Promotion of good cropping techniques to

mitigate the impact of droughts on small-scale

farming: the case of Mozambique

PGDD 521 PEC-Research Project

OBUSENG, B 20966350

Study Leader: Miss K. Fourie

Co-Study Leader: Mr. Bradley Shoroma

17 November 2014

Table of Contents1. Abstract and summary............................................22. Introduction....................................................3

3. Problem Statement...............................................44. Research Questions..............................................5

5. Research Objectives.............................................66. Central theoretical statement...................................6

7. Research methodology............................................77.1 Literature review............................................7

7.2 Empirical Study..............................................87.2.1 Research setting.........................................8

7.2.2 Sampling.................................................87.2.3 Data collection..........................................9

7.2.4 Data Analysis............................................97.4.5 Ethical considerations...................................9

7.2.6 Limitations of study....................................118. Layout of the chapters.........................................11

Chapter 2: Literature Overview....................................132.1 Introduction..................................................13

2.2 Drought.......................................................132.2.1 Types of Drought..........................................15

2.2.1.1 Meteorological Drought................................152.2.1.2. Hydrological drought.................................15

2.2.1.3 Agricultural Drought..................................152.3 The Impact of drought on small scale farming................16

2.3.1 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF DROUGHT.........................18

2.3.2 SOCIAL IMPACT OF DROUGHT................................182.4 Small scale farming.........................................18

2.5. Cropping techniques as risk reduction measure..............192.6 Cropping techniques used for drought mitigation.............20

2.6.1 Mixed cropping..........................................202.6.2 Crop rotation...........................................20

2.6.3 Drip or micro irrigation................................212.6.4 Water storage...........................................22

2.6.5 Recycling of waste-water................................232.6.6 Row Planting............................................23

2.6.7 Minimum tillage.........................................232.6.8 Mulching................................................24

3. Cropping techniques used in Mozambique.........................244. Conclusion.....................................................26

Chapter Three.....................................................263.1 Introduction..................................................26

3.2. Demographics.................................................263.3 Empirical Study...............................................28

Chapter 4.........................................................304. Introduction...................................................30

4.2 The research objectives as outlined in Chapter 1 for this study were as follows:..................................................31

4.3 Recommendations...............................................314.3.1 Recommendation in terms of early warning systems and educational awareness programs..................................314.3.2 Ploughing period..........................................32

4.3.3 Crops.....................................................334.3.4 Water storage.............................................33

4.4 Conclusion....................................................348. Bibliography...................................................35

1. Abstract and summary

Drought is one of the world’s most common disasters that affect a

very large number of people every year (Wilhite, 2000:18). The

majority of African countries derive their livelihood from

agriculture, which is the largest economic activity in the continent

(Mbilinyi et al, 2013:12). According to food and agriculture

organisation (FAO, 2014:1) African countries such as Mozambique,

encounter regular periods of food insecurity caused by seasonal

flooding and drought.

The aim of this report is to promote good cropping techniques to

mitigate the impact of droughts on small-scale farming: the case of

Mozambique. The negative effects of drought can be partially

mitigated by using appropriate cropping techniques in order to

create a favourable crop growing environment that will result in

optimum yield for the crops, this can be achieved through timely

farm operations that protect soil and facilitate plants growth and

adequate plant nutrition’s (FAO, 2013:9).

A thorough literature review was conducted to provide a theoretical

overview of good cropping techniques that can be used to mitigate

drought on small scale farming in Mozambique. The aim of a

literature review was to provide insight into previous work, to

situate and locate the research project and outline its context and

to show that the researchers have been selective and critical in

listing only relevant research findings (Fox, 2007:35).

Off all cropping techniques used it has been discovered that the

least effective cropping technique was crop

rotation .Recommendations were given to try help the farmers make

better choices when planning crops such as; rather than planting

crops that demand high level of precipitation farmers should plant

crops that are drought resistant or short cycle crops during the

period of drought.

Keywords: Drought, mitigate, Cropping techniques, Mozambique, Small

scale farming, natural hazards, impact

2. Introduction

Agriculture is the backbone of Africa's economy; it has been seen by

various developmental agencies as a driving tool to reduce

continental poverty as well as to accomplish millennium development

goals (SATATSSA, 2010:2).  This view is supported by Mokwunye

(2010:5) who indicated that in 2008 Africa’s population, which is

mostly rural, topped the 976 million mark. For the majority of these

inhabitants agriculture is the main source of livelihood. The

underperformance of this important sector especially in Sub-Saharan

Africa is due to the facts that between 1990 and 1992, the number of

chronically undernourished people was 173 million (Mokwunye,2010:5).

During 1997-1999, this number increased to 250 million. In 2000,

Africa spent USD 18.7 billion on food import (Mokwunye, 2010:6). The

desire to eliminate the pervasive hunger and malnutrition in Africa

as well as the necessity to reduce the high outlays for food import

became the driving motive for the adoption of the Comprehensive

Africa Agriculture, which is a sustainable farming plan which aims

at utilising available resources to enhance agricultural outputs

(Mokwunye, 2010:6). Even though agriculture remains a prominent

source of livelihoods in Africa, the impact of climate change and

detrimental environmental human activities are becoming a worrying

factor especially to Mozambique’s agriculture.

Mozambique as part of the African continent also depends on

agriculture for its development. According to Mozambique’s

Agricultural Survey (IOF, 2008:2), agriculture accounts for 23 % of

the country’s gross domestic product and more than 75 % of the

workforce is employed in this sector (National Institute of

Statistics, 2012). Even though agriculture remains the backbone of

the Mozambican economy, it is very fragile to natural hazards and

depends on climate. Climate change has negatively impacted the

country’s outputs coupled with low precipitation which has resulted

in droughts (Fradin, 21983:25). According to Fradin (1983:24)

drought occurs when rainfall dropped below normal for a prolonged

period of time in a given area.  This doesn’t mean the area gets no

rain, but it means that not enough rain falls at the right time to

support life. Furthermore, droughts leave scars on the land that

takes years to recover, soil also becomes eroded. Hunger is the

immediate problem for those involved in drought. Without water,

crops and cattle as well as people are left with little or nothing

to consume (Fradin, 983:26).

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)

has a mandate to support the integration of globally formulated and

approved principles and commitments into member state policies and

programmes resulting from summits and international conferences on

food security and sustainable rural development (FAO, 2010:1). FAO

has been active in Mozambique since 1979, carrying out integrated

projects and activities designed to reduce poverty and improve the

country’s food security. According to FAO (20012:2) there is a need

not only to prepare and deal with acute, life threatening disasters,

but there is an urgent need to build farmers’ resilience to climatic

shocks, stemming the tide of hunger and loss of livelihoods. The FAO

believes that by reducing and mitigating climate and disaster risks

using appropriate technologies and improved farming practices, not

only can we reduce the risk of crop losses due to climate shocks,

but yields can also be stabilised and even increased. Resource bases

can also be protected and nurtured to support sufficient nutritious

food production for all in an uncertain future (FAO, 2012:4).

3. Problem Statement

The majority of African countries derive their livelihood from

agriculture which is the largest economic activity in the continent

according to Mbilinyi et al., (2013:12). Mozambique is one of the least

developing countries in Africa .The country is experiencing the

devastating effects of the increasing frequency of drought on

agricultural livelihoods in rural areas (Brida et al,2003:520).

