cuaderno-del-alumno-2022.pdf - WordPress.com

Guía deaprendizaje

Rosario, Argentina. | fcm.unr.edu.ar 2022

Inglés

Responsable Académica del ÁreaProf. Martinez, Claudia Nora

Colaboradores docentesProf. Capriolo, NormaProf. Rodriguez, IreneProf. Saldaño, ClaudiaProf. Much, EldaProf. Ordonez, ElizabetProf. Cimolai, AnalíaProf. Peinado, Andrea

Área InstrumentalCarrera de Medicina

Rosario, Argentina. | fcm.unr.edu.ar

Inglés

2022

3

ÍNDICE

Introducción .........................................................Unidad 1 ................................................................. Unidad 2 .................................................................Unidad 3 .................................................................Unidad 4 .................................................................Unidad 5 .................................................................Unidad 6 .................................................................Unidad 7 .................................................................Unidad 8 .................................................................Apéndice 1 .............................................................Apéndice 2 .............................................................Apéndice 3 .............................................................Apéndice 4 .............................................................Apéndice 5 .............................................................Apéndice 6 .............................................................Apéndice 7 .............................................................

Pág. 5Pág. 11Pág. 21Pág. 35Pág. 41 Pág. 49Pág. 59Pág. 79Pág. 87Pág. 101Pág. 109Pág. 111Pág. 115Pág. 117Pág. 125Pág. 147


Inglés

2022

5

INTRODUCCIÓN


Inglés

2022

7

FundamentosResulta incuestionable la relevancia del idioma inglés en el ámbito académico

en la actualidad, al extremo de volverse imprescindible en la formación del es-tudiante universitario, especialmente si se apunta al objetivo de garantizar una formación autónoma y continua.

El vertiginoso avance del conocimiento y la inmediatez de las formas de comu-nicación e información en general, y dentro del ámbito académico en particular, han generado nuevas condiciones en la producción y transmisión de saberes. Las universidades ya no detentan el monopolio de la formación y la información. Am-bas fluyen en la red de redes y el acceso a las mismas depende, hoy más que nun-ca, de la capacidad crítica de los actores que intervienen en estas nuevas formas de comunicación.

Por distintas condiciones y factores cuya explicación excede la presente funda-mentación, el inglés se ha constituido en la “lingua franca” de lo que se ha dado en llamar la nueva sociedad informacional . Es por ello que, como nunca antes, el es-tudiante universitario necesita contar con herramientas que le permitan no sólo realizar una decodificación lingüística en este idioma sino, además, una lectura comprensiva, crítica y valorativa de los contenidos que circulan por esta comuni-dad global.

El ámbito de las Ciencias Médicas no es la excepción: el inglés es la lengua dominante en la investigación médica, independientemente del país de origen de los investigadores o de los estudios realizados. Es por esto que el contenido del plan de estudio del Área Instrumental inglés está diseñado para brindar los co-nocimientos necesarios que permitirán a los estudiantes de la carrera abordar distintos tipos de textos especializados y acceder con mirada crítica a la informa-ción necesaria para mantenerse actualizados y complementar así las asignaturas específicas.

El enfoque que aplicamos se inscribe en el de Inglés con fines específicos y académicos , y apunta a la lectura comprensiva de textos relacionados con el área salud, que aumentarán en complejidad y en extensión a medida que se vayan in-corporando las estrategias propuestas en el presente material de estudio. El cri-terio utilizado es el trabajo individual de lectura de la teoría y aplicación práctica de estas estrategias en clase, donde se promueve el intercambio de opiniones y criterios para acordar caminos de interpretación posibles en conjunto.

El cuerpo docente del área Instrumental Inglés, formado por profesoras y tra-ductoras de inglés, mantiene una actualización permanente en las modalidades antes mencionadas conjugando marcos teóricos provenientes de la lingüística aplicada con la propia experiencia, de manera flexible y abierta. Además, la ca-

PROGRAMA


Inglés

2022

8

pacitación de las docentes en las teorías críticas del discurso ha permitido posi-cionarse desde una perspectiva más amplia que la mera instrucción, insertando la enseñanza de una segunda lengua en la problemática más general de la lengua como actividad distintiva del hombre y la cultura, en el sentido amplio del término, con todas las consecuencias axiológicas y epistemológicas que ello comporta.

En términos didácticos, las clases se encuadran en estrategias de aprendizaje que privilegian la función comunicativa de la lengua según la cual el conocimiento lingüístico no es más que un medio para adquirir saberes significativos para el estudiante de Ciencias Médicas. Es por esta razón que tanto para las ejemplifi-caciones como para la ejercitación se trabaja con textos auténticos del campo disciplinar.

Es nuestro objetivo que cada estudiante que participa de este espacio acadé-mico se apropie de esta valiosa herramienta que no sólo le permitirá estrechar lazos con profesionales extranjeros para intercambiar conocimientos y experien-cias, sino además acceder en condiciones de igualdad a los últimos avances en la investigación médica.

Objetivos generales• Actualizar conocimientos previos de la propia lengua.• Actualizar conocimientos previos de la lengua extranjera.• Brindar contenidos teóricos lingüísticos de gramática inglesa.• Brindar contenidos metalingüísticos concernientes a la tarea com-

prensiva e interpretativa.• Favorecer el pensamiento crítico.• Interactuar con diversas disciplinas.• Maximizar recursos tecnológicos.

Objetivos específicos• Recuperar conceptos básicos de gramática española a partir de la compa-

ración con la gramática inglesa.• Recuperar conocimientos previos del idioma inglés e integrarlos en el tra-

bajo áulico.• Disponer contenidos teóricos para que sean puestos en práctica de modo

que se dé un proceso de integración acumulativo y dinámico, comenzando por las unidades de sentido más pequeñas hasta llegar a estructuras más complejas.

• Proponer información sobre elementos metalingüísticos para favorecer la comprensión y la interpretación.

• Propiciar escenarios de reflexión y aportar información sobre los elemen-tos del lenguaje para promover un pensamiento crítico que permita expre-sar e intercambiar opiniones.

• Trabajar con artículos y material propuestos por profesores de otras áreas de los ciclos Promoción de la salud y Prevención de la enfermedad.


Inglés

2022

9

• Incorporar el uso de recursos tecnológicos y aprender a aplicarlos de ma-nera eficiente en el trabajo áulico.

Metodología

Se inscribe en la propia del marco de ESP (English for Specific Purposes), cuya fundamentación teórica fue desarrollada por, entre otros, Dudley Evans y St John y cuyas características absolutas son:

a.- diseñada para cubrir la necesidad de quienes lo estudianb.- usa la metodología y las actividades de la disciplina a la que sirvec.- centrada en el lenguaje (gramática, léxico y registro), destrezas, discursos y géneros apropiados para dichas actividadesLas características variables indican que:a.- puede estar relacionada con disciplinas específicas y/o diseñado para ellasb.- puede utilizar una metodología diferente de la del inglés generalc.- está generalmente destinada a adultos en la enseñanza terciaria, universi-taria o en situación laboral activa A los fines de aplicar la metodología propia de la disciplina a la que sirve, se priorizará resolución de problemas a través de la gramática contrastiva.

Recursos educativos Laboratorios (un encuentro semanal de 2 hs), Seminarios, Clases de consulta,

Examen parcial, Trabajo práctico final, aula con pizarrón, marcador, proyector (para la presentación final del TPF). Guía de Estudio del Área Instrumental Inglés. Diccionarios bilingües generales y especializados.

Cursado (40hs-anual)Cursado anual de 40 horas, desde la primera semana de abril hasta la primera

semana de noviembre, con un encuentro semanal de 2 horas.

Evaluación y promociónSaberes PreviosEn el mes de marzo se realiza una valoración de saberes previos que permite

que los estudiantes con conocimientos previos en inglés (nivel B1/nivel interme-dio aprobado con certificación oficial que lo acredite) puedan regularizar la ma-teria sin necesidad de cursarla. De este modo, a partir del llamado noviembre/di-ciembre del año correspondiente, pueden acreditarla rindiendo el examen escrito como estudiantes regulares o bien pueden promocionar la materia asistiendo a un seminario de 6 clases, desde la tercera semana de septiembre hasta la última semana de octubre.


Inglés

2022

10

Examen para alumnos regularesSe aplicará el criterio de evaluación continua. Los parámetros evaluativos se-

rán la realización de los Trabajos Prácticos de autocorrección, la participación en clase, un examen parcial (con recuperatorio) y un Trabajo Practico Obligatorio (con recuperatorio).

La regularidad se obtendrá con el cumplimiento de los criterios antes mencio-nados y con un promedio de 6 (seis) entre el parcial y el trabajo práctico final. Se acreditará la materia con un examen final escrito. Un promedio de 8 (ocho) entre el parcial y el trabajo práctico final permitirá la promoción directa de la materia y su correspondiente acreditación.

Examen para alumnos libresSe considerará libre a aquel alumno que tenga un promedio inferior a 6 (seis)

y o asistencia inferior a 75%. También se considerará libre al alumno que decida rendir la materia sin haberla cursado. Se acreditará la materia con un examen final escrito.


Inglés

2022

11

Clases de Palabras

Las palabras son unidades lexicales que permiten organizar el pensamiento, manifestar los sentimientos y expresar el dis-curso con contenido, coherencia y cohesión, por medio de distintas estructuras que generan e integran. Existen distintas clases de palabras. Algunas son importantes por el contenido (significado) que expresan y porque generan las principales estructuras sintáctico-semánticas del discurso. Son los Térmi-nos Conceptuales. Otras son importantes por las funciones que desempeñan en el discurso, otorgan coherencia (hilación de las ideas) y cohesión (unidad discursiva). Son los Términos Estructurales.

art sust verb art adj sust prep sust conj adj sust

The skin protects the underlying tissue from injury and harmful bacteria.

From: Anatomy of the Human Body. Henry Gray. The Bartleby.com. Edition of Grey’s Anatomy of the Human Body.

El reconocimiento de este tipo de palabras permitirá distin-guir entre los dos principales bloques de significado: la FRASE NOMINAL y la FRASE VERBAL

Frase nominal Frase verbal

(núcleo: sustantivo) (núcleo: verbo)

Frase nominal (FN)

La Frase Nominal (FN) es un grupo de palabras cuyo núcleo o palabra principal es un SUSTANTIVO, generalmente ubicado al final de la construcción. Las demás palabras o elementos de la frase nominal modifican o dan información sobre ese núcleo.

Función de la Frase Nominal:

Puede cumplir la función de sujeto u objeto de un verbo y se puede reemplazar por un pronombre.También es término de preposición.

Elementos de la frase nominal (FN) en el orden más fre-cuente en inglés:

Clases de palabras:

Conceptuales: SUSTANTIVO / ADJETIVO

VERBO / ADVERBIO

Estructurales: Preposición, conjunción, pronombres, artículo.

Palabras conceptuales y palabras estructurales. Frase Nominal, estruc-tura. El sustantivo. Formación de sustantivos. Morfología: Derivación. Afijos: prefijos, sufijos e infijos. Manejo del diccionario. Búsqueda de terminología. Internet.

UNIDAD 01Clases de Palabras


Inglés

2022

12

Núcleo: sustantivo o palabra que funcione como sustantivo.

Pre-modificadores:

Determinantes (artículo, adj. posesivos, demostrativos, nu-merales, indefinidos, interrogativos, exclamativos): indican el comienzo de la frase nominal. Pueden o no estar presentes.

Adjetivos: después del artículo y antes del sustantivo.

Pos-modificadores: se ubican luego del núcleo y pueden es-tar precedidos por una preposición o un pronombre relati-vo (que encabeza una sub-oración adjetiva o cláusula relativa adjetiva). Esta última estructura se puede presentar como una forma corta de una Cláusula Relativa, en cuyo caso se iniciará con un participio presente (-ing) o un participio pasado (-ed).

El sustantivo

Definición y clasificación

Funciona como núcleo de frases y cláusulas nominales que pueden cumplir diferentes funciones dentro de la oración: sujeto, objeto directo, indirecto y término de complemento.

Puede ser modificado por el artículo, por adjetivos o por otro sustantivo en función adjetiva. Esta última función se verifi-ca sólo en la lengua inglesa. El adverbio modifica al sustanti-vo en forma indirecta, a través de un adjetivo.

Se los puede clasificar en:

A. Sustantivos propios: Argentina, Dr. Donovan, The Times

B. Sustantivos comunes: disease, test, member

C. Sustantivos concretos: paper, medicine, patient

D. Sustantivos abstractos: love, wisdom, intelligence

E. Sustantivos contables (Countables) (nombran a objetos que se pueden individualizar y contar. Tienen forma singular y plural): gland, nurse, kilogram

F. Sustantivos incontables (Uncountables) (se refieren a co-sas que no se pueden individualizar ni tampoco contar. No tienen forma plural): information, water, blood.

G. Sustantivos simples: cell, fats, neck

H. Sustantivos compuestos: newspaper, post office, vice-president

Formación de los plurales de los sustantivos en inglés

¡IMPORTANTE!

Cuando se busca un sustantivo en el diccionario, se lo debe buscar por su forma base en singular, de allí la importancia de reconocer

sus formas singular y plural.

1) Sustantivo + S

physician physicians; type types; treatment treatments

2) Sustantivos terminados en SH, S, X, CH, O, Z + ES

address addresses; gas gases; fox foxes; match matches;

hero heroes

3) Sustantivos terminados en Y precedida por consonante, cambian su terminación por IES

injury injuries; neuropathy neuropathies; therapy therapies

4) Sustantivos terminados en Y precedida por vocal + S

day days; way ways

5) Sustantivos terminados en F o FE, cambian su terminación por VES

half halves; calf calves; knife knives

6) Plurales irregulares

man men; woman women; tooth teeth; foot feet; child children; person people

7) Los Sustantivos de origen latino terminados en US cambian por I y los terminados en UM cambian por A

stimulus stimuli; nucleous nuclei; atrium atria; brachium brachia

8) Los Sustantivos de origen griego terminados en ON, cambian por A y los que terminan en IS cambian por ES

criterion criteria; phenomenon phenomena; analysis analises; basis bases

9) Otros Sustantivos tienen dos formas de plural con significados diferentes

Index indices (algebraicos)

indexes (alfabéticos)

SUSTANTIVOS (terminación -ING)

Hay palabras terminadas en -ING (gerundio) que funcionan como SUSTANTIVOS. Se los recono-ce simplemente por su posición dentro de la frase nominal o la oración.

The recent scientific findings

A microbiological testing

Our understanding

Chewing is an important part of digestion

El SUSTANTIVO (NOUN) es la clase de palabra que nombra a personas, lugares, animales o cosas.


Inglés

2022

13

TRABAJOS PRÁCTICOS

• Observe las frases nominales y señale cuál es el sustan-tivo núcleo

• a lung cancer screening• healthy eating habits• free public education• the early medical training• various culture samples • the recent laboratory findings• our nutritional understanding• human body systems

MORFOLOGÍA: formación de sustantivos.

Las terminaciones “er”, “ment” y “ation” se pueden agregar a muchos verbos para formar un sustantivo. Ej:

Verbo er sustantivouse + userread reader

Verbo ment sustantivodevelop + developmentpay payment

Verbo ation sustantivoorganize + organizationexamine examination

Las terminaciones “ity” y “ness” se pueden agregar a muchos adjetivos para formar sustantivos.

Ej:

Adjetivo ity /ty sustantivopure + puritycruel cruelty

Adjetivo ness sustantivodeaf + deafnesshappy Happiness

(Ver apéndice 3)

• Busque los Plurales en inglés de los siguientes términos y escriba sus equivalentes en español.

Singular Plural Equivalante en español

Bone

Condition

Bacterium

Tooth

Bronchus

Larynx

Criterion

Child

Deformity

Datum

Diagnosis

Species

Capillary

Epithelium

Alveolus

Culture

Woman

Fossa

Vertebra

Sinus

Sacrum

Papilla

Cranium

Stimulus

Injury

Coccyx

Periosteum

Focus

Flagellum

Lamina

TP Nº 1 TP Nº 2

La sección de trabajos prácticos tiene contenidos teóricos.


Inglés

2022

14

Morfología

El nivel morfológico es el que estudia la estructura interna de la palabra. La morfología se encarga de describir los tipos de morfemas (unidad mínima analizable que posee signifi-cado gramatical) y estudiar las relaciones que entre estos se establecen, con la intención de dar cuenta de los fenómenos lingüísticos que ocurren en el interior de la palabra.

La formación de palabras incluye un conjunto de proced-imientos morfológicos que permite la creación de nuevas palabras a partir de morfemas. Los procesos de formación de palabras más habituales son la composición, la derivación y la parasíntesis.

La derivación

Es la formación de nuevas palabras a partir de la añadidura de afijos (prefijos, infijos o sufijos). La derivación es primaria cuando a un radical se le añade un sufijo y secundaria cuando se añaden sufijos sucesivamente (i.e. caballo caballero cabal-leriza.). Los afijos pueden ser flexivos (sin cambio en la cate-goría de palabra, que incluye la declinación y la conjugación) o derivativos.

Clasificación de los afijos (Ver apéndice 3)

Prefijos - van antepuestos a la palabra; en español son átonos y no pueden alterar la categoría gramatical de la palabra. Sólo pueden ser morfemas derivativos. Ejemplos de prefijos: ante- (delante); post- (después de); extra- (sobre); ex- (que ha deja-do de ser, por fuera).

Sufijos - van pospuestos a las palabras; en español son tónicos y pueden alterar la categoría gramatical de la palabra o incluso su género si son sustantivos. Por tanto, los sufijos del español se suelen clasificar según las categorías de la palabra resultante (sufijo sustantivo, adjetival, verbal, adverbial) y de la base de afijación (sufijo denominal, deadjetival, deverbal). Algunos ejemplos:

• Sufijos sustantivos: cruel-dad (deadjetival), levant-amien-to (deverbal).

• Sufijos adjetivales: goz-oso (denominal), cant-ante (dever-bal).

• Sufijos verbales: fort-ificar (denominal y deadjetival).

• Sufijos adverbiales: suave-mente.

Sufijación en inglés

• adjective-to-noun: -ness (slow → slowness)

• adjective-to-verb: -ise (modern → modernise) in British English or -ize (archaic → archaicize) in American English

and Oxford spelling

• adjective-to-adjective: -ish (red → reddish)

• adjective-to-adverb: -ly (personal → personally)

• noun-to-adjective: -al (recreation → recreational)

• noun-to-verb: -fy (glory → glorify)

• verb-to-adjective: -able (drink → drinkable)

• verb-to-noun (abstract): -ance (deliver → deliverance)

• verb-to-noun (concrete): -er (write → writer)

Los infijos son elementos átonos sin contenido semántico (carecen de función gramatical y significativa). Sirven para unir el lexema y el sufijo de algunos derivados de una manera no cacofónica.

Los infijos, son afijos insertados dentro de la raíz de la pal-abra, rompiéndola en dos partes. En español existen formas analógicas en los nombres propios que satisfacen esta defi-nición Carl-it-os, Luqu-it-as. En el léxico común, el español carece de infijos.

TP Nº 3

Formación de palabras.

¿Qué cambios sufren las palabras?

• Identifique los sufijos que forman sustantivos

Digest DigestionCirculate Circulation

Fail Failure

Remove Removal

Store Storage

Synthesize Synthesis

Know Knowledge

Inhale Inhaler

Donate Donor

Link Linkage

Assign Assignment

Injure Injury

Possible Possibility

Inheritable Inheritability

Sick Sickness


Inglés

2022

15

TP Nº 4• Analice el proceso de formación de palabras y el sig-

nificado de los afijos

pleuritis

intracellular

phosphate

aortic

anesthesia

catheterize

sarcoma

ejection

antipyretic

senility

dyspepsia

corpuscle

diagnosis

thyroid

macrocephalic

ectopic

circumcision

metastasis

syndrome

orthopedics

adrenal

Uso del diccionario

Un diccionario es una obra de consulta de palabras o térmi-nos que se encuentran ordenados alfabéticamente. De dichas palabras o términos se proporciona su significado, etimología, ortografía y, en el caso de ciertas lenguas, fija su pronuncia-ción y separación silábica. La información que proporciona varía según el tipo de diccionario del que se trate.

Los diccionarios monolingües siempre presentan la entrada, la clase de palabra y el significado.

Los diccionarios bilingües presentan la entrada, la clase de pa-labra y el equivalente. Los equivalentes, por pertenecer a otros sistemas linguísticos, presentan matices diferenciadores que

pueden relacionarse con el comportamiento sintáctico de la palabra, su colocación, registro, extensión geográfica y actu-alidad de uso.

Los diccionarios críticos son muy útiles porque explican los usos incorrectos y proponen los equivalentes correctos en la lengua materna.

Un glosario es un listado de palabras ordenadas alfabética-mente sobre términos de alta frecuencia, o sobre términos técnicos y semitécnicos de un área del conocimiento o de una especialidad.

Pautas de uso del diccionario

Todo diccionario presenta al inicio, aunque sea brevemente, pautas sobre cómo utilizarlo. Indican las abreviaturas y sus significados y toda la información que facilite su utilización. Conviene leer esta información antes de usar un diccionario.

Entrada

Es el nombre técnico de las palabras incluidas en un dicciona-rio o glosario.

Etimología

Es la designación técnica del estudio de los orígenes de cada vocablo. En la lengua inglesa, hay vocablos de origen griego, latino y sajón. En Medicina, un elevado número de términos proviene del latín o del griego. Los sufijos y prefijos de uso corriente en medicina, están estrechamente relacionados con estas etimologías. Conocer o estar orientado en cuanto a la etimología de términos técnicos y semitécnicos de medicina, facilita mucho la búsqueda en diccionarios y la comprensión de los textos.

Clase o categoría de palabra

Al lado de la entrada o inmediatamente a continuación de la notación fonética, hay una abreviatura que indica la clase de palabra: sustantivo, adjetivo, adverbio, verbo, artículo, con-junción, preposición o pronombre; y el género, si femenino o masculino. Suele estar destacada en cursiva. Hay palabras que pueden desempeñar más de una categoría según el contexto, y en estos casos, se coloca primero la clase de palabra de más alta frecuencia en que aparece ese vocablo, y en último lugar, la clase con menor frecuencia de aparición; en ambos casos, con las explicaciones y los ejemplos de uso pertinentes.

Los sustantivos y adjetivos aparecen en sus formas base, es de-cir, en singular. Toda excepción, irregularidad o caso especial se indica en el mismo diccionario, en la entrada correspondi-ente o en alguno de los apéndices.


Inglés

2022

16

Transcripción fonética

En todas las lenguas existe una nomenclatura de signos fonéti-cos que permiten transcribir los sonidos de la oralidad a la forma escrita. En algunas lenguas como el inglés, no hay casi correlación entre la escritura alfabética y los sonidos produci-dos en la oralidad. En otras lenguas como el español, esta cor-relación es mayor. Debido a esto, los diccionarios de inglés general incluyen la transcripción fonética correspondiente a cada vocablo. Si bien para comprender, interpretar y traducir textos no es necesario dominar la fonética de la lengua, conoc-er la pronunciación y entonación adecuadas, en ocasiones es muy útil para dilucidar el significado de un texto, en especial cuando presenta secciones muy extensas, con mucha infor-mación y escasos signos de puntuación.

Definiciones

Las ediciones reconocidas de diccionarios monolingües y bilingües, de terminología general o específica, incluyen defi-niciones y explicaciones exhaustivas. Conviene detenerse unos instantes y leer toda la información que permitirá: 1) Ex-tractar lo relevante para la búsqueda iniciada. 2) Incorporar información adicional útil sobre el mismo tema para búsque-das futuras. En este sentido, cuanta más cultura general y conocimientos sobre la profesión se posean, más productivas serán las búsquedas.

Significados formales y contextuales

En todas las lenguas, los términos de uso general y los semitécnicos tienen dos niveles de significado: el formal, es decir, el significado o significados (porque la mayoría de las veces son palabras polisémicas) del diccionario, y el contextu-al, es decir, la acepción que de ese vocablo mejor se adapta a cada instancia de uso.

Al buscar en el diccionario, conviene leer todas las acepciones y posteriormente seleccionar la más adecuada al texto

Diferencias de registro

Muchos términos del registro científico poseen sinónimos en otros registros, incluyendo el coloquial. Las ediciones de cali-dad suelen incluir estos sinónimos e incluso los regionalismos correspondientes.

Colocaciones

Es la denominación empleada para referir a las combinaciones más o menos fijas y regulares de dos o más vocablos.

Ejemplos de Uso

Toda edición que se precie, tiene ejemplos de uso que ilus-tran sobre el empleo de un vocablo en diferentes contextos. Son muy útiles porque otorgan una comprensión inmediata del término. Al leer los significados de una entrada, conviene leer los ejemplos de uso que en numerosos casos ilustran so-bre colocaciones. A veces, están acompañados por una nota aclaratoria.

Principios de Búsqueda Productiva

Pautas de Uso del Diccionario: Información sobre cómo usar el diccionario.

Síntesis Gramatical: Desarrollo de los principales temas gramaticales.

Apéndices: Secciones complementarias del cuerpo lexical y la Síntesis Gramatical.

Entrada: Vocablo que es objeto de búsqueda.

Etimología: Origen de cada término.

Categoría de Palabra: Clase de palabra: sustantivo, adjetivo, etc.

Transcripción Fonética: Símbolos que representan sonidos de la oralidad.

Definiciones: Explicación breve y concisa de los vocablos.

Significados formales y contextuales: de diccionario y los ade-cuados en cada caso.

Diferencias de registros: Sinónimos empleados en distintos contextos.

Colocaciones: Combinaciones regulares y lógicas en las que aparecen los vocablos.

Ejemplos de uso: Instancias de empleo de los términos en los distintos registros.

Diferencias de criterio en terminología específica: Posturas di-vergentes respecto del empleo del léxico técnico y semitécnico.

Ej:A continuación se presenta el tratamiento del térmi-

no condition, de uso muy frecuente en medicina, según distin-tos diccionarios consultados, para que el lector pueda comparar las diferencias de criterio editorial que rigen la elaboración de diccionarios bilingües y monolingües, generales y específicos, de ediciones impresas y electrónicas. Luego se agrega un breve comentario sobre cada uno.


Inglés

2022

17

Entrada Área de uso específico Explicación sobre el uso del anglicismo

condition. [Med] Evítese su traducción acrítica por “condición”, pues en los textos médicos puede tener otras dos acepciones frecuentes: 1 Su acepción más frecuente no es “condición”, sino enfermedad, proceso, dolencia, afección, cuadro clínico o trastorno; arthritis condition (enfermedad reumática); heart condition (cardiopatía); medical condition o morbid condition (enferme-dad, afección); pathologic condition (no son “condiciones patológicas”, sino procesos patológicos); skin conditions (dermatosis, dermopatías, dermato-patías, enfermedades cutáneas); surgical condition (afección quirúrgica); underlying condition (enfermedad causante, enfermedad subyacente, enfer-medad de fondo), (...) Estado, situación (de un paciente o una enfermedad), general condition (estado general), in critic condition o in critical condition (en estado crítico), in severe condition (en estado grave), in stable condition (en estado estacionario o en situación estable), (...) 3 En ocasiones, sólo el contexto permite conocer cuál es la traducción más adecuada: la expresión clinical condition por ejemplo, puede significar tanto cuadro clínico como estado clínico o situación clínica. Ejemplos de uso

En: NAVARRO F.A.: “Diccionario crítico de dudas inglés-español de medicina” Pág. 105. Mc Graw-Hill Interamericana, España, 2000.

Brinda explicaciones claras sobre los usos correctos e incor-rectos en cada caso. No obstante, en ocasiones sólo presenta usos alternativos que se corresponden con el castellano de uso en España, no con otras variedades regionales cultas.

Clase de palabra Sinónimos

Nº de entrada Transcripción Nº de acepción Equivalencia Género fonética en castellano

condition 1 /kən-dĭsh’ən/ n 1 (stipulation, requirement) condición f; condi-tions of sale condiciones fpl de venta; under the conditions of the contract bajo las condiciones del contrato; she made it a condition that …puso como condición que…; on one condition con una condición; on condition that con la condición de que, a condición de que. 2 a (state) (no pl) estado m, condiciones fpl; in good/poor condition en buen/mal estado, en buenas/malas condiciones; to be in no condition to + INF no estar* en condiciones de + INF; he wasn’t in any condition to travel no estaba en condiciones de via-jar; her condition is stable su estado es estacionario; the human condition la condición humana; b (state of fitness): to be in/out of condition estar*/no estar* en forma; c (Med) afección f (frml), enfermedad f; a rare medical condition una enfermedad or (frml) afección poco común; a heart/liver condition una afección cardíaca/hepática (frml).

registro en el que se usa con esa acepción

From: “Oxford Superlex for Windows. English/Spanish Dictionary”. Oxford University Press, England,1996.

Presenta en primer lugar las acepciones y usos generales; la acepción 2 muestra los usos específicos de Medicina. No brinda explicaciones sobre usos correctos e incorrectos en Medicina.

significados en inglés

condition /kən-dĭsh’ən/ n 1. To train; to undergo conditioning. 2. A certain response elicited by a specifiable stimulus or emitted in the presence of cer-tain stimuli with reward of the response during prior occurrence. 3. Referring to several classes of learning in the behavioristic branch of psychology. Origin [L. conditio, fr. Condico, to agree] etimología

From: “Stedman´s Electronic Medical Dictionary”. Williams & Wilkins, USA, 1996.

Diccionario de términos médicos monolingüe. No presenta los significados sinónimos de “estado”, “state”; tampoco ejemplos de uso.

Condition. Condición, proceso, constitución, estado, situ-ación, trastorno.

En: RUIZ ALBRETCH E. et al. “Diccionario de Términos Médicos” 9ª Ed. revisada y ampliada, Pág. 190. Zirtabe, España, 1999.

Los significados se presentan por medio de sinónimos, no se dan definiciones ni explicaciones, tampoco ejemplos de uso.

Condition. Acondicionar / condición / condicionar.

En: A.A.V.V.: “Diccionario de términos Médicos”. Mosby/Doyma, España, 1998.

Es un Diccionario bilingüe de términos médicos y sólo pre-senta los significados base como verbo y sustantivo. No pre-senta las acepciones correctas y específicas de la Medicina. Tampoco definiciones, ni explicaciones ni ejemplos de uso. Páginas no numeradas.

Ejemplos de Uso Contable Colocación Definición

Condition1 /kən-dĭsh’ən/ n 1 [C (of)] a state of being or existence: The astro-nauts soon got used to the condition of weightlessness./(old use) people of every condition (every position in society). 2 [U] a state of general health, fitness or readiness for use: His car has been well mantained and is in excellent con-dition./Archeologists have discovered some ancient jewellery in almost perfect condition./a neglected house in poor condition/ Her condition is improving (=She´s getting well)/Sit still! You´re in no condition to do anything./He´s out of condition because he never takes any exercise. (...)

Expresiones fijas

From: SUMMERS D. et al.: “Dictionary of Contemporary English” 2nd edition, Pág. 210. Longman, England, 1990.

Diccionario general monolingüe, en la segunda acepción pre-senta la definición y ejemplos de uso vinculados a salud.

Condición. (Del lat. conditĭo, -ōnis) f. Índole, naturaleza o propiedad de las cosas.║2. Natural, carácter o genio de los hom-bres.║3. Estado, situación especial en que se halla una per-sona.║(...)║10. pl. aptitud o disposición.║11. Circunstancias que afectan a un proceso o al estado de una persona o cosa (...)

En: RAE: “Diccionario de la Lengua Española” 21ª edición: Tomo I, Pág. 534. Espasa Calpe, Madrid, 1992.


Inglés

2022

18

Diccionario general monolingüe, sólo contiene los vocablos aceptados por la Real Academia Española. Las primeras dos acepciones presentan los significados base. Las acepciones 3, 10 y 11, guardan mayor especificidad con el concepto de salud.

Condición. (...) estado; (...) situación; (...)

Estado. (...); circunstancia; condición; curso; fase; (...); situ-ación; (...) disposición; etapa.

Situación. (...); circunstancia; (...); condición; (...); estado; fase; (...); disposición; (...); etapa.

En: A.A.V.V.: “Diccionario de Sinónimos y Antónimos”. Págs. 378, 624, 1196. Espasa Calpe, España, 1993.

Diccionario monolingüe de terminología general; tecnicismos; ideas específicas; americanismos; variaciones dialécticas; lo-calismos y extranjerismos. A pesar de ser una muy buena edición, no contiene los sinónimos específicos de condición en Medicina. No obstante, los términos generales transcriptos, bien pueden adecuarse según el contexto, a traducciones de condition, muchos de ellos citados por Navarro.

Búsqueda en internet

El acceso a Internet permite también una búsqueda completa del significado y equivalente en otra lengua de un término por medio de los diccionarios monolingües y bilingües, así como glosarios y traductores online. Los motores de búsqueda per-miten completar información.

Para que esta búsqueda sea productiva es necesario adecuar los criterios de selección y refinarla con palabras clave adicio-nales u operadores especiales.

Diccionarios online:

The Word Reference (www.wordreference.com)

Collins Spanish Dictionary - Complete and Unabridged - 8th Edition 2005 © HarperCollins

Diccionario de la Real Academia Española (RAE)

Medical Spanish

www.medicalspanish.com

English / Spanish Medical Dictionary - 123TeachMe

www.123teachme.com/medical_dictionary

Medical translation Spanish | English-Spanish dictionary

dictionary.reverso.net/english-spanish/medica

Medical in Spanish | English to Spanish Translation

www.spanishdict.com/translate/medica

Online Medical Dictionary | Free Online Medical Dictionary

dictionary.reference.com/medica

English-Spanish Dictionary of Health Related Terms

www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/dept/spanish/engspdict.pd

TP Nº 5

• Una los términos con los gráficos según corresponda.

A) WHAT’S INSIDE US?

1) collar bone; 2) spine or backbone; 3) a vertebra (vertebrae); 4) heart; 5) arteries; 6) liver; 7) intestines; 8) ribs; 9) pelvis; 10) appendix; 11) lungs; 12) veins; 13) kidneys; 14) bladder.

B) 1) head; 2) hair; 3) face; 4) forehead; 5) eye; 6) cheek; 7) nose; 8) lips; 9) mouth; 10) tooth / teeth; 11) chin; 12) ear; 13) neck; 14) throat; 15) back of the neck; 16) back;


Inglés

2022

19

C) Coloque los números en el gráfico según corresponda.

1) shoulder; 2) chest; 3) breast; 4) waist; 5) hip; 6) navel; 7) stomach (belly); 8) genitals (male/female); 9) bottom; 10) arm; 11) elbow; 12) forearm; 13) hand; 14) fist; 15) finger; 16) leg; 17) thigh; 18) knee; 19) calf; 20) foot; 21) toe; 22) ankle.

D) THE MAJOR BONES OF THE SKELETON

Ubique las palabras según corresponda.

Skull – Temporal – Maxilla – Frontal – Mandible - Parietal

E) Seis nombres están mal ubicados. Detéctelos y ubí-quelos en el lugar correcto.

F) SOME ORGANS OF THE ABDOMEN

Complete las palabras según corresponda:

Cervical

Sternum

TibiaClavicle

Ribs

Lumbar vertebrae

Radius

Ilium

CarpalsMetacarpalsPhalanges

CoccyxPubis

IschiumFemur

Scapula

Fibula

TarsalsMetatarsalsPhalanges

Stom…..

Sple….

Transv…….. colon

Descend…… colon

Small intest….

Sigm…. colon

Rect…..

Pan…………..

Li……Gallblad…..

Duode…..Ascending co…

Caec….Appen……

Humerus

SacrumUlna

Thoracic

Patella


Inglés

2022

21

UNIDAD 02

La pre-modificación. Determinantes: el artículo: artículos definido e inde-finido. El adjetivo. Adjetivos posesivos y demostrativos. Clasificación: ad-jetivos descriptivos y no descriptivos. Adjetivos calificativos, numerales, gentilicios, indefinidos, demostrativos, posesivos. El sustantivo usado como adjetivo. Grados de comparación del adjetivo: igualdad, superiori-dad e inferioridad), y superlativo (superioridad e inferioridad. Caso ge-nitivo. Participios (-ed/-ing) en función de adjetivo. Breve introducción al verbo copulativo to be. Oración simple, breve introducción. Pronombres personales subjetivos. Uso. Morfología. Manejo del diccionario.

Frase Nominal. Pre-Modificación.

Frase nominalPre-modificación

Las palabras que pueden pre-modificar a un sustantivo son:

Los determinantes y los adjetivos:

Adjetivos descriptivos (small, large, important, thin, elastic, first, etc).

El artículo

El artículo definido “THE”

Es invariable: no presenta modificaciones ni en género (mas-culino/femenino) ni en número (singular/plural). Se lo em-plea para hacer referencia a algo en particular. Sus equiva-lentes en español son “el”, “la”, “los” y “las” según el sustantivo al que acompañe.

Ej: the information; the tests; the doctor; the patients

El artículo indefinido “A”/”AN”

Se utiliza con sustantivos contables en singular. No tiene géne-ro. Delante de palabras que comienzan con sonido consonante se utiliza “A”, y delante de palabras que comienzan con sonido vocal se utiliza “AN”. Su equivalente en español es “un” o “una”.

Ej: a patient; a treatment; a unit; an ambulance; an emer-gency; an hour

La omisión del artículo (zero article)

Es la ausencia de artículo ante sustantivos plurales o no con-tables usados con sentido general. Cabe destacar que en es-pañol no es habitual omitir artículos, por lo que generalmente deben incluirse al traducir.

Determinantes:

Artículos (the/a),

Adjetivos Demostrativos (this-that/these-those),

Adjetivos posesivos:(my, your, his,...)

Adjetivos indefinidos:(some, any, several,...)

Adjetivos numerales:(one, six, third, tenth...)

Adjetivos Int. y Exclamativos:(what, which)

Se emplea para acotar la referencia de un sustantivo. El artículo defi-nido especifica la referencia que debe ser conocida por el emisor y el receptor de un mensaje, mientras que el artículo indefinido restringe la referencia a un solo miembro de una clase.


Inglés

2022

22

Ej: people; patients; men; water; love; tissue (las personas; los pacientes; los hombres; el agua; el amor; el tejido)

• Analice el uso de los artículos en estos ejemplos. ¿Cuál es el equivalente de estas dos oraciones?

Blood Circulation is the function of the heart. Water regulation is a function of the kidneys.

