A Contrastive Rhetorical Analysis of Morality in Religious ...

REVIEW OF INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION

ISSN: 2146-0353 ● © RIGEO ● 11(12), SPRING, 2021

www.rigeo.org Research Article

A Contrastive Rhetorical Analysis of Morality

in Religious Contexts of Jesus Christ and

Imam Ali (p.b.u.t)

Noor Othman Adday Al-Juburi1

Department of English/ College of Education for

Human Sciences/ University of Babylon/ Babylon/

Iraq [email protected]

Riyadh Tariq Kadhim Al-Ameedi2

Department of English/ College of Education for

Human Sciences/ University of Babylon/ Babylon/

Iraq

Abstract

Morality is a set of standards or principles derived from a code of conduct from a particular philosophy,

religion or culture. This study deals with morality in English and Arabic religious contexts; namely, Christian

contexts from Jesus Christ speeches for English and Islamic contexts from Imam Ali's speeches for Arabic.

It investigates the rhetorical construction of morality in these contexts regarding the pragmatic strategies,

macrostructure, superstructure, and rhetorical devices applied for such presentation. It develops a model

for analyzing the data which includes three samples from each language. The results reveal that there is

divergence between Jesus Christ and Imam Ali in the thematic and formal representation of morality in

their religious contexts. Jesus’ contexts are mostly persuasive in their pragmatic strategy in time Imam Ali's

contexts are less direct and based on hinting. The results also show that narrative and argumentative

strategies are highly applied by Jesus in his moral religious contexts while descriptive-persuasive is

prevailingly applied by Imam Ali.

Keywords Morality, rhetoric, Christianity, Islam, pragmatic strategies, superstructure, macrostructure, rhetorical devices.

To cite this article: Al-Juburi, N, O, and Al-Ameedi, R, T. (2021) A Contrastive Rhetorical Analysis of Morality in Religious

Contexts of Jesus Christ and Imam Ali (p.b.u.t). Review of International Geographical Education (RIGEO), 11(12), 931-

950. Doi: 10.48047/rigeo.11.12.87

Submitted: 11-07-2021 ● Revised: 159-09-2021 ● Accepted: 25-10-2021

mailto:[email protected]

© RIGEO ● Review of International Geographical Education 11(12), Spring 2021

932

Introduction

The present study aims at investigating English and Arabic religious contexts where by

morality is presented, exploring their pragmatic strategies, explicating their

macrostructure, detecting their superstructure, and identifying the rhetorical devices

applied. It adopts the following procedures: (1) Presenting a theoretical account of

rhetoric and morality (2) Analysing the data selected by applying the model

developed by the study. (3) Discussing the results of the analysis. (4) Contrasting the

findings of the analysis of the two languages.

Rhetoric

Rhetoric: The Concept

Rhetoric is a discipline that is concerned with the practical skills of public speaking as

a means of persuasion. It is the ways of using language effectively (Wales, 2011: 368-9).

Therefore, effectiveness of speaking or writing is the major concern of rhetoricians since

it strengthens their state in society as it enforces their opinions and the ideas they

encounter. Rhetoric, thus, is viewed as a study or discipline within linguistics.

Rhetoric has been beheld differently on the basis of the time and orientation of those

who dealt with it. Plato is the first to deal with the term by linking it to artifice, the

artificial, appearances, or the decorative. For him, rhetoric is a pseudo-art. Platonic

tradition of rhetoric can be seen as pejorative or negative (Bender and Wellbery, 1990).

His (i.e, Plato's) consideration of rhetoric as well as others' reflect different attitudes

toward language itself and linguistic representation. Burke (1950:127) has his own

opinion of rhetoric in which he links it to persuasion saying: "[W] herever there is

persuasion, there is rhetoric. And wherever there is ‘meaning,’ there is ‘persuasion’".

Rhetoric, with its plastic nature, is an art that molds itself to varying places, times, and

situations. Actually, it is extremely hard to pin down. On the other hand, Imam J'aafer

Al-Sadiq (p.b.u.h.), as an Arab scholar, describes rhetoric saying "three has rhetoric:

approaching the intended meaning, distancing redundant speech, and designating

much with little" (Al-Bustani, 2002: 17). Al-Jahidh (n.d.: 115) describes rhetoric saying

that speech does not deserve being called rhetorical unless what is meant precedes

what is said or the meaning of the speech reaches the heart of addressee before its

articulation reaches the ear. Having The Bible and the Islamic religious texts addressed

by Prophet Mohammed and the Infallible Imams (p.b.u.t) as the data of the present

study, this makes it fruitful to deal with and apply rhetoric in its traditional perspective

or version, namely, that is "the insights and terms developed by rhetors, or rhetoricians,

in the Classical period of ancient Greece, about the 5th century BC, to teach the art

of public speaking to their fellow citizens in the Greek republics" (Sloane and Perelman,

2019). Nevertheless, dealing with rhetoric and applying it in its modern version or form

is also needed since these same texts (data under study) are still being read and

approached by people nowadays. Further, they represent religious and moral

references that people from both religions; Christianity and Islam consult heavily.

Modern rhetoric, as Sloane and Perelma (2019) put it, is more than just a collection of

terms. It regards the text as the embodiment of intention rather than a map to its

authors. The overall structure of a text is much a result of intention which is affected by

audience. Thus, structure, intention, and audience represent the mark of modern

rhetoric. In other words, It is concerned with structure as it is with interpretation. What

precedes makes it clear that the integration of classical and modern rhetoric is useful

and fruitful for the present study.

