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PRAGMATIC APPROACH TO NOTE-TAKING IN ACADEMIC DICOURSE

Abstract

One of the most daunting challenges confronting and affecting the

performances of students in higher institutions today is

difficulty in grasping and recording accurately, the information

passed unto them during lectures. Most affected by this problem

are the slow writers among the students. In some lecture

situations, notes are dictated, while in some cases, discussion

methods are employed. In either of the situations, each student

is expected to harvest his own bits of information as fast as he

can. Whether it is a dictated or a discussed lecture, it remains

indubitable that no student can achieve any success beyond his

ability to grasp, organize and recollect the information

disseminated in the learning process. Granted that different

methods are being innovated in pedagogical practice today, it is

an undeniable fact that the faintest ink is better than the

sharpest memory. Information items that are scribbled on pieces

of paper will always be available when vagaries of time might

have effaced those that were merely crammed in the brain.

Besides, it has been observed that sometimes, conflict erupts

between listening and writing when the slow writers get confused

in a lecture and cannot cope with the speaking rate of the

lecturer. Ironically however, all students have the potential to

get the best in every academic discourse event irrespective of

their differences in writing speed. The major problem is their

deficiency in note-taking skills. This paper therefore attempts

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to predict the way out through exploration of some concepts and

principles that are considered germane to note-taking activities

with specific focus on oral academic discourse.

Key words: Note-taking, Academic discourse, Information, Memory

Introduction

Chukwuma and Otagburuagu (1997) posit that “the main purpose of

note-taking is to summarize the content of a lecture or a written

text into its most important points with the aim of reading,

recalling, and evaluating at a later stage.” Royster and Lester

(1996) also to corroborate this view in the following words:

“Taking notes as you listen, is a good way to sort out main ideas

and supporting details. The process of taking notes also helps

you remember what you have heard.” Oyerokan (1993) citing James

(1979) also identified three major components of note-taking;

namely: decoding what is heard, comprehending the message and

writing what is important. Jones and Mort (2010) also observed

that “Good note taking allows a permanent record of relevant

points that you can integrate with your own writing, and that can

be used for exam revision”. From the above understanding, it is

clear that the key elements in note-taking centre on getting

information in an academic discourse, selectively jotting down

the essential points and organizing them for future study.

Therefore, in order to get the best from any academic discourse,

students must be well grounded in some basics in note-taking

skills which form the crux of this paper. For the purpose of

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clarity, the following topics shall be examined in this paper:

the significance of note-taking in scholarship, steps in note-

taking, delimitation of ideas, encrypting in note-taking,

principle of effective note-taking, basic rules of note-taking

and barriers to effective note-taking.

1.0 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF NOTE-TAKING IN LEARNING PROCESS

The literature is very clear as regards the importance of note-

taking in academic activities. Scholars are agreed on the fact

that there is no reasonable learning process that does not

involve having to take special note of certain cogent points and

jot them down in a concise form. Human memory has been noted to

be fraught with pressures that sometimes result in forgetfulness.

This underscore the general belief that ideas scribbled on a

writing material is better than the one crammed in the memory.

This informed the emphases placed on note-taking in this piece.

The points highlighted below are therefore considered as the

major significance of note-taking in scholarship.

1.1 To enhance effective listening:

Kolawole and Adelabu (2004:25) assert that, “Taking note during a

lecture helps students to concentrate on what the speaker is

saying.” It is reasonable to agree with this view based on the

assumption that in most communicative events, there are lots of

distracting forces that can impede effectiveness in listening. A

listener that is keen on jotting down points as they are being

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uttered by the speaker would focus more on the source of

information than those who are merely listening with mental

commitment alone. It shows keen interest in collecting

information and recording them on the spot. This assumption is

reinforced by the view of Chukwuma and Otagburuagwu (1997:3) that

“the aim to make note This makes listening more practical and

efficient.

1.2 For future memory jogging

Ideas that are reduced into summary notes are easy to remember in

later days than those not written down. Banjo and Bisong

(1985:171) accentuate this view by asserting that “we make note

because we need to understand what we are reading or listening

to.”It is a common knowledge that key points in every discourse

are usually surrounded by a host of satellites generally called

supporting details. What the listener needs to remember in order

to sum up the totality of the knowledge gained in a specific

discourse event is the key point. Therefore, with a well packaged

note, one’s memory can be easily jogged up at a later day when

the need arise to recollect those ideas for immediate use. Merely

seeing just the major point can remind the writer most of the

issues raised during the original presentation of the discourse.

