Combinations of Contrastive Discourse Markers in English

© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2013 DOI: 10.1163/18773109-13050209

International Review of Pragmatics 5 (2013) 318–340 brill.com/irp

Combinations of ContrastiveDiscourse Markers in English

Bruce FraserBoston University, USA

[email protected]

AbstractDiscourseMarkers are usually discussed as termswhich signal the relationship between twocontiguous sentences, S1—DM—S2 (“We started late. Yet, somehow, we arrived on time.”)In the present paper, I examine the class of English Contrastive Discourse Markers (CDMs)to determine what pairs of them occur acceptably in a sentence (“The health care systemneeds more primary care physicians. However, on the other hand, they are the doctors whoare paid at the bottomof the scale.”), thosewhich are unacceptable (“We could go to Jamaicafor our vacation this year. On the other hand, nevertheless, we could stay home.”), and othersfor which the jury is out. Several tentative generalizations, including the role of spoken vs.written language are made but the complete solution is far down the road.

Keywordsdiscourse marker; contrastive discourse marker; contrastive marker combinations

1. Introduction

DiscourseMarkers (DMs), terms such as but, so, and furthermore, signal thesemantic relationship between adjoining discourse segments. ContrastiveDMs (hereafter CDMs), one of three classes of DMs, are those in (1).

(1) Contrastive Discourse Markers: alternatively, although, but, contrary to expec-tations, conversely, even though, except, however, in comparison (with), in con-trast (to), instead (of ), nevertheless, notwithstanding, only, on the contrary, onthe other hand, rather (than), still, though, whereas, while, yet.

Each CDM signals a different contrastive relationship between adjacentdiscourse segments, as exemplified in (2),

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(2) a. We started on time. But, we arrived late.b. I could go to Miami.On the other hand, I could just stay at home.c. You claim to care about the environment. Yet you have a roaring fireplace

in the winter.

where the CDM (in bold) in S2 signals a particular contrastive relationshipbetween the two discourse segments S1 and S2.1

CDMs vary greatly. For example, but, signals a number of potential differ-ent relationships, depending on both the linguistic and cognitive context,while others, for example, on the contrary and conversely, signal a single rela-tionship. In addition, the meaning signalled by some CDMs, for examplebut, however, and yet, is relatively opaque while the meaning of others, forexample, despite that, on the other hand, contrary to expectations, and on thecontrary, is relatively transparent.

My goal in this paper is to consider the entire class of CDMs and to showwhich combinations of CDMs occur, as in (3) and (4),

(3) a. I could go to Miami. Yet, alternatively, I could just stay at home.b. Jackwanted to go toHarvard.But, instead, he ended up going toWheelock.c. She was only the whisky maker’s daughter. But still he loved her.

(4) a. I could go to Miami. Yet, I could, alternatively, just stay at home.b. Jackwanted to go toHarvard.But he ended up (instead) going toWheelock

instead.c. She was only the whisky maker’s daughter, but he loved her still.

and which do not.2There are several CDM configurations not considered here. First, I have

not considered any combinations of three CDMs such as,

(5) a. Well, as far as the Palestinians are concerned, I think that at least the two-state idea is officially endorsed. But, however, on the other hand, as I saidearlier, this is just an idea, the idea of a two state solution.

b. It seems to me he could have had a little bit more courteous tone. But still,nevertheless, we’re welcoming him aboard.

1) See Blakemore, 2006; Fraser, 2009. I am adopting the term “contrastive” as a cover term forall CDM. It is not intended to be descriptive of each terms.2) The examples used in this paper are taken from a variety of sources. I consulted theCOCOA and the BNC corpora to ascertain whether or not a specific CDM combination wasacceptable, at least inwritten text, but usually used a short version for the sake of readability.The readermay disagreewith the acceptability judgments in some cases, but in all instances,I consulted other native speakers for their judgment.

320 B. Fraser / International Review of Pragmatics 5 (2013) 318–340

which occur mostly in spoken English. Second, I have not considered thecombinations of CDMs with members of the class of Elaborative DiscourseMarkers (for example, and, in addition, furthermore) or the class of Inferen-tial Discourse Markers (for example, so, thus, as a result), as in,

(6) a. He brought all the toys inside. But, in addition, he wiped them dry.b. We thought the evidence was there. But, in conclusion, we realized it

wasn’t.

They remain for another day.Third, I have not considered a sequence to be a CDM combination where

a second CDM has been moved next to the first after the adjustment of thesyntax, and the second CDM is the head of a separate clause, as in (7b).

(7) a. I like going out. But I don’t go to the grocery store. Instead, I shop via theinternet.

b. I like going out. But, [instead of going to the grocery store,] I shop via theinternet.