Rhetoric and Religion

Religious language differs from everyday speech, its distinctiveness dwells in that it is

Al-Juburi, N, O, and Al-Ameedi, R, T. (2021) A Contrastive Rhetorical Analysis of Morality …

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addressed by the Deity, to Him, or for His sake. Unless it is a verse in one of the Holy or

Glorious Books, it could be a prayer, a sermon, or an epistle said by a prophet, infallible

imam, a clergy, or a religious or even an ordinary man. Christianity and Islam are

among the different religions that govern man's practices all over the world. Virtues

can be regarded as guides to humans. Nowadays, we are in a great need to be well

guided by religion; otherwise we can be easily mi slead by those who work hard in

order to deprave our thoughts or beliefs in religion. Among those are secularists who

disregard and reject faith and worship and have as their objective the elimination of

religious basics from society. This might end up with absence of standards and values

as well as morals.

The rhetoric of religion or religious rhetoric is defined by Souders (2019) as the study of

the linguistic and symbolic techniques involved in the spreading, teaching, reinforcing,

or forming of theological structures or beliefs. The relation between religion and rhetoric

is dialectical; a number of rhetorical devices or tropes originated in religious contexts

and still carry significant religious connotations. Contrariwise, religion is indebted to

rhetoric as a tool for communicating, developing, defending, or spreading religion.

Morality

Morality: The Concept

The conception of morality is far more vague than is expected. Its vagueness is gained

from the conflict of its sources or evolution. Some believe that it is innate and that it is

found in the genes of humans, thus is universal; others say that it is only society-specific

or group-specific. In Merriam-Webster Dictionary, it is defined as "a doctrine or system

of moral conduct" (Web Resource 1). Cambridge Academic Content Dictionary, on

the other hand, defines it as "a set of personal or social standards of good or bad

behavior and character" (Web Resource 2)

Morality is the differentiation of intentions, decisions and actions between those that

are distinguished as proper and those that are improper (Long & Sedly, 1987:67).

Morality can be a body of standards or principles derived from a code of conduct from

a particular philosophy, religion or culture, or it can derive from a standard that a

person believes should be universal. Al-Madhahiri (2008: 29) defines morality as a

science searching the characteristics resident in the soul, deeds, sayings, and ideas

issued from these characteristics. It also searches the cultivation of the soul from vices

and the way of acquiring virtues. A different view of morality is proposed by Joyce

(2006: 71-72) who believes that regarding it as a "universal prescription" is a "dubious

assertion". Relatively, morality is linked to a process that he calls biological natural

selection. According to this process, humans are considered prosocial in being

characterized of emotions as altruism, love, sympathy, and the like; all of which are

directed towards others. The process implies that "we naturally make moral judgments".

Moral judgments are made throughout humans' distinction between right and wrong.

This process actually ends up with organisms who help out family members at some

cost to themselves. However, human morality is higher than that by requiring much

attention to be paid to non-kin along with the kin.

Morality and Religion

Morality till recently has been claimed to be inseparable from religion. It is defined as a

set of customs and habits that shape how we think about how we should live or about

what is a good human life. The goodness is linked to happiness in Aristotle's ethical

theory; that is, morality aims at people's happiness. It is important to state that goodness

or happiness is directed to society more than mere individuals, "the well-being of the

city takes precedence over the individual". In their moral theories, the ancient

philosophers depended on several important notions. These include virtue and the

https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/


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virtues, happiness, and the soul. Both Plato and Aristotle, in their moral theories, focus

on virtue, "recommending the virtuous way of life by its relation to happiness" (Hare,

2019, para: 37). During this era, religion is represented by gods and goddesses which

are considered as magnets that draw people to be like them throughout the power of

their excellence or goodness since they are the highest degree in the measure of all

things, among which morality. In the New Testament, morality is introduced through

Jesus' (p.b.u.h.) teachings in different situations, mainly in the ‘Sermon on the Mount’ in

which he issues a number of commands over three chapters:

If therefore thou offer thy gift at the altar, and there thou remember that thy brother

hath anything against thee; 24 Leave there thy offering before the altar, and go first to

be reconciled to thy brother: and then coming thou shalt offer thy gift. (Matthew, 5: 23-

24)

In this command, Jesus (p.b.u.h.) gives a precedence to reconciliation over

immolation. As if he means that in order for man to get things redeemed between him

and his Lord, he should reconcile with other people. It indicates that the best way to

approach God is through reconciliation with others. In Islam, morality is tackled in the

Glorious Quran, Prophetic traditions, and Imams' speeches. Actually, The Glorious

Quran has a clear and explicit exemplar to the right morality that humans should be

characterized with in a verse in Al-Israa' sura:

Surely this Quran guides to that which is most upright and gives good news to the

believers who do good that they shall have a great reward. )Shakir, 1999: 128)

The Glorious Quran not only stimulates Muslims to doing good; but also draws them to

it through future rewards. It embodies a way of nurturing and educating that is set in

philosophy and still being adopted by parents and teachers; that is, the principle of

punishment and reward. This portraits the relation between the parent and the child

along with that between Allah and His creatures.

Prophet Mohammed's traditions, as a contiguity to Glorious Quran's doctrines, is

charged with teachings of morality and calls to refrain immorality, as when he says:

- I was sent to fulfill the noble manners. (Al-Noori, 1991: 187)

- The secret charity turns off Allah's anger (Blessed and Exalted be He).(Al-Kuleini, 1945:

7)

The infallible imams (p.b.u.t.) have been attentive in treating the theme of morality in

their sayings, sermons, and supplications, as in one of Imam Ali Ibn Abi Talib's (p.b.u.h.)

sayings:

- And that who gives as a benefaction if he found it, Allah would supplant for him what

he spent in this life and duplicate it for him in the other life.(ibid.: 43)

In his supplication which is entitled ethical generosities, Imam Ali Al-Sajjad (p.b.u.h.)

focuses on moralities:

- beauty of conduct, gravity of bearing, agreeableness in comportment, precedence

in reaching excellence, preferring bounteousness, refraining from condemnation,

bestowing bounty on the undeserving, speaking the truth, though it be painful (Al-

Reshahri, n.d.: 1205)

Imam Jaafar Al-Sadiq (p.b.u.h.) likens the man with good morality to the fasting and

praying person owing to the importance of morality in Islam and humanity as a whole:

- Good Morality attains man to the rank of fasting and praying. (Al-Majlisi: 148)


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Developing a Model of Analysis

The major concern of the present study is having an overall and comprehensive

rhetorical analysis of morality in English and Arabic religious contexts. This can be

achieved by applying the developed model of analysis whose starting point is

Aristotle's (2007) and which is made up of four components:

Pragmatic Strategies

Three pragmatic strategies will be examined in the data selected; hinting, persuasion,

and instruction, They are named pragmatic as they follow the intention of the

addresser.

