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shirley chan

COSMOLOGY, SOCIETY, AND HUMANITY:TIAN IN THE GUODIAN TEXTS (PART II)1

Abstract

In this sequel of my previous publication,I will continue my discussionof the word tian as it appears in the Guodian texts. I shall argue that,from natural order arises xing , human’s distinctive potentiality,which is endowed by heaven to follow and be guided by the heavenlyprinciple.I thereafter will elaborate the sages’ role as cultural creators.The distinct roles of heaven and humanity are further deepened whentian and ming are perceived as the determinants of an individual’ssuccess or failure. I will go on to show how the word tian can beunderstood as the source or underlying pattern that brings aboutcoincidental or synchronous events and experiences.

This article will continue my discussion of the word tian as itappears in the Guodian texts. Part I shows that the concept of heavenas presented in the Guodian texts is a rich and dynamic one, embrac-ing both the general cosmic patterns and the principles of sustaininggood order. Tian as nature and the source of natural order prescribesthe ordered patterns and principles of all things. In this sequel, Part II,I will discuss the point that, from natural order arises xing , human’sdistinctive potentiality, which is endowed by heaven to follow and beguided by the heavenly principle, which is more in line with Mencius’sunderstanding of human nature. I thereafter will elaborate thesages’ role as cultural creators, by suggesting that rituals and musicare constitutive and instrumental in regulating and putting in orderhuman affairs, a position that is closer to Xunzi’s understanding. Thedistinct roles of heaven and humanity in the Guodian texts are furtherdeepened when tian and ming are perceived as the determinants of anindividual’s success or failure. Having argued this, I will go on to showhow the word tian can be understood as the source or underlyingpattern that brings about coincidental or synchronous events andexperiences.

SHIRLEY CHAN, Senior Lecturer, Chinese Studies, Department of InternationalStudies, Macquarie University. Specialties: traditional Chinese thought, Chinese philoso-phy, early Chinese texts. E-mail: shirley.chan@mq.edu.au

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Journal of Chinese Philosophy 39:1 (March 2012) 106–120© 2012 Journal of Chinese Philosophy

III. TIAN as a Constant Principle and Social Norms:The Role of the Sages

In the Guodian texts, tian is also considered the source of the constantand normative moral and ethical standards that serve as the funda-mental principle of human relations and social order. The terms “theconstant principles of heaven” (tianchang ), or “the great con-stancy and regularities” (dachang ), “heavenly virtues” (tiande

), and “the way of heaven” (tiandao ) or “the great way”(dadao ) are discussed analogously in terms of moral and ethicalprinciples. Chang means constant or eternal.2 In other words, socio-ethical and moral standards are considered to be rules decreed by tianand are what people should constantly observe as correspondence toheaven.Adherence to constant principles is associated with regulatingor putting in good order human relationships (li renlun or zhirenlun ). Here our earlier discussion of li , which means“reasoning principles/patterns” and “managing things in compliancewith their essence,” is relevant: li renlun should be seen as a necessaryprocess in managing human order and constituting community normsthrough observing inherent principles of reasoning and of humannature; sagehood or the virtue of a junzi is concerned with observingthese principles and ultimately transforming the people or makingthem moral, in which case it is referred to as tiande.

Another text in the Guodian corpus, the Chengzhi Wenzhistates:

Thus, a junzi attaches importance to the fact that heaven bestows theGreat Norm for managing human relationships, creating the rules ofpropriety between ruler and minister, establishing a close relation-ship between father and son and differentiating between husbandand wife.

In other words, the basic principles governing human relations arenot simply something imposed from without but rather a reinforce-ment of an existing natural order conferred by tian. Such an inherentorder, defined by the distinctions between things, encompasses thenatural relationships between one being and another. In the begin-ning of this article, we have shown that heaven is the source of allthings with which it has endowed ming , wu , ming , xing , xu

, and rong , which then specify, define, and prescribe the corre-sponding functions and principles of all things.

