*The crisis of the year 48 B .C. in Egypt

El-Sayed Gaber MohamedAssociate Proff. Archaeology Dep. Faculty of Arts (Universityof Minia - Egypt)

AbstractKey words :Caesar , Egypt , Cleopatra , famine , the library of Alexandria During the war of Alexandria 48 b.c Caesar had toset fire to the ships which docked in the harbor to prevent his enemies from using them.The fire soon spread and burnt not only the shipsbut also most of the library which was near the cost and burnt about 400,000 books.Many ancient writers after period of silence referred to the burning of the books, but most ofthem had ignored the burning of the grain stores which were stocked in the port.Many scholars suggest that the grain was about tobe sent to Rome, Accordingly, we should not be concerned with this matter.Is it true that the grain was to be sent to Rome?Especially during this year which known by a great famine resulting in enormous descending in the level of Nile river and decrease in economic affairs.Did the government take any steps to resolve this crisis?This paper will try to answer these questions andwill examine these critical events by using the texts of ancient Greco- Roman writers, papyri, and modern references.

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Introduction

The relation between the Roman state and the Egyptian state began most likely in the 3rd century BC. The relation was friendly at first, and there was certainly some diplomacy between the two especially during the Macedonian wars against Philip V and his heir Perseus. During the related Syrian War, Philip and the Seleucid King Antiochus III formed an alliance towrestle away Egyptian concerns in the region. Pressed by this alliance, the Egyptians turned tothe growing Mediterranean power of Rome .The Roman victory assured Egypt to continue its independence, but such closer ties with Rome eventually turned against them.1 During the beginning of the second century B.C. the relationhad been developed to take a different way, because of the weakness of the Ptolemaic dynastythere was what would be called the Egyptian matter.2 The late Ptolemy dynasty did little to insure Egyptian stability. The rise of several infant kings, with rule by appointed regents, was the source of political and civil strife on a near routine basis. 1* Thanks due to Dr. Gouda M. for his help and advice ? Pol. XV, XVI ;Livy . XXXI,XXXII ; Grainger, J.D(2002),The Roman War of Antiochos the Great. London : pp23ff ; Jonse, A.H.M. (1972),The cities of Roman Eastern Provinces. Oxford 2nd edt., pp 198-99 2 Chauveau, M. & D. Lorton ( 2000),Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra: History and Society under the Ptolemies. Ithaca:pp.6ff

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By the 1st century BC, Egypt was becoming more and more under a protection of Rome, due to its inability to govern effectively and efficiently, it fell upon Rome to act as a mediator on severaloccasions. By the eastern campaigns of Pompey in the 60's BC, Rome had taken at least nominal control of much of Alexander's former conquests.1

The advent of Julius Caesar to Egypt in 48 B.C and the outbreak of the famous war of Alexandria in the same year was a natural consequence of thedecline of the economic and political affairs in Egypt during more than two centuries, that witnessed a great development and a dangerous shift in the relation of Rome with Egypt.This weakness started in the Ptolemaic state because of the disputes of the Ptolemaic kings onthe succession to the throne and hence the Ptolemaic administration neglected its propertiesin the Mediterranean sea and Syria, and also there was negligence of economic matters leading to the penetration of foreign powers in its affairs especially on the part of Rome until Egypt became a Roman province.2 Rome took advantage of this miserable state of the Ptolemaic government to increase its interfering in the Egyptian affairs, benefiting from the weakness of the Ptolemaic kings and their need to a strong ally to protect and support them in the succession to the throne.These matters reached its peak during the reign of King Ptolemy XIII and his sister Cleopatra

1 Holbal, G. (2001),A history of the Ptolemaic Empire. London: p.179 2 Diodorus, xxxi, 17

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VII, when their dispute and conflict on the throne in Egypt increased.1

