Environmental correlates of physical activity in youth ? a review and update

obesity

reviews

doi: 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2006.00264.x

© 2006 The AuthorsJournal compilation © 2006 The International Association for the Study of Obesity.

obesity

reviews

8

, 129–154

129

Blackwell Publishing LtdOxford, UKOBRobesity reviews1467-7881© 2006 The Authors; Journal compilation © 2006 The International Association for the Study of Obesity

2006

8

2129154

Review Article

Environmental correlates of physical activity in youth I. Ferreira et al.

Address for correspondence: J Brug,

Department of Public Health, Erasmus

University Medical Center, PO Box 1738, 3000

DR Rotterdam, the Netherlands. E-mail:

[email protected]

Environmental correlates of physical activity in youth – a review and update

I. Ferreira

1

, K. van der Horst

1

, W. Wendel-Vos

2

, S. Kremers

3

, F. J. van Lenthe

1

, and J. Brug

1

1

Department of Public Health, Erasmus

University Medical Center, Rotterdam,

2

Center

for Prevention and Health Services Research,

National Institute for Public Health and

Environment, Bilthoven, and

3

Department of

Health Education and Health Promotion,

University of Maastricht, Maastricht, the

Netherlands

Received 27 November 2005; revised 2

January 2006; accepted 6 January 2006

Summary

Obesogenic environments are thought to underlie the increased obesity prevalenceobserved in youth during the past decades. Understanding the environmentalfactors that are associated with physical activity (PA) in youth is needed to betterinform the development of effective intervention strategies attempting to halt theobesity epidemic. We conducted a systematic semi-quantitative review of 150studies on environmental correlates of youth PA published in the past 25 years.The ANalysis Grid for Environments Linked to Obesity (ANGELO) frameworkwas used to classify the environmental correlates studied. Most studies retrievedused cross-sectional designs and subjective measures of environmental factors andPA. Variables of the home and school environments were especially associatedwith children’s PA. Most consistent positive correlates of PA were father’s PA,time spent outdoors and school PA-related policies (in children), and support fromsignificant others, mother’s education level, family income, and non-vocationalschool attendance (in adolescents). Low crime incidence (in adolescents) wascharacteristic of the neighbourhood environment associated with higher PA. Con-vincing evidence of an important role for many other environmental factors was,however, not found. Further research should aim at longitudinal and interventionstudies, and use more objective measures of PA and its potential (environmental)determinants.

Keywords:

Adolescents, children, environment, physical activity.

Physical activity (PA) is a health enhancing behaviour:when practised regularly, PA reduces the risk for a rangeof chronic disease (1–4). Also among the young, currentand future health benefits can be obtained through engag-ing in physically active lifestyles (5): it helps building strongbones, healthy joints, a strong heart, a good mental healthand prevents today’s major public health concern – obesity(6–9). Despite these health benefits, many young people arenot engaging in recommended levels of PA (10–12). Inaddition, longitudinal studies have shown that a steepdecrease in PA levels occurs during adolescence (13–15)and that PA levels established in youth tend to track intoadulthood (16–20); PA promotion in youth is thought tofacilitate a carryover of healthful habits into adulthood and

a lifelong protection from other risk factors, and is there-fore a priority in current public health policies (4,21).

Given the short-time frame in which the obesity preva-lence has increased to epidemic scales, many scientists pos-tulate that this is more likely due to changes inenvironments than in biology (22–26). In this vein, recentstudies have indeed demonstrated associations betweenchildhood obesity and environmental features, namely atthe home and neighbourhood level (27–32). Consequently,it is important to understand, measure and alter environ-ments that promote or hinder obesity-inducing

behaviours

,such as low PA (7,33–38). Environmental influences can beespecially relevant to children and adolescents because theyhave less autonomy in their behavioural choices (39). Spe-

obesity

reviews (2006)

8

, 129–154

130

Environmental correlates of physical activity in youth

I. Ferreira

et al.

obesity

reviews


obesity

reviews

8

, 129–154

cific recommendations for research on the determinants ofPA in youth have emphasized the need to examine environ-mental influences on youth PA at different levels (e.g. home,neighbourhood, school) (40–42) to better inform the devel-opment of interventions attempting to improve PA levels(43,44).

Now that an increasing number of studies focus onpotential environmental influences on children’s and ado-lescents’ PA behaviour, it is important to get a detailedoverview of the evidence these studies have provided so far,to define a research agenda in this area. In the year 2000,a comprehensive review of personal and environmentalcorrelates of PA in children and adolescents (45) identifiedseveral variables which were consistently associated withchildren/adolescent’s PA. These included social and physi-cal environmental factors such as direct help and supportfrom parents and significant others, access to programmes/facilities, opportunities to be active and time spent out-doors. We now update the review of evidence provided bySallis

et al

. (45) focusing specifically on, and characterizinginto more detail, the

environmental

correlates of PA inchildren and adolescents.

Methods

Search strategies and procedures

Relevant studies were located from two main sources.First, the computerized literature databases MedLine(PubMed), PsycInfo, Web of Science, EMBASE and Sport-Discus were searched. The following keyword combina-tions were used: physical activity, physical active lifestyle,vigorous activity, leisure activities, recreation, exercise,sport(s), motor activity, physical education, walking, run-ning (bi)cycling, commuting, determinants, correlates,influences, associations, environment, physical environ-ment, built environment, psychosocial determinants, socialenvironment, social norms, socio-economic status, socio-cultural environment, parents, peers, neighbourhood,school, facilities, recreation, equipment, safety. Thesesearches were restricted to studies performed in humansaged up to 18 years, and published between January 1980and December 2004. After excluding duplicate studies,over 5000 articles were hereby identified. Two indepen-dent reviewers (IF, KvdH) screened and selected the arti-cles retrieved whenever it could be ascertained first, fromthe title (304 articles), second from the abstract (88 arti-cles), and finally from the full text (84 articles), that theselection criteria (see below) were met. These stepwiseanalyses were performed separately by each reviewer, andat each step, an article was kept whenever selected by atleast one of the reviewers.

Second, manual searches using the reference of the pre-vious systematic review from Sallis

et al

. (45), primary

studies located from the previous source and our personaldatabases were performed and cross-checked with the 84articles initially selected. This led to the inclusion of 66additional articles. Together, these search strategiesresulted in a total of 150 articles, which are reviewedherein.

Inclusion/exclusion criteria

Types of studies

The present review was concerned with PA levels occurring‘naturally’ in populations of children and adolescents.Therefore, only observational studies (either cross-sectionalor longitudinal) were included, whereas studies investigat-ing PA-related interventions or with a quasi-experimentaldesign were excluded (with exception of studies reportingon baseline data from intervention studies). Qualitativestudies or studies that were solely descriptive in nature (i.e.reporting only frequency data), abstracts, case reports,expert opinions, dissertations and unpublished data werealso excluded.

Participants and country

Subjects (or the majority of the participants) had to be inthe age range of 3–18 years old; similarly to the review bySallis

et al

. (45) we have divided studies among children(i.e. 3–12 years old) and adolescents (

>

12–18 years old).Studies on children and adolescents with chronic diseases(that may affect PA levels) or children participating in top-level competitive sports were not included. Only studiesfrom samples drawn in countries with established marketeconomies (as defined by the World Bank) and publishedin English as papers in international peer-reviewed journalswere included.

The dependent variable(s) – physical activity

The dependent variable was any measure of (overall) PA ofvarious types (i.e. play, games, sports, work, transporta-tion, recreation, physical education [PE), or planned exer-cise) performed in the context of home/family, school andcommunity, and expressed in terms of duration (e.g. inminutes), or frequency (e.g. times per week), or intensity(e.g. vigorous) or a combination of these, i.e. in terms ofvolume (e.g. METs or kcal) (46). When studies had multi-ple dependent measures of PA the correlates of mutuallyexclusive outcomes (e.g. habitual levels of moderate-

and

vigorous-intensity PA) were investigated and reportedseparately.

Studies in which the dependent variable was aerobicfitness, intention, self-efficacy, or other intermediate (non-behavioural) measures were not included; physical inactiv-ity/sedentary behaviour was not considered as outcomebecause physical activity and inactivity are distinct behav-iours, often unrelated and with distinct determinants (47–

obesity

reviews


I. Ferreira

et al.

131


obesity

reviews

8

, 129–154

51). In addition, although we acknowledge physical inac-tivity as an important heath-impairing behaviour, a system-atic review of its determinants among youth has beenrecently published (52).

The predictor variable(s) – environmental characteristics

Environmental variables were broadly defined as ‘anythingoutside the individual that can affect his/her PA behaviour’.To structure our review we were in need of a conceptualframework to categorize the various environmental factorsstudied. Different classifications of possible environmentaldeterminants of health behaviours have been proposed(36,38,47,53,54), all of them showing great overlap andsimilarities. In the present review we have adopted TheANalysis Grid for Environments Linked to Obesity(ANGELO) conceptual framework (55) to classify poten-tial environmental determinants of PA in children and ado-lescents. This framework was specifically developed toconceptualize ‘

obesogenic

’ environments (i.e. those thatpromote excessive energy intake and low PA), enabling theidentification of specific areas and settings to be targetedby intervention programmes. Specifically, environmentalvariables can be distinguished within two ‘sizes’ (micro andmacro) and four types (physical, socio-cultural, economicand political, the latter hereafter referred as ‘policies’).Micro-environments are defined as environmental settingswhere groups of people meet and gather. Such settings areoften geographically distinct and allow direct mutual influ-ences between individuals and the environment. Examplesof micro-environmental settings are homes, schools andneighbourhoods. Macro-environments, on the other hand,include the broader, more anonymous infrastructure thatmay support or hinder health behaviours. Examples ofmacro-environments are the town planning, the transportinfrastructure, the media and the healthcare system. Allstudies reviewed herein were required to examine at leastone environmental variable (the independent variable), andthis variable needed to be tested for its association with ameasure of PA (the dependent variable), obtained at theindividual level.

Data analyses

Because of the great variety of variables and methodsdrawn from diverse samples, a meta-analytical review wasnot possible to conduct. We have therefore adopted thesame semi-quantitative approach outlined by Sallis

et al.

(45) recently also used by Gorely

et al.

(52) in a review ofthe correlates of television viewing among youth. An inde-pendent sample, i.e. the smallest independent sub-sample(based on age and gender) for which relevant data werereported (e.g. studies reporting findings for boys [M] andgirls [F] separately, provide two independent samples) wasused as the unit of analyses (56).

Study characteristics

The relevant characteristics from all the selected publica-tions listed in the Bibliography section were retrieved andregistered in detailed tables (which are available uponrequest from the Correspondence), according to currentreview guidelines (57,58). This extensive information wasthen summarized in one background table (Table 1).

Categorization of variables

Correlates of PA investigated in the studies reviewed werecategorized in the ANGELO grid, i.e. were grouped in fourenvironment types (physical, socio-cultural, economic, andpolicies) for each environmental setting (micro and macro)with a further distinction in specific levels (home, educa-tional institution, neighbourhood, city/municipality,region). These data were then summarized in two tablesproviding an overview of the potential determinants of PAof children and adolescents separately (Tables 2 and 3respectively).

Coding and summarizing associations with physical activity

A variety of statistical techniques (e.g. correlations,

t

-tests,linear or logistic regression analyses,

ANOVA

and struc-tured equation models) were used to evaluate the associa-tions. Most studies not only reported univariate but alsomultivariate analyses (e.g. with adjustment for demo-graphic and/or other potential correlates investigated);whenever possible findings reported here were those fromthe fully adjusted models. As with regard to prospectivestudies, the associations found within the shortest follow-up period (where the likelihood of associations washigher) were the ones considered, and the cross-sectionalfindings embedded within these studies were disregarded.Studies reporting positive (coded as ‘

+

’) or inverse (codedas ‘–’) association(s) between the independent variable andPA were registered under the column ‘

related to PA

’; non-significant associations were coded under the column‘

unrelated to PA

’ (coded as ‘0’). Findings for each indepen-dent variable were summarized by adding the number ofassociations in a given direction (

+

, –, 0); keeping in linewith the earlier reviews (45,52), a final summary associa-tion code for each correlate examined was derived as fol-lows:

≥

60% of the associations in any direction wasconsidered evidence for a positive (summary code ‘

+

’),negative (summary code ‘–’) or non-association (summarycode ‘0’); a mixed pattern of associations

<

60% (butabove 50%) was considered evidence for probable butinconsistent association (summary code ‘

+

?’ or ‘–?’ or‘0?’); a variable that has been frequently studied (i.e. in

≥

10 independent samples) but with considerable lack ofconsistence was attributed a summary code of two ques-tions marks (??); where findings were consistent, the codes‘

++

’, ‘– –’ or ‘00’ were attributed. Final summary codes

132


I. Ferreira

et al.

obesity

reviews


obesity

reviews

8

, 129–154

were only computed for variables that have been studiedin at least three independent samples; otherwise a ‘non-applicable’ (N/A) summary code was attributed.

Results

General characteristics of the studies reviewed (Table 1)

We have identified a total of 150 publications that pre-sented an empirical association between PA and at leastone environmental correlate. The vast majority of studies(71.3%) were published in the last decade (Fig. 1) and asteep, almost threefold, increase in adolescent studies wasnoticed in the last 5 years. The overall studies reporteddata on 225 independent samples. Sixty-six studies (91independent samples) of children were reviewed, repre-senting 40.4% of the total independent samples; only 16(17.6%) of those independent samples included morethan 1000 subjects. Eighty-four studies of adolescents(134 independent samples; 59.6%) were reviewed (four ofwhich provided also data on children); about one-thirdincluded more than 1000 subjects. In both children andadolescents, the vast majority of the studies used a cross-sectional design, reported results for boys and girls sepa-rately, relied on child and/or parental self reports asmethod of PA data collection (about half of which withacceptable reliability/validity), and were mostly conductedin North America. Studies that used objective methods ofPA assessment were in the great majority restricted tostudies among children; direct observation and doublylabelled water assessment were never used in studies ofadolescents.

Potential environmental determinants of children’s physical activity (Table 2)

Potential determinants at the home level

We have identified a total of 17 independent samples inves-tigating the associations between variables of the home

physical environment

, namely the amount of cars in thefamily and the availability and access of exercise equip-ment (e.g. PA promoting toys), and PA levels of children.Both variables were unrelated to children’s PA.

Socio-cultural environmental

correlates of children’s PA at thehome/family level were the most frequently investigated.Family structure variables such as single-parent family,household size or number of children in the family, dogownership and level of acculturation to the country ofresidence, were unrelated to children’s PA. Modelling of PAfrom parents, siblings and friends were extensively exam-ined (96 independent samples in total). Studies that haveexamined the relationship between children’s PA levels andthose of their parents, not separating those of the fatherfrom those of the mother, as well as those from significantothers (e.g. parents, siblings or friends), found no relevantassociations. However, in studies where father’s andmother’s PA levels were separated from each other, father’sPA levels emerged as a probable positive correlate (in 52%of the cases), whereas mother’s PA levels were mostly unre-lated to children’s PA. Studies investigating potential famil-ial influences other than modelling, namely support,encouragement and PA-related social norms of parents,friends and significant others, have also been numerous (atotal of 98 independent samples). These variables weregenerally unrelated to children’s PA. The

economic envi-ronment

of children’s home/family in relation to their PAlevels was studied in 102 independent samples. Differentestimates of family/parental socioeconomic status (SES)were generally unrelated to children’s PA. Finally, andwithin the household’s PA-related ‘

policy environment

’

,

time spent outdoors was consistently associated withhigher PA levels of children, whereas parenting styles wereunrelated to children’s PA.

Potential determinants at the school level

Aspects of the school environment were studied seldom(most of them only once or twice, which has not enabledus to calculate a summary association). Only one aspect ofthe school

policy environment

– PA policies (i.e. timeallowed from free play, time spent outdoors, and numberof field trips) – was investigated in three or more indepen-dent samples, with 60% of the cases showing a positiveassociation with children’s PA levels.

Potential determinants at the neighbourhood level

A total of 90 independent samples have examined associa-tions between environmental characteristics at the neigh-

Figure 1

Distribution of the 150 publications by year of publication (1980–2004).

05

101520253035404550

1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99 2000–04

Year of publication

# o

f st

ud

ies

Children Adolescents

obesity

reviews


I. Ferreira

et al.

133


obesity

reviews

8

, 129–154

Tab

le 1

Chi

ld a

nd a

dol

esce

nts

stud

ies

cate

gor

ized

by

sam

ple

siz

e, s

ex,

stud

y d

esig

n, p

hysi

cal a

ctiv

ity m

easu

rem

ent

issu

es,

and

cou

ntry

Chi

ldre

n (3

–12

year

s)A

dol

esce

nts

(

>

12–1

8 ye

ars)

Bib

liog

rap

hy n

o.#

Ind

ivid

ual

sam

ple

s%

Bib

liog

rap

hy n

o.#

Ind

ivid

ual

sam

ple

s%

Sam

ple

siz

e

9110

013

410

0

<

100

5F,

15M

/F,

25,

32,

39,

66,

71,

82,

89M

/F,

111,

113

MI,

V/F

I, II,

V,

129,

134

M19

20.9

20I,

23M

/F,

24M

/F,

26M

/F,

30F,

50M

, 68

, 69

, 90

M/F

, 10

6F,

113M

IV,V

I/FV

I, 12

3, 1

26M

, 13

3M,

138I

,II22

16.4

100–

199

10*,

21,

22F

, 31

*, 4

2, 4

6, 5

1, 5

8, 7

5M,

76,

103M

/F,

108M

/F,

113M

II, 1

24M

/F,

131M

I/FI,

134F

, 15

020

22.0

14,

44M

/F,

45M

/F,

48II,

49,

50F

, 10

1, 1

02F,

110

II,

113M

III/F

III,IV

, 12

6F,

128,

133

F17

12.7

200–

299

13F,

28,

37,

38,

41,

63M

/F,

70,

75F,

96,

109

, 11

0I,

112M

I/FI,

118

1516

.512

, 16

M/F

, 20

II, 9

3F,

102M

, 11

2MII,

III/

FII,

III,

125,

148

MIII

128.

9

300–

499

27M

/F,

56F,

81,

97,

107

M/F

, 11

5, 1

31M

II/FI

I, 13

2,14

8MI/F

I13

14.3

8M/F

, 34

M/F

, 40

F, 4

3, 6

7M,

79M

/F,

105,

116

F, 1

35,

147,

148

MII/

FII,

III16

11.9

500–

999

56M

, 64

, 84

M/F

, 10

0, 1

04,

119,

144

88.

