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Publishing Date: 01 March, 2017 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER

4 VOL. NO. XV, ISSUE NO. 10

18. Importance of Neem (Azadirachta Indica) as a Fungicide ...................................................................... 31 Brajnandan Singh Chandrawat, Harshraj Kanwar and Dr. B. D. Singh Nathawat

SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 19. Todays Need of Seed Storage Structure ......................... 32

Dr. Pankaj P. Jibhakate 20. An Introduction to Seed Legislation in India .................... 34

Himaj S. Deshmukh SOIL SCIENCE AND AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 21. Effect of Humic Substances on Soil Fertility ................... 35

Mohitpasha S. Shaikh and Savita B. Ahire 22. Basics of Phosphorus ................................................... 37

Dr. A. Suganya 23. Integrated Nutrient Management in Soybean................... 38

B. Chandra Sheker 24. Soil Health: A Sustainable Approach for

Managing Soil ............................................................... 39 Rajendra Kumar Yadav, Chiranjeev Kumawat and Deep Mohan Mahala

25. Summarized Information on Phosphorus ....................... 41 M. K. Tarwariya and Ekta Joshi

26. Waterlogged Soils and Management .............................. 41 B. Chandra Sheker

27. Soil Test and Crop Response Based Integrated Nutrient Management .................................................... 43 Sowmya Pogula and Debadatta Sethi

28. Role of Soil Physical Environment in Boosting Crop Production Potential .............................................. 44 D. C. Kala and Gangadhar Nanda

29. Enzyme Activities as a Component of Soil Biodiversity ................................................................... 45 Chetan Kumar Jangir and Dheeraj Panghaal

30. Soil Biodiversity and Methods to Augment it ................... 48 A. Daripa and S. Chattaraj

31. Role of Organic Matter in Sustenance of Soil Health........................................................................... 49 Gazala Nazir, Ibajanai Kurbah, Meenakshi and Khushboo Rana

32. Phytoremediation of Heavy Metals ................................. 51 Manoj Kumar Dev

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 33. Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria:

Beneficial Effects for Healthy and Sustainable Agriculture .................................................................... 52 Chaudhary Maheshbhai and Chaudhary Dineshbhai

34. Need of the Hour: Integrated Nutrient Management towards Sustainable Agriculture ................ 54 S. Udayakumar and C. Jemila

HORTICULTURE 35. Micro-Propagation and its Stages .................................. 55

Sanvar Mal Choudhary and Desh Raj Choudhary 36. Concept of Meadow Orchard Production in

Guava ........................................................................... 57 P. L. Deshmukh and V. A. Bodkhe

37. Storage and Handling of Mango Fruits ........................... 58 P. L. Deshmukh and V. A. Bodkhe

38. Hydroponics Farming Technology ................................. 60 A. S. Dhonde and S. D. Thorat

39. Cisgenesis and Intragenesis: A Novel Technique for Fruit Crop Improvement ........................................... 62 Murlimanohar Baghel, J. Srinivas, Rahul Nashipudi and Anjana Kholia

40. Production Technology of Tomato under Greenhouse ................................................................. 63 Kiran Kumar, N. C. Banjara and Padmakshi Thakur

41. Impact of Climate Change and Fruit Orchid .................... 65 Mundhe S. G., Khazi G. S. and D. A. Sonawane

42. Different Cool Season Turf Grasses .............................. 67 Gawde N. V. and Bhondave S. S.

43. Mutation Breeding in Ornamental Crops ........................ 68 Jaya Kumari

44. An Innovative Method of Turmeric Cultivation ................ 69 Sudhakar S. Kelageri and Nagaratna N. Kolodar

45. National Flower: Lotus .................................................. 69 Latha S. and Shivaprasad S. G.

FORESTRY 46. Role of Exotic Poplar in North Eastern India ................... 70

Indu Bala Sethi, and Mahesh Jajoria 47. Wetlands: Their Status in India and Need for

their Conservation and Management ............................. 72 Thiru Selvan

MEDICINAL PLANTS 48. Periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus) Anticanceral

Herb ............................................................................ 74 Patil Manish Bhagwan and K. Suresh

PLANT BREEDING AND GENETICS 49. Reverse Breeding: A Novel Breeding Approach

Based on Engineered Meiosis ....................................... 75 Ishwar H. Boodi, Shruti N Koraddi and Savita Kanthi

50. Marker Assisted Breeding: A Boon for Crop Improvement ............................................................... 77 Ishwar H. Boodi, Savita Kanthi, Guljar Dambal and Laxmi Kamagond

51. Approaches for Induction of Transgenic Male Sterility ........................................................................ 79 Ranjana Patial and Neha Sharma

52. Farmers’ Rights: Rights that Every Farmer Need to Know ....................................................................... 80 Hirdayesh Anuragi

53. Geographical Indications and its Implication on Indian Farmers ............................................................. 82 Satyapal Singh and Parmeshwar Ku. Sahu

54. Site Directed Mutagenesis in Crop Improvement ............ 84 Soumitra Mohanty and Asit Prasad Dash

55. Crispr-Cas: Ultimate Tool for Modern Plant Breeding ...................................................................... 85 Varsha Gayatonde

56. Evolutionarily Conserved Molecular Signature in Plant Defense Response to Pathogens .......................... 87 G. Thamodharan

57. Genomic Selection for Crop Improvement ..................... 88 Kumar Nishant Chourasia and Deepak Koujalagi

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AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER Publishing Date: 01 March, 2017

VOL. NO. XV, ISSUE NO. 10 5

58. Allele Mining for Crop Improvement ............................... 89 Kailash Chandra, Rohit Sharma, Gobu R. and Megaladevi P.

59. Smart Breeding: An Approach of Crop Improvement without Genetic Engineering ...................... 91 Kailash Chandra, Gobu R., Rohit Sharma and Bapsila Loitongbam

POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT 60. Vegetable Storage Methods ........................................... 93

Gaikwad S. D. and Alekar A. N. PLANT PATHOLOGY 61. Management Strategies for Chilli Damping Off ................ 95

A. G. Tekale, Dr. H. N. Kamble and K. N. Dhawale 62. Diseases of Castor and their Management ..................... 96

M. L. Meghwal 63. Weedy Rice and its Management ................................... 97

Meenaskshi Seth and Shabnam 64. Diseases of Rice and their Management ........................ 98

Jalender P. 65. Quorum Sensing: A Way of Communication in

Bacteria ...................................................................... 100 B. Khamari, A. Roy and S. Tripathy

ENTOMOLOGY 66. Migration and Migratory Routes of Monarch

Butterfly (Danaus plexippus) ....................................... 101 Jyoti Raina

67. Genetic Improvement of Natural Enemies ..................... 103 Sawant C. G., Shinde P. R. and Patil R. V.

68. Eco-Friendly Management of Termites in Agriculture .................................................................. 104 Pooja Upadhayay, Khajan Singh Bisht and Kalpana Gairola

69. Insect’s Contribution to Food Security, Livelihoods and the Environment ................................. 105 Elangbam Bidyarani Devi, Elangbam Premabati Devi, L. Netajit Singh and Deepshikha

70. Chemical Mediated Foraging Behavior of Egg Parasitoids ................................................................. 107 K. L. Manjunatha, T. G., Avinash and Parasappa H Hulagabala

71. Abiotic Factors and their Generalized Action on Insects ....................................................................... 108 Abhishek Rana, Nikhil Sharma, Vinay Singh and Chhavi

72. Insect Biodiversity and its Conservation ....................... 109 S. N. Satapathy

73. Pupal Stage of Insects ................................................ 111 Rishikesh Mandloi

74. Phosphine Resistance in Storage Insect Pests ............. 112 Sunil Kumar Yadav and Shweta Patel

75. Paddy Green Leaf Hopper (GLH) Management ............. 114 L. Ramazeame

PEST MANAGEMENT 76. Geospatial Technology for Insect-Pest

Monitoring and Management ....................................... 115 Chhavi, Vinay Singh, Nikhil Sharma and Abhishek Rana

77. Soil Solarization: A Natural Pest Management Strategy ......................................................................117 Kishan Kumar Sharma and Jitender Kumar Sharma

78. Integrated Management of Tuta absoluta – A Devastating Pest of Tomato in Andhra Pradesh ............119 R. Prasanna lakshmi and P. Ganesh Kumar

EXTENSION EDUCATION 79. Use of Social Media in Effective Transfer of

Agricultural Technologies ............................................120 P. Sivaraj and R. Thulasiram

80. Constraints in Contract Farming ...................................121 Charudatt D. Autade and Pritish A. Jakhar

81. Evaluation of Training Programme ...............................122 Dr. Sumit R. Salunkhe and Dr. Netravathi G.

82. Role of Women in Diary Sector ....................................124 Netravathi. G and Sumith R. Solunkhe

83. Role of Rural Cooperative Milk Collection Units in Marketing and Distribution of Feed Supplement ................................................................126 Pravin Sukhadeo Gaikar

AGRIBUSINESS 84. The Role of Agricultural Marketing in Rural India ...........128

Dr. Sumedha S. Bobade and Dr. Rajendra Gade FOOD SCIENCE 85. Amino Acid Pool, Protein Turn Over and Protein

Regulation in Human Body ..........................................129 Preeti Choudhary

86. Application of Pulsed Electric Field in Fruit Juices ........................................................................131 Birwal P., Patel S. S. and Deshmukh G.

87. Nutritional and Health Benefits of Brussel Sprouts ......................................................................132 Preeti Choudhary

ECONOMICS 88. Warehouses ...............................................................133

Shakuntala Devi. I VETERINARY 89. Brooder Pneumonia Young in Chicks ...........................134

M. Sasikala and K. Jayalakshmi 90. Nutritional Strategies to Reduce Methane

Emission from Livestock .............................................135 Khwairakpam Ratika

91. High Pressure Processing: Raw Chicken Meat .............137 Pranjal S. Deshmukh

DAIRY SCIENCE 92. Good Dairy Farming Practices .....................................138

Dr. Chopade A. A. and Shri. Patil R. V. ENVIRONMENT 93. Role of Carbon Sequestration to Mitigate

Climate Change Effect .................................................140 Arjun Lal Prajapat and Praveen Kumar Hatwal

94. Ozone Depletion and its Effects on Environment ...........142 Ramya D. B

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1. BIOTECHNOLOGY 13584

Epigenetics and its Functional Utility in Crop Improvement S. S. Jadhav

Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, C. P. College of Agriculture, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, SK Nagar

Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene activity which are not caused by changes in the DNA sequence. In the 20th century, Waddintgon (1942) coined the term “epigenetics”. The modern use “epigenetics” defines all meiotically and mitotically heritable changes in gene expression that are not coded in the DNA sequence itself. Higher organisms, including plants, use three systems to initiate and sustain epigenetic gene regulation.

1. DNA methylation: Heritable epigenetic enzymatic modification resulting from the addition of a methyl group in the cyclic carbon-5 of cytosine. Methylation is primarily found as part of host defense systems in prokaryotes, but it is also present in eukaryotes performing different roles, mostly as control mechanism for transposable elements in genome.

2. Histone modification: Histones are highly alkaline proteins found in eukaryotic cell nuclei that package and order the DNA into structural units called nucleosomes. They are the chief protein components of chromatin, acting as spools around which DNA winds, and play a role in gene regulation. Without histones, the unwound DNA in chromosomes would be very long. Post-translational modifications of histones, including acetylation, methylation, phosphorylation, sumoylation, ribosylation and ubiquitination of conserved lysine residues on the amino-terminal tail domains.

3. RNA interference: RNA interference (RNAi) also called post transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS), is a biological process in which RNA molecules inhibit gene expression, typically by causing the destruction of specific mRNA molecules. Historically, it was known by other names, including co-suppression, post transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS) and quelling.

Methods for studying epigenetic modifications: Epigenetics encompasses heritable changes in DNA or its associated proteins except mutations in gene sequence.

1. DNA methylation can be checked by - Bisulfite sequencing: The use of bisulfite treatment of DNA to determine its pattern of methylation. Methylation Sensitive Amplification Polymorphism (MSAP) - used to study global DNA methylation status of an

organism and hence to distinguish between two individuals based on the DNA methylation status determined by the differential digestion pattern.

2. Histone modification can be checked by - Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) - Technique used to investigate the interaction between proteins and DNA in the cell. It aims to determine whether specific proteins are associated with specific genomic regions. DNA adenosine methylation identification (DamID) - It identifies binding sites by expressing the proposed DNA-binding protein as a fusion protein with DNA methyltransferase.

3. RNA interference can be checked by - Pyrosequencing - Is a method of DNA sequencing based on the "sequencing by synthesis" principle. It differs from Sanger sequencing, in that it relies on the detection of pyrophosphate release on nucleotide incorporation, rather than chain termination with dideoxynucleotides. Deep sequencing - Also known as RNA seq, provides both the sequence and frequency of RNA molecules that are present at any particular time in a specific cell type, tissue or organ.

Application of Epigenetic Mechanisms

1. Better understanding on the physiological mechanisms: Epigenetic modifications of DNA and chromatin affect the activity of genes and transposons. Epigenetic controls affect processes as diverse as time of flowering, parent offering imprinting, paramutation and transposon silencing. Regulation and reprogramming of genes occurs throughout genes encoding transcription factors, microRNA genes, and genes involved in auxin synthesis and response.

2. Improving Plant Stress Tolerance: The plant response to stress based on the mechanisms of tolerance, resistance, and avoidance has clearly defined metabolic pathways, the ability to acclimate after a single generation exposure.

3. Evolutionary studies or epigenetic diversity studies: A fundamental precept of evolutionary biology is that natural selection acts on phenotypes determined by DNA sequence variation within natural populations. In understanding of gene regulation, have elucidated a spectrum of epigenetic molecular

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phenomena capable of altering the temporal, spatial, and abundance patterns of gene expression. Epigenetic mechanisms in plants, can gives the connections between evolution and epigenetically mediated alterations in gene expression and morphology.

4. Epigenetic mechanisms, yield and heterosis: Hybrid vigour or heterosis refers to the increased yield and biomass of hybrid offspring relative to the parents. The molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying hybrid vigour are largely unknown.

5. Epigenetic QTL mapping: There is increasing evidence that epigenetic marks such as DNA methylation contribute to phenotypic variation by regulating gene transcription, developmental plasticity, and interactions with the environment. The relationship between the stability and distribution of DNA methylation within chromosomes and the ability to detect trait loci.

Conclusion

Epigenetics involves DNA methylation, histone modification and RNAi.

Mechanisms and phenomena that affect the phenotype of a cell or an organism without affecting the genotype.

Various application are better understanding of physiological mechanisms, improvement of plant stress tolerance, improvement of yield and heterosis, evolutionary and diversity studies and QTL mapping.

DNA methylation effectively down-regulates or up-regulates gene activity by addition of a methyl group to the five-carbon of a cytosine base.

Epigenetic changes can be studied by Bisulfite treatment, MSAP, DNA adenine methylase identification, Chromatin immunoprecipitation and Deep sequencing for RNAi.

2. BIOTECHNOLOGY 14575

DNA Barcoding: A Tool to Improve Agriculture Studies Anand Wagh1, Pravin Herode2

1Research Scholar, Biotechnology Centre, Dr. Panjabroa Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola, Maharashtra 444 104

2SRA, Sharad Pawar, Agriculture Polytechnic College, Jalgaon Jamod, Maharashtra 443402

INTRODUCTION: Written evidences of Indian agricultural history shows from Rigveda, 1100BC. Today India ranks second for worldwide agriculture produce. Total contribution of agriculture and allied science for Indian GDP is 13.7% in 2013. According to FAO 2010, world agriculture statistics, India shows world’s largest production of many fresh fruits and vegetables, major spices, fibrous crops such as jute and several staples such as millets also a second largest producer of wheat and rice. India ranked within the world's five largest producers of over 80% of agricultural produce items, including many cash crops such as coffee and cotton, (FAO 2010). Indian agriculture is increasing rapidly to feed fastest growing population. Indian researchers contributing to develop agriculture more beneficial by phenotypic as well genotypic studies. Studies at genetic level gives effective output along with phenotypic. More advanced research is being carried out at well-equipped research stations.

The present article gives the important futuristic aspect to improve Indian agriculture. The authenticity of raw material is a fundamental part of quality assurance in food and feed supply markets. Different agricultural species, especially those with high value due to their origin, are sold under the same name and therefore, there is a

great need for developing accurate methods of proving the authenticity of raw material. In order to identify plant species different methods have been used like the high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), mass spectrometry (MS), thin-layer chromatography (TLC), NMR spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared (FT-NIR) spectroscopy. Yet, there are cases where a plant metabolite profile can change due to external factors such as light, temperature, microbial infections and storage conditions. These fluctuations in metabolite profile hinder the accurate identification of species, thus DNA based authentication methods are becoming the method of choice whenever applicable.

Barcoding is a method of identifying species using short DNA sequences. The definitive goal is to identify a region or a combination of regions capable of discriminating all species. The barcoding method has been extremely useful in species identification, cryptic species identification, biodiversity studies, forensic analysis, and phylogenetics.

Sequences used as barcode: In plants, the most favorable choices are chloroplast DNA regions, as they have been used as a means to identify species. The sequences used, known as DNA barcodes, are usually short (300-800 bp).

Various regions of the plastid genome have

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been proposed to serve as DNA barcodes, including the rbcL, matK, rpoB, and C genes, the non-coding spacers atpF-atpH, trnH- psbA and psbK-psbI trnL-F, the trnL (UAA) intron, and the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) 2 region of nuclear ribosomes. Research groups have their preferred plant barcode regions for study, but no consensus has emerged on the use of a standard region.

How to do DNA Barcoding?

The DNA barcode of an unidentified species can be read using standard gene sequencing techniques. DNA barcoding includes three types of activities:

1. Working with organisms: Collecting, identifying, and preserving specimen in secure repositories

2. Laboratory procedures: Sampling and processing tissue from specimen to obtain DNA barcode gene sequences i.e. PCR amplification and sequence analysis.

3. Managing data: Sharing the DNA barcode sequence and data in a public database like GeneBank.

How Much Genome in DNA Barcode?: Barcode includes 300 – 650 DNA base pairs. Barcoding is done with well-known gene, not with a newly discovered gene.

Cost for DNA Barcoding: The laboratory

process in most well equipped labs in India, minimum costs 4495 INR.

The cost varies from number of samples, number and cost of primers.

Time for DNA Barcoding: Takes a few hours in most laboratories and can now be done in as little as 90 minutes. The costs are constantly decreasing and the barcoding process is getting faster. In the coming years, barcoding will probably cost pennies and take only minutes.

Uses of DNA Barcoding in Agriculture

Controlling Agricultural Pests: Various pest damage to agriculture cost equivalent to millions of rupees each year. DNA barcoding can identify pests in any life stage, making it easier to control them. The global Tephritid Barcoding Initiative will contribute to the management of fruitflies and will provide border inspectors with tools to identify and stop fruitflies at the border. Ensuring pest-free trade will guarantee better access to global markets.

Identifying Disease Vectors: DNA barcoding enables to identify vectors, thereby helping to understand and curb disease-carrying pests and pathogens.

Much more research should be done to improve Indian agriculture to feed rapidly growing population and to secure economic growth.

3. AGRICULTURAL MICROBIOLOGY 14385

Endophytes and Salt Stress Mitigation in Crops Haidar Abbas Masi and Pravin Prajapat

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Plant Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari- 396 450, Gujarat

INTRODUCTION: Being sessile organisms, plants cannot escape but often face and are compelled to grow under various unfavorable conditions in natural environment such as drought, salinity, chilling, freezing, high and low temperature, flooding, extreme light and so on, which are collectively known as abiotic stresses. Soil salinity is among one of the major abiotic stresses that adversely affects crop productivity and quality. Salinity affects nearly 20% of the world’s cultivated area and about half the world’s total irrigated lands.

Salt stress affects the plants in different ways. Reduction of water potential, Na+ and Cl−

phytotoxicity, disruption of nutrient transportation process are the three main physiological disorders due to salt stress as described by. Accumulation of salts in the root zone beyond the tolerance level can lead to growth inhibition, leaf necrosis, accelerated senescence, wilting and death. Salt stress reduces chl-a and chl-b content and stomatal conductance in older leaves which limits

their photosynthetic rate. Like other abiotic stresses salt stress generate a secondary oxidative stress caused by the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) including singlet oxygen (1O2), superoxide (O2·–), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and hydroxyl radicals (OH·). Soil salinity significantly reduces plant phosphorus (P) uptake because phosphate ions precipitate with Calcium ions.

Endophytes are bacterial or fungal microorganisms, which spends the whole or part of its life cycle colonizing inter- and/or intra-cellular spaces in the healthy tissues of the host plant, typically causing no apparent symptoms of disease. Endophytes have been shown to have several beneficial effects on their host plant. Plant growth is promoted through improved nutrient acquisition, including nitrogen fixation and production of plant growth enhancing substances such as cytokinins and indole acetic acid (IAA). In addition to enhanced growth properties, modulation of plant metabolism and

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phytohormone signaling by the endophytic bacteria enhances adaptation to environmental abiotic or biotic stress.

Endophytes to Mitigate Salt Stress

The plant and endophytic microbes have symbiotic relationship where both species benefit from the interaction. The diversity of endophytes is surprising, as each and every plant species harbours one or more endophytes and they are driven by symbiotic forces in the ecosystem. Several mechanisms have been reported by researchers to mitigate salt stress in plants by endophytic colonization.

The effect of endophytic bacteria-derived ACC deaminase activity on salt stress was most studied. Endophytic diazotrophic Achromobacter xylosoxidans AUM54 isolated from Catharanthus roseus grown in saline soil showed ability to produce ACC deaminase and to reduce ethylene levels which improved plant growth in 150 mM NaCl containing soils. Endophytic bacteria Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes was shown to induce accumulation of higher concentrations of glycine betain-like compounds leading to improved salinity stress tolerance in rice. Endophytes use ACC-deaminase and synthesis of indole acetic acid (IAA) to direct their plant hosts through signaling pathways. Pseudomonas syringae can induce IAA and abscisic acid biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana. These results illustrate that endophytes can effectively reprogram some plant signaling pathways and therefore influence endophyte community structure. Similarly, increased antioxidant enzyme activities (SOD, APX and CAT) and upregulation of ROS pathway genes (CAT, APX, GR and DHAR) were observed in PGPR inoculated okra plants under salinity stress which improved general health. Apart, PGPR are identified that stimulate plant roots to excrete organic acids that chelate Na+ excess in the soil solution as a mechanism that protects plants against salinity. Exo polysaccharides (EPS) produced by bacterial cells are instrumental in imparting stress tolerance to bacterial cell, but relatively little attention has been paid on this subject, particularly on EPS-producing fluorescent Pseudomonads and bioformulations developed from them.

Conclusion and Outlook

A vast diversity of endophytic bacteria isolated from a large number of agricultural plants suggests that the bacteria play an integral role in balancing plant physiology and functioning of agroecosystems. Composition of the endosphere microbial populations depends mostly on plant and bacteria genotype, biotic and abiotic environmental factors. Endophytic species have been mostly reported throughout the -, β-, and γ-proteobacteria subgroups and the latter is the most diverse and dominant group. The genera of

Bacillus and Pseudomonas are identified as frequently occurring in agricultural crops. Numerous studies demonstrate beneficial effects of the endophytic bacteria on plant growth and adaptability to biotic or abiotic stresses. Therefore understanding of composition and functioning of plant associated microbial communities as well as control of the structure of endophytic bacterial populations through development of environmentally benign agricultural practices has a large potential for improved plant performance and application of the integrated plant disease management systems required for sustainable agricultural production.

Advantages: After the one-time investment is made to develop seeds that fortify themselves, recurrent costs are low and germplasm may be shared internationally. It is this multiplier aspect of plant breeding across time and distance that makes it so cost-effective. Once in place, the biofortified crop system is highly sustainable. Nutritionally improved varieties will continue to be grown and consumed year after year, even if government attention and international funding for micronutrient issues fade. Moreover, Biofortification provides a truly feasible means of reaching malnourished populations in relatively remote rural areas, delivering naturally fortified foods to people with limited access to commercially marketed fortified foods, which are more readily available in urban areas. Biofortification and commercial fortification therefore, are highly complementary. Breeding for higher trace mineral density in seeds will not incur a yield penalty.

Future Challenges

At a global scale, the effects of continuous agricultural practices such as fertilization can cause serious damage to the environment. Inoculation is one of the most important sustainable practices in agriculture, because microorganisms establish associations with plants and promote plant growth by means of several beneficial characteristics. Endophytes are suitable for inoculation, reflecting the ability of these organisms for plant colonization and several studies have demonstrated the specific and intrinsic communication among bacteria and plant hosts of different species and genotypes. The combination of different methodologies with these bacteria, such as identification of plant growth promoting characteristics, the identification of bacterial strains, as well as assays of seed inoculation in laboratory conditions and cultivation experiments in the field, are part of the search for new technologies for agricultural crops. Finally, the search for beneficial bacteria is important for the development of new and efficient inoculants for agriculture. Thus, the introduction of beneficial bacteria in the soil tends to be less aggressive and cause less impact to the environment than chemical fertilization, which

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makes it a sustainable agronomic practice and a way of reducing the production costs.

Reference Rodriguez, R.J., Henson, J., Van Volkenburgh, E.,

Hoy, M., Wright, L., Beckwith, F., Kim, Y.O. and Redman, R.S. (2008). Stress tolerance in plants via habitat-adapted symbiosis. The ISME journal, 2(4): 404-416.

4. NANOTECHNOLOGY 13955

Nanotechnology: A Recent Approach to Management of Insect Pests

Divya Bharathi T.1*, Abdul Khadar B.1 and Shaila O.1 1Ph.D. Research Scholar, Dept. of Entomology, Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture,

Santhoshnagar, Hyderabad - 500059

INTRODUCTION: In a world where the human population is growing rapidly, the necessity for using chemicals to reduce crop damage from pests and to improve the yield increases. The pesticides used for the pest control irrationally posed threat not only by killing the target pests but also affecting beneficial living systems. To preserve biodiversity, it is necessary to reassess our strategies and achieve pest management by alternate approaches such as nanotechnology, which would provide green and efficient alternatives for the management of insect pests in agriculture without harming the nature. In more technical terms, the word “nano” means 10-9, or one billionth of something. Naturally, theword nanotechnology evolved due to use of nanometer size particles (size of 1 to 100 nm).

Nanotechnology has developed as one of the most ground-breaking scientific fields in decades. “Nanotechnology” refers to a nanoscale technology that has promising applications in day-to-day life and emphasizes the implications of individual atoms or molecules or submicron dimensions in terms of their applications to physical, chemical and biological systems and eventually their integration into larger complex systems opens up a wide array of opportunities in various fields like medicine, pharmaceuticals, electronics and agriculture (Agrawal and Rathore, 2014). These include management of insect pests through the formulations of nanomaterials based insecticides, enhancement of agricultural productivity using bio-conjugated nanoparticles (encapsulation) for slow release of nutrients and water, nanoparticle mediated gene (or) DNA transfer in plants for the development of insect pest-resistant varieties. “Particularly in agriculture, nanotechnology has a more scope in crop biotechnology for breeding of varieties, bar coding of diseases and for synthesis of nano DNA molecules (nanobullets). The role of nanotechnology in insect pest management including a use of nano based sensors for detection and identification of pests, nano based pheromones and nano-encapsulated pesticides.

Importance of Nanotechnology in Crop Protection

A promising application of nanotechnology is the gene (DNA) transfer by the nanoparticles. Desired chemicals and DNA can be transferred into the plant tissues for host plant defence against the pest insects. A “porous hollow silica nanoparticles” full of valid amycin is an effective transfer system for pesticides that are soluble in water for the release under controlled conditions. Nano-emulsions (oil in water) were considered as useful for pesticide formulations and efficient against several agricultural insect pests. Insects use a diversity of lipids on their cuticle for the protection of water obstruction on their bodies thus preventing the death from dryness. This mechanism of insect protection is used by the Nano-silica that becomes absorbed into the lipids of cuticle by physio-sorption thus causing insect death solely by physical ways when this pesticide is applied on the surfaces of leaves and stem. Nanoparticles coated with Polyethylene glycol that were coated with natural oil of garlic were checked for their biocidal activity against adult stage of red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum.

Different types of nanomaterials viz., copper, zinc, titanium, magnesium, gold, alginate and silver have been developed, but silver nanoparticles (Nano-Ag) have proved to be the most effective and would open a vista of research in integrated pest management. Nanoparticles like aluminium oxide nanoparticles (ANP), silver nanoparticles (SNP), titaniumdioxide and zinc oxide were experimented for the control of grasserie disease in silkworm and rice weevil (Goswami et al., 2010). El-bendary and El-Helaly (2013) reported that the repeated sprays of nano-silica on tomato plants influence the feeding preference of Spodoptera littoralis ultimately increasing the resistance in plants. Nanostructured alumina was also studied for its insecticidal activity against Rhyzopertha dominica and Sitophilus oryzae which are the main insect pests of stored grain products throughout the world. It may provide a reliable and cheap alternative source for the management of pest insects. The pediculocidal and larvicidal activity of

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synthesized silver nanoparticles using an aqueous leaf extract of Tinospora cordifolia showed maximum mortality against the head louse Pediculus humanus and fourth instar larvae of Anopheles subpictus and Culex-quinque fasciatus.

Nano-Encapsulation

Nanoencapsulation, a good example of nanotechnology that is recently being applies as new technology for cropprotection. Nano-encapsulation is a process through which a chemical is slowly but efficiently released tothe particular host for insect pests control. Release mechanisms include dissolution, biodegradation, diffusion and osmotic pressure with specific Ph. In the nano-encapsulation technology, different nanoparticles types are used with insecticides (Table 1).

TABLE 1: Several examples of nanoparticles in combination with insecticides

Polymer Active compound

Nanomaterial Reference

Lignin-polyethylene

Imidacloprid Capsule Flores-Cespedes et al. (2012)

Polyethylene glycol

β-Cyfluthrin Capsule Loha et al. (2012)

Chitosan Etofenprox, Piperonyl

Capsule Hwang et al. (2011)

Polyamide Pheromones Fiber Hellmann et al. (2011)

Starch-based polyethylene

Endosulfan Film Jana et al. (2011)

Lignin Aldicarb Gel Kok et al. (1999)

Lignin Imidacloprid Granules Fernandez-Perez et al. (2011)

polyethylene glycol and

Carbofuran Suspension Chin et al. (2011)

Polymer Active compound

Nanomaterial Reference

Polyvinyl pyrrolidone

Glyceryl ester of fatty acids Poly (methyl methacrylate)

Carbaryl Spheres Quaglia et al. (2001)

Polyvinylchloride Chlorpyrifos Particle Liu et al. (2002)

Vinylethylene and vinylacetate

Pheromones Resin Wright (1997)

Anionic surfactants (condensate sodium salt and sodium dodecyl sulfate)

Novaluron Powder Elek et al. (2010)

Conclusion: The adoption of new technology indifferent fields of agriculture and food industry by the proper monitoring systems, pest and disease detection, smart systems of chemicals and gene delivery into the crops, nano-pesticides and encapsulation, nano-formulations and many other applications will change situation of the agriculture. Nanoencapsulation is currently the most promising technology for protection of host plants against insect pests. Thus nanotechnology will revolutionize agriculture including pest management in the near future. Over the next two decades, the Green Revolution would be accelerated by means of nanotechnology.

References Goswami A, Roy I, Sengupta S, Debnath N (2010)

Novel applicationsof solid and liquid formulations of nanoparticles against insectpests and pathogens. Thin Solid Films 519:1252–1257

El-bendary, H. M., & El-Helaly, A. A. (2013). First record nanotechnology in agricultural: Silica nano-particles a potential new insecticide for pest control. Applied Science Report, 4 (3), 241-246.

5. BIOCHEMISTRY 14713

Mechanism of Enzymatic Browning Priti Faldu and Trupti K. Vyas

Food Quality Testing Laboratory, Navsasri Agricultural University, Navsari, Gujarat *Corresponding Author e Mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Enzymatic browning is a chemical process, involving polyphenol oxidase, catechol oxidase, and other enzymes that create melanins and benzoquinone from natural phenols, resulting in a brown color. It can be observed in fruits, vegetables and also in seafood. Enzymatic browning is detrimental to quality, particularly in post-harvest storage of fresh fruits, juices and

some shellfish. Moreover, it may be responsible for up to 50% of all losses during fruit and vegetables production. On the other hand enzymatic browning is essential for the colour and taste of tea, coffee and chocolate.

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Polyphenols – Main Components in Enzymatic Browning

Polyphenols, also called phenolic compounds, are group of chemical substances present in plants (fruits, vegetables) which play an important role during enzymatic browning, because they are substrates for the browning-enzymes. They are responsible for the colour of many plants, such as apples, they are part of the taste and flavour of beverages (apple juice, tea), and are important anti-oxidants in plants. Polyphenols are normally complex organic substances, which contain more than one phenol group.

Polyphenols can be divided into many different sub categories, such as anthocyans (colours in fruits), flavonoids (catechins, tannins in tea and wine) and non-flavonoids components (gallic acid in tea leaves). Flavonoids are formed in plants from the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine.

Polyphenoloxidase (PPO, Phenolase)

Polyphenol oxidases are a class of enzymes that were first discovered in mushrooms and are widely distributed in nature. They appear to reside in the plastids and chloroplasts of plants, although freely existing in the cytoplasm of senescing or ripening plants. Polyphenol oxidase is thought to play an important role in the resistance of plants to microbial and viral infections and to adverse climatic conditions. It also occurs in animals and is thought to increase disease resistance in insects and crustaceans.

Fig. 1. Reactions of (a) hydroxylation and (b) oxidation catalyzed by PPO.

The mechanism of action proposed for PPO is based on its capacity to oxidize phenolic compounds. When the tissue is damaged, the rupture of plastids, the cellular compartment where PPO is located, leads to the enzyme coming into contact with the phenolic compounds released by rupture of the vacuole, the main storage organelle of these compounds. The active site of PPO consists of two copper atoms and the enzyme catalyzes two different reactions in the presence of molecular oxygen: the hydroxylation of monophenols (monophenolase activity) and the oxidation of o-diphenols to o-quinones (diphenolase activity) (Fig. 1). This reaction is

followed by non-enzymatic polymerization of the quinones giving rise to melanins, pigments of high molecular mass, and dark color.

TABLE 1: An overview of known polyphenols involved in browning

Source Phenolic substrates

Apple chlorogenic acid (flesh), catechol, catechin (peel), caffeic acid, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA), 3,4-dihydroxy benzoic acid, p-cresol, 4-methyl catechol, leucocyanidin, p-coumaric acid, flavonol glycosides

Banana 3,4-dihydroxyphenylethylamine (Dopamine), leucodelphinidin, leucocyanidin

Eggplant chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, coumaric acid, cinnamic acid derivatives

Grape catechin, chlorogenic acid, catechol, caffeic acid, DOPA, tannins, flavonols, protocatechuic acid, resorcinol, hydroquinone, phenol

Mango dopamine-HCl, 4-methyl catechol, caffeic acid, catechol, catechin, chlorogenic acid, tyrosine, DOPA, p-cresol

Mushroom tyrosine, catechol, DOPA, dopamine, adrenaline, noradrenaline

Potato chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, catechol, DOPA, p-cresol, p-hydroxyphenyl propionic acid, p-hydroxyphenyl pyruvic acid, m-cresol

Plants PPOs have broad substrates specificities and are able to oxidize a variety of mono, di or polyphenols. Phenolic compounds are natural substances that contribute to the sensorial properties (color, taste, aroma and texture) associated with fruit quality. Structurally they contain an aromatic ring bearing one or more hydroxyl groups together with a number of other substituents (Fig. 2). Some of PPO substrates occur naturally in fruits and vegetables, e.g., apples, very suitable to enzymatic browning, are rich in chlorogenic acid, catechin and epicatechin. Plants, which exhibit comparably high resistance to climatic stress, have been shown to possess relatively higher polyphenol oxidase levels than susceptible varieties.

FIG:2- Structure of some natural substrates of PPO

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Polyphenol oxidase catalyses two basic reactions: hydroxylation and oxidation. Both reactions utilize molecular oxygen (air) as a co-substrate. The reaction is not only dependent on the presence of air, but also on the pH (acidity). The reaction does not occur at acid (pH <5) or alkaline (pH >8) conditions

References Mayer, A.M.; Harel, E. Polyphenol oxidases in plants.

Phytochemistry 1979, 18, 193–215. Peñalver, M.J.; Fenoll, L.G.; Rodríguez-López, J.N.;

García-Ruiz, P.A.; García-Molina, F.; Varón, R.; García-Cánovas, F.; Tudela, J. Reaction mechanism to explain the high kinetic

autoactivation of tyrosinase. J. Mol. Catal., B Enzym. 2005, 33, 35–42.

Espín, J.C.; García-Ruiz, P.A.; Tudela, J. Varón, R.; García-Cánovas, F. Monophenolase and diphenolase reaction mechanisms of apple and pear polyphenol oxidases. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1998, 46, 2968–2975.

Es-Safi, N.E.; Cheynier, V.; Moutounet, M. Implication of phenolic reactions in food organoleptic properties. J. Food Compost. Anal. 2003, 16, 535–553.

Podsedek, A.; Wilska-Jeszka, J.; Anders, B.; Markowiski, J. Compositional characterisation of some apple varieties. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 2000, 210, 268–272.

6. AGRONOMY 12993

Antinutritional Factors (ANF) in Grain Legumes A. Thanga Hemavathy* and K. Balaji

Assistant Professor (PB&G), Departent of Pulses, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore

India is the largest producer of pulses in the world. The common pulses grown are chickpea, pigeonpea, mungbean, urdbean, lentil, cowpea, fieldpea, mothbean, horsegram and lathyrus. In India, pulses occupy an area of about 22-23 million hectares with annual production of about 15 million tones. Pulses form an integral part of diet of most of the developing countries because of its high protein content and a rich source of minerals and vitamins. In recent years, it is gaining importance due to its hypocholesterolemic effects, i.e., a property to lower down the blood cholesterol. Pulses are also important as a compliment to carbohydrate staples such as cereals. Pulse protein usually contain more than adequate levels of some of the nutritionally important amino acids such as lysine that are deficient in most cereals and other edible plant foods. Combination of cereals and pulses provide a good balance of amino acids since cereals usually supply adequate sulphor containing amino acid methionine and tryptophan which are deficient in pulses. Pulses are good source of dietary fibre. Consumption of pulses is highest in India where majority of the population is vegetarian.

Nutritional content of different pulse crops

Crop Protein Carbohydrates Fat

Percentage

Chickpea 18.0 – 30.6 63.0 4.5

Pigeonpea 18.8 – 28.5 60.0 1.07 – 1.80

Mungbean 20.8 – 31.8 61.5 2.14 – 3.0

Urdbean 21.2 – 31.3 63.0 1.6

Cowpea 18.3 – 35.0 62.0 0.7 – 3.5

Horsegram 23.6 59.1 1.36

Lentil 20.4 – 30.5 69.0 0.6 – 3.8

Pea 21.2 – 32.0 61.0 1.4 – 2.8

Crop Protein Carbohydrates Fat

Percentage

Lathyrus 22.7 – 29.6 59.0 0.6 – 1.0

Mothbean 21.9 61.9 2.6 – 3.48

Though pulses contain high levels of nutritional compounds, some of the defects noticed with pulse seeds are

1. Nutritive value and protein digestibility of raw seeds are very poor

2. Carbohydrate digestibility is poor in pulses-flatulence in humans and animals

3. In uncooked pulses most of the minerals are not in available form

Anti-Nutritional Compounds

Many compounds present in pulses have been found to have anti-nutritional effect. These include protease inhibitors, saponins, lectins, polyphenols, Lathyrogen toxin, phytates, Oligosaccharides and isoflavonoids, Cyanogenic, Pyrimidine glycosides, allergens, Toxic amino acids, Goitrogens, lathyrogens and estrogens.

Protease inhibitors: Protease inhibitors block the function of digestive enzymes (proteases) in animals (leading to malnutrition and other disturbances), lectins either bind to receptors in the intestional tract and related organs (micking the activity of other signal compounds) or are taken up be cells and inhibit protein biosynthesis.

Saponins: Saponins are secondary plant metabolites present in pulses especially in soybean, lupins and several other legumes. Common pulses (chickpea, mungbean, lentil and pigeonpea) contain saponins in the range of 0.05 to 0.23%.

Lectins: Lectins are proteinaceous toxic compounds commonly found in some of the beans. Seeds of some of the edible species of

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pulses such as lentil and pea also contain phytohemagglutinins.

Lathyrogen toxin: Lathyrogen toxin is one of the natural toxins found in the seeds of lathyrus, which is known to cause lathyrism, if consumed in excess quantity for long time. Lathyrism causes paralysis in the legs in susceptible individuals and is believed to be caused by a toxic amino acid known as (Beta-N-oxalyl amino alanine (BOAA) or Beta-N-oxalyl L-alpha, Beta-diamino propionic acid (ODAP).

Oligosaccharides and isoflavonoids: Legume seeds are generally rich in oligosaccharides (upto 20%) such as starchyose and raffinose.

Cyanogenic glycosides: Cyanogens are glycosides of 2-hydroxynitriles and widely present in Lima beans and broad beans.

Pyrimidine glycosides: Levels of vicine are present in the seeds of Vicia sativa and Vicia faba. Toxic amino acids: There are certain amino acids in legume plants that are not of protein nature and reduce nutritious value and cause toxic effects. These substances are commonly found in Lathyrus and broad beans.

Goitrogens: Soyabean contains glyosides

called goitrogens. These glycosides cause the thyroid gland to grow by inhibiting the iodine intake of the thyroid gland.

In addition to being perfect sources of vegetable protein, pulses contain nutrients with high fiber content and reduce blood cholesterol levels thereby contributing favorable to human health. However due to the presence of ANFs there are either toxic, unpalatable or indigestible. Today several more strategies are available to minimize the impact of ANFs in grain legumes in order to improve their utilization like.,

1. Milling, dehusking, splitting etc. 2. Soaking with water, leaching etc. 3. Heat treatment – cooking 4. Germination 5. Fermentation

References Duhan, A. et al. (1989) (Vigna mungo) Varietal

differences and effect of domestic processing and cooking methods. J. Sci. Food Agri., 49: 449-455

Srivastava, R.P. and Ali, M. (2004). (Eds) Nutritional Quality of Common Pulses. Bulletin IIPR/2004/07, IIPR Publication, Kanpur, India.

7. AGRONOMY 14312

Drought and its Tolerant Mechanism *1Neeshu Joshi and 2Arunima Paliwal

1,2Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, G.B. Pant University Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar, U.S. Nagar, Uttarakhand (263 145) India

*Corresponding Author e Mail: [email protected]

What is Drought?

Physiologically, it is explained as the reduction in leaf water potential which occurs due to excess transpiration than the water absorption. That is, when water absorption lag behind transpiration, water deficit develops. It is also defined as, “deficiency or dearth of water severe enough to check the plant growth”. Besides the deficiency of soil moisture, high temperature, low relative humidity, fast wind etc. aggravate the adverse effect of drought.

Types of Drought

The term drought has been classified in two broads categories.

1. Soil Drought: It occurs when soil moisture lags behind Evapotranspiration at times of greatest need of water by plants such as during grand growth period. More over, the water deficiency in the soil

may be physical or physiological in nature. a) Physical soil drought: In this case, there is

an actual shortage of water due to limited or non-availability of water from various sources like rainfall and irrigation.

b) Physiological Soil Drought: In this case,

water is available in plenty in the soil but the plants growing in such environment can not be able to avail or absorb the water due to the physiological reasons such as presence of excessive salts, pH alterations etc.

2. Atmospheric Drought: This drought occurs due to low atmospheric humidity, hot and dry desiccating winds even under conditions of relatively high soil moisture. Wilting due to it is reversible and it occurs because of either an under developed root system or their physical inability to conduct water fast enough to compensate the losees from the leaves.

Categories of Drought Stress

Under normal and stress-free situations, the plant will exist in a soil moisture potential range between - 0.01 and -1.5 MPa. However, at permanent wilting point, the soil water potential will be between – 2.0 and – 4.0 MPa. At this point, leaf water potential will be still low than the soil water potential.

Hsiao (1973) categorised the drought stress based on the water potential as given below:

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8. AGROMETEOROLOGY 13702

New Dimensions in Agrometeorology for Sustainable Agriculture

Ashutosh S. Dhonde and Sunil D. Thorat

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agronomy, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, Maharashtra -04)

Agrometeorology / Agricultural Meteorology - It is the science related to the atmosphere and its phenomena, especially to the weather and its effects on agriculture.

Sustainable Agriculture

The successful management of resources for agriculture to satisfy changing human needs while maintaining or enhancing the natural resource - base and avoiding environmental degradation.

It encompasses the elements of productivity, profitability, conservation, health safety and the environment.

Sustainability = Productivity + Resource conservation

Principles of Sustainable Agriculture

Resource conservation

Sustainability and soil fertility

Maintain the stability of ecosystem

Ensure food safety / quality

Visualize sustainability

Status of Sustainable Agriculture in India

Current research programmes towards sustainable agriculture are as,

Resistant crop varieties to soil, climate and biotic stresses

Multiple cropping system for irrigated areas and tree based farming system rainfall area

Integrated nutrient management/Integrated pest management

Soil and water conservation

Agroforestry systems

Farm implements to save energy in agriculture

Use of non-conventional energy in agriculture

Input use efficiency

Water technology/Fertilizer technology

Plant genetic resource collection and conservation

Importance of agroclimatic considerations in sustainable agriculture

Climate is a renewable resource, but is variable in time and space. For proper and efficient use of natural resources (soil and plant/animal genetic material), knowledge of the role of climate is an essential precondition.

Climate consists of a set of variables which

behave coherently, essentially as a result of atmospheric physics and dynamics. e.g., rainfall tends to cool the atmosphere because water evaporation absorbs heat; cloudy days are characterised by relatively high air moisture and low evaporation, etc.

The traditional agronomy teaching and research programs are now giving way to the ‘Natural Resource Management Programs (NRMP)’, with increased emphasis on resource characterization and applications.

Maximize production without sacrificing stability of yield from year to year and without squandering irreplaceable resources such as top soil and groundwater reserves.

The energy balance and the waterbalance of crops. Climate resources also directly affect biodiversity of land and marine ecosystems.

Thus, the role of the agroclimatologist in such changed research structures is now become challengeable.

Role of Weather Information in Farm Management

Cultivars Selection

Choosing windows for Sowing/harvesting operations

Irrigation scheduling – optimal water use

Mitigation from adverse weather events such as frost, low temp, heavy rainfall – at critical crop stages

Fertilizer application

Pesticide/fungicide spraying schedules

Feed, Health and Shelter Management for Livestock [Optimal temperature for dairy/ hatchery etc]

Strategies to Empower Farmers for Weather Based Decision making

Generate information on Weather & Climate (Observations & Forecast)

Impact of likely weather on crop Impact of likely weather on Pests & Diseases – Weather based input management

Weather sensitivity of farm operations

Develop decision making Tools: Data base Crop/Soil/ Pest & Disease Modeling – Remote Sensing & GIS Crop/Soil

Monitoring, Drought Monitoring etc.

Disseminate information

Outreach, capacity building, Feedback

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Important challenges for the role of the Commission remain:

i) to raise the interest and involvement in agricultural meteorology, of National Meteorological and Hydrological Services;

ii) to strengthen contacts and cooperation with relevant staff of Ministries of Agriculture, institutes of agricultural research, agricultural planning bodies etc., working as teams with intermediaries between applied science and farmers whenever needed and possible;

iii) to strengthen the orientation of agrometeorology towards the clients and their needs;

iv) to fill the gaps between the producers of agrometeorological knowledge and the actual agrometeorological services in the livelihood of farmers.

Priorities of Agrometeorologists towards Sustainable Agriculture in the 21st Century

Improvement and strengthening of agrometeorological networks

Development of new sources of data for operational agrometeorology

Improved understanding of natural climate variability

Promotion and use of seasonal to inter-annual climate forecasts

Establishment and/or strengthening of early warning and monitoring systems

Promotion of geographical information systems and remote sensing applications and agroecological zoning for sustainable management of farming systems, forestry and livestock

Agrometeorological Risks

Periods of Extreme temperatures i.e. low temperatures below the threshold value and high temperature above the maximum are hazardous to plant development and growth.

Extreme temperature conditions during cold spells cause stress and frost; high temperature lead to heat stress and both affect agricultural production.

Extremes of moisture conditions namely drought episodes and low moisture conditions as well as very humid atmospheric conditions including wet spells tend to affect agriculture.

Dry desiccating and strong winds reduce agricultural production as a result of very high evapotranspiration rates.

High soil moisture in situation of water logging and flooding associated with heavy rainfall and tropical storms has adverse effect on plant growth and development.

High soil moisture influences the rate of transpiration, leaf area expansion and ultimately plant productivity.

Drastic changes in rainfall variability can have very significant impact, particularly in

climatically marginal zones such as arid, semi-arid and sub-humid areas where incidence of wide spread drought is frequent.

It also causes mechanical damage to plants with stems by lodging such as sugarcane and the banana crops.

Temperature and Sustainable Agriculture – It directly affects biological and economic yield by influencing growth rate, the partitioning of dry matter, the rate of development and so the duration of the crop.

Role of Weather and Climate in Sustainable Agriculture

1. Combined effects of different climatic parameters on crop production - a) Temperature, solar radiation, and water

directly affect the physiological processes involved in grain development and directly affect grain yield by influencing the incidence of diseases and insects.

b) Solar radiation during the ripening period had positive influence on grain filling.

c) Relatively low temperature and high solar radiation during the reproductive stage had positive effects on spikelet number and hence increase the grain yield.

Remote Sensing Platforms

Ground based - Infrared thermameter, radars, pilot balloms, spectral radiometer

Air based - aircrafts

Satellite based- Polar orbiting, Geostationary satellites

Main Types of Remote Sensing

Geographic Information Systems

It can be defined in a broader sense as a collection of hardware, software, data, organizations, and professionals to represent and analyze geographic data.

It can also store attribute data, which is descriptive information of the map features.

GIS can combine geographic and other types of data to generate maps and reports, enabling users to collect, manage, and interpret location-based information in a planned and systematic way.

It is a computer system capable of assembling, storing, manipulating, and displaying geographically referenced data.

Gis

Steps of GIS

1. Storing geographical data 2. Raster format 3. Vector format 4. Requirements of a GIS 5. Basic components of GIS –

a) Data encoding and input processing b) Data management c) Data retrieval

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d) Data manipulation and analysis e) Data display.

Integration of Remote sensing and GIS

1. Data Integration 2. Data Acquisition 3. Data Processing

Agrometeorological Forecasting

Agrometeorological forecasting covers all aspects of forecasting in agricultural meteorology. Therefore, the scope of agrometeorological forecasting very largely coincides with the scope of agrometeorology itself.

Usefulness of Weather Forecasts for Agriculture

Climate based strategic agronomic planning

Occurrences of erratic and adverse weather

Short and medium range forecast for agriculture is useful for

Preparatory activities and planting or seeding/sowing

Application of fertilizer, irrigation; thinning, topping, weeding; pest disease control; management of grazing system

Harvesting, on farm post-harvest processing

Transport of produce; Livestock production activities.

9. WATER MANAGEMENT 14204

Maintenance of Drip Systems Dr. A. Suganya

Research Associate, Water Technology Centre, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore -03.

India is a large producer of agricultural products. Irrigation resources are limited and the water use efficiency as well as agricultural productivity is low. Micro irrigation has become popular in India and it has been adopted on 5.57 million hectare till March 2011. India has 176 million hectare of cultivated land (second largest in the world). In India, Water saving of 30-60% and yield increases of 20-40% favouring drip irrigation over conventional methods. The total cultivated area of 176 million hectare in the country, only 65 million (37%) is irrigated. The total cropped area suitable for drip irrigation in the country is to tune of 27 million hectare and sprinkler irrigation is about 42.5 million hectare. Adoption of micro irrigation is growing with annual average growth rate of 16-17%. The depleting water level and water scarcity

has created a demand for micro irrigation system. Hence micro irrigation system has enormous

advantages not only to save irrigation water but also to save electricity and the cost of cultivation besides increasing the productivity.

Like any complex system or machine, drip systems need maintenance to prevent breakdowns

and loss of performance. Maintenance requirements need to be included in the design. Drip tube sizes and run lengths are often determined by flushing capability. Keeping systems clean, particularly on silty river water, is the key to emitters’ longevity. The tube and emitters don’t degrade or break down. If kept clean, very long life can be expected – often, with the high cost of establishment, 10 years or more. There are systems that have been well maintained that are beyond this age and performing as new.

Maintenance is largely preventative, with silt and organic matter needing to be removed with water. Inlet water pressure to tubes may need to be raised to achieve scouring velocity in the tube once ends are opened. This will be indicated on the design. Frequency of flushing is determined by

water quality. Monitoring system flow rates on the water meter can reveal emitter clogging.

Flushing needs to be commenced from the pump onwards. Ensure filters are cleaned well and pressures set. Progress systematically, cleaning mainline, submains, then drip lines. In most situations additives such as chlorine and acid may

need to be used. Chlorine kills algae and can loosen up bonded organic matter, enabling it to be flushed out afterwards. It is important to understand there is no particular volume of chlorine that will achieve this task. Silt and organic matter consume chlorine as it proceeds

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through the system. An injection rate of chlorine can be calculated and must be injected until free or spare chlorine is sampled at the farthest point. Rates of between 5 to 20 ppm chlorine may be required, depending on the severity of the problem. Irrigation suppliers and some manufacturers can supply the necessary technical help to keep this job as cost-effective as possible.

Acid injection is often over recommended. In other parts of the world, acid is very cheap and can be used in place of chlorine, although high rates are needed. It should really only be used for chemical based deposits, and works on the basis that solubilities of chemicals change with pH. By dropping the pH of water, these chemicals may become soluble again and can be flushed out.

To accurately calculate the volume of acid required to drop the pH ofthe irrigation water, simply perform a bucket titration. Get 10 litres of irrigation water; add acid one millilitre at a time and test pH until water drops to desired pH. Using these measurement and system flow rates, an injection rate in litres per hour of acid can be calculated. ADD ACID TO WATER: NEVER ADD

WATER TO ACID. The exception in the use of acid is for root

intrusion, where the corrosiveness of the acid is used to break down intruding root material. Very high rates are required and it is very expensive. Prevention is by far the best method. Strategic use of herbicides is effective in preventing the roots’ entry to emitters. When injected late in the irrigation, herbicide stays close to the emitter outlet, making this an unattractive area for the roots to enter. Careful cutting back of water can also reduce the tendency for roots to search for more water.

Before and after addition of acid or chlorine the drip systems should be flushed strongly with water. This reduces consumption of chlorine and buffering of pH by silt and organic matter that are easily removed. Flushing after treatment is important to prevent loosened material attempting to exit through emitters and clogging them.

Pumps, filters, valves and control systems also need maintenance. This can most often be carried out in the off-season.

10. CROP PHYSIOLOGY 12996

Metabolomics A. Thanga Hemavathy* and K. Balaji

*Assistant Professor (PB&G), Departent of Pulses, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore

Metabolomics is the scientific study of chemical processes involving metabolites. Metabolomics is the "systematic study of the unique chemical fingerprints that specific cellular processes leave behind", the study of their small-molecule metabolite profiles. The metabolome represents the collection of all metabolites in a biological cell, tissue, organ or organism, which are the end products of cellular processes. Metabolome refers to the complete set of small-molecule metabolites (such as metabolic intermediates, hormones and other signaling molecules, and secondary metabolites) to be found within a biological sample, such as a single organism. The word was coined in analogy with transcriptomics and proteomics. The first metabolite database (called METLIN) for searching m/z values from mass spectrometry data was developed by scientists at The Scripps Research Institute in 2005. In January 2007, scientists at the University of Alberta and the University of Calgary completed the first draft of the human metabolome.

Metabolomic Databases

1. HMDB: The Human Metabolome Database (HMDB) is a freely available electronic database containing detailed information about small molecule metabolites found (and experimentally verified) in the human body. The database contains three kinds of data: 1)

chemical data, 2) clinical data, and 3) molecular biology/biochemistry data. HMDB contains information on more than 6500 metabolites. Additionally, approximately 1500 protein (and DNA) sequences are linked to these metabolite entries. Many data fields are hyperlinked to other databases (KEGG, PubChem, MetaCyc, ChEBI, PDB, Swiss-Prot, and GenBank) and a variety of structure and pathway viewing applets.

2. BiGG: The BiGG database is a metabolic reconstruction of human metabolism designed for systems biology simulation and metabolic flux balance modeling. It is a comprehensive literature-based genome-scale metabolic reconstruction that accounts for the functions of 1,496 ORFs, 2,004 proteins, 2,766 metabolites, and 3,311 metabolic and transport reactions.

3. SetupX: SetupX, developed by the Fiehn laboratory at UC Davis, is a web-based metabolomics LIMS. It is XML compatible and built around a relational database management core

4. BinBase: BinBase is a GC-TOF metabolomic database.

5. Systomonas: SYSTOMONAS (SYSTems biology of pseudOMONAS) is a database for systems biology studies of Pseudomonas species. It contains extensive transcriptomic,

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proteomic and metabolomic data as well as metabolic reconstructions of this pathogen.

Metabolic Pathway Databases

1. KEGG: KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) is one of the most complete and widely used databases containing metabolic pathways (372 reference pathwasy) from a wide variety of organisms (>700). These pathways are hyperlinked to metabolite and protein/enzyme information. Currently KEGG has >15,000 compounds (from animals, plants and bacteria), 7742 drugs (including different salt forms and drug carriers) and nearly 11,000 glycan structures.

2. MetaCyc: MetaCyc is a database of nonredundant, experimentally elucidated metabolic pathways. MetaCyc contains more than 1,100 pathways from more than 1,500 different organisms.

3. HumanCyc: HumanCyc is a bioinformatics database that describes the human metabolic pathways and the human genome. The current version of HumanCyc was constructed using Build 31 of the human genome.

Compound or Compound-Specific Databases

1. PubChem: PubChem is a freely available database of chemical structures of small organic molecules and information on their biological activities. It contains structure, nomenclature and calculated physico-chemical data and is linked with NIH PubMed/Entrez information. PubChem also provides a fast chemical structure similarity search tool. PubChem has >19 million unique chemical structures.

2. ChEBI: Chemical Entities of Biological Interest (ChEBI) is a freely available dictionary of molecular entities focused on 'small' chemical compounds. The chemical entities in ChEBI are either products of nature (metabolites) or synthetic products used to intervene in the processes of living organisms (drugs or toxins). ChEBI contains structure and nomenclature information along with hyperlinks to many well-regarded databases. ChEBI has >15,500 chemical entities in its database.

3. ChemSpider: ChemSpider is an aggregated database of organic molecules containing more than 20 million compounds from many different providers. At present the database contains information from such diverse sources as a marine natural products database, ACD-Labs chemical databases, the EPA's DSSTox databases and from a series of chemical vendors.

4. KEGG Glycan: The KEGG GLYCAN database is a collection of experimentally determined glycan structures. It contains all unique structures taken from CarbBank, structures entered from recent publications, and

structures present in KEGG pathways. KEGG Glycan has >11,000 glycan structures from a large number of eukaryotic and prokaryotic sources.

5. IIMDB: In Vivo/In Silico Metabolites Database (IIMDB) consists of both known and computationally generated compounds. The database, which is available at http://metabolomics.pharm.uconn.edu/iimdb/, includes ∼23000 known compounds (mammalian metabolites, drugs, secondary plant metabolites, and glycerophospholipids) collected from existing biochemical databases. The IIMDB database features a user-friendly web interface and a programmer-friendly RESTful web service.

Drug Databases

1. DrugBank: The DrugBank database is a blended bioinformatics and cheminformatics resource that combines detailed drug (i.e. chemical, pharmacological and pharmaceutical) data with comprehensive drug target (i.e. sequence, structure, and pathway) information. The database contains nearly 4800 rug entries including >1,350 FDA-approved small molecule drugs, 123 FDA-approved biotech (protein/peptide) drugs, 71 nutraceuticals and >3,243 experimental drugs.

2. Therapeutic Target Database: The Therapeutic Target Database (TTD) is a drug database designed to provide information about the known therapeutic protein and nucleic acid targets described in the literature, the targeted disease conditions, the pathway information and the corresponding drugs/ligands directed at each of these targets. The database currently contains 1535 targets and 2107 drugs/ligands.

3. PharmGKB: The PharmGKB database is a central repository for genetic, genomic, molecular and cellular phenotype data and clinical information about people who have participated in pharmacogenomics research studies. The data includes, but is not limited to, clinical and basic pharmacokinetic and pharmacogenomic research in the cardiovascular, pulmonary, cancer, pathways, metabolic and transporter domains. PharmGKB contains searchable data on genes (>20,000), diseases (>3000), drugs (>2500) and pathways (53). It also has detailed information on 470 genetic variants (SNP data) affecting drug metabolism.

4. STITCH: STITCH ('search tool for interactions of chemicals') is a searchable database that integrates information about interactions from metabolic pathways, crystal structures, binding experiments and drug-target relationships. The database contains interaction information for over 68 000 different chemicals, including 2200 drugs, and

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connects them to 1.5 million genes across 373 genomes.