Rome wanted to control Egypt to insure having the Egyptian grain to feed the increased people, and if it had done without forces it would have been a good agreement, this was what the Roman government trying to do during this period, especially with the weakness of the last Ptolemies .2 It is worthy to record that king Ptolemy Auletes, father of Cleopatra VII, and Ptolemy XIII bequeathed them the succession to the thronetogether on the condition that this should be under the supervision of the Romans.This will had been authorized in a formal treaty in 59 B.C.(Caes.,Bell.Civ., III,108,4-6, Bell. Alex. 33.1f.; Luc.X.92-99)A copy of this treaty remained in Alexandria while the second was keptby Pompey in his house.3 In about 11January 49 B.C. the civil war broke out in Rome between the most famous leaders Pompey and Julius Caesar, during this war Pompey sent his eldest son Cn. Pompey to his young ally king Ptolemy XIII and his sister. The Ptolemaic court agreed to his request by soldiers and warships.4 1 Macleod, R.(2004),The Library of Alexandria :center of learning in ancient world. Cairo: pp 48 ff 2 Morgan, J. (2003),Cleopatra: Ruling in the Shadow of Rome. London : p.16 3 Holbal, G., (2001) p.230 ;Jonse , P.(2006),Cleopatra: TheLast pharaoh.London.pp22ff. 4 Caes. De Bello Civ. III, 4.4;App.Civ.II.49 ; Reinhold, M.(1982),Declaration of War against Cleopatra. The Classical Journal, Vol. 77( 2).97-103

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On Augustus 48 B.C. the war ended with the victory of Caesar in the battle of pharsalos ,andPompey fled to Egypt hoping for aid from the kingPtolemy XIII, Who choose to be with the victor side, soon his agents slayed Pompey.1 Caesar then sailed to Egypt in pursuit of Pompey to ensure his final defeat ,but when he entered Alexandria he found that Pompey was killed.2

The Famine

In the year of 48 B.C. Egypt witnessed a great crisis, as there were many factors that worked together in that time ; besides the war of Alexandria , which will be discussed below ,Egyptwitnessed difficulties of economic circumstances .During ten years from 50_40 B.C. Egypt suffered from very low inundations of the Nile. The serious one was in the year 48 B.C.3 Pliny mentioned that the level of this flood was five cubits which is considered very low. He affirmed that this was the lowest rate of inundation in Egypt and was in the time of the battle of Pharsalos .

1 Southern, P.(2007),The Roman army. Oxford: p.522 App. Roman History. II.85-6; Dio Cssius, XLII.6; Grant, M.(1972).Cleopatra. London: pp.69 ff ; Macky, C.S(2004),Ancient Rome : A military and Political History ,Camb. pp 106 ff 3 Gaber E. (2006),The Nile River and Famines in Egyptduring Greco-roman Period ,paper presented to the 5th FaiyumConference for the Nile and Water Resources in EgyptThrough the ages , Cairo Univ. p 531

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He even explained that as if the river expressed its sorrow for the death of a great leader, mean Pompey.1 Because of these low levels of the Nile in the last decade and its effects on wheat in particular, the Ptolemaic government was forced to issue a royal decree in about 50-49 B.C. in which the king Ptolemy XIII was mentioned at the head of the document and the queen Cleopatra VII is named only after him.2

The decree referred to the situation in Egypt atthis time; it ordered the sellers of grain and vegetables in middle Egypt below Memphis to transport all their goods to Alexandria not to Thebaid ,otherwise they would be executed. ‘’3The papyrus referred to the extent of the catastrophe that effected Egypt as a result of the low inundations and non achievement of the government of its role as regards to irrigation.So the government wished in this way to counteract the hunger riots which were looming large in Alexandria.1 Pliny the Elder.V.10.58 ‘Minimum V Pharsalico bello , veluti necem magni prodigio quodam flumine adversante ‘ and in the same text (V. 10.85) the writer referred that the best level was sixteen cubits. 2 During this period Cleopatra compelled to refuge to upperEgypt , and her brother took the chance and put his name atfirst . Maurine, R.L.(1980),’The Administration of Egypt under Cleopatra VII’.ph.D.diss.,Minnesota University 3 B.G.U. 1211 = Select Papyri. 209

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The papyrus also referred to the regular arrival of the grain to Alexandria, and it was logical that they should be kept in granaries near the port. We should keep in mind that the royal granaries existed in the royal quarter which included also the port.This decree refers to the important role played by the granaries during that period in Alexandria, as they were the only means to feed the Alexandrians under such very difficult Circumstances.The economic problems arrived its peak to a degree that the collection of taxes become a hardtask. The resulting anachoresis (flight from the land) nearly depopulated certain villages at thistime .Only the priests in there temples had stayed andthey were no longer able to protect themselves from the thieves .1 During these miserable years queen Cleopatra tried to face this crisis by distributing the grain that existed in her royal granaries to the citizens of Alexandria, since the Jews of Alexandria have not been granted citizenship, they hadn’t taken the grain .

