Culture History and Protohistoric Societies in the Southern Plains

Maney Publishing

CULTURE HISTORY AND PROTOHISTORIC SOCIETIES IN THE SOUTHERN PLAINSAuthor(s): Timothy G. BaughSource: Plains Anthropologist, Vol. 31, No. 114, Part 2: Memoir 21: CURRENT TRENDS INSOUTHERN PLAINS ARCHAEOLOGY (November 1986), pp. 167-187Published by: Maney Publishing on behalf of the Plains Anthropological SocietyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25668654 .

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CULTURE HISTORY AND PROTOHISTORIC SOCIETIES IN THE SOUTHERN PLAINS

by

Timothy G. Baugh

ABSTRACT

The recently defined Edwards and Wheeler com

plexes in southwest Oklahoma have been dated from A.D. 1500 to 1650 and A.D. 1650 to 1750, respectively. Recent work within the past few years allows for a

redefinition of these two complexes and for reassignment as a single phase. This taxonomic reclassification is outlined including the presentation of several new ob sidian hydration dates. Following this discussion, the

Wheeler phase and its cultural designators are compared with sites belonging to the Garza complex in the Pan handle-Plains region of Texas. The Garza complex has

relatively few chronometric dates, but they indicate a

corresponding temporal span with the Wheeler phase. Nineteen new obsidian hydration dates are also

presented for the Garza complex. Both the similarities and differences of these two archaeological manifesta tions are compared and their interrelationships outlined. From this perspective, it is suggested the Garza com

plex represents a western extension of the Wheeler

phase. This cultural historical perspective provides the

necessary background for the development of a dynamic paradigm involving culture change within Southern Plains societies and their external relationships during the Middle and Late Plains Village periods.

INTRODUCTION

Interest in Southern Plains protohistoric (A.D. 1450-1750) societies has recently come to the forefront of archaeological research.

Generally, this topic has received little atten tion?perhaps because of initial interest in such subjects as the early movement of peo ple into North America as documented by Paleo-lndian studies or the adaptational strategies of late prehistoric peoples as

represented by the more architecturally no ticeable Antelope Creek phase sites. While such topics do indeed merit study, the im

portance of protohistoric societies can no

longer remain a secondary concern. An un

derstanding of historic societies, events, and

processes is necessarily linked to the un

raveling of social relationships, cultural pat terns, and ecological adaptations of the various protohistoric cultures in the Southern Plains. This understanding can only be achieved through the integration of ethno historical and archaeological studies. For this reason, this paper examines our current

knowledge of the Wheeler phase and will attempt to compare and contrast this cultural manifestation with the less well known Garza complex.

THE WHEELER PHASE

First defined by Bell and Bastian (1967), the Wheeler complex was poorly understood for nearly a decade before the first intensive, published study appeared (Hofman 1978). This analysis of the Little Deer (34CU10) site materials not only provided a badly needed description of the surface artifacts made available to Hofman (1978), but also at tempted to place the site's occupants within a cultural framework. Much of this effort, however, was concerned with the probable ethnographic identity of the people respon sible for the known Wheeler sites. On the basis of this effort, Hofman (1984) later

167



separated the Wheeler complex into two cultural manifestations: (1) the earlier Ed wards complex (A.D. 1500-1650) and (2) the later Wheeler complex (A.D. 1650-1725). A second Wheeler complex site, Edwards I

(34BK2), was examined by Baugh (1968, 1982) and provided the basis for the develop

ment of the Southern Plains macroeconomy model (Baugh 1984a). Testing and study of a third site, Duncan (34WA2) (Baugh 1983a, 1984b; Baugh et al. 1983), led Baugh (1983b) to the conclusion that the posited differences between the Edwards and Wheeler com

plexes were more geographical than cultural or temporal.

Briefly, the contrasting views are as follows. Hofman's (1984) subdivision is based on differences in (1) lithic materials, (2) types of trade ceramics, (3) the presence or ab sence of European trade goods, and (4) tem

poral span. The Edwards complex sites were

posited to have more stone tools made of Alibates chert, while Wheeler complex sites had tools predominantly of Florence-A (Kay County) chert. Although this difference does hold when comparing the westernmost Ed wards complex sites with the easternmost Wheeler complex villages, one finds a gra dation from east to west concerning these lithic materials (see Table 1). This clinal variant more probably indicates availability (i.e., distance to the source of these materials) than actual cultural differences. The second distinction concerning trade ceramics main tains that Edwards complex sites yield larger numbers and more varied trade wares from both the Southwest and Southeast than

Wheeler complex sites. This distinction may be more apparent than real in that the Ed wards complex sites tend to be located along or closer to major stream channels (such as

the North Fork of the Red River), while the Wheeler sites tend to be found further upriver along secondary streams (Fig. 1). From this

perspective, site location tends to be an

important factor when considering trade

dynamics. The third difference, concerning the presence of European trade goods in

Wheeler contexts while being nearly absent in Edwards complex sites, has proven to be less meaningful than originally posited. At least three Edwards complex sites (Goodwin

Baker, Taylor, and Duncan) have yielded glass trade beads and lead sprues. The final

distinction, based on temporal differences, has yet to be demonstrated in that none of the

Wheeler complex sites have been dated by radiometric methods. Following from this, Baugh (1983b) has postulated that these two cultural units should continue to be consid ered one manifestation and that the number of sites and available radiocarbon, archaeo

magnetic, and obsidian hydration dates argue for a single phase designation for these localities (see Tables 2, 3). Following taxo nomic principles, the earliest published term should be used to designate this archaeo

logical culture. Thus, Wheeler phase is of fered as the correct term for this protohistoric culture.

The Wheeler phase, then, is characterized on the basis of occupations at three multi

component sites?Edwards I (34BK2), Taylor (34GR8), and Little Deer (34CU10)?and at least two single component sites?Duncan

(34WA2) and Goodwin-Baker (34RM14) in western and west-central Oklahoma (Baugh 1982, 1983a, 1983b, 1984b; Baugh et al.

1983; Burton and Burton 1971; Hofman 1978, 1984; Swenson 1983a, 1983b). A number of smaller sites in Texas (Bobby Clay [A2070]) in Motley County) and Oklahoma (Parade

Table 1. Percentage of Lithic Materials from Garza Complex and Wheeler Phase Sites.

41CB27* 41FL17 41CB1 34BK2 34RM14 34GR8 34WA2 34CU10 N- 1994 N - 1960 N - 725 N - 2137 N - 9534 N 4977 N - 4507 N = 960

Alibates 0.7 35.1 0.4 62.5 53.5 39.0 39.4 18.6 Tecovas 6.8 21.9 6.6 3.2 11.5 2.8 1.7 ~

Edwards 88.4 38.2 15.9 4.6 2.1 4.4 8.7 14.2 Florence-A - ? - 7.3 2.4 4.6 27.6 50.6 Miscellaneous Cherts 0.6 0.2 10.6 10.4 10.9 29.0 10.9 7.3 Obsidian 1.0 3.6 6.4 7.3 2.9 1.2 2.5 ~

Quartz 0.2 - 57.2 0.9 0.3 9.1 0.9 ~

Quartzite 2.3 1.0 2.9 3.8 16.4 9.9 8.3 9.3

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

' 41CB27 based on Parker (1982); 41FL17 compiled from Northern (1979) and Word (1965); 41CB1 based on Parsons (1967); 34BK2 based on Baugh (1982); 34RM14, 34GR8, and 34WA2 based on Sewenson (personal communication 1983); and 34CU10 based on Hofman (1978).

168



_colorado - ̂ ~" :

^/v&> V~x"*s \ \. \* \ [ i '

\ \ ' ^Zow / ̂^v^v Little DeerX**,,. \ \ ^^SJi^J^Y^^

*****?^Goodwln-BaJ^eM34RM14)a S^(34CU10)^\-/\N

pivr ^N-^JfV

*\ ' ? ^\ -\^p^Pw*2^ ^^obertwM34GD144)

I

^ > ̂ + \_v Taylor Area bI, gjjjjj * Lindsay-Murray |

V ' ? ̂^y^ (34GV147WS \ / ^v.^ a(A2QI0) V^/sJ IV / f ^H~~ 34' [ Country Club (41 FLD*Tv V-^^^. /? VTX S \ / I \ Montgomery (41FL17)*" ^J^-^ ^^^^^KA^) \ \ \ '

/ LubbocK L.K. (41LU1K* N?P?" Ct^K^CBlT^ * e , ?