Mozambique’s three main rivers, namely the Limpopo, the Save and the

Zambezi play a critical role in the occurrence of drought affecting

the most vulnerable communities living along their banks ( Brida et al

., 2013:5).

According to the FAO (2014:1) regular periods of food insecurity are

caused by seasonal flooding at the Zambezi river and drought .The

country has 46% of land that can be used for agricultural purposes,

but only 14 % of land is  is utilized. Maize and Cassava production

accounts for 6% of the country's GDP (FAO, 2014:3).

As shown in Figure 1.1 below, drought has a big impact on the

agricultural sector in Mozambique and it is clear that drought is

affecting the whole country.  

Figure 1.1. Damages to crops from droughts in Mozambique (Fox et

al., 2007:5)

The common climate change related hazards experienced by farmers and

affected crop production is drought. According to Mbilinyi et al

(2013:12) farmers indicated that they have observed changes in

rainfall seasons and the pattern and temperature are higher in some

areas than they were before and incidents of extreme events such as

floods and drought have increased.

The negative effects of drought can be partially mitigated by using

appropriate cropping techniques in order to create a favourable crop

growing environment that will result in optimum yield for the crops;

this can be achieved through timely farm operations that protect

soil and facilitate plants growth and adequate plant nutrition. To

mitigate the negative impacts of drought, crop husbandry practices

aimed at protecting the soil, such as minimum or no tillage, pit

planting, packing of soil, crop and fertilizer management practices

can improve the structure of the soil and reduce the amount of water

lost through evaporation (FAO, 2013:9).

The main objective of this study is to investigate how good cropping

techniques can be implemented to reduce the impact of drought among

small scale farmers in Mozambique.

4. Research Questions

3.1. What impact does drought have on small-scale farmers?

3.2. Which cropping techniques are currently being used in

Mozambique?

3.3. In what way can cropping techniques reduce the risk of losses

during a drought?

3.4. Are the cropping techniques used by small scale farmers in

Mozambique effective in mitigating the effect of drought?

3.5. What recommendations can be made to small-scale farming

regarding cropping techniques to mitigate natural hazards like

drought?

5. Research Objectives.

4.1 To determine what are the impact of drought on small-scale

farmers in Mozambique

4.2 To determine which cropping techniques can be used to mitigate

the impact of drought

4.3. To determine which cropping techniques are used by small scale

farmers to mitigate the impact of drought in Mozambique.

4.4. To determine if the cropping techniques are effective to

mitigate drought on small-scale farmers in Mozambique.

4.5. To make recommendations on how good cropping techniques can be

used to solve the impact of drought on small scale farmers in

Mozambique.

6. Central theoretical statement

Global economic changes and climate change are affecting the context

under which farmers throughout the developing world, such as

Mozambique, participate in the agricultural sector. Mozambique is

one of the few countries with a disaster database that

systematically records drought losses (INGC, 2010). Since 1990,

drought events damaged 8 million hectares of crops, which half of

them have been completely destroyed, and affected 11.5 million

people (Leichenko, 2001).

According to Brien (2011) International organisations reporting on

drought losses undermines the visibility of drought risk and the

political and economic imperative for reduction, and also hides the

significant implications for livelihoods of small-scale farmers. In

drought planning is essential to have an adequate understanding of

the water supply sources (Brein, 2011).

Many cropping techniques can be used to mitigate the effects of

drought on small scale farming (ISO 9001:2008). Soil and

conservation practices can minimize disruption of soil’s structure,

natural biodiversity and its composition which reduce erosion and

the degradation of soil, water and pollution, and surface runoff.

Practices of soil and water conservation such as crop rotation,

terracing, erosion-control structures, litter managements, tillage

practices, windbreaks and shelterbelts are techniques that mitigate

drought for productive cropping (ISO 9001:2008).

To promote crop production systems, certain measures are needed

which include risk reduction and systems that are sustainable and to

increase abilities to cope with drought. Furthermore results can

also be enhanced through stabilizing and increasing of crop

production techniques such as seeded preparation, improved planting

material, row planting and mono-cropping, moisture conservation

practises (dripping irrigation), crop rotation, and soil fertility

improvement are needed (FAO: 2004).

It is necessary to develop or find appropriate techniques for

agriculture in every region of the world. In these cases, even

inexpensive and simple innovations can be revolutionary. This is why

dry farming techniques such as strip cropping, summer flow, mulches

and plowing/tillage practices are some of the best and affordable

techniques to use (Creswell, 1993: 5).

7. Research methodology

The mixed method approach to research was used as the research

methodology which involves both collecting and analysing

quantitative and qualitative data, meaning a researcher collects

both numeric and text information (Creswell & Plano Clark 2007:12).

7.1 Literature review

A literature review is a critical assessment and a summary of the

range of past and new literature in a given area of study which is

mostly restricted to formal documents and books written on one

discipline.

A thorough literature review was conducted to provide a theoretical

overview of good cropping techniques that can be used to mitigate

drought on small scale farming in Mozambique. The aim of a

literature review was to provide insight into previous work, to

situate and locate the research project and outline its context and

to show that the researchers have been selective and critical in

listing only relevant research findings (Fox, 2007:35).

7.2 Empirical Study

Empirical studies imply that new data is collected by the researcher

for analysis (Kotze, 2010). According to Mouton (2001), survey

research can be classified as empirical, as it is usually

quantitative in nature. Therefore, the present study is empirical in

nature, as new information was gathered and because the statistical

analyses were empirical in nature.

The study is descriptive; it will give the researcher opportunity to

understand the relationship between good cropping technique’s and

disaster risk strategies, hence this research project followed both

a qualitative and quantitative research approach. Qualitative data

was obtained through semi-structured interviews, focus group

discussions and observations, while to collect the quantitative data

a quantitative survey was used. This is why the approach that is

used can be considered a mixed methods approach. A mixed method

includes the combination of techniques or methods from the

quantitative and qualitative approach for collecting and analysing

qualitative and quantitative data. Mixed methods research refers  to

a separate methodology in which both qualitative and quantitative

methods, procedures  and approaches are used for a result with a

more complete picture of the research problem  (Creswell & Plano

Clark 2007:12).

7.2.1 Research setting

The research was done in Mozambique and focused mainly on

participants that are small-scale farmers and the cropping

techniques that they used to reduce the impact of drought on their

production .The respondents involved in the study in Mozambique was

participants from the  two districts namely Mossuril District and

IIha de Mozambique District. The total number of respondents

involved in the study was 447. In total 213 respondents of Mossuril

district participated in the research and 234 respondents in IIha de

Mocambique district. In terms of gender distribution for the study

50.34% of the respondents were female small sale farmers while

49.66%of the respondents /participants were male small scale

farmers.

7.2.2 Sampling

A sample is simply defined as a “sub-group or part of a larger

population” (Saunders et al., 2009). The procedure for selecting

this sub-group is referred to as sampling (Botha, 2010).

Questionnaires were given to the farmers .Interviews were also

conducted with the farmers to raise different views and perceptions

on how to promote good cropping techniques to mitigate drought in

Mozambique.

7.2.3 Data collection

Quantitative data collection methods often employ measuring

instruments and in the social and human sciences the measuring

instruments are questionnaires, checklists, structured interviewing

de Vos et al .,(2011;171). Data collection method used was a

quantitative questionnaire that respondents had to fill in and

submit. According to de Vos et al., (2011:186) a questionnaire is a

document containing questions and other types of items designed to

solicit information appropriate for analysis.