5. SuperTarget: Super Target is a database that contains a core dataset of about 7300 drug-target relations of which 4900 interactions have been subjected to a more extensive manual annotation effort. Super Target provides tools for 2D drug screening and sequence comparison of the targets. The database contains more than 2500 target proteins.

References Fernie A.R. (2007). The future of metabolic

phytochemistry: Large numbers or metabolites, higher resolution, greater understanding. Phytochemistry 68: 2861–2880.

SpectraSchool: An introduction to spectroscopy from the Royal Society of Chemistry.

Hoult D.I., et al. (1974). Observation of tissue metabolites using 31P nuclear magnetic resonance. Nature 252: 285-287.


INM in Onion D. Manoharachari

UAS, Dharwad. *Corresponding Author e Mail: [email protected]

INM: Integrated Nutrient Management

It is a system which maintains soil productivity and supplies the plant nutrients at optimum levels to sustain the desired crop productivity through optimization of the benefits from all possible sources of organic (farm yard manures, poultry manures, crop residues, green manures), inorganic and biological (biofertilizers etc.) components in an integrated manner.

Why INM ?

Soils which receive plant nutrients only through chemical fertilizers are showing declining productivity.

The physical condition of the soil is deteriorated as a result of long-term use of chemical fertilizers, especially the nitrogenous ones. It also aggravates the problem of poor fertilizer nitrogen use efficiency (NUE).

In the recent days, high fertilizer cost and low purchasing power of the farming community have made it necessary to rethink alternatives.

Unlike chemical fertilizers, organic manures and biofertilizers available locally at cheaper rates. They enhance crop yield per unit of applied nutrients by providing a better physical, chemical and microbial environment.

Advantages of INM

Enhances the availability of applied as well as native soil nutrients

Synchronizes the nutrient demand of the crop with nutrient supply from native and applied sources.

Provides balanced nutrition to crops and minimizes the antagonistic effects resulting from hidden deficiencies and nutrient imbalance.

Improves and sustains the physical, chemical and biological functioning of soil.

Minimizes the deterioration of soil, water and ecosystem by promoting carbon sequestration, reducing nutrient losses to ground and surface water bodies and to atmosphere

INM in Onion

Onion (Allium cepa L.) (2n=16) is one of the major commercial bulb crops of India.

It belongs to the family Aliaceae with genus Allium.

Onion bulb is considered as rich source of minerals particularly calcium and phosphorus.

Besides having fairly good quantities of carbohydrates, proteins and vitamin-C, it forms an indispensable part of many diets as a flavouring agent.

The pungency in onion is due to an alkaloid -“allyl propyl disulphide”, which has the effects of reducing blood sugar and fat with good coagulation effect.

According to the UNFAO, India ranks first in area under onion cultivation, second in production and third in export after Netherlands and Spain.

In India, it is being grown on an area of 12.03 lakh ha with a total production of 19.40 m t and a productivity of 16.1 t ha-1

Major onion producing states are---

Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Odisha.

Major onion growing areas were shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1: Major onion producing areas:

Country Area (L.

ha) Production (m

t) Productivity

(t/ha)

China 10.25 22.60 22.0

India 12.03 19.40 16.1

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Country Area (L.

ha) Production (m

t) Productivity

(t/ha)

USA 0.60 3.27 54.6

Iran 0.71 2.26 31.8

Russia 0.92 2.08 22.6

Egypt 0.60 2.02 33.7

Turkey 0.63 1.81 28.9

Pakistan 1.29 1.69 13.0

Country Area (L.

ha) Production (m

t) Productivity

(t/ha)

Brazil 0.60 1.51 24.9

Netherlands 0.27 1.35 49.7

Others 1.67 27.91 16.7

World +(total)

44.49 85.94 19.3


Manipulation of Guard Cells and Stomata to Improve the Water Use Efficiency

A. Vijayabharathi1, T. Lakshmi Pathy2 and A. Trivikrama Reddy3 1Dept. of Genetics and Plant Breeding, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore – 560065

2Scientist, ICAR-Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu – 641007 3Regional Agricultural Research Station, Nandyal - 518502, ANGRAU, Andhra Pradesh

Stomata ultimately control 95% of all gaseous fluxes between the leaf and atmosphere. Thus, manipulations of stomatal characters are tangible target to reduce the transpiration water loss. Stomatal conductance (gs) is regulated by stomatal movements and density, directly influence the transpiration rate (TE) and CO2 uptake, and thereby modulates water use efficiency (WUE). Stomatal movements characterized by networks of chemical and molecular signaling pathways including abscisic acid, calcium and increased pH. Thylakoid-localized calcium-sensing receptor (CAS) could regulate stomatal movements during calcium signalling transduction.

Influence of Anatomy on Stomatal Conductance

Maximum stomatal conductance is dictated by the size and density of stomata, which in turn can be influenced by the growth environment. It is generally accepted that stomatal density is altered by atmospheric CO2 concentration and other environmental factors.

1. Stomatal density: First we need to understand the metabolic pathways that form the basis of stomatal sensing, signaling and response processes as well as a comprehension of physiological responses at leaf level and cellular level. This understanding will need to include an appreciation for the hierarchical response of guard cells to internal and external signals and is likely to benefit from exploring the natural variation that exists in the magnitude of changes between individual stoma or groups of stomata within and between leaves (Lawson et al., 1998). Additionally, if such manipulations are directed at improving WUE, it is important to understand the coordination and synchronization of stomatal conductance

response with mesophyll carbon assimilation (Lawson et al., 2012).

2. Stomatal patterning: Stomata are separated from each other by a minimum of one cell indicated that optimal function of stomata. Specific gene mutations leads to changes in cell division and differentiation and altered patterns of stomata and epidermal cells, resulting in paired stomata or clustered stomata. Measurements of maximum and actual photosynthetic efficiency were identical to the wild type in the area with stomata; however, leaf areas without stomata showed lower maximum and actual photosynthetic efficiency, indicated that stomatal patterning determined CO2 concentration and photosynthesis across the leaf lamina and lateral fluxes of gas could not compensate for reduced vertical diffusion as a result of reduced stomatal numbers (Büssis et al., 2006).

3. Stomatal anatomy: Enhanced WUE driven by stomatal numbers are the gtl1 mutants of Arabidopsis. GTL1 is a transcription factor that regulates trichome and stomatal development through its interaction with SDD1 expression (Breuer et al., 2009). Physiological analysis of these plants revealed no difference in photosynthetic rates over a range of light levels but reduced gs and transpiration (Yoo et al., 2010), illustrating that manipulating one gene related to stomatal development can fine tune WUE.

Smaller stomata respond faster than larger stomata, it has been explained in the context of surface-to-volume ratios and requirement for solute transport to drive movement (Hetherington and Woodward 2003). There can be substantial variations in the transport activities of guard cells, even within species. So, a direct comparison of

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surface-to-volume ratio is likely to be uninformative as often as not.

Select plants with stomatal synchrony with mesophyll CO2 demand suggests that gains of 20 to 30% are theoretically possible. McAusland et al. (2013) screened plants rapidly for stomatal responsiveness and speed simultaneously by combining chlorophyll florescence and thermal imaging, which would be ideal for identifying plants with faster responsiveness of stomata with no impairment in carbon assimilation.

References Breuer C., A. Kawamura, T. Ichikawa, R. et al. 2009.

The trihelix transcription factor GTL1 regulates ploidy dependent cell growth in the Arabidopsis cell growth. 2009. Plant Cell, 21: 2307-2322.

Büssis, D., U. von Groll, J. Fishan and T.A. Altman. 2006. Stomatal aperture can compensate altered stomatal density in Arabidopsis thaliana at growth light conditions. Funct. Plant Biol., 33:

1037-1043. Hetherington, A.M. and F.I. Woodward. 2003. The

role of stomata in sensing and driving environmental change. Nature, 424: 901-908.

Lawson, T., D.M. Kramer et al. 2012. Improving yield by exploiting mechanisms underlying natural variations of photosynthesis. Curr. Opin. Biotech., 23: 215-220.

Lawson, T., J.D.B. Weyers and R. A’Brook. 1998. The nature of heterogeneity in the stomatal behavior of Phaseolusvulgaris L. primar leaves. J. Exp. Bot., 49: 1387-1395.

McAusland, L. PA Davey, N. Kanwal et al. 2013. A novel system for spatial and temporal imaging of intrinsic plant water use. J. Exp. Bot., 64: 4993-5007.

Yoo, C.Y., H.E. Pence, J.B. Jin, K. Miura et al. 2010. The Arabidopsis GTL1 transcription factor regulates water use efficiency and drought tolerance by modulating stomatal density via transrepression of SDD1. Plant cell, 22: 4128-4141.


Approaches for Improving Nitrogen Use Efficiency in Crop Plants

*Rajesh Kumar Singhal1, Sunil Kumar2 and Vikram Kumar2

Research Scholar, 1Department of Plant Physiology, 2Department of Agronomy Institute of Agricultural Sciences, BHU, Varanasi-221005, India


INTRODUCTION: Nitrogen (N) is an essential and often limiting nutrient to plant growth. The past five decades have seen various revolutionary changes and advancement in crop production, from the green revolution in the early 1960s to the advent of modern biotechnology in the 21st century. Improved crop management and agronomical practices combined with the improved crop genetics through conventional breeding and genetic engineering have been the major factors behind increased crop production. Crop genetic improvement has been responsible for 50% to 60% of the increases in crop yields and is still a crucial component of any strategy to increase crop yields and nutrient use efficiency. Additionally, the large yield increases have also been due to the use of synthetic nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), and potassium (K) fertilizers. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, since the mid-1980s global cereal crop yields, including wheat, soybean, and maize, have slowed to a growth rate of about 1% annually, and in developed countries, growth of crop yields is closer to zero. The second concern is that further increases in applied N may not result in yield improvements but will lead to serious environmental problems. The simplest definition of plant NUE is the grain yield per unit of supplied N, also represented by the product of NUpE (Nitrogen Uptake efficiency) and NUtE

(Nitrogen Utilization efficiency). To achieve further increases in yield under well-fertilized conditions, we need to select for plants that use fertilizers more efficiently. Simultaneously achieving high crop productivity and high nutrient use efficiency is a major challenge, given the increased global demand for food, feedstock, and biofuels. Various approaches are practised by plant biologist for improving NUE are followed:

1. Agronomical approaches: The application of manure with different level of humification, (i.e. composted), has frequently been shown to increase soil fertility and to stimulate soil microbial activity through the improvement of soil structure. Application of green manure fertilization aims to improve soil fertility and quality by incorporation into the soil of any field or forage crop while the cultivated plant is still at the green vegetative stage, or just after the flowering stage. N production from legumes is a key benefit of growing cover crops and green manures. The time of application of the fertilizer during crop growth plays a crucial role in determining the amount of N utilized. NUE of crops such as rice under irrigated condition can be affected by the form of N fertilizer used. The aquatic biota Cyanobacteria and Azolla can supplement the N requirements of plants, replacing 30–50 % of the required urea–N.

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BNF by some diazotrophic bacteria like Azotobacter, Clostridium, Azospirillum, Herbaspirillum and Burkholderia can substitute for urea–N. The blue-green algae (BGA) and Azolla also plays a major role in supplying N to rice fields is well. They contribute significantly towards maintaining and improving the productivity of rice. Finally basing on BNF technology yield improvement of rice is seems to be increased by about 20 %.

2. Physiological approaches: The NO3 is a most predominant form in agricultural soils taken up by active transport through the roots, distributed through the xylem and assimilated by the sequential action of the enzymes nitrate reductase (NR) and nitrite reductase (NiR) followed by ammonium assimilation, amino acid biosynthesis, and protein synthesis. NR, which reduces NO3 - to NO2 - was considered the rate-limiting enzyme in the NO3 assimilation pathway, and was hence thought to be pivotal to the growth response of plants to nitrate fertilization. Nitrate is transported by two systems namely NRT1, a low-affinity transporter (LATS) and NRT2, a high-affinity transporter (HATS). The HATS consists of two systems, the nitrate inducible HATS (iHATS) and constitutive HATS (cHATS). Recent studies revealed that NRT2.1 high-affinity nitrate transporter plays major role in the regulation of root branching. Ammonium is incorporated into amino acids via the glutamine synthetase (GS) and glutamate synthase (GOGAT) cycle. The Plasma membrane H+-ATPase is known to play crucial roles in the plant cell by generating a proton gradient, thereby providing the driving force for nutrient uptake, phloem loading, water movements, stomatal closure, and opening. NR, GS, sucrosephosphate synthase (SPS), trehalose-phosphate synthase, glutamyl-tRNA synthetase, and an enzyme of folate metabolism have been found to bind to 14-3-3s in a phosphorylation-dependent manner. Plant hormones like cytokinin have been shown to mimic the N-dependent regulation of gene expression in photosynthesis, cell cycling and translational machinery. Additionally, N sensing and response also seem to be affected by the crosstalk between various plant hormones. Unlike cytokinins, which are positively regulated by nitrate, ABA biosynthesis is down regulated by nitrogen sufficiency. Benzyladenine in combination with nitrate was shown to enhance NR-specific mRNA. Despite these findings, establishing the role of hormones in nitrogen signalling needs further characterization of the complete signalling pathway. Identification of such regulatory elements might provide an end-point for nitrate

signalling and open up avenues for characterizing/manipulating the rest of the signalling pathways to enhance NUE.

3. Genetical approaches: The first attempts to identify the limiting steps of plant NUE were largely facilitated following the development of genetic engineering techniques on both model and crop species. Success in terms of increased NUE through genetic manipulation was done through over expression in roots of alanine aminotransferase (AlaAT), which is a downstream process in N assimilation. Transgenic Brassica napus plants over expressing a barley AlaAT cDNA, driven by a Brassica root-specific promoter (btg26), showed improved NUE. Compared with wild type Brassica, transgenic plants showed increased biomass and yield in both the laboratory and field under low N conditions whereas no difference were observed under high N conditions. These changes resulted in a 40 % decrease in the amount of applied N fertilizer required under field condition to achieve yields equivalent to those of wild type plants. Most recently, a protein kinase AtCIPK8, was identified that is needed for nitrate response at high, but not at low, nitrate concentration and a DNA binding protein, AtNLP7, which encodes the NIN like protein 7 (NLP7), nitrate regulation during nitrate assimilation. It also concluded that, over expression of cytosolic glutamine synthetase (GS1) from alfalfa, which increased the photosynthesis and growth in tobacco and are able to utilize N more efficiently under N stress conditions. Furthermore, a Dof1 gene encoding a transcription factor from maize was overexpressed in Arabidopsis (A. thaliana L.), an increase in amino acid content and of N uptake was observed, especially when plants were grown at a low level of N supply and similarly gene was overexpressed in potato, transgenic plants accumulated more amino acids especially glutamine and glutamate

4. Molecular approaches: The initial phase of molecular research for improved NUE in crop plants was based on the assumption that genes contributing to N uptake and N assimilation in plants are crucial. The improvement of crop yield has been possible through the indirect manipulation of QTLs that control the heritable variability of the traits and physiological mechanism that determine biomass production and its partitioning. A number of QTLs for agronomic traits related to N use and yield have been mapped to the chromosomal regions containing GS2 in wheat and rice. In wheat 54 genomic regions identified associated with grain yield, its components, and other traits through whole-genome association mapping

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with 196 wheat accessions. The analysis also revealed that 23 genomic regions were N responsive, which may be useful for the wheat breeding programs aiming to improve N responsiveness.

Conclusion: Improving NUE in crop plants represents a significant research challenge in front of agriculturist scientist and farmers; it is nevertheless an area of enormous importance. Although breeders and farmers seem to better appreciate a cultivar with better grain yield under the same fertilization condition, our goal should be to decrease the optimum fertilizer rate required

for a crop while continuing to increase yield by combining all new improved approaches of agronomy, molecular and genetics.

References Han, M., Okamoto, M., Beatty, P.H., Rothstein, S.J.

and Good, A.G., 2015. The genetics of nitrogen use efficiency in crop plants. Annual review of genetics, 49, pp.269-289.

Vijayalakshmi, P., Kiran, T.V., Rao, Y.V., Srikanth, B., Rao, I.S., Sailaja, B., Surekha, K., Rao, P.R., Subrahmanyam, D., Neeraja, C.N. and Voleti, S.R., 2013. Physiological approaches for increasing nitrogen use efficiency in rice. Indian Journal of Plant Physiology, 18(3), pp.208-222.


Conventional and Biotechnological Approaches to Improve the Crop Adaptation to Climate Change

Aradhana Dhruw, Omesh Thakur and Vivek Kurrey

Ph.D. Scholar, IGKV Raipur (C.G.) *Corresponding Author e Mail: [email protected]

The climate has always been in a state of flux, but the current rate of change is much faster, and the range of weather variables much broader than ever seen before in modern agriculture. Today, two primary approaches for adapting crops to these conditions exist:

Improving existing crop cultivars and developing new crops

Devising new cropping systems and methods for managing crops in the field

To transfer genetic information conferring advantageous traits to a cultivar of preference, both transgenic (genetic modification) and non-transgenic approaches can be used.

(A). Non Transgenic Methods

Develop new crops: New crops will likely play a key role in maintaining and increasing agricultural production. Today, some scientists are crossing wild, perennial relatives of crops such as maize, millet, rice, sorghum, sunflower and wheat with their annual, domesticated counterparts, to develop perennial grain crops.

Disadvantage

Lengthy and laborious procedures;

Difficulty to modify a single trait;

Difficulty in identifying genes and transferring them;

Unavailability of required gene(s) in a close relative / compatible genotype

Integrate beneficial traits into existing crops through use of germplasm collections, related datasets, and breeding. To support continuous improvement of germplasm that can be used to develop cultivars adapted to climate

change, there is a need to acquire, preserve, evaluate, document, and distribute plant genetic resources for a wide range of crops and their wild relatives. Expanded use of these resources and methods will help researchers more quickly identify adaptive traits, represented by genes or groups of genes, which contribute to stress resistance.

Hybridization: The non-transgenic approach is based on hybridization of two varieties carrying advantageous QTLs or useful gene alleles, and subsequent marker-assited selection of those genetic components. The ultimate selection of highly advantageous combinations of QTLs is called QTL pyramiding. Theoretically, superior alleles from several or more different parental varieties can be introduced into an elite variety of interest.

Disadvantage of hybridization

Labour intensive and time consuming,

The transfer of relevant alleles by hybridization is restricted to the same species

The effectiveness of this approach depends on the genetic architecture of the trait

It is often hard to track these loci in substitution lines or in nearly isogenic lines (NILs)

(B). Transgenic Methods

By contrast, the transgenic approach does not require hybridization, but does require identification of the gene responsible for an advantageous trait. Even genes from non-plant species can potentially be used. In principle, combinations of several beneficial genes can be transferred into the same plant.

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Key Agricultural Biotechnology Approaches

Molecular Breeding (MB) approach: This approach includes

The development of genomic resources such as molecular

The development of biparental mapping populations by using genetically and phenotypically diverse parental lines or the selection of a natural population representing diversity for abiotic stress tolerance traits.

The use of linkage mapping or association mapping approaches to identify the QTLs or markers associated with abiotic stress tolerance-related parameters

Various appropriate MB approach such as MABC, MARS or GWS to develop superior crop genotypes.

Genetic Engineering (GE) approach

The identification of genes encoding signaling proteins, TFs and effector proteins, and novel stress responsive promoters controlling multiple stress tolerance.

The identification of genes regulating stomatal opening and closure and stress-induced expression to enhance water use efficiency in crops.

The genetic transformation and development of elite crop genotypes with tolerance to high temperature stress and other environmental stresses.

The assessment of promising transgenic lines for multiple stress tolerance under field conditions.

The deregulation of transgenic lines to enable the release of a superior line or variety.

Implementation of Above Approaches

1. Yield improvement: Among the traits affecting crop yields, focus is given to those that are linked to:- a) Genetic programmes controlling the size

and number of reproductive organs rather than traits that are indirectly involved in yield stability, such as the semi-dwarf trait.

b) QTLs for the different but related traits — such as gs3, Gn1a, and QTLs for primary branching or additional traits affecting yield.

1. Improving stress tolerance: Drought tolerance: In terms of physiology, drought stress produce overlapping responses in plants, including accumulation of osmoprotectants and heat shock proteins, some of which are mediated by the actions of the phytohormone abscisic acid (ABA). Ex.- sorghum has been studied as a model for drought resistance because of its adaptation to hot and dry environments. This is characterized by delayed leaf senescence during grain ripening under water-limited

conditions, which ensures better grain filling and is often associated with resistance to charcoal rot and lodging. Several QTL-mapping studies for stay green identified four major QTLs, designated Stg1, Stg2, Stg3, and Stg4. a) Submergence tolerance: Submergence

stress owing to flash flooding is a major constraint to rice production in south and Southeast Asia. Under complete submergence conditions most rice cultivars cannot survive for more than a week, but a few cultivars, such as FR13A of the indica cultivar, can survive up to two weeks. A major QTL, Submergence1 (Sub1), is linked to the submergence tolerance of FR13A. This locus contains a cluster of three genes (Sub1A, Sub1B, and Sub1C) that encode putative ethylene response factors (ER Fs) 66. The responsible gene for submergence tolerance has been identified as Sub1A67.

b) Salt tolerance: Because high concentrations of cytosolic Na+ are toxic, it is important to eliminate Na+ from the cytosol by transporters. The Na+–H+ exchanger SOS1 facilitates efflux of Na+ across the plasma membrane, whereas the vacuolar Na+–H+ antiporter NHX1 transports cytosolic Na+ into vacuoles. Over expression of SOS1, NHX1 and their homologues confers enhanced salt tolerance in many plant species, including rice and maize. Salt tolerant indica rice variety Nona Bokra and the salt sensitive japonica variety Koshihikari are well known.

c) GM crops: GM crops are genetically improved and contain a gene or a different species artificially inserted in its genome. i) Tissue Culture & Transformation –

gives the maximum flexibility for moving genes within or between species.

ii) If GM plants pass their new traits on to wild relatives, those relatives could be changed in a way that could make them play a different ecological role, potentially enabling them to out-compete other species.

iii) Bt crops: Soil bacteria – Bacillus thuringiensis – have a deadly, toxic effect on certain insects. The agent responsible for this is called Bt toxin, a protein produced by the toxic bacteria. When ingested by insects, the protein takes its active form, quickly destroying the insect's gut.

Advantages of Bt preparations: Targeted effect: The various forms of Bt toxin affect only the pests specific to the crop being treated,

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lowering the risk of harm to beneficial insects. Disadvantage: Even though Bt toxin is very

specific, some effects on non-target insects may be possible.

Strategies for Developing New Cropping Systems that Address Climate Stresses (Conventional Approaches)

Use crop models in decision-making: Models can also be used to compare crop management strategies, helping producers weigh both economic and environmental considerations as they make decisions about crop varieties, cropping dates, and management practices.

Apply remote sensing and precision agriculture technologies. Remote sensing tools will be of great use in understanding the effects of a changing environment at the field scale, and the appropriate agronomic methods needed to respond to such changes.

Yield Monitoring: Yield monitoring is the process of measuring fruit yield for a given location and integrating it with GPS-obtained information. Several commercially available software packages can read yield data and create

a yield map. Variable Rate Technology: Variable rate

technology (VRT) of inputs is another key component of precision agriculture, providing economic benefits to growers in the form of reduced use of fertilizer, agrochemicals, and irrigation water, while having a positive environmental impact.

Optimize water-use efficiency. With climate change, water supplies are expected to become threatened in certain regions of the world, but water management strategies, such as drip irrigation, can conserve water and protect vulnerable crops from water shortages. 1. Use of mulches, antitranspirants, wind breaks and shelter belts. 2. Use of less water requiring crops and development of varieties to cope up with the high temperature condition.

Optimize land use. Intensifying yields sustainably on existing arable land uses land more efficiently and avoids bringing new land into production. Higher yields have also been shown to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, thus helping minimize agriculture’s contribution to climate change.


Brassinosteriod A Plant Hormone: Role in Abiotic Stress and Plant Development

Rakesh Sil Sarma

Department of Plant Physiology, Institute of Agricultural sciences, BHU, Varanasi

Brassinosteroids are a new class of plant hormones with a polyoxygenated steroid structure showing excelent plant growth regulatory activity. Brassinolide and castasterone occur ubiquitously in the plant kingdom. The occurrence of brassinosteroids (BRs) has been demonstrated in almost every part of plants, such as pollen, flower buds, fruits, seeds, vascular cambium, leaves, shoots and roots. These steroidal compounds occur in free form and conjugated to sugars and fatty acids. Recently, about 70 BRs have been isolated from different plants. Brassinosteriods are required for normal development of plants. Works on higher plants suggest that they play a critical role in a range of developmental processes, e.g. stem and root growth, floral initiation, and the development of flowers and fruits.

Role of brassinosteriod in Stress tolarence: Plants respond to severel abiotic and biotic stresses in environment. These include heavy metals action, wounding, drought, high salt, and changes in temperature and light, and pathogen and pest attack. Abiotic stress leads to a morphological, physiological, biochemical and molecular changes. Drought, salinity, extreme temperatures and oxidative stress are often

interconnected, and may induce similar cellular damage in plants.

Drought stress tolerence: The effect of Brassinosteriods on changes in root nodulation of Phaseolus vulgaris and contents of endogenous ABA and cytokinin transzeatin riboside (ZR) has been reported. Brassinosteriods in the unstressed plants increased root nodulation, ZR content and also ameliorated their stress induced decline in the nodulated roots. Brassinosteriods have the potential to improve root nodulation and pod yield in the irrigated and water stressed plants; an effect that could be mediated through an influence on cytokinin content in the nodulated roots of Phaseolus vulgaris.

Salinity stress tolerence: The application of Brassinosteriods resulted in substantial improvement in the seed germination and seedling growth of Eucalyptus camaldulensis under saline stress. Brassinosteriods removed the salinity-induced inhibition of seed germination and seedling growth in case of rice (Oryza sativa). Brassinosteriods also restored the level of chlorophylls and increased nitrate reductase activity under salt stress. The activity of this enzyme plays a pivotal role in the supply of

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Adaptation to Aluminium Toxicity in Acid Soils *1Nitin Sharma, 2Prem Chand Gyani, and 2Mallik Manjunatha

*1Division of Plant Physiology, 2Division of Genetics, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi


Aluminum (Al) toxicity limits crop production in acid. Globally, approximately 60% of acid soils are located in the tropics and subtropics where many developing countries are located. Al toxicity is exceeded only by drought among rest of the abiotic constraints for crop production.

When the soil pH drops below 5, Al+3 is solubilized into the soil solution and becomes rhizotoxic. First symptom of Al toxicity is rapid inhibition of root growth that results in reduced and impaired root system, limited water and mineral nutrient uptake. Over long term, cell division is inhibited. Site of its toxicity is root apex and since Al is reactive, there are many potential sites of Al toxicity including plasma membrane, cytoskeleton and nucleus. Though majority of Al is in apoplast and a little fraction that enters interacts with symplastic targets.

Al resistance denotes the ability of a plant to maintain reasonable growth and yield on acidic, Al-toxic soils and/or Al-toxic nutrient solutions.

Two main types of Al resistance mechanisms have been reported so far:

1. Al exclusion mechanisms that prevents Al from entering the root apex (both apoplasm and symplasm), and

2. Al tolerance mechanisms, in which the Al that enters inside is detoxified and sequestered.

1) Aluminum Exclusion Mechanisms

The primary site of Al toxicity is root apex. Al exclusion from the root apex involves the release of organic compounds from the root tip. It occurs in two ways

a) Aluminum exclusion via exudation of root organic acid: It involves Al dependent exudation of organic acid anions by root in the rhizosphere. These anions chelates Al+3 ions and forms nontoxic compound that does not enter the root. Organic acids released include malate, citrate or oxalate. Al-activated malate transporter (ALMT) family of anion channel transporters are involved in malate efflux and the multidrug and toxic compound extrusion (MATE) family of OA/H+ antiport transporters is involved in citrate efflux.

b) Aluminum exclusion via release of compounds other than organic acids: Phenolics chelate Al+3 ions in the rhizosphere. Phenolic compounds are less potent chelators of Al+3 than organic acids.

2) Aluminum Tolerance Mechanisms

Al tolerance mechanisms involves detoxification mechanisms related to modification of root cell wall properties, or the uptake and consequent sequestration and/or translocation of Al when it enters the plant.

a) Cell wall modification: Al+3 binds to pectins due to its affinity for negatively charged carboxylic groups. Cell wall’s negative charge is attributed to degree of pectin methylation due to activity of the pectin methylesterases. Under Al stress the resistant genotypes have lower pectin methylesterase activity. This reduces the net negative charge within the cell wall and thus lower accumulation and binding of Al+3 ions in the wall.

b) b) The role of aluminum transporters in aluminum tolerance mechanisms: Rice is Al resistant species whose roots tolerate high levels of Al in the cell wall. It involves movement of cell wall Al to root cytoplasm and then transport and sequester it in the vacuole. It is done by unique plasma membrane protein, natural resistance-associated macrophage protein (Nramp) Al transporter 1 (OsNrat1). This protein transports Al+3 into the root cytoplasm, where it possibly functions in concert with the vacuolar ABC transporter O. sativa Al-sensitive 1 (OsALS1) to remove Al from the cell wall and sequester it in the root cell vacuole.

c) Aluminum accumulators and their aluminum tolerance mechanism: Al accumulating species including hydrangea, buckwheat, tea etc that are capable of translocating and accumulating Al in the shoots to concentrations above 1,000 mg/kg. Al accumulates in the root and leaf symplasm as nontoxic Al-citrate in hydrangea and Al-oxalate in buckwheat.

Identification and functional characterization of components of Al signaling and regulatory mechanisms will provide useful tools to improve crops via molecular breeding and biotechnology for agriculture on acid soils that limits crop production. Cultivars with enhanced tolerance adds to the food security of the country and economic prosperity of the farmers.

References Kochian, L. V., Hoekenga, O. A., & Piñeros, M. A.

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(2004). How do crop plants tolerate acid soils? Mechanisms of aluminum tolerance and phosphorous efficiency. Annual Reviews of Plant Biology, 55, 459-493.

Kochian, L. V., Piñeros, M. A., Liu, J., & Magalhaes, J. V. (2015). Plant adaptation to acid soils: the molecular basis for crop aluminum resistance. Annual Review of Plant Biology, 66, 571-598.

17. ORGANIC FARMING 14529

Biofertilizers (BFS): A Promoting Tool for Enhancing Crop Productivity

Dinesh Kumar1*, Anil Kumar Mawalia2 and Vikas Vishnu3 1M.Sc. (Agri.) and 2,3Ph.D., Department of Agronomy, Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari,

Gujarat-396450 *Corresponding Author e Mail: [email protected]

Introduction: Biofertilizer (BFs) is substance which contains living microorganism which, when applied to seed, plant surface or soil, colonizes the rhizosphere or the interior of the plant and promotes growth by increasing the supply or availability of primary nutrients to the host plant. BFs are low cost and renewable sources of plant nutrients but are not fertilizers. Fertilizers directly increase soil fertility by adding nutrients. The using of chemical fertilizer since long time results in the soil being full of chemicals thus damaging the production and full of harmful chemicals to the human body. However, BFs add nutrients through natural processes of fixing atmospheric nitrogen, solubilizing phosphorus, and stimulating plant growth through the synthesis of growth promoting substances.

Conventional agriculture plays a significant role in meeting the food demands of a growing human population, which has also led to an increasing dependence on chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Chemical fertilizers are industrially manipulated, substances composed of known quantities of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, and their exploitation causes air and ground water pollution by eutrophication of water bodies. Therefore, BFs are gaining momentum recently due to the increasing emphasis on maintenance of soil health, minimize environmental pollution and cut down on the use of the chemicals in agriculture.

Why to Boost Biofertilizers?

In order to feed the ever growing populations, we have to increase the per unit area productivity. According to Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) estimations, the average demand for the agricultural commodities will be 60 per cent higher in 2030 than present time and more than 85 per cent of this additional demand will be from developing countries. Since last 50 years, global concept is to increase crop yields to supply an ever increasing demand of food. Therefore, vertical expansion of food production is necessary. Thus, role of different crop nutrients in contributing increased crop yield is vital. Among the crop nutrients, nitrogen as well

as phosphorus plays an important role in increasing the crop productivity. More than 50 per cent of the applied N-fertilizers are somehow lost through different agricultural processes which not only lead to economical loss to the farmers but also polluted environment consequently. Growing concern about environmental hazards, increasing threat to sustainable agriculture are some of the other reliable reasons for the BFs promotion. However, plant nutrients like N, P and K are highly essential for plant growth and metabolism. It is also evident that plants utilizes nutrients in greater amounts from soil in modern intensive cultivation and needs replenishment. Under such conditions Microorganisms offer good alternative technology to replenish crop nutrients.

Why to Apply Biofertilizers?

Plant nutrients are lost from soil in different ways, large quantities are removed from the soil due to the harvest of crops, and weeds also remove a considerable quantity of plant nutrient from soil. Nutrients can also be removed by leaching and erosion. Nitrogen is mostly loosed by volatilization and de-nitrification. To increase production and productivity, maintain soil health, reduce nutrient losses, improve soil environment and minimize energy consumption, it is necessary to use BFs with chemical fertilizers. Bio-fertilizers also help in fixing atmospheric nitrogen, dissolve soil phosphorus and stimulate plant growth through synthesis of growth promoting substances.

Role of Biofertilizers in Enhancing Crop Productivity

Application of BFs results in increased mineral and water uptake, root development, vegetative growth and nitrogen fixation

BFs can add 20-200 kg N/ha/year (e.g. Rhizobium sp. 50-100 and Azotobacter 20-40 kg N/ha/year) under optimum soil conditions and thereby increases 15-25 per cent crop yield

Some BFs (e.g. Rhizobium, BGA, Azotobacter etc.) stimulate production of growth promoting substance like vitamin B-complex, Indole acetic acid (IAA) and Gibberrallic acids

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etc. Azotobacter inoculants when applied to many

non-leguminous crop plants, promote seed germination and initial vigor of plants by producing growth promoting substances

Phosphorus mobilizing/solubilizing BFs (e.g. Bacteria, Mycorrhiza etc.) convert insoluble soil P into soluble forms by secreting several organic acids resulting in increase of crop yield by 10-20 per cent

N-fixing, P-mobilizing and cellulolytic microorganisms in BFs enhance the availability of plant nutrients in the soil and thus, sustain the agricultural production and farming system

Constraints of Biofertilizers

BFs are specific to the plants

Rhizobium sp. culture does not work well in high nitrate tolerant strains of soybean

The acceptability of BFs has been rather low chiefly because they do not produce quick and spectacular responses

Require skill in production and application

Difficult to store

Inadequate awareness about its use and benefits

Conclusion: Biofertilizers help in increasing crop productivity by way of increased biological nitrogen fixation, increased availability or uptake of nutrients through solubilization or increased absorption stimulation of plant growth through hormonal action or antibiosis, or by secreting several organic acids.

References Anonymous (2016). Biofertilizers function as key

player in sustainable agriculture by improving soil fertility, plant tolerance and crop productivity.

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov Patel, N., Patel, Y. and Mankad, A. (2014).

Biofertilizer: a promising tool for sustainable farming. International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology, 3(9): 15838-15842.

Mohammadi, K. and Sohrabi, Y. (2012). Bacterial biofertilizers for sustainable crop production: a review. ARPN Journal of Agricultural and Biological Science, 7(5): 307-316.

18. ORGANIC FARMING 14583

Importance of Neem (Azadirachta Indica) as a Fungicide Brajnandan Singh Chandrawat, Harshraj Kanwar* and Dr. B. D. Singh Nathawat*

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Nematology RCA, (MPUAT), Udaipur. *Ph.D. Scholar, Division of Plant Pathology, Rajasthan Agricultural Research Institute, Durgapura, Jaipur (SKNAU, Jonner) E-mail-


Neem as a fungicide: Neem is mainly used as a preventative and when disease is just starting to show. It coats the leaf surface, which in turn prevents the germination of the fungal spores. Neem oil and clarified hydrophobic extracts of Neem oil is effective against rots, mildews, rusts, scab, leaf spot and blights. Neem as soil conditioner and organic manure. Neem products are effective against more than 350 species of arthropods, 12 species of nematodes, 15 species of fungi, 4 strains of viruses, 2 species of snails and 1 crustacean species (Saxena et al., 1989; Nigam et al., 1994; Singh and Raheja, 1996; Mehta, 1997)

Components of Neem: Major chemical constituents of Neem are Terpenes and Limonoids such as meliantriol, azadirachtin, desactylimpin, quercetin, sitosterol, nimbin, nimbinin, nimbidin, nimbosterol and margisine and to different bitter substances such as alkaloids, phenols, resins, glycocides, terpenes and gums (Dwivedi et al., 1991; Singh et al.1980; Govindachari et al. 1998). The major active components in the Limonoids are azadirachtin, 3-deacetyl-3-cinnamoylazadirachtin, I-tigloyl-3-acetyl-II methoxyazadirachtin, 22,23-dihydro-23β methoxyazadirachtin, nimbanal, 3-tigloylazadirachtol, 3-acetyl-salannoV nimbidioV

margocin, margocinin, margocilin and others (Ogbuewu, 2008) It is composed mainly of triglycerides and contains many triterpenoid compounds, which are responsible for the bitter taste.

Commercially available Neem formulations like: Achook (0.15% E.C.), Bioneem (0.03% E.C.) Nimbicidine (0.03% E.C.) and Neemark (0.03% E.C.) showed antifungal activity against pathogenic fungi viz., Fusarium oxysporum, Alternaria solani, Curvularia lunata, Helminthosporium sp. and Sclerotium rolfsii (Bhonde et al., 1999).

Neem oil:-Azadirachtin is the most well known and studied triterpenoid in Neem oil. Azadirachtin, a chemical compound belonging to the limonoid group, is a secondary metabolite present in Neem seeds. Nimbin is another triterpenoid which has been credited with some of Neem oil's properties as an antiseptic, antifungal, antipyretic and antiviral. Neem oil also contains several sterols, including (campesterol, beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol).

The azadirachtin content of Neem oil varies from 300 ppm to over 2500 ppm depending on the extraction technology and quality of the

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Neem seeds crushed.

Azadirachtin Natural 0-2250 ppm in Neem Oil,

Azadirachtin Technical (10 - 44.5 %)

Azadirachtin formulations from 300-50,000 ppm,

In Extracts: Powder (7 % to 41.77 %) &Formulations (300 to 50000 ppm)

Average Composition of Neem Oil Fatty Acids

Common Name Acid Name Composition range

Omega-6 Linoleic acid 6-16%

Omega-9 Oleic acid 25-54%

Palmitic acid Hexadecanoic acid 16-33%

Stearic acid Octadecanoic acid 9-24%

Omega-3 Alpha-linolenic acid ?%

Palmitoleic acid 9-Hexadecenoic acid ?%

Components of Neem Cake: The cake contains salannin, nimbin, azadirachtin and azadiradione as the major components.

Neem cake typically contains: 6% Neem oil, 4% nitrogen, 0.5 % phosphorus and 0.5%

potassium. Being totally botanical product it contains 100% natural NPK content and other essential micro nutrients. It is rich in both sulphur compounds and bitter limonoids.

Essential nutrients as: N (Nitrogen 2.0% to 5.0%) P (Phosphorus 0.5% to 1.0%) K (Potassium 1.0% to 2.0%), Ca (Calcium 0.5% to 3.0%), Mg (Magnesium 0.3% to 1.0%), S (Sulphur 0.2% to 3.0%), Zn (Zinc 15 ppm to 60 ppm), Cu (Copper 4 ppm to 20 ppm), Fe (Iron 500 ppm to 1200 ppm), Mn (Manganese 20 ppm to 60 ppm).

Neem cake seems to make soil more fertile due to an ingredient that blocks soil bacteria from converting nitrogenous compounds into nitrogen gas. It is a nitrification inhibitor and prolongs the availability of nitrogen to both short duration and long duration crops. It also acts as a natural fertilizer with pesticidal properties. Neem cake organic manure protects plant roots from nematodes, soil grubs and pathogens probably due to its content of the residual limonoids.

19. SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 13914

Todays Need of Seed Storage Structure Dr. Pankaj P. Jibhakate

Senior Technical Asst. AICRIP BSP Seed Testing Laboratory, Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Kokan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli. Maharashtra-415712


Maintenance of seed vigour and viability in terms of germination from harvest until planting is of the utmost importance in any seed production programme. Care should be taken at every stage of processing and distribution to maintain the viability and vigour. The harvested seeds of most of the orthodox crop seeds are usually dried and stored for atleast one season until the commencement of the next growing season, except those of the recalcitrant seeds which require high moisture content for safe storage (once dried the viability will be lost. E.g. - Jack, Citrus, Coffee, Cocoa, Polyalthea, etc.). In such recalcitrant seeds senescence starts in the mother plant itself. The dry weather alters moisture content of the seed, thereby reducing the viability. Some seeds require an after ripening process as in Pinus and Fraxinus. In most of the Agricultural crops ageing starts at physiological maturity, which is irreversible. Hence seeds become practically worthless if they fail to give adequate plant stands in addition to healthy and vigorous plants. Good storage is therefore a basic requirement in seed production.

Purpose of Seed Storage

Seeds have to be stored, of course, because there is usually a period of time between harvest and planting. During this period, the seed have to be

kept somewhere. While the time interval between harvest and planting is the basic reason for storing seed, there are other considerations, especially in the case of extended storage of seed.

The purpose of seed storage is to maintain the seed in good physical and physiological condition from the time they are harvested until the time they are planted. It is important to get adequate plant stands in addition to healthy and vigorous plants.

Seed suppliers are not always able to market all the seed they produce during the following planting season. Regardless of the specific reasons for storage of seed, the purpose remains the same maintenance of a satisfactory capacity for germination and emergence. The facilities and procedures used in storage, therefore, have to be directed towards the accomplishment of this purpose.

Stages/Segments of Seed Storage

In the broadest sense the storage period for seed begins with attainment of physiological maturity and ends with resumption of active growth of the embryonic axis, i.e., germination.

The entire storage periods can be divided into:

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20. SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 14761

An Introduction to Seed Legislation in India Himaj S. Deshmukh

Ph.D. Scholar, Dept. of Agril. Botany, MPKV., Rahuri (M.S.) *Corresponding Author e Mail: [email protected]

Development of improved crop varieties is vital for sustained increase in agriculture production and productivity. Timely supply of quality seed is equally significant since the contribution of quality seed alone is estimated to be 15- 20% to total crop production. India with a population of more than 1 billion and an arable area of 168 million hectares has one of the largest potential seed market in the world. Therefore, it is imperative to increase the production and distribution of quality seeds. Seed quality attains more significance in view of emerging biotic and abiotic stresses, issues related to quality and phytosanitary measures, competition in domestic and international markets and emerging food needs.

Measures of seed legislation with respect to quantity and quality were initiated in the country by establishment of National Seed Corporation during 1963 under Ministry of Agriculture. The seed sector in India during the period was dominated by the Public sector. The NSC was the Central Body to produce seeds of superior dwarf varieties in rice, wheat and, superior hybrids in maize, pearl millet and sorghum. This was followed by various seed legislations enacted by Government of India details of which have been enumerated in followed pages. Further, AICRP-National Seed Project during 1979 (NSP) was undertaken by the Indian Government. The project resulted in achieving breeder seed production surpassing the indents in all major crops. Recently, Governments' decision to embrace biotechnology as a means of achieving food security has made seed quality an important aspect in R & D and business sector in India such as "approval for commercial cultivation of Bt cotton" in the year 2002.

Significance of Seed Quality Control in Seed Industry

Control of seed quality is important due to following reasons:

1. The interest of the buyer (farmer) in a particular seed brand.

2. To maintain the goodwill of the particular seed brand.

3. 3 Guarantee of the high quality of the seeds. 4. For prevention of the loss due to supply of

poor quality seeds. 5. Awakening the farmers for good quality

seeds.

History of Seed Legislation in India

Since old days, the significance of quality control in seeds has been understood. It has been mentioned ‘Manusmriti’ also that a person selling a poor quality seed, is liable to the punishment of his body organs being chopped. Though seed act had been implemented in European countries at the end of eighteenth century, India did have an act to designate seed quality parameters. However, some efforts were made by Departments of Agriculture, in some states, regarding the production and distribution of good quality seeds. In 1961, an American scientist, Prof. A. S. Carter visited India under the U.S.A.I.D. programme, who emphasized on controlling the quality of seeds by certifying them and enacting seed laws. A Committee formed in 1960, for giving suggestions to make policy and seed programmes and to regulate seed production, also recommended enactment of seed laws and establishment of various agencies for implementing them. During the same period, hybrids of maize, sorghum and pearl millet and fertilizer responsive high yielding varieties of wheat and paddy, were developed. National Seeds Corporation, was established in 1963.

Government of India passed the Seeds Act, 1966 with a view to control the quality of seeds and followed by Seed Rules in 1968. Both were adopted during 1969 for the whole of India except Sikkim and Kashmir. Amendments were made subsequently for the Seeds Act during the years 1972, 1973, 1974 & 1981. With newer varieties coming into the agricultural scenario, the seeds control order was formed insisting on compulsory licensing of the dealer. This was made even more stringent by bringing the seeds under the Essential Commodity Act, 1955. To help Multinational Corporation in utilizing the manpower and knowledge base of our country, the Plants, Varieties and Fruits Order was passed during 1989 and amended subsequently during 1998, 2000 and 2001. Finally the order was revised by another order, Plant Quarantine (Regulation of import into India) Order in 2003. Signing of WTO in 1995 paved the way for private research and development of varieties.

In order to regulate such varieties, the protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Right Act was passed in 2001 which was followed by National Seed Policy, 2002 and Seeds Bill, 2004.

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21. SOIL SCIENCE AND AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 14175

Effect of Humic Substances on Soil Fertility 1Mohitpasha S. Shaikh and 2Savita B. Ahire

1Assistant Field Officer in Soil and Land Use Survey of India, Baishnabghata Patuli Township, Block-E, Kolkata- 700094. (W.B.) and 2Agriculture Assistant in Department of Agriculture, Govt. of Maharashtra

- 424 304 (M.S.)

Introduction

Humic Substances: Play a vital role in soil fertility and plant nutrition. Plants grown on soils which contain adequate humin, humic acids (HAs), and fulvic acids (FAs) are less subject to stress, are healthier, produce higher yields; and the nutritional quality of harvested foods and feeds are superior. The value of humic substances in soil fertility and plant nutrition relates to the many functions these complex organic compounds perform as a part of the life cycle on earth. The life death cycle involves a recycling of the carbon containing structural components of plants and animals through the soil and air and back into the living plant.

The urgency to emphasize the importance of humic substances and their value as fertilizer ingredients has never been more important than it is today. All those concerned about the ability of soils to support plant growth need to assist in educating the public. Humic substances are recognized by most soil scientists and agronomists as the most important component of a healthy fertile soil. They function to give the soil structure, porosity, water holding capacity, cation and anion exchange, and are involved in the chelation of mineral elements.

Humus: Humus is defined as a brown to black complex variable of carbon containing compounds not recognized under a light microscope as possessing cellular organization in the form of plant and animal bodies.

Fractions of Humic Substance: (1) HUMIN, (2) HUMIC ACIDS (HAs), and (3) FULVIC ACIDS (FAs). These sub divisions are arbitrarily based on the solubility of each fraction in water adjusted to different acid alkaline (pH levels) conditions. Fig No.1

Humins: Humins are that fraction of humic substances which are not soluble in alkali (high pH) and not soluble in acid (low pH). Humins are not soluble in water at any pH. Humin complexes are considered macro organic (very large) substances because their molecular weights (MW) range from approximately 100,000 to 10,000,000. In comparison the molecular weights of carbohydrates (complex sugars) range from approximately 500 to 100,000. The chemical and physical properties of humins are only partially understood.

Humic Acids: Humic acids (HAs) comprise a

mixture of weak aliphatic (carbon chains) andaromatic (carbon rings) organic acids which are not soluble in water under acid conditions but are soluble in water under alkaline conditions. Humic acids consist of that fraction of humic substances that are precipitated from aqueous solution when the pH is decreased below 2.

Humic acids (HAs) are termed polydisperse because of their variable chemical features. From a three dimensional aspect these complex carbon containing compounds are considered to be flexible linear polymers that exist as random coils with cross linked bonds. On average 35% of the humic acid (HA) molecules are aromatic (carbon rings), while the remaining componentsare in the form of aliphatic (carbon chains) molecules. The molecular size of humic acids (HAs) range from approximately 10,000 to 100,000. Humic acid (HA) polymers readily bind clay minerals to form stable organic clay complexes. Peripheral pores in the polymer are capable of accommodating (binding) natural and synthetic organic chemicals in lattice type arrangements.

Fulvic Acids: Fulvic acids (FAs) are a mixture of weak aliphatic and aromatic organic acidswhich are soluble in water at all pH conditions (acidic, neutral and alkaline). Their composition and shape is quite variable. The size of fulvic acids (HFs) are smaller than humic acids (HAs), with molecular weights which range from approximately 1,000 to 10,000. Fulvic acids (FAs) have oxygen content twice that of humic acids (HAs). They have many carboxyls (COOH) and hydroxyl (COH) groups, thus fulvic acids (FAs) are much more chemically reactive. The exchange capacity of fulvic acids (FAs) is more than double that of humic acids (HAs). This high exchange capacity is due to the total number of carboxyl (COOH) groups present. The number of carboxyl groups present in fulvic acids (FAs) ranges from 520 to 1120 cmol (H+)/kg.

Humic Substances and their Influence on Soil Fertility

Humic substances are a good source of energy for beneficial soil organisms. Humic substances and non humic (organic) compounds provide the energy and many of the mineral requirements for soil microorganisms and soil animals. Beneficial soil organisms (algae, yeasts, bacteria, fungi nematodes, mycorrhizae, and small animals) perform many beneficial functions which

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influence soil fertility and plant health. Humus functions to improve the soil's water

holding capacity. The most important function of humic substances within the soil is their ability to hold water. From a quantitative standpoint water is the most important substance derived by plants from the soil. Humic substances help create a desirable soil structure that facilitates water infiltration and helps hold water within the root zone. Because of the large surface area and internal electrical charges, humic substances function as water sponges. These sponges like substances have the ability to hold seven times their volume in water, a greater water holding capacity than sod clays. Water stored within the top soil when needed, provides a carrier medium for nutrients required by soil organisms and plant roots.

Humic substances are key components of a friable (loose) soil structure. Various carbon containing humic substances are key components of soil crumbs (aggregates). Complex carbohydrates synthesized by bacteria and humic substances function together with clay and silt to form soil aggregates. As the humic substances become intimately associated with the mineral fraction of the soil, colloidal complexes of humus-clay and humus silt aggregates are formed. These aggregates are formed by electrical processes which increase the cohesive forces that cause very fine soil particles and clay components to attract each other. Once formed these aggregates help create a desirable crumb structure in the top soil, making it more friable. Soils with good crumb structure have improved tilth, and more porous openings (open spaces). These pores allow for gaseous interchange with the atmosphere, and for greater water infiltration.

Degradation or inactivation of toxic substances is mediated by humic substances. Soil humic substances function to either stabilize or assist in the degradation of toxic substances such as: nicotine, aflatoxins, antibiotics, shallots, and most organic pesticides. In the microbial degradation process not all of the carbon contained within these toxins is released as CO2. A portion of these toxic molecules, primarily the aromatic ring compounds are stabilized and integrated within the complex polymers of humic substances. Humic substances have electrically charged sites on their surfaces which function to attract and inactivate pesticides and other toxic substances. For this reason the Environmental Protection Agency recommends the use of humates for clean-up of toxic waste sites.

Humic substances buffer (neutralize) the soil pH and liberate carbon dioxide. Humic substances function to buffer the hydrogen ion (pH) concentration of the soil. Repeated field studies have provided experimental evidence that the addition of humic substances to soils helps to neutralize the pH of those soils. Both acidic and

alkaline soils are neutralized. Soil enzymes are stabilized and inactivated by

humic substances. Soil enzymes (complex proteins) are stabilized by humic substances within the soil by covalent bonding. Stabilization renders these enzymes less subject to microbial degradation. Once stabilized and bound to the humic substances enzyme activity is greatly reduced or ceases to function. However many of these bonds are relatively weak during periods of pH change within the soil, these enzymes can be released. When some components of humic substance react with soil enzymes they are more tightly bound

Soil temperature and water evaporation rate are stabilized by humic substances. Humic substances function to help stabilize soil temperatures and slow the rate of water evaporation. The insulating properties of humic substances help maintain a more uniform soil temperature, especially during periods of rapid climatic changes, such as cold spell or heat waves. Because water is bound within the humic substances and humic substances reduce temperatures fluctuations, soil moisture is less likely to be released into the atmosphere.

Humic substances aid in the position of soil minerals by forming metal organic clay complexes, a process termed soil genesis. Soil formation (soil genesis) involves a complexing of transition mineral elements, such as copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), and manganese (Mn) from soil minerals with humic acids (HAs), fulvic acids (FAs) and days. This complexing process inhibits crystallization of these mineral elements. The complexing process is in part controlled by the acidity of these weak acids and the chelating ability of humic substances.

Stored energy and trace mineral content of humic substances helps sustain sod organisms involved in transmutation. The presence of humic substances within saline soils (those soils which contain high salt concentrations, e.g. sodium chloride) aid in the transmutation of the sodium ions. The transmutation reactions, a biological process that occurs within living organisms, result in the combining of sodium with a second element, such as oxygen, to form a new element. Although the theory of transmutation has met considerable opposition by some traditional physicists and chemists, biologist have recorded convincing data to prove that transmutation occurs in living organisms. Application of humins, humic acids, and fulvic acids to saline soils, in combination with specific soil organisms, results in a reduction in the concentration of sodium salts (e.g. NaCI). The reduction is not correlated with a leaching of the salt, rather with an increase in the concentration of other elements. The addition of humic substances to soils containing excessive salts can help reduce the concentration of those salts. By reducing the salt content of a soil its

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fertility and health can be "brought back" to provide a more desirable environment for plant

root growth.


Basics of Phosphorus Dr. A. Suganya

Research Associate, Water Technology Centre, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore -03.

Phosphorus, Crops and the Environment: Most plants are only about 0.2% P by weight, but that small amount is critically important. Phosphorus is an essential component of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is involved in most biochemical processes in plants and enables them to extract nutrients from the soil. Phosphorus also plays a critical role in cell development and DNA formation. Insufficient soil P can result in delayed crop maturity, reduced flower development, low seed quality, and decreased crop yield. Too much P, on the other hand, can be harmful in some situations; when P levels increase in fresh water streams and lakes, algae blooms can occur. When algae die, their decomposition results in oxygen depletion which can lead to the death of aquatic plants and animals. This process is called “eutrophication”.

Phosphorus Cycle: Phosphorus exists in many different forms in soil. For practical purposes, we can group these sources into four general forms: (1) plant available inorganic P, and three forms which are not plant available: (2) organic P, (3) adsorbed P, and (4) primary mineral P. The P cycle in Figure 1 shows these P forms and the pathways by which P may be taken up by plants or leave the site as P runoff or leaching. The general P transformation processes are: weathering and precipitation, mineralization and immobilization, and adsorption and desorption. Weathering, mineralization and desorption increase plant available P. Immobilization, precipitation and adsorption decrease plant available P.

FIGURE 1: Simplified phosphorus cycle.

Weathering and Precipitation: Soils naturally contain P-rich minerals, which are weathered over

long periods of time and slowly made available to plants. Phosphorus can become unavailable through precipitation, which happens if plant available inorganic P reacts with dissolved iron, aluminum, manganese (in acid soils), or calcium (in alkaline soils) to form phosphate minerals.

Mineralization and Immobilization

Mineralization is the microbial conversion of organic P to H2PO4 - or HPO4 2-, forms of plant available P known as orthophosphates.

Immobilization occurs when these plant available P forms are consumed by microbes, turning the P into organic P forms that are not available to plants. The microbial P will become available over time as the microbes die.

Maintaining soil organic matter levels is important in P management. Mineralization of organic matter results in the slow release of P to the soil solution during the growing season, making it available for plant uptake. This process reduces the need for fertilizer applications and the risk of runoff and leaching that may result from additional P.

Soil temperatures between 65 and 105°F favor P mineralization.

Adsorption and Desorption

Adsorption is the chemical binding of plant available P to soil particles, which makes it unavailable to plants. Desorption is the release of adsorbed P from its bound state into the soil solution.

Adsorption (or “fixing” as it is sometimes called) occurs quickly whereas desorption is usually a slow process.

Adsorption differs from precipitation: adsorption is reversible chemical binding of P to soil particles while precipitation involves a more permanent change in the chemical properties of the P as it is removed from the soil solution.

Soils that have higher iron and/or aluminum contents have the potential to adsorb more P than other soils.

Phosphorus is in its most plant available form when the pH is between 6 and 7. At higher pH, P can precipitate with Ca. At lower pH, P tends to be sorbed to Fe and Al compounds in the soil. Every soil has a maximum amount of P that it can adsorb. Phosphorus losses to the

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environment through runoff and/or leaching increase with P saturation level.

Precise fertilizer placement can decrease P adsorption effects by minimizing P contact with soil and concentrating P into a smaller area. Band application of fertilizer is a common example of this.

Runoff: Runoff is a major cause of P loss from farms. Water carries away particulate (soil-bound) P in eroded sediment, as well as dissolved P from applied manure and fertilizers. Erosion control practices decrease P losses by slowing water flow over the soil surface and increasing infiltration.

Leaching: It is the removal of dissolved P from soil by vertical water movement. Leaching is a concern in relatively high P soils (near or at P

saturation), especially where preferential flow or direct connections with tile drains exist.

Summary: Crop uptake is the goal of applying P fertilizer or manure to the soil. If soil tests P levels are already optimum, P additions through fertilizer or manure should not exceed crop removal. If additional P is needed (soils testing low or medium in P), P adsorption can be minimized by band applications and by maintaining an optimum pH. Naturally occurring immobilization of P by microbes can help ration plant available P to crops over the course of a growing season. Steps should be taken to reduce losses in order to maximize theefficiency of fertilizer and manure applications.


Integrated Nutrient Management in Soybean B. Chandra Sheker

M.Sc. (Agri.), Department of Soil Science and Agriculture Chemistry, UAS Dharwad *Corresponding Author e Mail: [email protected]

Soybean

Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merill), a grain legume is considered as a wonder crop due to its dual qualities viz., high protein (40-43%) and oil content (20%). Soybean was introduced in India during 1960’s and is gaining rapid recognition as a highly desirable legume and oil seed crop. The crop is popularly called as “Crop of the planet”, “God’s sent golden bean”, “greater bean,” “Golden Bean” or “Miracle crop” of the 21st century because of its multiple uses. Soybean is one of the natures most versatile and fascinating crop in the present farming system of Indian agriculture.

It has been reported to have medicinal properties in combating diabetes, cancer, heart disease, etc. Another significance of this crop is that improves the fertility of soil by leaving residual nitrogen (50-300 kg/ha) through fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. It adds about 1.0-1.5 tonnes of leaf litter per season ha-1.

TABLE 1: Soybean production 2015 (Anon., 2015)

Area (m. ha)

Production (m. tonnes)

Productivity (kg ha-1)

World 118.01 315.06 2670

India 10.02 11.64 1062

Karnataka 0.29 0.24 868

Integrated Nutrient Management (INM)

DEFINITION: Integrated nutrient management is the use of different sources of plant nutrients integrated to check nutrient depletion and maintain soil health and crop productivity.

(OR) The INM includes efficient use of inorganic,

organic and biological sources of nutrients, so as to have better crop yields and improve physico-chemical and biological properties of soil and provide crop nutrition packages which are technically sound, economically viable, practically visible, ecologically compatible and socially acceptable.

Components of INM

Fig. 1: Different components of INM

Advantages of INM

Enhances the availability of applied as well as native soil nutrients.

Combined use of organic and inorganic sources enhance the FUE.

The NUE, PUE and KUE of applied fertilizer increased when chemical fertilizer is combined with organic manures.

Combined use of organic and inorganic fertilizers increases cation retention and improves nutrients availability.

Application of organic manure leads to improvement of physical properties viz, aggregate stability and WHC.

Crop residue

Inorganic fertilizer

Bio-fertilizer Crop rotation

INM

Green manure

Organic manure

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High analysis fertilizers have low contents of micronutrients, but combined use with organic manure makes these nutrients available to plants.

Why INM Needed…?

Soils which receive plant nutrients only through chemical fertilizers are showing declining productivity despite being supplied with sufficient nutrients.

To improve the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil.

Multiple nutrient deficiencies in soils and declining soil productivity.

Decreasing fertilizer use efficiency and to improve the stock of plant nutrients in the soil.

