a contrastive phonological analysis of english and vietnamese

SERIES C - No. 8

A CONTRASTIVE PHONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS

OF ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE

by

;:: <oJ • ' .. Nguyen {lang Llem

A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE

Vo 1. 4

PACIFIC LINGUISTICS The Australian National University

Nguyễn Đ.L. A contrastive phonological analysis of English and Vietnamese, Vol 4. C-8, xvi + 221 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1970. DOI:10.15144/PL-C8.cover ©1970 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.

PAC I F I C L I NG U I ST I CS i s pub li shed by the Li�9ui� tic Cihcl e 0 6 Ca�be��a

and cons i s t s of four serie s :

SER I ES A - OC CAS I O N A L PA PERS

SER I ES B - MONOGRA PHS

SER I ES C - BOOKS

SER IES V - S PEC I A L PUBL I C A T I ONS .

EDITOR : S . A . Wurm . ASSOC IATE EDITORS : D . C . Laycock , C . L . Voorhoeve .

EDITORIAL CORRESPONDENCE :

The Edito r ,

PAC I F I C LiNGU I S T I CS,

Department o f Lingui stics ,

School o f Pac i fic Stud ie s ,

The Australian National Univers ity ,

Box 4 , P.O . ,

Canberra , A . C . T . 2600 .

Australia .

SUBSCRIPTIONS AND SALES:

ABOVE ADDRESS

Copyright � Nguy�n Bang Liem .

First pub li shed l970 .

The editors are indebted t o the Austral ian Nat ional University for

help in the production of this serie s .

Thi s pub lication was made possible by an initial grant from t he

Hunter Douglas Fund .

T AB L E O F C O N T E N T S

Chapter 1 : THE CONSONANTS OF ENGLISH

1 . 0 . Phonemic Contrasts

1 . 1 . The Feature Mode

1 . la . Comments on the Stated Identificationa1 -Contrastive

Features

1 . 2 . The Manifestation Mode

1 . 2 . 1 . English consonant phonemes and their phone-types

1 . 2 . 2 . English consonant s phonemes and their allophones

1 . 3. The Distribution Mode

1 . 3 . 1 . The Simple Onset alloclass 1 . 3 . 2 . The Simple Terminus alloclass 1 . 3 . 3 . The Expanded Onset alloclass 1 . 3 . 3 . 1 . Two-consonant c lusters fil ling the Onset s lot 1 . 3 . 3 . 2 . Three-consonant c lusters filling the Onset s lot 1 . 3 . 4 . The Expanded Terminus alloclass 1 . 3 . 4 . 1 . The Expanded Terminus alloclass 1

1 . 3 . 4 . 1 . 1 . Two-consonant c lusters filling the uninflected Terminus s lot

1 . 3 . 4. 1 . 2 . Three-consonant clusters filling t he uninfle cted

Terminus s lot 1 . 3 . 4 . 2 . The Expanded Terminus alloclass 2

Chapter 2: CONSONANTS OF VIETNAMESE

2 . 0 . Phonemic Contrasts


iii

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xiii

1

1

2

3 4

4

6

10

10

10 .

10

10

11

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 4

1 6

1 6

17

iv

2 . 1 a .

2 . 2 .

2 . 2 . 1 .

2 . 2 . 2 .

2 . 3 .

2 . 3 . 1 .

2 . 3 . 2 .

2 . 3 . 3 .

2 . 3 . 4 .

Comments on the Identificational-Contrastive Feature s

The Manifestation Mode

Vietname se consonant phonemes and their phone-types

Vietnamese consonant phoneme s and their al lophones

The Distribution Mode

The Simple Onset alloclass

The Simple Terminus alloclass

The Expanded Onset alloclass

The Expanded Terminus al loclas s

Chapter 3 : CONTRASTIVE ANALYS IS : THE CONSONANTS

Page

1 8

1 8

1 8

2 0

2 4

2 4

2 4

2 4

2 4

25

3 . 0 . Introduction 25

3 . 0 . 1 . Types of teaching and learning prob lems 25

3 . 0 . 2 . Contrastive Chart 27

3 . 0 . 3 . The recognition tests 2 8

3 . 0 . 4 . The product ion tests 29

3 . 1 . Recognition Problems 30

3 . 1 . 1 . Recogni tion prob lems of the Simple Onset and Terminus

alloclasses 30

3 . 1 . 1 . 1 . Recognition problems of the Simple Onset alloclass 31

3 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 . Results of t he recognit ion tests 31

3 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 2 . Suggestions for recognition drills and tests 3 2

3 . 1 . 1 . 2 . Recognition prob lems of the Simple Terminus alloclass 35

3 . 1 . 1 . 2 . 1 . Result s of the recognit ion tests 35

3 . 1 . 1 . 2 . 2. Suggestions for recognition dri lls and tests 35

3 . 1 . 2 . Recognition prob lems of the Complex Onset alloclass 3 8

3 . 1 . 2 . 0 . Introductory : As sumpt ions behind the rec ognition tests 3 8

3 . 1 . 2 . 1 . Rec ognition prob lems of minimally contrastive consonant s

in ini t ial c lusters 3 8

3 . 1 . 2 . 1 . 1 . Results of t he recognition tests 3 8

3 . 1 . 2 . 1 . 2 . Suggestions for recognition drills and tests 39

3 . 1 . 2 . 2 . Probabi lity that a consonant in an initial c luster will not be heard

3 . 1 . 2 . 2 . 1 . Results of the recognition tests 3 . 1 . 2 . 2 . 2 . Sugge stions for rec ognition drills and tests

3 . 1 . 2 . 3 . Probability that a semivowel , /w/ or /j/, in an initial c lust er will not be heard

3 . 1 . 2 . 3 . 1 . Results of the recognit ion tests 3 . 1 . 2 . 3 . 2 . Sugge stions

39

39

41

4 4

4 4

4 4

3 . 1 . 3 . Recognit ion prob lems o f t he Complex Terminus alloc lass 4 4

3 . 1 . 3 . 0 . Introduct ion : As sumpt ions behind the Recognition tests 45

3 . 1 . 3 . 1 . Probabi lity that a cons onant in a final cluster of un-

inflected syllables will not be heard 3 . 1 . 3 . 1 . 1 . Results of the tests

3 . 1 . 3 . 1. 2 . Suggest ions for recognition dri lls and tests

3.1. 3.2. Probability that the morphophoneme /s/ will not be

heard when clustering with another consonant or

another c luster

3.1.3. 2 . 1 . Results of the tests 3.1. 3 . 2.2. Suggestions for recognition drills and tests 3 . 1 . 3 . 3 . Probabi lity that the morphophoneme /z/ will not be

heard when clustering with another consonant or

another c luster

3.1 . 3.3.1. Results of the tests

3.1.3.3 . 2 . Suggest ions for recognition drills and tests

3.1.3.4. Probability that the morphophoneme /t/ wi ll not be

heard when c lustering with another consonant or

another c luster 3.1.3.4 .1 . Results of the tests

3 . 1.3.4.2. Suggestions for recognition drills and tests 3.1. 3.5. Probabi lity t hat the morphophoneme /d/ will not be

heard when c lustering with another consonant or

another c luster

3. 1 . 3. 5 . 1. Results of the tests 3. 1 . 3 . 5 . 2. Suggestions for recognit ion drills and tests 3. 2 . Production Problems

3. 2.1. Production prob lems of the Simple Onset alloclass 3. 2.1.1 . . Results of the production tests 3.2.1 .2. The prob lems 3.2.1 . 2. 1 . Phonemic prob lems 3. 2. 1 .2.1 . 1 . English Initial /p/

3. 2. 1 . 2.1.2. English Initial /b/

3. 2.1.2.1.3. English Initial /g/

3.2.1.2.1 . 4. English Initial /�/

3. 2.1. 2.1.5. English Initial /J/

3. 2.1. 2. 1 .6. English Init ial /e/

3. 2.1. 2. 1 . 7. English Initial /'6/

3. 2. 1 . 2. 1 . 8. English Initial /z/

3.2. 1 . 2.2. Phonetic prob lems 3. 2.1. 2.2. 1 . English Init ial /b d/

3.2. 1 . 2.2. 2 . English Init ial /v/

3. 2 . 1 . 2.2 . 3 . English Initial /�/

v

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46

4 6

4 6

4 9

4 9

4 9

4 9

4 9

4 9

4 9

4 9

5 0

5 1

51

5 1

5 3

5 3

5 3

5 3

5 3

5 5

5 6

5 6

57

5 8

5 9

6 0

6 1

6 2

6 2

6 3

6 4

vi

3 . 2 . 1 . 2. 2 . 4 . English Initial III

3 . 2 . 1 . 2 . 2 . 5. English Initial Irl

3 . 2 . 1. 2 . 3. Allophonic prob lems

3. 2 . 1 . 2 . 4 . Production prob lems due to spelling

3 . 2 . 2 . Product ion prob lems of the Simple Terminus alloclass

3 . 2 . 2 . 1 . Result s of the product ion tests 3 . 2 . 2 . 2 . The prob lems

3 . 2 . 2 . 2 . 1 . English Final IU

3 . 2 . 2. 2 . 2 . English Final If I

3.2 . 2 . 2 . 3. English Final lei

3 . 2 . 2 . 2 . 4 . English Final lsi

3. 2 . 2 . 2 . 5 . English Final gl

3 . 2 . 2 . 2.6 . English Final III

3 . 2 . 2 . 2 . 7. English Final Ib d gl

3 . 2 . 2. 2.8 . Eng lish Final /j v C> z V 3 . 2 . 2 . 2 . 9. English Final Irl

3 . 2 . 2. 2. 1 0 . English Final Ip t kl

3.2 . 2. 2 . 1 1 . Special allophonic prob lem , intervocalic It I

3 . 2. 3 . Product ion prob lems of the Complex Onset alloclass

3 . 2 . 3 . 1 . Results of the production tests

3 . 2 . 3 . 2 . The prob lems

3. 2.3 . 2. 1 . English Initial two-consonant c lusters

3 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 1 . 1 . Group 1: Voiceless Stop + Consonant

3 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 1 . 2 . Group 2: Voiced Stop + Consonant

3 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 1 . 3 . Group 3: lei + Semivowel

3 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 1 . 4 . Group 4: lsi + Consonant

3. 2 . 3 . 2 . 1 . 5 . Group 5: Ihl + Semivowel

3 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 1 . 6 . Group 6 : Consonant + III

3 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 1 . 7 . Group 7 : Consonant + Iwl

3 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 1 . 8 . Group 8: Consonant + Irl

3 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 2. English initial c lusters of three consonant s

Group 2 : Consonant + Nasal Group 3 : III + Consonant Group 4 : Nasal + Cons onant Group 5 : Irl + Consonant

Page

65 66

67

68 68

68

68

71 7 1

7 2

7 2

7 3 7 3

7 4

7 5

76

7 7

7 7

7 7

7 7 80

80 81

82

83

83 84 84

85

85

86

3.2.4.2.1.6. Group 6 : Consonant + Voiceless Stop

3.2.4.2.1.7. Group 7 : Consonant + Voiced Stop

3.2.4.2.1.8. Group 8 : Consonant + Affricate

3.2.4.2.1.9. Group 9 : Fri cat ive or Stop + Fricat ive

3.2.4.2.1.10. Group 10 : III or /rl + Fricative

3.2.4.2.2. English final three-consonant c lusters in

syllab les

3.2.4.2.2.1. Group 1 : Consonant + C onsonant + It!

3.2.4.2.2.2. Group 2 : Consonant + Consonant + lei

3.2.4.2.2.3. Group 3 : Consonant + C onsonant + If 5 zl

uninflected

vii

Page

96

97

97

97 9 8

9 8

99 100

101 3.2.5. Production problems of the C omplex Terminus alloclass 2 101 3.2.5.1. Result s of the produc t ion tests 101 3.2.5.2. The problems 107 3.2.5.2.1. Production problems of t he morpheme {Z} 107 3.2.5.2.1.1. The morpheme {Z} after voiceless sounds except

Sibilants 107

3.2.5.2.1.2. The morpheme {Z} after Voiced Sounds except Sibilant s 109

3.2.5.2.1.3. The morpheme {Z} after Sibilants 110 3.2.5.2.2. Production problems of the morpheme {D} 110 3.2.5.2.2.1. The morpheme {D} after Voiceless sounds except It I 1 10 3.2.5.2.2.2. The morpheme {D} after Voiced Sounds except I dl 111 3.2.5.2.2.3. The morpheme {D} after alveolar Stops It dl 112 3.2.6. Syllabication problems 112

Chapter 4 : THE VOWELS OF ENGLISH 114

4.0.

4.1.

4.2.

4.2.1 .

4.2.2.

4.2.3.

4.3.

4.3.1 .

Phonemic Contrasts

The Feature Mode

The Manifestation Mode

The binary phonetic dec entralised/centralised features The allophonic short/long features

The binary monophthongal/diphthongal features The Distr ibution Mode

The subclass of free and checked stressed vowels and diphthongs

4.3.2. The subclass of stressed vowe ls before Irl

4.3.3. The subclass of unstressed vowe ls 4.4. Transcriptional Systems

Chapter 5 : THE VOWELS OF VIETNAMESE

5.0. Phonemic Contrasts

1 1 4 114

116

117

117 118

119

119 120 121 124

129

129

viii


5 . 2 . The Man ifestation Mode

5 . 3 . The Distr ibution Mode

5 . 4 . Transcriptional Systems

Chapter 6: CONTRASTIVE ANALYSI S : THE VOWELS

6 . 0 .

6 . 0. 1 .

6 . 0 . 2 .

6 . 0 . 3 .

6 . 1 .

6 . 1 . 1 .

6 . 1 . 2 .

6 . 2 .

6 . 2 . 0 .

6 . 2 . 1 .

6 . 2 . 2 .

Introduction

Types of teaching and learning problems C ontras tive Chart

The recognition and the produc tion tests

Recognition Problems

Results of the recognition tests

Suggestions for recognit ion drills and tests

Production Problems

C ontrastive Chart

Result s of the production tests

Suggestions for production drills

Page

129

1 30

135

136

1 39

1 39

1 39 1 39 1 40

1 40

1 41

142 1 4 3 1 4 3

1 4 4

1 4 4 6 . 2 .2 . 1 . Individual English Vowe ls 1 4 4 6 . 2 . 2 . 2 . Minimum pairs for product ion drills 151

6 . 2 . 2 .3. Sugge stions for drills on conditioned al lophonic

vowel variat ions 152 6 . 2 . 2 .3. 1 . The binary phonetic decentralised/centrali sed features 153 6 . 2 . 2 .3. 2 . The allophonic long/short features 1 5 3

6 . 2 . 2 .3 . 3 . The allophonic monophthongal/diphthongal features 153 6 . 2 .3 . Distributional problems of English vowe ls

6 . 2 .3 . 1 . English /ai oi auf as checked diphthongs 6 . 2 .3. 2 . The subclass of English stres sed vowe ls 6 . 2 .3.3. English unstressed vowels 6 . 2 .3.3. 1 . English unstressed word-final vowe ls

before

6 . 2 . 3 . 3 . 2 . English unstressed vowels in other sy llab les final ones

6 . 2 .3.3 . 3. English unstressed /03/ in monosy llabic words 6 . 2 . 3.3.4 . English unstressed vowe ls before other vowe ls

/r/

than

154

154 155 155 155

156

157

157

Chapter 7 : THE STRESS , RHYTHM , AND INTONATION PATTERNS IN ENGLISH 159

7 . 0 .

7. 1 .

7 . 1 . 1 .

7 . 1 . 2 .

7 . 2 .

7.3.

Introduction

Stre ss

Word stress Syntact ic stress

Rhythm

Intonation

159 159

160 160 161 162

7 . 3 . 1 . Terminal contours

7 . 3 . 2 . Pitch levels

7 . 4 . Open Juncture

Chapter 8: THE STRESS , RHYTHM , TONE , AND INTONATION PATTERNS IN

VI ETNAMESE

8 . 1 .

8 . 2 .

8.3 .

8.4 .

8 . 4 . 1 .

8 . 4 . 2 .

8 . 4.3 .

8.4 . 4 .

8 . 4 . 5 .

Stress

Rhythm

Tone System

Intonation

Sustained Int onat ion Dec larative (or " falling" ) Int onat ion

Interrogat ive (or "rising" ) Intonat ion

Imperat ive (or "rising-falling" ) Int onat ion

Other Intonat ional Features

Chapter 9 : CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS : STRESS , RHYTHM , AND INTONATION

PATTERNS

9.0 .

9. 1 .

9 . 1 . 1 .

9 . 1 . 2 .

9 . 2 .

9 . 3 .

9 . 4 .

Introduction

Stress

Word Stress

Syntactic Stres s Rhythm

Intonation

Open Juncture

CONCLUS ION

Appendix I : ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION FOR VIETNAMESE , STEP ONE :

TESTS OF RECOGNI TION

Appendix II : ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION FOR VIETNAMESE , STEP TWO :

TESTS OF PRODUCTION (TAPE RECORD INGS)

REFERENCES

C HARTS:

I English consonants and their identi ficational-contrast ive features

II English consonant phone-types

ix

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162

16 3

16 3

165

165

165

166 167

167

168

168

169

170

171

171

1 7 1 171 1 7 3 1 7 4

1 7 4

177

179

183

197

203

3

5

x

Page

III English cons onants and their allophones 6

IV Initial two-consonant c lusters 11

V Initial three-consonant clusters 12

VI Final two-consonant c lusters in uninflected sy llab les 13

VII Final three-consonant c lust ers in uninflected syllab les 14

VIII The formation and extension of final c lusters , and the

syllab le increase with the morphemes {Z} Is z azl and {D} It d adl 15

IX Vietnamese consonant s and their identificational-contrast ive feature s 17

X Vietname se consonant phone types 19

XI Vietnamese consonants and their al lophones 20

XII C ontrast ive chart of consonant s in English and Vietnamese 27

XIII Assumed recognition prob lems of English consonants 30

XIV Phonetic laws of English final consonant replacements 70

IVa Groups of production prob lems of initial two consonant c lusters

VIa Groups of production problems of final two-consonant c lusters in uninflected syllables

VIla Groups of production prob lems of final three-consonant

c lusters in uninflected syllables

8 1

9 2

99

VIlla Morphophonemic production problems due to the formation

and complication of final c lusters , and the syllab le

addit ion by the morphemes {Z} Is Z az/, and {D} It d adl 108

xv English vowels and their identificational-contrast ive features

XVI English vowe l phone s

XVII English vowels and their most common allophones

XVI I I Vietnamese vowels and their ident i ficational-contrastive features

X IX Vietname se vowe l phone s

XX Contrast ive chart of English and Vietnamese vowels

XXI Assumed recognition problems of English vowels

115

1 16

1 17

1 30

1 3 1

1 39

140

XXII Contrast ive chart of al lophonic ranges of vowe l phoneme s

in English and Vietname se

TAB L ES :

1

2

Recognition prob lems of init ial consonant s

Rec ognit ion problems of final consonants

3 Recognition prob lems of minimally contrast ive consonant s

in initial c lusters

4 Probability for a consonant in an initial c luster to be

unheard

5 Probability that a semivowe l /w/ or /j/ in an init ial c luster wi ll not be heard

6 Probabi lity for a consonant in a final c luster of un

inflected syllab les to be unheard

7 Probabi lity for the morphophoneme /s/ t o be unheard

when clustering with another consonant or a c luster

8 Probab i lity for the morphophoneme /z/ to be unheard

when c lustering with another consonant or a c luster

9 Probability for the morphophoneme /t/ to be unheard

when c lustering with another consonant or a c luster

10 Probability for the morphophoneme /d/ to be unheard when clustering with another consonant or a c luster

11 Production problems of initial consonant s : number and

percentage of deviations , most common deviants , number and perc entage of most common deviants

12 Product ion problems of final consonant s : number and percentage of deviat ions , most common deviant s ,

number and percentage of most common deviants

1 3 Production prob lems o f initial consonant c lusters : number and percentage of deviations , most common deviants , numbe� and perc entage of most common deviat ions

14 Producti on prob lems of final consonant c lusters of uninflected sy llab les : number and perc entage of deviat ions , most common deviant s , number and percentage of mo st

common deviations

xi

Page

1 4 3

3 1

3 6

40

42

4 4

4 7

4 8

50

51

52

54

69

78

88

xii

15

16

17

18

19

Production prob lems of final c lusters in inflected

syllab les (morphophoneme lsi)

Production prob lems of final clusters in inflec ted

syl lab les (morphophoneme Iz/)

Product ion prob lems of final c lusters in inflected

syllables (morphophoneme s Idl and It/)

Recognition problems of vowels and dipht hongs

Production prob lems of vowe ls and diphthongs

Page

102

103

105

141

146

I N TRODU C T I ON TO THE CON TRA S T I V E

PHON OL O G I CAL ANA L Y S I S

The fundamental pri nc iple guiding the writing of this contrastive

phonological analysis of Engl ish and Vietnamese , as well as the

writ ing of the contrast ive grammat ical analysis , is the conviction , held by many linguists and foreign language teaching specialist s , that one of the major prob lems in learning a foreign language is the inter

ference caused by the structural phonological or grammatical difference s between the nat ive language of the learner and the foreign lan

guage to be learned .

In fact , the student who sets out to learn the pronunciation of a foreign language wi ll find some sounds , combinat ions of sounds , et c . ,

of the language quite easy and others quite difficult . This i s because he is so " imprisoned" within the sound structure of his own language

that he can pronounce only the sounds in the language to be learned that exist also in his nat ive language . It i s a very difficult task

for him to learn the new sounds . In the first place , this i s a matter of habit : through years of practice , the student has built up a set of muscular hab i t s which enab le him to pronounce the sounds of his nat ive language , b ut only these sounds . The muscular habits are so well formed

that they exc lude the possib i lity of producing other sounds than those found in the native language of the learner - Vietname se in this case . In the second place , the students may be emot ionally unab le to pronounce new sounds , which strike him as being abnormal or even queer . Thus , even with the best intentions of producing English sounds , he just sub stitutes for English sounds the corresponding sounds of Vietnamese .

In order to correct these mi spronunc iations , it i s neces sary to ident ify the sound- subst itutions which cause them . To arrive at the

xiii

xiv

discovery of how these substitutions come about , a point -by-point com

parison of the sounds of English and of Vietnamese proves to be indis

pensab le . When a sound exists in both language s , there is no teaching

prob lem . A teaching prob lem arises when an English sound does not have

a corresponding one in Vi etnamese . In this case , it is neces sary to

proceed to the next step of the invest igat ion , which is to find out how

diffic ult the prob lem is , and also whether the mispronunc iat ion is

likely to cause mi sunderstanding or merely to result in a heavy foreign accent . The results of actual recognition or production tests pre sented

in this study will answer the quest ion of how di fficult a pronunc iation

prob lem is by giving the percentage of mi stakes . They also answer the

quest ion whether a prob lem is phonemic ( i . e . one which results in a heavy accent ) by stat ing the most common deviant s for an English sound .

In the following chapters , a po int-by-point comparative , or more exactly contrastive , analysis of the English and Vietname se sound

systems will be attempted , and presented in an arb itrary analyt ical order of consonants , consonant clusters , vowels , etc . In the prepara

tion of a text -book of English pronunciation for Vietname se speakers , however , it i s neces sary to adopt a philosophical approach to teaching

prob lems in order to present them in a valid pedagogical sequence , following a hierarchy of difficulty . The philosophical approach will

be discussed in the conc lusion to this contrastive phonological analysis .

CORR I GENVUM

This rep laces Chart XX, on page 139 :

CHART XX

CONTRASTIVE CHART OF ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE VOWELS

ENGLISH

FRONT CENTRAL BACK FRONT

0) u

0 8 Hiqh

I

,-. .....- � • e I 8

• 0') ....... "-" (;0) :>

e

E Mid

.......

8 Low a

xv

VIETNAMESE

CENTRAL

,- ... I • \ , a I ( -_ .... , \ a I , .,

a

BACK r ;-'--------�,

Un rounded Rounded

, , ��\ . 1/1 , / u -

/'-, ' dl o , " -

Nguyễn Đ.L. A contrastive phonological analysis of English and Vietnamese, Vol 4. C-8, xvi + 221 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1970. DOI:10.15144/PL-C8.cover ©1970 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.

1 0 7

3 . 2 . 5 . 2 . The p�o blem6

Since there are no final consonant c lusters in Vietnamese , and the

P lural and Pas t Tenses are opt i onally indicated by separate morphemes ,

Engli s h ' morphophonemi c feat ure s create great problems for Vietname se

s tudent s .

In general , s tudents tend t o omit the morphophonemi c forms I s z a z t d a d l alt oge the r . The se morphophonemi c problems can b e regrouped in

Chart VIlla on p age 1 0 8 ( see al s o Chart VII I , p age 15 ) .

Morphophonemi c problems c an be grouped ac cording t o t he consonant

pri or to t he morphophoneme in que s t ion in the following Chart VIlla as :

The morpheme {Z} afte r :

( a ) Voi ce less sounds , except Voi celess Sibilant s ;

( b ) Voiced sounds , except Voi ced Sibilant s ;

( c ) Voi celess and Voi ced Sibilant s .

The morphophoneme { D } after :

( a ) Voi celess sounds , except I t / ; ( b ) Voi ced sounds , e xcept I d / ; ( c ) I t d / .

3 . 2 . 5 . 2 . 1 . P�oduct� o n p�obl em6 0 6 the mo�p h em e {Z}

3 . 2 . 5 . 2 . 1 . 1 . The mo�pheme {Z} a 6te� v o � c ele66 6 0 und6 e x c ept S�b�lant6

1 . The c luster s :

After Voi celess sounds , except after Voi celess Sibi lants , t he mor

pheme {Z} is man i fe s ted by morphophoneme l s i which forms with the Voi cele s s consonant prior t o i t se l f five kinds of cons onant c lusters , I p s t s k s t s a s / . 3 6

2 . The problems :

Vietnamese s t udents always elide the l s i or mi spronounce it . Since

they tend also to mi spronounce the fri cative I t a l in the c lusters

I t s a s l , the problems are clas s i fied into two sub-groups : the sub -group Voi ce le s s Stop + l s i , inc luding I p s t s k s / , and the s ub -group Voiceless

fri cati ve + l s i , inc luding I t s a s / .

3 . Dril l s :

Within each group the c onsonant clusters are graded for dril l s ac

cording t o their number of cons onant s . Samp le words for dri lls :

3 6E a c h k i n d o f c o n s o n a n t c l u s t e r c i t e d h e r e a n d l at e r c au s e s d i f f i c u l t i e s

o f d i f fe r e n t d e g r e e s a c c o r d i n g t o wh e t h e r i t o c c u r s a l o n e o r a s p ar t o f a t h r e e - o r f o ur - c o n s o n a n t c l u s t e r . F o r e xamp l e , t h e c l u s t e r I t s l app e a r s i n I t s s t s k s t s / , l i s t e d i n t h e i r i n c r e a s i n g o r d e r o f d i f f i c u l t y .

Nguyễn Đ.L. A contrastive phonological analysis of English and Vietnamese, Vol 4. C-8, xvi + 221 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1970. DOI:10.15144/PL-C8.107 ©1970 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.

