Dimensional and mechanical characterization of newly developed denim fabrics based on experimentally...

Fibers and Polymers 2010, Vol.11, No.3, 521-530

521

Dimensional and Mechanical Characterization of Newly Developed Denim

Fabrics Based on Experimentally Determined Property-Structural

Pattern Relations for Upholstery Applications

Kadir Bilisik* and Filiz Demir1

Department of Textile Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Erciyes University, 38039 Kayseri, Turkey1Orta Anadolu Corporation, Mensucat Street, No: 24, Kayseri, Turkey

(Received May 25, 2009; Accepted November 17, 2009)

Abstract: The aim of this study was to develop new pattern denim fabrics and characterize the dimensional, the abrasion andpilling properties of these fabrics. Furthermore, tensile and tear strengths of these fabrics were determined. The potential end-uses of pattern denim fabrics were evaluated by comparing the test results with traditional denim fabrics. The produced fab-rics were classified as ‘Design group I’ and ‘Design group II’. In design group I, the fabrics had small structural patternswhereas the structural patterns of the fabrics of design group II were large. The dimensional properties and weights of devel-oped pattern denim fabrics in both of the design groups were different in terms of weft densities, structural pattern sizeswhich influenced the numbers, directions and distributions of warp-weft interlacement. The abrasion behaviours of the tradi-tional denim fabrics and the fabrics with large-small structural patterns were similar. However, it was determined that the fab-rics with large and small patterns were abraded on the earlier abrasion cycles compared to the traditional denim fabrics. Thepilling resistances of the fabrics not only depended on the hairiness levels of the yarns used during weaving, but also on thepattern sizes of the fabrics. The small structural pattern fabrics showed more resistance to pilling than those of the large struc-tural pattern fabrics. There was a decrease on the warp and weft tensile strengths of the large structural pattern fabrics in com-parison with the traditional denim fabrics. The average tear strengths of the large structural pattern denim fabrics on the warpcourse were higher than those of the traditional denim fabrics while the tear strengths of the large pattern and traditionaldenim fabrics on the weft course were similar to each other. The end-uses of the newly developed structural pattern denimfabrics were recommended as home textile.

Keywords: Denim fabric, Structural pattern, Fabric abrasion, Fabric pilling, Fabric tensile and tear strength

Introduction

Denim fabrics are developed by using entirely cotton

yarns for clothing, and generally find extensive applications

in the world [1]. An extensive research work was carried out

on denim fabric behaviour which is affected by open-end

and ring spun all cotton yarns [2].

The mechanical performances of denim fabrics produced

in air-jet weaving machine were investigated [3,4]. The

changes in denim fabrics after washing treatments were

studied in another study [5]. The effects of using elastane

fibres on dimensional properties of denim fabrics were

studied experimentally [6]. The surface smoothness of

denim fabrics was studied with the photograph techniques,

and the parameters which had effect on the fabric surface

homogeneity were determined [7]. For the reliable

investigations of the surface and mechanical properties of

the fabrics, the data were analysed by using multivariate

statistical analysis programme [8]. In other studies, denim

fabrics were figured by weaving instead of the traditional

fabric printing technique [9] and denim fabrics including

elastane yarns were developed by weaving [10]. The denim

fabrics were figured by using traditional stitching [11-13]

and modern laser techniques [14].

The aim of this study was to develop new structural

pattern denim fabrics including large and small structural

patterns and determine the potential end uses by comparing

the dimensional and the abrasion and pilling properties, and

tensile and tear strengths of the developed fabrics with the

traditional denim fabrics.

Materials and Methods

100 % cotton yarns were used to develop structural pattern

denim fabrics. The cotton fibre properties were characterised

by using Uster High Volume Instrument (HVI) systems. The

cotton fibres were at middle fineness (4.5 micronair), the

average length of fibres was 29.5 mm, and the fibres showed

a middle value of fibre length distribution in percentage. The

short fibre percentage was low (6.9 index) and the fibres had

high tensile strength (29.6 g/tex) and elongation at break

(8.2 %).