Accordingly, in the human realm, human relationships andcommunity and social norms are identified and should correspond,for example, with proper names, ming.4 The basic human relation-

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ships and their social roles and functions have been prescribed inthe Guodian text of the Six Virtuous Conducts (Liude ).Here, the three basic human relationships are husband ( fu ) and wife( fu ), father ( fu ) and son (zi ), ruler ( jun ) and subjectminister (chen ).The text repeatedly asserts that it is only when eachperson fulfills their own proper role in society according to theirposition that misrule, disorder, and chaos can be prevented:

Thus let husband act as husband, wife act as wife, father act as father,son act as son, ruler act as ruler, minister act as minister.When the sixpositions fulfill their own roles wickedness and slander will have noway to grow.

Differences in social position are emphasized. Individuals haveprivileges and obligations clearly defined by their position that deter-mine what behavior is appropriate and ensure that interpersonalrelationships remain proper in nature. The social roles and virtuousconduct of these individual positions are defined thus:

There are those who lead and those who follow; there are those whoemploy and those who serve; there are those who instruct and thosewho learn.These are the six duties.With the six positions defined, thesix duties are allocated accordingly; with the six duties distinguished,the six virtuous ways of behaving are to be developed. Appropriate-ness is the virtue of the ruler, devotion is the virtue of the subjectminister; wisdom is the virtue of the husband; trustworthiness is thevirtue of the wife; sagacity is the virtue of the father; kindhearted loveis the virtue of the son.

The six basic ways of behaving define social relations and commu-nity norms; the way people are interrelated through them is an inher-ent feature of the human realm: “Since people appeared on earth,there have necessarily been husbands and wives, fathers and sons,rulers and ministers” (Shengmin si biyou fufu, fuzi, junchen

). Each of these relationships has itsown distinctive features. These include the distinction between maleand female, closeness between father and son, and appropriatenessbetween ruler and minister (“Proper distinction arises betweenmale and female, close familiarity arises between father and son,and a sense of appropriateness arises between ruler and minister”[Nannü bie sheng yan, fuzi qin sheng yan, junchen yi sheng yan

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]). The word sheng , ren-dered “arise” in the previous passage, implies that these human rela-tionships are part of the natural development of human society; theygrow out of or develop as natural needs for human growth. Recog-nizing and adhering to the distinctiveness of these relationships iscrucial not only for social stability but also for the natural order andprinciple as intended by heaven.The Yucong 1 consistently claims that“all above and below in the hierarchical human relations have theirown proper place” (shangxia jiede qisuo ) and “allthings should rest in their (proper) place/station” (wu ge zhi yu qisuo

). The Chengzhi Wenzhi says that the junzi is playing arole in reinforcing the normative moral ethical principle symbolizedin the tianchang or tiande, whereas the petty (xiaoren ) violatethis principle:

Thus, the petty disrupt the norms of heaven, thereby going contraryto the great way [so the “norms” are part of the great way, not theother way around], whereas the junzi regulate human relationshipsthereby complying with the virtue of heaven . . . [literally, “the virtueof heaven requires that a junzi do so.”]

In the past, the junzi asked: “What is (the meaning of) ‘sagaciousperson’, ‘heavenly virtue’?” This means (by) cautiously seekingwithin, one can comply with the Norm of heaven.

It is said that, through non-violation of the great way, King Wen didnot issue heavy punishment. Thus, a junzi is attentive to the sixpositions in his sacrifices to the heavenly norm(s).

Essentially, according to the Way of Yao and Shun (Tang Yu zhiDao ), these sage kings display the qualities of ideal king-ship in possessing the virtue of humanity and inculcating ethical prin-ciples in the people ( jiaomin ):

. . . Therefore in ancient times, the worthy, the humane, and thesagely were like this. (Though) physically destitute, they were notgreedy; they died without contemplating their own advantage—(thus,) they came to have exhausted (the realization of) humanity.They would always (first) rectify themselves and only then rectify theworld—(thus,) the way of sagehood was fully realized. . . . The sageserves heaven above and teaches people to be reverent; serves earthbelow and teaches people to love their family . . .

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Through regulating and educating the people, the sage is fulfillingthe task of serving heaven and earth. At various places, the Guodiantexts state the important role of the ruler as moral leader of thepeople, and in one case, there is a metaphorical expression comparingthe relationship between the sage and the people to the relationshipbetween the sun and all things: without the sage’s rule, all would beruined or damaged. In other words, the role of the sage is to establishproper order between all things in the universe, including humansociety, through implementing education and guidance to ensureproper growth and development:

If the great brightness [that is, the sun] did not emerge, all of themyriad things would lie in obscurity.Without the sage on high (as theleader), all under heaven would be ruined.