Sources of organic manure for INM

Compost

Vermicompost

Farmyard Manure (FYM)

Poultry Manure

Urban and rural solid and liquid wastes from agro based industries and Crop wastes

TABLE 2: Nutrient content of green manure and green leaf manures

Plant Nutrient content (%)

N P K

Green manure crop

Sunnhemp 2.30 0.50 1.80

Plant Nutrient content (%)

N P K

Dhaincha 3.50 0.60 1.20

Sesbania 2.71 0.53 2.21

Green leaf manure

Glyricidia 2.76 0.28 4.60

Pongamia 3.31 0.44 2.39

Neem 2.83 0.28 0.35

Gulmohur 2.76 0.46 0.50

TABLE 3: Nutrient content of different manures

Particulars Nutrient content (%)

N P K

FYM 0.50 0.20 0.50

Compost (C) 0.50 0.15 0.50

Vermicompost (VC) 1.50 0.86 0.98

Cotton stock 0.78 0.11 0.74

Lucerne 3.21 0.32 2.92

Enriched compost 0.70 0.32 0.68

Poultry manure 3.03 2.63 1.40

Sheep and Goat manure 3.00 1.00 2.00

References Anonymous, 2015, Annual report of Directorate of

Economics and Statistics, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi, retrieved from www.agricoop.com


Soil Health: A Sustainable Approach for Managing Soil Rajendra Kumar Yadav1, Chiranjeev Kumawat1 and Deep Mohan Mahala1

1PhD. Scholar, Division of Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry, ICAR-IARI, New Delhi-110012

Soil is a wonderful gift of nature whose good health is essential for societal existence. Routine soil testing measures the status of soil nutrients and some physical properties of soil. Such analysis of soil is done to find out nutrient deficiency in soil and find out the strategy to manage deficient soils. But soil health encompasses various biological, chemical and physical parameters of soils which are important in the context of sustainable land use and management. Soil health can be defined as 'the continued capacity of soil to function as a living system, within ecosystem and land use boundaries, to sustain biological productivity, maintain the quality of air and water environment and promote plant, animal, and human health' (Doran et al., 1996).

However, assessing soil health is difficult, because soil health cannot be measured directly, but it may be inferred from management-induced changes in soil properties (Mandal et al., 2005).

Soil health indicators are a composite set of measurable physical, chemical and biological attributes which relate to functional soil processes and can be used to evaluate soil health status.

Therefore it is necessary to develop such a diagnostic tool with simple, robust and process based indicators, both qualitative and quantitative, to discern mechanistically why a particular (management/cropping) system is favourable or unfavourable to soil health. This tool will help to evolve management practices that optimize the combined goals of high crop production, low environmental degradation, and a sustained soil resource. Andrews and Carrol (2001) described a statistical method for assessing the soil health index. A valid soil health index would help interpret data from different soil managements and show whether management and land use are having the desired result for productivity, environmental protection and soil health.

The soil health approach is better applied

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when specific goals are defined for a desired outcome from a set of decisions. Therefore soil health evaluation process which consists of a series of actions:-

Selection of soil health indicators

Determination of a minimum data set (MDS)

Development of an interpretation scheme of indices

On-farm assessment and validation

Selection of soil health indicators based on some criteria, they should (i) encompass ecosystem process, (ii) sensitive to variation in management practices and climate, (iii) easily measurable and reproducible, (iv) a component of existing soil database (v) be accessible to many users and applicable to field conditions, and (vi) integrate soil physical, chemical and biological properties and processes (Doran and Perkin, 1994).

TABLE 1. Soil health indicators (Karlen et al., 2003)

Physical Chemical Biological

Aggregate stability pH Soil organic matter

Infiltration Electrical conductivity

Respiration

Bulk density cation exchange capacity

Microbial biomass C & N

Soil & rooting depths Plant available N, P, K, S

Potentially mineralizable N

Soil available water & distribution Soil surface cover

Enzyme activity

Calculation of Soil Health Index: Soil health index (SHI) is calculated through the following steps.

1. Data screening: The data is reduced to minimum dataset (MDS) of soil health indicators through a series of uni- and multivariate statistical methods.

2. Choosing representative variables: Standardized principal component analysis (PCA) is performed based on correlation matrix of replicated data for each statistically significant variable. The principal components receiving high eigen values and variables with high factor loadings with such components best represent system attributes and is retained for MDS.

3. Reducing redundancy: Simple correlation coefficients among the screened variables after PCA is performed to determine strength of linear relationship among such variables. The uncorrelated, highly weighted variables and variable with highest correlation sum is

the best representative of the group and, therefore retain in the MDS.

4. MDS validation: Multiple regressions is done by using the final MDS components as the independent variables and each management-goal attribute (e.g., yield and its quality product) as a dependent variable to check the MDS representation of management system goals.

5. Indicator transformation (scoring): After determining the variables for the MDS, every observation of each MDS indicator is transformed for inclusion in the soil health index by using linear scoring technique.

6. Indicator integration into indices: soil health index is calculated by the summation of the indicator scores multiplies by Principal components weightage factor from MDS indicators.

Soil health index

SHI = SWi X Si

i=1 Where S= indicator score, W = Principal

components weightage factor

The soil health indexes (SHI) are worked out for soils under different treatments and cropping systems in of long-term fertility experiments in India by different researchers.

TABLE 2. Soil health index (SHI) under different soil types and cropping systems (Mandal et al., 2005)

Treatment/ centre

AAU

ANGRAU

BHU

CRIDA

CRIJAF

CRRI

OUAT

BCKV

Control 2.27

0.92 1.63

0.95 1.04 2.77

0.31

2.78

N 2.60

- 1.48

- 1.38 2.91

0.35

-

NP 2.59

- - 1.02 1.66 3.21

0.78

-

NPK 2.79

0.97 1.52

- 1.87 3.10

0.81

2.69

NPK+ FYM

2.84

2.00 1.87

1.27 2.10 4.00

1.13

3.63

Conclusion Higher soil health index value represents better soil health status for sustainable production. In most of the experiments higher SHI values were found in soils cultivated with balanced use of NPK than those cultivated with the imbalanced ones. Again, values of such SHI were always higher with than without organics/FYM.

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Summarized Information on Phosphorus M. K. Tarwariya* and Ekta Joshi

Rajmata Vijayaraje Scindia Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Gwalior (M.P.)-474002, India *Corresponding Author e Mail: [email protected]

Form taken up by plant

: H2PO4-, HPO4

=

Mobility in soil : None; roots must come in direct contact with orthophosphate P

Mobility in plant : Yes

Deficiency symptoms

: Lower leaves with purple leaf, margins Deficiency pH range: <5.5 and >7.0

Toxicity symptoms

: None

Role in plant growth

: Important component of phospholipids and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)

Role in microbial growth

: Accumulation and release of energy during cellular metabolism

Concentration in plants

: 1,000 – 5,000 ppm (0.1 –0.5%)

Effect of pH on availability

: H2PO4- at pH < 7.2

HPO4= at pH > 7.2

Interactions with other nutrients

: P x N, P x Zn at high pH, in anion exchange P displaces S, K by mass action displaces Al inducing P deficiency (pH<6.0)

P fertilizer sources:

: Rock phosphate, phosphoric acid, Ca orthophosphates, ammoniumphosphates, ammonium poly-phosphates, nitric phosphates, K phosphates, microbial fertilizers (phosphobacterins) increase P uptake

Mineralization/ immobilization:

: C:P ratio of < 200: mineralization of organic P

C:P ratio of 200-300: no gain/loss of inorganic P

C:P ratio of >300: net immobilization of inorganic P

P fixation: : Formation of insoluble Ca, Al, and Fe phosphates

Al(OH)3 + H2PO4- Al(OH)2HPO4

(Soluble) (Insoluble)

Organic P sources

: Inositol phosphate (Esters of orthophosphoric acid), phospholipids, nucleic acids, phosphate sugars

Inorganic P sources

: Apatite and Ca phosphate (unweathered soils) and Fe and Al sinks from P fixation (weathered soils)

Waste : Poultry litter (3.0 to 5.0%), steel slag (3.5%), electric coal ash (<1.0%)

Total P levels in soil

: 50 – 1500 mg/kg

Solution concentration range

: < 0.01 to 1.0 ppm

Applied fertilizer: : < 30% recovered in plants, more P must be added than removed by crops


Waterlogged Soils and Management B. Chandra Sheker

M.Sc. (Agri.), Department of Soil Science and Agriculture Chemistry, UAS, Dharwad, Karnataka *Corresponding Author e Mail: [email protected]

What is Water Logging.....?

The soils that are saturated with water for a sufficiently long time in a year to give the soils following distinctive gley horizon from oxidation reduction processes:

1. A partially oxidized ‘A’ horizon high in organic matter,

2. A mottled zone in which oxidation & reduction alternate,

3. A permanently reduced zone which is bluish green colour.

The soil is intermittently saturated with water, oxidation of organic matter is slow and it accumulates in the "A" horizon. In the second horizon Fe and Mn are deposited as rusty mottles or streaks if the diffusion of O2 into the soil is slow, if the diffusion is rapid they are deposited as concretions. In submerged soils due to diffusion of oxygen in the water, the organic form nitrogen undergoes mineralization to form NH4 to NO2 and NO2 to NO3 takes place in the aerobic layer.

But in an anaerobic layer the absence of oxygen inhibits the activity of the nitrosomonas

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Soil Test and Crop Response Based Integrated Nutrient Management

Sowmya Pogula 1 and Debadatta Sethi2*

Ph.D. Scholar Department of Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry, O.U.A.T., Bhubaneswar, Odisha, 751003


Indian agriculture is now in the era of multiple nutrient deficiencies (N, P, K, S, Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu, B and Mo) largely due to mining of nutrients through intensive cropping and inadequate and imbalanced fertilizer use. Wide spread nutrient deficiencies are limiting factor for producing high yields of standard quality. The crops which produce more biomass per unit area remove large quantities of nutrients from the soil which must be replenished to maintain soil fertility at sustainable level. The exact estimate of nutrient use and imbalance under different crops is not available but definitely it is highly negative for all the nutrients as indicated by national trend for most of the crops and cropping systems. This has caused decline in yield, quality of produce, nutrient use efficiency, soil fertility and over all factors productivity of the system. The most practical way of balanced fertilizer recommendation for sustained qualitative and quantitative production is through soil testing.

Current practice of generalized/state/ad-hoc fertilizer recommendation for different crops is sub-optimal and imbalance which requires upward refinement. These recommendations are based on multi-locational experiments conducted on different crops with graded dosed of N, P and K fertilizers to arrive at an optimum dose for a particular crop without taking in to account the fertility status of the soil and the total nutrient removal by the crop. However, under high or low soil fertility conditions and high or low yield potential of crops the applied nutrients prove to be either wasteful or remain insufficient. Hence, optimum use- efficiency of fertilizer nutrients cannot be achieved in both the cases. The other approach of fertilizer prescription which is also commonly followed in different crops is recommendations based on soil fertility ratings. In this approach the medium soil fertility being equated with general recommended dose. In low and very low or high and very high categories, the fertilizer doses are raised or lowered by 25-50% of the general recommended dose as per the situation. Unfortunately, these rating are still the same irrespective of crops, varieties or soils.

Site –Specific Variability

Managing the site- specific variability in nutrient supply with crop nutrient demand is a key strategy to overcome the current mismatch of

fertilizer rates and its utilization by the crops. “Balanced nutrition” should ensure adequate quantities of soil nutrients in available form and in right proportions as per the requirements of the crop and cropping system. Most soils are not able to supply required amount of all the essential nutrients in balanced proportion to meet the requirement of all the crops which is supplemented by addition of fertilizer and manures. The fertilizer needs of a crop is greatly influenced by the inherent capacity of soil to supply nutrients, nature of preceding crop(s), the amount of fertilizer and manures applied to the preceding crop, cropping sequence and nutrient required by the crop to grown for a targeted yield level (±5 to ±10% of potential yield of the variety). To overcome these problems, the fertilizer recommendations should be based on soil testing. Theory of optimum fertilizer recommendation for targeted yield was first formulated by Troug which was further modified by Ramamoorthy as ‘Inductive-cum targeted yield model’ popularly known as Soil Test Crop Response (STCR) correlation studies. Linear relationship between yield/biomass of crops and total nutrient uptake by the crops forms the basis of fertilizer prescription in this concept. Other assumption of the concept is that for given yield target, definite quantity of nutrients is absorbed by the crops. Contradictory to the agronomic trials in which variability in soil fertility is obtained by selecting the soils at different locations, in the inductive approach of STCR field experimentation, required variability in soil fertility levels (generally three viz., low, medium and high) is deliberately created in the same field in order to reduce heterogeneity in the soil population (types), management practices and climatic conditions. After obtaining desirable heterogeneity, main experiment was laid out in fractional factorial randomized block design in which each gradient strip was given different combinations of 24 treatments (21 treatments+3 controls). The essential basic information derived from soil test crop response correlation field experiment is used for formulating for targeted yield of crops for a given soil type-crop-agro climatic conditions are

1. Nutrient requirement in kg/q of biomass production

2. Per cent contribution from soil available

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nutrients (CS%) 3. Per cent contribution from fertilizer nutrients

(%CF) and 4. per cent contribution from organic manure

(%COM).

Chemical fertilizer alone cannot meet the requirements of highly exhaustive intensive cropping system because of high cost and risk of environment degradation involved. Therefore, conjoin use of chemical fertilizers with organic manure(S) is essentially required to sustain crop productivity and enhance environmental quality. Considering this, integrated equation of soil test based fertilizer prescription has been developed and by using such equation, quantitative contribution of nutrients from on-farm available organic sources could be calculated and doses of chemical fertilizers reduced accordingly. Fertilizer prescription equations involving integrated soil test crop response correlation have been developed for number of annual field crops viz., cereals, oilseeds, pulses and vegetables and were

successfully validated on farmer’s field. Where STCR based fertilizer prescription gave higher response and benefit: cost ratio as compared to other methods of fertilizer prescription such as farmer’s practice, ad-hoc application and recommendation based on soil test alone due to synergistic effects of balanced fertilization. This approach operationally provides real balance in “Balanced Fertilization” of crops for obtaining high yields consistent with profitability on fertilizer investment and for upgrading/maintaining soil fertility of the farm aver years of multiple cropping. The recommendations based on STCR approach are more quantitative, precise and meaningful because it involves both soil and plant analysis. To meet the future demand of agricultural produce it imperative to increase production of field crops per unit area, time and space which is not possible without adaption of site-specific nutrient management according to the needs of the crop and production level.


Role of Soil Physical Environment in Boosting Crop Production Potential D. C. Kala1 and Gangadhar Nanda2*

1Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Soil Science, 2Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agronomy, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand-263 145


Soil physical environment is related to all those physical properties of soil which creates problem in germination of seed, uptake and transport of nutrients by the plant for their growth and development. To maintain productivity, an agricultural system must have good physical condition of soil. Fertilizer alone, or even in conjunction with improved crop varieties and control measures for pests and diseases, will not preserves productivity, if significant deterioration of physical condition occurs. Important soil physical constraints include soil texture, soil structure, bulk density, infiltration rate, water retention and movement, soil compaction, soil crust, hydraulic conductivity, soil aeration, soil temperature, soil erosion, etc. Soil acts as store house for supply of water and nutrients for growth, and anchorages its stability. Plant growth in the context of crop production demands adequate conditions to yield a crop which is economically worthwhile. For better plant growth and efficient crop production, it is important to understand and maintain the soil environment in which plants grow and to recognize the limitations of that environment and to ameliorate where possible.

Natural state of soil is rarely favourable for crop growth. The benefits of soil cultivation and of

adding/removing water, to improve the soil physical condition, combined with appropriate crop selection for the enhancement of yields, has been long appreciated. Farmers have recognized many soil physical constraints to plant growth and crop cultivation although unable to describe and quantify them scientifically.

Management of soil physical conditions to ameliorate the constraints for plant growth will not only preserve the soil quality for the future but also contribute to the mitigation of soil degradation. For satisfactory plant growth, it is essential that the soil provides a favourable physical environment for root development that can exploit the soil sufficiently to provide the plant's needs for water, nutrients and anchorage. Introduction of new agricultural technology created growing realization of soil physical properties limiting crop production. Proper understanding of the dynamics of soil solid, water, air, and temperature under field conditions is imperative for developing a suitable management technology for improving soil tilth. However, soil physical changes and their impact on crop production are less easily realized because of their exceedingly complex and dynamic nature. The quantitative interrelationships of solid, liquid and air components of soil are defined in terms of

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many useful physical parameters of soil. The major soil physical constraints identified for low yield of crops in India are low water retention and high permeability, slow permeability, surface and sub-surface mechanical impedance and shallow depth of the soils, which either restrict crop growth or reduce efficiency of basic inputs, such as water, fertilizer, etc. Managing for better soil health builds more dependable productivity and increases resilience into agro-ecosystems, while decreasing external input needs. Better soil health management can help growers adapt to and mitigate extreme weather, climate change effects, and other environmental impacts through carbon sequestration, better water availability buffering, better temperature buffering, lower environmental losses and improved ecosystem services. Management practices such as reducing tillage, using cover crops, developing better crop rotations, importing organic matter, nutrients, and other amendments as needed, and preventing damage to soil while it is wet, can all help build better soil health. The best management practices for better soil health and crop growth includes mulching, vegetation, tillage, soil compaction, irrigation and drainage.

Sandy loam texture in rainfed region requires

soil compaction and compaction-plus-clay management technologies to be effective in reducing water and nutrient losses, increasing profile moisture storage capacity and the yield of various crops. Application of farmyard manure on seed lines as mulch is helpful in reducing the ill effects of surface crust on seedling emergence and crop establishment in crust-prone sandy loam and loamy sand soils of rainfed regions by increasing soil moisture and reducing soil temperature in the seed zone. Tillage operations with chiseller is also effective in breaking the high bulk density in sub-soil layer and results in increased water entry and crop yields. Conservation tillage and application of soil conditioner are found to be promising and effective management technologies in rainfed areas. Mulching the soil surface with crop residues or plant litters adds organic matter, encourages earthworm activity, and protects aggregates from beating rain and direct solar radiation. Adding crop residue, compost and animal manures to the soil is effective in stimulating microbial supply of the decomposition products that helps stabilize soil aggregates and decreasing the bulk density and compaction of soil and improving infiltration rate of soil.


Enzyme Activities as a Component of Soil Biodiversity Chetan Kumar Jangir and Dheeraj Panghaal

Ph.D. Scholars Department of Soil Science CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, India.

The soil is biologically active, when biological processes proceed rapidly, i.e. in a distinct span of time a lot of metabolites are produced (Schaller, 2009). Soil enzymes have been reported as useful soil quality biological indicators due to their relationship to soil biology, being operationally practical, sensitive, integrative, ease to measure and described as "biological fingerprints" of past soil management, and relate to soil tillage and structure (Bandick and Dick, 1999). The enzymatic activity in the soil is mainly of microbial origin, being derived from intracellular, cell-associated or free enzymes. The role of soil enzymes and their activities are defined by their relationships with soil and other environmental factors (e.g., acid rain, heavy metals, pesticides, and other industrial chemicals) that affect their activities (Burns, 1982). Soil enzymes are the mediators and catalysts of important soil functions that include: decomposition of organic inputs, transformation of native soil organic matter, release of inorganic nutrients for plant growth, N2 fixation, nitrification, denitrification and detoxification of xenobiotics. They are important in catalysing several important reactions necessary for the life processes of micro-organisms in soils and the stabilisation of soil

structure, the decompostion of organic wastes, organic matter formation and nutrient cycling (Dick et al., 1997).

Kind of Soil Enzymes

1. Constitutive: Always present in nearly constant amounts in a cell (not affected by addition of any particular substrate – genes always expressed). Example: Pyrophosphatase.

2. Inducible: Present only in trace amounts or not at all, but quickly increases in concentration when its substrate is present. Example: Amidase.

Substrate specificity, as either an independent measure of enzyme diversity or distinguish different reaction mechanisms, could resolve those enzyme activities that attack specific components either between or within major nutrient pools.

To better understand the roles of these enzymes activity and efficiency, nine enzymes in soils were reviewed for agricultural development

1. Amaylase: Amaylase is a starch hydrolysing enzyme (Ross, 1976). It is known to be constituted by alfa- amaylase and beta-

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amaylase. Studies have shown that amylases are synthesised by plants, animals and micro-organisms, whereas, amylase is mainly synthesized by plants (Pazur, 1965). This enzyme is widely distributed in plants and soils so it plays a significant role in the breakdown of starch. Research evidence suggests that several other enzymes are involved in the hydrolysis of starch, but of major importance are amylase which converts starch like substrates to glucose and/or oligosaccharides and amylase, which converts starch to maltose (Thoma et al., 1971).

2. Arysulphatases: This enzyme through mobilisation of aromatic sulphate esters into inorganic sulphate. The enzyme has been detected in strains of bacteria (Actinobacteria sp., Pseudomonas sp., Klebsiella sp. and Raoultella sp.), fungi (Trichoderma sp. and Eupenicillium sp.), plants and animals (Nicholls and Roy, 1971).

3. β-glucosidase: Common and predominant enzyme in soils. This enzymes plays an important role in soils because it is involved in catalysing the hydrolysis and biodegradation of plant debris. Thus, it is named according to the type of bond that it hydrolyses (Martinez and Tabatabai 1997).

4. Cellulases: Cellulases are a group of enzymes that catalyse the degradation of cellulose, polysaccharides build up of β-1,4 linkage glucose units. Cellulose is the most abundant structural polysaccharide of plant cell walls with β-1,4-glucosidic linkages and represents almost 50% of the biomass synthesized by photosynthetic fixation of CO2 (Eriksson et al., 1990).

5. Chitinase: Chitinase enzymes are key enzymes responsible for the degradation and hydrolysis of chitin. They are also considered as the major structural component of many fungal cell walls that use the hyper parasitism mechanisms against pests/pathogen attack (Bartinicki-Garcia, 1968).

6. Dehydrogenase: The dehydrogenase enzyme activity is commonly used as an indicator of biological activity in soils (Burns, 1978). Dehydrogenase is an enzyme that oxidizes soil organic matter by transferring protons and electrons from substrates to acceptors. This enzyme is considered to exist as an integral part of intact cells but does not accumulate extra-cellularly in the soil (Das and Varma, 2011). Dehydrogenase activities in soil are biological indicators of overall microbial respiratory activity of soils and are used by microorganisms in the soil to break down organic matter, metabolic processes that occur in abundance in healthy microorganisms (Bolton et al., 1985). This enzyme occurs only within soil bacteria (e.g. genus Pseudomonas, with Pseudomonas

entomophila as most abundant). They do not act on their own without a bacterial host. Therefore, when dehydrogenase is present in the soil, you can reasonably conclude that bacteria are present.

7. Phosphatases: Phosphatases are a broad group of enzymes that are capable of catalysing hydrolysis of esters and anhydrides of phosphoric acid. Microorganisms that produce phosphates in soil includes soil fungi, particularly those belonging to the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium, along with Pseudomonas and Bacillus bacteria that produce mostly neutral phosphatase, while Actinomycetes produced only negligible quantities of phosphatases (Tarafdar and Chhonkar, 1979). In soil ecosystems, these enzymes are believed to play critical roles in P cycles as evidence shows that they are correlated to P stress and plant growth (Speir and Ross, 1978).

8. Protease: Proteases in soil play a significant role in N mineralisation, an important process regulating the amount of plant available N and plant growth. The amount of this extracellular enzyme activity may be indicative not only of the biological capacity of soil for the enzymatic conversion of the substrate, which is independent of the extent of microbial activity, but might also have an important role in the ecology of micro-organisms in the ecosystem (Burns, 1982).

9. Urease: Urease enzyme is responsible for the hydrolysis of urea fertiliser applied to the soil into NH3 and CO2 with the concomitant rise of soil pH. The enzyme urease has been widely used to evaluate changes in soil quality related to management, since its activity increases with organic fertilization and decreases with soil tillage (Saviozzi et al., 2001). This enzyme, mostly the cases are an extra-cellular enzyme representing up to 63% of total activity in the soil (Martinez-Salgado et al., 2010).

TABLE: 1. Soil enzymes as indicators of soil health

Soil enzymes Enzyme reaction Indicator of microbial activity

Amaylase Starch hydrolysis C-cycling

Arysulphatases Release of SO4-2 S-cycling

β -glucosidase Cellobiose hydrolysis

C-cycling

Cellulases Cellulose hydrolysis C-cycling

Chitinase Lignin hydrolysis Degradative activities

Dehydrogenase Electron transport system

C-cycling

Phosphatases Release of PO4 P-cycling

Protease N-mineralization N-cycling

Urease Urea hydrolysis N-cycling

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Soil Enzyme Activity as a Biological Indicator of Soil Ecosystem

1. Soil Enzymes as Bio indicators of Ecosystem Perturbation a) Landuse and management practices

change the total amount and composition of soil organic matter and significantly change the enzyme activities.

b) Enzymatic activities in conservation reserves system, native grassland and rotation with other crops when compared with continuous single cropping system.

c) Forest fires are considered as natural disturbances and caused the most dramatic changes in enzymatic activities.

2. Soil Enzymes as Bio indicators of Change in Agricultural Practices a) Farmyard manure, organic amendments

and compost treated soil enhanced microbial biomass, urease, deaminase and alkaline phophatase activities in soils compared with fertilizers.

b) Soil enzyme activities were inhibited with N fertilizer while they were promoted by P and K fertilizers.

c) When soil organic matter reduce that causes a decline of crop productivity, increase soil erosion and reduction in soil biological activity that negatively affects soil enzymes.

d) Frequent irrigation increased phosphatase and catalase activities and urease activity decreased under irrigation.

3. Soil Enzymes as Bioindicators of Xenobiotic Pollution a) Pesticides applied soil may disturb local

metabolism or enzymatic activities and its applications have been shown to both negative and positive effects on enzyme activity in soils (Ladd, 1985).

b) The negative impact of pesticides on soil enzymes (hydrolases, oxidoreductases and dehydrogenase). Also positive evidence that soil enzyme activities and ATP contents are increased by some pesticides.

Conclusion: Understanding other possible roles of soil enzymes is vital to soil health and fertility management in ecosystem. These enzymes may have significant effects on soil biology, environmental management, growth and nutrient uptake in plants growing in ecosystems. Research efforts should focus on discovering new enzymes from microbial diversity in the soil, the most appropriate practices that may positively influence their activities for improved plant growth as well as improving the biological environments in order to sustain other life types.

References Bandick, A.K. and Dick, R.P. (1999). Field

Management Effects on Soil Enzyme Activities. Soil Biol Biochem. 31:1471–1479.

Bartinicki-Garcia, S. (1968). Cell wall chemistry, morphogenesis and taxonomy of fungi. Ann. Rev. Microbiol. 144: 346-349.

Bolton, H., Elliot, L. F., Papendick, R. I. and Bezdicek, D. F. (1985). Soil Microbial Biomass and Selected Soil Enzymes Activities: Effect of Fertilization and Cropping Practices. Soil Biol. Biochem. 17: 297–302.

Burns, R. G. (1982). Enzyme Activity in Soil: Location and a Possible Role in Microbial Ecology. Soil Biol. Biochem. 14: 423–427.

Burns, R.G. (1978). Enzyme Activity in Soil: Some Theoretical and Practical Considerations. In: Bums, R.G. (ed.) Soil Enzymes, Academic, London.

Das, S. K., Varma, A. (2011). Role of Enzymes in Maintaining Soil Health. In: Shukla, G., Varma, A. (eds.) Soil Enzymology, Soil Biology 22, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg USA.

Dick, R.P. (1997). Soil Enzyme Activities as Integrative Indicators of Soil Health. Biological Indicators of Soil Health, CABI Publishing. USA.

Eriksson, K.E.L., Blancbette, R.A. and Ander, P. (1990). Biodegration of Cellulose. Microbial and Enzymatic Degradation of Wood and Wood Components. Springer, New York.

Ladd, J.N. (1985). Soil Enzymes. Soil Organic Matter and Biological Activity. Martinus Nijhoff, Boston.

Martinez, C.E., and Tabatabai, M.A. (1997). Decomposition of Biotechnology By-products in Soils. J Environ Qual. 26:625-632.

Martinez-Salgado, M.M., Gutiérrez-Romero, V., Jannsens, M. and Ortega-Blu, R. (2010). Biological Soil Quality Indicators: A Review. - In: Mendez-Vilas, A. (ed.) Current Research, Technology and Education Topics in Applied Microbiology and Microbial Biotechnology. Formatex.

Nicholls, R.G. and Roy, A.R. (1971). Arylsulfatase. - In: Boyer, P.D. (ed.) The Enzymes, Vol. 5, 3rd edn., Academic Press, New York.

Pazur, J.H. (1965). Enzymes in the synthesis and hydrolysis of starch. In: Starch: Chemistry and Technology. Vol. 1 Fundamental aspects (Whistler R, Paschall EF Eds.) pp. 133-175. Academic press, New York.

Saviozzi, A., Levi-Minzi, R., Cardelli, R. and Riffaldi, R. (2001). A Comparison of Soil Quality in Adjacent Cultivated, Forest and Native Grassland Soils. Plant and Soil 233:251-9.

Schaller, K. (2009). Soil Enzymes: Valuable Indicators of Soil Fertility and Environmental Impacts. Bulletin UASVM Horticulture, 66:2.

Speir, T.W. and Ross, D.J. (1978). Soil Phosphatase and Sulphatase. - In: Burns, R.G. (ed.) Soil Enzymes. Academic, London, UK.

Tarafdar, J.C. and Chhonkar, P.K. (1979). Phosphatase Production by Microorganisms Isolated from Diverse types of Soils. - Zentralbl Bakteriol Naturwiss. 134(2):119-24.

Thoma, J.A., Spradlin J.E. and Dygert, S. (1971). Plant and animal amylases. In: The Enzymes (Boyer PD Ed.) 5: 115-189.

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Soil Biodiversity and Methods to Augment it A. Daripa and S. Chattaraj

ICAR-National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, Nagpur- 440033

Soil Biodiversity

Soil biodiversity reflects the mix of living organisms in the soil. These organisms interact with one another and with plants and small animals forming a web of biological activity. Soil is by far the most biologically diverse part of earth. The soil food web includes beetles, springtails, mites, worms, spiders, ants, nematodes, fungi, bacteria, and other organisms. These organisms improve the entry and storage of water, resistance to erosion, plant nutrition, and break down of organic matter. A wide variety of organisms provides checks and balances to the soil food web through population control, mobility, and survival from season to season.

What are the Benefits of Soil Organisms?

Residue decomposition- Soil organisms decompose plant residue. Each organism in the soil plays an important role. The larger organisms in the soil shred dead leaves and stems. This stimulates cycling of nutrients. The larger soil fauna include earthworms, termites, pseudoscorpions, microspiders, centipedes, ants, beetles, mites, and springtails. When mixing the soil, the large organisms bring material to smaller organisms. The large organisms also carry smaller organisms within their systems or as “hitchhikers” on their bodies. Small organisms feed on the by-products of the larger organisms. Still smaller organisms feed on the products of these organisms. The cycle repeats itself several times with some of the larger organisms feeding on smaller organisms. The food web is therefore quick to respond when food sources are available and moisture and temperature conditions are good.

Infiltration and storage of water- Channels and aggregates formed by soil organisms improve the entry and storage of water. Organisms mix the porous and fluffy organic material with mineral matter as they move through the soil. This mixing action provides organic matter to non-burrowing fauna and creates pockets and pores for the movement and storage of water. Fungal hyphae bind soil particles together and slime from bacteria help hold clay particles together. The waterstable aggregates formed by these processes are more resistant to erosion than individual soil particles.

Nutrient cycling- Soil organisms play a key role in nutrient cycling. Fungi, often the most extensive living organisms in the soil, produce

fungal hyphae. Some fungal hyphae (mycorrhizal fungi) help plants extract nutrients from the soil. They supply nutrients to the plant while obtaining carbon in exchange and thus extend the root system. Root exudates also provide food for fungi, bacteria, and nematodes. When fungi and bacteria are eaten by various mites, nematodes, amoebas, flagellates, or ciliates, nitrogen is released to the soil as ammonium. Decomposition by soil organisms converts nitrogen from organic forms in decaying plant residues and organisms to inorganic forms which plants can use.

How to Encourage Healthy Soil Biology

1. Supply organic matter: Most soil organisms rely on organic matter for food. Each source of organic matter favors a different mix of organisms, so a variety of sources generally supports a variety of organisms. a) Maximize crop residue: Crop residue is a

convenient and valuable source of organic matter. Corn harvested for grain will grow 3 to 4 tons of surface residue per acre and 1 to 2 tons of root biomass. Dense, sod-type crops produce generous amounts of root biomass. Surface residue encourages the decomposers - especially fungi - and increases food web complexity. Residue provides food and habitat for surface feeders (such as some earthworms) and surface dwellers (such as some arthropods). It also changes the moisture and temperature of the soil surface.

b) Apply compost or manure: Compost inoculates the soil with a wide variety of organisms and provides them with a high quality food source.

c) Animal manure: Manure patties provide food and habitat for larger soil organisms, and manure in any form is a significant source of nutrients. Manure and plant matter each support different mixes of soil organisms.

d) Sludge: Like manure, sludge can be an excellent food source for organisms. However, high levels of metals in some sludge will kill some organisms.

e) Plant cover crops: Cover crops extend the growing season and increase the amount of roots and above-ground growth that becomes part of soil. As with other crops, the rhizosphere (the area immediately surrounding roots) of a cover crop provides food for bacteria when food

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sources would otherwise be scarce. 2. Increase variety

a) Create a diverse landscape: Diverse habitats support complex mixes of soil organisms. Diversity can be achieved with crop rotations, vegetated fence rows, buffer strips, strip cropping, and small fields.

b) Rotate crops: Crop rotation puts a different food source into the soil each year. This encourages a wider variety of organisms and prevents the build-up of a single pest species. Cover crops increase the variety of plants in a field each year.

3. Protect the habitat of soil organisms: Large and small soil organisms need air, moisture, a constant food supply, and room to move in a protected place. Reduced tillage, lack of compaction, constant ground cover and minimum disruption by chemicals protect the environment of soil organisms.

4. Reduce tillage: Tillage enhances bacterial growth in the short-term by aerating the soil and by thoroughly mixing the organic matter with bacteria and soil. The bacterial activity increases the loss of carbon as CO2, and triggers explosions of bacterial predators such as protozoa. A single tillage event is generally inconsequential to microorganisms, but repeated tillage eventually reduces the amount of soil organic matter that fuels the soil food web.

5. No-till: The environment for soil organisms can differ significantly in no-till compared to conventionally tilled soils. No-till soils are more likely to have anaerobic environments, soil may be cooler in spring because of surface cover, there can be more macropores, and organic matter is not evenly mixed throughout the top-soil. The result is a lower rate of organic matter decomposition. In addition, the lack of disturbance and the presence of surface residue encourages fungi and relatively large organisms such as arthropods and earthworms. No-till soils generally have a higher ratio of fungi-to-bacteria.

i) Minimize compaction: Compaction reduces the space available for larger

organisms to move through the soil. This favors bacteria and small predators over fungi and the larger predators. Among nematodes, the predatory species are most sensitive to compaction, followed by fungal-feeders and bacterial-feeders. Root-feeding nematodes are the least sensitive to compaction - perhaps because they do not need to move through soil in search of food. Compaction changes the movement of air and water through soil, and may cause a switch from aerobic to more anaerobic organisms.

ii) Minimize fallow periods: During long fallow periods, most arthropods will emigrate or die of starvation. Mycorrhizal fungi (fungi that need to form associations with plant roots) also "starve" during a fallow period and recover slowly after the fallow period ends. Cover crops help maintain or build arthropod populations and diversity by reducing the length of fallow periods at the beginning and end of growing seasons. Cover crops also affect the biological habitat by changing temperature and moisture levels.

iii) Minimize the use of pesticides: All pesticides will impact some non-target organisms. Pesticides feed some organisms and harm others. Labels generally do not list the non-target organisms affected by a product, and few pesticides have been studied for their effect on a wide range of soil organisms, so the net effect of moderate pesticide use is not well understood. Heavy pesticide use probably reduces soil biological complexity. Herbicides may not affect many organisms directly, but the weed loss changes the food sources and habitats available to organisms.

iv) Improve water drainage: Good water drainage improves microbial habitats by increasing oxygen availability.


Role of Organic Matter in Sustenance of Soil Health Gazala Nazir1, Ibajanai Kurbah2, Meenakshi3 and Khushboo Rana4

1&2Ph.D. Scholars, Soil Science & 3&4 Ph.D. Scholars, Agronomy CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur-176 062 (H.P) India


INTRODUCTION: Soil is a marvelous gift of nature to mankind. Without the presence of this thin layer on the top of lithosphere, there would

have been no life on the planet Earth. A priory, ‘health of soils of a nation determines the quality of well-being of its people’. Humans for their own

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survival and for the sake of survival of their future generations, therefore, must not violate the quality of the soils. It is widely proclaimed that rise and fall of ancient civilizations were led by the sustenance or deterioration in quality of soils. It, hence, becomes incumbent on mankind to treat soil as part of their ‘community’ and not as a ‘commodity’ to be used and thrown away.

Definition of Soil Health

The Soil Science Society of America defines soil health ‘as the capacity of a specific kind of soil to function, within natural or managed ecosystem boundaries, to sustain plant and animal productivity, maintain or enhance water and air quality, and support human health and habitation’. A soil that is able to optimally sustain its native/acquired productivity potential and render ecological services is said to be in good health. The term ‘soil health’ invariably crosses roads with other name ‘soil quality’. The pioneer textbook on Soil Science, ‘Nature and Properties of Soils’ 14th Edition describes the concepts of soil health and soil quality. According to the text “Although these terms are often used synonymously, they involve two distinct concepts. The soil health refers to self-regulation, stability, resilience, and lack of stress symptoms in a soil as an ecosystem. Soil health describes the biological integrity of the soil community - the balance among organisms within a soil and between soil organisms and their environment”. Soil health concept involves integration of physical, chemical and biological properties of a soil and role of this harmonious blend in sustaining productivity growth and environmental security. Soil quality, in contrast is the term that more often is used to illustrate physical and chemical attributes of a soil and their place in plant growth and environmental regulatory functions.

Properties Important in Soil Health

Even though the properties that constitute a healthy soil are not the same in all places and all situations, there are some important soil properties that indicate soil health. These properties fall into three main categories: soil chemical properties, soil physical properties and soil biological properties. Soil chemical and physical properties have long been studied by soil scientists and the basic tests and their procedures are well established. Many of biological tests on the other hand, are fairly new to soil science, so the exact procedures to be followed and the meanings of the results are less universally agreed upon in the soil community.

TABLE 1: Commonly used indicators of soil health

Chemical Indicators

Physical Indicators

Biological Indicators

pH Texture Microbial biomass

Organic matter Bulk density Presence of

Chemical Indicators

Physical Indicators

Biological Indicators

macrofauna

Total carbon Aggregate stability

Presence of microfauna

Total nitrogen Water holding capacity

C:N ratio

Cation exchange capacity

Infiltration rate Soil enzyme activities

Major and micro nutrients

Porosity Respiration rate

Electrical conductivity

Aeration Decomposition rate

Role of Organic Matter in Soil Physical Properties

The biggest influences of soil organic matter (SOM) on soil physical properties are related to aggregate formation and stability. In combination with the secretions of soil organisms, SOM decomposition produce mucus-like “glues” that help create and stabilize soil aggregates. In turn, these aggregates improve water infiltration by creating large pore spaces along the boundaries between the aggregates.

Large aggregates require more energy to erode than do smaller, individual mineral particles, and when a soil has large pores that increase infiltration less water runs off across the land surface. This combination of large aggregates and good infiltration makes a soil less erosion prone than similar soils with poor aggregation and infiltration.

Aggregates also improve water storage and aeration in the soil. The large pores between aggregates allow for rapid drainage of water, followed by the movement of air into the large pores. Therefore, good aggregation is essential to achieve a balance between water content and air content in the soil.

Resistance to root penetration generally decreases with increasing SOM content because roots are able to follow channels along aggregate boundaries. As the resistance to penetration is reduced, a soil also becomes easier to plow because it requires less energy to pull tillage implements through the soil. Therefore, the simple addition of organic materials to a soil can lead to a wide range of improved physical properties in that soil.

Role of Organic Matter in Soil Chemical Properties

Soil organic matter affects also chemical soil properties. Essential plant nutrients are released during the decay of SOM, including nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, potassium, calcium, magnesium and others, meaning that SOM is a natural fertilizer. Some of these nutrients have other sources as well, for example calcium and magnesium released from mineral weathering, but SOM remains a major natural source of essential

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plant nutrients. Increasing SOM complements the supply of

nutrients from chemical fertilizers. In other words, soils with adequate organic content do not need applications of chemical fertilizers at the same high rates as soils with lower organic contents. This means high levels of SOM can save on fertilizer costs and help avoid some of the environmental problems that can arise from high levels of fertilizer use.

Other important chemical properties affected by SOM are cation exchange capacity (CEC) and buffering capacity. The humus in SOM has a CEC of approximately 200-260 meq/100 g soil, which is high compared to clay. Therefore, increasing SOM levels increase overall soil CEC and increases the ability of a soil to store essential nutrients in cation form, such as NH4+, Ca2+, Mg2+, and K+. High CEC makes fertilization more efficient, as cation nutrients that are not immediately used by crops can be stored in the soil for future use.

Buffering capacity in soils is important because the pH of the soil, which is directly linked to base saturation, is important in determining nutrient availability. Fertilization often slightly acidifies the root zone but a soil with a high

buffering capacity resists such acidification. This means that soils with a high buffering capacity are more resistant to pH changes due to agricultural management and are less likely to end up in an undesirable pH range.

Role of Organic Matter in Supporting the Soil Ecosystem

Soil organic matter has a profound effect on the numbers, kinds and diversity of organisms in the soil because SOM is their basic energy source. Without sufficient SOM the soil food web is not well established and a healthy soil ecosystem does not develop. The presence of such an ecosystem is particularly important to farmers because it includes decomposers- organisms that break down dead organic materials. Without the actions of decomposers, essential plant nutrients would not be released from SOM, organic glues important in soil structure would not be formed, and many of the important chemical and physical benefits of SOM would not be realized. SOM is absolutely essential to establish a healthy soil ecosystem.


Phytoremediation of Heavy Metals 1Manoj Kumar Dev

1Dept. of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Dr. BSKKV, Dapoli *Corresponding Author e Mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Phytoremediation can be defined as the use of plants (trees, shrubs, grasses and aquatic plants) and their associated micro-organisms in order to remove, degrade or isolate toxic substances from the environment. Phytoremediation is the Greek word “Phyton” means ‘Plant’ and Latin word “Remediation” means ‘to remedy’ or ‘to correct’.

Toxic heavy metals and organic pollutants are the major targets for phytoremediation. Knowledge of the physiological and molecular mechanisms of phytoremediation began to emerge in recent years together with biological and engineering strategies designed to optimize and improve phytoremediation. In addition, several field trials confirmed the feasibility of using plants for environmental cleanup.

Heavy metals can be defined as which elements that are contain atomic number more than 20 or specific gravity more than 5.

Process of Involve in Phytoremediation

A range of processes mediated by plants or algae are useful in treating environmental problems.

a) Phytoextraction b) Phytostabilization c) Phytotransformation

d) Phytostimulation e) Phytovolatilization f) Phytodegradation 1. Phyto-extraction: Thephyto-extraction means

the uptake and concentration of contaminant by plant roots and movement of this contaminant from root to the above part of plants. Two ways for phytoextraction like natural and assisted.

2. Phyto-stabilization: Phytostabilization means reducing the mobility of substances in the environment, for example, by limiting the leaching of substances from the soil. It is refers to immobilization of contaminant in the soil through absorption and accumulation by roots and precipitation within the roots.

3. Phyto-transformation: chemical modification of environmental substances as a direct result of plant metabolism, often resulting in their inactivation, degradation (phytodegradation), or immobilization (phytostabilization).

4. Phyto-stimulation: Phytostimulation means breakdown of contaminant within the plant root zone or rizhosphers. It is carried out by bacteria and other microorganism flourishing in rhizosphers. Microbes in rhizosphers transform contaminant in non-toxic products.

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Work well in the removal of petroleum hydrocarbons.

5. Phyto-volatilization: Phytovolatilization means involve the plant taking up the contaminant from soil, transforming them in to volatile form and transpiring them into atmosphere. Work on organic compound and heavy metals, TCE etc. Mercury is the primary contaminant that this process has been used for.

TABLE -Important hyper-accumulators for metal remediation

Element Plant species

Cadmium Salix viminalis, alpine pennycress, Indian Mustard, Tap grass

Copper Ipomia alpine, water hyacinth, Duckweed

Cobalt Haumanistrum robertii

Lead Bramhi, Indian mustard, zea mays, sunflower, hydrilla, Wheat

Nickel Sebertia acuminata

Selenium Indian mustard, Maxican fireweed, selix app.

Chromium Azolla spp., alfalfa, water lettuce

Arsenic Sunflower, pleris vittata

Silver Rapseed, amanita strobiliformis

Advantage of Phytoremediation

The cost of the phytoremediation is lower than that of traditional processes both in situ and ex situ

The plant can be easily monitored.

The possibility of the recovery and re-use of valuable metals.

It is potentially the least harmful method because it uses naturally occurring organisms and preserves the environment in a more natural state.

Conserve natural resources.

Environmentally friendly and aesthetically pleasing to the public.

Limitation of Phytoremediation

1. Phytoremediation is limited to the surface area and depth occupied by the roots.

2. Slow growth and low biomass require a long-term commitment

3. With plant-based systems of remediation, it is not possible to completely prevent the leaching of contaminants into the groundwater (without the complete removal of the contaminated ground, which in itself does not resolve the problem of contamination).

4. The survival of the plants is affected by the toxicity of the contaminated land and the general condition of the soil.

5. Bio-accumulation of contaminants, especially metals, into the plants which then pass into the food chain, from primary level consumers upwards or requires the safe disposal of the affected plant material.

33. SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 14593

Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria: Beneficial Effects for Healthy and Sustainable Agriculture

Chaudhary Maheshbhai 1 and Chaudhary Dineshbhai2 1,2M.Sc. (Agri.), Dept. of Plant Pathology, N. M. College of Agriculture, NAU, Navsari-396 450, Gujarat

INTRODUCTION: The galloping growth of world population estimated around 7 billion people and may reach 8 billion by 2020 (Glick, 2012), generates several problems including food insecurity and famine. So it is urgent to double the agricultural production in order to reduce the risk of malnutrition and increased poverty. In response to this, new seeds varieties of high-yield were introduced into agricultural production systems in several countries. The use of these new varieties is accompanied by a growing and excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Although the use of these chemical products has many advantages such as the ease to handle and convincing results, they generate the environmental and public health problems. Among these problems, (i) groundwater and crop products contamination by heavy metals from the use of these agricultural inputs, (ii) interruption of the natural ecological cycle of nutrients, (iii) destruction of the soil biological communities, and

(iv) physical and chemical deterioration of agricultural soils, can be mentioned. The growing necessity to protect our natural resources, invites to a more restrictive use of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides from chemical origin. Thus, in order to reduce or change the agrochemical used products and institute sustainable agriculture, respectful of the environment, the use of bio-resources such as plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) focuses more and more on the scientific attention. PGPR is a group of bacteria capable to actively colonize the plant root system and improve their growth and yield. PGPR is used to refer to all rhizospheric bacteria capable to improve the plant growth by one or more mechanisms.

Rhizosphere

Rhizosphere refers to the soil area surrounding a plant’s root, directly or indirectly influenced by the root and which has a strong microbial activity.

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The term of rhizosphere comes etymologically from rhiza (root) and sphera (surroundings). The rhizosphere is subdivided into three separate parts. The first part (Exorhizosphere) corresponds to soil adherent to the root and remains attached to it after vigorous shaking. The second part (Rhizoplane) corresponds to interface soil/root and finally the third part (Endorhizosphere) is the intercellular space between the root tissues inhabited by endophyte bacteria, which does not form symbiotic structures.

Rhizospheric Microflora: Rhizosphere is the zone of a few millimeters around the plants root system, contains a sizeable microbial population (about 108-109 CFU/g of soil). The rhizospheric microflora is naturally made of a complex assembly of prokaryotic and eukaryotic microorganisms. It constitutes of bacteria, fungi, algae, nematodes, actinomycetes and protozoa. Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria are the microorganisms most frequently found in the rhizosphere of several plant species.

Rhizobacteria: Among the microbial community of rhizosphere, bacteria (rhizobacteria) are the most known (95%) and the most abundant because of their high growth rate and ability to use different carbon and nitrogen sources. The rhizobacteria concentration in the rhizosphere can reach 1012 CFU/g of soil. The presence of neutral rhizobacteria in the rhizosphere has probably no effect on plant health. In opposite, phytopathogenic rhizobacteria (Desulfovibrio, Erwinia, Agrobacterium, Enterobacter and Chromobacter, etc.) affect negatively the plant growth, whereas the beneficial rhizobacteria (Azospirillum, Pseudomonas, Bacillus, etc.) affect positively plant growth and yield through various mechanisms of action. The beneficial rhizobacteria are known under the name ‘PGPR’.

Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR): PGPR are a group of bacteria capable to actively colonize the plants root system and improve their growth and yield. PGPR represent about 2 to 5% of total rhizospheric bacteria. The term PGPR was proposed by Kloepper et al. (1980) and has been used for a long time, especially for fluorescent Pseudomonas involved in the pathogens biological control and enhancing plant growth. Today, the term of PGPR is used to refer to all bacteria living in the rhizosphere and improve plant growth through one or more mechanisms. A wide range of species belonging to the genus Pseudomonas, Azospirillum, Azotobacter, Klebsiella, Enterobacter, Alcaligenes, Arthrobacter, Burkholderia,

Bacillus and Serratia was reported as PGPR. The PGPR effects depend on ecological and soil factors, plant species, plant age, development phase and soil type. For example, a bacterium which promotes plant growth through nitrogen fixation or phosphorus solubilization (compounds

often present at low dose in many soils), certainly not produce beneficial effects to the plant when the soil receives chemical fertilizers.

Mechanisms of Action Used by PGPR to Promote Plant Growth and Health

Mechanisms used by PGPR are possible to classify into three groups (Biofertilization, Phytostimulation and Biocontrol) according to the PGPR effects on plant physiology.

Root Colonization: Root colonization is an essential step in the biological control of pathogens and in the improvement of plants growth by PGPR. The fundamental elements for efficient colonization include the ability of microorganisms to survive after inoculation, to grow in spermosphere (region surrounding the seed) in response to exudates production by seed, to fix on surface of the first roots, and to colonize the entire root system. Especially for endophilic microorganisms, the root colonization includes four steps: (i) attraction, (ii) root recognition, (iii) root adhesion and (iv) root invasion. These steps are influenced by biotic and abiotic factors.

TABLE 1. Mechanisms used by PGPR to promote plant health and growth

Functions Mechanisms

Biofertilization Phosphate solubilization

Siderophores production

Exopolysaccharides production

Biofixation of atmospheric nitrogen

Phytostimulation Ethylene production

Cytokinins production

Gibberellins production

Indole Acetic Acid production

Control of pathogens Antibiotics production

Lytic enzymes production

Hydrogen cyanide production

Volatile compounds production

Induction of systemic resistance

Competition for Iron, nutrient and space

Biofertilization: The improvement of soil fertility is one of the strategies commonly used to increase agricultural production. PGPR participates in soil fertilization through the biofixation and biosolubilization process.

Biofixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen: Nitrogen is the main limiting nutrient for plant growth. It is the fourth important element of plant dry mass. Nitrogen is an essential constituent of nucleotides, membrane lipids and amino acids (enzymatic and structural proteins). The most part of this element is in gaseous form (N2) inaccessible to animals and plants. The biological fixation of atmospheric nitrogen is an important microbial activity for the maintenance of life on the earth through photosynthesis performed by photosynthetic organisms. About 175 million tons

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of atmospheric nitrogen is reintroduced annually in life cycle through the biological fixation.

The biological nitrogen fixation is limited to prokaryotes that possess (unlike plant) an enzymatic complex (the dinitrogenase) which catalyses the reduction of atmospheric nitrogen

into ammonia (N2 + 4H2 2NH3 + H2). Nitrogen-fixing bacteria include both free rhizospheric prokaryotic (e.g. Achromobacter, Acetobacter, Alcaligenes, Arthrobacter, Azospirillum, Azotobacter, Azomonas, Bacillus, Beijerinckia, Clostridium, Corynebacterium, Derxia, Enterobacter, Herbaspirillum, Klebsiella, Pseudomonas, Rhodospirillum, Rhodopseudomonas and Xanthobacter) and symbiotic rhizospheric prokaryotes that fix nitrogen only in association with certain plants. Bradyrhizobium and PGPR can positively influence the symbiotic nitrogen fixation through the increase of nodules number, nodule dry weight, seed yield, nutrients availability and improvement of nitrogenase activity.

Phosphate Solubilization: Phosphorus is a second mineral element after nitrogen that the deficiency crucially limits plant growth. Phosphorus represents about 0.2% of plant dry weight and is an essential constituent of nucleic acids, phytin and phospholipids. Phosphorus plays a major role in photosynthesis, respiration, storage and transfer of energy and cell division and elongation. It is essential for seed formation which contains the highest phosphorus content of the plant. PGPR possess the ability to solubilize the soil insoluble phosphate in order to make available to the plant. These PGPR are referred by the acronym "Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria, PSB". The PSB group contains the genus

Pseudomonas, Azospirillum, Bacillus, Rhizobium, Burkholderia, Arthrobacter, Alcaligenes, Serratia, Enterobacter, Acinetobacter, Azotobacter, Flavobacterium and Erwinia. PSB are also able to mineralize the insoluble organic phosphate through the excretion of extracellular enzymes such as phosphatases (catalysts of the hydrolysis of phosphoric esters), phytases and C-P lyases. It should be noted that this two mechanisms (solubilization and mineralization) can coexist within the same PBS.

Phytostimulation: Phytohormones are chemical messengers that influence the ability of plants to respond to their environment. They are organic compounds which are generally effective at very low concentrations. Botanists recognize five main groups of plant hormones: (i) Auxins (ii) Gibberellins, (iii) Ethylene, (iv) Cytokinins, and (v) abscisic acid. Only the first four are involved in the phytostimulation by rhizobacteria.

Biocontrol of Soil-Borne Phytopathogenic Microorganisms: PGPR involved in the biological control of soil-born phytopathogenic organisms through certain mechanisms such as: production of antagonistic metabolites (antibiotics, lytic enzymes, hydrogen cyanide, volatile compounds and siderophores), induction of systemic resistance and nutrients and space competition. Streptomyces hygroscopicus, Ectocarpus fasciculatus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, P. putida, P. fluorescens and Azospirillum lipoferum inhibited mycelial growth of Fusarium verticillioides and Aspergillus ochraceus pathogens of maize plants. P. fluorescens and P. aeruginosa were highly antagonistic against F. verticillioides and A. ochraceus.

34. SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 14621

Need of the Hour: Integrated Nutrient Management towards Sustainable Agriculture

S. Udayakumar and C. Jemila

Ph.D. Scholars, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-641003


India as well as world is facing a potential crisis in terms of food and nutritional security. The challenge is to provide the world’s ever growing population with a sustainable, secure supply of safe, nutritious, and affordable high-quality food using less land, with lower inputs, and in the context of global climate change, other environmental changes and declining resources. In India, the agricultural land is decreasing at a rate 30,000 hectares per year. Continuous shrinking in agricultural land in last two to three decades is certainly a cause of concern especially when our population has increased by a whopping

41 percent since 1981. Due to steady increasing of global demand for grain crops has generated higher crop prices and in turn it increases demand for fertilizers, particularly imported fertilizers. Awareness among the farmers regarding application of judicious use of fertllisers is meager. Application of blanket fertiliser recommendation also leads to either over dose or under dose and it will create imbalance nutrient ratio in soil and in turn affects plant growth as well as soil fertility. It created the imbalanced NPK use ratio of 8:2.7:1 but the optimum ratio is only 4:2:1. At the same time farmers are also not

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applying base manures like farm yard manure and green manure etc. Awareness about the deterioration of soil health among the farmers need to take in to the account to sustain the soil health and farmers well-being.

Concept of Integrated Nutrient Management

Maintenance of soil fertility and of plant nutrient supply at an optimum level for sustaining the desired soil and plant productivity through optimization of the benefits from all possible sources of organic, inorganic and biological components in an integrated manner is refers to integrated nutrient management. It will,

1. Maintain or enhance soil productivity through a balanced use of fertilizers combined with organic and biological sources of plant nutrients

2. Improve the stock of plant nutrients in the soils

3. Improve the efficiency of plant nutrients, thus, limiting losses to the environment.

4. Synchronizes the nutrient demand of the crop with nutrient supply from native and applied sources

5. Improves and sustains the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil.

6. Integrated nutrient management is ecologically, economically and socially viable and ecofriendly which can be practiced by farmers to obtain higher productivity with simultaneously maintaining soil fertility. It encourages the use of on farm available organic manures, plant debris and wastes, thus it saves on the cost of inorganic fertilisers for crop production.

The basic concept behind the integrated nutrient management is the balanced supply of plant nutrients to an optimum level for sustaining the desired crop productivity and maintain soil health.

Components of Integrated Nutrient Management

Balanced use of inorganic fertiliser nutrients as per the soil test based recommendation and

desired yield targets.

Integration of soil fertility (N fixing) crops like legumes and green manure etc.

Use of organic manures like farm yard manure, vermicompost, enriched compost, bio-compost, press mud cakes, biogas slurry, phosphocompost and poultry manure.

Recycling of crop residues

Effective utilization of biofertilisers

Efficient genotypes

Availability of Organic Manures in India

Against a requirement of 710 million tonnes of organic manure, only 105 million tonnes are available in India.

The biggest constraint of low availability of organic manures is the insufficiency of animal manure.

The number of livestock owned by a farmer has a direct impact on the availability of cow dung, which in turn, influences the consumption of agrochemicals.

Average availability of Organic manures in India-1.5-4.5 t ha-1

Recommended dose of organic manure is- 5 to 7t ha-1 in dry areas where the rainfall is low (50 cm).

Unlike fertilizers, the use of organic material has not increased much in the last two to three decades.

Solution to Increase the Availability of Organic Manures

Animals are major source of organic manures in India. Hence cow based integrated farming is the solution for the future. However difficult it may appear, we must pursue this for the sake of our good future and food security. Subsidies and incentives should be given to farmers for maintaining cattle. It is better we act now before we are forced to act. It is important that we save the Indian cow for the sake of good health and food security.

35. HORTICULTURE 14681

Micro-Propagation and its Stages Sanvar Mal Choudhary1 and Desh Raj Choudhary2

1Ph.D. Scholar, Dept. of Horticulture, M.P.K.V. Rahuri-413 722 Maharashtra 2Ph.D. Scholar, Dept. of Vegetable Science, C.C.S.H.A.U. Hissar, India

Micro-propagation refers to the production of plants from very small plant parts, tissue or cells; grown aseptically in a test tube or containers under controlled nutritional, environmental and aseptic conditions. Tissue culture or in vitro cultures are two broadly used terms for micro-propagation, which basically include aseptic culture of various plant parts. All the biological

principals of micro-propagation technique are based on the phenomenon of totipotency of a cell, which is the capacity of a plant cell to: regenerate into a full-fledged plant having different organs. With the advancement in science and technology, micro-propagation technique has also been standardized for many plants and it is now widely used for propagation of many horticultural plants.

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Based on the plant part to be cultured, the different in vitro techniques have been employed in micro-propagation of different plant species.

When to Use Micro-Propagation

Those crops which are difficult to propagate by conventional method.

When there is slow rate of multiplication by conventional methods.

Multiplication of dioecious plants in a proper sex ratio.

The propagation of sterile hybrids.

Rapid introduction of new crop or multiplication of identified elite plant.

Obtaining healthy planting material.

Multiplication of high cost plant materials which are cross pollinated.

Implies of Micro-Propagation

Regeneration

Multiplication

Uniformity

Advantages of Micro-Propagation

Micro-propagated plants are totally free from viruses.

Year around production of plants irrespective of seasonal constraints.

Micro-propagated plants exhibit vigorous growth and higher yields.

It helps in reducing the breeding cycle.

It is highly beneficial in plants in which vegetative propagation is not possible (Papaya and date palm).

Stages Involved in Micro-Propagation

1. Explant preparation- the establishment of explant depends on several factors such as the source of explant/genotype, type of explant such as leaf, root, stem from mature or immature plants/ seedlings explant sterilization, the in vitro culture conditions such as culture media, composition, temperature, humidity, light etc. the explants showing growth are considered established.

2. Shoot multiplication- the established explants are subculture after 2-3 weeks, on shoot multiplication medium. The medium is designed in such a way to avoid the formation of callus, which is undesirable for true to true type multiplication of plants. Thus the careful use of auxin like NAA, 2, 4-D and Cytokinin like BAP, Kinetin is done in culture medium. It is well-established fact that cytokinin enhance shoot multiplication.

3. Rooting of shoots- the in vitro regenerated shoots are rooted in the medium containing auxin like NAA, IBA. The rooting can also be induced when in vitro shoots are exposed to stress conditions.