Therefore, except what are listening to is for mere

entertainment, we cannot but take notes in order to enhance

recollection of some facts whenever the need arises.

1.3 Consolidation of the cogent points

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It has been mentioned earlier that every discourse comprises

major points and satellites such as explanations, illustrations,

exemplifications, analogies, justifications, and so forth. In a

good listening exercise, the listener’s major focus is supposed

to centre on the key points. He is expected to identify these key

points and how they are substantiated through the supporting

details. The ability to gather the key points into a coherent

whole is therefore the chief concern of note-taking. For

instance, a single point presented in only one sentence can

attract seven other sentences in the process of justification and

clarification. What this implies is that as you listen to the

presenter, your main target is the key points. After you might

have got the true picture of the central point you are to gather

points so presented together into one unit of note. This will

solve the problem of voluminous writing that would have ensued if

you have to write word for word what the presenter is saying.

This of course is not always possible. Through note-taking

therefore, key points that are scattered through a vast stretch

of discourse will be selectively extracted and compiled into only

one comprehensive note.

1.4 To save time at the stage of revision

For every student in academic environment, examination is one of

the immediate central foci of every learning activity. Therefore,

all the knowledge acquired during lessons would need to be

reviewed when examination approaches. Note gathered during the

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various lectures and reading exercise becomes handy at such

point. Having read and heard on a lot of concepts, it is not

always possible to go back and re-read all the books one has

already read. This time around, the recourse is the summarised

notes obtained in relation to each of the subjects from the

various sources of information. The significance note-taking is

the “charge and bail” role it plays when there is no more enough

time to skim through volumes of books before entering the

examination hall.

1.5 To sift and organise your information to suit your own study

style

Note-taking helps you to sort out the essentials and

nonessentials both in the information you obtained from verbal

discourse and written discourse. This in turn are organised into

different units based on the subject areas in order to define

your mode of study when the examination begins to approach. It

becomes easy for you to pick one after the other, the concise

notes that have been compiled on separate concepts in each

subject for revision. It makes for a well organised study

process than someone who does not bother about notes. It saves

students from reading dilemma at the peak period of examination

preparation.

2.0 BASIC STEPS IN NOTE-TAKING

Chukwuma and Otagburuagu(1997:4) propose three basic steps in

note-taking. These include preparatory step, note-taking activity

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and reorganisation. The preparatory step according to them

involves physical, emotional and mental preparation. By physical

preparation, you are expected to be well dressed, come to the

venue early enough to secure a seat in a vantage position. Also

you are to get good writing material like notebook and ballpoint

pen for the task. Emotional preparation demands that you should

rid your mind of every psychological burden that could hinder you

from concentration during the discourse. You are also advised to

acquaint yourself with the topic before lecture so as to be able

to follow the train of thought of the speaker. This is referred

to as mental preparation. There however remain some other salient

steps proposed by some other scholars in relation to effective

note-taking. Some of these are highlighted below:

2.1 Approach the lecture with a curious attitude

Approach the lecture with a sincere desire to acquire knowledge.

Have it at back of your mind that you are there to obtain

important information in relation to a specific concept in a

particular area of knowledge. That means you must set a target in

relation to the topic being discussed with intention to grab as

many information units as possible.

2.2 Identify the Purpose of the discourse

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You are required to identify your reason for participating in the

discourse in order to determine the focus and scope of your note-

taking. If the main goal of participating in a discourse is not

for examination purpose but to widen your horizon of knowledge,

there may not be any need for a meticulous arrangement of points.

But if the goal is purely hinged on academic exercise you have to

employ your best methodology and skills towards mote-taking in

such situation.

2.3 Maintain eyes contact with the speaker

Let your attention be fully focused upon the speaker and watch

with keen interest every point at which he introduces a new idea

in his train of thought. With the above points it can be said

that you are prepared for note-taking activity. However the

activities proper entail some basic skills some of which are

discussed under the sub-topics below:

3.0 PRINCIPLES OF GOOD NOTE TAKING

3.1 Write date, subject, name of lecturer and topic

It is very important to start every note-taking by writing the

date, the topic being discussed and the name of the lecturer at

the top of your note. This will enable you to establish links

between all fragments of notes gathered from different lectures

delivered by the same lecturer on the same topic.