84M

/F,

7M/F

, 17

F, 1

8F,

29,

33,

36,

40M

, 47

, 48

I, 61

M/F

, 62

, 67

F,

87F,

99,

145

, 14

9M/F

2115

.7

1000

–299

911

M/F

, 57

, 73

, 85

, 86

M/F

, 88

, 95

M/F

, 12

0, 1

22,

137,

143M

/F15

16.5

1M/F

, 3M

/F,

6, 3

5F,

54,

65M

/F,

80M

/F,

87M

, 91

F, 9

4I,II

, 11

4F,

117M

/F,

136,

139

, 14

1, 1

42M

/F,

146M

/F25

18.7

3000

–499

92M

/F,

72,

78,

83,

121,

140

75.

2

≥

5000

191

1.0

9, 5

2, 5

3, 5

5, 5

9M/F

, 60

, 74

, 77

, 92

, 98

, 12

7M/F

, 13

014

10.5

Sex

Girl

s on

ly5F

, 13

F, 2

23

3.3

17,

18,

30,

35,

91,

93,

106,

114

, 11

69

6.7

Boy

s an

d g

irls

com

bin

ed10

/31,

19,

21,

25,

28,

32,

37,

38,

39,

41,

42,

46,

51,

57,

58,

64,

66,

70,

71,

73,

76,

81,

82,

85,

88,

96,

97,

100,

104

, 10

9, 1

10I,

111,

115

, 11

8, 1

19,

120,

122

,12

9, 1

32,

137,

144

, 15

0

4246

.26,

9,

12,

14,

20I,I

I, 29

, 33

, 36

, 43

, 47

, 48

I/II,

49,

52,

53,

54,

55,

60,

62,

68,

69,

72,

74,

77,

78,

83,

92,

94I,I

I, 98

, 99

, 10

1, 1

05,

110I

I, 12

1, 1

23,

125,

128

, 13

0, 1

35,

136,

138

, 13

9, 1

40,

141,

145

, 14

7

4936

.6

Boy

s an

d g

irls

sep

arat

ely

11,

15,

27,

56,

63,

75,

84,

86,

89,

95,

103,

107

, 10

8,11

2I,

113I

,II,V

, 12

4, 1

31I,I

I, 13

4, 1

43,

148I

4650

.51,

2,

3, 4

, 7,

8,

16,

23,

24,

26,

34,

40,

44,

45,

50,

59,

61,

65,

67,

79,

80,

87,

90,

102,

112

II,III

, 11

3III,

IV,V

I, 11

7, 1

26,

127,

133

, 14

2,

146,

148

II,III

, 14

9

7656

.7

*The

se t

wo

stud

ies

rep

ort

on t

he e

xact

sam

e d

atas

et a

nd w

ere

ther

efor

e co

nsid

ered

as

one

ind

ivid

ual s

amp

le o

nly

(her

eafte

r co

ded

as

10/3

1).

F, g

irls

only

; M

/F,

boy

s an

d g

irls

anal

ysed

sep

arat

ely;

I,

II, I

II, I

V, V

, V

I, d

ata

rep

orte

d f

or d

iffer

ent

age

sub

-gro

ups

sep

arat

ely.

134


I. Ferreira

et al.

obesity

reviews


obesity

reviews

8

, 129–154

Stu

dy

des

ign

Cro

ss-s

ectio

nal

5F,

10/3

1, 1

3F,

15M

/F,

19,

21,

22F,

25,

27M

/F,

28,

32,

37,

38,

39,

41,

46,

51,

56M

/F,

57,

58,

63M

/F,

64,

66,

70,

71,

73,

75M

/F,

76,

81,

84M

/F,

85,

86M

/F,

88,

89M

/F,

95M

/F,

96,

97,

100,

103

M/F

, 10

4, 1

08M

/F,

109,

110I

, 11

1, 1

12M

I/FI,

113M

I,II,V

/FI,I

I,V,

115,

119

, 12

0,12

2, 1

24M

/F,

129,

131

MI,I

I/FI,I

I, 13

2, 1

34M

/F,

143M

/F,

144,

150

8189

.01M

/F,

3M/F

, 4M

/F,

6, 7

M/F

, 8M

/F,

9, 1

2, 1

4, 1

6M/F

, 17

F, 1

8F,

23M

/F,

24M

/F,

29,

30F,

33,

34M

/F,

35F,

36,

43,

44M

/F,

47,

48I/I

I, 49

, 50

M/F

, 52

, 53

, 54

, 55

, 59

M/F

, 60

, 61

M/F

, 62

, 65

M/F

, 67

M/F

, 68

, 69

, 72

, 74

, 77

, 78

, 79

M/F

, 80

M/F

, 83

, 87

M/F

, 90

M/F

, 91

F, 9

2,

94I,I

I, 98

, 99

, 10

1, 1

05,

106F

, 11

0II,

112M

II,III

/FII,

III,

113M

III,IV

,V

I/FIII

,IV,V

I, 11

4F,

116F

, 11

7M/F

, 12

1, 1

23,

125,

126

M/F

, 12

7M/F

, 12

8, 1

30,

135,

136

, 13

8I,II

, 13

9, 1

40,

141,

142

M/F

, 14

5, 1

46M

/F,

147,

149

M/F

115

85.8

Long

itud

inal

(le

ngth

of

stud

y)11

M/F

(1

year

), 4

2 (1

yea

r),

82 (

8 w

eeks

), 1

07M

/F(2

yea

rs),

118

(1

year

), 1

37 (

1 ye

ar),

148

MI/F

I(3

yea

rs)

1011

.02M

/F (

2.5

year

s),

20I

(1 w

eek)

, II

(9 m

onth

s),

26M

/F (

3 ye

ars)

, 40

M/F

(1

year

), 4

5M/F

(3

year

s),

93F

(8 m

onth

s),

102M

/F (

4 m

onth

s),

133M

/F (

1 ye

ar),

148

MII,

III/F

II,III

(3

year

s)

1914

.2

Ass

essm

ent

of p

hysi

cal a

ctiv

ityC

olle

ctio

n m

etho

d

Sel

f-re

por

t11

M/F

, 25

, 27

M/F

, 38

, 41

, 42

, 46

, 56

M/F

, 57

, 58

, 64

,75

M/F

, 84

M/F

, 85

, 86

M/F

, 95

M/F

, 97

, 10

3M/F

, 10

4,11

0I,

115,

118

, 11

9, 1

20,

124M

/F,

132,

137

, 14

3M/F

,14

4, 1

48M

I/FI

4145

.11M

/F,

2M/F

, 3M

/F,

4M/F

, 6,

7M

/F,

8M/F

, 9,

14,

16M

/F,

17F,

18F

, 20

I,II,

26M

/F,

30F,

33,

34M

/F,

35F,

36,

40M

/F,

43,

44M

/F,

45M

/F,

47,

48I/I

I, 49

, 50

M/F

, 52

, 53

, 54

, 55

, 59

M/F

, 60

, 61

M/F

, 62

, 65

M/F

, 67

M/F

, 68

, 69

, 72

, 74

, 77

, 78

, 79

M/F

, 80

M/F

, 83

, 87

M/F

, 91

F, 9

2,

93F,

94I

,II,

98,

99,

102M

/F,

105,

106

F, 1

10II,

114

F, 1

16F,

117

M/F

, 12

1, 1

25,

126M

/F,

127M

/F,

128,

130

, 13

3M/F

, 13

5, 1

36,

139,

140

, 14

1, 1

42M

/F,

145,

146

M/F

, 14

7, 1

48M

II,III

/FII,

III,

149M

/F

112

83.6

Par

ent

rep

ort

15M

/F,

21,

66,

73,

88,

100,

113

MI,I

I/FI,I

I, 12

2, 1

29,

131M

I,II/F

I,II,

150

1819

.8

Com

pos

ite:

self-

&

par

ent

rep

ort

19,

76,

112M

I/FI

44.

412

, 29

, 11

2MII,

III/F

II,III

, 11

3MIII

,IV/F

III,IV

107.

5

Acc

eler

omet

er5F

, 13

F, 3

7, 6

3M/F

, 89

M/F

, 96

, 11

3MV

/FV,

134

M/F

1213

.211

3MV

I,FV

I, 12

33

2.2

Dire

ct o

bse

rvat

ion

10/3

1, 2

8, 7

0, 7

1, 8

1, 8

2, 1

09,

111

89.

0D

oub

ly la

bel

led

wat

er51

11.

1S

elf-

rep

ort

& a

ccel

erom

eter

/hea

r ra

te m

onito

r32

, 10

8M/F

33.

423

M/F

, 24

M/F

, 90

M/F

, 10

1, 1

38I,I

I9

6.7

Chi

ldre

n (3

–12

year

s)A

dol

esce

nts

(

>

12–1

8 ye

ars)

Bib

liog

rap

hy n

o.#

Ind

ivid

ual

sam

ple

s%

Bib

liog

rap

hy n

o.#

Ind

ivid

ual

sam

ple

s%

*The

se t

wo

stud

ies

rep

ort

on t

he e

xact

sam

e d

atas

et a

nd w

ere

ther

efor

e co

nsid

ered

as

one

ind

ivid

ual s

amp

le o

nly

(her

eafte

r co

ded

as

10/3

1).

F, g

irls

only

; M

/F,

boy

s an

d g

irls

anal

ysed

sep

arat

ely;

I,

II, I

II, I

V, V

, V

I, d

ata

rep

orte

d f

or d

iffer

ent

age

sub

-gro

ups

sep

arat

ely.

Tab

le 1

Con

tinue

d

obesity

reviews


I. Ferreira

et al.

135


obesity

reviews

8

, 129–154

Par

ent-

rep

ort

&

acce

lero

met

er39

11.

1

Com

pos

ite:

self-

& p

aren

t-re

por

t &

acc

eler

omet

er10

7M/F

22.

3

Com

pos

ite:

two

self-

rep

orts

+

fitn

ess

test

22F

11.

1

Rel

iab

ility

/val

idity

of

self-

and

par

ent

rep

orte

d m

etho

ds

Poo

r or

unk

now

n19

, 21

, 22

F, 2

7M/F

, 32

, 38

, 46

, 56

M/F

, 57

, 58

, 66

, 73

,88

, 10

0, 1

03M

/F,

118,

122

, 12

9, 1

31M

I,II/F

I,II,

143M

/F,

148M

I/FI,

150

3042

.91M

/F,

2M/F

, 3M

/F,

6, 7

M/F

, 8M

/F,

9, 1

2, 1

4, 1

8F,

23M

/F,

24M

/F,

29,

34M

/F,

36,

40M

/F,

43,

44M

/F,

45M

/F,

54,

55,

60,

62,

65M

/F,

67M

/F,

68,

69,

72,

74,

77,

78,

87M

/F,

92,

94I,I

I, 98

, 10

5, 1

06F,

11

6F,

121,

125

, 12

6M/F

, 12

8, 1

30,

136,

139

, 14

0, 1

41,

145,

14

8MII,

III/F

II,III

6851

.9

Acc

epta

ble

11M

/F,

15M

/F,

25,

39,

41,

42,

64,

75M

/F,

76,

84M

/F,

85,

86M

/F,

95M

/F,

97,

104,

107

M/F

, 10

8M/F

, 11

0I,

112M

I/FI,

113M

I,II/F

I,II,

115,

119

, 12

0, 1

24M

/F,

132,

137,

144

4057

.14M

/F,

16M

/F,

17F,

20I

,II,

26M

/F,

30F,

33,

35F

, 47

, 48

I,II,

49,

50M

/F,

52,

53,

59M

/F,

61M

/F,

79M

/F,

80M

/F,

83,

90M

/F,

91F,

93F

, 99

, 10

1,

102M

/F,

110I

I, 11

2MII,

III/F

II,III

, 11

3MIII

,IV/F

III,IV

, 11

4F,

117M

/F,

127M

/F,

133M

/F,

135,

138

I,II,

142M

/F,

146M

/F,

147,

149

M/F

6348

.1

Cou

ntry

Nor

th A

mer

ica

5F,

10/3

1, 1

1M/F

, 13

F, 2

1, 2

2F,

25,

28,

32,

37,

39,

41,

42,

46,

51,

57,

63M

/F,

70,

71,

75M

/F,

76,

81,

82,

84M

/F,

85,

86M

/F,

88,

89M

/F,

95M

/F,

96,

97,

100,

103M

/F,

104,

107

M/F

, 10

8M/F

, 10

9, 1

10I,

111,

112M

I/FI,

113M

I,II,V

/FI,I

I,V,

115,

118

, 12

0, 1

22,

124M

/F,

132,

134

M/F

, 13

7, 1

44

6874

.74M

/F,

6, 9

, 16

M/F

, 17

F, 1

8F,

20I,I

I, 26

M/F

, 29

, 30

F, 3

3, 3

4M/F

, 35

F, 3

6, 4

7, 4

8I/II

, 49

, 50

M/F

, 52

, 53

, 54

, 55

, 59

M/F

, 60

, 61

M/F

, 62

, 68

, 69

, 74

, 77

, 78

, 79

M/F

, 80

M/F

, 87

M/F

, 90

M/F

, 91

F, 9

2,

93F,

98,

99,

101

, 10

2M/F

, 10

6F,

110I

I, 11

2MII,

III/F

II,III

, 11

3MIII

,IV,

VI/F

III,IV

,VI,

114F

, 11

6F,

117M

/F,

121,

123

, 12

5, 1

26M

/F,

127M

/F,

128,

133

M/F

, 13

5, 1

49M

/F

8563

.4

Eur

ope

38,

56M

/F,

64,

66,

73,

119,

129

, 14

3M/F

, 14

8MI/F

I12

13.5

1M/F

, 2M

/F,

3M/F

, 7M

/F,

8M/F

, 12

, 14

, 23

M/F

, 24

M/F

, 40

M/F

, 44

M/F

, 45

M/F

, 65

M/F

, 67

M/F

, 72

, 94

I,II,

105,

130

, 13

6, 1

38I,I

I, 13

9, 1

40,

141,

142

M/F

, 14

5, 1

46M

/F,

147,

148

MII,

III/F

II,III

4735

.1

Oce

ania

15M

/F,

19,

27M

/F,

58,

131M

I,II/F

I,II,

150

1112

.443

, 83

21.

5

Chi

ldre

n (3

–12

year

s)A

dol

esce

nts

(

>

12–1

8 ye

ars)

Bib

liog

rap

hy n

o.#

Ind

ivid

ual

sam

ple

s%

Bib

liog

rap

hy n

o.#

Ind

ivid

ual

sam

ple

s%

*The

se t

wo

stud

ies

rep

ort

on t

he e

xact

sam

e d

atas

et a

nd w

ere

ther

efor

e co

nsid

ered

as

one

ind

ivid

ual s

amp

le o

nly

(her

eafte

r co

ded

as

10/3

1).

F, g

irls

only

; M

/F,

boy

s an

d g

irls

anal

ysed

sep

arat

ely;

I,

II, I

II, I

V, V

, V

I, d

ata

rep

orte

d f

or d

iffer

ent

age

sub

-gro

ups

sep

arat

ely.

Tab

le 1

Con

tinue

d

136


I. Ferreira

et al.

obesity

reviews


obesity

reviews

8

, 129–154

Tab

le 2

Sum

mar

y of

cor

rela

tes

of p

hysi

cal a

ctiv

ity a

mon

g c

hild

ren

(3–1

2 ye

ar o

lds)

Cor

rela

teR

elat

ed t

o PA

Bib

lio.

no.

Ass

oc.

(

+

or

–)U

nrel

ated

to

PAB

iblio

. no

.# sa

mp

les

Sum

mar

y (

n

)

+

–0

Ass

oc.

MIC

RO

-EN

VIR

ON

ME

NT

Ho

me/

ho

use

ho

ld

Phy

sica

l

# ca

rs in

hou

seho

ld19

, 13

1FI

–13

1MI,I

I/FII

5–

23

0A

cces

s/av

aila

bili

ty o

f ex

erci

se e

qui

pm

ent

30F,

124

F, 1

34F

+

30F,

81,

97,

109

, 12

4M,

132,

13

4F,

134M

/F,

123

–9

00

Soc

io-c

ultu

ral

Sin

gle

-par

ent

fam

ily10

3F,

108M

, 11

3MI

+

95M

/F,

95M

/F,

103M

,

107M

/F

, 10

8F,

108M

/F,

112M

I/FI,

113M

II,V

/FI,I

I,V20

3–

1700

# ho

useh

old

res

iden

ts/c

hild

ren

38,

95M

/F,

95M

/F,

113M

I,II,V

/FI,I

I,V11

––

1100

Acc

ultu

ratio

n (la

ngua

ge

spok

en a

t ho

me;

life

time

in t

he c

ount

y; in

dex

)

11M

, 95

M/F

19,

137

+ –11

F,

11M

/F,

13F,

95M

/F,

137

123

27

0

Dog

ow

ners

hip

131M

I,II/F

I,II

4–

–4

0P

aren

ts’ P

A32

, 63

M,

89M

/F,

100,

107

M,

111,

112

MI,

144,

150

,12

4F

+ –

11M

/F,

25,

32,

63F,

107

F,

108M

/F,

108M

/F,

112F

I, 11

3MI,I

I,V/F

I,II,V

, 12

4M29

101

1800

Fath

er’s

PA

22F,

38,

39,

39,

46,

89M

/F,

95M

, 11

9M/F

, 13

4M,

148M

I/FI,

148M

I/FI

+15

M/F

, 15

M/F

, 84

M/F

, 95

M/F

, 95

F,

97,

110I

, 13

4M/F

, 13

4F29

15–

14+?

Mot

her’s

PA

15F,

38,

39,

39,

95F

, 11

0I,

124F

, 13

4M,

148F

I, 14

8FI

+15

M/F

, 15

M,

22F,

84M

/F,

89M

/F,

95M

, 95

M/F

, 97

, 10

9, 1

19M

/F,

124M

, 13

4M/F

, 13

4F,

148M

I, 14

8MI

3110

–21

00

Sib

ling

’s P

A11

0I+

11

––

N/A

Frie

nd’s

PA

46+

97,

134M

/F,

134M

/F6

1–

50

PA f

rom

sig

nific

ant

othe

rs (

par

ents

, si

blin

gs,

frie

nds)

411

––

1N

/AE

ncou

rag

emen

t fro

m p

aren

ts71

, 82

, 95

F, 9

5F,

107M

, 14

4+

11M

/F,

63M

/F,

70,

95M

, 95

M,

95M

/F,

95M

/F,

107F

, 10

8M/F

, 10

8M/F

22

6–

1600

Sup

por

t (lo

gis

tic)

from

par

ents

(tr

ansp

orts

chi

ld t

o p

lay,

pla

ys w

ith c

hild

, p

ays

fees

)5F

, 22

F, 1

07M

, 10

7M,

107M

, 10

8M/F

, 10

8M,

144,

144

+5F

, 22

F, 6

3M/F

, 63

M/F

, 70

, 10

7F,

107F

, 10

7F,

108F

, 10

8M/F

, 10

8M/F

, 11

2MI/F

I27

10–

1700

Sup

por

t/enc

oura

gem

ent

from

sig

nific

ant

othe

rs

(fam

ily,

pee

rs,

teac

hers

)11

2MI/F

I, 11

3MI/F

I,V,

115,

11

5, 1

20,

124M

+41

, 97

, 97

, 10

9, 1

13M

I,II,V

/FI,I

I,V,

113M

II,V

/FII,

124

F24

9–

150?