The ability of carrying out the process of harmonizing and unify-ing an inborn nature with external cultural constructs imparts thepower that connects the sage with heaven. The Yucong offersthe following: “The Way of humanity sometimes emerges fromwithin, and sometimes enters from without” (Ren zhi dao ye, huoyouzhongchu, huo youwairu ). Thisis consistent with the concept of de explained in Xu Shen’sShuowen Jiezi as something “to obtain from withoutfrom others and to emerge from within in oneself. The characteris composed with zhi and xin ” (Wai deyu ren, nei deyu ji ye.Cong zhi xin ) (the original charac-ter de is also written in the Guodian text as ). This emphasis on“combining” and “harmonizing” internal and external moralsources is more explicit when the relationship between ren and yiis consistently referred to by, respectively, the words “inner” (nei )and “outer” (wai ), as illustrated in the Yucong 1 and theLiude.

Furthermore, according to the Xing Zi Ming Chu, the sages hadincorporated their understanding of human qing when working onand making use of the Odes, Documents, Rites, and Music to accom-plish the cultivation of humanity’s moral sensitivity.12 People areendowed with the ability to learn and practice what is proper tohuman beings. If the previous reading is correct, one may suggest thatthe sage who has keen perception and who understands these endow-ments of heaven brings these accomplishments to completion throughthe practice of li and achieves the potential imparted by tian. TheGuodian texts agree that social and cultural transformation is aprocess implemented by the sage kings, and its ultimate aim is to care

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for and nurture (yang ) their people in accordance with humannature. The Tang Yu zhi Dao says:

By according with the circumstances of (one’s) skin, blood, and qi[i.e., the attributes of human beings], nourish the rectitude in one’snature and lot. By accepting one’s lot one avoids dying young. Bynurturing life one causes no injury. Knowing . . . the rules of propri-ety, observing closely the music, this is the way of teaching the people.

The words shun , yang xingming , anming , andyangsheng , which reflect an attitude of conforming to (human)nature, are used to describe the ways of ruling or acting of the sagekings, Yao and Shun. In this way, they construe human xing, whichheaven endows, as both biological and ethical, and regard moral cul-tivation not as reshaping one’s predisposition, but as nourishing andnurturing it.15

The discussion so far suggests that the Guodian texts underscorethe interconnectedness of heaven and humanity. If we take it thatheaven is the source of all things—their nature, assigned function-ality, and related reasoning and principles—then the unity ofhumanity and heaven implies that human beings are to comply withtheir nature and principles of growth and development. As part ofthe natural world, human beings are not set apart from it, and so,should not “disrupt” (luan ) or “go against” (ni ) it. Rather,humanity is an integral part of nature and that they are of ultimateimportance (gui ) because of humanity’s inborn and developingcapability to know and to empathize with the way and principle ofheaven, and to comply with it. To this end, human beings are to fullyunderstand human nature derived from heaven, to make their namecorrespond with their human characteristics, distinct from otherspecies and as members of human society. Cultural practice basedon ritual and music, as envisaged by the sages, is believed to be themost effective means of affirming this harmonious relationshipbetween humanity and heaven, thus ensuring that the proper names,order, position, and assigned duties (ming ) all correspond fully.This includes the proper ordering of human relations and the rolesand positions of individuals in society.

To ensure proper correspondence to the constant way and naturalorder, it is essential to be aware of and to understand (zhi ) thedifferentiation in the duties of heaven and of human beings. TheYucong 1 has the following:

Only by knowing what tian has produced and knowing what humanshave created, will you know the way; only by knowing the way willyou then know ming. If you have wide learning you will then know

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ming. Ritual is created in accordance with human qing; well-managed, it will engender joy (music).