1 0 8

CHART V I I I a

MORPHOPHONEMIC PRODUCTION P ROBLEMS DUE TO THE FORMATION AND COMPLICATION OF FINAL CLUSTERS , AND THE SYLLABLE ADD ITION BY

THE MORPHEMES {Z} I s z a z / , AND {D} I t d a d l

L A S T C O N S ON A N T

VO I C E L E S S V O I C E D

F R I C - F R I C - S Y L L A B L E S T O P

A T I V E S T O P

A T I V E AD D I T I O N

t 5 d z a d a z

CI) p

0 o� Po.

t 5 � t a d 0 t E-< CI) k kt ks CI) CI) IlL! c.: � t t � a z � Po. IlL! Il« U < �v ... 0 f

0 > CI) I IlL! e u > ... ... c.: E-< 5

� sa z E-< Il« < :z: � � §a z < :z: 0 b b d CI) CI)

1\ :z: Po. d d z d a d 0 0 U E-< CI) 9 g d � E-<

I/�? CI) c.: < J j a z � Il« r0-o < E-< v d H v c.: CI) 0 I til 0 od oz ... u > c.: ..... .....

z d 1/ z a z Po. c.: E-< z ro. < 1. !a z E-< ! ! d , :z: £:I I '-----' < IlL! :z: u E-< I l��

0 ... < CI) 0 � :z: > 0 m z u CI) m � < n z CI) n " d

�: < :z: I) � I I) Z

> r e> \0 CI)

CI) c!-l l vowe ls. � + I d z / IlL! � 0 >

1 0 9

Sub-group 1 : Voiceless Stop + l s i :

1 . I p s l 2 . I t s l 3 . I k s l I p s l keeps I t s l b e a t s I k s l k i a k s

I m p s l p umps I p t s l aryp t s I rJ k s l s inks

I l p s l he Lps I k t s l fad s I s k s l r i s k s

I r p s l warps I n t s l p a i n t s I l k s l s i as I r t s l hearts I r k s l barks

Sub-group 2 : Voice less Fricative + l s i :

1 . I f s / 2 . 1 9 s 1 I f s l Laughs 1 9 sl breaths I l f s l g u L fs ! t 9 s l e i g h ths Im f s -m p f s l nymphs I d 9 s 1 b re adths I r f s / s urfs I f 9 s 1 fifths

1 1 9 s - l t 9 s l I n 9 s - n t 9 s l t e n t h s I r 9 s 1 hearths I n d 9 s 1 t ho u s andths I rJ k9 s I L e n g t hs I I f 9 s 1 twe Lfths I k s 9 s 1 s i:r: t h s

3 . 2 . 5 . 2 . 1 . 2 . The mo�pheme { z } a 6 te� Vo�ced S o u nd4 e x c ept S�b�tant4

1 . The clusters :

After voiced sounds , except Voi ced Sibi lants , the morpheme { Z} i s

man i fested b y the morphophoneme I z l which fills the Simple Terminus s lo t

afte r Vowe ls and whi ch forms with the preceding Voiced Cons onant t e n

kinds o f cons onant clusters , I b z d z g z v z 6 z I z m z n z rJ Z r z / .

2 . The problems :

Vietnamese students omit the I z / , especially after Consonants , or

mispronounce i t . Si nce they tend a lso to omi t or mi spronounce the

vo iced fricative , lateral , or semi vowe l prior to I z / , the p rob lems are

clas s i fied into two sub-groups : Sub-group 1 - Stop or Nasal + I z / , including I b z d z gz mz nz rJ z / ; Sub-group 2 - Fri cative , Late ral , o r s emi

vowel + I Z / , including I v z 6 z I z r z / .

3 . Dril l s :

The fo l lowing sample words can be used for drills :

Sub-group 1 : 1 . I b z l I b z / rubs

2 . I d z l I d z l reads

3 . I g z l I g z l rugs


llO

I l b z l bu lbs I r b z l curbs

I m z l rooms I l m z l fi lms I rm z l warms

Sub-group 2 :

1 . I v z l I v z l l i ves I l v z l s h e l v e s I r v z l carves

I l d z l I n d z l I r d z l

5 . I n z l I n z l I l n z l I r n z l

2 . I b z l I b z l b re a t h e s

co lds so u nds cards

fans ki lns warns

3 . I I zl I l z l b i l l s I r l z l g i r l s

3 . 2 . 5 . 2 . 1 . 3 . The mo�pheme { Z } a 6te� Sibilant�

1 . Phonetic nature :

I r g z l i c e b e rgs

I fJ z I s ings

4 . I r z l I r z l roars

After Voi ced and Vo iceless Sibi lants , the morpheme { Z } is mani fested

by l a z / .

2 . The problems :

Vie tname se students are prone to leave o ff l a z l in these cases .

These are grammatical prob lems rather than pronunciat ion prob lems . But

they must be dri lled in the pronunc iation class as well .

3 . Dri l l s :

The fo llowing words can be used for drills :

1 . I c e z l lunches

2 . I s a z l c la s s e s

3 . l '1; a z l w i s h e s

4 . / j a z l judges

5 . I z a z l c lo s e s

3 . 2 . 5 . 2 . 2 . P�oduction p�o blem� 0 6 the mo�pheme { o }

6 . n a z i rouges

3 . 2 . 5 . 2 . 2 . 1 . The mo �pheme { o } a 6te� Voic el e� � � o und� e x c ept I t I

1 . The cl usters :

After Vo iceless sounds , except I t / , the morpheme { O } i s mani fested

by the morphoph oneme It I which forms with the preceding Vo iceless con

sonant six kinds o f cons onant c lusters , I p t k t ct f t s t '1; t / .

2 . The problems :

Vietnamese students univers ally e lide the morphophoneme I t I or mi s

pronounce it . Since they also tend to omit or mi spronounce the a f

fricate I 'C I or fri cat i ves I s '1; 1 prior to I t / , the prob lems are c lassi

fied into two sub -groups : the sub -group Stop + I t / , inc luding I p t k t / ; t he s ub -group Fri cat i ve or A ffricate + I t / , inc luding I c t f t s t '1; t / .


1 1 1

3 . Drills :

The following samp le words can be used fo r dri lls :

1 . I p t l 2 . I kt ! I p t l g rouped I kt ! kicked I s p t l L i sped I I kt ! mi L k e d I I p t ! h e Lped I l) kt ! L i nked I m p t ! jump e d I r k t ! worked / r p t ! c hirped

1 . l e t ! 2 . I f t ! 3 . 1 s t ! 4 . I � t l l e t ! reached If t ! L aughed I s t l m i s 8 e d I � t ! fi8 h e d

I n e t l Lunched I 1 f t ! go Lfed I p s t ! L ap8ed I � t - e t ! we L ched

/ r't t ! 8 earched I m f t l tr iumphed I k s t ! mixed I r f t ! 8 urfed I 1 s t ! p u L 8 e d

I n s t l fen ce d I r s t ! par8 e d

3 . 2 . 5 . 2 . 2 . 2 . The mo�phem e { o } a 6 te� V o i c e d S o u nd4 e x c ept I d l

1 . The clusters :

After Voi ced sounds , ex cept I d / , the morpheme { O } is mani fested by

the morphophoneme I d / , which fills the Single Terminus s lot when pre

ceded by a Vowe l , and forms with the Voi ced Cons onant prior t o i t s e l f

twelve kinds of clusters , I b d g d j d v d od z d ! d I d m d n d I) d r d / .

2 . The problems :

Vietnamese students cons istent ly omi t or mispronounc e the morpho

phoneme I d / . Since they also tend to omi t or mispronounce the a ffri c ate ,

fricative , lateral , or Semivowel prior t o the morphophoneme , the prob lems

can be classi fied into two sub-groups : Sub-group 1 , inc luding I b d gd m d n d f)d / ; Sub -grouping 2 , inc luding I j d v d o d z d ! d I d r d / .

3 . Dri l l s :

The fol lowing s amp le words can be used for dril ls :

Sub-group 1 :

1 . I b d l I bd l robbed I l b d l bu Lbed I r b d l curbed

Sub-group 2 :

1 . I V d / I V d l L i v e d I l v d l 8 0 L v e d I r v d l curved

2 . / g d l / g d l tugged I r g d l

2 . I o d I

3 . I md I I m d l comb ed I l md l fUme d / rm d l charmed

3 . I Z d l

4 . I n d I I n d l banned I r n d l warned

5 . I l) d / I f) d / hanged

4 . / ! d l l o d l breathed I z d l rai 8 e d

I n z d l L e n 8 e d I r z d l fu rzed

l 'f d l rouged

112

5 . / J d l 6 . I i d l 7 . I r d l / J d l waged I i d l c a L L e d I rd l roared

I l j d l bu Lged I r l d l curLed I n J d l changed / r J d l s urged

3 . 2 . 5 . 2 . 2 . 3 . The mo�pheme {D} a 6 t e� atv e ota� Stop� It d l

1 . Phonemic nature :

After alveolar Stops I t d / , the morpheme {D} is manifested by l a d / .

2 . The problems :

Vietnamese students usually omit l a d l in these case s . Thes e are

grammati cal problems rathe r than pronunc iat ion prob lems , but they must

be drilled in the pronunc iation c lass as we ll .

3 . Drills :

The fo llowing samp le words can be used for drills :

l . l t a d l 2 . I d a d l I t a d l wai ted I d a d l L oaded I p t ad I cryp ted I i d ad l we Lded I k t a d / a c t ed I n d a d l Landed 1 f t a d I L i fted I r d a d l boarded I s t a d l L i s ted I i t a d l me L ted I n t ad l hun ted / r t a d l courted

3 . 2 . 6 . Sy l l a b i c a t i o n p r o b l ems 3 7

1 . The problems :

When a phrase , for examp le 'did i t ' , phonemically I d � d � t / , is pro

nounced as one unit , as it is in normal speech , the final cons onant o f

the first word tends to become the initial cons onant of the s e c ond word

when the se cond word begins with a vowe l , that is I d � d � t / .

2 . Dri l l s :

The fol lowing examples of Syl labi cation can be used for drills :

( a ) Single final consonant in the first word :

' took i t ' / t v k � t l becomes l t v k L t l ' keep i t ' I k i p L t / becomes I k i p d /

3 7T h e t e rm i s t ak e n from T . N av a r r o - T o m a s a n d Au r e l i o M . E s p i n o s a , A

Primer of Spanish Pronunc ia tion , B e n j am i n H . S a nb o r n a n d C ompany , N e w Y o r k , 1 9 2 6 , p . 7 f f a n d u s e d by R o b e r t L a d o and C h a r l e s C . F r i e s , Eng L i s h Pronunciation , Ann Arb o r , M i c h i gan , p . 1 4 3 f f .

( b ) Cons onant cluster in the first word :

' hun t i t ' / ha n t L t / becomes / ha n t L t / ' s o Z v e i t ' / sa l v L t / becomes / s a l V L t / ' temp t i t ' / t em p t L t / becomes / t e m p t L t / ' g Z imps e a t ' / g l L m p s a t / becomes / g l L mp sa t /

113

Chap t e r 4

T H E V O W E L S O F E N G L I S H

4 . 0 . PHONEM I C CONTRASTS

English has fourteen vowe ls and diphthongs wh ich can fill the

Nucleus s lot in a Sy llable matri x :

I . I i i b e a t hea l l e ak 2 . I L l b i t h i l l l i c k 3 . l e i bai t ha i l lake 4 . / £ 1 b e t neck den 5 . Ii! I b a t h a t l a c k 6 . l a l but hu l l luck 7 . l a l b o t ho t lock 8 . l u i boo t boon Luke 9 . l u i p u t hook look

1 0 . 101 boat who le bone I I . 1 0 1 boug h t ha l l dawn 1 2 . l a i l b i t e heigh t ligh t 1 3 . l o i l boy coin 1 4 . l a u l b o u t howl down

4 . l . THE FEATURE MODE

The ident ificational-contrastive feature s of vowels in Engli sh are the three re lat ive pos itions , with two sub-divisions eac h , from high to low of the oral cavity and the three from front to back , according to

the fol lowing chart :

l l 4

1 1 5

CHART XV

ENGLISH VOWELS AND THE I R I DENTIFICATIONAL-CONTRASTIVE FEATURES

F R O N T C E N T RA L B A C K

Closed u H I GH - -- - - - --- ------- ---- - - - - --

Open u

Closed e 0 M I D -- ------- ---a --- ---- -- ---

Open E

Closed � 0 L O W -- - -- - --- - -- - - - - -- -------

Open a

In the c ase of I� a a 0 1 , the marked intersection of the sets o f

ident i fi c ational-contrastive feature s of the three re lat i ve positions

from front to back and t he t hree re lat ive posit ions from high to low

delineates the phonemes . For example , I m l i s a low-front vowe l . How

eve r , with respect to other marked intersections , there exists a further

contrast b etween c losed and open vowels . For these , two additional

closed/open feature s are added . For example , I i I i s a c losed high-front

vowe l , whi le I L l is an open high-front vowe l . Front vowe ls and central vowe ls are alway s unrounded , and back

vowe ls are always rounded in Engli sh . Thus , the phonetic rounded/un

rounded feature s are not ident i ficat ional-contrastive features in

English as they are in Vietnamese ( c f . 5 . 1 . ) .

To complete the inventory of ident ificational-contrastive features

of vocalic phonemes there should be added the emic [ i u ] glides for the

three diphthongs la i o i a u / . They can be cons idered as ident i ficat ional

c ontrast ive features which are sequential . They form with [ a ] and [ 0 ] three diphthongs , l a i o i a u / . Later on , it wi ll be seen that the front

vowels I i el have also the etic [ i ) glide , and the back vowe ls lu 0 1 have s imi larly an e t i c [ u ] glide .

Chart XV also repre sent s , besides the purely identi ficational-con

trastive features involved in the vowe l contrasts , two phonetic features ,

centralisat ion and decentrali sation . The vowe ls I i e u 0 1 are repres ent

ed as decentralised , and the vowe ls I L E ul as centralised . The se two

feature s , centralisation/decentrali sation , will also be contrasted in

Vietnamese . ( See 1 . l a . , C omme n t s on i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a l - c o n t ra s t i v e f e a

t u r e s , page 3 . )

1 1 6

4 . 2 . THE MANI FESTATION MODE

As was seen in 1 . 2 . , page 4 , t he mani festat i on made o f a phoneme in

c lude s all its occurrences - its variants - which are the phones and

al lophones of t he phoneme .

In te rms o f tongue pos i t ion , English vowel phones can b e shown as

fo llows :

CHART XVI

ENGLISH VOWEL PHONES

F R O N T

C E N T RAL B A C K

H igher u

H I G H

Lower - - -u

Higher o

K I D

Lower

Higher

LOW

Lower

Each English vowe l phoneme is manifested by one phone in terms o f

t ongue pos ition , except / a / . The mid central vowel / a / is mani fested

by three phones , [ A a �] . The phone [ A ] manifests the vowel in the

nuc leus s lot of a s t res sed syllable , as in [ b A t ] , or [ ' A t �] ' u t te r ' . The phone [ a ] manife s t s the phoneme in uns tressed syllab les , as in

/ ' so f a / ' s ofa ' . The phone [ �] manifests the combinat ion o f / a / +/ r / , i . e .

i s analysed phonemically as / a / + / r / , as in [ b �d � �t h �d ] ' b i rd ' . ' s h i r t ' . ' heard ' . It is a mid cent ral retroflex sound , during the formation o f

which the t ongue tip i s turned up towards the alveolar ridge , a s in t he

format ion of [ r ] . It i s defined also as a constricted vocoid .

Furthermore , according to the nat ure o f what fol lows them , English

vowe l phonemes are mani fested by di fferent allophone s as i l lustrated in

Chart XVI I , on page 1 1 7 .

I i i

l e i

I m l

CHART XVI I

ENGLISH VOWELS AND THE I R MOST COMMON ALLOPHONES

[ i j i i a ]

1 ( 1 [ ( ( ( a ]

[ e i e e a ]

l e i [ E E ' E a ]

[ m m ' m a ]

l al [ A A

l a / [ a a ' ]

ar a ]

l u i [ u Y u ]

l u i [ u u ' ]

101 [ o u 0 ]

1 0 1 [ 0 0 ' ]

1 1 7

Al lophones of English vowel phoneme s can be regrouped ac cording to

t h ei r common al lophoni c features and environmental condit ionings . Con

sequent ly , instead of de s cribing each vowel phoneme and its al lophones

separately as in the case of Vietnamese vowels in the next chapter , we .

are going t o discuss allophones of English vowels and diphthongs in

groups according to their common al lophonic features and environmental

c onditionings .

4 . 2 . 1 . T h e b i n a ry p h o n e t i c d e c e n t r a l i s e d / c e n t r a l i s e d f e a t u r e s

Bes i des their binary ident 1 f1cat 10nal-contrast ive features h1gh/mid , c lose/open , stated 1n the feature mode of vowels , the five vowels I I e

u 0 m l are re lative ly farther from the centre ( are "decentralised" ) than

the three vowe ls I ( E ul which are re lat ively nearer ( are " centralised" ) .

The decentralised vowe ls are , furthe rmore , tense , and the centralised

vowels are re lative ly lax .

T E N S E & D E C E N T RAL I S E D L A X & C E NTRAL I S E D

I i i in fee t 1 ( 1 in fi t l e i in wai t l e i in we t l u i in s h o e d l u i i n s ho u l.d 1 0 1 in boat Im l in h a t

4 . 2 . 2 . T h e a l l o p h o n i c s h o r t / l o n g f e a t u r e s

The decentra11sed and tense vowels I i e u 0 m l tend to be s light ly

n 8

longer than the cent ralised and lax vowe ls I L E u / . However , far more

imp ortant are the di fferenc es in durat ion which are condit ioned by the

nature of what fol lows the vowe l . I n general terms , stressed vowels

are ( 1 ) short b e fore voiceless consonant s , ( 2 ) half-long before voiced

c onsonant s , and ( 3 ) long in word-final pos ition .

E XA M P L E S :

S H O RT HAL F - L O N G L O N G

1 [ I I f ] L eaf [ I I . v ] Leave [ I I : ] L e e 2 [ r d ] wri t [ r L • d ) rid 3 [ me t ] ma t e [ me · d ) made [ me : ] may 4 [ S E t ] s e t [ S E · d ) said 5 [ n33 p ] nap [ n 33 • b ] nab 6 [ b a s ] bus [ b a • z ] b u z z 7 [ ra t ] ro t [ ra . d ] rod [ r a : ] ra 8 [ I u s ] L o o s e [ I u . z ] L o s e [ I u : ] L o o 9 [ p u t ] p u t [ p u · I ] p u H

1 0 [ r o p ] rope [ ro . b ] robe [ ro : ] row 1 1 [ ko t ] caught [ ko · d ] cawed 1 2 [ ra I t ] wri t e [ ra · l d ] ride [ r a : I ] rye 1 3 [ b o i s ] Boyce [ bo · l z ] boy s [ b o : I ] boy 1 4 [ h a u s ] ( a ) house [ h a · u z ] ( to ) hous e [ h a : u ] how

4 . 2 . 3 . T h e b i n a ry m o n o p h t h o n g a l / d i p h t h o n g a l f e a t u r e s

The phonetic t rans c riptions given in the preceding section fai l t o

indi cate t he amount o f diphthongi sation whi ch occurs especially when

vowe ls are lengthened . Diphthongisation was considered as an identi

ficat i onal-contrastive feature in t he diphthongs l a l 0 1 a u / . Beside s

that emic diphthongi sation , there i s a l s o a n etic one . In fac t , l e i and 1 0 1 are phonetically speaking diphthongs i n most environments , and

I I I and l u i are phonetically speaking diphthongs in some environments .

In b road terms , diphthongi sat ion increases along two dimensions : firs t ,

along the dimens ion "high-mid-low " , as we go from I I I t o l e i t o l a i l (me e t , m a te , migh t ) , or from l u i t o 101 t o l a u l ( b o o t , boa t , bou t ) ; and

s e cond , along the dimens ion " short-half-long-long" as we go from [ e ) t o

[ e · ] t o [ e : ] ( b a t e , bade , bay ) , o r from [ 0 ] t o [ 0 · ] t o [ 0 : ] (wro t e , road, r o e ) . The fol lowing table is a rough summary o f di fferent degree s o f diphthongisat ion .

119

S H O RT HAL F - L O N G L O N G

High I i i [ b i t ] b e a t [ b i . i d ] bead [ b i : i ] b e e Mid l e i [ b e i t ] b a t e [ be · i d ] bade [ be : i ] bay Low l a i l [ b a i t ] b i te [ b a ' i d ] b i de [ b a : i ] by

High l u i [ r u t ] roo t [ r u ' l} d ] rude [ r u : l} ] rue Mid 1 0 1 [ ro u t ] wro t e [ ro · u d ] road [ ro : u ] roe Low l a u l [ ra u t ] rou t [ r a ' u d ] rowed [ ra : u ] row (figh t )

( fo ug h t )

Besides these de scribed "upgliding" diphthongisations - t hat i s , up

ward t owards a higher ( front or back ) positi on - there are also "in

gliding" diphthongisations , that i s , the glides are inward t owards a

mid central position .

This lat ter type o f diphthong is especially not i ceable after front

vowel s before the velarised [ + ] :

I i i [ i a ] as in [ s i a t ] s e a l I � I [ � a ] as in [ s � a t ] s i l l l e i [ e � a ] as in [ se � a t ] s a l e I E ! [ E a ] as in [ SE a ... ] s e l l hs l [ al a ) as in [ Sal a ... ) s a l

4 . 3 . THE D I STR I BUTION MODE

Vowels and diphthongs const itute the emi c class of phonemes whi ch

fill the Nucleus s lot in a syl lab le in English . Five subdivisions of the emic c lass are recognised here .

4 . 3 . 1 . T h e s u bc l a s s o f f r e e a n d c h e c k e d s t r e s s e d v o we l s a n d d i p h

t h o n g s

According to whether vowels and diphthongs , when they are stressed ,

can oc cur only before cons onant s ( in a " checked position" ) , or can also

occur at the end o f a word , they are c las s i fied re spectively as members

of the sub c lass of free vowe ls and diphthongs , or the sub c lass of

checked vowels ( see table on page 1 2 0 ) .

The sub c lass of free vowels and diphthongs inc lude s nine members ,

and the sub c lass of checked vowels inc ludes six members .

The vowe l l a l i s c las s i fied as a free vowel , with parentheses , be

cause there are only a few English words with a final l a / : a h ; hah; l a ; bah; rna; pa; etc .

1 2 0

F R E E C H E C K E D

I i i I b i l b e e 1 \ 1 I b \ t l b i t l e i I b e l bay l e i I b e t l b e t l a l ( /m a l ma ) I � I I b� t l b a t l u i I b u l boo l a l I ba t l b o t 1 0 1 I bo l b o w (arrow) l a l I b a t l b u t 101 I b o l baw l u i I p u t l p u t l a i l I ba i l buy lo i l I bo i l boy l a u l I b a u l bow

4 . 3 . 2 . T h e s u b c l a s s o f s t r e s s e d v o w e l s b e f o r e I r l

Within the r-ful dialects i n the United States , apart from s ome

dialec t s of the At lant ic seaboard , many standard dialects have only six

vowe l phonemes before I r l in a stres sed syllab le , inc luding the central

vowel l a l in the constricted vocoid [ �] . Since the matter i s more of a dialect geography study and of a

c ontrastive analys i s of two languages for pedagogical purposes 38, it

need not and cannot be considered in great detail here - both as regards

the vowel s which contrast with one another before I r / , and as regards

the allophones which they show in this posit ion . It can b e s ummarised

as : in many standard dialect s of Ameri c an Englis h , the four vowel con

tras ts - I i i vs 1 \ 1 , lei vs l e i vs I� / , l u i vs l u i , and 101 vs 101 -are lost or neutralised , 39 be fore intervocalic or final I r l ( the tense!

lax c ontrast of these sets of phonemes no longer exi st s ) to form four

archiphonemes , 4 0 or fused phonemes , respectively / 1 E U 0/ .

The following formula ( page 1 2 1 ) sets out the patt erning of these los

ses ( see also foot note 4 , on page 4 ) :

3 8F o r furt h e r d e t a i l , s e e H a n s Kurath a n d R a v e n I . M c D a v i d J r . , The

p ronune i a t i o n of Eng Z i s h in the A t Z a n t i e S t a t e s ( An n A rb o r : U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n P r e s s , 1 9 6 1 ) o r , f o r a s u r v e y o f Ame r i c an E ng l i s h d i a l e c t s , s e e R a v e n I . M c D av i d J r . , " Ame r i c an E ng l i s h d i a l e c t s " i n W . N e l s o n F r a n c i s , The S trueture of Ameriean Eng Z i s h , p p . 4 8 0 - 5 4 3 .

3 9 N . S . T r o ub e t z koy , Prineip e s de Phono Zogie ( F r e n c h t r a n s l a t i o n by J . C o u r t i n e au ) , P a r i s , 1 9 5 7 , p . 8 0 .

4 0 N . S . T r o ub e t z koy , op . c i t . , p . 8 l .

1 2 1

1 I i i } .... I I I I L l

{ l e i

} l e i .... l E i Im l

in environment - I r l

{ l u i } .... l U I l u i

{ 101 } .... 101 101

l a l , l a l , l a u l , l a i l all remain be fore I r / , and l o i l doe s not occur at

all be fore I r l in the same syllable . ThUS , not counting the diphthongs

l a u l and l a i / , many American English dialects have before intervocalic

and postvocalic I r l a minimum of six vowe l c ontrast s as in the following

words :

I I I b e e r fear dear

l E i bare fare dare

l a / [ ar] her fur Sir

l a l bar far car

l u i boor tour sure

101 bore four core

Phone t ically , t he phones of the four archiphonemes vary as do all

English vowel s in other envi ronments , but they are always lax :

1 1 / [ L ] or [ L • ] in b e e r j dearer l E i [ E ] or [ E • ] in bare j carry l U I [ u ] or [ u • ] in boor; touri s t 101 [ 0 ] or [ 0 · ] in bore , boring

4 . 3 . 3 . T h e s u b c l a s s o f u n s t r e s s e d v o we l s

In word-final unstressed sy llable s , English has six contrastive

vowe ls ( exc luding diphthongs la i , 0 i , a u l as in 'Mag i ' , ' cowboy ' , and

' e ye brow ' ) . One of t hem occurs only in che cked syllables :

F R E E C HE C K E D

I i i I ' s t ad i l s tudy I ' s t ad i z l s tudi e s I L l I ' Viie I L d l v a l. i d l e i I ' s a n d e l Sunday I ' s a n d e z l Sunda y s l a l l ' v L s t a l v i s ta l ' v L s t a z l v i s tas l u i I ' L � u l i ss u e I ' d � u z l i s s u e s 1 0 1 I ' e kol echo I ' e ko z l e c h o e s

122

The unstressed vowels of ' s tudy ' , ' Sunday ' , ' i ssue ' , ' e aho ' , are

I i e u 0 1 , and , as when they are stressed , they can oc cur both in free

and c he c ked syllables . The uns tressed vowel of ' v a L id ' , however , i s

I � / ; and whether stressed o r not , it can oc cur only in checked syllab les .

In unstressed syllables other than those at the end of a word ,

p robably all the e leven vowels can oc cur in careful speech . In infor

mal speech , however , American English tends to use in non-final stressed

syllab les only the mid-central l a l vowel . The two vowels I � I and l u i are sometimes used too . Consequent ly , t h e various vowe l contrasts of

stressed posit ion are here all neutralised in the s ingle mid-central

unstressed lal vowel :

a

The fo llowing forms , in whi ch the various contrast ive vowe ls o f

st re s se d syllab les are a l l replaced b y t h e cent ral vowel l a l when the

s t re ss shifts t o the fol lowing syllab le , exemplify this neutralisation

in the central vowe l :

S T R E S S E D U N S T R E S S E D

I i i I ' r i t e l z l r e t a i L s I i i I r i ' t e l z l re t a i L s or h i I r � ' t e l z l r e t ai L s or la l I ra ' t e l z l re tai L s

l e i I ' s t e ba l l s ta b L e l a l I s t a ' b � l a t i l s tabi L i t y l E I I ' d e: m a , k ral t l demoarat l a l I d a ' ma k r a s i l demoaraey lal l I ' a! d r e: s l addre s s l a l l a ' d r e: s l addr e s s l a l I ' k a n v � k t I aonv i e t l a l I kan ' v � k t I aonv i e t I J I I ' J 9 a r l au t hor lal l a ' 9 a r a t i l au t h o r i t y 1 0 1 I p r a ' p o z l prop o s e l a l I p ra p a ' z i h n l propo s i t i o n

l u i ; rj u n i t / uni t l u i I j u ' n a i t / uni t e or l a l I j a ' n a i t /

1 2 3

The replacement of stressed vowels b y unstressed l a l t akes p lace

only be fore consonant s . When a vowel follows , the vowel o f uns tressed

position remains the same as it was in stressed position .