Ej:

She is a nurse = Es enfermera

As a result... = Como resultado...

...in the form of water vapour =...en forma de vapor de agua

El adjetivo Los reconocemos por las terminaciones o sufijos propios del adjetivo (morfología) y, sobre todo por su posición en la FN, delante del sustantivo.

Morfología: Los adjetivos en inglés NO TIENEN NI GÉNE-RO NI NÚMERO. Son invariables

Sufijos adjetivos:

-able, -ible eligible, presentable-ar molecular, cellular-al regional, abdominal, abnormal-ful helpful, successful, harmful, painful,

careful, awful, colorful, beautiful-ic, -ical musical, mythic, hysterical, energetic-ious, -ous nutritious, abstemious, ambiguous, anx-

ious, contagious, unconscious-ish brownish, reddish, childish, foolish,

selfish-ive creative, abortive, abusive-less endless, strapless, ductless-y easy, lucky, rainy

Es en la adjetivación donde aparece una de las más impor-tantes diferencias entre las dos lenguas, en tanto en español los adjetivos en general post-modifican al sustantivo:

• reunión importante, lóbulo izquierdo, tejido epitelial

mientras que en el inglés la adjetivación en general pre-mod-ifica al sustantivo:

• important meeting, left lobule, epithelial tissue.

Este orden es fijo en inglés por lo que el núcleo (o sea el sus-tantivo principal) se ubicará a la derecha (al final de la FN) y los modificadores a la izquierda, o sea, antecediendo al núcleo.

Es así como pueden sucederse varios adjetivos delante del sustantivo núcleo, en una cadena de pre-modificadores que puede llegar a más de diez adjetivos.

• numerous independent research teams

• its extreme toxic effects

• patients’ spiritual/religious beliefs

• other external influencing factors

Como se señaló, los adjetivos generalmente preceden al sus-tantivo, desempeñándose como premodificadores. Pero tam-bién pueden ubicarse inmediatamente a continuación de un verbo copulativo como “to be”

Ej.

• The thyroid gland is overactive.• The membrane is thin and elastic.• The patient is tired.

Adjetivos calificativos

Los adjetivos calificativos, como los demás adjetivos, son in-variables en género y número, y premodifican al sustantivo.

Ej: The possible diagnoses Clinical investigation FN FN

Más ejemplos:

Numerous independent teams

important meetings

left lobule

specialized epithelial tissue

¡Importante!

El artículo no debe usarse cuando es innecesario o si confunde el signi-ficado de la frase en castellano.


Inglés

2022

23

Adjetivos numerales Expresan cantidad. Se clasifican en cardinales: one, two, three y ordinales: first, second third.

Cardinales Ordinales

0 zero

1 one 1st first

2 two 2nd second

3 three 3rd third

4 four 4th fourth

5 five 5th fifth

6 six 6th sixth

7 seven 7th seventh

8 eight 8th eighth

9 nine 9th ninth

10 ten 10th tenth

11 eleven 11th eleventh

12 twelve 12th twelfth

13 thirteen 13th thirteenth

14 fourteen 14th fourteenth

15 fifteen 15th fifteenth

16 sixteen 16th sixteenth

17 seventeen 17th seventeenth

18 eighteen 18th eighteenth

19 nineteen 19th nineteenth

20 twenty 20th twentieth

21 twenty-one 21st twenty-first

22 twenty-two 22nd twenty-second

23 twenty-three 23rd twenty-third

24 twenty-four 24th twenty-fourth

30 thirty 30th thirtieth

31 thirty-one 31st thirty-first

40 forty 40th fortieth

50 fifty 50th fiftieth

60 sixty 60th sixtieth

70 seventy 70th seventieth

80 eighty 80th eightieth

90 ninety 90th ninetieth

100 a hundred 100th a hundredth

Adjetivos gentilicios Expresan nacionalidad y en inglés se escriben con mayúscula.

An English patient (un paciente inglés)

German measles (rubéola)

The French nurse (la enfermera francesa/el enfermero francés)

The Chinese boxes (Las cajas chinas)

Adjetivos indefinidos Los más frecuentes son: “SOME”, “ANY”, “NO”. Se pueden utilizar delante de:

• Sustantivos contables en plural (una cierta cantidad de, algunos/as)

• Sustantivos incontables (un poco/algo de)

También podemos encontrar “NO” delante de un sustantivo o una frase nominal funcionando como adjetivo. Se utiliza con sustantivos contables o no contables y denota “ausencia de…”

SOME: - en oraciones afirmativas:

• There are some common characteristics. (sustantivo contable, plural)

• There is some water in the glass. (sustantivo no contable)

ANY*= - en oraciones negativas:

• There aren’t any special characteristics.• There isn’t any water in the glass.

- en oraciones interrogativas:

• Have you got any questions?• Is there any coffee?

*Nota: “ANY” en oraciones afirmativas significa cualquier/a.

NO: - en oraciones con la frase verbal afirmativa pero con función negativa, ya que este adjetivo lleva esa información:

• She has no pimples = she hasn’t got any pimples (contable)• She has no information = she hasn’t got any information (no

contable)• No money. No more money

ENOUGH (suficiente).

• There are not enough supplies.


Inglés

2022

24

SEVERAL (varios/as),

• The patient will have to wait several months before retaking her normal activities.

A FEW (unos pocos/as),

• He was in the hospital for a few days (countable)

LITTLE (poco/a).

• Little blood, little sugar, little pressure

• There is little empirical evidence to support these ideas. (uncountable)

MANY (muchos/as),

• Many studies reveal a lack of association between the dopa-mine D2 receptor gene and alcoholism.

MUCH (mucho/a)

• They did not receive much help.

• How much blood does the heart pump per minute?

MOST (la mayoría de),

• The initial route of metastases in most patients with mela-noma is via the lymphatics to the regional nodes

Ejemplos:

• Some patients • Most patients• Any patient can take this medicine.• Several patients • A few patients • Many patients• Other patients • Each patient• Every patient• Enough patients • There are some patients in the room but there are not any

doctors. (Hay algunos pacientes en la sala pero no hay ningún doctor.)

• There is some blood in the wound. (Hay un poco de sangre en la herida.)

Adjetivos demostrativos

Singular this (este/a) that(ese/a// aquel/la)Plural these (estos /as) those (aquellos/as)

Ej:

That diagnosis (ese diagnóstico); those results (esos resultados

These shortcomings of insulin therapies…

Those goals of good glycemic control…

in this study (en este studio); these patients(estos pacientes)

This treatment… vs. That treatment…

These studies… vs. Those studies

Son los únicos adjetivos que cambian de forma para singular y plural. Van siempre acompañando (pre-modificando) a un sustantivo, como todos los adjetivos. Es por su ubicación (delante de un sustantivo) que los diferenciamos de los pronombres demostrativos.


Inglés

2022

25

TRABAJOS PRÁCTICOS

TP Nº 61) Complete con el adjetivo demostrativo que corresponde:

The doctor prescribes ………. drug (this – these)

The hospital will admit ………patients tomorrow (this –these)

…….. procedures are not approved. (That – Those)

…….. neurotransmitter’s effect is determined by its receptor. (These – That)

2) Escriba el equivalente en español:

One of these clones can produce teratoma.

………………………………………………………………

These differences show stress defence mechanisms.

………………………………………………………………

Adjetivos posesivos

Se ubican delante de sustantivos comunes y dan información de pertenencia con respecto al sustan-tivo que preceden.

MY: mi/s My name is Tom Mi nombre es Tom

YOUR: tu/s What’s your class? ¿Cuál es tu curso?

HIS: su/s (masc.) This is my father. His name is Jerry Te presento a mi padre.Su nombre es Jerry

HER: su/s (fem.) Susan has her new medicine in that box Susan tiene su medicamento nuevo en aquella caja

ITS: su/s (objetos y animales) The dog is in its house El perro está en su casa

OUR: nuestro/a/os/as. This is our favourite restaurant Este es nuestro restaurante favorito

YOUR: su/s (posesivo de “ustedes”) Open your books, please Abran sus libros, por favor

THEIR: su/s (posesivo de “ellos/as”)These are Tom, Susan, and their son Tim Te presento a Tom, Susan y su hijo Tim

TP Nº 71) Señale a qué sustantivo hacen referencia los siguientes

adjetivos posesivos:

The public health and its social distribution. Its…………………….

The era of infectious disease with its paradigm the germ the-ory.Its……………………..

Interactions between skin stem cells and their niches.Their…………………….

Low-molecular-weight heparins and their better safety re-sponse.

Their…………………….

We demonstrate our approach during the first treatment ses-sion.

Our……………………….

Grado comparativo del adjetivo

El adjetivo puede usarse en grado positivo, es decir sin ninguna modificación, comparativo o superlativo.

Grado comparativo

Se utiliza para comparar dos objetos, personas, lugares, etc. Debemos diferenciar entre los adjetivos cortos y los largos. Los cortos son los monosílabos, es decir los que no se pueden

Grado positivo: old/young. Ej Mary is very young. .

Grado comparativo: older/younger. Ej: Peter is older than Jack; Jack is younger than Peter.

Grado superlativo: oldest/youngest. Ej: John is the oldest boy in the group.

La sección de trabajos prácticos tiene contenidos teóricos.


Inglés

2022

26

separar en sílabas (old) y los bisílabos terminados en -ow, -y, -le (hollow, happy, simple). Los adjetivos largos tienen dos o más sílabas (interesting). Esta distinción servirá para diferen-ciar la forma de esta estructura.

Adjetivos cortos

El grado comparativo de los adjetivos cortos se forma de la siguiente manera:

Ej:

happy (feliz) ...... happier (más feliz)

hot (caliente/caluroso) ..... hotter (más caliente/caluroso)

big (grande) ..... bigger (más grande)

small (pequeño) ..... smaller (más pequeño)

long (largo) ..... longer (más largo)

Comparativos irregulares:

good (bueno) .... better (mejor)

bad (malo) .... worse (peor)

far (lejano) .... further/farther (más lejano)

old (viejo) .... elder (mayor)/older (más viejo)

Adjetivos largos

Los adjetivos largos son los que tienen dos o más sílabas (siem-pre que no terminen en “er ,ow, le,y”). El grado comparativo de estos adjetivos se forma anteponiendo “more”.

Ej:

Mary is more intelligent than Sue. (Mary es más inteligente que Sue).

This study is less interesting than the previous one. (Este estudio es menos interesante que el anterior.)

Grado superlativo

Se emplea para comparar más de dos elementos, cuando quer-emos destacar el elemento que sobresale del resto.

Ej:

Bone is the hardest tissue of the body. (El óseo es el tejido más duro de todo el cuerpo.)

This is the best medicine for that disease. (Este es el mejor remedio para esa enfermedad.)

That is the most effective treatment. (Aquel es el tratamiento más efectivo.)

Adjetivos cortos

Ej:

happy (feliz) ..... the happiest (el más feliz)

hot (caliente/caluroso) ..... the hottest ( el más caliente/cal-uroso)

big (grande) ..... the biggest (el más grande)

small (pequeño) ..... the smallest (el más pequeño)

long (largo) ..... the longest (el más largo)

Superlativos irregulares:

good (bueno) ..... the best (el mejor)

bad (malo) ..... the worst (el peor)

far (lejano) ..... the furthest / farthest (el más lejano)

old (viejo) ..... the oldest (el más viejo) / eldest (el mayor)

Adjetivos largos

Ej:

Mary is the most efficient nurse in the hospital. (Mary es la enfermera más eficiente del hospital.)

This antibiotic is the least expensive in the market. (Este an-tibiótico es el menos caro del mercado.)

ADJ - ER + THAN

THE + ADJ - EST

MORE/LESS + ADJ + THANTHE + MOST/LEAST + ADJ


Inglés

2022

27

Comparativo de igualdad

Con esta estructura podemos establecer relaciones de igual-dad o diferencia entre dos elementos.

Ej:

This antibiotic is as expensive as that one. (Este antibiótico es tan caro como aquél.)

This antibiotic is not as expensive as the latest one. (Este an-tibiótico no es tan caro como el último.)

Caso Genitivo. Posesión

Es una estructura que se utiliza para denotar posesión. Apa-rece primero el “poseedor”, seguido de un apóstrofo y una “s” y luego el “objeto poseído”.

Ej: The patient’s rights = Los derechos del paciente FN

Cuando el sustantivo que actúa como “poseedor” termina en “s” (“Sócrates”) o está en plural (“patients”), se agrega sola-mente el apóstrofo y se omite la “s”.

Ej: The patients’ rights = Los derechos de los pacientes FN

Se usa también en algunas expresiones de tiempo. Ej: a three week’s rest

Posesivo con “of ”

Generalmente se lo emplea para referimos a cosas, en casos donde no se cuenta con un sustantivo compuesto (sust + sust). Esta estructura es equivalente en su forma a la posesión en español.

Ej:

The components of the formula = Los componentes de la fór-mula

The bottom of the box = El fondo de la caja

Sustantivo + sustantivo (noun + noun)

Es muy común encontrar que uno o más sustantivos acom-pañen a un sustantivo núcleo (noun head) para dar in-formación sobre éste cumpliendo una función adjetiva al premodificarlo. En este tipo de construcciones, el último sus-tantivo es el sustantivo núcleo.

Ej:

Blood circulation = circulación sanguínea FN FN

sust + sust sust + adj.

(en función adjetiva)

Heart rate= frecuencia cardíaca Blood cells= células sanguíneas

(En español, el sustantivo que premodifica al sustantivo prin-cipal en inglés, pasa a ser un adjetivo)

Neuropathy association = Asociación de neuropatía FN FN

sust + sust sust + [prep + complemento (sust)]

(en función adjetiva)

Skin ulceration = ulceración de la piel Bone marrow biopsy = biopsia de médula ósea

(En español, el sustantivo que premodifica al sustantivo prin-cipal en inglés pasa a ser modificador indirecto mantenién-dose el sustantivo que clasifica al sustantivo principal).

TP Nº 8a) Note la diferencia de significado entre:

• cell body• body cell

• horse race• race horse

b) Analice los siguientes ejemplos

• staff room• treatment outcomes• risk factors• lung cancer

Newton’s law = La ley de Newton.

A’s + B B + de + A

Sócrates’ philosophy = La filosofía de Sócrates

As’ + B B + de + A

AS + ADJETIVO + AS


Inglés

2022

28

• lab parameters• bone-marrow biopsy • bone destruction• cartilage erosion• cancer research• blood cell wall infection

TP Nº 9

Seleccione la traducción más apropiada

1) Blood circulation

a) sangre circulante

b) circulación sanguínea

2) Health certificate

a) certificado de salud

b) salud certificada

3) Protein synthesis

a) síntesis proteica

b) proteína de síntesis

4) Resting membrane potential

a) reposo de la membrana potencial

b) potencial de membrana en reposo

5) Waste excretion

a) desecho de excreción

b) excreción de desechos 6) Red cell removal and destruction

a) eliminación y destrucción de glóbulos rojos

b) glóbulos rojos para eliminar y destruir

7) Blood glucose level regulation

a) sangre con niveles de glucosa regulados

b) regulación de los niveles de glucosa en sangre

8) Protein and glycogen storage

a) almacenamiento de glucógeno y proteínas

b) proteínas y glucógeno de almacenamiento

9) Water regulation

a) agua para la regulación.

b) regulación de agua

10) Hormone production

a) producción de hormonas

b) hormonas para la producción

TP Nº 10

Indique el equivalente en español

a) Paper filter …………………………………………

b) Bile secretion ………………………………………

c) Filter paper …………………………………………

d) Heart rate …………………………………………

e) Vitamin intake ……………………………………

f) Blood sugar concentration …………………………

g) Muscle mass ……………………………………….

h) Antibody formation ………………………………..

i) A low sodium diet …………………………………

j) Heart failure ……………………………………….

k) stem cell cultures ………………………………….

l) lung cancer …………………………………………

PARTICIPIOS (-ed/-ing) que funcionan como ADJETIVOS

En una frase nominal (FN) no intervienen verbos conjuga-dos, pero sí verboides que tienen función adjetiva y que, a diferencia de los adjetivos comunes que pre-modifican al sus-tantivo, pueden también post-modificarlo (es decir ubicarse a su derecha como cláusulas relativas cortas, estructuras que se desarrollarán con mayor profundidad más adelante). (Ver Apéndice 4)


Inglés

2022

29

Participio pasado (-ed) en function adjetiva (corresponde a la terminación –ado/-ido en castellano):

Premodificando al sustantivo

• computerized simulation, (simulación computarizada)

• restricted area, (área restringida)

• improved growth, (crecimiento mejorado)

• swollen knee, (rodilla hinchada/inflamada)

• spoken English. (inglés hablado)

• stored glycogen (glucógeno almacenado)

• marked tendency (tendencia marcada)

Posmodificando al sustantivo

• The study published last year. (El studio publicado …)

• The samples obtained from the patients were sent to the laboratory. (Las muestras obtenidas…)

• It is a chemical component used to stretch a vaccine’s ac-tive ingredient. (…componente químico usado para…)

• Caesarian delivery performed during labour.

• The symptoms associated with GOR (Gastro-oesopha-geal Reflux). (Los síntomas asociados con el RGI)

TP Nº 11

Subraye el sustantivo e identifique el adjetivo

A written text.

A published research.

Most vaccines tested in the U.S..

A broken leg.

Important advanced knowledge.

Cells obtained from sputum.

A well-known procedure.

A never-seen reaction.

Some selected procedure.

An outpatient surgery center founded by doctors and focused on providing excellent patient care.

Postpartum factors associated with an increased risk of ve-nous thrombosis.

Participio Presente (-ing) en función adjetiva:

Pre-modificando al sustantivo

• growing interest,

• living body,

• existing doses,

• remaining tissue,

• overlying skin,

• recovering patient,

• underlying tissue,

• emerging evidence,

• worsening cardiac and renal function.

• the leading cause of death in the U.S.,

Posmodificando al sustantivo

• The long tube leading to the oesophagus is…

• Serious fungal infections including meningitis are treat-ed…

• Twenty-four family members living in the same house-hold…

• A journal detailing the extent of your injury …

• The first betacoronavirus belonging to lineage C …

• A blockage causing myocardial infarction...

Otros adjetivos que pueden ir detrás del sustantivo (nótese que van seguidos de preposición):

• Clinical and genomic risk factors present before treat-ment…

• Treatments similar to….

• New studies available for…


Inglés

2022

30

Diferencia entre los dos tipos de adjetivos: participio pre-sente (ing) y participio pasado (ed):

Verbo Forma “ing” Forma “ed”surprise surprising surprisedinterest interesting interestedamaze amazing amazedentertain entertaining entertainedfrighten frightening frightenedsecrete secreting secretedcontract contracting contracteddevelop developing developed

Como el participio pasado indica un estado, el verbo “to be” equivale a “estar” cuando se usa con el participio pasado.

Ej:

a contracted muscle: un músculo contraído (ESTÁ contraido/contracturado)

a developed embryo: un embrión desarrollado (ESTÁ desarrollado)

Como el participio presente indica una acción el verbo “to be” equivale a “ser” cuando está en el mismo contexto, o que está en proceso:

Ej:

an interesting book: un libro interesante (ES interesante, produce interés)

a developing embryo (un embrión en desarrollo, que se está desarrollando)

underlying tissues (tejidos subyacentes)

Oración simple

Como lo indica la palabra, no hay subordinaciones en esta estructura básica de la oración donde reconocemos la forma: Sujeto - Verbo - Predicado

• Thromboembolism is a cause of maternal mortality.

• The injury is serious.

• Cells are small structural units

Verbo TO BE (Desarrollo en la Unidad 4 - FRASE VERBAL)

Forma neutra: be (ser o estar)

Presente simple: is / are

Pasado simple: was / were

TP Nº 12 Estructura de la Frase Nominal (premodificación)

Escriba los equivalentes en español

a) spaces ........................................................................................ the spaces ......................................................................................the neck spaces .............................................................................the deep neck spaces ....................................................................

b) wall ............................................................................................. the wall ........................................................................................... the esophageal wall ....................................................................... the posterior esophageal wall ...................................................... c) factors ........................................................................................ risk factors ..................................................................................... cardiovascular risk factors ........................................................... traditional cardiovascular risk factors .......................................

d) pressure ..................................................................................... blood pressure ............................................................................... diastolic blood pressure …........................................................... systolic and diastolic blood pressure ..........................................

e) stations ...................................................................................... the stations .................................................................................... the lymph node stations .............................................................. the different lymph node stations ..............................................

f) section ....................................................................................... a section ....................................................................................... an ultrasound section ................................................................. a transverse ultrasound section .................................................

g) studies ...................................................................................... observational studies .................................................................. high quality observational studies ............................................ ........................................................................................................ numerous high quality observational studies ......................... ........................................................................................................


Inglés

2022

31

TP Nº 13

Oraciones Simples

a-Reconozca los frases nominales de las siguientes oraciones.

b-Sustituya el sujeto de la oración por el pronombre personal correspondiente.

c-Indique el equivalente en español de dichas oraciones.

1) Water amount regulation in the body is a function of the kidneys.

2) Waste excretion is a function of the liver.

3) The function of the heart is blood pumping.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………............…………………

TP Nº 14Frases Nominales en Oraciones Simples

a- Ubique el verbo principal.

b- Reconozca las frases nominales y sus componentes en las siguientes oraciones.

c- Sustituya los sujetos por los pronombres personales corre-spondientes.

d- Interprete las oraciones.

a) Cells are structural units.

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

b) Fatty acids are organic acids.

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

c) The heart is a muscle.

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

d) The pericardium is a fibrous sac.

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

e) The thyroid gland is in the neck.

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

f) It’s an interesting congress.

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

g) The pleura is a membrane of fibrous tissue.

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

h) Veins are blood vessels.

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

i) Platelets are small particles.

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

j) Carbohydrates are a source of energy.

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

TP Nº 15Premodificadores

Detecte en las siguientes oraciones las pre-modificaciones a sustantivos.

a) Cells are the smallest structural units.

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

b) Fatty acids are monobasic organic acids.

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

c) The heart is a hollow muscle.

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

d) The pericardium is a thin fibrous sac.

................................................................................................

................................................................................................


Inglés

2022

32

e) The thyroid gland is an endocrine gland.

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

f) It’s a very interesting congress.

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

g) The pleura is a thin membrane of fibrous tissue.

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

h) Veins are wide blood vessels

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

i) Platelets are very small particles.

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

j) Carbohydrates are the principal source of energy.

................................................................................................

................................................................................................

TP Nº 16Subraye el sustantivo núcleo de las siguientes Frases Nominales.

Exprese en español la idea principal del bloque.

1. the left common carotid artery2. American Cancer Society Lung Cancer Screening

Guidelines3. overall population age-adjusted death rates4. disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs)5. several biologically plausible mechanisms6. well-known inhibitory neurotransmitters 7. the global swine flu vaccine supply8. other major pharmaceutical companies 9. a better immune response10. the most prevalent chronic condition in developed

Countries 11. mid-cavity obstructive variant12. a multiregional lung cancer triage clinic13. outpatient lung-cancer speciality clinics14. a body mass index reduction15. gastro-oesophageal sphincter inappropriate relaxation 16. short-term effectiveness17. other subclinical cardiovascular disease measures18. a normal left ventricular mass 19. near-term smoking-related nonlung cancer deaths

TP Nº 17Uso del diccionario

1. ¿En qué orden aparecen estas palabras en el lado inglés-es-pañol y en el lado español-inglés?

a. Saturday, cream, cut, write, shiny, kiss, belly, chess, mother, white.

pelo, inútil, con, abrazar, local, entrada, chicle, naranja, delan-tero, llevar

b. pane, practise, practice, pillow, plug, put, packet, photo, penguin, proud, party

contra, cine, chileno, cofre, conseguir, cabaña, caber, cantar, cantante, charco, celoso

2. En cada grupo, hay una palabra que no respeta el orden al-fabético. ¿Cuál es la intrusa?

mancha salt cabeza giantmandar silver caer goalmalo short calle goosemarca smart cálculo greatmarrano special caminar graspmás stand canoso green

3. Buscar palabras compuestas con el sustantivo birth.

4. Buscar ejemplos de phrasal verbs con los verbos look y get.

5. Buscar expresiones idiomáticas con los vocablos cat, eye, blood.

6. ¿Qué significado o equivalente hay que buscar en el dicciona-rio para las palabras subrayadas?

Have you brushed your teeth?

There are two new factories in the area.

Ladies and gentlemen, welcome to the party.

Take your feet off the sofa!

There are two men waiting for you.

There are different kinds of dictionaries.


Inglés

2022

33

They sell women’s clothes.

That was the easiest exercise!

This car is bigger.

7. ¿Cuál es la categoría de palabra de los términos subrayados?

He is an expert in cleaning glass lined surfaces.

The patient had several injuries.

The campus offers housing facilities.

Pronombres

Pronombres personales subjetivos

Se ubican en la posición sujeto de una oración: aluden a la persona o cosa que realiza la acción. No es imprescindible tra-ducirlos al español salvo que su omisión de lugar a confusión.

Pronombres demostrativos

Singular this (este/a) that (ese/a/o/ aquel/la/lo)Plural these (estos/as) those (esos/as, aquellos/as)

Diferenciamos el pronombre demostrativo de los adjetivos demostrativos porque no acompañan o pre-modifican a un sustantivo, sino que lo reemplazan o hacen referencia a un sus-tantivo (FN o a toda una cláusula) con el fin de no repetirlo.

Ej:

The patients were admitted to the hospital, particularly those that required treatment.

Ej:

Como adjetivo:

This patient is having a stroke. (Este paciente está sufriendo un ACV.)

Try these treatments for pain relief. (Pruebe con estos trata-mientos para aliviar el dolor.)

What is that condition called? (¿Cómo se llama ese trastorno?)

Doctors know about the cost of those tests they are ordering. (Los doctores conocen los costos de esos estudios que piden.)

Como pronombre:

She will stay in the hospital for a week. This is the best. (Per-manecerá internada por una semana. (Esto) es lo mejor.)

The doctor prescribed pills. These are quite expensive. (El médi-co recetó comprimidos. (Estos) son bastante caros.)

TP Nº 18

a) Señale cuáles de las palabras resaltadas son adjetivos dem-ostrativos y cuáles pronombres demostrativos:

These procedures are not approved, those are the correct ones.

This patient acquired an infection, but that is not the hospital responsibility.

b) ¿A qué hace referencia el pronombre demostrativo subraya-do?

1) The organisms form stores of tryglycerides. These can later be used when the organism needs them.

These: ……………………………………

2) People and animals share bacterial flora. This was demon-strated in studies of the intestinal bacterial flora of farm work-ers.

This: ………………………………………

Reemplazan a los sustantivos. Evitan la reiteración de palabras dentro de un texto, por lo que se los considera un recurso de economía del len-guaje. La referencia es anafórica, cuando la expresión referencial pre-cede al pronombre y catafórica cuando es posterior.

I ................................ YoYou ............................Tú/Vos/Ud.He …….... ……………. ÉlShe …......… ..……… . EllaIt ………..........…Él/Ella/Ello (objetos inanimados o animales)We .............................. NosotrosYou ........................... Ustedes/VosotrosThey ............................Ellos/Ellas


Inglés

2022

34

TP Nº 19Sustituya nombres propios, sustantivos comunes y frases nominales por el pronombre personal correspondiente: I , you ,he, she , it, we ,you, they

Ej:

He puede sustituir al sustantivo “Peter”

They puede sustituir a la frase nominal “the computers”

a) a surgeon ………………………………….

b) men and women ……………………………

c) the treatment ……………………………….

d) WHO ……………………………………….

e) our university …………………………..…...

f) My colleagues and I …………………………

g) bacteria ………………………………...……

h) Dr. Sarah Willson ……………..……………

i) weak muscles ………………………….-..…..

j) their patient ……………….……………..…..

TP Nº 20

Lea las siguientes oraciones e indique a qué antecedente hace referencia el pronombre resaltado.

The heart is the organ that supplies blood and oxigen to all parts of the body. It produces electrical impulses through a process called cardiac conduction.

It:………………………….

Blood vessels are intricate networks of hollow tubes. They transport blood throughout the entire body.

They:…………………………

Biomedical research of experimental medicine includes basic research, apllied research and translational research. It can be divided into two general categories.

It: ……………………………

A panel of experts reviewed the effects of antibiotics on ani-mals. They concluded that the risk is small.

They: ……………………………….

Dr.Susan works in an early intervention program with low-in-come black children. She has also influenced the development of Early Childhood Education as a discipline

She: ………………………………………


Inglés

2022

35

UNIDAD 03

Posmodificación

Las posmodificaciones están precedidas por:

A- Preposición (of, at, in, on, through, with, for…)

B- Prenombre relativo (that, which, who, …)

A - La preposición

Las preposiciones nos ayudan a establecer relaciones entre los diferentes elementos de una frase u oración. Pueden mostrar una relación de movimiento, ubicación o tiempo entre dos el-ementos. En la siguiente lista aparecen algunas de las preposi-ciones más comunes en inglés que servirá de referencia para lo que analizaremos más adelante.

• About (alrededor de, sobre)• Above (Por encima de)• Across (a través de)• After (después de)• Against (contra)• Along (por, a lo largo de)• Among (entre (tres o más))• Around (alrededor de)• As (como)• At (en, a)• Before (antes de)• Behind (detrás de)• Below (debajo de)• Beside (junto a)• Between (entre (dos o más))• Beyond (más allá de)• But (excepto, pero)• By (por, junto a)• Despite (a pesar de, pese a)• Down (hacia abajo)

• During (durante)• For (para, por, durante, desde hace)• From (de, desde)• In (en, dentro de)• Inside (dentro de)• Into (en, adentro)• Like (como, igual a)Near (cerca de)• Of (de)• Off (de (alejándose), fuera de)• On (en, sobre)• Opposite (enfrente de)• Outside (fuera de)• Over (por encima de, al otro lado)• Past (por delante de, más allá de)• Per (por)• Round (alrededor de)• Since (desde)• Than (que)• Through (a través de)• Throughout (por todo)• Till = Until (hasta)• To (a, hasta, hacia)• Towards (hacia, para)• Under (por debajo de, debajo de)• Underneath (debajo de, bajo)• Until (hasta)• Up (hacia arriba)• Upon ((poniendo) sobre, encima)• Via (vía, a través de, por)• With (con)• Within (dentro de, a menos de, en menos de)• Without (sin)

La posmodificación: la frase preposicional y la cláusula relativa. La pre-posición: modificación indirecta. Tipos de preposiciones. Cláusula rela-tiva. Pronombre relativo. Forma corta de la cláusula relativa: participio presente (-ing) y participio pasado (-ed / 3º columa verbos irregulares). Morfología. Manejo del diccionario.

Frase Nominal. Posmodificación.


Inglés

2022

36

Posmodificación precedida por preposición:

Sustantivo o Frase nominal (FN) Sust. núcleo + PREPOSICIÓN (at, in, of, for, with…) +

- ing

The inner membrane of the stomach

Adolescents with polycystic ovary syndrome

The inside of the mouth…

False positive Galactomannan test after ice-pop ingestion…

The prevalence of diabetes

Diabetes in India…

A risk of developing prediabetes, diabetes, dyslipidemia and hy-pertension…

A systematic literature review of noninsulin pharmacological therapies…

The safety of inhaling glyphosate…

TP Nº 21• Seleccione la preposición correspondiente

A - Digestion

Digestion is the mechanical and chemical breakdown ....... .(at-of) food .........(on-into) smaller components that are more easily absorbed ......... (with-into) the blood stream. Digestion is a form............(up-of) catabolism: a breakdown of large food molecules..............(within-into). smaller ones.

When food enters the mouth, digestion of the food starts ........ (of-by) the action of mastication, a form of me-chanical digestion, and the wetting contact of saliva. Saliva, a liquid secreted .......(by-on) the salivary glands, contains salivary amylase, an enzyme which starts the digestion .......(to-of) starch in the food.

After undergoing mastication and starch digestion, the food will be in the form of a small, round slurry mass called a bolus. It will then travel down the esophagus and .............(into-beneath) the stomach by the action of peristalsis.

Gastric juice ......... (outside-inside) the stomach starts protein digestion. Gastric juice mainly contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin. Mucuous is secreted ............(by-around) the stomach, providing a slimy layer that acts ........(as/like-with) a shield ..............(through - against) the damaging effects of the chemicals. The mass of food mixes with the digestive enzymes.

(Before - During - After),,,,........ some time, the resulting thick liquid is called chyme. When the pyloric sphincter valve opens, chyme enters the duodenum where it mixes ...............(below - with) digestive enzymes ............(of -from) the pancreas, and then passes ............(above - through) the small intestine, in which digestion continues.

The chyme is absorbed ................(for - into) the blood. Waste material is eliminated from the rectum ................... (be-fore-during ) defecation.

B - Seleccione la preposición correspondiente en estas ora-ciones

There are some new clinical findings………… (about – for) digestive problems…

What is the difference ................(between – among) both ventricles?

Incidence: the number of new cases …………… some time period (behind – during)

C - The Heart

The main mass 1) …. the heart is formed 2) …. the ventricles, particularly by the left; and the auricles seem like appendages situated 3) … its base

1.- a) between b) of

2.- a) by b) between

3.- a) outside b) at

The two auricles are situated 1) … the base of the ventricles, and 2) …. its posterior part. When injected, and viewed as one, they form a crescentic mass.

1.- a) for b) at

2.- a) under b) towards

The concavity of this mass looks 1) …. and rather up-wards, and embraces 2) … it the aorta and pulmonary artery. The convexity looks backwards and downwards. The two extremities of the crescent are formed by the tips of the right and left auricular appendices.


Inglés

2022

37

1.- a) with b) forwards

2.- b) outside b) within

The two ventricles taken together form a conical mass, which gives the peculiar form to the heart; it is (obliquely) situated, the apex is directed 1) ……., forwards, and to the left side; the base upwards, backwards, and to the right side.

1.- a) downwards b) upwards

The anterior superior surface 1) … this mass is convex, and presents a fissure which runs from the base 2) … the right side of the apex;

1.- a) with b) of

2.- a) at b) to

this fissure lodges the anterior coronary artery and vein, and a quantity of fat, and divides the anterior surface 1) ….. a right and left portion: the 2) …… is formed by the anterior surface of the left ventricle, and the latter, which is much larger, is formed by the anterior surface of the right ventricle.

1.- a) into b) down

2.- a) latter b) former

B - Prenombre relativo (which, that, who,…)

Estos pronombres introducen una suboración o cláusula rel-ativa adjetiva que posmodifica al sustantivo núcleo de la frase nominal (es decir que va detrás del sustantivo núcleo del FN).

Sust. núcleo + CLÁUSULA RELATIVA (which, that, who, where,…)

Ej:

The metabolic disturbances which are associated with… Sust. núcleo The studies that were published… Sust. n,

The agents that sensitize insulin… Sust. n.

Bioinformatics tools, which help scientists to assemble and ana-lyze large amounts of data...

Novel mechanisms that control vesicular trafficking, hemato-poiesis, and innate immunity…

A Saudi Arabian businessman who died from acute respiratory and renal failure…

A vulnerable atherosclerotic plaque, which is an unstable collection of cholesterol and fatty acids and white blood cells in the wall of an artery...

Seven children from five families who have neutropenia, neu-trophil dysfunction, bone marrow fibrosis, and nephromegaly…

The foundation on which all additional diabetes therapies should rest…

We offer comprehensive medical treatment that takes patients from consultation to diagnosis, treatment, surgery, and ulti-mately aftercare}.

The most common ways in which people are exposed…

TP Nº 22Posmodificación encabezada por preposiciones y pronom-bres/adverbios relativos

(CR). Elija una de las opciones (entre paréntesis) para comple-tar la línea de punto.

Rheumatoid Arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease ……….. results in a chronic systemic inflammatory disorder. (who -that - when)

It can be a disabling and painful condition, ………..can lead to substantial loss of functioning and mobility if not adequately treated. (which – whose - where)

The process involves an inflammatory response of the capsule ………….. the joints (synovium), secondary to swell-ing (turgescence) of synovial cells, excess synovial fluid, and the development of fibrous tissue (pannus) in the synovium. (around – through - out)

RA can also produce diffuse inflammation ………. the lungs. (as - in – around)

Besides, it may produce inflammation of the mem-brane …………. the heart (pericardium), the membranes of the lung (pleura), and white of the eye (sclera), and also nod-ular lesions, most common in subcutaneous tissue. (below – around – under )


Inglés

2022

38

Participio pasado (-ed) / Participio presente (-ing)

Como se dijo anteriormente, los verboides (participios) pueden pre-modificar al núcleo como cualquier adjetivo, pero también pueden posmodificarlo, es decir colocarse después del sustantivo (como cláusulas relativas cortas).

Ej.:

Published studies… (participio pasado premodificando al sus-tantivo)

Studies published (participio padado posmodificando al sus-tantivo)

Studies (that were) published ... (Cláusula relative completa)

………………………………………………….

Insulin sensitizing agents…

Agents sensitizing insulin…

Agents (that) sensitize insulin…

…………………………………………………………

A lining membrane…

A membrane lining……

A membrane (that) lines…

……………………………………………………

Associated metabolic disturbances…

Metabolic disturbances associated…

Metabolic disturbances (which are) associated…

Ejemplos de CLÁUSULAS RELATIVAS (forma corta):

a) The interaction between the effects which represents the dif-ferential effect of the drug over time, was reported.

Forma corta:

The interaction between the effects representing the differential effect of the drug over time, was reported. (Participio Presente (-ing))

b) The thin and elastic membrane that lines the inner surface of the organs is epithelium.

Forma corta:

The thin and elastic membrane lining the inner surface of the organs is epithelium.

c) The study which was carried out by our team was published.

Forma corta:

The study carried out by our team was published. (Participio pasado (-ed))

d) The patient who was seen by Dr. Smith this morning needs a new appointment.

Forma corta:

The patient seen by Dr. Smith this morning needs a new ap-pointment.

TP Nº 23• Complete la línea de puntos con la forma corta de la

Cláusula Relativa:

a) The PubMed search that was conducted by the research team was…

The PubMed search ……………………by the research team was…

b) The patients who suffer from a chronic disease need special care.

The patients ………………………….. from a chronic disease need special care.

c) The metformin, which is well tolerated by patients, tends to increase hypoglycemia.

The metformin, ……………………… by patients, tends to in-crease hypoglycemia.

d) The non-insulin pharmacological therapies, which are divid-ed into four classes, were successful.

The non-insulin pharmacological therapies, ………………. into four classes, were successful.