This passage suggests that awareness and understanding of thedistinct roles played by human beings and heaven enable the way andthe ming to be realized. Here, wei , which has been translated as “tocreate,” may refer to what heaven and human beings are responsiblefor in contributing to the very same goal of unifying and harmonizingthe way of humanity and the way of heaven. This is parallel to theaforementioned words in the Yucong: tian sheng gun/lun, ren shengqing” (Tian constitutes constant principles andclassifications, and humans develop patterns for regulating things).Drawing on what we have covered so far, the “unity of humanity andheaven” (tianren heyi) theory implies that we should direct our atten-tion to reinforce the social and cosmic order by following the prin-ciples and patterns endowed by tian. To achieve this, the sage who isexceptionally perceptive has created cultural patterns (rituals andmusic), and by observing these inherent principles to manage prop-erly (shanli ) human affairs. In other words, while the traditionalview tends to hold that the two theories relating to tian, the “unity ofhumanity and heaven” and the “distinction between humanity andheaven,” are divergent and contradictory ideas, in the Guodian texts,these two concepts are neither diametrically opposed nor mutuallyexclusive. It should be pointed out that ren can sometimes referspecifically to the sage or some exemplary figure such as the junzi orxianren (worthy person), though it can also refer to humanbeings in general. It seems that in the previous passage ren refers tothe sage kings or cultural creators (youweizhe ), a term that isused in the Guodian text of the Xing Zi Ming Chu. In this sense, thepassage can be taken to mean that it is essential to acquire knowledge(zhi) of what is brought by heaven and by the cultural creators so asto understand the way and ming.The acquisition of this knowledge orwisdom presupposes a locus in which these particular interdependentvalues are exercised.

Thus, both zhi tian and zhi ren are the starting point of zhi dao,which then leads to the possibility of zhi ming. “Ming” in thispassage from the Yucong implies to the creation and observation ofrituals and music in human society that is crucial in constituting thesocial norms. The close connection between zhidao, zhiming andguiding people with rituals and music is further attested in anotherGuodian text, “Venerating Virtue and Propriety” (Zun De Yi

)

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. . . Knowing oneself (is) the means of knowing others; knowingpeople is the means of knowing ming; knowing ming is the means ofknowing the way; knowing the way is the means of knowing how toact. One comes to know music through ritual and to know sorrowthrough music. There might be some who know themselves and yetdo not know ming; but there are none who know ming and yet do notknow themselves. There might be some who know ritual and yet donot know music; it has not been the case that those who know musicdo not know ritual. The people can follow those who make properchoices. This is (the way of) being a superior person. Since ancienttimes guiding people in the right direction has been possible onlythrough “(ruler’s charismatic) virtue” . . . For virtue, nothing isgreater than ritual and music.

The previous passage, like the Yucong 1, relates zhidao, zhiming tothe knowledge of rituals and music.18 It puts the emphasis on the roleof those who act as the agent of cultural transformation providingguiding principles to people through rituals and music.19 This article’sdiscussion of the sages’ role as cultural creators also suggests thatrituals and music are constitutive and instrumental in regulating andputting in order human affairs, a position that is closer to Xunzi’sunderstanding. The distinct roles of heaven and humanity in theGuodian texts are further deepened when tian and ming are per-ceived as the determinants of an individual’s success or failure. In thefollowing chapter, I will continue my discussion by showing how theword tian can be understood as the source or underlying pattern thatbrings about coincidental or synchronous events and experiences.

IV. TIAN as the Source that Brings about Coincidence andPersonal Synchronous Experience

The concept of tian as a determinant of individual experience of aspecific incident is put forward in the Guodian text Solitude andAdvancement Depends on Timeliness (Qiongda Yishi ).This text gives extensive examples of historical figures and legendaryheroes to illustrate the unpredictability of both auspicious and calami-tous events and thus, of individual fortunes; personal opportunitiesand catastrophes are determined by tian. In the examples, a set ofcoincidences are the cause of/or the explanation for an individual’sexperience. The text, in fact, discusses these issues in terms of

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“timeliness, opportunity” (shi ), “the trends of the age” (shi ), and“encounters” (yu ), exemplifying how the virtuous and the talentedwill be recognized and employed:

There is heaven and there are human beings; there is a distinctionbetween heaven and man. By observing the distinction betweenheaven and man one will know how to act. There might be the rightperson but not the right time; even one who is worthy will not then beable to act out (his worthiness). As long as (gou ) the time is right,what difficulty would there be (for a worthy person to succeed)?Shun was ploughing the fields of Mount Li and making pottery by theriver valley. His being established and becoming the son of heavencame about because of his encounter with Yao. Shaoyao was wearinga hemp coverlet, a hemp hat, and a scarf. The reason he became anassistant to the ruler, by putting aside building wooden boards forearthen walls, was because of his encounter with Wuding. Lü Wangwas a slave at the ford on the Ji River. He watched the gates of theterritory of Ji. At the age of seventy he was slaughtering oxen in thecity of Chaoge. His becoming a tutor to the son of heaven came aboutbecause of his encounter with King Wen of Zhou. . . . In the begin-ning these worthies were unrecognized and lived in obscurity, butthey later gained prominence.This was not due to an increase in theirvirtue. Similarly with Zixu, whose behavior was initially meritorious,but who was later persecuted.This was not because he had grown lesswise. . . . Whether (the opportunity to realize one’s potential) arisesor not, this lies with heaven.

Without timely recognition, even the most talented will not bepromoted or honored with a position in which they can serve orbenefit the people as an official.21 The personal qualities of the figuresin the previous examples remained the same, yet their lives changedfrequently simply because of circumstances. The expression yu bu yu,tian ye declares that tian ordains the sequence of eventsand the course an individual’s life takes and that these are subject tointeractions between phenomena and a multitude of other things.

In the Tang Yu zhi Dao the author/compiler asserts that bothpersonal qualities and timely recognition are required in order tobecome successful:

In ancient times Yao was born to be the son of heaven and possessthe empire. By making himself a sage he met his ming; by being (aman of) humanity he was the right person at the right time. . . . Inancient times, Shun was not disconcerted by living in a hut; heascended as the son of heaven yet did not become conceited. Living

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in a hut and not being disconcerted is to know one’s ming; ascendingas the son of Heaven and yet not being conceited is avoidingindulgence.

Two observations can be made from the preceding account. First,Yao’s becoming the son of heaven is attributed to his personal qualityof sageliness (sheng ) and benevolence (ren ). The instrumentalpreposition “with, through” (yi ) suggests that the personal qualitiesare the primary requirement for attaining the status of an ideal ruler.Yet, without meeting their ming (yuming ) and being the rightperson at the right time ( fengshi ), Yao and Shun might neverhave become rulers. The notion of ming is illustrated in the differentexperience of the two sage kings: to possess the empire as the son ofheaven from the beginning, or to rise from humble origins to becomeruler. Ming is mentioned together with shi “time” and should beunderstood as a particular role and position one is assigned to at apoint in time in relation to the cause of an event, due to the combi-nation of various factors. The word ming in this context refers to acertain kind of human experience that comes about through sheercoincidence, serendipity, or synchronicity.23 It can be understoodas “synchronous experience” or, more specifically, as a corollaryphenomenon of the many worlds rather than simple “fate” or“destiny.”

These concepts are related yet they are different. Fate emphasizesthe inescapable, while destiny emphasizes predestination. This doesnot mean the notion of ming excludes factors beyond one’s control,yet in relation to individual experience, ming should be understoodin a more dynamic sense. Furthermore, ming consistent with shi (i.e.,coincidence) is subject to constant change just like the combinationof various factors is changing over time. These changes and combi-nation of factors are significant to the course of an individual’ssuccess/failure. In this sense, the previous account of Yao and Shun’s“synchronistic experience” reveals the meaningful combination ofthe subjective and objective worlds: the qualities of sheng and renare inward/subjective (as a result of self-cultivation), whereas mingand shi reflect the simultaneous occurrence of the subjective andobjective experiences that explain Yao and Shun’s becoming rulers.Self-cultivation is a long-term activity; promotion to high positionis largely a matter of chance. The ultimate message is that oneshould remain unperturbed while consistently refining one’spersonal qualities in changing circumstances, regardless of worldlyrecognition.

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Realizing that circumstances contribute to an individual’s careeradvancement and honors, the author of the text asserts that honorsand riches should not be the motivation for self-cultivation. Peopleshould strenuously pursue moral competence regardless of hardshipand poverty for only then will they have the will power to preservetheir virtuous conduct in every situation:24

(Since) to be employed is not for personal achievement, one there-fore is poor and yet does not (complain; since) living in concealmentis not to gain a reputation, one therefore is not known and yet doesnot begrudge it. Angelica grows in the deep valley and it is not thecase that as there is no one there to smell it, [it] turns malodorous.. . . Failure and success depends on timeliness and yet virtuousconduct is consistent.