I I I I ' r i a l l rea l. I i i I r i ' CIl l a t i l rea L i ty 1 0 1 I ' p o a t ! p o e t 1 0 1 I p o ' E t L kl p o e t i e

l u i I ' d u a l l dua l. l u i I d u ' CIl l a t i l dua L i ty

English also has a few monosyllabic functi on words which have phonem

ically different stressed and uns t ressed forms . The unstressed forms

have l a l and the stressed forms have other fully contrast ive vowels :


I i i I ' � i l t h e l a l l � a ' mCll n l t h e man l e i I ' e l a l a l l a ' mCll n l a man

ICIl I I ' CIl n l an l a l l a n ' E ko l an eeho ICIlI I ' Il n d l and l e i I ' j a n a n ' h E l a n l Jo hn and He L en III I I ' hll v l have l e i I ' h d a v ' keml s ho u L d have eome III I I ' kll n l ean l e i I ka n ' go l e a n g o

l E I 1 ' � E m l t hem l a l l ' t E I am i t e z.z. t hem l u i I ' t u l t o l a l I t a ' go l t o g o l u i I ' d u l do l a l l ' h w E r d a �e g o l where d o t he y g o ? l u i I ' y u l y o u l a l l ' h w E n d a j a g o l when d o y o u go ? l a l / " a r l are l e i I � a b :>i z e r ' go i Q I t he b o y s are

going ---------

However , i f a vowel fol lows , the uns tressed vowel o f the monosyllab i c

function word usually remains the same as it w a s i n stressed position :


I i i I ' o i l the I i i l o i ' e p l t he ape l u i I ' t u l t o l u i I t u ' i t ! t o e a t l u i I ' j u l you l u i I j u ' i t ! y o u e a t l u i I ' d u l do l u i I d u a i ' go l d o I go ?

In t he above analy s i s , l a l seems to be the only unstressed vowel in

Englis h . Nevertheless , many speakers o f American English use I L l rather

1 2 4

than l a l in final unstre ssed syl lab les before I � / , l e i , I j / , and I Q I as

in l ' v� n l � 1 ' vanis h ' , I ' s� n d w l e l ' sandwic h ' , I ' r e k l j l 'wrec kage ' , and

l ' s e n d l Q I ' s ending ' . Thus , t he student s will have to learn to use I I I in uns tressed position be fore I � e j � I instead of l a l . Before other

41 consonants , t here is a free variat ion between lal and I I I . Moulton

ci t e s the following free variat ions : ' o l i v e ' may be I ' a l av l or I ' a l l v / ; ' Ph i l ip ' may b e I ' f l l a p l or I f I I I p / ; ' s tomach ' may be I ' s t ama kl or

I ' s t am l k/ , e t c . He says that " . . . this sort of variat ion also oc curs in

non-f inal unstressed syllab le s : anima l may be I ' � n am a l l or I ' � n l ma l / ; p i t ifu l may be l ' p L t a f a l l or l ' p L t L f a l / ; c i t i z e n may be either l ' s L t az a n l or l ' s L t l z a n / , etc . Some speakers have c lear minimal contrasts between

l a l and I L l : I ' r a � a z l Rus s i a ' s vs l ' r e � L z l rus he s ; I ' r o z a z l Rosa ' s vs

l ' ro z L z l Ros e ' s . " But other speakers have no such minimal contrasts

and hence no c lear opposit ion between l a l and I I I . Since I L l and l a l are in free variat ion in these s ituations , the students w i l l have t o

learn t o u s e only one of t h e two vowels , preferab ly l a l .

4 . 4 . TRANSCRIPTIONAL SYSTEMS

There are different t rans criptional systems whi ch are in use for the

vowe l phonemes of American English , partially due t o the fact t hat there

i s no one standard variety of American English whose vowel system can b e

described as the only norm for non-native speakers t o fol low when they

learn English pronunc iat ion . There are , instead , many di fferent geo

graphi cal standards , and each is quite ac cept ab le in its own way ; even

if one particular standard dialect is chose n , its vowel system can b e

analysed from two rather diffe rent phonemic points o f view .

Since for the purpose of a contrastive analys i s o f English and Viet

namese vowel systems , a choice must b e made among different analyses

and trans cript ions o f Ameri can vowe l s , a schemat ic de s c ription of those

i n widest use must be presented here be fore the reasons for choosing

the one used herein can emerge . In order to do so , firs t , a list o f

words whi ch illustrates vowe l phonemic contrast s o f Standard Midwest

American English is given , and then the various analy ses and t rans crip

t ions which have been used for them ( starting with t he ones which are

most remote from the chosen transcription ) will be shown . The list o f

phonemi c contrast s appears o n the fol lowing page .

In t he fol lowing presentat ion of different analyses and t ranscrip

t ional systems , theoretical phonemic imp lications wi ll not be dis cussed

4 1w i l l i am G . M o u l t o n , The Sounds of Eng l i s h and German ; C h i c ag o : T h e

U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a go P r e s s , 1 9 6 2 , p . 8 5 .

125

at lengt h , j ust as they were not considered as primary reasons when

making the choi ce of the parti cular system adopted , b ut practical peda

gogi cal implications will be discussed , since they were the maj or fac

t ors considered when the choice was made .


beat b o o t

b i t p u t bai t bird boat ( rubb J er

be t but ( B ofJ a

b a t bought bot

buy boy bough

The first analysis and t ranscriptional system t o be discussed i s the

" nine vowel " system . This analysis of English vowels was first presented

in full de tail by George L . Trager and Henri Lee Smith Jr . in An O u�lin e

0 6 Englia h S�4uc�u4 e ( "Studies i n Lingui s t i c s , Occasional Papers " , No . 3 ,

Norman , Oklahoma , 195 1 ) . In this analysi s , there are nine vowe l s :

Front Central Back

High

I : I +

I u

I a 0

a 0

Mid

Low

The al lophones of these nine vowe l phoneme s , eit her b y themse lves

or in comb ination with the semivowel s Ir w j h I , make up t he syllab i c

nuc lei o f most o f the dialects of American Englis h . Us ing this "nine vowe l" system , our original list of seventeen words

can be transc ribed as follows :

S T R E S S E D U N S T RE S S E D

b i y t b u w t b i t p u t b e y t b a r d b o w t ' re b a r b e t b a t ' s o w f a bil! t b o h

ba t b a y b o y b a w

126

Thus , in this analy s i s , the di fference between c lose vocoids [ i e u 0 ] and open vocoids [ l E U � ] i s phonemi cally represented as presence

of a s emi-vowel /y/ and /w/ versus ab sence of i t . Thus t he vocoids

[ i e u 0 ] are p honemically / i y e y u w o w / , and [ l E U � ] are / i e U 0 / . For the following practical reasons , this " overall pattern" analy s i s

i s not chosen : ( 1 ) The ident i fi c at i onal-c ont rast i ve features disti ngui shing t he

vowel s i n the pairs b e a t vs b i t , b a i t vs b a t , poo l vs pu l l , or s ho e d vs

s ho u l d are the c lose/open t ongue position feature s rather t han t he

diphthongal/monophthongal feature s . They are the features t hat the

s t udent s should learn in order to recognise the sounds on the re cogni

t i on leve l . So , t hey should be represented phonemi cally , as t hey are

in the phonemi c repre sentation used herein , and they are not in the

" overall pattern" system .

( 2 ) The diphthongal/monophthongal feature s are al lophonic feature s .

The degree of diphthongi sat ion of c lose vowe ls varies according t o

whether they are followed b y voi celess consonant s , voi ced consonant s ,

or they are free . Consequent ly , they should b e learned only on the

p roduct ion level ; and by corre lation , they should not b e repre sented on

the phonemi c level as they are in the " overall syst em" .

( 3 ) In Vietname se , there are no final consonant s after a semivowel

/ w / or / j / ( same as / y / in the Trager-Smith system ) . So the analysis

of the vowe ls in b e a t , b a i t , boo t , b o a t , buy, boy , b ough as vowe l + semi

vowe l will hinder t eaching Vietname se students the Engli sh comb i nations

of these vowe ls or diphthongs plus final consonant s .

The transcript ional system for the vowe ls of American English of t he

Kenyon and Knot t P�o no un��ng V��t� o na�y 0 6 Ame��an Engli� h ( Spring

field , Mass . 195 3 ) is perhaps the most widely used . It uses the follow

ing symbols :

S T R E S S E D UN S T R E S S E D

i U l U e ot 3 0 ot E " a 3l �

a

a l � l a u

1 2 7

A n adaptation of this sys tem ( phonemi cis ing it more by regrouping

st re ssed [ � 3 ] and unstressed [ �] int o only one phoneme 1 3 / ) t o the

speech of the At lant i c Seaboard is given in Kurath and McDavi d , The

P�onunciati o n 0 6 Eng li� h in the Atlantic State� ( Ann Arbor : University

o f Michigan Press , 196 1 ) . It i s also adopted by Moulton for his con

t ras tive German-English phonologi cal analysi s . It i s as follows :


u u

e g 0 e II a ill 0

a a i o i a u

A more simple analysi s , reduc ing [ II ] , [ 3 ) , and unst re ssed [ a ) into

one phoneme , l a l ( while [ 3 ) is analysed phonemi cally as lal p lus I r / ) is given by Kenneth L . Pike Phonemic� ( Ann Arbor : University of Michigan

Pre s s , 1 9 4 7 ) and used in Lado and Fries Engli� h P�o nunciatio n ( Ann

Arb or : University or Michigan Pres s , 1 95 4 ) . This is the system used in

this paper . It shows the fol lowing phonemic system :


i u � u e a 0 e ill 0

a a � o � a u

I n this paper there i s a difference only i n the choice o f symbols : I i u l instead of I � ul in the diphthongs / a i a u o i l .

This analys i s i s adopted for two prac t i cal reasons . The first rea

s on is that it can show all the teaching and learning prob lems o f

Engli sh vowe ls whi le a t the same time it reduc e s vowel phonemes t o a

minimum number . The three different al lophones of l a / can be learned

1 2 8

a s posit ional variants of a phoneme o n the production leve l . So , i t is

superfluous t o present them as three phonemi c contrasts to be learned

b ot h on the recognition and the product i on levels . The second reason

is that the diphthongs in English are transcribed here as vowel c om

p lexes l a i :> i a u l while the phonetical ly similar diphthongs in Viet

name se are . t rans cribed as vowe ls plus semivowe ls laj :> j a w l . The dif

ferent t rans criptions o f Engli sh and Vietname se diphthongs permit the

teacher to e xplain that in Engli sh , the diphthongs c an be followed by

final cons onants , whi le in Vietnamese they cannot .

The author in his b ook , E ngli� h P�o nun�iati o n 6 o � Vi�tnam�� ( SEAREP

USOM , Saigon , 196 2 ) , has attempted t o explain the phonemi c cont rast s

b etween t he pairs b e a t v s b i t , bai t v s be t , and 8hoed v s 8hou Zd b o t h by

the higher/lower t ongue position feature s and the monophthongal/diph

t hongal feature s by using the following system :


i y u w u

e y a ow E II :>

a a y :> y a w

For the t heore t i cal reason that the system i s neither phone t i c nor

phonemic , and for the practical reason that the use of semivowels

has confused the student s and complicated the learning prob lems of final

consonants , the t rans criptional system wi ll be revi sed in future edi

t i ons of the book .

Chap t e r :I

T H E V O W E L S O F V I E T N A M E S E

5 . 0 . PHONEMI C CONTRASTS

Vietname se has fifteen vowels and diphthongs which can fill the

nuc leus s lot in a syl lab le matrix :

l . I I I I I i I I y g 1.a s s 2 . l e i I l e l I e peaoh 3 . l E I I I E I I e wi 1.d duok 4 . l a l I i a l l a s h o u t

5 . / ttl I I I/I I II inoense pot

6 . I dl I I dl I d indiffe re noe

7 . l u i I l u l l u jar 8 . 101 1 1 0 1 1 0 1. o t 9 . 1 ;) 1 1 1 ;) 1 1 0 worry

1 0 . l a l I l a r) 1 I a n unioorn ll . l a l I I a r)1 I a n ro 1.1. 1 2 . l a u l I l a u l) l l o n g dragon 1 3 . l i a l I I i a l I i a q u i o k 1 4 . I I/a l / I I/a / I wa exoeed 1 5 . l u a l I l u a l l u a absorb

5 . 1 . THE fEATURE MODE

The identi ficat ional-c ont rast ive features of vowels in Vietname se

are the three relative positions from high t o lOW , the three relative

positions from front to back , and the two rounded/unrounded features ,

as in the fol lowing chart :

1 2 9

1 30

CHART XVI I I

VIETNAMESE VOWELS AND THE I R I DENTIFICATIONAL-CONTRASTIVE FEATURES

FRONT

H I G H

C lose e H I D

Open E

C lose L O W

Open

C E N T RAL

I

I

I Unrounded

-----:----T-----------a - I a

I - -- - - - - - - - T - - - - - - - - - - -a I

B A C K ----------,

: I I

Rounded

u

o ----- - - - -- -I I

J L _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ I I

The rounded/unrounded features may be viewed as be ing in a third

dimens ion intersect ing the plane of the chart of regular tongue posi

tions at a perpendicular angle .

To comp lete the inventory of ident i ficational-contrast ive features

o f vocalic phonemes , there should be added the emi c [ u a J glides . They

c an be considered as identi ficational-contrast ive features which are

sequent ial . The glide [ u J forms with r a J the diphthong / a u / , and the

g lide r a J forms with [ i � u J three diphthongs , / i a �a u a / . For the sake of a consistent distribut ional pattern , the same phon

e t i c glides [ u J and [ i J will be cons idered in comb inat ions with /a J / as consonantal , because they cannot be fol lowed by a consonant .

5 . 2 . THE MANI FESTATION MODE

In terms of tongue posit ion and lip rounding or unrounding , Vietnamese 42 vowel phones can be shown as in the chart on the page oppos ite .

Besides the fact that each vowe l phoneme in Vietnamese i s mani fested

by more than one phone as determined by tongue posit ion , there are two

other kinds of al lophonic variat ions - re lat ive length and homorgani c

diphthongisation - which are predictable .

( a ) Re lat ive leng t h : The relative length of vowel al lophones i s pre

dictab le with re spect to tones and the nature of what follows the vowe l .

With respect t o t ones , vowe l s are ( 1 ) short with high t ones ; ( 2 ) half

long with low tones ; and ( 3 ) long with mid tones . Wit h respect t o the

4 2T h e a n a l y s i s of vowel a l l o p h o n e s i s a d a p t e d from Laur e n c e C . T h o m p s o n

" S a i g o n P h o n e m i c s " , L a nguage v o l . 3 5 , N o . 3 , J u l y - S e pt e mb e r 1 9 5 9 , p p . 4 5 4 - 7 6 , w i t h s om e r e a d ap t i o n s a n d m i n o r m o d i f i c at i o n s .

1 3 1

nat ure o f what fol lows , t hey are ( 1 ) short when fol lowed by final s t op s ;

( 2 ) half- long when fol lowed by semivowe ls I j w i , or nasals I n � / ; and

( 3 ) long when they are free .

( b ) Homo r g a n i c d iphthong i s a t i o n . The vowe ls I i e � d u 0 1 are diph

t hongised when they are free . Thus the words I I i I e I � l u l o l l y , I e , .

[ . i e � u u ] I II , l u , 1 0 , for example , would be phonet ically I I ' I e ' I II ' l u ' 1 0 .

H I G H

C lose

Open

Close

M I D

F RO N T

CHART XIX

VIETNAMESE VOWEL PHONES4 3

C E N T R AL

�l 1I2

��---\--__ -JL-_�-3 -Open

C lose

LOW

Open

B A C K

Rounded

The de script ion of the vowe ls and their al lophones are as follows :

1 . I i i the h igh f r o n t vowe l is mani fested by four allophones :

[ il

J after I e j pi , final and be fore I p w m / : I j i p · 1 d i p ' occasion ' , l e i m l e h i m ' b i rd ' , I p i w ' l n h i e u 'many ' , l e i l c h i 'what ' , I p i l n h i ' i nfan t ' .

[ i 2 J after I e j pi , be fore I t n / : I j i n l d i n h ' re s idence ' , I p i n ' l n h i n' ' � ook ' , l e i n ' l e h (n ' n i ne ' .

[ i 3 J except after I e j pi final and Jbe fore I p w m / : I I i ml 1 1 9 m ' hone s ty ' , I n i w ' l n i u ' h o � d ' , I t f p l t i e'p ' co n t i n u e ' , I r i l n g h i ' doub t ' .

4 3 The s ymb o l s 1I d a r e t a k e n f r om t h e V i e t n ame s e s p e l l i n g ; l i k ew i s e a a n d a a r e a l s o t a k e n f r o m i t .

1 32

[ i 4 ] except after I c j rl , before I t n / : I t i n l t i n 'news ' , l i i t ' l t r (c h ' extract ' .

2 . l e i the c l o s e m i d - front vowel i s mani fested by t hree all ophones :

e el ] be fore I p w i , and final :

I b e p ' l b ap ' k i t chen ' , I ne w ' l n au ' if ' , I d e l de ' dam ' .

[ e2 ] before I m / : l em l em ' c omfortab Z e , soft ' .

[ e 3 ] before I t n / : I t e n l t e n ' name ' , I t e t ' l t at ' Vi e tnam e s e New Year ' .

3 . l E I t he open m i d f r o n t vowe l i s mani fested by four allophone s :

[ E l ] b e fore I p / : I h E p ' l h � p ' narrow ' .

[ E 2 ] before I w / : I h E W I h eo ' p ig ' .

[ E 3 ] b e fore I m / : I t E m l t e m ' s tamp ' .

[ E a ] final and be fore I k r/ : I rE I n g h e ' hear ' , I h E k ' l h at ' s cream ' , I d E rl d e n ' b Zack ' .

4 . l a l the open m i d - c e n t r a l vowe l oc curs only as a che cked vowel , and i s

mani fested by two allophones : Be fore I j l with heavy stre s ses

Before I j l with l ight stre sses

E l sewhere

After I I:} w m c j I r x 9 f) 1 After I t s t h d t ? r n k h i

C a l ]

[ a 2 ]

l ' b a j ' l ba y ' h e rd ' , I ' f a r l p h a y ' comma ' , l ' kw a j ' l q u ay ' di s -turb ' , I ' ma j l ma y ' c loud ' , l ' c a j ' l C ha y ' la t e ' , I ' j a j l d a y ' s t ri ng ' , l ' l a j l l a y ' con tamina t e ' , l ' ra j ' l n ha y ' v i scous ' , I ' xa r l k h a y ' exci te ' , l !Ja j l g a y ' have argume n t s ' , I ' ra j l n g a y 'naive ' .

I ' t a j l t a y ' we s t ' , I ' sa j l xa y 'bui ld ' , I ' t h a j l t h a y ' corp s e ' , I ' d a j l da y ' h e re ' , l ' t a j ' l t ra y ' s cratche d ' , 1 ' ?a j ' l s ay ' dry (on a fi re ) ' , l ' ra j ' l ra y ' reprimand ' , I na j ' l na y ' he re ' , I ' ka j l c a y ' t ree ' , I ' h a j l h a y ' in t e re s t ing ' , l ' t a p ' l t � p 'pra c t i ce ' , I l a m l l a m ' fore s t ' , l 'i a rl sa n ' ground ( emp ty space ) ' .

1 3 3

5 . l a l the c l o s e l ow c e n t r a l vowe l . Like l a l above , the vowe l can occur

only as a checked vowe l , and is mani fe sted by two allophone s :

C a l ] be fore I k � / : l a k ' i �t ' ce r t a i n � y ' , l a � 1 a n ' e a t ' .

[ a 2 ] before I p w m t n / : l a p ' l ap ' ham � e t ' , I h a w ' l ' ha u ' i n order t o ' , laml a m ' s ound ' , I m a t ' l ma'e h ' indica t e ' , l a n l a n h ' b r o t h e l" .

6 . l a l the o p e n l ow c e n t r a l vowe l i s mani fested by four allophones :

After Elsewhere

I t h e j (1 h i

Before I p k l C a l ] [ s 2 ] Final and be fore I w j y l [ a 2 ] [ a 3 ] Before Iml [ a 3 ] [ a 4 ]

[ al

] I t h a t ' l t h a'e

' ' wa t e rfa � � ' , l e a t ' I c h a t 'green ( frui t ) ' ,

l a p ' l a p ' oppre s s ' , I h a k ' i h a't ' s ing ' , I h a p · 1 h � p ' s u i tab l e ' .

[ a 2 ] I t h a l

' t h a 'forgive ' , l e a w ' l e h a u ' n i e ce ' , I t h a � 1 t h a n

' charcoa l ' , I t h a j l t h a y ' change ' .

[ a 3 ] h I h a m l h a m ' l ike ' , I t a m i t h a m 'greedy ' , l e a mv i e h � m ' s cu lp ' .

[ a 4 ] I ka m l c a m ' o range ' , l � a � 1 n ga n g 'width ' .

7 . I �I the h i gh b a c k unrounded vowe l is manifested by three allophone s :

[ �l ] after I e j (11 , before I k � / : I � �� I n h l/n g ' b u t ' , I j l/k ' i d Jt ' e nd ' , l e �� ' 1 e h Jn g ' w i t n e s s ' .

[ �2 ] after I e j (11 , before I j / , after other consonant s , except

I e j (11 or init ial ly be fore Ip m k � / : / j �j ' I d l/c1 i ' unde rnea th ' , I � �r I n g l/f ' sme n ' , I k�p ' I e �C1p ' rob ' , I b �m ' l b l/c1m ' b u t t e rfly ' , I ? �k ' i s Je ' s t re n g t h ' , I m �� ' 1 m�n g ' g lad ' .

[ �3 ] after a l l consonants except Ie j (11 or initial ly be fore

I w j l and finally .

I t �j I t 1/C1 i 'fre s h ' , I t u w V I t I/U 'me e t ' , 1 � �j ' l , n g l/C1 i ' human ' ,

I t dl t C1 ' s i l k ' .

8 . I dl t h e m i d back un rounded vowe l i s mani fested by t wo allophone s :

[ dl ] before I p m k � / :

/ l dP ' / I dp ' c La s s ' , / t h dm / t h dm ' p i neapp L e ' , / hdk ' / h dt ' cu t ' , / h dr] / h dn 'more ' .

[ d2 ] final and be fore / j / : / t d/ t d ' s i L k ' , / C dj / c h� i ' p Lay ' .

9 . / u / the h i gh back rounded vowe l i s manifested by three allophones :

[ u l ] be fore / j / : / I u j / l u i ' re turn ' .

[ u 2 ] final and be fore / p m/ : .

/ ? U p Y / S IJ P ' fa n down ' , / n u m ' / n u m 'mushroom ' .

[ u 3 ] be fore / k r] / : , / ku r] / ' re sp e c t ' . / I u k ' / l u c ' when ' , c u n g

1 0 . / 0 / the m i d back rounded vowe l i s mani fested b y three allophones :

[ 0 1 ] be fore / r] / : / X O rj / k h o n ' in t e n i g e n t ' .

[ 02 ] final and be fore / m j k/ : / r]o / n g o ' co rn ' , / t om/ tom ' s hrimp ' , / d o k ' / do t ' burn ' .

[ 0 3 ] before / p / : / ho p ' / h 9 P ' box ' .

1 1 . / 0 / t he c l o s e b a c k rounded vowe l i s mani fested by three allophones :

[ 0 1 ] be fore / j p/ : / v o j / vo l ' e L ep han t ' , / rj O rj / n g o n 'good ( to e a t ) ' .

[ 0 2 ] be fore / k/ : / j o kY / g i 9 t ' a drop ' .

[ 0 3 ] be fore / p m/ and final :

/ t o / t o ' b ig ' , / g o p ' / g op ' g a t h e r ' , / bo m / bom ' bomb ' .

Before we leave the subj ect of the manifestation made o f vowels and

diphthongs , a few words need to be said about the phones of the diph

thongs / a u i a �a u a / .

1 2 . / a u / , phonetically [ a u ] , oc curs only be fore / k rj / : / ha u k Y / h 9 c ' s tudy ' , / a u r] / o n g ' g rand- fa t her ' .

1 3 . / i a / , phone tically [ j a ] , occurs finally and be fore / k r] / : / c i a/ c h i a ' divide ' , / c i a r] / c h i e n ' fry ' , / t i a k ' / t (ec ' regre t ' .

1 4 . / �a / , phonetically [ �a ] , oc curs finally and before / k r] / : / c �a / c h �a ' n o t y e t ' , / c �a rj / c h ��n g ' chap t e r ' , / d �a k ' / d��c ' p o s s ib Le ' .

1 5 . / u a/ , phonetically [ u 2a ] , oc curs finally and before / k r] / :

1 3 5

/ m u a / m u a ' buy ' , / c u a � / c h u o n g ' be Z Z ' , / t h u a k ' / t h u QC 'medi cine ' .

5 . 3 . THE D I STR I BU T I ON MODE

Vowe l s and diphthongs const i t ute the emic class of phonemes that

fi l l the Nucleus s lot in a syllable in Vietnamese . Be fore discuss ing

t he distribution mode of vowe ls and dipht hongs , i t is use ful to see the

canoni ca1 4 4 forms of Vietname se syllab les .

i s :

The structure formula describ ing a l l possib le Vietname se syllables

± 0 [ + c ± w ] + N [v ] ± T < : > The formula reads :

A phonemic syllable in Vietname se is c omposed of :

( 1 ) An opt ional satellite Onset s l ot f i l led by an ob ligatory nuc leus

Cons onant and an optional sat e l lite Semi vowe l / w / . ( For allo

c lass of s imp le initial consonant s , and the alloclass of initial

consonants c lustering with / w / , see 2 . 3 . 1 . and 2 . 3 . 3 . , page 2 4 . )

( 2 ) An obligatory Nuc leus s lot fi lled by a Vowe l , which can be a

vowel or a diphthong .

( 3 ) An optional satellite Terminus s lot fi lled by a composite fi l ler

c lass including two alt ernate distribution-sub c lasses : Conso

nant ; Semi vowe l .

The alt ernate distribution-subc lass Cons onant includes s i x members :

/ p t k m n � / . The alternate distribut ion-sub c lass Semi vowe l inc ludes

two members : /j w i .

Thus , the distribut ion mode of vowe ls and diphthongs is best dis

cussed by giving the fol lowing distributional chart ( on page 1 36 ) . The

Onset s lot is irrelevant here , for a large number of the sy l lab le

nuc lei occur with each initial cons onant described in 2 . 3 . 1 . , since

" For the most part non-occurrences are the result of accident - that is ,

no words with these part icular shapes happen to oc cur , although there

is no pat tern whi ch would sugge st that they are not pos sib le sequen

ce s " . 4 5

4 4 C h a r l e s F . H o c k e t t d e f i n e s a c a non i c al f o r m a s " a s o r t o f g e n e r a l i z e d

p h o n em i c s h a p e " . ( A Course in Modern Linguis t i c s , N e w Y o r k : M a c M i l l an C o . , p . 2 8 4 . )

4 5 L a u r e n c e C . T h o mp s o n ( A Vie tname se Gramma r , S e at t l e : U n i v e r s i t y o f W a s h i n g t o n P r e s s , 1 9 6 5 , p . 5 0 ) .

1 3 6

D I STRIBUTIONAL CHART

OF VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS IN VIETNAMESE

..., C H E C K E D Vl p:: Vl Vl W ....:I I (,!) S . V . C O N S O N A N T c:Q w ::c :z: w

l: ;X i>< O w

::> O H ::C p:: j p t k m n I) :z: > O E-< � w

1 i + + + + + +

2 e + + + + + +

3 e: + + + + + +

4 a + + + + + + +

5 1I + + + + + + +

6 d + +

� +

� +

7 u + + + +

8 0 + + + +

9 :J + + + +

10 a �(J + + +

11 a + + +

12 a u + +

1 3 i a + + +

14 lIa + + +

1 5 u a + + +

The circles CJ grouping the s igns + mean that in these positi ons

the vowe ls involved are neutralised in informal speech . A pub l i c

speaker , for example , may pronounce h qp ' conve n i e n t ' , as I h dp " / ; h 9 P ' box ' , a s I h o p " l , and h 9 P ' g a t h e r ' , a s I h :J p " l , thus making a phonemic

distinction between I dl , 101 and I :J I be fore I p / , but in rapid or in

formal speech , the three words are pronounced indifferent ly I h o p " l , likewise the fo llowing words c qm , in I k i t " kdm " 1 k i c h c qm ' onoma top o e i a for hard obje c t s c la s h ing ' , I ko m " 1 c 9m ' em e rge ' , and I k:J m " 1 C 9 m ' fe eb l e ' , can be pronounc ed in rap id informal spee ch as I kom " l .