The characteristics of the yarns are listed in Table 1. As

seen in Table 1, the yarns counts varied between 66 and 84

tex. The twist of the yarns was between 531 and 469 turns/m

in the Z direction. The ring spinning system was used to

produce the carded cotton yarns. One of the yarns was fancy

yarn while the others were normal carded yarns. Fancy yarn

was used with a length of shantung effect between 3.7-17.5 cm

and the yarn length without effect was between 10 and 25 cm. *Corresponding author: [email protected]

DOI 10.1007/s12221-010-0521-y

522 Fibers and Polymers 2010, Vol.11, No.3 Kadir Bilisik and Filiz Demir

Also, the hairiness properties of yarns were measured on

Zellweger Uster Tester 3. The hairiness index values were

8.1, 9.24, 9.17, and 9.97 for yarn 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively.

As seen the hairiness values, mean of the hairiness values of

yarn 3 and 4 (9.97) was higher than the mean of the hairiness

values of yarn 1 and 2 (8.67).

Fabric Design

The constructional parameters of the denim fabrics which

were developed and classified as ‘Design group I’ and

‘Design group II’ are presented in Table 2. Basically, the

fabrics were divided in three subgroups. These were the

fabrics with small structural pattern (fabric 1 and fabric 2)

and large structural pattern (fabric 3 and fabric 4), and the

traditional denim fabrics (fabric 5, fabric 6, and fabric 7).

The woven design of the fabric 5 and fabric 6 were the same.

However, the properties of the yarns used were different

from each other.

The fabrics in design group I were produced by using

rapier weaving machine with dobby (Dornier, Germany).

Air-jet weaving machine (Picanol Omni Plus, Belgium) was

used to produce the fabrics in design group II. This weaving

machine was jacquard head which had 2688 hook capacity.

The views of the weaving machines during fabrication are

illustrated in Figure 1.

The fabric 1 which was within the design group I had

small structural pattern. The resultant pattern on the surface

of the fabric 1 was formed like the parallel rhombus to each

other and filled circles in these rhombuses. The front and

reverse of the surface of fabric 1 are given in Figure 2.

The fabric 2 which was within the design group I had

small structural pattern like the fabric 1. The resultant

pattern on the surface of the fabric 2 was formed like the

parallel rhombus from each other and hollow circles in these

rhombuses. The front and reverse surface of fabric 2 are

given in Figure 3.

Figure 1. Rapier weaving machine with dobby head for producing the fabrics in design group 1 (left) and air-jet weaving machine with

jacquard head for producing the fabrics in design group 2 (right).

Table 1. The yarn characteristics used in the developed denim fabrics

Yarn type MaterialYarn count

(tex)

Twist coefficient

(αtex)

Twist

(turns/m)

Twist

direction

Yarn spinning

methodYarn effects

Yarn 1 100 % cotton 66 4309 531 Z Ring-carded Shantung effect

Yarn 2 100 % cotton 66 4309 531 Z Ring-carded No effect



Table 2. Design and constructional properties of developed denim

fabrics

Constructional parameters Design group I Design group II

Warp yarn type Yarn 1 Yarn 3

Weft yarn type Yarn 2 Yarn 4

Raw fabric warp density

(per cm)

27,5 26,5

Raw fabric weft density

(per cm)

25 13,5

Fabric weight (g/m2) 385 280

Total warp number 4332 5670

Edge warp number 48 40

Edge weave 2/2 warp reps

(double side)

2/2 warp reps

(one side)

Pattern codes Pattern 1, Pattern 2,

Pattern 5

Pattern 3, Pattern 4,

Pattern 5, Pattern 6

Codes of produced

fabrics

Fabric 1- (Pattern 1)







Warp yarn crimp (%) 12 12

Weft yarn crimp (%) 6 6

Objective fabric width

(cm)

145 210

Weaving machine rapier jacquard

Characterization of Developed Pattern Denim Fabrics Fibers and Polymers 2010, Vol.11, No.3 523

Fabric 3 and fabric 4 had large structural patterns which

were developed within the design group II. The patterns on

the fabric surface were hexagonal for fabric 3 and octagonal

for fabric 4 which are seen in Figure 4.

