill Hill

(NGR: SJ 553 826), Oglet (NGR: SJ 435 818) and

Dogs Kennel (NGR: SJ 464 821) were identified as

suitable sites for yielding long-term pollution records

because of their size, minimal sediment disturbance,

age and location. Located within and immediately

east of Runcorn, ponds at Windmill Hill and Dares-

bury Delph (respectively) will potentially receive

atmospheric fallout of pollution from a combination

of sources from within its urbanised setting, such as

nearby major roadways and industrial sites through-

out the borough. Ponds at Dogs Kennel and Oglet in

south Merseyside were also selected to investigate the

cross-regional variation in the pollution signal.

Retrieval of sediment cores and sample

preparation

The retrieval of sediment cores from the ponds

involved the use of a Gilson handheld piston corer,

which when fitted with a plastic 1-m tube and

attached to a series of rods, was lowered into the

centre of the lake, commonly the deepest part, with

the aid of a small inflatable boat. Maintaining the

corer in a vertical position, the Gilson was gently

lowered through the water column and was pushed

through the soft sediment to a desired depth. A valve

within the Gilson attachment closed to created a

vacuum-like condition within the tube, so that when

the corer was pulled back up to the water surface the

sediment sample was retained with in the tube. A

rubber bung was then inserted into the bottom of the

plastic tube as the corer was raised out of the water.

The top of the resulting sediment core sample

represents the most recently deposited sediment with

age progressing with depth of core.

In order to retrieve a high-resolution record of

pollution change, the core samples were extruded at

5-mm intervals. After drying at 35 �C, samples were

prepared for mineral magnetic analysis (Smith 1999),

which involved disaggregating the samples and

packing into plastic sample pots. Environmental

proxy analyses have been applied to the sediment

cores in order to reconstruct a detailed chronology of

particulate pollution deposition.

Mineral magnetic analysis

Mineral magnetic analysis is a reliable, rapid, non-

destructive, inexpensive and widely accepted compo-

sitional tool for sediments and soils (Verosub and

Roberts 1995; Dekkers 1997) and yields data of the

grain size, behaviour and concentration of magnetic

grains within a sample (Smith 1999). The method treats

all substances as having a magnetic signature; there-

fore, natural and anthropogenic sources of magnetic

minerals within the sample can be discriminated

(Oldfield et al. 1985). Due to an iron impurity, the

combustion of fossil fuels produces magnetic spher-

ules. These magnetic particulates have strong magnetic

signals (Flanders 1994), which can be separated out

from the natural lake inputs. Furthermore, different

combustion processes produce different magnetic

grains, allowing discrimination between industrial

and transport activity derived particulates (Hunt et al.

1984; Hunt 1986). Mineral magnetic analyses have

been identified as suitable proxies for PM10 pollution,

grain size, heavy metals, radioactivity and mutagenic-

ity (Charlesworth and Lees 1999; Xie et al. 2000;

Morris et al. 1995; Petrovsky and Ellwood 1999;

Booth et al. 2006). A suite of mineral magnetic

analyses have been carried out; however, methodolo-

gies are only described for those parameters displayed

in the results section: susceptibility and anhysteretic

remanence magnetism.

Environ Geochem Health (2009) 31:327–338 329

123

Magnetic susceptibility (v)

Magnetic susceptibility (v) indicates the concentra-

tion of ferrimagnetic grains within a sample and is a

suitable proxy for PM10 concentration (Muxworthy

et al. 2003). A Bartington (Oxford, England) MS2B

dual-frequency susceptibility sensor, connected to a

MS2 susceptibility meter, was used according to

Dearing (1999).

Anhysteretic remanence magnetism (ARM)

ARM is indicative of magnetic concentration and is

also sensitive to the presence of ultrafine fine grains

0.04–1 lm (Thompson and Oldfield 1986), which fall

within the respirable size range of PM2.5. ARM was

induced in samples using a Molspin (Newcastle-

upon-Tyne, England) A.F. Demagnetiser, whereby a

DC biasing field is generated in the presence of an

alternating field that peaks at 100 milli Tesla (mT).

This magnetic field magnetises the ultrafine magnetic

grains, and the amount of magnetisation retained

(remanence) within the sample, when removed from

the field, was measured using a Molspin1A

magnetometer.

Elemental composition

Energy dispersive radioisotope-source X-ray fluores-

cence (XRF-ED) was carried out at the University of

Liverpool. A Metorex (Finland) XMET920 system

was used to characterise source elements throughout

the core, based on the photoelectric fluorescence of

secondary X-rays generated within the sediment

samples (Boyle 2000). Of particular interest are

historical contamination trends of heavy metals that

coat combustion-derived particulates (Morawska and

Zhang 2002) and consequently become inhaled.