Qualitative data methods were also used to obtain data through focus

group discussions. Qualitative research concerns things that can be

counted; it is concerned with systematic measurement, statistical

analysis and methods of experimentation (Fox et al., 2007:7).

7.2.4 Data Analysis

Quantitative data in professional research can be analysed manually

or by computer and quantitative analysis of data is when the

researcher converts data to a numerical form and subject it to

statistical analysis according to (de Vos et al .,2011:248).

Quantitative data obtained by questionnaires were analysed with the

support and assistance of the Statistic Consultation Service of

North-West University. The statistical software program SPSS 21.0

for Windows was used to analyse the data.

Qualitative data analysis is the “non numerical examination and

interpretation of observations. The purpose of this is to discover

underlying meanings and patterns of relationships “(de Vos et al .,

2011; 399) .

7.4.5 Ethical considerations

In the context of research ethics refer to the appropriateness of

researcher behaviour in relation to the rights of those who

participate in the study (Saunders et al., 2009).

Ethical issues should be considered in all stages of a research

project including design and initial access stages, data collection

stage, and data analysis and reporting stages (Botha, 2010).

The following aspects were considered as ethical considerations for

the study:

Protection from harm: Participants should not be exposed to

unnecessary physical or psychological harm.  The general rule

is that participating in the study should not pose a greater

risk than that of the day-to-day activities of the

participants. This implies that to participate in the study,

the farmers should not be impacted negatively in any way.

Informed consent: This entails that the participants in a study

should be aware of the specific nature and purpose of the

study in which they are participating.  Practically, a form

providing the researcher with informed consent should be

signed by the farmers in the study. Informed consent means

that the farmers completing the form would have read,

understands, and signed before partaking in the study.

Rights to privacy: The right to privacy refers to participants'

confidentiality and anonymity. This means that the completed

survey and responses from interviews of farmers would not be

linked to their names, and that the results would not be

shared with anyone. Furthermore, the farmers will not be asked

to provide any information that could identify them.

Honesty with professional colleagues: This principle has to do with

reporting findings in a complete and honest fashion. This

entails the researcher should not misinterpret information or

mislead the reader in any way. Practically, the researcher

would not change any responses to suit his study.

Authorisation: It is of utmost importance that the researcher

obtains authorisation from applicable authorities to conduct

the study. This means that the researcher should be able to

explain that the study is authorized by the University of

North West to add new knowledge to the field, and it is not

conducted in isolation for his own purpose.

Participation is voluntary: Participation is completely voluntary, and

no incentive will be given for participation. This also means

that farmers will not be forced and/or intimidated to

participate in the survey and interviews.

The study is reliable and valid: This means that the researcher as taken

care to design a valid research study, and that the results

will ultimately benefit authorities and farmers.

7.2.6 Limitations of study

Leedy and Omrod (2010) define bias as an influence or conditions

that can potentially distort the data. To acknowledge bias in the

study is important as it can intrude and negatively affect the

integrity of the data and results. Survey research has its own

opportunities for bias and error. The typical types of errors needed

to be minimised by the researcher are described by Forza (2002).

Reliability and Validity

Reliability is defined as the extent to which an instrument or data

collection technique will yield consistent results from one

researcher to another and from one time to another (Saunders et al.,

2010). Reliability is statistically measured by making use of

Cronbach’s coefficient alpha. In terms of the reliability of the

results of the study it can be assured or at least increased by

giving consideration to probable errors that can occur and devising

strategies to minimise the effect thereof on the reliability of the

study. Reliability will be tested by means of SPSS where Cronbach’s

alpha can be calculated (Botha, 2010). According to Saunders et al.,

(2009), validity can be defined in two ways depending on the context

in which it is taken. The first has regard to the instrument used

for data collection and whether or not the instrument measures what

it intends to measure. The second definition of validity postulated

by Saunders et al. (2009) concerns the extent to which the findings

of the study is actually what it set out to be. This will be assured

by following a predefined methodology plan and cross-checking the

data that will be used for analysis.

This research will be triangulated by using Triangulation, various

research methods.

8. Layout of the chapters

Chapter one consist of  the introduction which introduces the study

to be researched, as well as a problem statement, research

questions, objectives and methodology. Chapter two introduced the

Literature review, a thorough literature review that depict or

provide a theoretical overview of good cropping techniques that can

be used to mitigate drought on small scale farming in Mozambique.

The literature review is a critical assessment and a summary of the

range of past and new literature in a given area of study it is

mostly restricted to formal documents and books written on one

discipline. The aim of a literature review is to provide insight

into previous work, to situate and locate the research project and

outline its context and to show that you have been selective and

critical in listing only relevant research findings.

Chapter three contains the Empirical study of the research project.

Relevant empirical data is used to support chapter one and two. The

study focus mainly on what are the impacts of drought on small-scale

farmers in Mozambique and which cropping techniques are currently

been used and how better cropping techniques can help reduce the

impact of drought on crops. Then chapter four is final chapter where

conclusion and recommendation regarding the study are made.

Chapter 2: Literature Overview

2.1 Introduction

Drought has various connotations, depending on the sectors affected.

This section starts with a broad definition of drought, types of

drought and impacts it has on small scale farmers. Furthermore this

section reviews cropping techniques used by small scale farmers to

mitigate the impact of drought. This will be done by looking at how

good cropping techniques can be used as agricultural tool for risk

reduction measures and increase small scale farmer’s resilience

towards drought.

The aim of the study is to investigate how good cropping techniques

can be used by small scale farmers to mitigate drought in

Mozambique, therefore this section will discuss various socio-

economic impacts drought have and  the possible cropping techniques

that can be used to lessen crop vulnerability and increase crop

output production, to address country’s poverty and malnutrition.

International funders such as Food and Agricultural Organisation

(FAO) have capacitated small scale farmers through educational,

skills transfer programs as well as equipment to deal with the

detrimental impact of drought.

The last part of this chapter will bridge the gap between current

and possible cropping techniques that can be employed in Mozambique,

various classifications of small scale farmers and end with a

conclusion.

2.2 Drought

Drought is one of the world’s most common disasters that affect a

very large number of people every year (Wilhite, 2000:18). A drought

is considered to be a period of abnormally dry weather that causes

serious hydrological imbalance in a specific country. However, the

definitions of serious and abnormally dry depend on the extent and

nature of the impact of the drought on the local society. It is

important to monitor drought events and their variability, explore

their predictability, and determine how they change in the future

climate scenarios (Buike et al 2006:1113). Richard (2002:1143)

indicates that the monitoring and analysis of drought have long

suffered from the lack of an adequate definition of the phenomenon.

As a result, drought indices have slowly evolved during the last two

centuries from simplistic approaches based on some measure of

rainfall deficiency, to more complex problem-specific models).

According to Nguyu (2006:6) there is no universal definition of

drought because its perception is dependent on water deficit. The

National Weather Service (2006:1) states that drought is a

deficiency in precipitation over an extended period or season. The

National Weather Service (2006:1) again states that drought is the

of shortage of water which have negative impact on  vegetation,

animals and people which makes them more vulnerable to this

condition as this negative impact can be felt all over the world.