The war of Alexandria

Caesar was no more welcome in Egypt than Pompey, the Alexandrians were afraid that he would joinedEgypt to the Romans, but he did not depart he wasin need for money to pay his troops.1 Holbal, G.(2001),P.231

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Especially that in 59 B.C. Rome had been supported Ptolemy XII the father returning him tothe throne, by promising a huge sum of money, buthe didn’t pay, and after he died his successors were obliged to pay their father dept.At this time Ptolemy XIII ruled Egypt alone, he had expelled his co-ruler Cleopatra, he was underthe control of his advisors Achillas,Pothinus, and Theodotus .As a pretext to stay in Alexandria, Caesar claimed that he wanted to put the will of King Ptolemy Auletes into effect, and invited Cleopatra VII and Ptolemy XIII to fulfill this will.1

The two were encamped at Pelusium (at the east boundary of Egypt) preparing to war. And soon Ptolemy arrived with his eunuch minister of finance (pothinus) to Alexandria, and after him his sister who attended to the hand of Caesar at the first .* Then Caesar read the will of the father and announced that Cleopatra VII and Ptolemy VII werejoint rulers of Egypt, and said that he restored the island of Cyprus to Egypt , to be ruled by the younger Ptolemy XIV and his sister Berenice .2

1 Jones, P.J.(2006),Cleopatra :A Source book . USA. p.53 ;Jimenez, R.(2000).Caesar Against Rome: The great Roman civil war. London: pp.170 ff, for more details about the debt of Aulets see Morgan, J.(2003), p.14.* About the method that taken by Cleopatra to come to the palace and to discuss her case to Caesar see Plutarchus .Caesar XLIX 1-32 Dio Cassius . XXXV ;Grant, M. (1972),Cleopatra p.68 ; Jones, P.J(2006,P65.; Bradford,E.(1972),Cleopatra. New York: p.70

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His conduct however was not acceptable to the Alexandrians, who took the Side of Ptolemy XIII, and Achilles the leader of the Ptolemy XIII army and Pothinus decided to make Ptolemy again the sole sovereign, and soon the royal army summoned under command of Achillas and besieged Caesar, and hence broke out the famous war known as the war of Alexandria.1 There was no way out of this internal matter for Caesar who took the side of Cleopatra. Caesar wasin dangerous situation. The Alexandrian army was about twenty thousands men with about two thousands cavalry, while the troops of Caesar were about only two thousands, with about eight hundred cavalry. 2

He himself explained his complicated position particularly in the sea, where his enemy overweighed him in the number of ships, and on land his troops couldn’t get the provisions and drinking water.3

From the military point of view Caesar saw that his situation in the sea was more dangerous

1 Abbott, J.(2005).Cleopatra .1st world publishing. pp 111 ff ; Jones P.J., (2000).Cleopatra The Last Pharaoh. Cairo:p.33; Bradford,E.(1972): pp. 68 ff ; Adrin,G, (2006).Caesar: Life of a Colossus. London. pp 43 ff2 Caes.B.Civ.III.110.1-2 ; Plut. Lives. Caesar . LIX ; Collins, S.D.(2002).Caesar's Legion: The Epic Saga of Julius Caesar's Elite Tenth Legion and the Armies of Rome .London: pp.144 -53 Caes., B.Alex. XII; for more details about the positionof Caesar and his forces compare with his rival Achillassee: Collins, S.D.(2002). pp.144 ff ; Macleod, R. (2004).pp.49ff.; Cary, M.& H. Scullard (1975). The History ofRome . London .pp 273ff