Bib

lio. n

o., r

efer

ence

num

ber

und

er th

e B

iblio

gra

phy

sec

tion;

Ass

oc.,

asso

ciat

ion;

+, p

ositi

ve; –

, neg

ativ

e; 0

, no

rela

tion;

?, i

ndet

erm

inat

e; N

/A, s

umm

ary

cod

e no

t ap

plic

able

bec

ause

the

num

ber

of i

ndep

end

ent

sam

ple

s in

vest

igat

ing

the

rel

atio

nshi

p is

bel

ow 3

; PA

, p

hysi

cal a

ctiv

ity;

M,

boy

s on

ly;

F, g

irls

only

; S

ES

, so

cioe

cono

mic

sta

tus;

stu

die

s w

ith p

rosp

ectiv

e st

udy

des

igns

are

hig

hlig

hted

in b

old

.

obesity reviews Environmental correlates of physical activity in youth I. Ferreira et al. 137

© 2006 The AuthorsJournal compilation © 2006 The International Association for the Study of Obesity. obesity reviews 8, 129–154

Soc

ial n

orm

s (v

alue

/enj

oym

ent

of P

A o

f si

gni

fican

t ot

hers

– p

aren

ts,

sib

ling

s, p

eers

)25

, 75

M/F

, 75

M/F

, 13

4M,

134M

, 15

0+

25,

25,

41,

84M

/F,

97,

100,

112

MI/F

I, 11

2MI/F

I, 12

4M/F

, 12

9, 1

29,

134F

, 13

4F25

8–

1700

Eco

nom

icP

aren

tal S

ES

27F,

27M

/F,

32,

72,

88,

95F,

122

, 58

+ –27

M,

27M

/F,

32,

71,

72,

95M

, 95

M/F

, 10

3, 1

09,

119,

137

228

113

0?

Par

enta

l occ

upat

iona

l sta

tus

148F

I,19

+ –12

3, 1

48M

I, 14

8MI/F

I6

11

40

Fath

er o

ccup

atio

nal s

tatu

s11

M/F

, 95

M/F

, 95

M/F

6–

–6

0M

othe

r oc

cup

atio

nal s

tatu

s11

F,

56M

/F+

11M

, 95

M/F

, 95

M/F

72

–5

0P

aren

tal e

duc

atio

n63

M,

112M

I10

8F+ –

37,

37,

37,

38,

46,

63F,

96,

103

, 10

7M/F

, 10

8M,

108M

/F,

112F

I, 11

3MI,I

I,V/F

I,II,V

, 13

724

21

2100

Fath

er’s

ed

ucat

ion

leve

l56

M/F

, 95

F, 1

48M

I, 14

8MI,

57+ –

95M

, 95

M/F

, 14

8FI,

148F

I11

51

5??

Mot

her’s

ed

ucat

ion

leve

l14

8MI

+19

, 46

, 95

M/F

, 19

, 46

, 95

M/F

, 13

1MI,I

I/FI,I

I, 14

8FI

121

–11

00#

hour

s p

aren

ts w

ork

95M

/F,

108M

/F,

108M

/F,

150

7–

–7

0H

ouse

ow

ned

191

––

1N

/AP

olic

yTi

me

spen

t ou

tdoo

rs10

&31

, 70

, 81

, 10

9, 1

09+

55

––

+P

aren

ting

sty

les

(PA

rul

es,

cont

rol)

109,

109

–43

, 10

9, 1

12M

I/FI

6–

24

0

Ed

uca

tio

nal

in

stit

uti

on

s (s

cho

ols

,…)

Phy

sica

lD

ista

nce

(fro

m h

ome)

150

–1

–1

–N

/AA

vaila

bili

ty o

f PA

eq

uip

men

t81

1–

–1

N/A

Soc

io-c

ultu

ral

Teac

her’s

PA

100

1–

–1

N/A

Teac

her’s

atti

tud

es t

owar

d P

A10

01

––

1N

/ATe

ache

rs s

pec

ific

educ

atio

n le

vel

28,

100

+2

2–

–N

/AE

cono

mic

Sch

ool t

ype

atte

nded

(p

ublic

vs.

priv

ate;

nu

rser

y vs

. d

ay c

are)

19,

100

+2

2–

–N

/A

Pol

icy

Sup

por

t fro

m c

omm

unity

PA

org

aniz

atio

ns28

1–

–1

N/A

PA-r

elat

ed p

olic

ies

(e.g

. tim

e al

low

ed f

or

free

pla

y/sp

ent

outs

ide,

# fi

eld

trip

s)28

, 81

, 96

+28

, 28

53

–2

+

Cla

ss s

ize

28+

11

––

N/A

Sch

ool q

ualit

y28

1–

–1

N/A

Cor

rela

teR

elat

ed t

o PA

Bib

lio.

no.

Ass

oc.

(+ o

r –)

Unr

elat

ed t

o PA

Bib

lio.

no.

# sam

ple

s S

umm

ary

(n)

+–

0A

ssoc

.

Bib

lio. n

o., r

efer

ence

num

ber

und

er th

e B

iblio

gra

phy

sec

tion;

Ass

oc.,

asso

ciat

ion;

+, p

ositi

ve; –

, neg

ativ

e; 0

, no

rela

tion;

?, i

ndet

erm

inat

e; N

/A, s

umm

ary

cod

e no

t ap

plic

able

bec

ause

the

num

ber

of i

ndep

end

ent

sam

ple

s in

vest

igat

ing

the

rel

atio

nshi

p is

bel

ow 3

; PA

, p

hysi

cal a

ctiv

ity;

M,

boy

s on

ly;

F, g

irls

only

; S

ES

, so

cioe

cono

mic

sta

tus;

stu

die

s w

ith p

rosp

ectiv

e st

udy

des

igns

are

hig

hlig

hted

in b

old

.

Tab

le 2

Con

tinue

d

138 Environmental correlates of physical activity in youth I. Ferreira et al. obesity reviews


Nei

gh

bo

urh

oo

dP

hysi

cal

Dis

tanc

e to

des

tinat

ions

58–

1–

1–

N/A

Acc

ess/

avai

lab

ility

to

PA f

acili

ties/

pro

gra

mm

es41

, 10

9, 1

31FI

I+

5F,

5F,

30F,

30F

, 13

1MI,I

I/FI,I

I, 13

1MI,I

I/FI,

113M

I,II,V

/FI,I

I,V20

3–

1700

Ava

ilab

le s

helte

rs/fo

ot p

ath

cond

ition

s15

0, 1

502

––

2N

/AN

eig

hbou

rhoo

d h

azar

ds

(e.g

. m

any

road

s/no

lig

hts

cros

sing

s; h

eavy

tra

ffic;

phy

sica

l dis

ord

er;

pol

lutio

n)12

3,

58,

131M

II, 1

31M

II, 1

31M

I+ –

58,

88,

113M

I,II,V

/FI,I

I,V,

131M

I/FI,I

I, 13

1MI/F

I,II

131M

II/FI

,II,

150,

150

241

419

00

Nei

ghb

ourh

ood

phy

sica

l dis

ord

er88

1–

–1

N/A

Lim

ited

pub

lic t

rans

por

t13

1FI,I

I–

131M

I,II

4–

22

?S

ocia

lN

eig

hbou

rhoo

d s

ocia

l dis

ord

er88

–1

1–

–N

/AIn

volv

emen

t in

com

mun

ity P

A o

rgan

izat

ions

132,

134

M,

134M

+11

M/F

, 13

2, 1

34F,

134

F8

3–

50

Leng

th o

f re

sid

ence

in c

omm

unity

30F

+30

F2

1–

1N

/AS

afet

y88

–5F

, 5F

, 10

7M/F

, 11

3MI,I

I,V/F

I,II,V

, 13

1MI,I

I/FI,I

I, 15

016

–1

1500

Eco

nom

icN

eig

hbou

rhoo

d S

ES

/ed

ucat

ion

leve

l14

3F,

64,

64+

30F,

30F

, 88

, 14

3M,

61

23

0–

MA

CR

O-E

NV

IRO

NM

EN

TC

ity/

mu

nic

ipal

ity/

reg

ion

sP

hysi

cal

Urb

an v

s. s

ubur

ban

21–

662

11

–N

/AU

rban

vs.

rur

al27

M/F

, 56

M/F

, 66

, 72

, 72

, 11

8+

46,

57,

85,

86M

/F17

84

5??

27M

/F,

27M

/F–

Coa

stal

vs.

mou

ntai

ns46

–1

1–

–N

/AS

easo

n (s

prin

g,

sum

mer

)42

, 51

, 10

0, 1

18+

21,

37,

37,

3710

42

4??

10&

31,

118

–

Cor

rela

teR

elat

ed t

o PA

Bib

lio.

no.

Ass

oc.

(+ o

r –)

Unr

elat

ed t

o PA

Bib

lio.

no.

# sam

ple

s S

umm

ary

(n)

+–

0A

ssoc

.

Bib

lio. n

o., r

efer

ence

num

ber

und

er th

e B

iblio

gra

phy

sec

tion;

Ass

oc.,

asso

ciat

ion;

+, p

ositi

ve; –

, neg

ativ

e; 0

, no

rela

tion;

?, i

ndet

erm

inat

e; N

/A, s

umm

ary

cod

e no

t ap

plic

able

bec

ause

the

num

ber

of i

ndep

end

ent

sam

ple

s in

vest

igat

ing

the

rel

atio

nshi

p is

bel

ow 3

; PA

, p

hysi

cal a

ctiv

ity;

M,

boy

s on

ly;

F, g

irls

only

; S

ES

, so

cioe

cono

mic

sta

tus;

stu

die

s w

ith p

rosp

ectiv

e st

udy

des

igns

are

hig

hlig

hted

in b

old

.

Tab

le 2

Con

tinue

d



Tab

le 3

Sum

mar

y of

cor

rela

tes

of p

hysi

cal a

ctiv

ity a

mon

g a

dol

esce

nts

(13–

18 y

ears

old

s)

Cor

rela

teR

elat

ed t

o PA

Bib

lio.

no.

Ass

oc.

(+ o

r –)

Unr

elat

ed t

o PA

Bib

lio.

no.

# sam

ple

sS

umm

ary

(n)

+–

0A

ssoc

.

MIC

RO

-EN

VIR

ON

ME

NT

Ho

me/

ho

use

ho

ldP

hysi

cal

Acc

ess/

avai

lab

ility

of

PA e

qui

pm

ent

18F,

18F

, 33

, 24

F+ –

18F,

23M

/F,

23M

/F,

24M

, 24

M/F

, 26

M/F

, 93

F,

93F

, 13

3M/F

, 13

3M/F

203

116

00

Soc

io-c

ultu

ral

Sin

gle

-par

ent

fam

ily29

, 76

, 11

3MIV

, 76

, 13

0+ –

45M

/F,

61M

/F,

67M

/F,

76,

112M

II,III

/FII,

III,

113M

III,V

I/FIII

,IV,V

I, 12

8, 1

42M

/F24

32

1900

# ho

useh

old

res

iden

ts/c

hild

ren

61M

/F,

113M

III,IV

,VI/F

III,IV

,VI,

142M

/F,

149M

/F12

––

1200

Acc

ultu

ratio

n (a

dol

esce

nt/p

aren

t b

orn

abro

ad;

gen

erat

ion

of r

esid

ence

in c

ount

ry)

45F

, 52

+45

M,

52,

53,

116F

62

–4

0

Par

ents

’ PA

33,

54,

98,

99,

142M

/F+

17F,

26M

/F,

68,

79M

/F,

79M

/F,

90M

/F,

90M

/F,

112M

II,III

/FII,

III,

113M

III,IV

,VI/

FIII,

IV,V

I, 13

5, 1

49M

/F

316

–25

00

Fath

er’s

PA

23M

, 24

F, 4

8I,

49,

98,

105,

110

II,

140,

140

, 14

1, 1

42M

/F,

148M

II,III

+3M

/F,

23F,

23M

/F,

24M

, 24

M/F

, 48

II,

48II,

49,

133

M/F

, 13

3M/F

, 14

8FII,

III31

14–

170?

Mot

her’s

PA

3F,

23F,

48I

, 49

, 98

, 10

6F,

110I

I, 13

3F,

142M

/F,

148F

II,III

+3M

, 23

M,

23M

/F,

24M

/F,

24M

/F,

26M

/F,

48II,

48I

I, 49

, 10

5, 1

33M

, 13

3M/F

, 14

0,

141,

148

MII,

III

3312

–21

00

Sib

ling

’s a

ctiv

ity3M

/F,

98,

99,

110I

I, 14

1+

23M

/F,

23M

/F,

24M

/F,

24M

/F,

110I

I, 14

0, 1

40,

141

186

–12

00

Frie

nd’s

PA

24M

, 33

, 11

6F,

140,

140

+17

F, 2

3M/F

, 23

M/F

, 24

F, 2

4M/F

, 13

3M/F

, 13

3M/F

, 14

1, 1

49M

/F20

5–

1500

PA f

rom

sig

nific

ant

othe

rs

(par

ents

, fr

iend

s, o

ther

ad

ults

)8M

/F,

9, 1

8F,

24M

, 10

2F,

126M

+14

, 18

F, 1

8F,

24M

/F,

24F,

102

M,

126F

, 14

116

7–

90?

Sup

por

t/enc

oura

gem

ent

from

par

ents

8M/F

, 18

F, 1

8F,

29,

44M

, 61

M/F

, 68

, 79

M/F

, 79

M/F

, 90

F, 1

12M

II,III

/FII,

III,

112M

II,III

, 11

3FIII

, 11

4F,

114F

, 13

5, 1

39,

149F

+17

F, 1

8F,

18F,

18F

, 18

F, 4

4F,

45M

/F,

90M

, 90

M/F

, 90

M/F

, 90

M/F

, 10

1, 1

01,

101,

113

MIII

,IV,V

I/FIV

,VI,

112F

II,III

, 14

9M

5226

–26

??

Sup

por

t/enc

oura

gem

ent

from

frie

nds

44F,

83,

101

, 11

3MIII

,VI,

149M

+17

F, 4

4M,

101,

113

MIV

/FIII

,IV,V

I, 13

9, 1

49F

156

–9

00S

upp

ort/e

ncou

rag

emen

t fro

m s

igni

fican

t ot

hers

8M/F

, 12

, 14

, 18

F, 1

8F,

24F,

24F

, 44

M/F

, 93

F,

114F

, 11

4F+

18F,

24M

, 24

M,

60,

93F

, 13

3M/F

, 13

3M/F

, 13

923

13–

10+?

Bib

lio.

no.,

refe

renc

e nu

mb

er u

nder

the

Bib

liog

rap

hy s

ectio

n; A

ssoc

., as

soci

atio

n; +

, p

ositi

ve;

–, n

egat

ive;

0,

no r

elat

ion;

?,

ind

eter

min

ate;

N/A

, su

mm

ary

cod

e no

t ap

plic

able

bec

ause

the

num

ber

of

ind

epen

den

t sa

mp

les

inve

stig

atin

g t

he r

elat

ions

hip

is b

elow

3;

PA,

phy

sica

l act

ivity

; M

, b

oys

only

; F,

girl

s on

ly;

SE

S,

soci

oeco

nom

ic s

tatu

s; P

E,

phy

sica

l ed

ucat

ion;

stu

die

s w

ith p

rosp

ectiv

e st

udy

des

igns

ar

e hi

ghl

ight

ed in

bol

d.



Soc

ial n

orm

s (v

alue

/enj

oym

ent

of P

A o

f si

gni

fican

t ot

hers

– p

aren

ts,

sib

ling

s, p

eers

)9,

26F

, 47

, 47

, 48

I/II,

80M

/F,

80M

/F,

87M

, 91

F, 9

1F,

112F

III,

123,

127

M/F

+8M

/F,

16M

/F,

16M

/F,

17F,

26M

, 47

, 68

, 68

, 69

, 79

M/F

, 87

F, 1

12M

II,III

/FII,

11

2MII,

III/F

II,III

, 11

4F,

114F

, 12

3

4217

–25

0?

Eco

nom

icP

aren

tal S

ES

9, 1

2, 1

8F,1

8F,

121,

145

, 14

7+

4M/F

, 7M

/F,

7M/F

, 17

F, 1

8F,

48II,

76,

76,

76,

128

207

–13

00O

ccup

atio

nal s

tatu

s of

hou

seho

ld h

ead

45F

, 65

M/F

, 73

, 14

0+

45M

, 67

M/F

, 14

0, 1

4110

5–

5??

Fath

er’s

occ

upat

iona

l sta

tus

54,

94I,

136

+2M

/F,

94II,

148

MII,

III/F

II,III

, 14

8MII/

FII

123

–9

00M

othe

r’s o

ccup

atio

nal s

tatu

s2M

, 94

I+

2F,

94II,

136

52

–3

0P

aren

ts’ e

duc

atio

nal l

evel

74,

77,

112M

III,

117F

, 14

2M/F

+61

M/F

, 11

2MII/

FI,II

,III,

113M

III,IV

,VI/F

III,IV

,VI,

117M

196

–13

00

Fath

er’s

ed

ucat

ion

leve

l13

6+

48II,

148

MII,

III/F

II,III

, 14

8MII/

FII

81

–7

0M

othe

r’s e

duc

atio

n le

vel

53,

92,

136

+48

II, 1

16F

53

–2

+Fa

mily

(p

er c

apita

) in

com

e29

, 53

, 74

, 77

, 14

2M/F

+50

M/F

, 60

, 73

106

–4

++#

par

ents

wor

king

ful

l tim

e11

7M+

117F

21

–1

N/A

Ad

oles

cent

’s p

aid

wor

k/p

ocke

t m

oney

34M

/F,

83,

141

+53

, 11

6F,

125,

149

M/F

94

–5

0?P

olic

yP

aren

ting

sty

les

(aut

horit

ativ

e; P

A r

ules

)87

M,

90M

, 11

7M–

87F,

90F

, 90

M/F

, 11

2MII,

III/F

II,III

, 11

7F12

–3

900

Ed

uca

tio

n i

nst

itu

tio

ns

(ch

ildca

re, s

cho

ols

)P

hysi

cal

Sch

ool f

acili

ties/

reso

urce

s33

+1

1–

–N

/AS

ocio

-cul

tura

lM

ain

teac

her’s

/coa

ch P

A90

M+

90M

/F,

90F,

140

, 14

0, 1

41,

149M

/F9

1–

80

Sup

por

t fro

m t

each

er/c

oach

45M

, 83

, 14

9F+

45F

, 14

9M/F

, 14

9M7

3–

40?

Cla

ssm

ates

pro

ble

ms/

teas

ing

45F

, 45

F–

45M

, 45

M4

–2

2?