4. Hardening and transfer to soil/ Field- the in vitro plantlets thus obtained are hardened/ acclimatized before transfer to the field. The

hardening is necessary as the Tissue culture derived plants grow under high humidity conditions, have open stomata, lower epicuticular wax, thus leading to increased transpiration losses and reduction in mortality of plants.

Problems Encountered during Micro-Propagation

1. Microbial contamination: Bacterial/ fungal contaminations in the cultures do not allow the propagules to grow. This problem can be overcome by growing donor plants in growth chambers, systemic fungicide spray prior to explant removal, effective sterilization of explants, performing inoculations i.e. laminar air flow cabinets fitted with EHEPA filters (0.2 µm) and using sterilized surgical instruments.

2. Browning of culture: The cultured explants of certain plant species secrete phenolic substances into the medium, which cause browning due to oxidation of phenols and formation of quinines, the toxins which effect the growth of cultured explants. The use of antioxidants such as activated charcoal (1-2 %), citric acid or ascorbic acid (50-100 mg/lit) and poly-vinyl-pyrolidone (PVP), poly-vinyl-poly-pyrolidone (PVP) in the culture medium helps to check the browning.

3. Variability in T/C regenerated plants: Variability is highly undesirable in the micro propagated plants. It may occur due to callusing and regeneration of plants from callus instead of direct shoot induction and proliferation. Moreover, the plants regenerated through adventitious meristem as compared to auxiliary meristem are susceptible to mutations, as it is derived from either a single cell or a small group of cells. Thus leads to variation in regenerated plants.

4. Loss of plants due to transplantation shock: Tissue culture regenerated plants have a normal leaf morphology, poor photosynthetic efficiency, malfunctioning of stomata (open), reduced epicuticular waxes and thus are amenable to transplantation shock. Hardening of such plants is thus must before transplantation under field conditions.

Limitations

Technical skill is required to carry out different micro-propagation procedures.

The facilities required are very costly.

Pathogens once appeared in the system, they also multiply at a very faster rate in a short time.

Plants having high levels of phenols (mango, date palm, coconut etc.), usually do not respond to micro-propagation techniques.

Genetic modification (mutation) of the plant may develop in some var. & culture system, which may alter the quality of the produce.

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secondary shoots (branches) second fortnight of May (i.e. 3 months after heading back of primary shoots) to facilitate the first fruit crop during winter season (November-December).

Prune the 50 % shoots in first week of January for obtaining second fruit crop in rainy season (June-July).

For undertaking two fruit crops in a year, twice pruning during May & January) coupled with twice nutrient application (June & January) in each year are pre requisite needs of this technology.

Accordingly follow the following package of nutrient management for first 3.5 years of duration.

After planting in June apply 75:30:30 g NPK/ plant in September and January.

In the second year apply 130:75:75 g NPK/plant in June and January coupled with 5kg FYM, 50 gm each Azotobacter, PSB and Trichoderma + / plant in June.

In the third year apply 130:75:75 g NPK/plant along with 5 kg FYM in June and 205:112:112 g NPK/plant in January.

In forth year apply 205:112:112 g NPK/plant with 10 kg FYM 50 gm each Azotobacter, PSB and Trichoderma + / in June.

This particular schedule of pruning and nutrient management is confined only to the initial period (i.e. first 3.5 years) of orchard management.


Storage and Handling of Mango Fruits P. L. Deshmukh1 and V. A. Bodkhe2

1Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Horticulture, Dr. P. D. K. V., Akola, Maharashtra. 2Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Horticulture, M. P. K. V., Rahuri, Maharashtra.


In northern India mostly mangoes are harvested in the morning and are exposed to temperature beyond 35oC accompanied by high humidity is a challenge for enhancing the shelf life of fruits under normal room temperature. Mango fruits are prone to chilling injury when exposed to below critical temperature, climacteric fruits fail to ripen, dis-colouration and predispose to microbes. Fruits exposed to low temperature loose the cell membrane integrity and ion leakage. Low temperature alters the enzyme activity. Lower the temperature the longer the shelf life. The symptom becomes more severe after removal from chilling temeprature. Varieties of mango fruits differ in their temperature requirement under cold storage Dashehari 12oC and 85-90% R.H. while that of Langra 15oC, Chausa 10oC, Mallika and Amrapalli 12oC. However, the problems associated with cold storage are power failure during summer needs a quick backup with generators so as to avoid the rise in temperature in the cold storage. There are alternatives operations or packaging along with cold storage of mango to prolong the shelf life and availability for longer duration.

Modified Atmospheric Packaging (MAP)

It is a condition where fruits are packed or wrapped in film bags/containers which creates a modified atmospheric packaging (MAP) with alteration in the proportion of carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen water vapour and trace gases. This modification is done by removing the gas from package and replaced by control mixture of gases. The level of O2 level is reduced and CO2

increased at a rate determined by the respiration rate of the fruits the storage temperature and the permeability of the container and film wrap to gases. The effects of MAP are to control excess moisture in packed fruits as it reduces the water activity on fruit surface. Use of ethylene scavengers to prevent fast ripening and softening of climacteric fruits like mango. It prevents the growth of microbes. There are two types of MAP i.e. active MAP and Passive MAP. In active MAP CO2 scavengers and CO2 emitters are used. To avoid packaging destruction eg Ca(OH)2 and to avoid food deterioration e.g. ascorbic acid. To reduce O2 levels and gas flux and O2 scavengers are used in the package. In passive MAP produce is sealed within the pack with selective film flushed with required gas mix or with no modification to the atmosphere gas composition and reduce respiratory activity in fruits. The impacts of MAP are physical structure and nature of the fruit and mass of fruit within the pack or container. The temperature of the fruit and the surrounding air. Type, thickness and permeability nature of plastic film used are important to impart shelf-life to mangoes. Moisture condensation on the inner surface of the film/membrane and external airflow around the film or membrane is another factor to be considered in MAP as the requirement is again low temperature storage. There are yet many researchable issues in mangoes concerning the varieties like Dashehari, Langra Chausa, Mallika and Amrapali.

Controlled Atmospheric (CA) Storage: Controlled atmosphere (CA) storage involves altering and maintaining an atmospheric

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composition that is different from air composition generally O2 below 8% and CO2 above 1% are used. Atmospheric maintenance of optimum ranges of temperature and relative humidity for each commodity in preserving quality and safety of fresh fruits through post-harvest handling and storage.

Bases of CA Effects: Fresh horticultural produces are exposed to low oxygen and / or elevated carbon dioxide atmosphere within the range tolerated by each commodity; reduces their respiration and ethylene production. Beyond this range respiration and ethylene production rates can be stimulated indicating a stress response. The stress can contribute to incidence of physiological disorders and increased susceptibility to decay. The shift from aerobic to anaerobic respiration depends on fruit maturity and ripeness stage, temperature, and duration of exposure to stress induced concentrations of O2 and/or CO2. Elevated-CO2 atmospheres inhibit activity of ACC synthase (key regulatory site of ethylene biosynthesis), while ACC oxidase activity is stimulated at low CO2. Ethylene action is inhibited at elevated CO2 atmosphere. CA slows down the activity of cell wall degrading enzymes involved in softening and enzymes involved in lignifications leading to toughening of fruits. Low O2 and or high CO2 atmosphere influence flavour by reducing loss of acidity, starch to sugar conversion, sugar inter conversions, and biosynthesis of flavour volatiles. Specific responses to CA depend upon cultivar, maturity and ripeness stage, storage temperature and duration, and in some cases, ethylene concentrations.

Ca Storage Rooms: A gas tight room is a prerequisite for achieving a good controlled atmosphere. Sealed CA rooms go through many pressure changes during the storage. There is a danger of damaging the walls or ceiling of rooms if proper measures are not taken to absorb the pressure changes. Pressure/vacuum relief valves are fitted externally and internally to the wall of the room and a non-threatening pressure level can be kept in the room. Where there is a pressure difference between the store air and the outside air there can be difficulty in retaining the store in completely gas tight condition. Stores are therefore fitted with pressure release valves. An expansion bag is fitted to the store to overcome the problem of pressure differences. The bags are gas tight and partially inflated and are placed outside the store with sensor probe to the bag inside the store. If the store air volume increases then bag will inflate and when the pressure in the sore is reduced then air will flow from the bag to the store. The inlet of expansion bag should be situated before the cooling coils of the refrigeration unit in order to ensure the air from expansion bag is cooled before being returned to the store.

Temperature Control: The main way of preserving fruits in storage or during long distance transport is by refrigeration, and controlled atmospheres are considered a supplement to increase or enhance the effect of refrigeration. CA storage is only successful when applied at low temperatures. Standard refrigeration units are therefore integral components of CA stores. Temperature control is achieved by having pipes containing a refrigerant inside the store. Ammonia or chlorofluorocarbons are common refrigerants. These pipes are passed out of the store; the liquid is cooled and passed over the cooled pipes. All temperature measurement systems depend fundamentally on the quality of measuring sensor. In commercial practice for CA stores the store temperature is initially reduced to 0oC for a week whatever may be the subsequent storage temperature.

Humidity Control: Fruits which are kept in CA storage require a high relative humidity, generally the closer to saturation the better. The amount of heat absorbed by the refrigeration unit is related to the temperature and surface area of the unit. If the refrigerant temperature is low compared to the store air temperature then water will condense on the evaporator. This reduces the R.H., which results in the stored product losing moisture by evapo-transpiration. A technique, which retains high humidity within the store, is via secondary cooling so that the cooling coils do not come in direct contact with the store air.

Gas Control: The atmosphere in a modern CA store is constantly analyzed for CO2 and O2 levels. Infrared gas analyzer was used to measure the gas content in the store constantly. They need to be calibrated with mixtures of known volume of gases. There are also ethylene analyzer that continuously measure ethylene concentration in the store. In storage rooms where low ethylene is essential, checks can be made that the ventilation and ethylene removable system are operating correctly. The minimum resolution of 0.2ppm makes instrument very useful for most products. For ultra-ethylene sensitive products the machine will indicate severe storage atmosphere problems.

Carbon dioxide and oxygen sensors are located in the store atmosphere, and send a low voltage signal back to the controller which may be mounted outside the store. This eliminates the need for sample tubing or pumps, and gives continuous real time readings. Gas control systems can extend from 6 to 62 rooms. It provides individual settings in each room, for any gas and temperature regime. Two miniature display / controllers, one each for oxygen and carbon dioxide, make up the CA store controller. It features the control functions: control output for store ventilation when oxygen is low; control output for nitrogen purge when oxygen is high. When carbon dioxide is high; control output for scrubbers and an operational control output for

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adding CO2 when carbon dioxide is low. Scrubbers: The composition of the gas

mixture inside the storage rooms undergoes continuous change as a function of the metabolic activity of the stored product and scrubbers are necessary to absorb excess CO2. Scrubbers are generally classified according to the absorbent material: Ca(OH)2, NaOH, H2O, Zeolites, activated

charcoals. Classified according to the mode of absorption (i.e., chemical or physical), or to the mode of air passage through the absorbing agent. Scrubbers using activated charcoal are currently the most popular. Scrubbers use advanced electronic control and a panel mounted Carbon Dioxide Analyzer to constantly monitor the status of carbon beds.


Hydroponics Farming Technology A. S. Dhonde and S. D. Thorat

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agronomy Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, Maharashtra (413 704)

HISTORY: Hydroponic growing techniques have been adopted by many different civilizations throughout history. "The hanging gardens of Babylon, the floating gardens of the Aztecs of Mexico and those of the Chinese are examples of 'Hydroponic' culture mentioned by Howard M. Resh. Egyptian hieroglyphic records dating back several hundred years B.C. describe the growing of plants in water." However, Giant strides have been made over the years in this innovative area of agriculture though hydroponics is hardly a new method of growing plants.

In the U.S., between 1925 and 1935, extensive development took place in modifying the methods of the plant physiologists to large scale crop production. Workers at the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station improved the sand culture method. The water and sand culture methods were used for large scale production by investigators at the California Agricultural Experiment Station. Each of these methods involved certain fundamental limitations for commercial crop production which partially were overcome with the introduction of the subirrigation system initiated in 1934 at the New Jersey and Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station. While there was commercial interest in the use of such systems, hydroponics was not widely accepted due to the high cost in construction of the concrete growing beds. Plastics have been introduced in this technique after almost a period of 20 years for drip irrigation. They were used not only in the glazing of greenhouses, but also in lining the growing beds rather than beds made of concrete. By the 1970s, it wasn't just scientists and analysts who were involved in hydroponics. Traditional farmers and eager hobbyists began to be attracted to the virtues of hydroponic growing. Unfortunately, escalating oil prices, starting in 1973, substantially increased the costs of Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) heating and cooling by one or two orders of magnitude. This along with fewer chemicals registered for pest control caused many bankruptcies and a decreasing interest in

hydroponics. One of the potential applications of hydroponics that drove research was for growing fresh produce in non-arable areas of the world. It was tested during World War II. Troops stationed on non-arable islands in the Pacific were supplied with fresh produce grown in locally established hydroponic systems. Later in the century, hydroponics was integrated into the space program. As NASA considered the practicalities of locating a society on another plant or the Earth's moon, hydroponics easily fit into their sustainability plans. This research is ongoing.

Techniques for Hydroponics

There are two groups of techniques for hydroponics. Passive techniques: In the passive or static techniques, the nutrient solution is stationary and the plant takes what it needs. The nutrient solution is stagnant and may or may not be oxygenated. This techniques are more suitable for growing on a small scale, e.g. house plants in the living room, and while the active techniques more suitable for large scale cultivation. This is also called subirrigation or semihydroponics.

1. Stagnant nutrient solution without substrate: This is the most basic technique where you would use with cuttings when you place cuttings directly into a jar of water. The plants can be secured with a ring, by placing them in a hole in a plate or in a floating basket, just above the nutrient solution. This can be applied for a single plant, or a series of plants. The container can be a glass jar, bottle, recycled plastic jar, bucket, and barrel. The important thing is that the container does not allow light in, to prevent algae growth. This can be done by taking an opaque container or coat it with aluminum foil, white paint.

2. Stagnant nutrient solution with substrate: The roots of the plant are in an inert and porous substrate. The nutrient solution is brought to the roots of the plant by capillarity. The suction power of the roots determines how much the plant absorbs. In principle, the plants are in a net pot (such as for aquatic

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plants), and they are above the nutrient solution. The nutrient solution takes up 1/3 of the height of the pot; the plant is in the upper 2/3 of the pot. This technique is particularly suitable for house plants and office plantings.

3. Semi-hydroponics: Semihydroponics is a cross between hydroponics and irrigation system for growing in soil. The plant itself is in a pot with soil and this pot hangs over a nutrient solution. The nutrient solution arrives at the roots by capillarity, by means of an inert and porous substrate (usually clay granules), or a ribbon. This is not "real" hydroponics but it can be a good solution for those who do not have green fingers.

Active techniques: In the active or dynamic techniques, the nutrient solution is rinsed or atomized along the roots. The nutrient solution is brought to the roots or the roots are misted with nutrient solution. This requires the use of a pump or vaporizer with electric drive. This technique is more complex than passive hydroponics but it also allows for better control of the nutrient solution as this is stored in a separate container. For a hobby breeder, active techniques are costly and complex. They are mainly used in horticulture.

1. Continuous flow system: The nutrient solution flows continuously along the roots, driven by a pump. The plants themselves can be planted in different ways: in a slab of rock wool, in closed and inclined tubes without substrate. The advantage is that the plants get an optimal proportion of a water-air-feed.

2. Ebb and flow system: Ebb and flow or flood and drain are a system where the roots of the plants are submerged at regular intervals in the nutrient solution. After a set time, the excess solution flows back into the reserve by gravity. In this way, the roots get an optimum proportion of water-air-feed supply. In addition to a pump, this system also has a timer.

3. Run to waste: The nutrient solution is used only once and then disposed of. In more complex systems, the nutrient solution is collected in a container where it is filtered and adjusted to be reused.

4. Bubbleponics: Bubbleponics has the same setup as the static deep water system but the nutrient solution is pumped up to the roots to water them from above at regular intervals. The advantage is that the plant is growing very quickly and does not need to develop roots first to reach the nutrient solution.

5. Drip system: In a drip system, the nutrient solution is brought to the roots with individual drippers at each plant. The plant itself is in a substrate. One dripper per plant should be enough but as a precautionary measure, usually 2 or more drippers are placed per plant, in case one of the drippers would be blocked.

6. Aeroponics: The nutrient solution is misted on the roots, continuously or at regular intervals. There is no substrate; the roots are suspended in a growth chamber. This system has the advantage that the roots have an excellent aeration.

7. Ultraponics: ltraponics is one of the most recent techniques. The nutrient solution is vaporized on the roots with an ultrasonic atomizer. The ultrasonic atomizer is an electrical device with ceramic membranes, which vibrate at a certain frequency. When the water runs over these membranes, it is transformed into a mist of very fine droplets (less than 5 microns). These droplets are so fine that they can be absorbed immediately through the pores of the roots. This mist circulates in the tubes in which the roots are housed, conveyed by a fan. This technique is particularly suitable for the horticultural industry.

A few of the positive aspects of hydroponics include:

Hydroponically grown plants can be provided with the exact amount of water needed – not a drop more, not a drop less. In fact, the water use efficiency of hydroponics is astoundingly high – a properly designed hydroponic setup will use 10% of the water it would take to grow in soil outdoors.· Hydroponically grown plants require much less land surface. Plants can be stacked (or even placed on multiple story buildings, for high density areas) with extreme efficiency – a hydroponic greenhouse can produce as much plant matter as a conventional field ten times the size.· Hydroponics requires no soil whatsoever, meaning that farming can be done in areas with poor or even no soil – famously, Wake Island was hydroponically supplied with vegetables during WWII. It has got The ability to produce higher yields than traditional, soil based agriculture.· Hydroponic farms can be located wherever power and water are cheap, and can be placed in close proximity to the demand for the crop, reducing or even eliminating shipping costs. This technique allows food to be grown and consumed in areas of the world that cannot support crops in the soil · Because hydroponic greenhouses are environmentally controlled, the need for herbicide and pesticide are greatly reduced or even eliminated – which also puts hydroponic farming 90% of the way towards organic certification without any extra effort on the part of the farmer. This Eliminates the need for massive pesticide use (considering most pests live in the soil), effectively making our air, water, soil, and food cleaner.

Disadvantages

1. Although the use of advanced hydroponics is cheaper in the long run, its initial start up cost is rather

2. high as it is expensive to procure the equipment required.

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3. The hydroponic conditions (presence of fertilizer and high humidity) create an environment that

4. stimulates salmonella growth. 5. Requires the use of uncontaminated water.

Scientists and horticulturists have been experimenting with different methods of hydroponics throughout the last century. Growing plants hydroponically is a strategy for producing fruits, flowers, and vegetables in areas where the soil is unsuited for gardening or where space is at a premium. On a commercial scale, hydroponics is used to grow different vegetables and other crops out of season in large greenhouse operations. It is

also an enjoyable hobby for the home gardener who wants to push his repertoire of techniques. Hydroponic plants are usually grown in a relatively sterile environment, and often with precise controls, from artificial lighting to extend growing seasons to exotic computer systems that enable the grower to actually tailor the environment to the crop wherein hydroponics becomes just one part of the entire system. In this type of setup, labor is reduced, yet plant growth rates, yields and quality increase. Hydroponics is a convenient means of cloning hybrid cultivars that would otherwise not grow true to type from seed.


Cisgenesis and Intragenesis: A Novel Technique for Fruit Crop Improvement

Murlimanohar Baghel1*, J. Srinivas2, Rahul Nashipudi3 and Anjana Kholia4 1Division of FHT, IARI, New Delhi -110012, 2Department of Horticulture, SKLTSHU, Hyderabad

3Division of FLS, IARI, New Delhi -110012, 4Department of Horticulture, GBPUAT, Pantnagar 263145, *Corresponding Author e Mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Conventional fruit breeding methods have less possibility to improve fruit crops due to long juvenile period, highly cross pollination leads to heterozygosity, erosion of naturally occurring genetic variability, transfer of undesirable genes along with desirable traits and reproductive obstacles that limit the transfer of favorable alleles from diverse genetic resources, sexual incompatibility, pollen and ovule sterility, self and cross incompatibility, lack of information of inheritance pattern of several important pomological traits, polyploidy and polyembryony in nature, complex genomes, mixoploidy etc. In spite of these problems, biotechnological methods such as, protoplasm fusion and somatic hybridization, in vitro selection, somaclonal selections, haploid and double haploid production, embryo /embryo rescue culture, in vitro mutagenesis, genetic transformation (Transgenic/ GM crops) have been applied in fruit plants like, banana, apple, papaya, grape, walnut, strawberry etc. for crop improvement. Genetically modified fruit crops involve transgenes derived from alien biotic sources. Owing to the consumer’s health risk and environmental issues restricting the acceptance of transgenic fruit crop in several countries like European Union. With the aim of solving these issues, a new tool of genetic introgression has been developed as an alternative to transgenic crop, is termed as Cisgenesis and intragenesis.

What is Cisgenesis and Transgenesis?

Cisgenesis is the development of genetically modified crops by genetic modification of a recipient plant with a natural gene from a

crossable—sexually compatible—plant. Such a gene includes its introns and is flanked by its native promoter and terminator in the normal sense orientation (Schouten et al., 2006). Cisgenic crops are those plants which have genetically modified by one or more genes isolated from same species or from a sexually compatible species. One of the major benefits of cisgenesis is that, it incorporate only desired gene, thus excluding linkage drag, which is very common under conventional breeding.

Intragenesis is very similar to cisgenesis, varies in terms of the composition of genetic construct as intragene is composed of regulatory and coding sequences derived from the same species itself or from sexually compatible species and not a perfect copy of a natural gene.

Application of Cisgenesis and intragenesis in Fruit Crop Improvement

Cisgenesis and intragenesis have a great potentiality to enhance genetic resources of any fruit crops as it contains one or more genes or DNA sequences from either same species or from a cross compatible species. Genetic modification in few crop species have been accomplished for resistance/tolerance to any biotic or abiotic stresses, any quality improving alleles, or traits having enhanced nutritional importance etc. The first cisgenic was developed in apple for scab resistance introgressing HcrVf 2 gene from their closely related species. The some of the other fruit crops in which these techniques have been exploited successfully are listed in Table.1.

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TABLE.1 Developed Cis/Intragenic in fruit crops

Fruit crops Cisgenesis/ transgenesis

Gene Trait

Apple Cis HcrVf2 Scab resistance

Grapevine Cis VVTL-1 Fungal disease resistance

Strawberry Intra PGIP Grey mould resistance

Source: Holme et al. (2013)

Bottlenecks of cisgenesis and transgenesis

The pomological importance trait governing gene(s) present in distant species or outside the sexually compatible gene pool cannot be introduced. There is also a chance of ill effect of introduced cisgene on the phenotypic expression of genes already present in the recipient genome. Generation of cisgenic crops is time consuming as compared to transgenic crops. Detection of transformed line without marker genes requires development of new techniques and methods. Position effect may lead to alteration of the gene expression and phenotypic differences.

Conclusions: Cisgenesis and transgenesis have a great potentiality to add more traits in the existing germplasm of fruit crops by genetic modification or rearrangements of genes/alleles from sexually crossable species in the target crop. It is a more reliable, safe and useful techniques, as it have opened a new step on the way to generate

of GM crops. Also, non-dependency on selectable marker genes such as, antibiotic or herbicide resistance in the end product ensures less health and environmental risks with increased consumer’s acceptance. These techniques have enormous use for crop improvement if the end products is considered as non- biotech crops, but will have restricted use if grouped as biotech crop.

References Devi, E.L., Chongtham, S.K., Holeyachi, P., Kousar,

N., Singh, M., Behera, C., Telem, R.S., Singh, N.B. and Wani, S.H., 2013. Cisgenesis and intragenesis: twin sisters for crop improvement. Research Journal of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, 1(10): 22-26.

Holme, I.B., Wendt, T., and Holm, P.B. 2013. Intragenesis and cisgenesis as alternatives to transgenic development. Plant Biotechnology Journal, pp.-1-13.

Hou, H., Atlihan, N. and Lu, Z.X., 2014. New biotechnology enhances the application of cisgenesis in plant breeding. Front. Plant Sci., 5: 389, doi: 10.3389/fpls.2014.00389

Schouten H.J., Krens F.A., Jacobsen, E. (2006). Cisgenic plants are similar to traditionally bred plants. EMBO Rep 7:750–753.

Vanblaere, T., Szankowski, I., Schaart, J., Schouten, H., Flachowsky, H., Broggini, G.A.L., Gessler, C. 2011.The development of a cisgenic apple plant. Journal of Biotechnology. pp.-1-8.


Production Technology of Tomato under Greenhouse Kiran Kumar, N. C. Banjara and Padmakshi Thakur

Ph.D. Scholars, Department of Vegetable Science, IGKVV, Raipur - 492012 (C.G.) *Corresponding Author e Mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Tomato is the most popular vegetable crop grown under greenhouses throughout the world. It is consumed either salad, coked or as processed food. In India tomato is grown in 4.7 lakh hectares with an average yield of 18.0 t/ha. This yield level can be enhanced to a substantial level with the adoption of hybrids and improved production practices.

Climate: Day temperature of 28oC and night temperature of 18oC is ideal for its growth. Fruit set is affected at temperature higher than 35oC and a relative humidity of more than 90 percent.

Hybrids: Tomato hybrids with indeterminate growth habit are best suited for greenhouse cultivation, as the hybrids grow to a height of 15 feet and above which utilizes greenhouse space, both horizontal and vertical. Commercial hybrids like SH 7711 are suitable for greenhouse cultivation, with a yield potential up to 180 t/ha from a crop of six months duration.

Tomato Variety / Hybrid

Salient features Source

Naveen Round fruits, tolerant to Fusarium and Verticillium.

Indo-American Hybrid seeds

IAHS 88 –1 Deep globe fruits tolerant to Fusarium and Verticillium

Indo-American Hybrid Seeds

Barbara Square - Plum fruits & tolerant to Nematodes, Fusarium and Bacterial speck.

PetoSeed

Kada Hybrid

Square to elongated fruits, tolerant to Fusarium, Verticillium Alternaria Stem canker and stemphylium.

PetoSeed

Presto Deep oblate fruits tolerant to Verticillium Fusarium and TMV.

PetoSeed

Wilset F1 Round fruits, tolerant to TMV, Cladosporium and Fusarium.

Royal – Sluis

Euroset F1 Round fruits, tolerant to TMV, Cladosporium and Fusarium.

Royal - Sluis

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Nursery

Vermicompost + sand (1:1) or composted, sterilized cocopeat as growing media can be used for nursery production.

Pro-trays (98 cells) are filled with the growing media. Pro-trays are drenched with 0.3% copper oxychloride solution (3 g/litre).

Seeds treated with the Thiram (0.3g / 100g seed) are sown one per cell, to a depth of 0.5 cm.

Cover the seeds with thin layer of growing medium, water lightly if commercial cocopeat is not used and cover the tray with newspaper.

If commercially available cocopeat is used, the trays are stacked one over the other for 4-5 days, without irrigating.

Seeds germinate in 4-6 days and the seedlings will be ready for planting by 25 days after sowing.

If cocopeat is used for seedling raising, drench the pro-trays with 0.3 percent (3 g/litre) 19-19-19 complex fertilizer 2 to 3 times after emergence.

About 5 g seed is required to plant an area of 500 m2 greenhouse areas.

Growing medium: Sandy loam soil and well-decomposed farmyard manure mixed in 1:1 proportions is best suited for tomato cultivation. In heavier soils mixing with sand up to 25 percent is required to provide proper aeration in the root zone.

Growing beds: Soil has to be brought to fine tilth. Beds of 100 cm width and 15 cm height leaving 50 cm between the two beds. Apply FYM @ 20 kg per square meter of bed area for the first crop and for subsequent crops, FYM@ 5 kg/square meter has to be applied.

Sterilization: For disinfecting the growing beds, 4% formaldehyde (@4 litre / m2) will be applied and covered with black polyethylene (400 gauges) sheet. All ventilation spaces need to be closed after the application of formaldehyde. While treating with formaldehyde, care should be taken to wear mask, gloves and apron to avoid direct contact with the formaldehyde fumes. Three to four days after formaldehyde treatment, polyethylene cover has to be removed. Two days after removing the polyethylene cover, the beds are raked repeatedly to remove trapped formaldehyde fumes completely before transplanting. Disinfections are done once a year.

Fertilizer application to the growing beds: N, P2O5 and K2O is applied @ 50: 50: 50 kg/ha, to the growing beds before formaldehyde fumigation. Neem cake and Trichoderma formulation (100:1) (200 kg /ha + 2 kg /ha) has to be applied just before planting but soon after formaldehyde fumes are exhausted completely. Neem cake + Trichoderma application has to be repeated 3 times at a monthly intervals.

Laying of drip line: At the center of the bed,

one inline dripper lateral has to be placed. Inline dripper lateral should have an emitting point for every 30 cm interval with a discharge of 2 litres per hour. Before covering with the polyethylene mulch, emitting point has to be checked for uniform discharge of water.

Mulching: 100-micron thickness black polyethylene mulch film of 1.2 m width can be used to cover the planting bed. Holes of 5 cm size are made on the mulch film as per the recommended spacing (60 cm x 45 cm). Then cover the planting beds with mulch by securing the edges of the sheet with pegs or burying in the soil.

Planting: Beds have to be watered to field capacity before transplanting. Seedlings of 25 days old, vigorous and uniform size are selected for planting. Portrays with seedlings are drenched with Bavistin (0.1%) and super phosphate slurry (1.5%) in early morning hours or previous day evening. Better to transplant in early morning hours or preferably in the evenings on an hour day. Transplant the seedlings at recommended spacing at a shallow depth of 2 – 2.5 cm. Plants are pot watered with rose can immediately after transplanting and every day until the plants get established. Misting is done in the seasons of low humidity. Drenching of the beds can be done with 0.3% COC if mortality of seedlings is noticed.

Spacing and plant population: Paired row system of planting is followed to gain more walking space in between beds. Within the row a distance of 45 cm is maintained. Leaving equal distance from the margin of 1m wide bed (20cm), two rows of tomato seedlings are planted at a spacing of 60cm. Beds are spaced at 50 cm spacing. Hence this system becomes 60-90-60 method of paired row planting method, which is equivalent to 75 cm uniform row spacing. Thus plant population per square meter of gross plot area is 2.96 plants/m2.

Irrigation: Drip irrigation is given daily to replenish 50 per cent of open pan evaporation.

Fertigation: Fertigation is carried out using water soluble fertilizers (19:19:19:WSF) @ 250: 250: 250 N:P2O5:K2O Kg/ha for a six month duration crop from 3rd week after transplanting. Fertigation is carried out twice a week for 18 weeks. Use 19:19:19 WSF at the rate of 3.65 g/ m2 for every fertigation.

Pruning and training: The tomato plants are pruned to two stems per plant. Pruning usually starts 20 to 30 days after transplanting. Plants are pruned at weekly intervals. The main stem of tomato plant branches into two after the first flower cluster which are the only two branches (stems) that are retained and all other branches are removed. Branches developing at the base of the stem are also removed. Plants can be topped 6 weeks before the crop removal. Plants are twined along the plastic twine. One inch wide polyethylene tube can be used for this purpose.

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Separate plastic twine has to be provided to each branch. Braches has to be tied to the plastic twines so that the branches do not break up due to the weight of the fruits. Tying of plants to the plastic twine starts from 4th week after transplanting and tying is usually done at weekly interval along with the pruning operation.

Lowering of plants: Plants tend to grow indeterminately and reach the height of 6-7 feet very quickly. For this reason plants are lowered periodically so that the plants are maintained at workable heights. For this purpose, extra length of plastic twine has to be provided in the beginning

itself. Lowering is done at 20 to 30 days interval starting from 80 to 90 days after transplanting.

Harvesting: Harvesting of tomato fruits starts at 70 to 80 days after transplanting and continues until 170 to 180 days. Harvesting of fruits is done at a weekly interval. Fruits should be harvested at breaker stage.

Yield: A marketable fruit yield of 170 to 180 t/ ha can be realized from the crop of 6- month duration (17 to 18 kg/m2 of gross plot area, 5.7 to 6.0 kg/plant). Individual fruit weight varies from 100 g/ fruit during initial harvests to 60 g/fruit during last harvests.


Impact of Climate Change and Fruit Orchid Mundhe S. G.1*, Khazi G. S.2 and D. A. Sonawane3

1M.Sc. Scholar, Department of Agril. Meteorology, 3Associate Professor, Department of Agronomy, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, Maharashtra

2Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agronomy, Vasantrao Naik Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth, Parhani (MS) – 431 402


Climate change refers to a change of climate that is attributed directly or indirectly by human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and climate variability observed over comparable time periods. Climate encompasses the long-run pattern of numerous meteorological factors (e.g. Temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, rainfall, sunshine etc.) in a given location or larger region. (Gutierrez et al. 2010). Global warming and climate change is now perceived to be greatest threat to mankind in 21th century. Life and ecosystem evolved in the narrow band of climatic environmental conditions is general over countries. The natural; variation in the earth climate is caused due to cosmological and geological process. However, climate change refers to additional and rapidly changed due to human activities.

Earth surface temperature is rapidly changed over 30 years. The rise in temperature is attributed to alarming increase in atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases (GHG), CO2, CH4 N2O and chlorofluorocarbons mainly due to accelerated consumption of fossil fuel industries and transport. The average temperature has increased by 0.8°C in past hundred years and is projected to rise 1.4 to 4.0c by the years 2100. It is now well known that global warming will also be associated with change in rainfall pattern, increase frequencies of extreme event of drought, frost and flooding. Collectively all this factor will affect output of the agriculture and allied sector. India is one of the 27 countries likely to be most affected.

Change is a phenomenon, which is truth and continues. The change could be for the betterment of it could have disastrous impact. Technological changes have provided immense comfort and also

cause imbalance in climatic parameters, threatening the sustainability. Government organization and also the ICAR have been deliberating upon the likely change in climate and adverse effect on Horticulture, there have been clear conclusion that climate is changing which need public intervention and preparedness to face the challenges.

What is Climate Change?

Internal Climate Variability: Climate can vary over a wide range of timescales due to internal processes, coupling between the atmosphere and its weather variability with oceans, land surface, snow and ice. External climatic variability: Changes in greenhouse gases (halocarbons & hexafluoride) and radioactive gases (CO2, CH4, N2O, O3 etc.) concentrations. Between late 18th century and 1994, CO2 concentrations has increased from 280-358 ppm (30%), CH4 by 15 % and N2O by 145 % which resulted in rise of the temperature by about 0.3 to 0.6%. Significant variation in either mean state of climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer) is referred as climate change, which may be due to natural interval process or external freeing or to persistence anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. About % incoming energy from the sun is reflected back to space while rest reaches the earth, warming the weather the air, ocean and land, sea and mountain etc., and simultaneously released in the form of infrared waves.

All these release the heat not lost to the space, put partly observed by GHS present in very small quantities in atmosphere. In absence of the

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emission of heat imbalance are created. Thus, increased concentration of GHs leads to increased temperature which in turn has impact on the world climate, leading to phenomenon known as climate change.

The significant change may impact agriculture / horticulture/ floriculture/fishery/livestock and consequently foods supply. Climate change is not harmful, but the problem arise from extreme event that are difficult to predict. Like more erratic rainfall pattern and unpredicted warm spells shall affect productivity. At the same more availability of CO2 would help in improved yield and increased temperature may shorten the period.

Scenario of climate change: Human activities are like rapid industrialization, intensive agriculture, indiscriminate use of fertilizers, deforestation and increase the use of fossil fuels during past 150 years are considered major for climatic changes. The continued effect of these activities result in increase in CO2, and other GHG leading to global warming as greenhouse effect due to entrapped of back radiation from the earth by these gases. The current level of CO2 in atmosphere, the main GHG is 35.4 percent more than the preindustrial level is growing. The concentration of all GHG reported to have increased by much as 70% between 1970 and 2004.

The increased in temperature due to global warming is 76oC since 1850. The rate of warming in the last 50 years is double than that of the last century. The likely increased in temperature is 1.8-40C by next century. The global warming is occurring along with shifting pattern of the rainfall and increase the incidence of extremes weather event like flood, drought and frosting. Recent studies suggest clear evidence of reduction in light intensity, rapid melting of glaciers and rise in sea level. It is projected that rainfall over India will be increased by 15-40 % and the mean annual temperature will be increased by 3-6 0C by the end of 21st century.

Impact of climate change: Global climate change is expected to affected the agriculture /horticulture crops through its direct and indirect effect. Scientific evidence suggest a positive effect of pf increase in atmospheric CO2 will reduce evapotranspiration and thus increase the water use efficiency. However the positive effect will be concentrated by increasing the temperature. Rise

in temperature will reduce the crop duration, increase, increase the respiration rate, alter photosynthetic, alter the phonology, particularly flowering, fruiting and reduce the chilling unit accumulation, hasten the senescence, fruit ripening and maturity.

Impact of climate change on Fruit Crop: Diverse climate condition available across the country provide ample opportunity to grow across almost all types of the horticulture crops and India is the second largest producer of fruits with a share of 10.9 percent in global production after China (16.7%). India is the largest producer of Banana, Mango and Papaya and attained highest productivity of grape, sapota and banana.

Many slow growing fruit crop require high investment on establishment of orchard. Quick alternation/ shifting of fruits, species or varieties would be difficult and painful loose bearing exercise under the impact of climate change, which, may discover age the development.

The response of perennial fruit crops to increase the temperature in different as compared to annual crops. The perennial crops having deep root system and undergo vegetative and reproductive phase during different season. An average increase of temperature 10 C would affect the phonology of crops influence in the Growing degree day and different crops response differently to increase the temperature.

References Senapati, M.R. (2009),”Vulnerabilities to climate

change”, Kurukshetra, A Journal published by Ministry of Rural Development, Govt. of India.

Mendelssohn, Robert et al. (1994), “The impact of climate change on agriculture: A Ricardian Analysis,” American Economic Review Vol 84, No4, pp 753-771.

Rosenzweig, C & Parry, M.L. (1994) “Potential impact of climate change on world food supply”, Nature, 367 (6450), pp 133-138.

Shukla, P. R., Sharma, S. K. and Ramnna, P. V. (eds) (2002) Climate Change and India, issues concerns and opportunities, Tata McGrath Hill Publication Ltd. New Delhi. P:317

Lal, R. (2004). Soil carbon sequestration to mitigate climate change. Geoderma. 123:1-22.

Houghton, J.T., Y. Ding, D.J. Griggs, M. Noguer, P.J. Linden, X. Dai, K. Maskell and C.A. Johnson. (2001). Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University ISBN 0-521-80767-0(0-521-01495-6)

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Different Cool Season Turf Grasses Gawde N. V.1* and Bhondave S. S.2

1Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Horticulture, J.A.U., Junagadh-362001 (GJ) 2Former M.Sc. Student, Department of Horticulture, M.P.K.V., Rahuri-413722 (MS)


Cool Season Grass

These grasses grow well in cool temperatures range between 15º to 24ºC. A typical growing season starts with a flush of growing in the spring, then slowed in the summer, followed by another flush of growth in the fall. Cool season areas have cold winters with temperatures that fall below freezing and having warm/ hot summers. These types of grass turn brown during the hot seasons. They maintain their color during colder times. Their leaf types and texture compatible with each other. The different cool season turf grasses are as follows:

1) Bent grass

It is regarded as the most beautiful of the lawn grasses. It requires a high amount of maintenance.

1. Creeping bent grass (Agrotis palustris): It is a perennial cool season grass. Stems are decumbent (creeping) and slender, and produce long narrow leaves. Leaf blades are smooth on the upper surface and ridged in the underside,1 to 3mm wide and blush green in appearance.

2. Colonial bent grass: It is adapted to coastal regions where it is used for general lawn areas. It thrives well in cool, humid weather and can tolerate some shade.

2) Rye grass

1. Annual Ryegrass/ Italian ryegrass: The species is native to Europe and Asia.

2. Perennial Ryegrass (Lolium perenne): It is a fine textured, tough grass that is deep green in color. Perennial rye grass tends to do best in areas with mildly cool climates and damp summer conditions.

3) Blue grass

1. Kentucky blue grass (poa pratensis): It is most common cool season grass which gives high quality lawn and is available in blends. Blue grass develops a shallow root system that is not very drought tolerant, but will go dormant during extreme conditions. It requires low maintenance and poor to shade tolerance. It is identified by its boat shapes leaf tip. During late spring and summer, the shoots of Kentucky bluegrass grow in an erect or upright position, whereas, in early spring and fall they become more decumbent

2. Kentucky-31: It is a long lived grass with short

underground stems. It is a versatile plant used for livestock feed, lawn, turf and conservation purposes. In 1931, Dr. E N Fergus discovered Kentucky-31.

3. Rough blue grass: This perennial grass is light green in color which is glossy beneath and has a narrow boat shaped tip. To identify rough bluegrass, look for aggressive stolons, or runners, and oblong seed heads like Kentucky blue grass. It is grainy in appearance, that is, the leaves have a tendency to lie flat in one direction.

4) Fescue: (Festuca arundinacea)

It is classified as cool weather grasses. These are shade tolerant, resistant to drought and remain green throughout the year. Fescues include sub species like creeping red fescues and tall fescues. Rye are similar to fescues.

1. Fine fescue: It is more cold and shade tolerant than tall fescue. Three grasses go under the common name of fine fescue; chewing fescue, creeping red fescue and hard fescue. a) Chewings fescue: It is an aggressive,

bunch type fine fescue. Its high shade tolerance is sometimes used as shady lawns, often in mixtures with perennial ryegrass. Chewing’s fescues have long been known for their fine leaf texture and to be among the most shade and drought tolerant of the cool season grasses. Chewings fescue is best adapted to cooler areas. It is well adapted to the sandy, acidic and often infertile soils.

b) Creeping red fescue: It is used in temperate areas. Red fescue is a cool season grass used in cool, shaded, mountain sites, such as camps, resorts and cabins where low input of mowing, fertilization and irrigation is desires. Red fescue is fine with narrow deep green blades and prefers shadier and cooler areas than most other cool season grasses. Identifying tps: very fine blade grass with a deep green color.

2. Hard fescue: Hard fescue has blue green color. It is indeed one of the hardiest of the fescues. It has good shade, salt, drought resistance, medium susceptibility to turf grass disease but not adapted to close mowing, heat and high traffic. It is slow growing and a low maintenance grass.

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An Innovative Method of Turmeric Cultivation Sudhakar S. Kelageri1 and Nagaratna N. Kolodar2

1Ph.D. Scholar, Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi-110012 2Research Scholar, Department of Plant Pathology, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh,

Gujarat-362001

The main factor limiting farmers' turmeric cultivation nowadays is their cost of cultivation. The crop generally requires more cost and more care than others. Farmers can expect more income when prices are high and yields are high. Still, this new method reduces the loss for farmers as yield is more with 20% less cost. The significant improvement in farmers' net income from turmeric production is useful.

Land preparation: While preparing the nursery, at the same times grow any green manure crop (Daincha) in the main field. While preparing the land, usual tillage operation may be adopted. Apply farmyard manure (FYM), neem cake, basal fertilizers and micronutrients to the soil as recommended. Beds should be prepared – 15 cm in height and 120 cm in width and a convenient length – with at least 30cm spacing between the beds. In the case of irrigated crops, prepare ridges and furrows and plant seedlings on the top of the bed. Spacing generally adopted is 40 cm between rows and 30 cm between plants, compared with 30 cm by 30 cm with standard methods.

Planting materials: In this new methodology use sections of seed rhizomes weighing 20 to 35 grams each. For an acre, 180 kg of seed rhizomes are needed (usually there are 30 to 50 rhizomes per kg, with single rhizomes having a length of 7 to 9 cm, and a perimeter of 7 to 8 cm). Cut Single rhizomes into 3 to 4 pieces, each with 2 rings with a bulged portion. In a single rhizome, 8 to 10 rings are seen. We need about 22,000 pieces per acre (55,000 per ha).

Seed Treatment: Fungicide (any type) - 2 gms / liter of water. Insecticide (any type) - 2 ml / liter of water. Urea - 5 gms / liter of water. Soak the above materials in water for half an hour, after

which keep for warming in air-tight gunny bags for eight days in a protected area. This should initiate the germination, which starts earlier in the bulged portions that protrude outward.

Pro-Tray Filling: Fill the trays in which seedlings are to be raised with coco-peat, vermi-compost, some Effective Microorganisms (EM) solution, Trichoderma viridae, Pseudomonas and a mixer. Then fill the trays with partially-germinated seed and the remaining space in the pits is filled with the above mixer of coco peat. Then keep the trays under a shade net for 40 to 45 days. The usual daily maintenance activities are taken to ensure proper growth.

Transplantation: After 40 days transplant the seedlings in the main field with the support of drip irrigation and fertigation. Spacing between rows is 40 cm, and 30 cm between plants, while conventional spacing is 30 cm by 30 cm. We have to protect the crop properly and carefully from pests and diseases through organic and inorganic methods.

YIELD: From a well-maintained crop, we get nearly 25 quintals (dried weight) per acre. This is 12.5 tons per acre, which is 25% more than what is achieved with conventional production methods, 10.0 tons per acre.

Conclusion: Like with SRI and SSI, in this method there is productivity from 100% of the plant population along with saving, labour saving, water saving, and power saving, etc. So this initiative can give farmers the right way to get more profit from their efforts.

Reference P. Baskaran, Thumbal, Salem District, Tamil Nadu

([email protected]).


National Flower: Lotus 1Latha S. and 2Shivaprasad S. G.

1Ph.D. Scholar, Dept. of Horticulture, 2M.Sc. (Horticulture) Dept. of Floriculture 1College of Agriculture, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad-580 005

2College of Horticulture, University of Agricultural and Horticultural Sciences, Shimoga, Karnataka, India

Lotus is scientifically called as Nelumbonucifera, known by a number of names including Indian Lotus, Sacred Lotus, Bean of India, or simply

Lotus, is a plant in the Nelumbonaceae family. This plant is an aquatic perennial. Under favorable circumstances its seeds may remain

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viable for many years, with the oldest recorded lotus germination being from that of seeds 1300 years old recovered from a dry lakebed in northeastern China, Vietnam. Native to Greater India and commonly cultivated in water gardens, the lotus is the national flower of India and Vietnam.

The roots of Nelumbonucifera are planted in the soil of the pond or river bottom, while the leaves float on top of the water surface. The flowers are usually found on thick stems rising several centimeters above the water. The plant normally grows up to a height of about 150 cm and a horizontal spread of up to 3 meters, but some unverified reports place the height as high as over 5 meters. The leaves may be as large as 60 cm in diameter, while the showy flowers can be up to 20 cm in diameter.

Benefits of Indian Lotus: Lotus is helpful in controlling the burning sensation, due to its cold potency. The plant helps in improving the skin texture and complexion. It improves mental condition and regularizes the peristaltic movements. It treats urine related problems and maintains the body’s normal temperature. The leaf paste is applied to the body in case of fever and inflammatory skin conditions. The young leaves of lotus are taken with sugar to treat rectal prolapse. The leaves are also used in treating sunstroke, diarrhea, dysentery, dizziness and vomiting of blood. The stamens are mixed with jaggery and ghee to treat hemorrhoids. The leaves and flowers are useful in many bleeding disorders. Lotus flowers are prescribed to promote conception. The flower stalk, mixed with other herbs, is used to treat bleeding from the uterus.

The petals alleviate thirst and inflammations while the seeds are powdered and mixed with honey to treat cough. Lotus, when taken with ghee, milk and gold, is considered a general tonic to promote strength, virility and intellect. Its flowers, seeds, young leaves and roots (rhizomes) are widely used in cuisines across the globe. Lotus petals are used for garnishing and the leaves are used for wrapping food. The distinctive lotus seed heads that resemble the spouts of watering cans are sold throughout the world for decorative purposes and dried flower arranging. Lotus rootlets are used in pickles, along with rice

vinegar, sugar, chili and/ or garlic. The stamens are dried and made into a fragrant herbal tea. In Asia, lotus is popular with salads, prawns, sesame oil and coriander leaves.

The lotus is propagated byDivision, Rhizome and Seed, Division; the big clumps of adult plants can be divided and planted to produce new plant. Rhizome; the rhizomes are cut in to small pieces and planted horizontally with eyes above the surface of the soil

Planting is done march-april months. Planting can be done directly in to the base of pond /pool. Generally at the bottom of the pool, there is a base of mixture of 3 parts, loam& one part of well rotten cow dung manure of FYM. Coarse bone meal may also used if cow dung manure is not available. The bottom of pool is filled with soil and manure mixture to a depth of 15-20cm.

Fully mature flower buds are harvested 2 to 3 days before opening so that they can with stand the long distances of transportation. Such flower show good vase life. Rhizomes are harvested by Digging in October in autumn when plants start dying due to low tem perature how ever in warm climate rhizome can be harvested at about 120 days and that 150 to 180 days after leaves start dying in cooler climate, seeds can be harvested when seeds head turn brown. Seed formation most efficient when pollen from one day old flowers is crossed with pistles from first day flowers.

FRUIT SEED FLOWER

46. FORESTRY 13946

Role of Exotic Poplar in North Eastern India Indu Bala Sethi,* and Mahesh Jajoria1

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agronomy*, GBPUAT, Pantnagar Research Scholar1, Department of Soil Science, S.K.N. Agriculture University, Jobner, 303329


Poplar present in our country is mainly in humid to semi humid region north east area. If we

continue to use the forests as at present, there will be no forests left by 2050 with impairing the

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47. FORESTRY 14616

Wetlands: Their Status in India and Need for their Conservation and Management

Thiru Selvan

Department of Forestry and Biodiversity, Tripura University, Agartala

INTRODUCTION: ‘Wetland’ is a general term for water bodies of various types, and includes diverse hydrological entities, namely, lakes, marshes, swamps, estuaries, tidal flats, river flood plains, and mangroves. Wetlands are amongst the most productive ecosystems on the Earth (Ghermandi et al., 2008), and provide many important services to human society (ten Brink et al., 2012). The Convention on Wetlands, Ramsar, Iran (1971), was developed for international attention on the rate at which wetland habitats were disappearing, due to lack of understanding of their important functions, values, goods and services.

It is known that, India has a total wetland area of 15.3 m ha which formnearly 4.7% of the total geographical area of the country and comprises 757.06 thousand wetlands. Of this, inland wetlands accounts for 69%, coastal wetlands 27%, and other wetlands (smaller than 2.25 ha) 4% of the area (SAC, 2011). In all the major wetlands types the aquatic vegetation occur in lakes, riverine wetlands, ox-bow lakes, tanks and reservoirs, and account for 1.32 m ha (9% of total wetland area) during post-monsoon and 2.06 m ha (14% of total wetlandarea) duringpre-monsoonperiod (SAC, 2011).

Wetlands are considered to have unique ecological features which provide numerous products and services to humanity (Prasad et al., 2002). Ecosystem goods provided by the wetlands mainly include: water for irrigation; fisheries; non-timber forest products; water supply; and recreation. Major services include: carbon sequestration, flood control, groundwater recharge, nutrient removal, toxics retention, biodiversity maintenance (Turner et al., 2000) and genetic reservoir for various species of plants including rice, which is a staple food for 3/4th of the world’s population.

Why Conserve Wetlands?

Wetlands are ecologically sensitive and adaptive systems (Turner et al., 2000) and exhibit enormous diversity according to their genesis, geographical location, water regime and chemistry, dominant species, and soil and sediment characteristics (SAC, 2011). But in this era of exponential development, wetlands are under constant pressure due to urbanization, introduced species, climate change etc. which are some of the major threats to these fragile

ecosystems. The negative economic, social, and

environmental consequences of declining water quality in wet-lands are also an issue of concern for India. Looking into the decreasing freshwater resources, it is pertinent that the freshwater bodies are to be preserved. As per the Ramsar Convention most of the natural water bodies (such as rivers, lakes, coastal lagoons, mangroves, peat land, coral reefs) and manmade wetlands (such as ponds, farm ponds, irrigated fields, sacred groves, salt pans, reservoirs, gravel pits, sewage farms and canals) in India constitute the wetland ecosystem. Only 26 of these numerous wetlands have been designated as Ramsar Sites (Ramsar, 2013). Lack of conformity among government policies in the areas of economics, environment, nature conservation, development planning (Turner et al., 2000) and lack of good governance and management (Kumar et al., 2013) are the major reasons for the deterioration of these water bodies.

Initiatives for Wetland Management in India

The primary responsibility for the management of the wetlands is in the hands of the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEF&CC), Government of India. Till date there is no separate legal provision for wetland conservation in India, it is indirectly influenced by number of other legal instruments related to its environment in the country. In 2010 theCentral Government notified the Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Ruleson the directives of National Environment Policy, 2006 and recommendations made by National Forest Commission. On the basis of Rule 5 of the wetlands rules, Central Wetlands Regulatory Authority (CWRA) has been constituted under the chairmanship of Secretary, Environment and Forest. In order to examine management action plans of newly identified wetlands an Expert Group on Wetlands (EGOW) has been constituted (MoEF, 2012).

Wetland management is largely influenced by the international commitments made under Ramsar Convention and other policy measures, such as, National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environment and Development, 1992; Coastal Zone Regulation Notification, 1991; National Policy and Macro level Action Strategy on Biodiversity, 1999; and

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National Water Policy, 2002. The subject of Wetlands has been duly

included in the national policies. Wetlands have been integrated in the recently formulated National Biodiversity Targets, in concordance with CBD Strategic Plan 2011-2020. National Water Policy (2012) includes conservation of wetlands as a means to address water availability, flood management and related issues. TEEB-India Initiative (The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity-TII) which aims to bring to focus the economic basis for conservation of ecosystem and biodiversity has included Inland wetlands as one of the three ecosystems being assessed in the first phase. For integrated management of wetlands and lakes, all the States / UTs have been asked for identification and notification of priority wetlands; Constitution of wetland/ lake authorities; Development of integrated management plans; securing resources for implementation of management plans; strengthening legal and regulatory regimes; monitoring and evaluation; and strengthening research-management interface.

Priorities Fixed for Future Implementation

In the national report on the implementation of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands which has been submitted to the 12thMeeting of the Conference of the Contracting Parties, Uruguay, 2015 (MoEF, 2015) the following priorities has been fixed:

Promoting integrated management of wetlands, particularly their mainstreaming in developmental planning and decision making. Emphasis will also be placed on creating cross sectoral governance mechanisms at the State level.

Enhancing capacity of wetland managers in designing and implementing integrated wetland management programmes. Promotion of participatory and diagnostic approaches for wetland management planning.

Improving research – management interface in wetland conservation and wise use. Research aimed at improving effectiveness of site management will be made an integral part of implementation of site management plans. Emerging issues as assessing vulnerability of wetlands in changing climate will be commissioned.

Assessing management effectiveness for representative wetlands. It is also proposed to put in place a generic mechanism for periodic management effectiveness assessment to inform necessary adaptations in implementation of NPCA.

Improving communication and outreach on wetlands. Curricula for school children and graduate level students are envisaged to be developed as a means of changing societal

behaviour towards wetlands and promote conservation stewardship of these ‘kidneys of landscape’.

These priorities has to be met keeping in view the Eco sensitive nature and the present status of these ecosystems which requires utmost attention both at the national and international level in terms of policies, instruments and management initiatives. Concerted and integrated efforts will help in replenishing the degrading resource which would otherwise have a serious impact on the fresh water resources of the country.

Conclusion: Wetland ecosystems support diverse and unique habitats and are distributed across various topographic and climatic regimes in India and the world. They are considered to be an important component of hydrological cycle and are highly productive systems in their natural forms. In addition to supporting rich biological diversity they provide a wide array of ecosystem goods and services including irrigation, domestic water supply, freshwater fisheries and water for recreation. Besides this they play important role in groundwater recharge, flood control, carbon sequestration and pollution abatement. In spite of its importance management of wetlands has received inadequate attention in the national agenda. The wetlands in urban and rural areas are under tremendous stress due to anthropogenic pressures and economic growth, including land use changes in the catchment; pollution from industry and households; encroachments; tourism; and over exploitation of their natural resources. Fresh water – which holds the lifeline for human beings, and for that matter for all living organisms – is a rapidly shrinking resource, and is likely to be the cause of competing claims and resultant conflicts. They are ubiquitous and call for concerted action by the government at the central and at the state level. More research emphasis on the physical, socio-economic and institutional factors influencing condition of wetlands and their use is required in order to arrive at better and comprehensive management strategies for wetlands that are facing growing stress from a variety of anthropogenic and climatic factors. Every citizen of the country should also dedicate themselves to the cause of healthy and dynamic aquatic ecosystems, and sensitize other members of society as well to the need for their effective conservation and scientific management.

References Ghermandi, A., van den Bergh, J.C.J.M., Brander,

L.M., Nunes, P.A.L.D., 2008. The Economic Value of Wetland Conservation and Creation: A Meta-Analysis. [Working Paper 79]. Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei, Milan, Italy.

Kumar, M.D., Panda, R., Niranjan, V., Bassi, N., 2013. Technology choices and institutions for improving economic and livelihood benefits from multiple uses tanks in western Orissa. In: Kumar, M.D., Sivamohan, M.V.K., Bassi, N. (Eds.), Water Management, Food Security and Sustainable

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Agriculture in Developing Economies. Routledge, Oxford, UK (Chapter 8).

Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), 2012. Annual Report 2011–2012. MoEF, Government of India, New Delhi. Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), n.d. Wetlands of India: a directory. New Delhi: MoEF, Government of India.

MoEF 2015 National Report on the Implementation of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. National Report to Ramsar COP12, Ministry of Environment, Forests & Climate Change (MoEF&CC), GOI, New Delhi.

National Forest Commission, 2006. Report of the National Forest Commission. MoEF, Government of India, New Delhi.

Prasad, S.N., Ramachandra, T.V., Ahalya, N., Sengupta, T., Kumar, A., Tiwari, A.K., Vijayan, V.S., Vijayan, L., 2002. Conservation of wetlands of India – a review. Trop. Ecol. 43 (1), 173–186.

Ramsar Secretariat, 2013. The List of Wetlands of International Importance. The Secretariat of the Convention on Wetlands, Gland, Switzerland.

Space Applications Centre (SAC), 2011. National Wetland Atlas. SAC, Indian Space Research Organisation, Ahmedabad. Study Group on Environment, n.d. Report of the study group on environment including tourism, heritage, pollution & disaster management. New Delhi: National Capital Region Planning Board.

ten Brink, P., Badura, T., Farmer, A., Russi, D., 2012. The Economics of Ecosystem and Biodiversity for Water and Wetlands: ABriefing Note. Institute for European Environmental Policy, London.

Turner, R.K., van der Bergh, J.C.J.M., Soderqvist, T., Barendregt, A., van der Straaten, J., Maltby, E., van Ierland, E.C., 2000. Ecological-economic analysis of wetlands: scientific integration for management and policy. Ecol. Econ. 35 (1), 7–23.

48. MEDICINAL PLANTS 13795

Periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus) Anticanceral Herb 1Patil Manish Bhagwan and 2K. Suresh

1M.Sc. (Agril.) PBG, 2M.Sc. (Plant Physiology), Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, C. P. College of Agriculture, S.D. Agricultural University, S.K. Nagar-385506, Gujarat, India.


IMPORTANCE: Periwinkle or Vinca is an erect handsome herbaceous perennial plant which is a chief source of patented cancer and hypotensive drugs. It is one of the very few medicinal plants which has a long history of uses as diuretic, antidysenteric, haemorrhagic and antiseptic. It is known for use in the treatment of diabetes in Jamaica and India. The alkaloids vinblastine and vincristine present in the leaves are recognized as anticancerous drugs. Vinblastine in the form of vinblastin sulphate is available in market under the trade name "VELBE" and Vincristine sulphate as "ONCOVIN”. Vinblastine is used in combination with other anticancer agents for the treatment of lymphocytic lymphoma, Hodgkin’s disease, testicular carcinoma and choriocarcinoma. Vincristine is used in acute leukemia, lymphosarcoma and Wilm’s tumour. Its roots are a major source of the alkaloids, raubasine (ajmalicine), reserpine and serpentine used in the preparation of antifibrillic and hypertension-relieving drugs. It is useful in the treatment of choriocarcinoma and Hodgkin's disease-a cancer affecting lymph glands, spleen and liver. Its leaves are used for curing diabetes, menorrhagia and wasp stings. Root is tonic, stomachic, hypotensive, sedative and tranquilliser (Narayana and Dimri, 1990).

Distribution: The plant is a native of Madagascar and hence the name Madagascar Periwinkle. It is distributed in West Indies, Mozambique, South Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Philippines and Australia. It is well adapted to diverse agroclimatic situations prevalent in India

and is commercially cultivated in the states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Assam. USA, Hungary, West Germany, Italy, Netherlands and UK are the major consumers.