There are several CDMs which have two forms (instead/instead of, rather/rather (than), in contrast/in contrast to/with, in comparison/in comparison(to/with)), and in each case, the second CDM is the head of a separatephrase, indicated by the brackets in 7b. Fourth, I have not considered CDMcombinations in which an initial CDM is followed by a subordinate phraseheaded by a CDM (although, while, even though, whereas), as in (8),

(8) a. John wouldn’t talk to me. However, I really like him, although he is verystubborn.However, [although he is very stubborn], I really like him.

Finally, to simplify the presentation, I have not considered a few CDMs inthis presentation for a variety of reasons, indicated in (9).

(9) a. in comparison, since it patterns like in contrast;b. notwithstanding/nonetheless, since they pattern like nevertheless;c. despite that, since it patterns very much like nevertheless;d. only and except as in “I’m a nurse. Only/Except my husband won’t let me

work nights,” since they do not combine with any CDMs;e. even so, since it patterns like still, as in “The dog turned out to be a Chi-

huahua. Even so/Still, it frightened me.”

The organization of the paper is as follows. First, I will set forth two neces-sary and sufficient conditions for a CDM combination to be acceptable, fol-lowed by a brief statement of two priorworks in this area. Next Iwill presenta brief statement of themeaning that is signalled by each CDM. This will be


followed by a presentation of which certain CDM combinations are accept-able, others are not, and still other remain problematic. A conclusion willindicate much of the work that remains to be done.

2. Conditions for a CDMCombination

There are two necessary and sufficient conditions for an acceptable CDMcombination to occur. First, each of the CDMs must be able to occur alonein the second sentence. In the following, the combination in (10a), the CDMcombination but on the contrary is unacceptable, since (10b) but not (10c) isacceptable.

(10) a. He symbolizes everything I hate. *However, conversely, I do admire him.b. He symbolizes everything I hate.However, I do admire him.c. He symbolizes everything I hate. *Conversely, I do admire him.

In contrast, (11) is potentially acceptable, since the second sentence witheither of the CDMs is acceptable:

(11) He expected to win the election easily. But instead, he lost badly.

The second condition on acceptable CDM combinations is that the mean-ings signalled by the two CDMs must be compatible with each other. Thus,(12a) is acceptable, given the compatibility of the two CDMs, while (12b)is not, due to the incompatibility of what they signal, although each CDMalone in the sentence is acceptable.

(12) a. Tulips are difficult to grow. But still, I keep trying.b. Tulips are difficult to grow. *Still, on the other hand, I keep trying.

3. Prior Work on CDMCombinations

Whereas there has been a great deal of research on individual discoursemarkers, or groups of them, almost nothing has been done on their com-binations. I have found only the following to be relevant.

First, Thurmair (1991, and later papers) studied the combinatorial regu-larities of German modal particles and found that only those modal parti-cles acceptable in a specific sentence type may be combined; second, com-bined modal particles must be compatible with respect to their individualmeaning; and third, combinedmodal particles occur in a fixed linear order.Though this study is on English, not German, and the object was not modalparticles, these same constraints apply to discourse markers as well.


In a second study, Oates (1998) studied some 332 discourse markers (notall of which would qualify as a DM as I am using the term) and consideredthat 108 were marked indicating a single rhetorical relation ( first of all; forexample), 120 were marked two or more (and =11; since = 9) and 104 wereotherwise. The aim of her study was to determine which factors affect theselection, placement, and order of multiple discourse markers in a text.

In particular, we propose that a constraint on multiple markers occurs thatthemore general (or weaker) markers precede themore specific (or stronger)ones. The specificity (or strength) of amarker is determined by the number ofrelations it may be used to signal; the stronger the marker, the less relations itmay be used to cue. We also examined grammatical category and its utility ingoverning multiple marker occurrence. (Oates 1998: 233)

She created hierarchies; two markers, one relation; two markers, two rela-tions,where one relation is embedded in the other and focusedprimarily onrhetorical relations not the narrower concept of DMs. Although very inter-esting and insightful, this is not directly on point in the present study.

4. TheMeaning of the CDMs

I have divided up the class of CDMs into two groups: those signalling aGeneral Contrastive relationship (GC) between S2 and S1 (but, although,however, yet, still, nevertheless, only, except), and those signalling a SpecificContrastive relationship (SC) between S1 and S2 (on the other hand, instead,conversely, in contrast, rather, on the contrary, alternatively). I will discussthem in turn. In each case, the purpose is to present a rough idea of whatthe CDM is signalling as the relationship between S1 and S2. In no case haveI attempted to be complete but only suggestive.

4.1. General Contrastive (GC) CDMs

But

Themost general of the CDMs is but, which, when used by itself, may signalone of at least five discrete meanings (Contrast, Contradiction, Challenge,Topic Change, Apology), depending on the linguistic and cognitive context.These are briefly shown below.3

3) Cf. Fraser, 2009. I do not expect agreement of the signals associated with but. I only wantto indicate that there are several of them, and not all are found in CDM combinations.