An important contribution of the Guodian texts to the concept of“knowing ming” is that, by introducing the concepts shi, shi, and yu,the author(s) have construed a set of concrete factors contributing tothe causes, context, and consequences of events related to one’s ming.With these, one is able to see what is under our control and what isnot. In our earlier discussion of the moral principles that one shouldconstantly adhere to, ming refers to one’s prescribed roles, duties, andrelated precepts to be fulfilled and followed in a swirling world ofchange. Nevertheless, as an individual, to know one’s ming is not asubmissive attitude of acceptance that everything is predeterminedand inevitable. Rather, it is an awareness of one’s duty and how oneshould maintain uprightness and ultimate goodness in different pointsof one’s course of life including adverse circumstances. This virtue ofthe junzi has been compared to the fragrance of angelica growing inthe valley: Without being in a prominent position, the original quali-ties of the junzi should and will still always be cherished.

Synchronous experience in this case is a combination of personalqualities (as sheng and ren) and the natural events of the outsideworld (such as the chance meetings, the encounters with people whorecognize the worth of the talented). It is given that tian ordains thesequence of events and assigns to each individual a different lot, yetwith a constant moral principle, it is the individual who needs toobserve the responsibility inherent in this assignment and act appro-priately: to observe the differentiation between the ways of man andof heaven so one can act appropriately (cha tianren zhi fen, er zhisuoxing yi ). While one’s success (in influ-encing others) is a function of timeliness, what should always remainunchanged is a conscious commitment to moral principle, a commit-

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ment in which one is autonomous: qiongda yishi, dexing yi ye. Understanding and accepting the course of

events, as the example of Shun reveals, means emptying one’s mind toremain in control and unperturbed in a world of swirling confusion.There is a more fundamental point here, which is evident in the finalsentence in the Qiongda Yishi: therefore, the junzi remains sincere inself-examination (literally, “returning to the self”; gu junzi dun yufanji ). Turning inward allows constant improvementthrough moral cultivation. The implication is that seeking within andreflecting is the sincerest way to attain the way; such a commitmentmust not in any circumstance be compromised.26 The best choice, thebest decision, and the best action throughout a human life is to makean effort to conduct oneself in an appropriate way as a junzi in rightrelation to the world through spiritually seeking harmony betweenhumanity and heaven and ultimately the greatness of nature inhumankind.

V. Conclusion

I have argued that tian in the Guodian text is a dynamic concept withthree mutually related categories, namely, the natural law and cosmicorder, moral principles and socio-political norms, and finally synchro-nous events and individual experiences. This article carries forwardmy discussion of tian by focusing on the second and third senses.Underlying these three categories is the goal of unifying humanityand heaven (tianren heyi). To achieve this goal, individuals need to beaware of the distinct roles played by humans and heaven (tianrenyoufen). In human society, junzi or shengren are those who possessknowledge of the way of heaven and are responsible for manifestingthe way of humanity through inculcating morality in the people. Junziknow the heavenly way because they realize that people are endowedby heaven with distinctive attributes that enable them to developmorality. The junzi are thus the medium connecting heaven andhuman beings; they provide teachings and act as moral exemplars.Whether or not an individual junzi succeeds in this mission throughofficial career advancement depends not only upon his moral quali-ties, but also upon the timeliness of his being recognized. This was notmerely an epistemological issue based on reconstruction of histori-cally analogous situations. For intellectuals waiting to be employedduring the Warring States period it was in fact a construct and anexplanation of the situation in which they found themselves: whenuprightness and talent were no guarantee of secure employment orpromotion, they remained persistent in seeking in themselves the Way

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of harmonizing humanity and heaven, that is, to cultivate themselvesin solitude with faith that the fragrance of the virtue of a spirituallyevolved person would be pervasive and spread in all directions to beuniversally experienced, regardless of whether he were eventuallyemployed or not.

This article, addressing tian as the social norms and moral principle,a source responsible for the operation of synchronous events andexperiences, suggests that though heaven may not give people thesame opportunity to be recognized for career advancement, it doesprovide us our nature and ability with which we can look inward torealize what defines each individual as human. Both Mencius andXunzi had expounded on this issue by emphasizing the differentdimensions of heaven. Mencius insisted that one should seek inhimself, realizing the goodness endowed by heaven in any circum-stance so as to fulfill the ming (functions, duties) assigned by heaven.Xunzi on the other hand emphasized tian as a natural force, whichmay not reward the virtuous, thus claiming the differentiated roles inheaven and humans.