Botany: Catharanthus roseus (Linn.) G.Don. syn. Vinca rosea Linn. Belongs to the family Apocynaceae. It is an erect highly branched lactiferous perennial herb growing up to a height of one metre. Leaves are oblong or ovate, opposite, short-petioled, smooth with entire margin. Flowers are borne on axils in pairs. There are three flower colour types, pink, pink-eyed and white. Calyx with 5 sepal, green, linear, subulate. Corolla tube is cylindrical with 5 petals, rose-purple or white with rose-purple spot in the centre; throat of corolla tube hairy, forming a corona-like structure. The anthers are epipetalous borne on short filaments inside the bulging distal end of corolla tube converging conically above the stigma. Two characteristic secretary systems, namely a column like nectarium on both sides of pistil and a secretory cringulam circling the papillate stigma with a presumed role in pollination - fecundation process are present. Ovary bicarpellary, basally distinct with fused common style and stigma. The dehiscent fruit consists of a pair of follicles each measuring about 25 mm in length and 2.3 mm in diameter, containing up to thirty linearly arranged seeds with a thin black tegumen. On maturity, the follicles split along the length dehiscing the seeds.

Agrotechnology: Periwinkle grows well under tropical and subtropical climate. A well distributed rainfall of 1000 mm or more is ideal. In north

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India the low winter temperatures adversely affect the crop growth. It can grow on any type of soil, except those which are highly saline, alkaline or waterlogged. Light soils, rich in humus are preferable for large scale cultivation since harvesting of the roots become easy. Catharanthus is propagated by seeds. Fresh seeds should be used since they are short-viable. Seeds can be both sown directly in the field or in a nursery and then transplanted. Seed rate is 2.5 kg/ha for direct sowing and the seeds are drilled in rows 45 cm apart or broadcasted. For transplanted crop the seed rate is 500gm/ha. Seeds are sown in nursery and transplanted at 45x 30cm spacing after 60 days when the seedlings attain a height of 15-20cm Nursery is prepared two months in advance so that transplanting coincides with the onset of monsoons. Application of FYM at the rate of 15 t/ha is recommended. An alternate approach is to grow leguminous green manure crops and incorporate the same into the soil at flowering stage. Fertilizers are recommended at 80:40:40 kg N: P2O5: K2O/ha for irrigated crop and 60:30:30 kg/ha for rainfed crop. N is applied in three equal splits at planting and at 45 and 90 days after planting. 4 or 5 irrigations will be needed to optimize yield when rainfall is restricted. Fortnightly irrigations support good crop growth when the crop is grown exclusively as an irrigated crop. Weeding is carried out before each topdressing. Alternatively, use of fluchloraline at 0.75 kg a.i. /ha pre-plant or alachlor at 1.0 kg a.i. per ha as pre-emergence to weeds provides effective control of a wide range of weeds in periwinkle crop. Detopping of plants by 2cm at 50% flowering stage improves root yield and alkaloid contents. No major pests, other than Oleander hawk moth, have been reported in this crop. Fungal diseases like twig blight (top rot or dieback) caused by Phytophthora nicotianae. Pythium debaryanum, P. butleri and P. Aphanidermatum; leaf spot due to Alternaria tenuissima, A. alternata, Rhizoctonia solani and Ophiobolus catharanthicola and foot-rot and wilt by Sclerotium rolfsii and Fusarium solani have been reported. However, the damage to the crop is not very serious. Three virus diseases causing different types of mosaic symptoms and a phyllody or little leaf disease due to mycoplasma-like organisms have also been reported; the spread of which could be checked by uprooting

and destroying the affected plants. The crop allows 3 -4 clippings of foliage beginning from 6 months. The flowering stage is ideal for collection of roots with high alkaloid content. The crop is cut about 7 cm above the ground and dried for stem, leaf and seed. The field is irrigated, ploughed and roots are collected. The average yields of leaf, stem and root are 3.6, 1.5and 1.5 t/ha, respectively under irrigated conditions and 2.0, 1.0 and 0.75t/ha, respectively under rainfed conditions on air dry basis. The harvested stem and roots loose 80% and 70% of their weight, respectively.

Properties and Activity

More than 100 alkaloids and related compounds have so far been isolated and characterized from the plant. The alkaloid contents in different parts show large variations as roots 0.14-1.34%, stem 0.074-0.48%, leaves 0.32-1.16%, flowers 0.005-0.84%, fruits 0.40%, seeds 0.18% and pericarp 1.14% (Krishnan et al, 1983). These alkaloids include monomeric indole alkaloids, 2-acyl indoles, oxindole, a-methylene indolines, dihydroindoles, bisindole and others. Dry leaves contain vinblastine (vincaleucoblastine or VLB) 0.00013-0.00063%, and vincristine (leurocristine or LC) 0.0000003-0.0000153% which have anticancerous activity (Virmani et al, 1978). Other alkaloids reported are vincoside, isovincoside (strictosidine), catharanthine, vindolinine, lochrovicine, vincolidine, ajmalicine (raubasine), reserpine, serpentine, leurosine, lochnerine, tetrahydroalstonine, vindoline, pericalline, perivine, periformyline, perividine, carosine, leurosivine, leurosidine and rovidine. The different alkaloids possessed anticancerous, antidiabetic, diuretic, antihypertensive, antimicrobial, antidysenteric, haemorrhagic, antifibrillic, tonic, stomachic, sedative and tranquillising activities.

References Krishnan, R. Chandravadana, M. V., Ramachander,

P. R. and Bharathkumar, H. 1983. Inter- relationships between growth and alkaloid production in Catharanthus roseus G. Don. Herba Hungarica, 22:47-54.

Narayana, M. R. and Dimri, B. P. 1990. Periwinkle and its cultivation in India. CIMAP, Lucknow, India. 12p.

Virmani, O. P., Srivastava, G. N. and Singh, P. 1978. Catharanthus roseus- the tropical periwinkle. Indian Drugs, 15:231-252.

49. PLANT BREEDING AND GENETICS 13392

Reverse Breeding: A Novel Breeding Approach Based on Engineered Meiosis

Ishwar H. Boodi, Shruti N Koraddi and Savita Kanthi

College of Agriculture, University of Agricultural Science, Dharwad-580 005.

One of the most important insights in plant breeding was the observation that hybrid (F1)

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progeny typically are superior in size, growth characteristics and yield in comparison to their homozygous parents, a phenomenon known as heterosis. The unpredictable nature of heterosis confronts breeders with considerable difficulties: how does one optimize the performance of crop varieties when the constituents for success are unknown? Breeders can evaluate heterosis by controlled crosses of inbred lines. The hit-or-miss nature of this approach makes it difficult to optimize the effects of heterosis.

Here, there is an alternative strategy based on the reversal of crop selection: the generation of defined populations with high levels of heterozygosity and random variation. These populations are then assessed in a variety of environmental conditions (latitude, salinity, humidity etc.,) and the best performing heterozygous germplasm is selected for further breeding. A barrier to achieving high levels of variation in current plant breeding programs is that uncharacterised heterozygotes are difficult-if not impossible-to reproduce by seeds. Favourable allele combinations of the elite heterozygote are lost in the next generation due to segregation of traits. Because of this difficulty, the development of methods for easy preservation of heterozygous genotypes is one of the greatest challenges in plant breeding.

Apomixis has repeatedly been proposed as a way to preserve heterozygous phenotypes, but has not yet led to breeding applications. In this show how a new technique, reverse breeding, meets the challenge of fixation of complex heterozygous genomes by constructing complementing homozygous lines. This is accomplished by the knockdown of meiotic crossovers and the subsequent fixation of non-recombinant chromosomes in homozygous doubled haploid lines (DH’s).

Reverse Breeding

“Reverse breeding is a novel breeding technique that makes use of genetic modification to facilitate breeding of F1-hybrids by suppression of meiotic recombination to again reproduce F1”

Objectives

To provide alternative method for providing homozygous parental lines for the production hybrids.

To provide even more flexible in combining desirable parental lines for the production of hybrid.

To allows generation of chromosome substitution line that will facilitate breeding on an individual chromosome level.

“According to the invention it was surprisingly found that the reverse of traditional breeding is possible i.e. starting with the heterozygous plant to produce homozygous parental lines.”

The homozygous parental lines can reconstitute the original heterozygous plant or

animal by crossing, if desired even in a large quantity. An individual heterozygous plant can surprisingly be converted in a heterozygous (F1-hybrid) variety without the necessity of vegetative propagation but as the result of the cross of two homozygous lines derived from the original selected plant.

The present invention thus relates to a method for efficiently producing homozygous organisms from a heterozygous non-human starting organism, comprising: a) providing a heterozygous starting organism; b) allowing the starting organism to produce haploid cells; c) creating homozygous organisms from the haploid cells thus obtained; and d) selecting the organisms having the desired set of chromosomes; characterized in that during production of the haploid cells essentially no recombination occurs in order to obtain a limited number of different haploid cells. In a preferred embodiment of the invention recombination is at least partially prevented or suppressed in contrast to situations in which the starting organism is selected for its inability to have recombination upon the formation of haploid cells.

The method can be used for plants, fungi and animals except humans. By preventing or suppressing recombination the normal variation that arises in every natural cross can be limited or even avoided. As a result thereof, the number of haploid cells having different sets of chromosomes is considerably reduced. Because of this, the cell or organism regenerated there from with the desired set of chromosomes can be quite easily identified.

When the chromosome set of such cell or organism regenerated there from is doubled a homozygous cell or organism arises. Such organism can then be used in crosses with another homozygous organism produced in the same way from the same donor organism to produce a hybrid organism.

The "desired set of chromosomes" can be one of a number of variants. In case the original starting hybrid is to be produced the two homozygous organisms produced according to the invention should together have the exact set of chromosomes of the starting organism. This is achieved when both parents have the same set of chromosomes as the gametes that formed the hybrid. However, it is also possible that the new maternal line has only some of the chromosomes of the original maternal gamete and the others of the original paternal gamete (chromosome substitution).

In that case the other parent should again have the complement thereof if the production of the same hybrid is desired. It is however also possible to combine the new line which has one or more but not all of the chromosomes of the original parent with a different parent in plant breeding. The new homozygous lines as such can

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thus be a newly desired end product. This applies to lines having the original parental chromosome composition as well as to lines having a new combination of chromosomes.

Uses Reverse Breeding

Reverse breeding allows breeders to produce a new hybrid in a much shorter time than with conventional techniques

Reverse breeding starts with an elite heterozygous line and aims at the generation of homozygous parental lines

Subsequent hybridization of these homozygous parental lines produces F1 hybrid plants in which the original genetic composition of the elite heterozygous line is

reconstituted.

This novel plant breeding approach offers clear advantages over existing techniques due to the fact that in principle any heterozygous plant can now be commercially exploited through re-synthesis of suitable parental lines

This invention related to a method for efficiently producing homozygous organism from a heterozygous non-human starting organism.

This method in plant breeding to produce parental lines for the production of F1 hybrid.

To obtained F1 hybrid by crossing those parents developed through this method. This invention further relates to DNA constructs used in this method.


Marker Assisted Breeding: A Boon for Crop Improvement Ishwar H. Boodi, Savita Kanthi, Guljar Dambal and Laxmi Kamagond

Regional Agricultural Research Station, Hittinalli Farm Vijayapura-586101, Karnataka, India

A sequence or segment of DNA molecule (Molecular), Protein (Physiological) or any trait (morphological) which is used as a mark for the selection of other desired trait is called as marker. The development of DNA markers has irreversibly changed the disciplines of plant genetics and plant breeding. While there are several applications of DNA markers in breeding, the most promising for cultivar development is called marker assisted selection (MAS). MAS refers to the use of DNA markers that are tightly-linked to target loci as a substitute for or to assist phenotypic screening. By determining the allele of a DNA marker, plants that possess particular genes or quantitative trait loci (QTLs) may be identified based on their genotype rather than their phenotype.

1. Advantages of Marker-Assisted Selection

Marker-assisted selection may greatly increase the efficiency and effectiveness for breeding compared to conventional breeding. The fundamental advantages of MAS compared to conventional phenotypic selection are:

Simpler compared to phenotypic screening

Selection may be carried out at seedling stage

Single plants may be selected with high reliability

These advantages may translate into (1) geater efficiency or (2) accelerated line development in breeding programs. For example, time and labour savings may arise from the substitution of difficult or time-consuming field trials (that need to be conducted at particular times of year or at specific locations, or are technically complicated) with DNA marker tests. Furthermore, selection based on DNA markers may be more reliable due to the influence of

environmental factors on field trials. In some cases, using DNA markers may be more cost effective than the screening for the target trait. Another benefit from using MAS is that the total number of lines that need to be tested may be reduced. Since many lines can be discarded after MAS at an early generation, this permits a more effective breeding design.

The greater efficiency of target trait selection which may enable certain traits to be ‘fast-tracked’, since specific genotypes can be easily identified and selected. Moreover, ‘background’ markers may also be used to accelerate the recovery of recurrent parents during marker-assisted backcrossing.

2. Importance of QTL Mapping for MAS

The identification of genes and quantitative trait loci (QTLs) and DNA markers that are linked to them is accomplished via QTL mapping experiments. QTL mapping thus represents the foundation of the development of markers for MAS. Previously, it was generally assumed that markers could be directly used in MAS. However, there are many factors that influence the accuracy of QTL mapping such as population size and type, level of replication of phenotypic data, environmental effects and genotyping errors. These factors are particularly important for more complex quantitative traits with many QTLs each with relatively small effects (e.g. drought tolerance, yield). Therefore, in recent years it has become widely-accepted that QTL confirmation, validation and/or additional marker testing steps may be required after QTL mapping and prior to MAS. These steps may include:

Marker conversion - may be required such that the marker genotyping method is

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technically simpler for MAS or so that the reliability is improved.

QTL confirmation – testing the accuracy of results from the primary QTL mapping study

QTL validation - generally refers to the verification that a QTL is effective in different genetic backgrounds

Marker validation – testing the level of polymorphism of most tightly-linked markers within a narrow window (say 5 - 10 cM) spanning a target locus and also testing the reliability of markers to predict phenotype

3. Applications of MAS in Plant Breeding

Marker assisted backcrossing: There are three levels of selection in which markers may be applied in backcross breeding (Fig. 1). In the first level, markers may be used to screen for the target trait, which may be useful for traits that have laborious phenotypic screening procedures or recessive alleles. The second level of selection involves selecting backcross progeny with the target gene and tightly-linked flanking markers in order to minimize linkage drag. We refer to this as ‘recombinant selection’. The third level of MAB involves selecting backcross progeny (that have already been selected for the target trait) with ‘background’ markers. In other words, markers can be used to select against the donor genome, which may accelerate the recovery of the recurrent parent genome. With conventional backcrossing, it takes a minimum of five to six generations to recover the recurrent parent. Data from simulation studies suggests that at least two but possibly three or even four backcross generations can be saved by using markers.

Figure 1. Three levels of selection during marker-assisted backcrossing.

Marker assisted pyramiding: Pyramiding is the process of simultaneously combining multiple genes/QTLs together into a single genotype. This is possible through conventional breeding but extremely difficult or impossible at early generations. Using conventional phenotypic selection, individual plants must be phenotypically screened for all traits tested. Therefore, it may be very difficult to assess plants from certain population types or for traits with destructive bioassays. DNA markers may facilitate selection because DNA marker assays are non-destructive and markers for multiple specific genes/QTLs can be tested using a single DNA sample without

phenotyping. The most widespread application for pyramiding has been for combining multiple disease resistance genes in order to develop durable disease resistance.

Early generation marker assisted selection: One of the most intuitive stages to use markers to select plants is at an early generation (especially F2 or F3). The main advantage is that many plants with unwanted gene combinations, especially those that lack essential disease resistance traits and plant height, can be simply discarded. This has important consequences in the later stages of the breeding program because the evaluation for other traits can be more efficiently and cheaply designed for fewer breeding lines (especially in terms of field space).

4. Current Obstacles for the Adoption of MAS

For marker assisted backcrossing, the initial cost of using markers would be more expensive compared to conventional breeding.

The low reliability/reproducibility of markers to determine phenotype.

Even QTLs that are detected with high LOD scores and explain a large proportion of the phenotype may be affected by sampling bias (especially in small populations), and therefore may not be useful for MAS.

Furthermore, the effect of a QTL may depend on the genetic background. This emphasizes the importance of testing the QTL effects and the reliability of markers (i.e. QTL/marker validation) before MAS is undertaken.

5. Future of MAS Breeding

We believe that despite the relatively small adoption of markers in plant breeding to date, there will be a greater level of adoption within the next decade and beyond. Factors that should lead to a greater adoption of MAS include:

Establishment of facilities for marker genotyping and staff training within many breeding institutes in different countries

Currently available (and constantly increasing) data on genes/QTLs controlling traits and the identification of tightly-linked markers

Development of effective strategies for using markers in breeding

Establishment and creation of public databases for QTL/marker data

Available resource for generating new markers from DNA sequence data arising from crop genome sequencing and research in functional genomics.

It is also critical that future endeavors in MAS are based upon lessons that have been learnt from past successes and (especially) failures in using MAS. Further optimization of marker genotyping methods in terms of cost-effectiveness and a greater level of integration between molecular and conventional breeding (especially in designing

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efficient and cost-effective strategies) represent the main challenges for the greater adoption and

impact of MAS on breeding in the near future.


Approaches for Induction of Transgenic Male Sterility Ranjana Patial* and Neha Sharma

Department of Crop Improvement, CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur 176062, India


The major goal in plant breeding is improvement of crop plants, by various strategies like production of hybrid varieties. Hybrid progeny may have a higher yield, increased resistance to disease, and an enhanced performance in different environments compared to the parental lines. Availability of cost effective mechanisms/methods to produce large scale hybrid seeds utilizing selected parental line is one of the important factors which ultimately determine the commercial viability of hybrid varieties. Manual emasculation increases cost of production, so various genetic mechanisms viz., male sterility, self-incompatibility and chemical hybridizing agents are now being used based on their relative importance in hybrid development. Among these, genetic emasculation tools “male sterility” is commonly used for hybrid seed production. The failure of plants to produce functional anthers, pollen, or male gametes is known as “male sterility”. This system was first documented by Kolreuter in 1763 and observed anther abortion within species and species hybrid. Kaul in 1988 classified male sterility into five different types:-

i) Genetic male sterility (GMS) ii) Cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) iii) Cytoplasmic genetic male sterility (CGMS) iv) Chemical induced male sterility v) Transgenic male sterility.

The specific mechanisms causing male sterility in plants vary from species to species and are subject to influence by environment, nuclear and cytoplasmic genes. Male sterility can be permanent (heritable) or transient (CHAs).

The commercial exploitation of hybrid vigour in hermaphrodite crops is facilitated by the availability of CMS (cytoplasmic male sterile) lines to affect pollination control. As the CMS genotype resulted by harnessing the mitochondrial mutations, they are generally associated with yield penalty and imperfect fertility restoration in the hybrids. These imperfections in CMS-fertility restorer systems have stimulated considerable research effort to engineer new and perhaps more efficient male sterility systems (Kaul, 1988). Success to genetically engineer nuclear encoded male sterility by subtle modifications in key development processes during microsporogensis

has allowed new option of pollination control for hybrid seed production in hermaphrodite crops. Approaches for development of transgenic male sterility (Ananthi et al. 2013) are:-

1. Cell cytotoxicity- a) Causing pollen abortion (or) dominant

nuclear male sterility b) Male sterility through hormonal

engineering c) Pollen self-destructive engineered male

sterility d) Male sterility using pathogenesis-related

protein genes. 2. Using antisense RNA or RNAi to silence

relevant gene expression of pollen development.

3. Male Sterility by early degrading callose 4. Male sterility through modification of

biochemical pathways:- a) Flavonoids b) Jasmonic acid c) Carbohydrates.

5. Transgenic induction of mitochondrial rearrangements for Cytoplasmic male sterility in crop plants.

6. Engineering cytoplasmic male sterility via the chloroplast genome.

Although all above approach of engineered male sterility systems are not currently in commercial use, except for possibly the Barnase-barstar system, these are likely to have significant importance in future hybrid-breeding programs.

One of the first biotechnology-based approaches to male sterility was proposed by Mariani et al. (1990) i.e. Barnase-barstar system- one component system and it is based on the principal of selective early stage ablation of tapetum layer which provides nourishment to the developing pollen. A cytotoxic gene, Barnase of bacterial (Bacillus amyloliquefaciens) origin, was expressed under regulation of a tapetum-specific promoter, Ta29 in tobacco plant, resulting pollen abortion. The transgenic male-sterile plants and their progenies are normal in vegetative appearance, due to expression of transgenic specific to tapetum. To restore fertility, the pollen parents were transformed with barstar gene (Rnase inhibitor) from same bacterium (Marini et al. 1992). In transgenic Nicotiana tabacum plants,

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the argE gene products that were controlled by tapetal specific promoter Ta29 lead to empty anthers, resulting in male sterile plants (Kriete et al. 1996). Similarly, Roque et al. (2007) fused the PsEND1 promoter to the barnase gene which permits identification of male sterile line before flowering. The PsEND1 is an anther-specific promoter that drives gene expression in a tightly specific pattern restricted to developing anther. This promoter was widely applied in species such as Arabidopsis, oilseed rape, rice, and wheat (Gomez et al. 2004; Piston et al. 2008). Incomplete elimination of male fertile segregants from female line in hybrid seed production plots and the necessity of using two transgenic lines for synthesis of hybrid is a major limitation of barnase-barstar system. To, overcome this, a two component system of barnase induced cell lethality has been developed (Burgess et al. 2002).

So, genetically engineered male sterility provides tremendous opportunities to the breeders for enforcing pollination control in hybrid seed production systems. On the other hand these systems have some disadvantages like availability of efficient gene construct, possible dispersion of transgene to other related species, availability of efficient transformation technique and very high initial investment. Much will, however, depend upon large scale availability of the desired constructs/genes as at present most of the genes are patented and not available to large number of breeders. Apart from barnase-barstar system, no other system has reached the commercial stage. With the further researches on molecular biology of pollen development and improvement of biotechnology, the approaches creating male sterile lines using genetic engineering will become simpler, faster and more effective.

References Ananthi M, Selvaraju P and Srimathi P. (2013).

Transgenic male sterility for hybrid seed

production in vegetables -A Review. Weekly Science Research Journal 1: 6

Burgess DG, Ralston EJ, Hanson WG, Heckert M, Ho M, Jeng T, Palys JM, Tang K and Gutterson N. (2002). A novel, two component system for cell lethality and its use in engineering nuclear male sterility in plants. Plant Journal 31:113-125

Gomez M, Beltran JP, Canas L. (2004). The pea END1 promoter drives anther-specific gene expression in different plant species. Planta 219: 967-981

Kaul MLH (1988) In: Male-sterility in higher plants, Berlin, Heidelberg, Germany, Spinger-verlag, 1005 pp

Kolreuter DJG (1763). Voolarfige Nachrcht von linigen das geschlet der Pflanzenbetreffen-den versuchen and beo-bachtanager. Engelmen, leipzing.

Kriete G, Niehaus K, Perlick AM, Pühler A, Broer I. (1996). Male sterility in transgenic tobacco plants induced by tapetum-specific deacetylation of the externally applied non-toxic compound N-acetyl-L-phosphinothricin. Plant J. 9: 809-818

Mariani C, De Beuckeleer, M Truettner, Leemans J and Goldberg RB. (1990). Induction of male-sterility in plants by a chimeric ribonuclease gene. Nature 347: 737–741

Mariani C, Gossele V, De Beuckeleer M, De Block M, Goldberg RB, De Greef W and Leemans J. (1992). A chimaericribonuclease-inhibitor gene restores fertility to male sterile plants. Nature 357: 384–387

Piston F, Garcia C, Vina ADL, Beltran P, Canas LA, Barro F. (2008). The pea PsEND1promoter drives the expression of GUS in transgenic wheat at the binucleate microspore stage and during pollen tube development. Mol. Breeding 21: 401-405

Roque E, Gómez MD, Ellul P, Wallbraun M, Madue o F, Beltrán JP, Ca as LA. (2007). The PsEND1 promoter: a novel tool to produce genetically engineered male-sterile plants by anther ablation. Plant Cell Rep. 26: 313-325


Farmers’ Rights: Rights that Every Farmer Need to Know Hirdayesh Anuragi

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar

INTRODUCTION: The protection of plant varieties and farmers’ right act (PPV &FR) seeks to address the rights of plant breeders and farmers on an equal footing. It affirms the necessity of recognizing and protecting the rights of farmers with respect to the contribution they make in conserving, improving and making plant genetic resources (PGR) available for the development of new plant varieties. The PPV & FR act recognizes the multiple roles played by farmers in cultivating, conserving, developing and selecting varieties. With regard to developing or selecting varieties

the acts refers to the value added by the farmers to wild species or traditional varieties/ landraces through selection and identification for their economic traits.

Farmers’ Variety

A variety can be considered as farmers’ variety which,

has been traditionally cultivated and evolved by the farmers in their fields, or

is a wild relative or land race of a variety about which the farmers possess common

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knowledge.

Objectives of farmers’ rights

The objectives of the farmers’ right under PPV & FA are as follows:

To provide for the establishment of an effective system for protection of plant varieties.

To provide for the rights of the farmers.

To stimulate investment for research and development and to facilitate growth of the seed industries.

To ensure availability of high quality seeds and planting materials of improved varieties to farmers.

Rights granted to the farmers

Accordingly, farmers’ rights encompass the roles of farmers as users, conservers and breeders. Farmers are granted nine rights, which are as under;

Right 1: Access to seed [Section 39(1-IV)]

Farmers are entitled to save, use, sow, re-sow, exchange, share or sell their farm produce including seed of protected varieties, in the same manner as they were entitled before the coming into force of the PPV & FR act. However, farmers are not entitled to sell branded seed of a variety protected under this act. Farmers can use farm saved seed from a crop cultivated in their own.

Right 2: benefit sharing [Section 26]

Any person or group of persons (citizen of India) firm or government or non-governmental (established in India) can file a claim for benefit sharing before the authority if the general material of the claimant has been used in the development of any registered variety in respect of which benefit sharing is included. However the PPV & FR act requires a breeder to disclose the use of genetic material conserved by any tribal or rural family in breeding or development of such varieties.

Right 3: Compensation [Section 39(2)]

Registered seed must be sold with the full disclosure of their agronomic performance under recommended management conditions. When such seed is sold to farmers but fails to provide the expected performance under recommended management conditions, the farmer is eligible to claim compensation form the registered breeder by filling an application before the PPV & FR authority.

Right 4: Reasonable seed price [Section 47]

Farmers have the right to access seed of registered varieties at reasonable and remunerative price. When this condition is not met, the breeder’s exclusive right over the variety is suspended under the provision concerning compulsory licensing, and the breeder is obligated to license the seed production, distribution and sales of the

variety to a any competent person. Most of the laws of plant variety protection have provisions on compulsory licensing of protected varieties to ensure adequate seed supply to farmers, and several of them also use unfair pricing as grounds for compulsory licensing.

Right 5: Farmers’ recognition and reward for contributing to conservation [Section 39(1-III) & Section 45(2-C)]

Farmers who have been engaged in PGR conservation and crop improvement or made substantial contributions in providing genetic resources for crop improvement, receive recognition and rewards from the National Gene Fund. Since 2007, the plant genome savior/community award, associated with the national gene fund, has been rewarding farming communities and individual farmers for their contribution to in-situ and on farm conservation to the selection of PGR. The authority in consultation with Government of India, has established five plant genome savior community awards of 10 Lakh each along with citation and memento to be conferred every year to the farming communities for their contribution in conserving the Plant Genetic Resources. In accordance with the PPV & FR rules, 2010 the authority also setup 10 Plant Genome Savior Farmer Reward of Rs 1 Lakh each with citation and memento and also 20 Plant Genome Savior Farmer Recognition annually from 2012-13 to the farmers engaged in the conservation of the genetic resources of the landraces and wild relatives of economic plants and their improvement through selection and preservation.

Right 6: Registration of farmers’ varieties [Section 39(1-III)]

The PPV & FR act allows for the registration of existing farmers’ varieties that fulfill requirements for distinctness, uniformity, stability and denomination, but does not include that of novelty. This right provides farmers with one off opportunity for a limited period of time, from the moment when a crop species is included in the crop portifolio under th PPV & FR act for registration. Once registered, these varieties are entitled to all the PBRs.

Right 7: Prior authorization for the commercialization of essentially derived varieties [Section 28(6)]

When farmers’ varieties, whether extant or new, are used by a third party as source material for the development of an essentially derived variety, the farmers need to provide prior authorization. Such a process can allow farmers to negotiate the terms of authorization with the breeder, which may include royalties, benefit-sharing, etc.

Right 8: Exemption from registration fees for farmers [Section 44]

Under PPV & FR act, farmer have the privilege of

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being completely exempted from the payment of any kind of fees or other payments that are normally payable for variety registration; tests for distinctness, uniformity and stability (DUS), and other services rendered by PPV & FR authority; as well as or legal proceedings related to infringement or other causes in courts, tribunal, etc.

Right 9: Farmers’ protection from innocent infringement [Section 42]

If a farmer can prove before court that he or she was not aware of the existence of any rights at the time of and infringement on any such rights, as detailed in PPV & FR act, he or she will not be charged. This provision is made in consideration of the centuries old unrestrained rights that the farmers had over the seed of all varieties, the novel nature of PPV & FR act and the poor legal literacy of the farmers.

Crops open for registration

Rice, Bread wheat, Maize, Sorghum, Pearl millet, Chickpea, Mungbean, Urdbean, Fieldpea, Kidney bean, Lentil, Pigeon pea, Indian mustard, Karan rai, Rapeseed, Gobhi sarson, Groungnut, Soybean, Sunflower, Safflower, castor, Sesame, Linseed, Diploid cotton, Tetraploid cotton, Jute, sugarcane, Black pepper, small cardamom, Turmeric, Ginger, Tomato, Brinjal, Okra, Cauliflower, Cabbage, Potato, Onion, Garlic, Rose, Chrysanthemum,

Mango, Durum wheat, Dicoccum wheat, Other triticum species, Isabgol, Menthol mint, Damask rose, Periwinkle, Brahmi, Coconut, Bamboo leaf orchid or boat orchid, Spray orchid or Singapore orchid, Vanda or blue orchid, Casuarina, Eucalyptus, Coriander, Fenugreek, pomegranate, grapes, Bottle gourd, Bitter gourd, Cucumber, Pumpkin, Barley, Cattleya orchid and Phalaenopsis orchid.

Conclusion: The farmers’ rights of the Act define the privilege of farmers and their right to protect varieties developed or conserved by them. Farmers can save, use, sow, re-sow, exchange, share and sell farm produce of a protected variety except branded seeds but after 15 years of PPV & FR act farmers are not even well aware of their rights. There is a strong need to create awareness among policy makers, farmers as well as village communities through press, radio, television and the Internet. A standing committee on awareness generation and information empowerment may be set-up for ensuring the effective spread of credible information concerning the rights of plant breeders and farmers as cultivators, breeders and conservers. Periodic training programmes can be organized involving scientists, research institutions and farmers at village level for spread of knowledge regarding conservation of traditional local varieties and their registration.


Geographical Indications and its Implication on Indian Farmers

Satyapal Singh and Parmeshwar Ku. Sahu

Department of Genetics and Plant breeding, IGKV, Raipur (CG)-492012 *Corresponding Author e Mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: GI is a name or sign used on certain products which corresponds to a specific geographical location or origin (e.g. a town, region, or country. Article 22.1 of the TRIPS Agreement defines geographical indications as indications which identify a good as originating in the territory of a Member (of the WTO), or a region or locality in that territory, where a given quality, reputation or other characteristic of the good is essentially attributable to its geographical origin. Over the recent past, Geographical Indications (GI) have emerged as a significant form of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) issue in the Indian context. GI helps a community of producers to differentiate their products from competing products in the market and build goodwill around their products, often fetching a premium price. From consumer’s point of view, GIs act as a signaling device, which helps them identify genuine quality-products and also protect them against counterfeits. In view of their

commercial potential, adequate legal protection of GIs becomes necessary to prevent their misappropriation.

TRIPS Requirements and GI

Uruguay round of WTO negotiations GI on wines and spirits i.e. Champagne (shampen) in France were granted under Article 23 of TRIPS agreement. TRIPS contains two protection standard for GI. Article 22(2) requires countries to provide a legal means to prevent the use of GI that suggest that the goods originate in a geographic area other than the true place of origin. Article 22(3) requires countries should keep in place of GI with respect to goods not originating in the territory. These provisions are applicable only if the use of the GI is such that it leads to misleading the public as to the true place of origin of the product. Article 24 states that a GI does not have to be protected if it has not been protected or ceases to be protected in the country of origin or

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when it is a generic term for a product. The TRIPS agreement says ‘to be eligible for a GI, good must possess a quality, reputation or other characteristics attributable to its geographic origin’. A registered geographical indication is protected for ten years from the date of filing and is renewable for every ten years as long as it is still in use.

In India, GIs have been governed by common law principles, which enable an aggrieved person to file an action of ‘passing off’ for protection of his right. In other words, it is based on usage and common knowledge about the characteristic features and quality or reputation that the product has already earned in the market either by publicity or by its presence in the market. The issue of protection of GI gained particular interest and attention in India only when a patent was obtained for Basmati Rice in the United States by the Rice Tec Inc. and the widespread report of tea from other countries being passed off as Darjeeling Tea. India realised that if it needed to protect its own geographical indications globally, it needed to protect them at the national level to begin with.

Some Salient and Important Features of the Act

Definitions: Section 2(e) of the Act defines ‘geographical indications’ in relation to goods to mean: “An indication which identifies such goods as agricultural goods, natural goods or manufactured goods as originating, or manufactured in the territory of county, or a region or locality in that territory, where a given quality, reputation or other characteristic of such goods is essentially attributable to its geographical origin and in case where such goods are manufactured goods one of the activities of either the production or of processing or preparations of the goods concerned takes place in such territory, region or locality.

Meaning of indication: The word indication has also been defined to include: (i) any name (including abbreviation of a name) (ii) geographical or figurative representations; or (iii) any combination or suggest the geographical origin or goods to which it applies.

Concept of goods: The Act also defines ‘goods’ to mean any: (i) Agricultural goods. (ii) Natural goods. (iii) Manufacturing goods. (iv) Goods of handicraft and foodstuff.

The above definition is not exhaustive but merely illustrative. It would not be out of place to mention that while the TRIPs agreement refers to ‘goods’ the Indian Act classifies such goods. ‘Producer’ in relation to goods, means any person who –

1. if such goods are agricultural goods, produces the goods and includes the person who processes or packages such goods;

2. if such goods are natural goods, exploits the goods;

3. if such goods are handicraft or industrial goods, makes or manufactures the goods, and includes any person who trades or deals in such production, exploitation, making or manufacturing, as the case may be, of the goods.

Registration of GI

Protection is granted to GI through registration. Registering authority is Registrar of GI.

Who can apply for Registration?

Any associate of persons, Producers, any organization or authority established by or under any law representing the interest of producers of the concerned goods.

Whom to Apply?

Application send to Registrar under the Act, Controller General of patents, Designs and trademarks appointed under sub section (1) of section 3 of the trademarks Act, 1999.

Every application shall be filled in the office of GI registry within whose territorial limits.

Territory of the country or the region or locality in the country to which the GI relates is situated.

Contents of the Application

A statement as to how the GI serves to designate the goods as originating from the concerned territory in respect of specific quality, reputation or other characteristics.

Class of goods to which the GI shall apply.

Geographical map of territory of the country or region or locality in which the goods originate or are being manufactured.

Particulars regarding the appearance of the GI as to whether it is comprised of the words or figurative elements or both.

A statement containing such particulars of the producers of the concern goods.

Registration status of GIs in India

Category No. of GI

Agriculture 65

Handicrafts 142

Clothing 1

Food Stuffs 5

Sweets 3

Natural goods 2

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Category No. of GI

Textile 6

Manufactured 10

Handmade carpets 3

Implication on Indian Farmers

Access to benefit sharing.

Extending Consumer assurance by way of GI.

Quality of the product is attributed essentially

to its geographical Origin.

Protect the Traditional knowledge.

Marketing tools for Farmers

To obtain market recognition and premium price in national and international markets.

To increase the income particularly in rural areas.

To promote economic prosperity of producers of goods produced in particular region.


Site Directed Mutagenesis in Crop Improvement *Soumitra Mohanty1 and Asit Prasad Dash2

1Assistant Agriculture Officer, Department of Agriculture and Farmers Empowerment, Government of Odisha

2Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, OUAT, BBSR-3, Odisha *Corresponding Author e Mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Mutation is one of the tool for creation of genetic variation and presence of genetic variability is the prerequisite for selection and hybridization in crop plants. In this modern genetic era, improved biotechnological techniques are now available to change the nucleotide sequence of the genome. Site-directed mutagenesis is a molecular biological technique in which mutation is created at a defined site in a DNA molecule. Recent advancement in getting information on the whole genome sequence of model plants and important crops allows modification of the genomic sequences of plants of interest. Point mutations especially can be regarded as the cleanest and most direct gene manipulation technique for future molecular breeding in plants. In addition the production of the knock-out gene mutants in plants via site-directed mutagenesis is a useful technique in functional studies.

Methods for Site-Directed Mutagenesis

Gene targeting (GT): GT is a molecular technique to introduce modifications into the endogenous genomic sequences via homologous recombination (HR). HR is one of the repair systems for double-stranded DNA breaks (DSBs) in somatic cells. In the GT method, an exogenous DNA which includes homologous sequences with the target gene and the modification of interest is normally used as a template instead of undamaged homologous DNA. HR is active in the late S to G2 phases of the cell cycle when the sister chromatid is available as a homologous template. DSBs can be generated by treatment with DNA-damaging stresses such as ionizing radiation, UV or chemical mutagens or by cellular processes such as DNA replication. Some HR genes are activated by DSBs. There are two types GT, true GT (TGT) in which the target gene was modified as expected and ectopic GT (EGT) in

which the modified target sequence is integrated elsewhere in the genome. Till date, successful GT events of endogenous gene in flowering plants have been reported in Arabidopsis, tobacco, maize and rice. In all GT events in higher plants except zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs) stimulated GT, an Agrobacterium-mediated transformation system is used to introduce donor DNA. In the universal GT system, exogenous selection markers are used to select cells in which T-DNA integrates at random or targeted sites (positive selection), or to stop growth of cells in which T-DNA integrates at random (negative selection). Selection markers derived from micro-organisms are usually used. Exogenous markers are not always necessary in this strategy because a target gene itself can work as a positive selectable marker. In higher plants the frequency of GT events, e.g. in rice and Arabidopsis is still relatively low because of low HR frequency.

Zinc Finger Nuclease (ZFN) Mediated Mutagenesis: ZFNs are chimeric proteins composed of a synthetic zinc finger-based DNA binding domain and a DNA cleavage domain. ZFNs can be specifically designed to cleave virtually any long stretch of double-stranded DNA sequence by modification of the zinc finger DNA binding domain. ZFN-mediated DSBs at the target sequences can potentially be repaired by HR or lead to enhanced HR at the break site. ZFNs can be used to disable dominant mutations in heterozygous individuals by producing DSBs in the mutant allele. This technology has been applied successfully in several organisms including Arabidopsis.

Lloyd et al. (2005) applied ZFN in Arabidopsis for site directed mutagenesis. They used a model system with a synthetic target site for a previously reported 3-finger type ZFNQQR. First, the construct composed of the synthetic target site and the ZFNQQR gene driven by the heat-shock

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promoter was introduced into the genome of Arabidopsis. After transformation, the seedlings from the transgenic lines were heat-shocked and DNA from the seedlings analyzed. Induction of ZFN expression resulted in mutations at the chromosomal target locus at frequencies as high as 0.4 mutations per cell, and 10% of the heat induced plants showed the heritable mutations in the next generation (Fig 1). This work demonstrates that ZFNs can work at high efficiencies in plant nuclei for site-directed mutagenesis.

FIG 1. The diagram of the results by ZFN-mediated mutagenesis reported by Lloyd et al. (2005). HS: ZFN = The arabidopsis HSP18.2 promoter + ZFNQQR gene cassette, ts = the target sequence of ZFNQQR.

Chimeric Oligo-Mediated Mutagenesis: A chimeric oligo consists of 68 synthesized oligonucleotides and take the form of double hairpin structures, which have a DNA ‘ mutator ‘ region of 5 nucleotides complementary to the target site flanked by 2’-O-methyl RNA bridges of 10 nucleotides each.

Chimeric oligo-mediated mutagenesis was initially developed to induce single-base mutations in chromosomal genes of mammalian cells. Modification of the RNA residues by 2’-O-methylatioin of ribose sugar is designed to avoid degradation by RNaseH in cells. Chimeric oligos are thought to bind to the specific-site of the target

gene and form a D-loop structure, and be used as a template for correcting the targeted gene through DNA mismatch repair.

The utility of chimeric oligos have been

demonstrated in some plant species, such as maize (Zhu et al. 2000), tobacco (Kochevenko and Willmitzer, 2003) and rice. (Okuzaki and Toriyama, 2004). In plants, chimeric-oligo were delivered into calli by particle bombardment or into protoplasts by electroporation. Unlike the high frequency levels of chimeric oligo-mediated mutagenesis, up to 40 %, have been reported in mammalian systems, the frequencies in plants are estimated to be much lower, such as 10-6 in tobacco, 10-4 in maize and 10-4 in rice.

References Kochevenko, A. and Willmitzer, L. 2003. Chimeric

RNA/DNA oligonucleotide-based site specific odification of the tobacco acetolactate syntase gene. Plant Physiology. 132:174-184.

Lloyd, A., Plaisier, C.L., Carroll, D. et al. 2005. Targeted mutagenesis using zinc-finger nucleases in Arabidopsis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 102: 2232-2237.

Okuzaki, A. and Toriyama, K. 2004. Chimeric RNA/DNA oligonucleotide-directed gene targeting in rice. Plant Cell Report. 22:509-513

Zhu, T., Mettenburg, K., Peterson, D.J. et al. 2000. Engineering herbicide-resistant maize using chimericRNA/DNA oligonucleotides. Nature Biotechnology.


Crispr-Cas: Ultimate Tool for Modern Plant Breeding Varsha Gayatonde

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, BHU, Varanasi-221005

In the 21st century, agriculture became a passion and prime consideration besides it is an art and science. Increasing demand for food quality and quantity made the researchers step towards modern tools and techniques to boost the agriculture production. CRISPR is one such tool, which couldn’t be considered as complete genetic modification (transgenic) if a transgene is used it can be segregated and eliminated in the subsequent generations by incorporating the trait of our interest.

Since 2013, the breakthrough discovery of CRISPR-Cas (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats and Cas is a protein), a vast experiment has pushed to conduct research

in plants and animals. Any crop experimented with CRISPR achieved the target efficacy. Today many scientists trust it as a future tool of plant breeding for its simplicity, efficiency, minimal off-target effect, and multiplexing nature. It has been used for gene replacement, gene knockout, genome editing, controlling gene expression, interrogating gene function, and transcription modulation.

The CRISPR/Cas9 system consists of a single monomeric protein and a chimeric RNA. A 20nt sequence in the gRNA confers sequence specificity and cleavage is mediated by the Cas9 protein. Watson–Crick base pairing with the target DNA sequence is the basis for gRNA based

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specific and often accompanies hypersensitive response (HR).

FIG 2. Signal transduction pathway in plant defense response

Conclusion: Understanding the plant defense response pathway provides insight into characterization of nature of signal involved in recognizing pathogen. This helps to understand the host pathogen interaction in terms of susceptibility and resistance. Studying biochemicals involved in signal transduction is potent approach to effective integrating the disease resistance in plants by effective introgression breeding.

References Jones, M.E, Jacqueline Monaghan and Vardis

Ntoukakis. 2012. Editorial: Mechanisms regulating immunity in plants. Plant Science., 4: 64.

DeFalco, T.A.; Bender, K.W and Snedden, W.A. 2010. Breaking the code: Ca2+ sensors in plant signaling. Biochem. J. 425, 27–40.

Xiquan Gao., L. Cox Jr and Ping He. 2014. Functions of Calcium-Dependent Protein Kinases in Plant Innate Immunity. Plants., 3, 160-176.


Genomic Selection for Crop Improvement Kumar Nishant Chourasia and Deepak Koujalagi

PhD Scholar, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, GBPUAT, Pantnagar-263145 Uttarakhand

Genomic selection is a form of MAS that simultaneously estimates all locus, haplotype, or marker effects across the entire genome to calculate genomic estimated breeding values (GEBVs; Meuwissenet al., 2001). This approach contrasts greatly with traditional MAS because there is not a defined subset of significant markers used for selection. Instead, GS analyzes jointly allmarkers on a population attempting to explain the total genetic variance with dense genomewide marker coverage through summing marker effects to predict breeding value of individuals (Meuwissenet al., 2001). A 4-year breeding cycle, including 3 years of field testing, can be reduced to only the 4 months required to grow and cross a plant. Thousands of selection candidates can be evaluated without ever taking them out to the field.

The central process of GS is the calculation Genomic Estimated Breeding Value (GEBVs) for individuals having only genotypic data using a model that was “trained” from individuals having both phenotypic and genotypic data (Meuwissenet al., 2001). The population of individuals with both phenotypic and genotypic data is known as the “training population” as it is used to estimate model parameters. This will subsequently be used to calculate GEBVs of selection candidates (e.g., breeding lines) having only genotypic data. These GEBVs are then used to select the individuals for advancement in the breeding cycle. Therefore, selection of an individual without phenotypic data can be performed by using a model to predict the

individual’s breeding value (Meuwissenet al., 2001). To maximize GEBV accuracy, the training population must be representative of selection candidates in the breeding program to which GS will be applied.

Procedure for genomic selection

Steps in Genomic Selection

1. Establish a training population (Tr-P) 2. Genotype the Tr-P at high density and

evaluate for phenotypes under target environments

3. Estimate allele effects using the genotype and phenotype information of Tr-P

4. Determine the Test / Validation population (Tt-P)

5. Genotype the Tt-P at high/low density 6. Calculate GEBVs using the genotypes of Tt-P

and allele effects 7. Make selections on the basis of GEBVs

Genomic Selection Methodology

Training Population- genotyped with a large number of markers and phenotyped for important traits

Genome-wide markers are used to estimate all genetic effects simultaneously

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One or more markers are assumed to be in LD with each QTL affecting the trait

Prediction model attempts to captures the total additive genetic variance to estimate breeding value of individuals based on sum of all marker effects

In a Breeding Population individuals are genotyped but not phenotyped

A genomic estimated breeding value (GEBV) for each individual is obtained by summing the marker effects for that genotype

Prediction model is used to impose multiple generations of selection

The populations used in training population

A collection of inbred/advanced/DH lines representing the elite breeding germplasm

A set of early generation lines

Segregating families of a biparental cross

Segregating families of a multi-parent synthetic

The populations used in testing/validating population

A collection of inbred lines coming out of the breeding programs every year

A set of early generation lines (Stage I- S2/S3 lines)

2nd cycle of segregating families of a biparental cross

2nd cycle of segregating families of a multi-parent synthetic.

Genomic Selection vs. Traditional MAS

The general processes of GS and traditional MAS used for quantitative traits (QTs) are similar, where both GS and traditional MAS consist of training and breeding phases. In the training phase, phenotypes and genome-wide (GW) genotypes are investigated in a subset of a population, i.e. the training population in GS and the mapping population in traditional MAS. Within populations, significant relationships between phenotypes and genotypes are predicted using statistical approaches. In the breeding phase, genotype data are obtained in a breeding

population, before favorable individuals are selected based on the genotype data obtained. Three obvious differences between the two approaches are apparent: (1) in the training phase, quantitative trait loci (QTLs) are identified in traditional MAS while formulae for GEBV prediction are generated in GS, known as GS models; (2) in the breeding phase, genotype data are only required for targeted regions in traditional MAS, whereas genome wide genotype data are consideredto be necessary in GS; (3) in the breeding phase, favourable individuals are selected based on the genotypes of markers in MAS, whereas GEBVs are used for selection in GS. Thus, GS jointly analyses all the genetic variance of each individual by summing the marker effects of GEBV (Heffner et al., 2009).

FIG. 2: Diagrammatic view of differences and procedures followed in GS and MAS

GEBV -Genomic Estimated Breeding Value

Statistical analysis to calculate Estimated Breeding Value (EBV) fromgenome-wide DNA markers

1. Use the markers to deduce the genotype of eachplant at each QTL.

2. Estimate the effects of each QTL genotype on thetrait.

3. Sum all the QTL effects for selection candidatesto obtain their genomic EBV (GEBV).


Allele Mining for Crop Improvement Kailash Chandra1*, Rohit Sharma2, Gobu R.1 and Megaladevi P.3

1Research Scholar, Dept. of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005

2M.Sc. Crop Science, Department of Phytopathology, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany-70599

3Ph.D. Scholar, Dept. of Agricultural Entomology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu - 641003


INTRODUCTION: Plant breeding is known as manifestation of crop plant the way, breeder want and ultimately a breeder will focus on economical

way to improve yield. Till now improvement in yield is made by accumulating more and more desirable or beneficial allele from diverse genetic

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resources. However, still a huge germplasm were not used or it left during evolution and domestication. Hence this unused genetics resources can be utilized for crop improvement. Therefore germplasm resources need to be relooked for novel alleles to further enhance the genetic potential of crop varieties for various agronomic traits.

What is Allele and Allele Mining?

Before undergoing in detail about allele mining, we should know the allele first, An allele is one of two or more forms of a gene or a genetic locus (generally a group of genes). Mining is nothing but searching the new alleles in the wild germplasm. Allele mining is a research field aimed at identifying allelic variation of relevant traits within genetic resources collections.

Important Ex.:

Superior alleles like Sh4 for grain shattering in rice (Li and Sang, 2006)

Rc7 for grain pericarp color in rice (Sweeney et al., 2007)

Wx for granule-bound starch synthase in rice (GBSS) (Wang et al., 1995)

Bacterial leaf blight resistance gene Xa21 from Oryza longistaminata (Khush et al., 1991)

Blast resistance genes Pi9 from Oryza minuta (Sitch et al., 1989; Amante-Bordeos et al., 1992)

Evolution of New Alleles

Mutation is considered as an evolutionary driving force which underlies existing allelic diversity in any crop species. For creation of new alleles or causing variations in the existing allele and allelic combinations, mutations in the genic regions of the genome either as single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) or as insertion and deletion (InDel) are important.

Example: Prostrate growth habit of wild rice is controlled by a single gene PROG1. The wild type allele is replaced by mutant allele (prog1) in most of the Oryza sativa cultivars, which disrupts the PROG1 function there by inactivating it's expression, leading to erect growth, greater grain number and higher grain yield in cultivated rice (Tan et al., 2008).

True Allele Mining

Earlier studies were focusing only on the single nucleotide polymorphism or insertion deletion occurs in exonic region since it is coding part. But recent studies shown that intron part will play a key role in regulatory mechanism. Hence any variation which in intronic region will be considered as true allele mining.

Important example: tubulin (components of microtubules) (Fiume et al., 2004) and rubi3 (polyubiquitin gene) (Samadder et al., 2008) in rice as well VRN-1 (which affect vernalization

response) in barley and wheat (Fu et al., 2005). A mutation in 5’ splice site of the first intron of the waxy (Wx) gene had resulted in tenfold increase in the gene activity in rice (Isshiki et al., 1998).

Approaches for Allele Mining

1. Modified TILLING (Targeting Induced Local Lesions in Genomes) procedure called Eco-Tilling: TILLING uses mutagenized population whereas Eco-TILLING uses natural available germplasm to search the new allele, rest of the procedure remain same. In TILLING seeds are mutagenized with chemical/physical mutagens to produce M1 plants. M1 plants are self to produce the M2 from which DNA is extracted for analysis. The M2 is allowed to produce seed, which can be easily stored for future analysis. After the DNA is extracted from the mutant population, the DNA concentration of all samples is standardized and pooled together. The number of individuals in a pool depends on the ploidy level of the plant and the amount of naturally occurring SNPs, which may require the number of individuals in the pool to be reduced. The desired gene is amplified using a forward primer with 700 nm dye label and a reverse primer with an 800 nm dye label attached to the 5’ ends. The PCR products are heated and cooled to form a mixture of homoduplexes and heteroduplexes among the genotypes in the pool. Any mismatches (SNPs or small INDELS) will be detected by a mismatch endonuclease (CEL I) and cleaved into two separate products, which will be detected in the 700 and 800 dye channel of a LICOR DNA Analyzer. The total size of the cleaved fragments should equal the total length of the entire product. Once the cleaved fragments and their respective polymorphic site are identified, these individuals are sequenced to verify the induced mutation. EcoTILLING is performed in the same manner except that the seed is not mutagenized; therefore, the process begins by extracting DNA from a reference plant and members of the population and continuing with the remaining steps to determine natural polymorphisms.

2. Sequencing based allele mining: Recently, a rapid and cost-effective method for detecting novel allelic variants of known candidate on agarose gels and its utility in candidate gene mapping has been described (Raghavan et al. 2007) that is sequencing based allele mining. This technique involves amplification of alleles in diverse genotypes through PCR followed by identification of nucleotide variation by DNA sequencing. Sequencing-based allele mining would help to analyze individuals for haplotype structure and diversity to infer genetic association studies in plants. Unlike EcoTilling, sequencing-based

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allele mining does not require much sophisticated equipment or involve tedious steps, but involves huge costs of sequencing.

Applications of allele mining

Characterization of allelic diversity in gene banks

Development of allele-specific markers for MAS

Allelic synteny and evolutionary relationship

Conclusion: Allele mining is a promising approach to dissect naturally occurring allelic variation at candidate genes controlling key agronomic traits which has potential applications in crop improvement programmes. It can be effectively used for discovery of superior alleles, through ‘mining’ the gene of interest from

germplasm. It can also provide insight into molecular basis of novel trait variations and identify the nucleotide sequence changes associated with superior alleles. Allele mining may also pave way for introgression of novel alleles through Marker Assisted Selection.

Further Reading Kumar, G. R., Sakthivel, K., Sundaram, R. M.,

Neeraja, C. N., Balachandran, S. M., Shobha Rani, N., Viraktamath, B. C. and Madhav, M. S. 2010, Allele mining in crops: prospects and potentials. Biotechnology Advances. 28: 451-461.

Umesha, S. G. and Amruta, N. 2014, Allele mining and its importance in seed quality. International Journal of Development Research. 4 (4): 819-824.


Smart Breeding: An Approach of Crop Improvement without Genetic Engineering

Kailash Chandra1*, Gobu R.1, Rohit Sharma2 and Bapsila Loitongbam1

1Research Scholar, Dept. of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005

2M.Sc. Crop Science, Department of Phytopathology, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany-70599


What is Smart Breeding?

SMART Breeding (Selection with Markers and Advanced Reproductive Technologies) refers to the integration of molecular marker technology and novel reproductive technologies with traditional genetic evaluation has the capacity to revolutionize genetic improvement programs. This breeding method is followed in cattle for high productivity and product quality traits, which could be used as predictors of the future performance of a bull or heifer, or their progeny by using gene markers (Davis et al., 1997). It is also called as precision breeding and in plants it is familiar as marker-assisted selection. In plants, SMART breeding refers to genetic engineering techniques of reproducing members of a species together to retain desirable traits and produce a better hybrid. This technique was successfully used by Nachum Kedar, an Israeli scientist, who applied the technique using beefsteak tomatoes to produce a fruit that would ripen on the vine and remain firm in transit. SMART breeding has been advanced as an alternative to transgenic as a way to produce plants that are resistant to various environmental problems.

In this technique, no foreign gene/s is introduced into the genome of the target organism and hence the end product is not a genetically modified organism. Contrasting parents are selected which differ for particular trait and crosses are effected to get the offspring with the

trait of interest. SMART breeding is environmentally independent, automated, cost effective, and efficiently uses species-specific gene pools (including wild plants). One of the SMART breeder's most valuable tools is the DNA marker. It is a tag that sticks to a particular region of a chromosome, allowing researchers to finding out the genes responsible for a given trait. With markers, much of the early-stage breeding can be done in a lab, saves time and money required to grow several generations in a field. DNA markers have enormous potential to improve the efficiency and precision of conventional plant breeding via marker-assisted selection (MAS). Large number of quantitative trait loci (QTLs) mapping studies for diverse crops species have provided an abundance of DNA marker–trait associations (Collard and Mackill, 2008).

SMART Breeding is Different from Genetic Engineering

Generally any crop improvement activity which deals at gene/DNA level is equated with genetic engineering. Many people will think that it is aiming to genetically modified crop. But reality is something else that is SMART breeding is not genetic engineering. An important approach of SMART breeding that is marker assisted selection. It is a different application of biotechnology making a significant impact. MAS uses a conventional breeding approach – it is not genetic

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engineering since marker (DNA sequence) only assist in selection, not influencing the target trait. It is indirect selection for complex traits where direct selection is difficult (Yogel, 2014). With the advent of molecular markers, a new generation of markers has been introduced over the last two decades, which has revolutionized the entire scenario of biological sciences. DNA-based molecular markers have acted as versatile tools and have found their own position in various fields like taxonomy, physiology, embryology, genetic engineering, etc. They are no longer looked upon as simple DNA fingerprinting markers in variability studies or as mere forensic tools. Compare to genetically modified crops at consumer level it is more accepted because it has characteristic like highly polymorphic nature, Codominant inheritance (determination of homozygous and heterozygous states of diploid organisms), Frequent occurrence in genome, Selective neutral behaviour (the DNA sequences of any organism are neutral to environmental conditions or management practices), Easy access (availability), Easy and fast assay, High reproducibility, Easy exchange of data between laboratories, respect specie barriers and better tackles complex traits like drought resistance.

Marker Assisted Selection?

Selection of the desired traits and improvement of crops has been a part of the conventional breeding programmes. This is predominantly based on the identification of phenotypes. It is now an accepted fact that the phenotypes do not necessarily represent the genotypes. Many a times the environment may mark the genotype. Thus, the plant’s genetic potential is not truly reflected in the phenotypic expression for various reasons. The molecular marker assisted selection is based on the identification of DNA markers that link/ represent the plant traits. These traits include resistance to pathogens and insects, tolerance to abiotic stresses, and various other qualitative and quantitative traits. The advantage with a molecular marker is that a plant breeder can select a suitable marker for the desired trait which can be detected well in advance. Accordingly, breeding programmes can be planned.

MAS Versus Phenotypic Selection

MAS will probably never replace phenotypic selection entirely. Especially for disease resistances a final testing of breeding lines is always required, regardless how tight a marker is linked to a gene or QTL. Collection and use of very high quality phenotypic data are critical for the application of MAS. It is risky to carry out selection solely on the basis of marker effects, without confirming the estimated effects by phenotypic evaluation.

Application of MAS

MAS has been expanding in recent years due to

lowering costs, improved efficiency, and easiness of enhanced marker technologies. It is now effectively applied to a broad range of crop species, among them several crops that are important for food security such as barley, beans, cassava, chickpea, cowpea, groundnut, maize, potato, rice, sorghum, and wheat. As there is no comprehensive documentation regarding effective applications of MAS, precise figures on the number of MAS-varieties released and their actual adoption by farmers are not available.

Assessment of genetic variability and characterization of germplasm

Identification and fingerprinting of genotypes

Estimation of genetic distances between population, inbreeds, and breeding materials

Detection of monogenic and quantitative trait loci (QTL)

Identification of sequences of useful candidate genes

MAS is very effective, efficient and rapid method of transferring resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses in crop plants.

It is useful in gene pyramiding for disease and insect resistance.

It is being used for transfer of male sterility and photo period insensitivity into cultivated genotypes from different sources.

MAS is being used for improvement of quality characters in different crops such as for protein quality in maize, fatty acid (linolenic acid) content in soybean and storage quality in vegetables and fruit crops.

MAS can be successfully used for transferring desirable transgene (such as Bt gene) from one cultivar to another.

MAS is very effective in introgression of desirable genes from wild into cultivated genotypes.

MAS is equally effective in genetic improvement of plants and animals.

MAS is useful in genetic improvement of tree species where fruiting takes very long time (say 20 years) because for application of phenotypic selection we have to wait for such a long time.

MAS has wide application for genetic improvement of oligogenic traits as compared to polygenic traits.

Achievement of MAS

Tomato: Molecular markers are now being widely used for breeding tomato. More than 40 genes that confer resistance to major classes of tomato pathogens have been mapped, cloned, and/or sequenced (Grube, et. al., 2000). These maps have allowed for “pyramiding” resistance genes in tomato through MAS, where several resistance genes can be engineered into one genotype. Currently, tomato breeding through MAS has resulted in varieties with resistance or tolerance to one or more specific pathogens.

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Rice: In rice MAS has been successfully used for developing cultivars resistant to bacterial blight and blast. For bacterial blight resistance four genes (Xa4, Xa5, Xa13 and Xa21) have been pyramided using STS (sequence tagged site) markers. The pyramided lines showed higher level of resistance to bacterial blight pathogen. For blast resistance, three genes (Pil, Piz5 and Pita) have been pyramided in a susceptible rice variety Co 39 using RFLP and PCR based markers.

Maize: In maize, normal lines have been converted into quality protein maize (QPM) lines through MAS using opaque 2 recessive allele. Three SSR markers (Umc 1066, Phi 057 and Phi 112) present within opaque 2 gene have been used for this purpose. The MAS used for conversion of normal maize lines into QPM is simple, rapid and accurate.