Contrast: But signals that the message conveyed by S2 sets up at leastone semantic contrast with the message of S1, with the remainder of thetwo sentences being roughly similar

(13) a. Three is a prime number, but (whereas) four is not.b. Did John and Bill do the same things yesterday afternoon. No. John played

golf but(in contrast) Bill went to the doctor.

Contradiction& Elimination: But signals that the message conveyed by S2contradicts an assumption of S1/or the discourse context, and eliminatesit.

(14) a. We started late. Butwe arrived on time.b. I’m a doctor. Butmy husband won’t let me work.

Challenge: But signals that the message conveyed by S2 poses a challengesto an implication (not specifically a Conversational Implicature) of S1 butnot eliminating it.

(15) a. [Entailment] A: John killed the dog. B: But the dog is not dead!b. [Empty S1] (On being handed a martini) But I don’t drink!c. [Presupposition] A: He spoke with the King of France. B: But there is no

King of France.d. [Felicity Condition] A: I just saw John. B: But he’s in Boston today.

Change of Topic: But signals that the message conveyed by S2 introduces anew topic unrelated to the topic of S1.

(16) a. It’s good seeing you so happy. But I’ve come to give you bad news.b. Youmight catch a bat, and that is verymuch like amouse you know. But do

cats eat bats, I wonder? (Alice in Wonderland)

Apologetic:But signals that themessage conveyed by S1 conveys an apologyfor the message of S2 which follows.

(17) a. You probably won’t believe this. But I’m going to join a monastery.b. Excuse me. But you’re standing in my way.

It is the first and secondmeanings of but, those signalling contrast and con-tradiction/elimination, that are relevant for this study.But in initial positioncan signal that S2, the sentence that follows, contains a message that con-trasts with S1, (18a), or contains a message that is to replace an assumptiontaken from S1 or the discourse context, and S2 reflects information of higherrelevance, (18b).


(18) a. Three is a prime number. But four is not.b. John wants to leave today. But there may be a thunder shower this after-

noon.

However

TheGCCDM however ismore limited in itsmeaning than but, but like but, itdoes not presume the truth or validity of S1. Relevant to this study, howeveroccurs in the first two uses of but, as shown in (19).

(19) a. Contrast: Three is a prime number.However, four is not.b. C&E. We started late.However, we arrived on time.

Simply put, however signals that themessage contained in S2, which followsit, is factually relevant to S1, but without signalling any further informationimplication: whether it is critical; whether it is already know to the hearer;and so forth.

Relevant here, howevermay also be used as a focus marker, as in (20),

(20) Most people may go. Mary, however, must stay.

which has the interpretation that Mary, in particular, must stay. It does notlose its CDMmeaning when used in the second way.

Yet, Still, Nevertheless

The remaining three GC CDMs, yet, still, and nevertheless, presume thetruth/validity of the S1 that preceded them, and have different aspects ofsignalling. It is not critical that they be defined, since in what follows theyare being judged as being (un)acceptable in combinations.4 For purposeshere, they shall be as follows:

(21) a. Yet: introduces amessage, relevant to S1, which is known to the speaker butpossibility not the hearer;

b. Still: introduces a message, relevant to S1, which is already known to thehearer

c. Nevertheless: introduces a message which, “in spite of the message of S1”must be the case.

4) In fact, in some cases, they seem to be synonymous. For a detailed and excellent exami-nation of these three CDMs, the reader is referred to Crupi (2004) and Bell (2010).


I have constructed Table 1, below, which should help to illustrate thedifference in meaning between the GCs. A √ beneath a designated CDM(e.g., Y for yet) indicates that yet may occur in a DM position any examplein that tier. For example, while yet can occur in tiers 1, 2, and 3 (there is a √below the Y), it cannot occur in tiers 4 or 5, where there is an * present.

Table 1. Difference in meaning among the GCs.

B H Y S N Examples

√ √ √ √ √ Tulips are hard to grow. DM, I keep trying.I don’t want to give a speech. DM, I’m aware of my

political obligations.She is very intelligent. DM, nobody likes her.We’re leaving now. DM, we shall return.

√ √ √ √ * Amanda is a wonderful pianist. DM, she can’t sing on key.He speaks either French or German. DM, I don’t know

which one.John intends to go today. DM, I don’t see what his rush is.

√ √ √ * * I like your project. DM, I don’t know your name.I could give you an example. DM I won’t because I’m in a

hurry.NY used to be a great place to visit. DM, today it’s scary.

√ √ * * * I would give you a drink. DM, your father would probablykill me.

John is mean and sadistic. DM, maybe I shouldn’t put itthat way.

I like you. DM, I know you’re an alcoholic.

√ * * * * A: I apologize for the noise. B: DM, you have nothing toapologize for.

[On being handed a drink] DM, I don’t drink.