TP Nº 24• Postmodificadores. Marque las post-modificaciones al

sustantivo.


Inglés

2022

39

a) Cells are the smallest structural units in the body.

b) Antibiotics are chemical substances produced by microor-ganism

c) The organs of digestion are the principal internal organs in the abdomen.

d) The pericardium is a thin fibrous sac enclosing the heart.

e) The thyroid gland is an endocrine gland producing thyrox-ine.

f) It’s a very interesting congress organized by our university.

g) The pleura is a thin membrane of fibrous tissue surfaced by squamous epithelium.

h) Veins are wide blood vessels with some muscle tissue in their walls.

i) Platelets are very small particles which stick together to stop bleeding.

j) Carbohydrates are the principal source of energy in most diets.

k) This is a large conical cavity divided into three compart-ments.

TP Nº 25• Seleccione la opción correcta

1. A heavily (exudated/exudating) wound needs an absorp-tive dressing.

2. A serious (bleeding/bled) injury can be life-threatening if not controlled in a timely manner.

3. The purpose of the paper was to explore nurses’ feelings and thoughts about physically (restraining/restrained) older (hospitalizing/hospitalized) patients.

4. We have to work out how to deal with these (complicated/complicating) and (confused/confusing) ideas.

5. What are the causes of (ached/aching) joints?

6. Children rely on their immediate and (extended/extend-ing) families for care and nurture.

7. Higher-level decisions rejected the suggestion of a separate grouping and the (proposing/proposed) diagnosis of (com-plicated/complicating) or pathological grief.

8. (Distended/Distending) bladder information includes symptoms, causes, diseases, treatments, and other medical and health issues.

TP Nº 26• Práctica de frase nominal. Lea el siguiente texto y

analice las frases nominales y las palabras que las componen.

INFORMATION BROCHURE (Technology)

Centra 100

A compact transmission electron microscope with class lead-ing contrast enhancement for life science.

Power through simplicity. An imaging solution you could only dream about

ZEISS CENTRA 100. An efficient, fully digitized, and robust multi-purpose 100 kV TEM.

Designed for biomedical applications. CENTRA 100 delivers outstanding image quality.

Simplicity sets the standard for innovation and timeless vali-dation.

Anatomy. Zoology. Pathology. Botany. Microbiology. Neurol-ogy. Molecular Biology.

Unique ease of use.

Excellent image quality with class leading contrast.

Flexible and comfortable, fully digitized control.

Complete digital imaging solution on multi-user platform.

Centra 100. Brochure

TP Nº 27• Subraye el sustantivo núcleo. Exprese en español la idea

principal del o los bloques

An inflammation of the membrane that lines the eyelids.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

The organ that pumps blood round the body is the heart.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………


Inglés

2022

40

It is a false-positive result, which requires additional periodic testing.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Those are cancers that grow so slowly that they become less life-threatening than flu.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Patients who are treated with high dose diuretic therapy …

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

The burden of disease among people at high risk of lung cancer…

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

The ACS (American Cancer Society), which recommended lung cancer screening in the 1970s for current and former smokers, …

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Organs, which are made up of several tissues of similarly performing cells…

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

The conductive-convective heat loss that is determined by the temperature gradient.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

There are large numbers of patients with severe leprosy-re-lated disabilities who will continue to need various services from the control program.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

It is a cell membrane hyperpolarization which causes vessels to relax by preventing voltage-activated calcium channels from opening.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

These are intra-alveolar buds of granulation tissue consisting of fibroblasts.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Recent studies show a rising mortality from lung cancer caused by chronic exposure to tobacco smoke.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

It is an inflammatory lung disease with distinctive pathologi-cal features causing dyspnoea.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………


Inglés

2022

41

UNIDAD 04

Frase verbal

Como lo indica su nombre el núcleo de esta frase es un verbo que, como tal, refiere a una acción.

El modificador del verbo es el adverbio que indica cómo, dónde, cuándo, etc, se realiza esa acción.

También existen, dentro de la frase verbal, complementos y objetos que guardan, estructuralmente, importantes simili-tudes con el castellano, pero también algunas diferencias sobre todo en la ubicación así como en el uso.

Elementos de la Frase verbal:

Núcleo

Adverbio (tiempos simples)

VERBO

- Adjetivo/Sustantivo (Predicativo obliga-torio)

- Sustantivo/ FN (Objetos) - Pronombres objetivos: (me, him, us, them,…)

- Adverbio/ Frase Adv/Frase preposicio-nal (Complemento circunstancial) tiempo: When? (today, yesterday, last week) lugar:, Where? (here, there, in the room...)modo:, How? (softly, quickly, immediately )

El verbo

El verbo expresa una acción o estado cuyo sujeto es un sustantivo (o FN) o un pronombre.

El inglés no admite verbo sin sujeto (sujeto tácito, en la gramática española), salvo en el modo imperativo.

Ej:

Come here. (Venga aquí)

Open the windodw. (Abra la ventana)

Be patient. (Sea paciente.)

Don’t be impatient. (No sea impaciente.)

Verbo TO BE

“TO BE” generalmente se traduce como “ser” o “estar” cuando es el verbo principal de la oración. También funciona como auxiliar en varias estructuras. A continuación presentamos su paradigma en presente y pasado.

Frase Verbal, estructura. El verbo. Verbo to be y verbo to have. Formas y usos como verbos auxiliares y como verbos principales. Verbo imperso-nal there be. Formas interrogativas y negativas. Usos. El presente simple. Formas interrogativas y negativas. Usos. El presente continuo. Formas. Usos. Comparación: presente simple-presente continuo. Morfología. Ma-nejo del diccionario.

Frase Verbal.


Inglés

2022

42

Simple Present Simple Past

Afirmative

I ................. am He/She/It ………… is We/You/They…….. are

I ……………… wasHe/She/It ………… was We/You/They……… were

Negative

I ................. am not He/She/It ………… is not We/You/They…….. are not

I ……………… was notHe/She/It ………… was not We/You/They……… were not

Interrogative

Am I .................? Is He/She/It …………? Are We/You/They……..?

Was I .................? Was He/She/It …………? Were We/You/They……..?

Formas Abreviadas (Contracted Forms)

I’m You’reHe’s She’s It’s We’re They’re Isn’t Aren’t Wasn’t Weren’t

I amYou areHe isShe isIt isWe areThey areIs notAre notWas notWere not

Ej:

I am a pediatrician = Soy pediatra

It isn’t a new drug = No es una droga nueva

Are these results good? = ¿Estos resultados son buenos?

Yes, they are = Si, lo son

He was in hospital = Estaba internado

They weren’t researchers = No eran investigadores

Were you at work yesterday morning? = ¿Estabas en el trabajo ayer a la mañana?

No, I wasn’t = No, no estaba

Verbo TO HAVE

Tiene varias traducciones según la función que desempeñe en la oración o estructura que integra. Cuando es verbo principal significa “tener”. En este caso puede estar solo o acompaña-do de “got” (“have got”). Si está acompañado por un verbo en participio pasado (gone/made/chosen, etc.) se desempeña como auxiliar del tiempo “Presente Perfecto”y su equivalente es “haber”.

En la tercera persona del presente singular conjuga como “HAS”, y en el pasado conjuga como “HAD” en todas las personas.

Ej:

We have a new patient = We have got a new patient = Tene-mos un paciente nuevo.

She has two children = She has got two children = Tiene dos hijos.

A small revolution has occurred in the field of AIDS research = Ha ocurrido (ocurrió) una pequeña revolución en el campo de investigación del SIDA.

Verbo impersonal THERE BE (Haber, Existir)

“There” seguido por alguna construcción del verbo “be” se traduce por la forma impersonal de los verbos HABER o EX-ISTIR. Si el sustantivo que se encuentra a continuación es sin-gular o no contable, el verbo “Be” estará en singular (is/was), y si el sustantivo es plural, la forma del verbo “Be” será plural (are/were).

Present Past

There is Hay There was Hubo/Había

There are Existe There were Existió/Existía

Is there? ¿Hay? Was there? ¿Hubo?/¿Había?

Are there? ¿Existe? Were there? ¿Existió?/¿Existía?

There is not No hay There was not No hubo/No había

There are not No existe There were not No existió/No existía

Ej:

There is pain, but usually not too severe. (Hay dolor, pero gen-eralmente no muy intenso.)

There are no reliable data showing how many people have that disease. (No existen datos confiables que muestren cuántas personas sufren esa enfermedad.)

There is not a vaccine for that disease. (No hay vacunas para esa enfermedad.)

There are not differences between the two of them. (No hay diferencias entre ellos dos.)

Is there any infection? (¿Hay infección?)

Are there any responses to the treatment? (¿Hay alguna re-spuesta al tratamiento?)


Inglés

2022

43

Tiempo verbal: Presente simple

Uso

Se lo emplea para describir acciones habituales, cotidianas, que tienen cierta frecuencia, y para expresar verdades univer-sales y estados permanentes.

Ej:

She starts work at eight o’clock = Comienza a trabajar a las ocho.

The Earth goes round the sun = La Tierra gira alrededor del sol.

We live in Rosario = Vivimos en Rosario.

Forma

En el “Presente Simple” se usa el INFINITIVO del verbo para todas las personas excepto para la tercera persona del singu-lar que utiliza el verbo en INFINITIVO + s/es/ies.

Forma afirmativa

I

WRITE

escribo He

WRITES

escribe

You escribes She escribe

We escribimos It escribe

They escriben

I

GO

voy He

GOES

va

You vas/van She va

We vamos It va

They van

I

COMPLY

cumplo He

COMPLIES

cumplen

You cumples/en She cumplen

We cumplimos It cumplen

They cumplen

I

WACHT

miro He

WACHTES

mira

You miras/miran She mira

We miron It mira

They miran

Las formas interrogativa y negativa emplean “do” o “does” (para la tercera persona del singular) acompañando al verbo principal en infinitivo. Actúan como auxiliares, no se tradu-cen. Confieren información sobre el tiempo verbal en que se redacta la oración e indican si la misma se presenta en forma interrogativa o negativa.

Forma interrogativa

DO

I

WRITE

¿escribo?

DOES

He

WRITE

¿escribe?

You ¿escribes? She ¿escribe?

We ¿escribi-mos?

It ¿escribe?

They ¿escriben?

Forma negativa

I

DO NOT WRITE

no escribo He

DOES NOTWRITE

no escribe

You no escribes She no escribe

We no escribimos It no escribe

They no escriben

I operate with doctor Thompson = Opero con el doctor Thompson.

He doesn’t usually come on Mondays = Los lunes general-mente no viene.

Do patients come with their relatives? = ¿Los pacientes vienen con sus parientes?

What organ does this disease affect? = ¿A qué órgano afecta esta enfermedad?

TP Nº 28Epithelial Tissue

1) Lea atentamente el texto y observe las pre y pos-modifica-ciones a los sustantivos, el uso de los artículos y la ubicación de los verbos en la estructura oracional.

The tissue making up the outer layer of skin, known as the epidermis, is epithelial tissue. The tissues lining systems such as the digestive, respiratory, urinary, etc. (i.e. systems opening onto the body surface) are also epithelial tissue.

¡IMPORTANTE!

Para buscar en el diccionario es importante recordar la variación de la tercera persona singular. Cuando un verbo termina en:

-s knows buscar know -es does do -ies studies study

Las combinaciones “do not” y “does not” pueden aparecer abreviadas: “don’t” y “doesn’t”

respectivamente.


Inglés

2022

44

Tissue consisting of more than one layer is known as stratified epithelial tissue. Epithelial tissue can also be classified accord-ing to the shape of the cells at the surface as squamous (flat), cubic or columnar.

Adaptado de: NUCLEUS. English for science and technology. MEDICE. Longman. 1980.

2) Responda las siguientes preguntas en español basándose en la información del texto que acaba de leer.

a. What is the epidermis made up of?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

b. What systems do these tissues line?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

c. How can you classify epithelial tissue?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

TP Nº 29

Identifying functions

a- Identifique la función que cumplen las palabras subrayadas en las siguientes oraciones (sustantivo (S), verbo (V) o adjeti-vo (ADJ).

1- This image shows living cells.

2- Antibiotics have several uses.

3- That physician often uses antibiotics without a rational criterion.

4- The experiment is performed in this laboratory.

5- They usually experiment with guinea pigs.

6- The experiment results are very interesting.

7- After taking felodipine, the heart rate is increased.

8- Other treatments are plasmapheresis (blood filtration) and an operation to remove the thymus gland.

9- There are various types of simple epithelium, classified according to cell shape.

10- Fibroblasts are flat, star-shaped cells with a large nucleus and fairly clear cytoplasm.

TP Nº 30Summary. Phenotypic Expression of the Marfan Syndrome. Clinical Records of a Family in Three Running Generations

Marfan’s Syndrome (MS) is an autosomal dominant heritable disorder of connective tissue with pleiotropic manifestations affecting the skeletal, ocular and cardiovascular systems. Most MS display abnormalities in the microfibrils in the extracel-lular matrix. Many manisfestations are age dependent. The leading cause of premature death is a progressive dilatation of the aortic root and of the ascending aorta, causing aortic incompetence, heart failure and aortic dissection.

In this study we reviewed the clinical records of a whole family (n=38) in three generations during 24 years.

From Revista de la Federación Argentina de Cardiología. Volu-men 33. Nº 1. Enero-marzo 2004.

1. Subraye los núcleos de las siguientes frases nominales

a. an autosomal dominant heritable disorderb. pleiotropic manifestations affecting the skeletal, ocu-

lar and cardiovascular systemsc. abnormalities in the microfibrilsd. The leading cause of premature deathe. a progressive dilatation of the aortic rootf. aortic incompetence, heart failure and aortic dissec-

tion

2. Responda las siguientes preguntas

a. What is Marfan’s Syndrome?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

b. What is the leading cause of premature death?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………


Inglés

2022

45

c. What did the study review?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Tiempo verbal: Presente continuo

Uso

Generalmente describe acciones que ocurren en el momento en que se está hablando (ahora).

Ej: Dr. Smith is seeing a patient at the moment. (El Dr. Smith está atendiendo a un paciente en este momento)

Para expresar una actividad temporaria, que sucede en el pre-sente pero no necesariamente en el momento en que se está hablando.

Ej: I’m studying for my final exams these days. (Estoy estudian-do para los exámenes finales en estos días.)

He‘s writing an article about that case. (Está escribiendo un artículo sobre ese caso)

Para expresar planes inmediatos para un futuro cercano. En este caso aparece referencia temporal de futuro.

Ej: We’re meeting next Monday. (Nos reunimos el lunes próx-imo.)

I’m operating him tomorrow. (Lo opero mañana.)

Forma Afirmativa

Ej: The population is growing in number everyday. (La po-blación está aumentando todos los días.)

Forma Negativa

Ej: The students are not studying at the moment. (Los estudi-antes no están estudiando en este momento.)

I am not doing any research this year. (Este año no hago inves-tigación.)

Forma Interrogativa

Ej:

A: Are you studying this weekend? (¿Vas a estudiar este fin de semana?)

B: No, I’m not. I’m not having any exams this month. (No, este mes no tengo ningún examen.)

A: What are those people doing? (¿Qué están hacienda esas personas?)

B: They are waiting for the doctor. (Están esperando al doc-tor.)

Presente simple Vs. Presente contínuo

El presente simple, como vimos, se usa para referirse a ac-ciones habituales, verdades universales y horarios, y el pre-sente continuo o progresivo para referirse a acciones en curso.

Ej: Every day he starts work at 7 in the morning but today he is still sleeping because he is on holiday. (Todos los días empieza a trabajar a las 7 de la mañana pero hoy todavía está durmiendo porque está de vacaciones.)

Sin embargo, ciertos verbos no se utilizan en tiempos contin-uos. Estos incluyen los que expresan estado como: be, cost, fit, mean, suit; los verbos que indican posesión como belong y have; los verbos de los sentidos: see, hear, smell, taste y touch; los que indican sentimiento como hate, hope, like, love, prefer, regret, want, wish y los que indican actividad pensante como believe, think, know o understand.

TP Nº 31• Uso del diccionario:

1- Cada oración contiene un verbo en pasado o un participio irregular. Indique la forma neutra de cada verbo.

• She made a mistake.

• Who gave you this money?

• I’ve lost my keys!

Sujeto + forma correspondiente del verbo “to be” + verbo -ing

Sujeto + forma correspondiente del verbo “To Be” + not + verbo -ing

Forma correspondiente del verbo “To Be” + Sujeto + verbo –ing ?


Inglés

2022

46

• Have you seen Tom?

• I forgot her birthday.

2 -Indique cuándo la misma palabra está funcionando como verbo o como sustantivo:

• Let me water the plants

• They water the flowers.

• I drink water before breakfast

• They use their dictionaries.

• The use of computers...

• Do not use the elevator, please.

• This article sketches the evolution of modern Epidemiol-ogy.

• He draws the sketches of the sculpture.

TP Nº 32CELLS.

a- Lea el siguiente texto y realice trabajo de diccionario.

b- Analice la función de las palabras subrayadas en el texto.

c- Responda las preguntas que se encuentran a continu-ación del texto.

d- Subraye el núcleo de las frases nominales destacadas […] en el texto.

Cells and tissue are the building materials of the body. [The branch of anatomy that deals with the cells] is called cytology.

The nucleus and the cytoplasm are [the two parts of the cell]. The nucleus is situated near the centre of the cell, and the cy-toplasm is [the substance outside the nucleus]. The cells have different activities to perform, but all types have something to do with [the body functions].

There are four kinds of body tissue. The epithelial tissue cov-ers the body and arranges secretions.

The connective tissue links together and encloses the frame of the body. The muscle tissue contracts and relaxes, and provides possibilities for the limbs and organs to work. The nerve tissue makes the body and its different parts active and

integrated. Glands and membranes consist of specialized tissue.

1. What is cytology?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. What is the structure of cells mentioned in this extract?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. How many kinds of body tissue are there?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

4. What is the function of the muscle tissue?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

TP Nº 33BLOOD

a- Lea el siguiente texto y realice trabajo de diccionario. b- Analice la función de las palabras subrayadas en el texto.

Blood transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and car-bon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. It carries food materi-als from the intestines to all parts of the body and returns wastes to the kidneys to be excreted. Blood aids in the regulation of the body temperature by distributing the heat produced in active muscles. It plays a vital part in the maintenance of water and salt balance. It is concerned with immunity to disease and protec-tion of the body against invading bacteria.

b- Determine si las siguientes oraciones son verdaderas o falsas y justifique su decisión.

1- Blood functions as a carrier of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

…………………………………………………………………


Inglés

2022

47

…………………………………………………………………

2- Body temperature helps to regulate the blood.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3- Active muscles help in the production of heat.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

4- The function of blood is to keep a balance between water and salt.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

5- Blood aids invading bacteria.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………


Inglés

2022

49

UNIDAD 05

El adverbio

Los adverbios que indican cuándo se realiza una acción son los de tiempo, los que nos indican dónde, de lugar y los que nos indican cómo son los de modo:

Tiempo (today, yesterday, tomorrow)(frase adverbial: last month o frase preposicional:in the evening, at 5 o’clock)

Lugar (here, there) (frase preposicional: on the table, in the city, throughout the body)

Modo (Terminados en –ly (-mente) generally / rarely/ /commonly/especially)

Existen una gran cantidad de adverbios que responden a otras preguntas. Por ejemplo: por qué, para qué, con quién, etc.

El adverbio puede ubicarse antes o después del verbo (en los tiempos simples).

Adverbio (o frase adverbial) + Verbo + adverbio (o frase adverbial)

Brain hemorrhages occurr more often after intravenous therapy.

It sometimes occurs on only one side of the mouth, but usu-ally involves both sides.

The patient is in the operating theatre.

The vaccine supplies will arrive next month.

These shortcomings of insulin therapies increasingly stimu-late new studies.

Brain hemorrhages developed in 20% of the cases.

Smith and Martin successfully treated three out of four pa-tients suffering with chelosis.

This infection should be treated immediately.

Listado de adverbios en orden alfabético:Again de nuevoAgo hace (tanto tiempo)Almost casiAlready ya Also tambiénAlways siempre As mientras, a medida queEarly temprano Even aúnEver alguna (have you ever...? Alguna vez...?) Here aquíHow cómo Just sólo, casi, reciénLate tarde Nearly casiOften a menudo, frecuentemente Only sólo, solamentePerhaps quizás Rather más bien (I’d rather prefer to...)Right correctamente Since desde entonces (tiempo)So así Sometimes a vecesSoon pronto Still todavíaThen luego, entonces Too también Well bien (I’m feeling well) Wrong mal

Los adverbios son modificadores de un verbo. Es decir que nos dan información sobre, por ejemplo, cuándo, dónde o cómo, se realiza una acción.

El adverbio como modificador del verbo. Clases de adverbios (tiempo, lugar, modo). Función. Ubicación. Uso. Frases adverbiales. Morfología. El adverbio en la Frase Nominal. Intensificadores. Complementos. Objetos directo e indirecto. Pronombres Objetivos. Pronombres Reflexivos. Pro-nombres demostrativos y pronombres indefinidos. Función subjetiva y objetiva

Frase Verbal.


Inglés

2022

50

Adverbios y expresiones adverbiales de Tiempo y frecuencia

Los adverbios de frecuencia más comunes asociados al pre-sente simple son:

always – usually – often – sometimes –never

Se ubican antes del verbo principal excepto en el caso del ver-bo “to be”, con el que se ubican a continuación.

Ej:

The patients usually wait for a long time. (Los pacientes gen-eralmente esperan mucho tiempo.)

The doctor doesn’t usually arrive on time. (El doctor general-mente no llega a horario.)

The patients are sometimes late. (Los pacientes a veces llegan tarde.)

The doctor isn’t always on time. (El doctor no siempre llega a horario.)

También podemos encontrar frases adverbiales que denoten rutina, por ejemplo: every day, on Mondays, in the morning.

Con el presente continuo se usan adverbios y frases adverbia-les y preposicionales que indican:

a) el momento del que se está hablando, por ejemplo: now, at the moment, at present, today, etc;

b) una situación temporaria, por ejemplo: this month, these days, etc; o

c) futuro inmediato, planes, por ejemplo: tomorrow, next week, etc.

Ej:

a) They are operating on the patient right now. (Están operando al paciente en este momento.)

b) They are trying the new drug on patients this year. (Este año están probando la droga nueva en pacien-tes.)

c) I’m travelling to Buenos Aires next weekend. (El próximo fin de semana viajo a Buenos Aires.)

The doctor will come tomorrow.

This disorder occurs most frequently in people with ill-fitting dentares.

Steroids should be taken in the morning.

Adverbios y expresiones adverbiales de MODO.

La terminación –ly se puede agregar a la mayoría de los adje-tivos para formar adverbios

Ej:

adjetivo + -ly = adverbio de modo

main (principal) mainly (principalmente)

easy (fácil) easily (facilmente)

recent recently (recientemente)

immediate immediately (inmediatamente)

quick quickly (rápidamente)

El adjetivo GOOD tiene su adverbio de modo irregular que es WELL.

A good book (adj)

He sings very well (adv)

Algunos adjetivos permanecen invariables como adverbios:

fast, hard, long, early, late, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly.

Existen los adverbios “hardly” y “lately” con otro significado.

Adverbios y expresiones adverbiales de LUGAR

The conference will be held in the University of Cambridge. (frase preposicional)

Dr. Smith worked here, at the hospital. (adverbio, frase prep-osicional)

Central thermoreceptors are found at other levels of the CNS. (frase preposicional)

El adverbio puede ser una sola palabra, por ej. “here” (aquí), o podemos encontrar un grupo de palabras que cumplen la función de un adverbio (frase adverbial o preposicional) o una sub-oración que constituye una cláusula adverbial:


Inglés

2022

51

Ej:

• at home, on Monday, in the park. (frases preposicionales)

• “I’ll call you when I get home” (Te llamaré cuando llegue a casa.). (cláusula adverbial).

• She speaks quickly. (Ella habla rápidamente.) (adverbio de modo)

• They usually misunderstand me. (Generalmente me ma-linterpretan.) (adverbio de frecuencia)

También pueden modificar partes de una oración o inclusive una oración entera.

Ej:

• Importantly, DNA damage occurred at concentrations below those required to call damage, suggesting that the DNA damage was caused directly by glyphosate instead of being an indirect result of cell toxicity.

• Historically, pellagra is seen in communities where peo-ple rely heavily on corn for nutrition.

• Actually, I can’t go to the party. (En realidad, no puedo ir a la fiesta.) Modifica a una oracion entera.

El adverbio en la Frase Nominal

Como se señaló, el adverbio, al ser el modificador natural del verbo, se encuentra en la Frase Verbal. Sin embargo podemos encontrarlo en una Frase Nominal solamente modificando a un adjetivo. NUNCA a un sustantivo. Esto es igual para am-bos idiomas, inglés y español.

Seemingly greater risk of lung cancer…

Chronically infected patient…

Recently accepted drug…

Relatively low incidence…

Commonly accepted rule…

A statistically significant 20 per-cent reduction…

An equally important conclusion…

Considerably lower overall population age-adjusted death rates…

Similarly performing cells…

Adverbios INTENSIFICADORES/LIMITANTES

Podemos encontrar el adverbio modificando adjetivos y otros adverbios para aumentar o disminuir (intensificadores/lim-itantes) la intensidad del término que modifica.Ej:

• They study really hard. (Estudian realmente mucho.)

• She sings quite well. (Canta bastante bien.)

• It is a very important finding (Es un hallazgo muy im-portante)

TP Nº 34TISSUES

A - Lea el siguiente texto. Busque ejemplos de adverbios y ob-serve cómo funcionan

A tissue is a group of associated and similarly structured cells that perform a specialized function for the survival of the or-ganism. Animal tissues take their first form when the blastula cells differentiate into three layers: the ectoderm, the meso-derm and the endoderm.

Through further differentiation, groups of cells grow into more specialized units to form organs, which are made up of several tissues of similarly performing cells. Animal tissues are classified into four main groups:

Epithelial tissues: These tissues include the skin and the in-ner surfaces of the body, such as those of the lungs, stomach, intestines and blood vessels. Because its primary function is to protect the body from injury and infection, epithelium is made up of tightly packed cells with little intercellular sub-stance between them. About 12 kinds of epithelial tissues can be classified.

Connective tissues: These tissues, which support and hold parts of the body together, comprise the fibrous and elastic connective tissues, the adipose (fatty) tissues, and cartilage and bone. In contrast to epithelium, the cells of these tissues are widely separated from one another, with a large amount of intercellular substance between them. The cells of fibrous tissues, found throughout the body, connect to one another by an irregular network of strands, forming a soft layer that also supports blood vessels, nerves and other organs.

Muscle tissues: These tissues, which contract and relax, com-prise the striated, smooth and cardiac muscle.

Nerve tissues: These highly complex groups of cells transfer information from one part of the body to another.


Inglés

2022

52

B - Reconozca y subraye el núcleo de las siguientes frases nom-inales.

1) … associated and similarly structured cells…

2) … several tissues of similarly performing cells.

3) … tightly packed cells with little intercellular substance be-tween them.

4) … the fibrous and elastic connective tissues…

5) … a soft layer that also supports blood vessels, nerves and other organs.

C - Responda las siguientes preguntas en español.

1) What is the main difference between cells of connective tissues and those of epithelium?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2) What is the function of nerve cells?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

D - Realice un mapa conceptual que resuma el contenido del texto.

TP Nº 35Observe qué modifican los adverbios destacados en el siguiente ejemplo:

The heart is in rythmic pulsation and changes its position a little between systole and diastole; the lungs also are in ryth-mic motion, gliding down and up; the oesophagus dilates with each bolus; and the great veins expand considerably during increased blood flow.

‘A little’: …………………………………………………………………

‘Also’: …………………………………………………………………

‘Considerably’: …………………………………………………………………

From: English in Basic Medical Science.

TP Nº 36THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

A - Lea el primer párrafo y realice la siguiente ejercitación:

1. Encuentre en el texto sustantivos que modifiquen a otro sustantivo (sustantivo en función adjetiva).

2. Encuentre un adverbio que modifique a un adjetivo (adv+adj+sust)

3. ¿A qué sustantivo hace referencia el posesivo its (resal-tado en el texto)

4. ¿Qué función cumple la palabra conducting en el texto (cuarto renglón, subrayada)

5. ¿En qué tiempo se encuentra el verbo vary? (Quinto renglón, subrayado)

The basic unit of the nervous system is the neuron, or nerve cell. It consists of a cell body and its processes. Each neuron has two types of process: a number of short, freely branching fibres called dendrites, and a single process called the axon, which may or may not give off branches along its course. The den-drites convey impulses to the cell body; the axon, which is the main conducting fibre, conveys impulses away from the cell body. The axon varies in length in different kinds of neuron. In a motor neuron it can be very long, running, for example, from a cell body in the spinal cord to a muscle in the foot. Axons of the internuncial neurons, which provide links between other neurons, are often short and difficult to distinguish from the dendrites.

B - Determine si las siguientes oraciones son verdaderas o falsas. Justifique las falsas:

1. A neuron consists of a cell body, dendrites and an axon.

2. The axon is a freely branching fibre.

3. The main conducting fibre of a neuron is always very long.

4. Some axons can be difficult to distinguish from the dendrites.

C - Lea el segundo párrafo y realice la ejercitación propuesta a continuación:

An inactivated nerve fibre maintains a state of chemical stability with concentrations of potassium inside and outside the lining membrane in a ratio of 30:1. Thus, the nerve fibre at rest is electrically charged. A nerve impulse is a wave of depolariza-tion created by a chemical imbalance. Sodium passes through the membrane, releasing potassium. The depolarization of any part of the nerve cell causes the depolarization of the next seg-


Inglés

2022

53

ment, and so on to the end of the fibre. The end of a nerve fibre is not structurally joined to the next cell, but the small gap between them can be bridged chemically. This functional junc-tion is known as a synapse. Not all the chemicals which act as transmitters are known but among the most important are acetyl choline and noradrenaline. Once the synapse has been made, these chemicals are rapidly destroyed by enzymes. The nerve fibre itself recharges within milliseconds.

1. Subraye el núcleo de las siguientes frases nominales:a) an inactivated nerve fibreb) a state of chemical stabilityc) the lining membraned) the nerve fibre at reste) a wave of depolarization created by a chemical imbal-ancef) all the chemicals which act as transmitters

2. Indique si las siguientes oraciones son Verdaderas o Falsas de acuerdo al texto:

a) An unactivated nerve fibre contains thirty times more potassium than its surrounding tissue.

b) A nerve impulse is a chemical imbalance.

c) A synapse is a connection which is made over the small gap between the end of a nerve fibre and the next cell.

d) Acetylcholine is known to transmit impulses.

e) Transmitters are destroyed by enzymes.

TP Nº 371. Lea el párrafo a continuación. Indique la función de las pa-labras subrayadas. Si son pronombres indique el antecedente.

2. Subraye el núcleo de las frases nominales destacadas […] en el texto.

3. Responda las preguntas a continuación del texto en español.

I. INTRODUCTION.

From McGee Evidence-Based Physical Diagnosis, by Steven McGee, Third Edition.

If a physical sign characteristic of [a suspected diagnosis] is present (i.e., positive finding), that diagnosis becomes more likely; if [the characteristic finding] is absent (i.e., negative finding), the suspected diagnosis becomes less likely. How much [these positive and negative results] modify probabil-

ity, however, is distinct for [each physical sign]. Some find-ings, when positive, shift probability upward greatly, but they change it a little when negative. Other signs are more useful if they are absent, because the negative finding practically ex-cludes disease, although the positive one changes probability very little. Much of this book consists of tables that specifi-cally describe how positive or negative findings change the probability of disease, [a property called diagnostic accuracy]. Understanding these tables first requires [review of four con-cepts]: pretest probability, sensitivity, specificity, and likeli-hood ratios.

1- What is a positive finding? How does it affect a diagnosis?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2 - What does much of the book mentioned in the extract consist of?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

TP Nº 38The Skin

1. Lea el texto a continuación. Analice las palabras subrayadas en el mismo. Analice su función en su contexto. Si son adjetivos (o si funcionan como tales) o adverbios, ¿a qué palabra están modificando? Si son verbos, ¿en qué tiempo verbal se encuen-tran? Si son pronombres, ¿a qué sustantivo o frase se refieren?

The skin performs very important functions. It serves as a physical barrier, and protects the underlying tissues from in-jury and harmful bacteria. It contains nerve endings. They send information concerning touch, pain and temperature to the brain. The skin performs some functions as an excreto-ry organ because it excretes water, sodium chloride and some urea through its sweat glands. And finally it can function as a means of identification through fingerprints.

The skin, or cutis, is a membrane made up of two layers, and


Inglés

2022

54

attached to the subcutaneous tissues by collagen fibres. The outer layer is the epidermis, composed of epithelial tissue developed from ectoderm. The epidermis has a deep layer of growing cells covered by a layer of dried dead cells. The inner layer is the dermis, composed of vascular connective tissue developed from embryonic mesoderm.

C - Subraye los núcleos de las siguientes frases nominales:

1. information concerning touch, pain and temperature

2. a means of identification

3. a membrane made up of two layers

4. the subcutaneous tissues

5. a deep layer of growing cells

6. vascular connective tissue developed from embryonic mesoderm

C - Determine si las siguientes oraciones son verdaderas o falsas. Justifique su respuesta en español.

1. The skin consists of two layers.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. The mesoderm originates the epidermis.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. The dermis is made up of epithelial tissue.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

D - Responda las siguientes preguntas sobre el texto en español.

1. Why can we say that the skin has some functions as an ex-cretory organ?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. What is the function of the skin nerve endings?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

TP Nº 39

MUSCLES

A - Lea el texto a continuación. Analice las palabras subrayadas en el mismo. Analice su función en su contexto. Si son adjetivos (o si funcionan como tales) o adverbios, ¿a qué palabra están modificando? Si son verbos, ¿en qué tiempo verbal se encuen-tran? Si son pronombres, ¿a qué sustantivo o frase se refieren?

The muscles are connected to the bones, cartilages, ligaments, and skin, either directly, or through the intervention of fibrous structures called tendons or aponeuroses. Where a muscle is at-tached to bone or cartilage, the fibers end in blunt extremities upon the periosteum or perichondrium, and do not come into direct relation with the osseous or cartilaginous tissue. Where muscles are connected to skin, they lie as a flattened layer be-neath it, and are connected with its areolar tissue by larger or smaller bundles of fibers, as in the muscles of the face.

The muscles vary extremely in their form. In the limbs, they are of considerable length, especially the more superficial ones; they surround the bones, and constitute an important protection to the various joints. In the trunk, they are broad, flattened, and expanded, and assist in forming the walls of the trunk cavities. Hence the reason of the terms, long, broad, short, etc., used in the description of a muscle.

B - Subraye el núcleo de las siguientes frases nominales:• fibrous structures called tendons or aponeuroses• a flattened layer• an important protection• the description of a muscle

C - Responda en español las preguntas sobre el texto.

1. What is the function of tendons or aponeuroses?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. How are the muscles of the face attached?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. What are the differencies between the muscles of the limbs and those of the trunk?……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………


Inglés

2022

55

FRASE VERBAL

• Predicativos obligatorios • Objeto directo (OD) • Objeto indirecto (OI) • Complementos circunstanciales

Objetos (OD / OI)

Verbo + Objetos (Sustantivo o Frase Nominal)

El Objeto Directo es un sustantivo (o FN) que recibe la acción del verbo y del sujeto. Responde a la pregunta ¿qué?

La enfermera vendó la pierna del paciente. (¿Qué vendó? “la pierna del paciente”)

The nurse bandaged the patient’s leg. (What did she bandage? The patient’s leg)

Ej:

• They detect underlying occlusive vascular lesions.

El Objeto Indirecto se refiere al destinatario de la acción y responde a la pregunta ¿a quien? Se ubica luego del Objeto Directo.

The doctor gave pain killers to his patient (verbo + OD + OI)

El doctor le dio calmantes a su paciente

Pronombres objetivos

Como todo sustantivo puede ser reemplazado por un pro-nombre. En este caso, al ser un sustantivo en función de Obje-to, el pronombre será un pronombre objetivo. (me, you, him, her, it, us, them)

• The doctor gave them to his patient.

• The doctor gave him pain killers.

TP Nº 40• Subraye el Objeto Directo

The 2002 ADCC Autoimmune Diseases Research Plan provides a valuable guide to those goals.

The NNLST established quality parameters for the study.

Clinicians initiate a discussion about lung cancer screening with patients aged 55 years to 74 years.

They observed risks associated with screening.

Erythrogenic (pyrogenic) toxins cause the characteristic rash.

Pronombres demostrativos (This - That / These -Those)

Como ya se vio anteriormente, los demostrativos pueden desem-peñarse como adjetivos, es decir, acompañando a un sustantivo; o como pronombres, es decir, reemplazando a un sustantivo o a una frase nominal.

Como pronombres pueden cumplir, entonces, las mismas funciones que los sustantivos: sujetos u objetos de un verbo.

Ej:

Pronombre demostrativo como sujeto de un verbo:Scientists discovered a new drug for the treatment of cancer. This is the most important finding of the last decades,Those are the pills the patient has to take.

Pronombre como objeto de un verbo:The doctor gave me those.Pay attention to this.

Pronombres indefinidos

a - One/Ones - No one - None

Cuando se utilizan luego de adjetivos, generalmente no se tra-ducen. Si el sustantivo que se reemplaza es singular, se utiliza “one”. Si se reemplaza un sustantivo plural, se utiliza “ones”.

These books are about anatomy. The small one is from the li-brary, the other one is mine

Estos libros son de anatomía. El pequeño es de la biblioteca, el otro es mío.


Inglés

2022

56

She is the one suffering from MS. = Ella es la que padece de EM.

There are several pacemakers. Give me the ones that are in the box.

Hay varios marcapasos. Dame los que están en la caja.

I invited five friends but none have/has come.

b - Many / Most / Much/ Few

Many have expressed their views. (Muchos han expresado…).

Most have expressed their views. (La mayoría ha expresado…)

Much has happened since we last met. (Mucho ha sucedido desde…)

Few are smoking these days. (Uno pocos fuman…)

c - Each / Each one (cada uno/a)

Each has his own thoughts.

d - “Some” / “Any” y sus formas compuestas

“Some” se usa en oraciones afirmativas mientras que “any” se usa en oraciones negativas e interrogativas. Some y any se tra-ducen “algunos/as” cuando se usan con sustantivos contables y “un poco/algo de” con los incontables. Ej:

También son formantes de los compuestos: someone; some-body; anyone; anybody; etc.