Soybean: In soybean cyst nematodes pose serious problem and most of the varieties are susceptible to this parasite. The resistant gene (rhg 1) is available. In soybean, nematode resistant lines have been developed through MAS

using SSR marker (Sat 309). MAS has been used for genetic improvement

of various characters in different crops. Important characters which have been improved through MAS in different crops include disease resistance, insect resistance, salinity resistance, shattering resistance.

Reference Yogel, B 2014. SMART breeding: the next generation

marker assisted selection: a biotechnology for plant breeding without genetic engineering, Published by greenpeace international ottho heldringstraat 5, 1066az amsterdam the Netherlands.

Collard, B. C. Y. and Mackill, D. J. 2008, Marker-assisted selection: an approach for precision plant breeding in the twenty-first century. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B., 363: 557 - 572.

Davis, G. P., D’ Occhio, M. J. and Hetzel, D. J. S. 1997, SMART Breeding: Selection with markers and advanced reproductive technologies. 12th Conf. Assoc. Adv. Anim. Breed Genet., 12:429-432.

60. POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT 14184

Vegetable Storage Methods Gaikwad S. D. and Alekar A. N.

Department of Horticulture, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri. (M.S.)

1. Drying One of the oldest ways to preserve produce is through drying. The basic procedure involves removal of moisture from the produce to a point where decay is not likely. This can be done by using an oven, a dehydrator or the warm heat of the sun. Once finished, the produce should be stored in a dry place in air tight containers. Dried produce does not retain the quality and nutritional value found with fresh produce. The process is also fairly labour intensive and time-consuming. However, certain produce, such as beans, peas and other legumes, can be dried without much loss.

2. Canning A resurgence of interest in canning is taking place as it has become easier with more fool-proof methods and good equipment like regular jars, lids and more reliable and safer pressure cookers. With the pressure cooker method, the produce is heated to kill microorganisms that can cause spoilage. This action also deactivates enzymes in the produce that affect flavour, texture and colour. Canning can incur added costs with the purchase of equipment, containers and general supplies. It also is labour intensive. For most types of produce, higher food quality can be maintained with canning rather than drying.

3. Curing and Salting If certain garden produce is allowed to ferment naturally, it is said to

have become “cured.” This means that microorganisms initiate the fermentation process and change the food quality without causing bad tastes or generating toxins. The best example of natural curing is with cabbage that ferments into sauerkraut. During the fermentation process large amounts of acids are produced which control the fermentation process by ultimately limiting the microbial action as the food becomes more acidic. A second way to cure food is by adding organic acid like vinegar to increase the acidity and limit microbial activity. When salt is added in sufficient quality, this too will control microbial action and effectively stop the growth of spoilage organisms. Curing and salting is not a common method of preserving garden produce because of the great change that it makes in the quality and overall taste.

4. Freezing A common and very desirable way to preserve certain types of garden produce is through freezing. This method does not improve quality, but is fairly easy to do if one has access to a freezer and takes the time to package properly so that moisture is retained. Like other preservation methods, freezing prevents microorganisms from growing causing spoilage. One large advantage of freezing is that the nutritional quality remains relatively good, plus food can be kept for many months with little change in color. For

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certain soft produce, the texture may change considerably, though the importance of this is largely depends upon how the food will be subsequently used. Green peppers can be frozen but will become watery when brought back to room temperature. The texture will be very different from fresh produce, but the colour will remain good.

5. Common Storage The method used to preserve most of the produce generated by our ancestors is referred to as common storage. This involves storing harvested produce in a darkened, cold area. There are various ways where this can be done including leaving the produce in the ground, burying it in the ground in pits, storing in cellars or basements and storing in wooden crates or barrels located in cool areas like a garage or porch. a) In-ground Storage: Some vegetables like

carrot, beet, turnip, rutabaga, horseradish, salsify and parsnips can be left in the ground through the winter. They should either be mulched to prevent the crop from freezing or after the ground has frozen, mulched to keep the crop frozen. Alternate freezing and thawing will damage produce. This is why after the ground has frozen, you should mulch the crop by applying a 6 to 8-inch layer of hay, straw or leaves - enough to keep them frozen. Parsnips and horseradish may develop an undesirable bitter taste after a couple frosts. In this case, applying a mulch at the end of the season to prevent the ground from freezing so quickly may be a way of extending the taste quality.

b) Pits: Storing vegetables in an outdoor pit is also a good, but typically inconvenient, way to preserve produce. Burying in the earth allows for a controlled atmosphere because soil temperatures do not fluctuate - they remain cool compared to air temperatures. Pits, however, must be well drained and protected from rodents. The most common way to form a pit is by sinking a barrel or galvanized can in the ground and leaving 2 or 3 inches of the rim above the ground so that moisture does not run into the container. Spread a layer of sand in the bottom of the can, then layer the produce in damp sand building toward the top. As the container becomes filled, cover with a lid and place a sufficient mound of straw or mulch over the top to provide insulation. A layer of plastic should also be applied so that moisture is kept out, Finish off with boards or bricks to prevent loss of the mulch layer due to wind or disturbance. Similar results can be obtained by above-

ground storage within a mound of insulating materials. This is done by forming a cone-shaped mound in which vegetables are layered. The mound can be composed of straw, hay or leaves, the bottom of the mound should be lined with a flexible type of hardware cloth to keep rodents out. Ventilation is also important to allow good air exchange. To do this, stakes can be used to form a tunnel down into the centre of the mounded layers of vegetables. It should be open at the top of the mound and protected with a board to keep moisture and rodents out. The basic drawback to this method is that once the mound is open, it should not be resealed. A series of smaller mounds with a variety of vegetables in each can be a better method.

c) Indoor Storage: The most convenient place to store fruits and vegetables is inside the home. Typically, a second refrigerator is ideal for many types of produce if it is kept between 32 and 40 degrees. Some produce require higher storage temperatures for best preservation of quality. Many older homes were built with unheated root cellars, cool pantries, enclosed porches or sheds specially built for vegetable or fruit storage. Today’s modern basement is too warm to consider for storage, even with those crops that do best at higher temperatures like pumpkins, squash and sweet-potatoes. On the other hand, some areas can be modified for vegetable storage as long as temperatures between 32 and 60 degrees are possible. One might consider window wells insulated with hay or straw for storage of root crops like carrots, parsnips, horseradish, beets, turnips and winter radishes. Outside stairwells to basements can be used if space permits some insulation materials like bales of hay to line the space. If no storage area is available, one can be constructed in the basement, but out of the direct effect of the central heating system. Insulated walls should be constructed to form a space that gives no more than about 140 to 150 cubic feet inside. This size will allow the cool atmosphere to be maintained more easily than larger spaces. The walls can be built from 2 x 4 studs and exterior plywood. The structure should be kept off of the floor by several inches and the base floor should be composed of wood. Keep fruits and vegetables off a concrete floor, which can encourage mildew formation. A vapour barrier of polyethylene film or faced insulation should be included to

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keep condensation from collecting on the produce and interior walls. This means that all surfaces should be covered. Also desirable is two insulated ports constructed in the walls. An elevated window can be opened to allow warm

interior air to escape while a lower window located about a foot off the floor will encourage cool air to enter. In this way, some air circulation will be maintained.

61. PLANT PATHOLOGY 14465

Management Strategies for Chilli Damping Off A. G. Tekale, Dr. H. N. Kamble and K. N. Dhawale

College of Agriculture, Tondapur, Hingoli (MH)

INTRODUCTION: Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) is an important commercial vegetable crop in India and belongs to Solanaceae family. It is also called as natures wonder, hot pepper, cayenne pepper. Chilli is the fourth most important vegetable crops in the world and first in Asia. The most important producers and exporters of chilli include China, India, Mexico, Morocco, Pakistan, Thailand and Turkey (Ahila and Prakasham, 2014). Chilli is an important spice crop cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. The important chilli growing states are Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Karnataka, Rajasthan and Tamil-Nadu. Though, chilli was introduced to India late in the 17th century, it became an essential part of our Indian cuisine and valued for its characteristic pungency, colour and aroma. Chilli, besides imparting pungency and red colour to the dishes and it is an excellent source of vitamin A, C and E. The pungency in chilli is due to a alkaloid capsicin, which has high medicinal value. It also prevents heart diseases by dilating blood vessels. Chilli stimulates saliva and gastric juices that helps in digestion. The area, production and productivity of chilli in the country during the year 2013-14 is 775 m. hector with 1492 m. tones and 1.9 M. tones/ha respectively (Anonymous, 2014). India contributes about 36% total world production. In India, chillies are grown in almost all the state through the country.

Chilli suffers from many diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes and also abiotic stresses. The important diseases reported are Anthracnose (Colletotrichum capsici), Cercospora leaf spot (Cercospora capsici), damping-off and root rot (Rhizoctonia solani, Pythium sp., and Fusarium sp.), Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. capsici), gray mould (Botrytis cinerea), powdery mildew (Leveillula taurica) etc. (Vidhyasekaran and Thiagarajan 1981; Meon and Nick,1988; Pandey et al., 2012) Among these diseases, damping off is responsible for poor germination and stand of seedling in nursery bed.

Symptomatology: Chilli crop suffer from two phases of damping off, one is pre-emergence and another is post-emergence. In pre-emergence damping off, the young seedlings are killed before

they reach the surface of soil. The post-emergence damping off is very conspicuous. This phase of disease is characterized by the toppling over the infected seedling, any time after they emergence from the soil until the stem has hardened sufficiently to resist invasion. Infection usually occurs at or below ground level and the infected tissue appears water soaked and soft. As the disease advances the stem become constricted at the base and plant collapse. Seedlings that are apparently healthy one day may have collapsed by the following morning (Singh, 1985). In nurseries and under field conditions the disease usually radiates from initial infection point, causing large spots or area in which nearly all the seedling are killed. In the field the disease is more sever when soil moisture is medium to high (50 per cent of water holding capacity or more) with comparatively high temperature or temperature unfavorable for growth of seedling. When conditions are favorable for development of the disease, damping off is responsible for as much as 90 per cent loss in seedling number. In specially susceptible plant species seedling loss of 25 to 75 per cent occurs yearly.

Management

1. Cultural control: Avoidance of nursery sowing in same bed year after year and frequently heavy irrigations. Raise seedlings on raised nursery beds to avoid ill drained condition and practice to rotation. Katan (2000) and Kusum Mathura (2002) reported that soil solarisation has been used for management of Pythium aphanidermatum. Deep ploughing in summer destroys the fungus. Preparation of raised seed beds 15cm high with channels around to provide drainage. Seed rate @ 3.5 kg/ha is to be used to avoid overcrowding of seedling. Watering is regulated to avoid excessive dampness on seed bed surface.

2. Biological control: Seeds were treated with Trichoderma harzianum one day before sowing @ 4g/kg as well as soil drenching @ 107 CFU/ml were found to be effective against pythium aphanidermatum. The trichoderma sp., Pseudomonas fluorescens are able to effectively control the infection of P.

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aphanidermatum in chilli. 3. Use of chemical control: Seed treatment with

metalaxyl 35% SD @ 0.2% or Thiram 75% WP @ 0.3% or Captan 75% WP @ 0.3% before sowing for the control of damping off in chilli

4. Botanicals control: The seed treatment and soil drenching of bulbs of Allium sativum increase the seedling emergence and reduced incidence of damping off in chilli (Kurucheve and Padmavathi, 1998). Ramathan et. al. (2004) reported that inhibitory effect of spider lilly (Crinum asiaticum) against Pythium aphanidermatum.

References Ahila, P. and V. Prakasham, 2014. Efficacy of

azoxystrobin 25 SC along with chilli powdery mildew diseases under field condition. World J. of Agril. Sci. 2(1): 8 -12.

Anonymous, 2014. Indian Horticulture data base, National Horticulture Board.17.

Katan, J. 2000. Physical and culture methods for the Management of Soil borne Pathogens. Crop Protection. 19, 725-731

Kurucheve, V. and R. Padmavathi, 1998. Management of damping off of chilli with plant products. Indian Phytopathol. 51 (3): 379-381.

Kusum Mathur, Ram D, Poonia, J. and Lodha, B.C., 2002. Integration of soil solarization and pesticides for management of rhizome rot of ginger. Indian Phytopathology, 55: 345-347

Meon, S. and W. Nick, 1988. Seed borne infection and development of Colletotrichum Capsici in naturally infected chili seed. Pertanika 11(3): 341-344.

Pandey, M., M. Srivastava and R. P. Mishra, 2012. Establishment of seed borne nature of Alternaria alternata causing leaf spot and fruit rot of chilli. Arch. Phytopathol. Pl. Protec. 45 (7): 869-872.

Ramanathan A, Marimuthu T, Raguchander T 2004. Effect of plant extracts on growth in Pythium aphanideramtum. J. Mycol. Plant Pathol. 34:315–317.

Singh, R. S., 1985. Diseases of vegetable crops. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. New Delhi 173-175.

Vidhyasekaran, P. and C. P. Thiagarajan, 1981. Seed-borne transmission of Fusarium oxysporum in chilli. Indian Phytopathol. 34: 211-213.


Diseases of Castor and their Management M. L. Meghwal

Department of Plant Pathology Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology, Udaipur. 313001.


Castor is an important non-edible oilseed crop. India occupies first place with 64% of global castor area and 68% of world castor production. Castor oil contains unique ricinolic acid suitable for industrial use mainly as lubricant and for the production of dyes. Detergents, plastics, printing ink, linoleum, patent leather, orntment and polishes. Castor is preferred for its excellent rejuvenating capacity and adverse conditions. The introductions of new hybrids has drastically improved the yields and area under castor production.

However, wilt and Botrytis grey rot are the two major diseases of castor together can cause upto 85% yield losses. Till now there is no resistant hybrid variety in castor for Botrytis grey rot. These two diseases have to be carefully managed to reduce the yield loss. The other important diseases of castor are Alternaria blight, bacterial leaf blight, root rot and seedling blight.

Wilt of Castor: Fusarium oxysporium F.Sp. Ricini

Symptoms: Young seedling exhibit discolouration of hypocotyls and loss of turgidity, marginal necrosis and then dry completely. During flowering and spike formation stages plants show sick appearance with yellowing, marginal and inter-veinal necrosis of leaves. Lower leaves drops leaving only few top leaves followed by

irreversible wilting of plants. Management: Use of resistant/tolerant

varieties and hybrids, deep summer ploughing, crop rotation for 2 -3 years with millets and cereals, avoidance of cultivation of crops in low-lying and ill-drained soils should be followed. Seed treatment with Trichoderma viridae@ 10g/kg seed and soil application of T. [email protected] /ha mixed with 125 kg FYM is very effective. Field sanitation and regular rouging of diseased plant from field reduces inoculums buildup and diseases spread.

Botrytis Grey Rot: Botrytis ricini

Symptoms: This is the most destructive disease affecting spikes/racemes. A dense woolly growth on flowers and capsules varying in colour from pale to olive grey is seen on the spike. Infected capsules rot and fall down. Disease may even spread to petiole causing petiole rot and to tender branches and peduncles causing break-off of stem and spikes.

Management: Sowing of the crops should be taken up in such a way that the spike development and maturity escapes wet period. Adoption of wider spacing (90x60 cm) removal and destruction of affected spikes /capsules, top dressing with 25kgN/ha after cessation of rains. Prophylactic spray with [email protected]/1 before onset of

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cyclonic rainfall based on weather forcast followed by another spray soon after disease asppearance should be done for reducing the disease incidence.

Alternaria Blight: Alternaria ricini

Symptoms: Seedling show light brown spots on cotyledonary leaves which later become angular in shape. Adult plants shows brown zonate spots of variable size usually surrounded by halo. Severe infection leads to premature defoliation.

Management: Mancozeb @2.5g/1 should be sprayed at an interval of 15 days starting from the appearance of the diseases.

Root Rot: Macrophomina phaseolina

Symptoms: The disease appears at different phases as collar rot, stem light and root. The infected plant initially shows the sing of water shortage. Within a week, the leaves and petiole droop down and finally within a fortnight, the entire plant dries up and can be easily pulled out.

Patches of dried plants can be seen in severely infected fields.

Management: Application of Thiram or Carbendazim as seed dresser along with soil dranch control the disease. Topsin M-70 also effectively controls root rot in castor. Following crops rotation, application of soil amendments and field sanitation help in minimizing the disease incidence.

Seedlng Blight: Phytophthora parasitica

Symptoms: Seedling show round dull green patch on either side of cotyledons which soon drop down. Infection then spreads to petiole, stem and growing point and finally kills the seedling. In adult plants symptoms are seen on leaves as brown spots with brownish grey border which coalesce together and leaves are shed prematurelr.

Management: Mancozeb @ 3g/1 should be sprayed at an interval of 15 days starting from the appearance of the disease.


Weedy Rice and its Management 1Meenaskshi Seth and 2Shabnam

1Ph.D. Scholar Agronomy and 2Ph.D. Scholar Soil Science CSK Himachal Pradesh Agricultural University, Palampur

The term weedy rice generally includes all the species of genus Oryza which behave as rice and which crop in rotation with rice weeds. Weedy rice populations have been reported in many rice- growing areas in the world where the crop is directly seeded. Even though weedy rice belongs to different species and subspecies, all these plants share the ability to disseminate their grains before rice harvesting. Weedy plants can also adapt to a wide range of environmental conditions. Weedy rice grains frequently have a red pigmented pericarp and it is for this reason that the term ‘red rice’ is commonly adopted in international literature to identify these wild plants. This term, however, does not seem very appropriate as red-coat grains are also present in some cultivated varieties, but also absent in various weedy forms (FAO 1999). In most rice areas the spread of weedy rice became significant mainly after the shift from rice transplanting to direct seeding, and has started to become very severe over the last 15 years, particularly in European countries, after the cultivation of weak, semi-dwarf indica-type rice varieties. The spread has generally been favoured by the planting of commercial rice seeds that contain grains of the weed. Weedy rice infestations are reported for 40-75 percent of the rice area in European countries (personal communication), 40 percent in Brazil, 55 percent in Senegal, 80 percent in Cuba and 60 percent in Costa Rica.

Characters of Weedy Rice

Weedy rice plants showed wide variability of anatomical, biological and physiological features (Vaughan et al. 2001). At seedling stage, it is difficult to distinguish weedy rice as they mimic the crop, while it is possible after tillering, due to many morphological differences with the rice varieties i.e., more numerous, longer and more slender tillers, leaves are often hispid on both surfaces, tall plants, pigmentation of several plant parts, grains with awns and red pericarp and shattering of seeds. The grains of weedy rice ripen earlier and less regularly than those of cultivated rice and are extremely prone to shattering. The stem of weedy rice is comparatively more brittle and round in cross section than that of cultivated rice; the surface of the leaf sheath of weedy rice is softer and spongier than that of cultivated rice. Certain weedy morphotypes have anthocyanin pigmentation in the apiculous, first internode, ligule, margins of the first leaf and auricles (Espinoza et al. 2005).

Management Strategies

Preventive measures: prevention is the basic means of reducing weedy rice infestation and can be done by following methods:

1. Use of certified seeds or ‘clean seed’ from a known source that is free from weedy rice seeds.

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2. The seeds of weedy rice can be introduced by combine harvesters or through mud on tractors or in other implements. Use of ‘clean machinery’ particularly, if it is coming from infested fields can prevent its introduction.

3. Canals and irrigation channels should be cleared from infestations of wild/weedy rice.

Cultural methods: A cultural strategy of weedy rice control includes:

1. Burning of rice stubbles/ straw in dry rice fields after harvest to destroy weedy rice seeds on the soil surface.

2. Good land preparation with mould board plough to reduce ‘soil seed bank’.

3. Proper crop rotation by growing soybean, groundnut, maize, wheat, sunflower, sorghum, mungbean etc. as these crops allow alternative herbicide treatments and cultivation practices which would help to suppress weedy rice.

4. Adoption of ‘Stale seed bed’ techniques to avoid infestation. In heavily infested areas, it should be repeated to incrementally deplete the soil seed bank of weedy rice.

5. Use of weed-suppressing and submergence tolerant varieties in rainfed lowlands for greater competitiveness.

6. ‘Water seeding’ or ‘wet seeding’ can also be adopted in places where water is available.

7. Flooding in well-leveled soils limits weedy rice germination.

8. If feasible, ‘manual or mechanical transplanting’ could be a suitable alternative method of crop establishment to prevent weedy rice infestation.

9. Green manuring by Sesbania in rainfed lowlands helps in successfully smothering weedy rice.

10. Roughing removal of weedy rice panicles by hand picking/cutting at heading/flowering stage.

Mechanical control: several techniques using implements can be applied to control weedy rice, such as

1. Operation of blade or rotary harrow under

both dried and flooded soils, just before sowing/planting of rice.

2. Sowing or planting of rice in rows to remove the weedy rice seedlings grown between rows by using mechanical tools like finger weeder, cono weeder etc.

Chemical Control

1. Application of pretilachlor at 1.5 kg ha-1 at least 20 days before rice planting or pre-sowing application of anti-germinative herbicides viz., molinate at 7.2 kg ha-1 to prevent germination of weedy rice seeds.

2. Spraying of maleic hydrazide on weedy rice plants at the heading stage helps in reducing seed viability.

3. In continued flooded monocultures, adoption of stale seed bed technique followed by spraying of the graminicides viz., dalapon (12 kg ha-1) or total herbicides viz., glyphosate (1-1.5 kg ha-1), paraquat (0.8 kg ha-1) and oxyfluorfen (0.8 kg ha-1) once the weeds have reached 2-3 leaf stage helps to reduce weedy rice.

Conclusion: With a shift to direct seeding of rice and increasing infestation of weedy rice, the biosimilar has emerged as a potential threat to rice cultivation in India as well. In the context of climate regime the problem is bound to aggravate. Hence, it would not be wrong to say that weedy rice demands immediate attention from scientists in different fields to work on its biology and management strategies.

References Espinoza GA, Sanchez E, Vargas S, Lobo J, Queseda

T and Espinoza AM. 2005. The weedy rice complex in Costa Rica. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 52: 575-587

FAO. 1999. Report of the Global workshop on red rice control. Varadero, Cuba, 30 August-3 September, pp. 55

Vaughan LK, Ottis BV, Prazak-Havey AM, Bormas CA, Sneller C and Chandler JM. 2001. Is all red rice found in commercial rice really Oryza sativa? Weed Science 49: 468-476


Diseases of Rice and their Management Jalender P.

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University, Hyderabad (Telangana) 500030.

Rice is the most important cereal food crop of the world. It is the staple food for more than half of the world’s populations. Despite advances in rice production, diseases remain a major cause of yield loss in rice fields. Diseases reduce yield and quality, and ultimately increase production costs. Most rice diseases are caused by biotic agents

which can be grouped as fungi, bacterial or viruses. The pathogens in these groups are very small and cannot be seen with the naked eye without the aid of a microscope. Nevertheless they produce characteristic symptoms in different organs of the plant which can aid in their identification. Diseases are considered major

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constraints in rice production. Many diseases infect rice but the most common and most severe are blast, rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV) bacterial leaf blight and brown leaf spots. To increase productivity it is vital for farmers to be able to accurately diagnose the cause of the problem and understand how to treat it in view of the limited number of extension agents who can come to the field to analyze the symptoms and advise the farmer on how to prevent or control the problem.

Rice Blast (Pyricularia oryzae (Syn: P. grisea))

The fungus attacks the crop at all stages from seedlings in nursery to heading in main field. The typical symptoms appear on leaves, leaf sheath, rachis and nodes. It is widespread in all rice growing ecologies. Blast can infest all stages of crop growth and any organ of the plant: leaf, sheath, neck, panicle, rachis, stem node and grains. Reported yield losses range from 40 – 75%. Highest losses occur when infestation occurs at young or flowering stages

Management

Treat the seeds with Carbendazim or Tricyclazole at 2 g/kg seed

Spray the main field with Tricyclazole @0.06% or [email protected]% or [email protected]%

Brown Spot (Helminthosporium oryzae)

The fungus attacks the crop from seedling in nursery to milky stage in main field. Symptoms appear as oval to circular lesions (spots) on the coleoptile, leaf blade, leaf sheath, and glumes, being most prominent on the leaf blade and glumes. Several spots on leaves coalesce and the leaf dries up. Dark brown or black spots also appear on glume which reduces the grain quality and weight. Deficiency of potassium predisposes

the plants to heavy infection.

Management

1. Treat the seeds with Thiram or Captan at 4 g/kg and with Mancozeb @0.3%

2. Spray the crop in the main field twice with [email protected]%, once after flowering and second spray at milky stage.

Sheath Blight (Rhizoctonia solani)

The fungus affects the crop from tillering to heading stage. Five to six week old leaf sheaths are highly susceptible Oval or elliptical or irregular greenish grey spots are noticed on leaf sheaths near water level Spots enlarge with an irregular blackish brown or purple brown border with grayish white centre. Lesions coalesce with each other to cover entire tillers from the water line to the flag leaf leading to the death of whole leaf. Under severe infection the infection extends to the inner sheaths resulting in death of the entire plant. Plants heavily infected in the early heading and grain filling growth stages produce poorly filled grain, especially in the lower part of the panicle

Management

1. Seed treatment with Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 10g/kg of seed followed by seedling dip @ 2.5 kg of product/ha dissolved in 100 litres and dipping for 30 minutes.

2. Soil application of P. fluorescens @ of 2.5 kg/ha after 30 days of transplanting (This product should be mixed with 50 kg of FYM/Sand and then applied).

3. Spray [email protected]% or [email protected]% or [email protected]% from 45 days after transplanting at 10 days interval for 3 times depending upon the intensity of disease.

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False Smut (Ustilaginoidea virens)

Individual grains are transformed into yellow or greenish spore balls of velvety appearance which are small at first and 1 cm or longer at later stages. At early stages the spore balls are covered by a membrane which bursts with further growth. Ovaries are transformed into large velvety green masses with the fructification of the pathogen usually only a few spikelets in a panicle are affected.

Management

Spray copper [email protected]% or [email protected]% at panicle emergence stage

Bacterial Leaf Blight (Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae)

The bacterium induces either wilting of plants

(Kresek) in seedling stage or leaf blight in grown up plants. Bacterium infects seedlings systemically and results in wilting of few leaves or death of the entire seedling (Kresek). In grown up plants water soaked, translucent lesions appear usually near the leaf margin. The lesions enlarge both in length and width with a wavy margin and turn straw yellow within a few days, covering the entire leaf. Milky or opaque dew drops containing bacterial masses are formed on young lesions in the early morning hours. They dry up on the surface leaving a white encrustation. If the cut end of leaf is dipped in water, bacterial ooze makes the water turbid. The affected grains have discolored spots surrounded by water soaked areas.

Management

1. Soak the seeds for 8 hrs in Agrimycin (0.025%) followed by hot water treatment for 10 minutes at 52-54 0C to eradicate the bacterium in the seed

2. Spray Streptocycline (250 ppm) along with copper oxychloride (0.3%)


Quorum Sensing: A Way of Communication in Bacteria B. Khamari, A. Roy and S. Tripathy

Ph.D. Scholars, College of Agriculture, OUAT, Bhubaneswar, Odisha

Communication is a way of expression of our thoughts, desires, feelings with others. We human beings use various forms of communications for sharing our thoughts. It may be verbal or non-verbal (written form, art etc). Like human beings, every creature communicates in different ways with their communities. Small creatures like ants secrete chemicals from their body and honey bee use different forms of dance as a part of their communication. In the same way, single cell organisms like bacteria are also able to communicate with each other. It utilizes small diffusible signal molecules known as autoinducers (AIs) which is both produced and perceived by bacteria itself. By releasing the signalling molecules, bacteria are also able to measure the concentration of the molecules within a population. This phenomenon is termed as ‘quorum sensing’ as it depends on minimal population unit or ‘quorum’.

Quorum sensing is a process of cell–cell communication that allows bacteria to share information about cell density and adjust gene

expression accordingly. This process enables bacteria to express energetically expensive processes. It involves the production, detection, and response to extracellular signaling molecules called autoinducers (AIs). AIs accumulate in the environment as the bacterial population density increases, and bacteria monitor this information to track changes in their cell numbers and collectively alter gene expression. At low cell density (LCD), AIs diffuse away because of concentrations below the threshold required for detection. At high cell density (HCD), the cumulative production of AIs leads to a local high concentration, enabling detection and response. AIs are detected by receptors that exist in the cytoplasm or in the membrane. For activation of genes expression necessary for cooperative behaviors, detection of AIs is required. This presumably promotes synchrony in the population.

Interspecies communication also occur which is referred to as quorum sensing cross talk. Cross talk has implications in many areas, as bacteria

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almost always exist in mixed species populations such as biofilms in nature.

As environmental conditions often change rapidly, bacteria need to respond quickly in order to survive. These responses include adaptation to availability of nutrients, defense against other microorganisms which may compete for the same nutrients and the avoidance of toxic compounds potentially dangerous for the bacteria. It is very important for pathogenic bacteria during infection of a host (e.g. humans, other animals or plants) to co-ordinate their virulence in order to escape the immune response of the host, so that it will be able to establish a successful infection. QS enables the bacteria to co-ordinate their behaviour. Traits regulated by QS include the production of extracellular polysaccharides, degradative enzymes, antibiotics, siderophores, and pigments, as well as hrp protein secretion, Ti plasmid transfer, motility, biofilm formation, bioluminescence, sporulation, competence and virulence factor secretion. Since QS regulatory systems are often required for pathogenesis, interference with QS signaling may offer a means of controlling bacterial diseases of plants.

Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria use quorum sensing communication circuits to regulate a diverse array of physiological activities. In general, Gram-negative bacteria use acyl homoserine lactones and Gram-positive bacteria use processed oligo-peptides as autoinducer to communicate. Different bacterial species use different molecules to communicate. There are several classes of signalling molecules. Within each class there are also minor variations such as length of side chains. In some cases a single bacterial species can have more than one QS system and therefore use more than one signal molecule. The bacterium may respond to each molecule in a different way. In this sense the signal molecules can be thought of as words within a language, each having a different meaning.

Gram-positive bacteria use peptides called autoinducing peptides (AIPs), as signaling

molecules. Once produced in the cell, AIPs are processed and secreted. When the extracellular concentration of the AIP is high, which occurs at HCD, it binds to a cognate membrane-bound two-component histidine kinase receptor. Usually, binding activates the receptor’s kinase activity, it autophosphorylates, and passes phosphate to a cognate cytoplasmic response regulator. The phosphorylated response regulator activates transcription of the genes in the QS regulations. In some cases of Gram-positive bacterial QS, AIPs are transported back into the cell cytoplasm where they interact with transcription factors to modulate the transcription factor’s activity and in turn, modulate gene expression changes.

Gram-negative bacteria communicate using small molecules as AIs. These are either acyl-homoserine lactones (AHLs) or other molecules whose production depends on S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) as a substrate. It is now apparent that AHLs are used for regulating diverse behaviours in epiphytic, rhizosphere‐inhabiting and plant pathogenic bacteria, which may interfere by plants metabolites. AIs are produced in the cell and freely diffuse across the inner and outer membranes. When the concentration of AIs is sufficiently high, which occurs at HCD, they bind to activates a regulatory protein which then binds to a specific site of DNA. The binding of this regulatory protein transcription activators results in production of specific quorum dependent protein as well as more enzyme to make AHLs.

QS is a vital regulatory mechanism used by many bacteria to control collective traits that allow bacteria to exploit particular niches. Strategies should be designed to interfere these signaling systems will likely have broad applicability for biological control of bacteria.

References Antariksh Deep1, Uma Chaudhary1, Varsha Gupta.

2011. Quorum sensing and bacterial pathogenicity: From molecules to disease. Journal of laboratory physician, 3 (1):4-11.

66. ENTOMOLOGY 14678

Migration and Migratory Routes of Monarch Butterfly (Danaus plexippus)

Jyoti Raina

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Entomology, Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand

Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) is one of the most recognizable and charismatic butterflies of North America, ranging across Canada, Mexico, and the United States. These butterflies perform annual migrations which have been called as "one of the most spectacular natural

phenomenon in the world”. It is also known as milkweed butterfly (Family Nymphalidae and Subfamily Danainae), As Monarchs lay their eggs only on plants in the Family Apocynaceae i.e. milkweed plants, genus Asclepias and related genera. Monarchs are foul-tasting and poisonous

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to many bird predators due to the presence of cardenolide aglycones in their bodies, which the caterpillars ingest as they feed on milkweed. It is also considered as an iconic pollinator species

No stage of development of monarchs can survive freezing temperatures during winters in most of the North America, so during autumn, Danaus plexippus adults undergo a series of physiological changes that result in reproductive diapause, accumulation of lipids, and directional migration to the south and west. Two migratory populations of the monarch butterfly occur in North America viz., eastern and western population. Starting in September and October, eastern/northeastern populations migrates up to 3600 km (approximately 50 km per day) from southern Canada and the United States to overwintering sites in high-altitude forests in central Mexico, where they arrive around November. In Mexico, monarchs cluster together on oyamel (sacred) fir (Abies religiosa) trees on the border between Michoacán and Mexico State in the mountains of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. These high altitude forests provide the microclimatic conditions that monarchs must have to survive the winter. They start their return trip in March upon arrival of spring season and reach back to Canada around July. No individual butterfly completes the entire round trip; female monarchs lay eggs for the next generation during the northward migration and at least five generations are involved in the annual cycle. Another population breeds west of the Rocky Mountains, and in the autumn, migrates south westwards to overwinter at low-altitude, forested sites along the Pacific Coast of California. These migratory patterns may be based on the position of the sun in the sky including its angle and spectrum changes that occur near the end of the summer breeding season.

Migrants of both the populations use the same highly localized overwintering areas year after year. Visitation of overwintering monarch groves is of economic value in California and in Mexico, wheresuch tourism is an important source of revenue for rural communities. Now, the overall North American monarch population facing significant threats to their survival in both their summer and winter ranges, and their numbers has declined by more than 90 percent in the past two decades. Numerous landscape-level factors viz., Habitat loss due to herbicide use, loss of overwintering habitat, climate change, predators, diseases and overutilization for commercial, scientific, or educational Purpose, have contributed in the decline of the monarch and pose ongoing threats to its continued existence. There are many organizations and programs

existing viz., Monarch watch.org, Monarch joint venture, Monarch butterfly fund to promote the preservation of the monarch and its migration. Conservation strategies needed to be adopted are habitat restoration, monarch health monitoring, participation of citizen scientists, economic development, provision of grants etc. Conservationists are lobbying transportation departments and utilities to reduce their use of herbicides and specifically encourage milkweed to grow along roadways and power lines. Reducing roadside mowing and application of herbicides during the butterfly breeding season will encourage milkweed growth. Conservationists lobby agriculture companies to set aside areas that remain unsprayed to allow the butterflies to breed. Butterfly gardening is thought to increase the populations of butterflies. Efforts to increase monarch populations by establishing butterfly gardens require particular attention to the butterfly's food preferences and population cycles, as well to the conditions needed to propagate milkweed.

References Brower, L.P. 1995. Understanding and

misunderstanding the migration of the monarch butterfly (Nymphalidae) in North America. Journal of Lepidopterists Society, 49: 304–385.

Howard, E., and A.K. Davis. 2008. The fall migration flyways of monarch butterflies in eastern North America revealed by citizen scientists. Journal of Insect Conservation, 13:279–286.

Oberhauser, K and Peterson, A.T, 2003. Modeling current and future potential wintering distributions of eastern North American monarch butterflies. Proceedings of National Academy of Science, USA, 100:14063–14068.

Visit us at: agrobiosindia.com

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Genetic Improvement of Natural Enemies Sawant C. G.1*, Shinde P. R.2 and Patil R. V.3

1,2&3Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agricultural Entomology, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, Maharashtra


INTRODUCTION: Biotechnology is the “The controlled use of biological agents such as microorganisms or cellular components for beneficial use” (US National Science Foundation). To minimize the dependence on chemicals as the sole control measures the scientist are now looking for ecological approaches for pest management. Biotechnology in fact provides several innovative safe and effective tools that may essentially resolve pest management problems. Most of the current research is focused on using genetic manipulation and other techniques to modify the crops or to increase the virulence and host range of bio-pesticides. In this content biotechnology offers promising ways and means over traditional pest management factors. We have to be cautions in this approach because the manipulated pathogens and the crops engineered to express toxins of pathogens are simply targeted as replacements for synthetic pesticides and may become ineffective in the same way that pesticides have.

Scope: Genetic Modification of Natural Enemies

To develop pesticide resistant natural enemies

To develop pathogenic resistance in natural enemies

Increased tolerance to temperature extremes.

Increased adaptation to different environment conditions

High fecundity

Improved host-seeking ability

Modification of other traits such as dispersal rate and sex ratio improve biological control.

To achieve hybrid vigor by hybridization of different strains of natural enemies.

Methods of Genetic modification

Artificial selection

Hybridization (use of Heterosis)

Mutagenesis

Recombinant DNA techniques

Up to date now only artificial selection of arthropod natural enemies has been successfully employed in pest management progammes.

Despite the various available methods of biological control, the effectiveness of the natural enemies are sometimes limited by their intrinsic genetic characteristics. Under these conditions it may be appropriate to enhance their efficacy by genetic

manipulation.

Recombinant DNA techniques now can be effectively used for genetic modification of natural enemies for effective control of crop pests.

Genetic Engineering or Recombinant DNA Technology

Genetic engineering or r DNA technology involves artificial transfer of genes or gene fragments from one organism to another to produce novel traits in the recipient living organism. The important tools used include enzymes for DNA manipulation, vectors, expression hosts and marker genes.

Steps in recombinant DNA techniques

First step is to know the biology, ecology and behavior of the natural enemy & the factors limiting the efficacy of the natural enemy must be identified.

second step is extremely crucial, since improper identification of the trait needing improvement could lead to an expensive and time-consuming project of little practical value

Third step is genetic variability must be available upon which one can select using artificial selection. If such variability does not occur in natural populations, it must be provided for through mutagenesis or, perhaps, through recombinant DNA, methods.

Finally the ‘improved’ natural enemy must be documented to be effective in the field.

Genetic modified Natural enemies

There are several potentially useful genes that can be used to improve the performance of insect natural enemies.

An acetylcholinesterase gene from Drosophila melanogaster and Anopheles stephensi, esterase B1 gene from Culex mosquito, which confers resistance to organophosphorous insecticides.

A parathion hydrolase gene from Pseudomonas diminuta and Flavobacterium

Freeze resistance and heat tolerance genes can help the inset natural enemies to adapt to a broader range of climates and become useful and effective as biological control agents.

Antifreeze protein genes cloned from the wolfish, Anarhichas lupus and the winter flounder, Pleuronectes americanus have expressed in transgenic Drosophila.

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Aphytis lingnanensis is an important parasitoid of California red scale, Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell) possesses enhanced tolerance to temperature.

A pesticide-resistant strain of phytoseiid mite (predator of spider mites), Metaseiulus occidentalis (Nesbitt) in deciduous orchards in USA), called COS strain (carbaryl-OP-sulfur resistant strain) was selected, commercial mass reared, and released in California almond orchards.

Selection was also conducted on the green lacewing, Chrysoperla carnea for carbaryl resistance on Aphytis melinus DeBach, an aphelinid parasitoid of the walnut aphid, Chromaphis juglandicola (Kaltenbach) forresistance to azinphosmethyl.

In India, scientists at the Project Directorate of Biological Control (PDBC), Bangalore, have developed a 0.07% endosulfan tolerant strain of Trichogramma chilonis Ishii by selecting it over 325 generations during the period of more than eight years and is now being marketed under the trade name ‘Endogram’ by the Indian pesticide industry.

This strain has been further developed for multiple tolerances to monocrotophos and fenvalerate.

A strain of T. chilonis tolerant to a

temperature of 32-36 0C has also been developed by continuously rearing and selecting these insects under increasing temperature regimes.

Risk issues

Possibility of pesticide resistance gene moving to a pest.

Potential for horizontal gene transfer.

If viral vectors or transposable element are used in transformation process, what risk might they pose if transgenic strain is released into the environment.

Health and other hazards imposed on human being.

Limitation

Traits primarily determined by single major genes are most appropriate for manipulating insects by recombinant DNA techniques.

But however, traits that are determined by complex genetic mechanisms or polygenes are difficult to manipulate and stabilize.


Eco-Friendly Management of Termites in Agriculture *Pooja Upadhayay, Khajan Singh Bisht and Kalpana Gairola

Department of Plant Pathology, GBPUA&T, Pantnagar-263145, Uttarakhand, India. *Corresponding Author e Mail: [email protected]

Termites are considered as major pest in Indian agriculture as they hugely damage many crop plants as well as living trees and cause great economic loss. Traditionally chemical pesticides were very effective for the control of termites but their consistent use and persistence is proving to be a potential problem to environment, human and other life forms. The emphasis on termite control has thus changed from a massive use of pesticides to an integrated approach that involves safer biological, non-chemical and eco-friendly methods of management. Within the scope this article suggests different methods and strategies for eco-friendly management of termite population for safe agriculture.

Agriculture is the back bone of Indian economy. In India around 70% of the population earn their livelihood and fulfill their basic needs from agriculture. On top of this the exponentially growing population creates a dire need to increase the production of essential agricultural produce. This bid for maximizing the output is leading to increasing use of chemicals and toxic pesticides on agricultural crops, eventually leading to bad

strain on ecological system of earth and poor soil fertility.

Agricultural crops can be highly susceptible to insect and pest attack/damage. Termites are one of the widely prevailing pests that inflict economic damage on field crops, trees and causes great harm to farmers and agriculture. Traditionally chemical pesticides have been used for controlling termites which are not only costly but also causes soil contamination, ground water, surface water contamination, poor soil fertility, as these pesticides are applied on soil directly. Ideally pesticides must be lethal to the targeted pests, but not to non-target species, including man, but this is not the case. Rampant use of these chemicals, under the adage “if little is good, a lot more will be better” has proved to be otherwise for humans and other life forms.

By keeping all these facts in mind there has risen the need of controlling the termite non chemically or organically (without using pesticides) which will not only promote natural pest control mechanism which will help maintain the natural ecosystem but is also a cheaper termite

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control option, as products and materials used for such an organic practice of managing pests naturally are already available in homes and/or around the farms.

For managing termite organically different methods can be adopted. Addition of compost or well-rotted manure or sowing green manure crops helps in adding organic matter to the soil which suppresses termite attack as some termite prefer soil with low organic matter content. Termites can also be managed by encouraging population of natural predators like spiders, beetles, flies, wasps and especially ants. This can be done by leaving area for natural habitat around area where crop is grown. This natural habitat area containing vegetations like trees, bushes is a home for many of these useful creatures useful in suppressing termite population.

Crop rotation plays an important role in reducing termite attack. Planting the same crop on the same land year after year reduces soil fertility and structure. Crops growing in such conditions will be weaker and susceptible to termites. Besides this only healthy seedlings/plants should be planted in the field and great care should be taken during transplanting and pruning (leaves and roots) as termites may enter into the plants through scar tissues.

Another effective method of controlling termite is by using plant parts and plant extracts such as leaves and seeds of Neem tree, latex of Calotropis plant etc. These can be removed from the plant and used as a natural insecticide by grinding up the relevant parts, placing in boiling water, stirring and leaving to soak. The mixture is then sprayed onto the pest infested crop. Alternatively the plant part, such as toxic fruit juices, pulps or shavings can be applied directly.

The most interesting and effective non-chemical, environment friendly method of controlling termite population is by using Maize cobs. For this Maize cob left after removal of all seeds is taken. These cobs are collected and kept in an earthen pitcher and buried in the cultivated soil in a manner so that opening/mouth of the

pitcher remains open upward. After this a cloth is tied on the mouth of pitcher and this pitcher is filled with water. After few days one can notice that pitcher is filled with termites. This pitcher is taken out and heated which kill the termites present inside it. Such pitchers are buried at the distance of 100 meters from each other in the field and cobs inside pitcher are changed five times during the process. This easy, effective and cheap method helps in destroying all the termites from the field.

There are a number of alternatives to using chemical pesticides for termite control. These methods work within the natural eco-system and help in promoting natural pest control mechanisms. They are not only cheap and easy to use but also preserve genetic diversity within the farming system which helps in providing resistance to termite pests. Moreover these non-chemical organic methods regulate the termite numbers rather than eliminate them so that the benefits provided by termites are not lost.

References Integrated pest management in Paddy: A case study

on IPM of paddy BY SMS (Entomology) Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Dhemaji, Assam Agriculture University, Silapathar

James W M Logan, Robert H Cowie, TG Wood: Termite (Isoptera) control in Agriculture and forestry by non-chemical methods: A review

Ahmed, S., A. Naseer and S. Fiaz, 2005. Comparative efficacy of botanicals and insecticides on termites in sugarcane at Faisalabad. Pak. Entomol. Vol. 27(1):23-26.

Deemak Ka Jaivik Niyantran: Farmer welfare and agriculture department, Madhya Pradesh-India

Brain Foschler: Sustainable termite management using Integrated Pest Management: Chapter 9, CAB International 2011. Urban Pest Management: An environmental perspective.

Potter M (1997) Termites In: Moreland, D. (ed.) Hand book of pest control. Mallis handbook and technical training company, Cleveland, Ohio pp: 233-333.

Kard. B M (2003) Integrated pest management of subterranean termites (Isoptera). Journal of entomological science 38, 200-224.


Insect’s Contribution to Food Security, Livelihoods and the Environment

Elangbam Bidyarani Devi1*, Elangbam Premabati Devi2, L. Netajit Singh3 and Deepshikha4 1Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Entomology, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam

2Assistant Research Scientist, Plant Pathology, Wheat Research Station, SDAU, Gujarat 3Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agricultural Statistics, Navsari Agricultural University, Gujarat

4J.R.O., Department of Plant Pathology, G.B.P.U.A.T., Pantnagar, Uttarakhand *Corresponding Author e Mail: [email protected]

Entomophagy

Entomophagy is the consumption of insects by humans. It is practiced in many countries around

the world but predominantly in parts of Asia, African and Latin America. Insects supplement the diet of approximately of 2 billion people and

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always been a part of human diets. However, it is recently that entomophagy has captured the attention of the media, research institutions, chefs and other members of the food industry, legislators and agencies dealing with food and feed. The Edible Insects Programme at FAO also examines the potential of arachnids (eg. spiders and scorpions) for food and feed.

Can Insects Contribute to Food and Feed Security?

Yes. Population growth and urbanization and the rising middle class have increased the global demand for food, especially animal based protein sources. The traditional production of animal feed such as fish meal, and grains needed to be further intensified in terms of resource efficiency and extended through the use of alternative sources. By 2030, over 9 billion people will need to fed, along with the billions of animals raised annually for food and recreational purposes and as pets. Moreover, externalities such as land and water pollution from intensive livestock production and over grazing are leading to forest degradation, thereby contributing to climate change and other environmentally destructive impacts. Solutions need to be researched and explored.

One of the many ways to address food and feed security is through insect farming. Insects are everywhere and they reproduce quickly, and they have high growth and feed conversion rates and a low environmental footprint over their entire life cycle. They are nutritious, with high protein, fat and mineral contents. They can be reared on waste streams like food waste. Moreover, they can be eaten whole or ground into a powder or paste, and incorporated on other foods. The use of insects on a large scale as a feed ingredient is technically feasible and established companies in various parts of the world are already leading the way in this regard. Insects as feed stock for aquaculture and poultry feed are likely to become more prevalent within the next decades.

Benefits of Insects as Food and Feed

The use of insects as food and feed has many environmental, health and social/livelihood benefits as follows:

Environmental Benefits

Insects have a high feed conversion efficiency because they are cold blooded. Feed-to-meet conversion rates (how much feed is needed to produce a 1 kg increase in weight) vary widely depending on the class of the animal and the production practices used, but nonetheless insects are extremely efficient. On average, insects can convert 2 kg of feed into 1 kg of insect mass, whereas cattle require 8 kg of feed to produce 1 kg of body weight gain.

The production of greenhouse gases by most insects is likely to be lower than that of conventional livestock. For example, pigs

produce 10-100 times more greenhouse gases per kg of weight than mealworms.

Insects can feed on bio-waste, such as food and human waste, compost and animal slurry, and can transform this into high quality protein that can be used for animal feed.

Insects used significantly less water than conventional livestock. Mealworms for example, are more drought resistant than cattle.

Insect farming is less land dependent than conventional livestock farming.

Health Benefits

The nutritional content of insects depends on their stage of life (metamorphic stage), habitat and diet. However, it is widely accepted that:

Insects provide high quality protein and nutrients comparable with meat and fish. Insects are particularly important as a food supplement for undernourished children because most insect species are high in fatty acids (comparable with fish). They are also rich in fibre and micro nutrients such as copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, selenium and zinc.

Insects pose a low risk of transmitting zoonotic diseases (disease transmitted from animals to humans) such as H1N1 (bird flu) and BSE (mad cow disease).

Livelihood and Social Benefits

Insects gathering and rearing can offer important livelihood diversification strategies. Insects can be directly and easily collected from the wild. Minimal technical or capital expenditure is required for basic harvesting and rearing equipments.

Insects can be gathered in the wild, cultivated, processes and sold by the poorest members of society, such as women and landless people in urban and rural areas. These activities can directly improve diets and provide cash income through the selling of excess production as street food.

Insect harvesting and farming can provide entrepreneurship opportunities in developed, transitional and developing economies.

Insects can be processed for food and feed relatively easily. Some species can be consumed whole. Insects can also be processed into pastes or ground into meal, and their proteins can be extracted.

Is Entomophagy Dangerous?

There are no known cases of transmission of diseases or parasitoids to humans for consumption of insects (on the conditions that the insects were handled under the same unitary conditions as any other food). Allergies may occur, however, that are comparable with allergies to crustaceans, which are also invertebrates.

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Compared with mammals and birds, insects may pose less risk of transmitting zoonotic infections to humans, livestock and wildlife, although this topic required further research.

Most Commonly Consumed Insect Species

More than 1900 edible insect species are consumed around the world. However this number continues to grow as more research is conducted. The majority of these known species are harvested in the wild; however, few data are available on the quantities of insects consumed worldwide. From the data that are available, the most commonly consumed insects are beetles (Coleoptera) (31%), caterpillars (Lepidoptera) (18%), bees, wasps and ants (Hymenoptera) (14%). These are followed by grasshoppers, locusts and crickets (Orthoptera) (13%), cicadas, leaf and plant hoppers, scale insects and true bugs (Hemiptera) (10%), termites (Isoptera) (3%), dragon flies (Odonata) (3%), flies (Diptera) (2%) and other others (5%).

More than Just Foods

Insects provide other important and useful functions beyond food and feed:

Insects are important providers of ecological services. For example, insects play an important role in pollination, biological control and the decomposition of organic litter.

Insects are being tested to reduce livestock manure, such as that generated by pigs, and to mitigate foul odours. Larval flies can be used to transform manure into fertilizer and consumable protein.

Insects have inspired human innovation for many years. Biomimicry, which draws on the attributes of natural organisms and processes to spark innovation, has used the features of beehives, spider webs and termite hills to inspire the designs of a range of products and processes.

Insects have formed part of traditional

medicine for thousands of years. For example, fly maggots have been used to clean dead tissue in wounds and bee products such as propolis, royal jelly and honey have been used for their healing properties.

The natural colour of insects has been exploited by different cultures for centuries. For example, the Aztecs used the red colour produced by the cochineal (scale insect), and this insect is still used today as a natural food colouring in cosmetics and as a dye.

Silk, a product of silkworms, has been used for centuries, as a soft yet strong and highly durable fabric.

Creating and Revitalizing Local Food Culture

Despite the benefits of entomophagy, consumer digest remains one of the largest barriers to the adoption of insects as viable source of protein in many Western countries. Nevertheless, history has shown that dietary patterns can change quickly, particularly in a globalized world.

Where entomophagy culture does not exist, it needs to be created. Even in countries that previously had a tradition of entomophagy, the influence of Western diets are affecting food choices, and eating insects may be looked down upon or shunned. Nonetheless, the insect trade is thriving in cities such as Bangkok and Kinshasa and there is high demand from urban consumers. In such places, insects often arouse feelings of nostalgia for the rural countryside. In other cases, insects are seen as a snack.

From the creation of new recipes and menus in restaurants to the design of new food products, the food industry has a large role to play in raising the status of insects as food. Food industry professionals, including chefs, are experimenting with the flavours of insects. Insects can be found on menus in West but are targeted mainly at adventurous eaters rather than mainstream consumers. A major barrier for the food service industry is obtaining a constant supply of insects in the quantity and quality needed.


Chemical Mediated Foraging Behavior of Egg Parasitoids 1K. L. Manjunatha, 1T. G., Avinash and 2Parasappa H Hulagabala

1Ph.D. Scholar, Dept. of Entomology, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore-65 2Field Assistant, Horticultural Research and Extension Station, Sirsi, Uttara Kannada-581401

Egg parasitoids are specialized to develop in the eggs of other insects. Insect eggs are nutrient-rich enlarged cells that do not feed & release feces and consequently lack intense long-range odors that can be exploited by their enemies. Some insects make their eggs less accessible by hiding them in plant tissue or by covering with physical devices like hairs, feces, scales, or secretion. Consequently, egg parasitoids have to face many

challenges when searching and finding their small and inconspicuous host. Female parasitoids are forced to optimize their host-selection behavior because it is directly linked to their reproductive success because host is the only food source for their off springs. The parasitoid’s searching behavior can be divided into several phases (i.e., host habitat location, host location and host acceptance), which are completed with the

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oviposition in/on the host. This so called host selection is mediated by numerous stimuli, of which chemicals are known to play a major role (Fatouros et al., 2008)

Extracts of volatiles from broad bean and French bean plants induced by adults of Nezara viridula as a result of their feeding, oviposition and feeding - oviposition activity combined were analyzed. Results revealed that the volatiles produced by feeding - oviposition activity combined attracted the egg parasitoid Trissolcus basalis (Colazza et al., 2004).

Investigation on the attraction of egg parasitoids of lepidopteran hosts (Trichogramma brassicae and T. evanescens) towards plant volatiles induced by different insect herbivores (Pieris brassicae eggs and caterpillars, Aphid Brevicoryne brassicae and an alien invasive herbivore, Spodoptera exigua, eggs and caterpillars) on Brassica nigra found that Trichogramma wasps were attracted by volatiles induced in the plants by P. brassicae eggs, but not by those induced in the plants by S. exigua eggs, indicating the specificity of the plant responses towards lepidopteran herbivores (Cusumano et al., 2015).

Arakaki et al. (1996) reported that the phoretic egg parasitoid, Telenomus euproctidis was found more frequently on virgin than on mated female moths of Euproctis taiwana. These findings suggest that T. euproctidis uses the sex pheromone of the female moth, E. taiwana, as a kairomone to locate a host female moth. Effect of epicuticular wax of leaves of broad bean, Vicia fabae, on wasp responses to footprints of N. viridula females were investigated by Colazza et al. (2009), approximately 20 per cent of T. basalis females displayed an arrestment posture when released on the leaf surface of broad bean plants

with intact wax layer and without host chemical contamination; whereas 70 per cent of wasps displayed the arrestment posture when intact leaves were contaminated by host female footprints.

Egg parasitoids play an important role in biological control programs of pest insects. Understanding their host location behavior is a crucial step for a targeted application of parasitoids in crop fields. The use of oviposition-induced plant cues indicating the presence of the host eggs is another elegant solution to the reliability-detectability problem. A previous experience with the plant stimuli in association with a host cue seem to play a major role in the exploitation of induced plant cues, especially under variable environments.

Selected References Arakaki, N., Wakamura, S. and Yasuda, T., 1996,

Phoretic egg parasitoid, Telenomus euproctidis, uses sex pheromone of tussock moth Euproctis taiwana as a kairomone. J. Chem. Ecol., 22(6): 1079-1085.

Colazza, S., Bue, M.L., Giudice, D.L. and Peri, E., 2009, The response of Trissolcus basalis to footprint contact kairomones from Nezara viridula females is mediated by leaf epicuticular waxes. Naturwissenschafte, 96:975-981.

Colazza, S., Mcelfresh, J.S. and Millar, J.G., 2004, Identification of volatile synomones, induced by Nezara viridula feeding and oviposition on bean palnts that attract the egg prasitoid Trissolcus basalis. J. Chem. Ecol., 30(3):945-964.

Cusumano, A., Weldegergis, B.T., Colazza, S., Dicke, M. and Fatouros., 2015, Attraction of egg killing parasitoids towards induced plant volatiles in a multi- herbivore context. Oecologia, 179:163-174.

Fatouros, N.E., Dicke, M., Momm, R., Meiners, T. and Hilker, M., 2008, Foraging behavior of egg parasitoids exploiting chemical information. Behav Ecol., pp: 675-689.


Abiotic Factors and their Generalized Action on Insects Abhishek Rana*, Nikhil Sharma, Vinay Singh and Chhavi

Department of Entomology, CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur (H.P.) *Corresponding Author e Mail: [email protected]

In biology and ecology, abiotic components include physical conditions and non-living resources that affect living organisms in terms of growth, maintenance, and reproduction. All non-living components of an ecosystem are called abiotic components. Charles Darwin (1859) in his classic work on the ‘origin of species’ was the first to put forward the idea of an environment composed of a number of components which might act separately or jointly to influence an animal’s chance to multiply or survive. Abiotic or non-living things have a vital role in maintaining the balance of the ecosystem. The survival of any organism will depend on how well it has adapted

to these factors and how well it fits into a specific area. All organisms need to be in harmony with their environment in order to maintain stable conditions in their bodies. The abundance and distribution of a species is determined by whether levels of one or more physical and chemical factors go above, or fall below, the levels tolerated by the species. The abiotic factors affect the ecosystem and play a vital role in the biology of the ecosystem. The quantity of the abiotic components present in the ecosystem is known as 'the standing stage'. The biotic components of the ecosystem which includes the plants, animals and microbes interact and are dependent on the

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abitoic factors. The abiotic factors include temperature, relative humidity/ moisture (RH), light, wind, etc. and all organic and inorganic components of the ecosystem.

Abiotic Factors Affecting Insect Populations

Temperature: High temperature at which the death occurs is known as fatal high temperature. The death of the insect is due to desiccation and increased rate of metabolism with consequent wastage of energy. Fry (1947) defined the zones of tolerable temperature as the temperature above and below the median tolerable zone i.e. upper lethal zone and lower lethal zone respectively. Upper lethal limit is ranging between 40oC and 50oC (even up to 60oC survival in some stored product Insects). Lower lethal limit is below freezing point. The lower temperature at which organisms can survive is known as “minimum effective temperature” and the temperature which permits the survival is known as “minimum survival temperature”. At low temperatures insects take more days to complete a particular stage (larval or pupal stage) as compared to high temperatures. Some insects when exposed to extreme temperatures undergo aestivation (during summer) or hibernation (during winter). During this period, there is a temporary developmental arrest and metabolic activities are suspended. When temperature is favorable, they resume activity. In majority of the cases, fecundity is maximum towards a moderately high temperature and declines as upper and lower limit is reached.

Examples

In cotton stem weevil, the maximum number of eggs are laid at 32.8oC but the fecundity decreases with increase in temperature.

Grasshoppers lay 20-30 times more eggs at 32oC as compared to 22oC.

Oviposition of bed bug is inhibited at 8-10oC.

Larval period of sugarcane internode borer is very short i.e. 16-24 days in summers and prolonged i.e. 141-171 days in winters.

Hmidity/ moisture: Moisture is required for

metabolic reactions and transportation of salts in insects. Moisture scarcity leads to dehydration and death of insects. Excessive moisture can be harmful in following ways:

i) Affects normal development and activity of insects.

ii) Encourages the spread of diseases in insects.

Examples

High RH and rainfall increases the population of insects like brown plant hoppers (BPH), aphids and diamond back moth (DBM).

Low RH in rainfed groundnut crop induces leaf miner incidence.

Humidity is essential for adult emergence of cutworms and red hairy caterpillar.

Intermittent low rains increases BPH and thrips.

Light: The following properties of light influence the insect life:

i) Intensity and illumination ii) Quality or wavelength iii) Duration or Photo period

Photo period influences induction of diapause (a resting stage) in most of the insects. Long days during embryonic development cause egg diapause in Bombyx mori, larval diapause in Euproctis sp., prepupal diapause in Plodia interpunctella and pupal diapause in Pieris brassicae. Seasonal dimorphism occurs in aphids due to change in photo period. Short days lead to the formation of sexual forms in aphids whereas long days are responsible for asexual forms.

Wind: Wind interferes with feeding, mating and oviposition behavior of insects. Strong flying insects tend to fly with the winds during migrations and are displaced over long distances as in case of spruce bud worm. Air movement may also be directly responsible for the death of the insects. Winds coupled with heavy rains may cause mortality. Aphids and mites disperse through winds up to thousands of kilometers. Helicoverpa flies upto 90 km with the aid of winds.


Insect Biodiversity and its Conservation S. N. Satapathy

Ph D Scholar, Department of Entomology, Orissa University of Agriculture & Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha 751003

Biodiversity

The variety of life at every hierarchical level and spatial scale of biological organizations: genes within populations, populations within species, species within communities, communities within landscapes, landscapes within biomes, and biomes within the biosphere. (E. O. Wilson, 1988).

The term biodiversity encompasses variety of biological life at more than one scale. It is not only the variety of species (both plant and animal) but also the variety of genes within those species and the variety of ecosystems in which the species reside.