Presented in this work are profiles of zinc, as a proxy

for combustion and industrial emissions (Pacyna

1998; Alloway and Ayres 1997), and sulphur, which

is associated with the combustion of fossil fuel and

therefore used as a general indicator of air quality

(Mamane et al. 1986; Norton 1986).

Sediment chronology

A reliable chronology is essential in understanding

temporal changes in pollution in order to date specific

pollution events, calculate flux of heavy metals and

allow a potential comparison between the recon-

structed pollution record and historical disease data.

Radiometric dating, a reliable and standard tool in

palaeolimnology (Appleby 1993), was carried out at

the Liverpool University Environmental Radioactive

Laboratory. Acknowledged as the most accurate

method for dating a time scale less than 200 years

(Oldfield and Appleby 1984), the rate of decay of210Pb and 137Cs isotopes were analysed using Ortec

HPGe GWL series well-type coaxial low background

intrinsic germanium detectors (Appleby et al. 1986).

Radiometric dates were then calculated using

accepted models (Appleby and Oldfield 1983; Olsson

1986). Accuracy of the calculated 210Pb position for

the year 1963 was assessed using the 137Cs peak

representative of this year that experienced a maxi-

mum release of 137Cs from weapons testing.

Results

Magnetic susceptibility (vLF) profiles for all pond

sites are presented with corresponding 210Pb dates

(Fig. 2). vLF is a recognised proxy for particulate

pollution; therefore, these down-core trends reflect

temporal particulate deposition. The age of the lake

stratigraphies allows an overlap of pollution histories

spanning from the nineteenth century to present day.

At the base of Windmill Hill and Oglet distinct clay

layers are observed (23 cm and 20 cm, respectively),

traditionally used to line urban ponds. The record of

atmospheric pollution begins above this basal lining.

However, for Daresbury Delph and Dogs Kennel this

layer was not obtained when sampling.

Using extrapolated dates Daresbury Delph pond

provides a sediment history from the mid-nineteenth

century, the most extensive timescale of the four

ponds. Dogs Kennel and Windmill Hill provide a

higher resolution of magnetic concentration for the

twentieth century, with Oglet demonstrating a detailed

high-resolution post-1950 history. By combining these

pollution profiles, distinct phases in vLF can be

observed with low pre-1900 values (phase I); steadily

increasing concentrations that peak in the mid-twen-

tieth century (phase II); followed by declining levels

(phase III) and recent peaks in the sediment cores

(phase IV) (Table 1).


123

Down core variations in vLF, ARM, zinc (Zn) and

sulphur (S) have been selected to demonstrate

temporal changes in proxy atmospheric pollution

characteristics. ARM is a proxy for magnetic grains

within a size range of 0.04–1 lm, therefore indicating

grains within the PM2.5 classification. Zinc has been

selected to demonstrate anthropogenic atmospheric

emissions and sulphur as an indicator of combustion

emissions. These profiles reflect the four main phases

identified from the vLF profiles. Feature (A) is

highlighted in the Daresbury Delph (Fig. 3) and

possibly reflected in Dogs Kennel (Fig. 4) cores with

steep peaks in S and Zn at *1910–1920. Also Dogs

Kennel, Windmill Hill (Fig. 5) and Oglet (Fig. 6)

Fig. 2 Magnetic susceptibility profiles for all ponds with corresponding and extrapolated 210Pb dates

Table 1 Summary of temporal magnetic susceptibility trends

Distinct

phase

210Pb date Magnetic susceptibility (vLF) description

I Pre-1900 Stable relatively low level with small variations in vLF identified in Daresbury Delph pond and

represented at the base of Dogs Kennel by low level vLF

II 1900–1956 vLF starts to increase at the beginning of this phase, identified in the Daresbury Delph core. Dogs

Kennel and Windmill Hill also demonstrate this increase with steadily rising vLF trends from the

start of the twentieth century. Peaks in vLF (A) observed in these three cores are dated 1910–1920.

Sharp mid-century peaks are observed in Daresbury Delph and Windmill Hill at *1956

III 1956–1979 vLF trends decrease following the mid-century peaks observed. Oglet, which joins the sediment

chronology in phase II, demonstrates a distinct peak at 1966, also reflected in Dogs Kennel at 1963

and small peaks in the other cores at this time (B)

IV Post-1979 Recent vLF peaks are prominent in the Daresbury Delph (*2001) and Oglet (*1997) cores with

smaller peaks occurring in Dogs Kennel and Windmill Hill (C)


123

Fig. 3 Magnetic susceptibility, ARM, zinc and sulphur profiles for Daresbury Delph

Fig. 4 Magnetic susceptibility, ARM, zinc and sulphur profiles for Dogs Kennel


123

demonstrate high-resolution trends for post-1956

sediments, for which two phases are apparent: III

(1979–1959) and IV (post 1979) (Tables 2, 3, 4, 5, 6).