As I mentioned above, in addition to initial position, however can occur inmedial or final positionwith the interpretationbeing to focus on the subjectas in,

(22) She is very intelligent. John, however, dislikes her (however)

aswell as final position.Yetmust occur only in initial position, and is similarto but and however in that S and S2 can often reverse, as in “They were play-ing tennis. But/However/Yet it was raining” and “It was raining. But/How-ever/Yet there were playing tennis.” Still can occur in medial and final posi-tions, but usually only with the adverbial meaning of “ongoing.” Neverthe-


less can occur in all three positions (initially, medially, and finally) with theCDM interpretation.

4.2. Specific Contrastive CDMs

The second group, Specific Contrastive (SC) CDMs, consists of the individ-ual CDMs on the other hand, instead, conversely, in contrast, rather, on thecontrary, and alternatively, and indicates a specific type of contrastive rela-tionship between S1 and S2. What follows is a brief statement of what eachindividual CDM signals.

On the other hand

The role of on the other hand is two-fold. One is its function when there isno on the one hand in S1, as in the first example below, where the followingS2 gives the speaker’s view, much like when yet is present. The second roleis shown in the second example which use involves the symmetrical forms:on the one hand… on the other hand, as in (19b),

(23) a. Firecrackers are great fun to light on July 4th.On the other hand, you haveto be careful.

b. On the one hand, we could take a vacation in Jamaica.On the other hand,we could just stay home.

where two aspects of the same action/object are being compared.

Alternatively

The CDM functions much the same as the symmetrical use of on the otherhand, above, but with the on the one hand frequently missing. Note theexample in (24b) is unacceptable with alternatively.

(24) a. (On theonehand) I’mhappy to talkwith you about the issue.Alternatively,you might seek professional help.

b. He was afraid he would have to take her along. On the other hand/*Alter-natively, he may have known that it was his responsibility.

Instead

This CDM signals that the message of S2 replaces the message of S1, whereS1 conveys something that didn’t occurwhile S2 conveys something that didor is about to occur.


(25) a. He hasn’t been to school for several weeks now. Instead, he has been goingto the video arcade.

b. I could help you, you know. Instead, I’ll just watch.

Rather

This CDM is similar to instead but is more restricted, occurring in very fewCDMs combinations, as we will note below.

(26) a. To embark on such a step is not necessarily to succeed in realising it imme-diately.Rather, it is a challenge.

b. It was not the catastrophic defeat at Stalingrad, as often presumed, whichsaw the turning point in Hitler’s popularity. Rather, it was his inability toend the war.

On the contrary

Here, there are two distinct but related readings. The first signals that S2challenges or denies the message of S1, which is often expressed as a neg-ative, and provides a correct interpretation in S2, as in (27a). The secondmeaning takes the meaning of S1 and moves the meaning to an extreme, asin (27b).

(27) a. A: I don’t suppose you remember where they are, do you? B: On the con-trary, my dear Watson, I know exactly where they are.

b. You ask if I’m hungry. I’m not hungry.On the contrary, I’m starved.

In comparison to/with; In contrast to/with

Both of these CDMs signal that one aspect of a quantifiable action/con-tent on a continuum (height, age, intelligence) of S2 is to be compared/con-trasted with the similar aspect of S1. It is not required that this be the onlyaspect which might be compared/contrasted.

(28) a. Mary is quite tall. In comparison, Jane is really short.b. Many studies have been conducted on anger management in football play-

ers. In contrast, very few have been conducted on coaches.

These CDMs are not completely interchangeable, yet it is difficult to teasethere terms apart.


Conversely

This CDM is used to signal two oppositions on two different aspects of thetopic being discussed.

(29) a. It is a received and well-founded maxim, that where no other circumstan-ces affect the case, the greater the power is, the shorter ought to be its dura-tion; and, conversely, the smaller the power, the more safely may its dura-tion be protracted. (Fed. Papers)

b. The more ruthlessly honest we are with ourselves, the less likely we are toaccept being deceived by politicians are normal. Conversely, the more weaccept as normal the fact that politicians routinely like to us, themore likelywe are to be less than scrupulously honest with ourselves.

5. The CDMCombinations

In order to determinewhat combinations of CDMs exist in English, I turnedto two very large corpora, COCA (450 million words, mostly written text)and the BNC (100 million words, all text). I searched in these corpora forCDM combinations, with and without commas separating the two CDMs.To organize the data, I created a matrix, which provided for each of the 12CDMs considered in combination with every other (see Table 2). The ver-tical leftmost column (but, however, yet, …) is the first CDM in a combina-tion, while the other columns are the second CDM in a combination (But-however, But-yet, …). The final position of the items in the matrix of the 12CDMs was determined by trial and error in order to show the most generalpattern.

In the Table 2 below, the dark grey cells indicate that there were manywritten and spoken examples of the particular combination (e.g., but-yet),while the light grey cells indicate that there were less than 5 written orspoken cases (e.g. yet/nevertheless). The white cells indicate that there werenowritten or spoken cases locatedwithin the corpora. The ×’s in the columnlabelled but signify that butmay never occur second in a combination. Thefirst 5 CDMs are separated from the last 7 CDMby heavy black lines tomakeclear the difference between General Contrastive vs. Specific Contrastive.