Sch

ool s

upp

ort

44M

/F,

833

––

30

Rel

atio

nshi

p w

ith P

E t

each

er33

1–

–1

N/A

Eco

nom

icP

ublic

vs.

priv

ate

scho

ol34

M/F

–2

–2

–N

/AP

olic

yS

choo

l typ

e (h

igh

scho

ol v

s. v

ocat

iona

l/alte

rnat

ive)

1M/F

, 2M

/F,

7M/F

, 55

, 55

, 55

, 55

40M

+ –7M

/F,

40F

, 55

1510

14

++

Sch

ool p

rovi

de

(sp

ecia

l) P

E p

rog

ram

me/

spor

t te

ams

53+

36,

133M

/F,

133M

/F6

1–

50

Inst

ruct

ion

on s

por

t/hea

lth b

enefi

ts14

0+

140,

141

, 14

14

1–

30

Cor

rela

teR

elat

ed t

o PA

Bib

lio.

no.

Ass

oc.

(+ o

r –)

Unr

elat

ed t

o PA

Bib

lio.

no.

# sam

ple

sS

umm

ary

(n)

+–

0A

ssoc

.

Bib

lio.

no.,

refe

renc

e nu

mb

er u

nder

the

Bib

liog

rap

hy s

ectio

n; A

ssoc

., as

soci

atio

n; +

, p

ositi

ve;

–, n

egat

ive;

0,

no r

elat

ion;

?,

ind

eter

min

ate;

N/A

, su

mm

ary

cod

e no

t ap

plic

able

bec

ause

the

num

ber

of

ind

epen

den

t sa

mp

les

inve

stig

atin

g t

he r

elat

ions

hip

is b

elow

3;

PA,

phy

sica

l act

ivity

; M

, b

oys

only

; F,

girl

s on

ly;

SE

S,

soci

oeco

nom

ic s

tatu

s; P

E,

phy

sica

l ed

ucat

ion;

stu

die

s w

ith p

rosp

ectiv

e st

udy

des

igns

ar

e hi

ghl

ight

ed in

bol

d.

Tab

le 3

Con

tinue

d



Nei

gh

bo

urh

oo

dP

hysi

cal

Dis

tanc

e to

PA

fac

ilitie

s50

M–

50F

2–

11

N/A

Acc

ess/

avai

lab

ility

to

PA

equi

pm

ent/f

acili

ties/

pro

gra

mm

es33

, 44

M/F

, 61

M/F

, 61

M/F

, 61

F,

61M

/F,

113F

VI,

29,

29

+ –

17F,

23M

/F,

23M

/F,

24M

/F,

24M

/F,

61M

/F,

90M

/F,

112M

II,III

/FII,

III,

113M

III,IV

,VI/F

III,IV

,VI,

113M

III,IV

,VI/F

III,IV

, 12

5, 1

49M

/F,

61M

4511

232

00

Leve

l of

urb

aniz

atio

n74

1–

–1

0D

ogs

unat

tend

ed90

M/F

, 90

M/F

4–

–4

0S

ocio

-cul

tura

l%

mar

ried

cou

ple

s67

M/F

2–

–2

N/A

% y

outh

67M

/F2

––

2N

/AN

eig

hbou

rhoo

d e

xerc

iser

s90

M/F

, 90

M/F

, 14

9M/F

6–

–6

0S

ocia

l dis

org

aniz

atio

n74

1–

–1

N/A

Eth

nic

min

ority

con

cent

ratio

n74

1–

–1

N/A

Crim

e in

cid

ence

50F,

53

–50

M3

–2

1–

Saf

ety

50F

–50

M,

90M

/F,

90M

/F,

113M

III,IV

,VI/F

III,IV

,VI,

149M

/F14

–1

1300

Eco

nom

icS

ES

741

––

1N

/A%

up

per

occ

upat

iona

l sta

tus

67M

/F2

––

2N

/A%

ow

ner

occu

pie

d h

ousi

ng67

F+

67M

21

–1

N/A

% d

wel

ling

s p

rovi

ded

by

emp

loye

r67

M/F

2–

–2

N/A

% u

nem

plo

ymen

t am

ong

res

iden

ts67

F–

67M

2–

11

N/A

Leng

th o

f un

emp

loym

ent

67M

/F2

––

2N

/A

MA

CR

O-E

NV

IRO

NM

EN

TC

ity/

mu

nic

ipal

ity/

reg

ion

Phy

sica

lU

rban

vs.

sub

urb

an67

F–

67M

2–

11

N/A

Tow

n si

ze73

+1

1–

–N

/AU

rban

vs.

rur

al14

0+

35F,

53,

140

, 14

15

1–

40

Sea

son

(Sp

ring

, S

umm

er)

20II,

138

I+

53,

138I

I4

2–

2?

Uns

uita

ble

wea

ther

20I

+12

52

1–

1N

/AS

ocio

-cul

tura

lE

xpos

ure

to/in

tere

st in

sp

orts

med

ia62

, 62

+17

F, 2

6M/F

52

–3

0W

antin

g t

o lo

ok li

ke m

edia

fig

ures

127M

/F+

22

––

N/A

Cor

rela

teR

elat

ed t

o PA

Bib

lio.

no.

Ass

oc.

(+ o

r –)

Unr

elat

ed t

o PA

Bib

lio.

no.

# sam

ple

sS

umm

ary

(n)

+–

0A

ssoc

.

Bib

lio.

no.,

refe

renc

e nu

mb

er u

nder

the

Bib

liog

rap

hy s

ectio

n; A

ssoc

., as

soci

atio

n; +

, p

ositi

ve;

–, n

egat

ive;

0,

no r

elat

ion;

?,

ind

eter

min

ate;

N/A

, su

mm

ary

cod

e no

t ap

plic

able

bec

ause

the

num

ber

of

ind

epen

den

t sa

mp

les

inve

stig

atin

g t

he r

elat

ions

hip

is b

elow

3;

PA,

phy

sica

l act

ivity

; M

, b

oys

only

; F,

girl

s on

ly;

SE

S,

soci

oeco

nom

ic s

tatu

s; P

E,

phy

sica

l ed

ucat

ion;

stu

die

s w

ith p

rosp

ectiv

e st

udy

des

igns

ar

e hi

ghl

ight

ed in

bol

d.

Tab

le 3

Con

tinue

d



bourhood levels and PA levels of young children. We haveidentified a total of six potential correlates of PA at theneighbourhood physical environment, half of which stud-ied more than three times. Among these, availability andaccessibility of PA programmes or facilities, neighbourhoodsafety and neighbourhood hazards (e.g. many roads, nolights crossings, heavy traffic, physical disorder and pollu-tion – estimated as perceived by parents in almost all stud-ies) were consistently unrelated to children’s PA. Aspects ofthe social and economic environments were unrelated tochildren’s PA.

Potential determinants at the city/municipality and region/country levelOnly few studies have investigated differences in PA levelsbetween children living in urban vs. suburban (only exam-ined twice) and coastal vs. mountainous locations (onlyexamined once). Whether residence in urban vs. ruralregions is associated with children’s PA levels was undeter-mined by the available studies. Seasonal ‘effects’ on chil-dren’s PA were also undetermined by the availableliterature.

Potential environmental determinants of adolescents’ physical activity (Table 3)

Potential determinants at the home levelWe have identified a total of 20 independent samples inves-tigating the associations between variables of the homephysical environment, namely the availability and accessi-bility of exercise equipment, and PA levels of adolescents;these variables were mostly unrelated to adolescents’ PA.Socio-cultural environmental correlates of adolescents’ PAat the home/family level were the most frequently investi-gated. Family structure variables such as single-parent fam-ily and household size or number of children in the familywere unrelated to adolescents’ PA as were indicators ofacculturation. Modelling of PA from parents, siblings andfriends were extensively examined (in 149 independentsamples). Overall, all these studies found no relevant asso-ciations. However, this lack of associations was somewhatundetermined with regard to father’s PA levels and thosefrom significant others, because they were observed in lessthan 60% of the cases. Studies investigating potentialfamilial influences other than modelling were also numer-ous (a total of 132 independent samples) but mostly unre-lated to adolescents’ PA. However, a trend towards apositive association was found with regard to general sup-port from significant others. The relationship between theeconomic environment of adolescents’ home/family andtheir PA levels was examined in 100 independent samples.Studies in which parental SES was defined as a compositeof parent’s education and income levels/occupational statuswere generally unrelated to children’s PA. However, studies

in which the specific association between parent’s educationlevels was analysed separately from parent’s occupationalstatus or income level revealed that higher mother’s educa-tion levels and family (per capita) income were positivelyassociated with PA; occupational status of the household’shead emerged as an undetermined correlate of PA. Withregard to the policy environment, parenting styles wereunrelated to adolescents’ PA.

Potential determinants at the school levelSimilarly to what we have described in children, aspects ofthe school physical, socio-cultural, economic or policyenvironment were studied relatively seldom in adolescents.Regarding the socio-cultural environment, role modellingand support from teachers were generally unrelated to ado-lescents’ PA, whereas the existence of problems with (orteasing from) classmates was undetermined. Finally, thetype of school attended, namely high vs. vocational school,was positively associated, whereas the provision of instruc-tion on PA or sport-related health benefits and special PEprogrammes and/or school sports, were unrelated to ado-lescents’ PA.

Potential determinants at the neighbourhood levelA total of 92 independent samples have examined associa-tions between environmental characteristics at the neigh-bourhood level and PA levels of adolescents. Although wehave identified a wide range of potential correlates at thephysical, socio-cultural and economical level, only fewwere examined in more than three independent samples.Among these, and within the physical environment, theavailability and/or accessibility of PA equipment or facili-ties, was unrelated to PA. Within the socio-cultural envi-ronment, crime incidence (measured objectively) wasinversely associated with adolescents’ PA in two out of thethree studies available, a finding that was at odds with thelack of association between adolescents’ PA and neighbour-hood safety estimates perceived by them.

Potential determinants at the city/municipality and region/country levelOnly few studies have investigated differences in PA levelsbetween adolescents’ residence location. Residence inurban vs. rural regions was not associated with adolescents’PA. Seasonal ‘effects’ on adolescents’ PA were undeter-mined and exposure to or interest in sports media was notassociated with adolescents’ PA.

Discussion

Overall, the current review of the literature on environ-mental correlates of PA in children and adolescents pro-vided us with a broader and more detailed overview of the



specific research performed through the course of the past25 years. In the past 5 years in particular an increasedattention to this field was observed, which may reflect aparadigm shift from intra-personal to ecological concep-tual models in the study of health-related behaviours suchas PA.

Updating the earlier review: current vs. previous findings

We have updated the review of Sallis et al. (45) by merg-ing 51 of its original studies (those reporting on environ-mental potential determinants of PA, as defined in thepresent study) with 99 additional publications; 23 of the99 additional studies had not been included in the previ-ous review although they were published within the sameperiod covered by it (1970–1998); interestingly half ofthose studies (12 out of 23) were performed in Europe, aregion that may have thus been under-represented in theearlier review. With regard to the main findings, a com-parative summary between the two reviews is presentedon Table 4. In children, time spent outdoors remained amain correlate of children’s PA, although this was due tothe fact that no additional studies in this regard wereincluded in the present review. In addition, time spentoutdoors may reflect (although not necessarily) a PA-related behaviour, which explains the associations found.The correlates of children and adolescents’ PA that haveemerged in the present review differ considerably fromthose in the previous review. Overall, we can argue thatthe additional publications, of which 76 were publishedin the last 5 years, have thus contributed significantly to abetter understanding of factors associated with the PAbehaviours of children and adolescents, and have led tothe identification and addition of new potential determi-nants to the body of knowledge in the field. However, thefact that the associations coded and summarized in ourreview were those derived, whenever possible, from multi-variate rather than from univariate analyses may alsohave contributed to the differences between the two

reviews. The previous review, which drew exclusivelyfrom univariate models, may have thus been somewhatinflated (as significant correlates are generally more abun-dant in univariate analyses).

Home/family correlates of children’s and adolescents’ physical activity

Characteristics of the home environment, particularlythose related to parental influences, were by far the mostexplored in the literature, in both children andadolescents.

Parents as role modelsResearch findings regarding the relationship between PAlevels of parents and those of their children have beenmixed. Most of the studies have in fact failed to find anyassociation. Nevertheless, fathers appear to be moreimportant role models as compared with mothers, espe-cially in childhood (references no. 22,38,39,46,89,95,119,134 and 148 of the bibliography section); fathers’ PAmay be related to their child’s PA regardless of their gender,whereas mothers’ PA appears to be more often associatedwith girls’ (references no. 3,15,23,95,106,124,133 and148) rather than boys’ PA; however, parents’ PA has beengenerally unrelated to children’s future PA levels (as couldbe ascertained by the few prospective studies examiningthis issue).

In samples of children, parental PA levels were almostalways assessed by the parents themselves (self-reports)whereas in the adolescent samples they were assessed byboth adolescents’ reports (‘perceived’ parental PA levels)and parents’ self-reports. It is thus possible that differencesin the agent reporting on parental PA levels (parent vs.offspring) may explain some of the lack of associationsfound. Indeed, there is some evidence that a low agreementexists between parents and children reports with regard tothe levels of parental PA (59), and we have noticed thatassociations between PA of mothers or fathers and those

Table 4 Comparative summary of the main environmental correlates of physical activity in children and adolescents: earlier vs. current review

Children Adolescents

Previous review Current review Previous review Current review

Programme/facility access (+) Father’s PA (+?) Support from significant others (++) Support from significant others (+?)Time spent outdoors (+) School PA-related policies (+) Parent support (++) Mother’s education level (+)

Time spent outdoors (+) Sibling PA (++) Family income (++)Direct help from parents (+) Non-vocational school (++)Opportunities to exercise (+) Neighbourhood crime incidence (–)

PA, physical activity; +, positive association; –, inverse association; ?, indeterminate.



of their offspring (adolescents) tended to be more oftenpositive when the mothers or fathers reported their ownlevel of PA (Table 5).

Parental support, encouragement and beliefsIt has been hypothesized that the support and encourage-ment parents provide, rather than their own PA behav-iour, may influence the PA behaviour of their offspring.In the present review, and with regard to children, thesepotential influences were reflected by the beneficialimpact the time parents allow their children to spendoutdoors seems to have on their PA, despite such benefi-cial impact was not found in relation to parental supportand encouragement. However, as many studies haveshown parental support to be positively or not to beassociated with PA levels of adolescents. Taken together,these findings lend some support to the view that parentsmay need to be more than just active role models if theirchild is to lead a physical active lifestyle (32,60). This issupported by several (school-based) risk-reduction pro-grammes that have included and evaluated (generallypositively) parental involvement as a means to enhanceprogramme effectiveness [e.g. The San Diego FamilyHeart Project (61); the Children and Adolescent Trial for

Cardiovascular Health (CATCH I and II) (62,63); TheMinessota Home Team (64,65)].

Parental socioeconomic statusParental/family SES is associated with a wide array ofhealth, cognitive and socio-emotional outcomes in chil-dren, throughout their development from (even before)birth to adulthood (66,67). In the studies reviewed herein,several measures of SES have been used, most includingsome quantification of family income, parental educationand occupational status (or a combination of these).Mother’s education level and family income emerged asindependent correlates of adolescents’ (but not children’s)PA levels. These findings not only emphasize the need toseparate such aspects as education, occupational status andincome levels, but also suggest that on reaching adolescenceand young adulthood, those who have lower income maybe more restricted in their PA choices and opportunities. Inyounger children, PA is mostly of informal nature, and maytherefore not involve much extra financial cost. Possibly,with increasing age participation in physical activitiesbecomes more elaborate and financial costly (e.g. sportclubs fees), which may reduce the likelihood of PA in ado-lescents from lower income families (68). This needs fur-ther investigation.

Table 5 Analyses of the review findings regarding the association between physical activity (PA) levels of parents and their offspring (adolescents) according to the agent reporting on parental PA levels

Association Chi-squared(P value)

+ 0

(a) studies examining parental associations (total of 31 independent samples)Assessment of parents’ PAParent self-report 4

(98, 99, 142M/F)16(68, 79 M/F, 79M/F, 112 MII,III/FII,III, 113MIII,IV,VI/FII,III)

0.02(0.90)

Perceived by the child 2(33, 54)

9(17F, 26M/F, 90M/F, 90M/F, 149M/F)

(b) studies examining paternal associations (total of 31 independent samples)Assessment of father’s PAFather’s self-report 7

(98, 105, 110II, 142M/F, 148 MII,III)4(3M/F, 148 FII,III)

2.35(0.13)

Perceived by the child 7(23M, 24F, 48I, 49, 140, 140, 141)

13(23F, 23M/F, 24M, 24M/F, 48II, 48II, 49, 133M/F, 133M/F)

(c) studies examining maternal associations (total of 33 independent samples)Assessment of mothers’ PAMother’s self-report 7

(3F, 98, 110II, 142M/F, 148FII,III)6(3M, 26M/F, 105, 148MII,III)

2.83(0.09)

Perceived by the child 5(23F, 48I, 49, 106F, 133F)

15(23M, 23M/F, 24M/F, 24M/F, 48II, 48II, 49, 133M, 133M/F, 140, 141)

Data are number of independent samples (bibligraphy #).



School influences on children and adolescents’ physical activity

Schools offer many opportunities for young people toengage in physical activities, such as PE classes, recessperiods, extracurricular sports or PA programmes, leisuretime free use of its playing fields and playgrounds. Schoolshave also the personnel who, with sufficient training andcommitment, can define and deliver PA programmes andpolicies that support the adoption of healthy lifestyles. Theliterature showing that well-designed and well-imple-mented school-based programmes can improve PA ofyoung people is overwhelming (69–71), and guidelines forschool programmes to promote lifelong PA actually exist(72–74). Despite this, little research has investigated spe-cific features of the school environment that impact onyouth PA. Indeed, although most studies reviewed hereinhave recruited their target populations from school set-tings, aspects of the school physical, socio-cultural, eco-nomic or political environment, remained relativelyunexplored. Most of the characteristics of the school envi-ronment identified were almost never tested in more than10 and often in less than three independent samples.Despite this, the present review has identified ‘school poli-cies related to PA’ to be positively associated with children’sPA and ‘school type’ (i.e. attending high rather than voca-tional schools) to be a positive correlate of adolescent’s PA.