"V^^^ ?,_.._/ I -\_ * -Grape Creeli^-^ >" ^ /

-l.r??y Sprln,.! \? (41QB3J, _^>^" </ "^V^ '^n* (LA 18400) I , I \

j j Garza (4lGA4^)X^r--^ f\^J*S

* Wheeler phase

# Garza complex 1

! I/'^'~-?' ~

\ o kHoMiara 100 f 1q4*\ 102' \ 100- 96* \ , 32*

Fig. 1. Middle Plains Village (A.D. 1450-1750) sites in the Southern Plains.

Ground [34CM322], Fowler [34BK6], Bell [34BK9], Weil [34CN2], Wilson Springs [34CD6], Robertson [34GD144], Lindsay Murray [34GV147], and Lowrance [34MR10]) are also affiliated with the Wheeler phase (Fig. 1). Only a few of these sites, however, have been studied (Brooks et al. 1985; Cruse

1982; Drass 1983; Ferring and Vernon 1978; Wyckoff 1973). Other sites have been re

corded, but not named. These include 34CN22, 34CN23, 34CN24, and 34CN27. Concurrently, only five Wheeler phase sites

(Edwards I, Duncan, Goodwin-Baker, Parade Ground, and Robertson) have been dated by radiocarbon, archaeomagnetic, or obsidian

hydration methods (see Tables 2, 3; Baugh 1983a, 1985; Baugh and Terrell 1982; Baugh et al. 1983; Brooks et al. 1985; Drass 1983; Ferring and Vernon 1978; Hofman 1984; Swenson 1983a, 1983b). On the basis of these sites, the protohistoric Wheeler phase is placed somewhat earlier than previously

expected, ranging from A.D. 1450 to 1750. These dates are also consistent with the

various ceramic trade wares from the South west, Southeast, and Southern Plains (Baugh and Swenson 1980). Among these are plain red wares and glaze polychromes from Pecos

(Glazes V and VI), Picuris (Glazes E and F), and Gran Quivira. These wares tend to date between A.D. 1600 and 1700 (Baugh 1982: 98- 102; Burton and Burton 1971:18). In addi

tion, there are two Jeddito Brown-on-yellow wares (Sikyatki polychrome and San Ber nardo polychrome) which date from A.D. 1400 to 1625 and A.D. 1630 to 1700 (Baugh 1982: 99- 100). Although ultimately derived from the

Hopi mesas, these were probably obtained from an eastern frontier pueblo. Of similar derivation is the single Casas Grandes Rubbed Corrugated sherd recovered from the Duncan site (34WA2) (Baugh 1984b, 1984c). Most sites also yield a number of Caddoan wares from northeast Texas. These include

Avery Engraved, Hudson Engraved, Ripley Engraved, Taylor Engraved, and Keno Trailed from the McCurtain, Texarkana, and/or Titus foci, as well as Nash Neck Banded and/or

Emory Punctated and Womack Engraved from the Norteno focus of north-central Texas. In general, these wares date between A.D. 1400 and 1700 (Baugh 1982:86-97).

In addition to other items, the assemblage for the Wheeler phase sites consists of two

major, indigenous ceramic types (Table 4). These are described below.

169



Table 2. Radiocarbon and Archaeomagnetic Dates for Four Wheeler Phase Sites.*

Age 13C fractionation Calibrated Dates Site No. Lab No." B.P. Date A.D. Date Corrected B.P. Date Range (Midpoint)*** Remarks

34BK2 TX-810 310? 70 1640 ? 70 - - 1425-1660 (1542) Charcoal from Post Mold 3. 34BK2 TX-811 200 ?70 1750 ? 70 - - 1525-1570 (1547) Charcoal from circular trench.

1605-1815 (1710) S11L15, 72.4 cm below surface; 1840-1885 -

multiple dates listed by Klein 1915-1950 - et al. (1982).

34BK2 TX-812 550?70 14O0?70 - - 1320-1425 (1372) Charcoal from post in S12R5. 34BK2 TX-813 290 ?70 1660 ?70 - - 1435-1665 (1550) Charcoal from Poet Mold 1.

34BK2 TX-814 450 ?70 1500 ?70 - - 1390-1505 (1447) Charcoal from Post Mold 2. 34BK2 OU 269 A OU 279 - - 1400 ?100 Archaeomagnetic sample of

burned clay from hearth. 34WA2 Beta-4628 230 ?50 1720 ? 50 - - 1505-1675 (1590) Combined charcoal from 60-70

1710-1805 (1757) cm in squares OW1 & OW2. 1925-1950 Multiple dates from Klein et al.

(1982). 34WA2 Beta-4629 460 ?110 1490 ?110 - - 1330-1630 (1430) Charcoal from 82 cm in square

OW2. 34WA2 Beta-4630 150 ?40 1800 ?40 - - 1645-1950 (1797) Charcoal from surface hearth.

34WA2 Beta-11845 420 ?50 1530 ?50 -26.48 400 ?50 1405-1620 (1512) Charcoal from Feature 2, 1984 excavations.

34WA2 Beta-11846 Modem - -27.40 Modern Charcoal from Feature 3, 1984 excavations (possibly contami nated sample by rodent run).

34WA2 Beta-11847 250 ?50 1700 ?50 -26.58 230 ?50 1505-1675 (1590) Charcoal from Feature 5, 1984 1710-1805 (1757) excavations. Multiple dates from 1925-1950 Klein et al. (1982).

34WA2 Beta-11848 Modern - -27.50 - Modern Charcoal from Feature 7, 1984 excavations (possibly contami nated by rodent run?see Beta 12907).

34WA2 Beta-11849 520 ?90 1430 ?90 -26.69 490 ?90 1315-1520 (1417) Charcoal (0.3 g with extended count time) from Feature 8,1984 excavations.

34WA2 Beta-12907 630 ?60 1320 ?60 -28.21 580 ?65 1285-1415 (1350) Charcoal sample from roasting pit, Feature 7,1984 excavations.

34RM14 Beta-4718 420 ?85 1530 ?85 - - 1340-1650 (1495) Charcoal from poet in square N34W25.

34RM14 Beta-4719 1060 ?180 890 ?180 - - 610-1265 (937) Charcoal (0.2 g) from Post Mold 20 in square N3W6.

34RM14 Beta-4626 140 ?50 1810 ?50 ? -- 1650-1950 (1800) Charcoal from post in square N34W24.

34RM14 OU-451 ? ? ? ? 1380 ?80 ? Archaeomagnetic sample of burned clay from square S51W19, House 1.

34CM322 SMU-405 399?98 1551 ?98 - - 1350-1655 - Charcoal from square 3, level 5.

* Based on Baugh (1983b); Baugh et al. (1983); Swenson (1983a, 1983b); Valastro et al. (1972). * TX - University of Texas, Austin; OU - Robert DuBois, Department of Geology, University of Oklahoma; Beta - Beta Analytic, Coral Gables, Florida. SMU - Southern Methodist University, Dallas. *** Calibrated dates based on Klein et al. (1982).

Edwards Plain

Type site: Edwards I (34BK2) near Elk City, Oklahoma (Baugh 1982:68-72). The Ed wards I site has yielded 4059 sherds (in cluding 408 rims, 18 base sherds, three

handles, and 3630 body sherds). Time period: A.D. 1450 to 1750. Construction: Coiling is attested by a number

of breaks occurring along smoothed over welds. This smoothing is performed by means of a paddle-and-anvil technique, as evidenced by the irregularity of several interior surfaces.

Surface treatment: Exteriors are well smoothed with several sherds exhibiting burnishing. In some cases, however, the exterior surface has been brushed, with

multiple striations being visible. This treat

ment may have been applied using a corn cob or a similarly coarse object. Interiors

range in their treatment from well smoothed to roughly finished.

Decoration: About 3% of the rim sherds exhibit impressed, parallel punctates on their lips. These punctates are diagonal to the lip. No other form of decoration is

apparent. Appendages: One strap handle is repre

sented in the Edwards I material. Two other sherds representing handles cannot be identified as to form.