The vowels and diphthongs in Vietname se c an be grouped into t he allo

classes o f free and checked phonemes , or the alloclasses o f those that can oc cur before such and such semivowe l s or c ons onants j us t as t he

English vowels were subgrouped . But this subc las s i fi c at ion i s not adopt

ed here be cause it i s not relevant t o the contras t ive work ; i t doe s not

assist in present ing English prob lems to Vietnamese .

5 . 4 . TRANSCRI PTIONAL SYSTEMS

1 37

Thompson opens his art i c le "Saigon Phonemi c s " , op . c i t . , page 4 5 4 , by

saying : "The phonological analys i s of Saigon Vi etname se presents in

determinacy , mu ltiple analy ses , and asymmetry " . He describes the syl

lab i c system of Saigon Vietnamese as cons ist ing o f a main system of

h igher vowels and two subsystems o f lower vowels ( pp . 4 6 1 - 3 ) as fol lows :

The main system has a two-by -three pattern :

e y ( our I ii/ ) U a ( our I d/ ) 0

The vowe l s o f this system oc cur in diphthongs be fore their homorganic

higher semivowels , i . e . l i j e j y g a g u w o w l , and they do not occur fi

nal ly .

The first subsystem has three vowe ls wh ich occur long in final posi

t ion ; they are front unrounded , back rounded , and low ( unrounded ) :

e:

a

The second subsystem has two vowe ls which do not occur long :

a ( our la/ ) " ( our l a / )

Wit hout going into detai led theoretical implicat ions , the present

author agrees with Thompson that Saigon Vietname se provides a further

e xamp le o f the princ iple of mul t iple ana lyses enunciated over three

decade s ago by Y . R . Chao4 6

.

For the prac ti cal purp ose o f a c ont ras tive analysis of Engl ish and

Vietnamese vowe l systems , the phonemici sation of Vietnamese vowe ls and

d iphthongs as presented in this paper is preferred for the fol lowing

reasons :

( 1 ) The treatment of homorganic diphthongs , both of English and Viet

names e , as s ingle vowe ls 4 7 simplifies the cont rast i ve work by enab ling

us to present the network of vowe l c ont rasts in terms of tongue posit ion

and l ip rounding only . This means also , in pragmatic terms , a lighten

ing of the le arning load for the student s . In fact , with this phonemi -

4 6 y • R . C h a o , " T h e n o n u n i q u e n e s s o f p h o n e m i c s o l u t i o n s o f pho n e t i c Sy s t e m s " , Bu L L e t in of t h e Ins t i t u t e o f His tory and P h i L o Logy, A cademia Sinica 4 . 3 6 3 - 9 7 ( 1 9 4 3 ) , r e p r i n t e d i n M a r t i n J o o s , Readings in L ingu i s t i c s , A C L S , N e w Y o r k , 1 9 5 8 , pp . 3 8 - 5 4 .

4 7Th i s i s a l s o t h e p h o n em i c i s a t i o n o f S a i g o n V i e t name s e by R . B . J o n e s

a n d H uyn h S a n h T h o n g , Introduc t ion to Spo ken Vie tname s e , p p . 1 - 7 , A C LS , W a s h i n g t o n D C , 1 9 5 7 , and t h e p h o n e m i c i s at i o n o f H a n o i V i e t n am e s e by M . B . Em e n e au , Studies in Vie tname s e (A name s e ) Grammar , B e r k e l e y a n d L o s A n g e l e s , 1 9 5 1 .

1 3 8

c i sat ion , the s tudent s have to learn , on the rec ognit ion leve l , t o

re c ogni se only ident i ficat i onal-cont rastive feature s o f tongue positions

and lip rounding ; only on the produc tion level will they have to learn

to use the right allophonic feature s of diphthongisation and length of

English vowels .

( 2 ) The treatment of homorgani c diphthongs as single vowe ls ( the

case of I i e E � d u 0/ ) as we ll as other phonetic diphthongs as phonem

i c uni t s ( the case of l u a �a i a a u / ) when these sounds can be fo llowed

by a consonant ( i . e . c lassi fication on the bas is of distribut ional pat

tern ) , and other phonetic diphthongs as vowels + semivowe ls ( the case

o f l a w aj oj u j i w etc . / ) when they cannot be fol lowed b y a cons onant ,

permi t s a c lear c ontrast ive analysis of the simp le Terminus alloclasses

of t he two language s , and consequent ly a better present ation of final

consonants after la i o i a u l in English as learning prob lems .

C h a pter 6

C ON TRA S T I V E'

A NA L Y S / S : THE VOWE L S

6 . 0 . I N T R O D U C T I O N

6 . 0 . 1 . T y p e s o f t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g p r o b l e m s

There are two types of teaching and learning problems ( recognition ,

and recognit i on prob lems ) with t he vowe l s , as with the consonant s ( c f .

3 . 0 . 1 . , page 2 5 ) .

6 . 0 . 2 . C o n t r a s t i v e C h a r t

I f Chart s XV , page 1 1 5 , and XVI I I , page 1 30 , of t he English and Viet

namese vowel systems are p laced side by s ide , recognit i on prob lems and

phonemi c produc t i on prob lems s tand out very c learly :

F RO N T

i L

e

£

al

CHART XX

CONTRASTIVE CHART OF ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE VOWELS

E N G L I S H

C E N T RA L B A C K

u High

u

0 a Mid

Low a

F R O N T

i

e

£

1 39

V I E T N A M E S E

C E N T RAL

a

a

a

B A C K

Unrounded

11

C!

Rounded

u

o

1 4 0

Dotted lines ( - - - ) show areas whe re a Vietnamese vowe l phoneme is

unmatched w i t h any thing in Engli sh . The se areas would present , as we

have seen in the case of consonant s in 3 . 0 . 2 . , page 2 7 , serious prob

l ems for English speakers learning Vietnamese ; but they cause little

troub le for Vietname se speakers learning English , except that they

might be used as substitute s for some English vowe l s .

Solid lines show areas where there is a real conflict to be overcome

by Vietnamese speakers learning Engli sh , both on the recognition and on

t he production level . Dotted and dashed lines ( - . - . - ) show areas of

conflict because the corresponding Vietnamese vowel s are not similar

enough t o the English one s .

In the following discuss ion about learning prob lems of Engli sh

vowels , t he fol lowing three aspects wi ll be presented :

( 1 ) assumptions about problems which result from a c ontrastive ana

lysis of a part icular mode ( feature , mani festation , or distribution

mode ) ;

( 2 ) presentation of t he re sult s of the part i cular rec ognit ion or

p roduction test s ;

( 3 ) s uggested dri lls which will help the student control the learning

prob lems , and s uggestions for rec ognition or product ion test s .

6 . 0 . 3 . T h e r e c o g n i t i on a n d t h e p ro d u c t i o n te s t s

For detail s on the tests , see 3 . 0 . 3 . and 3 . 0 . 4 . , p ages 2 8-30 .

6 . 1 . RECOGNITION PROBLEMS

On the basis of Chart XX, page 1 39 , the fol lowing minimal ly contras

t ive vowels are assumed t o be possible recognition prob lems . Pairs , of

confus ioA vowel phonemes are J oined t ogether .

CHART XXI

ASSUMED RECOGNITION PROBLEMS OF ENGLI SH VOWELS

Front Central Back

Close H I G H

Open

Close M I D

Open

Close L O W

Open

D I P H T H O N G S

1 4 1

6 . 1 . 1 . Re s u l t s o f t h e r e c o g n i t i o n t e s t s

Not a l l o f the possible re cognition prob lems stated in Chart XIX "

above are actual problems , either because simi lar cont ras ts exist in

Vietnamese , or because the phonetic natures o f the two English sounds

involved are too different to be confused . But to make sure , all the

s upposed prob lems have been tes ted . Fol lowing i s Tab le 1 8 showing the

re sults of the recognition tests , Part I dealing with Engl ish vowels

and diphthongs .

TABLE 1 8

RECOGN IT ION PROBLEMS O F VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS

"" V) 0 � V) .... � � I-< "" v) "" ,,", u "" (.!)

B I NARY C O N T RA S T I V E F E A T U R E S "" ...l V) o z o V) o z o v) < V) 0 ::> x 0 I-< � � I-< �

U � &><: .... &><: z &><: &><: &><: :.0: z :.o: I N V O L V E D I N T H E P A I R S O F V O W E L S &><: .... ...l � I-< � � � &><: � < � < � "" «I «I V) «I � «I ::> «I I-< U I-< � "" 0 X � x ::> X U X V) &><: V) &><: .... &><: ::> ::> ::> 1-< ::> u ::> .... � .... o � "" z cy z V) z o Z X "" X

1 E he 5 60 3 0 0 62 2 0 . 7 Open-mid/C lose-low

2 u / u 55 1 8 . 3 C lose-high/Open-high

3 a l a 5 4 1 8 . 0 Mid ( c ent ral ) /Low ( c entral )

4 e / E 4 3 14 . 3 C lose-mid/Open-mid

5 i I � 34 1 1 . 3 C lose-high/Open-high

6 L I E 31 1 0 . 3 Open-high/Open-mid

7 a / u 27 9 . 0 Open-high ( back ) /Mid ( c entral )

8 a / o 26 8 . 7 Mid ( c entral ) /Low ( back )

9 e / a i 24 8 . 0 C lose-mi d/Low

10 � / e 24 8 . 0 Open-high/C lose-low

11 a / o 1 9 6 . 3 Central/Back

12' i I e 1 8 6 . 0 C lose-high/C lose-mid

1 3 � / a 1 1 3 . 7 Front/Central

13 o / a u 1 1 3 . 7 C l ose-mid/Low

1 3 u / o 1 1 3 . 7 C los e-high/C lose-mid

16 0 / 0 9 3 . 0 C lose-mid/Low

16 u / o 9 3 . 0 Open-high/C lose-mid

16 L / a 9 3 . 0 Open-high ( front ) /Mid ( c ent ral )

19 E / a 8 2 . 7 Open-mid ( front ) /Mid ( c entra l )

19 � / a 8 2 . 7 Front/Central I 2 1 a i / o i 7 I 2 . 3 Central/Back

22 a l a r 6 I 2 . 0 Non-constricted/Constricted

1 4 2

6 . 1 . 2 . S u g g e s t i o n s f o r r e c o g n i t i o n d r i l l s a n d te s t s

In the teaching of vowe ls and diphthongs in English , as we l l as in

the preparation of pronunc iat ion text -books and rec ogni t i on test s , t he

re lat ive order of d i fficulty of recogni t i on prob lems of minimally con

t rastive vowel s and diphthongs , as we l l as the binary contrast ive fea

t ures involved ( as stated in Tab le XVI I I ) , should be taken into c on

s iderat ion . If we dec ide arb itrari ly that 6% is the minimal percent age

of mis t akes required to consider a pair of vowe ls or dipht hongs as a

recognit ion problem , we have the fol lowing twe lve prob lems :

1 . I E / - / � / , as in me n/man. be t/ba t . pe n/pan ( 2 0 . 7 % ) .

The students should learn to rec ogni se the b inary open-mid/close

low , and lax/tense features involved in the pair o f vowe l s .

2 . l u i - l u i , as in foo �/fu � � , s hoed/s h o u � d , poo �/pu � � ( 1 8 . 3 % ) .

The student s should learn to recogni se the binary c lose-h igh/

open-high , tense/lax , and usua lly dipht hongal/monophthongal fea

tures involved in the pair of vowe l s .

3 . l a l - /a / , as in hu t/ho t , cu t/co t . �uck/ � o c k ( 1 8 . 3% ) .

The s tudent s should learn to recognise the binary central/low ,

and to a les ser degree the binary lax/tense features involved in

the pair of vowe l s .

4 . l e i - l E I , as in pain/pe n, bai t/b e t , � a t e/ � e t ( 1 4 . 3% ) .

The student s should learn to recognise the binary c lose-midi

open-mid , tense/lax , and usua lly dipht hongal/monophthongal fea

tures invo lved in the pair of vowe l s .

5 . l i / - / ( / , as in bea t/bi t . heat/h i t , s cene/s i n ( 1 1 . 3% ) .

The students should learn to recognise the binary c lose-high/

open-high , tense/ lax , and usua lly diphthongal/monophthongal

features involved in the pair of vowe l s .

6 . I ( / - / E / , as in b i t/be t , s i t/se t , t i � �/t e � � ( 1 0 . 3 % ) .

The students should learn to rec ognise the binary open-high/

open-mid features involved in the pair of vowe l s .

7 . l a l - / u / , as i n Luck/ L o o k , roof/ro ug h , tuck/took ( 9 % ) .

The st udents should learn to rec ogni se the binary mid/open-high , central/back , and unrounded/rounded features involved i n the pair

of vowels .

8 . l a l - / � / , as in cu t/caug h t , but/boug h t . nu t/naug h t ( 8 . 7 % ) .

The student s should learn to re cogni se the binary mid/higher-low ,

c entral/back , and unrounded/rounded features invol ved in the pair

of vowe l s .

1 4 3

9 . I l l - l e i , a s i n p i d/paid, s i n/sane , fi l l/fai l ( 8% ) .

The s tudents should learn to recognise the bi nary open-high/c lose

mid , lax/tense , and , usually , monophthongal/diphthongal features

involved in the pair of vowels .

10 . l e / - / a i / , as in l a t e / ligh t , main/mi n e , Dave/dive ( 8 % ) .

The student s should learn t o re cogni se the binary c los e-mid/open

low , front/central , and somet imes monophthongal/diphthongal fea

t ures involved in the pair of vowel and diphthong .

1 1 . l a / - / � / , as in n o t /naugh t , c o t /caug h t , bo t/bough t ( 6 . 3% ) .

The students should learn to re cogni se the binary open-low/close

low , central/back , and unrounded/rounded feature s .

1 2 . I i i - l e i , as in m e e t/ma t e , s e en/sane, mean/ma in ( 6 % ) .

The st udents should learn to re cogni se the binary c lose-high/

open-mid , and s ome time s the binary monophthongal/diphthongal fea

tures involved in the pair of vowels .

6 . 2 . PRODUCTION PROBLEMS

6 . 2 . 0 . C o n t r a s t i v e C h a r t

In contrasting the vowe ls and diphthongs o f English and Vietname se

t o find out produc tion prob lems , the contrastive chart on page 1 39

( which makes s imp le phonemi c diagrams of the two vowe l systems and

places them side by s ide ) i s not enough . It i s necessary to show allo

phones o f vowel phoneme s o f both languages as fol lows :

CHART XXII

CONTRASTIVE CHART OF ALLOPHONIC RANGES OF VOWEL PHONEMES IN

ENGLI SH AND VI ETNAMESE

F R O N T

Close

H I G H

Open

Close

M I D

Open

Close

L O W

Open

C E N T RA L B A C K r------

Unrounded Rounded

, f�: , �

• U • (;) ' U ':Q ' ,,0 I,

1 4 4

Areas del imited in dotted cont ours mark al lophonic range s of Viet

namese vowel phonemes ; and areas delimi ted in cont inuous cont ours mark

those of English vowe l phonemes .

Inspe c t i on of the Chart reveals a host of conflicts between t he

English and Vie tname se vowe l systems . There are , however , some c ommon

areas of allophoni c range s between the two systems . The se areas could

be exploited to teach the produc t ion of English vowe l phone -types when

the mat ching Vietname se phone -type s are used .

6 . 2 . 1 . R e s u l t s o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n t e s t s

Tab le 19 , o n pages 146,and_ 1 4 7 , states t he result s o f t he p roduction

t e s t s on prob lems o f English vowe ls and diphthongs . Since in Viet

namese allophonic variations o f vowe l phoneme s are phonetically condi

t i oned b y the phonet ic nat ure o f what fo llows the phoneme s , Vietnamese

students will t end t o produce the appropriate Vietname se allophone for

each condit i oning envi ronment when they speak English . Consequent ly ,

we must t ry to find out the mo st common deviant s used by Vi etname se

speakers for each English vowel phoneme in free posit ion as we l l as

b e fore each final consonant phoneme . Tab le 19 attempt s to show that .

The results o f the production t e s t s are not as adequate as those on

consonan ts and consonant clusters , be cause student s make many spelling

pronunc iat ions for vowel letters .

6 . 2 . 2 . S u g g e s t i o n s f o r p r o d u c t i o n d r i l l s

The most suitable way t o teach Vietname se students to pronounce

English vowel phone-types is to present to them the Vietnamese allo

phones which are phone t i cally similar to the English vowe l phone-types ,

and to des cribe the product i on of the English phone-types in terms of

component phonetic features . Fac ial di agrams are of great usefulne s s

here . Once the s tudents understand how to produce t h e English vowel

phone-type t o be learned , produc t i on dri lls based upon minimally con

t rast ive pairs of that vowel phoneme and another vowel phoneme will

help the students to control the production of the vowel .

In the fol lowing discussion , three different aspe c t s o f the teaching

and learning problems will be presented :

( 1 ) individual Engl ish vowels , their phonetic nature ; ( 2 ) suggested

minimally contrastive pairs of English vowe ls for drills based upon in

spe c t i on of the re sults of the production tests ; ( 3 ) prob lems of vowel

allophones .

6 . 2 . 2 . 1 . I n d�v�dual Engl�4 h Vowel4

1 4 5

A . FRONT VOWELS

1 . I i i , c l o s e - h i g h front vowel :

a . Phone t i c and al lophoni c nat ure . The vowe l I i i has three al

lophones [ i j i i a ] , all st art ing prac t i cally at the s ame

t ongue posit ion .

b . Nature of the prob lem ( 3 3 . 3% mi stakes ) 4 8 : phonemic . The

s ounds mos t commonly sub s t i t uted were [ L L a L A e e e a ] .

c . Similar allophone in Viet namese . The al lophone [ i j ] mani

fest ing the Vietname se vowe l phoneme I i i in free posit ion i s

s imi lar to the English phone -type for I i i . Thus , Vietname se words li ke 1 m i I m i ' thou ' , I n i I n i ' m e a

s ure ' , Is i I x i ' chrome ' , I j i I d i 'move ' are homophonous to

the English words m e , kne e , s e e , ye o Consequent ly , produc

t ion dri l l s on the English I i i should s t art with the vowel

in free position be fore going to the vowel in che cked posi

t ion .

2 . I L l , open - h igh front vowe l :

a . Phone t i c and allophonic nat ure . The vowe l I L l has three al

lophones [ L L ' L a ] , all s t arting practi cally at the same

tongue posit ion .

b . Nature of the prob lem ( 69 . 8 % mi stakes ) : phonemic . The s ounds

most commonly sub s t i tuted were [ i i j L A e j ] .

C . Simi lar allophone in Viet namese . The al lophone [ L ] mani

festing Viet namese I i i after Ie j pi and be fore I t n l i s pro

duced wi th a s imi lar tongue position . Thus , Vietname se words

like I c i n l c h i n ' t o wag e , war ' , I j i n l d i n h 'pa lace ' , I p i n ' l n h) n ' l ook ' , could be used to demonstrate the tongue posit ion

for Engl ish I L I .

3 . l e i , c l o s e - m i d f r o n t vowe l :

4 8

a . Phone t i c and al lophonic nature . The vowe l l e i has three

allophones [ e i e e il ] , al l s t art ing prac tically at the s ame

t ongue position .

b . Nat ure o f the problem ( 6 5 . 8% mi s take s ) : phonemic . The

s ounds mos t commonly sub s t i tuted were [ e i e : e a ] . [ e j e : ] were also subst ituted , but these cases repre sent phonet ic ,

not phonemi c , prob lems .

T h e s e m o s t c ommon d e v i a n t s a r e t ak e n f r om T ab l e 1 9 .

TABLE 19 ( continued on opposite page ) PRODUCTION PROBLEMS 01 VOliELS AN D DIPHTHONGS

T H B V O W B L S A II D D I P B T H ° II G S

P • ° II T e B II T II. A L

BIGB HID LOW HID LOW

Higher Lower Higher Lower •

II III II III II tIl II III II III II III I I III

nn POSITlOIi 1 I J l 1 aJ J . : • -p , . t • � .. 8 eJ , � : ' , ' -.. ...

, " 11 I . , � • 9 10 oJ : •

, e a a , e " G -t u ... aU , ,, .. · 0 - k L > , � I , ' " - , ' " " '" >

S - b a , t '" .. • '" " G " " u -d , 1 I , ' " eJ : J . : . .. .. " , e '" 0 ... -to 0 .. > 12 I , l l 11 , " , " ,, " , 'D .. -9 .. H

� i ... I , L > . L · 0 .. -� L , L " , "

.. ---- ---- ----0 '" -] , " , t J II " " .. > .. £ " ,e .. -9 :0 • 0 · " 1 , 1 ' • , E -I> G -f 11 11 , " ... ' , ' .. .. .. u I , L • , " 1 a , t .. 0 .. • ... -, G 0 " > > � ... -I I . L "' , L > :0 .. ----- ---- ---- ---- ----c 0 u -v I , L • . , E " . 0 1 .. ... .. � '" 0 ... - & [; , c - 11 . , E .. .. .. u .. ...

, " I .. g -z 1 I : , . 10 £ : , e J IE ... I IE -1 g _ , 0 IE I : , t : I , ' " £ " J t- a , e '" 0 · '" . : , t : U " U ... .. .. c u -n 10 ' ''' , I 9 £ , E - , " 11 10 , " .. · .... .. c g c ' '' , 1 e 8 J

. e , E " - Q

.; '" - I £ , e a a t t a <I 10 . c � , " ' , 0 ...

> '" -r I : . " II) >

TOTALS 148 139 1 134 I 1125 79 1 66 154 144 176 163 127 123 150 143

,uenucES

"OST eOKMON 1 , I J , L " . , · ,. ' DEVIAlfTS a J , E : , t: 1 , e : u , ,, " , 1I , 'D , �

The Roman numbers I , II and. III under each vowel :

Column I • Number. total and percentage ot dev1at1ons .

Column II • Most common deviants .

Column III - Number. total. and percentage ot most common deviat1ons.

TABLE 19 ( c ontinued from page 146) PRODUCTION PROBLEMS O F VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS

T H E V O W E L S A N D D I P H T H O N G S

B A C K DIPHTHONGS

nEE POSITION

m m � .. � u m ... Do g 0 ... � m " " � ,. u 0 ... .. 0 .. > .. �

'" ... m .. > .. .. � 0 �_J 'g " ,., � • 0 II .. •

.. .. � :l :

... " > e = ...

... ,. S .

.... S .. " .. ow � � § 0 • . 0 � .. � . "

.. � = .. .s • .. � 0 >

.; " .. .. ..

> 'g '"

TOTALS

KOST COMKON

DEVIANTS

-p - t - k - b -d -9 -!

-J - 9 - I - s - §

- --v -� �z -!

-�

- I

- r

- --4

1

HIGH KID

Higher Lower Higher

0 II III II I I II III

OU oY , :>

u , v , 0 : , � 10 10

u , /\ � 12 ;I , 8Y U u , v e , o�

U , 0 U oY , o :

-- ----- ----- ----v,u

12 u , /\ Io. 12

9 U , A ----- ----- ----

U , o U

o , u v,u o,e v , u 9 , , A 0< 1

11 u ,o 11 oy , .u

I.I, U Y

oy ,.u ,o : , /\

The Roman numbers I , I I and III under each vowe l :

Column I - Numb e r . total and percentage o f deviations .

II - Most common deviant s .

Lower

II III

'D , /\U

6 U - , -

---- ---- ----

---- ---- ----

'DU .0

III - Number, tota l , and percentage o f most common deviat ions .

CONTAINING [0 J

0 1 II III II III

eJ

e u

---- -- ---

---- - - - - - - - - - -- ---

ou

1 1

fCONTITNING [ , J

, 1 II III

--- -- ---

--- -- ---

--- -- ---

_ I

I I

1 4 8

a . Similar allophone i n Vietnamese . The allophone [ e i ] mani

festing the Vi etname se vowel phoneme l e i in free position is

s imi lar to the Engli sh phone -type for l e i . Thus , Vietnamese

words like I l e l I e 'peach ' , I m e l me ' me lomania ' , I d e l d e ' dam ' , are homophonous to the English words lay, May , day . Consequent ly , production dri lls on the English l e i should

s t art with the vowel in free position be fore going to t he

vowel in checked pos i t i on .

4 . l e i , ope n - m i d front vowe l :

a . Phonetic and al lophonic nature . The vowel l e i has three al

lophones [ e e ' e a ] , all s t arting pract ically at the same

posit ion .

b . Nature o f the prob lem ( 3 7 . 5 % mi stakes ) : phonemi c . The sounds

most commonly substituted were r E a e i � A a ] .

c . Simi lar al lophone in Vietnamese . The al lophone [ e ) manifes t

ing Vietname se l e i be fore I p k l is produced a t a s imi lar

tongue pos it ion . Thus Vietnamese words such as I c e p ' l c h e p ' copy ' , I h e k ' i h at ' s cream ' , could b e used t o demonstrate

the t ongue pos i t i on for English l e i . But , since Vietname se

l e i i s mani fested before I - kl by two freely variant allo

phone s [ e e a ) , i t i s better to use only Vietname se I - e p l for

the purpose .

5 . I� / , c l os e - low front vowe l :

a . Phonetic and al lophonic nat ure . The vowel I� I has three al

lophones [� � . � a ) , all starting pract i cally at the same

t ongue pos ition .

b . Nature of the prob lem ( 4 2 . 2 % mi stakes ) : phonemic . The sounds

most commonly subst ituted were [ e V e i a a ) .

a . Similar allophone in Vietnamese : none . The product ion o f

the sound can b e taught only with a fac ial di agram and a

phonetic description of the sound . A s imp le exerc ise for

the s t udents to have the right tongue posit ion for [ � ) is t o

ask them to move their tongue pos i t i on without interrupt ion

from [ i ) to [ e ) and to continue moving their t ongue position

further downward towards [ � ) , with a phonetic tensene s s fea

ture , i . e . [ i i l l e e e e � � ) .

B . CENTRAL VOWELS

1 . l a l , m i d c e n t r a l vowe l :

a . Phonetic and al lophonic nat ure . The vowel l a l has three

1 4 9

phonet ically condi t i oned allophone s : [ a ) in stre s sed posi

t i on ; [ a ) in uns t re s sed position ; and constricted [ a ) b oth

in stressed and unstre ssed posit ion , and which i s analysed

phonemically as / a r / .

b . Nature o f the prob lem ( 16 % mistakes ) : phonemi c . The sounds

most commonly sub s t i tuted were [ u a A u 0 � ) .

c . Simi lar al lophones in Vi etnamese :

( i ) The allophone [ A ) manifesting Vietname se / a / in the fol

lowing environment s is produced at a s imi lar t ongue p o s i tion .

After / b f w m e j I r x g / and before / j / with s tre s se s .

Thus , the fol lowing Vi etname se words can be used t o demon

s t rate the tongue posit ion for English s tre s sed [ a ) : / ma j / ma y ' c �oud ' , / I a j / l a y ' con tam i na t e ' , / j a j / d a y ' s t ring ' , e tc .

( i i ) The allophone [ e 3 ) mani fest ing Vietname se / e / before

/ t n/ is produced at a tongue position s imi lar to that of

English [ a ) . Thus , Vietname se words such as / t e n / t e n ' name ' , / e e t ' / e h e t 'die ' , could be used t o demonstrate the

tongue position for English unstre ssed / a / in / ' so f a / ' sofa ' .

( i i i ) There i s no s imi lar allophone i n Vietnamese t o English

[ a ) . The produc t i on o f t he s ound can be t aught only with a

fac ial diagram , a palatogram , and a phone t i c de script ion o f

the s ound , such as : the sound [ a ] i s art iculated not in t he

t ongue-tip position , but with the body of the t ongue arched

t owards the roof o f the mouth and with the sides o f the

mouth drawn away from the gums . The lateral constrict ion of

the tongue creates a re s onanc e chamber while the vibrat ing

breath passes over the tongue and by i t s side .