Hinting Pragmatic Strategy

Hinting is used in some cases either to avoid directness, to mitigate the impact of what

the addresser is calling for, or to add a sense of suspense for the addressee. It can be

figured in the implicitness of the speech regarding its theme (i.e. the intention is left

implicit without referring to the purpose of the speech explicitly). Linguistically,

constative speech acts are used to attract attention, persuade others, get someone

to think about or make somebody believe in something. They can be chosen in a text

since they represent, as put by Bach and Harnish (1979: 42), the speaker's expression of

a belief and his desire that the hearer holds such a belief. Rhetorically, it is represented

by some figures of speech including simile, metaphor, and hypallage (a type of

linguistic allegory).

Persuasive Pragmatic Strategy

In order to achieve persuasion, a text needs to embody the use of some linguistic and

rhetorical devices in addition to modes of persuasion. As for the persuasive appeals,

persuasion requires the use of three types: rationality, credibility, and affection. These

three are the modes of persuasion; logos, ethos, pathos (Connor and Lauer, 1988: 146).

The linguistic devices which construct a persuasive speech are like: repetition,

parallelism, argument by exchange, order, prohibition, question, description, and

justification. Some of these devices are suggested by Al-Shahri (2004), others by Al-

Duraidi (2011), and others specifically, parallelism is suggested by the researcher.

The rhetorical devices, on the other hand, as referred to by Al-Habasha (2008) add

both aesthetic and persuasive value to the speech. These include embellishment,

balancing, intertextuality, and parable. The former three are mentioned by Al-Shahri

(2004: 494 - 497) while the latter is referred to by Ahmed (2017: 255). Embellishment

involves a number of devices like hyperbole. Balancing is to present two persons or two

matters in a comparison by putting them together. Intertextuality is investigated also

due to the persuasive and effective impact it has since it works as an authentic

evidence to what is mentioned in the speech. Its authority is taken from the authority

of the original text cited. Parable is a continuation of simile in that it describes what is

probable or likely, or what is believed by the hearers as likely. It is regarded by Aristotle,

as stated by Kennedy (1999: 83), as part of logos or the logical stance of what an

addresser presents. It is one of the inductive examples made use of by some addressers

in their speeches to strengthen their reasoning.


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Instruction Pragmatic Strategy

Instruction strategy reflects the authority of the addresser on the addressee which

enables him to pose directions. Therefore, it embodies an interference and pressure on

the addressee for some extent. It is one of the strategies whereby there is the use of

vocative and directive speech acts of order, prohibition, question, warning, and

instruction by mentioning consequences, as presented by Al-Shahri (2004: 340-366). The

categories to which the above directive speech acts belong are: requirements,

prohibitives, questions, advisories, requirements, respectively (Bach and Harnish, 1979:

47-8). Supplication, although not mentioned by Al-Shahri, yet, it belongs to

requirements directive speech acts that can carry an instructive role. Instruction by

mentioning consequences can be found in the form of justifications, conditions, or as

an action that takes place as a result of another.

Macrostructure

Theme is defined by Van Dijk (1980:5) as the essence of the whole discourse which

reveals the salient features of it. He also calls it semantic macrostructure and presents

two functions for it; the first is organising the information within a discourse and the

second is reducing complex information found in micro level (ibid.:13-14). As clear from

the title of this study, morality is the macrostructure or the theme of the samples

analysed henceforth.

Superstructure

Superstructures have been defined by Van Dijk (ibid.:127) as conventionalized

schemata that deliver the global ‘form’ of the macro structural ‘content’ of a text. They

consist of hierarchical sequences of categories which have functional properties. They

are related to the framework of a text as they show how its parts are organised. Below

are four superstructures which will be examined in the data to be analysed.

Narrative Superstructure

According to Labov and Waletzky’s (1967) and later Labov (1972), cited in Gimenez

(2010: 199) narrative clause is the basic unit in personal narratives. There are six functions

to be performed by clauses in a narrative (abstract, orientation, complication,

resolution, evaluation and coda). The abstract announces that the narrator has a story

to tell. It is found at the beginning of the narrative. Orientation, found in the first clauses,

is used to orient the listener as to person, place, time, and situation. Complication

denotes a series of events leading to a result and is performed by the clauses in the

main body of the narrative. Resolution includes the results of the complication of the

narrative. Evaluation at the end reveals the attitude that the narrator holds towards

the narrative. Sometimes, there could be an extra function in the narrative, ‘coda’

which returns the narrative to the moment of narrating (ibid.: 203).


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Expository Superstructure

An expository text can be divided into different chunks which correspond to different

textual components: situation, problem, solution, and evaluation. The first describes

facts and objective circumstances; the second introduces a problematic aspect of

the situation; the third explains how the problem has been resolved; and the last

positively evaluates the solution proposed. The obligatory component of these is the

problem. Each expository text must have a problem component, whereas other

components are optional (Tirkkonen-Condit, ibid.: 144).

Argumentative Superstructure

Toulmin's (2003: 92) model of informal reasoning, with its three parts: claim, data, and

warrant, will be taken as the model for argumentative superstructure. The claim is the

thesis statement whereas the data is the information supporting the claim. The warrants

are statements leading to supporting inference that function as a bridge between

claim and data of an argument.

Descriptive-Persuasive Superstructure

The fourth superstructure is descriptive. A variety of conventional patterns can be

found in descriptive texts. Some of the rhetorical forms of descriptions are: arguments,

definition, illustration, classifications, procedures (Van Dijk and Kintsch, 1983: 253-4).