Additionally, we have identified an interesting set of stud-ies that have investigated PA levels of classes/groups ofyoungsters in the context of PE lessons or recess time. Onestudy found that classes of children taught by PE specialists(as compared with generalists) received longer as well asmore very active lessons, leading to higher energy expendi-ture rates. Additionally, outdoor lessons generated moretime spend in vigorous activities and higher total energyexpenditures than indoor classes (75). In another study,school size, length of recess and the availability of balls inthe playground were identified as correlates of higherengagement in PA by children (76). In adolescents, teacher’sspeciality and gender were not associated with classes PAlevels, neither was the location where the lessons weretaught; the only significant correlates were class size andlesson-specific context (fitness activities, free play, gameplay and skill drills, management time, and knowledge)(inversely associated with class PA) (77). Another studyfound that, despite the availability of the PA facilities, theywere used by very few students during their leisure time atschool (i.e. before and after school classes, and during thelunch break) (78). These findings were then furtherexplored and followed by the observation that not only theavailability of PA facilities, but its size and state of conser-vation, and particularly the existence of supervision/orga-nized activities, were decisive of adolescents’ engagementin PA during their leisure time at school (79). These findings

and those of the present review, together with the observa-tion that many schools are not providing enough time forphysical activities (80,81), emphasize the important roleschool’s environments may play on children’s and adoles-cents’ PA levels (74,82). Further, school-based PA mayrepresent an important equalizing factor for PA oppor-tunities in children and adolescents of different SES back-grounds (83).

Neighbourhood influences on children and adolescents’ physical activity

Recently, the importance of neighbourhood physical andsocio-cultural characteristics in shaping PA of individualshas been increasingly investigated, but relatively few stud-ies in the current review have already addressed these pos-sible associations. Among these studies, features of thephysical environment (also commonly referred in the liter-ature as the ‘built environment’), in particular the availabil-ity and accessibility to PA equipment, facilities orprogrammes were investigated more often, but were gener-ally unrelated to youth PA. The present review did notidentify any feature of the neighbourhood environment tobe associated with children’s activity levels. In adolescents,crime incidence, as measured through objective policereports, was inversely associated with adolescents’ PA lev-els, a finding that apparently contrasted with the lack ofassociation between perceived neighbourhood safety levelsand adolescents’ PA. This contradiction suggests that thedifferential associations with youth PA may depend on theassessment method (perceived vs. objective) of environmen-tal characteristics. Which features are more importantremains unknown, an issue that therefore deserves furtherinvestigation (see Methodological considerations).

The importance of understanding neighbourhood effectson health-related behaviours relies on their potential toinfluence large populations (84,85). Although researchersare starting to address the potential effects of communitiesand neighbourhoods in individuals’ PA behaviour, fewempirical studies have determined, using appropriate mul-tilevel statistical techniques, whether relations between theenvironment and PA actually exist at the neighbourhoodrather than the individual level (86,87).

Methodological considerations

Measurement of physical activity and environmental characteristicsThe selection of an appropriate measurement instrumentdepends on the specific research question(s) to be addressedand on an ‘accuracy-practicality trade-off’ (88–90). Themajority of the research on the potential determinants ofPA reviewed herein relied on (parental or child/adolescent)self-reports, which included diaries and recall instruments;



these methods may pose serious limitations because theyprovide less accurate estimates of PA levels than thoseobtained by more objective methods such as direct obser-vation, motion sensors, heart rate monitors, and doublylabelled water (91). In addition, because the degree of therelationship between objectively and self-report measuresof PA is only moderate, notably among self-report methodswith ‘acceptable’ validity (92), there may be a substantialamount of variance not shared by the two methods; inother words, different instruments (objective vs. self-report) may measure different aspects of the PA behaviour,and therefore those measures are not interchangeable. Assuch, the correlates of PA may also differ as a function ofthe method used to measure the behaviour, thereby impair-ing the generalization of the findings obtained with the useof one or the other method (93). In the present review wewere able to identify seven publications (10 independentsamples – three in children and seven in adolescents, allwith a cross-sectional design) which enable a more closeexamination of this issue, by providing self-report andobjective data in the same samples (Table 6). In these stud-ies, the magnitude of the associations between the twomeasures of PA was at the most moderate. Furthermore,clear discrepancies between correlates of objectively mea-sured and self-reported PA levels were found. Several fac-tors may explain these discrepancies. The proposedcorrelates investigated in each study may have moreexplanatory power for self-reported measures (e.g. numberof vigorous activities) than for total PA levels (mostly com-puted by the objective measures). In addition, accelerome-ters, the most frequently used objective measure, are unableto access common activities such as bicycle riding andswimming that could have been (self-) reported, but cap-tured incidental PA throughout the day, which in turn couldhave been forgotten on self-reports that usually refer spe-cifically to intentional PA. Finally, there may be a sharedmethod variance between self-reported PA and self-reported potential determinants, which then leads to aninflated association between the two.

Furthermore, self-reports of environmental factors rep-resent perceived rather than ‘real’ features of the physical,socio-cultural, economic and political environments. Littleis know about the accuracy of such perceived features (94).In adults, some studies have shown objective environmen-tal measures to be associated with PA whereas the samefeatures measured through self-reports were not (95,96).

Limitations of study design and data analyses methodologiesThe studies incorporated in the present review had mostlya cross-sectional design and therefore their findings werelimited in that only association could be established andnot prediction or ‘causation’. Nevertheless, all those studieshave interpreted the results as if ‘causality’ existed and to

be unidirectional (e.g. parents may influence their children).It is of course possible that reverse or reciprocal influencesare operative as well (e.g. children influence their parents),an issue that needs to be further explored.

In an attempt to disentangle the information provided byprospective from cross-sectional studies we have high-lighted those studies in Tables 2 and 3. However, their lownumber does not enable solid conclusions with regard tothe potential environmental predictors of PA change.

The main question of how environmental featuresinfluence youth PA remained further largely unansweredbecause of the data analytical methods used. Conceptually,environmental influences can play a direct role in shapingPA behaviour or can be mediated by cognitive processes(97–99). In order to understand these mechanistic pro-cesses better data analytical methods (and study designs)are needed [for details see Bauman et al. (100)]. The major-ity of the findings reviewed herein were those that resultedfrom adjusted models (most often, for potential confound-ers such as age, sex and ethnicity, but in many studies forpotential mediators such as self-efficacy and attitudes), andthus concern the ‘independent’ contribution of environ-mental characteristics in the explanation of PA behaviour.

Further, although most of the data included in thepresent review have an intrinsic multilevel structure, theywere most frequently analysed as obtained in simple ran-dom samples of a single population. As such, the potentialinterdependence within clusters (e.g. classes within schools)has been ignored, which can have led to inflated estimationof the associations; multilevel or hierarchical analyticapproaches are thus needed.

Limitations of the present review

We acknowledge several limitations of our current review.First, the search terms used to retrieve studies from existingdatabases may have not been sensitive enough. This issustained by the fact that almost half of the studies includedin this review were found through the literature sections ofarticles primarily retrieved in those databases. This mayhave been due to the fact that some articles included aresimply not registered within those databases, and/or inmany articles retrieved, environmental correlates of chil-dren/adolescents’ PA were not the primarily research goalbut were embedded within a broader (i.e. health-enhancingbehaviours in general) or related research question. Never-theless, better search terms may still need to be defined.However, the vast amount of studies included suggests wehave covered the existing literature in a quite satisfactoryway. Second, the use of only English published data andthe exclusion of studies from non-market economies mayhave discarded some studies that could have added relevantinformation into the field. Third, the main outcome wasany form of PA. In most studies this was measured across



Tab

le 6

Det

erm

inan

ts o

f ob

ject

ive

vs.

self-

rep

orte

d p

hysi

cal a

ctiv

ity –

sum

mar

y of

find

ing

s

Bib

liog

rap

hy n

o.M

etho

d o

f p

hysi

cal a

ctiv

ity (

PA)

asse

ssm

ent

Env

ironm

enta

l cor

rela

tes

of P

A*

Ob

ject

ive

Sel

f-re

por

tC

orre

latio

n b

etw

een

PAas

sess

ed b

y th

e tw

o m

etho

ds

Ob

ject

ivel

ym

easu

red

PA

Sel

f-re

por

ted

PA

23H

eart

-rat

e m

onito

ring

(1

wee

k; t

ime

spen

t in

m

oder

ate-

to-v

igor

ous

PA,

i.e.

>140

bea

ts m

in−1

)

Rec

all o

f PA

and

sp

ort

par

ticip

atio

ns(1

wee

k; h

ours

)‘N

ot a

ssoc

iate

d’

(est

imat

e no

t re

por

ted

)Fa

ther

’s P

A (

M)

Mot

her’s

PA

(F)

24H

eart

-rat

e m

onito

ring

(1

wee

k; t

ime

spen

t in

m

oder

ate-

to-v

igor

ous

PA,

i.e.

>140

bea

ts m

in−1

)

Rec

all o

f PA

and

sp

ort

par

ticip

atio

ns(1

wee

k; h

ours

)‘N

ot a

ssoc

iate

d’

(est

imat

e no

t re

por

ted

)–

Fath

er’s

PA

(F)

Frie

nds’

PA

(M

)P

aren

tal e

ncou

rag

emen

t (F

)P

aren

tal s

upp

ort

(F)

Hom

e eq

uip

men

t (F

)

32A

ccel

erom

eter

(2 w

eek

day

s +

1 w

eeke

nd

day

; M

ETs

)

Freq

uenc

y, d

urat

ion

and

typ

e of

PA

(2 w

eek

day

s +

1 w

eeke

nd d

ay;

ME

Ts)

r =

0.46

Par

enta

l PA

Par

enta

l SE

S–

39A

ccel

erom

eter

(2 w

eek

day

s +

1 w

eeke

nd

day

; co

unts

d−1

)

Freq

uenc

y, d

urat

ion

and

typ

e of

PA

(2 w

eek

day

s +

1 w

eeke

nd d

ay;

ME

Ts)

r =

0.39

(lig

ht P

A)

r =

0.35

(m

oder

ate-

to-h

igh

inte

nsity

PA

)

Fath

er’s

PA

Mot

her’s

PA

Fath

er’s

PA

Mot

her’s

PA

90A

ccel

erom

eter

(up

to

8 d

; co

unts

h−1

)PA

rec

ord

of

hard

and

ver

y ha

rd in

tens

ity P

A(7

d;

h w

eek−1

)‘N

ot a

ssoc

iate

d’

(est

imat

e no

t re

por

ted

)Te

ache

r’s P

A (

M)

PA r

ules

(M

)P

aren

t tr

ansp

orts

chi

ld t

o PA

loca

tion

(F)

101

Acc

eler

omet

er(5

-day

per

iod

; m

in d

−1)

Par

ticip

atio

n in

PA

for

≥60

min

(PA

CE

+)(p

ast

wee

k; d

wee

k−1)

r =

0.46

–P

aren

t su

pp

ort

Pee

r su

pp

ort

110

Acc

eler

omet

er (

1 w

eek

day

+

2 w

eeke

nd d

ays;

sco

re)

Rec

all c

heck

list

of P

A p

erfo

rmed

for

at

leas

t 15

min

(1

wee

k d

ay +

1

wee

kend

day

; sc

ore)

? (Not

rep

orte

d)

Par

enta

l ed

ucat

ion

(F)

Sin

gle

-par

ent

stat

us (

M)

Par

ent

tran

spor

ts c

hild

to

PA lo

catio

n (F

)P

aren

t p

lays

with

chi

ld (

M)

*Onl

y th

e en

viro

nmen

tal v

aria

ble

s th

at w

ere

corr

elat

ed w

ith p

hysi

cal a

ctiv

ity le

vels

mea

sure

d e

ither

by

one

or t

he o

ther

met

hod

are

rep

orte

d (

i.e.

liste

d v

aria

ble

s d

o no

t co

ver

all t

he v

aria

ble

s in

vest

igat

ed

in e

ach

stud

y).

PA,

phy

sica

l act

ivity

; M

, b

oys

only

; F,

girl

s on

ly;

SE

S,

soci

oeco

nom

ic s

tatu

s.



several settings (e.g. the total amount of moderate-to-vigorous PA, performed at school and during leisure time– either at home or in the neighbourhood, or in sport clubs,accumulated throughout the day or the past week), notenabling us to determine the specific environmental corre-lates of specific physical activities. Fourth, the conceptualframework we have used may have led to disputable cate-gorizations of the correlates of PA investigated.

Conclusions, implications and recommendations

Clearly, many factors influence the complex behaviour ofyouth PA. We have identified father’s PA habits, school PA-related policies and time spent outdoors as potential deter-minants of PA in children. In adolescents, support fromsignificant others, mother’s education levels, family income,attendance of a non-vocational school and low neighbour-hood crime incidence emerged as potential determinants ofadolescents’ PA. These variables need to be targeted bymultilevel interventions aiming at the increase of youth PA.The other variables, however, should not be discardedwithout further investigation, namely those whose associ-ations with PA were undetermined or not possible to inferfrom the limited number of existing studies (particularlythose at the neighbourhood and school settings as well asat the macro-environment level). In the light of a solution-orientated research paradigm for the prevention of child-hood obesity the lack of clear information regarding theinfluence of schools and neighbourhoods or the media onPA should not refrain PA-promoting environmental policiesand interventions to actually take place, because waitingfor such evidence to emerge before action is taken maysimply represent a delay, with foreseen costs, to the solutionof the obesity epidemic (101). Future studies that use pro-spective or intervention designs enabling the analyses ofwhether the environment and PA behaviours of childrenand adolescents associations are casual and which (if any)cognitive processes may mediate or contextual variablesmay moderate such associations, are in great need. In addi-tion, it is important to conduct future research with clear,possibly standardized, definitions and objective methods ofenvironmental attributes and PA behaviour assessment,within the strongest study design possible.

Conflict of interest statement

No conflict of interest was declared.

References

1. Erlichman J, Kerbey AL, James WP. Physical activity and itsimpact on health outcomes. Paper 1: the impact of physical activity

on cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality: an historicalperspective. Obes Rev 2002; 3: 257–271.2. Erlichman J, Kerbey AL, James WP. Physical activity and itsimpact on health outcomes. Paper 2: prevention of unhealthyweight gain and obesity by physical activity: an analysis of theevidence. Obes Rev 2002; 3: 273–287.3. Strong WB, Malina RM, Blimkie CJ, Daniels SR, Dishman RK,Gutin B, Hergenroeder AC, Must A, Nixon PA, Pivarnik YM,Rowland T, Trost S, Trudeau F. Evidence based physical activityfor school-age youth. J Pediatr 2005; 146: 732–737.4. World Health Organization. Global Strategy on Diet, PhysicalActivity and Health. Geneva: WHO, 2004.5. The European Heart Network. Children and Young People –The Importance of Physical Activity. Brussels: European HeartHealth Initiative, 2001.6. Goran MI, Reynolds KD, Lindquist CH. Role of physicalactivity in the prevention of obesity in children. Int J Obes RelatMetab Disord 1999; 23: S18–S33.7. Kohn M, Booth M. The worldwide epidemic of obesity inadolescents. Adolesc Med 2003; 14: 1–9.8. Lobstein T, Baur L, Uauy R. Obesity in children andyoung people: a crisis in public health. Obes Rev 2004; 5: S4–S104.9. Steinbeck KS. The importance of physical activity in the pre-vention of overweight and obesity in childhood: a review and anopinion. Obes Rev 2001; 2: 117–130.10. Johnson RK. Changing eating and physical activity patternsof US children. Proc Nutr Soc 2000; 59: 295–301.11. US Department of Health and Human Services. PhysicalActivity and Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta,GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers forDisease Control and Prevention, National Center for ChronicDisease Prevention and Health Promotion, 1996.12. World Health Organization. Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children: A WHO Cross-National Study (HBSC). Geneva:International Report World Health Organization Regional Officefor Europe, 2000.13. Sallis JF. Age-related decline in physical activity: a synthesisof human and animal studies. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32:1598–1600.14. Caspersen CJ, Pereira MA, Curran KM. Changes in physicalactivity patterns in the United States, by sex and cross-sectionalage. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: 1601–1609.15. Aaron DJ, Storti KL, Robertson RJ, Kriska AM, LaPorte RE.Longitudinal study of the number and choice of leisure time phys-ical activities from mid to late adolescence: implications for schoolcurricula and community recreation programs. Arch Pediatr Ado-lesc Med 2002; 156: 1075–1080.16. Malina RM. Tracking of physical activity and physical fitnessacross the lifespan. Res Q Exerc Sport 1996; 67: S48–S57.17. Gordon-Larsen P, Nelson MC, Popkin BM. Longitudinalphysical activity and sedentary behavior trends: adolescence toadulthood. Am J Prev Med 2004; 27: 277–283.18. Telama R, Leskinen E, Yang X. Stability of habitual physicalactivity and sport participation: a longitudinal tracking study.Scand J Med Sci Sports 1996; 6: 371–378.19. Twisk JW, Kemper HC, van Mechelen W. Tracking of activityand fitness and the relationship with cardiovascular disease riskfactors. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: 1455–1461.20. Raitakari OT, Porkka KVK, Taimela S, Telama R, RasanenL, Viikari JSA. Effects of persistent physical activity and inactivityon coronary risk factors in children an young adults. The Cardio-vascular Risk Young Finns Study. Am J Epidemiol 1994; 140:195–205.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/null?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=




https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12931038_Role_of_physical_activity_in_the_prevention_of_obesity_in_children?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=











https://www.researchgate.net/publication/14163783_Stability_of_habitual_physical_activity_and_sport_participation_A_longitudinal_tracking_study?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/14163783_Stability_of_habitual_physical_activity_and_sport_participation_A_longitudinal_tracking_study?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12328111_Changes_in_Physical_Activity_Patterns_in_the_United_States_by_Sex_and_Cross-Sectional_Age?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=











https://www.researchgate.net/publication/14303939_Tracking_of_Physical_Activity_and_Physical_Fitness_across_the_Lifespan?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/14303939_Tracking_of_Physical_Activity_and_Physical_Fitness_across_the_Lifespan?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284059069_Obesity_in_children_and_young_people_A_crisis_in_public_health?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/296813878_Longitudinal_study_of_the_number_and_choice_of_leisure_time_physical_activities_from_mid_to_late_adolescence_-_Implications_for_school_curricula_and_community_recreation_programs?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=