The traditional denim fabric within the design group I was

fabric 5. The weaving of this fabric was 3/1 Z twill and the

weft yarns were fancy cotton yarns. The traditional denim

fabrics within the design group II were fabric 6 (3/1 Z twill)

and fabric 7 (2/1 Z twill). Normal carded cotton yarns were

used for producing fabric 7. The fronts of the fabric 5, 6, and

7 are given in Figure 5.

The dyeing was carried out with 3 % pure indigo in 10 dye

backs for the design group I and with 2.5 % indigo- sulphur

dye in 7 dye backs for design group II. Each of the fabrics in

the design groups was sized after dyeing for improving the

weaving performance. The content of the size was potato

starch ether (Emsize CMS 60, Emsland-Stärke GmbH,

Germany), carboxymethyl cellulose (Acrofil CMC 300), and

wax (Glissofil extra). The ratio of size take-up of the fabrics

was 15 %.

The developed fabrics were finished. The finishing agent

contained suboil softener (Belsoft B-200, Yigitoglu Inc.,

Turkey, 15 g/l), wetting agent (Defindol 20-70, Yigitoglu

Inc., Turkey, 1 g/l), and polyethylene emulsion (Repellan

NEU, Yigitoglu Inc., Turkey, 20 g/l) for easy stitching. The

finishing was applied in a padding machine with 200 L pad

volume at the temperature of 60 ºC.

Fabric Density

The warp and weft densities of the fabrics developed were

determined.

Fabric Contraction

The fabric contractions (%) after three washing treatments

were determined according to AATCC-135-1995 standard.

Fabric Deformation Under Free Stand

Fabric deformation under free stand (%) was also

determined. For determining the fabric deformation under

free stand, fabric samples were initially marked in parallel

and then the distances between the each of the marks were

measured. After that, the fabric samples were conditioned

for 4 hours at the temperature of 21±2 ºC and 65±2 %

relative humidity according to ASTM-D 1776-90. The

fabric deformation was calculated from the difference

between the measurements of the distance of the marks

before and after conditioning.

Figure 2. The front (left) and reverse (right) of the surface of fabric 1.

Figure 3. The front (left) and reverse (right) surface of fabric 2.

Figure 4. The front faces of fabric 3 with hexagonal patterns (left)

and fabric 4 with octagonal patterns (right).

Figure 5. The front of traditional denim fabrics; (a) fabric 5, (b)

fabric 6, and (c) fabric 7.


Fabric Deformation Under Static Load

End-fabric deformation under static load (%) was

performed according to ASTM-D 5278-92 standard.

Fabric Width

The widths of the end-fabrics and washed-fabrics were

measured.

Fabric Torsion

Fabric torsion (%) after three washing treatment was

determined according to AATCC-179 standard.

Fabric Weight

The fabric weights were determined according to ASTM

D 3776-96 standard.

Abrasion Test

The abrasion tests were performed on a Nu-Martindale

Abrasion Tester (James H. Heal, UK) according to TS ISO

12947-4.

Pilling Test

The pilling tests were performed on a Nu-Martindale

Abrasion Tester (James H. Heal, UK) according to TS ISO

12945-2.

Tensile and Tear Tests

The tensile and tear strengths of the developed fabrics on

warp and weft courses were performed on Instron 4411

tester (Instron Inc., USA) according to ASTM-D 1424-96.

Results and Discussion

Fabric Design Results

The structural patterns of the fabric 1 and fabric 2 which

were developed under design group I were small. The unit

cells and the macro-imaginary views of the surfaces of

fabric 1 and fabric 2 are illustrated in Figure 6 and Figure 7,

respectively. The unit cell was formed 18 warp and 16 weft

yarns. The length of the unit cell on the weft course was

obtained by dividing the number of warp ends of the unit cell

by warp density of the raw-fabric (18 ends/27.5 ends/cm=

0.65 cm). Similarly, the length of the unit cell on the warp

course was obtained by dividing the number of weft ends of

the unit cell by warp density of the raw-fabric (16 ends/25

ends/cm=0.64 cm). The structural pattern dimension was

determined as 0.65×0.64 cm for fabric 1. The repeated unit

cell along the fabric width was calculated by dividing the

total warp ends of fabric by the number of warp ends of the

unit cell (4236 ends/18 ends=235 repeated unit cell). For the

weaving of small structural patterns, rapier weaving

machine with ten frames were used.