Paste: The fabric consists of three textures:

granular or silty, compact and coarse, or

evenly textured with laminations. These dif

ferences, in conjunction with different

tempers represent subvarities of this ware.

Temper: Moderate to heavy amounts of fine

170



Table 3. Chemical Composition and Hydration Thickness of Obsidian Samples from Two Wheeler Phase Sites.

A&G Rb Sr Y Zr Nb MnO F?2?3 Tl?2 Ba Na^O OUHL Hydration A.D. Site No. Provenience No. (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (%) (%) (%) (ppm) (%) Source No. (microns) Date

34BK2 N2R1, (6-12") 1704 157.9 7.7 51.2 204.3 53.3 .061 1.17 .097 37.1 4.06 78 1004 3.41 1517 34BK2 N1L9, (30-36") 1705 154.3 4.5 56.5 210.2 52.4 .061 1.18 .100 36.3 4.11 78 1008 3.35 1525 34BK2 N2L7. (24-30") 1706 153.5 7.3 59.1 209.3 53.4 .061 1.18 .102 36.4 4.03 78 1010 3.33 1528 34BK2 N2L7, (12-18") 1707 154.9 5.2 60.3 213.4 54.8 .061 1.19 .100 37.0 4.23 78 1011 3.22 1543 34BK2 N1L4, (0-6") 1708 150.6 5.1 64.0 206.3 53.5 .061 1.17 .100 38.5 4.17 78 1013 3.44 1513 34BK2 S12R6, (12-18") 1709 152.6 3.3 58.1 209.1 54.6 .062 1.21 .103 35.4 4.18 78 1014 2.41 1654 34BK2 N1R1, (18-24") 1710 150.9 4.3 63.8 210.4 56.8 .061 1.17 .100 35.0 4.12 78 1015 2.25 1676 34BK2 S28R5, (24-30") 1711 154.3 7.1 60.6 209.0 55.6 .061 1.16 .097 35.6 4.17 78 1016 2.77 1604 34BK2 N1L10, (36-42") 1712 193.3 1.5 81.4 224.4 86.6 .084 1.22 .083 11.5 4.28 82 1017 2.37 1659 34BK2 N2R1, (6-12") 1713 152.0 5.6 60.3 215.0 53.9 .063 1.28 .108 35.9 4.23 78 1020 3.18 1548 34BK2 S1R1, (6-12") 1714 156.0 7.0 58.1 208.7 53.8 .062 1.17 .101 36.1 4.16 78 1023 3.27 1536

34RM14 N36W15, (4-8") 1820 150.5 3.3 62.7 210.1 57.5 .062 1.20 .102 37.6 4.07 78 1038 2.60 1628 34RM14 N34W31, (4-8") 1821 149.7 2.9 61.7 216.7 55.6 .063 1.22 .101 39.6 4.08 78 1039 3.38 1521 34RM14 N30-00, (4-8") 1822 147.6 7.3 55.4 195.6 50.6 .062 1.17 .098 38.8 4.09 78 1040 3.26 1537 34RM14 N35W28, (4-8") 1823 196.9 3.2 77.9 221.0 81.6 .085 1.27 .081 10.6 4.22 82 1041 1.98 1712 34RM14 N36W15, (4-8") 1824 153.0 6.0 57.2 208.7 54.2 .062 1.19 .100 34.6 4.04 78 1042 2.92 1584

1043* 8.02 885 34RM14 N19E2, (4-8") 1825 153.4 3.4 67.0 218.8 56.1 .062 1.20 .100 38.0 3.63 78 1043* 6.02 1159 34RM14 N2W5, (4-8") 1826 150.4 5.2 58.3 202.0 54.3 .062 1.22 .101 37.6 4.11 78 1044 3.01 1572 34RM14 N35W15, (8-12") 1827 148.6 4.4 61.9 208.7 55.8 .063 1.18 .101 39.9 4.07 78 1045 2.99 1574 34RM14 N35W15, (8-12") 1828 142.9 8.8 59.3 196.5 54.6 .062 1.19 .100 40.6 4.12 78 1046 2.88 1589 34RM14 N20E3, (8-12") 1829 151.3 7.3 60.1 210.1 55.4 .062 1.19 .100 38.3 4.02 78 1047 2.67 1624

Notes: Source No. 78 * Valle Grande, New Mexico; No. 82 - Cerro Toledo (Obsidian Ridge), New Mexico. OUHL - Oklahoma University Hydration Laboratory. A.D. dates based on hydration curve established by Russell (1981). * Specimen has been reused.

sand particles are visible with occasional inclusions of mica, grit, and/or hematite.

Early varieties of this ware tend to have some calcium carbonate materials in cluded as part of the temper.

Color: Generally, sherds are black or grayish brown in color. Occasionally, colors are buff to golden brown. These sherds appear to be from vessels which are fired under

long term reducing conditions or short term, but very hot, oxidizing conditions.

Thickness: 3.0 to 15.5 mm depending on the type of sherd (i.e., rim, body, or base) being measured. Most commonly, body sherds

range between 4.0 and 9.0 mm. Vessel form: To date no complete vessels

have been recovered. On the basis of the available sherds, jars with moderately flaring rims and flat, circular bottoms tend

to be the most commonly represented vessel type.

Lip form: Rounded, direct lips are most com mon with an occasional squared lip also

occurring. Only infrequently will the lip be thinner than the rim, since, in most cases, it is rolled making it slightly thicker than the body.

Comments: The generally uniform size of the silica or sand tempering particles found within these sherds tends to argue for a

relatively high range of porosity. This in turn indicates a resistance to thermal shock which would allow the represented vessels to be used for cooking purposes (cf. Shepard 1956:123). The reader is also referred to Swenson's description of this

type (Brooks et al. 1985:45-47).

Table 4. Percentage of Ceramic Types for the Garza Complex and Wheeler Phase.

41CB27 41FL17 41CB1 34BK2 34RM14 34QR8 34WA2 34CU10 N - 683 N - 517 N - 320 N - 8998 N - 2726 N - 1703 N - 1030 N - 566

Edwards Plain 4.1 58.2 - 55.8 56.9 83.6 66.3 81.3 Little Deer 4.1 3.1 3.4 8.3 1.0 1.6 7.2 4.2 Perdido Plain 11.1 - 20.5 4.9 3.9 5.0 8.2 - Micaceous Sherds - 1.0 59.0 0.1 - - - - Southwest Sherds 53.2 29.6 14.6 2.0 0.3 2.7 0.9 0.9 Southeast Sherds - - - 4.8 10.1 5.2 7.5 - Miscellaneous Sherds 27.5 8.1 2.5 24.1 27.8 1.9 9.9 13.6

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 * 41CB27 based on Parker (1982:54); 41FL17 compiled from Northern (1979) and Word (1965); 41CB1 compiled from Parsons (1967); 34BK2,34RM14,

34QR8, and 34WA2 based on Swenson (personal communication 1963); and 34CU10 based on Hofman (1978:Table 12).

171



Little Deer Plain and Decorated

Type site: The Little Deer site (34CU10) near Weatherford, Oklahoma, yielded 24 sherds of this type which was first described by Hofman (1978:57-58). The Edwards I site (34BK2) has yielded 742 sherds (including 51 rims, one base, and 690 body sherds) belonging to this ware (Baugh 1982:77-81).

Time period: A.D. 1450 to 1750. Construction: A number of sherds exhibit frac

tures along welds, attesting to coiling as the primary method of manufacture.

Surface treatment: Exteriors tend to be well finished, unless some form of decorative treatment has been applied. Interiors are also well smoothed, but with some fire

cracking visible. (This trait is also charac teristic of Lee Plain [Lindsey Plain] sherds which are associated with the Early Plains

Village or Washita River phase, A.D. 1250 to 1450.

Decoration: A variety of decorative techniques are used for this ware. These include ap pliqued strips, brushed, brushed-punctated (both fingernail and tooth impressed),

wiped, incised and punctated, trailed, and

smeared-corrugated creating a neck banded effect.

Appendages: None. Paste: The fabric is fine and compact in tex

ture.

Temper: Moderate amounts of clay and/or grog (crushed sherds) are included as

tempering agents. Occasional particles of sand or caliche are sometimes present.