Dentro de este grupo de pronombres compuestos aparecen las formas con “no” (adverbio) en oraciones con significado negativo pero con la frase verbal afirmativa y “every” (adjetivo; pronombre). Las formas combinadas con “one” y “body” se re-fieren a personas, con “thing” a cosas y con “where” a lugares.

some- any- no- every-

someone anyone no one everyone

somebody anybody nobody everybody

something somewhere

anything

anywhere

nothing

nowhere

everything

everywhere

Ej:

There is someone/ somebody waiting for you. (Hay alguien esperándolo/te.)

He did not eat anything before the blood test. (No comió nada antes del análisis de sangre.)

We have everything prepared. (Tenemos todo preparado.)

She said nothing about the symptoms. (No dijo nada acerca de los síntomas.)

Cuando any se usa en oraciones afirmativas significa cualqui-era. De igual modo los compuestos anything, anybody y any-where equivalen a cualquier cosa/persona/lugar.

Ej: I’ll take a painkiller, any that I can find. (Tomaré un calm-ante, cualquiera que encuentre.)

Pronombres interrogativos o enfáticos

Se emplean para formular preguntas que exigen a) una espe-cificación en la respuesta (wh- questions) o b) en expresiones admirativas. Los más comunes son: which, what, who, where, when, how.

Ej:

1. Where is the doctor? (¿Dónde está el médico?)

2. What a beautiful day! (¡Qué día hermoso!)

Pronombres reflexivos (agregan la particula: -self)

He did it himself (Lo hizo él mismo)

That is an end in itself (Es un fin en sí mismo)

Some cells kill themselves (Algunas células se detruy-en a sí mismas/se autodestruyen)


Inglés

2022

57

PRONOMBRES

Personal Objective Possessive Demonstrative Reflexive Indefinite Relative Interrogative

I Me Mine This Myself One That Which

You You Yours That Yourself Some Which What

He Him His These Himself Any Who

She Her Hers Those Herself No Whom

It It Itself Every Whose

We Us Ours Ourselves (A) few / little Who When

You You Yours Yourselves Each Whom Why

They Them Theirs Themselves Many Whose Where

Much Where How

Either When

Neither Why

Ones

All

Combinaciones con “EVER”

Whatever No matter what (lo que sea)

Whoever who (quien sea)

Wherever where (donde sea)

Whenever when (cuando sea)

Whichever which (el que sea)

Nota: En español correspondería a “Como sea”, “donde sea”, “cuando sea”, “cualquiera”, “no importa dónde”, “no importa cuando”, etc.

Ej:

Whoever comes, tell him I’m not in.

Whenever she operates, she works with the same team.

He couldn’t understand the problem however hard he tried.


Inglés

2022

59

UNIDAD 06

VERBOS: La voz pasiva

En castellano rioplatense es más natural usar la voz pasiva con “se” (Se utilizaron 10 litros) que la voz pasiva pura (10 litros fueron utilizados), la cual prácticamente no se emplea, salvo cuando el significado queda más claro si se opta por la pasiva pura, o por razones estilísticas, en textos muy extensos o en el registro periodístico, como alternativa a la Pasiva con “se”.

Forma

La voz pasiva se construye con el verbo “To Be” conjugado en el tiempo y número correspondientes y con el participio pasado del verbo principal.

Presente

Voz activa: They use this drug on animals

Voz pasiva: This drug is used on animals

Pasado

Voz activa: They made that research last year

Voz pasiva: That research was made last year

Otros usos

Ciertos verbos tienden a aparecer siempre en Voz Pasiva, dadas las características de la acción que describen:

• My watch was stolen.

Se emplea más que:

• Thieves stole my watch.

Cuando una oración contiene un Objeto Directo y otro Indi-recto, tales como en el caso:

• Someone gave her aspirin.puede tomar dos formas de voz pasiva:

• She was given aspirin. • Aspirin was given to her.

Ejemplos de Voz Pasiva:

• DNA damage was observed in blood samples from exposed residents in Argentina and Ecuador.

La Voz Pasiva. Tiempos. Forma. Uso. Pasiva impersonal con It. Forma: voz pasiva + infinitivo. Verbos modales que indican capacidad y posibilidad (poder): can/could – may/might y los que indican obligación, sugerencia (deber): must/have to - should/ought to). Características. Usos. Formas simples y perfectas. Voz pasiva con verbo modal. Tiempos verbales: Pa-sado Simple. Presente Perfecto. Futuro Simple. Futuro inmediato: going to.

Frase Verbal.

La voz pasiva se usa cuando es más importante resaltar el objeto que el sujeto de la acción, o cuando la persona que realiza la acción es desconocida, está sobreentendida o es irrelevante.

Be (en el tiempo verbal correspondiente) +

Participio Pasado (written/studied)


Inglés

2022

60

• In radiation therapy, precisely targeted x-rays are used to destroy localized cancer cells

• Cell damage was documented in many cell types including those derived from the rat testis.

Observar dónde se ubica el adverbio en la voz pasiva (often, already, most commonly)

• It’s a condition that is often found in patients with chronic or severe gastroesophageal reflux disease. (Notar posición del adverbio)

• Its extreme toxic effects on amphibians were already shown.

• Surgery is most commonly used in non-small cell lung can-cers and less frequently in small cell lung cancer (SCLC), which tends to spread more quickly to other parts of the body.

IMPORTANTE: la Voz Pasiva no es un tiempo verbal. El ver-bo to be indica el tiempo de la pasiva (is/are – was/were – will be / have been)

TP Nº 411) Complete con el verbo to be en el tiempo correcto

The patient is admitted to Saint John Hospital.

Yesterday, the patient …… …admitted to Saint John Hospital.

Tomorrow, the patient………. admitted to Saint John Hospi-tal.

2) Pasar las siguientes oraciones en voz activa a voz pasiva

A university team conducts the investigation.

In these cases, the physician prescribes antibiotics.

Scientists carried out a double-blind trial design.

Researchers will exclude patients with Aids from the study.

These organisms caused neonatal meningitis and septicemia.

Smoking increases the risk of cancer.

Some patients develop insulin resistance.

Patients tolerate side-effects.

Pasiva impersonal (It is + ed/3º col)

En el caso de una pasiva impersonal con el pronombre It, equivale a la forma impersonal “se” en español.

It is believed (se cree)

It was considered (se consideró)

It is known (se sabe)

It was reported (se informó)

It is shown (se muestra / se demuestra)

VOZ PASIVA + Infinitivo

Esta construcción expresa una impersonalidad. Se utiliza con la idea de que alguien o la gente en general piensa, conoce, supone, cree que algo es o sucede. Se corresponde con la expresión “se cree que”, se espera que”, etc. Una fórmula sencilla, entonces es pensar en:

Se … que

Ej:

It is said to be (Se dice que es)

It is believed to cure (Se cree que cura)

It is considered to work (Se considera que trabaja)

• The condition is said to be associated with a birth defect called Chiari Malformation II.

• The treatment is thought to be effective in most patients suffering from pneumonia.

• The causative factor of polio is known to be a virus.

• Vitamin C was shown to prevent common cold.

• This antibiotic is expected to have other uses.

• The Columbia Uniersity Medical Center is supposed to present the outcomes in this conference.

• The patient was told to end with his treatment immediately.

• These vaccines are proved to be effective.

• Misconduct was suspected to have occurred.


Inglés

2022

61

Voz Pasiva: Tiempos continuos Presente

Voz activa: They are repairing the equipment.

Voz pasiva: The equipment is being repaired.

Pasado

Voz activa: They were carrying the man to the ambulance.

Voz pasiva: The man was being carried to the ambulance.

VERBOS MODALES

Forma

Características

1. Tienen la misma forma para todos los pronombres.

2. No se conjugan en todos los tiempos verbales.

3. No usan auxiliares.

4. Siempre van seguidos por otro verbo en infinitivo.

Pueden expresar por ejemplo:

PODER: I may use (puedo usar) He can walk (Puede caminar) We could eat (podríamos comer)

CAN (capacidad) COULD (pasado de “can”) (posibilidad)

MAY (posibilidad/permiso) MIGHT (posibilidad lejana)

DEBER: I must study (debo estudiar) We should go out (deberíamos salir)

SHOULD / OUGHT TO (sugerencia): debería

MUST / HAVE TO (obligación): debo / tengo que…

• Cells can replicate their DNA precisely. (tienen esa capacidad)

• You cannot discontinue the treatment.

• He can swim.

• After the stroke, he could talk normally.

• He could leave the hospital.

• Blood thinning drugs may lower blood pressure. (probab-ilidad)

• The patient may die during the procedure.

• You must take antibiotics as indicated.

• Human diets must provide the essential nutrients.

• You have to see a doctor.

• You should stop smoking.

• They should consider the alternatives.

CAN

Es un verbo modal que indica propiedad de un sustantivo/sujeto, capacidad, habilidad o destreza. Siempre seguido de un verbo infinitivo.

Ej:

• A laser scalpel can make an accurate cut. (Un bisturí laser puede realizar un corte preciso.)

• Platelets can stop bleeding. (Las plaquetas pueden deten-er el sangrado.)

• Some cells can pass through capillary walls. (Algunas células pueden pasar a través de las paredes capilares.)

• Arteries can bend and stretch. (Las arterias se pueden doblar y estirar.)

• Can you see that node? (¿Puede ver ese nódulo?)• I’m afraid we can’t remove it. (Me temo que no podemos

extirparlo.)

Verbo Modal +

Verbo en Infinitivo (sin “to”)


Inglés

2022

62

También indica deducción en negativo

Ej:

• It can’t be a bacterium, it hasn’t responded to any anti-biotic. (No puede ser una bacteria, no ha respondido al antibiótico.)

Nota: CAN tiene dos formas para tres tiempos verbales por lo tanto es necesario utilizar la expresión “be able to”para los demás tiempos verbales.

Can (presente)

Be able to (presente, pasado y otros tiempos)

COULD

Indica posibilidad (podría), pero también puede ser el pasado de CAN (pudo/podía). Lo reconocemos por el contexto.

• This hormone could serve as a physical barrier.

• It could function as a means of hydration.

También se utiliza en preguntas amables (polite requests).

• Could you give me that pen?

MAY

Se usa para indicar posibilidad. También para pedir permiso.

Ej:

• The patient may die during the procedure. (El paciente puede morir durante el procedimiento.)

• You may leave. (Te puedes retirar.)

MIGHT

Indica posibilidad remota.

Ej:

• There might appear adverse effects. (Podrían aparecer efectos adversos.)

Se utiliza en medicina como modal de modestia.

Ej:

• Further studies might be necessary. (Se podrían requerir más estudios.)

SHOULD Generalmente se utiliza para expresar un consejo, sugerencia o una obligación moral. Ej:

• The patient should be given an X-ray. (Al paciente se le debería realizar una radiografía.)

From: GLENDINNING E.H. et al.: “English in Medicine” 2nd edition. Cam-bridge University Press, England, 1997.

• A tourniquet should be placed above the site of the bite. Do this inmediately. (Se debe colocar un torniquete arriba del lugar de la mordida. Esto se debe realizar inmediatamente.) If the patient is in shock, he should be covered with a blanket and transported, on a stretcher, to the nearest hospital. (Si el paciente se encuentra en estado de shock, se lo debería cubrir con una manta y se lo debería trans-portar, en una Camilla, al hospital más cercano.)

From: ROTHENBERG R.E.: “The New American Medical Dictionary and Health Manual” Penguin, USA, 1992.

• People should drive more carefully. (La gente debería manejar con más cuidado.)

• You should smoke less. (Deberías fumar menos.)

OUGHT TOTiene un significado muy similar a SHOULD. Ambos expresan obligación, se emplean para dar consejos y nuestra opinión con respecto a lo que otros hacen. Sin embargo, hay una diferencia muy sutil: al usar “SHOULD” damos nuestra propia opinión; hay una implicancia de subjetividad.

“OUGHT TO” tiene un significado más objetivo y se utiliza cuando hablamos de leyes, obligaciones y normas; o cuando queremos que nuestra opinión como una ley (ética, moral).

Ej:

• People ought to/should vote even if they don’t agree with any of the candidates. (La gente debería votar aún si no están de acuerdo con ninguno de los candidatos.)

MUSTSólo tiene forma presente e indica:a) Obligación fuerte impuesta por el que habla.

Ej:

• You must come earlier = I want you to come earlier (De-bes venir más temprano = Yo quiero que vengas más temprano.)


Inglés

2022

63

b) Prohibición (forma negativa) Ej:

• You mustn’t come here in the morning. (No debes venir aquí de mañana.)

c) Deducción o suposición (forma afirmativa).

Ej:

• I haven’t got a watch but I think it must be 11:20. (No tengo reloj, pero pienso que deben ser las 11.20.)

• A: “Where‘s my patient?” (¿Dónde está mi paciente?) B: “I don’t know but he must be in his room.” (No sé pero debe estar en su habitación.)

HAVE TOEste verbo no es modal. Se utiliza para indicar obligación en afirmativo y ausencia de obligación en negativo.

Presente

Denota obligación impuesta por circunstancias externas a quien habla

Ej:

• I have to go to the dentist, I have a terrible toothache. (Ten-go que ir al dentista. Tengo un dolor de muela terrible.)

Pasado

Denota obligación en el pasado y la acción que fue realizada.

Ej:

• I had to see a lot of patients last Friday. (Tuve que ver muchos pacientes el viernes pasado.)

Nota: Por ser un verbo normal, HAVE TO en presente o en

pasado se usa con los auxiliares DO, DOES, DID en la inter-rogación o en la negación.

Forma negativa. Presente

Denota ausencia de necesidad u obligación, por lo tanto no es sinónimo de must en negativo.

Estructura

Ej:

• On Sunday you don´t have to get up early, it´s your free day. (El domingo no te tenés que levantar temprano, es tu día libre.)

Verbos Modales en Voz Pasiva

Los verbos modales CAN, MAY, MUST, SHOULD, OUGHT TO, forman la Pasiva con el verbo “To Be” en infinitivo más el participio pasado del verbo principal.

Voz activa: They can develop effective vaccines

Voz pasiva: Effective vaccines can be developed

Un adverbio de modo o frecuencia en una oración pasiva por lo general se ubica entre el verbo “To Be” y el participio pas-ado.

• This method is often used

El complemento agente generalmente se omite.

The new team of researchers can develop effective vaccines = Voz Activa

Effective vaccines can be developed (by the new team of researchers) = Voz Pasiva

• Molecular identification can be used to establish a diag-nosis.

• Women should be advised to use an Oral Contraceptive (OC) until pregnancy is desired.

• Noninsulin pharmacological therapies can be divided in 6 classes.

• Surgery may also be used in combination with radiation therapy and chemotherapy in cancers that are more ad-vanced.

HAVE / HAS TO +

infinitivo (forma base del verbo)

HAD TO +


DON’T HAVE / DOESN’T HAVE+



Inglés

2022

64

TP Nº 42Verbos modales o atípicos

En las siguientes oraciones detecte el uso de verbos modales o atípicos y luego indique su equivalencia en español.

1. Some cells and molecules can pass through capillary walls.

2. The patient should rest and take plenty of liquids for three days.

3. Leucocytes can destroy bacteria.

4. It’s just an ambulatory procedure; she doesn’t have to stay in hospital.

5. Glands can manufacture necessary substances.

6. In the ICU people mustn’t enter without the doctor’s au-thorization.

7. Blood cells cannot pass through artery walls.

8. In the operating theatre people have to wear sterile clothes.

9. Infants breast feeding may get infected through the milk.

10. The treatment cannot cure or prevent HIV but it may help delay the development of problems usually related to this disease.

TP Nº 43THERMOCONTROL

A - Lea el texto y subraye las ideas principales de cada párrafo.

Thermoreceptors can initiate generalised reactions to heat and cold. The signals from both superficial and deep thermoreceptors must act through the hypothalamus to arouse appropriate, gen-eralised reactions. The anterior hypothalamus is responsible for sensing blood temperature variations. The anterior hy-pothalamus, in particular the preoptic area, contains numer-ous heat-sensitive cells and less cold-sensitive receptors. Such central thermoreceptors are also found at other levels of the Central Nervous System (CNS). After destruction of the hypo-thalamus, the midbrain reticular formation takes over the tem-perature control. Sections eliminating both the hypothalamus and the mesencephalon leave the medulla and spinal cord to control temperature. The posterior hypothalamus does not con-tain thermoreceptors.

Body-responses to cold: Cutaneous vasoconstriction lowers skin temperature, and thereby reduces the conductive-convective

heat loss that is determined by the temperature gradient from the skin surface to the environment. Cutaneous vasoconstric-tion directs the peripheral venous blood back to the body core through the deep veins and the commitant veins. Shivering is a reflex myogenic response to cold with asynchronous or bal-anced muscle contractions elicited from the hypothalamus via cutaneous receptors. The activity in agonist and antagonist muscles balance, so there is no external work. Without outside work, all energy is liberated as metabolic heat energy. Heat production is also increased by thyroid gland activity.

B - Subraye el núcleo de las siguientes frases nominales:

1. The signals from both superficial and deep thermoreceptors…

2. …numerous heat-sensitive cells…

3. Sections eliminating both the hypothalamus and the mes-encephalon…

4. …the conductive-convective heat loss…

C - Determine si las siguientes oraciones son verdaderas o falsas y justifique su decisión en español.

1. There are more heat-sensitive cells than cold-sensitive re-ceptors in the anterior hypothalamus.

2. The posterior hypothalamus can sense when blood tem-perature varies.

3. Thermoreceptors can only be found in the anterior hy-pothalamus.

D - Responda las siguientes preguntas en español.

1. How is temperature controlled if the hypothalamus is de-stroyed?

...........................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................

2. How does the body respond to cold?

...........................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................

TP Nº 44

Electrocardiogram

A - Lea el siguente texto y realice las actividades indicadas a continuación


Inglés

2022

65

An electrocardiogram (EKG or ECG) is a test that checks for problems with the electrical activity of your heart. An EKG translates the heart’s electrical activity into line tracings on pa-per. The spikes and dips in the line tracings are called waves.

The heart is a muscular pump made up of four chambers. The two upper chambers are called atria, and the two lower cham-bers are called ventricles. A natural electrical system causes the heart muscle to contract and pump blood through the heart to the lungs and the rest of the body.

Why It Is Done

An electrocardiogram (EKG or ECG) is done to:

• Check the heart’s electrical activity.

• Find the cause of unexplained chest pain, which could be caused by a heart attack, inflammation of the sac surrounding the heart (pericarditis), or angina.

• Find the cause of symptoms of heart disease, such as shortness of breath, dizziness, fainting, or rapid, ir-regular heartbeats (palpitations).

• Find out if the walls of the heart chambers are too thick (hypertrophied).

• Check how well medicines are working and whether they are causing side effects that affect the heart.

• Check how well mechanical devices that are implant-ed in the heart, such as pacemakers, are working to control a normal heartbeat.

• Check the health of the heart when other diseases or conditions are present, such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, cigarette smoking, diabetes, or a family history of early heart disease.

From: www.webmd.com/heart-disease/electrocardiogram

1. Subraye el núcleo de las siguientes frases nominales y es-cribe su equivalente en español.

a) …a test that checks for problems with the electrical activity of your heart.

b) …a muscular pump made up of four chambers.

c) …the sac surrounding the heart…

d) … side effects that affect the heart.

e) … mechanical devices that are implanted in the heart…

f) … a family history of early heart disease.

2. Observe las palabras subrayadas en el texto e indique su función y su equivalente en español. Si son pronombres in-dique su antecedente.

3. Realice un mapa conceptual que resuma la información de este texto.

TP Nº 45

SYMPTOMATIC TREATMENT IN RESPIRATORY DIS-EASE

A - Lea el siguiente texto. Realice trabajo de diccionario.

B - Detecte los verbos modales y explique su uso.

Cough, when productive of sputum, should be encouraged and not suppressed. Those who are physically weak should be exhorted at regular intervals to clear their (1) bronchi of secre-tion. Those with bronchiectasis or lung abscess should practise postural drainage, and those with tenacious sputum should be given hot drinks and inhalations of either steam or nebulised water to help them (2) to bring it (3) up more easily.Unproductive, distressing cough should be suppressed. De-mulcent lozenges are occasionally effective, but many patients require antitussive drugs, especially if sleep is disturbed by coughing. Airway obstruction in bronchitis and asthma is treated by bronchodilator drugs and in certain carefully se-lected cases by corticosteroids.

Chest pain: Pleural pain can usually be relieved by the appli-cation of a rubber hot water bottle or an electric heating pad to the chest wall, supplemented by an analgesic and, if neces-sary, by an antitussive drug. Mild analgesics, such as acetylsal-icylic acid or codeine compound tablets, are adequate in most cases but a few patients may require pethidine, 50-100 mg by mouth or intramuscular injection, or even morphine, 10-15 mg subcutaneously. Opiates must, however be avoided in patients with poor respiratory function and in those who (4) have dif-ficulty in coughing up sputum.

The pain of acute tracheitis usually responds to the application of heat to the front of the chest, combined with inhalations of steam medicated with benzoin. When there is an invasion of the chest wall by a malignant tumour, if not relieved by radio-therapy, it is usually demanded a powerful analgesic such as pethidine or morphine, given by injection. In advanced cases these drugs may become ineffective and neurosurgical mea-sures may be required for the relief of intractable pain.

From: O`BRIEN T. et al.: “Nucleus English for Science and Technology” (Med-icine). Longman, UK, 1980.

C - Responda en español.

1. When is the use of antitussive drugs indicated?

...........................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................

2. When is the use of pethidine or morphine indicated?

...........................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................


Inglés

2022

66

3. What is pethidine? How should it be administered?

...........................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................

4. When is the use of morphine contraindicated? What do you think is the reason?

...........................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................

D - Dé la referencia de los pronombres subrayados

1 - their …………………………

2 - them …………………………

3 - it …………………………….

4 - who..........................................

TP Nº 46THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION

A - Señale ejemplos de voz pasiva.

B - Determine la función y el mejor equivalente en español de las palabras subrayadas en el texto. Si es un pronombre, indique su antecedente.

The process of digestion begins when food is taken into the mouth. Chewing breaks the food into smaller pieces and ex-poses more surfaces to the saliva. Saliva has a double function: it moistens the food, so facilitating swallowing, and it contains ptyalin, which begins the conversion of starch into simple sug-ars.

Although enzimatic action begins in the mouth, the major pro-cesses of digestion occur when food passes down the oesophagus into the stomach. The stomach has both a chemical and a physical function. The walls of the stomach, which are protected by a layer of mucus, secrete gastric juices composed of several en-zymes and hydrochloric acid. The most powerful enzyme is pepsin, which begins the process of converting proteins into amino acids.

From: MACLEAN J.: “English in Basic Medical Science”. Oxford University Press, UK, 1995.

C - Determine si las siguientes oraciones son Verdaderas (V) o Fal-sas (F). Justifique en español.

1. The first step involved in the digestion process takes place in the mouth.

2. The most important processes of digestion occur in the mouth.

3. A layer of mucus covers the stomach walls.

4. The conversion of proteins is started by an enzyme.

TP Nº 47

Medications

A - Lea el siguiente texto y realice las actividades indicadas

Treating depression with antidepressants (may improve) your feelings of fatigue, since they may be more due to depression and not just normal discouragement. Since patients often re-quire pain medications at the end of life, sometimes the use of stimulant medications (can help) counteract the sleepiness that may come with the use of pain medicines.

Megestrol acetate is a female hormone that has been shown to be effective in improving appetite loss and energy in some advanced cancer patients. Sometimes corticosteroids given to patients at the end of life may help appetite, energy levels, strength, pain and depression. Steroids should be taken in the morning to avoid any problems with sleep at night.

Repeating an assessment of your fatigue by your hospice care team or your medical team will be an important part of your care at the end of life. No one (should feel) that there is abso-lutely nothing that can be done to improve your level of fa-tigue at any point in your treatment or disease process.

From Cancer-Related Fatigue and Anemia. Treatment Guide-lines for Patients. NCCN. Version III. November 2005.

1. Give the reference to the underlined pronouns

2. Find examples of passives and comment on them

3. Comment on the modals

4. Answer these questions in Spanish

a) What may antidepressants improve?

...........................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................

b) What can stimulant medications help counteract?

...........................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................


Inglés

2022

67

c) What may corticosteroids help at the end of life and when should they be taken?

...........................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................

d) What is the purpose of repeated assessment at the end of life?

...........................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................

TP Nº 48 (Continuación del texto del TP N° 37)

A - Lea el siguiente texto y realice las actividades indicadas

II. PRETEST PROBABILITY

Pretest probability is the probability of disease (i.e., preva-lence) before application of the results of a physical finding. Pretest probability is the starting point for all clinical de-cisions. For example, the clinician may know that a certain physical finding shifts the probability of disease upward 40%, but this information alone is unhelpful unless the clinician also knows the starting point: if the pretest probability for the particular diagnosis was 50%, the finding is diagnostic (i.e., post-test probability 50% + 40% = 90%); if the pretest prob-ability was only 10%, the finding is less helpful, because the probability of disease is still the flip of a coin (i.e., post-test probability 10% + 40% = 50%). Published estimates of disease prevalence, given a particular clinical setting, are summarized in the Appendix for all the clinical problems discussed in this book (these estimates derive from clinical studies reviewed in all the EBM boxes); Table 2-1 provides a small sample of these pretest probabilities. Even so, clinicians must adjust these esti-mates with information from their own practice. For example, large studies based in emergency departments show that 15% to 35% of patients presenting with cough and fever have pneu-monia (Table 2-1). The probability of pneumonia, however, is certainly lower in patients presenting with cough and fever to an office-based practice in the community, and it may be high-er if cough and fever develop in patients with cancer or human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. In fact, because the best estimate of pretest probability incorporates information from the clinician’s own practice—how specific underlying diseases, risks, and exposures make disease more or less like-ly—the practice of evidence-based medicine is never “cook-book” medicine but instead consists of decisions based on the unique characteristics of the patients the clinician sees.

1. Subraye el núcleo de las siguientes frases nominales extraídas del texto

a. a certain physical findingb. the pretest probability for the particular diagnosisc. a particular clinical settingd. all the clinical problems discussed in this booke. clinical studies reviewed in all the EBM boxesf. a small sample of these pretest probabilitiesg. large studies based in emergency departmentsh. patients presenting with cough and feveri. the clinician’s own practicej. the patients the clinician sees

2. Analice la función de las palabras subrayadas. Si son pronom-bres, indique sus antecedentes.

3. Responda las siguientes preguntas en español

a) What is pretest probability?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

b) Why is it that a certain physical finding alone is not enough to reach a diagnosis?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

c) Why does the author say that “the practice of evidence-based medicine is never “cookbook” medicine”?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

El pasado (Simple Past)

Uso

Describe acciones que comenzaron y terminaron en un perío-do definido del pasado (sabemos cuándo ocurrieron).


Inglés

2022

68

El verbo puede ser:

I) Regular, cuando presenta el infinitivo + ed / d / ied.

II) Irregular, con variaciones diversas. (Vea la lista de verbos irregulares)

Verbos Irregulares

Base form Past Simplego (ir) went

speak (hablar) spoke hold (agarrar) held

cut (cortar) cutmake (hacer) made

give (dar) gavefind (encontrar) found

Forma

En el “Pasado Simple”, el verbo no varía con la tercera persona singular como ocurre con el Presente. Por lo tanto su conju-gación es igual en todas las personas. En las formas interroga-tiva y negativa se utiliza el auxiliar “did” y “did not”. Este auxil-iar no se traduce ya que su única función dentro de la oración es marcar el tiempo verbal de la oración, y establecer si es una pregunta o una negación; tiene valor sintáctico. Cuando el auxiliar está presente, el verbo al que acompaña se encuentra en su forma base (no en pasado).

Forma Afirmativa

Ej:

• In 1977, Skirrow described for the first time an enteritis caused by Campylobacter.

Forma Negativa

Ej:

• The antibiotic did not stop the infection.

Forma Interrogativa

Ej:

• A: Did you finish the test? B: Yes, we did.

• A: Who did you see at the conference? B: I saw Dr Coc-chi.

Condicional (Simple Conditional)

Uso

Se utiliza para expresar probabilidad un tanto remota de que algo ocurra, una situación imaginaria (con estos significados también se emplea en la cláusula principal de las oraciones condicionales del segundo tipo que trataremos en la unidad 7) y preferencia.

Forma

Afirmativa

Sujeto + would + verbo en forma base

Ej:

• That would be very important to me. (Eso sería muy importante para mí.)

• The patient would like to see the doctor now. (Al paci-ente le gustaría ver al doctor ahora.)

Negativa

Sujeto + would + not + verbo en forma base

Ej:

• That would not be very important to me. (Eso no sería muy importante para mí.)

• The patient would not like to see the doctor now. (Al paciente no le gustaría ver al doctor ahora.)

Interrogativa

Would + Sujeto + verbo en forma base…?

Ej:

• Would that be important to you? (¿Eso sería importante para usted?)

• Would the patient like to see the doctor now? (¿Al paci-ente le gustaría ver al doctor ahora?)

Sujeto + verbo (en pasado) + resto de la oración

Sujeto + did + not + verbo en forma base.

Did + Sujeto + Verbo Base + resto de la oración ?


Inglés

2022

69

Presente Perfecto

Uso

Se utiliza para referirse a actividades o estados que comenza-ron en el pasado y continúan en el presente.

Ej:

• I have worked in this hospital for two years.

• My sister has lived in Greece since 1997.

Para expresar una acción que sucede en el pasado pero en un tiempo indefinido. En este caso es más importante la experi-encia o el hecho en sí que el momento en que ocurrió la ac-ción.

Ej:

• I have visited Europe three times.

• He has written an article about that case.

Para expresar una acción que sucede en el pasado pero cuyo resultado se puede apreciar en el presente.

Ej:

• We have painted our house.

• The nurse has washed the patient.

Para expresar una acción que se acaba de completar.

Ej:

They have just finished the operation.

The doctor has just left.

Forma Afirmativa

Sujeto + have/has + verbo en pasado participio

Ej:

• They have accepted our article.

Forma Negativa

Sujeto + have/has + not + verbo en pasado participio

Ej:

• The students have not studied for the exam.

• I have not finished the report yet.

Forma Interrogativa

Ej:

• A: Have you ever visited a foreign country?

• B: No, I haven’t. I have never been abroad.

Adverbios de tiempo y preposiciones que se asocian al pre-sente perfecto.

Already, just, ever, yet, never, since, for.

Futuro Simple

Uso

Refiere a una acción que ocurrirá en el futuro, a una predic-ción o a una promesa o compromiso adquirido.

Ej:

• Tomorrow we will finish the survey. (Mañana terminare-mos la encuesta.)

• Pollution will increase in the next ten years. (La contam-inación aumentará en los próximos diez años.)

• I will call you as soon as I arrive. (Te llamaré apenas lle-gue.)

Forma

Para expresar futuro en inglés, se utiliza will acompañando al verbo principal en infinitivo. Will se usa con todas las per-sonas. Tal como otras construcciones verbales con auxiliares, will no se traduce, denota el tiempo verbal “futuro” dentro de una oración.

Forma Afirmativa

Have/Has + Sujeto + verbo en pasado participio?

Sujeto + will + verbo infinitivo


Inglés

2022

70

Ej:

• We will emphasize here the possibilities and limitations inherent in the problem. (Enfatizaremos aquí las posibi-lidades y limitaciones inherentes al problema.)

Forma Negativa

Ej:

• These conclusions will not lead to drastic improvements. (Estas conclusiones no conducirán a importantes mejo-ras.)

Forma Interrogativa

Ej:

• Will the treatment have favorable results? (¿El trata-miento tendrá resultados favorables?)

Contracciones

Will = ‘ll Will not = won’t

Ej;

• She’ll finish soon; we won’t go. (Ella terminará pronto; no nos iremos.)

Futuro Contínuo

A diferencia del futuro simple, este tiempo verbal hace énfa-sis en la progresión de una acción que ocurrirá en un tiempo determinado en el futuro.

Forma afirmativa

Sujeto + will + be + verbo -ing

Ej:

• They will be conducting some new research on this sub-ject next month. (Realizarán una nueva investigación sobre este tema el próximo mes.)

Forma negativa

Sujeto + will + not + be + verbo -ing

Ej:

• They will not be conducting any new research on this subject next month. (No realizarán una nueva investi-gación sobre este tema el próximo mes.)

Forma interrogativa

Will + sujeto + be + verbo -ing … ?

Ej:

• Will they be conducting any new research on this sub-ject next month? (¿Realizarán una nueva investigación sobre este tema el próximo mes?)

Futuro inmediato: Going to

Esta estructura se utiliza para expresar un plan (acciones que ya se han planificado con anterioridad al momento en que se expresan) o una predicción con evidencia en el presente.

Forma afirmativa

Sujeto + be + going to + verbo (forma base)

Ej:

• I am going to study this case tomorrow morning. (Voy a estudiar este caso mañana a la mañana.)

• Don’t stand up yet, your blood pressure is too low and you are going to faint. (No se pare todavía, tiene la presión muy baja y se va a desmayar.)

Forma negativa

Sujeto + be + not + going to + verbo (forma base)

Ej:

• I am not going to study this case tomorrow morning. (No voy a estudiar este caso mañana a la mañana.)

Forma interrogativa

Be + Sujeto + going to + verbo (forma base) … ?

Ej:

• Are we going to study this case tomorrow morning? (¿Vamos a estudiar este caso mañana a la mañana?)

Sujeto + will + not + verbo infinitivo

Will + Sujeto + verbo infinitivo + … ?


Inglés

2022

71

TP Nº 49SUPERBUGS: HOW ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE DEVEL-OPS

1. Lea el siguiente texto. Detecte ejemplos de presente simple, presente perfecto, modales y futuro simple.

2. Determine a qué se refieren las palabras subrayadas en el texto.

3. Responda las preguntas que aparecen a continuación del texto.

4. Subraye las ideas principales de cada párrafo. Realice un resumen de la información que brinda el texto.

The first antibiotic, penicillin, was introduced in the 1940s. Since then, scientists have developed more than 150 of these drugs to help stop the spread of infectious disease. But al-though these drugs have saved millions of lives, they also have a dark side – their frequent use has given rise to bacteria that are resistant to most, if not all, commonly used antibiotics.

Superbugs emerge when an antibiotic fails to kill every all of the bacteria it targets, and the surviving bacteria become resis-tant to that particular drug. Doctors then prescribe a stronger antibiotic, but the bacteria quickly learn to withstand the more potent drug as well, perpetuating a cycle in which increasingly powerful drugs are required to treat infections. Superbugs also can exchange survival information with other bacteria –even different species– allowing additional drug-resistant organ-isms to emerge.

For years, the potent antibiotic vancomycin (Vancocin) was a reliable last defense against certain severe infections, notably those caused by staphylococcus and enterococcus bacteria. But in recent years, some superbugs have figured out how to resist vancomycin; a strain of vancomycin-resistant entero-cocci (VRE) first appeared in the late 1980s and has thrived ever since. Scientists worry that VRE not only will continue to multiply but will share its genetic secrets for survival with other bacteria.

By Mayo Clinic Staff © 1998-2006 Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. All rights reserved. Dec 19, 2006

1. Why can antibiotics be dangerous?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. What are superbugs?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. What does “VRE” stand for? Why are scientists worried about VRE?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

5. Subraye las ideas principales de cada párrafo. Realice un resu-men de la información que brinda el texto.

TP Nº 50EPITHELIAL TISSUE

A- Lea el siguiente texto y realice trabajo de diccionario.

B - Analice la función de las palabras subrayadas en el texto. Si son adjetivos (o si funcionan como tales) o adverbios, ¿a qué palabra están modificando? Si son verbos, ¿en qué tiempo ver-bal se encuentran y cuál es su sujeto? Si son pronombres, ¿a qué sustantivo o frase se refieren?

C - Responda las preguntas que se encuentran a continuación del texto.

In the early development of the embryo the rapidly multiply-ing cells lie in layers. From each of these three germ layers a class of tissue that persists to maturity develops as a tightly packed layer of cells, contrasting with the connective tissues where the cells are spaced out in an extensive extracellular ma-trix. The class is the epithelial kind of tissue. Epithelia cover the outside of the body and line spaces and tubes within the body. Epithelium is more than an inert covering or lining: it works. For example:

The tongue has receptors for touch and taste in its protective epithelium.

In the gut, only digested foods are absorbed into the blood, whereas unwanted and toxic materials are not.

In the skin, heat is transferred from underlying blood vessels to the air, and skin is a surface on which sweat spreads and evaporates: mechanisms for cooling the body.

In the eye, epithelia serve both transparency and light screen-ing.

In many epithelia the cells are secretory. They take raw mate-


Inglés

2022

72

rials from blood and build up complex materials for release from the cell as a secretion. Epithelial secretions protect, lubri-cate, digest, or, in the case of hormones, control. For instance, in the GI tract and airway, epithelial cells make anti-bacterial defensive chemicals.

1. Where can we find epithelia?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

2. Why can we say that epithelial tissue works? Give at least two examples.

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

3. What do epithelial secretory cells do? Give an example.

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

4. What are the different functions of epithelial secretions?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

D - Determine si las siguientes oraciones son verdaderas o fal-sas, justifique las falsas.

1. Epithelial tissue is a layer of tightly packed cells.

2. Epithelial tissue develops from germ layers.

3. Its only function is to cover and line different parts of the body.

TP Nº 51GLANDS

A - Lea el siguiente texto. Seleccione un título para cada párrafo de las siguientes opciones:

• Posibles afecciones

• Las glándulas del cuerpo humano

• La glándula tiroidea

• La tiroxina

Glands manufacture and secrete necessary substances. Exo-crine glands secrete their products through ducts, but endo-crine glands, or ductless glands, release their (1) products di-rectly into the bloodstream.

One important endocrine gland is the thyroid gland. It (2) is in the neck and has two lobes. The thyroid gland collects iodine from the blood and produces thyroxine, an important hormone. The thyroid gland stores it (3) in an inactive form. When the body needs thyroxine, the thyroid gland excretes it directly into the bloodstream. This hormone is combined in the body cells with other chemicals and affects many func-tions of the body.

The thyroid gland can be underactive or overactive, resulting in problems. An underactive thyroid causes hypothyroidism, while an overactive one causes hyperthyroidism. The first problem, called myxedema in adults and cretinism in children, causes the growth process to slow down. Hyperthyroidism results in extreme nervousness, an increase in heart action, and other problems.