2 . / a / , open - l ow c e n t r a l vowe l :

a . Phonetic and allophonic nature . The vowel / a / has two allo

phones [ a a . ] di ffering from each other by length .

b . Nature o f the prob lem ( 59 . 5% mi stakes ) : phonemic . The s ounds

mos t commonly sub s t i t uted were [ a O U a U ] .

c . Simi lar allophone i n Vietnamese : the allophone [ a 4 ] mani

fest ing Vietname se / a / except after / t h e j h/ and before / m /

i s produced a t s imi lar tongue position . Thus , Vietname se

words such as / n a m / nam ' s o u t h ' , / ka m / eam ' o range ' , could be

us ed to exemp l i fy the tongue posit ion for English / a / .

C . BACK VOWELS

1 . l u i , c l o s e - h i gh b a c k ( rounded ) vowe l :

150

a . Phonetic and al lophonic nature . The vowe l l u i has two allo

phones [ u Y u ] , both of them s t art ing prac t i cally at the same

t ongue position .

b . Nature of the prob lem ( 2 7 . 8% mi stakes ) : phonemi c . The sounds

most commonly sub stituted were [ u u O U a U ] .

o . Simi lar allophone i n Vietnamese : the allophone [ u Y ] manifest

i ng t he Vietnamese vowel phoneme l u i in free position is

s imi lar to the Engli sh phone-type for l u i . Thus , Vietnamese

words like I t h u l t h u 'au tumn ' . I s u l x u ' oe n t ' . I n u l n u ' brown ' , are homophonous t o the English words t w o . S u e . new . C onsequent ly , product ion dri lls o n the English l u i should

s t art with the vowe l in free posit i on be fore going to t he

vowe l in checked position .

2 . l u i , open - h i gh front vowe l :

a . Phonetic and allophonic nature . The vowel l u i has two allo

phones [ u u · ] di ffering from each other by t heir re lat ive

lengt h .

b . Nature of t he prob lem ( 81 . 9 % mistakes ) : phonemi c . The

sounds most commonly subst i tuted were [ u � . u ] .

o . Simi lar allophone in Vietnamese : the allophone [ u 3 ] manifest

ing Vietnamese l u i be fore I k � I is produced at a s imi lar

t ongue posi t i on . Thus , the Vietnamese words 1 1 u � 1 t r u n g 'fa i t hfu l ' . I ku � 1 c u n g 'arrow ' . I n u p ' l n �p ' hide ' . would

demonstrate the tongue pos i t i on for English l u i .

3 . 1 0 / , c l o s e - m i d b a c k ( r ound e d ) vowe l :

a . Phonetic and allophonic nat ure . The vowel 101 has two al

lophone s [ 0 o U ) , both starting prac t i cally at the same t ongue

position .

b . Nature o f the prob lem ( 59 . 5% mi stakes ) : i t i s a phonemic

prob lem when the student s produce [ A ) and a phonetic prob lem

when the student s produce one of the sounds C o y aU 0 : ) .

o . Simi lar al lophone in Vietnamese : the al lophone [ o u ) manifest

ing Vietnamese / 0 1 in free posit ion is quite simi lar t o the

English phone-type for 1 0 / . Thus , such words as 1 50 1 xo 'pu8 h ' . 1 1 01 1 0 ' l o t ' . I n o l no ' 8 lave ' , are homophonous to

the English words 8 0 . l o w . no . Consequent ly , product ion

dri lls on the English 101 should start with the vowel in free

position before going to the vowe l in chec ked position .

1 5 1

4 . / 0 / , c l o s e - l ow b a c k ( rounde d ) vowe l :

a . Phonetic and al lophonic nature . The vowe l / 0 / has two al

lophones [ 0 0 · ] differing only in lengt h .

b . Nature o f t he prob lem ( 25% mi stakes ) : the sounds most com

monly sub sti tuted were [ D O U o o u ] .

c . Simi lar allophone in Vietnamese : t he allophone [ 0 2 ] mani

fest ing Vietname se / 0 / be fore / k/ is produced at a similar

tongue position . Thus , Vietnamese words like / c o k ' / c hot

'fina l ' . / j o kY / g l 9t ' drop ' . would demonst rate t he t ongue

position for English / 0 / .

D . ENGLI SH D IPHTHONGS

a . Phoneti c and a llophonic nature . The English diphthongs / a l 0 1 a u f are phonetically C a L o t a U ] .

b . Nature of t he prob lems : there are prac t ically no pronunciation

prob lems for English / a l 0 1 a u f because Vietnamese / a J o j a wl are

phonetically very simi lar to t hem .

6 . 2 . 2 . 2 . Minimum pai�6 6 o � p�o ductio n d�ill6

In t he teaching of English vowel s and diphthongs , as we l l as in the

preparat ion of pronunciation text-books and product ion t e st s , t he

relative order of d�fficulty of each phoneme should be t aken into c on

s ideration . Neverthe less , product ion dri l l s on vowe l s , as on conso

nants and consonant c lusters , are best presented in forms of minima l ly

contrastive pairs .

InsPect ion of Tab le 19 , with c areful consideration o f the most c om

mon deviant s for each English vowel phoneme , reveals that t he followi ng f i ft een minimal ly c ontrastive pairs of vowel s should be pract ised

in product ion dri l l s :

152

Examples o f pairs o f words and the b inary feature s involved in the

pairs of vowe ls in question have been given in " Sugge st ions for recogni

t i on dri lls and tests " , 6 . 1 . 2 . , page s 142-3 . Those of the fo llowing

pairs which have been dis cussed in 6 . 1 . 2 . are so indicated .

1 . I i / - I L l ( cf . 6 . 1 . 2 . No . 5 )

2 . I i i - l ei ( c f . 6 . 1 . 2 . No . 1 2 )

3 . I L l -l e i ( c f . 6 . 1 . 2 . No . 9 )

4 . I L / -/ E I ( c f . 6 . 1 . 2 . No . 6 )

5 . l e / - / E I ( cf . 6 . 1 . 2 . No . 4 )

6 . / E I - / IB I ( c f . 6 . 1 . 2 . No . 1 )

7 . I L / -/ a / , as in bid/bud. s in/sun. di l l/du l l, . The students should be taught that involved in the pair of vowel s

are the binary front/central , and lower-high/mean-mid feature s .

8 . IIB / -/ a / , as in hat/h o t . oa t/oo t . laok/ l oo k . The students should be taught that involved in the pair o f vowel s

are the binary front/central , and c lose-low/open-low features .

9 . l a / - / ul ( c f . 6 . 1 . 2 . No . ? )

1 0 . l a / -/ o l ( c f . 6 . 1 . 2 . No . ll )

1 1 . l e i - l e i ( cf . 6 . 1 . 2 . No . 3 )

1 2 . l u i -l ui ( c f . 6 . 1 . 2 . No . 2 )

1 3 . l u / -/ ol a s in s o up/soap. s oon/sown. b o o t/bo a t . The students should be taught that involved in the pairs o f vowel s

are the b inary close-high/close-mid features .

1 4 . l u / - / o l as in fu l l/fo a l . oou ld/oode . p u l l/po le . The students should be t aught that involved in the pairs o f vowel s

are the b inary open-high/c lose-low , and usually the binary mono

phthongal/diphthongal features .

1 5 . 1 0 / - / 0 1 as in note/naught . boa t/boug h t . ooat/oaugh t . The student s should be taught that invo lved in the pair o f vowels

are the b inary close-mid/c lose-low and sometimes the binary

monophthongal/diphthongal features .

6 . 2 . 2 . 3 . Sugg e4tion4 6 o � d�ill4 o n co nditioned allo pho nic v owel

va�iatio n4

In order to have a good pronunc iat ion of English vowels and diph

thongs , the st udents have to produce the right phones not only in terms o f t ongue position , but in terms o f re lative length , monophthongal/

diphthongal features , etc . The fol lowing suggest ions for drills on con

ditional al lophoni c vowe l variat ions can be incorporated in the les sons

on the produc tion of minimally contrast ive pairs of vowe ls set out in

6 . 2 . 2 . 2 . ab ove . Once the students have learned to produce the phone

type of a phoneme , they can proceed to the learning of allophone

1 5 3

variat ions .

The binary phonetic decentralised/central ised features , c orrelat ive

to the binary tense/lax features ( c f . 4 . 2 . 1 . , page 1 1 7 ) should be

t aught to the s tudent s in the produc t ion of the decentrali sed and t ense

vowe ls I i e u 0 �I in fee L , fai L , foo L , h o L e , ha t , and of the centralised

and lax vowels I L E vi in fi L L , fe L L , fu L L .

6 . 2 . 2 . 3 . 2 . T h � allopho nic l o n g / � ho�t 6 �atu��

1 . Phonetic nature - English vowels are ( 1 ) short be fore voiceless

cons onant ; ( 2 ) half-long be fore voiced c ons onant ; and ( 3 ) long in word

final position .

2 . S imilar allophonic variations in Vietnamese - Vietname se vowels

are ( 1 ) short before s t ops , which are always voi c e le s s ; ( 2 ) half-long

be fore semi-vowe ls and nasals , which are vOiced ; ( 3 ) long in word-final

posit ion .

3 . Sugge stions for explanations - Since the allophonic short/long

feature s are prac t i cally the same in b ot h language s , production drills

are no t neces sary , but a demonstration o f t he allophonic variati ons in

Vietnamese is useful t o the exp lanat i on o f t he same variations in

English which are c orrelat ive to the binary monophthongal/diphthongal

feature s below .

6 . 2 . 2 . 3 . 3 . Th� allophonic monophtho ngal / diphtho ngal 6 �atu��

A. DECENTRALISED DIPHTHONGI SATION

1 . Phonetic nature - English I i u l are diphthongs when they are be

fore voiced consonants ( i . e . when they are half-long ) and word-final

( i . e . they are long ) , and Engl ish Ie 0 1 are diphthongs in all environ

ments ( c f . 4 . 2 . 3 . , page s 1 1 8-19 ) .

2 . S imilar al lophonic variations in Vietname se - The Vietnamese

vowels I i e u 0 v dl are diphthongs when they are word-final .

3 . Suggestions for exp lanations and drills - Vietname se words like

I j i j e j v j d j u kol d i ' mo v e ' , d e ' s heep ' , d l/ ' exce s s ' , d d 'dirty ' , d u ' ' t rav e L ' , and c o ' m i s s ' , can be used to demonstrate diphthongi sat ion o f

t h e six Vi etnamese vowels . After t he students have understood homor

ganic diphthongisat i on , the same phenomenon in English is demonstrat ed .

The fo l lowing sample words can be used :

154

Short Hal f - long Long

H igh I i i [ b i t ] b e a t [ b i . i d ] bead [ b i : i ] b e e

Mid l e i [ b e i t ] bate [ be . i d ] bay ed [ b e : i ] bay

H igh l u i [ r u t ] roo t [ r u ' ':I d ] rude [ r u : ':I ] rue

Mid 101 [ ro u t ] wro te [ r o ' u d ] road [ r o : u ] roe

B . CENTRALI SED D IPHTHONGI SATION

1 . Phonetic nature - Be sides these "upgliding" and " decentrali s ing"

diphthongisations , there are also " ingliding" or " centralising"

diphthongisations which are especially not iceable after front vowels

be fore velarised [ t ] .

2 . S imilar a llophonic variations in Vietname se - Vietnamese l e i i s

manifested by the centrally diphthongised [ e a ] allophone final ly and

before I k r) / .

3 . Sugge stions for explanations and drills - Vietnamese words like

I g e , g e r) ge k ' l , g h e 'boa t ' , g h e n ' j e a l, ou s ' , g h at ' ha te ' , can be exempli

fied as containing centralised diphthongisat ion . After the students

have understood central ised diphthongisation , the same phenomenon in

English can be demonstrated . The fol lowing sample words can be used :

F R O N T V O W E L S B E F O R E V E L A R I S E D I I I

I i i [ i a ] as in [ s i a t ] s e a l.

1 ( 1 [ ( a ] as in [ S ( a t ] s i 7,Z

l e i [ e ( a ] as in [ s e ( a t ] sai l,

ft. 1 [ e a ] as in [ s e: + ] s e 7,Z

laJ I r aJ a ] as in [ SaJ a t ] s a l,

6 . 2 . 3. D i s t r i b u t i o n a l p ro b l e m s o f E n g l i s h v o we l s

The distribut ion mode s of Eng lish and Vietname se vowe ls have some

d i s s imi lari ties whi ch are by de fini tion teac hing and learning problems .

6 . 2.3 . 1 . Eng ti� h l a i � i a u l a� checked dipht hong�

1 . Di str ibution - Like sing le vowels , the English diphthongs l a i � i a u l can be followed by final consonant s or consonant c lus ters .

1 5 5

2 . Distribution of Vietnamese diphthongs - The Vietname se diphthongs

( except / i a u a �a a u f ) unlike s ingle vowels , oc cur only as free diph

thongs . That is why they are represented phonemi cally as vowe l + semi

vowel .

3 . Suggestions - Production drill s should start with contrasts be

tween free and checked / a i � i a u f in Engli sh , such as i n the following

pairs : rye/r ig h t , boy/Boyc e , row/r o u t ( figh t ) . When the student s can

pronounce vowe l s after these diphthongs , dri lls on different final con

sonant s a s presented in 3 . 2 . 2 . 2 . 1 . - 1 0 . , pages 7 1 -7 7 , after these diph

thongs can be done .

6 . 2 . 3 . 2 . The � u bcia�� 0 6 E�gii� h � t�e� � ed vowei� b e 6 0�e / r /

1 . Phonetic and al lophonic nature - As stated i n 4 . 3 . 2 . , pages 1 2 0 -1 2 1 , besides t he diphthongs / a i a u � i / . Ameri can English has a minimum

of s i x vowel contrasts of which four are archiphonemes / 1 E a a U 0 / .

2 . S imilar phonetic phenomenon in Vietname se - As stated in the

di stribution mode of Vietname se vowe ls , 5 . 3 . , pages 1 35-6 , in informal

speech , / d 0 � / are usual ly neutra lised be fore / p / and / m / , l ikewise

/ a � / are alway s neut rali sed before / w / and / j / .

3 . Sugge stions for explanations and drills - Vietnamese words such

as / h dp ' h o p ' h � p' / h Q'p , convenien t " h 9 P , box ' , h 9 P , g a t he ';' " are

usually neutrali sed in informal speech and pronounced indifferent ly

I hO p · / . After the phenomenon o f neutrali sation is explained , us ing t he

Vietnamese example , dri lls on archiphonemes be fore I r / in Engli s h can

be done . The fol lowing words can be used :

I I I

b e e r fear de ar

I E !

bare fare dare

l a / [ a ]

her fur s i r

6 . 2 . 3 . 3 . E �gii6 h u��t�e� � ed vowei�

/ a /

bar far car

/ u /

b o o r t o w s u r e

/ 0 /

bore fou r core

English places very strict limitat ions on the number of unstressed

vowels it uses and on the posit ions in which they occur within words

( c f . 4 . 3 . 3 . , pages 121 -4 ) . The reduc tion of vowel contrasts in un

stressed position , causes great rec ogni tion and produc t i on prob lems to

Vietnamese speakers who are used to a monosyllabic language where any

vowel mus t be pronounced c learly . Prob lems of Engl ish unstressed

vowels can be regrouped as follows :

6 . 2 . 3 . 3 . 1 . E �g ii� h un� t�e6 � ed wo � d - 6inai vowei6

156

1 . The phonemes - In word-final unstressed syl lab les , English has

six contrast ive vowels . One of them occurs only in checked syllables .

2 . Sugge stions for dr i l l s - These dri l l s are aimed at getting t he

students fami liar with the pronunc iat ion of unstressed vowe ls of

Eng l i sh in word-final sy l lab les . The six vowe l s dri lled on t he produc -

t ion level are :

F R E E C H E C KE D

I i I I ' s t ed i l s tudy I ' s t a d i z l s tudi e s h I I ' Val I L d I v a l i d l e I I ' s a n d e l Sunday I ' sa n d e z l Sunda y s l a l l ' v L s t a l v i s ta l ' v L s t a z l v i s tas l u I I ' L '1;. u l i s s ue I ' L '1;. u z l i s s u e s 101 I ' e kol e cho I ' e ko z l e c h o e s

6 . 2 . 3 . 3 . 2 . Engt�� h un�t�� d v ow�t� �n oth�� yttabt�� than 6 �nat

o n��

1 . The phoneme s - In uns tres sed syllab les other than those at t he

end o f a word , probab ly all vowels can occur in careful speec h , but in

informal speech , Ameri can speech shows a strong tendency t owards using

only the s ingle vowel l a l . Neverthe les s , I L l is also used in non-final

uns tressed sy llab les .

2 . Sugge stions for dr i l l s - The fol lowing dri lls aim at gett ing the

student s used to unstressed l a l in two-syllable words first , then

three- , four- and five-syllable words .

The following pairs of words can be used to demonstrate primary stress

and absence of stress ( tertiary stress ) , and also l a l .

I ' V - v l l a - ' V I

I ' al , d r e: s l addr e s s l a ' d r e: s l addr e s s I ' ka n , f I l k t I confl i c t I ka n ' f l l k t / confl i c t I ' k a n , t r al k t I contract I ka n ' t ral k t l contract I I ka n I v a r s I conv erse I ka n I v a r s l converse I I ka n I v L k t I conv i c t I k a n ' v l k t l co n v i c t I ' p r a j e: k t / proj e c t I p r a ' j e: k t l pro j e c t I ' r e: b a l l rebe l I r L I b e: I I rebe l

157

Once the students can use l a / a r / \ 1 in uns tre s sed sy llab l e s in two

sy l lab le words , production dri lls on lal in unstressed syllab les i n

three- , four- , five- , etc . s y l lab le words can be done a s follows :

E N G L I S H I , v -a - ' Y . . . I

I , <e ka ' d £ m \ k l 1 , 0 t a ' m <e h kl

academi c a u t oma t i c

I , d £ ma n s ' t r e � a n l demo n s t r a t i o n I , k<e l a ' r \ f \ kl ca Lorific I , <e t ma s ' f £ r \ kl a tmospheric I , s t r<e t a s ' f £ r \ kl s t ra t o s p h e r i c I , h £ m a s ' f £ r \ kl hemispheric

E N G L I S H I , v -a - a - ' Y . . . I

I , <e n 9 r a p a ' I a j \ ka I I ant hropo L o g i c a L 1 , £ n t am a ' l a j \ ka l l e n tomo L o g i c a L I , s £ n t am a n ' t <e l a t i l s e n t im e n t a L i ty

Dri lls s hould also be done on the produc t i on of 1 \ / ' in unst re s sed

s y l lab les b efore I c j � �I as in the fol lowing words :

I ' S p \ n L C I ' spi nach ' , I ' p<e k \ j l 'pac kage ' , l ' p a l \ � 1 'po L i s h ' , l ' b r \ � \ � 1 ' bringing ' .

6 . 2 . 3 . 3 . 3 . E ng i�� h un�t�e� � ed l Ol l �n mono� yiiab�c wo�d�

1 . Monosyl labic words - English monosy llab i c words t h e , a , an, and, hav e , can, them, to, do , you, are are pronounced with l a l in unstres sed

posit ion except before vowels ( see page 12 3 ) .

2 . Sugge stions for drills - Since these words are frequent ly used , a

good pronunc iation of them i s to be mastered by the student s . For

examp le s of these words for dri l ls , see page 1 2 3 .

6 . 2 . 3 . 3 . 4 . E ng i�� h un�t�e� � ed vo wei� b e 6 o � e othe� v owei�

1 . The nature - The replac ement of stre s s ed vowe ls by unstre s s ed l a l takes place only be fore consonant s . When a vowe l follows , the vowe l o f

stres sed posit ion i s kept in unstre s sed posit ion as we ll .

2 . Sugge stions for drills - The se dri lls "aim at contrast ing " fu l l "

vowels in unstres sed posit ion before a vowe l and unstre s s ed l a l b e fore a

cons onant .

1 5 8

UN S T R E S S E D / a / UN S T R E S S E D " F U L L " V O W E L S

B E F O R E C O N S O NA N T S B E F O R E V O W E L S

/ p r a ' t E S t / ( t o ) pro t e s t l r i ' <E l a t i / rea � i ty / ka n ' v a r s / converse / d u ' <E l a t i / dua L i ty / p r a ' J E k t / proj e c t / ko ' a p a , r e t / coopera t e / k a n ' v l k t / conv i c t / k o ' ::J r d a , n e t / coordina t e

UN S T R E S S E D MO N O S Y L LA B I C U N S T R E S S E D M O N O S Y L L A B I C

W O R D S B E F O R E C O N S O N A N T S W O R D S B E F O R E V O W E L S

/ a / / '6 a ' m<E n / t he man / i / / '6 i ' e p / t h e ape / a / / a ' m<E n / a man / a / / t a ' r i d / t o read / u / / t u ' i t / to e a t / a / / ' h w E n j a ' g o / when / u / / ' h w E n j u ' i t / when

y o u go you e a t / a l / ' h w E n d a '6 e ' g o / / u / / ' h w E n d u j a ' g o /

when do they go ? when do you go ?

C ha p ter 7

T H E S TR E S S . R H Y THM . A N D I N TONA T I ON P A T TE R N S I N EN G L I S H

7 . 0 . I N T R O D U C T I O N

While the different analy ses o f segmental phonemes i n English , in

spite o f divergences in the treatment of vowel unit s , agree on many

ground s , the analyses of English stress , rhythm , and intonat ion patterns

differ greatly from one another .

In the fol lowing discuss ion , we shall make tentative remarks about

inflection of the voi ce in the two languages : c omplex rise and fall ,

rhythm , lilt , t ones , and the various kinds of s ignals that mark what i s

emphasi sed , what parts are j oined togethe r , and what part s are ex

p licitly disj oined . Since this paper is neither an extensive analysis

nor an evaluat ion of exist ing analyses of Engli sh , we will not have to

a sk ourselves whether stress , j unctures , intonation patterns are emes 49

or j ust emic 50 feature s o f hyperphoneme s 5 1 such as stre s s group s , pause

groups , etc . Ins tead , we will mere ly adopt an analysis that seems to

suit our contrastive purposes best .

7 . 1 . STRESS

4 9 A n eme i s an em i c u n i t . The t e rm is t a k e n f r om K e n n e t h L . P i k e , Language 5 . 1 .

5 0T h e t e rm emia i s s u b t r a c t e d f r om phonemia by P i k e , Languag e , c h a p t e r

2 , p . 8 .

5 1A h y p e r p h o n e m e i s a p h o n e m i c u n i t i n t h e pho n o l o g i c a l h i e r a r c hy o n a

h i g h e r l e v e l t h a n a p h o n e m e ( P i k e , Lang uage 8 . 4 4 2 ) .

15 9

160

The term " stress" i s used t o refer to the relative prominence that

is given , in both English and Vietnamese , to part icular words in

phrases , and in English but not in Vietnamese , to part icular syllables

in words .

7 . 1 . 1 . W o r d s t r e s s

I n English , there are three degrees of word stres s : primary , secon

dary , and weak . 52

1 . P r imary s t r e s s

T h i s i s t he degree of stress which falls o n t h e first syllable o f

English / ' d i s ke s / ' di s cu s ' , / ' ka n f l L kt / ' conf L i c t ' , o r o n the second

sy llable in / d L ' s ka s / ' discus s ' , / ke n ' f l L k t / ' conf L ic t ' . It i s marked

with a raised tick in front of the stressed syllable , as in the above

examples .

2 . S e c ondary s t r e s s

Thi s is t he degree of stress whi ch falls o n the first sy llab le o f

/ , o v a r ' f l o/ ' overfLow ' , / , a p a ' r e § e n / ' operation ' . A lowered t i c k i s

used to mark secondary stre s s , a s re commended b y the Internati onal Phonet i c s Associat ion and used by Kenyon and Knott ( A P�o no unc�ng V�c

t�o na�y 0 6 Ame��can Engl�� h ) .

3 . W e a k s t r e s s

Thi s is the degree o f stress which falls on the first syl lab le o f

/ d L ' s ke s / ' di scus s ' , / ke n ' f I L kt / ' conf L i c t ' , and o n the se cond syl lable

o f / ' d i s ka s / ' discus ' , l ' ka n f I L k t / ' conf L ic t ' . Weak stress i s usually un

marked . Where we wish to indicate stress pat terns , we shall mark i t

with a hyphe n ; this is the way used b y Moulton ( Th e Sound� . . . ) .

7 . 1 . 2 . S y n t a c t i c s t re s s

A sentence like 'Jim s tays here ' can have the strongest stre s s on

anyone of its three words , depending on the meaning conveyed . Thi s

st rongest stre s s i s marked with a small round symbol 1 · / in front of

5 2 T h e p o s t u l at i o n o f t h r e e d e g r e e s o f w o r d s t r e s s i s made by : K e n n e t h L . P i k e , " A w o r d h a s an i n n at e , l e x i c a l , o r p r omi n e n t s t r e s s "

( Phonemics e t c . , pp . 4 5 - 4 6 ) . " W o r d s l i k e t o s eparate have a p r om i n e n t p r imary s t r e s s , a n d a s y l l ab l e s o mewhat p r o m i n e n t , p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e o f i t s v o c a l i c qu a l i t y " ( The Intona t i o n of American Eng L i s h , p . 7 8 ) .

C h a r l e s F . H o c k e t t , A Course in Modern L i ngu i s t i c s , p p . 4 7 - 5 3 . W i l l i am G . Mou l t o n , The Sounds of Eng L i s h and German , p p . 1 1 3 f f .

it . 5 3

° Jim s ta y s here . Jim o s tays here . Jim s tay s o here .

1 6 1

This type of stress i s called syntact ic stress . A hyperphoneme that

c ontains a syntactic stress i s a stress group ( Pike , Lang uag e 9 . 3 ) , or a

rhythm uni t . The following sentence can be said in two stress groups :

Mr and Mrs ° Wh i t e I s tay in an o Ld ° cas t Le . Even the original short sentence can be spoken with two syntact i c

stresses , t herefore with two stress groups . I t would be said t hat way

in slow speech .

o Jim I s ta y s o here . Although each word in a sentence can theoretically bear i t s own syn

t ac t i c s tres s , in ordinary speech grammatical phrase unit s ( see Chapter

3 in Eng l�4 h G�amma� ) are rarely split into stress groups ; they are

rather pronounced in one stress group . The fo llowing sentence can be

split into three stress groups , but hardly more than that :

They t hough t t h a t t h e s tude n t was in o t e L L ig e n t . They o t houg h t I that t h e s tude n t wa s in o t e L Ligent . They ° thoug h t I that t h e ° s tude n t I was in o te L Ligen t .

7 . 2 . RHYTHM

In English there is the basic pat tern of somewhat -even t iming of re

current stress group s which makes up the characteri s t i c STRESS TIMING in the language . Pike says :

"The t iming o f rhy thm uni t s produc es a rhy thmic suc ces s ion which is an ext reme ly important characteristic of English phono logi cal struct ure . The units tend to fol low one another in such a way that the lapse of t ime between the beginning of their prominent syllables is somewhat uni form . . .

The tendency toward uni form spac ing of stresses in mat erial which has uneven numbers of syl lab les within its rhythm groups can be achieved only by destroying any pos sibility of even t ime spac ing of syllables . Since the rhy thm units have different numbers of syllab le s , but a s imi lar t ime value , the syl lables of the longer one s are crushed together , and pronounc ed very rap idly , in order to get them pronounced at all , with that t ime limi tation" . ( I nt o nat� o n . . . , p . 3 4 . )

5 3 T h e p o s t u l a t i o n o f t h i s s y n t a c t i c s t r e s s i s d o n e by P i k e ( Intona ti o n . . . a n d Phonemics ) , H o c k e t t ( A Course . . . ) , a n d M ou l t o n ( The Sounds . . . ) .

T h i s s y n t a c t i c s t r e s s e qu a l s t h e p r i m ary s t r e s s i n t h e a n a l y s e s b y T r a g e r a n d Sm i t h ( A n Ou t Z i ne . . . ) , G l e a s o n ( A n In t rodu c t ion . . . ) , w . N e l s o n F r a n c i s ( The S t r u c t u re . . . ) , a n d A . A . H i l l ( In trodu c t i o n . . . ) .