Color: Most sherds are gray or brown. Lighter colors, such as buff or white, may be due either to retiring in an oxidizing atmosphere or to the type of mineral inclusions found within the clay source material.

Thickness: Ranges from 4.5 to 10.5 mm, with the majority of sherds falling between 5.5 and 8.0 mm.

Vessel form: Bowls, carinated bowls, and jars are represented. No complete vessels have been recovered.

Lip form: Rounded or flattened lips may oc cur. Rounded lips tend to have an overlap of clay on their exterior surface. Lips are

generally the same thickness as the rim. Comments: The firecracking present on the

interior surface of these sherds may be the result of several factors such as the effects

of rapid and differential heating of the vessel or the use of grog temper previously fired at a lower temperature (Rye 1981:106-108). The dense nature or com

pactness of these sherds argues for a

relatively low range of porosity. Such vessels tend to be highly sensitive to ther mal shock, indicating that these containers may have been used for either storage or

serving purposes. Sherds of this ware have been recorded for both Washita River

phase and Wheeler phase sites (Brooks et al. 1985:49-51).

On the basis of our current information, these types appear to be derived from the previous

Washita River phase ceramics. Evidence for this has been developed from examination of construction methods, fabric, and tempering material used in late Washita River phase pottery (from such sites as Grant [34GV2], Lee [34GV3], Pate [34GV49], Sterr [34GD26], Sparks [34GD119], and Robertson [34GD144], among others) in central Okla homa and Wheeler phase ceramics (from such sites as Lindsay-Murray [34GV147] and Goodwin-Baker [34RM14]) in central and western Oklahoma (Brooks et al. 1985:Table 7; Drass 1983 and this volume; F. E. Swen son, personal communication 1983).

Another common pottery type associated with Wheeler phase sites is Perdido Plain which was originally named by Gunnerson and Gunnerson (1971:10) but first described for the Edwards I site (Baugh 1982:72-75). More than 400 sherds of this type have been recovered from the Edwards I site, and for this reason, they have been considered an indig enous ware. The more recent studies of Judith Habicht Mauche (personal com munication 1985), however, may modify this conclusion.

Lithic implements include a variety of distinctive tool types including a predomi nance of triangular, unnotched projectile points (referred to as Fresno points) and

triangular side-notched points both with and without a basal notch. These are commonly known as Washita and Harrell points, respec tively. A fourth point type frequently occurs from the eastern edge of the mixed-grass prairie to the eastern edge of the Pecos trench in New Mexico. This is a triangular, basally notched point which has been labeled Garza by Runkles (1964:107,123-125) and is

172



commonly associated with Apache occupa tions in the Panhandle-Plains region of Texas

(Hughes 1978; Johnson et al. 1977:105). This relationship, however, may be premature since Wheeler phase sites yield a relatively large number of these point types. Other stone tool forms characteristic of the Wheeler

phase include diamond beveled knives, flake base drills, ensiform pipe drills, and both side and end scrapers. Wheeler sites in central Oklahoma tend to have large end and/or side

scrapers made of Florence-A chert. This

tendency was another criterion used by Hofman (1984) to distinguish between the Edwards and Wheeler complexes; however, certain Washita River phase sites (e.g., 34GD95, Bud Doke collection) also yield these large style scrapers. This indicates

geographical and temporal continuity be tween sites of the Early and Middle Plains Village periods in the Southern Plains region and argues against segregation of archaeo

logical complexes in western Oklahoma

during the Protohistoric period. Characteristic bone tools include bison

metatarsal fleshers with serrated edges, awls, bison scapula hoes, and bison tibia digging stick tips. Bone items occur as decorative

objects as well, with tubular bone beads being most common.

The most frequently recovered lithic ma terial from Wheeler phase sites varies accord

ing to geographic location (Table 1). In the west, Alibates chert comprises 39% or more of the chipped stone artifacts and debris. In the east, Alibates may make up only about 18% of the lithic inventory. Florence-A can

comprise as much as 50% of the total ma terial in the east, but only 2% in more westerly sites. The Duncan site (34WA2), which is cen

trally located, contains about 27% Florence A. Lesser quantities of Edwards chert, ranging from about 2% to 14%, and obsidian,

which varies from 1 % to 7%, are also present in these sites. Most of this material is obtained

through quarrying activities or exchange mechanisms rather than through the collec tion of local stream gravels. From this

perspective, Alibates is derived from sources in the breaks region of the Canadian River near Amarillo, Texas, but may be derived from as far away as the western escarpment of the Llano Estacado (Shelley 1984); Flo rence-A from the Osage Hills and Flint Hills

region of Oklahoma and Kansas; Edwards chert outcrops from the Georgetown forma tion which occurs along the boundary of the Llano Estacado and Edwards plateau and continues southward; and obsidian from the Jemez Mountains region in north-central New Mexico (Baugh 1981, 1982, 1983a, 1985; Baugh and Nelson 1984; Baugh and Terrell 1982; Baugh et al. 1983; Hofman 1978,1984; Swenson 1983a, 1983b).

Obsidian from six Wheeler phase sites has been analyzed using X-ray fluorescence methods for chemical comparison to known sources. These artifacts can be attributed to three discrete localities within the Jemez Mountains. These are Valle Grande, Cerro Toledo, and El Rechuelos complexes (Baugh 1985; Baugh and Nelson 1984). The major collection localities for these complexes include Cerro del Medio for the Valle Grande,

Obsidian Ridge for Cerro Toledo, and Polva dera Peak for El Rechuelos. By far the most common obsidian is derived from Valle Grande. The results of these chemical char acterizations for the archaeological obsidian are presented in Table 5.

In addition to obsidian and the previously mentioned southwestern sherds, Wheeler

phase sites yield other trade items as well. These include turquoise beads and pendants, tubular Pecos style pipes, and Olivella shell beads. In contrast, commodities from the Central Plains have also been recovered. These include artifacts made from Florence-A chert and two pipestone fragments which have been traced to sources in Kansas (Gunderson 1983).

Faunal remains attest to the importance of bison in the economy of the Wheeler complex people (Monk 1982; Monk and Falk 1982). Despite this dependence on bison, the earlier sites in central Oklahoma tend to show some reliance on deer as well. Horticulture

undoubtedly provided additional food re serves. Much of the evidence for horticulture tends to be indirect, with bison scapula hoes and digging stick tips being recovered from the Duncan (34WA2) and Goodwin-Baker (34RM14) sites. These same sites and Rob ertson (34GD144) have yielded direct evi dence in the form of corn kernels and cupules (Baugh 1983a; Brooks etal. 1985:127; Minnis 1982, 1984).

Only two dwellings have been identified

173



Table 5. Chemical Composition of Obsidian from Six Wheeler Phase Sites in Western Oklahoma.

A & G Rb Sr Y Zr Nb MnO Fe2?3 Tl02 Ba N^O Site No. Provenience No. (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (%) (%) (%) (ppm) (%) Source*