3.2 Use of headings and subheadings

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It is important to note that every note-taking exercise is

usually based on a specific concept. You must therefore mark each

unit of recording with appropriate heading in order to keep your

materials properly organized for reference at a later stage.

3.3 Watch out for the major divisions of the lecture:

You must be alert to the introduction preambles in order to

recognise the major divisions of the lecture. This will enable

you to address your mind to the possible main points that may

feature in the discourse. You will thus be able to exercise

anticipatory skill of listening in the process of the discourse.

That is, you will be able anticipate what comes next after each

unit of thought and as a result flow effectively with the speaker

rate of speech.

3.4 Watch out for key points and mark supporting details

This implies that you must watch out connectives and discourse

markers that indicate introduction of a new idea so as to know

where a new idea begins and where supporting details are

introduced.

3.5 Distinguish between main points and supporting details

As a strategy towards identifying and jotting down only the main

points in an oral discourse, you are to identify words that are

used for introducing the main idea such as topic sentence as

different from markers of supporting details. Supporting details

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could be many within a paragraph; but the main point is usually

one.

3.6 Watch out for meaning clarifying cues before writing

In every verbal presentation, there is always the use of

different paraverbal and non verbal cues that serve as

illocutionary force indicating devices. These can be used to

properly decode the unstated meanings associated with the spoken

words of the presenter. These devices include, facial

expressions, transitional words, discourse markers like, emphatic

words such as it is obvious, definitely and of course, hedges:

possible, might, perhaps, maximisers: completely, absolutely,

entirely, or minimisers: only, just, hardly, simply, merely. A

combination of all these with the overtly stated facts will be

required for proper interpretation and formulation of

comprehensive summary of the core message without adding the

unnecessary details. That is, you are to employ the meanings

implications of those devices to draw inferences that will give

you the data to jot down in a concise form.

3.7 Assign separate note book to each subject

You must choose a specific note book for each subject in order to

avoid jumbling your materials in such way that can pose problem

at the stage of revision. A well organized note makes for

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convenient revision and easy assimilation at the stage of exam

preparation.

3.8 Select what is relevant

You do not need to write down everything that is said by the

speaker in an academic presentation. By paying attention to the

main point, you are to employ the information supplied in the

supporting details as a means to gain better understanding of the

central message and restate it in your own language.

3.9 Use numbering occasionally

Sometimes, it may become necessary to delineate your data through

numbering of points Do not hesitate to do this. Some itemized

points in a discourse usually need to be numbered.

3.10 Include your own thoughts

In note-taking, you are free to insert your pervious ideas that

are relevant to the data supplied by the speaker. State the fact

in your own language buttressing the point from your own logical

perspective.

4.0 BASIC RULES OF NOTE-TAKING

For effective note taking to be achieved, there are some pitfalls

to be avoided. These are highlighted in the rules below for easy

understanding.

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4.1 Resist distractions

As a general rule, the need for concentration in any

communicative transaction is not negotiable. It is a generally

acknowledged assumption that when a listener tolerates

distraction, there is bound to loss of information. You are

therefore required to avoid distraction and give total

concentration to the presentation.

4.2 Do not write in haste

The general goal of note taking is to get the core messages of

the speaker and summarise them in your own language with maximum

economy of words. In that wise, you are not to jump into writing

until a unit of thought is fully expressed with all its

supporting details. At such time, it will be easy to extract and

summarise the main point and conveniently skip the supporting

details without losing anything. Hasty writing has a way of

swelling the note with unnecessary junks. Besides, you may not be

able to cope with the speaking rate of the presenter; and this

can result in frustration or sacrificing the essential points for

unnecessary details.

4.3 Do not attempt to write everything

This point is akin to the above except that it centres on what

you should focus upon. In any attempt to take note effort must be

made to identify the main points in order to avoid voluminous and

traumatising writing. The essence of note taking is to compile

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chunks of information that can serve as memory joggers at the

stage of revision. A well organised note can help you to remember

most of what you have read or listened to in a lecture room. Your

focus in writing must therefore be centred on the main points,

and not the supporting details.