Since descriptive texts are hardly found as separate ones, they are applied in the

model in relation to persuasion. When the addressers give certain descriptions for

moralities; virtues or vices, they intend to persuade the addressee to follow or avoid

them.

Rhetorical Devices

Rhetorical devices are formative techniques used to evoke emotion or persuade. They

hide the treasures of the great spoils. Only those who dig deeper can obtain the wealth

and treasure of what is implied beyond these figures (Bullinger, 1971: 2). Some rhetorical

devices can be used to accomplish persuasion. Only the rhetorical devices which

serve a role in introducing the theme will be regarded in the model. They include:

hypallage, hyperbole, intertextuality, parable, balancing, parallelism, ellipsis, contrast,

and dialogue. Some of these devices are introduced in pragmatic strategies, in

addition to the following. Ellipsis is defined by Wales (2011: 130) as a grammatical

omission of part of an utterance or grammatical structure, that can be easily

understood by the addressee in the co-text or the context. Contrast means that two

ideas, thoughts, or phrases are put over; one against the other (Bullinger, 1971: 710).

Finally, dialogue is the last rhetorical device within this model that is stressed by Aristotle

for its significance in drama: the action of the plot as well as verbal action. According

to Wales (2011: 115), it describes all of the speech found in narratives in both the

delineation of character; and the exchanges that dominate drama.


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(Figure - 1) A Developed Model of Analysis

Rhetorical

Devices

Rhetorical

Analysis

Superstructur

e

Ellipsis

Pragmatic Strategies Macrostructure

(Morality)

Contrast

Constativ

e Speech

Acts

Argumentativ

e

Expository

Persuasive

Dialogue

Descriptive-

Persuasive Instructive

Narrative

Hinting

Modes of

Persuasio

n

Rhetorical

Devices

Linguistic

Devices

Vocative Instruction

by

mentioning

consequen

Directive

Speech

Acts

Evaluation

Solution

Situation

Problem

Coda

Resolution

Complicati

on

Orientatio

n

Abstract

Warrant

Claim

Data

Parable

Parallelism

Balancin

g

Ethos

Hyperbole

Intertextuality

Pathos

Logos

Rhetorical

Devices

Hypallage Metaphor

Simile Supplication

Warning

Prohibition

Order

Embelishments

Balancing

Justification

Description

Order

Argumentation

by exchange

Question

Repetition

Prohibition

Metaphor

Intertextuality

Hypallage

Question

Parallelism Parable

Chiasmus Hyperbole

Rhetorical Q.


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Data Description

The data selected in the present study are concerned with the issue of morality; some

virtues and vices to be followed or avoided. Jesus Christ's contexts are taken from the

New Testament, exactly, the speeches narrated by two of his disciples; Mathew and

Luke. The version adopted is Douay-Rheims Version 1609, 1582. Imam Ali's contexts are

taken from his sermons and supplications.

Data Analysis

Analysis of English Samples

Sample 1

There was a certain rich man, who was clothed in purple and fine linen; and feasted

sumptuously every day. And there was a certain beggar, named Lazarus, who lay at

his gate, full of sores, Desiring to be filled with the crumbs that fell from the rich man's

table, and no one did give him; moreover the dogs came, and licked his sores. And it

came to pass, that the beggar died, and was carried by the angels into Abraham's

bosom. And the rich man also died: and he was buried in hell. And lifting up his eyes

when he was in torments, he saw Abraham afar off, and Lazarus in his bosom: And he

cried, and said: Father Abraham, have mercy on me, and send Lazarus, that he may

dip the tip of his finger in water, to cool my tongue: for I am tormented in this ame. And

Abraham said to him: Son, remember that thou didst receive good things in thy lifetime,

and likewise Lazareth evil things, but now he is comforted; and thou art tormented.

And besides all this, between us and you, there is fixed a great chaos: so that they who

would pass from hence to you, cannot, nor from thence come hither. And he said:

Then, father, I beseech thee, that thou wouldst send him to my father's house, for I have

five brethren, That he may testify unto them, lest they also come into this place of

torments. And Abraham said to him: They have Moses and the prophets; let them hear

them. But he said: No, father Abraham: but if one went to them from the dead, they

will do penance. And he said to him: If they hear not Moses and the prophets, neither

will they believe, if one rise again from the dead (Luke, 16: 19-31).

The Analysis

Hinting is the pragmatic strategy used in this sample since Jesus applies the use of

assertive speech acts and constructs the speech on them. Further, he makes use of

one rhetorical device; hypallage. It is used five times each time giving a special and

different indication such as:

- Desiring to be filled with the crumbs that fell from the rich man's table

indicating his hunger

The Macrostructure of this sample is portrayed in the necessity of doing good with our

worldly pleasures instead of letting it be the fuel for the other world's torment. Jesus

intention behind this parable is to make Christians arm themselves against worldliness

temptations. Further, it highlights the idea that neglecting the little act of showing pity

to the poor might lead one to eternal punishment. This makes it as one of the Christians

duties doing good to those who stand in need of anything that either Christians have

or can do for them. Lazarus, the poor will have the blessedness of those who are poor,

hungry, and weep mentioned in the sample above. It is so as in Abraham's bosom all

the promises made to them who do so will be made good to him. However, the rich

man will have the woes that are made to those who are rich, full, and laugh, as he has

the character of those on whom these woes are entailed.


940

The superstructure of this sample is the narrative as Jesus uses narration when teaching

Christians a lesson from the parable of a poor man and a rich one. It is composed of

three sequences; orientation, complication, and resolution. In the first sequence, Jesus

orients the addressee of the situation and persons in the first two sentences:

- There was a certain rich man, who was clothed in purple and fine linen; and

feasted sumptuously every day. And there was a certain beggar, named Lazarus, who

lay at his gate, full of sores

Then, the events are recited in complication, which includes all of the sentences in the

second part and narrates what happens to the rich man in Hell and the conversation

between him and Abraham. The last is the resolution part whereby Abraham tells the

rich man as a reply to his request:

- And these shall go into everlasting punishment: but the just, into life everlasting

The rhetorical devices applied here are hypallage, contrast, and parable. The first is

mentioned in the pragmatic strategy. Contrast is employed three times: two in the

contrast between the rich and poor men in this world and the third in the next world.