The concept of tian as presented in the Guodian texts forces us torevise our views about the intellectual discourse from which thosetexts draw, showing the Guodian discourse is much more syncreticand dynamic than has been assumed, which in turn offers new insightsinto potential lines of influence on later thinkers such as Mencius andXunzi.

MACQUARIE UNIVERSITYSydney, Australia

Endnotes

I would like to express my gratitude to the Chiang Ching-kuo Foundation for funding myresearch project on the Guodian texts between 2009 and 2011. The early draft of thisarticle has been presented at the 10th Colloquium on Confucianism organized by theInstitute for Advanced Studies in Humanities and Social Sciences, National Taiwan Uni-versity, Taiwan, July 8–11, 2009; the 16th International Conference on Chinese Philosophy,organized by the International Society for Chinese Philosophy and Fujen University,Taiwan, July 7–15, 2009, and at the 2009 Annual Meeting of the Western Branch of theAmerican Oriental Society, University of California, Los Angeles, on October 16–17, 2009.I thank the teachers and colleagues who gave me generous feedback and comments onthis article, in particular, Professors Xu Fuchang, Chen Zhaoying, Li Chenyang, and PhilipJ. Ivanhoe, and Drs. Derek Herforth, Sue Wiles, Newell Ann Van Auken, and Lance Eccles.My special thanks go to the Journal of Chinese Philosophy. I am grateful to the Editor-in-Chief, Professor Chung-ying Cheng and the two blind reviewers for providing impor-tant and substantial comments to the early version. I would also like to thank ManagingEditor, Dr. Linyu Gu, for her professional manner and detailed suggestions throughoutour correspondence. The coeditor of this special issue, Professor Justin Tiwald, proofreadand copyedited my revision, and I appreciate his generous time.

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1. This is the sequel of Part I of the article under the same title. For Part I, see ShirleyChan, “Cosmology, Society, and Humanity: Tian in the Guodian Texts (Part I),”Journal of Chinese Philosophy Supplement to Volume 38 (2011): 64–77.

2. In various chapters of many early texts, tian and changare closely related and are discussed in terms of natural order or constant rules andprinciples. For example, in the Guanzi’s “Xingshi Jie” , the Xunzi’s

“Tian Lun” , and the Zhuangzi’s “Tiandao” . In these texts,“constancy” and “regularity” were related to regular movements of the celestialbodies, day and night. That is why irregular phenomena (eclipses, shooting stars, etc.)were so portentous. “Eternal” is a sense derived from this; chang, as a broader term,refers to constant principles and the regularity of activities, not only in the naturalorder but also in the constancy of activities and in related ethical and moral principlesin the human realm. This is more apparent in texts such as the Yi Zhoushu, Guanziand the Xunzi; for example, the Yi Zhoushu ( ) says: “Heavenattains a constant nature and human being a constant order. The order existsin constancy; nature in permanence and permanence allows observance” (Tianyou changxing, ren you changshun, shun zai bubian, xing zai bugai, bugaikeyin ). Also, in the Guanzi( ) we find the following: “Heaven attains constant phenomena,Earth a constant entity and human beings a constant principle of propriety” (Tian youchangxiang, di you changxing, ren you changli ). And,the Xunzi ( ) offers this: “Heaven has a lasting Way, Earth a constantprinciple and the junzi a constant rule of propriety.” (Tian you changdao yi, di youchangshu yi, junzi you changli yi ).

3. “Chengzhi Wenzhi” .4. For Confucius, to rectify names and to ensure the correspondence between names and

actualities was the priority of government. See “Zilu” in the Lunyu. The Zuozhuanalso illustrates the significance of a name and the sense of appropriateness derivedfrom it. See “Huangong Ernian” .

5. “Liude” (The Six Virtues).6. Ibid.7. “Chengzhi Wenzhi” .8. Ibid.9. Ibid.