Discussion

Correlation of sediment chronologies and vLF

The first proxy pollution histories have been recon-

structed for Halton using urban lake stratigraphies.

Figure 2 validates the use of small urban ponds to

identify high-resolution, detailed and datable tempo-

ral changes in pollution spanning the nineteenth and

twentieth century. The correlation of these dated vLF

profiles, a proxy indicator of PM concentration,

indicates that a regional pollution signal can be built

up from different sites representing different time

scales. By overlapping these profiles, the extent of

pollution experienced in an area since the intensifica-

tion of industry can be observed (e.g., Daresbury

Delph), as well as high-resolution data for certain time

scales, for example, post 1950 changes observed in

Oglet. Distinct repeatable phases identified through-

out the profiles (Table 1) also further strengthen the

accuracy of this method.

The four phases observed potentially reflect a

regional pollution signal that has changed over the

past 150 years determined by industrial activity and

processes, transportation pollutants and air quality

legislations. A more detailed interpretation of these

pollution profiles can be made from a combination of

pollution proxies (Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6).

Interpretation of pollution proxies

Detailed temporal variations in pollution characteris-

tics are identified in Figs. 3–6. These pollution

proxies reflect the distinct phases identified in

Fig. 3. Each phase is dealt with separately to interpret

this regional pollution signal.

Phase I: Pre-1900s Low concentrations of pollution

proxies reflect the establishment of the chemical

industry in Halton. For Daresbury Delph sulphur

levels start to increase at the start of the sediment

record *1850 (42 cm depth); this is indicative of

Fig. 5 Magnetic susceptibility, ARM, zinc and sulphur profiles for Windmill Hill


123

Fig. 6 Magnetic susceptibility, ARM, zinc and sulphur profiles for Oglet

Table 2 Explanation of pollution proxies presented

Pollution

proxy

Explanation

vLF Mass specific low frequency magnetic susceptibility. Values are proportional to the concentration of ferrimagnetic

minerals within the sample, indicative of concentrations of iron-oxides produced on the combustion of fossil fuels

ARM Mass specific anhysteretic remanence magnetism. Sensitive to concentrations of fine magnetic grains within a range

of *0.04–1 lm

Zn Preliminary zinc concentrations obtained from energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis, indicative of

atmospheric metal contamination

S Preliminary sulphur concentrations obtained from energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis, indicative of

fossil fuel combustion

Table 3 Summary of pollution characteristics for Daresbury Delph

Distinct phase 210Pb date Pollution characteristics

I Pre-1900 General low levels for all pollution proxies with small variations occurring

II 1900–1956 Increase in all pollution proxies starting at *1900, continuing until to 1956. Notable steep peaks

in S and Zn occurring at *1910–1920 (A)

III 1956–1979 Decrease in Zn and S following mid-1960 peak (B)

IV 1979–2005 Distinct increase in ARM from 1979 to 2005, reflected by a corresponding increase in vLF and

a recent peak in Zn (C). S steadily reduces throughout this phase


123

fossil fuel combustion. Therefore, small magnetic

variations throughout this phase may reflect localised

small-scale industry and combustion processes. Hal-

ton experienced a period of extensive industrial

growth from 1800 to 1850 with the later growth at

Widnes in the 1830s. These variations may indicate

the establishment of the early chemical (Leblanc)

industry in the area; however, levels are notably

lower in phase I compared to phase II.

Phase II: 1900–1956 A notable shift in pollution

concentration (vLF) and pollution type (ARM) is

identified in phase II, which corresponds to the early

1900s identified in the Daresbury Delph core. This

may mark the rapid expansion and development of a

range of industries in Halton, particularly with the

introduction of organic chemical processes during the

twentieth century. Prominent peaks (*1910–1920) in

S and Zn [feature (A)] noted in Daresbury Delph and

Dogs Kennel (Fig. 4) may be indicative of wartime

demands on the chemical industry. Continual

increases in pollution proxies throughout the twentieth

century may reflect continued industrial expansion.

Phase III: 1956–1979 Pollution proxies appear to

decline from 1956 to 1979 in the Daresbury Delph

core. However, by combining Oglet (Fig. 6), Dogs

Kennel and Windmill Hill profiles, a higher resolu-

tion account of post 1956 trends can be identified. In

all of these three cores mid-century peaks are

observed at *1966 [feature (B)]. This peak may

represent the diversification and expansion of indus-

try in Halton (New Town Development) at this time.

Reductions in pollution concentration follow this

peak, possibly a consequence of emission controls

brought about by the introduction of Clean Air Acts

in 1956.