4.4 Leave wide margins

In any lecture class, it is not unlikely that error would occur

either in hearing or jotting down what was heard. It is therefore

considered safe to leave margins wide enough to accommodate

correction after the lecture. Also, you are not to cram your

lines together such that insertion of omitted word would become

difficult. Allowance must be made for such eventualities as time

do not always permit going back to fully rewrite all notes after

lectures.

4.5 Do not embark on lengthy writing

In note taking, you are required to keep abreast of the speaker’s

rate of speech so as not to lose any major point he introduces.

For that reason, your attempt to capture a full mental picture of

the core message in your note should not be allowed metamorphose

into long passage writing. You must be concise in your note

taking without sacrificing the need for completeness of the

message. This can be catered for by the point discussed in the

next topic.

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4.6 Do not leave your note in a jumble

Your notes must be reorganised as soon as possible after each

lecture. You should dot all your i’s and cross all your t’s.

Wrong spellings are to be corrected and encrypted forms that

could pose problem of interpretation at later stages must be

amplified when the memory is still fresh. This is the essence of

providing margins and spaces on the sheet.

5.0 STRATEGIES OF SUMMARISING AND ENCRYPTING IN NOTE-TAKING

The beauty of a good note is brevity and completeness. To achieve

this quality, you must learn and gain mastery in the arts of

paraphrasing, summarising and encrypting. This however cannot be

done without having enough vocabulary of the language of

instruction. For the purpose of clarity, we shall briefly examine

the three terms mentioned above in this section.

5.1 Paraphrasing

This terms simply put denotes restating what you have read or

heard in alternative words. The Longman Dictionary of English

defines this term as: “a restatement in different words of

(something written or said), especially in words that are easier

to understand.” Oloruntoba-Oju (1998:151) also described

paraphrasing as “restating or rephrasing a sentence or statement

in different words, while preserving the meaning of the original

statement” These different definitions succinctly underscores the

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need for paraphrasing in note making. It implies that you are to

reduce the message to a language you can easily interpret at a

later stage. Paraphrasing does not necessarily imply summarising;

hence it is just an abstract mental step towards writing down

your note. It is a process that goes on in the mind in a rapid

sequence before writing it down in a summarised or encrypted

form. You are to interpret the core point to yourself and then

use your own language in jotting it down as briefly as possible.

5.2 Summarising

To summarise means to contract an expression. Oloruntoba-Oju

defined summary as “rephrasing, restating or re-presentation of a

text or passage in a reduced form”. That is, you reduce the

number of words used in expressing a given idea or message. It is

also defined by the dictionary as: “to make a short general

statement of the main points of (something longer or more

detailed).” This is closely related to paraphrasing, in that,

there is usually alternation of words based how clearly you are

able to interpret the expression. However, while in paraphrasing

there is no emphasis on brevity, summarising insists on brevity

without losing any part of the message. It is also noteworthy

that the main focus of summarising is the main points with less

interest in tangential details. This is where the central task of

note-taking lies; as elaborate writing is excluded while central

message must be protected. This informs the need for encrypting

as discussed under the next subtopic.

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5.3 Encrypting

This aspect enjoys different appellations from different

scholars. The choice of this term in this piece however stems

from the fact that different forms are usually being adopted in

attempt to reduce the volume of lexemes in the note-taking

process. Generally speaking, the forms recognised by the

literature as appropriate for note-taking include, abbreviation,

symbols and signs (Chukwuma and Otagburuagu1997:9; Tinuoye,

1998:173; Kolawole and Adelabu, 2004:27 etc.). Banjo and Bisong

(1985:210) also acknowledged the use of symbols in note-taking

but limited the usage of these forms to what they referred to as

“rough jottings". By this phrase, what they seem to believe is

that note-taking should be done in two phases; that is, after the

rough jottings students must settle down for a re-write process

whereby the symbols may be replaced with lexical words. Much as

this work is not meant to query their view in this respect, it is

also plausible to mention at this stage that symbols and signs,

if properly utilised can serve as permanent component parts of a

good note without any need for re-writing or replacement. It is a

matter of choice. More so, when considered in the light of time

factor and the work load confronting students in the tertiary

institutions today, the idea of constructing a rough jotting and

re-writing would rather be discarded in favour of accurate note-

taking with proper management of these abbreviations, symbols and

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signs. A well articulated note with judicious blends of words

with intelligible symbols and signs can serve the same purpose

with scripts that are written without symbols. The term

encrypting in this paper therefore include the use of

abbreviation, symbols and any other acceptable length reduction

strategy in fast and accurate note-taking. Some of these are

further expatiated in the discourse below:

5.4 Abbreviation

The word abbreviation has been described as shorten forms of

words or making a group of words shorter by missing out letters

or only using the first letter of each word (Longman Dictionary

of English Language and Culture, 2003:2). Similar to this is

acronym which is defined by the same dictionary as “a word made

you form the first letters of the name of something.” That means

that the difference between abbreviation and acronym is that,

while abbreviation merely reduces the length of the structure

into few letters, acronym reduces it to a pronounceable word.

Whichever method is employed, the two are useful tools in

accurate note-taking. In fact, Chukwuma and Otagburuagu (1997:9)

argue that before one can write fast and cover all the substance

of what is said, one would not only write few words, but must

abbreviate many of what is written.

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On the other hand, Kolawole and Adelabu (2004:28) classified

abbreviation into three categories namely, conventional

abbreviation, subject area abbreviation and personal

abbreviation. This implies that you can derive abbreviation from

the inventories of different subject areas, common linguistic

inventory and personally formulated ones, provided these can be

easily remembered at later stage. For a guide, some relevant

abbreviations and symbols are provided below. Students are free

to add to the list as much as possible through individual

creativity.

5.4.1 Common abbreviation

Below are some common or conventional abbreviations that can be

easily remembered when used in a lecture note.

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The above list

represents a sample of

the

Abbreviations MeaningsNB (notabenne)

Note well

Pre. PreliminaryNo. (numero) NumberUI University of IbadanEtc(etcetera)

and so on

Cf (confer) CompareViz Namelye.g.(exemplagrate)

for example

Max MaximumPpl PeoplePls Pleaseno. Numberi.e. (idest)

that is,

Sos Save our soulBA Bachelor of ArtsAOB Any other businessGonr. GovernnorGovt. GovernmentUSA United States of

AmericaFGN Federal government of

NigeriaSch. SchoolEdu. EducationNECO National Examinaion

CouncilReg. Registery/

RegistrationVeh. VehicleProf. ProfessorIGP Inspector General of

PoliceAGM Annual General

MeetingAcc. Account Coll. College

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possibilities in the art of generating abbreviations in note-

taking process.

5.4.2 Subject-area abbreviation

Different subjects in various academic disciplines have their

idiosyncratic behaviours in the aspects of abbreviation

formations. For instance, in science, there are different types

of abbreviations that are specific to different concepts such as,

m=metre, kg.=Kilogramme, km.=Kilometre, cl.=centilitre,

lit.=litre, etc. Similarly in linguistic, we have forms like NP=

Noun Phrase, VP=Verb Phrase, PP=Prepositional phrase,

Adj=adjective, Det.=determiner, ADVP=Adverbial Phrase,

AUX=auxiliary, MHQ= Modifier-Head-Qualifier, SVO=Subject-Verb-

Object, RP=received pronunciation, GA=General American, and so

on (Yusuf 1997; Ababio, 2006; Rogers,2000). The individual’s area

of discipline is the major determiner of his focus in subject-

specific abbreviation. You are therefore required to explore your

subject area for more relevant abbreviations in this regard.

5.4.3 Personal abbreviation

This aspect is a matter of individual skill in lexical

manipulation. Morphological skill already acquired by you can

however help you in developing your own list of intelligible

abbreviations that would not elude your memory in time of need.

Nonetheless you may need to take note of the following inventions

that are associated with modern information technology styles

that are almost becoming popular among students. These have been

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arbitrarily labelled as Ciber language in some quarters. You can

draw upon them to design your own personal abbreviations.