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especially after the provisions that reached to his opponent army, and he found no other way thansetting fire to the Egyptian ships that existed in the marine arsenal.Caesar set fire to these ships lest the enemy would capture them and deprive him of provisions and supplies, so he caused his soldiers to embarkon the island of Pharos, burning the ships, books, and stores of grain.1 The burning of the ships in the port of Alexandria was a military necessity that proved success; This enabled him to destroy the fleet ofthe enemy ,to take Pharos, to control the entrance to the port and to regain free communication with his forces on the other side of the Mediterranean.2 In his mention of burning of the ships in the port,(in his work Civil War) Caesar said that ' he burned all the ships in the harbour which come to support pompey (after his flight from pharsalus ) plus twenty two warships which had usually been on guard at Alexandria' 3 But Caesar seemed to have deliberately neglectedan important matter that he burnt a large number of books of the great library of Alexandria that existed near the port and the granaries both in the port and close to it. 4However, while Caesar

1 Chauveau, M.,& D. Lorton (2004),Cleopatra beyond the Myth . New York : pp. 26ff.; Macleod, R.(2004).p492 El abadi, M.(2002),The Life and Fate of the Ancient Library of Alexandria. Cairo: p.136.3 Caes.B.Civ.III.1114 Macleod, R. (2004), P.50. About the foundation of the library of Alexandria see recent study to :Bagnall R.S. (2002).'Alexandria : Library of Dreams' . Proceedings of the American Philosophical Socity .146.

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himself didn’t mention anything about the burningof books and grain, we find that many of the contemporary and later sources didn’t mention anything about this matter like Diodorus (B.C 90-21 ), Pliny the elder (AD23–79,and especially Strabo.(B.C 63-AD 20)who remains silent about thefire in his report on the Museum twenty-two yearsafter the war.1 Also in Appian (2nd Century) of Alexandria's own Civil Wars we read of the various battles around the palace, but nothing ofthe flames that destroyed the archives.2

The first indication to this event delayed about a century after the event, where the poet Lucanus(killed in 65 by Nero with Seneca ) In the Pharsalia, gave a full account of the fire: ‘it did not fall upon the ships only, but spread intothe other quarters of the city. The buildings close to the sea caught fire; the wind leant force to the powers of disaster; the flames ran over the roofs like meteors through the sky.’3

(4)pp.348ff.;Epiphanius from the fourth century A.D., tellsus that there were two libraries in Alexandria : the first Library was situated in the Brucheion and was the larger and more important of the two; the "outer library" was founded later, located in the temple of Serapis, and calledthe "daughter" )Epiphanius, De mens. et pond., 166 B(12, 24ff. Dind)apud, Roazen D.H. (2002).'Tradition's Destruction: On the Library of Alexandria', Vol. (100) p.1401 Roazen D.H. (2002). p.150.; Erskine, A.(1995).Culture andPower in Ptolemaic Egypt: The Museum and Library of Alexandria . Greece & Rome, 2.Vol. 42,(1) 39 2 Appian Alexandria. Civil Wars. II, 13, 90.3 Lucan, Pharsalia, X, 440ff; 486-505.

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I think that this account of the event could be considered a clear mention about the burning of other buildings than the books. Seneca also talked about this conflagration and mentioned that the number of the books that were burnt was about 40,000 books‘quadrigentam milia librorum Alexandriae arserunt’.1 At the end of the first century B.C. Plutarchus (46-127) wrote about the same event and said clearly that ‘the fire spread from the dockyards and destroyed the great library.’2 As we notice there was no mention about burning of the stores of grain. At the beginning of the third century A.D. came the first important hint to the burning of the grain on the mouth of Dio Cassius when he said inhis account of the war of Alexandria that ‘the fire hit many places among which the marine arsenal that was completely destroyed, and the stores of the grain and the books, that were said to have a great value’. ‘

1 Seneca , De Animi Tranquillitate ,II.9. 5. But later sources, such as Orosius, imply that it was perhaps originally quadringenta four hundred thousand. See: Fraser,(1972).Ptolemaic Alexandria. Oxford: vol. 2, 484 n. 224. The total number of books in the main library during Cleopatra period maybe about 700,000. Burstein, =S.M.(2007).The Reign of Cleopatra . USA. p.56 ; For more details about the number of books in the library and the sources of the books . See Roazen, D.H.(2002).pp.140ff; Frazer,(1972).vol.1.329;Thiem,(1979).'The Great Library of Alexandria Burnt: Towards the History of a Symbol' Journalof the History of Ideas, Vol. 40 (4):507ff ; Bagnall, = R.S. (2002)pp.351 ff.; Trumble, k.& R. MacIntyre (2003).The Library of Alexandria .London . pp.7ff2 Plutarch , Caesar . IL ’’