21. World Health Organization. Obesity: Preventing and Manag-ing the Global Epidemic. Geneva: Report of a World HealthOrganization Consultation on Obesity, 1998.22. Booth KM, Pinkston MM, Poston WS. Obesity and the builtenvironment. J Am Diet Assoc 2005; 105: S110–S117.23. Hill JO, Wyatt HR, Reed GW, Peters JC. Obesity and theenvironment: where do we go from here? Science 2003; 299: 853–855.24. Hill JO, Peters JC. Environmental contributions to the obesityepidemic. Science 1998; 280: 1371–1374.25. Jeffery RW, Utter J. The changing environment and popu-lation obesity in the United States. Obes Res 2003; 11: S12–S22.26. Peters JC, Wyatt HR, Donahoo WT, Hill JO. From instinctto intellect: the challenge of maintaining healthy weight in themodern world. Obes Rev 2002; 3: 69–74.27. Booth ML, Macaskill P, Lazarus R, Baur LA. Sociodemo-graphic distribution of measures of body fatness among childrenand adolescents in New South Wales, Australia. Int J Obes RelatMetab Disord 1999; 23: 456–462.28. Dowda M, Ainsworth BE, Addy CL, Saunders R, Riner W.Environmental influences, physical activity, and weight status in8- to 16-year-olds. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2001; 155: 711–717.29. Strauss RS, Knight J. Influence of the home environment onthe development of obesity in children. Pediatrics 1999; 103: e85.30. Timperio A, Crawford D, Telford A, Crawford D. Perceptionsabout the local neighborhood and walking and cycling amongchildren. Prev Med 2004; 38: 39–47.31. Trost SG, Kerr LM, Ward DS, Pate RR. Physical activity anddeterminants of physical activity in obese and non-obese children.Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2001; 25: 822–829.32. Ritchie LD, Welk G, Styne D, Gerstein DE, Crawford PB.Family environment and pediatric overweight: what is a parent todo? J Am Diet Assoc 2005; 105: S70–S79.33. Ball K, Crawford D. The obesity epidemic: contextual influ-ences on physical activity and body weight. J Sci Med Sport 2003;6: 377–378.34. Baranowski T, Mendlein J, Resnicow K, Frank E, Cullen KW,Baranowski J. Physical activity and nutrition in children and youth:an overview of obesity prevention. Prev Med 2000; 31: S1–S10.35. Egger G, Swinburn B. An ‘ecological’ approach to the obesitypandemic. BMJ 1997; 315: 477–480.36. French SA, Story M, Jeffery RW. Environmental influences oneating and physical activity. Annu Rev Public Health 2001; 22:309–335.37. Nestle M, Jacobson MF. Halting the obesity epidemic: apublic health policy approach. Public Health Rep 2000; 115: 12–24.38. Story M, Neumark-Sztainer D, French S. Individual and envi-ronmental influences on adolescent eating behaviors. J Am DietAssoc 2002; 102: S40–S51.39. Nutbeam D, Aar L, Catford J. Understanding children’shealth behaviour: the implications for health promotion for youngpeople. Soc Sci Med 1989; 29: 317–325.40. Kohl HW III, Hobbs KE. Development of physical activitybehaviors among children and adolescents. Pediatrics 1998; 101:549–554.41. Richter KP, Harris JO, Paine-Andrews A, Fawcett SB, SchmidTL, Lankenau BH, Johnston J. Measuring the health environmentfor physical activity and nutritions among youth: a review of theliterature and applications for community initiatives. Prev Med2000; 31: S98–S111.42. Sallis JF, Simons-Morton BG, Stone EJ, Corbin CB, EpsteinLH, Faucette N, Iannotti RJ, Killen JD, Klesges RC, Petray CK,

Rowland TW, Taylor WC. Determinants of physical activity andinterventions in youth. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1992; 24: S248–S257.43. Brug J, Oenema A, Ferreira I. Theory, evidence and Interven-tion Mapping to improve behavioral nutrition and physical activ-ity interventions. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 2005; 2: e2.44. Baranowski T, Cullen KW, Nicklas T, Thompson D, Bara-nowski J. Are current health behavioral change models helpful inguiding prevention of weight gain efforts? Obes Res 2003; 11:S23–S43.45. Sallis JF, Prochaska JJ, Taylor WC. A review of correlates ofphysical activity of children and adolescents. Med Sci Sports Exerc2000; 32: 963–975.46. Howley ET. Type of activity: resistance, aerobic and leisureversus occupational physical activity. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001;33: S364–S369.47. Owen N, Leslie E, Salmon J, Fotheringham MJ. Environmen-tal determinants of physical activity and sedentary behavior. ExercSport Sci Rev 2000; 28: 153–158.48. Biddle SJ, Gorely T, Marshall SJ, Murdey I, Cameron N.Physical activity and sedentary behaviours in youth: issues andcontroversies. J R Soc Health 2004; 124: 29–33.49. Gordon-Larsen P, McMurray RG, Popkin BM. Determinantsof adolescent physical activity and inactivity patterns. Pediatrics2000; 105: e83.50. Lindquist CH, Reynolds KD, Goran MI. Sociocultural deter-minants of physical activity among children. Prev Med 1999; 29:305–312.51. Schmitz KH, Lytle LA, Phillips GA, Murray DM, BirnbaumAS, Kubik MY. Psychosocial correlates of physical activity andsedentary leisure habits in young adolescents: the Teens Eating forEnergy and Nutrition at School study. Prev Med 2002; 34: 266–278.52. Gorely T, Marshall SJ, Biddle SJ. Couch kids: correlates oftelevision viewing among youth. Int J Behav Med 2004; 11: 152–163.53. Flay BR, Petraitis J. The theory of triadic influence: a newtheory of health behavior with implications for preventive inter-ventions. Adv Med Sociol 1994; 4: 4–19.54. Kumanyika S, Jeffery RW, Morabia A, Ritenbaugh C, Anti-patis VJ. Obesity prevention: the case for action. Int J Obes RelatMetab Disord 2002; 26: 425–436.55. Swinburn B, Egger G, Raza F. Dissecting obesogenic environ-ments: the development and application of a framework for iden-tifying and prioritizing environmental interventions for obesity.Prev Med 1999; 29: 563–570.56. Cooper H. Synthesizing Research: A Guide for LiteratureReviews, 3rd edn. London: Sage, 1998.57. Pocock SJ, Collier TJ, Dandreo KJ, de Stavola BL, GoldmanMB, Kalish LA, Kasten LE, McCormack VA. Issues in the report-ing of epidemiological studies: a survey of recent practice. BMJ2004; 329: e883.58. Stroup DF, Berlin JA, Morton SC, Olkin I, Williamson GD,Rennie D, Mohner D, Becker BJ, Sipe TA, Thacker SB. Meta-analysis of observational studies in epidemiology: a proposal forreporting. Meta-analysis Of Observational Studies in Epidemiol-ogy (MOOSE) group. JAMA 2000; 283: 2008–2012.59. Anderssen N, Jacobs DR Jr, Aas H, Jakobsen R. Do adoles-cents and parents report each other’s physical activity accurately?Scand J Med Sci Sports 1995; 5: 302–307.60. Norton DE, Froelicher ES, Waters CM, Carrieri-Kohlman V.Parental influence on models of primary prevention of cardiovas-cular disease in children. Eur J Cardiovasc Nurs 2003; 2: 311–322.







https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12521182_'A_Review_of_Correlates_of_Physical_Activity_of_Children_and_Adolescents'?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=






https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12701854_Dissecting_Obesogenic_Environments_The_Development_and_Application_of_a_Framework_for_Identifying_and_Prioritizing_Environmental_Interventions_for_Obesity?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=




https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12261928_Environmental_determinants_of_physical_activity_and_sedentary_behavior?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11952181_Environmental_Influences_Physical_Activity_and_Weight_Status_in_8-_to_16-Year-Olds?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=






https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11902469_Physical_activity_and_determinants_of_physical_activity_in_obese_and_non-obese_children?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11902469_Physical_activity_and_determinants_of_physical_activity_in_obese_and_non-obese_children?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12352692_Halting_the_Obesity_Epidemic_A_Public_Health_Policy_Approach?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12924139_Sociodemographic_distribution_of_measures_of_body_fatness_among_children_and_adolescents_in_New_South_Wales_Australia?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=







https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12944895_Influence_of_the_Home_Environment_on_the_Development_of_Obesity_in_Children?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12944895_Influence_of_the_Home_Environment_on_the_Development_of_Obesity_in_Children?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/13935630_An_Ecological_Approach_to_the_Obesity_Pandemic?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/13935630_An_Ecological_Approach_to_the_Obesity_Pandemic?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=




https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12527039_Meta-analysis_of_Observational_Studies_in_Epidemiology-A_Proposal_for_Reporting?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=









https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12057904_Environment_Influence_on_Eating_and_Physical_Activity?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=






https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232106023_Determinants_of_physical_activity_and_interventions_in_youth?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=





https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229236756_Physical_Activity_and_Nutrition_in_Children_and_Youth_An_Overview_of_Obesity_Prevention?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231584366_The_Changing_Environment_and_Population_Obesity_in_the_United_States?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/224942196_The_Theory_of_Triadic_Influence_A_New_Theory_of_Health_Behavior_With_Implications_for_Preventive_Interventions?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259690503_Do_adolescents_and_parents_report_each_other's_physical_activity_accurately?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/278225034_Response_on_comment_on_Obesity_and_the_environment_Where_do_we_go_from_here?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=





61. Nader PR, Sallis JF, Patterson TL, Abramson IS, Rupp JW,Senn KL, Atkins CJ, Roppe BE, Morris JA, Wallace JP. A fam-ily approach to cardiovascular risk reduction: results from theSan Diego Family Health Project. Health Educ Q 1989; 16:229–244.62. Luepker RV, Perry CL, McKinlay SM, Nader PR, Parcel GS,Stone EJ, Webber LS, Elder JP, Feldman HA, Johnson CC. Out-comes of a field trial to improve children’s dietary patterns andphysical activity. The Child and Adolescent Trial for Cardiovascu-lar Health. CATCH collaborative group. JAMA 1996; 275: 768–776.63. Nader PR, Sellers DE, Johnson CC, Rerry CL, Stone EJ, CookKC, Bebchuk J, Luepker RV. The effect of adult participation ina school-based family intervention to improve children’s diet andphysical activity: the Child and Adolescent Trial for Cardiovascu-lar Health. Prev Med 1996; 25: 455–464.64. Perry CL, Luepker RV, Murray DM, Kurth C, Mullis R,Crockett S, Jacobs DR Jr. Parent involvement with children’shealth promotion: the Minnesota Home Team. Am J Public Health1988; 78: 1156–1160.65. Perry CL, Luepker RV, Murray DM, Hearn MD, Halper A,Dudovitz B, Maile MC, Smyth M. Parent involvement with chil-dren’s health promotion: a one-year follow-up of the Minnesotahome team. Health Educ Q 1989; 16: 171–180.66. Bradley RH, Corwyn RF. Socioeconomic status and childdevelopment. Annu Rev Psychol 2002; 53: 371–399.67. Evans GW. The environment of childhood poverty. Am Psy-chol 2004; 59: 77–92.68. Shropshire J, Carrol B. Family variables and children’s phys-ical activity: influence of parental exercise and socio-economicstatus. Sport Educ Soc 1997; 2: 95–116.69. Timperio A, Salmon J, Ball K. Evidence-based strategies topromote physical activity among children, adolescents andyoung adults: review and update. J Sci Med Sport 2004; 7: 20–29.70. Matson-Koffman DM, Brownstein JN, Neiner JA, GreaneyML. A site-specific literature review of policy and environmentalinterventions that promote physical activity and nutrition for car-diovascular health: what works? Am J Health Promot 2005; 19:167–193.71. Stone EJ, McKenzie TL, Welk GJ, Booth ML. Effects ofphysical activity interventions in youth. Review and synthesis. AmJ Prev Med 1998; 15: 298–315.72. US Department of Health and Human Services. Guidelines forSchool and Community Programs to Promote Lifelong PhysicalActivity Among Young People. US Department of Health andHuman Services. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.MMWR 1997; 46: 1–36.73. Story M. School-based approaches for preventing and treatingobesity. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1999; 23: S43–S51.74. Wechsler H, Devereaux RS, Davis M, Collins J. Using theschool environment to promote physical activity and healthy eat-ing. Prev Med 2000; 31: S121–S137.75. McKenzie TL, Feldman H, Woods SE, Romero KA, Dahl-strom V, Stone EJ, Strikmiller PK, Williston JM, Harsha DW.Children’s activity levels and lesson context during third-gradephysical education. Res Q Exerc Sport 1995; 66: 184–193.76. Zask A, van Beurden E, Barnett L, Brooks LO, Dietrich UC.Active school playgrounds – myth or reality? Results of the ‘Moveit groove it’ project. Prev Med 2001; 33: 402–408.77. McKenzie TL, Marshall SJ, Sallis JF, Conway TL. Studentactivity levels, lesson context, and teacher behavior during mid-dle school physical education. Res Q Exerc Sport 2000; 71:249–259.

78. McKenzie TL, Marshall SJ, Sallis JF, Conway TL. Leisure-time physical activity in school environments: an observationalstudy using SOPLAY. Prev Med 2000; 30: 70–77.79. Sallis JF, Conway TL, Prochaska JJ, McKenzie TL, MashallSJ, Brown M. The association of school environments with youthphysical activity. Am J Public Health 2001; 91: 618–620.80. Simons-Morton BG, Taylor WC, Snider SA, Huang IW. Thephysical activity of fifth-grade students during physical educationclasses. Am J Public Health 1993; 83: 262–264.81. Simons-Morton BG, Taylor WC, Snider SA, Huang IW, Ful-ton JE. Observed levels of elementary and middle school children’sphysical activity during physical education classes. Prev Med1994; 23: 437–441.82. McKenzie TL. Promoting physical activity in youth: focus onmiddle school environments. Quest 2001; 33: 326–334.83. Kristjansdottir G, Vilhjalmsson R. Sociodemographic differ-ences in patterns of sedentary and physically active behavior inolder children and adolescents. Acta Paediatr 2001; 90: 429–435.84. King AC, Jeffery RW, Fridinger F, Dusenbury L, Provence S,Hedlund S, Spangler K. Environmental and policy approaches tocardiovascular disease prevention through physical activity: issuesand opportunities. Health Educ Q 1995; 22: 499–511.85. Sallis JF, Johnson MF, Calfas KJ, Caparosa S, Nichols JF.Assessing perceived physical environmental variables that mayinfluence physical activity. Res Q Exerc Sport 1997; 68: 345–351.86. Braza M, Shoemaker W, Seeley A. Neighborhood design andrates of walking and biking to elementary school in 34 Californiacommunities. Am J Health Promot 2004; 19: 128–136.87. Duncan SC, Duncan TE, Strycker LA, Chaumeton NR.Neighborhood physical activity opportunity: a multilevel contex-tual model. Res Q Exerc Sport 2002; 73: 457–463.88. Pate RR. Physical activity assessment in children and adoles-cents. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 1993; 33: 321–326.89. Welk GJ, Corbin CB, Dale D. Measurement issues in theassessment of physical activity in children. Res Q Exerc Sport2000; 71: S59–S73.90. Schutz Y, Weinsier RL, Hunter GR. Assessment of free-livingphysical activity in humans: an overview of currently available andproposed new measures. Obes Res 2001; 9: 368–379.91. Janz KF, Witt J, Mahoney LT. The stability of children’sphysical activity as measured by accelerometry and self-report.Med Sci Sports Exerc 1995; 27: 1326–1332.92. Kohl HW III, Fulton JE, Caspersen CJ. Assessment of physicalactivity among children and adolescents: a review and synthesis.Prev Med 2000; 31: S54–S76.93. Dishman RK, Darracott CR, Lambert LT. Failure to general-ize determinants of self-reported physical activity to a motionsensor. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1992; 24: 904–910.94. Kirtland KA, Porter DE, Addy CL, Neet MJ, Williams JE,Sharpe PA, Neff LJ, Kimsey CD, Ainsworth BE. Environmentalmeasures of physical activity supports: perception versus reality.Am J Prev Med 2003; 24: 323–331.95. Sallis JF, Hovell MF, Hofstetter CR, Elder JP, Kackley M,Caspersen CJ, Powell KE. Distance between homes and exercisefacilities related to frequency of exercise among San Diego resi-dents. Public Health Rep 1990; 105: 179–185.96. Hoehner CM, Brennan Ramirez LK, Elliott MB, Handy SL,Brownson RC. Perceived and objective environmental measuresand physical activity among urban adults. Am J Prev Med 2005;28: 105–116.97. Owen N, Humpel N, Leslie E, Bauman A, Sallis JF. Under-standing environmental influences on walking; Review andresearch agenda. Am J Prev Med 2004; 27: 67–76.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12003395_Sociodemographic_differences_in_patterns_of_sedentary_and_physically_active_behavior_in_children_and_adolescents?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232993004_Family_Variables_and_Children's_Physical_Activity_Influence_of_Parental_Exercise_and_Socio-economic_Status?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=








https://www.researchgate.net/publication/14840793_Physical_activity_assessment_in_children_and_adolescents?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/14840793_Physical_activity_assessment_in_children_and_adolescents?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/14650899_Environmental_and_Policy_Approaches_to_Cardiovascular_Disease_Prevention_Through_Physical_Activity_Issues_and_Opportunities?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=




https://www.researchgate.net/publication/14601144_Outcomes_of_a_field_trial_to_improve_children's_dietary_patterns_and_physical_activity_The_Child_and_Adolescent_Trial_for_Cardiovascular_Health_CATCH_collaborative_group?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=








https://www.researchgate.net/publication/14772647_The_physical_activity_of_fifthgrade_students_during_physical_education?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=







https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12672993_Leisure-Time_Physical_Activity_in_School_Environments_An_Observational_Study_Using_SOPLAY?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12043347_The_Association_of_School_Environments_with_Youth_Physical_Activity?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11603895_Socioeconomic_Status_and_Child_Development?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11603895_Socioeconomic_Status_and_Child_Development?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/20424297_Parent_Involvement_with_Children's_Health_Promotion_A_One-Year_Follow-up_of_the_Minnesota_Home_Team?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=




https://www.researchgate.net/publication/20424301_A_Family_Approach_to_Cardiovascular_Risk_Reduction_Results_from_The_San_Diego_Family_Health_Project?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=





https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12324583_Student_Activity_Levels_Lesson_Context_and_Teacher_Behavior_during_Middle_School_Physical_Education?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=




https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11675421_Active_School_Playgrounds-Myth_or_Reality_Results_of_the_Move_It_Groove_It_Project?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11675421_Active_School_Playgrounds-Myth_or_Reality_Results_of_the_Move_It_Groove_It_Project?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=




https://www.researchgate.net/publication/15227110_Observed_Levels_of_Elementary_and_Middle_School_Children's_Physical_Activity_during_Physical_Education_Classes?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=




https://www.researchgate.net/publication/14387395_The_Effect_of_Adult_Participation_in_a_School-Based_Family_Intervention_to_Improve_Children's_Diet_and_Physical_Activity_The_Child_and_Adolescent_Trial_for_Cardiovascular_Health?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=








https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12957672_School-Based_approaches_for_preventing_and_treating_obesity?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12957672_School-Based_approaches_for_preventing_and_treating_obesity?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/13808112_Assessing_Perceived_Physical_Environmental_Variables_That_May_Influence_Physical_Activity?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=




https://www.researchgate.net/publication/14668127_The_stability_of_children's_activity_as_measured_by_accelerometry_and_self-report?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/14668127_The_stability_of_children's_activity_as_measured_by_accelerometry_and_self-report?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/19748145_Parent_involvement_with_children's_health_promotion_the_Minnesota_Home_Team?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=




https://www.researchgate.net/publication/15718180_Children's_Activity_Levels_and_Lesson_Context_during_Third-Grade_Physical_Education?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=




https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11939455_Assessment_of_Free-Living_Physical_Activity_in_Humans_An_Overview_of_Currently_Available_and_Proposed_New_Measures?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/21749891_Failure_to_generalize_determinants_of_self-reported_physical_activity_to_a_motion_sensor?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=






https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223582031_Using_the_School_Environment_to_Promote_Physical_Activity_and_Healthy_Eating?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233700451_Assessment_of_Physical_Activity_among_Children_and_Adolescents_A_Review_and_Synthesis?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233743575_Promoting_Physical_Activity_in_Youth_Focus_on_Middle_SchooI_Environments?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233743575_Promoting_Physical_Activity_in_Youth_Focus_on_Middle_SchooI_Environments?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12394235_Measurement_Issues_in_the_Assessment_of_Physical_Activity_in_Children?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=





98. Lewis BA, Marcus BH, Pate RR, Dunn AL. Psychosocialmediators of physical activity behavior among adults and children.Am J Prev Med 2002; 23: 26–35.99. Bargh J, Chartrand T. The unbearable automaticity of being.Am Psychol 1999; 54: 462–479.100. Bauman AE, Sallis JF, Dzewaltowski DA, Owen N. Towarda better understanding of the influences on physical activity: therole of determinants, correlates, causal variables, mediators, mod-erators, and confounders. Am J Prev Med 2002; 23: 5–14.101. Robinson TN, Sirard JS. Preventing childhood obesity. Asolution-oriented research paradigm. Am J Prev Med 2005; 28:194–201.