There were 144 – 12 for duplicates = 132 possible combinations. Of these,17 cases were clear combinations (dark grey cells), while there were 10 caseswhich were less frequent (light grey cells).


Table 2. Matrix of CDM Combinations.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

But

How

ever

Yet

Still

Nev

erth

eless

OTO

H

Instea

d

Conv

ersely

Inco

ntrast

Rath

er

OTC

/TTC

Altern

atively

1 But2 However ×3 Yet ×4 Still ×5 Nevertheless ×6 On the other hand ×7 Instead ×8 Conversely ×9 In contrast ×10 Rather ×11 On the contrary ×12 Alternatively ×

The typical orders of a CDM combination are illustrated in (30):

(30) a. GC-GC: I knowwhat’s right fromwrong. But, yet, in bad situations, I sort offorget.

b. GC-SC: Harry is a nice guy.However, in contrast, his brother is a bully.c. GC-SC: Harry is a nice guy.However, his brother, in contrast, is a bully.

with the possibility that some of the second CDMs may occur in S2-medialor S2-final position as in (30c). There is one outstanding counterexample tothis generalization ofGC-GC/GC-SC, namely, where theGC however followsa SC, as in (31):

(31) We could have gone tomorrow. On the other hand, however, we could haveleft already.

I will discuss the different cases now, beginning with those that do formcombinations, and then attempting to address the reasons why the othersdo not.

5.1. The General Contrastive-General Contrastive Combinations

I have divided this section into two parts: first, discussing the 8 combina-tions that do occur, and then discussing the 8 that do not occur.


But-However/Yet/Still/Nevertheless

The CDM but combines with all of the other GCs, as shown below.

(32) a. I feel terrible for Mrs. Scott’s family. But, however, I suffered great loss aswell.[However signals that what follows is an additional relevant fact.]

b. He symbolizes everything I hate. But, yet, I do admire him.[Yet signals that what follows is a fact that is important and perhaps sur-prising.]

c. It’s usually a question of ethics. But, still, one can’t always tell right away.[Still signals that what follows is known, probably shared, and true.]

d. I didn’t come to give a speech. But, nevertheless, I will say a few words.[Nevertheless signals that what follows is said in spite of S1.Nevertheless canalso occur acceptably in sentence-final position.]

It is important to note that when but combines with a CDM, either a GCor a SC, it loses whatever specific signalling function it might have hadwerethe second CDMnot present and simply signals a general contrastive sense.Thus, in the first example (33a),

(33) a. Mary is short. But, in contrast, John is tall.b. We started late. But, yet, we arrived on time.

where the but, if alone, might have signalled that S1 and S2 are in a con-trastive relationship, the signal of but in these examples is “bleached” tosimple General Contrastive, and the CDM in contrast takes on the burdenof specifying the particular type of contrast. Similarly, in example (33b), thebut sets up the contrast signalled by the yet, which signals that S2 is com-menting on some aspect associated with S1. In both cases, the but only sig-nals general contrast. This is the only CDM that does this, as far as I cantell.

Contrary to when but is the single CDM in a sentence, there is normallya comma-pause before and after the second GC, signalling that this CDMsignal is intended to be considered individually for its full signalling value.

I note that but-however cases are marginal for me (and others consultedon this issue), although there are a number of cases in the corpora. I attri-bute this awkwardness to the fact that but and however are both signallingthe same relationship, similar to the example below, which is awkward forthe same reason. If the however occurs at the sentence-end, for example, itis more acceptable.

(34) I feel terrible for Mrs. Scott’s family. But I suffered great loss as well, however.


Yet-Still

The next acceptable combination is yet-still, which is the most frequent ofthe four combinations not occurring with initial but.

(35) a. The swamps were wet, dirty, and usually smelled, especially when it wasrainy. Yet, still, they were familiar; they meant home.

b. He was being sarcastic. Yet, still, I felt that unmistakable surge of enthusi-asm announcing the twin births of experimentation and trouble.

Note that a non-synonymous form of these examples is, for example,

(36) a. The swamps were wet, dirty, and usually smelled, especially when it wasrainy. Yet, they stillwere familiar, they meant home

where the still, moved tomedial position, does not functions as a CDM, buthas the adverbial meaning (“continuous”).

Yet-Nevertheless

In addition to the yet-still combination, we find the yet-nevertheless combi-nation, as in,

(37) a. The government is pulling people out, basically turning the courts into abattlefield in the war against terror. Yet, nevertheless, the principle, “everyman deserves a lawyer” seems to be a great American tradition.

b. Another 58 percent responded that telenovelas effectively help to resolvepractical real-life problems. Yet, nevertheless, 47 percent of those inter-viewed stated that telenovelas deal with themes which are far removedfrom reality.