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’1Dio marked out three important institutions that had badly affected in the city: the arsenal, the granaries, and the library. And if we consider the injuries which happened to these institutions, we may imagine the serious effect of this conflagration.Pfeiffer follows Dio Cassius in asserting that the Caesarian fire destroyed not only the library, but also the harbor warehouses where grain and books were stored.2

If we tray to examine the accounts of the ancienthistorians, we find that there is a devolvement in the appearance of facts, because as time passed on there were no barriers to mention thesecritical matters, which had an implication to condemn what the Romans did, and its consequencesthat can ashamed any leader or administration, which causes the burning of a city and its cultural heritage.I think that there was deliberation in not mentioning the results of the conflagration. The subject which made some scholars affected by the words of Caesar in his work ( De Bello Alex., I .10)about Alexandria and its buildings , sayingthat the buildings close to the arsenal were madefrom stones and were woodless, and hence they were anti fire and so was the library.3

1 Dio Cassius LXII, 38.22 Pfeiffer,R.(1986). History of Classical Scholarship: Fromthe Beginnings to the End of the Hellenistic Age .Oxford: PP 98-104.3 Westermann,W. L (1952),The Library of Ancient Alexandria. Bulletin of the Faculty of Arts ,

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These scholars forget that Caesar had contradicted himself when he said in another textfrom the same work: ’that when the Alexandrians started to rebuild their fleet, they dismantled the roofs of porticoes , education institutes and public buildings to use their planks as oars.’.1

I think it’s a clear indication that the buildings close to the port contained at least some woods, enough to help increasing the fire. Furthermore what was mentioned about the extension and spreading of fire by the wind confirms that it moved over the roofs with a great speed.(Lucan, X, 440ff; 486-505).Some scholars went also to say that the Greek word that was mentioned in the account of Dio cassius, meant goods were ready for exportand had no relation with the library.2 While others went to explain this word to mean a building for storing books to register before carrying them to the main library, and this building was an essential part of the library, and Dio cassius was speaking of buildings and notgoods.3

Alexandria ,15 : p.131 Caes., De Bello Alexandrino, XIII. 5'Deerant remi: porticus, gymnasia, publica aedificia detegebant, asseres remorum usum obtinebant; aliud naturalis sollertia, aliud urbis copia sumministrabat. Postremo non longam'2Bevan,(1935),Egypt under the Ptolemaic Dynasty.London.P364; Westermann,W. L (1952)12.3 Galen ,Comm.in Hipp. Epidem.i ii (xvii a 606-7) (=Corpus medicorum Graecorum vol.10, 2, 1, pp. 78ff.).orseus VI . 15.31 comment about this building that it located near theport .and Livy said that it was huge and marvelous building' pulcherrimum monumentum 'apud El abadi, M.(2002).

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I can believe that the book store was a building beside the main library to register the books before carrying them to the main library , but what about the stores of grain which seem clear in cassius account ; He referred to two kind of stores the first to grains the second to books. ‘’ Why scholars were interested in the stores of books and not in stores of grain?1

Talking about the burning of granaries is involved with many difficulties, because as we previously mentioned, there was negligence of this conflagration in general in the sources, andthen negligence of its effects and even denying them.After that when the burnt buildings were mentioned by ancient writers they didn’t include the granaries ,and the first explicit indication to them was done by Dio Cassius ,as we referred above .Also if we return to the map of the ancient Alexandria during the Ptolemaic period (figure 1)we can assure that the fire which began in the arsenal was near the stores of grain and the books. And the fire which began in the arsenal spread by the wind to the west, were the granaries are

p.1421 When El abadi M.(2002) comment about the meaning of he referred only that it mean stores for books. And mentionnothing about the stores of grain ‘’

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Also we can notice that the stores of grain and books ‘’ weren't in the same place as it might be understood from the text. The interest of the ancient historians was mainlyin the burning of the books and the library, while some of the modern scholars ignored the burning of the grain stores and even some of them went further to reduce from the important of the grain, suggesting that it were preparing to travel to Rome ,so we shouldn’t be interestedin the matter.1 Why we shouldn’t interest with the matter? And why we should accept that the grain were preparing going to Rome? Even if the grain were going to Rome by the friendly agreement during this period and not officially – which done in 27 B.C by Augustus- I think especially in that year it couldn’t done for the conditions of the war , hunger and the negligence in economic affairs .