Bibliography

* indicates studies included in the previous review of Sallis et al.(2000).1.* Aarnio M, Kujala UM, Kaprio J. Associations of health-related behaviors, school type and health status to physical activitypatterns in 16 year old boys and girls. Scand J Soc Med 1997; 25:156–167.2. Aarnio M, Winter T, Kujala U, Kaprio J. Associations of healthrelated behaviour, social relationships, and health status with per-sistent physical activity and inactivity: a study of Finnish adoles-cent twins. Br J Sports Med 2002; 36: 360–364.3. Aarnio M, Winter T, Kujala UM, Kaprio J. Familial aggrega-tion of leisure-time physical activity – a three generation study. IntJ Sports Med 1997; 18: 549–556.4.* Aaron DJ, Kriska AM, Dearwater SR, Anderson RL, OlsenTL, Cauley JA, Laporte RE. The epidemiology of leisure physicalactivity in an adolescent population. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1993;25: 847–853.5. Adkins S, Sherwood NE, Story M, Davis M. Physical activityamong African-American girls: the role of parents and the homeenvironment. Obes Res 2004; 12: S38–S45.6. Allison KR, Dwyer JJ, Makin S. Perceived barriers to physicalactivity among high school students. Prev Med 1999; 28: 608–615.7. Andersen LB, Schelin B. Physical activity and performance in arandom sample of adolescents attending school in Denmark.Scand J Med Sci Sports 1994; 4: 13–18.8.* Anderssen N, Wold B. Parental and peer influences on leisure-time physical activity in young adolescents. Res Q Exerc Sport1992; 63: 341–348.9. Anthsel KM, Anderman EM. Social influences on sports par-ticipation during adolescence. J Res Dev Educ 2000; 33: 85–94.10.* Baranowski T, Thompson WO, DuRant RH, Baranowski J,Puhl J. Observations on physical activity in physical locations: age,gender, ethnicity, and month effects. Res Q Exerc Sport 1993; 64:127–133.11. Barnett TA, O’Loughlin J, Paradis G. One- and two-yearpredictors of decline in physical activity among inner-city school-children. Am J Prev Med 2002; 23: 121–128.12. Baxter-Jones AD, Maffulli N. Parental influence on sport par-ticipation in elite young athletes. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2003;43: 250–255.13. Beech BM, Kumanyika SK, Baranowski T, Davis M, RobinsonTN, Sherwood NE, Taylor WC, Relyea G, Zhou A, Pratt C,Owens A, Thompson NS. Parental cultural perspectives in relationto weight-related behaviors and concerns of African-Americangirls. Obes Res 2004; 12: S7–S19.14.* Biddle S, Goudas M. Analysis of children’s physical activ-ity and its association with adult encouragement and social cog-nitive variables. J Sch Health 1996; 66: 75–78.

15. Bogaert N, Steinbeck KS, Baur LA, Brock K, BerminghamMA. Food, activity and family – environmental vs. biochemicalpredictors of weight gain in children. Eur J Clin Nutr 2003; 57:1242–1249.16. Bungum T, Dowda M, Weston A, Trost SG, Pate RR. Corre-lates of physical activity in male and female youth. Pediatr ExercSci 2000; 12: 71–79.17.* Bungum TJ, Vincent ML. Determinants of physical activ-ity among female adolescents. Am J Prev Med 1997; 13: 115–122.18.* Butcher J. Socialization of adolescent girls into physicalactivity. Adolescence 1983; 18: 753–766.19. Carlin JB, Stevenson MR, Roberts I, Bennett CM, Gelman A,Nolan T. Walking to school and traffic exposure in Australianchildren. Aust N Z J Public Health 1997; 21: 286–292.20.* Crocker PR, Bailey DA, Faulkner RA, Kowalski KC,McGrath R. Measuring general levels of physical activity: prelim-inary evidence for the Physical Activity Questionnaire for OlderChildren. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1997; 29: 1344–1349.21. Damore DT. Preschool and school age activities: comparisonof urban and suburban populations. J Community Health 2002;27: 203–211.22. Davison KK, Cutting TM, Birch LL. Parents’ activity-relatedparenting practices predict girls’ physical activity. Med Sci SportsExerc 2003; 35: 1589–1595.23. Deflandre A, Lorant J, Gavarry O, Falgairette G. Determi-nants of physical activity and physical and sports activities inFrench school children. Percept Mot Skills 2001; 92: 399–414.24. Deflandre A, Lorant J, Gavarry O, Falgairette G. Physicalactivity and sport involvement in French high school students.Percept Mot Skills 2001; 92: 107–120.25.* Dempsey JM, Kimiecik JC, Horn TS. Parental influence onchildren’s moderate to vigorous physical activity participation: anexpectancy-value approach. Pediatr Exerc Sci 1993; 5: 151–167.26.* DiLorenzo TM, Stucky-Ropp RC, Vander Wal JS, GothamHJ. Determinants of exercise among children. II. A longitudinalanalysis. Prev Med 1998; 27: 470–477.27. Dollman J, Norton K, Tucker G. Anthropometry, fitness andphysical activity of urban and rural south Australian children.Pediatr Exerc Sci 2002; 14: 297–312.28. Dowda M, Pate RR, Trost SG, Almeida M, Sirard JR. Influ-ences of preschool policies and practices on children’s physicalactivity. J Community Health 2004; 29: 183–196.29. Duncan SC, Duncan TE, Strycker LA, Chaumeton NR. Amultilevel analysis of sibling physical activity. J Sport Exerc Psy-chol 2004; 26: 57–68.30. Dunton GF, Jamner MS, Cooper DM. Assessing the perceivedenvironment among minimally active adolescent girls: validity andrelations to physical activity outcomes. Am J Health Promot 2003;18: 70–73.31.* DuRant RH, Baranowski T, Johnson M, Thompson WO.The relationship among television watching, physical activity, andbody composition of young children. Pediatrics 1994; 94: 449–455.32.* Epstein LH, Paluch RA, Coleman KJ, Vito D, Anderson K.Determinants of physical activity in obese children assessed byaccelerometer and self-report. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1996; 28:1157–1164.33. Fein AJ, Plotnikoff RC, Wild T, Spence JC. Perceived environ-ment and physical activity in youth. Int J Behav Med 2004; 11:135–142.34. Feldman DE, Barnett T, Shrier I, Rossignol M, Abenhaim L.Is physical activity differentially associated with different types ofsedentary pursuits? Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2003; 157: 797–802.





https://www.researchgate.net/publication/13816332_Familial_Aggregation_of_Leisure-Time_Physical_Activity_-_a_Three_Generation_Study?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=






https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12893960_Perceived_Barriers_to_Physical_Activity_among_High_School_Students?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227906513_Physical_activity_and_performance_in_a_random_sample_of_adolescents_attending_school_in_Denmark?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227906513_Physical_activity_and_performance_in_a_random_sample_of_adolescents_attending_school_in_Denmark?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=












https://www.researchgate.net/publication/291977371_Correlates_of_Physical_Activity_in_Male_and_Female_Youth?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/13950482_Walking_to_school_and_traffic_exposure_in_Australian_children?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=









https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11977462_Determinants_of_physical_activity_and_physical_and_sports_activities_in_French_school_children?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12012767_Physical_activity_and_sport_involvement_in_French_high_school_students?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270395832_Anthropometry_Fitness_and_Physical_Activity_of_Urban_and_Rural_South_Australian_Children?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=






https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279717311_A_Multilevel_Analysis_of_Sibling_Physical_Activity?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=























https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280808497_The_unbearable_automaticity_of_being?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



35. Felton GM, Dowda M, Ward DS, Dishman RK, Trost SG,Saunders R, Pate RR. Differences in physical activity betweenblack and white girls living in rural and urban areas. J Sch Health2002; 72: 250–255.36.* Ferguson KJ, Yesalis CE, Pomrehn PR, Kirkpatrick MB.Attitudes, knowledge, and beliefs as predictors of exercise intentand behavior in schoolchildren. J Sch Health 1989; 59: 112–115.37. Finn K, Johannsen N, Specker B. Factors associated withphysical activity in preschool children. J Pediatr 2002; 140: 81–85.38. Fogelholm M, Nuutinen O, Pasanen M, Myohanen E, SaatelaT. Parent-child relationship of physical activity patterns and obe-sity. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1999; 23: 1262–1268.39.* Freedson PS, Evenson S. Familial aggregation in physicalactivity. Res Q Exerc Sport 1991; 62: 384–389.40.* Fuchs R, Powell KE, Semmer NK, Dwyer JH, Lippert P,Hoffmeister H. Patterns of physical activity among Germanadolescents: the Berlin-Bremen Study. Prev Med 1988; 17: 746–763.41.* Garcia AW, Broda MA, Frenn M, Coviak C, Pender NJ,Ronis DL. Gender and developmental differences in exercisebeliefs among youth and prediction of their exercise behavior. JSch Health 1995; 65: 213–219.42.* Garcia AW, Pender NJ, Antonakos CL, Ronis DL. Changesin physical activity beliefs and behaviors of boys and girls acrossthe transition to junior high school. J Adolesc Health 1998; 22:394–402.43. Garton AF, Harvey R, Price C. Influence of perceived familyenvironment on adolescent leisure participation. Aust J Psychol2004; 56: 18–24.44.* Gentle P, Caves R, Armstrong N, Balding J, Kirby B. Highand low exercisers among 14- and 15-year-old children. J PublicHealth Med 1994; 16: 186–194.45. Gillander Gadin K, Hammarstrom A. Can school-related fac-tors predict future health behaviour among young adolescents?Public Health 2002; 116: 22–29.46. Gilmer MJ, Harrell JS, Miles MS, Hepworth JT. Youth char-acteristics and contextual variables influencing physical activity inyoung adolescents of parents with premature coronary heart dis-ease. J Pediatr Nurs 2003; 18: 159–168.47.* Godin G, Shephard RJ. Normative beliefs of school childrenconcerning regular exercise. J Sch Health 1984; 54: 443–445.48.* Godin G, Shephard RJ. Psychosocial factors influencingintentions to exercise of young students from grades 7 to 9. ResQ Exerc Sport 1986; 57: 41–52.49.* Godin G, Shephard RJ, Colantonio A. Children’s perceptionof parental exercise: influence of sex and age. Percept Mot Skills1986; 62: 511–516.50. Gomez JE, Johnson BA, Selva M, Sallis JF. Violent crime andoutdoor physical activity among inner-city youth. Prev Med 2004;39: 876–881.51. Goran MI, Nagy TR, Gower BA, Mazariegos M, SolomonsN, Hood V, Johnson R. Influence of sex, seasonality, ethnicity, andgeographic location on the components of total energy expendi-ture in young children: implications for energy requirements. AmJ Clin Nutr 1998; 68: 675–682.52. Gordon-Larsen P, Harris KM, Ward DS, Popkin BM. Accul-turation and overweight-related behaviors among Hispanic immi-grants to the US: the National Longitudinal Study of AdolescentHealth. Soc Sci Med 2003; 57: 2023–2034.53. Gordon-Larsen P, McMurray RG, Popkin BM. Determinantsof adolescent physical activity and inactivity patterns. Pediatrics2000; 105: e83.54.* Gottlieb NH, Chen MS. Sociocultural correlates of child-hood sporting activities: their implications for heart health. SocSci Med 1985; 21: 533–539.

55. Grunbaum JA, Lowry R, Kann L. Prevalence of health-relatedbehaviors among alternative high school students as comparedwith students attending regular high schools. J Adolesc Health2001; 29: 337–343.56.* Guillaume M, Lapidus L, Bjorntorp P, Lambert A. Physicalactivity, obesity, and cardiovascular risk factors in children. TheBelgian Luxembourg Child Study II. Obes Res 1997; 5: 549–556.57. Harrell JS, Gansky SA, Bradley CB, McMurray RG. Leisuretime activities of elementary school children. Nurs Res 1997; 46:246–253.58. Harten N, Olds T. Patterns of active transport in 11–12 yearold Australian children. Aust N Z J Public Health 2004; 28: 167–172.59. Heath GW, Pratt M, Warren CW, Kann L. Physical activitypatterns in American high school students. Results from the 1990Youth Risk Behavior Survey. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1994;148: 1131–1136.60. Higgins JW, Gaul C, Gibbons S, Van Gyn G. Factors influenc-ing physical activity levels among Canadian youth. Can J PublicHealth 2003; 94: 45–51.61. Hoefer WR, McKenzie TL, Sallis JF, Marshall SJ, Conway TL.Parental provision of transportation for adolescent physical activ-ity. Am J Prev Med 2001; 21: 48–51.62. Hofstetter RC, Hovell MF, Sallis JF, Zakarian J, Beirich H,Mulvihill M, Emerson J. Exposure to sports mass media andphysical activity characteristics among ethnically diverse adoles-cents. Med Exerc Nutr Health 1995; 4: 234–242.63.* Hovell MF, Kolody B, Sallis JF, Black DR. Parent support,physical activity, and correlates of adiposity in nine year olds: anexploratory study. J Health Educ 1996; 27: 126–129.64. Hussey J, Gormley J, Bell C. Physical activity in Dublin chil-dren aged 7–9 years. Br J Sports Med 2001; 35: 268–272.65. Huurre T, Aro H, Rahkonen O. Well-being and health behav-iour by parental socioeconomic status: a follow-up study of ado-lescents aged 16 until age 32 years. Soc Psychiatry PsychiatrEpidemiol 2003; 38: 249–255.66. Johansson B, Drott P. Informal parental traffic education andchildren’s bicycling behaviour. Ups J Med Sci 2001; 106: 133–144.67. Karvonen S, Rimpela AH. Urban small area variation in ado-lescents’ health behaviour. Soc Sci Med 1997; 45: 1089–1098.68. Kimiecik JC, Horn TS. Parental beliefs and children’s moder-ate-to-vigorous physical activity. Res Q Exerc Sport 1998; 69:163–175.69.* Kimiecik JC, Horn TS, Shurin CS. Relationships among chil-dren’s beliefs, perceptions of their parents’ beliefs, and their mod-erate-to-vigorous physical activity. Res Q Exerc Sport 1996; 67:324–336.70.* Klesges RC, Eck LH, Hanson CL, Haddock C, Klesges LM.Effects of obesity, social interactions, and physical environment onphysical activity in preschoolers. Health Psychol 1990; 9: 435–449.71.* Klesges RC, Malott JM, Boschee PF, Weber JM. The effectsof parental influences on children’s food intake, physical activity,and relative weight. Int J Eat Disord 1986; 5: 335–346.72. Kristjansdottir G, Vilhjalmsson R. Sociodemographic differ-ences in patterns of sedentary and physically active behavior inolder children and adolescents. Acta Paediatr 2001; 90: 429–435.73. Lasheras L, Aznar S, Merino B, Lopez EG. Factors associatedwith physical activity among Spanish youth through the NationalHealth Survey. Prev Med 2001; 32: 455–464.74. Lee RE, Cubbin C. Neighborhood context and youth cardio-vascular health behaviors. Am J Public Health 2002; 92: 428–436.75. Lewko JH, Ewing ME. Sex differences and parental influencein sport involvement of children. J Sport Psychol 1980; 2: 62–68.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11543745_Factors_Associated_with_Physical_Activity_in_Preschool_Children?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11543745_Factors_Associated_with_Physical_Activity_in_Preschool_Children?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12670237_Parent-child_relationship_of_physical_activity_patterns_and_obesity?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259869998_Influence_of_perceived_family_environment_on_adolescent_leisure_participation?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=









https://www.researchgate.net/publication/13550559_Influence_of_sex_seasonality_ethnicity_and_geographic_location_on_the_components_of_total_energy_expenditure_in_young_children_Implications_for_energy_requirements?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=









https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12483345_Determinants_of_Adolescent_Physical_Activity_and_Inactivity_Patterns?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/13905304_Leisure_Time_Activities_of_Elementary_School_Children?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=






https://www.researchgate.net/publication/15278347_Physical_activiry_patterns_in_American_high_school_student_Results_from_the_1990_Youth_Risk_Behavior_Survey?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=







https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11865838_Physical_activity_in_Dublin_children_aged_7-9_Commentories?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11865838_Physical_activity_in_Dublin_children_aged_7-9_Commentories?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=





https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11475328_Informal_parental_traffic_education_and_children's_bicycling_behaviour?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11475328_Informal_parental_traffic_education_and_children's_bicycling_behaviour?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/13963585_Urban_small_area_variation_in_adolescents'_health_behavior?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/13963585_Urban_small_area_variation_in_adolescents'_health_behavior?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/13649927_Parental_Beliefs_and_Children's_Moderate-to-Vigorous_Physical_Activity?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223913510_Factors_Associated_with_Physical_Activity_among_Spanish_Youth_through_the_National_Health_Survey?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11495476_Neighborhood_Context_and_Youth_Cardiovascular_Health_Behaviors?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11495476_Neighborhood_Context_and_Youth_Cardiovascular_Health_Behaviors?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11661830_Prevalence_of_health-related_behaviors_among_alternative_high_school_students_as_compared_with_students_attending_regular_high_schools?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=




https://www.researchgate.net/publication/20452417_Attitudes_Knowledge_and_Beliefs_as_Predictors_of_Exercise_Intent_and_Behavior_in_Schoolchildren?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/20452417_Attitudes_Knowledge_and_Beliefs_as_Predictors_of_Exercise_Intent_and_Behavior_in_Schoolchildren?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=