10. “Tang Yu Zhi Dao” (The Way of Yao and Shun).11. Ibid.12. The Odes, the Documents, the Rites, and the Music were all initially produced by

people. See “Xing Zi Ming Chu” in the Guodian texts. I have pointed out elsewherethat this is not a simple defense of traditional culture (which certainly plays a role inshaping the human character), but an argument for the discernment of human qing(feelings, emotions). Shirley Chan, “Human Nature and Moral Cultivation in theGuodian Text of the Xing Zi Ming Chu (Nature Derives fromMandate),” Dao: Journal of Comparative Philosophy 8, no. 4 (2009): 361–82.

13. Here I follow Li Ling, who suggests the character shu should read shun . See LiLing, Guodian Chujian Jiaodu Ji (Beijing: Peking University Press,2002), 95.

14. “Tang Yu zhi Dao” .15. This theory may have provided Mencius with the basic ideas for his notion of “nour-

ishing heart/mind” and “nourishing qi.”16. “Yucong 1.”17. “Zun De Yi” (Venerating Virtue and Propriety).18. Later, in the Xunzi, it is made clear what heaven does and what people or, more

specifically, the sage does: when heaven and earth combine, all things are born, andwhen the yin and yang act upon each other, all changes are produced, and whennature and conscious activity join together, the world is well ordered. Heaven can givebirth to creatures but it cannot distinguish them; earth can bear man up but it cannotgovern him. All things and all who belong to the human species must await the sagebefore they can attain their proper places. See Xunzi, “Li Lun” in Watson’s

119cosmology, society, and humanity (part ii)

translation, which I have modified here (Burton Watson, Hsun Tzu: Basic Writings[New York: Columbia University Press, 1963], 103).

19. A similar role of the ruler is emphasized in Daoist texts. While in the Daoist traditiondao (the way) or taiyi (the Great Oneness) is regarded as the ultimate sourceof multitudes, tian together with di (earth) is nevertheless often depicted as phe-nomena that are directly connected with human affairs. The following is from theGuodian Laozi A: heaven is great, earth is great, the Way is great and so is the king.There are four greatnesses in the state and the king occupies one of them. Humanityfollows the principle of earth, earth follows heaven, heaven follows the way,and the way follows nature

( [Laozi A]). The central theme ofthis passage is that the ruler must rule by following the principle of nature. It affirmsthat humanity, or specifically the king, together with the way, heaven, and earth, hasbeen regarded as one of the four important elements in a state. Without outsideinterference, a sage king is expected to make people spontaneously realize theirnatural being and assist all things to become what they are intended to be. While theDaoist texts seem to emphasize the concept of wuwei, that is, following the naturalway, which seems to be the opposite of the notion of wei that we have had in othertexts, they nevertheless share the common thesis that the sage’s/ruler’s teachingcorresponds with the natural order and the constituents of human nature.

20. “Qiongda Yishi” (Solitude and Advancement Depends on Timeliness).21. The Wuxing points out that one of the qualities of a sage king is his ability to identify

and uphold the worthy. Guodian Chumu Zhujian, 150.22. “Tang Yu zhi Dao” (The Way of Yao and Shun). Liu means “pamper,

indulge” ( fangzong, wujiezhi ) as in “Xici I” of the Yijing(the Book of Changes).

23. Synchronicity is also a word coined by Carl Gustav Jung to describe “the temporallycoincident occurrences of acausal events.” It was a principle that he felt compassed hisconcept of the collective unconscious, in that it was descriptive of a governingdynamic that underlay the whole of human experience and history, social, emotional,psychological, and spiritual. Jung believed that many experiences perceived as coin-cidence were due not merely to chance, but instead potentially reflected the manifes-tation of coincident events or circumstances consequent to this governing dynamic.Jung further related the principle of synchronicity to the patterns presented in theBook of Changes. See Carl G. Jung, Synchronicity—An Acausal Connecting Principle,trans. R. F. C Hull (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1973).

24. These passages parallel Confucius’ “not complaining against tian, not blaming others”(“Xian Wen”). Xunzi shared this attitude when he said, “If you understand yourself,you do not blame others; if you understand ming you do not complain against tian.”(Xunzi, “Rongru Pian” ).

25. “Qiongda Yishi.”26. Xunzi makes a similar point in the chapter of “You Zuo” . Mencius says one can

either “attend to one’s own virtue in solitude” (dushan qishen ) or “make thewhole kingdom virtuous as well” ( jianji tianxia ) “Jinxin I” .

120 shirley chan