Muchinda (1999:5) describes drought as a temporary reduction in

water or moisture availability to significantly below the normal or

expected amount for a specified period. Drought does not only relate

to rainfall amount but fluctuations in water demand. Furthermore,

Whitmore (2000:14) states that drought affects all sectors in

different ways. Whitmore (2000:14) also put down distinction between

drought and aridity, which indicate that drought is a permanent

feature of climate in regions where low precipitation is the norm,

as in a desert.

Furthermore, the South African Weather Service (SAWS) defines

drought on the basis of the degree of dryness in comparison to

"normal" or average amounts of rainfall for a particular area or

place, and the duration of the dry period.

Palmer (1995:2) asserts drought as prolonged and abnormal moisture

deficiency, whereas Byun (2010:7) regard it as relative abnormal

condition where water supply doesn't meet the demands or its

absolute shortage for water. Both authors put more emphasis on the

low level of precipitation that changes the natural setting of the

environment. In support Van Zyl (2006:27) refers to drought as a

condition of climatic dryness that is severe enough to reduce soil

moisture and water levels below the minimum necessary for sustaining

plant, animal, and economic systems. Van Zyl (2006:27) further

explained that drought is different from the rapid-onset

environmental hazards. It is called a creeping hazard because

drought develop slowly and have a prolong existence, sometimes over

several years. Different kinds of drought affect people in different

ways and require different strategies in addressing the impact. It

is very important for the farmers to know and understand different

drought categories, especially in the agricultural sector (Van Zyl,

2006:28). Droughts can be categorised according to the following,

agricultural, meteorological and hydrological.

2.2.1 Types of Drought

2.2.1.1 Meteorological Drought

Meteorological drought is usually defined based on the degree of

dryness (in comparison to some “normal” or average) and the duration

of the dry period. Drought onset generally occurs with a

meteorological drought (NWS, 2006:3). In support of above notion

Agri-SA (2006:27) linked Meteorological drought to the average

rainfall in a certain area. A deviation from normal measured

rainfall could indicate a meteorological drought.

2.2.1.2. Hydrological drought

Van Zyl (2006:28) indicates that Hydrological drought refers to

shortages in surface and subsurface water supplies. This occurs when

natural stream flow or ground-water levels are sufficiently reduced

to impact adversely on water resources. Therefore, hydrological

drought tends to be measured by relating a shortfall of water supply

to water demand. Moreover, periods of extended precipitation

shortfalls that impact water supply (i.e., stream-flow, reservoir

and lake levels, groundwater), potentially resulting in significant

societal impacts (NWS, 2006:2).

2.2.1.3 Agricultural Drought

Agricultural drought links various characteristics of

meteorological/hydrological drought to agricultural impacts focusing

on precipitation shortages soil water deficits, reduced ground water

or reservoir levels needed for irrigation and so forth (NWS,

2006:2). Agricultural drought occurs when there isn't enough soil

moisture to meet the needs of a particular crop at a particular

time. Rain-fed crops are crops dependent on adequate rainfall during

a specific period of time which as a result, drought has a very huge

impact of small scale farmers and this puts pressure not only on the

farmers but the environment and the economy too.

2.3 The Impact of drought on small scale farming

The South African Department of Agriculture (2005:5) states that

drought is a major feature for the climate of Southern Africa and

often has a devastating impact. Thus the African government needs

capacity and expertise to respond timely and effectively to drought

across various farming communities, especially those with poor

resources. Currently, responses to drought are reactive due to the

lack of proactive measures (Van Zyl, 2006:3).

Drought affects the development and growth of sectors that depends

on climate for survival such as the agricultural sector. According

to Websters (cited by Marine, 2001:4) agriculture is the science or

business of raising plants and animals useful to man. It implies the

cultivation of the soil, the production and harvesting of crops, the

care and breeding of livestock. Agriculture is multi-sectoral

business and one sector depends on the other for survival.

Africa has promoted small-scale farming as a means of ensuring food

security as well as improving the standard of living of the rural

people for many years (Hillel, 1997:1). Various studies have shown

that small-scale farming improves food security and livelihoods of

rural farmers in Africa (You et al., 2010:2). However, despite their

important role in improving livelihoods of rural communities in

Southern Africa, small-scale farming schemes have had limited

performances of operating irrigation systems and contributing to

eradication of poverty; generally, this has averaged less than 50%

efficiency (Podmore, 1983:34). A recent World Bank study (Briceño-

Garmendia et al. 2008) indicated that about 30% of the irrigation

infrastructure assets in sub-Saharan Africa need revitalisation.

According Briney (2014:1) drought can cause disputes between users

of available water, inequalities in water distribution between the

wealthy and poor and a decline in health Problems associated with

drought are: economic, environmental and social.Most of the economic

influences of drought are associated with agriculture and income

generated from crops. In times of drought, the lack of water can

often reduce in crop yields, and thus a reduction in income for

farmers and an increase in the market price of products since there

are not enough to go around.  In the long run this leads to

unemployment. In terms of the environment, drought can result in

insect infestations and plant diseases, increased erosion, habitat

and landscape poverty and as a result plants and animal species

suffer and over time this can lead to desertification. And finally

the social impact, the various impact of drought is as follows

below. Wilhite and Glantz (1998:7).

This is why the Southern African Development Community (SADC)

considers revitalisation of existing systems important for the

agricultural development of the region (SADC, 2006). Small-scale

farming schemes have the potential to make a significant impact on

improving the livelihoods and food security. The impact of drought

on small scale farmers in Mozambique can be seen as reduced crop

production which as a result farmers do not harvest more of their

produce for commercial and household consumption, loss of

agriculture, land degradation and also leading to unemployment

(Murad et al .,2011).

According to the United Nations Children’s Fund  (2011:1) food

security and nutrition in Mozambique are strongly linked to

environmental conditions due to the fact that drought causes

extensive agricultural losses to households dependent on subsistence

farming. Over 70 per cent of the population in Mozambique rely on

rain fed agriculture, making the country particularly vulnerable to

the water stresses that occur regularly even though it’s not in the

same places. For example in 2002 the southern part of Mozambique had

a loss of approximately one third of the expected harvest leading

the government to request additional international aid to feed about

650 00 people.

Drought is a major feature of the climate of Southern Africa and

often has a devastating impact, thus the Mozambican government need

radical policies to deal with drought. According to Southern African

Documentation and Co-operation Centre (SADCC, 2002:1) in 2002 a

bought 587, 00 people in Southern Africa were affected by the

drought as 84,000 hectors of crops completely failed as said by the

Mozambican Agriculture Minister Hwelder Muteia . The SADCC (2002:8)

suggest that Mozambique needs to put in place emergency measure to

reduce the impact of drought to the farmers such as the

rehabilitation or building of irrigation systems and the

distribution of agricultural inputs, such as seeds and tools.

Uncontrolled impacts of drought will have negative impact on the

country's gross domestic product due to the fact that agriculture

accounts for 23 % of the Mozambique gross domestic product and more

than 75 % of the workforce is employed in this sector (National

Institute of Statistics, 2012). Agriculture remains the source of

livelihoods to many African people, with adverse effects of drought,

their future remain in doubt.

Malazi has a population of 11, 000 people surviving on small scale

farming and rain-fed agriculture. Malazi is one of the remote zones

of the Guija District in the Southern Mozambique, where the

government, through the ministry for coordination of environmental

affairs, and the support from the UNDP and the SCCF have launched a

project on coping with drought.  The aim of the project is to reduce

vulnerability in farming due to the fact that drought causes

scarcity if drinking water and loss of cattle and crops. Communities

are trained to grow drought-resistant crops, like sweet potato,

Cassava or Sorghum (UNDP, 2013:1).