1 Elabadi, M.(1977),Ancient Library of Alexandria, Cairo p.31. I think the writer in his explain to the grain that it were preparing to travel to Rome was affected by the mean of as goods were ready to export, and this were a wrong meaning as referred above . And I think that the grain weren’t going to Rome. I know that this book wasan old edition to the writer ,and he didn’t repeat this idea in his new edition , but he didn’t deny it or corrected , he only didn’t mention to it , I argue the ideanot the mind ,of course the idea were survived so I think that it was a wrong idea .

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And after studied many ancient texts which confirmed that the grain were collected from the whole country to Alexandria to feed the Alexandrians in these misfortune days , and queenCleopatra was distributing the grain in the royal granaries to the citizens in Alexandria .I think that it become clear that the stores of grain were not empty, and weren’t preparing goingto Rome. thus the grain in the granaries was for the purpose of distributing them to the people of Alexandria and not exporting them to Rome.We can also imagine the negative impact on the economic situation during that year, for the burning of the granaries during the fire.

Conclusion

1- The year of 48 b.c witnessed a great crisis inEgypt ,all the weakness of the Ptolemaic government increased in this year, and reached its peak , add to this the low level in the Nile,and the civil war which resulted in destruction of the great library , and grain stores.2-It seems to me that the burning of the library and destroying a large number of its books drew the attention of many of the ancient and contemporary writers, because of its fame and thescientific cultural role of Alexandria and Egypt in the world. This in fact was at the expense of grain the food of bellies, on the basis that these grain can easily be compensated, while it is hard to compensate these books that were collected over tens and tens of years.

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3- I suggest with some assurance that the granaries had been burnt soon after the library, because they were closer to the port ,and I argue that when burnt , caused more fire which spread to all the buildings beside, especially as we have seen that these buildings were mostly made of from wood or including wood .Thatwood with the wind helped for a huge fire.

Bibliography

1-The ancient sources

Appian .Roman History. The Civil Wars. The Loeb Classical Library . Trans. by White,H.

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4 volumes. Camb. Harvard University Press.1966

Caesar, J. III. De Bello Alexandrino. The Loeb Classical Library. Trans. Way ,A.G. Camb. Harvard University Press.1968

De Bello Civilie. The Loeb Classical Library. Trans.Peskatt,A.G. Harvard University Press.1966

Dio Cssius .Roman History. The Loeb Classical Library. Trans. By Cary ,E. 9 volumes. Camb. Harvard University Press.1966.

Diodorus Siculus .The Library of History .The Loeb Classical Library .Trans. Oldfather C.H. Camb. Harvard.University Press. 1935.

Galen ,Commentari in Hipparatem Epidem . 111. The Loeb Classical Library .trans J. Brock. Harvard .University Press.1965

Josephus,I.The Life. Against Apion. The Loeb Classical Library .trans. by. Thackeray, J. Harvard .University Press. 1968

Livy .The History of Rome . The Loeb Classical Library. 14 volumes. Trans.Gardner F. Camb. Harvard University Press.1949

Lucan. The Civil War (Pharsalia). The Loeb Classical Library. Trans. by Duff J. D. Harvard University Press.1966

Pliny the Elder . Natural History . The Loeb Classical Library. Trans. Rakcham H. Camb. Harvard University Press.1967.