The placement of nevertheless seems to bemoderately acceptable inmedialor final position, when there is an initial yet.

(38) Another 58 percent responded that telenovelas effectively help to resolvepractical real-life problems. Yet, 47 percent of those interviewed neverthelessstated that telenovelas deal with themes which are far removed for reality.

Still-However/Nevertheless

In the case of still-however,

(39) a. We decided that the trip was much too costly at this time. Still, however,we agreed that taking the trip was valuable and that we should plan to takeit in the future.


b. Many people in the U.S. are beginning to feel that Bloomberg would makea terrible President. Still, however, there are those that are charmed by allhis money.

the however, not unexpectedly, can occur following the subject of S2 or insentence-final position,

(40) Many people in the U.S. are beginning to feel that Bloomberg would make aterrible President. Still, there are those, however, that are charmed by all hismoney (however).

but in this case without the focusing function.For still-nevertheless,

(41) a. Of course, as you know, the Senator is often late. And he’s late again. Still,nevertheless, we welcome his acceptance of the view that we must have abalanced budget.

b. Her remarks were hurtful and offensive. There’s no doubt about that. Still,nevertheless, she has a right to speak what she feels.

the still again signals the emphasis on the accuracy of S2, while the nev-ertheless signals that S2 is the case, despite the fact of S1. In this case, thenevertheless can occur in post-subject position with no loss of acceptabilityand retain its CDM function.

(42) Of course, as you know, the Senator is often late. And he’s late again. Still,we nevertheless welcome his acceptance of the view that we must have abalanced budget (nevertheless).

I am interested in the fact that the combinations may separate with theresult that the resultant sentence meaning may alter. That fact, however,is not the focus of this paper.

5.2. The Non-Combinations of GC-GC

We now look at the 8 non-occurring GC-GC combinations which do notoccur: however-yet/still/ nevertheless; yet-however; still-yet, and nevertheless-however/yet/still. Because there are no examples of these combinations, Iwill use constructed examples and indicate them with a #. Some of theseconstructed examples are acceptable, some not. Throughout this discus-sion, I speculate on the reason for the unacceptability but it is only that:speculation.


However-Yet

Here we have constructed examples like

(43) a. #He symbolizes everything I hate.However, yet, I do admire him.b. #I don’t like that wine.However, yet, I wouldn’t refuse a glass of it.

Note that each CDM can occur alone with the second sentence, but it ap-pears that however and yet are both signalling the same message. I assumethat this is the reason for the unacceptability.

However-Still

For the combinations of however-still, we have examples such as

(44) a. #I don’t like that kind of wine.However, still, I wouldn’t turn it down.b. #It seems that the Joneses are not very helpful. However, still, I might ask

them for help.

with a clear pause between the however and still. This combination wasnot found in over 150 examples—perhaps because almost all were fromwritten texts—yet it seems to be acceptable. Moreover, if the still is locatedin post-subject position, as in

(45) a. I don’t like that kind of wine.However, I stillwouldn’t turn it down.b. It seems that those people are not very helpful. However, I still might ask

them for help.

the examples seem quite acceptable, with the still not losing its CDM func-tion. A look at the corpora for the sequence of “However, NP still …,” showsthere are many acceptable example with still still functioning as a CDM.

However-Nevertheless

Here we have examples like

(46) a. #We decided that the trip was much too costly at this time. However, nev-ertheless, we agreed that taking the trip was valuable and that we shouldplan to take it in the future.

b. #They certainly had the right to sell the picture to the highest bidder.How-ever, nevertheless, I feel bad for the Jones family who had their heart seton buying it.


Similar to however-yet, above, each of the CDMs in the however-neverthe-less combination is acceptable individually in the initial position, but thecombination is not. However, moving the nevertheless into the post-subjectposition appears tomaintain its CDMsignal and result in amore acceptableexample.

(47) a. We decided that the trip was much too costly at this time. However, wenevertheless agreed that taking the trip was valuable and that we shouldplan to take it in the future.

b. They certainly had the right to sell the picture to the highest bidder. How-ever, I nevertheless feel bad for the jones family who had their heart set onbuying it

Yet-However

Turningnow to theCDM yet, we find that yet-howeverdoesnot occur accept-ably in the corpora.

(48) a. #Everyone expects that the rich kids will do much better on standardizedtests. Yet, however, this is not always the case.

b. #Many people in the U.S. are beginning to feel that Bloomberg wouldmakea terrible President. Yet, however, there are those that are charmed by allhis money.

However, these examples seem quite acceptable. And, when the however isinmedial position, thehowever appears to relinquish its full CDMstatus andtakes on a focusing role as well. The examples then become acceptable.

(49) a. Everyone expects that the rich kids will do much better on standardizedtests. Yet, this, however, is not always the case.

b. Many people in the U.S. are beginning to feel that Bloomberg would makea terrible President. Yet, there are those, however, that are charmed by allhis money.

Still-Yet

The combination still-yet does not occur in the corpora.