162

Thi s rhy thmi c crUS hing 5 4 o f sy llab les into short t ime l imi t s implies

d ifferent lengt hs of English syllables be cause t heir lengths are c on

trolled by the number of sy llab les in a part icular rhythmic uni t . For

examp le , in the fo llowing sentences , t he actual t ime between t he two

syntact ic stre s se s remains approximately the same in spite of the dif

ference in t he number of int ervening syllables :

The o boy i s a o s tude n t .

The o boy is a good o s tudent .

The o boy i s a v e ry good o s tude n t .

The o boy is n o t a very good o s tude n t .

7 . 3 . I NTONATION

While the term " s tre s s " re fere s to the re lat ive prominence o f syl

lab les in the flow o f speech , the term " intonat ion" refers t o patterns

of voice pitch in speech , to the "up-down" dimens ion .

In Englis h , " int onat ion" i s "distributed over phrases " and gives

" shades of meaning to phrase s " ( Pike , I ntonatio n . . . , p . 2 4 ) . Whi le the

intonat ion patterns of English will be discussed in 9 . 3 . , only t he de

grees of pitch and terminal c ont ours are presented here .

7 . 3 . 1 . T e r m i n a 1 c o n t o u r s

Every stress group i n English end s i n one of three di fferent t erminal

c ontours : falling , ris ing , and sustained .

E XA M P L E S :

1 . Fa l l ing terminal contour 1+1 ° Ye s . ° John . I t ' s o s nowing .

2 . Rising terminal contour It I ° Ye s ? o Jo h n ? I t ' s o s nowing ?

3 . Susta ined terminal contour I I I o We � L . .

° John . . . ° If i t ' s snowing . . .

5 4T h i s p h e n o m e n o n o f d i f f e r e n t l e n g t h s o f E n g l i s h s y l l ab l e s i s c a l l e d

" i s o c h r o n i s m " b y Y a o S h e n a n d G . G . P e r t e r s o n , who d e m o n s t r a t e t h at t h e r e i s n o t s u c h a t h i n g i n Engl i s h : " W e d i d n o t f i n d i s o c h r o n i s m i n o u r l i m i t e d d a t a a n d t h e r e f o r e c a n n o t s ay t h at t h e r e i s i s o c h r o n i s m i n E n g l i s h " . Isochronism in Eng � i s h .

r-------------------------------------------------�� -��-�-

1 6 3

I n the falling terminal contour , the p i t c h o f the voice i s highe st

at t he onset of syntactic stress , trai ls downward and then phases out

at t he end . I t has a meaning of comp lete ut terance .

In the rising terminal c ont our , t he pitch of the voice is relatively

high at the onset of syntac t i c stre s s , and it ris�s s l ight ly at the very

end . I t has the typical meaning of " interrogat ion" .

In the sustained terminal cont our , the pitch of the voice is highe s t

at t h e onset o f syntac t i c s tre s s , and it stays a t t he same level unti l

phona tion ceases . I t marks an incomplete utterance .

7 . 3 . 2 . P i t c h l e v e l s

The pitches o f intonat ion are relative , but the s igni ficance of

pitches i s determined by their height re lative to one anot her .

In Engli sh , four relative but signi ficant levels o f pitch can be

found . These levels may be labelled extra-high , high , mid , and low re

spectively , and may be numbered " four" to "one" , beginning with " four" ,

which i s extra-high .

The fo llowing sentence c ontains mid , high , and low pitch levels :

2 ' t ' , 1. B 3 · ' l'aining 1 ... .

The extra-high pitch level oc curs le s s frequently t han the other

t hree . I t rep lac es the high pitch leve l to mark special or contrastive

emphasi s . For examp le , the above sentence can b e pronounced with em

pha sis on l'ai n i ng as :

2 . , 4 , . . , 1. t B • l'a1.n1.ng 1 ... .

( For different intonat ions in Engl ish , see Chapter 9 . )

7 . 4 . OPEN J UNCTURE

An open j unc ture is a gap of t ime be tween two phonemic words .55 A s

examp les where an open j unc ture is used to dist inguish meaning , Hockett 56

cites the words :

I ' n a i , t r e t l ni t l'a t e i I ' n a t + , re t l night l'a t e

I ' n a i + , t r e t l N y e t l'a i t

In t h e first example , there is n o open j unc ture ( or t here i s a c lose

j unc ture ) , whi le in the o t h e r t w o examples , there is an open ( or p lus )

j uncture after , and be fore I t / . The first example is one phonemic word ,

5 5 T r a g e r and S m i t h , Eng Z i s h s t l'ua tul'e , p . 4 9 .

5 6 A COUl'B e . . . , p p . 5 4 r r .

1 6 4

while each of the other two examp les constitutes two phonemi c words .

Phonemi c words in English can be monosyllabic , or poly s y l lab i c .

C h a p t e r 8

T H E S TR E S S . RH Y TH M . TON E . A N D I N T ONA T I ON PA T T E R N S I N V I E TN A M E S E

8 . 1 . STRESS

Whi le in Engl ish , there are both word stress and sentence stre s s ,

in Vietnamese , there is only sentence stress I , i . e . where the peak

of stress is determined not by lexical cons iderat ions but mere ly by

emphasi s , at tention , and the like .

There are two degre es of sentence stress in Vietnamese : 51 primary

( marked with a round symbol 1 0 1 in front ) , and weak ( unmarked ) .

E X A M P L E S :

I t oj x a w � O d i l t o i k h o n g d i I 'm n o t going . ( I no t g o . )

8 . 2 . RHYTHM

In Vietnamese , there is a very pronounc ed difference in intensity

between primary and weak stresses , and also , weak stress i s accompanied

5 7 Lau r e n c e C . Thomp s o n , i n " S a i g o n P h o n e m i c s " , 1 9 5 9 , p o s i t s f o u r d e g r e e s o f s t r e s s . I n a mo r e r e c e nt wo rk , A Vie t name s e Grammar , 1 9 6 5 , h e p r o po s e s t h r e e s t r e s s d i s t i n c t i o n s f o r b o t h H a n o i and S a i g o n s p e e c h e s . H e s ay s : "What I e ar l i e r c al l e d ext r a - l oud s t r e s s i s an ext r a - l o u d v a r i a n t o f he avy s t r e s s a c c ompany i n g i n c r e a s i n g i nt o nat i o n " - f o o t n o t e 9 , p . 9 3 .

S i n c e t h e r e i s o n l y s e n t e n c e s t r e s s , a n d n o t w o r d s t r e s s i n V i et n am e s e , t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f o n l y t w o d e g r e e s o f s t r e s s w o u l d b e e n o ugh o n t h e p h o n em i c l e v e l . T h e analyt i c a l c o n s e que n c e wou l d then b e t h a t t h e r e a r e a s m a n y s t r e s s g r o u p s i n a p au s e g r oup a s t h e r e a r e p r i m a ry s t r e s s e s .

F o r t h e r e du c t i on o f t h e E ng l i s h s t r e s s s y s t em i nt o t wo d e g r e e s o f s t r e s s , s e e N o am C h o m s ky , M o r r i s H a l l e , a n d F r e d Luko f f , " O n Ac c e n t a n d J u n c t u r e i n E n g l i s h " , M o r r i s H a l l e , H o r a c e G . L u n t and Hugh M c L e an ( e d i t o r s ) . For Roman Jakobson , Mout o n and C o . , 1 9 5 6 , p p . 6 8 - 8 0 .

1 6 5

166

by very short syllab les . Thus , conversat ional l anguage give s a synco

pated rhythmic impression .

8 . 3 . TONE SY STEM

St andard Saigon Vietname se tones are defined by a comb inat ion of

t hree re lative pitch heights - high , mid , low - and contours - rising ,

falling . There are five tones which can be regrouped into the group of

three rising tones , and the group of two level tones :

( a ) The g roup o f r i s ing tone s :

The high ris ing tone ( s �c l , repre sented by 1 ' 1 . I l a ' l l a ' Z eaf ' , I ma ' i ma 'mo t her ' .

The mid ri sing tone ( h � i l , repre sented in trans criptions o f pronun

ciation by the t i lde I - I , and marked in the tradi tional Vietname s e

spel ling b y o r ( In t h e Northern dialect s , there are two • •

phonemi c tones : h o i ( l , mid- low dropp ing pitch , and n g a , high

ris ing pitch , accompanied by glottal stop or " s t rangulated" vowe l

qual ity . See Thomp son A Vietname� e g�amma� , pp . 15-16 . •

I l a - 1 l a 'pure ' , I ma - I ma ' tomb ' .

The low ris ing tone ( n � n g l , represented by I Y I , and marked in

tradit ional Vietname se spel ling by a dot 1 , 1 underneath the vowe l

lette r .

I l a Y I I � ' s trang er ' , I ma Y I m � ' rice p Z ant ' .

( b ) The g roup o f l ev e l tone s :

The high leve l tone ( k h o n g l or ( n g a n g l , unmarked .

I i a l l a ' s cream ' , I m a l ma 'gho s t ' .

The low level tone ( h u ye n l , repre sented by 1 ' 1 , I l a ' l I � ' b e ' , Ima ' i m� ' bu t ' .

The five tones are manifested by two sets of al lotone s , according t o

whe ther the syllab les that carry them are stresse� o r unstressed . The

charac teri s t i c s of the sets of al lotones can be summarised in the fol

lowing chart :

S T R E S S E D U N S T RE S S E D

R I S I N G T O N E S longer and higher rise shorter rise

L E V E L T O N E S longer-level or rising shorter-leve l or

s ligh t ly fal l ing slight ly

The tones , with their stressed and uns tressed allot one s , can be re

p resented on a pitch scale as fol lows :

- --:.:--::: , I / :;;;> -.,// '/ ""'J �" ,? V

HR MR LR

HR

LL

High Rising ; MR = Mid Ris ing ; LR

Low Leve l .

8 . 4 . I NTONATION

Uns t r e s s e d a t t o tone Stre s s e d a t t o tone

1 6 7

- - - - ..... I - - I

HL LL

Low Rising ; HL High Leve l ;

Be s ides the phonemi c tone s to di st inguish meanings o f words , Viet

name se has also different int onation patterns t o convey " s hades of mean

ing to phrase s " ( Pike , I n�o na�i o n 0 6 Ame�ican E ngtic h , p . 2 4 ) , or certain

general attitudes o f speakers toward what they are saying .

There are four phonemic intonat ion patterns in Vietname se which are

characteri sed mainly by the shape of their final tone : sustained dec lar

ative ( or " fall ing" ) ; interrogat ive ( or "ris ing" ) ; and imperat ive ( or

" r i s i ng-falling" ) .

8 . 4 . 1 . S u s t a i n e d I n to n a t i o n

Like the English sustained intonat ion contour ( c f . 7 . 3 . 1 . ) , the Viet

name se sustained intonat i on pattern conveys the not ion that the speaker

has not completed his speech , or that he has been interrupted by s ome

thought or ext erna l s t imulus , or s imply that he want s to leave something

to be unders tood . The sustained intonat ion pat tern i s characterised by the shape of the final tone which is summarised in the following chart :

F I N AL T O N E S U S T A I N E D I N T O N A T I O N P A T T E R N

Ris ing tone s ris ing and re lat i vely long

Level tones level or ris ing t owards the end

E XA M P L E 5 w i t h : ( 1 ) h i g h r i s i ng tone

Ix i a j ' I kh i ay 'at that t ime (when t h e n ) '

( 2 ) m i d r i s i n g tone • I x i " ra - I k h i n h o ' wh e n [ he was ] yo ung ( w h e n young ) '

1 6 8

( 3 ) l ow r i s ing tone

/ x i m a n" / k h i m9 n h 'when [ he was ] recovered ( when s trong ) '

( 4 ) h i gh l e v e l tone

/ x i 0 1) £ / k h i n g h e 'when [ he ] heard [ t he s tory ] (when hear ) '

( 5 ) low l ev e l tone

/ x i ° l) £ w ' l k h i n g h�o 'when [ he was ] poor (when poor) '

8 . 4 . 2 . D e c l a r a t i v e ( o r " fa l l i n g " ) I n t o n a t i o n

The Vietname se de c larat ive ( or " falling" ) intonation pattern marks

comple tion of speech . It i s typical of dec larat ive sentences . I t i s

charac terised b y the shape o f the final tone which is summarised in t he

fo llowing chart :

F I N A L T O N E D E C L A RAT I V E I N T O NA T I O N P A T T E R N

Rising tones short rising , usually higher than

previous simi lar t one s

Leve l tones re lat ively lower and falling

E XAM P L E S w i t h : ( 1 ) h i g h r I s Ing t one

I t oj o t h a j ' / to i t h a'y 'I saw [ i t ] (I s e e ) '

( 2 ) m i d r i s ing tone

/ t oj ° l) i - / t o i n g h i ' I t houg h t ( I t h i n k ) '

( 3 ) l ow r i s i n g tone

I t o j o sdY I to i s q 'I was afra id (I afra id) '

( 4 ) h i gh l ev e l tone

/ t o j ° l) £ / t o i n g h e 'I heard [ i t ] (I hear) '

( 5 ) l ow l eve l tone

I t oj ° l) £ w ' / to i n g heo ' I [ am ] poor ( I poor) '

8 . 4 . 3 . I n t e r r o g a t i v e ( o r " r i s i n g " ) I n t o n a t i o n

The Vietname se interrogat ive ( or "rising" ) intonation pat tern i s

t ypical of information interrogat ive sentences . I t can also be used to

mark doub t ful statement s , indecisive imperatives or exhortat ions . I t

i s characterised by the shape of the final tone which i s summarised in

the fol lowing chart :

169

F I N A L T O N E I N T E R R O G A T I V E I N T O N AT I O N P A T T E R N

Ris ing tones re lat ively higher and longer ris ing than previous similar tones

Level tone s le vel and sl ight ly rising at the end

E XA M P L E S w i t h : ( 1 ) h i g h r l s lng tone

l a j o t h a j ' l a i t h ay ' who saw [ i t ] ( who s e e ) '

( 2 ) m i d r i s ing t one

l a j 0 I) i - I a i n g h T 'who thoug h t ( who t h ink) '

( 3 ) l ow r i s ing tone

l a j o �dV I a i sg ' who [ was ] afraid ( who afra id) '

( 4 ) h ig h l eve l t one

l a j 0 I) E I a i n g h e 'who he ard [ i t ] ( who h e a r ) '

( 5 ) l ow l ev e l tone

l a j O I) E w ' l a i n g heo ' who [ wa s ] poor (who p o o r ) '

8 . 4 . 4 . I m p e r a t i v e ( o r " r i s i n g - f a l l i n g " ) I n t o n a t i o n

The Vi etnamese imperative ( or " ri s i ng-falling" ) intonation pattern

signal s c ommands , exhortat ions , imperatives . As other int onat ion pat

terns , it i s characterised by the shape o f the final tone which is sum

marised in the following chart :

F I N A L T O N E IMP E RA T I V E I N T O N A T I O N P A T T E RN

Ris ing tone s ris ing , and trailing t owards

the end

Level tones long level , and s lightly ri sing

E XA M P L E S w i t h :

( 1 ) h ig h r i s ing t one

I a n mu a o n J I) ' 1 a n h m u � , no n 'you buy a ha t ! ( e Zder-bro t h e r buy h a t ) '

( 2 ) m i d r i s ing t o ne

I a n m u a o t h J - 1 a n h m u a t h� 'you buy rab b i t s ! ( e Zder-bro t her buy rabb i t ) ,

( 3 ) l ow r i s ing t one

I a n m u a ° l dl) v I a n h mua I gn 'you buy swine ! ( e Zder-bro t h e r buy swine ) '

1 7 0

( 4 ) h i g h l e v e l tone

I a n m u a · 5 E I a n h m u a xe ' y o u buy a car ! ( e Z der-bro t h e r buy carriag e ) '

( 5 ) l ow level tone

I a n mu a O d E !) ' 1 a n h m u a de n . ' you buy a torch ! ( e Zder-bro t he r buy torch) ,

8 . 4 . 5 . O t h e r I n t o n a t i o n a l F e a t u r e s

Vietnamese speakers make use of a generally higher level o f pitch

for an utterance t o c onvey emot ional intensity .

C h a p t e r 9

CONTRA S T I VE ANA L Y S I S : S T R E S S . R H Y THM . AND I N TONA T I ON PA T TE R N S

9 . 0 . I N T R O D U C T I O N

Suprasegmental patterns ( s tres s , rhyt hm , and intonation) in English

constitute prob ab ly the most di fficult pronunc iat ion problems for Viet

namese students t o mas ter . Thi s i s because of the trans fer o f their

nat ive tonal sy stem into English , which i s an intonati on language .

In order to find out more accurately learning prob lems of stre s s ,

rhy thm , and intonation patterns of English for Vietnamese speakers , a

passage from Ernest Hemi ngway ' s A Fa�ewell to A�m6 , Jonathan Cape Pub

lishers , London , pages 66-7 , was chosen as a pronunc iation test . The

seventeen Vietname se students and four nat ive speakers of American

English ( see 3 . 0 . 4 . ) were recorded . The re cordings of the four most re

presentative Vi etnamese speakers and two English speakers have been put

down on recording paper through a transpitchmeter , and intensity meter ,

and a Brush oscil lograph rec order at the Linguistic Laboratory of the

Austral ian Nat ional Univers ity . The intensity and the pitch curves of

the Vietnamese speakers were then compared with those of the English

speakers . Measurement s were not done because they were thought to be

unnecessary for the present purposes . The results of the findings wi l l be stated in the column " Prob lems " .

In discuss ing c ontrastive suprasegmental patterns , we shall deal with four different aspec t s o f cons iderat ion : ( 1 ) the suprasegmental pattern ;

( 2 ) the corre sponding Vietnamese pattern i f any ; ( 3 ) the teaching and

learning prob lem ; ( 4 ) sugges ted dri l ls .

9 . 1 . STRESS

9 . 1 . 1 . W o r d S t r e s s

1 7 1

1 7 2

1 . E . - English has three degrees of word stress : primary , secondary ,

and weak ( c f . 7. 1 . 1 . ) .

2 . V . - Vietname se has no di fferent degrees of word stress ( c f . 8 . 1 . ) .

3 . Problems :

Vietnamese student s will have to learn the three degrees o f word

stress in Engli sh . ( There is no point in count ing the actual mi stakes

made by the students in the tes t s , be cause the number o f mi stakes depends

upon the degree of knowledge of English of each student . )

4 . Drill s :

The fol lowing different s t ress patterns in English can be presented

to the st udent s :

P�ima� y and weak 6 t�e66 e6

Two-syllable stems with primary stress on the first syllable , and

weak stre s s on the second :

Type / ' -/ b u t t e r open app � e often

One- or two-syllab le st ems with various unstressed infle c t i onal and derivationa l suffixes , giving stress patterns :

Type / ' -/ hou8e8 h e a ted 8 h i ning ire e �y Type / ' --/ hamme ring hopefu � �y carefu � �y g �amorou8

Two-syllab le stems with weak stress on the first syllable , and primary

on the second : Type /- ' / begin fo rg i v e receive a � ong Type /- ' -/ beginning forgo t ten receiv ing toge t h e r

P�ima� y and 6 eco nda�y 6 t�e6 6 e6

The typical stress pattern for compound words in Engli sh : 5 8 primary

stress on the firs t part , and sec ondary stre s s on the second part :

Type / ' , / redcap rai � road doorknob tea8poon p i g e o n - t o e d app � e 8auce

The less common stress pat tern : secondary stress on the first part ,

primary s t ress on the second part :

Type / , ' / New York renew u n t i e under8 tand overcome n e v e rmore

P�ima�y and p�ima� y 6 t�e66 e6

A third type of compound has the structure : primary stress on the

first part , and primary stress on the second part :

Type / ' ' / 8now - wh i t e ope n - ey e d ice c o � d

5 8 S e e H a n d M a r c h a n d " N o t e s on N om i n al C ompoun d s i n P r e s e nt - d ay E n g l i s h " , i n H a r o l d B . A l l e n ( e d i t o r ) , App � ie d Eng � i s h Lingu i8 t i c8 , Ap p l e t o n - C e n t u r y - C r o f t s , I n c . , N e w Y o r k , 1 9 5 8 , pp . 1 1 8 - 2 7 .

1 7 3

S e c o nda�y o� weaR ¢ t� e ¢ ¢ � n ¢ ome wo �d cla¢ ¢ e¢

English has some c lasses of words which bear sec ondary or weak stress

rather than primary stres s :

Per sonal pronouns : I , h i . ' s t e z l he s tays Conj unctions : I , L f i . ' s t e z l if h e s ta y s Prepo s ition s : I , l n 5a · ' h a u s l in t h e house Articles : 1 5 a · ' h a u s l the house

A few words of this type show uns tres sed forms with their vowe ls

reduced to l a l or I l I : and I ' j u a n • ' a i I you and I t hem I ' p u t am · ' d a w n l p u t t hem down h im I ' t E l l m • , 50/ t e H him so

St�e¢ ¢ patte�n¢ 0 6 no un¢ v e�¢u¢ v e�b¢ 59

Type 1 ' -1 ( nouns ) Type 1- ' 1 ( verb s )

addr e s s conf l i c t

contract conve r s e imp a c t

Succe¢ ¢ �o n 0 6 ¢ t� e¢ ¢ e¢

addr e s s conf l i c t contract converse impact

The student s should learn to have the right stresses in polysy llab ic

words . Examples :

1 , - ' -1 1 , -- ' --1 1- , - ' -1 1- , - ' -1

p h i losophic a n thropo l o g i ca l ma t r i cu l a t ion as s imi l a t ion

1- , ---- ' -1 A me r i can i s a t i o n

St� u ¢ ¢ h� 6 t

English h a s a large number of words in which primary stress shifts

t oward t he end when a suffix is added :

' a tom - a ' tomic 'object - ob ' j e c t i v e ' ene rgy - e ne r ' g e t i c ' s ubj e c t - sub ' j e c t i v e ' influence - influ ' e n t i a l ' co u rage -cou ' rageous

9 . 1 . 2 . Sy n t a c t i c s t r e s s

1 . E . - English has one syntactic s tress ( c f . 7 . 1 . 2 . ) .

2 . V . - Vietname se has one syntactic s tre s s , which is i t s primary

5 9 S e e H ar o l d Wh i t e h a l l , Stru c tura l E s s e n t i a l s of Eng l i s h , H ar c ou r t , B r a c e a n d C o . , N e w Y o r k , p p . 2 0 f f .

1 7 4

stress ( c f . 8 . 1 . ) .

3 . Problems : Although the syntact i c stress exists in both language s , i t i s much

more frequent in Vietname se than in English . Thus , t he students should

learn to have t he English syntactic stress only where it i s possible ,

and t o reduce the number of syntac t i c stresses in fast speech .

4 . Dril l s :

The reduct ion of syntact i c stre s ses can be presented as i n t he fol low-

ing examp le :

They o t houg h t / t h a t t he o s tude n t / wa s i n o t e Z Zigen t . They o thoug h t / t h a t t he s tude n t was in o te Z Z ig en t . They t hought t h a t t h e s tude n t wa s i n o t e Z Z ige n t .

9 . 2 . RHYTHM

1 . E . - In English , t here is t he basic pattern o f s omewhat even

t iming of recurrent stre s s groups whi ch makes up the characteristic

STRESS TIMING in the language ( c f . 7 . 2 . ) .

2 . V . - C onversat ional Vietname se gives a syncopated rhyt hmic impres

s i on ( c f . 8 . 2 . ) .

3 . Problem s :

Vietnamese speakers tend to transfer their syncopated rhyt hmic pat

t ern into English , and therefore do not have the right English stress

t iming rhythm .

4 . Drills : The English stress t iming rhythm can be taught by pronunc iati on

dri l l s wh ich the students are asked t o pronounce in such a way t hat t he

lapse o f t ime between two syntact i c stress peaks remains the same regardless of the number of unstres sed sy llables in between them . For

examp le , t he students will have to pronounc e the fol lowing sentences i n

about the same gap of t ime marked by t w o beat s :

The o boy / i s a ° s tude n t . T h e o boy / i s a good ° s tude n t . The o boy / i s a v ery good ° s tude n t . The o boy / i s n o t a v e ry good ° s tuden t . I f needed , t he stress group tempo in English may be represented

graphically ( the length of underline indicat ing syllab le duration) for

explanation as fol lows :

The ° �/ i.s n2-.t � v erJi. 9:E2d ° s tuden!.

9 . 3 . I NTONATION

1 . E . - English is an intonat ion language , and has three terminal

c ontours and four pitch leve ls ( c f . 7 . 2 . ) .

1 75

2 . V . - Vietnamese i s a t one and intonat ion language ( c f . 8 . 3 . and

8 . 4 . ) .

3 . Problems :

Vi etname se student s tend to transfer their t one system into an in

t onat ion language when t hey speak English . In this interferenc e o f

their nat ive language and the target language , the phonetic laws o f

English final c onsonant replacement s in Vietnamese speakers ' English

( c f . 3 . 2 . 2 . 2 . ) play an important role in the intonation patterns .

The phonetic laws o f English final c onsonant replac ement s are as

fol lows :

p t b

f +---9 t t v 0

m / / /

w �

\ � t J

s+---§ t t z !

/ / � n

r

k t 9

Law 1 : Voiced c onsonant s , except nasals , are replaced by t heir voiceless

c ounterpart s .

Law 2 : Final fricatives and affri cates are replaced by final s t op s whi c h are simi lar in terms of point of art i culat ion .

Law 3 : Final I I I is usually replaced by final I n l , and somet ime s by I w / .

Law 4 : There are some less common pat terns o f subst itution : I I I i s some

t ime s replaced by I w l , 1 9 1 by I f I , I § I by l s i , and I � I by I § I .

In comb ining laws 1 and 2 , one finds that all English voiced s t op s

( law 1 ) , voiceless fricative s ( law 2 ) , and voiced fri catives ( laws 1 and

2 ) are actually replaced by vo iceless stops . ( This i s unders tandab le

1 7 6

because Vietnamese has only voiceless stops , and voiced nasals as final

cons onant s . ) Now , Vietname se has only two tones in words ending with a voiceless

stop : the high ris ing t one 1 ' / , and the low ris ing tone I ' ' I . In the

transfer of the Vietnamese tone systems into Engli sh intonat ion , for

reasons , perhap s phonetic or statistical , that have to be invest igated ,

only the high rising t one i s chosen in words ending with a voiceless

stop , or any stop or fri cat ive that has been replaced by a voiceless

stop . Thus , an Engl ish sentence like the following one is very likely

pronounced by a Vietnamese beginning stUdent with a series of high rising

t ones as :

if you me t t h a t man, you wou Ld t h i n k t h a t he was mad . There are other tone app lications like :

1 . English I �I is pronounced by Vi etnamese students with a low ris ing

tone . E XAM P L E : I h ¥ v I ' heard ' .

2 . English comb inat ion la n s l i s pronounced ,by Vietnamese student s

with a mid ris ing I - I t one . E XAM P L E : I t ra n s - f � v I ' transferred ' .

Al l these phenomena are to be invest igated more in detail , perhaps

in the l ight o f stat ist ical count s of tones and sy llables .

A s a result of t hese tone transfers , Vie tnamese speakers have a pe

culiar English intonation pattern , which is condit ioned only by the syl

lab les in their utterances .

One way to teach English intonation to Vietnamese i s to begin by

asking the students to "de-t one" their speech habit , i . e . to produce

long Vietnamese phrases c ontaining the high level tone . E XA M P L E : I t oj x a w l) d i I e n d a j d a w l To i k h o n g d i I e n d a y da u ' I am n o t coming up here any more ( I n o t go as eend here any more ) . ' From this example , the

student s are then taught about the difference of intonat ion and t one .

Once they can produce a series o f leve l tone syllables , they can learn

the four pitch levels in Engl ish .

4 . Dril l s :

The fol lowing intonat ion patterns in English are to be taught :

The intonat ion 1 ( 2 ) ° 3 1 � 1 The int onat ion pattern 1 ( 2 ) ° 31 � 1 has the meaning o f statement :

2 , i t _ s 0 3 ' ra ining l � .