76. Lindquist CH, Reynolds KD, Goran MI. Sociocultural deter-minants of physical activity among children. Prev Med 1999; 29:305–312.77.* Lowry R, Kann L, Collins JL, Kolbe LJ. The effect of socio-economic status on chronic disease risk behaviors among US ado-lescents. JAMA 1996; 276: 792–797.78. Macintosh D. Socio-economic, educational and status charac-teristics of Ontario interschool athletes. Can J Appl Sport Sci1982; 7: 272–283.79. McGuire MT, Hannan PJ, Neumark-Sztainer D, CossrowNH, Story M. Parental correlates of physical activity in a racially/ethnically diverse adolescent sample. J Adolesc Health 2002; 30:253–261.80. McGuire MT, Neumark-Sztainer DR, Story M. Correlates oftime spent in physical activity and television viewing in a multi-racial sample of adolescents. Pediatr Exerc Sci 2002; 14: 75–86.81.* McKenzie TL, Sallis JF, Nader PR, Broyles SL, Nelson JA.Anglo- and Mexican-American preschoolers at home and at recess:activity patterns and environmental influences. J Dev Behav Pedi-atr 1992; 13: 173–180.82.* McKenzie TL, Sallis JF, Nader PR, Patterson TL, Elder JP,Berry CC, Rupp JW, Atkins CJ, Buono MJ, Nelson JA. BEACHES:an observational system for assessing children’s eating and physi-cal activity behaviors and associated events. J Appl Behav Anal1991; 24: 141–151.83. McLellan L, Rissel C, Donnelly N, Bauman A. Healthbehaviour and the school environment in New South Wales,Australia. Soc Sci Med 1999; 49: 611–619.84.* McMurray RG, Bradley CB, Harrell JS, Bernthal PR, Frau-man AC, Bangdiwala SI. Parental influences on childhood fitnessand activity patterns. Res Q Exerc Sport 1993; 64: 249–255.85. McMurray RG, Harrell JS, Bangdiwala SI, Deng S. Car-diovascular disease risk factors and obesity of rural and urbanelementary school children. J Rural Health 1999; 15: 365–374.86. McMurray RG, Harrell JS, Bangdiwala SI, Gansky SA. Bio-logic and environmental factors influencing the aerobic power ofchildren. Med Exerc Nutr Health 1995; 4: 243–250.87. Mellin AE, Neumark-Sztainer D, Story M, Ireland M, ResnickMD. Unhealthy behaviors and psychosocial difficulties amongoverweight adolescents: the potential impact of familial factors. JAdolesc Health 2002; 31: 145–153.88. Molnar BE, Gortmaker SL, Bull FC, Buka SL. Unsafe to play?Neighborhood disorder and lack of safety predict reduced physicalactivity among urban children and adolescents. Am J Health Pro-mot 2004; 18: 378–386.89.* Moore LL, Lombardi DA, White MJ, Campbell JL, OliveriaSA, Ellison RC. Influence of parents’ physical activity levels onactivity levels of young children. J Pediatr 1991; 118: 215–219.90. Morgan CF, McKenzie TL, Sallis JF, Broyles SL, Zive MM,Nader PR. Personal, social, and environmental correlates of phys-ical activity in a bi-ethnic sample of adolescents. Pediatr Exerc Sci2003; 15: 288–301.91. Motl RW, Dishman RK, Ward DS, Saunders RP, Dowda M,Felton G, Pate RR. Examining social-cognitive determinants ofintention and physical activity among black and white adolescentgirls using structural equation modeling. Health Psychol 2002; 21:459–467.92. Murphey DA, Lamonda KH, Carney JK, Duncan P. Relation-ships of a brief measure of youth assets to health-promoting andrisk behaviors. J Adolesc Health 2004; 34: 184–191.93. Neumark-Sztainer D, Story M, Hannan PJ, Tharp T, Rex J.Factors associated with changes in physical activity: a cohort studyof inactive adolescent girls. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2003; 157:803–810.

94. Nutbeam D, Aar L, Catford J. Understanding childrens’health behaviour: the implications for health promotion foryoung people. Soc Sci Med 1989; 29: 317–325.95. O’Loughlin J, Paradis G, Kishchuk N, Barnett T, Renaud L.Prevalence and correlates of physical activity behaviors amongelementary schoolchildren in multiethnic, low income, inner-cityneighborhoods in Montreal, Canada. Ann Epidemiol 1999; 9:397–407.96. Pate RR, Pfeiffer KA, Trost SG, Ziegler P, Dowda M. Physicalactivity among children attending preschools. Pediatrics 2004;114: 1258–1263.97.* Pate RR, Trost SG, Felton GM, Ward DS, Dowda M, Saun-ders R. Correlates of physical activity behavior in rural youth. ResQ Exerc Sport 1997; 68: 241–248.98.* Pérusse L, Leblanc C, Bouchard C. Familial resemblance inlifestyle components: results from the Canada Fitness Survey.Can J Public Health 1988; 79: 201–205.99.* Pérusse L, Tremblay A, Leblanc C, Bouchard C. Geneticand environmental influences on level of habitual physical activ-ity and exercise participation. Am J Epidemiol 1989; 129:1012–1022.100.* Poest CA, Williams JR, Witt DD, Atwood ME. Physicalactivity patterns of preschool children. Early Child Res Q 1989;4: 367–376.101. Prochaska JJ, Rodgers MW, Sallis JF. Association of parentand peer support with adolescent physical activity. Res Q ExercSport 2002; 73: 206–210.102.* Reynolds KD, Killen JD, Bryson SW, Maron DJ, Taylor CB,Maccoby N, Farquhar JW. Psychosocial predictors of physicalactivity in adolescents. Prev Med 1990; 19: 541–551.103. Robinson CH, Thomas SP. The Interaction Model of ClientHealth Behavior as a conceptual guide in the explanation of chil-dren’s health behaviors. Public Health Nurs 2004; 21: 73–84.104. Romero AJ, Robinson TN, Kraemer HC, Erickson SJ, Hay-del KF, Mendoza F, Killen JD. Are perceived neighborhood hazardsa barrier to physical activity in children? Arch Pediatr AdolescMed 2001; 155: 1143–1148.105. Rossow I, Rise J. Concordance of parental and adolescenthealth behaviors. Soc Sci Med 1994; 38: 1299–1305.106. Runyan SM, Stadler DD, Bainbridge CN, Miller SC, Moyer-Mileur LJ. Familial resemblance of bone mineralization, calciumintake, and physical activity in early-adolescent daughters, theirmothers, and maternal grandmothers. J Am Diet Assoc 2003; 103:1320–1325.107.* Sallis JF, Alcaraz JE, McKenzie TL, Hovell MF. Predictorsof change in children’s physical activity over 20 months: variationsby gender and level of adiposity. Am J Prev Med 1999; 16: 222–229.108.* Sallis JF, Alcaraz JE, McKenzie TL, Hovell MF, Kolody B,Nader PR. Parental behavior in relation to physical activity andfitness in 9-year-old children. Am J Dis Child 1992; 146: 1383–1388.109.* Sallis JF, Nader PR, Broyles SL, Berry CC, Elder JP,McKenzie TL, Nelson JA. Correlates of physical activity athome in Mexican-American and Anglo-American preschoolchildren. Health Psychol 1993; 12: 390–398.110.* Sallis JF, Patterson TL, Buono MJ, Atkins CJ, Nader PR.Aggregation of physical activity habits in Mexican-American andAnglo families. J Behav Med 1988; 11: 31–41.111.* Sallis JF, Patterson TL, McKenzie TL, Nader PR. Familyvariables and physical activity in preschool children. J Dev BehavPediatr 1988; 9: 57–61.112. Sallis JF, Prochaska JJ, Taylor WC, Hill JO, Geraci JC. Cor-relates of physical activity in a national sample of girls and boysin grades 4 through 12. Health Psychol 1999; 18: 410–415.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/16039119_Socio-economic_educational_and_status_characteristics_of_Ontario_interschool_athletes?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=







https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12508467_Cardiovascular_Disease_Risk_Factors_and_Obesity_of_Rural_and_Urban_Elementary_School_Children?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=




















https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12799784_Prevalence_and_Correlates_of_Physical_Activity_Behaviors_among_Elementary_Schoolchildren_in_Multiethnic_Low_Income_Inner-City_Neighborhoods_in_Montreal_Canada?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=











https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11772449_Are_Perceived_Neighborhood_Hazards_a_Barrier_to_Physical_Activity_in_Children?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=




https://www.researchgate.net/publication/15181938_Concordance_of_parental_and_adolescent_health_behaviors?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/15181938_Concordance_of_parental_and_adolescent_health_behaviors?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/20393104_Understanding_childrens'_health_behaviour_The_implications_for_health_promotion_for_young_people?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12753890_Sociocultural_Determinants_of_Physical_Activity_among_Children?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12867707_Correlates_of_physical_activity_in_a_national_sample_of_girls_and_boys_in_Grades_4_through_12?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=







https://www.researchgate.net/publication/289480026_Correlates_of_Time_Spent_in_Physical_Activity_and_Television_Viewing_in_a_Multi-Racial_Sample_of_Adolescents?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279702078_Personal_Social_and_Environmental_Correlates_of_Physical_Activity_in_a_Bi-Ethnic_Sample_of_Adolescents?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=






113. Sallis JF, Taylor WC, Dowda M, Freedson PS, Pate RR.Correlates of vigorous physical activity for children in grades 1through 12: comparing parent-reported and objectively measuredphysical activity. Pediatr Exerc Sci 2002; 14: 30–44.114. Saunders RP, Motl RW, Dowda M, Dishman RK, Pate RR.Comparison of social variables for understanding physical activityin adolescent girls. Am J Health Behav 2004; 28: 426–436.115. Saunders RP, Pate RR, Felton G, Dowda M, Weinrich MC,Ward DS, Parsons MA, Baranowski T. Development of question-naires to measure psychosocial influences on children’s physicalactivity. Prev Med 1997; 26: 241–247.116. Saxena R, Borzekowski DL, Rickert VI. Physical activitylevels among urban adolescent females. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol2002; 15: 279–284.117. Schmitz KH, Lytle LA, Phillips GA, Murray DM, BirnbaumAS, Kubik MY. Psychosocial correlates of physical activity andsedentary leisure habits in young adolescents: the Teens Eating forEnergy and Nutrition at School study. Prev Med 2002; 34: 266–278.118.* Shephard RJ, Jequier JC, Lavallee H, La Barre R, Rajic M.Habitual physical activity: effects of sex, milieu, season andrequired activity. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1980; 20: 55–66.119. Shropshire J, Carrol B. Family variables and children’s phys-ical activity: influence of parental exercise and socio-economicstatus. Sport Educ Soc 1997; 2: 95–116.120. Simons-Morton BG, McKenzie TJ, Stone E, Mitchell P,Osganian V, Strikmiller PK, Ehlinger S, Cribb P, Nader PR. Phys-ical activity in a multiethnic population of third graders in fourstates. Am J Public Health 1997; 87: 45–50.121. Starfield B, Riley AW, Witt WP, Robertson J. Social classgradients in health during adolescence. J Epidemiol CommunityHealth 2002; 56: 354–361.122. Starfield B, Robertson J, Riley AW. Social class gradients andhealth in childhood. Ambul Pediatr 2002; 2: 238–246.123. Strauss RS, Rodzilsky D, Burack G, Colin M. Psychosocialcorrelates of physical activity in healthy children. Arch PediatrAdolesc Med 2001; 155: 897–902.124.* Stucky-Ropp RC, DiLorenzo TM. Determinants of exercisein children. Prev Med 1993; 22: 880–889.125.* Tappe MK, Duda JL, Ehrnwald PM. Perceived barriers toexercise among adolescents. J Sch Health 1989; 59: 153–155.126.* Tappe MK, Duda JL, Menges-Ehrnwald P. Personal invest-ment predictors of adolescent motivational orientation towardexercise. Can J Sport Sci 1990; 15: 185–192.127. Taveras EM, Rifas-Shiman SL, Field AE, Frazier AL, ColditzGA, Gillman MW. The influence of wanting to look like mediafigures on adolescent physical activity. J Adolesc Health 2004; 35:41–50.128.* Terre L, Ghiselli W, Taloney L, DeSouza E. Demographics,affect, and adolescents’ health behaviors. Adolescence 1992; 27:12–24.129.* Theodorakis Y, Doganis G, Bagiatis K, Gouthas M. Prelim-inary study of the ability of reasoned action model in predictingexercise behaviour of young children. Percept Mot Skills 1991; 72:51–58.130. Theodorakis Y, Papaioannou A, Karastogianidou K. Rela-tions between family structure and students’ health-related atti-tudes and behaviors. Psychol Rep 2004; 95: 851–858.131. Timperio A, Crawford D, Telford A, Salmon J. Perceptionsabout the local neighborhood and walking and cycling amongchildren. Prev Med 2004; 38: 39–47.132.* Trost SG, Pate RR, Dowda M, Saunders R, Ward DS,Felton G. Gender differences in physical activity and determinants

of physical activity in rural fifth grade children. J Sch Health 1996;66: 145–150.133.* Trost SG, Pate RR, Saunders R, Ward DS, Dowda M,Felton G. A prospective study of the determinants of physicalactivity in rural fifth-grade children. Prev Med 1997; 26: 257–263.134. Trost SG, Pate RR, Ward DS, Saunders R, Riner W. Corre-lates of objectively measured physical activity in preadolescentyouth. Am J Prev Med 1999; 17: 120–126.135. Trost SG, Sallis JF, Pate RR, Freedson PS, Taylor WC,Dowda M. Evaluating a model of parental influence on youthphysical activity. Am J Prev Med 2003; 25: 277–282.136. Tuinstra J, Groothoff JW, van den Heuvel WJ, Post D.Socio-economic differences in health risk behavior in adoles-cence: do they exist? Soc Sci Med 1998; 47: 67–74.137. Unger JB, Reynolds K, Shakib S, Spruijt-Metz D, Sun P,Johnson CA. Acculturation, physical activity, and fast-food con-sumption among Asian-American and Hispanic adolescents. JCommunity Health 2004; 29: 467–481.138. Vermorel M, Vernet J, Bitar A, Fellmann N, Coudert J. Dailyenergy expenditure, activity patterns, and energy costs of the var-ious activities in French 12-16-y-old adolescents in free livingconditions. Eur J Clin Nutr 2002; 56: 819–829.139. Vilhjalmsson R. Effects of social support on self-assessedhealth in adolescence. J Adolesc Health 1994; 23: 437–452.140. Vilhjalmsson R, Kristjansdottir G. Gender differences inphysical activity in older children and adolescents: the central roleof organized sport. Soc Sci Med 2003; 56: 363–374.141. Vilhjalmsson R, Thorlindsson T. Factors related to physi-cal activity: a study of adolescents. Soc Sci Med 1998; 47: 665–675.142. Wagner A, Klein-Platat C, Arveiler D, Haan MC, SchliengerJL, Simon C. Parent-child physical activity relationships in 12-yearold French students do not depend on family socioeconomic sta-tus. Diabetes Metab 2004; 30: 359–366.143. Wardle J, Jarvis M, Steggles N, Sutton S, Williamson S,Farrimond H, Cartwright M, Simon AE. Socioeconomic dispari-ties in cancer-risk behaviors in adolescence: baseline results fromthe Health and Behaviour in Teenagers Study (HABITS). Prev Med2003; 36: 721–730.144. Welk GJ, Wood K, Morss G. Parental influences on physicalactivity in children: an exploration of potential mechanisms. Pedi-atr Exerc Sci 2003; 15: 19–33.145. Williams EA, Jenkins C, Nevill AM. Social area influenceson leisure activity – an exploration of the ACORN classificationwith reference to sport. Leisure Stud 1988; 7: 81–94.146. Wold B, Oygard L, Eder A, Smith C. Social reproduction ofphysical activity, Implications for health promotion in young peo-ple. Eur J Public Health 1994; 4: 163–168.147. Woodfield L, Duncan M, Al-Nakeeb Y, Nevill A, Jenkins C.Sex, ethnic and socio-economic differences in children’s physicalactivity. Pediatr Exerc Sci 2002; 14: 277–285.148. Yang X, Telama R, Laakso L. Parent’s physical activity,socioeconomic status and education as predictors of physical activ-ity and sport among children and youths – a 12-year follow-upstudy. Int Rev Soc Sports 1996; 31: 273–291.149.* Zakarian JM, Hovell MF, Hofstetter CR, Sallis JF, KeatingKJ. Correlates of vigorous exercise in a predominantly low SESand minority high school population. Prev Med 1994; 23: 314–321.150. Ziviani J, Scott J, Wadley D. Walking to school: incidentalphysical activity in the daily occupations of Australian children.Occup Ther Int 2004; 11: 1–11.




https://www.researchgate.net/publication/14130686_Development_of_Questionnaires_to_Measure_Psychosocial_Influences_on_Children's_Physical_Activity?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=




https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11541933_Psychosocial_Correlates_of_Physical_Activity_and_Sedentary_Leisure_Habits_in_Young_Adolescents_The_Teens_Eating_for_Energy_and_Nutrition_at_School_Study?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=





https://www.researchgate.net/publication/14147311_Physical_activity_in_a_multiethnic_population_of_third_graders_in_four_states?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=









https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11860204_Psychosocial_Correlates_of_Physical_Activity_in_Healthy_Children?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=













https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12810270_Correlates_of_objectively_measured_physical_activity_in_preadolescent_youth?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=






https://www.researchgate.net/publication/13602536_Socio-economic_differences_in_health_risk_behavior_in_adolescence_Do_they_exist?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=











https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226352284_Effects_of_social_support_on_self-assessed_health_in_adolescence?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226352284_Effects_of_social_support_on_self-assessed_health_in_adolescence?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=




https://www.researchgate.net/publication/13594093_Factors_related_to_physical_activity_A_study_of_adolescents?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=












https://www.researchgate.net/publication/224020375_Parental_Influences_on_Physical_Activity_in_Children_An_Exploration_of_Potential_Mechanisms?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233373287_Social_area_influences_on_leisure_activity_-_an_exploration_of_the_ACORN_classification_with_reference_to_sport?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249238225_Social_reproduction_of_physical_activity_Implications_for_health_promotion_in_young_people?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/32117130_Sex_Ethnic_and_Socio-Economic_Differences_in_Children's_Physical_Activity?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255659206_Parents'_Physical_Activity_Socioeconomic_Status_and_Education_as_Predictors_of_Physical_Activity_and_Sport_among_Children_and_Youths_-_A_12-Year_Follow-Up_Study?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=







https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279547000_Correlates_of_Vigorous_Physical_Activity_for_Children_in_Grades_1_Through_12_Comparing_Parent-Reported_and_Objectively_Measured_Physical_Activity?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=




https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263376709_Physical_Activity_Levels_Among_Urban_Adolescent_Females?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-7b3634d6d82a9be9a473ad34cd988374-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzY1MDU3MzY7QVM6MTA2NTgzNzg2Nzg2ODIzQDE0MDI0MjI5NjM4OTE=



Environmental correlates of physical activity in youth ? a review and update

Documents

Transcript of Environmental correlates of physical activity in youth ? a review and update