B - Responda las siguientes preguntas en español.

1) What are the functions of glands?................................................................................................................................................................................................................

2) What is the difference between exocrine and endocrine glands?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

3) What substance does the thyroid gland take from the blood?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

4) What problems does an overactive thyroid gland cause? ................................................................................................................................................................................................................

C - Determine si las siguientes oraciones son verdaderas o falsas y justifique su decisión en español.

1. The thyroid gland is a ductless gland.2. The amount of substance secreted has no influence

on the body.3. Cretinism occurs when children’s thyroid glands do

not excrete enough thyroxine.


Inglés

2022

73

D - Dé la referencia de los pronombres subrayados1- their …………………….2- it ………………………..3- it ………………………..

TP Nº 52NEWSDESK. HPV16 Vaccine Highly Effective

A recombinant virus-like particle (VLP) vaccine is reported to be well tolerated and to offer complete protection from human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV16) infection. These results give promise that cervical cancer could be controlled via immu-nization, since HPV16 is linked to about 50% of all cervical cancers.

More than 2000 young US women (16-23 years of age) were enrolled in the double-blind, phase 2 trial. The midpoint anal-ysis of the 4-year trial was limited to 1533 women who were seronegative at enrolment, and HVP16-DNA negative at en-rolment and at 7 months (one month after the administration of the third vaccine dose). All 41 cases of new HVP-16 infec-tion were among people in the placebo group (100% vaccine efficacy).

From: The Lancet. Vol. 3 (1). January 2003

A - Subraye el núcleo de las siguientes frases nominales:

1. A recombinant virus-like particle (VLP) vaccine…

2. …the double-blind, phase 2 trial.

3. …1533 women who were seronegative at enrolment…

B - Responda las siguientes preguntas:

1. Why is the HPV16 vaccine promising?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

2. Who was the midpoint analysis of the trial limited to?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

3. What efficacy did the vaccine show? Why?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

TP Nº 53

Lea el siguiente texto y luego realice la ejercitación propuesta

The WHO has recognized that antibiotic use in animals cer-tainly affects antibiotic resistance in human beings and has published documents that acknowledge this problem. But a common feature of almost all countries is a communication gap between the veterinary field and the public health field that needs to be bridged. The WHO strategy for reducing resistance is applicable globally, but requires tailoring to the needs of each country. We are now addressing the implemen-tation phase, and this is always where things get a little more complicated.

The European Union recently banned the antibiotic growth promoters avoparcin (a glycopeptide), virginiamycin (strep-togramin), and tylosin and spiramycin (both macrolides) […]

Additionally, food animal producers in Denmark have volun-tarily stopped using the remaining antimicrobial growth pro-moters in response to consumer concern.

1. Responda las siguientes preguntas:

a. What steps need to be taken to address this problem accord-ing to the WHO?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

b. What has consumer concern in Europe been aimed at?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

2. Indique el referente de los pronombres subrayados en el texto.

3. Subraye los conectores y comente las relaciones lógicas entre los elementos que unen.

Robin Bywater. Bywater Consultancy. Ciungunford. UK

TP Nº 54A - Lea el siguiente texto. ¿Cuál es el tema principal?

B - Indique el antecedente de las palabras subrayadas.


Inglés

2022

74

Like the other parts of the gastrointestinal tract, the stomach walls are made of a number of layers. From inside to outside, the first main layer is the mucosa. This consists of an epitheli-um, the lamina propria underneath, and a thin bit of smooth muscle called the muscularis mucosae. The submucosa lies under this and consists of fibrous connective tissue, separating the mucosa from the next layer, the muscularis externa. The muscularis in the stomach differs from that of other GI organs in that it has three layers of muscle instead of two. Under these muscle layers is the adventitia, layers of connective tissue con-tinuous with the omenta. The epithelium of the stomach forms deep pits, called fundic or oxyntic glands. Different types of cells are at different locations down the pits. The cells at the base of these pits are chief cells, responsible for production of pepsinogen, an inactive precursor of pepsin, which degrades proteins. The secretion of pepsinogen prevents self-digestion of the stomach cells.

C - Responda las siguientes preguntas

1. What does the mucosa consist of?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

2. Why is pepsinogen necessary in the process of digestion?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

D - Determine si las siguientes oraciones son verdaderas o falsas y justifique su decisión.

1. The gastrointestinal tract walls are made up of one layer.

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

2. The submucosa is between the mucosa and the muscularis externa.

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

3. The muscularis in most gastrointestinal organs has three muscle layers.

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

TP Nº 55LIPIDS

A - Seleccione cinco frases nominales en el texto. Determine cuál es el núcleo y reconozca las pre y las posmodificaciones.

B - Marque los sujetos de las oraciones y sus verbos.

Lipids are fatty substances found in all living organisms. Lip-ids are different from other classes of organic compounds in that they (1) do not dissolve in water but are soluble in alcohol, ether, or other organic solvents.

Among the most important lipids are the phospholipids, which (2) are major components of the cell membrane. Phos-pholipids limit the passage of water and water-soluble com-pounds through the membrane, enabling the cell to keep its (3) contents separate from the outside environment.

Fats and oils, which (4) are composed of triglycerides, serve as stored energy reserves in plant and animal cells. When an or-ganism has excess energy available from food or photosynthe-sis, it (5) may use that energy to form stores of tryglycerides. These (6) can later be broken down to yield energy when the organism needs it (7). Fats and oils contain twice as much stored energy, per unit of weight, as carbohydrates or proteins.

C - Responda las siguientes preguntas sobre el texto en español.

1) What are lipids?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

2) What differentiates lipids from other organic compounds?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

D - Determine si las siguientes oraciones son verdaderas o falsas y justifique su decisión.

1) Phospholipids prevent water and water-soluble com-pounds from flowing into the cell.

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

2) The organism can store triglycerides and later use the en-ergy that they produce.

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................


Inglés

2022

75

3) You can find lipids in all human and animal organisms, but rarely in plants.

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

E - Dé la referencia de los pronombres subrayados

1.- they ……………………...

2.- which …………………....

3.- its ………………………..

4.- which ……………………

5.- it …………………………

6.- these ……………………..

7.- it …………………………

TP Nº 56Lea el siguiente texto y luego realice la ejercitación propuesta

An independent panel of experts reviewed the effects of an-tibiotics on human beings and animals and delivered their opinion at ICAAC last year. They concluded that the actual risk of antibiotic use is extremely small. “In 50 years of antibi-otic use in animals and man, the development of resistance in animals has not made a major impact on human and animal health, and such development seems unlikely to happen over-night now”, said Ian Phillips, the chair of the debate.

Much of the debate surrounding the issue of antibiotic resis-tance has centred on the use of antibiotic in animals to pro-mote growth. The case against antibiotic growth promoters has relied heavily on antibiotic-resistant enterococci, a group of bacteria that cause no disease in animals but can cause hu-man disease. Unlike human medicine, where individual pa-tients can be treated, animal producers must consider med-ication on a population basis for reasons of animal welfare, logistics, and efficiency since it is impractical to individually treat each animal in a group that consists of hundreds to tens of thousands.

1. Indique los antecedentes de los pronombres subrayados.

2. Parafrasee el comentario de Ian Philips utilizando sus propias palabras.

3. Compare las razones para utilizar medicamentos en seres hu-manos y en animales.

4. Comente las preposiciones utilizadas en el texto.

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

TP Nº 57MEDICATION INFORMATION LEAFLETS

A) ACE Inhibitors

ACE inhibitors are used mainly in the treatment of hyper-tension (high blood pressure) and heart failure. They are also used in some people with diabetes, for some forms of kidney disease and after a heart attack to help to protect the heart. They have a variety of effects on the body. Their ability to relax blood vessels is one of the most important. The side ef-fects most commonly associated with ACE inhibitors are mi-nor. The most common side effect is a persistent dry cough.

1. Identifique las estructuras que conforman las palabras subrayadas en el texto.

2. Detecte los pronombres e indique sus antecedentes.


a. What is hypertension?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

b. When are ACE inhibitors used?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

c. What are their positive and negative effects?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................


Inglés

2022

76

B) What are ACE inhibitors?

ACE inhibitors are a class (group) of drugs that are used in the treatment of various disorders. Their correct name is Angiotensin Converting Enzyme Inhibitors - which is usually shortened to ACE inhibitors. They include: captopril, cilazapril, enalapril, fosinopril, imidapril, lisinopril, moexi-pril, perindopril, quinapril, ramipril and trandolapril. Each of these drugs also has various different brand names. Some ACE inhibitor drugs are also part of a combined tablet with a calcium channel blockers or diuretic (water tablet).


2. Responda la siguiente pregunta:

a. What does ACE stand for?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

C) What conditions are ACE inhibitors used to treat?

ACE inhibitors are used to treat a number of different condi-tions:

Hypertension – ACE inhibitors are usually effective at lower-ing blood pressure.

Heart failure – ACE inhibitors reduce the strain on the heart by decreasing the amount of fluid pumped around the body. They also help the heart by relaxing blood vessels. This reduc-es the amount of force needed to eject blood from the heart.

Diabetic nephropathy (diabetic kidney disease) – these drugs can help to maintain good kidney function.

Chronic kidney disease – ACE inhibitors may help to slow the progress of kidney disease.

After a myocardial infarction (heart attack).

1. Busque ejemplos de preposición+ing.

2. Analice la función de las palabras subrayadas. Si se trata de un pronombre, indique su antecedente

3. Nombre los transtornos para los que se utilizan los inhibi-dores ECA.

D) Which is the best ACE inhibitor?

Clinical trials suggest ACE inhibitors are all about equally ef-fective at treating hypertension and heart failure.

NHS guidelines suggest enalapril, lisinopril, perindopril, ramipril, or trandolapril for people with hypertension. There

is good medical evidence that these ACE inhibitors reduce your long-term likelihood of suffering from a heart attack or stroke.

NHS guidelines recommend enalapril, lisinopril, and ramipril for the treatment of heart failure. These drugs have the most medical evidence to support their use, and doctors generally have more experience using them. However other drugs are available for use in heart failure and in certain cases your doc-tor may prescribe an alternative.

1. Decida si las siguientes oraciones son Verdaderas o Falsas

a. Enalapril reduces the long-term likelihood for hyperten-sion.

b. Lisinopril is recommended for the treatment of kidney failure.

c. There exists medical evidence on the effectiveness of ACE inhibitors.

d. Doctors have experience in using perindopril.

E) How do I take ACE inhibitors?

A blood test is usually done before starting an ACE inhibitor, and about 7-10 days after the first dose. You may also require further blood tests as your dose increases. These tests check on the function of the kidneys. The kidneys are affected in a small number of people who take an ACE inhibitor. A blood test every year is then usual. A very small number of people may be required to start their treatment with ACE inhibitors in hospital so that careful monitoring can be undertaken. Your doctor will advise you how to take your medication including how often. Generally you will be started on a low dose to make sure you are coping well and that your blood pressure responds in an appropriate way. In some people the first dose can cause a drop in blood pres-sure immediately. The following is advice for starting ACE inhibitors:

If you take a diuretic (‘water tablet’), you may be advised not to take it for a day or so before starting an ACE inhibitor.

After the very first dose, on the first day you start an ACE inhibitor:

Stay indoors for about four hours as occasionally some peo-ple feel dizzy.

If you do feel dizzy, sit or lie down and it will usually ease off.

If you become very dizzy, contact your doctor immediately.

Thereafter, there is no need to take any special precautions.



Inglés

2022

77

a. When are blood tests required? Why?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

b. What is advised to do when you take the first dose?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

2. Comente sobre las conjunciones subrayadas.

F) How long is treatment needed?

Once you have started taking an ACE inhibitor you will generally keep taking it indefinitely, unless you experience an adverse effect.

Who cannot take ACE inhibitors?

A full list of people who should not take ACE inhibitors is included with the information leaflet that comes in the drug packet. If you are prescribed ACE inhibitors, read this to be sure you are safe to take it. For example, people who should not take ACE inhibitors include:

Pregnant and breastfeeding women.

Those with a known sensitivity to ACE inhibitors.

Those with forms of angio-oedema (swelling of the lips, eyes or tongue).

People with certain types of kidney disease, for example, renal artery stenosis.

1. Indique a qué se refieren los pronombres subrayados.

2. Escriba una lista de las personas que no deberían tomar inhibidores ECA.

G) What about side-effects?

The most common side effect associated with an ACE inhib-itor is hypotension (low blood pressure). You may have no symptoms of this, or it may make you feel dizzy. If you expe-rience this you should report it to your doctor. Around one in ten people who take an ACE inhibitor have a persistent dry cough. Less common side effects include angio-oedema (swelling of the lips, eyes or tongue) and a decline in kidney function. A number of drugs may interact with ACE inhibitors. In particular, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs),

diuretics (water tablets) and lithium. Your doctor will normally check what other drugs you take and give further advice about this. For a full list of all the side effects and possible interactions associated with your drug consult the leaflet that comes with your medication.


2. ¿Verdadero o Falso?

a.- Hypotension may be a side effect.

b.- 15% of ACE inhibitor users have dry cough.

c.- ACE inhibitors do not interact with any other medication.

d.- Angio-oedema is a common side effect.

From http://www.patient.co.uk/health/ACE-Inhibitors.htm


Inglés

2022

79

UNIDAD 07

La oración compleja

Una oración compleja contiene una cláusula principal y una o más cláusulas subordinadas o dependientes. Por su función sin-táctica, pueden ser: cláusulas sustantivas, adjetivas o de relativo, y adverbiales, es decir, cumplir la función de sustantivo, de ad-jetivo o de adverbio según el caso. Están introducidas por pro-nombres y adverbios relativos y por pronombres interrogativos.

Ej: When strong tendons or ligaments are attached to a bone, the periosteum is incorporated with them.

The process of digestion begins when food is taken into the mouth.

If one of these be examined with a high power of the microscope, it will be found to be composed of a finely reticular structure.

Unless sufficient nonprotein calories are available from either di-etary sources or tissue stores, protein cannot be used efficiently for tissue maintenance, replacement, or growth, and considerably more dietary protein is required for positive nitrogen balance.

When patients take more responsibility and initiative, and when they put more effort into improving their health-related habits and self-management skills, things usually improve.

We know that their role has been and should be changing.

Whether or not you develop your own version of a table like this, the idea is to work in a gentle yet steady way to change count-er-productive patient expectations

Clarifying expectations, and encouraging responsibility and ini-tiative are not things that can be discussed once and checked off.

A disease that affects the kidneys is more serious than other con-ditions because the kidneys are vital.

When the myoglobin breaks down, it can contain some harmful toxins that might block the kidney structures

FRONTING: es un mecanismo sintáctico por el cual se coloca una palabra o expression que normalmente se ubicaría más tarde en la oración, al principio de la misma y antes del sujeto. En general se trata de frases adverbiales encabezadas por una preposición o una palabra con Wh. Nótese que la oración o cláusula empieza con la preposición o pronombre y lleva coma antes del Sujeto.

Ejemplos:• It refers to growth of cell populations when used in the con-

text of cell division. • When used in the context of cell division, it refers to

growth of cell populations. • The changes must be selected at the beginning of the au-

diting process. • At the beginning of the auditing process, the changes must

be selected. • Progressive pulmonary alelectasis may occur during con-

stant ventilation.• During constant ventilation, progressive pulmonary alel-

ectasis may occur.

Proposiciones subordinadas sustantivas y adverbiales. Relaciones lógi-cas: conectores subordinantes y coordinantes. Tiempos verbales: Con-ditional Perfect. Forma y usos. Orden de las palabras. Casos especiales. Fronting. Inversión. Extraposición.

La oración compleja.


Inglés

2022

80

CONECTORES: subordinantes y coordinantes.

Son palabras que unen distintas partes del texto (palabras, frases, oraciones y suboraciones) para darles unidad y coherencia. La denominación “conector” no indica una cat-egoría, sino una función. Los conectores son, en su mayoría, conjunciones. También funcionan como conectores algunos adverbios y preposiciones.

Se trata de palabras y expresiones que encadenan lógica y cronológicamente las ideas que se quieren exprear. Pueden indicar:

Adición:

• AND

As well as (tanto… como, y )

Both… and… (tanto…como, y )

Not only… but also. (no solo… sino también)

Besides, Further(more), Moreover, Also, In addition to… (además)

Causa/consec:

• SO

Thus (así, por lo tanto).

Then. (entonces)

Therefore. (entonces, por lo tanto)

Hence (así, de aquí que)

• BECAUSE (porque).

Due to (causado por)1

Owing to (debido a)

Because of (debido a)

SINCE (dado que)

As (en la medida que…)

Contraste:

BUT

However, Nevertheless. (sin embargo)

Although,Though, Eventhough, (Aunque),

In spite of / Despite (a pesar de…) 1 Hay controversia sobre el uso de “due to” como sinómo de “owing to” o “because of ”, pero se ha aceptado su uso a partir de los años 1960 por la generalización de su uso. American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fifth Edition. 2011 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. No pondría esto

Comparación/Simultaneidad

• WHILE (mientras)

• whereas, (mientras que…)

• as (mientras, a medida que…)

Condición:

• IF (Si)

Whether

Provided that. (a no ser que)

Providing that. (siempre que)

Unless (a menos que).

Disyunción:

• Either/or

• Neither/nor

Finalidad:

• TO (para)

In order to, (con el objeto de)

for (para, con el objeto de…)

Ejemplificación:

• FOR EXAMPLE

for instance, (por ejemplo)

e.g. / i.e. (por ejemplo)

such as (tales como…)

Lista de conectores: A continuación se adjunta una lista de conectores más fre-cuentes en orden alfabético y su equivalente en español.


Inglés

2022

81

above all: ante todo

Accordingly: en consecuencia

Actually: de hecho

Admittedly: por cierto

Afterwards: después

All in all: en conclusión, en resumen

Almost: casi

Also: también

Although: a pesar de que

Anyway: de todos modos

As: como, ya que

As a general rule: en general

As a result: como resultado

As well: también

At any rate: de cualquier modo, de todos modos

At (the) most: como máximo

Because: porque

Because of: debido a

Besides: además

Both… and: tanto… como

Conclusively: en definitiva

Consequently: en consecuencia

Conversely: a la inversa

Currently: actualmente

Despite: a pesar de

Due to: debido a

Even though: aun a pesar de que, aun cuando, aun incluso

Even so: aun así

Eventually: finalmente

Finally: finalmente

Firstly: en primer lugar

For example: por ejemplo

For instance: por ejemplo

Further(more): además

Hence: por lo tanto, de aquí que

However: sin embargo

If: si

In addition: además

In conclusion: en conclusión

Indeed: de hecho

In due course: a su debido tiempo

In fact: de hecho

In order to: para

In the first place: en primer lugar

In spite of: a pesar de

In summary: en resumen

In (its) turn: a su vez

instead of: en vez de, en lugar de

Lastly: en último lugar

Likewise: igualmente

Meanwhile: mientras tanto

Moreover: además, por otra parte

Next: luego, después

On the one hand, on the other hand: por un lado, por el otro/ por una parte, por la otra

On the contrary: por el contrario

Otherwise: o si no, o de otro modo, por lo demás

Owing to: debido a

Provided/ ing: siempre y cuando

Rather: más bien

Similarly: del mismo modo

Since: ya que

So (as to): entonces, luego, como consecuencia

Subsequently: posteriormente

Such as: tal/es como

That is (to say): o sea, es decir

That is why: ese es el motivo por el cual/que

Therefore: por lo tanto, en consecuencia

Thus: así, entonces, por lo tanto

To: para


Inglés

2022

82

Unless: a menos que

Whereas/ while: mientras que

Whether: si

TP Nº 58Reemplazar los conectores resaltados por equivalentes

These foods have low energy and nutrient density as well as low bioavailability of iron and zinc.

Lung cancer is the most common type of cancer in both men and women.

Due to the immature regulation of neonatal Cu metabolism, high milk Cu concentration may potentially expose infants to excess copper.

Chemotherapy prior to surgery as well as new drugs are cur-rently being tested.

We must advance the training of scientists and health care workers so that we can effectively translate the advances in biomedical research to clinical practice.

The weak chaotic motion of a heart experiencing ventricular fibrillation is incapable of pumping blood; therefore, ventric-ular fibrillation results in cardiac arrest.

In a nonshockable state the heart is no longer fibrillating (it is still), and thus it cannot be defibrillated.

CPR can allow the heart to remain responsive to defibrillation for a longer period of time. However, CPR can rarely by itself restore a heartbeat to a heart experiencing ventricular fibril-lation.

The new antigen appears to be more effective than the last one. Besides, it is also cheaper.

Although chicken-pox occurs as an endemic disease through-out the whole year, its highest incidence is during the winter months.

TP Nº 59

Conectores y la relación lógica que establecen

A - Lea el siguiente texto:Diagnosis and management of Rosai–Dorfman disease.

Introduction:Rosai–Dorfman disease is a benign non-neoplastic prolifera-tive disorder of histiocytes originally described in the cervical lymph nodes. Extranodal sites were later recognized, and by 1990, they were shown to represent over 40% of cases; how-ever, central nervous system involvement is still considered rare. We review the literature, which shows a steady increase in reports of Rosai–Dorfman disease involving the brain and/or spine. Methods: (…) Results: By December 2008, 111 cases of Rosai–Dorfman disease in-volving the central nervous system had been reported in the literature, including our cases. In the central nervous system, Rosai–Dorfman disease is ubiquitous. Although it is charac-terized by unique pathognomonic histopathological cytoar-chitecture, it may be mistaken for many other neoplastic and inflammatory histioproliferative diseases. Surgical resection with post-operative corticosteroids remains the treatment of choice. Conclusions: Rosai–Dorfman disease involving the central nervous system appears to be more common than previously thought and may well assume a more prominent place in the differential diag-noses of dural-based lesions. Thus, expert awareness of the characteristic histopathology and immunohistochemistry of the disease is required for accurate diagnosis.

Gorham diseaseGorham disease is a rare disorder characterized by a nonfa-miliar, histologically benign vascular proliferation originat-ing in bone and producing progressive resorption of all or a portion of the bone. This uncommon condition occurs spo-radically and is most often observed not only in children but also in young adults of either sex. Involvement of almost every bone has been reported, although there is a predilection for bones that develop by intramembranous ossification, with the shoulder girdle as well as the mandible being the most com-mon bones affected. The lesion is typically nonexpansile and nonulcerative and is usually monocentric but locally aggres-sive, with resorption of the affected bone. The vascular lesion may spread into soft tissue and contiguous bones. The patho-genesis of Gorham-Stout disease remains unknown, even though it has been suggested that there is an increase in the sensitivity of osteoclast precursors to humoral factors, which promote osteoclast formation and bone resorption. Besides, these humoral factors operate at the level of the bone micro-environment.


Inglés

2022

83

B - Ponga atención a los conectores subrayados y ubíquelos el siguiente cuadro:

Contraste Adición Consecuencia

C - Ahora concéntrese en los conectores de contraste y escriba en el siguiente cuadro los dos términos que contrastan:

ContrasteEjemploExtranodal sites were later recognized, and ….. represent over 40% of cases

central nervous system in-volvement is still considered rare.

D - Haga lo mismo con los conectores de adición:

AdiciónEjemplo…there is a predilection for bones that develop ….. with the shoulder girdle...

the mandible being the most common bones affected.

…osteoclast precursors to humoral factors promote os-teoclast formation and bone resorption

E - Por último concéntrese en el conector de consecuencia y com-plete el siguiente cuadro:

Causa Consecuencia

F - Responda las siguientes preguntas en español deacuerdo al texto con sus propias palabras (desarrolle las respuestas):

a) Is the nervous system involved in the Rosai–Dorfman disease?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

b) Has the Rosai–Dorfman disease got a unique pathog-nomonic histopathological cytoarchitecture that makes it unmistakable?................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

c) Why is it important to know the histopathology and im-munohistochemistry of the disease for diagnosis?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

d) What levels do humoral factors operate at?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

TP Nº 60FORUM

Antibiotic Resistance- The interplay between antibiotic use in animals and human beings

From The Lancet. Vol. 3 (1). January 2003

I- Lea el siguiente extracto y realice las actividades a con-tinuación

Randall S. Singer. College of Veterinary Medicine. University of Illinois, IL, USA

There should be little doubt that antibiotic resistance can be spread between animals and human beings. However, this view is not the same as saying that antibiotic use in animals causes the spread of antibiotic resistance to people. It is well recognised that pathogens and other bacteria are transmitted from animals to human beings via the food chain. If these bac-teria possess antibiotic resistant genes then it might be said that antibiotic resistance has been spread from animals to peo-ple. The main problem with our ability to link antibiotic use in animals with the spread of resistance to people is the limited understanding of the nature of antibiotic resistance.

Antibiotic-resistance genes often code for proteins that have been present in bacteria for an extremely long time. These proteins serve functions other than simply rendering a bac-terium resistant to antibiotics. For example, some antibiot-ic-resistance genes code for proteins that protect the bacterial


Inglés

2022

84

ribosome, while others code for proteins that serve as efflux pumps, both of which maintain the integrity of the bacterial cell. If these proteins have a broader evolutionary function, we might expect to see the genes in bacterial populations that have never been under the selection pressure of antibiotics, and potentially have never been exposed to human influence.

Realice las siguientes actividades

1. Underline all the verbs in the text and analyze their voice, i.e., active or passive.

2. Analyze the logical relationships established by the underlined connectors

3. Give the reference to the underlined pronouns

4. What is the main idea of the first paragraph?

5. Indicate if the sentences are true or false according to the text

• a - Antibiotic resistance can spread from animals to hu-man beings.

• b - Antibiotic resistance can spread from human beings to animals.

• c - Little is known about the nature of antibiotic resis-tance.

• d - Bacteria are transmitted from animals through the food chain.

6. Express in your own words the main idea of the second paragraph.

Roger Flinch. Division of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. University of Nottingham. Nottingham, UK.

II- Read the following text

Antibiotic use and antibiotic resistance are clearly connected. Antibiotic resistance at present is clearly associated with hu-man use, but it would be a surprise if use in animals did not lead to antibiotic resistance, and in turn raise the possibility of that resistance translating into occasional human disease. Prophylactic use of antibiotics in animals, where mass flock exposure to antibiotics is used to prevent an epidemic, is also known as metaphylaxis. The use of antibiotics as growth pro-moters has, many years after the original UK Swann report, attracted much debate and legislation. The gut flora of animals can clearly be a source of an infection in man, especially from enteric pathogens such as salmonella, campylobacter, shigella, and perhaps enterococci. So is this resistance in the animal flora likely to produce human disease? The answer is likely to be yes, but at present I do not believe the effect to be sub-stantial, possibly because our information base is weak. The microbiology and epidemiology is not sufficiently robust for us to reliably establish food as a source of human infections caused by resistant pathogens from antibiotic exposure in an-imals.

b- Activities

1. Find out on the Internet about the Swann report.

2. Give the reference to the underlined pronouns.

3. Answer the following questions:

• a. What is metaphylaxis?

• b. What were the findings of the Swann report?

• c. Can you mention enteric animal pathogens that can be a source of infection in man?

Henrik C. Wegener. World Health Organization and Danish Veterinary In-stitute

III- Lea el siguiente extracto y realice las actividades a con-tinuación

With the exception of the zoonotic infections such as non-ty-phoid salmonellosis, the great majority of infectious diseases in human beings are separate from animal infections in both causal pathogen and in epidemiology. Consequently, most re-sistance in people is generated through antibiotic use in peo-ple. For instance, meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is the most troublesome form of resistant infection encountered in human medicine, yet it has no connection with animals (where it is virtually unknown).

Zoonotic infections can, by definition, originate in animals, and if zoonotic resistance has been acquired in the animal do-nor it could be passed on to the human recipient. In fact, an-tibiotic treatment is only rarely indicated for non-typhoid sal-monella infections, and there are few documented cases where treatment has been compromised by resistance originating from an animal source. Similarly, infections due to Campylo-bacter spp may not respond to an antibiotic in the presence of resistance from an animal source, but again documentation of resulting treatment failures is hard to find.


1. Comment on the connectors underlined

2. Answer these questions

• a. Why is resistance in people generated through use in people?

• b. Why are there only few cases documented of antibiotic resistance originating in an animal source?

3. Comment on the process of word formation and part of speech of the underlined words

John Walters, Chairman of the European Federation of Feed Addictive Com-panies (FEDESA)Marc Lipsitch. Harvard School of Public Health. Boston. MA. USA.


Inglés

2022

85

IV- Lea el siguiente extracto y realice las actividades a con-tinuación

People and agricultural animals share bacterial flora, including antimicrobial-resistant flora. This fact has been amply demon-strated in studies of the intestinal commensal bacterial flora of farm workers and by disease outbreaks caused by food-as-sociated strains of such pathogens as Salmonella spp, E. coli, and C. jejuni. Many of the genes that establish antimicrobial resistance reside in plasmids, transposons, integrons, and oth-er mobile genetic elements; this mobility expands the oppor-tunity for sharing of resistance determinants between agricul-tural and human bacteria. Recent studies show that bacterial populations within a single “species” may be differentiated, so that particular strains are best suited to other hosts. However, the barrier that such specialization might offer to transfer of bacteria between animals and human beings is compromised by the possibility of transferring resistant determinants from animal-adapted strains to human adapted strains.

From The Lancet. Vol. 3 (1). January 2003


1. Analyze whether the underlined words are in the singular or plural form or whether they are invariable. If possible, give their counterpart.

2. Find examples of passive voice and analyze the tense.


• a - How has it been demonstrated that human beings and animals share antimicrobial- resistant flora?

• b - How can the opportunity of sharing between resistant determinants between human and animal bacteria be ex-panded?

c) What constitutes a barrier to such expansion?

V- General Activities (for all the opinions)


a. What do all or some of the opinions share?

b. What are the least and most conclusive reports? Justify

TP Nº 61THE HUMAN DIET

A - Lea el siguiente texto y analice las palabras subrayadas.

Human diets must provide the following: Calories enough to meet our daily energy needs; Amino acids: There are nine “es-sential” amino acids that we need for protein synthesis. Fatty

acids: There are three “essential” fatty acids that we cannot syn-thesize. Minerals: Inorganic ions. We probably need 18 different ones and Vitamins that are a dozen, or so.

Determining what substances must be incorporated in the hu-man diet, and how much of each, is still under active study.

Carbohydrates provide the bulk of the calories (4 kcal/gram) in most diets. Age, sex, size, health, and the intensity of phys-ical activity strongly affect the daily need for calories. Mod-erately active females (19-22 years old) need 1500-2500 kcal/day, while males of the same age need 2500-3300 kcal/day.

Fat provides our most concentrated form of energy. Its energy content (9 kcal/gram) is over twice as great as carbohydrates and proteins (4 kcal/gram).

Humans can synthesize fat from carbohydrates. However, three essential fatty acids cannot be synthesized this way and must be incorporated in the diet.

Types of fats: Saturated, Monounsaturated, Polyunsaturated, Trans Fats, Omega-3 fats.

Many studies have examined the relationship between fat in the diet and cardiovascular disease. There is still no consensus, but the evidence seems to indicate that a diet which is high in fat is harmful.

From: “The Merk Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy”.

B - Reconozca y subraye el núcleo de cada sintagma nominal.

1) … three “essential” fatty acids that we cannot synthesize.2) … the intensity of physical activity…3) Moderately active females…4) … a diet which is high in fat…

C - Determine si las siguientes oraciones son verdaderas o falsas y justifique su elección.

1) We need about eighteen fatty acids.

2) Scientists are still studying the substances and amounts needed in a human diet.

3) Carbohydrates offer the highest concentration of energy.

D - Responda las siguientes preguntas.

1- What must diets provide?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

2- Which factors affect the need of calories?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................


Inglés

2022

87

UNIDAD 08

Condicionales (if Clauses)

Estas cláusulas son de 4 tipos:

• Tipo 0: para condiciones repetidas que siempre arrojan el mismo resultado.

• Tipo 1: para condiciones probables en el presente/futuro.

• Tipo 2: para condiciones improbables o imposibles en el presente/futuro.

• Tipo 3: para condiciones imaginarias o hipotéticas en el pasado (por lo tanto imposibles).

Forma

• Tipo 0Se refieren a verdades universales, leyes de la naturaleza o te-orías probadas. La conjunción “if ” se puede reemplazar por “when” “whenever” or “every time that.”

Ej: If you heat ice, it turns into water. (Si uno calienta hielo, se transforma en agua.)

If + Present + Present

• Tipo 1

Se refieren a condiciones presentes que pueden arrojar un resultado presente/futuro con fuertes probabilidades de real-ización.

Ej: If the rain stops, I will go to the cinema tonight. (Si la lluvia para, iré al cine esta noche.)

If + Present + Future

La estructura puede presentarse en forma de afirmación, de pregunta o de orden.

Ej:

If excess carbohydrate is taken in, this can be converted into fat and stored. (Si se ingieren carbohidratos en exceso, se con-vierten en grasa y se almacenan.)

What can I do if my bag doesn’t open? (¿Qué puedo hacer si mi bolso no se abre?)

If the rain doesn’t stop, don’t go out. (Si la lluvia no para, no vayas.)

• Tipo 2

Se refieren a suposiciones sobre el presente con resultados im-probables o imposibles en el presente/futuro.

Ej:

If he got better, he could travel abroad. (Si se mejorara, podría viajar al exterior.) (Improbable)

If I were a child, I would love that game. (Si yo fuera un niño, me encantaría ese juego.) (impossible)

If + Past + Would + Verbo

Tipos: condicionales 1, 2 y 3. Condicionales mixtos. Condicional 0. Otras expresiones de condicionalidad: unless, so/as long as, provided/ing (that), what is, suppose/sing, imagine. Verbo wish. Expresiones que re-quieren subjuntivo en español. Relaciones contextuales.

Proposiciones subordinadas condicionales: if clauses.


Inglés

2022

88

• Tipo 3

Expresan situaciones irreales o imaginarias en el pasado, por lo tanto son suposiciones, cosas que no se realizaron.

Ej:

If you had called me, I would have told you. (Si me hubieras llamado, te habría dicho.) (Pero como no llamaste no te lo dije.)

If + Past Perfect + Conditional Perfect

(Would + have + Verbo)

Condicionales Mixtos

Los “condicionales mixtos” son oraciones que combinan las estructuras de dos tipos de condicionales distintos. Esto ocurre porque los tiempos de referencia de la cláusula prin-cipal y la cláusula dependiente son diferentes. Las combina-ciones más habituales son:

Tipos 3 y 2 (Pasado-presente)

En esta combinación, se ponen en contraste una situación imaginaria o real del pasado con su posible resultado en el presente. Es muy común usar esta estructura para expresar arrepentimiento por una acción (o falta de acción) en el pasado.

Ej:

If I had taken an aspirin, I would not have a headache now. (Si hubiese tomado una aspirina, ahora no me dolería la cabeza.)

Tipos 2 y 3 (Presente-pasado)

Con esta combinación se describen circunstancias presentes en relación a un evento que ocurrió en el pasado.

If you were not so unfit, you would have been able to com-plete the marathon. (Si no estuvieses tan fuera de estado, habrías podido completar la maratón.)

Otras relaciones de condicionalidad

Es posible expresar condicionalidad usando las siguientes palabras y expresiones: whether, unless, provided/ing (that), on condition (that), as/so long as, (just) suppose, supposing (that), what if o imagine.

La conjunction whether se utiliza generalmente junto con or para referirse a dos opciones. Ejemplo:

She has not decided whether to apply (or not)

Unless significa “a menos que,” de modo que es equivalente a “if not” o except if,“ Unless se usa frecuentemente para refer-irse a excepciones a la regla.

Ejemplo:

He will be operated on unless the treatment is successful. (If the treatment is successful he will not be operated on)

Unless I finish the report, I can’t tale a rest. (I can take a rest if I finish the report)

Only if se utiliza para enfatizar qué condiciones rodean la ac-ción; on condition that, provided/ing (that) se usan en el reg-istro formal; suppose, supposing, y as/so long as son menos formales. Ej:

We will lend you the money on condition that it is repaid within 12 months.

We will lend you the money provided (that) you can repay it within 12 months.

I don’t mind talking to the press, but only if my identity is protected.

You can have the day off today providing you agree to work a double shift tomorrow.

You can borrow my DVD player as long as you return it on Monday.

Verbo “wish”

El verbo “wish” va seguido de distintos tiempos verbales según indique un deseo para el pasado, el presente o el futuro.

Wish + past simple deseo referido al presente

Wish + past perfect deseo referido al pasado

Wish + condicional deseo referido al presente/futuro

Ej:

I wish I lived in Europe.

I wish I were/was a doctor already.

I wish she had followed the treatment.

I wish he would stop smoking.


Inglés

2022

89

TP Nº 62Señale la diferencia de sentido entre los siguientes pares de oraciones condicionales.

a) If his brain is affected, he can lose his ability to speak.

If his brain was affected, he could lose his ability to speak.

b) If the body is short of water, more ADH is released into the bloodstream.

If the body were short of water, more ADH would be released into the bloodstream.

c) Red blood cells would lose water and shrink in size, if they were placed in a hypertonic solution.

Red blood cells would have lost water and shrink in size, if they had been placed in a hypertonic solution.

d) If the cancerous region of the liver were removed, the remaining cells would undergo compensatory hyperplasia.

If the cancerous region of the liver is removed, the remain-ing cells will undergo compensatory hyperplasia.

e) If pH was lower than it normally was (normal physiolog-ical pH is 7.4), then the hemoglobin does not bind oxygen. (Bind: fijar, capturar, combinar).

If pH is lower than it normally was (normal physiological pH is 7.4), then the hemoglobin will not bind oxygen.

f) If the lab tests were correct, this child would be infected with small pox.

If the lab tests had been correct, this child would have been infected with small pox.

TP Nº 63POPULATION REPORTS

Information and knowledge for optimal health

Bleeding Changes Affect Contraceptive Choice and Use

Menstruation, the vaginal bleeding that women experiment monthly for much of their lives can mean many different things to women: a sign of femininity, youth, and the abili-ty to reproduce, a reassurance of not being pregnant, and an indication of health. It can also mean a monthly chore, pain, restricted contact with family and friends, limitations on ac-tivities and feeling and being regarded as “unclean.” The onset of monthly bleeding signals the beginning of fertility. Its sud-den absence may indicate pregnancy or health problems.