(50) a. #Everyone expects that the rich kids will do much better on standardizedtests. Still, yet, this is not always the case.

b. #Many people in the U.S. are beginning to feel that Bloomberg wouldmakea terrible President. Still, yet, there are those that are charmed by all hismoney.


Yet, with the appropriate pause/intonation, again I find them acceptable.Recall we found yet-still to be acceptable.

None of the other GC CDM combine with nevertheless, and although ineach case the nevertheless or the other CDM (however, yet, or still) can occurwith S2 acceptably, the combination cannot. Again, when speaking these toanother, some of these often sound quite acceptable, hence the “?”

(51) a. ?We decided that the trip was much too costly at this time. Nevertheless,however, we agreed that taking the trip was valuable and that we shouldplan to take it in the future.

b. ?It is outrageous the way people are basically turning the courts into abattlefield in the war on terror.Nevertheless, however, the principle everyman deserves a lawyer seems to a great American tradition.

(52) a. #John taunted Bill and Bill hit him.Nevertheless, yet, it didn’t occur in thatorder.

b. #It’s outrageous the way people are basically turning the courts into a bat-tlefield in the war on terror. Nevertheless, yet, the principle every mandeserves a lawyer seems to a great American tradition.

(53) a. ?Of course, the Senator, as you know, is often late. and he’s late again.Nevertheless, still, we welcome his acceptance of the view that we musthave a balanced budget.

b. ?Her remarks were hurtful and offensive. There’s no doubt about that.Nev-ertheless, still she has a right to speak what she feels.

Note that still, but not however and yet, in the above examples can occur ina medial position with an acceptable result.

(54) a. Of course, the Senator, as you know, is often late. and he’s late again. Nev-ertheless, we stillwelcome his acceptance of the view that wemust have abalanced budget.

b. Her remarks were hurtful and offensive. There’s no doubt about that. Nev-ertheless, she still has a right to speak what she feels.

5.3. General Contrastive—Specific Contrastive

Six of the seven possible combinations of a but with a SC occur (namely,but-on the other hand, but-instead, but-conversely, but-in contrast, but-rather,and but-on the contrary), with but-alternatively being the only exception.

(55) a. We could go to Jamaica this year. But, on the other hand, we could stayhome and save money (on the other hand).

b. He expected towin the election easily.But, instead, he lost badly (instead).c. I realize that you really want to wear that bikini. But, rather, you should

choose beach attire that is more modest.


d. Cultural transformations should not be opposed.But, on the contrary, theyshould be welcomed.

e. All athletes are not scholars. But, conversely, all scholars are not athletes(conversely).

f. Similarly, in Hispanic cultures, interaction distance is much less than inEnglish speaking countries. But, in contrast, the Japanese frown upon kiss-ing in public.

In each of these cases, when there is a comma intonation after but (as inthe earlier example), with the result that but receives its full value. Wherethese is no comma, the but is generally de-stressed. Nevertheless, in bothcases, the but has the bleached reading, signalling only that there is a con-trast forthcoming. Note that in some of these cases, the SC CDM can occuracceptably in medial or final position of S2.

It is puzzling that we do not find alternatively combining with but or anyother of the GC CDM in the corpora, yet the following examples seem quiteacceptable.

(55) a. I’m happy to talk with you about this at any time. But, alternatively, youmight consider a good therapist.

b. We could meet today at noon, if you like.However, alternatively, we couldwait until after dinner.

c. He was afraid he would get to go. Yet, alternatively, he was afraid he mightnot.

d. I think this is the only open restaurant. Still, alternatively, we could keeplooking.

It may be the fact that the corpora examples are almost all fromwritten textthat gives this result.

Moving to the other GC-SC combinations, however and yet combine withon the other hand

(56) a. The health-care system needs more primary care physicians. However, onthe other hand, these are just the doctors who are less respected and paidless.

b. I think we should leave since we’re a bit late. Yet, on the other hand, theremay be some value in waiting,

and with instead,

(57) a. We don’t domuch store shopping these days.However, instead, we surf theinternet (instead).

b. It was clear that Sue should have called her mother and told her where shewas going. Yet, instead, she chose to call her boyfriend (instead),


as well as with in contrast,

(58) a. John is a so-so student.However, in contrast, his sister is a real genius.b. The English Department is in favour of the 2 hour class period. Yet, in

contrast, the Math Department is adamantly opposed,

and, in addition, yet combines with conversely:

(59) On one hand, they can speed bodily responses (stimulants) and alter inter-nal and external perceptual processes (hallucinogens). Yet, conversely, recre-ational drugs can lead to rough play and increased risk of injury.

The frequency of these few combinations is very low (usually one to threeexamples), and some examples appear to be problematic. However and yetdo not combine with rather or on the contrary, and the other two GC CDMs(still and nevertheless) do not occur with any of the SCs. I have no adequateexplanation.