Dis=this Dem=them2= toUr=your9te= night

4=forU=you4U= For youKud=couldGr8=great

Dat=that cos=becauseDi=the diff.=different

(SMS Interpersonal Texts) You can generate as much as you can conveniently employ withoutfalling into error at the time of revision. 5.5 Symbols Below are some samples of conventional and discipline-specificsymbols that may be of help to you in note-taking process:

5.5.1 Conventional symbols

SYMBOLS MEANINGS +/α plus/and---˃ result in/ leads to/

causes --/--˃ does not result in/

lead to/ cause ˂ less than? is the statement

correct= equals/ is/ are/ have.: Because& And@ At2 To4 ForNyt Night* Wrong construction… Ellipsis ... Therefore& And

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5.5.2 Discipline-specific symbols

As posited by Jones and Mort (2010), while some symbols are

universally relevant in every discourse event, it is also

possible to employ some discipline-specific symbols in note-

taking activity. Some scientific and linguistic symbols below

illustrate this assumption.

(a) Scientific symbols CO2=carbon dioxideH2O=waterI=IodineIr.=IridiumFe=Iron

Pb=LeadHg=MercuryO=OxygenCa=CalciumZn=Zinc

(Ababio, 2006)

(b) Linguistic symbolsIP=sentenceh=aspirated segmentα=main clause (in a complex sentence)β=subordinate clauseø=delete

*=aberrant formN1=noun phrase∂=syllable = can be rewritten as/= in the environment of

(Malmkjær, 2006)

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The items in the list provided above are samples that can beemployed as guide to form more on your own as you are confrontedwith note-taking task from time to time.

6.0 FACTORS AFFECTING EFFECTIVE NOTE-TAKING 6.1 Unfavourable lecture atmosphere

When the environment in which a lecture is being held is not

conducive, for instance, an over -crowded lecture room where

students scarcely find a suitable seat and thus cannot settled

down for a comfortable writing, note-taking is usually difficult.

The solution to this is to get to the lecture venue as early as

possible and find a vantage position.

6.2 Lecturers’ refusal to repeat an expression

Some lecturers detest having to repeat their utterances, students

in such situations often find such lectures quite difficult to

enjoy. It is however advisable that appropriate steps prescribed

in this piece be followed in order to reduce the rate of deficit

this lapses can cause in the note taking process. Students should

also note that there are usually elements of individual

differences in human behaviours. Each lecturer should be

identified as he is and accepted with his peculiarity in terms of

communication. This form the background consciousness with which

students should prepare for each lecture. Students should be apt

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to draw inference from expressions with minimum occurrence of

errors. 6.3 Poor articulation in delivery

Generally speaking, the mode of oral articulation is usually

different from person to person. While some people are naturally

introverts and seldom utter all their words, some speak rather

extravagantly that one would need a lot of effort to sift the

relevant out of the irrelevant. Also, the expressions of some

people are fraught with stammering such that listening to them is

usually a tasking exercise. Stammer can also be divided into

categories. One is characterised by halting in speech while the

other is characterised by abnormally rapid flow of utterance.

Both have their individual negative effect on listening. The

latter however poses greater difficulty to note-taking than the

former. In sum, students are required to master the speaking

habit of their teachers and approach their lectures with dynamic

listening strategies.

6.4 Ignorance of the concept being discussed

Students are usually required to acquaint themselves with the

contents of a given lecture before the class. This is because a

lecture one does not have the vaguest idea of may not be clear

enough to offer one a good understanding. Many students attend

some lecture and come out rather confused than ever. Pre-lecture

reading is the only way out. By this strategy, you will be able

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to comprehend and obtain the appropriate information to compile a

good note in the lecture.

6.5 Vocabulary deficit

Most people assume erroneously that the term vocabulary is used

to denote difficult words or bombastic language. However,

vocabulary, in a simple term, means the total number of the words

of a given language that you have in your linguistic repertoire

which you can conveniently employ in your communication with

limited error. In other words, it implies the entire words that

you know and can use at any time for communicating your ideas or

interpreting others expressions. So, in order to effectively

interpret what the lecturer is saying and also reduce their

instructions to a contracted volume, there is need for a rich

mental lexicon of English. Students are therefore expected to

form the habit of enriching their vocabularies through deliberate

interaction with their dictionary and taking special note of new

words. Unfamiliar words should be checked up while reading with

the aim of adding them to their mental dictionary. This will go a

long way in reducing students’ stress in note-taking activities.