Homewood et al., (1987:6) indicated that economic impact of drought was

a massive loss of livestock and significant loss of rangeland and

pasture. Drought events in many cases impose negative impacts on the

environment and causes widespread structural damage (Akhatari et al

2011:8). The impact of drought are clearly manifested by reduced

crop production, loss of agricultural land degradation, livestock

population deaths, unemployment and health problems (Murad et al

2011). The most common economic impact in county (ALRMP, 2009: 1) is

associated with wasted animal body condition, reduced milk

production, direct loss of crops and pasture, predation of small

ruminants as well as crops failures.

2.3.1 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF DROUGHT.

The environmental impacts of drought in developing countries was

realized through the hydrological effects where the water sources,

example water pans, rivers dry up Arid Lands Resource Management

Project (ALRMP, 2009- 2011:2).The loss of biodiversity, natural

habitat, degradation of landscape, increase soil erosion leading to

permanent loss of land productivity and loss of wetlands impacts

negatively on plant and animal species and the ecosystem (Gilbert et

al, 2012:5).

2.3.2 SOCIAL IMPACT OF DROUGHT

The loss of human lives through protracted drought impact occasioned

by increased heat stress and declining purchasing power in Kenya’s

arid and semi-arid countries has been a key cause of water and

management conflicts among the pastoral and agro-pastoral livelihood

zones (ALRMP, 2009).

Most of the developing countries are faced with challenge of

developing mechanism and institutions to deal with the impact of

drought and the cropping techniques used as a risk reduction

measures are as follows (NWS, 2006:3).The impact that drought has on

the lives of people not just small scale farmers makes it rather

important that cropping techniques that can help reduce the risk of

crops being destroyed is found to reduce the risk of starvation.

2.4 Small scale farming

Different indicators can be identified in order to define small-

scale farmers, land ownership is one of them, they have limited

access to land and they are usually given 2 hectares, other

attributes are use, access and ownership of capital (Mugera,

2013:5). Low technology is often used on small farms, they depend on

household members to work on the farms and the primary aim of the

farm is to produce the bulk of households’ consumption of staple

foods (Hazell et al., 2007:4)

It has been estimated that about 70 percent of the poor are

concentrated in rural areas where two out of three billion rural

people reside in about 450 million small farms. The role of

smallholders has been fully addressed in association with recent

challenges in the global economy and with respect to the changing

role of agriculture along development transition (Mugera,

2013:1) .Small scale farmers are facing many challenges due to the

fact that conditions for small farmers have changed considerably

since the mid-1960s. Challenges include changing production in

supply chains, low world prices, international competition,

environmental damage and climate change (Hazell et al., 2007:4).

2.5. Cropping techniques as risk reduction measure

The term disaster is used to indicate overwhelming events and

circumstances that test the capacity of a community or individuals

to respond and they are often a threat to survival (Raphael,

1986:5). Disasters are often described in quantitative terms due to

the fact that they are measured by the number affected by a certain

event, looking at physical resources the number of homeless, and the

ultimate economic costs (Raphael, 1986:28).

According to (UNEP, 2008:4) over the course of history and up to

this day, traditional and local communities have continued to rely

heavily on indigenous knowledge to conserve the environment and deal

with natural disasters. For example Communities like those in Kenya

are hazard prone areas and as a result have generated vast body of

indigenous knowledge on disaster prevention, mitigation, early

warning and response (UNEP, 2008:4). This is an idea that can be

used in Mozambique.

Indigenous knowledge can be summed up as the knowledge of an

indigenous community accumulated over generations of living in a

particular environment; it is a broad concept that covers all forms

of knowledge, technologies, know-how, skills, practices and beliefs

that enable the community to achieve stable livelihoods in their

environment (Raphael, 1986:5). For example Kenya is prone to many

natural hazards but the major ones are drought and floods .These

hazards cause food insecurity and poverty and as a result

communities have come up with measures such as growing drought –

resistant, early –maturing indigenous crop varieties and keeping

livestock to survive the climatic hazards (UNEP, 2008:8).

Zimbabwe is another example where people have been suffering from

climate change like other African countries. However despite erratic

rainfall farmers have still continued using their traditional

planting seasons. This has increased their frustration as crops die

due to lack of rain (Madalitiso, 2012:1).  

2.6 Cropping techniques used for drought mitigation

2.6.1 Mixed cropping

Mixed cropping also known as inter–cropping or co-cultivation

involves planting two or more plants simultaneously in the same

field. Planting multiple crops at once will allow the crops to work

together  Benefits of mixed cropping are; The input and output of

social nutrients, to keep down weeds and insects, to resist climate

extremes be it wet, dry, hot or cold and lately to suppress plant

diseases (Hirst , 2014:1).

Furthermore, according to Paulsen et al (2006:205) agricultural

advantages of mixed cropping are gained by biological effects like

light competition, offering weed-suppressing capacities or by

diversification of plant covers to break development cycles of

pests. Small scale farmers who practicing mixed cropping technique

have better drought resistance advantage because of plant variety

and ploughing flexibility they have. Moreover, mixed cropping

systems in organic farming offer a yield buffer capacity by diverse

growing demands and different periods of root, leave and seed

development of the plant varieties. In the last years mixed cropping

is seen as a chance to secure production of organic oilseed crops

and to gain a fuel autarky for organic farms (Paulsen & Rahmann,

2004:57).

2.6.2 Crop rotationAbenza (2005:2) refer to crop rotation as management system to

maintain favorable soil conditions and satisfactory results. In

these rotations, a grain crop was often grown the first year,

followed by a legume crop in the second year and a grain crop the

third year. In support Anon (2012:2) indicate that Crop rotation has

many agronomic, economic and environmental benefits compared to

monoculture cropping, it Increases levels of soil organic matter

enhances water and nutrient retention, and decreases synthetic

fertiliser requirements. Better soil structure in turn improves

drainage, reduces risks of water-logging during floods, and boosts

the supply of soil water during droughts especially to financially

limited small scale farmers.

Crop rotation ranks as one of the oldest and most widely used

methods to preserve soil. A single crop consumes vital minerals and

organic matter in the soil if it is grown in the same field every

year. But when different kinds of crops on a field on a regular

schedule this will replace lost minerals and organic matter .A

farmer can replace the nitrogen by planting such crops as alfalfa,

soybean and clover (The World Book Encyclopaedia, 2009:115). In

reflection of above, appropriate crop rotation increases organic

matter in the soil, improves soil structure, reduces soil

degradation, and can result in higher yields, greater farm

profitability in the long-term and drought resistance.

Even though Moncada and Sheaffer (2010:1) regarded crop rotation as

successive cultivation of the different cropping techniques in a

specific order on the same fields. Karlen et al (1994:11)   dispute

the success of this cropping techniques, they claim that it

depabidate soil nutrients and quality, top layer of soil become more

vulnerable to wind erosion and droughts. Karlen et al (1994:1-2)

further share the same sentiment with Abenza (2005:2) that crop

rotation helps with   reducing the build-up of diseases and pests

by removing their preferred host which leads to the breaking the

diseases or pest’s life-cycle, and removing the requirement for

chemical spraying. This is why crop rotation can manage the nutrient

levels and the pH of the soil.