It is no surprise, then, that many women are concerned when a contraceptive method changes monthly bleeding. These bleeding changes differ, depending on the method. Combined hormonal methods –the pill and monthly injectables, for example- tend to make monthly bleeding shorter and more predictable. Progestin-only method such as long-acting in-jectables, implants, progestine-only oral contraception (“the minipill”) and the hormonal levonorgestrel-releasing IUD all can cause bleeding changes that range from bleeding and spotting at unexpected times to no monthly bleeding. Cop-per IUDs do not change the length of menstrual cycles but do tend to cause somewhat heavier and longer monthly bleeding. Often, the same method can have different effects for different women or different effects over time for the same woman.

From Population Reports. Series J. Nº 54. Family Planning Pro-grams. INFO Project Center for Communication Programs. John Hopkins School of Public Health.

A - Realice las siguientes actividades


2. Find all the examples of adjectives in the comparative de-gree and analyze them.

3. Analyze the examples with ing and their syntactic function.

4. Ask questions to which the answers are:

a. Menstruation… unclean.

b. The beginning of fertility.

c. Pregnancy or health problems.

d. Combined hormonal methods.

e. Bleeding changes.

TP Nº 64Choosing a Doctor for your Baby


Inglés

2022

90

Highlights

When should I begin my search for a doctor?

What kind of practitioner should I look for?

Where can I get names of doctors to consider?

How will I know if a doctor recommended by someone else will be suitable for us?

I have some promising candidates. Now what should I do?

How do I interview a doctor?

How will my child’s doctor know I’ve delivered my baby?

What should I do if I’m not entirely happy with the doctor I choose?

Choosing the right doctor for your baby is an important deci-sion: You’ll be visiting the doctor’s office six times in the first year for routine well-baby visits alone. It’s easy to feel over-whelmed by the choice, but with a little homework and leg-work, you should be able to find one you like and trust.

From: http://www.babycenter.com/0_choosing-a-doctor-for-your-baby_320.bc


1. Translate the questions.

2. Comment on the underlined words (morphology and syn-tax)

TP Nº 65

Sample Interview Questions for Hospital Job Interviews, Medical

Doctor, ST / GPVTS Interviews:

For example, how would you answer these questions?

Interview Question 1: ‘Describe for us a time when you used your leadership skills to resolve a difficult patient situation.’ Interview Question 2: ‘Describe a recent patient interaction which shows your ability to create trust and what steps would you take to develop an effective relationship with your patient.’ Interview Question 3: ‘Tell me about a time when your com-munication skills played a key role in achieving a successful outcome. What was involved and what part did you play?’

Interview Question 4: ‘Describe a time when you felt frustrat-ed during an interaction with a patient. How did you deal with this emotion both during the interaction and afterwards?’ Interview Question 5: ‘How would you go about ensuring that you improve the quality of the care you give to your patients?’ Interview Question 6: ‘Can you please detail a time when a new and different approach to your patient proved beneficial. What did you do and what was the outcome?’

* Questions taken from the InterviewGOLD™ Interview Sys-tem.

From: http://www.blueskyinterviews.co.uk/int_art13.htm


1. Translate the questions.


3. Find examples of preposition + ing.

TP Nº 66DEAFNESS


The ear is a sensory organ which performs two functions, hearing and balance. In order to hear properly the ear, the nerve of hearing and the relevant parts of the brain must be working effectively. Hearing defects may be related to dysfunc-tion in any area. Balance is a complex function and disorders of balance can occur in association with hearing disorders or can occur alone.

Deafness, or hearing loss, can be divided into two categories: conductive deafness where the causes are malfunction, mal-formation or occlusion in parts of the outer and middle ear, and sensorineural deafness where the cause is a malfunctioning of parts of the inner ear or nerves of hearing. Mixed hearing loss occurs when there are conductive and sensorineural compo-nents to the hearing loss.

Some kinds of conductive deafness, such as ‘glue ear’ (otitis media with effusion or fluid in the middle ear), are temporary. Other types of deafness are permanent. One of the most com-mon types of inherited deafness is bilateral severe to profound sensorineural deafness which is usually of autosomal recessive inheritance. Other causes include problems at or around the time of birth such as infection or marked prematurity (peri-


Inglés

2022

91

natal causes) infections during pregnancy e.g. Rubella, or in-fections during childhood e.g. meningitis. Early diagnosis and treatment is important. Testing of babies for hearing can be carried out at any age.

B - Subraye los núcleos de las siguientes frases nominales:

1. …a sensory organ which performs two functions…2. …the relevant parts of the brain…3. Mixed hearing loss…4. …autosomal recessive inheritance.5. Testing of babies for hearing…

C - Indique si las siguientes oraciones son verdaderas o falsas. . Justifique su elección en español.

1. Balance disorders occur whenever there are hearing disor-ders.

2. Malformation in the middle ear can cause conductive deaf-ness.

3. Conductive deafness is always temporary.

D - Subraye las ideas principales y realice un resumen del texto.

TP Nº 67CHOLESTEROL

A - Lea cuidadosamente el texto. Analice las palabras subraya-das.

Cholesterol is a lipidic, waxy alcohol found in the cell mem-branes and transported in the blood plasma of all animals. It is an essential component of mammalian cell membranes where it is required to establish proper membrane permeability and fluidity. Cholesterol is the principal sterol synthesized by ani-mals, but small quantities are synthesized in other eukaryotes, such as plants and fungi. It is almost completely absent among prokaryotes, which include bacteria. Cholesterol is classified as a sterol (a portmanteau of steroid and alcohol).

Although cholesterol is essential for life, high levels in circu-lation are associated with atherosclerosis. Cholesterol can be ingested in the diet, recycled within the body through reab-sorption of bile in the digestive tract, and produced de novo. For a person of about 150 pounds (68 kg), typical total body cholesterol content is about 35 g, typical daily dietary intake is 200–300 mg in the United States and societies with similar dietary patterns and 1 g per day is synthesized de novo.

A change in diet may help reduce blood cholesterol in addition to other lifestyle modifications. Avoiding animal products may

decrease the cholesterol levels in the body not through dietary cholesterol reduction alone, but primarily through a reduced saturated fat intake. Those wishing to reduce their cholesterol through a change in diet should aim to consume less than 7% of their daily calories from saturated fat and less than 200mg of cholesterol per day.

B- Subraye los núcleos de las siguientes frases nominales:

1. …a lipidic, waxy alcohol found in the cell membranes…

2. …high levels in circulation…

3. …typical total body cholesterol content…

4. …a reduced saturated fat intake…

C - ¿Verdadero o falso? Justifique su decisión en español.

1) Atherosclerosis is connected with low levels of cholesterol in circulation.

2) If you want to reduce your cholesterol you shouldn’t ingest more than 200mg of daily cholesterol.

3) An adequate diet is the sole option for decreasing choles-terol levels.

D - Responda las siguientes preguntas en español.

1) What is cholesterol? How can our body get it?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

2) Why is a reduced consumption of animal products advis-able?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

TP Nº 68HORMONES

A - Detecte ejemplos de voz pasiva, cláusulas y estructuras comparativas.

The activities of the organs of the body are controlled in two ways: by hormones and nerves. Hormones are chemical sub-stances, produced by endocrine glands, which circulate in the blood and bring about effects in distant organs. The posterior pituitary gland, for example, produces two hormones, one of which, the antidiuretic hormone (ADH), regulates the reab-sorption of water by the kidney tubules. If the body is short of water, more ADH is released into the blood. Since ADH con-


Inglés

2022

92

trols water reabsorption in the kidneys, an increase in ADH will produce an increase in the amount of water reabsorbed so that less urine will be produced.

B - Responda en español.

1) What are hormones and what is their function?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

2) What is the function of ADH?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

3) What does an increase in ADH produce?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

4) When does the release of ADH into the blood increase?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

5) Where do endocrine glands release their products?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

TP Nº 69ARTICULATIONS


Bone constitutes the fundamental element of all the joints. In the long bones, the extremities are the parts which form the articulations; they are generally somewhat enlarged; and consist of spongy cancellous tissue with a thin coating of com-pact substance. In the flat bones, the articulations usually take place at the edges; and in the short bones at various parts of their surfaces. The layer of compact bone which forms the joint surface, and to which the articular cartilage is attached, is called the articular lamella. It differs from ordinary bone tis-sue in that it contains no Haversian canals, and its lacunæ are larger and have no canaliculi. The vessels of the cancellous tis-sue, as they approach the articular lamella, turn back in loops,

and do not perforate it; this layer is consequently denser and firmer than ordinary bone, and is evidently designed to form an unyielding support for the articular cartilage.

B - Responda las siguientes preguntas en español.

1. What do the extremities of long bones consist of?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

2. What is the difference between articular lamella and com-mon bone tissue?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

C - Determine si las siguientes oraciones son verdaderas o falsas y justifique su elección.

1. Articulations are located at the extremities of all bones.

2. Common bone tissue contains Haversian canals.

3. Cancellous tissue vessels pass through the articular lamella.

TP Nº 70THE EYE

A - Lea el siguiente texto. Realice trabajo de diccionario.

B - Analice las palabras subrayadas.

The eyes are the two organs of sight. They are located in the front upper part of the skull and consist of structures that focus an image onto the retina at the back of the eye which is a network of nerves that convert this image into electrical impulses to be recorded in a region of the brain. Each eyeball is moved by six delicate muscles which are activated and coordinated by nerves in the brain stem. The eyeball has a tough, outer coat called the “sclera”, or white part of the eye. The front, circular part is the “cornea” and is transparent. Behind the cornea is a shallow chamber full of watery fluid, at the back of which is the “iris” (colored part) with the “pupil” (center). The pupil is black and its diameter is changed by light intensity to control the amount of light which enters the eye. Immediately behind the iris, and in contact with it is the crystalline lens. On the inside of the back of the eye is the retina, which needs a con-stant supply of oxygen and sugar. These are supplied by a thin network of branching blood vessels which lie just under the retina called the choroid plexus.


Inglés

2022

93

C - Responda las siguientes preguntas en español.

1) What are the eyes? What is their location?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

2) How do the eye structures work?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

D - Indique si las siguientes oraciones son verdaderas o falsas y justifique su elección en español.

i. Nerves in the brain stem stimulate the muscles that move the eyeballs.

ii. The iris, which is in the cornea, is the colored part.

iii. The retina receives oxygen and sugar through the choroid plexus.

TP Nº 71A - Lea el siguiente texto. Realice las actividades que se pro-ponen.

Choosing a Future for Epidemiology: I Eras and Paradigms (: M Susser and E Susser. Choosing a future for epidemiology: I. Eras and paradigms. American Journal of Public Health May 1996: Vol. 86, No. 5, pp. 668-673.)

Introduction

The present era of epidemiology is coming to a close. The fo-cus on risk factors at the individual level- the hallmark of this era- will no longer serve. We need to be concerned equally with causal pathways at the societal level and with pathogen-esis and causality at the molecular level.

This paper prepares the groundwork for the argument that choices have to be made about the future of epidemiology. To look forward, we do well to look backward for guidance. Part I of this article sketches in brief outline the evolution of modern epidemiology in three successive eras. Following Kuhn, we set the bounds of these eras in terms of dominant paradigms. In Part II of this article, we advocate a paradigm for a fourth emergent era of “eco-epidemiology.”

Evolution of Modern Epidemiology

(...) With the accelerating flow of discovery over the centuries, science as an institution abandoned its utilitarian roots to be-come an end in itself. For some time, however, that was not true for epidemiology. That field retained a central concern with the public health and its social distribution (...)

A) Circle the appropriate equivalent for this context

1) risk factors

a) riesgo de factores

b) factores de riesgo

c) arriesgar factores

2) argument

a) argumento

b) pelea

c) debatir acaloradamente

3) accelerating flow of discovery

a) el flujo creciente de descubrimiento

b) descubrimiento del flujo acelerado

c) acelerando el descubrimiento del flujo

B) What do the underlined words refer to? Answer in Span-ish

its.................................................................................................... that ...............................................................................................

its....................................................................................................

C) Dictionay use: which words do you have to look for in a dictionary to find their meanings? Write the base form in English and give the suitable equivalent in Spanish

centuries: ……………………………………..…

retained: …………………………..………..

D) According to the text, answer the following questions in Spanish using your own words


Inglés

2022

94

1. What factors have to be considered in epidemiology, apart from those at the individual level?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

2. What is Part I of this article about? What does part II propose?

........................................................................................................

........................................................................................................

TP Nº 72Lectura de un artículo científico. (extract from: www.thelan-cet.com Vol 393 February 9, 2019)

Gender gaps in academia

1) Trabajo previo a la lectura

(Ver artículo completo en https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(18)32611-4/fulltext?utm_campaign=tlwomen19&utm_con-tent=84571593&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twit-ter&hss_channel=tw-27013292):

a) Observe el artículo e identifique fecha de recepción y publicación, fuente de publicación y referencias.

b) ¿Cuál es la pertenencia institucional de los autores?

c) Lea la siguiente información que publica elctróni-camente The Lancet. ¿qué es el factor de impacto de una publicación y qué lugar ocupa esta revista?

About the journal

The Lancet is an independent, international weekly general medical journal founded in 1823 by Thomas Wakley. Since its first issue (October 5, 1823), the journal has strived to make science widely available so that medicine can serve, and transform society, and positively impact the lives of peo-ple. The Lancet is committed to applying scientific knowledge to improve health and advance human progress. In o-ur weekly issues, and online first content, we publish some of the best science from the best scientists worldwide, provid-ing an unparalleled global reach and impact on health. (...)

Reputation and impact

The Lancet is a world leading medical journal. We have a Journal Impact Factor of 59·102® (2018 Journal Citation Reports®, Clarivate Analytics 2019) and are currently ranked second out of 160 journals in the Medicine, General & Inter-nal subject category.

2) Lectura Global: A partir de una lectura rápida del título y del resumen:

a) identifique el tema del presente artículo y

b) relate cuáles son las conclusiones

En cuanto a la Introducción, subraye las dos primeras ora-ciones (temáticas) de cada párrafo. Observe cómo con sólo leer las mismas se puede tener un panorama del contenido de la sección. a) ¿Cuál es el mismo? b) Observe cómo está fun-cionando el conector conversely. ¿Cuál es la relación lógica que se establece entre ambos párrafos?

Are gender gaps due to evaluations of the applicant or the science? A natural experiment at a national funding agency.

Holly O Witteman, Michael Hendricks, Sharon Straus, Cara Tannenbaum

Summary

Background: Across countries and disciplines, studies show male researchers receive more research funding than their fe-male peers. Because most studies have been observational, it is unclear whether imbalances stem from evaluations of female research investigators or of their proposed research. In 2014, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research created a natural experiment by dividing investigator-initiated funding appli-cations into two new grant programmes: one with and one without an explicit review focus on the calibre of the principal investigator.

Methods: We analysed application success among 23 918 grant applications from 7093 principal investigators in all investi-gator-initiated Canadian Institutes of Health Research grant programmes between 2011 and 2016. We used generalised estimating equations to account for multiple applications by the same applicant and compared differences in application success between male and female principal investigators un-der different review criteria.

Findings: Overall application success across competitions was 15·8%. After adjusting for age and research domain, the pre-dicted probability of success in traditional programmes was


Inglés

2022

95

0·9 percentage points lower for female applicants than male applicants (95% CI 2·0 lower–0·2 higher; odds ratio 0·934, 95% CI 0·854–1·022). In the new programme, in which re-view focused on the proposed science, the gap remained 0·9 percentage points (3·2 lower–1·4 higher; 0·998, 0·794–1·229). In the new programme with an explicit review focus on the calibre of the principal investigator, the gap was 4·0 percentage points (6·7 lower–1·3 lower; 0·705, 0·519–0·960).

Interpretation: Gender gaps in grant funding are attributable to less favourable assessments of women as principal inves-tigators, not of the quality of their proposed research. We discuss reasons less favourable assessments might occur and strategies to foster fair and rigorous peer review.

Funding None.

Copyright © 2019 by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction

For more than two decades, studies have shown that women in academia must perform to a higher standard than men to receive equivalent recognition, especially Indigenous and ra-cialised women. Compared with men, women are more often characterised as lacking the brilliance necessary for discovery, and are less likely to be viewed as scientific leaders. Women in academia contribute more labour for less credit on publi-cations, receive less compelling letters of recommendation, receive systematically lower teaching evaluations despite no differences in teaching effectiveness, are more likely to expe-rience harassment, do more service work, and are expected to do special favours for students. After taking parental leave, men in academia have more successful careers whereas wom-en’s careers suffer. Women receive less start-up funding as biomedical scientists and are under-represented in invitations to referee papers. Compared with publications led by men, those led by women take longer to publish and are cited less often, even when published in high-impact journals. Articles and conference abstracts led by women are accepted more frequently when reviewers are unaware of authors’ identities. Women are under-represented as invited speakers at confer-ences, universities, and grand rounds. When women are in-vited to give these prestigious talks, they are less likely to be introduced with their formal title of Doctor. Female faculty are less likely to reach higher ranks in medical schools than male faculty, even after accounting for age, experience, spe-cialty, and research productivity. When fictitious or real peo-ple are presented as women in randomised experiments, they receive lower ratings of competence from scientists, worse teaching evaluations from students, and fewer email respons-es from professors after presenting as students seeking a PhD adviser or as scientists seeking copies of an article or data for a meta-analysis.

Conversely, other research has shown advantages experi-enced by women in academia; for example, achieving tenure with fewer publications than men. In assessments of poten-tial secondary and post-secondary teachers and professors,

women are favoured in maledominated fields, as are men in female-dominated fields. When fictitious people are present-ed as women in randomised experiments, they receive high-er rankings as potential science faculty than men. This aligns with evidence from other contexts showing that high-poten-tial women are favoured over high-potential men and that, although women face discrimination at earlier stages, once women have proven themselves in a maledominated context, they are often favoured over men.

Considering this evidence and the crucial importance of ob-taining grant funding for academic career success, we consider the question: what causes gender gaps in research grant fund-ing? Previous research has shown such gaps occur, but not why. A 2007 international metaanalysis of 21 studies found an overall gender gap in favour of men, with 7% higher odds of fellowship or grant funding for male applicants than female applicants. Research has since shown that, compared with their male colleagues, female principal investigators have less grant success, less success in some but not all programmes, equivalent success after adjusting for academic rank but fewer funds requested and received, less representation among first grant awardees but equivalent longevity, or equivalent fund-ing rates. These previous studies were observational, making it difficult to draw robust conclusions about whether discrep-ancies in funding success rates are attributable to evaluations of female researchers or of their proposed research. Further-more, some previous studies did not account for potential confounding variables like domain of research.

Our study objective was therefore to establish whether gender gaps in grant funding are attributable to differences in eval-uations of male and female researchers or of their proposed research, using real-world data and a study design that would allow for stronger conclusions than those from observational studies. Our study made use of a natural experiment at a fed-eral health research funding agency, enabling the comparison of grant success among male and female applicants between three grant programmes: traditional grant programmes, which had shown younger male principal investigators to have the highest percentages of success in 2001–11, but for which no subsequent analysis had yet been done; and two new com-petitions, one with and one without an explicit review focus on the calibre of the principal investigator.

Our hypotheses regarding comparisons of gaps in grant suc-cess between female and male principal investigators after accounting for age and research domain were as follows: H₀, gaps will be similar under traditional review criteria and both sets of new review criteria; H₁, the gap will be larger in fa-vour of male principal investigators in the new competition with more focus on the proposed science; and H₂, the gap will be larger in favour of male principal investigators in the new competition with more focus on the scientist. Support for H₀ would suggest that any gaps might reflect different career choices made by women and men, differences between the types of research proposed by female and male principal in-vestigators, equally poorer evaluations of female researchers


Inglés

2022

96

and their proposed research, or might be spurious. Support for H₁ would suggest that gaps are partly or wholly driven by female principal investigators writing less compelling grants or otherwise proposing science assessed as lower quality than that of their male colleagues. Support for H₂ would suggest that gaps are partly or wholly driven by women being assessed less favourably as principal investigators compared with their male colleagues. Other potential alternative hypotheses such as gaps in favour of female applicants were not considered because publicly available programme statistics showed such results to be impossible.

3) Búsqueda de información específica

a) En qué tiempo verbal se encuentran redactadas:

1) La sección Methods

2) Interpretation

3) Las dos oraciones temáticas de la Introducción

b) Complete el siguiente cuadro con algunas frases verbales del artículo

Presente simple Pasado simple Presente Perfecto

c) Busque 1 ejemplo de verbo modal en el texto

d) Subraye las estructuras comparativas de la Introducción

e) Indique si las siguientes oraciones se encuentran en voz activa o en voz pasiva

• For more than two decades, studies have shown that women in academia must perform to a higher standard than men to receive equivalent recognition, especially Indigenous and racialised women.

• Compared with men, women are more often characterised as lacking the brilliance necessary for discovery, and are less likely to be viewed as scientific leaders.

• Women in academia contribute more labour for less credit on publications...

• Women are under-represented as invited speakers at con-

ferences, universities, and grand rounds.

• After taking parental leave, men in academia have more successful careers whereas women’s careers suffer.

f) Recupere las estructuras comparativas subrayadas y complete el siguiente cuadro en español con ejemplos de las ventajas y desventajas que experimentan las mujeres en el ámbito académico.


Inglés

2022

99

APÉNDICES


Inglés

2022

101

APÉNDICE 1Glosarios

Lista de plurales irregulares latinos y griegos relacionados con Medicina

A, BAbortion/abortuses Acetabulum/acetabula Acinous/acini Alga/algae Alumna/alumnae Alumnus/alumni (graduados)

Apex/apicesApparatus/apparatus

Appendix/appendices Aquarium/aquaria Arthrodesis/arthrodeses Arthrosis/arthroses Atrium/atria Axilla/axillae Axis/axes Bacillus/bacilli Bacterium/bacteria Basis/bases Brachium/brachia Bronchus/bronchi Bulla/bullae Bursa/bursae

CCactus/cacti

Calculus/calculi Canaliculus/canaliculi Cannula/cannulae

Carcinoma/carcinomataCarpus/carpi Cercaria/cercariae Cerebellum/cerebella Cerebrum/cerebraCervix/cervicesChoana/choanae Cicatrix/cicatrices Cilium/cilia Cisterna/cisternaeCoccus/cocci Conception/conceptusesCondyloma/condylomataCorpus luteum / corpora luteumCortex/corticesCrisis/crisesCriterion/criteria

D, EDatum/data Decubitus/decubiti Dermatosis/dermatoses Diagnosis/diagnosesDialysis/dialyses Dogma/dogmata Dosis/doses Ductus/ductus Ellipsis/ellipses Embolus/emboli Endocardium/endocardiaEndometrioma/endometriomataEndometriosis/endometriosesEndometrium/endometriaEndothelium/endothelia Enema/enemata Ephemeron/ephemera Epiphysis/epiphyses Epithelioma/epitheliomata

F, GFlagellum/flagella Focus/focci Foramen/foramina

Formula/formulaeFornix/fornices Fossa/fossae Fundus/fundi Fungus/fungi Ganglion/ganglia Genesis/geneses Genius/genii Genus/genera Gingiva/gingivae Glioma/gliomata Glomerulus/glomeruli Granuloma/granulomata

H, I, KHemangioma/hemangiomata Hemarthrosis/hemarthrosHematoma/hematomata Hemodialysis/hemodialyses Hemoptysis/hemoptysesHemothorax/hemothoraces Hernia/herniae

Hilium/hili Humerous/humeri Hygroma/hygromata Hypernephroma/hypernephromata Index/indices Infundibulum/infundibulaIris/irides Keratoma/queratomata

LLabium/labia

Lacuna/lacunaeLamella/lamellae Lamina/laminaeLarva/larvae Larynx/larynges Leproma/lepromata Leptomeninx/leptomeninges Leucoma/leucomata Lipoidosis/lipoidoses Lipoma/lipomata Loculus/loculi Locus/loci Lumen/luminaLymphangioma/linfangiomataLymphoma/linfomata


Inglés

2022

102

MMalleolus/malleoli Mamilla/mammillae Matrix/matrices Meatus/meatusMedium/media Melanoma/melanomata Meningitis/meningitidesMeninx/meninges

Meniscus/menisci Menstruation/menses Mesothelium/mesotheli Metastasis/metastases Micrococcus/micrococciMicrovillus/microvilliMiracidium/miracidia Mitochondrion/mitocondria Mucosa/mucosae Multigravida/multigravidae Multipara/multiparae Myofibrosis/myofibrosisMyoma/myomata

N, ONaevus/naevi Naris/nares Neurofibroma/neurofibromataNeurosis/neuroses Nexus/nexus Nucleolus/nucleoli Nucleus/nuclei Nullipara/nuliparae Oasis/oases Ostium/ostia Ovum/ova

PPachymeningitis/pchymeningitidesPa-chymeninx/pachymeningesPalpebra/palpebrae Papilla/papillae Papilloma/papilomata Paracentesis/paracentesesPatella/patellae Pelvis/pelves Pericardium/pericardia Petechia/petechiae Phalanx/phalanges Phenomenon/phenomenaPlasmodium/plasmodia Pneumothorax/pneumotoracesPoly-pus/polipiProtozoon/protozoa Pseudopodium/pseudopodia Psychosis/psychoses Puerperium/puerperia Punctate/puncta

R, SRadius/radii Residuum/residua Reticulosis/reticuloses Sarcomma/sarcommata Scapula/scapulae Schema/schemata Sclera/sclerae Scolex/scolices Scotoma/scotomataSeptum/septa Sequela/sequelaeSequestrum/sequestraSeries/series

Serum/sera Species/species

Speculum/speculaSpermatozoon/spermatozoa Spirirllum/spirillaSputum/sputums/sputaStaphyloma/estaphylomataStenosis/stenosesStigma/stigmataStimulus/stimuliStoma/stomataStratum/strata Stria/striaeSulcus/suleiSymposium/symposiums /symposiaSynechia/synechiae

T, U, V, ZTarsus/tarsiTestis/testesThalamus/thalamiThesis/thesesThrombus/thrombiTibia/tibiaeTrabecula/trabeculaeTragus/tragiUterus/uteriVagus/vagiVarix/varicesVerruca/verrucaeVertebra/vertebraeVertex/vertexes/verticesVillus/villiViscus/visceraVulva/vulvas/vulvaeZoonosis/zoonoses

De: ASRIN L.A.: “Inglés Médico” Págs. 74/77. El Galeno, Córdoba, Argentina, 2000.


Inglés

2022

103

Palabras compuestas

Birth-control Control de natalidad Heart disease Enfermedad cardíaca o del corazónBlood-test Análisis de sangreCell-mediated inmmunity Inmunidad Celular Medication time Horario de tomar la medicaciónClonic-tonic seizures Crisis tónico-clónica Newborn Recién nacidoGuinea pig Conejillo de Indias Nonsmoker No fumadorWorldwide En todo el mundo

De: ASRIN L.A.: “Inglés Médico” Pág. 72. El Galeno, Córdoba, Argentina, 2000.

Falsas analogías

Ability Capacidad History AntecedentesActual Real, efectivo Infant LactanteActually Realidad Ingenuity Ingenio, ingeniosidad, candorActually Realmente Involve Comprometer, participarAmerica Estados Unidos de Norteamérica Large GrandeAnthrax Carbunco

(producido por bacilo anthracis)Lecture ConferenciaLibrary Biblioteca

Argument Discusión, disputa Major PrincipalBalance Equilibrio Meters square Metros de ladoBillion Mil millones Notice AvisoCarbuncle Ántrax Oral Todo lo referido a boca y fonación.

En español, sólo se refiere a fonación.Casualty Víctima en accidenteComplexion Tez, aspecto de la piel, facciones Parents Padres

Portentous De mal pronóstico, ominosoCondition Trastorno, estado, situación,

enfermedad.Practitioner Médico o abogado que desempeña

su profesión. No practicante.

Date Fecha Rate Valor, frecuencia, porcentaje, tasa, intensidad, velocidad, proporción.Disturbances Alteraciones

Dramatic Drástico Ratio Relación, índiceEmergency room Sala de urgencias Realize Darse cuentaEventually Finalmente Relative ParienteFile Archivo Remove Eliminar, quitar, extraerFluid Líquido Scholar EruditoFresh water Agua dulce Sensible SensatoGeneva Ginebra Soft drinks Bebidas sin alcohol y gaseosasGenoa Génova Trillon millón de millones (1 x 1012)Guinea pig Conejillo de indias West Indies Antillas

De: ASRIN L.A.: “Inglés Médico” Pág. 96,97. El Galeno, Córdoba, Argentina, 2000.


Inglés

2022

104

Expresiones idiomáticas

According to De acuerdo a, según By all means Por todos los mediosAll over again Una vez más By chance De casualidadAnd so on Y así sucesivamente By degrees GradualmenteAs a matter of fact De hecho, en realidad By far Por lejosAs a whole Como un todo By mistake Por errorAs early as Ya en; allá por By no means De ningún modoAs far as it is concerned En lo que se refiere a By oneself Por uno mismo

By surprise Por sorpresaAs far as En la medida que By the way A propósitoAs for; as to En cuanto a Call for Requerir, llamarAs if to Como tratando de Circulation rate Velocidad circulatoriaAs if Como si Come out ResultarAs it is En realidad Come over Venir As it were Por así decirlo Complication rate Índice de complicacionesAs soon as possible Cuanto antes Concordance rate Grado de concordancia As though Como si Death rate Tasa de mortalidadAs well as Así como Dose rate Cantidad que se administra de un agen-

te farmacológico por unidad de tiempoAs yet Hasta ahoraAsk for Pedir Due to Debido aAt all costs A cualquier costo Erythrocyte rate Velocidad de

eritrosedimentaciónAt any rate A cualquier costo At any rate De todos modos, en todo caso For all that Por todo esoAt best En el mejor de los casos For fear of Por temor aAt first Al principio For instance Por ejemploAt hand Tener a mano For the above Por lo que antecedeAt heart En el fondo From 20 to 40 Entre 20 y 40At large En libertad From here on De aquí en más At last Por último From now on De ahora en adelanteAt least Al o por lo menos From time to time De vez en cuandoAt once De una vez Give out Dar a cada uno de varias personasAt present Actualmente Glomerular filtration rate Velocidad de filtración

glomerular At random Al azar

At that rate En esa proporción, a esa velocidad

Go over IrGrowth rate Tasa de crecimiento

At the beginning Al comienzo Heart rate Frecuencia cardíacaAt the rate of A razón de In a hurry ApuradoAt the same time Al mismo tiempo In a sense En cierto sentidoAt times A veces In a way De algún modoAt will A voluntad In all likelihood Con toda probabilidadAt worst En el peor de los casos In common En común


Inglés

2022

105

Basal metabolic rate Velocidad de metabolismo basal

In debt EndeudadoIn due course A su tiempo

Bile salt secretion rate Velocidad de secreción de las sales biliares

In ink En tinta In love Enamorado

Birth rate Tasa de natalidad

In need Con necesidad

Boil over Hervir In order to Con el objeto de/paraIn other words En otras palabras Out of date Anticuado In pieces En trozos/pedazos Out of order Que no funciona In place En su lugar Out of practice Fuera de prácticaIn secret En secreto Out of reach InalcanzableIn short En resumen Out of De cada In sight A la vista Output exposure rate Índice de exposición a las

radiacionesIn summary En resumenIn that case En tal caso Over a thousand times Más de mil vecesIn that way De esa manera Over all Totalmente In the long run A la larga Over and over again Una y otra vez In time A tiempo Over here En este ladoIn trouble En problemas Over there Allí Keep on Continúe Over Por encima (sin tocar una superficie)Later on Más tarde Overnight Toda la nocheLook after Cuidar Prior to Previo a

Look for Buscar Pulse rate Frecuencia de pulsoLook like Parecerse Rate of population/population rate Tasa poblacio-

nalMorbidity rate Tasa de morbilidad Mortality rate Tasa de mortalidad Read on Continúe leyendoNot at all Para nada / En absoluto Respiratory rate Frecuencia respiratoriaOff colour Sin color Search for InvestigarOff duty Fuera de servicio Sedimentation rate Velocidad de sedi-

mentaciónOn a sudden De repente On a visit on De visita So as to Como paraOn and off Ocasionalmente Stillbirth rate Índice de mortinatalidadOn and off Que viene y se va Straight off De una vezOn and on Sin parar Subject to Sujeto aOn duty De servicio The same as Al igual que On fire Ardiendo Think over Pensarlo bienOn foot A pie To and fro De atrás hacia delante, de un lado

al otro On pleasure De placer On purpose A propósito To call upon Recurrir a On sale En oferta To date Hasta ahora


Inglés

2022

106

On the basis of En base a To depend upon Depender de On the contrary Al contrario To look upon Considerar On the other hand En cambio, por otro lado To the last Hasta el últimoOn the road Viajando To/near to Cerca de Out of breath Sin aliento Turn off Apagar, desconectar Out of control Fuera de control Wait for Esperar Out of danger Fuera de peligro Wash out Borrar completamente

De: ASRIN L.A.: “Inglés Médico” Pág. 103-107. El Galeno, Córdoba, Argentina, 2000.

Conectores: preposiciones, conjunciones, adverbios. Clasificación semántica

Adición

Again, Also, And, As a matter of fact, Besides, Further, Further-

more, In addition, In fact, In like manner, In the same way, Like, Likewise, More, Moreover, Nor,

Not only, Similarly.

Contraste, Aclaración

As a matter of fact, At the same time, But, Conversely, However, In contrast

to, In fact, Nevertheless, Only, On the contrary, On the other hand,

Otherwise, Rather, Still, Still less, To a certain degree, Yet

Consecuencia

Accordingly, As a result, Consequent-ly, For this reason, Hence, In accor-

dance with, It follows that, So, The fact that, The reason that, Therefore, Thus,

With this... in mind

Comparación

As... as, Compared to, Likewise, Similarly, So... as (only in the

negative)

Síntesis

Finally, For better or worse, In conclusion, Indeed, In the same way, Under these circumstances, In this

fashion, In this manner, In this w On the wholaye, Such being the case.

Reiteración, Ilustración de un concepto

Briefly, e.g. (= exempli gratia), For example, For instance, Indeed, i.e. (= id est, that is), In fact, In other words,

Such as,

That is, That is to say, ThenOrden o Grado

Above all, After all, Finally, In con-clusion, In particular, In the first

(second, etc.) place,

Next, On the whole, To a certain degree, To begin with

Tiempo

Afterwards, At last, At the same time, At this point, By the same time

that, By the time that, Eventually, Formerly, Meanwhile, Now, Present-ly, Somewhat later, Soon after, Subse-quently, Then, Thereafter, Thereupon

Conjunciones Correlativas

Both... andEither... or

Neither... norNot merely... but

Not only... but alsoWhether... or

Tiempo

After, As long as, As (=while), Be-fore, By the time that, Every time

that, If ever,

Now that, Once, Since, Till, Until, When, Whenever, While

Causa, Razón

As (= because), Because, Due to the fact that, Since (= because),Due

to,Owing to Why

Propósito o Resultado

For the purpose of, In order that, In order to, So, So that, Such (a)... that, So

Condición

As if, Even if, If, If only, Inasmuch as, In case that, Insofar as, In the event that, No matter what, On condition that, Provided that,, Unless, Wherever


Inglés

2022

107

PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE

PREPOSITIONS OF MOVEMENT

in front of behind above below

on under next to near

on the left between on the right


Inglés

2022

109

APÉNDICE 2Verbos irregulares más comunesINFINITIVE SIMPLE PAST PAST PARTICIPLEarise (originarse, nacer) arose Arisenbe (ser, estar) was / were Beenbear (soportar) bore Bornebecome (volverse, tornarse) became Becomebegin (comenzar) began Begunbend (doblar) bent Bentbleed (sangrar) bled Bledbreak (quebrar, romper) broke Brokenbring (traer) brought Broughtburn (quemar, arder) burnt / burned burnt / burnedcatch (atrapar, agarrar) caught Caughtchoose (elegir) chose Chosencome (venir) came Comedo (hacer) did Donedrink (beber) drank Drunkeat (comer) ate Eatenfall (caer) fell Fallenfeed (alimentar) fed Fedfeel (sentir, palpar) felt Feltfind (encontrar) found Foundfreeze (helar) froze Frozenget (obtener, conseguir) got Gotgive (dar) gave Givengo (ir) went Gonegrow (crecer) grew Grownhave (tener, haber) had Hadhear (oir) heard Heardhide (esconder, ocultar) hid Hiddenhurt (doler, lastimar) hurt Hurtkeep (guardar, mantener) kept Keptlead (conducir, guiar) led Ledlearn (aprender) learnt Learntleave (dejar, partir) left Left


Inglés

2022

110

lose (perder, malgastar) lost Lostmake (hacer) made Madeput (poner) put Putread (leer) read Readsay (decir) said Saidsee (ver) saw Seenseek (buscar) sought Soughtsend (enviar) sent Sentset (establecer, fijar) set Setshake (sacudir, temblar) shook Shakensleep (dormir) slept Sleptspeak (hablar) spoke Spokenspread (diseminar) spread Spreadtake (tomar, llevar) took Takentell (decir, contar) told Toldthink (creer, pensar) thought Thoughtunderstand (entender) understood Understoodundergo (sufrir, padecer, ser sometido a) underwent Undergoneundertake (emprender, intentar) undertook Undertakenwrite (escribir) wrote Written


Inglés

2022

111

APÉNDICE 3Afijos: prefijos y sufijos

AFIJOSPREFIJOS RAIZ SUFIJO

Un- successsuccess- fulsuccess- fulsuccess- fully

A- PREFIJOSA.1. Prefijos negativos y afirmativosNEGATIVO PREFIJO SIGNIFICADO EJEMPLO

un- Unconsciousin- Incompetentim- no, opuesto Immortalityil- Illegitimateir- Irreversible

non- sin conexión con... Nonallergenic

mis- opuesto Miscarriage

mal- Malnutritiondis- en contra... Dislocation

anti- Antibiotics

AFIRMATIVO PREFIJO SIGNIFICADO EJEMPLO

under- menos de lo deseado Underdevelopedre- realizar nuevamente Resuture

over- demasiado OverreactionA.2. Prefijos de tamaño

PREFIJO SIGNIFICADO EJEMPLO

Equi- igual EquivalentMini- pequeño, reducido Minicomputer

Micro- muy pequeño MicroscopeMacro- grande, Macrovision


Inglés

2022

112

Mega- grande, MegabyteSemi- medio, en parte semiconductor

A.3. Prefijos de lugarPREFIJO SIGNIFICADO EJEMPLO

Inter- entre InterlabialSuper- por encima de, demasiado superfecundationTrans- a través Transection

Ex- fuera ExtrinsicPREFIJO SIGNIFICADO EJEMPLO

Extra- mas allá de ExtraordinarySub- debajo Subcutaneous

Intra- dentro IntramuscularPeri- alrededor Peripheral

A.4. Prefijos de tiempo y ordenPREFIJO SIGNIFICADO EJEMPLO

Ante- anterior AntecedentPre anterior Prefix

Prime- primero PrimaryPost- posterior post-graduate

Retro- hacia atrás RetroactiveA.5. Prefijos de cantidad

PREFIJO SIGNIFICADO EJEMPLO

Semi- medio SemicircleMono- uno mononucleosis

Bi- dos BilateralTri- tres Triangle

Quad- cuatro QuadruplePenta- cinco PentagonHex- seis Hexavalent

Sept(em)- siete September

Oct- ocho OctalDec- diez Decimal

Multi- muchos Multiplexor

B- SUFIJOSSUSTANTIVOS VERBOS ADJETIVOS ADVERBIOS

-ance -ness -ize -ify -ic -able -ly

-ence -ist -ate -en -ical -ish-er -or -fy -ible -ive

-less -ful


Inglés

2022

113

B.1. Sufijos que forman sustantivosSUFIJO SIGNIFICADO EJEMPLO

-ance estado Performance-ence calidad de Transference

-ist, -yst una persona que... pharmacist, ana-lyst

-ian relacionado con Diagnostician-tion, -ation

el acto de Agglutination

-ness la condición de Numbness-ion acción/estado Conversión-ing Actividad, acción o movimiento Hearing

-ment estado/acción measurement-ity estado/calidad Community-ism condición/estado Behaviorism-dom dominio/condición Freedom-ship condición/estado Relationship

-er, -or una persona/cosa que.. pulse generatorB.2. Sufijos que forman verbos

SUFIJO SIGNIFICADO EJEMPLO

-ize/ -ise Denarcotize-ate hacer Actívate-ify Simplify-en Widen

B.3. Sufijos que forman adverbiosSUFIJO SIGNIFICADO EJEMPLO

-ly de esa manera urgently, professionally

B.4- Sufijos que forman adjetivosSUFIJO SIGNIFICADO EJEMPLO

-al, -ar, -ic, -ical

que posee esa cualidad buccal, tubular, enteric, surgical

-able, -ible

capaz de ser washable, legible

-ous como.., lleno de Viscous-ful que se caracteriza por... Beautiful-less Sin Useless-ish como... Yellowish

-ed, -ive que posee esa cualidad, estado o condi-ción

coated, active


Inglés

2022

114

Por ejemplo:

Atypical (adj.) El prefijo “a/an” quiere decir “no, sin”.