5.4. Specific Contrastive—General Contrastive

Although it might seem counterintuitive, every GC combines with howeverexcept yet and every SC except rather combines with however, as shownbelow.

(60) a. We should fight for their right to exhibit their scribbles and sell them tothe highest bidder.Nevertheless, however, I felt bad. It was not freedom ofexpression that was at stake here, but a kind of compulsion.

b. We have to become familiar with more varied material and techniques.Still, however, drawing and painting are the dominant activities.

c. You know, don’t you, that Harvard is a very expensive college.On the otherhand, however, you could try to get a scholarship.

d. We don t go out very often. Instead, however, we just stay home and read.e. Many liberals expectedObama to challenge right-wing evangelicals.Onthe

contrary, however, he reached out to evangelical ministers such as RichWarren.

f. We need to have rules and standards that apply to all students. Conversely,however, we must take into account students’ differing needs, capacities,and learning styles.

g. Harry is a great guy, at least to my way of thinking. In contrast, however,his sister is a real pain.

h. AsHirsh and Serchuk point out, restructuring could perpetuate if not wors-en these problems. Alternatively, however, it could offer a means for theirsolution.


Reference to Table 2 reveals that these results run counter to some of thedata presented there: however-still, however nevertheless, are acceptable.

5.5. Specific Contrastive—Specific Contrastive

Table 2 shows that there are no combinations between SCs and SCs. Thislack of combinations of SCs is presumably based on the incompatibility ofwhat the SC-SC signals and the corpora search was based on continuousCDM. While the combination of on the contrary-conversely, alternatively-incontrast, and instead-rather all seem doubtful combination, others such as

(61) We could go to Jamaica for our vacation this year.Ontheotherhand, we couldinstead stay home and save money.

suggests a more thorough search of the corpora is called for as well closeexamination of natural conversation.

6. Conclusion: Where AreWe?

Taking a look at the upper-left quadrant of Table 3, below, there is the fol-lowing notation: (1) a “√” in cells which indicates that examples of this CDMcombination were found in the corpora, both written and spoken; (2) a “?”in cells which indicates that examples of that GC CDM combination werefound in speech with the acceptability confirmed by several native infor-mants, although in some caseswith theCDMof the combination separated;(3) and a “*” in cells (however-yet, still-yet, and nevertheless-yet) which indi-cates that neither the corpora or native informants found the CDM combi-nation acceptable, presumably because of a clash of meaning. The accept-ability of the “?” cases needs to be verified in systematic way before theyshould be granted the status of CDM combinations. The * cases seem to beunlikely CDM combinations.


Table 3. Results of Matrix of CDM Combinations.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

But

How

ever

Yet

Still

Nev

erth

eless

OTO

H

Instea

d

Conv

ersely

Inco

ntrast

Rath

er

OTC

/TTC

Altern

atively

1 But √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ ?2 However × * ? ? √ √ √ * ? ?3 Yet × ? √ √ √ √ √ √ * ? ?4 Still × √ * √ ? ? * * * ? ?5 Nevertheless × ? * ? ? ? * * * * ?6 On the other hand × √7 Instead × √8 Conversely × √9 In contrast × √10 Rather × *11 On the contrary × √12 Alternatively × √

The upper-right quadrant represents the same three assessments: √ = Yes/?= Maybe/ * = No as was shown in the upper-left quadrant. However, insuf-ficient effort has been made on the acceptability for the “?” cases there tomake any strong claims.

The lower two quadrants, with the exception of however-on the otherhand/instead/… remain unexplored, except to note that each SCs (with theexception of alternatively/on the other hand) signals a different relationshipand the result would be a meaning inconsistency for two of them to becombined.

Finally, lest the reader believe that the question of DM combinations issettled, you need only look at Inferential DMs (e.g. thus, so, as a result, …)and Elaborative DMs (and, moreover, furthermore, …) by themselves, as aclass, and then move on to cross-class combinations (e.g., but-furthermore-as a result). A whole world of combinations waits the curious.

ReferencesCrupi, CharleneD. 2004.But, Still andYet: TheQuest For aConstant Semantic Value for English

“Yet.”UnpublishedEdDocdissertation,Graduate School of Education, RutgersUniversity.Fraser, Bruce. 2009. An account of discoursemarkers. International Reviewof Pragmatics 1(2):

293–320.


Bell, David M. 2010. Nevertheless, still and yet: concessive cancellative discourse markers.Journal of Pragmatics 42: 1920–1927.

Blakemore, Diane. 2002. Relevance and Linguistic Meaning: The Semantics and Pragmatics ofDiscourse Markers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Oates, Sarah. 1998. Generating Multiple Discourse Markers in Text. Unpublished MA Thesis,University of Brighton.

Thurmiar, Maria. 1991. Combinatorial regularities for modal particles and their use as aninstrument of analysis.Multilingua 10 (1/2): 19–42.

Combinations of Contrastive Discourse Markers in English

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