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Insect Biodiversity

(I) The described taxonomic richness of insects:

Five major orders of high species richness

SL No.

Orders Number of species

1. Coleoptera >3,50,000 comprises of 40% of described insects

2. Hymenoptera >1,15,000 species

3. Diptera 1,50,000 species

4. Lepidoptera 1,50,000 species

5. Hemiptera 1,00,000 species

Among other orders not exceeds 20,000 species

1. Orthoptera 20,000 species

2. Blattodea 6600 species (cockroaches, termites)

3. Dermaptera 2000 species

4. Aves (Birds) 2 × 6600 species

(II) The Estimated Taxonomic Richness of Insects

The figure given above is accumulative effect of many taxonomists from all over the world about 250 years. It appears to represent something less than the true species richness of the insects due to very high numbers and patchy distribution of many insects in time and space. It is impossible to prepare a inventory approach for a small area. Extrapolations (estimate the observed value) required to estimate the total species richness whose ranges from around 3 million to 80 million species. Some recent reanalysis and extrapolation from regional sampling represent a figure between 4-6 million species of insects.

(III) The Location of Insect Species Richness

The regions in which additional undescribed insect species might occur cannot be in the Northern hemisphere, where such hidden diversity is not likely to occur in well studied fauna.

Example: The British Isles inventory of about 22500 species of insect is likely to be within 5% of being complete and around 30 thousand from Canada most represent over half of the total species.

Any hidden diversity is not in the arctic region with some 3000 species in the American arctic not in the Antarctica, South polar mass where support a bare handful of insects. Due to lack of local species inventory, tropical species richness appears to be more higher than that of temperate areas.

Example- A single tree survey in Peru produce 26 genera and 43 species of ants, which is equal to the total ant diversity from all habitat of Britain.

Studies in tropical American ruin forest suggest much undescribed insects from the beetles. In some well-studied temperate region

such as Britain and Canada species of true flies (Diptera) outnumber the beetles. Studies of canopy insects of tropical island of Borneo indicate much species richness in both Hymenptera and Diptera than Coleoptera, when we estimate 30-80 million species of all organism the insect constitute at least half of the global species diversity.

(IV) Some Reasons for Insect Species Richness

The high species richness of insects is attributed by several factors like

a) Small size of individuals- A single Acacia tree that provide one meal of Giraffe may support the completely life cycle of dormancies species of insects.

b) Highly organized sensory and motor system- These systems are more comparable in vertebrates than other invertebrate.

c) Short generation time- The vertebrate animals are long life than insect and individual can adopted some degree of learning. In other hand the insects normally response to cope off with altered condition. Such as application of insecticides to their host plant leading to their insecticide resistance strain.

d) Evolutionary interaction between plants and other organisms- Interaction between plants, insects and parasites promotes the genetic diversification of eater and eaten.

e) Metamorphosis- Food habit and habitat of different forms of life stages are different these lead to their ability to survive in change environmental conditions.

f) Mobile winged adults- Due to presence of wings they fly to suitable area under environmental stress condition.

g) Role of sexual selection- The inclination of the insects is become isolated in small population in combination with serial selection may lead to rapid alteration in intra-specific communication. New species arises as the genotype of isolated population diverse from those of parental population.

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Pupal Stage of Insects Rishikesh Mandloi*

Ph.D. (Ag.) Scholar*, Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture Jabalpur JNKVV, Jabalpur- 482004 (Madhya Pradesh) India


Introduction: A pupae (Latin pupa for doll, pl: pupae or pupas) is the life stage of some insects undergoing transformation. The pupal stage is found only in holometabolous insects, those that undergo a complete metamorphosis, going through four life stages: embryo, larva, pupa and imago. Pupa is a non feeding and inactive stage of insect between the larva and adult with complete metamorphosis. The insect pupae are classified into two types on the basis of mode of emergence of adults from the pupal case.

During this stage, the larval characters are destroyed and new adult characters are created.

The molt into the pupal instars is called pupation or the larval – pupal molt. Many insect s survive condition unfavorable for development in the resting on feeding pupal stage, but often what appears to be a pupa is actually a fully developed adult within the pupal cuticle.

Pre Pupae – The last stage larva is often quiescent for two or three days before the ecdysis to a pupa, and in some case the insect is a pharate pupa for a part of this time.

Protection of Pupae

Most insect pupae are immobile and hence vulnerable, and most insect pupate in a cell or cocoon which offered them some protection, many larvae Lepidoptera construct an underground cell in which to pupate, cementing particle of soil with a fluid secretion, the larva of the puss moth construct a chamber of wood fragment glued to gather form a heard enclosing layer and some beetle larvae pupate in cells in the wood in which they bore.

Based on nature and material requirement prepration of cocoon are several types

Types of cocoon

Material used Example

Silken cocoon Silk Silk worm

Earthen cocoon

Soil + saliva Gram pod cocoon

Hairy cocoon Body hair Wooly bear

Frassy cocoon

Frassy + saliva Coconut black headed caterpillar

Fibrous cocoon

Fibers Red palm weevil

Puparium Hardened last larval skin

House fly

Types of Pupae

There are three main types of pupaes

1. Obtect: Various appendages of the pupa viz., antennae, legs and wings pads are glued to the body by a secretion produced during the last larval moult. Exposed surface of the appendages are more heavily sclerotised than those adjacent to body. Obtect pupae occur in many of the Diptera (midges, mosquitoes, crane flies, and other members of the suborder Nematocera), in most Lepidoptera, and in a few of the Hymenoptera and Coleoptera.

a) Chrysalis-: It is the naked obtect pupa of butterfly. It is angular and attractively coloured. The pupa is attached to the substratum by hooks present at the terminal end of the abdomen called cremaster. The middle part of the chrysalis is attached to the substratum by two strong silken threads called gridle.

b) Tumbler: Pupa of mosquito is called tumbler. It is an object type of pupa. It is comma shaped with rudimentary appendages. Breathing trumpets are present in the cephalic end and anal paddles are present at the end of the abdomen. Abdomen is capable of jerky movements which are produced by the anal paddles. The pupa is very active.

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2. Exarate - Exarate pupae are just the opposite of obtect pupae; the appendages are free, and they can move (though usually remain inactive). Movement is usually limited to the abdominal segments, but some can also move their appendages. An exarate pupa usually lacks a cocoon, and looks like a pale, mummified adult, according to Borror and Delong's Introduction to the Study of Insects. Most pupae fall into this category. Nearly all insects that undergo complete metamorphosis have exarate pupae.

3. Coarctate Pupa-: In this type, the appendages are not visible. The pupa is enclosed in a

puparium, formed from the last larval skin. The last larval skin changed into a pupal case and pupa case is dark in colour, this is clearly adecticous exarate pupa e.g. House fly, fruit fly etc.

Significance of Pupal Stage

1. Being non feeding stage it avoids or reduces the competition for food.

2. Helps in re-modeling and re-structuring or the body to exploit many habitats.

3. Chances of survival of insects are increased by entering in inactive stages.

References Ragumoorthi KN, Balasubramani V, and co-authors

A.E. Publication Coimbtore: Insecta an Introduction

Chapman R.F. Cambridge university press; The Insects structure and function

Encyclopedia net and wikipedia My Agriculture Information Bank (Agriinfo.in) about education. com tnu agri. net….


Phosphine Resistance in Storage Insect Pests Sunil Kumar Yadav1 and Shweta Patel2

1Ph.D. Scholar, Division of Entomology, ICAR-IARI, New Delhi-110012 2Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, G. B. Pant University of Agriculture

and Technology, Pantnagar (Uttarakhand)-263145

Insect Pests of Stored Grains

After harvesting, grains and seeds are stored in storage structure for long periods of time. During storage, the grains are susceptible to attack from various insect species. If these insects are left untreated, the grain may be reduced to dust by feeding and go moldy due to the heat and moisture released by the insects.

TABLE 1. Important insect pests of stored grains in India

Species Remarks

Beetles

Tribolium. Castaneum

Ubiquitous

Rhyzopertha dominica

Common in indoor and outdoor stacks, paddy rice in particular

Species Remarks

Sitophilus oryzae Occur m wheat especially soft vane ties and maize

Trogoderma granarium

Confined to extreme climatic zones

Oryzaephilus surinamensis

Common in grains having more dockage

Cryptolestes spp Common in milled rice having more dockage

Moths

Ephestia cautella Major moth pest in many godowns

Corcyra cephalonica

Occur sporadically on milled rice

Sitotroga cerealella

Noticed in new arrivals especially in paddy rice

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Species Remarks

Others

Ltposcelis spp. Ubiquitous; serious problem in coastal areas; in other places outbreaks are frequent during monsoon

The grains are handled, transported and stored in gunny sacks. About 70 % of the total production is reported to be retained by the farmers for consumption, seed purposes and for sale later on. The remaining 30% goes to the central pool which is maintained for public distribution and for export. The Food Corporation of India, the Central Warehousing Corporation, State Warehousing Corporations and State Civil Supplies Corporations are involved in the storage of food grains in India. Average storage loss in central storages due to insect infestation has been reported to be about 3%.

As in most other parts of the world phosphine is the major fumigant used for disinfestations of stored cereal grains at the farm level as well as in the central storages in India

TABLE 2. Current pest control practices in central storages.

Control method

Chemicals, dosage Frequency of application

A. Fumigation

Stacks Aluminum phosphide 3 tablets Per ton of grains, 5-7 days exposure

as situation warrants

Whole 15 tablets per m3 Occasional

godowns

B Residual sprays

Stacks, alleyways

Malathion 50% EC at 150 mg a.i / m2

Deltamethnn", 2.5% WP at 30 mg a.i/ m2

Fortnightly Every 3 months

C Space sprays

Inside godowns

Dichlorvos , 76 % EC at 17 mg/ m3

Fortnightly

Resistance to phosphine was first observed in stored product insects over 30 years ago as a cross resistance following selection of sitophilus granarius with methyl bromide. Moreover, a global survey undertaken by the FAO in 1972–1973 revealed that about 10% of the stored-product insect populations sampled from different countries contained phosphine-resistant individuals. There have been occasional reports on the occurrence of phosphine resistance in stored grain insects and control failures under field conditions following phosphine treatments in India.

There has been, yet, no systematic study on the incidence of phosphine resistance in different parts of the country to indicate the extent of the problem and the need to tackle it. The maximum levels of resistance recorded world over are: x 100 in R. dominica, x 40 in O. surinamensis, > x 16 in T. castaneum and x 14 in Cryptolestes ferrugineus.

TABLE 3. Phosphine resistance survey results over time

Survey Date Country % of resistant strains

R .dominica T .castaneum S .oryzae S . granarius

Champ and Dyte (FAO) 1972-73 Global 23.4 5.6 5.9 9.4

Taylor and Halliday 1983-85 Developing countries 77.3 48.1 75.0 -

Pacheco et al. 1986-88 Sao Paulo State, brazil 90.0 90.0 100 -

Ignatowicz 1997-98? Poland 9.8 - - 21.2

Table 4. Occurrence of phosphine resistance among field collected stored gram insect pests in India

Species

Number of populations Frequency of resistance occurrence (% ) Screened

Found Resistant

Tribolium castaneum

110 110 100

Rhyzopertha dominica

38 36 95

Sitophilus oryzae 36 26 72

Oryzaephilus surinamensis

25 23 92

Cryptolestes spp 8 7 88

Mechanisms of Phosphine Resistance

In poorly sealed enclosures, there will be gross leakage of the fumigant leading to the inability to reach the necessary exposure periods. Repeated ineffective fumigations exert selection pressures in situations where phosphine gas was rapidly lost

due to leakage. Another likely factor contributing to the spread of resistance is the movement of insects through international trade in commodities.

The phenomenon proposed that resistance mechanism involves active exclusion of phosphine. Biochemical studies show that phosphine resistance is due to higher level of Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) and acetylcholinesterases (AChE). Dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase (DLD) is a core metabolic enzyme representing a new class of resistance factor for a redox-active metabolic toxin i.e. phosphine gas. Phosphine resistance is mediated by two major recessive genes namely rph1 and rph2 (i.e. resistance to phosphine 1 and 2).

The Options to Tackle Insect Resistance

1. Use of pesticides in rotation or use of alternatives.

2. Changes in application techniques - using cylinder-based phosphine formulations

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3. The practice of first-in-first-out should be strictly followed for the gram stocks

4. More number of godowns should be constructed preferably in dry areas.

5. Open storage should be discouraged 6. Gas monitors should be provided to all district

storage centres. They have to be used to ascertain the retention of effective concentrations of phosphine

7. There should be separate covers (other than

the black polyethylene covers used for outdoor storages) preferably nylon reinforced PVC sheets of lighter shades for fumigating the stacks inside the godowns.

8. Treatment of all the grain stacks in a unit at a time should be encouraged

9. Residual spray treatment of grain stacks should also cover the top layer of bags to avoid the fling adults setting on the top to start the Infestation


Paddy Green Leaf Hopper (GLH) Management L. Ramazeame

Teacher, Department of Agricultural Entomology, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru College of Agriculture and Research Institute, Karaikal, U.T. of Puducherry - 609 603.

Nephotettix nigropictus Cicadellidae: Homoptera Nephotettix virescens Cicadellidae: Homoptera

Distribution

Green leafhoppers are common in rain-fed and irrigated wetland environments.

They are not prevalent in upland rice.

Staggered planting encourages population growth of GLH.

Problem areas include Nellore, Chittor, Krishna, East and West Godavari, Khammam,

Prakasam, Guntur, Nizamabad and Karimnagar Districts in Andhra Pradesh.

Prevalent in areas with continuous cropping with rice.

Host Range

It also feeds on number of grasses, such as Echinochloa colonum, E. crusgalli and Panicum proliferum.

Marks of Identification

Nephotettix nigropictus having two black patches in the fore wings of the males. In case of the females only some of them have these patches and are bigger in size than males.

Nephotettix virescens having two black spots in the fore wings of males. Females may or may not have the black spots and are bigger in size than males. Black sub marginal band on the crown is absent.

White and elongate or cigar-shaped individual eggs are arranged neatly and lie parallel to each other in each egg batch. Upon maturation, the egg turns brownish and develops red eyes.

The nymphs of both these species are greenish. Neonate nymph measures 0.9 mm long. It is transparent, white, and shiny. As it matures, it turns yellowish to green with or without black markings on the head, thorax, and abdomen. A mature nymph is 3.1 mm long. The shape of the nymph is similar to that

of the adult except that the nymph is smaller and is wingless.

As the insect matures, blackish markings on the abdomen become more prominent as well as the blackish band on the last abdominal segment.

Nature of Damage

Both the nymphs and adults feed on the dorsal surface of the leaf blades rather than the ventral surface. Both nymphs and adults of the green leafhopper feed on rice by sucking the plant sap and plugging the vascular bundles with stylet sheaths.

They prefer to feed on the lateral leaves rather than the leaf sheaths and the middle leaves.

N. nigropictus transmit 4 virus diseases of rice viz., Trasitory yellowing, Yellow dwarf

Dwarf, Tungro virus N. virescens transmits two virus diseases viz.,

rice yellow dwarf and rice stunt.

There are about 6 overlapping generations from March-November. The insect overwinters in the adult stage.

Symptoms of Damage

Transmits virus diseases such as tungro, yellow dwarf, yellow-orange leaf, and transitory yellowing.

Plant stunted and reduced vigor.

Number of productive tillers reduced.

Withering or complete plant drying. Yellowing, erect leaves, reduced tillering and stunted growth due to Tungro Virus.

Life History

The female insects the eggs in row under epidermis of leaf sheath and lay up to 53 eggs.

The total life cycle takes about 24 days.

there are five instars before it becomes adult

Egg period 6 days and nymphal stage 16-18 days.

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Seasonal Occurrences and Factors of Abundance

Normally it is most abundant during the rainy season.

High humidity and optimum temperature appear to be important factors causing its abundance.

The pest population is the maximum in July-August and decreases markedly after a heavy rain.

Excessive nitrogen applications encourages pest.

Staggered planting encourages population growth of GLH.

Management

Early clipping off of the infested tips of leaves.

Provide proper drainage.

Removal of the alternate host plants such as

Echinochloa colonum, E. crusgalli and Panicum proliferum.

Avoid phorate 3G in main field at 40DAT.

Spray with quinalphos (Ekalux) @ 2ml/lt or chlorpyriphos (Dursban) @ 2ml/lt or phosphamidon (Dimecron) @ 1.25ml/lt or Fenthion (Zebayeid) @ 1.5ml/lt or monocrotophos @ 2ml/lt.

If the populations are high, for immediate knockdown affect, mix dichlorvos (DDVP) @ 1ml/lt with monocrotophos @ 2ml/lt.

Economic Threshold Levels (ETL): 2 insects/hill in tungro endemic areas, 10 insects/hill in other areas at tillering stage and 20 insects per hill at mid tillering to panicle initiation to booting stages.

76. PEST MANAGEMENT 14216

Geospatial Technology for Insect-Pest Monitoring and Management

*Chhavi, Vinay Singh, Nikhil Sharma and Abhishek Rana

Ph.D. Scholars, Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, CSK HPKV Palampur (HP) 176062 *Corresponding Author e Mail: [email protected]

Agricultural production is affected by attack of pests/diseases on various crops and the losses in food grains. The prevention of such losses needs substantial consideration and accordingly forewarning of pests and diseases is essential for taking timely control measures. As conventional methods like survey, surveillance etc. are time consuming and labour intensive. So there is need for new technology which is less time consuming and more efficient and one of such technology is Geospatial technology. Geo means ‘the Earth', as in geography or geochemistry. Spatial refers to ‘in space', meaning anything that can be represented in terms of position, coordinates etc. So, geospatial technology is a technology relating to the collection or processing of data that is associated with location. In other words, it "consists of products, services and tools involved in the collection, integration and management of geographic data” and designed to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate, analyze, and display geographically referenced information. The use of geospatial technologies including Geographic information systems (GIS), the Global positioning system (GPS), Remote sensing (RS) and Variable Rate Technology (VRT), is gaining acceptance in the present high-technology, precision agricultural industry and holds the potential to reduce agriculture crop production cost as well as crop and environmental damage.

Applications of Geospatial Technology in Insect-Pest Management

The most common applications of geospatial technology in agricultural entomology (Bernardi 2001) includes:

1. Scouting, monitoring and mapping of pest populations

1. Detecting moth movement with RADAR: Radar observations of Sodoptera exempta, showed that this species is an obligate wind borne migrant (Pedgley et al. 1982). Northerly movements of Helicoverpa zea and H. virescens from Mexico to United States (Wolf et al. 1986).

2. Characterization of habitat susceptibility of pest outbreak: Bryceson (1989) used Landsat multispectral data to identify areas in Australia, which were likely to have egg beds of the Australian plague locust. Johnson (1989) used a GIS to examine the relationship between historical grasshopper outbreaks and soil characteristics and between weather and survey counts. Found that grasshopper abundance in Alberta was related to soil type, but not to soil texture.

3. Detecting mite injury levels: Spider mites injury includes removal of chlorophyll, cell structure damage through their feeding. This causes changes in leaf reflectance properties of the leaf. These are changes can be quantified to indirectly estimate the no. of

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spider mites causing injury on leaf (Hart and Myers 1968).

4. Detecting and discriminating winter wheat aphid: Observations recorded on leaf spectral characteristics of wheat infested by aphid, canopy spectral characteristics of wheat infested by aphid, aphid damage hyperspectral index (ADHI) for detecting aphid damage degree. The reflectance of wheat infested by aphid was lower than healthy wheat in filling stage probably because of honeydew excreted by aphid (Huang and Shizhou 2012).

2. Precision Application of Control Measures

Pest populations and crop yields are mapped for particular fields and appropriate agrochemicals (pesticides and fertilizers) which can then be applied only to the spot within a field that require them. GIS software is linked to the application equipment and is used to activate and stop spray nozzles. Using a computer to analyze a variety of inputs from environmental sensors, the system can compensate for many influencing factors (e.g. decrease drift and overspray resulting from wind).

1. Decision about where and when to use control measures: For example, detect and suppress isolated gypsy moth colonies before they grow and coalesce.

2. Aerial delivery of natural enemies: In bug bombs, the weevils are packed then these bug bombs are thrown from different heights into the infested fields by using UAVs (Unmanned Aerial vehicle) for the control of host.

Indian scenario of geospatial technology: Remote sensing and GIS technology are being effectively utilized in India in several areas for sustainable agricultural development and management. These areas include: cropping system analysis; agro-ecological zonation; quantitative assessment of soil carbon dynamics and land productivity; soil erosion inventory; integrated agricultural drought assessment and management and Integrated Mission for Sustainable Development (IMSD) but very less work have been done on pests/ diseases. NCIPM, New Delhi by using ArcInfo GIS, have prepared maps for sugarcane wooly aphids for the state of Maharashtra. It has also developed distribution maps for delineating hot spots of major insect pests and diseases of cotton and rice crop in India and forecasted Helicoverpa armigera situation in 10 talukas of Gulbarga district of Karnataka.

Future thrust: Most of applications of geospatial technology to insect problems are from the fields of forest and rangeland entomology; relatively few applications have been developed in agricultural systems. We expect that geospatial

technology will become increasingly important in the management of agricultural and medical insect pests as area-wide pest management becomes more common in these systems. The advent of GIS has made analysis of complex spatial patterns an attainable reality for ecologists and it is therefore likely that these tools will contribute to major developments in applied insect ecology. However, these future developments may be limited by our current conceptual ecological framework, which until recently has not concentrated on processes operating through space. This theoretical gap is embraced by the new field of "landscape ecology" which emphasizes large area phenomena and the effects of spatial patterning in the analysis of ecological phenomena. Despite the availability of tools such as GIS and geostatistics, the incorporation of space into ecological theory, ecological models, and pest management practices will not happen overnight because substantial developmental changes in both theory and practice must occur. If scouting is connected to microcomputers or field data in standard GIS formats, scouting information can be examined very rapidly and thoroughly.

References Bernardi M. 2001. Linkages between FAO

agroclimatic data resources and the development of GIS models for control of vector-borne diseases. Acta Tropica 79: 21–34

Bryceson K P. 1989. Use of Landsat MSS data to determine the distribution of locust egg beds in the Riverina region of New South Wales, Australia. Int. J. Rem. Sens 10:1749-1762

Hart WG and Myers VI. 1968. Infrared aerial colour photography for detection of populations of brown soft scale in citrus groves. Journal of Economic Entomology 61: 617–624

Huang L and Shizhou Du. 2012. Crop Disease and Pest Monitoring by Remote Sensing. In: Remote Sensing – Applications (Boris Escalante, eds), Beijing, China. p 516

Johnson DL. 1989. Spatial analysis of the relationship of grasshopper outbreaks to soil type. In: Estimation and analysis of insect populations (McDonald eds), New York. p 347-359

Pedgley DE, Reynolds DR, Riley JR, Tucker MR. 1982. Flying insects reveal small-scale wind systems. Weather 37:295-306

Wolf WW, Westbrook JK and Sparks AN. 1986. Relationship between radar entomological measurements and atmospheric structure in south Texas during March and April 1982. In: Long-Range Migration of Moths of Agronomic Importance to the United States and Canada: Specific Examples of Occurrence and Synoptic Weather Patterns Conducive to Migration, ed. A. N. Sparks, pp. 84-97. Beltsville, Md; US Oep. Agric. Agric. Res. Servo

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Soil Solarization: A Natural Pest Management Strategy Kishan Kumar Sharma1* and Jitender Kumar Sharma2

1M.Sc. (Agri.) and 2Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Plant Pathology, N.M. College of Agriculture, Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari- Gujarat 396450


INTRODUCTION: Many insects are active on soil surface, including both good (beneficial insects) and bad (insect pests). Mulch application on soil surface disrupts insect community and is therefore used for managing key insect pests. There are primarily two types of mulches, organic and inorganic (synthetic). Organic mulches are derived from any type of organic material like hay, straw, pine needles, shredded bark, sawdust, etc. The most commonly used inorganic mulches are polyethylene plastic films which are made from petroleum-based products.

What is Soil Solarization?

Soil solarization is a non-chemical, hydrothermal method of soil disinfestation which is accomplished by passive heating of moist soil covered with transparent polyethylene plastic sheeting for at least 6 weeks. This is the process of soil heating and soil disinfestations by applying inorganic mulches on soil surface. This process changes physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil which ultimately leads to improvement in soil health. The process is also referred to as solar heating or solar pasteurization. Soil solarization is preceded by soil steaming and fumigation, the main approaches for soil disinfestation. Solarization has been commercially used in regions that are cloudless and have hot weather with high solar radiations and air temperatures during the summers. The increased temperature (45-55 ºC) at a 5-cm soil depth under clear plastic films caused mortality of a variety of plant pathogens.

The extensive use of this technique has been reported from more than 120 countries spread across all six continents; however, in India and Pakistan where abundant solar radiation is available round the year, the practice of soil solarization is not so popularized. However, few studies have been conducted in Punjab, Rajasthan, and Gujarat. Likewise little work has been done on solarization in Pakistan during1996, and 2011. Soil solarization is a cost-effective, eco-friendly management practice for small farmers, if it is brought in common practice it has the potential to increase crop yield. Soil solarization has the potential to manage weeds, plant pathogens, plant-parasitic nematodes, and some insects as well as discussed below:

1. Effect of soil solarization on plant-parasitic nematodes: Solarization decreased population

levels of different species of nematodes. Nematodes control by solarization was greatest in the upper 30 cm of the soil. In North Central Florida (USA), different kinds of nematodes were controlled using soil solarization mainly root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) in vegetable and flower cropping system. A wide range of nematodes have been managed using solarization, including lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.), root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.), reniform nematodes (Rotylenchulus reniformis), soybean cyst nematodes (Heterodera glycines), sting nematodes (Belonolaimus spp.), stubby-root nematodes (Paratrichodorus minor), dagger nematodes (Xiphinema spp.), ring nematodes (Criconemella xenoplax), stem and bulb nematodes (Ditylenchus dipsaci), potato cyst nematodes (Globodera rostochiensis), spiral nematodes (Helicotylenchus digonicus), northern root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne hapla), pin nematodes (Paratylenchus hamatus), and sugar beet cyst nematodes (Heterodera schachtii).

2. Effect of soil solarization on weeds: Studies carried out across the world found that weeds such as annual bluegrass (Poaannua), common purslane (Portulaca oleracea), redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus), barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli), bean broomrape (Orobanche crenata), foxtail (Setaria spp.), johnson grass (Sorghum halepense), jungle rice (Echinochloa colonum), purple nutsedge (Cyperus rotundus), cogon grass (Imperata cylindrica), Amaranthus spp., Portulaca spp., Setaria spp., Digitaria spp., and Ageratum spp., were controlled using soil solarization. In North Central Florida (USA), soil solarization was effective in controlling various types of weeds including different kinds of grasses, broadleaf weeds (purslane, cudweed (Gnaphalium spp.), and hairy indigo (Indigofera spp.) and sedges (purple and yellow nutsedges (Cyperus rotundus. Soil solarization controlled annual weeds better than perennial weeds due to the resprouting capacity of weeds from deeply buried underground vegetative structures.

3. Effect of soil solarization on plant diseases: Soil solarization is effective worldwide against fungal pathogens including Verticillium spp.

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(wilt), Sclerotinia spp. (white mold), Fusarium spp. (several diseases), Macrophomina phaseolina (seedling blight, and root rot), Rhizoctonia spp., Phytophthora cactorum, P. nicotianae (Phytophthora root rot), and Pythium myriotylum (root rot). Soil solarization has also been found successful for controlling bacterial pathogens Agrobacterium tumefacien (crown gall), Clavibacter michiganensis (tomato canker), and Streptomyces scabies (potato scab) in California, and Colorado (USA).

4. Effect of soil solarization on chemical properties of soil: Soil solarization changed theavailability of essential elements to simpler and soluble forms that led to increase in pest resistance and reduction in stalk breakage in corn (Zea mays) cultivars. Soil solarization enhanced the growth and development of plants by changing the physical and chemical properties of soil through increased breakdown of organic material. This resulted in release of soluble nutrients like nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, potassium, and fulvic acid. In okra (Abelmoschus esculentus), leaf tissue concentrations of potassium, nitrogen, magnesium, and manganese were higher in solarized plots compared to non-solarized plots, however the concentrations of phosphorous and zinc were lower in solarized plots.

5. Effect of soil solarization on insect community: Soil solarization was useful for managing both agricultural and stored grain pests. The exposure period of solar radiation was a key factor to determine the effectiveness of soil solarization for the control of stored product pests. In the Nigerian savanna (Africa), suppression of cowpea seed beetle/cowpea weevil (Callosobruchus maculates) was observed in bambara groundnut (Vigna unguiculata) seeds after exposure to sunlight. Although not used as frequently against insect pests, seven weeks of soil solarization reduced incidence of stalk borer (Papaipema spp.) in corn cultivars by 8.9% in Islamabad (Pakistan).

6. Effect of soil solarization on crop yield: Soil beds covered with polyethylene sheets increased marketable yield of pepper (Capsicum spp.) crop as compared with untreated plots (Chellemi and Mirusso 2006). In Spain, soil solarization alone and in combination with Trichoderma increased the strawberry (Fragaria spp.) yield. In general, soil solarization enhances the growth of plant yield and quality. Soil disinfestation treatments provided protection and stimulation of root growth and crop yield through drastic qualitative and quantitative changes in the soil environment.

Steps for Conducting Soil Solarization under Field

Conditions

1. Where and when to do solarization: Solarization can be done on any kind of soil. For best results, it should be done in open, unshaded areas. If the sunlight is blocked by trees or buildings during the day then one cannot expect very good results. The best time for solarization is during the summer from June to August due to peak periods of hot temperatures. It has also been attempted in the spring and fall, results have not been found to be reliable because temperatures are cooler during these months.

2. Site preparation: The area to be solarized must first be cleared of existing weeds and debris. Tilling the site is helpful to increase penetration of heat into the top 6 inches of soil. Sticks, old roots, and other debris should be removed so they do not poke holes in the plastic. Water helps to conduct heat, so best results occur if soil is moist but not waterlogged or muddy. The solarization will not work as well, if the soil is very dry and dusty. If the soil received rain or irrigation the day before plastic application, that’s the best condition for soil solarization. If irrigation or rain occurs just a short time before applying plastic, the soil can be heavy, muddy, or otherwise difficult to work with, and the clear plastic can get dirty which can reduce the sun light penetration.

Overview of soil solarization in field

No weeds under solarized bed.

3. Type of plastic and its application: Solarization can be done on raised beds or on

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flat ground. If beds are used, it is better for the beds to run north-south than east-west. This ensures that the raised edges of the beds will receive direct sunlight either in the morning or afternoon. A clear plastic sheet or strip is stretched out over the area to be treated. The plastic piece should be a little larger than the area treated because the edges will need to be buried in soil. The plastic sheeting used must be completely clear. Other types of plastic should not be used. Black plastics or reflective plastics will get hot on the surface, but will not allow sunlight through to heat the soil below. Translucent or whitish plastics may allow some sunlight through, but that is insufficient to do a good job of solarization. At present, there are no recommendations about type or brand of clear plastic to use. Some people think thinner the plastic the better it is, but the main

consideration is that the plastic should be strong enough to last for at least 6 weeks in the summer sun without tearing apart. The plastic should be stretched tight and the edges sealed completely by burying in soil. If edges are not completely sealed, heat will leak out and problems may result in the cooler areas.

4. Solarize for at least 6 weeks: The plastic should be left in place intact with all edges buried for at least 6 weeks. After that, the plastic can be removed, and if the procedure was successful, weeds and soil pest management would be reduced for 3-4 months. Do not plant anything until the plastic is removed because the heat under clear plastic will kill seeds and plants. Disposal of used plastic can be a problem sometime, especially if the plastic is not strong and breaks apart before or during removal.


Integrated Management of Tuta absoluta – A Devastating Pest of Tomato in Andhra Pradesh

R. Prasanna lakshmi* and P. Ganesh Kumar

Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural University, Kalikiri, Chittoor dt, Andhra Pradesh


Tomato is the major horticultural crop grown in western part of Chittoor district of A.P with an average area of 16,000ha and it is grown throughout the year in the district. Insect pests i.e. Helicoverpa armigera and Spodoptera litura incidence on tomato is comparatively low in the district with yield losses ranges upto 2-3% only. But from the past two years the South American tomato leaf miner, Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Gelechiidae: Lepidoptera), a very harmful leaf mining moth with a strong preference for tomatoes causing 50-100% yield losses for the tomato growers. Tuta Absoluta which is originated from South America was first reported during October, 2014 in Pune, Maharashtra (ICAR) and subsequently in other tomato growing states of India like Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The pest with its high reproductive capability is known to cause damage throughout the entire growth period of tomatoes and becoming a serious threat to tomato production in the district.

Nature and Symptoms of Damage

The larvae of Tuta absoluta mine the leaves producing large galleries and burrow into the fruit, causing a substantial loss.

Most distinctive symptoms are the blotch-shaped mines in the leaves. Inside these mines both the caterpillars and their dark frass can

be found.

Larvae can form extensive galleries in the stems which affect the development of the plants.

Fruits infested by the larvae will have pinholes and larvae feed inside the fruit on the pulp and the entry ways are used by secondary pathogens leading to fruit rot.

In case of serious infection, leaves die off completely and fruits lose their commercial value.

Tomato plants can be attacked from seedlings to mature plants. Apart from tomato, the pest is observed on brinjal and potato also.

Integrated Pest Management

Tuta absoluta is a very challenging pest to control. As larvae are internal feeders it is difficult to achieve an effective control through application of chemical insecticides only. Control strategies are enlisted below and among them use of pheromone traps is a reliable method to detect the presence of Tuta absoluta and also for mass trapping of the pest. Pheromone trap data give early warning of the infestation and also will alert the user to low level of populations before they become serious and also it is environmental friendly.

Collection and destruction of infested tomato plants and fruits

Cover nursery with pest proof net and use

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pest free seedlings for transplantation

Crop rotation with non solanaceous crops

Installation of pheromone traps for mass trapping of male moths both in nursery and main field @ 40/ha.

Initiate use of insecticides both in nursery and main field if moth catches in pheromone traps exceeds 20-30moths/trap/week

Following insecticides are recommended for the control of the pest

Spraying of Neem formulation (azadirachtin 1% or 5%) @2-3ml or Chlorantraniliprole 10.26%OD @ 0.3ml or cyantraniliprole 18.5%SC @ 0.3ml or flubendiamide 20%WG

@0.3ml or indoxacarb14.5%SC @ 0.5ml or Imidacloprid 17.8%SL @ 0.3ml per lit of water is recommended based on the pest incidence.

Precautions

Avoid using phorate in nursery and main field

Avoid accumulation of infested fruits and crop residues in the field

Avoid use of insecticides that are not recommended for control of T. absoluta and excessive use of pesticides leads to resurgence of the pest

79. EXTENSION EDUCATION 13841

Use of Social Media in Effective Transfer of Agricultural Technologies

P. Sivaraj1 and R. Thulasiram2 *,1Research Scholar, Department of Agricultural Extension, TNAU, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu

2Assistant Professor (Agrl. Economics), IIAT, Thuraiyur, Tamil Nadu

Social media refers to the means of communication among people in which they create, share, consume and exchange information and ideas in virtual communities and networks. Extension mechanisms will have to be drive the farmers' needs, be a location specific information and to address diversification of demands in agriculture. The focus is on availability and accessibility of knowledge-based technologies to upgrade and improve the skills of not only Extension functionaries but also for the farmers.

Extension services must maintain close and effective relationships with sources of appropriate information, expertise, practical, specific problems from the farmers. Social media encapsulates digital tools and activities that enable communication and sharing across the network. The idea behind most of this phenomenon, as with many websites, is to help people feel socially connected and part of a community, even though they may be sitting home alone at their computer. Hence, these extension systems are to be altered to use social media for its service provision to the farming community.

Principles of Social Media

3Es of Social Media: According to Srinivasacharyulu (2015) 3Es of social media were Endorsement - Decisions are made on social media; Engagement- Customer engagement

transformed; Empowerment -Citizen Journalism. Social Networks: Social media’s ability is that

of dynamically aggregate many weak links which is giving rehabilitated movement to network centric models of social and economic change. Effective utilization of social media in agricultural extension will made share location specific technologies easily in local language of farmers for their betterment.

Blogs: Blogs allows us to keep our customers up-to-date on company news. They were allows admin to have conversations with variety of people. They serve as platform elements for professionals looking to build exposure and gain a solid reader base. One can easily publish success stories in their own blog and also blogs provide platform to share experience of farmers, information about new schemes and technologies by extension personnel to farmers, publish reports and achievements about innovation and also for to publish low cost for advertisements of farm inputs and farm produces through blogs.

Whatsapp: It is an instant messaging tool which helps to communicate farmers by text, audio, video and picture. WhatsApp can also be used, for the technology dissemination from extension personnel to the farmers to provide agro services like new technologies, market information and weather forecasting for the upliftment of farmers to attain their livelihood security.

You Tube: YouTube is a free video-hosting website that allows members to store and serve video content. YouTube members and website visitors can share YouTube videos on a variety of web platforms by using a link or by embedding HTML code. It is one of the best apps for better

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understanding of any technology with very good illustration for it provides information through videos. The technology related videos can be uploaded by the extension personnel with an intension to cover larger number of people across length and breadth of the nation. (www.youtube.com)

Facebook: Facebook is a popular free social networking website that allows registered users to create profiles, upload photos and video, send messages and keep in touch with friends, family and colleagues. It is where the farmers can also make use of advantage this network to establish a wider contact for sharing their experience, success stories and necessary information can be helpful in solving the problem by themselves. It is therefore, this media is indeed an effective media in building the relationship among the farmers or likeminded farmers besides assisting them in posting the burning topic of the agriculture and daily news pertinent to agriculture for their own betterment along with the guidance of the extension professionals.

Conclusion: The social media are helping the

farmers in getting required information from various tools at low cost. It help the extension personnel to collect information from different sources for enriching their knowledge level and updating it. Proactive use of social media tools will bring a knowledge revolution in agriculture at gross root level. Its tools will helps to create, share and store a knowledge, skill and attitude of the farmers in local language. It will helps on line storage of information and data and to access easily in anywhere at any time.

References Srinivasacharyulu, A. 2015. People’s Media for

Effective Sharing Agricultural Knowledge Trends and Opportunities. Presenting on “Social Media for Effective Sharing of Agricultural Knowledge” training programme organised by MANAGE, Hyderabad during 8-11 June at TNAU, Coimbatore.

Sriram, N. 2015. Leveraging Mobile Enabled Social Media for Extension Service. Presenting on “Social Media for Effective Sharing of Agricultural Knowledge” training programme organised by MANAGE, Hyderabad during 8-11 June at TNAU, Coimbatore.


Constraints in Contract Farming Charudatt D. Autade1 and Pritish A. Jakhar2

1Ph.D. Scholar, Dept. of Extension Education & 2Ph.D. Scholar, Dept. of Agril. Entomology, CCS HAU, Hisar - Haryana.

INTRODUCTION: The metamorphosis was brought by not only technological changes such as green revolution, but also by institutional innovations in delivering farm inputs and marketing of output. Contract farming is one such institutional initiative undertaken in recent years to address some of the problems faced by the Indian farmers. The National Agricultural Policy2000, announced by the Government of India, seeks to promote contract farming by involving the private sector to ‘accelerate technology transfer, capital inflow and assured marketing of crop production’ (Asokan, 2005). Food grains like cereals, pulses, fruits, vegetables, spices, tea, coffee and tobacco now come under the purview of the contract farming. Though most of the cereals, pulses, vegetables and spices are being cultivated through contract farming, cereals like paddy, wheat and maize, vegetables like potato and tomato, spices like ginger and turmeric, oilseed like til, tea, coffee and tobacco are common in India and cultivated abundantly. In the last couple of decades contract farming is viewed as a tool to provide technology, extension service, credit etc. to the farmers. It is perceived as a mutually beneficial arrangement between the firm and the farmers by many national governments and international aid agencies. Big corporate houses such as Hindustan Lever, Pepsi

Foods, A.V. Thomas, Dabur, Godrej etc. adopted contract farming for many crops apart from several small players. Theoretically, farmers stand to gain from contractual agreements that provide lower transaction costs, assured markets, and better allocation of risks. On the other hand, contracting firms have the advantage of more assured supplies, and reasonable control over quality and other specifications. However, in practice, there are practical problems that emerge in agricultural contracting that can result in losses to both farmers and firms.

Constraints of Contract Farming

1. Contract farming has several disadvantages like poor extension services, low prices to farmers due to haphazard pricing of the produce, inherent higher risk to cultivators, frequent delays in payment, weak bargaining power of farmers, and sole dependence on companies for inputs as also credit. Increased contract farming may actually promote scaling-up rather than serve to maintain smallholder farming.

2. Contract farming major constraint perceived by contract farmers were difficulty in meeting quality requirements.

3. The main disadvantages faced by contract farming developers are: land availability

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constraints; social and cultural constraints; farmers’ discontent; extra-contractual marketing; and input diversion.

Problems Faced by Farmers

Particularly when growing new crops, farmers face the risks of both market failure and production problems.

The staff of sponsoring organization may be corrupt, particularly in the allocation of quotas.

Farmers may become indebted because of production problems and excessive advances.

Inefficient management or marketing problems can mean that quotas are manipulated so that not all contracted production is purchased.

Gradation is made by the company.

Sponsoring companies may be unreliable or exploit a monopoly position.

The staff of sponsoring organizations may be corrupt, particularly in the allocation of quotas.

Farmers may become indebted because of production problems and excessive advances.

Problems Faced by Sponsors

Contracted farmers may face land constraints due to a lack of security of tenure, thus jeopardizing sustainable long-term operations.

Social and cultural constraints may affect farmers’ ability to produce to managers’ specifications.

Poor management and lack of consultation with farmers may lead to farmer discontent.

Inability to provide proper transport facilities to farmers due to poor road network, strikes, etc.

Farmers may sell outside the contract (extra-contractual marketing) thereby reducing processing factory throughput.

Non-availability of extension staff.

Farmers may divert inputs supplied on credit to other purposes, thereby reducing yields.

Successful Initiation in India

Contract farming in wheat is being practiced

in Madhya Pradesh by Hindustan Lever Ltd (HLL), Rallis and ICICI

Pepsi foods ltd. In Punjab – Tomato puri, Tomato paste, Basmati rice, Chillies, oilseeds and vegetables crops like potato. The company has established strategic partnership with PAU and Punjab Agro Industries Corporation (PAIC)

Appachi’s integrated cotton company model –Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu backed by a model called the Integrated Cotton Cultivation (ICC), which guarantees a market- supportive mechanism for selling the produce to growers.

Contract farming in ‘Gherkin’ in Karnataka Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. In Karnataka alone approximately 30,000 small and marginal farmers have taken up contract farming of gherkins. Karnataka exported 50,000 metric tons of gherkins valued at Rs. 143 crores during.

The contract poultry farming also carried out in state like, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh

References Asokan, S. R. (2005) A perspective of contract

farming with special reference to India, Indian Journal ofAgricultural Marketing, 19(2): 94-106.

babita Kumar et. al. (2013) Study of contract farming practices in Punjab, Journal of Progressive Agriculture; Vol.4, No. 1: April, 2013 pp 114 – 123

Kolekar D V and Meena H R 2012 Analysis of the Motivating Factors Perceived by the Farmers and Contract Dairy. Journal of Animal Production Advances 2(5): 254-264.

Randhir Singh et. al. (2013). Prospects and Problems of Malt Barley Cultivation through Contract Farming in Rajasthan, Journal of Global Communication; Vol. 6, No. 1, Jan. - June. 2013: pp 01-06.

Safeer pasha and Velmurugan (2012) Contract Farming: How Does it benefit Farmers?, Asian Journal in Business Economics and Management, Volume 2, Issue11 (November, 2012), pp 256 - 263


Evaluation of Training Programme Dr. Sumit R. Salunkhe1 and Dr. Netravathi G.2

1Assistant Professor, Department of Extension Education, Polytechnic in Agriculture NAU Vyara, Gujarat, India

2Assistant Professor, Department of Extension Education, College of Agriculture, NAU, Bharuch, Gujarat, India

What is Evaluation?

It is the determination of the extent to which the desire objectives have been attained or the

amount of movement that has been made in the desired direction.

It can be defined as the process of determining. The value or amount of success

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in achieving a predetermined objective.

Any attempt to obtain information on the effect of training programme and assess the value of training.

It is the measurement of programme against the predetermined goals.

Objectives of Evaluation

To examine strong and weak points of programme.

To understand factors responsible for success or failure of the programme.

To increase confidence among trainees as well as trainers.

To determine the degree of result achieved in terms of knowledge, skills and attitude.

To include the training institutions to examine their objective critically.

To facilitate presentation.

Criteria for Effective Evaluation

Clearly defined objectives

Valued instruments of measurement

Reliability

Objectivity

Accurate evidence of change

Practicability

Types of Training Evaluation

Evaluation can be classified into four types such as planning evaluation, process evaluation, terminal evaluation and impact evaluation.

1) Planning Evaluation

The evaluation for planning of the training programme consists of two phases. In the first phase, the training needs of the participants are assessed through one of the following four approaches:

Performance analysis

Task analysis

Competency study

Training needs survey

The skill gap analysis is also a part of assessing training needs.

2) Process Evaluation

The process evaluation is also known as formative evaluation.

This is done when the training programme is running and it helps in solving the problems arise in implementation of programme.

As a part of process evaluation, investigations are made on the following:

Monitoring of training to know whether it goes on as per the plan.

Appropriateness of training methods or audio-visual aids used.

Effectiveness of delivery or presentation.

Effectiveness with regards to proper mix of theory and practical.

Changes in the knowledge, skill and attitude among participants.

Satisfaction of trainees with boarding and lodging facilities

Effective utilization of finance.

3) Terminal Evaluation

Terminal evaluation is done at the end of the programme to find out to what extent the objectives and desired benefits of the programme have been achieved.

The strengths and weakness of the programme as perceived by the participants are also analyzed and the result of which will be useful to make future improvements.

The terminal evaluation is primarily concerned with learner performance which can be analyzed using two approaches namely norm-referenced and criterion-referenced. Under the norm-referenced evaluation, the gains in training are determined based on pre and post training scores.

The criterion referenced evaluation is related to investigation of what was taught and what was learned.

4) Impact Evaluation

Impact evaluation refers to assessing the programme impact on the job performance of the participants. It attempts to find answer to the following questions:

What are the improvements in the performance of job as the result of training?

What are the benefits accrued to the participants and organizations as the result of improved job performance?

What are the problems in applying the skills learned in the real works situation?

What can be done to enhance the application of newly learnt knowledge and skill in the work place?

Impact evaluation can be carried out at two levels.

The Steps for Evaluation

1. Formulate overall Objectives: The objectives are sometimes annual / seasonal / session wise / short term / long term. Under such circumstances the objectives need to be re-examined and reformulated in to a few clear statements. e.g. Raising the level of leaving, Increasing food supply, Increasing wheat yield, Increase productivity through recommended practices.

2. Clarify objectives and make them specific: Once the major objectives are formulated then splitted into immediate, specific and clearly defined goals. e.g. Raising the level of Leaving through Rural Development Programme. Immediate objectives: Persuade villagers for adoption of all package of recommended practices for wheat production.

3. Identify indicators: The indicators are evidence of moving towards the set of objectives and therefore movement is to be

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indentified through some indicator. e.g. Adoption of improved variety of wheat is the goal, then indicator will be adoption of improved variety of wheat. Likewise if the goal is to train participant in communication of technology than Indicator will be transfer of know-how for communication techniques.

4. Develop technique and method of measurement: Under this, the instruments or device for measurement of the changes of indicators are to be decided. e.g. If the objective is to transfer of knowledge than the indicator will be change in knowledge and the instrument to measure this changes will be different question to be asked to trainees.

5. Decide the design: To identify the specific changes occurring in the programme - follow statistically procedure. In designing for evaluation one has to take care that there should be distinctive effect of the programme which could be separated or singled out from other influence. For this control group is to be set up and the evaluation is carried out. Besides adequate sampling procedure is also required to be followed.

6. 8) Organization and analysis of data and interpretation of results: The data collected are transformed into suitable tables for analysis.

Finally the interpretation of the analysis of quantitative data is done.

Evaluation Methods

The following evaluation methods have been used successfully and their most appropriate applications are indicated.

1. Pre/Post Test 2. Opinion/Attitude Questionnaire 3. Trainer Observation 4. Trainer/Trainee Group Evaluation Session

5. Past training Practice Session 6. Follow up Trainee Evaluation Forms 7. Follow up Supervisory Evaluation Forms

Criteria for Effective Evaluation

1. Clearly defined Objectives: Objectives are polar ends and the achievement is moving towards this ends. If polar ends are not defined, no satisfactory evidence can be attained for programmes. Therefore, the overall objectives should be broken down into specific objectives.

2. Objectivity: The word objectivity emphasis freedom from bias, personal judgment or prejudise. With a view to have objective evaluation of the programme, sometimes external agencies are invited to evaluate the programme.

3. Reliability: This means more and more use of scientific methods in evaluation so that any expert if called for evaluation will reach at the same result.

4. Accurate evidence of change: The evaluation should point out and register accurate evidence of changes in the programme as against the situation prevailing in the initial stage of the programme. This may require two points of appraisal or with and without approach, before and after, pre-post evaluation.

5. Practicability: Resources available for evaluation, time and money are most important constraints so practical applicability most important.

Reference Dhama, O P; Bhatnagar (Op). (2005) Education and

Communication for Development new Delhi: Oxford And Ibh Publishing Co.

Gl Ray (2015) Extension Communication & Management Kalyani Publishers / Lyall Bk Depot


Role of Women in Diary Sector Netravathi. G1 and Sumith R. Solunkhe2

Assistant Professor, Dept. of Extension Education, College of Agriculture, Navsari agriculture University, Bharuch, Gujarat

Assistant Professor Dept. of Agriculture Extension, Polytechnic in Agriculture, NAU, Vyari, Gujarat, India

Gender differences are social constructs, inculcated on the basis of a specific society's particular perceptions of the physical differences and the assumed tastes, tendencies and capabilities of men and women. Gender differences, unlike the immutable characteristics of sex, are universally conceded in historical and comparative social analyses to be variants that are transformed over time and from one culture to the next, as societies change and evolve. In India, the

percentage of women depending on agriculture for livelihood is around 84 percent, among which about 33 percent are cultivators and 47 percent are agricultural labourers. Rural women perform a reproductive role, encompassing child bearing, child rearing and housework. At the same time, they also fulfill a productive role, engaging in paid labour activities outside the house and/or being in charge of a number of tasks related to household farming activities, including livestock

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management. In some developing countries, they make on average up to 43 percent of the agricultural labour force and contribute substantially to the livestock management (FAO, 2011). However, little research has been conducted on rural women’s roles in livestock keeping and the opportunities livestock-related interventions could offer them. Women are major contributors in the agricultural economy, but face various constraints that limit them from achieving optimal livestock production and agricultural development.

Key Gender Issues

Access and control over natural resources: Controlling assets such as land, water, livestock, and agricultural implements has a direct impact on whether men and women can forge life-enhancing livelihood strategies. Many countries still face challenges in translating legislation related to women’s access to and control of resources into action at the community and household levels (IFAD 2004). This impacts women’s capacity to control and benefit from livestock.

Decision making: Although differences, exist within and between different livestock production systems and across regions, women are almost universally recognized for their role as the main actors in poultry, small ruminant, and micro livestock production as well as dairying, including the processing and marketing of milk and milk products. Increasingly, experience shows (Bravo-Baumann 2000; Niamir-Fuller, 1994) that women’s labour and responsibilities in animal production remain under recognized and underappreciated by those designing and implementing livestock policies and plans (IFAD 2004).

Income Management: Studies have shown that women spend close to 90 percent of their income on their family, while men spend 30-40 percent, even when the overall income is not sufficient to meet family needs. Income under the management of women can increase their bargaining power, reduce domestic violence and improve the nutritional status of their children.

Food Security: Animal source foods, such as milk, meat and eggs, are rich in energy and also provide a good source of proteins, vitamins and minerals. Ownership of livestock by women increases the probability that households, especially children, will benefit from the consumption of livestock products or from food bought using income derived from livestock.

Information access: Limited agricultural education and training have been a critical factor in limiting the opportunities for women to,

Gain new technological knowledge in their areas of production

Occupy positions as agricultural researchers and extensions

Voice their demands for research, training,

and other kinds of support, including technology, policy, and financing.

The need for a different kind of education and training for women has become obvious because, women are managers in their own right and women agricultural researchers bring new ideas and insights.

Role of Women in Diary Industry

Dairy is one of the most important investments a farmer can make to improve welfare, income and nutritional standards of the household because of their inherent value, the work they can perform, the way they can help diversify farming activities and the fundamental nutritional value of the milk produced. It is estimated that around 150 million small-scale dairy farming households are engaged in milk production, the majority of them in developing countries. Around 750 to 900 million people (12-14 percent of the world population) rely on dairy farming to some extent (FAO, 2010).

The role that women play in the management of dairy cattle differs greatly among communities, countries and regions, although some patterns and tendencies can be identified across most regional contexts. Among both mobile dairy farming and settled dairy farming, women are traditionally responsible for milking animals, processing milk and collecting dairy products.

Frequently children are also involved in the management of dairy cattle performing various tasks. Girls tend to be more involved in tending dairy animals, especially when they are kept around the house premises, while young boys tend to be engaged as livestock herders, “graduating” from small ruminants to dairy cattle as they become young men (FAO, 2012).

Within households across different contexts, women are in many cases central to milk production, although the responsibility for managing milk production does not always translate into ownership of the dairy animal. This lack of ownership of and control over dairy animals is one of the main constraints that women face in dairy farming. Often women’s involvement in the decision-making process is ruled out, particularly in relation to the sale and/or slaughter of dairy animals, as well as the use and sale of milk and milk products. This situation is a consequence of women’s poor access to and control over natural resources, particularly land. Insecure land tenure, in fact, restricts access to grazing for dairy animals where there is no communal grazing land available. In addition without ownership of land and a valid land title that can be used as collateral, women very often cannot access credit to purchase expensive dairy animals or make use of additional paid labourers. Land ownership is also often necessary to join Livestock Associations, where market and technical information is shared, boosting their members’ bargaining power. Across different

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contexts and cultures, men are frequently the ones responsible for the commercialization of the dairy products, while women play a minor role at this stage of the value chain. Very often this creates a situation in which women end up having less control over and/or a smaller share of the income generated from the sale of dairy animals or dairy products. As women tend to reinvest around 90 percent of their income in the household for education, improved agricultural inputs, food, new livestock, etc. The overall household food security and wellbeing would increase if women had an equal share of the earnings from dairy farming.

Summary: Access to and control over natural resources such as water, energy and biodiversity and particularly access to and ownership of land, are crucial elements in order to enable household members to successfully manage small livestock and dairy farming activities. Strengthen women’s technical skills by facilitating their systematic inclusion in training in husbandry practices, processing and marketing of livestock products, ensuring that training sessions are also provided in villages and small rural communities.

Women and men farmers have different, yet complementary, responsibilities for agriculture production and food security; for this reason, both require access to various financial services that are designed to fit their specific needs. Advocate for increased opportunity for women to access different financial services such as credit, savings, remittances and insurance schemes in order to provide them with opportunities to scale up their livestock production. Microfinance remains a powerful tool for providing financial resources to smallholder farmers. Micro-credit can also provide an essential entry point for upgrading women’s businesses and women’s production to a level from which they can then access formal sector financial services. While liaising with governmental and financial institutions, support, promote and encourage financial services that

meet women’s needs (risk insurance, inventory, health, life and funeral insurance) and that are tailored to the specific challenges faced by women (i.e. advocate for loans where collateral is not required because substitutes such as solidarity groups, or character references are acceptable). Also advocate for the establishment of livestock banks that include and encourage women’s participation. Building on the recognized link between food security and household assets, these special financial institutions work as an instrument that promotes and facilitates asset accumulation for low-income households.

Advocate market reforms that tend to bridge the gap between the formal and informal market sectors, enabling smallholder farmers to cooperate in the processing, transport and marketing of goods. This is particularly important, as 95 percent of local trade in livestock takes place through such informal channels.

References Bravo-Baumann, Heidi, 2000, “Gender and Livestock:

Capitalisation of Experiences on Livestock Projects and Gender.” Working document, Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, Bern.

FAO, 2010, Roles of women in agriculture http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/am307e/am307e00.pdf

FAO, 2011, Notes on livestock, food security and gender equity, http://www.fao.org/docrep/ 014/i2426e/i2426e00.pdf

FAO, 2012, Children’s work in the livestock sector: Herding and beyond http://www.fao-ilo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/fao_ilo/pdf/Childrens_Work_ LivestockP_V.pdf

International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), 2004. “Livestock Services and the Poor: A Global Initiative. Collecting, Coordinating and Sharing Experiences”, IFAD, Rome.

Niamir-Fuller, Maryam, 1994. “Women Livestock Managers in the Third World: A Focus on Technical Issues Related to Gender Roles in Livestock Production.” IFAD, Rome.


Role of Rural Cooperative Milk Collection Units in Marketing and Distribution of Feed Supplement

Pravin Sukhadeo Gaikar

Assistant Professor, Department of Crop Science, College of Agricultural Biotechnology, Loni

INTRODUCTION: India have been increasing milk production since last decades speedily and now come to ranks first, in the world nearly 18.5 % of milk produced in India. From 2013 to 2014 World milk production increases 3.1% where as in India it increases 6.26%. The success of the dairy industry has resulted from the integrated co-operative system of milk collection, transportation, processing and distribution.

Veterinary Feed Supplements

The quality standards of Indian feeds are high and up to international levels. Raw materials for feed are adequately available in India.

The feed industry has modern computerized plants and the latest equipment for analytical procedures and the latest manufacturing technology. In India, most research work on animal feeds is practical and focuses on the use of

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by-products, the upgrading of ingredients and the enhancing of productivity.

Distribution Channel

Distribution channel is fourth traditional element of the marketing mix. The nature of the distribution channel:-

Most businesses use third parties or intermediaries to bring their products to market they try to forge a ‘Distribution Channel’ which can defined as,

“All the organizations through which a product must pass between its points of production to point of consumption”

Why do businesses give the job of selling its products to intermediaries? The answer lies in efficiency of distribution costs. Intermediaries are specialists in selling. They have the contacts, experience and scale of operation which means that greater sales can be achieved than if the producing business tried running a sales operation itself.

There are Numbers of Distribution Channel Levels need to be in the each layer of marketing intermediaries that performs some work in bringing the product to its final buyer is a "channel level". There are some examples of channel levels for consumer marketing channels:

Channel 1. Manufacturer to Customer: It is called a "direct-marketing" channel, since it has no intermediary levels. In this case the manufacturer sells directly to customers. An example of a direct marketing channel would be a factory outlet store. Many holiday companies also market direct to consumers, bypassing a traditional retail intermediary - the travel agent.

Channel 2. Manufacturer to Dealer to Customer: It contains one intermediary. In consumer markets, this is typically a retailer. The consumer electrical goods market in the UK is typical of this arrangement whereby producers such as Sony, Panasonic, Canon etc. Sell their goods directly to large retailers such as Comet, Dixons and Curries which then sell the goods to the final consumers.

Channel 3. Manufacturer to Distributors to Dealer to Customer: It contains two intermediary levels - a wholesaler and a retailer. A wholesaler typically buys and stores large quantities of several producers’ goods and then breaks into the bulk deliveries to supply retailers with smaller quantities. For small retailers with limited order quantities, the use of wholesalers makes economic sense. This arrangement tends to work best where the retail channel is fragmented - i.e. not dominated by a small number of large,

powerful retailers who have an incentive to cut out the wholesaler. A good example of this channel arrangement in the UK is the distribution of drugs.

Now a days Feed supplement production companies follow the new channel for marketing and distribution of their products, which is like

Manufacturer to Distributors to Village Cooperative Level to Customer

Cooperative dairy or milk collection center are established in rural area by milk producers and directly linked to milk producers or milk producers they visits daily to collect the milk.

Feed supplement companies has need to organize milk producers meetings or other different promotions for marketing of product and also important to increase sale, it is convenient at cooperative units because milk producers are gathered to unit for milk collection at a time.

Functions of A Cooperative Distribution Channel

Due to Cooperative distribution channel the link is set between production and consumption. The cooperative channel performs many key functions:

Information: Gathering and distributing market research and intelligence.

Promotion: Developing and spreading communications about offers.

Contact: Finding and communicating with prospective buyers.

Matching: Adjusting the offer to fit a buyer's needs, including grading, assembling and packaging.

Negotiation: Reaching agreement on price and other terms of the offer.

Physical distribution: Transporting and storing goods.

Financing: Acquiring and channel using funds to cover the costs of the distribution.

Risk taking: Assuming some commercial risks by operating the channel.

Milk producer gets more concession, credit facility and availability of feed supplement product at convenient place from cooperative unit which increases the business and also increases the market share.

Mostly milk producers prefer the small pack but due to credit facility milk producers buy the large packaging from cooperative level which also decreases the customer buying cost.