Antibiotic (n.) El prefijo “anti” quiere decir “contra, opuesto a”.

En ambos casos, los prefijos forman el antónimo, pero no cambian la clase de palabra.

helpful Un sustantivo + el sufijo ful, forman un adjetivo.

survival Un verbo + el sufijo al, forman un sustantivo.

Aquí, los sufijos cambian la clase de palabra y el significado.


Inglés

2022

115

APÉNDICE 4

Existen palabras que pueden desempeñar más de una función sintáctica, es decir, según su forma y ubicación en el contexto, pueden funcionar como verbos, verboides, sustantivos o adjetivos. A continuación desarrollamos los dos casos morfológicos típi-cos, de alta frecuencia de uso en el registro académico: -ing form y -ed form.

-ing form

1) Forma el Participio Presente de un verbo principal en los tiempos continuos: is working, are considering, was analyzing. Se traduce como las terminaciones “-ando”, “-endo”: “trabajando”, “resolviendo”.

2) Forma el Gerundio de todo verbo principal: taking into account, looking at, etc. No está acompañado por ningu-na otra forma verbal. Se traduce del mismo modo que el Participio Presente: “teniendo en cuenta (que)”.

3) Cuando aparece un verbo inmediatamente detrás de una preposición, éste adopta la forma -ing: By doing this..., etc. Conviene traducirlo por el Infinitivo: “Al hacer/realizar/efectuar esto...”. Las construcciones con infinitivo tienen valor de sustantivo en ambas lenguas.

4) El Participio -ing puede adoptar valor de sustantivo. Estos casos se reconocen porque: se desempeña como núcleo de un frase nominal, precedido de artículos o adjetivos y postmodificado por una frase preposicional o una cláusula relativa: the banning of some chemicals = la prohibición de algunas sustancias químicas. Se traduce como un sustantivo: “prohibición”.

5) Puede desempeñarse con valor de adjetivo: very confusing; so interesting; living creatures; a working mother. Aquí se lo reconoce porque ocupa las posiciones habituales de los adjetivos: a) Premodificador de un sustantivo. b) Es modificado por un adverbio. c) Se lo puede parafrasear por una cláusula con operador y verbo conjugado: a working mother = a mother who is working; a mother who works. La traducción varía según contexto: “muy confuso”; “tan interesante”; “criaturas vivientes”; “una madre trabajadora”; “una madre que trabaja”; “una madre que está trabajando”.

6) Forma palabras compuestas con valor de sustantivo: living standards; dancing classes = “niveles de vida”; “clases de danza”.

7) Forma adjetivos como surprising, apalling, yielding, irritating, etc., que pueden ser modificados por adverbios como en: very irritating, o de los que se pueden derivar adverbios mediante cambio morfológico como en: surprisingly, apallingly, o el antónimo, como en: unyielding. Se los suele encontrar en construcciones en las que se articulan con un verbo copulativo conjugado: It seems surprising.

-ed form

1) Indica el Pasado Simple de los Verbos Regulares: consider - considered; love - loved; open - opened; deny - denied. Pero también indican Participio Pasado de los verbos regulares, y entonces se traducen como las terminaciones “-ado”; “-ido” del español,: “considerado”; “amado”; “abierto” /“inaugurado”; “rechazado”.

2) El Participio Pasado de todo verbo, regular o irregular, tiene valor de adjetivo: The affected tissue will be removed. Para reconocerlo, puede parafrasearse por una cláusula relativa encabezada por operador y con verbo conjuga-do: The affected tissue will be removed = The tissue which was affected will be removed. Este uso del Participio Pasado implica una forma de Voz Pasiva donde los elementos conocidos o reiterados se omiten (los verbos aux-iliares) y se mantiene sólo los elementos portadores de información nueva y relevante (el verbo principal en participio pasado). Se traduce tal como indicado en 1): El tejido afectado será extirpado.

El Participio Pasado es formante de los Tiempos Perfectos: have worked; had written; etc., y de la Voz Pasiva en todos los tiempos de verbo: is being analyzed; were documented; have been developed; will be considered; etc. Siempre se lo traduce por las terminaciones “-ado”; “-ido”: han trabajado; había escrito; está siendo anal-izado/es analizado; fue documentado; ha sido desarrollado; será considerado; etc.

Terminaciones ing/ed: funciones


Inglés

2022

116

Ej:

He is suffering very much = Present Continuous

After suffering for two days, he decided to call for his physician = Prep. + Verbo + -ing form

He came here with a suffering face = -ing form con valor de adjetivo (modifica a un sustantivo)

The man suffering from pneumonia died yesterday = -ing form con valor de adjetivo, postmodifica a un sustantivo, al encabezar una cláusula adjetiva.

Ej:

The cancer affected all the important organs = Simple Past

Unfortunately, the liver was also affected = Passive Voice


Inglés

2022

117

APÉNDICE 5

También llamadas macro-funciones, son las que exceden el marco formal y se vinculan con la función comunicativa de la lengua. Se usan marcadores de transición para unir ideas de modo que la lectura del texto resulte más fácil. Cuando los pro-nombres (“it, they, them, which, who, such, one, etc.”) y los ad-jetivos demostrativos (“this, that, these, those”) se usan como marcadores, se refieren a (una) palabra(s) que se mencionaron con anterioridad en la oración o en el párrafo. Su función es de remitir al lector a algo que ya se ha mencionado (antecedente o referente). Otras palabras usadas para remitirse al referente son: “the former, the latter, the first, the last, etc.”

Asimismo, se establecen conexiones lógicas y estas relaciones se plantean a través de palabras y frases conectivas. Por ej.: adición, secuencia, comparación y contraste, causa y consecuencia.

The Topic SentenceEs la oración que presenta la idea central en cada párrafo. En ocasiones, la idea central puede estar expresada por dos topic sentences, ubicadas en un mismo párrafo o en párrafos distin-tos. Cuando las topic sentences se encuentran en párrafos dis-tintos, se las denomina split topic sentences. En las topic sen-tences, sea una o sean dos, los conceptos que allí se formulen, van a ser fundamentados y ampliados por las oraciones que sustentan esa idea (“supporting sentences”).

Cabe destacar que las oraciones que integran el párrafo intro-ductorio de un texto científico, son las controlling ideas, pues-to que están presentando el tema o los temas sobre los que tratará todo el informe. En todo párrafo, las “topic sentences” son las que comprimen o sintetizan las ideas a desarrollar, por lo tanto contienen una gran carga informativa. En textos más extensos que un informe publicado en una revista especializa-da, suele haber una introducción cuya función es poner en conocimiento del lector qué tipo de material bibliográfico tiene ante sí. Esta introducción se organizará en párrafos en los cuales se van a desarrollar jerárquicamente los conceptos en topic y supporting sentences, pero desde el punto de vista del lector, toda la información que allí se presente, será relevante por cuanto le permite familiarizarse con lo que va a leer a continuación.

Las topic sentences están bien formuladas cuando delimitan o acotan de algún modo, el tema que presentan. Dada la hipere-specialización de los textos médicos, la delimitación temática es una necesidad, tanto para el autor como para el lector. Para el autor, porque de ese modo organiza mejor su producción, y para el lector, porque un texto bien organizado facilita la com-prensión, el estudio y la búsqueda de información.

Pero para que todo el texto esté bien organizado, es necesario también que las “supporting sentences” estén correctamente planteadas. Debe haber coherencia entre ambos tipos de ora-ciones. Existen ocho categorías que contribuyen a la formu-lación correcta de topic y supporting sentences: Place, Time, Aspect, Similarities, Differences, Number, Effect y Cause.

Lugar y aspecto (Place, Aspect) Ej: This large regional survey shows that (a sufficient de-gree of guidelines awareness) is present in a minority of pri-mary-care physicians (in the Italian region of Lombardy).

From : CUSPIDI C. et al.: “Awareness of hypertension guide-lines in primary care: results of a regionwide survey in Italy” Original Article. Nature Journal of Human Hypertension, 17: 541-547. Nº 8, 2003.

El frase nominal “a sufficient degree of guidelines aware-ness” indica un aspecto del relevamiento. La frase preposicio-nal “in the Italian region of Lombarda”, indica lugar.

Lugar, tiempo y causa (Place, Time, Cause)Ej: Unsatisfactory blood pressure (BP) control so often de-scribed in treated hypertensive populations is also explained by insufficient physicians’ awareness of experts’ guidelines.


“So often” es una subordinada adverbial (adverbial clause of fre-quency) y en tanto tal, se asocia a la idea de tiempo. “In treated hypertensive populations” es una frase preposicional que en tanto puede reemplazarse por “here”, podría pensarse como indicador de Lugar. Pero el lugar que indica, no es un lugar geográfico, sino una ubicación lógica que sitúa al lector dentro del estudio realizado. En los textos médicos es muy frecuente encontrar este tipo de construcciones que indican noción de lugar como ubicación lógica. Su función es muy importante, pues contribuyen a que el lector se ubique correctamente en la sección de texto que está leyendo o en determinada característica del informe. La cláusula agente (agentive clause) “by insuffi-cient physicians’ awareness of experts’ guidelines” indica una de las causas del “unsatisfactory blood pressure control”.

Relaciones contextuales


Inglés

2022

118

Lugar, cantidad o número (Place, Number)Ej: (In a regionwide survey), (a total of 5133 physicians (three-quarters of all active general practitioners) (in Lom-bardy), (a region of north-western Italy) were contacted by letter and received a multiple choice 10-item questionnaire.


Aquí se encuentran tres frases adverbiales que indican lugar y el Sujeto que indica número.

Número, efecto (Resultado)Ej: Of the 1256 returned questionnaires (a 24.5% response rate), 1162 (were suitable for analysis).


Hay tres expresiones en el Sujeto que indican número y el Predicado indica el resultado de lo planteado en el Sujeto.Ej: Women who are overweight at 70 may be at greater risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease later in life.

From: GUSTAFSON D. et al.: “An 18-Year Follow-Up of Over-weight and Risk of Alzheimer’s Disease” Archives of Internal Medicine 163: 1524 -1524, 2003.

La oración se centra en la noción de efecto.

Diferenciación (Difference)Ej: Conclusions from retrospective studies on nondiabet-ic nephropathy are divided, with some finding a poorer re-sponse with the I allele, and others with the DD genotype.

From: YU H.T.: “Progression of Chronic Renal Failure” AB-STRACT. JAMA Arch Intern Med. 163:1417-1429, 2003.

El Predicado indica la noción de diferenciación.

Similitudes (Similarities)Ej: This robust response reflects the results of previous-ly published studies, where similar levels of response were seen following a single administration of BTX-A.

From: NAUMANN M., LOWE N.J., KUMAR C.R., HAMM H. (for the Hyperhidrosis Clinical Investigators Group.): “Botulinum Toxin Type A Is a Safe and Effective Treatment for Axillary Hyperhidrosis Over 16 Months” A Prospective Study. JAMA Arch Dermatol, 139:731-736. Nº 6, 2003.

El Predicado indica las similitudes entre los resultados del estudio descripto en el informe y los resultados de estudios previos.

Como puede apreciarse en las oraciones presentadas, es posible encontrar más de uno de estos indicadores en una misma oración.

Supporting SentencesEstas oraciones desarrollan y clarifican los temas planteados por las Topic Sentences. Existen varios tipos de Supporting Sen-tences, y en un informe científico, a menudo es posible encon-trarlas a casi todas.

EjemplosUn ejemplo es una instancia específica que explica una idea.Ej: In chronic renal failure, there is a loss of normal resi-dent cell population thought to be caused by a combination of abundant proapoptotic stimuli and diminished antiapoptotic stimuli. Examples of the former are transforming growth factor (TGF-), tumor necrosis factor (TNF), Fas ligand (FasL), and interferon.


Específicaciones (Details)Una especificación o detalle es una particularidad o una carac-terística de un objeto, situación, idea, etc. Con frecuencia, se emplea en descripciones.

En la prosa científica, las descripciones son por lo gener-al breves y concisas, y se realizan por medio de adjetivos o cláusulas adjetivas que definen a los sustantivos o delimitan el alcance de los conceptos que expresan, lo que refuerza y sus-tenta la idea principal.Ej: Treatment of some causes retards progression to chronic renal failure. Experimentally, antagonism of PDGF during the acute phase of an animal model of mesangioproliferative nephritis prevented functional and morphologic changes of chronic renal failure from developing. Clinically, this may involve treatment of acute disease, although this is not in-variable. For example, even in established chronic diabetic nephropathy, euglycemia of 10 years’ duration following pan-creatic transplantation has been shown to reverse histologic renal lesions.


Anécdota (Anecdote)Una anécdota (testimonio) es un relato breve y entretenido de algún evento. Por lo general es algo personal e incluso puede considerárselo como un ejemplo extenso.Ej: In every good Brontë or Louisa May Alcott novel one


Inglés

2022

119

of the heroines languishes on a chaise lounge. Several chapters before the end she sinks into a state of delirium and passes away. In my early twenties I was diagnosed with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome by an eminent diagnostician. I spent the next decade flopped on the sofa while others got on with their exciting lives. I endured exhaustion, muscle pains and suscep-tibility to infections. It was a difficult diagnosis to live with. Sometimes I questioned my sanity and pushed myself; the cost would be days in bed recovering (...)

From: LOUSADA I.: “A Patient´s Experience” MYELOMA TODAY, Vol.3 Nº 2, 1998.

Es la experiencia de una paciente a quien se le diagnosticó amiloidosis. Se diferencia de la anécdota en que esta última por lo general presenta algún aspecto humorístico o al menos irónico. No obstante, al dar testimonio de lo vivido, la paciente logra ser amena y delicada al transmitir sus padecimientos sin omitir información ni detalle alguno y compromete emocio-nalmente al lector.

Hechos y estadísticas (Facts /Statistics)Un hecho es algo objetivamente verificable. Una estadística, es un hecho numérico que presenta información significativa so-bre un tema dado.

Hechos

Ej: A caveat has to be noted. It has been shown that a low-protein diet decreases the filtered

urine creatinine as well as urine creatinine secretion and affects the latter more than the former. Such changes can occur independent of changes in the GFR.


Estadísticas

Ej: Chronic renal failure is a common problem. In the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey done from 1988 to 1994, 3% of the US adult population was found to have elevated serum creatinine values. Once the renal failure is well established, the rate of progression can be estimated, although limitations exist.


Enumeración (Enumeration)Es el tipo de desarrollo de párrafo que comienza con una clase general y luego continúa con un listado de todas o algunas de sus partes. Suele presentar enumeradores que muestran al lector exactamente lo que se está enumerando. Entre los enu-meradores más comunes se encuentran palabras como: kinds; types; classes; parts; elements; factors; characteristics; aspects;

divisions; subdivisions; categories. Al enumerar, se usan nu-merals: 1,2,3, etc., y listing signals: First...; Second...; One...; Another...; The next...; The final..., más un enumerator: kind; type; etc.

Ascending Order, Descending Order e Equal Order Enu-meration A veces, la enumeración se organiza de manera que todos sus elementos tienen la misma importancia. En inglés se lo deno-mina Equal Order. Sin embargo, puede suceder que al autor le interese destacar que un elemento o algunos elementos de esa lista son más importantes que otros. En esos casos, puede optar por ordenarlos siguiendo un Ascending Order o un De-scending Order.

Equal Order Ej: Chronic renal failure is characterized by a persistently abnormal glomerular filtration rate. The rate of progression varies substantially. Several morphologic features are promi-nent: fibrosis, loss of native renal cells, and infiltration by monocytes and/or macrophages. Mediators of the process include abnormal glomerular hemodynamics, hypoxia, pro-teinuria, hypertension, and several vasoactive substances (ie, cytokines and growth factors).


Ascending OrderLos elementos menos relevantes se mencionan primero, y los más significativos, en último lugar. Este ordenamiento man-tiene el interés del lector, en tanto crea una estructura que pro-gresivamente lo conduce a un clímax. En las listas que emplean numerales, esto puede lograrse fácilmente con flechas, círcu-los o subrayados que captan la atención del lector. Ej: For a majority of infected individuals, reservoirs of replication-competent virus may remain unaffected by anti-viral drug therapy. This may explain the apparent rebound in viral load experienced by patients who discontinue antiviral drug therapy or develop drug resistance. In addition, toxici-ty, drug resistance, and adherence are still practical problems in the long-term management of many patients, particularly those previosly treated with less effective drug combinations. Most importantly, if effective control of viral replication does not occur early in the disease (such as primary infection), then immune surveillance against the virus may not be completely reconstituted.

From: MOSS R.B. et al.: “A Primer on HIV TYPE I - Specific Immune Function and Remune” AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses Vol.14: 167-175, Sup.2, 1998.

Es una enumeración extensa, que abarca tres oraciones, so-bre los distintos problemas que


Inglés

2022

120

enfrentan los pacientes con HIV. Los numerales se han reempla-zado por construcciones que establecen relaciones semánticas entre el discurso precedente y lo expresado a continuación, y lo más destacado se ubica en último lugar. En la primera oración de la enumeración, la vinculación está dada por el Sujeto y la frase verbal. En la segunda y tercera oraciones, la conexión se establece por dos cláusulas adverbiales ubicadas al inicio de las mismas que discursivamente contribuyen a crear un interés creciente en el lector.

Descending OrderEn este caso se produce el ordenamiento inverso. El autor ubi-ca al elemento más importante en primer lugar, y en forma decreciente menciona a los restantes elementos. Ej: Since hyperhidrosis is a chronic condition, and the known pharmacologic properties of BTX-A indicate that the treatment effect will not be permanent, it is likely that subjects will request repeated treatments. With 96.1%, 91.1%, and 83.3% of our subjects experiencing a 50% or greater reduc-tion in sweating after the first, second, and third treatments, we demonstrated that BTX-A reduces the amount of sweating over repeated treatments.

From: NAUMANN M., LOWE N.J., KUMAR C.R., HAMM H. (for the Hyperhidrosis Clinical Investigators Group.): “Botulinum Toxin Type A Is a Safe and Effective Treatment for Axillary Hyperhidrosis Over 16 Months” A Prospective Study. JAMA Arch Dermatol, 139:731-736. Nº 6, 2003.

Tipos especiales de enumeración. Proceso y cronologíaCuando las Supporting Sentences se organizan en una secuen-cia paso-a-paso, en la que se manifiesta cómo se hace o realiza algo, se trata de un desarrollo llamado Proceso. Es un tipo de enumeración por medio de pasos o etapas. Los enumerators empleados con mayor frecuencia en un proceso, son: step, stage, phase.

Además, el autor cuenta con recursos como Time Clues, Rep-etition y Pronoun Reference, que le permiten organizar mejor al párrafo que plantea el proceso. La selección verbal también es importante. Verbos como begin, start, continue, become, re-main, develop, end, finish, culminate, entre otros, contribuyen a indicar las diversas etapas de un proceso.

Cláusulas temporales que contienen expresiones como while, as, indican acciones simultáneas. Cláusulas temporales que contienen vocablos como when, after, before, until, indi-can acciones secuenciales. Otros conectores temporales son: during this period; at the same time, meanwhile; afterwards; after that; then; following that; at that point.

Definición y procesoEj: Transforming growth factor is the most well-stud-ied and probably the most significant of the fibrogenic cyto-kines. It is produced by resident renal cells and by infiltrating

monocytes. Production is stimulated by various chemical stimuli such as AII, elevated plasma glucose, and IL-1, as well as by mechanical stretching of mesangial and renal tubular

cells. Directly and by increasing expression of other cyto-kines, TGF-1 favors deposition of new ECM and decreases its degradation. It also favors monocytic/macrophage infiltration, transdifferentiation of tubular cells into myofibroblasts, and podocyte apoptosis.


Como puede observarse, en el desarrollo del discurso, las mi-crofunciones o funciones formales como las cláusulas tempora-les, conectores, repetición y referencia, se imbrican con las mac-rofunciones o funciones contextuales, como lo son el proceso y la cronología.

Cronología Cuando es necesario exponer claramente el orden o secuencia temporal en el que transcurren los hechos, se emplea el orden cronológico. En este tipo de organización de párrafo, predo-mina el uso de los pretéritos o del presente histórico.

Ej: In successive hypertension epidemiological stud-ies (1995 and 2002), randomly selected 2212 subjects (1412 men, 797 women) in the first and 1123 subjects (550 men, 573 women) in the second study were evaluated. BP was measured using World Health Organization guidelines and hypertension diagnosed using the American Joint National Committee-VI report. Age-specific BP levels in the first and the second study were determined and compared.

Causa y efectoAquí lo que se pone de manifiesto es una relación causal en-tre la oración principal y las oraciones secundarias. Puede haber más de una causa, o puede existir más de un efecto o resultado. Según las necesidades discursivas, el interés puede centrarse en las causas o bien puede estar centrado en los efec-tos o resultados. Conectores y verbos como as a result, conse-quently, therefore, because of this, hence, so...that; such...that; since; because; because of the fact that; the reason (for); to be responsible for; lead to; contribute to; result in; cause; result from; follow from; to be due to; to be a result of; to be a con-sequence of, se usan a menudo en este tipo de desarrollo de párrafo.

Causa

Ej: The use of heroin and other opiates and of cocaine has been found to be associated with increased risk for develop-ment of end-stage renal disease. Cocaine use may exacerbate hypertensive nephrosclerosis through progression of renal ischemia. It is unclear whether heroin and opiate use is caus-ally related to the increased risk or represent only a surrogate marker.


Inglés

2022

121


Efecto

Ej: Impairment of renal function correlates better with the extent of tubulointerstitial injury than with histologic glomer-ular injury. Interstitial fibrosis results from increased synthe-sis and decreased breakdown of extracellular matrix (ECM).


Reacción en cadena (Chain Reaction)Con frecuencia, al desarrollar una relación causal, se encuentra que el efecto de una situación se convierte en la causa de la siguiente situación. Es lo que se conoce como chain reaction. Ej: The Fas apoptosis pathway is initiated by the binding of FasL to Fas, which triggers a cascade of intracellular signals that results in apoptotic deletion of Fas-bearing target cells.


Comparación y contraste (Comparison and Contrast)Cuando lo que se necesita es referirse a las similitudes o a las diferencias entre dos hechos o aspectos de esos hechos, el pár-rafo puede organizarse estableciendo una comparación o un contraste. En la comparación se utilizan adverbs como some-what; exactly; almost; practically; rather; very; quite; very much; adjectives como same; similar; preposiciones como as; to; like; conjunciones como and; too; and so; either; and neither; both...and; neither...nor; just as...so; estructuras predicativas como to re-semble; to have (sth.) in common; there are similarities; conec-tores como similarly; correspondingly; likewise; in the same way; by the same token, y bases de comparación, construcciones que explicitan los motivos de tal comparación. Ej: A 287–base-pair fragment in intron 16 in the ACE gene

can either be present (the I allele) or absent (the D allele).

Presence of the D allele is associated with elevated systemic

ACE levels while the I allele is associated with the opposite

effect. Both alleles are codominant such that the 3 resulting

genotypes (II, ID, and DD) are associated with low, interme-diate, and high amounts of circulating ACE, respectively. This relationship holds true for intrarenal ACE as well.


En el contraste suelen emplearse las estructuras adjetivas que indican grado, como -er... than; more...than; less...than; as...as; preposiciones como unlike; contrary to; as opposed to; cláusulas adverbiales que contengan although; whereas; while; estructuras verbales como contrast with; differ from; to be dif-ferent from; conectores como however; on the other hand; in contrast; o bien, sólo signos de puntuación como la coma y el punto y coma. Discursivamente, hay dos formas principales de

plantear contraste: formulando las oposiciones punto por pun-to, o bien, describiendo completamente a cada uno de los ele-mentos por separado, primero uno y luego el otro.Ej: Dihydropyridines do not have antiproteinuric effects. Nondihydropyridines, in contrast, appear to have some role, at least in diabetic nephropathy. There are no good data on its usage in nondiabetic nephropathies for retarding progression of renal disease, although plans for a multicenter study were recently published to investigate combined treatment with an ACE inhibitor and either a dihydropyridine or a nondihydro-pyridine calcium channel blocker, using proteinuria as an end point.


Puede suceder también, que al mismo tiempo que se com-paran dos elementos, se encuentren las diferencias, o a la in-versa, que al establecer las diferencias, surjan las similitudes. Es lo que se denomina comparison and contrast:Ej: Animal studies have shown a decrease in glomeru-lar number with induced intrauterine malnutrition but not with spontaneous low birth weight In humans, the number of glomeruli correlates directly with the birth weight. There is also a direct correlation between low birth weight and chronic renal disease, which appears to hold true across races. While a resultant lowered renal reserve and any possibly compensa-tory glomerular capillary hypertension might theoretically accelerate progression to end-stage renal disease, it is not yet clear if the low birth weight itself is directly responsible for the increased incidence of chronic renal failure because hyperten-sion and diabetes are also associated with retardation of intra-uterine growth.


Definiciones (Definitions)En ocasiones es necesario redactar un párrafo para explicar el significado de un término o su uso en una situación determi-nada. Una definición formal explicita el significado de diccio-nario de un término, mientras que una definición estipulada, alude al significado contextual de un término.

Definición formal (Formal Definition)

Incluye el término a definir, la clase a la que pertenece y las características que lo distinguen de otras de su misma clase. Ej: Primary focal hyperhidrosis is a chronic idiopathic disorder of excessive sweating that most often affects the ax-illae, palms, soles, and forehead.

From: NAUMANN M. et al. (for the Hyperhidrosis Clinical Investigators Group.): “Botulinum Toxin Type A Is a Safe and Effective Treatment for Axillary Hyperhidrosis Over 16 Months.


Inglés

2022

122

A Prospective Study” JAMA Arch Dermatol,139:731-736, Nº 6, 2003.

Definición extendida (Extended Definition)

Si la clase general y los rasgos distintivos ya se han establecido, la definición puede extenderse o expandirse con información adicional sobre el término definido. Ej: Myofibroblasts (cells containing features of smooth muscle cells and of fibroblasts) are involved in the fibrogen-ic process and can secrete alpha 2(I) and alpha 2(III) colla-gens and fibronectin. Their origins vary because several types of intrarenal cells can transdifferentiate into myofi-broblasts. Moreover, in animal models, injured tubular cells also contribute to the development of interstitial fibrosis.From: YU H.T.: “Progression of Chronic Renal Failure” AB-STRACT. JAMA Arch Intern Med. 163:1417-1429, 2003.

Definición circular (Circular Definition)

Al redactar una definición pueden surgir tres tipos de prob-lemas. Uno de ellos, es la definición circular: El término a definirse se repite en la definición.Ej: Human immunodeficiency virus or HIV, is a virus that attacks the immune system resulting in Acquired Immuno-deficiency Syndrome, or AIDS.

From: AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, Vol. 14, Sup. 2, 1998.

Definición sobre extendida (Over-Extended Definition)

Es el segundo problema. La definición dada puede aplicarse a más elementos que al término definido.Ej: Domestic violence is the most common cause of nonfatal injury to women in the United States.

From: KYRIACOU D.N. et al.: “Risk Factors for Injury to Wom-en from Domestic Violence” Special Article. The New England Journal of Medicine 341: 1892-1897, Nº 25.

Esta es la oración principal (“Topic Sentence”) de un artículo especial publicado por una revista especializada en USA, 1999. Obsérvese que si bien los autores definen a la violencia domésti-ca como la causa más común de lesiones no mortales en las mu-jeres estadounidenses, no dan previamente, ni una definición formal ni una definición estipulada de violencia doméstica. Por lo tanto, teniendo en cuenta cómo está planteada esta definición en el inicio mismo del artículo, el lector puede lógi-camente considerar que va a leer un informe donde se tratan todas las alternativas conocidas como “violencia doméstica”. Sólo posteriormente, al continuar la lectura, en la sección Métodos, se estipula qué definen como violencia doméstica en este trabajo. Y en tanto violencia doméstica puede aludir a vio-

lencia física, psíquica o sexual, la definición dada en el párrafo de apertura, puede aplicarse a más casos que los presentados en este informe. Es pues, una definición sobre-extendida.

Definición restringida (Overrestricted Definition)

Es el tercer problema. Se presenta cuando el término a definir es más abarcativo que la definición dada. Por ejemp-lo, si a las ETS se las define:Ej: Sexually Transmitted Diseases are infections that can be spread by having sex with another person who is infected.

Se está dando una definición restringida, porque se está omi-tiendo información específica:Ej: Most STDs are curable. Some are not. If you have sex with someone who has an STD, you can get it too. Many peo-ple who have an STD don’t know it. They may look healthy, but they still could have a STD. Some people won’t tell you, even if they know.

From: AMERICAN SOCIAL HEALTH ASSOCIATION: “What are sexually transmitted diseases?” (texto dirigido a adolescentes). http://www.ashastd.org

Definición estipulada (Stipulated Definition)

Es la definición en la que se emplea un término con un propósito determinado, o bien para explicar la particular in-terpretación de un término. La interpretación que el autor realice de ese término definido, puede ser distinta de su defin-ición formal o habitual. Ej: For purposes of the present discussion, mediators are factors and processes that perpetuate renal dysfunction af-ter an initial insult of sufficient severity has occurred. They usually occur as a consequence, no matter how remote, of the initial renal damage.



Inglés

2022

123

Relaciones Contextuales

Controlling Ideas

Topic Sentences/Split Topic Sentences

Ejemplos

Supporting Sentence Detalles

Testimonios

Supporting Sentence Hechos

Estadísticas

Supporting Sentence Enumeraciones

Proceso y Cronología

Supporting Sentence Reacción en cadena

Causa y Efecto

Supporting Sentence Comparación y Contraste

Definiciones

etc.


Inglés

2022

125

APÉNDICE 6

Examen 1 (Parcial)Read the following text

Adapted from: https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/acne/symptoms-causes/syc-20368047

Acne is a skin condition that occurs when your hair follicles become plugged with oil and dead skin

cells. It often causes whiteheads, blackheads or pimples, and usually appears on the face, forehead,

chest, upper back and shoulders. Acne is most common among teenagers, though it affects people of

all ages. Effective treatments are available, but acne can be persistent. The pimples and bumps heal

slowly, and when one begins to go away, others seem to crop up.

Depending on its severity, acne can cause emotional distress and it can scar the skin. Starting the

treatment early can reduce the risk of suffering these problems.

Acne signs and symptoms vary depending on the severity of the condition:

Whiteheads (closed plugged pores)

Blackheads (open plugged pores)

Small red tender bumps (papules)

Pimples (pustules), which are papules with pus at their tips

Large, solid, painful lumps beneath the surface of the skin (nodules)

Painful, pus-filled lumps beneath the surface of the skin (cystic lesions)

When self-care remedies do not clear acne, it is recommended to see a doctor who specializes in the

skin (dermatologist). He or she can prescribe stronger medications.

A) Look at the following noun phrases, underline their heads and state their equivalent in Spanish

1) … the severity of the condition.

2) Small red tender bumps …

3) Large, solid, painful lumps beneath the surface of the skin …

4) … a doctor who specializes in the skin...

Ejercitación adicional


Inglés

2022

126

B) Dictionary use: look for these words in a dictionary. State their function in this context and give the suitable equivalent in Spanish

hair (line 1): …………………..……………..……………..…

heal (line 4): ……………………………....…………………..

stronger (line 16): …………………………………………...…

C) What do the underlined words refer to? Answer in Spanish

1. It (line 2) …………………………..……………………….………………...….....

2. one (line 5) …………..……………………………………………………….........

3. their (line 12) ............................................................................................................


1. What is acne? Where in the body does it appear?

….................................................................................................................................................

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Why is it better to start treatment early in the course of the disease?

……..................................................................................................................................................

……………………………………………………………………………………………………..

……………………………………………………………………………………………………..


Inglés

2022

127

Examen 2 (Parcial)Read the following text Heart attack: First Aids (By Mayo Clinic Staff)

A heart attack occurs when an artery that supplies oxygen to your heart muscle becomes blocked. It may cause chest pain that lasts 15 minutes or longer, or it can also be silent and produce no signs or symptoms.

Many people who experience a heart attack have warning signs hours, days or weeks in advance. The earliest warning sign of an attack may be ongoing episodes of chest pain that start when you’re physically active and are relieved by rest.

Someone having a heart attack may experience none, any or all of the following:

• Uncomfortable pressure, fullness or squeezing pain in the center of the chest lasting more than a few minutes

• Pain spreading to the shoulders, neck, jaw or arms

• Lightheadedness, fainting, sweating, nausea or shortness of breath

If you or someone else may be having a heart attack:

• Call 911 or emergency medical assistance. Do not wait for more than five minutes. If you do not have access to emergency medical services, ask a neighbour or friend to drive you to the nearest hospital.

• Chew a regular-strength aspirin. Aspirin reduces blood clotting. However, do not take aspirin if you are allergic to aspirin, have bleeding problems or take another blood-thinning medication.

• Begin CPR on the person having a heart attack, if directed. If the person suspected of having a heart attack is unconscious, a 911 dispatcher or another emergency medical specialist may advise you to begin cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). If you haven›t received CPR training, doctors recommend skipping mouth-to-mouth rescue breathing and performing only chest compressions (about 100 a minute).

• If an automated external defibrillator (AED) is available and the person›s unconscious, begin CPR while the device is retrieved and set up. Attach the device and follow instructions that will be provided by the AED after it has evaluated the person’s condition

A) Look at the following noun phrases, underline the head

1) Someone having a heart attack… 2) … another blood-thinning medication …3) Pain spreading to the shoulders, neck, jaw or arms 4) … chest pain that lasts 15 minutes or longer…

B) What do the underlined words refer to? Answer in Spanish

1. it ………………………………..……………………….………………...….....

2. that ………………………………………………….…………………….........

3. it …………………………………………………………………………………


Inglés

2022

128

C) Dictionary use: look for these words in a dictionary. State their function, and give the suitable equivalent in Spanish

earliest: ……………………………………………

reduces: …………………………..………………..

training: ……………………………………………

chest: ……………………………………………….

D) Answer the following questions in Spanish according to the text using your own words

1. When does a heart attack occur?

…. ................................................................................................................................................

………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………….

2. What signs can a heart attack show? Mention at least two

……..................................................................................................................................................

……………………………………………………………………………………………………..

……………………………………………………………………………………………………..


Inglés

2022

129

Examen 3 (Parcial)Read the following text

Adapted from: https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/milk-allergy/symptoms-causes/syc-20375101

Milk allergy is an abnormal response by the body’s immune system to milk and products containing

milk. It is one of the most common food allergies in children. Cow milk is the usual cause of milk

allergy, but milk from other mammals can also cause a reaction.

An allergic reaction usually occurs soon after consuming milk. Signs and symptoms of milk allergy

range from mild to severe and they can include hives, wheezing, itching or tingling feeling around

the lips or mouth, lips, tongue or throat swelling, coughing or shortness of breath and vomiting.

Milk allergy can also cause anaphylaxis - a severe life-threatening reaction. These symptoms, which

differ from person to person, occur a few minutes to a few hours after drinking milk or eating milk

products.

Avoiding them is the primary treatment for milk allergy. Fortunately, most children outgrow milk

allergy. Those who do not outgrow it may need to continue to avoid milk products.

A true milk allergy is different from milk protein intolerance and lactose intolerance. Unlike milk

allergy, intolerance does not involve the immune system and it requires different treatment from

true milk allergy. Common signs and symptoms of milk protein intolerance or lactose intolerance

include digestive problems, such as bloating, gas or diarrhea, after consuming milk or products

containing milk.


1) … products containing milk.

2) … a severe life-threatening reaction.

3) These symptoms, which differ from person to person,...

4) … the primary treatment for milk allergy


Inglés

2022

130


food (line 2): ………………………..……………………..…

feeling (line 5): …………………………..…………………..

requires (line 13): …….…………………………………...…


4. They (line5) …………………..……………………….………………...….....

5. them (line 9) …….……………………………………………………….........