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Plutarchus . Lives . Caesar. VII. The LoebClassical Library. Trans. by Perrin B. Camb.Harvard University Press.1958

Seneca . De Animi Tranquillitate. The Loeb Classical Library. Trans. by John W.B.Camb. Harvard University Press.1964

Strabo .The Geography . The Loeb Classical Library. Trans. Jonse H. 8 volumes. Camb. Harvard University Press.1975

2- Papyri group

BGU: Aegyptische Urkunden aus den Königlichen (later Staatlichen) Museen zu Berlin, Griechische Urkunden

Select Papyri, in four volumes, Volume II, Loeb Classical Library by A. S. Hunt ,C. C. Edgar .

3-Modern References

Abbott, J.(2005),Cleopatra .1st world publishing. Adrin,G.(2006).Caesar . Life of a Colossus .USA: Yale Univ.,Press. Bagnall,R.S.(2002).'Alexandria : Library of Dreams' . Proceedings of the American Philosophical Socity. Philadelphia .146.(4). Bevan,(1935).Egypt under the Ptolemaic Dynasty. London. Bradford, E. (1972). Cleopatra. New York: Burstein,S.M.(2007).The Reign of Cleopatra.USA.Univ.of Oklahoma Press.

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Cary,M.,& H. Scullard (1975).The History of Rome 3rd ed. London. Chauveau, M. &.D. Lorton(2000).Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra: History and Society under thePtolemies. Ithaca: Cornell University Press . (2004).Cleopatra beyond the Myth. New York: Cornell University Press. Collins, S.D.(2002).Caesar's Legion: The Epic Saga of Julius Caesar's Elite Tenth Legionand the Armies of Rome . London. El abadi, M.(2002).The Life and Fate of the Ancient Library of Alexandria, High council for Archaeology Press . Cairo. (1977).Ancient Library of Alexandria, Cairo Erskine, A.(1995). Culture and Power in Ptolemaic Egypt: The Museum and Library of Alexandria .Greece &Rome, Second Series, Vol. 42,(1) Fraser,(1972). Ptolemaic Alexandria. Oxford: Oxford University Press, three volumes. Gaber E. The Nile River and Famines in Egyptduring Greco-Roman Period, paper presented to the 5th Faiyum Conference for the Nile and Water Resources in Egypt Through the ages, April 2005 ,Cairo Univ. Grainger, J.D(2002).The Roman War of Antiochos the Great. London . Grant, M.(1972).Cleopatra .London. Holbal, G. (2001).A history of the PtolemaicEmpire. London:

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Jimenez, R.l.(2000).Caesar Against Rome : The great roman civil war. London .Westport. Connecticut , Jones,P.J.(2000).Cleopatra the Last Pharaoh .Cairo: the American Univ., in Cairo press. (2006).Cleopatra :A Sourcebook . USA. Univ. of Oklahoma Press . (2006).Cleopatra: The LastPharaoh .London. Haus Puplishing Macky,C.S.(2004).Ancient Rome:A military andPolitical History ,Camb. Univ. Press Camb. Macleod, R.(2002).The Library of Alexandria:center of learning in ancient world. Cairo. The American University in Cairo Press . Maurine,R.L.(1980).’The Administration of Egypt under Cleopatra VII’. ph.D.diss., Minnesota University Morgan,J.(2003).Cleopatra :Ruling in the Shadow of Rome . London. Pfeiffer,R.(1986).History of Classical Scholarship: From the Beginnings to the End of the Hellenistic Age .Oxford: Reinhold, M.(1982). Declaration of War against Cleopatra. The Classical Journal, Vol. 77,( 2 ) Ricketts, L.M.(1980). The Administration of Ptolemaic Egypt under Cleopatra VII. ’Ph.D.diss. USA: Minnesota University. Roazen, D.H.(2002).'Tradition's Destruction on the Library of Alexandria' October, Vol. 100 Southern, P.(2007).The Roman army. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

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Thiem, J.(1979).'The Great Library of Alexandria Burnt: Towards the History of a Symbol' Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 40 (4). Trumble, K.& R. MacIntyre (2003). The Library of Alexandria .London . Westermann,L.(1952).The Library of Ancient Alexandria. Bulletin of the Faculty of Arts , Alexandria . Wykes, J.C.(1958).Caesar at Alexandria (De Bello Alexandrino) London. :St Martin Press .

Figure 1 map of Ptolemaic Egypt

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After: Elabadi,M.(1990).The Life and Fate of the Ancient Library of Alexandria. Paris .

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