The structural patterns of the fabric 3 and fabric 4 which

were developed under design group II were large. The unit

cells and the views of woven fabric surfaces of fabric 3 and

fabric 4 are given in Figure 8 and Figure 9, respectively.

The patterns of fabric 3 were hexagonal. Since the

structural patterns were large, they were separated into the

regions as seen in Figure 8. Each of the regions was

numbered as 1, 2, and 3. Each number was on the pattern

Figure 6. The unit cell (left) and the macro-imaginary view (right)

of the fabric 1: (■) warp yarns on the weft yarns and (□) weft

yarns on the warp yarns.

Figure 7. The unit cell (left) and the macro-imaginary view (right)

of the fabric 2.

Figure 8. The unit cell (left) and the view of woven fabric surface

(right) of fabric 3.

Figure 9. The unit cell (left) and the view of woven fabric surface

(right) of fabric 4.


region in the boxes meant a different weave type. For

instance, region 1, 2, and 3 meant 4/1 S twill, 1/4 (2 floating)

weft satin and 4/1 (2 floating) warp satin, respectively. These

different weave types at the different regions gave the

desired appearance on the fabric surface by changing warp-

weft interlacements on all of the patterns. The warp yarns

which were evident on the region 1, gave place to weft yarns

of region 2 when the weaving was transferred to region 2 (1/

4 weft satin) from region 1 (4/1 warp twill). Because of the

difference provided by these two regions, the structural

patterns of the weaving were completed by repeating the

different weave types.

Fabric 4 had octagonal patterns. As seen in Figure 9, the

structural patterns were separated into the regions because of

their larger sizes as in fabric 3. Each of the regions was

numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, and each number was on the

pattern region in the boxes meant a different weave type.

The weave type of region 1 was 4/1 (2 floating) warp satin,

region 2 was 1/4 (3 floating) weft satin, region 3 was 1/3 S

weft twill, region 4 was 2/2 weft reps and region 5 was 2/2

full hopsack.

Fabric 3 and fabric 4 were produced by jacquard weaving

machine since the structural patterns of these fabrics were

large. The total hook capacity of the jacquard weaving

machine was 2688. However, 2106 hooks were used and the

patterns of the fabrics were obtained by passing a warp end

through the each of the hooks.

Fabric Density Results

The warp-weft densities of the raw fabrics (without any

treatment) and end-fabrics (with finishing treatments)

developed under the design group I and II are given in Table 3

and Figure 10.

As seen in Table 3 and Figure 10, the warp densities of the

end fabrics were higher than those of the raw fabrics almost

between 4.5 and 6.5 % for design group I. In contrast to

design group I, a decrease with almost 1-2.5 % of the warp

densities of end-fabrics was observed according to raw-

fabrics for design group II. It was probably due to the using

fancy yarns on the warp courses of the fabrics in design

group I. Nevertheless, the micro spaces which occurred on

the fabric during the weaving process due to the yarn

unevennesses were diminished by the finishing treatments.

The decrement of the warp densities of the fabrics in

design group II after finishing treatments was probably

owing to the irregular interlacement between the warp and

weft yarns because of the large and complex structural

patterns of fabric 3 and fabric 4. These irregular interlacements

gave rise to irregular yarn positions in the fabric structure

which exerted pressure on the yarns and entailed the warp

density decrement. Furthermore, for design group I, the weft

densities of the end-fabrics showed an increase as 15-16 %

in respect of the weft densities of raw fabrics. Similarly, the

weft densities of end-fabrics of design group II were higher

as 10-11 % than those of the raw-fabrics of design group II.

Fabric Contraction Results

The fabric contraction values on the warp and weft

courses were determined after three washing treatments and

presented in Table 4 and Figure 11. The fabric contraction on

warp course was 1.7-2.1 % for the fabrics of design group I

while it was 9.8-16 % for the fabrics of design group II.