The first contrast gives a description for the rich man and the beggar while the second

is in the death of both:

- the beggar died, and was carried by the angels into Abraham's bosom. And

the rich man also died: and he was buried in hell.

The third is after the death of both showing the distance between the rich man and

Abraham and the closeness between the beggar and Abraham. Parable is the

rhetorical device that embraces the whole sample whereby Jesus gives an image of

what is probable to happen in the next world as a consequence to what is taking place

in this world of the ill treatment of the rich to the poor.

Sample 2

And behold a certain lawyer stood up, tempting him, and saying, Master, what must I

do to possess eternal life? But he said to him: What is written in the law? how readest

thou? He answering, said: Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with thy whole heart, and

with thy whole soul, and with all thy strength, and with all thy mind: and thy neighbour

as thyself. And he said to him: Thou hast answered right: this do, and thou shalt live. But

he willing to justify himself, said to Jesus: And who is my neighbour? And Jesus

answering, said: A certain man went down from Jerusalem to Jericho, and fell among

robbers, who also stripped him, and having wounded him went away, leaving him half

dead. And it chanced, that a certain priest went down the same way: and seeing him,

passed by. In like manner also a Levite, when he was near the place and saw him,

passed by. But a certain Samaritan being on his journey, came near him; and seeing

him, was moved with compassion. And going up to him, bound up his wounds, pouring

in oil and wine: and setting him upon his own beast, brought him to an inn, and took

care of him. And the next day he took out two pence, and gave to the host, and said:

Take care of him; and whatsoever thou shalt spend over and above, I, at my return,

will repay thee. Which of these three, in thy opinion, was neighbour to him that fell

among the robbers? But he said: He that shewed mercy to him. And Jesus said to him:

Go, and do thou in like manner (Luke, 10:25-37).

The Analysis

The pragmatic strategy applied in this sample is persuasive. Its linguistic realisations are


941

three linguistic devices; order, repetition, and question, parable as a rhetorical device,

as well as the three modes of persuasion: reversely

- Go, and do thou in like manner

The above example is an instance of order which is used four times. Instead of passing

his instructions directly, Jesus makes use of ethos, pathos, and logos. Ethos is witnessed

in referring to the "laws", that is he has given the lawyer the turn to answer himself his

question by referring him to what is written in the law being an authoritative source or

constitution for life:

- What must I do to possess eternal life? But he said to him: What is written in the

law? How readest thou?

Pathos is mentioned in the story of the rubbed man and how each of the three men

responded to his miserable state. The addressees' passions are aroused in this part to

get them involved in the situation rather than giving the point logically only. Logic or

logos is obviously found in Jesus inquiry:

- Which of these three, in thy opinion, was neighbour to him that fell among the

robbers?

Jesus could have responded from the early beginning, as an answer to the lawyer's

question:

- And who is my neighbour?

By:

- Your neighbor is the one who shows mercy to you.

Rather, he told him a whole story to teach him a lesson. In addition, this question-answer

technique can be taken as a linguistic device for persuasion. It is employed five times

in the sample. Repetition is another linguistic device resorted to in here:

- And it chanced, that a certain priest went down the same way: and seeing

him, passed by. In like manner also a Levite, when he was near the place and saw him,

passed by.

Such repetition is intended to highlight the idea that it is not only one person who

passed by uncaring for the situation and the accident the man was suffering from. This

happened notwithstanding their (i.e. the priest's and Levite's) social and moral state.

The only rhetorical device employed is parable. It is a continuation of a simile between

Christian people as the rubbed man and others who are to be taken as his neighbors.

The macrostructure or the theme of the sample is on the kindness and its necessity as

a characteristic of man's neighborhood in Christianity. One's actions and deeds decide

his worth rather than his titles. Kindness should be necessary and essential in the value

of a priest or a clergy man yet it was absent in their reactions towards the rubbed man

as they went on their way without paying any attention.

The superstructure of the speech is not belonging to a single form; rather, it is attributed

to two forms. One is the narrative since Jesus Christ resorts to narration when teaching

the lawyer the way in which he can know his real neighbour. The structure of narrative

is of four sequences; orientation, complication, resolution, and coda. In the first

sequence, Jesus Christ orients the lawyer and the people with him of the persons and

situation in the narration when saying:

- A certain man went down from Jerusalem to Jericho, and fell among robbers,

who also stripped him, and having wounded him went away, leaving him half dead.

Then, he recited the events in orientation sequence, to include all the clauses in the


942

main body of the narrative till the resolution part:

- And the next day he took out two pence, and gave to the host, and said: Take

care of him; and whatsoever thou shalt spend over and above, I, at my return, will

repay thee.

Finally, in the coda sequence, he returns the verbal perspective of the narrative to the

moment of narrating when saying:

- Which of these three, in thy opinion, was neighbour to him that fell among the

robbers?

The argumentative structure is the second form on which the sample is constructed.

The claim in the argumentative structure is mentioned implicitly at the end of the

sample, that is (Your neighbor is the one who shows mercy upon you). The data, on the

other hand, are the examples, of the three men and their treatment to the rubbed

man. The warrant is that it is not a must for one being a clergy man to be merciful

enough to be regarded as a neighbor. It is mentioned before the claim. This is an

indicative argument since the point is left implicit.

Finally, the rhetorical devices made use of in this sample are: repetition, parable, ellipsis,

and dialogue. The first two are mentioned above.

- Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with thy whole heart, and with thy whole soul,

and with all thy strength, and with all thy mind

-

This is an ellipsis for: (Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with thy whole heart, and thou

shalt love the Lord thy God with thy whole soul, and thou shalt love the Lord thy God

with all thy strength, and thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy mind). For

dialogue, it is the base of this sample as it starts with an interaction between the lawyer

and Jesus:

- what must I do to possess eternal life? But he said to him: What is written in the

law? how readest thou? He answering, said: Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with thy

whole heart…. And he said to him: Thou hast answered right…..

-

Sample 3

Then came Peter unto him and said: Lord, how often shall my brother offend against

me, and I forgive him? till seven times? Jesus saith to him: I say not to thee, till seven

times; but till seventy times seven times. Therefore is the kingdom of heaven likened to

a king, who would take an account of his servants. And when he had begun to take

the account, one was brought to him, that owed him ten thousand talents. And as he

had not wherewith to pay it, his lord commanded that he should be sold, and his wife

and children and all that he had, and payment to be made. But that servant falling

down, besought him, saying: Have patience with me, and I will pay thee all. And the

lord of that servant being moved with pity, let him go and forgave him the debt. But

when that servant was gone out, he found one of his fellow servants that owed him an

hundred pence: and laying hold of him, throttled him, saying: Pay what thou owest.

And his fellow servant falling down, besought him, saying: Have patience with me, and

I will pay thee all. And he would not: but went and cast him into prison, till he paid the

debt. Now his fellow servants seeing what was done, were very much grieved, and

they came and told their lord all that was done. Then his lord called him; and said to

him: Thou wicked servant, I forgave thee all the debt, because thou besoughtest me:

Shouldst not thou then have had compassion also on thy fellow servant, even as I had

compassion on thee? And his lord being angry, delivered him to the torturers until he

paid all the debt. So also shall my heavenly Father do to you, if you forgive not


943

everyone his brother from your hearts (Matthew, 18:21-35).

The Analysis

The sample is built upon persuasion strategy which is achieved by means of linguistic

and rhetorical devices as in the use of justification expressions, repetition, question,

hyperbole, parable, and modes of persuasion. Justification is used three times as in:

- as he had not wherewith to pay it, his lord commanded that he should be sold,

and his wife and children and all that he had, and payment to be made.

- And the lord of that servant being moved with pity, let him go and forgave him

the debt.

- And his lord being angry, delivered him to the torturers until he paid all the debt.

A full statement is repeated that is said by the released servant and that by the follow

servant:

- servant falling down, besought him, saying: Have patience with me, and I will

pay thee all.

Although this same statement is said by both the released and the follow servant, the

reaction for it was different between the one besought; the lord and the released

servant. The first forgave the whole debt of the servant due to his beseeching whereas

the second casted the servant to prison despite his beseeching.

Question is employed for rebuke rather than a common type of inquiry, as in the

speech of the lord in the parable mentioned:

- Shouldst not thou then have had compassion also on thy fellow servant, even

as I had compassion on thee?

Hyperbole is used at the beginning of the speech in saying "till seventy times seven

times" as an embellishment mechanism. Almost along the whole sample, parable is

used to assimilate in a continued simile what takes place in the doomsday to a king

who takes account of his servants and referring to two indebted men; one who is

described as a wicked servant as he did not forgive the few amount of debt he had

on another servant despite his large amount of debt from which he was forgiven by

the king. Actually, his debt to the king was ten thousand talents which could refer to

the ten commandments which could have been forgiven in case he forgave his fellow

servant. Three modes of persuasion are alluded to in the sample. Jesus Christ appeals

to logos in his logical reasoning and the justifications employed. The addressee's

passions are aroused by at the end by saying:

- So also shall my heavenly Father do to you, if you forgive not everyone his

brother from your hearts.

Ethos is used when mentioning "… my heavenly Father …" as it reinforces his authority

and credibility in what he says.

The macrostructure of the sample is mainly composed of two themes: forgiveness and

compassion. One should not stop at any point in his forgiveness; rather, he should keep

forgiving others in order to gain Allah's forgiveness later. If he treats others with

compassion, he will increase his good deeds in comparison to bad ones and

guarantee the forgiveness of others as well. In sum, these two interfering themes do not

benefit man in this world only; they serve him in this and the next worlds. The

superstructure of the speech is not belonging to a single form; rather, it can be ascribed

to three forms. One form is the narrative since Jesus Christ resorts to narration when

teaching Peter the right way with which people should treat each other. Thus, the


944

formal structure of narrative here is of four sequences; orientation, complication,

resolution, and coda. In the first sequence, Jesus Christ orients Peter (or addressee in

general) of the persons and situation when saying:

- Therefore is the kingdom of heaven likened to a king, who would take an

account of his servants. And when he had begun to take the account, one was

brought to him, that owed him ten thousand talents. And as he had not wherewith to

pay it,

-

Then, the events are recited in orientation sequence, one after the other, which

includes all the clauses in the main body of the narrative till the resolution part:

- And his lord being angry, delivered him to the torturers until he paid all the debt.

Finally, the coda returns the verbal perspective of the narrative to the moment of

narrating when he says:


brother from your hearts.

The second form to which the speech belongs is expository whereby situation, problem,

solution, and evaluation can be figured out. The situation starts with the conversation

between Jesus Christ and Peter talking about pity and that one should forgive the other

with no limitation for the times he does so that is why, he refers to the number "till seventy

times seven times". The problem is that the released servant did not forgive the one

who is indebted for despite his beseeching. The solution is to treat people the way one

likes to be treated in. Finally, the evaluation is that man will receive the same treatment

by Allah; if good then be it good and if bad then be it bad. If put differently, as you

sow so shall you reap; if not in this world then in the next. The argumentative structure

is the third form on which the sample is constructed. The claim in the argumentative

structure is mentioned just to the end of the sample:


brother from your hearts".

The data, on the other hand, is the example, of a man with no compassion, of not

appealing to the claim. It is mentioned before the claim as an evidence to convince

people of the importance of showing pity if they intend to receive it from Allah. This

sample represents inductive argument or enthymeme since two propositions only are

spelled out; data and claim while warrant is left out.