34RM14 S15E5 (4-8") 1319 156.9 7.9 53.7 208.7 70.9 .062 1.23 .103 36.4 4.27 78 34RM14 N34W25 (0*4") 1320 154.3 2.5 57.4 211.2 70.3 .062 1.25 .106 32.5 4.28 78 34RM14 N25W7 (0*4") 1321 161.6 4.5 53.1 206.7 69.4 .061 1.22 .102 31.0 4.22 78 34RM14 N29W9 (0-4") 1322 154.5 5.5 47.3 202.7 66.1 .061 1.23 .104 35.1 4.28 78 34RM14 N20E4 (4-8") 1323 156.1 5.6 49.0 202.0 64.7 .061 1.19 .101 33.6 4.24 78 34RM14 N36W15 (8-12") 1324 199.3 4.8 67.2 211.4 105.8 .082 1.27 .085 6.2 4.42 82 34WA2 Surface 1325 157.1 7.3 58.6 205.7 72.1 .062 1.20 .103 31.9 4.31 78 34WA2 Surface 1326 198.0 3.1 75.1 221.8 115.1 .083 1.27 .083 7.5 4.36 82 34WA2 Surface 1327 151.4 8.5 32.0 116.5 62.8 .066 0.56 .089 20.7 4.09 85 34WA2 Surface 1328 158.2 12.5 45.9 200.9 65.6 .062 1.23 .104 36.8 4.28 78 34WA2 Surface 1329 156.3 10.3 59.0 198.9 78.2 ,062 1.30 .105 35.6 4.29 78 34WA2 Surface 1330 157.9 9.0 50.0 209.1 67.5 .062 1.25 .104 35.5 4.29 78 34WA2 Surface 1331 202.2 9.2 75.2 190.1 106.5 .083 1.32 .085 6.6 4.52 82 34WA2 Surface 1332 157.6 7.6 52.4 207.6 64.6 .061 1.21 .099 29.6 4.23 78 34BK2 S1L2 (0-6") 1342 160.2 6.2 52.8 208.4 68.9 .061 1.25 .103 33.3 4.27 78 34BK2 S1L2 (6-12") 1343 156.0 6.9 45.4 201.3 62.6 .061 1.21 .103 32.6 4.26 78 34BK2 S1L2 (12-18") 1344 150.3 2.1 53.9 210.1 73.0 .062 1.25 .102 35.1 4.28 78 34BK2 S2L3 (0-6") 1345 152.9 5.7 56.4 209.6 68.0 .062 1.24 .104 34.6 4.31 78 34BK2 S1R2 (12-18") 1346 153.4 8.8 47.0 198.3 65.7 .062 1.21 .103 32.4 4.32 78 34BK2 N1R3 (6*12") 1347 158.1 7.4 56.2 207.7 71.1 .061 1.22 .101 33.0 4.25 78 34BK2 N2R1 (6-12") 1348 144.8 9.5 49.7 196.9 69.6 .059 1.18 .098 34.3 4.13 78 34BK2 S23R5 (0-6") 1349 157.1 5.4 53.2 214.6 68.5 .061 1.22 .100 33.3 4.23 78 34BK2 Surface 1399 154.7 9.3 51.1 201.1 67.2 .061 1.24 .101 32.8 4.18 78 34BK2 Surface 1400 156.7 10.1 39.4 197.2 61.9 .062 1.25 .106 31.5 4.27 78 34BK2 Surface 1401 153.8 5.5 58.1 216.3 70.2 .061 1.24 .105 36.2 4.22 78 34BK2 Surface 1402 159.5 7.8 50.6 206.1 64.1 .061 1.22 .104 33.8 4.11 78 34BK2 Surface 1403 156.7 11.2 41.9 192.4 59.5 .061 1.24 .102 32.6 4.28 78 34BK2 Surface 1404 203.0 4.5 73.1 219.1 110.7 .083 1.28 .085 8.7 4.38 82 34BK2 Surface 1405 201.9 8.7 67.8 208.3 107.7 .083 1.32 .087 4.0 4.42 82 34BK2 Surface 1406 123.8 74.0 35.6 120.8 24.6 .030 1.02 .084 1573.1 3.58 31 34BK2 Surface 1407 201.5 4.2 78.0 218.5 112.4 .083 1.28 .084 8.5 4.37 82 34BK2 S1L4 (6-12") 1408 205.0 2.7 71.4 228.0 115.0 .062 1.29 .084 8.6 4.33 82 34BK2 S2L3 (0-6") 1409 201.1 1.4 76.9 222.5 114.8 .083 1.29 .085 7.2 4.30 82 34BK2 N1R1 (0-6") 1410 204. t 1.3 74.7 224.9 114.2 .083 1.30 .086 9.0 4.43 82 34GR8 Surface 1350 153.9 4.7 57.4 220.0 76.9 .061 1.25 .103 35.3 4.24 78 34GR8 Surface 1351 204.9 5.6 75.1 220.6 118.9 .083 1.27 .083 7.0 4.40 82 34GR8 Surface 1352 156.1 2.7 57.5 219.7 73.7 .062 1.24 .104 33.4 4.30 78 34GR8 Surface 1353 153.6 4.1 58.5 218.1 71.0 .062 1.21 .100 30.8 4.27 78 34GR8 Surface 1354 151.5 1.9 65.3 218.6 74.9 .061 1.23 .103 34.9 4.23 78 34GR8 Sur.ace 1355 158.2 7.0 56.9 214.1 72.9 .062 1.23 .104 36.8 4.30 78 34CN2 Surface 1934 158.3 6.1 58.8 197.7 54.9 .063 1.20 .102 37.6 4.92 78 34BK6 Surface 1935 196.3 1.9 84.8 218.0 85.9 .085 1.23 .088 10.7 5.18 82 * Source No. 31 ? Malad, Idaho; No. 78 * Valle Grande, New Mexico; No. 82 ? Cerro Toledo (Obsidian Ridge), New Mexico; and No. 85. ? Polvadera Peak, New Mexico.

from one Wheeler phase site?Goodwin Baker (34RM14). These two nearly square houses measure approximately 3 m by 3 m

(Swenson 1983a) and are of a wattle-and daub construction with a central fireplace. The inner hearth in House 1 appears to have

originally functioned as a pit for supporting a central post which may have served as a ladder during house construction (Fig. 2).

Once this post was removed, the hole was widened directly below the floor level and converted into a fire pit for the house. This

practice is fairly common among Southern Plains Caddoan peoples, having been docu mented for the circular grass houses used by the protohistoric Hasinai (Griffith 1954:99 100) as well as for nearly one-half of the

square to rectangular structures excavated

during the 1930s at the George C. Davis site in Cherokee County, Texas (Newell and

Krieger 1949:24). This practice has also been documented for two of the rectangular houses

(II and IV) at the Uncas site (34KA172) and for Structure A, a rectangular house at the Bryson-Paddock site (34KA5) (Hartley and Miller 1977:165; Vehik and Flynn 1982:34; Vehik and Swenson 1984:27). Both Uncas and Bryson-Paddock are located in north central Oklahoma, but Uncas is of Early Plains Village affiliation while the Bryson Paddock site is correlated with the Middle Plains Village period.

Another major feature at two Wheeler

phase sites is a dark circular ring measuring approximately 50 m in diameter (Fig. 3). A series of test squares excavated across the Edwards I and Duncan rings reveals that they represent a circular trench some 2 m across on the surface and tapering to about 1 m at the bottom (Fig. 4). The maximum depth of these trenches is about 1 m from ground surface. An estimated 119 m3 (4200 ft.3) of earth had to be removed from each feature in order to construct each trench.

174



-1-'-1?-1

- ^pj

I 4- 849W18

\ \ + + w ^Sk 860W18

\ RoclN^iura subftoor

861W20 861W19 861W18

Charcoal

t 1 Ralaad clay wal

Fig. 2. House 1, 34RM14. Inner hearth represents post mold excavated during house construction.

To provide a different perspective on these circular trenches, a magnetic survey was conducted at the Edwards I site (Weymouth 1981). Even though the field in which this site is located has been intensively farmed for at least 70 years, a magnetic area (dark inner circle shown in Fig. 5) suggests that the

original backdirt from the trench was thrown to the inside of the ring. This backdirt may have been used to construct what is now a subsided parapet. While in use, such a

parapet may have supported a number of

posts which formed a stockade. No dwellings or other features are believed to be present inside these structures.

These probable fortifications at Wheeler

phase sites are of interest because of a similar structure described for the Bridwell site (41CB27) near Crosbyton, Texas (Fig. 4). At this important Garza complex site, a raised

ridge of earth measuring 0.61 m in height and

varying between 46 and 50 m in diameter has

175



^ EPD East Permanent Datum

/^T^6$?\ // / J ->"^\N^^V/ / ( f if NPD NOMh Permanent Datum

/V^i\*0v^ / ^^9? II (I ?A Ash Deposit

/// vA V^^CT^ ( ( ^-^^^ /^8? ~

\ \ *0 GP Possible Pa

^^^^^

Fig. 3. Contour map of the Duncan site (34WA2), Washita County, Oklahoma.

been reported (Parker 1982:10-11, 13). The test excavations at Bridwell did not look for a trench outside of the raised ridge, but the

similarity to the Wheeler phase sites is

striking.