2 , i t 0 3 ' ra i n s l� .

• 3 ' eome l� .

The i n t o na t ion 1 ( 2 ) 3 0 1 1 � I The intonati on 1 ( 2 ) 3 0 1 1 � I is also used in statements , but it is

less common than the previous one :

1 7 7

2 . , 1- t , was an • 3ex ' treme ly ' ni c e 1 ° 'party

The i n t o nat i o n 1 ( 2 ) ° 3 3 t l The int onat ion 1 ( 2 ) ° 3 3 tl is used in yes-no interrogat ive sen-

tences :

2 , i s , h i s 0 3 'unc l e ' t here 3 t .

2 , h i s 0 3 ' u n c l e , i s ' t here 3 t .

0 3 ' y e s 3 t .

The i n t o na t ion 1 ( 2 ) ° 3 3 I 3 ° 1 1 + 1 The intonat ion 1 ( 2 ) ° 3 31 plus III plus 13 0 1 1 + 1 oc curs in alt ernate

que stions :

2 . .' t , 1- 8 , v 0 3 ' good 3 I 3 , or , i 8 i t

The i n t o n a t ion 1 ( 3 ) 0 2 3 tl The int onat i on 1 ( 3 ) 0 2 3 t l is less commonly used for y es -no inter

rogat ive sentences :

3 . h ' , 1- S , 1- 8

T h e intona t ion 1 ( 1 ) 0 1 1 + 1 The intonation 1 ( 1 ) 0 1 1 +1 is used in c lause s that ident i fy the

speaker of what pre cedes :

2 . , 1- t - 8 , 3 ' l'a i n ing 1 I , 8aid , h i 8

Al l the se intonation patterns can be taught first in short sentences ,

and later in longer sentences .

9 . 4 . OPEN J UNCTURE

1 . E . Phonemi c words i n English can b e monosyllab i c o r poly sy llab i c .

They are delimited b y an open j uncture be fore and after them .

2 . V . Vietname se phonemic words are alway s monosyllab i c . They are

de l imited by an open j uncture b e fore and after them .

3 . Problems :

Vietnamese students t end to cut polysy llab i c phonemi c words in

English into as many phonemi c words as there are syllables .

4 . Dr i l l s :

Dri l ls should b e prepared to teach Vietname se students t o pronounce

each English polysyllab ic word only in one stretc h , and not to have

open j unctures after each syllab le . The most important correlation of

the open j uncture in English is the fact that / p t k/ are asp irated when

1 7 8

they stand i n open j unc ture with a preceding phoneme , o r when they

st and at t he beginning of an utteranc e . Thus , such contrasts as the

fol lowing , in which the open j uncture and aspirat ion are written in the

transcript ion , can be used to teach the corre lation of the open j unc

t ure and aspiration :

A S P I RA T E D

I , ma i + ' t h r e n l my train

I ' na i t + ' r e t l h I , C H S + ' p � n l h l , e H S + ' p a t !

n i g h t rate

this pin

t h i s po t

U NA S P I RA T E D

I , ma i t + ' re n l m i g h t rain

I ' na i + ' t r e t l Ny e tra i t

I , � e + ' s p � n l t h e s p i n

I , �e + ' s pa t l t h e spo t

C O N C L U S I O N

In this contrast ive phonologi cal analysi s , teaching and learning

prob lems of English pronunc iat i on for Vietname se student s , t ogether

with sugge sted dri lls , have been pre sented in the analyt i c al order o f

c ons onant s , consonant c lust ers , vowels , e t c . In the writ ing o f text

b ooks , the wri ter should adopt a philosophy of approach t o these t each

ing prob lems in order to present them in a valid pedagogi cal sequence ,

fol lowing some hierarchy of difficulty .

The first question which ari ses i s the place of pronunc iat i on in t he

general foreign language teaching programme . In learning a new lan

guage , the chief prob lem is not at first that of learning vocabulary

items . It i s , as Fries says :

" . . . first , the mastery of the sound system - t o understand the stream of speech , to hear the d i s t inctive sound features and t o approximate their product ion" . 6 0

Th is does not mean that pronunc iation should be t aught a t any t ime

for long to the exc lus ion of grammat ical structure and lexical items .

Comp lete control of the phonological pattern o f English alone would not

allow a s tudent to communi cate with anyone , if it were not accompanied

by a certain degree of mastery of the grammatical structure and o f at

least a limited vocabulary . The argument is that phonological training

is mos t effective in the early st age of the st udent ' s acquaintance with

the language . He i s bound t o have hab i t s o f pronunciation formed ; un

less they are correct hab i t s , they will have to be unlearned later ,

whi ch is not an easy proces s .

6 0 C h a r l e s C . F r i e s , Teaching and Le arn ing Eng l i 8 h as a Foreign Language , p . 3 .

1 7 9

1 8 0

The next que st i on is t h e sett ing of a valid pedagogical sequence for

the t eaching of pronunciation , fo llowing some hierarchy of difficulty . In .general c lassification , t here are two kinds of teaching and learn

ing difficulties to be overcome : segmental prob lems , and suprasegmental

prob lems .

In the treatment of segmental prob lems , i t i s important t o corre c t

t he critical errors first ( phonemic prob lems that cause misunderstand

ing ) , and to move on less critical areas ( phone tic prob lems t hat result

in a heavy foreign accent ) only after the critical one s have begun t o be

under habitual mast ery by the st udent s . It i s also important t o t ake

into ac count the relative order of difficulty of the problems ( which i s

reflected in the perc entages of mistakes shown i n t h e result s of the

different recognit ion or product ion test s ) in the arrangement of les sons .

Besides the presentation of the di fferent problems according t o t heir nature and re lative order of di fficul ty , there is also the grouping o f

the prob lems into groups like voiceless stops , voiced stops , voic e l e s s

fricat ive s , voiced fricatives , et c . : this w i l l he lp t h e student s t o s e e

and acquire the sound patterning in Engli sh .

The relat ive frequency of occurrence o f English speech sounds , which

i s an indicator of their func t i onal load , can be thought o f as having an

important part in the preparation of English pronunc iation lessons for

Vi etnamese . Do we need more les sons to deal with sounds with high fre

quency , as they are the one s the students will commonly c ome acro s s ?

I n dri ll les sons , the relat ive frequency fac tor can be neglected , b e

cause there w i l l be n o omi ssion of any sound in the fore ign language one

want s t o learn . On the cont rary , a pair of contrast s , like / 0 / and / e / -

voiced and voiceless fricat ive s - should be dril led t ogethe r , no mat ter

how far from each other they rank in the order of frequency .

Finally , the grouping of lessons into chapters on strong-stressed

vowe ls and diphthongs , init ial c onsonants , final c onsonants , init ial

clusters , final c lusters , and weak stres sed vowels , as adopted in my

previ ous book , Engt�� h P�o nunc�at�on 6 o � V�etname� e , SEAREP-USOM , Saigon , 1962 , can still be rec ommended .

During correction of segmental element s , one o f course never neglects

supras egmental element s . In fact , the problems of rhythm , intonat ion

patterns , stres s , and the like should be dealt with as one goe s along

with segmental sounds . Early in the pronunc iat ion cours e , s imple int ona

t i on pat t erns , stress , and rhythm should be presented to the s tudent s .

The se fac tors ( c omplex rise and fal l , rhythm , lilt , and the various

kinds of s igna ls that mark elements which are emphasised , disj oined , or

j oined together) should be the first things to be not iced by t he student s

at the very beginning o f their studies . And since no utt erance can be

made in any language without i t s carry ing an intonation pattern ( the

1 81

components o f which are all t ogether stre s s , pitc h , rhythm , and terminal

contours in Eng lish ) , at least some basic suprasegmental patterns should

be mast ered be fore one learns segmental sounds .

In conc lusion , a serious fore ign language programme should be based

upon a l ingui stical ly oriented contrast ive analysis o f the language to

be learned and the language of the learner , and prepared according t o a

valid pedagogical sequence . But in order to be fully suc cessful , a lan

guage course needs the wil lingness of the student who must throw off all

rest raint and s e l f-consciousness as far as the mimi cry of st range sounds

and the acceptance of unfami liar grammati cal structures are conc erned .

Only when a l l these technical and mental requirement s are met , will the

teac hing and learning of a foreign language get good re sult s .

A P P E N D I X I

E NG L I S H PRONUNC I AT I ON F OR V I E TNAME S E

STEP ONE : T E S T S OF RE COGN I T I ON

FOR EWORV A NV ACKNOWL EVGM ENTS

The aim of t hese tests o f recognition is to find out English Midwest

Standard American English pronunc iat ion prob lems for nat ive speakers of

Vietnamese ( with main emphasis on the Saigon dialec t ) . The prob lems ,

t o be graded according t o their degree of difficulty , will be taken into

acc ount in the wri ting o f English text-book s and pronunc iat ion tests for

Vietnamese .

The ideal s ituat ion , thus , would be to administer the tests to

student s without a background in French , or at least who do not go to

French high schools and who , in the maj ority , speak the Southern Vi e t nam e s e dia � ec t .

The tests are t o be administered t o two groups o f students :

the b eginners , i . e . those who have not had more than one year of

Engl i s h at the V . A . A . ;

the advanced student s , i . e . those who are in grade twe lve or higher .

The numb er o f students t o be tested is from 4 0 to 80 for the begin

ning group , and from 15 to 3 0 for t he advanced group , although the more

students we can have , the more accurate the findings will be .

The approximate t ime for each part of the tests i s given in the

Examiner ' s Instruct ions .

I would like t o acknowledge my deepest ob ligat ions to the staff of

the Vietnamese Ameri can Associat i on to carry on the actual work of ad

ministering the tests to their students , and express my part icular

1 8 3

1 8 4

thanks to Mr Wil liam L . Wool f , Director of Courses a t the V . A . A . , t o

whom l owe a l o t of advice and help and without whom , the realisat ion

of t hi � proj ect wou ld not be possib le . Thanks are due also to the

s t udents who are willing to part ic ipate in the tests .

Canberra , 2 0 August 1 9 6 4

INSTRUCTIONS

E NG L I SH PRONUNC I AT I ON FOR V I ETNAMESE

STEP ONE : TE STS O F R E COGN I T I ON

THE EXAM I NER ' S BOOK L ET

These tests should be admini stered by a native speaker o f Standard

American English . They should be read in c Lear na t u ra L s ty Le , dif

ferences should not be exaggerated or minimised in any way . The items

should be read o n Ly once . Each word must be read with the s ame i n t on a t i o n , pre ferab ly a falling high-low type .

The tests should be given to small groups of up to thirty student s .

They should not be given to larger groups unless the room has excep

t i ona lly good acoustics ( the large audit orium at the third floor o f the

V . A . A . bui lding meets the requirements ) . The different part s of the

tests can be given to the same group of students on different days .

Proceed as follows :

1 . Seat the students not c loser than in every other seat .

2 . Distribute the answer sheet to the students .

3 . Ask the student s t o write down their name , sex , age , and their

Vietname se dialect : Southern , Central or Northern .

4 . Ask them t o write down your name and native State .

5 . Read to them the following instructions and examples :

THIS EXERCISE IS TO DISCOVER ENGLISH SOUNDS THAT YOU CAN HEAR CLEARLY .

PLEASE ANSWER EVERY QUESTION .

PART ONE

Time : approximately 20 minutes .

I AM GOING TO READ THREE WORDS . CHEC K WHICH WORD IS DIFFERENT .

E XAM P L E A : read. rid, read . ( b rief pause )

1 85 .

I B6

THE WORD NUMBER TWO IS DIFFERENT . CHECK TWO .

E XAMP L E A : 1 ( ) 2 ( ,I ) 3 ( )

EXAM P L E B : s hoed, s hou ld, s h o u l d . ( brief pause )

THE WORD NUMBER ONE IS DIFFERENT . CHECK ONE .

E XAM P L E B : 1 ( I)

2 ( ) 3

E XA M P L E C : m a t , mat , ma t e . THE WORD NUMBER THREE IS DIFFERENT . CHECK THREE .

E XAMP L E C : 1 ( ) 2 ( ) 3 ( ,I)

Repeat the examples i f the student s s t i l l do not understand the

procedure .

Read the numbers and the fol lowing triplets of words :

l . mee t , m i t t , mi t t 2 3 . rice , race , race 2 . pen, pan, pen 2 4 . load, l oud, l oud 3 . look, look, luck 2 5 . wake , wee k , wake 4 . main, mi n e , mine 26 . ha t , h a t , h o t 5 . s e e n , s e e n , s in 2 7 . caug h t , caug h t , coat 6 . fan, fen, fan 2 B . no, now, now 7 . buc k , book, book 29 . cud, cud, kid B . t ime , time , tame 30 . read/ i y / , rade , read/ i y / 9 . load, loud, loud 3l . c o t , c a t , c o t

10 . s h ip, sheep, sheep 32 . ho l e , ha l l , ha l l ll . men, man, man 3 3 . h i t , h u t , h u t 12 . tuck, took, tuck 3 4 . boy, buy , boy 1 3 . m ig h t , ma t e , mate 35 . b a t e , bea t , b e a t 1 4 . town, town, tone 36 . n o t , gna t , n o t 15 . s i t , s e a t , s i t 3 7 . naug h t , no t e , naug h t 16 . b e t , be t , b a t 3 B . kni t , n u t , n u t 1 7 . cud, cud, cou ld 39 . shu t , s hu t , s h i r t l B . ride, ride , raid 40 . ma t e , ma t e , m e e t 19 . bow/o w l , bow/a w l , bow/a w l 4 l . lack, lock, lack 20 . fee t , fi t , fe e t 4 2 . phone, faun, faun 2 l . s a t , s e t , s e t 4 3 . b u t , b u t , b i t 2 2 . roug h , roof, roof 4 4 . h u t , h u r t , h u t

4 5 . fa t e , fe e t , fee t 7 8 . n e t , n e t , nu t 4 6 . aap , aop , aap 7 9 . pan, pun , pun 4 7 . aa L L , aa L L , aoa L 8 0 . t e n , t i n , t in 4 8 . suak, s iak, s i a k 8 I . naug h t , naug h t , nu t 4 9 . bi rd, bud, bud 8 2 . good, gooed, gooed 50 . pain, pain, p e n 8 3 . b e t , b u t , b u t 5I . a o t , au t , a o t 8 4 . gna t , n u t , g n a t 5 2 . fu L L , fu L L , foa L 8 5 . beg, big, beg 5 3 . burg, bug , bug 86 . fun , fau n , fun 5 4 . s i n , s in , sane 87 . wood, wood, wooed 5 5 . b a t e , b e t , bate 8 8 . tan, tan, ton 56 . L o a k , L o a k , L u a k 8 9 . p o i s e , p i e s , p i e s 5 7 . aode , aou L d, aou Ld 90 . m i t t , m i t t , m e t 5 B . aur t , a u r t , a u t 9 I . boug h t , bu t , b u t 59 . ban e , b i n , b i n 9 2 . fu L L , fu L L , foo L 6 0 . da t e , deb t , de b t 9 3 . mad, mud, mud 6 I . ho t , h u t , h o t 9 4 . Roy a e , Roya e , riae 6 2 . s howed, shou Ld, s howed 9 5 . Jim, gem, Jim 6 3 . pain, p i n , p i n 96 . a a L L , aa L L , au n 6 4 . be t , b u t , but 9 7 . s hou L d, s hoed, s hou Ld 6 5 . t e L L , ta l e , t e z.z. 9 8 . h u t , ha t , ha t 66 . l u a k , l o a k , l o a k 9 9 . toy s , t o y s , t i e s 6 7 . p u z.z. , p u z.z. , po le 1 0 0 . naug h t , naugh t , n o t 6 B . aane, Kin, aane 1 0 I . foa L , foo l , foo L 6 9 . pun, pen, p e n 1 0 2 . aaug h t , ao t , a o t 7 0 . l e t , l e t , l a t e 1 0 3 . aooed, aooed, aode 7 I . r o t , ru t , r u t 1 0 4 . boug h t , bo t , bough t 7 2 . s towed, s tood, s towed 1 0 5 . s hoed, s hoed, s hod 7 3 . wa i n , w i n , wain 106 . soug h t , soug h t , B o t 7 4 . t e n , ton, t e n 1 0 7 . p a l e , poo l , p a l e 75 . bid, bed, bid l o B . n o t , naug h t , naugh t 7 6 . au t , aaug h t , aaug h t 1 0 9 . s towed, s towed, s tewed 7 7 . s o o t , s u i t , B o o t l lO . t o y , toy , t i e

PART TWO

Time : approximately 2 0 minutes .

I AM GOING TO READ THREE WORDS . CHECK WHICH WORD IS DIFFERENT .

E XAM P L E A : p i n e , p i n e , fine . ( brief paus e )

THE WORD NUMBER THREE IS DIFFERENT . CHECK THREE .

E XAM P L E A : 1 ( ) 2 ( ) 3 ( I )

1 8 7

1 8 8

E XAM P L E B : p i l l , b i l l , pi l l . ( brief paus e )


E XAM P L E B : 1 ( ) 2 ( ,I) 3 ( )

E XAM P L E C : p u t , foo t , foo t . ( brief pause )


E XAM P L E C : 1 ( I)

2 ( ) 3

Repeat the examp les i f the student s do not understand the procedure .

Read the numbers and the following triplets of words :

l . v i l e , fi l e , fi te 29 . ahin, tin, t i n 2 . t hing, t hing, s i ng 3 0 . di t l , d i n , t i n 3 . doe , t hough, t hough 3 l . v e t , y e t , y e t 4 . s ing , z i ng , s i ng 3 2 . z e n , z e n , t h e n 5 . p i n , bi t l , b i n 3 3 . real', year, year 6 . fee l , fe e l , v e a l 3 4 . ahop, ahop , top 7 . soug h t , t houg h t , thoug h t 3 5 . town, down , town 8 . dar e , dare , t he re 3 6 . v e s t , v e s t , y e s ed 9 . Sue , z oo , Sue 3 7 . t he/'6 i y/, z /z i y/, t he/'6 i y/

10 . Pau l , Pau l , ba n 3 8 . rung, young, y oung I I . v e i l , fai t , v e i t 3 9 . ahi n , a h i n , t i t l 12 . s i a k , s i a k , t h i a k 4 0 . dip , tip, t i p 1 3 . day , t h e y , day 4 I . y e , v/v i y/, v/v i y/ 1 4 . z ina, z i na, sink 4 2 . j o k e , j o k e , a ho k e 15 . big, pig, big 4 3 . ra i l , wai l , wai t 16 . v in e , fi ne, fine 4 4 . than, t han, van 1 7 . seem, s e em, t heme 4 5 . aould, good, good 1 8 . Dan, t han, t han 4 6 . t heme , t heme , t e am 19 . z o n e , z o n e , sown 4 7 . j e s t , ahe s t , j e s t 2 0 . p u s h , p u s h , b u s h 4 8 . red, red, wed 2 l . van, fan , van 4 9 . t h e y ' l l , v e i l , t he y ' n 22 . z e n , t hen, then 5 0 . aan e , aane, gain 2 3 . ro t , r o t , yaaht 5 l . t i a k , t h i a k , t h i a k 2 4 . tip, ahip, tip 52 . aha i n , ahain, Jane 2 5 . ta l l , do H , do l l 5 3 . rade , wade , wade 26 . Ya l e , Ya l e , v e i t 5 4 . vow, vow, t hou 2 7 . t he e/'6 i y/, z/z i y/, thee/'6 i y/ 5 5 . aa l l , gU l l , aa n 2 8 . ra i l , rai l , Ya l e 56 . taug h t , taug h t , t houg h t

189

57 . c h i L L , fi L L , chi L L 82 . z/z i y/, g e e , z/z i y/ 5 8 . wide, wide , ride 8 3 . c h i p , chip, s ip 59 . v e i l , they ' Z Z , t h e y ' l l 8 4 . we s t , v e s t , we s t 6 0 . coa t , goa t , goat 8 5 . fe e t , Pe t e , Pe t e 6 1 . t e rm, t e rm, t h e rm 86 . t h e r e , t h e r e , Thayer/e e r/ 62 . s hip, chip, s h ip 8 7 . z ip , z ip , gyp 6 3 . j e t , de b t , de b t 8 8 . c h i n , c h i n , s i n 6 4 . rac k , rack, lack 89 . v e in, wane , wane 6 5 . bai l , v e i L , v e i l 90 . fi t , fi t , p i t 6 6 . firm, firm, t h e rm 9 1 . Thayer, t h e r e , t h e r e 6 7 . s h i n , c h i n , s hi n 9 2 . g i n k , g i n k , z inc 6 8 . Jan e , Dan e , Dane 9 3 . chain, sane , sane 6 9 . reap , leap , reap 9 4 . s a k e , sake , s hake 70 . bane, vane , bane 95 . fun , pun, fun 7 1 . t houg h t , fough t , foug h t 96 . Thay er, Thay e r , t here 7 2 . c hea t , c h e a t , s hee t 97 . gyp , z ip , z ip 7 3 . Ji Z Z , di Z Z , Ji Z Z 98 . s e a t , c h e a t , s e a t 7 4 . L a n e , Lane , rain 99 . s h i n , s i n , s h in 75 . van, ban, ban 100 . pace , fac e , face 76 . t hi L L , fi Z Z , t h i L l 101 . Thayer, there, Thaye r 77 . chair, chair, s hare 102 . wa i l , v e i l , v e i l 7 8 . due, Jew, Jew 1 0 3 . s e a t , s e a t , s he e t 79 . read, Lead, Z ead 104 . v i n e , w i n e , wine 80 . b o a t , boat , v o t e 105 . s ip , s ip , s hip 8 1 . foa l , t ho l e , tho le

PART THREE


I AM GOING TO READ THREE WORDS . CHECK WHICH WORD IS DIFFERENT .

E XA M P L E A : r i b , rip, rip . ( brief pause )


E XAMP L E A : 1 ( I)

2 ( ) 3

E XA M P L E B : beach, b e a t , b e ac h . ( brief pause )


E XA M P L E B : 1 ( )

2 ( I)

3 ( )

E XAMP L E C : beef, beef, bea t . ( brief paus e )

1 9 0


E XA M P L E c : 1 ( )

2 ( )

3 ( I)

Repeat the examp les i f the students still do not unders tand the

procedure .


1 . ridg e , r i c h , rich 3 5 . bode , bode , boa t 2 . b a t h , bas s , b a t h 36 . priz e , p r i c e , pri z e 3 . g i b , g i v e , g i b 3 1 - c a t c h , cas h , cas h 4 . fai t h , fai t h , fa t e 3 8 . t e a s e , t e a s e , t e e t h e 5 . cap , cab , cab 39 . h a t c h , h a t , ha t 6 . badg e , batc h , badge 40 . s e a t , s ea t , s e ed 7 . p a t h , p a s s , pas s 4 1 . ha lf, b a t h , b a t h 8 . rob e , rob e , rove 4 2 . s e e t h e , s e i z e , s e i z e 9 . b a t h , ba t , ba t 4 3 . t e n , te l l , t e n

10 . tap, tab , tap 4 4 . Sue , Sue , s u i t 1 1 . Madg e , ma t c h , m a t c h 4 5 . tag, t a c k , tack 12 . fac e , face , fai t h 46 . wre a t h , re ef, wre a t h 1 3 . g i v e , g i b , g ib 4 1 - age , age, aid 14 . s o o t h , s u i t , s u i t 4 8 . pain, pai l , pain 15 . rip, rip, r i b 49 . c u e , c u e , c u t e 16 . search, surg e , surge 50 . back, back, bag 17 . my t h , m i s s , mi s s 5 1 . s heaf, s h e a t h , s heaf 18 . rob e , r o v e , r o v e 52 . rid, rid, r i dge 19 . s h e a t h , s h e e t , s h e a t h 5 3 . bow l , b o n e , bow l 20 . cub, cup , cup 54 . bru t e , bru t e , brew 2 1 . race , ra i s e , race 55 . p i g , p i c k , p i g 22 . much, mu s h , m u s h 56 . wre a t h , reef, reef 2 3 . bas e , ba s e , ba t he 57 . mad, Madg e , mad 24 . wri t , wri t , r i c h 5 8 . phone, fow l , fow l 25 . b e a t , bead, bea t 59 . beer, bi l l , beer 26 . h i s , h i s s , h i s s 60 . l e a k , l eague , league 2 7 . wa t c h , wa t c h , was h 6 1 . bre a t h e , b r i e v e , brieve 2 8 . Sue ' s , s o o t h e , S u e '. S 6 2 . leap , leap, leaf 2 9 . b a t , ba t c h , batch 6 3 . read, read, wre a t h e 30 . be t , bed, bed 6 4 . rear, r i l l , rear 3 1 . l o o s e , l o s e , l o s e 65 . t a t , t a t , tack 32 . h a t c h , has h , ha t c h 66 . wre a t h e , r e e v e , reeve 3 3 . s h e ' s , s h e a t h e , s h e ' s 6 7 . sap e , safe , sape 3 4 . c a t c h , ca t , c a t c h 6 8 . b a t h e , b a t h e , bade

69 . fe a r , fi l t , fi n 1 0 0 . safe , s a v e , s a v e

7 0 . Z o c k , Z o t , Z o t 1 0 1 r u s e/ r u w z l, ru s e , r o u g h

7 I . s h e av e , s h e a t h e , s h e a v e 1 0 2 . Z i fe , Z i c e , Z i c e

72 . Z a u g h , Z a p , Z a p 1 0 3 . t i r e , t i e , t i r e

7 3 . s u e dl s u w d l, s u e d , s o o t h e 1 0 4 . ha v e , h a s , have

7 4 . g e a r , g e a r , g i n 1 0 5 . m o u t h , m o u t h e , mou t h

7 5 . b u c k , b u t , b u t 1 0 6 . bas e , b a s e , b e i g e

76 . wre a t h e , r e e f , wre a t h e 1 0 7 . k n i fe , n i c e , k n i fe

7 7 . hap , hap , ha Z f 10 8 . m i r e , my , my

7 8 . b r e a t h e , b r e e d , b r e e d 1 0 9 . s a v e , s av e , s a y s

79 . f L e w , f Z e w , f Z u t e 1 l 0 . t e e t h e , t e e t h , t e e t h

80 . Z o o t , Z o o t , L u k e l l I . roug e , ru s e , r o u g e

8 I . Ru s s , r u s h , ru s h 1 1 2 . p uff, p u s , p u s

82 . s i ng , s i n , s i n 1 1 3 . be e , b e a t , b e a t

8 3 . fe e Z , few, few 1 1 4 . wav e , way s , w a v e

8 4 . m i r e , m i re , my 1 1 5 . s o o t h e , s o o t h , s o o t h e

85 . Z e a v e , Z eaf, Z e a f 1 1 6 . b e i g e , b a s e , b a s e

86 . m u s h , mu s s , m u s h 1 1 7 . s e e , s e a t , s e e

8 7 . s u r g e , s u rg e , s u rd 1 1 8 . Z ig h t , Z i g h t , Z i e

8 8 . s ung , s u n , s u ng 1 19 . do v e , doe s , do e s

8 9 . foa Z , fo e , fo e 1 2 0 . b a t h , b a t h e , b a t h

9 0 . ha Zf, h a Z f, h a v e 1 2 I . m e a t , m e , m e a t

9 I . Z e a s el I i y s / , Z ea s h , Z e a s h 1 2 2 . t o i Z , t o i Z , toy

9 2 . t h i n , t h i n g , t h ing 1 2 3 . brown , b ro w , brow

9 3 . b o w , b o w , b o w Z 1 2 4 . b u y , b u y , b i t e

9 4 . fe w , fe e Z , fe w 1 2 5 . pry , p r i de , pry

9 5 . fi v e , fife , fi v e 1 2 6 . m ig h t , my , my

9 6 . c a s h , Ca s s , c a s h 1 2 7 . n o w , n o w , n o u n

9 7 . ban , bang , ban 1 2 8 . fig h t , fig h t , fie

9 8 . Z e a s e/ I i y s / , Z e a s e , Z e a f 1 2 9 . b o w/ b o wl, b o w , b o a t

99 . fi r e , fi r e , fie 1 3 0 . b ro w , brow, brown

PART FOUR

Time : approximate ly 25 minutes .