7.0 ESSENTIALS OF PHONEMIC AWARENESS IN LISTENING SKILLS The term phonemic awareness was originally proposed as one of the

skill required by children at the stage of developing reading

skills. It is assumed to depict the “ability to focus on the

separate, individual sounds in words” (Konza, 2011) Similarly,

Tinajero (2012) described the concept as “the ability to hear,

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identify, and manipulate the individual sounds, or phonemes, in spoken

words.” This implies that phonemic awareness entails proficiency

in the various mutations that the phonemes pass through in

connected speech. On the other hand, Akinjobi, (2009) draws

attention to the fact that there are more sounds than letters in

the English language; and as a result, some letters are

pronounced as different sounds in different contexts, while some

letters combine to form different sounds. Also, Fatusin (2007:29)

observed that, “Letters in English very often do not consistently

represent sounds in English.” This accentuates the general notion

that there is no consistent spelling-sound correspondence in the

English language.The implication of this for note-taking in oral

discourse is that the L2 learner of English, who is deficient in

phonemic awareness will be prone to misinterpreting many words

and recording wrong information. Students therefore need to be

equipped with knowledge about some notions in phonological rules

in the English language in order to address this problem. Few

examples in phonological rule are provided below as a guide for

tackling this phonological problem in listening and note-taking.

7.1 Morphophonemic rules

This rule is particularly interested in what happens to the

phoneme when a word is “–ed” past tense marker or “–s” plural

marker is added to it. The condition upon which this rule

operates is base on the phonation value of the phoneme preceding

the morphemes involved. The different allomorphs that can be

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generated by the “–ed” past tense marker are /d/, /id/ and /t/

while the allomorphs generated by “–s” plural marker are, /z/,

/iz/ and /s/. Consider the examples below:

7.1.1 Past tense markers

“-ed” after a voiced sound : This is usually pronounced as /d/

e.g. Bow + past= bowed [baud],

Beg+ past=begged [begd] etc.

“-ed” after a voiceless sound : This is usually pronounced as /t/

e.g. slap + past=slapped [slapt],

park+ past = parked [pakt].

“-ed” after a /t/ or /d/ : This is pronounced as /id/

e.g. waste+ past= wasted [weistid],

wade+ past=waded [weidid]

NB: Our major point of interest here is the /t/ form that is

usually pronounced following the voiceless sound. Students are to

note this to avoid being confused in an oral presentation.

7.1.2 Plural markers

“-s” after a voiced sound : this is usually pronounced as /z/

e.g. boy + s = boys [bͻız],

bag +s=bags [bagz]

“s” after a voiceless sound : this is usually pronounced as /s/

e.g. cat +s= cats [kæts]

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cup +s+ cups [k˄ps]

“s” after sibilants : thisis pronounced as /Iz/

e.g. box+s=boxes [b˄ksIz]

judge+s=judges [dʒ˄dʒIz]

NB: The point to note here is that letter ‘s’ behaves differently

indifferent phonological environment and could be misquoted if

the individual student is not equipped with this phonemic

awareness.

Other sources phonemic confusion that can affect effective note-

taking are words that fall in the category of homophones.

e.g.feet = [fI:t] fit = [fIt]

tail = [teIl] tale=[teIl]

bid = [bId] bead=[bI:d]

steel = [stI:l]   steal=[stI:l]

feel =[fI:l]   fill= [fIl]

raw = [rɔ:] roar = [rɔ:]

heel  =[hI:l] heal = [hI:l]

you  =[ju:]   ewe=  [ju:]

(Jones 2006)

From the above list of words it is noteworthy that words that are

pronounced similarly can be mistaken for each other if not

properly isolated in the process of listening. Therefore, the

principle prescribed in 4.2 above will enable students to employ

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contextual clues in demystifying any puzzlement created by this

phonemic symmetry.

Conclusion In this paper, various concepts that are germane to note-taking

practice were explicated with a view to equipping students with

skills required to achieve appreciable success in academic

discourse. If properly understood and utilized, the various

concepts discussed under different topics like: basic steps in

note-taking, principles of good note taking, basic rules of note-

taking, strategies of summarising and encrypting, factors

affecting effective note-taking and essentials of phonemic

awareness in listening skills will go a long way in enhancing the

overall performance of students in their various subject areas in

tertiary institutions.

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