THE GARZA COMPLEX

Bridwell (41CB27), Country Club (41FL1), Montgomery (41FL17), Pete Creek (41CB1), Grape Creek (41CB3), Lubbock Lake (41LU1), Garza (41GA40), and the Garnsey Spring campsite (LA 18400) comprise the Garza complex as defined by Hughes (1984; see also Johnson et al. 1977; Northern 1979; Parker 1982; Parsons 1967; Parry and Speth 1984; Runkles 1964; Word 1963,1965). Only

the Lubbock Lake and Garnsey Spring camp sites have been dated by means of radio carbon determinations (Table 6). In addition, three of these sites are now dated by means of obsidian hydration (Table 7). The Lubbock Lake locale is represented by a number of

relatively impermanent camps which have

yielded both Edwards Plain and Little Deer Plain sherds. In contrast, excavations at the

Garnsey Spring campsite have not revealed

any similar sherds. Several other, more per manent villages are found along the White River in Blanco Canyon. These settlements

(e.g., Bridwell, Montgomery, and Pete Creek) have between 14% and 50% of their ceramic inventories derived from the Southwest.

Bridwell has the highest percentage

176



Bridwall (41CB27) SIU Parapat (attar Parkar 1982:10)

^^^^^^^ Cross Section

Top View

South Profila of Taat Tranch 34WA2 Test waat 2

^ Teat Waat 1

^

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ reffSl I Plow Zone X Yellowi h-tan silty clay Bone I

G? la Dark brown sandy loam I v-... 1 HI Red sand E3 Rock

f I M Tan-brown clay/loam afifcj Krotovina Unexcava ed I

JB. Tan-brown sandy clay/loam 9 _] I (trench fW)_meter_

Fig. 4. Bridwell site (41CB27) parapet and trench profile from the Duncan site (34WA2).

177



si* * tfi .*

o_io j 1 ".v^r'' i i i 4 ' , ,i , ?*

me,ers ^i- '*<:' j'L v"i i ?'. '

. 1 ''I "1 -I El 31 m 5-1 E-1

Fig. 5. Magnetometer map of the circular trench and subsided parapet at the Edwards I site (34BK2).

(49.4%) of southwestern sherds (see Table 4; Parker 1982:54). A. H. Warren examined 94 of the 337 southwestern sherds and identified two Glaze A types?Agua Fria Glaze-on-red

(A.D. 1315-1400) and Cieneguilla Glaze

polychrome (A.D. 1375-1425)?as well as a

variety of intermediate glaze-polychromes which date between A.D. 1350 and 1600, and two Glaze E types?Puaray Glaze-poly chome, which may be correlated with the

early sixteenth century, and Pecos Glaze

polychrome, which may have been made in the late seventeenth century (Parker 1982:56; A. H. Warren, personal communication 1982; see also Warren 1969). On the basis of fabric and temper, 92.5% of these 94 sherds are af filiated with the Tano district including such Galisteo Basin pueblos as San Marcos (LA

98), San Cristobal (LA 80), and Tunque (LA 240). Nearly two-thirds of these identified sherds from the Tano district originated from

Tunque pueblo, which has been tree ring dated from A.D. 1428 to 1496 and appears to have been continuously occupied until about A.D. 1700 (Barnett 1969:12-13; Cordell 1979a: 146; Schroeder 1979a:249; Smiley et al. 1953:20-21). Despite the large quantity of southwestern pottery, the Bridwell site has a

very low percentage of obsidian (1.0%), with Edwards chert accounting for 88.4% of its total lithic inventory (see Table 1; Parker

1982:73). At the same time, a relatively large number

of southwestern derived decorative items have been recovered from the Bridwell site. These include four beads and three pendants

178



Table 6. Radiocarbon Dates for Two Garza Complex Sites. *

13 Age C Fractionation Calibrated Dates

Site Lab No.** B.P. Date A.D. Date Corrected B.P.Date Range (Midpoint)*** Remarks

41LU1 SI-2700 380 ? 40 1570 ?40 - - 1410-1635 (1522) Charcoal, upper FA8-6. Area 8, same as SMU-345

41LU1 SI-2701 505 ? 55 1445 ? 55 - - 1335-1480 (1407) Charcoal, lower FA8-6, Area 8. 41LU1 SI-2703 285 ?60 1665 ? 60 - -- 1480-1665 (1572) Charcoal, Area 15.

41LU1 SI-2704 315 ?50 1635 ? 50 - - 1425-1660 (1542) Charcoal, Area 14. 41LU1 SMU-345 300 ?60 1650 ?60 - - 1430-1660 (1545) Charcoal, upper FA8-6, Area 8,

same as SI-2700.

41LU1 SMU-546 320?60 1630? 60 - - 1425-1655 (1540) Charcoal, Area 19

LA 18400 Beta-6693 320 ?50 1630 ? 50 -27.87 280 ?50 - - Charcoal, "Garza" hearth.

* Based on Holliday et al. (1983) and Parry and Speth (1984). * * SI ? Smithsonian Institution; SMU - Southern Methodist University, Dallas; Beta ? Beta Analytic, Coral Gables, Florida. *** Calibrated dates based on Klein et al. (1982).

of turquoise, 32 Olivella shell beads, and five "tinkler" pendants made from either Conus or Oliva shell (Parker 1982:38, 40-42). The latter objects are of interest not only for their

point of origin (either the Gulf of California or the Gulf of Mexico), but also for the cultural

relationships they may reveal. For example, although much of the southwestern pottery from Bridwell is affiliated with Tunque, no "tinkler" pendants have been recovered from this pueblo. In contrast, excavations at Pecos

pueblo (LA 625) have yielded 75 Oliva shell pendants (Kidder 1932:190-192). Concur

rently, there has been a greater quantity of Olivella shell beads recovered from Bridwell than from the 1962 to 1964 excavations at

Tunque (cf. Barnett 1969 with Parker 1982). In other words, many commodities including the single Glaze F sherd recovered from Bridwell may well have been derived from Pecos (Parker 1982:56).

A short distance north of Bridwell is the

Table 7. Chemical Composition and Hydration Thickness of Obsidian Samples from Three Garza Complex Sites in Texas.

A & Q Rb Sr Y Zr Nb MnO Fe2?3 Ti02 Ba Na2? OUHL Hydration A.D. Site No. Provenience No. (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (%) (%) (%) (ppm) (%) Source No. (microns) Date

41CB27 Surface 1787 157.1 7.9 57.7 209.2 54.6 .063 1.22 .101 39.2 4.16 78 1048 3.25 1539 41CB27 Surface 1788 154.2 8.5 59.8 205.6 54.5 .063 1.19 .100 36.4 4.12 78 1049 3.26 1537 41CB27 Surface 1789 158.6 9.1 50.9 204.6 49.3 .062 1.22 .104 38.9 4.11 78 1050 3.69 1478

1051 2.75 1607 41CB27 Surface 1790 161.7 5.6 62.2 212.9 56.3 .062 1.21 .103 39.9 4.01 78

1052 3.87 1454 1053* 2.15 1689

41CB27 Surface 1791 192.3 1.9 78.5 211.0 82.7 .085 1.23 .081 13.1 4.24 82 1053* 2.94 1581

41CB27 Surface 1792 198.2 3.0 81.0 222.3 86.0 .085 1.22 .082 10.8 4.29 82 1054 2.05 1703 41CB27 Surface 1793 156.8 4.2 57.9 216.2 52.1 .062 1.23 .101 35.9 4.12 78 1055 3.28 1535

41FL17 Surface 1794 152.6 4.6 59.9 214.5 56.3 .061 1.17 .099 36.1 4.14 78 1056 2.63 1623 41FL17 Surface 1795 152.8 6.9 55.4 207.1 53.5 .062 1.20 .101 37.1 4.16 78 1057 2.98 1576 41FL17 Surface 1796 158.8 7.1 61.2 203.6 56.1 .063 1.22 .103 34.5 4.32 78 1058 3.09 1561 41FL17 Surface 1797 193.4 0.9 87.6 224.2 84.0 .086 1.25 .082 10.7 4.27 82 1059 3.04 1567 41FL17 Surface 1798 157.3 5.7 50.5 206.8 53.5 .063 1.19 .099 38.5 4.15 78 1060 3.10 1559 41FL17 Surface 1799 153.1 5.9 57.9 203.7 54.2 .062 1.20 .100 36.2 4.15 78 1061 5.67 1207

1062* 2.16 1688 41FL17 Surface 1800 152.4 4.7 63.5 210.5 56.1 .062 1.21 .101 32.6 4.16 78