2.6.3 Drip or micro irrigation

Gardena’s et al (2004:219) stated that micro-irrigation offers a large

degree of control, enabling accurate application according to crop

water requirements, thereby minimize leaching, this technique is

used in dry areas because it delivers the water directly into the

roots of the plants or on top of the soil surface through tubes with

specific small cut holes as well as other controlled outlets. Lamm

(2005:1) indicate the importance of micro irrigation as irrigation

system that has more efficient water, percolation are greatly

reduced or eliminated. Infiltration and storage of seasonal

precipitation can be enhanced by drier soils with less soil

crusting. In some cases, the system can be used for a small

irrigation event for use in germination, depending on drip line

depth, flow rate and soil constraints. The inherent ability to apply

small irrigation amounts can allow better water-efficient decisions

about irrigation events near the end of the cropping season. In

widely spaced crops, a smaller fraction of the soil volume can be

wetted, thus further reducing unnecessary irrigation water losses

(Lamm 2005:2).

When designed correctly the drip irrigation system can be a

production asset for a small farm due to the controlled application

of water and fertilizer by allowing water to drip slowly near the

plant roots through a network of valves pipes and tubing. Because

drip irrigation bring the water to the plant root zone and does not

wet the entire field ,drip irrigation typically requires half to a

quarter of the volume of water required by comparable overhead

irrigation systems but the problem with this system is that it’s

expensive (Simonne et al .,2013:4) .

In another hand, Camp et al (1989:541) confirm the advantage of micro

irrigation in water and energy conservation, but they further put

cost drawbacks of these techniques, as annual replacement of many

components unprofitable for most agronomic crops as a setback. Lamm

(2005:3) further mention less tillage options of this technique,

primary and secondary tillage operations may be limited by drip line

placement and this can also have negative production outcome to

small scale farmers.

Moreover, Adin and Sacks (1991:813) praise the ability of micro

irrigation to irrigate during drought conditions to be particularly

beneficial where preseason irrigation is used to effectively

increase seasonal irrigation capacity. Micro irrigation technique

help the farmers to conserve up to 70% more water compared with the

traditional irrigation methods. It increase crop production

increase, improves the plants and soils to absorb the water as well

as improvement of soil nutrients especially to areas that vulnerable

to droughts.

2.6.4 Water storage

FAO (2012:4) refer water storage as insurance mechanism for the

smallholder, it acts as a buffer against the variability of the

rainfall regimes and therefore increases the resilience of the

farmers against; dry spells season or rain fed-crop failure. It

allows farmers to secure at least one dry season crop that can

either be consumed or sold. This technique makes it possible to

collect the water when it’s available so that the farmer can use it

when necessary or when it’s time to irrigate, different types of

tanks can be used. I.e. plastered tanks, steel rimmed tanks and

birkas (open reservoirs).

Furthermore, Payen et al (2012:7) touches new economic opportunity

that water storage has, water storage opens possibilities for new

economic activities where water is a production factor. As far as

agricultural production is concerned, reliable access to irrigation

water from storage opens a great potential for crop diversification.

In short, water storage does allow diversification of economic

activities but this diversification will not necessarily happen

spontaneously and requires significant capacity-building, especially

technical training of users as well as improved access to other

inputs such as good-quality seeds in order to materialize. This is

rather a very important technique when looking at drought. The

ability for everyone not just farms to store water so that they

always have water available for crops will help them tremendously

and save them from a lot of pressure and high implications.

2.6.5 Recycling of waste-waterRecycled waste-water can be re-used for agricultural irrigation.

When treating urban waste-water adequately, the water can be

recycled into the rivers and can then be re-used downstream. For

small scale farming, large high volumes of treatment of waste-water

treatment are too expensive but for urban waste water re-use, the

agricultural production has to be fairly close to the city. Due to

high capital and operating cost, the only option for irrigation in

poor countries like Mozambique is untreated waste-water. Water

treatment must be made more in many poor countries such as

Mozambique, the only option for irrigation is untreated wastewater,

and this is why affordable treatment for poor countries like

Mozambique needs to be more available to treatment is also necessary

to reduce maximum health risks. Aquatic plants and a setup of

construction of wetlands can be used to naturally recycle the

wastewater, especially domestic grey water (dishwashing, laundry and

bathing-water).

2.6.6 Row Planting

Crops are planted in straight lines or rows for convenience as well

as to enhance maximum yields. There are specific advantages of row

planting such as (1) Movement within the crop area is more

convenient and close inspection of individual plants is possible.

(2) The light absorption is maximized, as well as the excessive

shading effect from the other plants is minimized. As result of the

minimized shade, the crop yield and photosynthesis is improved. (3)

Excessive humidity is prevented due to the wind passage along the

inter-rows (4) the visibility is enhanced.  

2.6.7 Minimum tillage

Minimum Tillage means to reduce the tillage to a minimum. Tillage is

when you prepare your land planting; this includes ploughing in

conventional agriculture. This is when you open up only for planting

hole or a planting line for the seed, in other words, planting crops

without the use of conventional mouldboard plough. When ploughing,

the soil is moved, turned and cut, the plough cuts through the soil

and the pores underneath the share closes. The ploughing moves the

finer particles downwards and completes the closing of the pores.

The trampling of the drought power will compact the soil, the

closing of the pores are very important especially in moist soils.

Plough pans form after a while which prevents the roots and the

water penetrating into the soil. After each plough is the pan

getting harder and thicker (Friedrich, 2009 :).

2.6.8 Mulching

Mulching includes any type of material that is laid or spread over

the soils surface as covering. It is mostly used to rehydrate the

soil, to suppress weeds, to make it look more attractive and to keep

the soil cool. The soil’s fertility is improved due to decomposition

when organic mulches are used Iannotti M. (2011: 4).

Mulching improves agro-ecological potential. It typically conserves

the soil, improves the soil ecology, stabilizes and enhance crop

yield and provides various environmental services. It is a complex

basket of interrelated practices including necessary practices so as

to ensure the production and retention of sufficient mulch and

complementary practices in order to be able to grow a crop or main

yield levels (Erenstein, 2003).

Crop residue mulching can offer significant savings implied by

reduced tillage and the potential to alleviate binding constraints

for crop growth and farm productivity (example water conservation,

timelines of land preparation and crop establishment). It economic

potential depends on the opportunity costs of retaining the mulch

and the opportunity cost of complementary changes example drought.

Mulching can be used as a cropping technique to mitigate drought.

Mulching can improve soil fertility in the case of drought

(Erenstein, 2003). Most importantly here: mulching reduces heat

stress around the time of planting ensuring much lower soil

temperatures and thereby reducing evaporative losses.

3. Cropping techniques used in Mozambique

A cropping system is a method of growing crops that is designed to

produce high yields without weakening the soil. A good cropping

system combines different production techniques to make the best use

of the land. These techniques may include various cultivation

methods, crop rotation and the proper use of fertilizers and

pesticides. To determine the best suitable system the farmer must

consider the lands soil composition and any slope, drainage and

erosion problems. Farmers must also know the lands cropping history,

such as plant diseases insect problems and in the case of Mozambique

drought seasons (WBE, 2009:1153).  