The fabrics of design group II showed higher contractions

on warp course than those of the fabrics of design group I

because of the weft densities of the fabrics in design group I

almost twice as much as those of the fabrics in design group

I. In other words, the fabrics with large structural patterns

showed higher contractions on warp course than those of the

fabrics with small patterns.

The contraction on weft course was between 7 and 7.2 %

for the fabrics of design group I while it was between 10.5

and 10.7 % for fabric 3 and fabric 4 which had large patterns

in design group II. For fabric 6 and fabric 7 which were

traditional denim fabrics with twill weave type, the fabric

contraction on weft course was determined as between 4.2-

Figure 10. The warp-weft densities of raw-fabrics and end-fabrics:

( ) raw-fabric and ( ) end-fabric.

Table 3. The warp-weft densities of raw-fabrics and end-fabrics

Fabric codes

Fabric 1 Fabric 2 Fabric 3 Fabric 4 Fabric 5 Fabric 6 Fabric 7

Raw-fabric warp density (per cm) 27.5 27.5 26.5 26.5 27.5 26.5 26.5

End-fabric warp density (per cm) 29.3 29.2 25.8 26.2 28.8 26 26

Raw-fabric weft density (per cm) 25 25 13.5 13.5 25 13.5 13.5

End-fabric weft density (per cm) 29 29 15 14.8 28.7 15.2 15.3


5.9 %. These results were due to the low weft densities of

the fabrics and the complex deformation occurred between

warp-weft interlacements on the large structural pattern

fabrics after washing treatments.

Fabric Deformation Under Free Stand

The fabrics of design group I and II were conditioned and

the fabric deformations under free stand were determined

and shown in Table 5 and Figure 12. The deformations of the

fabrics of design group I ranged between 0.2 and 0.3 %

under free stand while these values were varied between 0.1

and 0.4 % for the fabrics of design group II. The effects of

the standard atmosphere conditions were determined as

negligible for each of the fabrics developed.

Fabric Deformation Under Static Load

The fabric deformations of the developed fabrics were

determined by keeping the fabric samples under a static load

of 2.3 kg and shown in Table 6 and Figure 13. Fabric

deformations under static load were 8.3-9.9 and 3.5-5.6 %

for the fabrics of design group I and design group II,

respectively. Fabrics of design group I showed deformation

under static load twice as much as that of the fabrics of

design group II. The higher deformation under static load of

the fabrics in design group I compared to fabrics of design

group II was due to the warp yarns of the fabrics in design

Table 4. Fabric contractions on warp and weft courses after three

washing treatments

Fabric codes

Fabric contractions on

warp course after

3 washing (%)

Fabric contractions on

weft course after

3 washing (%)

Fabric 1 1-3.7±0.2 1-7.4±0.2

Fabric 2 1-1.7±0.1 1-7.0±0.4

Fabric 3 -14.5±0.1 -10.7±0.5

Fabric 4 -16±0.2 -10.5±0.5

Fabric 5 1-2.1±0.5 1-7.2±0.0

Fabric 6 -13.7±0.1 1-5.9±0.2

Fabric 7 1-9.8±0.3 1-4.2±0.3

Figure 11. Fabric contractions on warp and weft courses after three

washing treatments (WARPFC warp fabric contraction, WEFTFC:

weft fabric contraction).

Table 5. Fabric deformations under free stand

Fabric codes Fabric deformation under free stand (%)

Fabric 1 0.2±0.0

Fabric 2 0.3±0.1

Fabric 3 0.3±0.1

Fabric 4 0.1±0.1

Fabric 5 0.3±0.1

Fabric 6 0.2±0.0

Fabric 7 0.4±0.0

Figure 12. Fabric deformations under free stand.

Table 6. Fabric deformations under static load

Fabric codes Fabric deformation under static load (%)

Fabric 1 8.3±0.1

Fabric 2 9.9±0.1

Fabric 3 3.7±0.1

Fabric 4 3.5±0.1

Fabric 5 9.6±0.1

Fabric 6 3.9±0.1

Fabric 7 5.6±0.0

Figure 13. Fabric deformations under static load.


group I were finer than those of the fabrics of design group

II, if the warp-weft interlacements and the load capacities on

warp-weft courses of the fabrics in both design groups were

ignored.