1062* 2.71 1613 41FL17 Surface 1081 197.0 0.9 86.3 224.8 86.8 .085 1.24 .081 9.6 4.33 82 1063 1.96 1715

1064* 2.16 1688 41FL1 Surface 1802 195.4 1.5 77.5 216.5 83.4 .084 1.23 .082 10.5 4.35 82

1064* 2.35 1662 1065* 3.05 1566

41FL1 Surface 1803 152.8 3.6 62.7 212.8 55.0 .062 1.22 .103 35.0 4.29 78 1065* 3.28 1535 1066* 2.41 1654

41FL1 Surface 1804 193.1 0.6 88.5 225.1 84.8 .084 1.23 .082 12.1 4.28 82 1066* 2.76 1606

41FL1 Surface 1805 151.7 7.1 60.4 210.0 56.5 .062 1.23 .102 35.5 4.17 78 1067 2.64 1622

Notes: Source No. 78 - Valle Grande, New Mexico; No. 82. - Cerro Toledo (Obsidian Ridge), New Mexico. OUHL - Oklahoma University Hydration Laboratory. A.D. dates based on hydration curve established by Russell (1981). * Specimen has been reused.

179



Montgomery site (41FL17), which has also yielded a number of Glaze IV and V (or Glaze D and E) sherds (Northern 1979:56-80, 92-97; Word 1965:85-86, 91-92). These sherds, which date between A.D. 1550 and 1700, account for 32.9% of the total protohistoric ceramic assemblage and help to place the

occupation of this site somewhat later in time than Bridwell (see Table 4). The 15 identified sherds (Word 1965:91-93) include 8 San Lazaro Glaze-polychrome sherds (a Glaze D

type), 4 sherds of Puaray Glaze-polychrome (a Glaze E type), and 3 Pecos Glaze-poly chrome sherds (also a Glaze E type). Con

cerning lithic materials, 3.6% of the total identified assemblage is obsidian (see Table 1). Edwards chert does not occur in the same

high frequency as at Bridwell, but rather occurs in nearly equal proportions with Alibates (38.2% vs. 35.1%, respectively). This

may indicate that the Montgomery site's in habitants were attempting to diversify their

exchange commodities; for about this same time period, A.D. 1550, Kidder (1932:44, 1958:313; see also Schroeder 1979b) notes an increase in Alibates chert along with other Plains material, including snub-nosed

scrapers and bone fleshers, at Pecos. Addi

tionally, two Pecos style pipes have been recovered from the Montgomery site (North ern 1979:81-82; Word 1965:97-99). In com

parison to Bridwell, however, the Montgomery materials contain fewer Olivella shell (2) and

turquoise (1) beads (Word 1965:77, 79). The last of these White River sites to be

considered is Pete Creek (41CB1), which appears to be the most recent because of the

presence of Glaze VI or F trade ceramics

exclusively. These sherds, which date to the latter part of the seventeenth century, consti tute 14.6% of the protohistoric ceramic

assemblage (see Table 4). Fourty-four of the 46 sherds have been identified as being from the Galisteo area (Parsons 1967:56-59). This

relatively low frequency of Puebloan ceramics from Pete Creek contrasts with the 6.4% of obsidian which is the highest percentage from any Garza site (see Table 1). Although no other southwestern materials have been

reported from 41CB1, a micaceous slipped ware has also been described. In general, these 190 sherds are quite similar to the

micaceous slipped ware (Vadito Micaceous) from Picuris pueblo (Dick 1965:142-143). The

Pete Creek specimens, however, differ by having an andesite porphery sand temper and a "thick sericite white micaceous slip" as opposed to the arkosic sand temper and

light reddish sericite mica slip of Vadito Micaceous (Parsons 1967:60). The large number of micaceous sherds from 41CB1 may indicate an indigenous ceramic type being produced by the inhabitants of the Pete Creek site.

Evidence for the economic practices of the Garza complex people is not well developed. There are some indications, however, that

they practiced farming. For example, one bison scapula hoe and one bison tibia digging stick tip have been recovered, but not

reported, for the Montgomery site (Parker, personal communication 1984). Less positive, but suggestive, is the presence of 39 metate

fragments and seven mano fragments at the

Montgomery site (Northern 1979:50-51). The Bridwell site has also yielded indirect evi dence of horticulture in the form of four

complete and seven broken metates as well as 14 manos (Parker 1982:45-46). No direct evidence for horticulture is available from these sites primarily because no methods have been employed to recover plant re mains. Based on indirect evidence and the

presence of large quantities of bison bone, we

may conclude that the inhabitants of Garza

complex sites were practicing a mixed econ

omy based on horticulture, bison hunting, and

trading. This is not an atypical pattern for the Panhandle-Plains region since the Antelope Creek people also appear to have placed great importance on bison hunting during the

Early Plains Village period from A.D. 1200 to 1500 (Lintz 1984:331). Although horticulture is also inferred for most Antelope Creek

phase sites, an examination of five sites by Drass et al. (1985) indicates that horticultural tools are not always abundant at sites in the Panhandle-Plains region.

Evidence for an extensive exchange net work is on somewhat firmer ground. Based on the above findings, exchange ties between the occupants of the Garza complex sites and the Galisteo area, as demonstrated by the

variety of glaze sherds, is of a relatively high intensity and long duration. Concerning the

Galisteo pueblos and their ceramic traditions, Cordell (1979a: 146-147; cf. Cordell 1979b:58; Snow 1982:254) notes that:

180



Collectively, the Rio Grande glazes form a distinct set of ceramic types that were produced as late as about 1700 and widely traded both within the Rio Grande Valley and to groups on the Plains.... From the mid-1300s to the early 1400s, San Marcos and other Galisteo Basin Pueblos became trade centers of glazewares (C and D). San Cristobal Pueblo may have been a trade center from the mid-1400s to 1680 when the Galisteo Basin was abandoned.

Cordell's statement is based partly on the work of Nelson at San Cristobal, where he identified the remains of bison bone along

with obsidian and glaze ceramics (Nelson 1914:55, 1916).

The Bridwell, Montgomery, and Pete Creek sites are especially interesting because

they demonstrate a continuity in the ex

change system between the Southwest and Southern Plains which was previously be lieved to have been severed "from about A.D. 1450-1500 by incursions of Athabaskans [sic] into the Southwest" until about 1650 when trade was resumed (Honea 1973:86). Indeed, the structure for this exchange system ap pears to have been established during the second half of the fourteenth century or

during the Early Plains Village period and continued into the Middle Plains Village period albeit with modifications within the trade network (cf. Baugh 1984a). This realign ment in the trade network, and hence the alliance systems, is to some extent described

by members of Francisco Vazquez de Coro nado's expedition to the northern Rio Grande region in 1540:

Ail that we could find out about it (the destruction of one of the Galisteo Basin pueblos) was that some sixteen years before (in about A.D. 1525) some people called Teyas had come in large numbers to that land and had destroyed those

pueblos. They besieged Cicuye (Pecos) but could not take it because it was strong. Before leaving the land they made friends with all [Hammond and Rey 1940:258; cf. Winship 1896:453, 524]. In this province there are seven other villages, depopulated and destroyed by those Indians who paint their eyes, of whom the guides will tell your Grace; they say that these live in the same region as the cows (bison), and that they have corn and houses of straw [Winship 1896:595].

Perhaps this realignment was brought about with the movement of the Athapaskans into the Southwest during the late fifteenth to early sixteenth century (Gunnerson 1956, 1974;

Wilcox 1981). At that time, these hunters and gatherers formed new alliances with the

Pueblo peoples, allowing these sedentary villagers to more efficiently exploit their upland domains than previously possible (Wilcox 1981:236,1984). These new alliances between the nomadic Apache groups and the various Pueblo peoples, in turn, brought about a transformation in the overall alliance

system which strained relations with the Plains Caddoan farmers who had previously been the sole suppliers of Plains commodities to the various Pueblo villages. Relationships between the Pueblo and their Plains Caddoan allies were tenuous at best. Levi-Strauss characterized such social contracts between

exchange partners to be one in which they are:

in constant fear of each other and avoid each other. But at the same time they desire contact, because it is the only way in which they are able to exchange, and thus obtain products or articles that they lack. There is a link, a continuity, be tween hostile relations and the provision of reciprocal prestations. Exchanges are peacefully resolved wars, and wars are the result of unsuc cessful transactions [Levi-Strauss 1969:67; also cited in Sahlins 1972:302].