Conclusion: Organization gets all information regarding needs of milk producers and they collect feedback at single place and it is convenient to promotion, negotiation, financing and easy to distribution by using the Cooperative Channel.

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84. AGRIBUSINESS 13601

The Role of Agricultural Marketing in Rural India Dr. Sumedha S. Bobade1 and Dr. Rajendra Gade2

1Lecturer, 2Associate Dean (VNCAB), Vasantrao Naik College of Agricultural Biotechnology, Yawatmal (Maharashtra)

In India, the organised marketing of agricultural commodities has been promoted through a network of regulated markets. The advent of regulated markets has helped in mitigating the market handicaps of producers/sellers at the wholesale assembling level. But the rural periodic markets in general, and the tribal markets in particular, remained out of its developmental. The purpose of state regulation of agricultural markets was to protect farmers from the exploitation of intermediaries and traders and also to ensure better prices and timely payment for their produce. Rural markets are gaining importance in emerging economies. A large number of businesses are involved in the marketing of various products in the rural areas of India and elsewhere. The main objective of this program is to develop a strong foundation of applied knowledge, concepts, approaches and analytical-skills in the participants for successful marketing of products and services to rural consumers and users. The National Commission on Agriculture defined agricultural marketing as a process which starts with a decision to produce a saleable farm commodity and it involves all aspects of market structure of system, both functional and institutional, based on technical and economic considerations and includes pre and post- harvest operations, assembling, grading, storage, transportation and distribution.

The Indian council of Agricultural Research defined involvement of three important functions, namely

a) assembling (concentration) b) preparation for consumption (processing) and c) distribution.

With Advancement of Mall culture, the agriculture sector needs well-functioning markets to drive growth, employment and economic prosperity in rural areas of India. In order to provide dynamism and efficiency into the marketing system, large investments are required for the development of post-harvest and cold-chain infrastructure nearer to the farmers’ field. A major portion of this investment is expected from the private sector, for which an appropriate regulatory and policy environment is necessary. Also, enabling policies need to be put in place to encourage the procurement of agricultural commodities directly from farmers’ fields and to establish effective linkage between the farm production and the retail chain and food processing industries. Accordingly, the state

governments were requested to promote investment in marketing infrastructure, thereby motivating the corporate sector to undertake direct marketing and to facilitate a national integrated market. These are need to the initiative to promote modern terminal markets for fruits, vegetables and other perishables in important urban centres in India. These markets would provide state-of-the art infrastructure facilities for electronic auction, cold chain and logistics and operate through primary collection centres conveniently located in producing areas to allow easy access to farmers. The terminal markets are envisaged to operate on a ‘hub-and-spoke’ format, wherein the terminal market (the hub) would be linked to a number of collection centres. There is need for creation of a scientific storage capacity with allied facilities in rural areas to meet the requirements of farmers for storing farm produce and to prevent distress sale of produce.

Agricultural Marketing Infrastructure, Grading and Standardisation for these subsidy is being provided on the capital cost of general or commodity-specific marketing infrastructure for agricultural commodities and for strengthening and modernisation of existing agricultural wholesale markets, and rural or periodic markets in tribal areas. The scheme covers all agricultural and allied sectors including dairy, poultry, fishery, livestock and minor forest produce. Agricultural and food marketing systems as consisting of 4 main sub-systems; production, distribution, consumption and regulatory.

The key players in the chain of activities that connect food and agriculture are the farmer, (or other ‘producers’ such as fishermen), intermediaries, the food processors, and the consumer. In practice they each see the agricultural/food marketing system from a perspective of self-interest and these interests are sometimes in conflict

Need of Rural Marketing

The Ensure proper availability of consumer products

To ensure proper price spread

Ensure adequate marketable surplus

Prerequisite of efficient agricultural marketing

Storage facility

Capacity to hoard

Transportation facility

Adequate information

Less intermediaries

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Regulated markets

Good quality of produce

Problems faced by rural Marketing

Inadequate transportation facilities

Malpractices in Mandis

Lack of credit

Lack of market Information

Unregulated weights and measures

Lack of standardization and grading

Involvement of Middleman /Dalal, Excessive market charges

Lack of storage facility

Adulteration

Unfavorable condition

Creating local outlets at each village where the farmers sell their stocks directly to the consumers or the authorized buyers at fixed prices would help to a great extent. Intervention of government in this network is essential to bring the fruits to the farmers.

Reference Kotler, Philip.; Kevin Lane Keller (2006). Marketing

Management, 12th ed. Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-145757-8.

Acharya S.S. and Agarwal NL, 2006, Agricultural Marketing in India. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi

85. FOOD SCIENCE 14602

Amino Acid Pool, Protein Turn Over and Protein Regulation in Human Body

Preeti Choudhary

Ph.D. Student, Department of Food Science, Nutrition and Technology, CSKHPKV, Palampur (HP) 176062


Amino Acid Pool

The amino acids in body tissues and fluids that are available for new protein synthesis.

The amino acid pool describes the entire amount of available free amino acids in the human body. The size of the pool amounts to around 120 to 130 grams in an adult male. If we consume protein in the diet, the protein in the gastro-intestinal tract is broken down into the individual amino acids and then put back together again as new protein. This complex biological process is called protein biosynthesis. The entire amino acid pool is transformed, or ‘exchanged’ three to four times a day.

Figure- 1 Protein turnover results from synthesis and degradation of proteins. The rate of protein oxidation which primarily depends on protein intake, the process of protein transformation and the excretion of end products are shown. AA = amino acids.

This means that the body has to be supplied with more amino acids, partly by protein biosynthesis, partly by the diet or through consumption of suitable dietary supplements. The main pathway of amino acid metabolism is protein synthesis. In a 70 kg adult man, the body protein

pool represents 10-12 kg, of which 42 % is in skeletal muscle, 15 % each in skin and blood, and 10 % in visceral organs. Four proteins (collagen, myosin, actin and haemoglobin) account for half of the body protein pool, and 25 % of the proteins of the body are present as collagen.

A schematic diagram showing these key metabolic processes which occur in the liver i.e. elimination of Nitrogen from the body and endogenous production of glucose when it’s availability is low, is shown in Figure.1

Protein Turnover

The maintenance of body protein stores (i.e. lean body mass) at an appropriate level forms the basis of protein homeostasis. The proteins of the body are not metabolically inert, but are continuously being broken down and replaced by new molecules. This forms the basis of the concept of protein turnover, indicating that body proteins are in a dynamic equilibrium, which largely contributes to protein homeostasis.

Protein synthesis, protein degradation, and amino acid oxidation are tightly regulated to preserve lean body mass in healthy individuals. Protein turnover can be considered as the sum of protein synthesis + protein degradation. A greater rate of whole body synthesis than breakdown indicates an anabolic state that results in lean tissues deposition, whereas more breakdown than synthesis indicates a catabolic state that degrades lean tissues.

The magnitude of daily protein turnover is in adults 3-4 fold greater (5-6 fold greater in growing children) than the intake of protein, respectively

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the oxidation of protein. For example, it has been demonstrated that the rate of protein synthesis (10-12 g/kg body wt. /d. in rapidly growing infants greatly exceeds that necessary for net protein gain e.g. 2 g/kg body wt. /d. This indicates an efficient recycling of amino acids in the free amino acid pool, the size of which is tightly regulated. In other words, the amino acids released by protein breakdown can be reutilized for protein synthesis rather efficiently for N recycling but this has an energetic cost.

Endogenous factors include age, growth, body composition (fat-free mass, adipose tissue) and various diseases (catabolic, hyper metabolic). For example, the rate of protein turnover is known to decrease with age in humans, particularly in muscles.

1. Body composition (fat-free mass, adipose tissue): The changes in body composition (in particular a fall in fat-free mass and muscle mass) with aging may explain the fall in protein turnover observed. However whether there is a decrease, depends upon how the results are expressed, in absolute value or per unit fat-free mass. Obesity in prepubertal children was associated with an absolute increase in whole-body protein turnover, which contributed to explain the greater energy expenditure in obese children than in control children, when expressed in absolute values. However when expressed per kg body weight, all values were lower in the obese children.

2. Protein turnover and growth: Since growth involves deposition of protein, the rate of synthesis must be greater than breakdown. The most economical way of achieving this would be by a reduction breakdown, but that is not in fact what happens. During rapid growth, the body protein breakdown is greater than in the non-growing state. Children recovering malnutrition are another example of rapid growth, since they may gain weight more than 20 times the normal rate for their age. During this phase of recovery it was shown that for every gram of protein laid down, 1.5 g had to be synthesized, over and above the basal rate of replacement.

3. The effects of food intake and plane of nutrition on protein turnover: The effects of food on protein turnover are quite complex because account has to be taken of three separate factors: a) Immediate intake: The protein synthesis

and amino acid oxidation in the whole body are very sensitive to the immediate food supply. Thus the N balance that is normally achieved over a period of 24 h is the end result of two opposite phases, positive and negative.

b) The effect of the prevailing food intake on protein turnover: By 'prevailing' intake is

meant the diet consumed for some time, usually about a week, before the measurement of protein turnover.

c) The effect of nutritional state on protein turnover: In the case of the skin, the soluble protein has a high rate of turnover, but the tissue as a whole has a low rate because of its large collagen content. If the rate is reduced in the whole body, there must be a substantial fall in turnover in the viscera and perhaps in the brain, which in the malnourished child amounts to 10% of the body weight.

d) Protein turnover in severe illness: During severe illness, there is an increased protein breakdown (25-127%) and, to a lesser extent, an increased whole-body protein synthesis (16-47%) (acute phase response, wound repair, immune response…), leading to a negative protein balance, and an increased flux of amino acids from the periphery to the liver.

e) Protein turnover and effects of dietary proteins on insulin sensitivity: The main determinants of protein turnover are protein intake, fat free mass (for which body proteins play a major role), and age. Daily protein intake is essential for the maintenance of protein synthesis, and protein requirements are approx. 10-20% of total body protein turnover, depending on the type of protein.

4. Exercise and protein turnover a) Whole body protein turnover- 'Exercise'

can mean many things: we have to distinguish between habitual activity and short bouts, and at the more physiological level, between contractile work and passive stretch. There seems no reason to doubt the classical teaching that habitual physical activity does not alter N balance or protein requirements.

b) Muscle protein turnover-As with the whole body, it is necessary to distinguish between continuing activity and short bouts. Hypertrophy of skeletal muscle, analogous to the effect of training, has been produced experimentally by stretch maintained over a long period.

5. The Effects of Injury and Infection: A negative N balance can obviously result from a decrease in protein synthesis as well as from an increase in breakdown. The cumulative excretion was greater, the larger the negative N balance. The more severe injury there is indeed an increase in protein breakdown, to an extent roughly parallel with the extent of the injury.

6. Regulation: Regulation can be considered at many levels:- the whole body, individual organs and tissues, the cell and the molecule. At the level of the whole animal there are two

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cycles of N metabolism which are inter-related but which can to a certain extent operate independently. The first cycle is the familiar one of exchange between the body and the environment, of intake and output, which in the steady state are in balance. The second cycle is that of protein synthesis and

breakdown, i.e. turnover. These cycles are independent in that N intake and output may change without any necessary change in turnover, as seems to happen at levels of protein intake above maintenance. However, if either cycle is out of balance, the other must follow suit.


Application of Pulsed Electric Field in Fruit Juices Birwal P., Patel S. S. and Deshmukh G.

Ph.D. Scholar, SRS of ICAR-NDRI, Bangalore, 560030

INTRODUCTION: The need to preserve food has a long history. Problems with deterioration is always there since the food gathering and domestic production of crops. In recent years, the most obvious trends have been the demand for high-quality foods with good convenience. Freshness and flavor are highly valued. All these demands from consumer side is making food manufacturer to approach for novel technologies which can preserve the food constituents. Several new preservation technologies have been investigated which have expected potential to inactivate microorganisms with little harm to the food. From investigated technologies several non-thermal processing technologies were proposed with basic principle of targeting the food with ambient temperature as compared to thermal processing where temperature ranges are higher. And the same method helps in preserving minerals, vitamins, essential flavors. Pulsed electric field (PEF) is one of the emerging technology which has been extensively studied for non-thermal food processing and has gained attention from universities, research units as well as food companies

Potential Applications

PEF technology has recently been used in alternative applications including drying enhancement, enzyme activity modification, preservation of solid and semisolid food products and waste water treatment, besides pretreatment applications for improvement of metabolite extraction. Studies conducted on different plant tissues such as potato tissue, coconut, carrots, mango and apple slices paprika etc. PEF improve the efficiency of the dehydration process of fruits or vegetables. PEF technology aims to offer consumers a high-quality food. Most PEF studies have focused on PEF treatments effects on the microbial inactivation in milk, yogurt, soups, eggs, water, beer, juice etc.

Juices: Apple and orange juices are among the foods most often treated in PEF studies. The sensory attributes of juices are reported to be well preserved, and the shelf life is extended.

Technology of pulsed electric fields (PEF)

could be an alternative preservation method of food liquids compared to traditional heat pasteurization where the main purpose is to inactive pathogenic bacteria. Also PEF processing system is associated with minimum energy utilization and greater energy efficiency than thermal processing. In apple juice treatment, energy utilized in PEF is 90% less than the amount of energy used in high temperature and short time processing methods (HTST). The PEF treatment was shown to be very effective for inactivation of microorganisms, in increasing pressing efficiency and enhancing the juice extraction from food plants and also intensified the food dehydration and drying. Thirty-five pulses of an electric field of 35 kV/cm applied to freshly extracted high pulp orange juice resulted in over five-log reduction of naturally occurring microbiological contaminants. The color and taste of the juice was acceptable for at least 10 days, in comparison to untreated juice that was found to be unacceptable after 4 days [2]. The effects of high-intensity pulsed electric field on an orange-carrot juice mixture (80:20, v/v) was evaluated. In parallel, a conventional heat treatment (98°C, 21s) was also applied to the juice. The samples treated with an electric strength of 25 and 30kV/cm were found to have higher concentrations of carotenoids and vitamin A as compared to pasteurized juice [6].

Comparison of the effect of pasteurization and PEF treatment on colour, browning and hydroxyl methyl furfural (HMF) content was done. No significant difference was reported between the treatments [1]. The degradation kinetics of ascorbic acid was determined in orange–carrot juice treated by different electric field intensities (25, 30, 35, and 40 kV/cm) and treatment times (30-340 μs). The 25kV/cm showed minimum degradation rate of ascorbic acid in the pasteurized orange–carrot juice. Also PEF treatment at 25 kV/cm for 280–330 μs extended the half-life of the juice stored at 2°C to 50 days [5]. No significant change in milk and orange juice quality was also reported following electric field treatment [4]. Investigation on the effect of pulsed electric field (PEF) treatment on the inactivation of E. coli O157:H7 in apple juice and cider at

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electric field strengths of 34, 31, 28, 25, and 22 kV/cm and a mean total treatment time of 166 μs. A 4.5 log reduction with no change in colour and vitamin C content was observed [3].

Conclusion: Depending on design, pulse shape, voltage, duration numerous application is there for fruit juices processing.

References Cortés, C.; Esteve M. J.; Frígola. A. Color of orange

juice treated by high intensity pulsed electric fields during refrigerated storage and comparison with pasteurized juice. Food Control, 2009, 19(2):151-158

Dunn, J. E.; Pearlman. J. S. Methods and apparatus for extending the shelf-life of fluid food products. US Patent, 1987, 4: 695,472

Evrendilek, G.A.; Jin, Z. T.; Ruhlman, K. T.; Qiu, X.; Zhang, Q. H.; Richter, E. R. Microbial safety and

shelf-life of apple juice and cider processed by bench and pilot scale PEF systems. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 2000, 1:77-86.

Grahl, T., Sitzmann, W.; Marki, H. Killing of microorganisms in fluid media by high-voltage Pulses: in 10th Dechema Biotechnology Conference Series 58 (Kreysa, et al., eds), Verlagsgesellschaft, Hamburg, Germany, 1992, pages 475-478.

Torregrosa, F.; Esteve, M.J; Frígola, A.; Cortés, C. Effect of high-intensiy pulsed electric fields processing and conventional heat treatment on orange−carrot juice carotenoids. J. Food Eng., 2004, 73(4): 339-345.

Torregrosa, F.; Cortés, C.; Esteve, M. J.; Ana Frígola. A. Effect of high-intensity pulsed electric fields processing and conventional heat treatment on orange−carrot juice carotenoids. J. Agri. Food Chem., 2005, 24:9519-9525


Nutritional and Health Benefits of Brussel Sprouts Preeti Choudhary

PhD Student, Department of Food Science, Nutrition and Technology, CSKHPKV, Palampur (HP) 176062


Brussel Sprouts Nutrition Facts

Brussel sprouts are small, leafy green buds resembling like miniature cabbages in appearance. They nonetheless are exceptionally rich sources of protein, dietary fiber, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. In fact, a renewed interest among the scientific community is emerging about health benefits of brussels-sprouts have to offer.

Botanically, the sprouts belong to the same Brassica family of vegetables which also includes cabbage, collard greens, broccoli, and kale. Scientific name: Brassica oleracea (Gemmifera Group).

Brussels sprouts are rich in many valuable nutrients. They are an excellent source of vitamin C and vitamin K. They are a very good source of numerous nutrients including folate, manganese, vitamin B6, dietary fiber, choline, copper, vitamin B1, potassium, phosphorus and omega-3 fatty acids.

Health Benefits of Brussel Sprouts

Brussel sprouts are one of the low-glycemic nutritious vegetables that should be considered in weight reduction programs. 100 grams of brussel sprouts provide just 45 calories, nonetheless, they contain 3.38 g of protein, 3.80 g of dietary fiber (10% of RDA) and zero cholesterol.

In fact, brussels sprouts are a storehouse of several flavonoid anti-oxidants such as thiocyanates, indoles, lutein, zea-xanthin, sulforaphane and isothiocyanates. Together,

these phytochemicals offer protection from prostate, colon, and endometrial cancers.

Di-indolyl-methane (DIM), a metabolite of indole-3-carbinol, is found to be an effective immune modulator, anti-bacterial and anti-viral agent through its action of potentiating "Interferon-gamma" receptors.

Additionally, brussel sprouts contain a glucoside, sinigrin. Early laboratory studies suggest that sinigrin helps protect from colon cancers by destroying pre-cancerous cells.

Brussel sprouts are an excellent sources of vitamin C; 100 g sprouts provide about 85 mg or 142% of RDA. Together with other antioxidant vitamins such as vitamin A and E, it helps protect the human body by trapping harmful free radicals.

Zea-xanthin, an important dietary carotenoid found in sprouts, is selectively absorbed into the retinal macula-lutea in the eyes where it is thought to provide anti-oxidant and protective light-filtering functions from UV rays. Thus, it helps prevent retinal damage, "age-related macular degeneration related macular degeneration disease" (ARMD), in the elderly.

Brussel sprouts are a good source of another anti-oxidant vitamin, vitamin-A; providing about 754 IU per 100 g (25% of RDA). Vitamin-A is required for maintaining healthy mucosa and skin, and is essential for eye health. Foods rich in this vitamin have been found to offer protection against lung and oral cavity cancers.

It is one of the excellent vegetable sources for

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vitamin-K; 100 g provides about 177 µg or about 147% of RDA. Vitamin K has potential role bone health by promoting osteotrophic (bone formation and strengthening) activity. Adequate vitamin-K levels in the diet help limiting neuronal damage in the brain and thereby, preventing or at least delaying the onset of Alzheimer's disease.

Further, the sprouts are notably good in many B-complex groups of vitamins such as niacin, vitamin B-6 (pyridoxine), thiamin, pantothenic acid, etc., that are essential for substrate metabolism inside the human body.

They are also rich source of minerals like copper, calcium, potassium, iron, manganese,

and phosphorus. 100 g fresh sprouts provide 25 mg (1.5% of RDA) sodium and 389 mg (8% of RDA) potassium. Potassium is an important component of cell and body fluids that helps controlling heart rate and blood pressure by countering effects of sodium. Manganese is used by the body as a co-factor for the antioxidant enzyme, superoxide dismutase. Iron is required for cellular oxidation and red blood cell formation.

Brussels sprouts are incredibly nutritious vegetables that offers protection from vitamin-A deficiency, bone loss, iron-deficiency anemia, and believed to protect from cardiovascular diseases and colon and prostate cancers.

88. ECONOMICS 14710

Warehouses Shakuntala Devi. I

Teaching Associate, Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University, Hyderabad (Telangana) 500030.

Warehouses are scientific storage structures especially constructed for the protection of quantity and quality of stored products. Warehousing may be defined as the assumption of responsibility for the storage of goods. It may be called the protector of national health, for the produce stored in warehouses is preserved and protected against rodents, insects and pests. and against the ill-effect of moisture and dampness. The warehousing scheme in India is an integrated scheme of scientific storage, rural credit, price stabilization and market intelligence and is intended to supplement the efforts of co-operative institutions.

The Important Functions of Warehouses Are

1. Scientific storage: Here, a large bulk of agricultural commodities may be stored. The product is protected against quantitative and qualitative losses by the use of such methods of preservation as are necessary.

2. Financing: Nationalized banks advance credit on the security of Warehouse receipt issued for the stored products to the extent of 75 % of their value

3. Price stabilization: Warehouses help in price stabilization of agricultural commodities by checking the tendency to making post-harvest sales among the farmers. Warehouse helps in staggering the supplies throughout the year. Thus helps in stabilization of agricultural prices. 4. Market intelligence: Warehouses also offer the facility of market information to persons who hold their produce in them. They inform them about the prices prevailing in the period, and advice them when to market their products. This facility helps in preventing distress sales for immediate money needs or

because of lack of proper storage facilities. It gives the producer holding power; he can wait for the emergence of favourable market conditions and get the best value for his product

Warehousing in India

In 1928, the Royal commission on agriculture underscored the need for a Warehousing system in India. The central banking enquiry committee, 1931, too, drew attention to this need. The Reserve bank of India emphasized the need for Warehouses as early as in 1944, and proposed that every state government enact legislation to regulate the functioning of warehouses. The All India Rural Credit Survey Committee of the Reserve Bank of India (set up in 1951 and submitted its report in 1954) also made comprehensive recommendations for the development of Warehousing as an integrated scheme of rural credit and marketing. As a result of the recommendations of the committee, the Government of India enacted the Agricultural produce (Development and Warehousing) corporation act, 1956. The act provided for: a) The establishment of a National Co-operative Development and Warehousing board (which was set up on 1st September, 1956); b) The establishment of central Warehousing corporation (Which was established on 2 nd march, 1957); and c) The establishment of state Warehousing Corporation in all states in the country (which were established in various states between July 1957 and August 1958).

Central Warehousing Corporation

Central Warehousing Corporation (CWC) is a premier warehousing agency in India, established

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during 1957 providing logistics support to the agricultural sector, and one of the biggest public warehouse operators in the country offering logistics services to a diverse group of clients. CWC is operating 475 Warehouses across the country with a storage capacity of 10.3 million tonnes providing warehousing services for a wide range of products ranging from agricultural produce to sophisticated industrial products. Warehousing activities of CWC include foodgrain warehouses, industrial warehousing, custom bonded warehouses, container freight stations, inland clearance depots and aircargo complexes. Apart from storage and handling, CWC also offers services in the area of clearing & forwarding, handling & transporation, procurement & distribution, disinfestation services, fumigation services and other ancillary activities. CWC also offers consultancy services/ training for the construction of warehousing infrastructure to different agencies.

Functions

To acquire and build godowns and Warehouses at suitable places in India.

To run Warehouses for storage of agricultural produce, seeds, fertilizers and notified commodities for individuals, co-operatives and other institutions.

To act as an agent of the govt. for purchase, sale, storage and distribution of the above commodities.

To arrange facilities for the transport of above commodities.

To subscribe to the share capital of SWC.

State Warehousing Corporation

SWCs were operating1440 Warehouses with total capacity of over 131.38 lakh tones. The total share capital of the SWC is contributed equally by the concerned state govt. and CWC. The area of operation of the SWC are centres of district

importance A.P. State Warehousing Corporation: The A.P. State Warehouse Corporation was established in August, 1958 under Sub-Section 1, Section 18 of the Warehousing Corporation Act, 1958 (Central Amended Act of 1962) enacted by the Parliament. APSWC is a Corporation having 50% Share Capital by Central Warehousing Corporation and 50% share capital by the Govt. of A.P. It has its Corporate Office at Hyderabad with 8 Regional Offices and 135 Warehouses scattered all over the state. The Warehousing Scheme envisages providing storage facilities for food grains and other agriculture commodities, seeds, manures and fertilizers to minimize losses and deterioration in storage. The scheme also aims to enable farmers to have easy and cheap credit facilities from Banks against pledge of the Warehouse Receipt to improve the holding capacity of the producer to avoid distress sales in harvesting seasons. To realize the above objectives, the Warehousing Corporation is empowered to a acquire and build Warehouses for storage of agricultural produce, seeds, fertilizers and other notified commodities. To act as an agent of the Central Warehousing Corporation or of the Government, for the purpose of purchases, sales storage, distribution etc., of agricultural commodities in time of need.

Organizational Set Up of the Corporation

According to Section20(a) of the Warehousing Corporation Act 1962, the General Superintendence and Management of the affairs of the State Warehousing Corporation are vested in a Board consisting of 11 Directors of whom 5 are nominated by the Central Warehousing Corporation, The remaining 6 Directors are from the State. The Chairman of the Board is appointed by the State Government with the prior approval of the Central Warehousing Corporation.

89. VETERINARY 14608

Brooder Pneumonia Young in Chicks M. Sasikala 1 and K. Jayalakshmi 2

1Department of Veterinary Pathology and 2Department of Veterinary Medicine

Veterinary College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University Orathanadu-614 625.

Synonym: Pulmonary aspergillosis, Mycotic pneumonia, Pneumonomycosis.

Aspergillosis is defined as a disease caused by infection with the genus Aspergillus and is common in commercial poultry production

Aspergillosis in birds is usually confined to the lower pulmonary system with florid lesions in air sacs and lungs

In young poultry it is referred to as brooder pneumonia

Less manifestations relate to infections of the eye, brain, skin, joints, and viscera.

Etiology

The two major species of fungal species, which cause aspergillosis in poultry are, – Aspergillus fumigatus – Aspergillus flavus

Other species include A. terreus, A. glaucus, A. niger, A. nidulans, A. amstelodami and A.

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nigerscens

These organisms are common in soil as saprophytes, occurring in decaying vegetative matter and feed grains. They grow on organic matter in warm humid environments

Fungal hyphae are 4 -12 mm in diameter and bear conidiopores producing conidia (spores) 2 - 6 mm in diameter that are easily spread in air.

Transmission

Aspergillosis is not a transmissible disease.

Infections are acquired from environmental exposure.

Infection is by inhalation of spores that usually originate from infected eggs.

Contamination of the equipments may result in hatchery infection.

Contaminated feed and poultry house litter also produce infection. In brooder chicks the brooding materials play a major role in transmission of disease. Hence the name "Brooder Pneumonia".

Pathogenesis

Air borne conidial spore are deposited on conjuntival, nasal, tracheal, parabronchial and airsac epithelium and initiate granulomas at the above sites.

After inhalation, spores are rapidly spread haematogenously to other tissues, producing lesions in the brain, pericardium, bone marrow, kidney and other soft tissues.

Brain lesions in the meninges, causing large superficial white plaques, and leading to fungal opthalmitis and iridocyclitis.

Clinical Signs

Acute disease causes mortality of 5-50%, dysponea, polypnoea and gasping.

Chronic disease produces lethargy, stunted growth, conjuntival swelling, blindness and torticollis

Macroscopical Lesions

Lungs and air sacs having Granulomas of 1 -15 mm diameter as white plaques or caseous nodules.

Trachea shows Yellow caseous plaques adherent to the mucosal surface that sometimes occluding the lumina.

Brain having white to yellow circumscribed areas either in cerebellum or cerebrum.

Ocular form produces extensive keratoconjunctivitis.

Microscopical Lesions

Composition of granuloma

Necrotic centres containing branching, septate, 4-7 mm diameter hyphae.

Older lesions Contain pleomorphic hyphae up to 12 mm in diameter.

Air-filled cavities may appear green to black due to development of pigmented conidiophores.

Fungi tend to proliferate within the granuloma and rarely invade adjacent tissue in immunocompetent birds.

Diagnosis

Aspergillosis can be made on PM lesions: White caseous nodules in lungs, or airsacs and exudate plugs in tracheal and bronchial lumen.

Demonstration of branched, septate Aspergillus hyphae in impression smears of the lesions.

Demonstration of branched, septate Aspergillus hyphae in tissue sections by Routine haematoxylin & eosin, Periodic Acid-Schiff (PAS) and Grocott’s Methenamine-Silver (GMS)

Confirmation should also be made by cultural isolation and identification of the causative fungus in Sabouraud dextrose agar.


Nutritional Strategies to Reduce Methane Emission from Livestock

Khwairakpam Ratika

Division of Dairy Cattle Nutrition, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal-132001

INTRODUCTION: Greenhouse gases (GHG) are those gases present in the atmosphere that is capable of absorbing infrared radiation and holding heat in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases include carbondioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide, ozone, chloroflorocarbon, sulfurhexachrolide. Greenhouse gases trap some energy, keeping the temperatures on our planet mild and suitable for living things. Without its

atmosphere and the greenhouse effect, the average temperature at the surface of the Earth would be zero degree fahrenheit. However, increased level of greenhouse gases can cause the temperature to increase leading to global warming. Among the GHGs, methane is an important gas which has drawn the attention of various scientists across the globe. After CO2, CH4

is the most abundant GHG and is 20-30 times

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more effective GHG than CO2. Agriculture is considered to be responsible for

about two- third of the anthropogenic (man-made) sources. From the agriculture sources, enteric fermentation of ruminant animals is one of the largest source of methane. Ruminant can produce 250 to 500 L of methane per day. As the ruminants are capable of utilising fibrous feed not digested by simple stomach animals, they represent a valuable food resource for future. So contribution of livestock to methane emission is expected to increase. Besides contributing to global warming, methane also represents loss of food energy of about 2-12%. As 1 g of CH4 is equivalent to 55.2 kJ of lost feed energy, so by reducing the methane emission, feed efficiency can also be improved.

Ruminal Methanogenesis

Proteins, starch and plant cell-wall polymers consumed by the animal are hydrolyzed to amino acids and simple sugars by the bacteria, protozoa and fungi present in the rumen. Microorganisms further ferment the amino acids and sugars into volatile fatty acids (acetate, butyrate and propionate), hydrogen, carbon dioxide and other end products. Methanogens i.e. methane producing microorganisms, then reduce carbon dioxide to methane, preventing the accumulation of hydrogen.

The amount of hydrogen produced is highly dependent on the diet and the type of rumen microbes present as the microbial fermentation of feeds produces different end products that are not equivalent in term of hydrogen output. The formation of propionic acid and butyric acids consume hydrogen whereas the formation of acetate releases hydrogen. If ruminal fermentation patterns are shifted from acetate to propionate, both hydrogen and methane production will be reduced. And it provides opportunities to reduce methane emissions.

Role of Protozoa in Methanogenesis

Protozoa have symbiotic relationship with methanogens. Methanogens associated with rumen protozoa not only attach to the cell surface of protozoa but also distribute themselves within the protozoal cell as endosymbionts. Hydrogenosomes are hydrogen producing organelle present in the protozoa and produce energy by converting pyruvate into acetate, carbondioxide and hydrogen, then this hydrogen is taken up by the methanogens present in the protozoa and methane is formed.

Nutritional Strategies to Reduce Methane Emission from Ruminants

Dietary Manipulation: Improving forage quality, either through feeding forages with lower fibre and higher soluble carbohydrates, changing from C4 to C3 grasses, or even grazing less mature pastures can reduce CH4 production. Adding grain to a forage diet increases starch and reduces fibre

intake reducing rumen pH and favouring the production of propionate rather than acetate in the rumen. Methane emissions are also commonly lower with higher proportions of forage legumes in the diet, partly due to lower fibre content, faster rate of passage and in some case the presence of condensed tannins.

Ionophore antibiotic: Ionophores such as monensin and lasalocid have been known as one of most effective rumen modifiers. It is known to inhibit gram-positive microorganisms responsible for supplying methanogens with substrate for methanogenesis. The effects caused by monensin on the microbial cell are mediated by its ability to interfere with ion flux. Monessin does not affect methane production by inhibiting methanogens, but instead inhibits the growth of the bacteria, and protozoa, providing a substrate for methanogenesis.

Dietary fat and lipids: Dietary fats seems a promising nutritional alternative to depress ruminal methanogenesis without decreasing the ruminal pH. Reduction in methane emission following the supplemention was attributed to biohydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids, enhanced propionic acid production and reduction in protozoa. Addition of oils to the ruminant diets may decrease CH4 emission. Lipids cause depressive effect on CH4 emission by toxicity to methanogens, reduction of protozoa numbers and therefore protozoa associated methanogens, and reduction in fibre digestion.

Organic acids: Dicarboxylic acids, like fumarate, malate and acrylate, are precursors to propionate production in the rumen and can act as an alternative H2 sink reducing H2 availability for methanogenesis.

Plant extracts: The three main plant compounds effective at reducing methane emissions in vitro are condensed tannins, saponins, and essential oils.

Tannins are classified into two groups- hydrolysable tannins and condensed tannins. Condensed tannins are thought to directly inhibit methanogens, as well as indirectly limit methanogenesis through a reduction in hydrogen availability. Saponins have been shown in vitro to inhibit protozoa, as well as limit hydrogen availability for methanogensis. Essential oils have antimicrobial activities that act in a similar way to monensin by inhibiting gram-positive bacteria. In this way, essential oils can reduce the amount of available hydrogen for methanogensis.

Defaunation

Defaunation means the removal of protozoa from the rumen. Rumen protozoa share a symbiotic relationship with methanogens. Treatments that decrease the protozoal population of the rumen may also decrease the protozoa-associated methanogen population and therefore, decrease the methane production within the rumen. Examples of defaunating agents are copper

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sulphate, surface-active chemicals, triazine, lipids, tannins, ionophores, and saponins.


High Pressure Processing: Raw Chicken Meat Pranjal S. Deshmukh

Assistant Professor, Sau Vasudhatai Deshmukh College of Food Technology, Amravati, MS *Corresponding Author e Mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: High Pressure Processing (HPP) is a non‐thermal food processing technology used for raw meat, either they are minced, sliced or whole pieces, with longer shelf‐life and safer. On this sector, the pressure range used it is between 29,000 psi (200 MPa) and 87,000 psi (600MPa) applied at refrigerated temperature. Currently, three are the main applications of high pressure processing on raw meat:

Safety and shelf‐life of raw meat products food products is improved. On the range from 400 MPa (4,000 bar; 58,000 psi) and 600 MPa (6,000 bar; 87,000 psi), inactivating spoiling vegetative microorganisms (bacteria, yeasts and molds) and pathogens. High pressure is applied on the final package, so recontamination after processing is avoided.

Tenderization: Pressures on the range from 200 MPa (29,000 psi) to 400 MPa (4,000 bar; 58,000psi) allow improving texture and organoleptic characteristics on raw pieces.

Reduction of cooking losses: Pressures on the range from 200 MPa (29,000 psi) to 400 MPa (4,000 bar; 58,000psi) allow enhancing meat binding.

Food Safety of Raw Chicken Meat

Salmonella contamination in food, especially poultry meat, is one of the relevant foodborne pathogens worldwide. HPP technology has demonstrated to be one of the suitable technologies for inactivating this pathogen in various model systems and meat products.

Sensory Quality of Hpp Chicken Meat

HPP is able to break, or create, weak bonds (hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions), only present on macromolecules (Cheftel, 1992). Thanks to this phenomenon, HPP can inactivate microorganisms, denaturing their cell membrane proteins. However, pressure can affect other proteins, including those related to meat color and texture. Pressures higher than 400 MPa (58,015 psi) can lead to denaturation of proteins responsible of color and texture on meat, so changes in color of fresh meat can be observed, usually described as “white/opaque” appearance, as well as an increase of hardness.

Effect on chicken meat color: The discoloration of meat is due to myoglobin denaturation and/or heme displacement or release

as well as ferrous oxidation caused by high pressure (Carlez and others, 1995). The content of myoglobin in chicken meat is lower than beef or pork. Therefore, the effect of pressure, especially on redness of the muscle could be not as well pronounced in chicken breast fillets.

Effect on meat aroma and flavor: HPP induces changes in aroma profile of the chicken breast meat, delaying the development of volatile basic nitrogen (VBN), improving meat freshness. However, HPP increased slightly lipid oxidation (TBARS) of fresh meat at 87,000 psi for 5 min (Kruk and others, 2011), which can lead to rancid flavor.

Effect on meat texture: Since high pressure can modify protein structure, texture is one of the sensory attributes which can be affected in raw meat. Kruk and others (2011) found a significant increase in hardness, cohesiveness; gumminess and chewiness in HPP fresh chicken breast fillets at pressure processing above 300 MPa (43,510 psi) for 5 min. Panelists scored the juiciness slightly lower in HPP chicken meat compared to no HPP samples. However, the difference in juiciness was only significant in chicken meat processed at 300 MPa (43,510 psi). At higher pressures, there was no statistical difference compared to non‐HPP meat (Kruk and others, 2011).

Conclusions: HPP technology is a suitable processing method for inactivating Salmonella, even pressure‐resistant serotypes such as S. typhimurium, and other relevant foodborne microorganisms in raw chicken meat. However, if the required HPP processing conditions are intense for controlling Salmonella, HPP could induce changes in sensory attributes, mainly those related to product appearance. The other sensory attributes and the overall sensory quality are slightly or not affect by HPP processing.

References Carlez, A., Veciana‐Nogues, T., & Cheftel, J. C.

(1995). Changes in colour and myoglobin of minced beef meat due to high pressure processing. Lebensmittel Wiss U Technologie, 28, 528 ‐538.

Cheftel, J. C. (1992). Effects of high hydrostatic pressure on food constituents: An overview. In C. Balny, R. Hayashi, KK. Heremans & P. Masson (Eds), High pressure and Biotecnology, Colloque INSERM (Vol. 224) 195‐209

Kruk, Z.A., Yun, H., Rutley, D., Lee, E. J., Kim, Y. J., Jo, C., (2011) The effect of high pressure on microbial population, meat quality and sensory

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characteristics of chicken breast fillet. Food Control, 22, 6‐12.

92. DAIRY SCIENCE 14445

Good Dairy Farming Practices Dr. Chopade A. A. and Shri. Patil R. V.

Department of Animal Science and Dairy Science, MPKV Rahuri

INTRODUCTION: Good Agricultural Practice for dairy farmers is about implementing sound practices on dairy farms – collectively called Good Dairy Farming Practice. These practices must ensure that the milk and milk products produced are safe and suitable for their intended use, and also that the dairy farm enterprise is viable into the future, from the economic, social and environmental perspectives. Most importantly, dairy farmers are in the business of producing food for human consumption so they must be confident in the safety and quality of the milk they produce. Good dairy farming practice underpins the production of milk that satisfies the highest expectations of the food industry and consumers. The international framework to ensure the safety and suitability of milk and milk products is contained in the Codex Recommended International Code of Practice - General Principles of Food Hygiene (CAC/RCP 1- 1969, Rev. 4, 2003) together with the Codex Code of Hygienic Practice for Milk and Milk Products (CAC/RCP 57-2004).

The guiding objective for good dairy farming practice is that safe, quality milk should be produced from healthy animals using management practices that are sustainable from an animal welfare, social, economic and environmental perspective.

To achieve this objective, dairy farmers should apply good practice in the following areas: Animal health; Milking hygiene; Nutrition (feed and water); Animal welfare; Environment and Socio-economic management. For each of these categories this Guide lists good dairy farming practices, and suggests measures that can be implemented to achieve the desired outcome.

Good Dairy Farming Practices

1. Animal Health- Animals that produce milk need to be healthy and an effective health care programme should be in place. a) Establish the herd with resistance to

disease- Choose breeds and animals well suited to the local environment and farming system, determine herd size and stocking rate based on management skills, local conditions and the availability of land, infrastructure, feed, and other inputs and vaccinate all animals as recommended or required by local animal health authorities.

b) Prevent entry of disease onto the farm – It maintains farm biosecurity, keep animals

healthy, comply with international/ national/regional animal movement and disease controls. Only buy animals of known health status (both herd and individual animals) and control their introduction to the farm using quarantine if indicated, Ensure animal transport on and off the farm does not introduce disease, Monitor risks from adjoining land and neighbours and have secure boundaries, Where possible, limit access of people and wildlife to the farm, Have a vermin control programme in place, Only use clean equipment from a known source.

c) Have an effective herd health management programme in place- Use an identification system that allows all animals to be identified individually from birth to death, Develop an effective herd health management programme focused on prevention that meets farm needs as well as regional and national requirements, Regularly check animals for signs of disease, Keep sick animals isolated, Separate milk from sick animals and animals under treatment, Keep written records of all treatments and identify treated animals appropriately, Manage animal diseases that can affect public health (zoonoses), Detect animal diseases early Prevent spread of disease among animals Ensure food safety Ensure traceability

d) Use all chemicals and veterinary medicines as directed- Only use chemicals approved for supply and use under relevant legislation, Use chemicals according to directions, calculate dosages carefully and observe appropriate withholding periods, Only use veterinary medicines as prescribed by veterinarians, Store chemicals and veterinary medicines securely and dispose of them responsibly. It prevents occurrence of chemical residues in milk

2. Milking Hygiene- Milk should be harvested and stored under hygienic conditions. Equipment used to harvest and store milk should be suitable and well maintained. a) Ensure milking routines do not injure the

animals or introduce contaminants into milk- Identify individual animals that

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require special milking management, Ensure appropriate udder preparation for milking, Milk animals regularly using consistent milking techniques, Segregate milk harvested from sick or treated animals for appropriate disposal, Ensure milking equipment is correctly installed and maintained

b) Ensure milking is carried out under hygienic conditions- Ensure housing environment, milking area is clean at all times, Ensure the milkers follow basic hygiene rules, Ensure milking equipment is cleaned and, when necessary, disinfected after each milking

c) Ensure milk is handled properly after milking - Ensure milk is cooled or delivered for processing within the specified time, Ensure milk storage area is clean and tidy, Ensure milk storage equipment is adequate to hold milk at the specified temperature, Ensure milk storage equipment is cleaned and when necessary, sanitised after each milk collection.

3. Nutrition (Feed and Water)- Animals need to be fed and watered with products of suitable quality and safety. a) Secure feed and water supplies from

sustainable sources - Plan ahead to ensure that the herd’s feed and water requirements are met, Implement sustainable nutrient, irrigation and pest management practices when growing feed, Source farm inputs from suppliers implementing sustainable systems.

b) Ensure animal feed and water are of suitable quantity and quality- Ensure the nutritional needs of animals are met, Ensure the feed fed to dairy animals is fit for purpose and will not negatively impact the quality or safety of their milk or meat, Ensure suitable quality water is provided and the supply is regularly checked and maintained, Use different equipment for handling chemicals and feed

c) Control storage conditions of feed - Separate feeds intended for different species, Ensure appropriate storage conditions to avoid feed spoilage or contamination, Reject mouldy or sub-standard feed. Prevent microbiological or toxin contamination or unintended use of prohibited feed ingredients or feeds contaminated with chemical preparations Keeping animals healthy with good quality feed

d) Ensure the traceability of feedstuffs brought on to the farm- Keep records of all feed or feed ingredients received on the farm. Guide to good dairy farming practices

4. Animal Welfare- Animals should be kept according to the following ‘five freedoms’. a) Ensure animals are free from thirst,

hunger and malnutrition- Provide sufficient feed and water for all animals every day, Adjust stocking rates and/or supplementary feeding to ensure adequate water, feed and fodder supply, Protect animals from toxic plants and other harmful substances.

b) Ensure animals are free from discomfort- Design and construct buildings and handling facilities to be free of obstructions and hazards, Provide adequate space allowances and clean bedding, Protect animals from adverse weather conditions and the consequences thereof, Provide housed animals with adequate ventilation, suitable flooring and footing in housing and animal traffic areas, Protect animals from injury and distress during loading and unloading and provide appropriate conditions for transport.

c) Ensure animals are free from pain, injury and disease- Have an effective herd health management programme in place and inspect animals regularly, Do not use procedures and practices that cause unnecessary pain, Follow appropriate birthing and weaning practices.

d) Ensure animals are free from fear- Consider animal behaviour when developing farm infrastructure and herd management routines.

e) Ensure animals can engage in relatively normal patterns of animal behaviour- Have herd management and husbandry procedures that do not unnecessarily compromise the animals’ resting and social behaviours.

5. Environment- Milk production should be managed in balance with the local environment surrounding the farm. a) Implement an environmentally

sustainable farming system - Minimise the production of environmental pollutants from dairy farming, Manage livestock to minimise adverse environmental impacts, Select and use energy resources appropriately.

b) Have an appropriate waste management system - Implement practices to reduce, reuse or recycle farm waste, Manage the storage and disposal of wastes to minimize environmental impacts.

c) Ensure dairy farming practices do not have an adverse impact on the local environment - Contain dairy runoff on-farm, Ensure the overall appearance of the dairying operation is appropriate for a facility in which high quality food is

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harvested 6. Socio-Economic Management- Good dairy

farming practice can also help to manage the social and economic risks to the enterprise. a) Implement effective and responsible

management of human resources- Implement sustainable work practices, Employ staff based on national laws and practice, Manage human resources effectively, ensuring that their working conditions comply with applicable laws and international conventions.

b) Ensure farm tasks are carried out safely and competently- Have appropriate procedures and equipment in place for undertaking dairy farming tasks, Induct

and train/educate staff appropriately for their.

c) Manage the enterprise to ensure its financial viability - Implement financial management systems, Adopt agricultural practices that contribute to the productivity and/or profitability goals of the enterprise, Plan ahead to manage financial risks

References Recommended International Code of Practice –

General Principles of Food Hygiene, CAC/RCP 1 – 1969. Available at www.codexalimentarius.net

Code of Hygienic Practice for Milk and Milk Products, CAC/RCP 57 - 2004. Available at www.codexalimentarius.net

93. ENVIRONMENT 14718

Role of Carbon Sequestration to Mitigate Climate Change Effect

Arjun Lal Prajapat* and Praveen Kumar Hatwal**

Ph.D. Scholar, Rajasthan Agricultural Research Institute, Durgapura, Jaipur *Corresponding Author e Mail: [email protected]

Human activities, especially the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and gas, have caused a substantial increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere. This increase in atmospheric CO2 —from about 280 to more than 380 parts per million (ppm) over the last 250 years—is causing measurable global warming. Potential adverse impacts include sea-level rise; increased frequency and intensity of wildfires, floods, droughts, and tropical storms; changes in the amount, timing, and distribution of rain, snow, and runoff; and disturbance of coastal marine and other ecosystems. Rising atmospheric CO2 is also increasing the absorption of CO2 by seawater, causing the ocean to become more acidic, with potentially disruptive effects on marine plankton and coral reefs. Technically and economically feasible strategies are needed to mitigate the consequences of increased atmospheric CO2. The United States needs scientific information to develop ways to reduce human-caused CO2

emissions and to remove CO2 from the atmosphere.

What is Carbon Sequestration?

The term “carbon sequestration” is used to describe both natural and deliberate processes by which CO2 is either removed from the atmosphere or diverted from emission sources and stored in the ocean, terrestrial environments (vegetation, soils, and sediments), and geologic formations. Before human-caused CO2 emissions began, the natural processes that make up the global “carbon cycle”. Maintained a near balance between the uptake of CO2 and its release back to the

atmosphere. However, existing CO2 uptake mechanisms (sometimes called CO2 or carbon “sinks”) are insufficient to offset the accelerating pace of emissions related to human activities. Annual carbon emissions from burning fossil fuels in the United States are about 1.6 gigatons (billion metric tons), whereas annual uptake amounts are only about 0.5 gigatons, resulting in a net release of about 1.1 gigatons per year.

Controlling atmospheric CO2 will require deliberate mitigation with an approach that combines reducing emissions and increasing storage. Scientists at the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and elsewhere are working to assess both the potential capacities and the potential limitations of the various forms of carbon sequestration and to evaluate their geologic, hydrologic, and ecological consequences. The USGS is providing information needed by decision makers and resource managers to maximize carbon storage while minimizing undesirable impacts on humans and their physical and biological environment.

Oceanic Carbon Sequestration

The world’s oceans are the primary long-term sink for human-caused CO2 emissions, currently accounting for a global net uptake of about 2 gigatons of carbon annually. This uptake is not a result of deliberate sequestration, but occurs naturally through chemical reactions between seawater and CO2 in the atmosphere. While absorbing atmospheric CO2, these reactions cause the oceans to become more acidic. Many marine organisms and ecosystems depend on the

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formation of carbonate skeletons and sediments that are vulnerable to dissolution in acidic waters. Laboratory and field measurements indicate that CO2-induced acidification may eventually cause the rate of dissolution of carbonate to exceed its rate of formation in these ecosystems. The impacts of ocean acidification and deliberate ocean fertilization on coastal and marine food webs and other resources are poorly understood. Scientists are studying the effects of oceanic carbon sequestration on these important environments.

Terrestrial Carbon Sequestration

Terrestrial sequestration (sometimes termed “biological sequestration”) is typically accomplished through forest and soil conservation practices that enhance the storage of carbon (such as restoring and establishing new forests, wetlands, and grasslands) or reduce CO2 emissions (such as reducing agricultural tillage and suppressing wildfires). In the United States, these practices are implemented to meet a variety of land-management objectives. Although the net terrestrial uptake fluxes shown in figure 2 offset about 30 percent of U.S. fossil-fuel CO2 emissions, only a small fraction of this uptake results from activities undertaken specifically to sequester carbon. The largest net uptake is due primarily to ongoing natural regrowth of forests that were harvested during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Existing terrestrial carbon storage is susceptible to disturbances such as fire, disease, and changes in climate and land use. Boreal forests and northern peatlands, which store nearly half the total terrestrial carbon in North America, are already experiencing substantial warming, resulting in large-scale thawing of permafrost and dramatic changes in aquatic and forest ecosystems. USGS scientists have estimated that at least 10 gigatons of soil carbon in Alaska is stored in organic soils that are extremely vulnerable to fire and decomposition under warming conditions. The capacity of terrestrial ecosystems to sequester additional carbon is uncertain. An upper estimate of potential terrestrial sequestration in the U.S. might be the amount of carbon that would be accumulated if U.S. forests and soils were restored to their historic levels before they were depleted by logging and cultivation. These amounts (about 32 and 7 gigatons for forests and soils, respectively) are probably not attainable by deliberate sequestration because restoration on this scale would displace a large percentage of U.S. agriculture and disrupt many other present-day activities. Decisions about terrestrial carbon sequestration require careful consideration of priorities and tradeoffs among multiple resources. For example, converting farmlands to forests or wetlands may increase carbon sequestration, enhance wildlife habitat and water quality, and increase flood storage and recreational potential– but the loss of farmlands will decrease crop

production. Converting existing conservation lands to intensive cultivation, while perhaps producing valuable crops (for example, for biofuels), may diminish wildlife habitat, reduce water quality and supply, and increase CO2 emissions. Scientists are working to determine the effects of climate and land-use change on potential carbon sequestration and ecosystem benefits, and to provide information about these effects for use in resource planning.

Geologic Carbon Sequestration

Geologic sequestration begins with capturing CO2 from the exhaust of fossilfuel power plants and other major sources. The captured CO2 is piped 1 to 4 kilometers below the land surface and injected into porous rock formations. Geologic sequestration is currently used to store only small amounts of carbon per year. Much larger rates of sequestration are envisioned to take advantage of the potential permanence and capacity of geologic storage. The permanence of geologic sequestration depends on the effectiveness of several CO2 trapping mechanisms. After CO2 is injected underground, it will rise buoyantly until it is trapped beneath an impermeable barrier, or seal. In principle, this physical trapping mechanism, which is identical to the natural geologic trapping of oil and gas, can retain CO2 for thousands to millions of years. Some of the injected CO2 will eventually dissolve in ground water, and some may be trapped in the form of carbonate minerals formed by chemical reactions with the surrounding rock. All of these processes are susceptible to change over time following CO2 injection. Scientists are studying the permanence of these trapping mechanisms and developing methods to determine the potential for geologically sequestered CO2 to leak back to the atmosphere. The capacity for geologic carbon sequestration is constrained by the volume and distribution of potential storage sites. According to the U.S. Department of Energy, the total storage capacity of physical traps associated with depleted oil and gas reservoirs in the United States is limited to about 38 gigatons of carbon, and is geographically distributed in locations that are distant from most U.S. fossil-fuel power plants. The potential U.S. storage capacity of deep porous rock formations that contain saline ground water is much larger (estimated by the U.S. Department of Energy to be about 900 to 3,400 gigatons of carbon) and more widely distributed, but less is known about the effectiveness of trapping mechanisms at these sites. Unmineable coal beds have also been proposed for potential CO2 storage, but more information is needed about the storage characteristics and impacts of CO2 injection in these formations. Scientists are developing methods to refine estimates of the national capacity for geologic carbon sequestration. To fully assess the potential for geologic carbon sequestration, economic costs and

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environmental risks must be taken into account. Infrastructure costs will depend on the locations of suitable storage sites. Environmental risks may include seismic disturbances, deformation of the land surface, contamination of potable water supplies, and adverse effects on ecosystems and human health. Scientists are pioneering the use of new geophysical and geochemical methods that can be used to anticipate the potential costs and environmental effects of geologic carbon sequestration.

Why Action is Needed Now

Cumulative historical CO2 emissions from fossil fuels in the United States are equivalent to more than the total amount of carbon stored in U.S. forests. If current trends continue, cumulative U.S. emissions are projected to double by 2050 and increase by a factor of three to four by 2100. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007, sequestration and reduction of emissions over the next two to three decades will potentially have a substantial impact on longterm opportunities to stabilize levels of atmospheric CO2 and mitigate impacts of climate change.

Can Sequestration Control Atmospheric CO2?

Computer models of future CO2 emissions and controls on atmospheric CO2 have been developed and summarized by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program (CCSP). These models indicate that projected annual global emissions during the next century would need to be reduced by more than 75 percent in order to stabilize atmospheric CO2 at about 550 ppm. This concentration would be about twice the level of CO2 in the pre-industrial atmosphere and about 45 percent higher than the atmospheric CO2 concentration in 2007.

According to the CCSP, stabilizing atmospheric CO2 would “require a transformation of the global energy system, including reductions in the demand for energy…and changes in the mix of energy technology and fuels.” The CCSP models have been used to evaluate scenarios for aggressive implementation of geologic carbon sequestration. As shown in figure 4A, the estimated amount of geologic sequestration in the U.S. over the next century is projected in one model to be substantially smaller than the cumulative emission reductions anticipated from changes by all other methods. In this model, the needed amount of geologic sequestration would exceed U.S. capacity in depleted oil and gas reservoirs, implying the need to implement carbon storage in the Nation’s relatively unknown deep formations that contain saline water. In other models, predicted geologic sequestration needs are smaller as a result of different assumptions about global and national economic and technological trends. The CCSP model results have a large amount of uncertainty. The results shown in figure 4 do not take into account many of the uncertainties in costs and environmental risks of geologic carbon sequestration. Additional uncertainties prevent comparison of future oceanic and deliberate terrestrial sequestration. Future disturbances of vegetation and soils may add to future CO2 emissions and increase the amount of mitigation required to stabilize atmospheric CO2. For example, if a substantial portion of the carbon stored in Alaskan organic soils were converted to atmospheric CO2 as a result of climate change, the resulting emissions could offset or even exceed the likely magnitude of any deliberate U.S. terrestrial sequestration measures.

94. ENVIRONMENT 14740

Ozone Depletion and its Effects on Environment Ramya D. B

M.Sc. Scholars, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, UAS, Dharwad-580005

INTRODUCTION: Ozone (O3) was first discovered by C. F. Schnbein in 1839. It is a triatomic allotrope of oxygen (a form of oxygen in which the molecule contains three oxygen atoms). It is an irritating, pale-blue gas that is explosive and toxic, even at low concentration. It occurs naturally in small amounts in the Earth's stratosphere, the greatest concentration occurs at altitudes between 19 and 30 km above the Earth's surface, where it absorbs solar ultraviolet radiation between 310 and 200 nm. It also occurs in very small amounts in the lowest few kilometers of the atmosphere, a region known as the troposphere. Stratospheric ozone blocks harmful solar radiation because of this life exists

on Earth. In contrast, Ground-level ozone, is simply a pollutant which causes irritation to eyes and mucous membrane it will absorb some incoming solar radiation, but it cannot make up for ozone losses in the stratosphere.

Formation of Ozone: In the stratosphere ozone is produced as a result of the dissociation of oxygen molecule by the intense UV component of the sunshine. The single oxygen atom (O) combines with other oxygen molecule (O2) to form ozone (O3).

Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODSs): Ozone-depleting substances (ODS) generally contain chlorine, fluorine, bromine, carbon, and hydrogen in varying proportions and are often described by

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the general term halocarbons. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform are important human-produced ozone-depleting gases that have been used in many applications including refrigeration, air conditioning, foam blowing, cleaning of electronics components, and as solvents. Another important group of human-produced halocarbons is the halons, which contain carbon, bromine, fluorine, and (in some cases) chlorine and have been mainly used as fire extinguishers.

These substances are effective ozone-depleters for two reasons. The first is that they do not break down in the lower atmosphere - they can remain in the atmosphere from 20 to 120 years or more. Unlike most chemicals released into the atmosphere at the Earth's surface, ozone-depleting substances are not "washed" back to Earth by rain or destroyed by other chemicals, which means they drift up into the stratosphere. The second is that they contain either/both chlorine and/or bromine and thus help the natural reactions that destroy ozone. Once they reach the stratosphere, ultraviolet (UV) radiation breaks up these molecules into chlorine (for example, from CFCs, methyl chloroform, or carbon tetrachloride) or bromine (for example, from halons or methyl bromide) which, in turn, break up ozone.

Mechanism of Ozone Depletion: Stratospheric ozone is gradually broken down to O and O2 by the absorption of short wavelength UV radiations, and also created simultaneously when this atomic oxygen combines with other oxygen molecules, thus there exists equilibrium between the rates of creation and destruction. The growing bodies of scientific evidence which is clear that this equilibrium was disturbed by the introduction of man-made substances that increase the rate of conversion of O3 back to O2. In 1974 Professor F. S. Rowland and Dr. M. J. Molina, University of California, Irvine, in the United States, presented a report on the possible effects of Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) on the ozone layer, human beings and the ecological system. According to Dr. Robert T. Watson adviser to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) "There is no doubt that ozone depletion is occurring primarily because of the human activities". CFCs, because of their thermal and chemical stabilities, rise to the stratosphere and are decomposed by UV-B radiation from the sun, releasing free chlorine atoms. These free chlorine atoms react with ozone.

Effect of Ozone Layer Depletion

A. Effects on Human and Animal Health: Increased penetration of solar UV-B radiation is likely to have profound impact on human health with potential risks of eye diseases, skin cancer and infectious diseases. And adversely affect the immune system causing a number of infectious diseases. UV radiation is known to damage the cornea and lens of the

eye. Chronic exposure to UV-B could lead to cataract of the cortical and posterior sub-capsular forms.

B. Effects on Terrestrial Plants: It is a known fact that the physiological and developmental processes of plants are affected by UV-B radiation. Scientists believe that an increase in UV-B levels would necessitate using more UV-B tolerant cultivar and breeding new tolerant ones in agriculture. In forests and grasslands increased UV-B radiation is likely to result in changes in species composition (mutation) thus altering the bio-diversity in different ecosystems.

C. Effects on Aquatic Ecosystems: increased levels of UV exposure can have adverse impacts on the productivity of aquatic systems. High levels of exposure in tropics and subtropics may affect the distribution of phytoplankton’s which form the foundation of aquatic food webs.

D. Effects on Air Quality: Reduction of stratospheric ozone and increased penetration of UV-B radiation result in higher photo dissociation rates of key trace gases that control the chemical reactivity of the troposphere. This can increase both production and destruction of ozone and related oxidants such as hydrogen peroxide which are known to have adverse effects on human health, terrestrial plants and outdoor materials. Changes in the atmospheric concentrations of the hydroxyl radical (OH) may change the atmospheric lifetimes of important gases such as methane and substitutes of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

E. Effects on Climate Change: Ozone depletion and climate change are linked in a number of ways, but ozone depletion is not a major cause of climate change. Atmospheric ozone has two effects on the temperature balance of the Earth. It absorbs solar ultraviolet radiation, which heats the stratosphere. It also absorbs infrared radiation emitted by the Earth's surface, effectively trapping heat in the troposphere. Therefore, the climate impact of changes in ozone concentrations varies with the altitude at which these ozone changes occur. The major ozone losses that have been observed in the lower stratosphere due to the human-produced chlorine- and bromine-containing gases have a cooling effect on the Earth's surface. On the other hand, the ozone increases that are estimated to have occurred in the troposphere because of surface-pollution gases have a warming effect on the Earth's surface, thereby contributing to the "greenhouse" effect. In comparison to the effects of changes in other atmospheric gases, the effects of both of these ozone changes are difficult to calculate accurately. In the figure below, the upper ranges of possible effects for

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