Fabric Width

The width shrinkages of the developed denim fabrics

under design group I and II after finishing treatments were

examined. The fabrics were washed three times with

detergent in a washing machine at 60 ºC for 60 min. The

fabric width results are given in Table 7 and Figure 14.

There was 0.7-1.5 % difference between the objective-

fabrics widths and end-fabrics widths in design group I

while the difference was 1.5-5 % between the widths of

objective and end-fabrics in design group II. It showed that

the differences between the widths of objective and end-

fabrics were negligible.

The difference of widths of end-fabrics and washed-

fabrics was 6.1-6.5 % in design group I. In design group II,

this difference was 10.7-10.8 % for fabrics 3 and fabric 4

while 3.5-6.8 % width shrinkage was observed for fabric 6

and fabric 7. Since the fabric 3 and fabric 4 had large

structural patterns and irregular warp-weft interlacements,

the width shrinkages of these fabrics were higher than those

of the fabric 6 and fabric 7. In addition, the yarns at irregular

warp-weft interlacements in the fabric got closer to each

other under the influence of exterior forces. Fabric Torsion

The torsion values of the developed denim fabrics under

design group I and II after finishing treatments were

determined. The fabrics were washed three times with

detergent in a washing machine at 60 ºC for 60 min. The

fabric torsion results are given in Table 8 and Figure 15.

As seen in Table 8, the fabrics in design group I had 3.7-

5.4 % fabric torsions on forward. In design group II, fabric 3

had 2.7 % fabric torsion on forward and fabric 4, 6, and 7

had fabric torsions between 6.3 and 11.6 % on back.

Fabric Weight

The calculated weights during the design of the developed

fabrics were entitled as raw-fabric weight (g/m2). End-fabric

weight implied the weight of the fabrics after finishing

treatments and the washed-fabric weight meant the weight

of the fabrics after three washings. The measured weights of

these fabrics are given in Table 9 and Figure 16.

The fabric weights of design group I were generally higher

than those of the fabrics of design group II because the weft

densities of the fabrics of design group I were 50 % more

than those of the fabrics of design group II. The calculated

fabric weights of design group I were 30 % greater than

those of the fabrics of design group II. The yarn density per

unit area of the fabrics was increased due to the fabric

shrinkages after washing. The weights of washed fabrics

were higher than those of the end-fabrics in both design

groups. However, these increases were 24 % for fabric 3 and

Table 7. Widths of the developed denim fabrics

Fabric codesObjective fabric

width (cm)

End-fabric

width (cm)

Washed-fabric

width (cm)

Fabric 1 145 147.2 137.6

Fabric 2 145 146.2 136.8

Fabric 3 210 216.3 193

Fabric 4 210 213 190

Fabric 5 145 146.1 137

Fabric 6 210 220.5 205.5

Fabric 7 210 214.4 207

Figure 14. Widths of the developed denim fabrics.

Table 8. Fabric torsion results

Fabric codes Fabric torsion after 3 washing (%)

Fabric 1 -4.8

Fabric 2 -3.7

Fabric 3 -2.7

Fabric 4 6.3

Fabric 5 -5.4

Fabric 6 11.6

Fabric 7 6.6

Figure 15. Fabric torsion results.


4, 18-12 % for fabric 6 and 7 in design group II, while the

increases were between 0.6 and 2.7 % for the fabrics of

design group I. The weight increases of the fabrics of design

group II were higher than those of the fabrics of design

group I. It was due to the low weft densities of the fabrics

and the spaces on interlacement regions which were based

on the irregularities of the warp-weft interlacements of large

structural patterns in design group II.

Abrasion Test Results

The abrasion test results are given in Table 10 and Figure

17. The views of the fabrics after abrasion cycles are

illustrated in Figure 18(a) and 18(b).