When these alliances were interrupted, as in the case of the arrival of the Athapaskans into the Southwest, wars were sure to erupt be tween the Pueblo villagers and their former Plains allies. Consideration of these factors may, in part then, explain the Teya raids on the Galisteo Basin pueblos and Pecos pueblo in about A.D. 1525.

CONCLUSIONS

On the basis of this accumulating evi dence, then, a comparison of Wheeler phase and Garza complex sites can be made. A number of similarities are present among the assemblages of these sites. For example, unnotched and notched triangular points (in cluding Fresno, Garza, Harrell, and Washita) are present in both regions. Other stone tools include similar types of knives, end and side scrapers, and drills. Although lithic material

types tend to differ between the regions, this may be a reflection of local availability through trade or collection rather than actual cultural preferences. In addition, there are close similarities in recovered ceramic types. These include Edwards Plain, Little Deer Plain and

Decorated, and Perdido Plain. Bone artifacts are also comparable, with bison metatarsal

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fleshers and awls being relatively common and decreasing numbers of bison scapula hoes and digging stick tips as one moves from east to west. This geographic variation in the presence of bone horticultural tools has also been noted for Early Plains Village period sites in the Southern Plains (Drass et al.

1985). Concurrently, a number of southwestern

and European trade items are present in these sites. The former includes glaze ce ramic types, redwares, and utility pottery, as

well as obsidian, turquoise, Olivella, Oliva, and Conus shells, and tubular pipes of the Pecos variety. European trade goods tend to be limited to glass beads and more rarely lead sprues, musket balls, and gun flints.

Although our knowledge of the variety of houses, storage pits, and other features at these sites is extremely narrow, the presence of circular fortifications at both Wheeler phase and Garza complex sites is intriguing. These features are undoubtedly related to expand ing economies based on horticulture, bison

hunting, and extensive trading networks. The

only known houses are from Goodwin-Baker, a Wheeler phase site. These small, rectan

gular structures also indicate relatively per manent village settlements for these peoples. Still this gap in our knowledge concerning site structure can only be corrected through carefully controlled, problem-oriented test excavations.

Despite the number of parallels between these two archaeological manifestations, cer tain distinctions also exist between Wheeler

phase and Garza complex sites. The most

striking of these is the difference in their ceramic inventories. Garza occupations yield a large percentage of Pueblo decorative and utilitarian wares. This situation may be a reflection of heavier dependence on south

western trade during the earlier years of the Middle Plains Village period when initial climatic fluctuations were occurring and eco nomic structures were being realigned with the collapse of Casas Grandes to the west and Spiro to the east. As previously noted, these ties with the Puebloans may have been

weakened as the Southern Athapaskans moved into the Southwest and formed alli ances with the various Pueblo groups. Still the

strength of these Plains-Southwest ties can be seen in the occurrence of the probable

indigenous micaceous ware at the Pete Creek site and in the continuance of trade into the early eighteenth century. Thus, the probability exists that the Garza complex represents a western extension of the Wheeler phase. Modifications in site assemblages may be accounted for in terms of ecological adapta tions (including social, environmental, and

geographical) to more arid conditions as one moves toward the Llano Estacado, rather than representing true cultural divisions. This is not to say that cultural variation in the

Southern Plains does not exist, for the con

temporaneous Tierra Blanca complex ap pears to represent a different cultural adap tation and manifestation within the region (Hughes 1984).

In sum, then, the two archaeological cul tures known as the Wheeler phase and Garza

complex tend to be relatively closely related. More research, however, is needed to vali date this claim (cf. Collins 1971). As work continues to enhance our knowledge about the Wheeler and Garza peoples, several ob

jectives are being pursued. Perhaps the most critical of our current needs is the investiga tion of dietary requirements and subsistence activities of these people. More qualitative and quantitative data on botanical specimens are required to determine the place of horti culture in the daily lives and seasonal round of the cultural participants.

Second, intrasite and intersite settlement

patterns need to be more carefully examined. Small, temporary campsites, similar to those at Lubbock Lake and Garnsey Springs, need to be more thoroughly examined in the

Wheeler phase region. These sites would more carefully document the role and impor tance of bison hunting in these societies. Such information concerning the semiseden

tary lifestyle of these people would play an important role in a broader anthropological perspective concerning the nature of mixed economies in the evolution of social systems. Additionally, settlement pattern studies would enhance the understanding of cultural demo

graphics for both the Protohistoric and His toric periods. At the same time, such an examination must take into account certain external factors such as changing population densities as brought about by migration and disease and their relationship to cultural

adaptations. Third, more independently de

182



rived, absolute dates are needed for both the Wheeler phase and Garza complex sites.

Finally, on a somewhat smaller scale, more detailed studies of ceramics should be undertaken. The importance of functional attributes, as well as the environmental and social factors, need to be explored. The demise of calcium carbonate tempers in

Washita River phase ceramics can be ac counted for by means other than postulating the movement of new people into the South ern Plains. For example, calcium carbonate

tempers are most effective at relatively moderate kiln temperatures as produced by wood fuels (Shepard 1956). Temperatures over 800?C convert calcium carbonate ma terials to calcium oxide which takes on water, and hence expands portions of the vessel that

eventually creates cracking and breaking. This can be overcome to some extent by adding salt to the plastic clay, but even this process has its limitations (Rye 1981:107, 114, 127). It is possible, then, that a drier climate in the Southern Plains (Ferring 1982; Hall 1982,1984), as well as certain functional considerations, might have required a shift on the part of the pottery makers to use an alter native fuel such as bison dung. This material may not have been as readily available to

Early Plains Village potters (S. Baugh 1983 and this volume; Dillehay 1974) and therefore not used by them for firing purposes. Be that as it may, bison dung produces a hotter, although shorter lasting, fire than wood (Shepard 1956:77; although not comparing

wood and dung fires for the purposes of firing pottery, Holland [1984] also presents some

interesting data concerning the efficiency of wood and buffalo chip fires). Hotter fires would require a shift from calcium carbonate tempers to an alternative material such as sand and mica. A study of the effects of

tempering materials must also take into ac count the cultural and engineering constraints of pottery manufacture (Braun 1983; Shepard 1956). In this approach such factors as vessel function, porosity, and style, as well as sec tional wall and whole vessel shape strength, should be taken into consideration.

Although these questions tend to deal more with problems of culture history, com

prehension of them is crucial as we begin to examine more processually oriented topics. One such topic is the discernment of the role

or position of the Wheeler phase and Garza complex peoples in the Southern Plains macroeconomy (Baugh 1982,1984a). This in turn would allow for a better understanding of the relationship between the social and

physical environments and their effects on Southern Plains societies as egalitarian struc tures. Once the nature of this interaction and the process of reactive social change is understood for the Protohistoric period, the more likely it is that social scientists will be able to understand the significance of later culture change as Euro-American explorers and settlers began to penetrate into the Southwest and impacted the economy of the Southern Plains peoples.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Many individuals and institutions have contributed to the writing of this paper. The Oklahoma Archeological Survey and National Science Foundation (grant no. BNS

83-11117) provided funds for the obsidian hydration and trace element studies. Mr. Fred Nelson, A & G Analyses, conducted the trace element studies using X-ray fluorescence techniques. Obsidian for the Taylor (34GR8) and Weil (34CN2) sites was provided by Lawrence LeVick, Jean LeVick, and Bud Doke. The Garza complex obsidian was provided by Jim Word and Wayne Parker. Several people also reviewed various drafts of this

manuscript. Among those are Susan Baugh, Richard

Drass, Peggy Flynn, Chris Lintz, Fern Swenson, Susan

Vehik, Rain Vehik, and Don Wyckoff. Any errors in this paper, however, belong strictly to the author. I would also like to take this opportunity to thank Mary Goodman who

skillfully executed the illustrations. Permission to use

Figures 3 and 5 has been kindly granted by Academic Press. These two illustrations originally appeared in Bell's

(1984) Prehistory of Oklahoma.

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