6. Those (line 10) ..................................................................................................


1. What is milk allergy? What are some of its symptoms? (Mention at least two)

….................................................................................................................................................

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Are milk allergy and lactose intolerance the same? Please explain.

……..................................................................................................................................................

……………………………………………………………………………………………………..

……………………………………………………………………………………………………..


Inglés

2022

131

Examen 4Read the following text

Adapted from: https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/drug-addiction/symptoms-causes/syc-20365112

Drug addiction, also called substance use disorder, is a disease that affects a person’s brain and

behavior and leads to an inability to control the use of a legal or illegal drug or medication.

Substances such as alcohol, marijuana and nicotine are also considered drugs.

Drug addiction can start with experimental use of a recreational drug in social situations, and, for

some people, the drug use becomes more frequent. For others, particularly with opioids, it begins

with exposure to prescribed medications. The risk of addiction and how fast you become addicted

varies by drug. Some drugs, such as opioid painkillers, have a higher risk and cause addiction more

quickly than others.

Drug addiction symptoms or behaviors include, among others:

Feeling that you have to use the drug regularly — daily or even several times a day

Having intense urges for the drug that block out any other thoughts

Over time, needing more of the drug to get the same effect

Not meeting obligations and work responsibilities, or cutting back on social or recreational activities

because of its use

Doing things to get the drug that you normally would not do, such as stealing.

You may need help from your doctor, family, friends, support groups or an organized treatment

program to overcome your drug addiction and stay drug-free.


1) … a disease that affects a person’s brain and behavior…

2) … experimental use of a recreational drug …

3) Drug addiction symptoms …

4) … social or recreational activities...


Inglés

2022

132


drug (line 5): …………………….……..……………………..…

prescribed (line 6): …………………………..…………………..

stealing (line 15): …………………………………………...…


7. others (line 5) ………………..……………………….………………...….....

8. it (line 5) ………………..……………………………………………….........

9. its (line 14) ........................................................................................................


1. What is drug addiction? Please, mention one of its symptoms

….................................................................................................................................................

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. What is the main idea of the second paragraph?

……..................................................................................................................................................

……………………………………………………………………………………………………..

……………………………………………………………………………………………………..


Inglés

2022

133

Examen 5 (Regulares)CLASSIFICATION OF FRACTURES

We can divide fractures into two main types: “closed” (or simple) and “open” (or compound). In a closed fracture, the broken bone ends remain beneath the skin and few, if any, surrounding tissues are damaged; in an open fracture, one or both bone ends project through the skin. If the two bone ends move apart, the fracture is “displaced”; in an undisplaced fracture, the ends re-main in alignment and there is simply a crack in the bone. The cause of most fractures is a sudden injury that exerts more force on the bone than it can resist. The force can be direct, as when a finger is hit by a hammer, or indirect, as when twisting the foot exerts severe stress on the shin. Common sites of fracture include the hand, the wrist, the ankle joint, the collarbone, and the neck of the femur (thigh bone), usually as the result of a fall. Fractures are common in elderly people because they fall more and because they have fragile bones. In a fracture, there is usually swelling and tenderness at its site and, in some cases, deformity or projecting bone ends. The pain is often severe, especially if there is movement of the area.

A) Comment on these words. What is their function in the text (noun, verb, adjective, adverb) and what is their best Spanish equivalent in this context? Answer in Spanish

ends: ………………………………….............................

undisplaced: …………...…………….………………...

projecting: ………………………………….…………..

often: ………………………………………….………..


That (line 5): ………………………………………………………...…...

Its (line 10): …………….………………………………………………...

C) Are the following statements TRUE or FALSE? Justify your answers in Spanish

1. In an un-diplaced fracture the bone ends do not present any movement.

2. Fractures are not very usual at the ankle.

3. There is always deformity in a fracture.


1. What is the difference between closed and open fractures?

...................................................................................................................................................................................................

2. What causes a fracture?

...................................................................................................................................................................................................


Inglés

2022

134

Examen 6 (Regulares)Read the following text

Vitamin D promotes calcium absorption in the gut and maintains adequate serum calcium and phosphate concentrations to enable normal mineralization of bone and to prevent hypocalcemic tetany. It is also needed for bone growth and bone remod-elling by osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Without sufficient vitamin D, bones can become thin, brittle, or misshapen. Vitamin D sufficiency prevents rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults. Together with calcium, vitamin D also helps protect older adults from osteoporosis.

Vitamin D has other roles in the body, including modulation of cell growth, neuromuscular and immune function, and reduc-tion of inflammation. Many genes encoding proteins that regulate cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis are modulat-ed in part by vitamin D. Many cells have vitamin D receptors, and some convert 25(OH)D to 1,25(OH)2D.

Serum concentration of 25(OH)D is the best indicator of vitamin D status. It reflects vitamin D produced cutaneously and that obtained from food and supplements and has a fairly long circulating half-life of 15 days. 25(OH)D functions as a biomarker of exposure, but it is not clear to what extent 25(OH)D levels also serve as a biomarker of effect (i.e., relating to health status or outcomes). Serum 25(OH)D levels do not indicate the amount of vitamin D which is stored in body tissues


calcium : …………………………………….

remodelling: …………………….………….

helps: ……………………………………

cutaneously: …………………………………...


a. that (line 8) : ………………………………………………………….…...

b. which (line 15) : ……………………………………………...…………..

C) Are the following statements TRUE or FALSE? Justify your answers in Spanish

1. Vitamin D has influences upon many genes encoding proteins. ( )

2. Cells are vitamin D inhibitors. ( )

3. Serum concentration 25(OH)D is an indicator of vitamin D status. ( )

………………………………………………………………………………………………………...

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

D) Answer the following questions in Spanish according to the text using your own words


Inglés

2022

135

1. What is the role of vitamin D? What’s the consequence of a lack of vitamin D?

...................................................................................................................................................................................

2. What is 25(OH)D?

....................................................................................................................................................................................


Inglés

2022

136

Examen 7(Libres)

Read the following text

Non-communicable diseases: 2015 to 2025 ( The LancetVolume 381, No. 9866, p509–510, 16 February 2013)

In 2012, the World Health Assembly endorsed an important new health goal: to reduce avoidable mortality from non-com-municable diseases (NCDs) by 25% by 2025 (the 25 by 25 goal). Although a valuable step forward, quickly building on the UN General Assembly’s 2011 political declaration on the prevention and control of NCDs, the obstacles to achieving this goal are great and largely undiscussed, thanks to their deep political sensitivity. It remains a truth today that, despite global rhetoric and resolutions, chronic NCDs remain the least recognised group of conditions that threaten the future of human health and wellbeing. There is almost a taboo about substantively engaging with this most pressing of health predicaments.

At a highly successful meeting to discuss the future of maternal health, held in January, 2013, in Arusha, Tanzania, one doctor from Zimbabwe pointed out that although it was completely correct to place the highest possible priority on health outcomes for women during pregnancy and childbirth, she was horrified at the neglect still shown towards other causes of women’s ill-health—eg, hypertension, stroke, cancer, and asthma. She saw women daily in primary care clinics with these conditions, yet she also saw no serious commitment by donors or countries to create programmes to address these diseases and their risk factors. In her opening address to this same conference, the Minister of Health for Rwanda, Agnes Binagwaho, noted that cervical cancer now kills more women in the world than pregnancy and childbirth. Last year, The Lancet published work from 27 sub-Saharan African countries showing that maternal obesity had become a significant risk for early neonatal death.

So where are the global conferences on NCDs, the research meetings, the task forces, the grand challenges initiated by funders and foundations? They don’t exist. We, the global health community, understand that chronic diseases are a present danger to the health of our societies. Yet we are unable to translate that understanding into real political action (...) The disconnect between the reality of people’s lives in countries and the concerns of professional and political leaders has rarely been greater.


recognised : …………………..………….

health: …………………………..………..

meetings: …………………………………

rarely: ……………………………………..


Their (line 4):………………………………………………………

That (line 6): ………………………………………………………

We (line 20): …………………………………………………….....


Inglés

2022

137

C) Are the following statements true or false? Justify your answers in Spanish

1. Political factors are keeping NCDs from being properly addressed.

2. The Minister of Health for Rwanda stated that pregnancy and childbirth are still the leading causes of maternal death.

3. The gap between the knowledge of the global health community and the population’s daily lives is being successfully bridged.


1. What is the 25 by 25 goal? Why is the author skeptical about such resolutions?

............................................................................................................................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................

2. What did a doctor from Zimbabwe remark at a 2013 meeting?

..........................................................................................................................................................................

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..


Inglés

2022

138

Examen 8 (Libres)Read the following text

The Struggle for a Dependable Test for Alzheimer’s Disease (SCIENCE IN THE NEWS, written by Jerilyn Watson. VOA)

Scientists have been attempting for years to learn who may get Alzheimer’s disease. If the condition could be

identified before its worst signs appear, people might get at least temporary medical help. There is no

cure for Alzheimer’s, which steals people’s ability to care for themselves. But treatment can slow its progress.

The most widely held belief about the cause of Alzheimer’s is that a protein, beta-amyloid, builds up in patients’

brains. Large amounts of this protein may destroy a person’s ability to think. Some scientists question

whether beta-amyloid causes Alzheimer’s disease. They think that the protein build-up may result from it.

But most researchers say thick tangles or plaques of the protein are responsible for the condition. Plaques are

unusual clusters, or groups, of proteins. The researchers say beta-amyloid destroys communication links in the brain.

Among older people, Alzheimer’s is the most common form of dementia, the loss of abilities needed for

normal life. Other mental conditions may seem like Alzheimer’s. Those conditions need medical treatment

that is different from treatment for Alzheimer’s. A correct diagnosis, or identification, is important.

The best way to diagnose the disease has been a medical examination of the brain after a person dies.

Doctors say methods to test the living have presented problems, like high costs for widespread use. Public

and medical demand for a better way has been strong. Scientists have been working to produce a dependable

test for the disease in the living.

The United States’ Food and Drug Administration is considering one such method. The method

combines an examination by positron emission tomography with a drug that lights up beta-amyloid. The

PET device makes scans or images that doctors can read.

An estimated thirty million people around the world have Alzheimer’s disease. In the United States alone,

more than five million people suffer from this presently incurable brain disorder. Alzheimer’s affects

memory and personality -- those qualities that make a person an individual. At first, people with the

condition forget simple things, like where they left the keys to their car. But as time passes, they forget more

and more. They may forget what a key is used for. Patients forget the names of their husbands, wives or

children. Then they forget who they are. Finally, they remember almost nothing. It is as if their brains die

before the other parts of the body. Victims of Alzheimer’s do die from its effects or conditions linked to it.

But death may not come for many years.

Alzheimer’s generally develops differently in each person. Yet some early signs of the disease are common.

The victims may not recognize changes in themselves. They may struggle to hide them.

Probably the most common early sign is short-term memory loss. The victim cannot remember something


Inglés

2022

139

that happened yesterday, for example. Also, victims of the disease have increasing difficulty learning and

storing new information. Slowly, thinking becomes much more difficult. The victims cannot understand a joke,

or cannot cook a meal, or perform simple work.

Another sign of the disease is difficulty solving simple problems. Alzheimer’s patients might not know what to

do if food on a stove is burning. Also, people have trouble following directions or finding their way to places

they have known all their lives.

Yet another sign is struggling to find the right words to express thoughts or understand what is being discussed.

Finally, people with Alzheimer’s seem to change. Quiet people may become noisy and aggressive. They

may easily become angry and lose their ability to trust others.

Alzheimer’s disease normally affects people more than sixty-five years old. But rare cases have been

discovered in people younger than fifty. Alzheimer’s is identified in only about two percent of people who are

sixty-five. But the risk increases to about twenty percent by age eighty. By eighty-five or ninety, half of all

people are found to have some signs of the disease.

Alzheimer’s affects people of all races equally. Yet, women are more likely to develop the disease than men.

This is partly because women generally live longer than men. Patients cannot fully recover from Alzheimer’s.

But many can be helped by medicine. That is especially true if the disease is found early.


protein: ……………………………......................

living: …………………………………………….

increasing: …………………….………..………..

lose: .........…………………………………….…..


1. it : ………………………………………………………….....................

2. that ................................................................................................................

3. them : ……………………………………………………………….......


Inglés

2022

140


1. According to the article, all mental conditions should be treated in the same way as Alzheimer´s.

2. The best way to diagnose Alzheimer´s has been a medical examination of the brain after a person dies by positron emission tomography with a drug that lights up beta-amyloid.

3. One of the reasons why women are more likely to develop the disease than men is that they live longer.

.....................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

D) Answer the following questions in Spanish according to the text, using your own words

1. What is beta-amyloid? Explain its connection with Alzheimer´s disease.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

2. Describe at least five signs of the disease.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….


Inglés

2022

141

Examen 9 (Libres)


Hearing loss: an important global health concern (From: The Lancet Volume 387, No. 10036, p2351, 11 June 2016)

“Deafness separates people from people”, said the deaf-blind American author Helen Keller. Hearing loss can have profound ef-fects not only on interpersonal communication, but also on health, independence, wellbeing, quality of life, and daily function. In 2012, WHO estimated that 360 million people (5•3% of the world’s population) were living with disabling hearing loss, while around 15% of the world’s adult population had some degree of hearing loss. Disabling hearing loss is unequally distributed across the world, with the greatest burden in the Asia-Pacific area, southern Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa. Despite the fact that hearing loss can be prevented and treated, many people with hearing loss in both resource-poor and high-income settings do not seek or receive hearing health care, and the current production of hearing aids meets less than 10% of the global need.

Recognising the high unmet need of hearing health care in the USA, on June 2, the American National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine issued a new report—Hearing Health Care for Adults: Priorities for Improving Access and Afford-ability. Establishing hearing loss as an important public health and societal concern is one of the key messages of the report, whereby hearing loss should no longer be regarded as an individual problem, but must be addressed by actions at multiple levels engaging individuals and families, the health-care community, non-profit organisations, industries, and government. The report identifies the major barriers to widespread use of hearing health care, including the high costs of hearing health care, lack of insurance coverage, the stigma associated with hearing difficulties and wearing hearing aids, and limited awareness of hearing health and the range of available options. Notably, nearly all of the costs of hearing health care are covered by the individual in the USA. Navigating the hearing health-care system can be confusing and frustrating for people living with hearing loss, as they can be left with no clear guidance on what will best fit their financial, health, social, and hearing needs, as pointed out by Dan G Blazer, chair of the Committee on Accessible and Affordable Hearing Health Care for Adults.

Accordingly, 12 recommendations to guide and mobilise the efforts of all the relevant stakeholders in the hearing health-care system are highlighted in the report. For instance, all the relevant agencies of hearing health care need to collaborate to improve population-based information on hearing loss and hearing health care, to develop and promote measures to assess and improve quality of hearing health-care services, and to empower consumers and patients in their use of hearing health care. Further-more, the report acknowledges that evidence on the effectiveness of interventions and outcome evaluation are strikingly absent, and proposes a series of research needs and priorities such as randomised controlled clinical trials evaluating the efficacy of hearing aids and well-designed longitudinal population-based studies that adequately control for confounders to determine the effect of hearing loss on individuals, families, and society.


wellbeing: ……………………………............ highlighted: …………………….………..………..

strikingly: …………………………………… needs: ……………………………………………..


1. they: …………………………………………………………..............

2. their: ………………………………………………………………......

3. that: ………………………………………………………………......


Inglés

2022

142


1. The production of hearing aids has raised by 10% globally.

2. The report points out that the issue of hearing loss has been widely researched.

3. According to the report health care agencies should contribute information about hearing loss and hearing health care.

...........................................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................................................


1.- What has WHO informed as regards hearing loss in 2012? Which areas are most affected?

............................................................................................................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

.........................................

…………………………………………………………...……………………………………………

2. What is one of the most important issues pointed out by American June 2 report mentioned in the text? List three of the major obstacles for accessing hearing health care.

............................................................................................................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................


Inglés

2022

143

Examen 10 (Libres)


Will China make the great leap in tobacco control in 2015? (The Lancet, Volume 385, No. 9983, p2122, 30 May 2015)

As the world’s largest producer and consumer of tobacco, China is becoming more aggressive in tobacco control this year. In April, China’s legislature adopted an amendment to the 21-year-old advertisement law to ban tobacco advertisements in mass media, public transport, and public spaces. From May 10, China’s consumption tax on the wholesale price of cigarettes was raised from 5% to 11%—the first increase since 2009. On June 1, Beijing’s smoke-free law—one of the toughest tobacco control regulations in China—will come into effect. All indoor public places in Beijing, and many outdoor public places, including kin-dergartens, schools, and hospitals, will legally be required to be 100% smoke-free. Unlike previous regulations, the new Beijing law has teeth, including stringent fines for individuals and businesses that flout the law. With the implementation of this latest piece of legislation, a nationwide smoking ban is on the way.

These steps are vital to accelerate implementation of the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) in China. However, the major barrier for China’s tobacco control is not lack of tough regulations, but “interference by the tobacco indus-try”, as Gonghuan Yang and colleagues recently pointed out in The Lancet. China’s State Tobacco Monopoly Administration is in charge of tobacco product sales and is also responsible for tobacco control, which has been widely acknowledged as a serious conflict of interest. Worryingly, low-tar cigarettes were promoted as less harmful to health than regular cigarettes by the Admin-istration in the name of implementing the FCTC. Additionally, the extent of the latest tax hike is only modest and the increase needs to be passed on from wholesale to retail prices. Furthermore, public awareness of the health hazards of tobacco remains poor in China, and the present text-only Chinese health warnings on cigarette packaging are ineffective.

To make a giant leap forward in China’s tobacco control, and hence achieve improved health and life expectancy for its people, China can and must go even further. A bold reform—separating governmental tobacco control activities completely from the tobacco industry—is an essential next step.


tobacco: …………………………….........

recently: …………………………..…………….

warnings: ………………………………………..

improved: ………………………………………..


1. That: …………………………………………………………............

2. Which: ………………………………………………………...

3. It: ………………………………………………………...


1. China is the first world-wide tobacco producer.

2. Tax increases have strongly impacted retail prices.

3. China’s population is highly aware of the health risks that tobacco consumption entails.

................................................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................................


Inglés

2022

144


1. Describe the regulations that China has implemented in April, May and June of 2015

...............................................................................................................................................................................

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. What is China’s biggest obstacle towards tobacco control? Why is there a conflict of interests?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Examen 11 (Libres)


Medical management with or without interventional therapy for unruptured brain arteriovenous malformations (ARU-BA): a multicentre, non-blinded, randomised trial

Prof J P Mohr MD a *, Prof Michael K Parides PhD b *, Prof Christian Stapf MD a c d * , Ellen Moquete RN b, Claudia S Moy PhD g,Jessica R Overbey MS b, Prof Rustam Al-Shahi Salman FRCP h, Prof Eric Vicaut MD f, Prof William L Young MD i †, Prof Emmanuel Houdart MD e, Prof Charlotte Cordonnier MD j, Prof Marco A Stefani MD k, Andreas Hartmann MD l m, Prof Rüdiger von KummerMD n, Prof Alessandra Biondi MD o, Prof Joachim Berkefeld MD p, Catharina J M Klijn MD q, Kirsty Harkness MD r, Richard LibmanMD s, Xavier Barreau MD t, Prof Alan J Moskowitz MD b, for the international ARUBA investigators‡

The Lancet, Early Online Publication, 20 November 2013

doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)62302-8Cite or Link Using DOI

This article can be found in the following collections: Neurology (Cerebrovascular disease)

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved.

Summary

Background

The clinical benefit of preventive eradication of unruptured brain arteriovenous malformations remains uncertain. A Ran-domised trial of Unruptured Brain Arteriovenous malformations (ARUBA) aims to compare the risk of death and symptomatic stroke in patients with an unruptured brain arteriovenous malformation who are allocated to either medical management alone or medical management with interventional therapy.

Methods

Adult patients (≥18 years) with an unruptured brain arteriovenous malformation were enrolled into this trial at 39 clinical sites in nine countries. Patients were randomised (by web-based system, in a 1:1 ratio, with random permuted block design [block size 2, 4, or 6], stratified by clinical site) to medical management with interventional therapy (i.e., neurosurgery, embolisation, or stereotactic radiotherapy, alone or in combination) or medical management alone (i.e., pharmacological therapy for neuro-logical symptoms as needed). Patients, clinicians, and investigators are aware of treatment assignment. The primary outcome is time to the composite endpoint of death or symptomatic stroke; the primary analysis is by intention to treat. This trial is regis-tered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT00389181.

Findings

Randomisation was started on April 4, 2007, and was stopped on April 15, 2013, when a data and safety monitoring board appointed by the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke of the National Institutes of Health recommend-ed halting randomisation because of superiority of the medical management group (log-rank Z statistic of 4·10, exceeding the prespecified stopping boundary value of 2·87). At this point, outcome data were available for 223 patients (mean follow-up 33·3 months [SD 19·7]), 114 assigned to interventional therapy and 109 to medical management. The primary endpoint had been reached by 11 (10·1%) patients in the medical management group compared with 35 (30·7%) in the


Inglés

2022

145

interventional therapy group. The risk of death or stroke was significantly lower in the medical management group than in the interventional therapy group (hazard ratio 0·27, 95% CI 0·14—0·54). No harms were identified, other than a higher number of strokes (45 vs 12, p<0·0001) and neurological deficits unrelated to stroke (14 vs 1, p=0·0008) in patients allocated to interventional therapy compared with medical management.

Interpretation

The ARUBA trial showed that medical management alone is superior to medical management with interventional therapy for the prevention of death or stroke in patients with unruptured brain arteriovenous malformations followed up for 33 months. The trial is continuing its observational phase to establish whether the disparities will persist over an additional 5 years of fol-low-up.

Funding

National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke.


remains: ……………………………..…............ higher: …………………….………..……………….

treatment: ……………………………………… unruptured: …………………………………….…..


1. when (line 14): ………………………………………………………….....................

2. its (line 28): …………….…………………………………………………………......


1. The subjects of this trial where patients aged eighteen and older.

2. Randomisation lasted more than a decade.

3. Both groups of patients had the same risks of death or stroke.

.................................................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................................................

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….


1. What was the objective of this trial? How were patients randomized?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

2. Why was randomisation stopped? What did the ARUBA trial show?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….


Inglés

2022

147

APÉNDICE 7

ESCALA DE AUTOEVALUACIÓN (para todas las fichas):

1= insuficiente (I ), necesito más práctica 4= bien(B)

2= regular (R), necesito más práctica 5= muy bien(MB)

3= bastante bien(BB)

UNIDAD 1

I) Ponga una tilde (√) en la casilla que corresponda:

1- Puedo diferenciar las distintas categorías de palabras.

1 2 3 4 5

2- Puedo reconocer un sustantivo.

1 2 3 4 5

3- Puedo diferenciar un sustantivo en singular de uno en plural.

1 2 3 4 5

4- Puedo reconocer prefijos y sufijos.

1 2 3 4 5

4- Puedo comprender e interpretar la información que me brinda cada entrada de un diccionario.

1 2 3 4 5

5- Puedo seleccionar el equivalente correspondiente al realizar mi búsqueda en un diccionario.

1 2 3 4 5

II) Ahora sume el total de tildes (√ ) 1,2,3,4, 5, y marque la cantidad de c/u en la escala. ¿Qué tan bien le fue?

1 2 3 4 5

Fichas de auto evaluación


Inglés

2022

148

UNIDAD 2.


1- Puedo reconocer una frase nominal.

1 2 3 4 5

2- Puedo reconocer a todos los elementos que la componen (sustantivo, adjetivo, artículo, etc)

1 2 3 4 5

3- Puedo reconocer cuando un sustantivo modifica a otro e interpretarlos correctamente.

1 2 3 4 5

4- Puedo reconocer a un adjetivo comparativo y uno superlativo.

1 2 3 4 5

5- Puedo reconocer un pronombre.

1 2 3 4 5

6- Puedo sustituir un nombre propio, sustantivo común y frase nominal por su pronombre correspondiente.

1 2 3 4 5

7- Puedo reconocer el verbo “to be” en Presente Simple y en Pasado Simple.

1 2 3 4 5

8- Puedo identificar cuándo una palabra con terminación –ING tiene valor de sustantivo (pág. 153).

1 2 3 4 5


1 2 3 4 5

UNIDADES 3 y 4


1- Puedo identificar las preposiciones.

1 2 3 4 5


Inglés

2022

149

2- Puedo identificar las estructuras que pos-modifican a un sustantivo.

1 2 3 4 5

3- Puedo reconocer un verbo en Presente Simple y en Presente Continuo y distinguir cuando la terminación –ING es un participio presente, un adjetivo o un sustantivo.

1 2 3 4 5

4- Sé cómo buscar en el diccionario un verbo en tercera persona del singular (he, she, it) en el Presente Simple (ej. goes, watches, tries, starts)

1 2 3 4 5

5- Puedo distinguir cuando la terminación –ES/-IES es parte de un sustantivo en plural o de un verbo en tercera persona del singular en Presente Simple.

1 2 3 4 5

7- Puedo identificar cuándo una palabra con terminación –ING tiene valor de adjetivo y se puede parafrasear por una cláusu-la con operador y verbo conjugado (pág. 153).

1 2 3 4 5


1 2 3 4 5

UNIDADES 5 y 6


1- Puedo distinguir el verbo HAVE/HAS en el Presente Simple y como parte del Presente Perfecto.

1 2 3 4 5

2- Puedo reconocer pronombres demostrativos e indefinidos simples y compuestos.

1 2 3 4 5

3- Puedo identificar la función de distintos tipos de palabra como el sustantivo, el verbo el adjetivo, y el adverbio, en una oración.

1 2 3 4 5


Inglés

2022

150

4- Puedo comprender el significado de los pronombres interrogativos más comunes.

1 2 3 4 5

5- Puedo reconocer los verbos modales y comprender sus significados.

1 2 3 4 5

6- Puedo distinguir a un adjetivo con terminación –ED de un verbo en Pasado o Participio Pasado ya sea como parte del Presente Perfecto o de la Voz Pasiva.

1 2 3 4 5

7- Puedo reconocer los distintos tiempos verbales, pasado, presente y futuro, en voz activa y en voz pasiva.

1 2 3 4 5


1 2 3 4 5

UNIDADES 7 y 8


1- Puedo distinguir oraciones simples, compuestas y complejas.

1 2 3 4 5

2- Puedo reconocer los conectores e interpretar las relaciones lógicas que establecen.

1 2 3 4 5

3- Puedo interpretar los distintos condicionales.

1 2 3 4 5

4- Puedo detectar casos especiales en el orden de las palabras dentro de una oración.

1 2 3 4 5

5- Puedo integrar todos los conceptos adquiridos durante el cursado y aplicarlos correctamente.

1 2 3 4 5


Inglés

2022

151

6- Puedo comprender la idea general de un texto científico aunque no entienda cada palabra.

1 2 3 4 5

7- Puedo expresar con mis palabras la idea principal de un texto.

1 2 3 4 5


1 2 3 4 5

REFERENCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS

DICCIONARIOS

A.A.V.V.: “Diccionario Mosby de términos médicos” Inglés-Español/Español-Inglés. Times Mirror International, 1994.

A.A.V.V.: “Diccionario de términos Médicos”. Mosby/Doyma, España, 1998.

A.A.V.V.: “Oxford Superlex for Windows. English/Spanish Dictionary”. Oxford University Press, England, 1996.

A.A.V.V.: “Stedman’s Electronic Medical Dictionary”. Williams & Wilkins, USA,1996.

BABCOCK GOVE P.: “Webster’s Third International Dictionary”. Merriam-Webster, USA, 1993.

CHAPLIN J.P.: “Dictionary of Psychology”. Dell, USA, 1970.

COURTNEY R.: “Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs”. Longman, England, 1984.

GÁMEZ T.de: “Diccionario Internacional Simon & Schuster”. Macmillan, USA.

NAVARRO F.A.: “Diccionario Crítico de dudas inglés-español de medicina”. Mc.Graw-Hill Interamericana, España, 2000.

RUIZ ALBRETCH E. et al.: “Diccionario de Términos Médicos” 9ª edición revisada y ampliada. Zirtabe, España, 1999.

SUMMERS D. et al.: “Dictionary of Contemporary English” 2nd edition. Longman, England, 1990.

UVAROV E.B. et al.: “Dictionary of Science”. Penguin, USA, 1986.

TEXTOS TEÓRICOS

ARNAUDET M.L. et al.: “Paragraph Development”. Prentice Hall, USA, 1981.

ASRIN L.A: “Inglés Médico”. El Galeno, Córdoba, Argentina, 2000.

BIBER D. et al.: “Grammar of Spoken and Written English”. Longman, UK, 1999.

COOK G.: “Discourse”. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1999.

ESTAIRE S. et al.: “Planning Classwork”. Heinemann, Oxford, 1998.

GLENDINNING E.H. et al.: “English in Medicine” 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press, UK, 1997.

GREENHALGH T.: “Medicine Today”. Longman, UK, 1996.

LEGORBURU et al.: “Traducción Inglés-Castellano para la Ciencia y la Técnica” 2ª edición. Plus Ultra, Bs. As., 1980.

MACLEAN J.: “English in Basic Medical Science”. Oxford University Press, UK, 1995.

MARTÍNEZ C. et al.: “Proyecto de Especialización Académica en el Área Salud para Traductores” IV Congreso Latinoamer-


Inglés

2022

152

icano de Interpretación y Traducción. Colegio de Traductores Públicos de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, 2003.

MOODY H.L.B.: “Varieties of English”. Longman, England, 1983.

O’BRIEN T. et al.: “Nucleus English for Science and Technology” (Medicine). Longman, UK, 1980.

SALKIE R.: “Text and Discourse Analysis”. Routledge, London, 1997.

WALLACE ROBINETT B.: “Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages”. University of Minnesota, Mc.Graw-Hill Interna-tional, USA, 1978.

PUBLICACIONES MÉDICAS

AHLBORG H.G. et al.: “Bone Loss and Bone Size after Menopause” Abstract. The New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 349:327-334, Nº 4, 2003.

ALBERTS M.J.: “Genetics of Cerebrovascular Disease”. Futura, USA, 1999.

AMERICAN SOCIAL HEALTH ASSOCIATION: “What are sexually transmitted diseases?” http: //www. ashastd.org

ATKIN P.A.: “Candida induced stomatopyrosis” Letters. British Dental Journal, Vol.195, Nº 2, 2003.

BALOH R.W. et al.: “A Longitudinal Study of Gait and Balance Dysfunction in Normal Older People” Original Contribution, abstract. JAMA, Arch Neurol, 60:835-839, Nº 6, 2003.

BARATTI-MAYER D.: “Noma. An illness devouring both beauty and life” Lancet Infectious Diseases 3: 419-31, 2003.

BERRY R.J. et al.: “Prevention of neural-Tube Defects with Folic Acid in China” The New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 341: 1485-1490, Nº 20, 1999.

BRAMBILLA P. et al.: “GABAergic dysfunction in mood disorders” Nature. Molecular Psychiatry, Vol.8: 721-737, Nº 8, 2003.

BROWN S.M.: “Essentials of Medical Genomics” The New England Journal of Medicine, Vol.349:409-410, Nº 4, 2003.

BUTCHER J.: “Cognitive enhancement raises ethical concerns” Feature. The Lancet, Vol.362:132-133, Nº 9378, 2003.

CLELAND J.G.F. et al.: “Myocardial viability as a determinant of the ejection fraction response to carvedilol in patients with heart failure (CHRISTMAS trial): randomised controlled trial” Original Research. The Lancet, 362: 9377, 2003.

CUSPIDI C. et al.: “Awareness of hypertension guidelines in primary care: results of a regionwide survey in Italy” Original Article. Nature Journal of Human Hypertension, 17:541-547, Nº 8, 2003.

DAVENPORT C.F. et al.: “The effectiveness of routine dental checks: a systematic review of the evidence base” British Dental Journal, Vol.195, Nº 2, 2003.

FARRELL R.J.: “Epidermal Growth Factor for Ulcerative Colitis” The New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 349: 395-397, Nº 4.

FEDERAL REGISTER: “Considerations for Antiretroviral Therapy in HIV-Infected Pregnant Women” Draft Document.

FEDERAL REGISTER: “Use of Testing for Plasma HIV RNA Levels and CD4+ T cell count in guiding decisions for therapy” Draft Document

GARZINO-DEMO A et al.: “8-Chemokines and Protection from HIV type 1 disease” AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, Vol. 14: S-177-S-184, Sup. 2, 1998.

GOLDEN M.P. et al.: “Cytomegalovirus Vasculitis. Case Reports and Reviews of the Literature” Medicine, 73: 246-255, Nº 6, 1994.

GREENWOOD M., MEECHAN J.G.: “General medicine and surgery for dental practitioners” Part 5: Liver disease. British Dental Journal, Vol. 195: 71-73, Nº 2, 2003.

GUSTAFSON D. et al.: “An 18-Year Follow-Up of Overweight and Risk of Alzheimer’s Disease” Archives of Internal Medicine, 163:1524, 2003.

HOFMEYR G.J., KULIER R.: “Abdominal decompression in normal pregnancy” Abstract. The Cochrane Library, Issue 3, 2003 (Co-chrane Review).

HOLBROOK W.P., ÁRNADÓTTIR I.B.: “Prevention. Part 3: Prevention of tooth wear” British Dental Journal, practice, Vol. 195, Nº 2, Series Editor Kay, E.J. XXX, 2003.

HÜBNER, K., SCHÖLER, H.: “Eggs made from embryos. Reprogramming step towards safer reproductive cloning” Nature News Service/Macmillan Magazines, 2003.


Inglés

2022

153

JAMES J.: “Oral Soft tissue diseases: a reference manual for diagnosis and management”. British Dental Journal, Vol. 195: 114-115, Nº 2, 2003.

KELLMAN R.M.: “Endoscopically Assisted Repair of Subcondylar Fractures of the Mandible. An Evolving Technique” Surgical Tech-nique. JAMA Arch Facial Plast Surg, 5:244-250, Nº 3, 2003.

KYRIACOU D.N. et al.: “Risk Factors for Injury to Women from Domestic Violence” Special Article. The New England Journal of Medicine, 341: 1892-1897, Nº 25.

LAZARIDOU-TERZOUDI T., KIYAK H.A. et al.: “Long-term assessment of psychologic outcomes of orthognathic surgery” Ab-stracts, British Dental Journal, Vol. 195:83, Nº 2, 2003.

LOUSADA I.: “A Patient´s Experience” MYELOMA TODAY, Vol. 3, Nº 2, 1998.

MILLER L.C.: “Caring for Internationally Adopted Children” Editorials. The New England Journal of Medicine, 341: 1539-1540, Nº 20, 1999.

MOSS R.B. et al.: “A Primer on HIV TYPE I - Specific Immune Function and Remune” AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, Vol. 14: 167-175, Sup. 2, 1998.

NAUMANN M. et al. (for the Hyperhidrosis Clinical Investigators Group.): “Botulinum Toxin Type A Is a Safe and Effective Treatment for Axillary Hyperhidrosis Over 16 Months. A Prospective Study” JAMA Arch Dermatol,139:731-736, Nº 6, 2003.

WILKINSON C., ENKIN M.W.: “Absorbable staples for uterine incision at caesarean section” (Cochrane Review) Abstract. The Cochrane Library, Issue 3, 2003.

OYAMA N. et al.: “Autoantibodies to extracellular matrix protein 1 in lichen sclerosus” MECHANISMS OF DISEASE. The Lancet, Vol. 362:118-123, Nº 9378, 2003.

PAVITT S. et.al.: “Looking into osteoporosis” news. British Dental Journal, Vol. 195:68, Nº 2, 2003.

POOLE-WILSON P.A. et al. (for the COMET investigators): “Comparison of carvedilol and metoprolol on clinical outcomes in patients with chronic heart failure in the Carvedilol Or Metoprolol European Trial (COMET): randomised controlled trial” The Lancet Archives, Vol. 362, Nº 9377, 2003.

PRENDIVILLE W.J. et al.: “Active versus expectant management in the third stage of labour” (Cochrane Review) Abstract. The Cochrane Library, Issue 3, 2003.

ROTHENBERG R.E.: “The Medical Guidebook written especially for the general reader”. Penguin, USA, 1992.

PULSIFER M.B. et al.: “Developmental, Audiological, and Speech Perception Functioning in Children After Cochlear Implant Sur-gery” JAMA Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med., 157:552-558, Nº 6, 2003.

SAVARIA MORRIS M.: “Homocysteine and Alzheimer’s disease” Rapid Review. The Lancet, Vol. 2, Nº 7, 2003.

SHARMA M.P. et al.: “Amebiasis” The New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 349:307-308, Nº 3, 2003.

SMITH C.A. et al. : “Acupuncture for induction of labour” (Cochrane Review) Abstract. The Cochrane Library, Issue 3. http: //www.update-software.com/

STAMLER J.S.: “Hemoglobin and Nitric Oxide” Correspondence. New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 349: 402-405, Nº4, 2003.

THÉRIAULT J.: “Sexual and Non-Sexual Intimacy in Romantic Relationships during Late Adolescence: the Role of the Moth-er-Daughter Relationship” Electronic Journal of Human Sexuality, Vol. 6, 2003. http: //www. ejhs.org (Previously presented at the 44th Annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality, November 8, 2002.

VALENTINE F.T. et al.: “Lymphocyte Proliferative Resposes to HIV Anbtigens as a Potential Measure of Immunological Reconstitu-tion in HIV Disease” AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, Vol.14: S-161-S-166, Sup. 2, 1998.

WINTER GRIFFITH H.: “Complete Guide to Symptoms, Illness and Surgery” 2nd Ed. The Body Press, USA, 1989.

WOLFFE J.: “Web-based learning” Letters. British Dental Journal, Vol. 195, Nº 2, 2003.

XU K. et al.: “Household catastrophic health expenditure: a multicountry analysis” Articles. The Lancet, Vol. 362: 111-117, Nº 9378, 2003.

YANG J.Z. et al.: “Association study of neuregulin 1 gene with schizophrenia”. Original Research.

YU H.T.: “Progression of Chronic Renal Failure” Abstract. JAMA Arch Intern Med. 163:1417-1429, 2003.

cuaderno-del-alumno-2022.pdf - WordPress.com

Documents

Transcript of cuaderno-del-alumno-2022.pdf - WordPress.com