In addition to the rhetorical devices mentioned in the persuasion strategy, dialogue is

used in the sample to add to its rhetorical value:

- Then came Peter unto him and said: Lord, how often shall my brother offend

against me, and I forgive him? till seven times? Jesus saith to him: I say not to thee, till

seven times; but till seventy times seven times.

Analysis of Arabic Samples

Sample 1

Beware of corrupting your manners and altering them. Maintain one stand. A man

should control his tongue because the tongue is obstinate with its master. By Allah, I do

not find fear of Allah benefitting a man who practices such fear unless he controls his

tongue. Certainly the tongue of a believer is at the back of his heart, while the heart of


945

a hypocrite is at the back of his tongue. When a believer intends to say anything, he

thinks it over in his mind. If it is good, he discloses it, but if it is bad, he keeps it concealed.

A hypocrite articulates whatever comes to his tongue, without knowing what is in his

favor and what goes against him.The Prophet of Allah (p.b.u.t.) said the following: “The

belief of a person cannot be firm unless his heart is firm, and his heart cannot be firm

unless his tongue is firm.” So, anyone of you can manage to meet Allah, the Sublime,

in such a status that his hands are not smeared with the blood of Muslims and their

property and his tongue are safe from exposition, he will do so (Al-Jibouri, 2009: 588).

The Analysis

The pragmatic strategy used by Imam Ali (p.b.u.h.) in this sample is persuasion which is

realised through the use of a number of linguistic and rhetorical devices. Linguistically,

he uses order, justification, description, and repetition. Three instances of order are

used, like:

Maintain one stand.

Justification is applied twice as in:

- Because the tongue is obstinate with its master.

The above example is also an instance of description to the tongue.

The last linguistic device employed here is repetition which is used three times. 'Tongue'

is repeated eight times, 'believer' is repeated two times, and 'say' or 'articulate' is

repeated two times as well. The tongue is repeated in some instances along with

believer as if it is a must for believers to restrict their tongues to what is proper and good

only since it is not a mere organ; rather, it reflects their thinking and belief. Rhetorically,

direct intertextuality is found when Imam Ali cites a tradition of prophet Mohammed

(p.b.u.t.) in:

- “The belief of a person cannot be firm unless his heart is firm, and his heart

cannot be firm unless his tongue is firm.”

The example above represents a chiasmus. Finally, balancing is used in:

- If it is good, he discloses it, but if it is bad, he keeps it concealed.

The macrostructure is built upon keeping the tongue in well manners only which can

lead humans consequently to good deeds.The superstructure of this sample is

expository in which three sequences are found; problem, solution, and evaluation. The

problem is:

The tongue is obstinate with its master. for which, the solutions are:

- A man should control his tongue

- When a believer intends to say anything, he thinks it over in his mind.

and the evaluation is:

- So, anyone of you can manage to meet Allah, the Sublime, in such a status that

his hands are not smeared with the blood of Muslims and their property and his tongue

are safe from exposition

For the rhetorical devices used, in addition to those mentioned above; intertextuality,

chiasmus, and balancing, there is the use of hypallage in the first sentence:

Maintain one stand.


946

which means to make the tongue direct and not to be dishonest or hurting.

Sample 2

May Allah bless one who listens to a point of wisdom and retains it. When he is invited

to the right path he approaches it. He follows a leader (by catching his waistband) and

finds salvation, keeps Allah before his eyes and fears his sins. He performs actions

sincerely and acts virtuously, earns treasure of heavenly rewards, avoids vice, aims at

(good) objective and reaps recompense. He faces his desires and rejects (fake) hopes,

makes endurance the means to his salvation and piety the provision for his death. He

rides on the path of honor and sticks to the highway of truth. He makes good use of his

time and hastens towards the end and takes with him the provision of (good) actions

(Al-Jibouri, 2009: 425).

The Analysis

The major pragmatic strategy that is employed to present morality is hinting. It is figured

out throughout description rather than instruction for doing the attitudes being called

for. Thus, it is achieved by the use of constative speech acts and seven instances of

substitution hypallage like; saying " follows a leader (by catching his waistband)" to

mean "follow his path or way of action". In addition, persuasive strategy is also engaged

in accessing the themes. Imam Ali (p.b.u.h.) tries to persuade people to do these

deeds. This is done by resorting to some linguistic and rhetorical devices. Linguistically,

lexical embellishment is used, specifically, parallelism. The sample includes six instances

of parallelistic structures, such as:

- . He follows a leader (by catching his waistband) and finds salvation, keeps

Allah before his eyes and fears his sins.

He, further, estimates people towards doing these deeds through starting his sermon

with a supplication to whoever acts in accordance to them. This can be taken as a

pathos in addition to his use of logos all over the whole sermon. Ethos is clear in almost

all of the deeds referred to here as they are taken intertextually from teachings in The

Glorious Quran and Prophet Mohammed's (p.b.u.h.) traditions; as in:

- He makes good use of his time and hastens towards the end and takes with him

the provision of (good) actions

Which could have been taken intertextually from Prophet Mohammed's tradition:

- Prophet Mohammed (p.b.u.h.) says: make good use of five before five: your life

before your death, your health before your sickness, your spare time before your

preoccupation, your youth before your shortage, and your richness before your

poverty (Al-Aa'mili, 1993: 114).

The list of attitudes or themes mentioned above represent the moralities or the virtues

called for implicitly in this sample. These virtues are introduced by Al-Imam Ali's

supplication for Allah's mercy to be on the people doing these deeds. It is noticeably

clear that the deeds are arranged in the sermon in a gradual state, that is, starting from

the easiest thing to do which is listening to wisdoms and getting or apprehending them

and ending with what is more additional, the provision of good deeds. Accordingly,

one does not begin furnishing what he has not in advance.The superstructure of the

sample is descriptive-persuasive in that Al-Imam tries to influence people (i.e. his

addressees) to behave in accordance to the spiritual traits he mentions. He gives a

number of descriptions of people with good deeds. They are grouped under some

balancing schemes. Finally, the rhetorical devices resorted to by Imam Ali (p.b.u.h.) are

all of those mentioned previously; hypallage, parallelism, and intertextuality.