The fabrics in design group I and design group II were

evaluated with regard to the abrasion resistances. The

developed small and large structural pattern denim fabrics

(fabric 1, 2, 3, and 4) showed the same abrasion stage (stage

4; described as 1 or 2 yarn breakages on the fabric surface)

with the traditional denim fabrics (fabric 5, 6, and 7).

However, on the abrasion stage 4, the number of abrasion

cycles of the traditional denim fabrics was 15000 and higher

than that of the developed small and large structural pattern

fabrics which number of abrasion cycles was 10000. It was

due to the unlocked yarns on the fabric surfaces which

occurred by the effect of the long floating of the developed

pattern denim fabrics.

Pilling Test Results

The pilling properties of the developed fabrics were

determined at 2000 pilling cycles for each of the fabrics and

the fabric samples were evaluated with standard Martindale

pilling assessing photographs in a light box under the

daylight. According to standard Martindale pilling assessing

photographs, 5 meant the unchanged fabric surface and 1

meant dense surface pilling. The pilling test results are given

Table 9. Weights of the developed denim fabrics

Fabric codesRaw-fabric

weight (g/m2)

End-fabric

weight (g/m2)

Washed-fabric

weight (g/m2)

Fabric 1 385 457 470

Fabric 2 385 458 463

Fabric 3 280 328 429

Fabric 4 280 330 435

Fabric 5 385 457 460

Fabric 6 280 339 415

Fabric 7 280 353 402

Figure 16. Weights of the developed denim fabrics; ( ) raw-

fabric weight, ( ) end-fabric weight, and ( ) washed-fabric

weight.

Table 10. Abrasion resistances of the fabrics

Fabric codes Abrasion stage Abrasion cycles

Fabric 1 4 10000

Fabric 2 4 10000

Fabric 3 4 10000

Fabric 4 4 10000

Fabric 5 4 15000

Fabric 6 4 15000

Fabric 7 4 15000

Figure 17. Abrasion cycles and stages of the developed denim

fabrics; ( ) abrasion cycles and (◇) abrasion stage.

Figure 18. The views of the fabrics of design group I (a) and

design group II and (b) after abrasion cycles.


in Table 11 and Figure 19. It was determined that the

hanging fibres from the fabric surface formed small pilling

shapes by clinging to each other.

The pilling resistances of the fabrics of design group I

were at good stage while the pilling resistances of the fabrics

of design group II were at middle stage. Because of the yarns

of the fabrics in design group II had higher yarn counts,

higher hairiness values, and lower twist, the pilling resistances

of these fabrics were lower than those of the fabrics of

design group I.

Tensile Results

The tensile strengths of the developed fabrics on warp and

weft courses are presented in Table 12 and Figure 20. The

average warp tensile strength of the fabrics of design group I

was 83 kg and 13 % less than that of the fabrics of design

group II whose average warp tensile strength was 94 kg. It

was due to the using fancy yarns on the warp courses of the

fabrics of design group I. There was a 12.5 % decrement

observed on the warp tensile strengths of the large structural

pattern fabrics of design group II compared to the traditional

denim fabrics. The reason for this decrement was the

irregular warp-weft interlacements of the large pattern

fabrics.

The average tensile strength of the fabrics in design group

I on weft course was 88 kg and 35 % higher than that of the

fabrics in design group II which had 65 kg average warp

tensile strength. It was due to the fact that weft densities of

the fabrics of design group I was 50 % higher than those of

the fabrics of design group II. There was an 18.5 %

decrement observed on the weft tensile strengths of the large

structural pattern fabrics of design group II compared to the

traditional denim fabrics. This is because of the irregular

warp-weft interlacements of the large pattern fabrics.

Tear Results

The tear strength results of the developed fabrics on the

warp and weft courses are given in Table 13 and Figure 21.

The average tear strength of the fabrics of design group I on

warp course was 13 kg and 60 % higher than that of the

fabrics of design group II which had 8 kg average warp tear

strength. It was due to the fact that weft densities of the

fabrics of design group I was 50 % higher than those of the

fabrics of design group II. The average tear strength of the

large structural pattern fabrics in design group II on warp

course was 25 % higher than that of the traditional denim

fabrics. The irregular warp-weft interlacements of the large

pattern fabrics increased the tear strengths.