Phase IV: 1979-present day The general decline in

S, best represented in Daresbury Delph and Oglet

cores, suggests an overall improvement in air quality

with the reduction of emissions from combustion

sources. However, Windmill Hill demonstrates an

increase in S concentration for this phase (C), and Dogs

Kennel demonstrates only a slight reduction. Also the

corresponding vLF and Zn peaks of feature (C) suggest

that air quality has not consistently reduced since the

Table 4 Summary of pollution characteristics for Dogs Kennel

Distinct

phase

210Pb date Pollution characteristics

II 1900–1956 Peak in S (A) during the early twentieth century. Steady increases in vLF, ARM and Zn from *1930s

III 1956–1979 Increasing levels of all profiles with a distinct peak during the mid 1960s (B) and subsequent decline

IV 1979–2000 Declining values for vLF, Zn and S. Marked increase in ARM (C)

Table 5 Summary of pollution characteristics for Windmill Hill

Distinct

phase


II *1900–1956 Steadily increasing levels for all pollution proxies

III 1956–1979 Distinct peaks for all profiles in this phase. Increase in Zn and S from 1956 with peaks

for all pollution proxies during this phase at 1966 (B)

IV 1979–2005 Overall decrease in vLF ARM and Zn throughout this phase, with small recent peaks

during the 1990s (C). However, S shows a general increase

Table 6 Summary of pollution characteristics for Oglet

Distinct

phase


II Post-1956 Low levels for all pollution proxies

III 1956–1976 Sharp increase in all pollution proxies with a distinct peak at 1966 (B) followed by a gradual decrease

IV 1979–2000 Overall decrease in vLF, Zn and S. Prominent increase in ARM and smaller recent peak

for vLF, S and Zn (C)


123

introduction of Clean Air Acts. The prominent shift in

ARM concentration apparent in Daresbury Delph,

Dogs Kennel and Oglet from *1979 indicates a

distinct shift to PMs\1 lm (C). This could possibly be

attributed to ultrafine PM associated with transport

activities, due to the increased use of automobiles and

air travel since the mid-twentieth century. This

suggests that although pollution concentrations have

shown a general reduction since the mid-twentieth

century there is an increased contribution of harmful

PM2.5 in recent years.

Application to epidemiology

These historic atmospheric pollution profiles may

benefit epidemiology by providing a detailed (high-

resolution) retrospective assessment of pollutants for

Halton, encompassing the periods of industrial activity

when emissions were not regulated and little data were

available. An understanding of the life-time exposure

of pollutants is important in order to identify potential

associations between air quality and diseases with

long latency times, such as cancer. This is especially

important for Halton, which has high mortality rates

from cancer and has experienced indiscriminate

environmental pollution since the 1800s. Where it is

possible, the identification of temporal shifts in

pollution characteristics and composition, such as

particulate size and elevated heavy metal concentra-

tions, may aid the understanding of the impacts of air

pollutants on health. A potential comparison of these

changes in pollutants over time, with historical disease

records, may provide insights into the relationships

between public health and air quality.

Conclusion

A pollution history for the borough of Halton has

been reconstructed using urban pond stratigraphies.

Mineral magnetic analyses, geochemistry and radio-

metric dating have produced datable detailed changes

in proxy pollution characteristics spanning from the

mid-nineteenth century to present day. A comparison

of pollution profiles obtained from four urban sites

(Daresbury Delph, Dogs Kennel, Windmill Hill and

Oglet) have revealed corresponding trends in pollu-

tion, which when combined demonstrate a[150 year

regional pollution signal.

Four distinct phases of proxy pollution data (vLF,

ARM, Zn and S) have been identified:

(1) Low values representative of pre-1900s;

(2) Increased levels of all pollution proxies from

start of the nineteenth century peaking during

the mid-twentieth century, attributed to the

development and intensification of industry;

(3) Generally reduced levels representing post

Clean Air Acts (1956–1979); and

(4) Post-1979 pollution signal incorporating the

increased use of automobiles and aviation.

However, it is important to note that recent peaks

(mid 1960s and mid 1990s) in the data reveal that

pollution levels may have not consistently decreased.

A notable contribution of fine particulates (\1 lm) to

the pollution record has also been observed since

1979, which may reflect an increase of transport-

derived pollutants from automobile and air travel.

Due to insufficient historical pollution data, the use of

urban ponds as archives of pollutants is invaluable as

they demonstrate temporal trends in both the com-

position and nature of atmospheric pollutants in

Halton. This work therefore has the potential to offer

distinctive benefits to epidemiology and enable a

deeper understanding of the relative contribution of

historical pollution exposures to community health.

Acknowledgments This research forms part of the Research

Development Programme funded by Edge Hill University and

the National Health Service (Halton Primary Care Trust).

Authors would like to thank Paul Oldfield (Halton Borough

Council) for assistance with site identification, John Boyle

(University of Liverpool) for expertise in XRF analysis, and

Peter Appleby (University of Liverpool) for carrying out

radiometric dating. Thanks are also extended to Fiona Riley

and Amy Laurence (Edge Hill University) for assistance with

poster design.

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