947

Sample 3

O' my Allah! Forgive me what Thou knowest about me more than I do. If I return (to the

sins) Thou return to forgiveness. My Allah forgive me what I had promised to myself but

Thou didst not find its fulfilment with me. My Allah forgive me that with what I sought

nearness to Thee with my tongue but my heart opposed and did not perform it. My

Allah forgive me winkings of the eye, vile utterances, desires of the heart and errors of

speech. (Al-Jibouri, 2009: 425).

The Analysis

The major pragmatic strategy that is employed to present the themes is hinting. This

strategy is employed throughout indirect or implicit advice rather than instruction for

avoiding and seizing the above mentioned attitudes, if the addressees intended here

are people. However, if the addressee is Allah, then supplication speech act is used;

this, consequently results in an instructive strategy. Thus, two pragmatic strategies are

employed in relation to the one addressed here. For hinting strategy, there is the use of

implicit advice as well as five instances of substitution hypallage. Regarding instructive

strategy, vocative is used four times and supplications are the directive speech acts

that are employed three times:

- O' my Allah! Forgive me what Thou knowest about me more than I do.

Thematically, the sample is built upon asking for; Allah's forgiveness, loyalty, honesty,

and a number of virtues. Although these virtues are being mentioned explicitly by Imam

Ali (p.b.u.h.) in his supplication towards Allah, they can be taken implicitly as deeds

man needs to follow or avoid in his life.The superstructure of the sample is descriptive-

persuasive in that Al-Imam tries to stimulate people (i.e. Muslims, specifically) to be just

like him (despite his being as infallible) in confessing their sins and asking Allah for

forgiving them. Schematically, he starts from more general deeds then moves on to

more specific ones until he mentions explicitly the organs that interact in the doing of

the sins; including, the eye, the tongue, the heart, and the tongue again. Although

strange but intentional the tongue is mentioned repetitively as a means for human sins.

It is used in relation to chattering and blunders. Actually, the tongue is not referred to

twice only; it is mentioned earlier as well:

My Allah forgive me that with what I sought nearness to Thee with my tongue … vile

utterances, desires of the heart and errors of speech.

Finally, in addition to hypallage, the other rhetorical devices opted by Imam Ali

(p.b.u.h.) are repetition, parallelism, and intertextuality. The expression "O' my Allah!

Forgive me" is repeated five times. Parallelism is employed twice as in; "desires of the

heart and errors of speech". Intertextuality is figured when in one of his sayings Imam Ali

(p.b.u.h.) talks about the pitfalls that man might go through because of his tongue:

The tongue error kills man (Al-Reshahri, n.d.: 2779).

Below are a table and a figure that sum up the results of analysis of both types of data

regarding their presentation to the theme of morality:


948

(Table 1) Results of Rhetorical Analysis of Jesus Christ's and Imam Ali's Religious Contexts

of Morality

Model Items Jesus Christ's

Religious Contexts

Imam Ali's

Religious Contexts

F P F P

Pragmatic

Strategies

Hinting 1 33% 2 50%

Persuasive 2 67% 1 25%

Instructive 1 25%

Total 3 100% 4 100%

Superstructure Narrative 3 50%

Expository 1 17% 1 33%

Argumentative 2 33%

Descriptive-Persuasive 2 67%

Total 6 100% 3 100%

Rhetorical

Devices

Hypallages 5 29% 13 43%

Contrasts 3 18%

Parable 3 18%

Repetition 2 11.7% 4 13%

Ellipsis 1 5.8%

Dialogue 2 11.7%

Hyperbole 1 5.8%

Intertextuality 3 10%

Balancing 2 7%

Parallelism 8 27%

Total 17 100% 30 100%

(Figure 2) Results of Rhetorical Analysis of Jesus Christ's and Imam Ali's Religious Contexts

of Morality

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

Hin

tin

g

Per

suas

ion

Inst

ruct

ion

Nar

rati

ve

Exp

osi

tory

Arg

um

enta

tive

Des

crip

tive

-Per

suas

ive

Hyp

alla

ge

Co

ntr

ast

Par

able

Rep

etit

ion

Ellip

sis

Dia

logu

e

Hyp

erb

ole

Inte

rtex

tual

ity

Bal

anci

ng

Par

alle

lism

English Data

Arabic Data

Strategies Superstructures Rhetorical Devices


949

Conclusions

As shown by the table and figure above, persuasion strategy is applied by both Jesus

Christ and Imam Ali (p.b.u.t.). An issue like morality needs not be tackled instructively

as it might lessen the impact the text has on those being addressed. On the other hand,

while narrative superstructure is dominant in Jesus' religious contexts, descriptive one is

so in Imam Ali's. This indicates that they diverge in the structural construction of morality

along with their divergence in pragmatic strategy. In addition to narration,

argumentation and exposition are employed by Jesus Christ making 33% and 17%

respectively of the whole percentage whereas exposition is made use of once by

Imam Ali making only 33%. For the rhetorical devices made use of, hypallage is the one

that is figured out heavily in both of the data whereas most of the other devices are

used in one rather than the other. Contrast, parable, ellipsis, dialogue, and hyperbole

are employed in English religious contexts while intertextuality, balancing, and

parallelism are employed in Arabic religious contexts. In addition to what precedes,

the theme of morality is approached as mentioned in the macrostructure throughout

a number of secondary themes which differ between English and Arabic data. In

English data, Christ focuses on pity, kindness, and forgiveness in time in Arabic data,

Imam Ali concentrates on honesty, preventing the tongue of ill speech, loyalty, and

virtues. Finally, it is clear that each Jesus Christ and Imam Ali has his own way of

presenting the theme of morality despite its universality as a human issue. The

difference keeps true for both form and idea.

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