The average tear strength of the fabrics of design group I

on weft course was 15 kg and 112 % higher than that of the

fabrics of design group II which had 7 kg average warp tear

strength. It was probably due to the fine and high twisted

warp yarns (537-485 turns/m) of the fabrics of design group

I. There was not a significant difference observed between

the average tear strengths of large structural pattern fabrics

Table 11. Pilling tests results of the fabrics

Fabric codes Pilling stage (at 2000 pilling cycles)

Fabric 1 5

Fabric 2 5

Fabric 3 3

Fabric 4 3

Fabric 5 5

Fabric 6 3

Fabric 7 3

Figure 19. Pilling tests results of the fabrics.

Table 12. The tensile strengths of the developed fabrics on warp

and weft courses

Fabric codes Warp (kg) Weft (kg)

Fabric 1 83.9±7.7 89.6±0.9

Fabric 2 83.9±3.3 88.3±1.3

Fabric 3 86.1±2.3 63.1±0.8

Fabric 4 89.1±3.6 55.9±0.6

Fabric 5 82.1±1.0 87.0±3.0

Fabric 6 97.7±1.7 68.0±1.9

Fabric 7 97.4±3.8 72.5±1.4

Figure 20. The tensile strengths of the developed fabrics on warp

and weft courses.


of design group II and the traditional denim fabrics on the

weft course. This result was evaluated as anisotropic

behaviour of the fabrics.

End-use

As seen in the test results, there was not a significant

difference between the desired end-use performance properties

of the new developed pattern denim fabrics and the traditional

denim fabrics. However, it was concluded that the end-use

areas of the fabrics could be determined by considering the

aesthetic standpoint. In this instance, the pattern denim

fabrics could be basically used in upholstery applications.

Conclusion

The pattern denim fabrics with large and small structural

patterns were developed, and the dimensional and the

abrasion and pilling properties of these fabrics were

compared with the traditional denim fabrics. Furthermore,

tensile and tear strengths of these fabrics were determined.

The potential end-uses of pattern denim fabrics were

evaluated by comparing the test results with traditional

denim fabrics.

The fabrics developed were classified as ‘design group I’

and ‘design group II’. In design group I, the fabrics had

small patterns and carded cotton weft yarns while the warp

yarns were fancy yarns. The warp densities of design group I

were the same as the design group II. However, the weft

densities of design group I were 50 % more than those of the

design group II. And the fabrics of design group I were

slightly heavier than their counterparts in design group II.

The structural patterns of the fabrics of design group II were

large, and the warp and weft yarns were carded cotton yarns.

The dimensional properties and weights of developed

pattern denim fabrics in both design groups were affected by

the weft densities, structural pattern sizes of fabrics and

fancy yarns used during weaving, compared to the traditional

denim fabrics.

The abrasion behaviours of the traditional denim fabrics

and the structural pattern fabrics were similar. However, it

was determined that the fabrics with large and small patterns

were abraded on the earlier abrasion cycles compared to the

traditional denim fabrics. The pilling resistances of the

fabrics not only depended on the hairiness levels of the yarns

used during weaving, but also on the pattern sizes of the

fabrics. Generally, similar tensile and tear strength results

were observed between the developed pattern denim fabrics

and traditional denim fabrics.

Acknowledgements

This work was mainly supported by Orta Anadolu Inc.,

and additional support received from Istikbal Corp. Authors

would like to thanks this invaluable support.

References

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i

Table 13. The tear strengths of the developed fabrics on warp and

weft courses

Fabric codes Warp (kg) Weft (kg)

Fabric 1 13.2 12.7

Fabric 2 13.4 16.0

Fabric 3 9.6 7.4

Fabric 4 8.6 6.4

Fabric 5 13.0 16.0

Fabric 6 8.3 7.7

Fabric 7 6.3 6.3

Figure 21. The tear strengths of the developed fabrics on warp and

weft courses.

Dimensional and mechanical characterization of newly developed denim fabrics based on experimentally...

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