The slash and burn method also known as the Swidden of shift method

is a traditional method of tending domesticated crops that involves

the rotation of several plots. The farmer plants crops on a field

for one or two seasons then leaves it unused for several seasons.

When moving on to the next plot the one left unused will be burned

and as a result the ash from the burned vegetation adds a layer of

nutrients to the soil. This works best when a farmer has lots of

space and this gives the soil a chance to restore its nutrients

( Hirst , 2012: 1).

Agriculture, in Mozambique is based on small, hand-cultivated units

that are mostly used by woman-headed households. Small scale farmers

in Mozambique  has used traditional  techniques for generations, for

example, the farmer will clear his plot of land and burn all the

remaining residue on top of the soil so that he can have a clean

seedbed for his next crop, this is done every year in October (Feed

the Future, 2013).

Conventional agriculture techniques are often used in Mozambique,

its main operation is normally based on soil tillage. The plough is

the tool that is most widely known for this operation, and has

become a symbol of agriculture. In the past has soil tillage been

associated with fertility increase, and originated from the

mineralization of nutrients in the soil as a consequence of soil

tillage. A reduction of soil organic matter is the long term goal

for this process. Soil organic matter provides a crucial element of

soil structure stabilization as well as nutrients for the crop.

Therefore, most soils are degrading under prolonged intensive

agriculture. The structural degradation on the soils results in the

formation of compaction and crusts and leads to soil erosion.

Mechanisms of soil tillage, allow a higher working speed and depth

and the use of specific tools rotary cultivators, disk harrows and

ploughs have particularly detrimental effects on the structure of

the soil (Anon 2006).

In Mozambique, the most cropping techniques mostly used because of

its advantages although it has limited disadvantages.

As advantages, the farmers use mulching as cropping technique to

improve the soil quality and productivity through their favourable

effects on soil properties in case of drought (Lal & Stewart,

1995:5).

Mulching also absorb water. Organic and non-organic varieties both

cover the soil and limit evaporation. Retaining moisture, especially

during drought (Lal & Stewart 1995:5)

4. Conclusion

Drought has a wide range of often quite disparate meanings. Even in

the world of agricultural and plant science operational definitions

vary greatly, mostly because of the time scales of the events being

considered. Many challenges are seen due to drought not only in

Mozambique but other countries such as Kenya and Zimbabwe to.

Cropping techniques such as  water storage, crop rotation, and mixed

cropping just to name a few can be used in drought prone areas to

help reduce the risk of starvation.

Chapter Three

3.1 Introduction

This chapter provides an analysis and interpretation of the findings

of the fieldwork conducted in Mossuril and Ilha de Mozambique

districts in Mozambique. The main objective of the study is to

determine what the impacts of drought are on small scale farmers and

which cropping techniques can be used to mitigate the impact of

drought. According to Brita et al., (2003:520), Mozambique derives more

than 60% of its livelihoods from agricultural sector, and drought

threatens sectoral sustainability. The effects of drought have

resulted in production decline and malnutrition. The discussion that

follows will firstly give an overview of the demographic information

of the study area and participants after which a discussion and

analysis of the data that was collected will follow.

3.2. Demographics

The participants in the study were small scale farmers from the

Mussoril district and Ilha de Mozambique district located in

Mozambique. The study aim to determine which cropping techniques can

be used to mitigate the impact of drought, and 447 participants took

part in the study. Below is demographic profile of Mussoril district

and Ilha de Mozambique district.

Figure 3.1:  The districts where the participants live.

In the study 213 (47.65%) participants from Mossuril district

completed the quantitative questionnaire and 234 (52.35%)

participants from Ilha de Mozambique district.

Within Each district seven communities were interviewed. Therefore

all together 14 communities were visited they are: Mugeria,

Raimuntho, Namagona, Djembesse, Intete, Lumbo, Naguema, Nantoa,

Quissanga,Tibane, Ampite, Ampita, Tocolo and Saua Saua. In total 477

quantitative questionnaires were completed by members of the

different communities. Of the total number of participants 50.34%

were female and 49.66% male. Majority of agricultural work force in

Africa are women, and they further provide primary care to their

families (see section 2.2).

Figure 3.2: Participant’s gender

3.2.1.  Mussoril district

Mossuril district is located in the eastern part of Nampula

Province, bordering Nacala-a-Velha district to the north, Monapo

district to the west, Mogincual district to the south and southwest,

and Mozambique Island district and the Indian Ocean to the east. It

has an area of three thousand, four hundred and thirty three

kilometre square(3.433km²) with a population of 116.301 (INE,2007)

and a population density of three thousand three hundred and ninety

three people per square kilometre(33,93km²) (INE, 2007). The

district has three administrative posts: Matibane, Mossuril and

Lunga.

Figure 3.3 District of Mossuril

(Tavedten et al, 2009:14)

3.2.2 Ilha de Mozambique district

The Mozambique Island district (Ilha de Mozambique) is located in

the mid-eastern part of Mozambique. This district borders with the

Mossuril district to the north, south and the west, as well as the

Indian Ocean to the east. This district consist only one

administrative post: Lumbo, which is formed by three islands. The

projected population is 52.962 in a total area of one hundred eighty

four square kilometres (184 km²), thus the population density is two

thousand eight hundred and seventy seven people per square kilometre

(2877km2).

Figure 3.4 District of Ilha de Mocambique

3.3 Empirical Study

3.3.1. Drought in Mozambique throughout the year.

As stated in section 2.2, drought is a temporary reduction in water

or moisture availability to significantly below the normal or

expected amount for a specified period. Drought does not only relate

to rainfall amount but to fluctuations in water demand as well

(Muchinda, 1999:5).

Figure 3.4 Drought throughout the year.

Drought is a natural hazard found in Mozambique but the impact of

drought differs throughout the year. Drought is mostly prevalent in

Mozambique during September (13.39%), October (15.29%), November

(17.30%) and December (12.83%). Drought is least likely in the

months of February, March, April, May, June and July. This shows

that it is important to monitor drought events and their

variability, explore their predictability, and determine how they

change, (see section 2.2.1). The data also shows that preparation

and mitigation measures for drought situations should be done in the

months the chances are the lowest for drought: Namely February to

July.

From the data it is clear that the effect of drought is most severe

in the months of September to December. This means the farmers

should not plant crops that demand high level of precipitation,

rather plant crops that are drought resistant or short cycle crops.

Figure 3.5: Cropping techniques

Different cropping techniques are used from one country to another

and cropping techniques also vary according to circumstances and are

used by farmers to adapt to these circumstances. In Mozambique the

cropping technique that was mostly (23.17%) used by the participants

were row planting, and the least used by this population is the

Agroforestry (1.88%).

However not all of the cropping techniques effective in reducing

crop losses due to drought. Participants were asked to indicate the

different levels of effectiveness regarding the cropping techniques

mentioned. From the data the most effective cropping technique was

indicated as row planting with 3.03% of the people agreeing to its

effectiveness for drought prone areas. The least effective cropping

technique was indicated as Crop rotation at 1.98%. As shown in

literature (See section 2.6.2) crop rotation is a traditional

technique that was used in Mozambique for farming but as shown in

the data above it has not really been helpful in the drought problem

they been having. This could be because of top layer of soil becomes

more vulnerable to wind erosion and droughts (Karlen et al , 1994:11).

Figure 3.6: Effectiveness of cropping techniques

Chapter 4

4. Introduction

The previous three chapters attempted to analyse and interpret the

data that was collected with. These chapters also made an attempt to

answer the research questions for this study that was discussed in

chapter one. The emphasis was placed on how small scale farmers can

use good cropping techniques to mitigate the impact of drought.

This chapter encapsulate remedies that can be applied by small scale

farmers to reduce their risk and improve existing drought resilience

strategies. The followings are practical recommendations that can be

implemented by affected small scale farmers to increase agricultural

output and drought resistance.

This chapter deals with the summary of the major findings of the

study, outlining for the final time the research questions of the

study offers relevant recommendation and finally ends with a

conclusion based on the findings and relevant recommendation for the

entire study .The purpose of the study was to establish whether good

cropping techniques can mitigate the impact of drought on small-

scale farming in Mozambique.

4.2 The research objectives as outlined in Chapter 1 for this study were as follows:

4.2.1. To determine what are the impact of drought on small-scale

farmers in Mozambique

4.2.2. To determine which cropping techniques can be used to

mitigate the impact of drought

4.2.3. To determine which cropping techniques are used by small

scale farmers to mitigate the impact of drought in Mozambique.

4.2.4. To determine if the cropping techniques are effective to

mitigate drought on small-scale farmers in Mozambique.

4.2.5. To make recommendations on how good cropping techniques can

be used to solve the impact of drought on small scale farmers in

Mozambique.

The first objective for this study was reached by discussing the

impact that drought has on small scale farmers in the introduction

of this study as well as discussions in chapter two. The second

objective for this study was achieved by doing an extensive

literature review of relevant and existing literature on how

cropping techniques can be used to mitigate the impact of drought.

The third and fourth objective of this study was achieved by firstly

collecting the data for the study from relevant participants from

the two districts in Mozambique. Secondly this objective was

addressed by doing an analysis of the data collected. The fifth and

the final objective for this study was the findings that was made

about techniques that was used to mitigate drought among the small

scale farmers in Mozambique.

4.3 Recommendations  

4.3.1 Recommendation in terms of early warning systems and educational awareness programs

Early warnings systems help avoid major disasters in this case the

Disaster that could be faced is Starvation. Having an early Warning

system can help prevent Starvation .By knowing when drought is most

likely to occur could help farmers know when the best period to plan

is , further more :

According to 2002/03 annual reports of National Department of

Agriculture, only a handful of extension workers have been

trained in terms of weather data interpretation to help with

early warning system during drought. In support ISDR cited by

(Poolman, 2012:4) Early warning systems (EWS) empower

individuals and response agencies to react in sufficient time

and appropriately to risk, during this period effective early

warning system should be developed. It is still evident that

drought is least likely in the months of February until July,

this is reflected in the percentage of small scale farmers

from both regions (Ilha de Mozambique and Mossuril) ,neither

effective early warning system or educational awareness

programs were developed to choose appropriate cropping

technique which utilises(favours) less water during this

period.

From the data is clear that the effect of drought is most

severe from the months of September until December. During

this period, Mozambique Department of Agriculture as well as

relevant stakeholders should embark on various educational

campaigns to alert farmers about alternative cropping

techniques that can be used to restore soil moisture. From the

data, row planting and crop rotation were most preferred

effective technique used in drought prone areas, according to

Karlen et al (1994:11) crop rotation help to restore to layer

of the soil. In the light of this, all available medium of

communication and awareness should be employed to convey

information about any form of disaster.

4.3.2 Ploughing periodThe time in which farmers can plant crops differ throughout the

year. And in Mozambique this period is also influenced by drought

seasons.

The impact of drought differs in Mozambique throughout the

year and they should plant different crops for  different

seasons and most likely, plan at a time when crops can survive

and in the case of Mozambique is during the times of February,

March, April, May, June and July.

4.3.3 CropsDifferent Crops need different environments to grow and with the

case of Mozambique crops that are drought resistant should be what

the farmers’ plant.

Farmers should not plant crops that demand high level of

precipitation rather plant     crops that are drought

resistant or short cycle crops during the period of drought.

The least effective cropping technique was indicated as Crop

rotation and as already stated, crop rotation is a traditional

technique that was used in Mozambique for farming farmers

should stay away from traditional techniques and try out new

and improved techniques.

4.3.4 Water storage

With Drought as a Major problem in Mozambique it is rather important

that farmers store water.

According to Seckler (cited by keller et al, 2000:1) One-third

of the developing world will face severe water shortages in

the twenty-first century, even though large amounts of water

will continue to annually flood out to sea from water-scarce

regions. The problem is that the sporadic, spatial and

temporal distribution of precipitation rarely coincides with

demand, the only way water supply can match demand is through

storage. Small scale farmers can uses various forms of water

storage to supplement preferred drought resistant cropping

technique.

From the data gathered, row planting and non-tillage are

cropping techniques used during drought period in the regions

under investigation. Small scale farmers can utilise

underground water storage   because of directly under the

point of use and is immediately available, through pumping on

demand. Underground water can be stored for years, with little

or no evaporations, to be used in drought years as a

supplementary source of water supply. Water conservation and

sustainable use of nearby rivers should be daily practice for

small scale farmer engaged in substantial or commercial

farming.

Furthermore, Payen et al (2012:7) touches new economic

opportunity that water storage has, water storage opens

possibilities for new economic activities where water is a

production factor. As far as agricultural production is

concerned, reliable access to irrigation water from storage

opens a great potential for crop diversification. In short,

water storage does allow diversification of economic

activities and alternative source of livelihoods can give

small scale farmers enough time to rehabilitate land.

4.4 Conclusion

As already stated, drought is one of the world’s most common

disasters that affect large number of people every year. Drought is

a major feature of the climate in Southern Africa and has a

devastating impact on countries such as Mozambique. This is the

reason why it is important the Mozambican government get radical

policies to deal with devastating impacts of drought. Food security

and nutrition in the country are strongly linked to environmental

conditions due to the fact that drought causes extensive

agricultural losses to households dependent on subsistence farming.

Africa has promoted small-scale farming as a means of ensuring food

security as well as improving the standard of living of the rural

people (Hillel, 1997:1) and studies have shown that small-scale

farming improves food security and livelihoods of rural farmers in

Africa (You et al., 2010:2).

Majority of agricultural work in Mozambique are done by women, and

they further provide primary care to their families. Different

cropping techniques are used from one country to another and

cropping techniques also vary according to soil layout and are used

by the different farmers to adapt to drought. The most effective

cropping technique was indicated as row planting with 3.03% of the

people agreeing to its effectiveness for drought prone areas.

The least effective cropping technique was  Crop rotation at

1.98% .Crop rotation is a traditional technique that was used in

Mozambique for farming but as shown in the data above, it has not

really been helpful in the drought problem they been having . It may

have worked before but with the current situation it’s time to use

techniques that will help resolve the drought problem as well as to

help reduce the chances of starvation.

The negative effects of drought can be partially mitigated by using

appropriate cropping techniques in order to create a favourable crop

growing environment that will result in optimum yield for the crops,

this can be achieved through timely farm operations that protect

soil and facilitate plants growth and adequate plant nutrition’s. To

mitigate the negative impacts of drought, practices should be aimed

at protecting the soil, such as minimum or no tillage, crop and

fertilizer management practices can improve the structure of the

soil and reduce the amount of water lost through evaporation (FAO,

2013:9).

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