I AM GOING TO READ THREE WORDS . CHECK WHICH WORD IS DIFFERENT . E XA M P L E A : s k i n , s k i Z Z , s i Z L ( brief pause )


E XAMP L E A : 1 ( )

2 ( ) 3 ( I)

E XA M P L E B : s k i Z Z , s t i l t , s k i Z L ( brief pause )

1 9 1

1 9 2


E XAM P L E B : 1 ( )

2 ( I)

3 ( )

E XA MP L E c : dry , try , t ry . ( brief pause )

THE WORD NUMBER ONE IS D IFFERENT . CHECK ONE .

E XA MP L E C : 1 ( I)

2 ( )

3

Repeat the examples i f the students s t i l l do not understand the

p rocedure .


l . t hrow, t hrow, fro 30 . brew, prew, brew 2 . s nap , s nap, nap 3 l . s k i n , s k i n . k i n 3 . drawn. drawn. dawn 32 . baak. b laak. b la a k 4 . t hr i n . t h i l l . t h i l l 3 3 . g lean. g lean. lean 5 . p la y . pray , pray 34 . f l ow , l o w , flow 6 . Fred. Fred. t hread 3 5 . p lo w s . b lo u s e . b lo u s e 7 . near. near. sneer 36 . aoo l . aoo l . s a h o o l 8 . dri n . d i n . di l l 37 . b lank. bank. bank 9 . throng . t hong , t hrong 3 8 . g lo b e . g lo b e , l o b e

10 . p l ow e d. p l owed. proud 39 . swe l l . s e l l . s e n l l . spi n . p i l l . p i n 4 0 . p la i n . p la i n . b la i n 12 . fai r . fair. flair 4 l . s end. s e nd. spend 1 3 . dre s s ed. dre s sed. res t 4 2 . brak e , b r a k e , bake 14 . fri ed. p ride . pride 4 3 . grain. gain. gain 1 5 . b lu e . brew. b lue 4 4 . swe e t , s e a t . s we e t 16 . p i t . spi t . sp i t 4 5 . dry , dry . try 17 . flame. flame , fame 46 . s i n . s p i n , s p i n 1 8 . dried. r i de . ride 4 7 . brig h t . b i te . b i te 19 . f l a s h , l a s h . f l a s h 4 8 . g rap e . gI'ape , gape 20 . b leed, bI'eed, bre ed 49 . s p l i a e . s p i a e . sp l i a e 2 l . s t ia k . s ti a k . t ia k 50 . tri n , dI'i l l , tI'i l l 2 2 . b lo a k , b loak. loak 5 l . s to le . s o l e , s o l e 2 3 . g la i v e . gave . gave 52 . bride . bride . I'ide 2 4 . t h r i a e . thriae , I'iae 5 3 . k i a k . aI'i a k . k i a k 2 5 . bI'eas t , pre s sed. pre s s e d 5 4 . sp l i t , s p l i t , s p i t 26 . s t i l l . t i n . t i l l 55 . arowd. a l oud, arowd 2 7 . land. land, b land 56 . s ta y , s tay , say 2 8 . g lo a t , g lo a t , g o a t 5 7 . bring, ring, ring 29 . wro t e , thI'oa t , throa t 5 8 . aos t , aros s ed, aI'os s e d

1 9 3

5 9 . q u i n t , s q u i n t , s q u i n t 9 8 . f L a s h , p La s h , f La s h

60 . c L imb , c L imb, crime 99 . pray , pray, fray

6 l . s ig h , s ky , s ky 1 0 0 . fL e e , f L e e , fre e

6 2 . p Lay, p Lay , pay 10l . mo k e , smo k e , smo ke

6 3 . cried, ride , c r i e d 1 0 2 . trai L , t a i L , t a i L

6 4 . s q u i L L , q u i L L , qu i H 1 0 3 . p La t , p L a t , f L a t

6 5 . g Lew, grew, grew 1 0 4 . k i c k , q u i c k , q u i c k

6 6 . s i L L , s i H , s k i H 1 0 5 . t hread, tread, tread

6 7 . p La c e , p a c e , p a c e 106 . my t h , my t h , Smi t h

6 8 . c row, crow, row 10 7 . t ro L L , to H , t ro H

6 9 . p Lay , sp L ay , s p L ay 1 0 8 . s cream , s cheme , s cheme

70 . g L ow, g Low, frow 1 0 9 . q u i t e , k i t e , k i t e

7 l . s Lay , L a y , Lay 1l0 . t h r e e , t r e e , t hr e e

7 2 . p La n e , p la n e , lane lll . s n e e z e , s e i z e , s e i z e

7 3 . fre e z e , fe e s , fe e s 1 1 2 . t rade , t rade , rade

74 . p la s h , p la s h , sp l a s h 1 1 3 . s kipped, s crip t , s c r i p t

7 5 . g la s s , c la s s , c la s s 1 1 4 . bu t te , b o o t , bu t t e

76 . s Lid, s l id, L i d 115 . t ra i L , rai L , t ra i l

7 7 . p l.a t e , l a t e , L a t e 116 . s n o w , snow, s o

7 8 . frig h t , frig h t , fig h t 1 1 7 . s tring, s t ing, s ti ng

79 . t hrow, fro , fro 1 1 8 . sJluare , s quare , s care

80 . g lad, g Lad, c lad 1 1 9 . bu t te , boo t , b o o t

8 l . s Lang, s Lang, s ang 1 2 0 . spri t e , s p i t e , s p i t e

82 . pray , pray , pay 12l . h i , why, hi

8 3 . fried, fried, ride 1 2 2 . s t ray , s tray , s tay

84 . Fred, Fred, t hread 1 2 3 . s q ue e z e , s k i s , s k i s

85 . crew, grew, grew 124 . fue l , foo l , fue l

86 . s la v e , save , save 1 2 5 . spri t , spri t , s p i t

87 . p o s e , po s e , p r o s e 126 . whi t , w h i t , h i t

88 . fra i l , ra i L , ra i l 127 . cream, s cream, s cream

89 . t read, t hread, t read 1 2 8 . fue L , foo l , foo L

9 0 . crow, crow, grow 129 . s w i L l , s wi H , s qu i H

9 l . sme L L , s e L l , s e H 1 3 0 . p ra y , spra y , pray

9 2 . p ro s e , ro s e , prose 1 3 l . poor, p u r e , poor

9 3 . t hri H , thri L L , tri I I 1 3 2 . s crap e , crap e , s crape

9 4 . s t ra ig h t , t ra i t , t r a i t 1 3 3 . s t rap, s trap , t rap

9 5 . fry , fry , fLy 1 3 4 . poor, p u r e , pure

9 6 . smo c k , smo c k , s o c k 1 35 . spri n t , sprin t , p r i n t

9 7 . p r i z e , r i s e , r i s e 136 . square , swear, swear

PART FIVE


1 9 4

I A M GOING T O READ THREE WORDS . CHECK WHICH WORD IS DIFFERENT .

E XA M P L E A : s in k , s i ng , s i ng . ( brief pause ) THE WORD NUMBER ONE IS DIFFERENT . CHECK ONE .

E XA M P L E A : 1 ( .,I) 2 (

3 ( )

E XA M P L E B : L e nd, L e n t , L e nd . ( brief pause ) THE WORD NUMBER TWO IS DIFFERENT . CHECK TWO .

E XA M P L E B : 1 ( ) 2 (.,I) 3 ( )

E XA M P L E C : b e L t , be L t , be t . ( bri e f pause ) THE WORD NUMBER THREE IS DIFFERENT . CHECK THREE .

E XA M P L E C : 1 ( )

2 ( )

3 (.,I)

Repeat the examples if the students do not understand the procedure .

Read the numbers and the fol lowing triplets of words :

l . he L L , he L L , he Lp 2 2 . boo t , boo t s , b o o t s 2 . k i Lns , k i Ln, k i Lns 2 3 . we L c h , w e L L , we n 3 . s c u Lp , scup, s cup 2 4 . wl'e a t h s , wl'e a t h s , wl'e a t h 4 . s h e L v e , she L v e s , s h e L v e 2 5 . b i L g e , b i Lg e , b i n 5 . be L t , b e L L , b e L t 2 6 . widths , width, width 6 . cUl'b s , cUl'b , cUl'b 2 7 . bu lge, budg e , budge 7 . fau l t , fough t , fought 2 8 . l ift s , l ift , Lifts 8 . wOl'ds , word, wOl'ds 29 . he lm, he L t , he lm 9 . mi l L , mi l l , m i L k 30 . fift h, fift h s , fift h s

10 . i c e bel'g s , icebel'g , icebel'gs 3 l . e lm , m/em/, e lm l l . s i L k , s i c k , s i L k 32 . a c t s , a c t s , a c t 12 . g i l' L , g i l' l s , g i l' l s 3 3 . k i l n , k i n , k i n 1 3 . co Ld, coa l" coa l, 3 4 . g u l,!. gu l,fs, g u l,fs 1 4 . hal'ms , hal'm, hal'm 35 . k i L l" k i L t , k i Ln 15 . fade , fai l,ed, fade 36 . s i l k s , s i L k , s i L k s 16 . tUl'n , tUl'ns , tUl'ns 3 7 . tend, t e n , t e n 1 7 . t e n t , t e n , t e n t 38 . he l,ps, he l, p s , he Lp 1 8 . CUl'v e s , CUl'v e s , curve 39 . bed, bed, bend 19 . h i n t , h i t , h i t 40 . fau l, ts , fau l, t s , fau L t 20 . laug h s , l,aug h s , laugh 4 l . change , chain, chain 2 l . be l, c h , be L t , b e l, c h 4 2 . hea l, t h s , hea l t h s , hea L t h

4 3 . rag e , rag e , range 4 4 . nymp h s , nymp h , nymp h

4 5 . t e n t h , t e n , t e n t h 46 . n i n t h s , n i n t h , n i n t h 4 7 . bunch , bunch , bun 4 8 . ran k s , ran k , rank 49 . munch, muc h , much 50 . s crip t s , s crip t , scrip t s 5 1 . warm, warm t h , warm 52 . d e s k s , d e s k s , de s k 5 3 . s e e m s , s e em, s e ems 54 . L i s p , L i sp s , � i sps 5 5 . has, hams , has 56 . roas t s , roas t s , roas t 5 7 . beans, beans, b e e s 5 8 . e i g h t h s , e i g h t h , e ig h t h s 59 . fan, fan s , fans 6 0 . t e x t s , t e x t s , text 6 1 . s ing s , s i ng, s i ng 6 2 . s ix t h s , s ix t h s , s ix t h 6 3 . e �f, �/e l /, �/e l / 6 4 . twe �ft h , twe �ft h s , t we lft h s 6 5 . e �f, e �f, fle f l 6 6 . t e mp t s , temp t , t emp t s 6 7 . wea l t h , wea � t h , we � � 6 8 . t housand t h s , t hou sandh t s ,

t housandth 6 9 . de � v e , de � � , de � v e 70 . � e ng t h s , l e ng t h , � e ng t h s 7 1 . be l l s , be l l , b e l l 7 2 . surfs , surfs , s urf 7 3 . caus e , ca l l s , ca l l s 7 4 . wor k s , work s , work 7 5 . mus t , mus s , mus t 76 . c h i rp , c h i rp s , c h i rp

7 7 . fi s t , fi s t , fi t 7 8 . burs t s , burs t s , bur s t

79 . t a s k , t a s s e , tas se

80 . rubbed, rub , rub 8 1 . d e s k , de c k , d e s k 82 . tugged, tugg ed, t ug

8 3 . L i s p , l i p , l i sp 84 . raged, rage , rage d

85 . s u c h , s u c h , s e a r c h 86 . comb ed, .combed, comb 87 . Sir, search, search 8 8 . wronged, wrong , wrong 8 9 . broad, breadt h , b road 90 . s e e t h e , s e e thed, s e e t he d 9 1 . b re a d t h , bre a t h , b re a t h 92 . rouged, rouged, rouge 9 3 . e i g h t h , e i g h t , e i g h t h 9 4 . moved, mov ed, move 9 5 . l e av e s , � e a v e , � ea v e s 96 . pra i s e , prai se d , prai s e d 97 . � e a s e , leav e s , � e a s e 9 8 . bu �ged, b u �ged, bu lge 99 . t e n t , t e nd, tend

100 . fi � m , fi � m , fi lmed 10 1 . s he � v e , s h e lf, s h e l v e 102 . s o � v e d , s o l v e d, so � v e 10 3 . bo � t , b o �d, b o � t 10 4 . c hang e , c hanged, c hang e d 1 0 5 . heard, hur t , h e ard 106 . barbed, barbed, barb 107 . surg e , search, search 1 0 8 . merged, merg e , merged 109 . serve, s u rf, s e r v e 110 . cur led, cu r l , c u r � I l l . be � t , b e n t , b e n t 112 . warmed, warmed, warm 11 3 . end, e l d, end 114 . turned, turned, turn 115 . bo � e s , bone s , bone s 116 . curved, curv e , curve 1 1 7 . s e e t hed, s i e v e d . s e e thed 11 8 . push, push, p u s h e d 119 . wre a t h s , reefs , re efs 120 . touched, touched, t o u c h 121 . cab s , cab , cab s 122 . eng u � f, engu lfed, e ng u lf 12 3 . rig s , rig s , rig

124 . we � c h , we � c h , we � ched 1 2 5 . ba l l s , ba l l , ba l l 126 . lunch, lunch, �unched 127 . rooms , room s , room

1 9 5

1 9 6

12 8 . danaed, danae , danaed 1 3 2 . Lap sed, L ap s e , L ap s e d 129 . 'Li v e , L i v e s , L i v e s 1 3 3 . bre a t he , brea t he s , b r e a t h e 1 30 . 'L i n k , 'Linked, 'Linked 1 3 4 . bu L b s , b u L b s , bu L b 1 3 1 . t h i ng s , t h ing, t h i n g s 1 35 . ao Ld, ao Lds , ao L d

1 3 6 . fi Lms , fi Lm, fi Lms

A P P E N D I X I I

E NG L I S H PRONUNC I AT I ON FOR V I E TNAME SE

STEP TWO : T E S T S O F P R ODUCT I ON ( TA P E RECORD I NG )

I NSTRUC T I ONS T O EXAM I NERS

The te st s , like the tests of recogni t i on , are to be administ ered to

beginning student s ( t en to twenty o f them ) and advanced student s ( five

to ten of them ) who are in maj ority Southern Vietname se dialect speak

ers . They are composed of three part s :

Part One : individual words having difficult vowe l s , initial and

final consonant s and consonant c lusters .

Part Two : a short pas sage ( t aken from Erne st Hemingway ' s A Fa��w�ll

to A�m6 , Jonathan Cape Publ ishers , London , 1957 , pp . 6 6 -67 ) .

Since the reading samples will be used t o find out intonat ion

prob lems , we would like to have fo ur na t i v e speakers of Midwestern

Standard Ameri can English ( two of them female and two mal e ) rec ord

the same pas sage .

Part Three : re cordings of es say writ ings on any topic ( s t orie s , nar

ration , et c . ) , read by some ten student s and writ ten by themse lve s ,

and i f possib le , rec ordings of some free c onversat ion in English by

Vietname s e student s . The e s say writ ings and top i c s of c onversat ion

can b e assigned to st udents as ordinary homework . Two to five

hours o f tapes for Part Three will be enough .

Thanks to the we ll-equipped language laboratory at the V . A . A . , re

cordings o f up to twenty students can be made at the same t ime .

Ask the students to give their name , age , V . A . A . grade and their

nat i ve Vi etname se dialect be fore they read the test s .

1 9 7

1 9 8

Only t h e second part of t h e tes t s , t he reading o f Hemingway ' s pas

sage , needs some preparation by the student s be fore being recorded .

Ask them t o read through the text two or three times in orde r to mini

mise their reading difficulties . Then ask them to read for t he actual

recording .

PART ONE : INDIVIDUAL WORDS

The Student ' s name :

Age :

V . A . A . Grade :

Vietname se dialect :

Date of recording :

( It is not neces sary to give t he numb er be fore the words . )

l . p i z.z. 2 8 . t hank 55 . have 82 . t ig h t 2 . p u s h 29 . t h e y 56 . cow 8 3 . poo t 3 . b e e s 30 . t h i n 5 7 . t oud 8 4 . b i z.z. 4 . b e a c h 3l . t h e n 5 8 . t i n 85 . car 5 . foo t 32 . coa t 59 . soon 86 . far 6 . fee s 3 3 . coo t 60 . rai s e 87 . brea t h e 7 . v e a t 3 4 . goa t 6 l . h i s 8 8 . fe e t 8 . v o t e 35 . g a i n 62 . c a s h 89 . s e e n 9 . w i ng 36 . hea t 6 3 . fi s h 90 . b i t

10 . w e e k 37 . h i n 6 4 . azure 9l . t i t 1 l . t e a c h 38 . y e s 6 5 . ma tch 92 . cape 1 2 . t o o t 39 . you 66 . measure 9 3 . made 1 3 . den 40 . t ip 6 7 . c hurch 9 4 . bed 14 . d i s h 4 l . rig h t 6 8 . judge 9 5 . me t 15 . mou t h 42 . t ong 69 . age 96 . ma t 16 . much 4 3 . ru te 70 . b a t h 9 7 . bad 1 7 . n e e d 4 4 . keep 7 l . p a t h 9 8 . fu n 1 8 . nor 4 5 . cup 72 . bathe 99 . t o o k 19 . s i c k 4 6 . rub 7 3 . s o o t h e 100 . p o o t 20 . s u c h 4 7 . robe 74 . 1'ock 10l . foo t 2 l . z e a t 4 8 . ram 7 5 . l.uck 102 . n o t e 2 2 . z o o 4 9 . came 76 . big 103 . c o a t 2 3 . s ha t t 50 . l.eaf 7 7 . pig 104 . boug h t 2 4 . c h e s t 5 l . 1'oof 7 8 . s i ng 105 . caug h t 25 . c h e er 52 . m o u t h 79 . rang 106 . h o t 26 . j u s t 5 3 . smoo t h 80 . 1'i ng 107 . c o t 27 . Jim 54 . t i v e 8 l . 1'i g h t 108 . bu t

109 . cup 1 l0 . i c e 1 1 1 . wri t e 1 12 . hou s e 1 1 3 . cows 1 1 4 . b o y s 115 . o i l 1 16 . s o i l 1 1 7 . s k i n l l S . pray 1 19 . p re s s 120 . tree 1 2 1 . tl'ue 12 2 . fre e 12 3 . fru i t 124 . g ray 125 . grass 126 . dray 1 2 7 . drew 12 S . crew 129 . Cl'OW 1 30 . t hl'oW 1 3 1 . t hread 1 3 2 . broad 1 3 3 . brown 1 34 . s hr i n k 1 35 . s hrewd 1 36 . s tay 1 37 . s t i l l 1 3 S . spend 1 39 . s p o i l 14 0 . sma l l 14 1 . smoke 1 4 2 . s k in 14 3 . score 1 4 4 . s now 1 4 5 . s na i l 146 . sphere 14 7 . s p h i nx 1 4 S . s low 149 . s l eep 150 . p lay 15 1 . p l ow

152 . c lue 1 5 3 . d o s e 154 . b l ue 155 . b le e d 156 . f l o w 157 . f l e e 1 5 S . g low 159 . g l ide 160 . dwe l l 161 . dwarf 162 . q u i c k 16 3 . qua c k 164 . t w i n e 165 . t w e e d 166 . swe I I 167 . swim 16 S . why 169 . which 170 . t hwart 1 7 1 . t hwack 172 . few 17 3 . fu s e 174 . c u t e 175 . cube 176 . mu t e 1 7 7 . mu s i c 17S . beauty 179 . bureau 180 . pure 1 8 1 . pup i l 182 . v i e w 1 8 3 . hug e l S 4 . human 185 . s t ray 186 . s tring 1 8 7 . screw 1 8 8 . scro I I 189 . spread 190 . spring 19 1 . sp l i t 192 . sp l ice 19 3 . s quare 194 . squint

1 9 5 . lend 196 . tend 19 7 . t e n t 19 8 . a n t 199 . m u s t 200 ; re s t 2 0 1 . fe nce 202 . t e n s e 20 3 . o ld 2 0 4 . co ld 205 . g u lf 206 . s i nk 207 . s e lf 20 8 . monk 209 . act 210 . c hange 2 1 1 . faa t 2 1 2 . rang e 2 1 3 . va l v e 214 . be l t 215 . s o l v e 216 . fe l t 217 . de s k 2 1 8 . he lp 2 1 9 . tas k 220 . g u lp 2 2 1 . fa l s e 222 . s i l k 2 2 3 . p u l s e 2 2 4 . m i l k 225 . hea l t h 226 . l imp 2 2 7 . wea l t h 2 2 8 . pump 229 . bench 2 30 . soft 2 3 1 . lunch 2 3 2 . left 2 3 3 . l i s p 2 3 4 . fi lm 2 3 5 . wasp 2 3 6 . e lm 2 37 . b u l g e

2 3 8 . bu lb 2 39 . b i lge 2 4 0 . bu lb 2 4 1 . we l c h 2 4 2 . widt h 2 4 3 . we lch 2 4 4 . breadth 2 4 5 . adz e 2 4 6 . k i ln 2 4 7 . adz e 2 4 8 . k i ln 249 . v e rb 250 . board 2 5 1 . herb 2 5 2 . word 25 3 . t urf 254 . i ceberg 255 . s u rf 256 . i cebel'g 2 5 7 . surge 2 5 S . church 259 . merge 260 . s earch 261 . for k 262 . c u r l 26 3 . work 2 6 4 . g i r l 2 6 5 . warm 266 . t urn 2 6 7 . harm 2 6 8 . barn 269 . carp 2 7 0 . parse 2 7 1 . warp 2 7 2 . curse 2 7 3 . court 2 7 4 . nerve 275 . hurt 276 . curve 2 7 7 . furze 2 7 8 . harsh 279 . fur z e 280 . marsh

199

2 0 0

2 81 . worse 324 . rooms 367 . fad s 410 . waged

2 8 2 . w o r t h 325 . aa l l s 368 . s i l k s 4 1 1 . roamed

2 8 3 . aorpse 326 . t eams 369 . h e l p s 412 . wronged

2 84 . h e a r t h 327 . l i v e s 370 . mi l k s 4 1 3 . aomb ed 2 8 5 . aorp s e 328 . kings 371 . gu lps 4 1 4 . t hrong e d 2 8 6 . fi rs t 329 . h i v e s 372 . b e l t s 4 1 5 . breat hed 2 87 . quartz 3 30 . t hings 37 3 . hea l t hs 4 16 . rouged 2 8 8 . burs t 3 3 1 . bre a t he s 374 . fau l t s 4 1 7 . wre a t hed 2 89 . quartz 3 3 2 . b u l b s 375 . wea l t h s 4 1 8 . l i v e d 290 . t emp t 3 3 3 . wrea t h e s 376 . nymphs 419 . rai s e d 29 1 . g Hmps e 3 3 4 . ao lds 3 7 7 . n i n t h s 4 2 0 . mov e d 2 9 2 . p romp t 335 . films 37 8 . l ymp h s 4 2 1 . prai s e d 2 9 3 . g Hmp s e 336 . ho lds 37 9 . t e n t h s 422 . bu lged 2 9 4 . b e 1.ah 3 3 7 . e 1. ms 380 . s in k s 4 2 3 . fi lmed 2 9 5 . nymph 3 3 8 . s h e lv e s 381 . rank s 4 2 4 . s o l v e d 2 9 6 . g u lah 339 . aurbs 382 . aryp t s 4 2 5 . whe lmed 2 9 7 . triumph 340 . so l v e s 383 . a s k s 426 . s he l v e d 2 9 8 . aop s e 34 1 . verbs 3 84 . sarip t s 4 2 7 . a hanged 2 9 9 . ap t 342 . ki lns 3 85 . de s k s 4 2 8 . barked 300 . aop s e 34 3 . aards 386 . l i sp s 429 . range d 3 0 1 . s a rip t 3 4 4 . i ae bergs 387 . fi s t s 4 30 . aurb e d 302 . t e n t h 345 . words 388 . was p s 4 3 1 . surged 30 3 . l e n s 346 . aurbs 389 . re s t s 4 32 . aur l e d 304 . s e v e n t h 3 4 7 . worms 390 . e ig h t h s 4 3 3 . merg e d 30 5 . t e n s 34 8 . g i r l s 391 . t e x t s 4 3 4 . h u r l e d 30 6 . fift h 349 . harms 392 . s ix t h s 4 35 . warmed 3 0 7 . e i g h t h 350 . turns 39 3 . twe lft h s 4 36 . warned 30 8 . fifth 351 . aurves 394 . temp t s 4 3 7 . s tormed 309 . e i g h t h 352 . warns 395 . thousandths 4 3 8 . turned 310 . text 3 5 3 . nerves 396 . leng t h s 4 39 . aurved 3 1 1 . s ix t h 354 . aoughs 397 . s treng t h s 4 4 0 . hunahed 3 1 2 . next 355 . ra ts 39 8 . s u rfs 4 4 1 . nerved 31 3 . s ix t h 356 . laughs 399 . works 4 4 2 . munahed 3 1 4 . t ho u sandth 357 . boo t s 4 0 0 . fo rks 4 4 3 . danaed 3 1 5 . twe lft h 35 8 . brea t h s 4 0 1 . ah irps 4 4 4 . l i nked 316 . lynx 359 . wid t h s 4 0 2 . warp s 4 4 5 . lap s e d 3 1 7 . warm t h 36 0 . wre a t h s 4 0 3 . hur t s 4 4 6 . winked 3 1 8 . s t reng t h 361 . breadths 40 4 . rubbed 4 4 7 . l i t t l e 3 19 . aabs 362 . tuft s 4 0 5 . t h i r s t s 4 4 8 . b o t t l e 320 . rugs 36 3 . fift h s 406 . sobbed 4 49 . app le 321 . rub s 364 . lifts 40 7 . tugged 450 . s huff l e 32 2 . bags 365 . a d s 4 0 8 . rage d 4 5 1 . bu t ton 32 3 . ba l l s 366 . g u lfs 409 . begged 452 . happ en

4 5 3 . sudden 4 5 4 . bo t t om 4 5 5 . s e ldom 4 5 6 . fre e dom

PART TWO : READ ING


Age :

V . A . A . Grade :

Vietnamese d ialect :

Date o f recording :

Have y our ( 2 female and 2 male ) Ameri cans who speak Midwes tern

Standard Ameri can English read the same pas sage .

The I nformant ' s name :

Age :

Native State :

Date of recording :

2 0 1

( This pas sage is t aken from Erne st Hemingway ' s A F �� ewell to A�m4 ,

Jonathan Cape Pub li shers , London , 1 957 , pp . 66-7 . ) It i s necessary t o

have the s tudents read the pas sage two o r t hree t imes b e fore the actual

recording in order t o mi nimi se their reading di fficulties .

" ' I brought you a few little things , ' he said . up the pac kages . ' This i s mosquito netting . This bottle of vermouth . You like vermouth? These are papers . '

' P lease open them . '

He p icked is a Eng l i sh

He was pleased and undid them . I held t he mosquito nett i ng in my hands . The vermouth he held up for me to see and then put it on the floor bes ide the bed . I he ld up one o f t h e sheaf o f English papers . I could read the headline s by t urning i t so the half- light from the window was on it . It was the " News of the World " .

' The others are i l lus trated , ' he sai d .

' It will be a great happiness t o read them . Where did you get them? '

' I sent for them t o Me stre . I wi l l have more . '

' You were very good to come , father . Will you drink a glass of vermouth? '

' Thank you . You keep it . It ' s for you . ' ' No , drink a glas s . '

' A l l right . I will bring you more then . '

The orderly brought the glas ses and opened the b ottle . He

202

broke off the c ork and the end had to be shoved down into the bot t le . I could see the priest was disappoint ed but he said , ' That ' s a l l right . It ' s no matter . '

' Here ' s t o your health-, father . '

' To your b etter health . , II

PART THREE :

READING ENGLISH COMPOSIT ION AND CONVERSATION

A . R E A D I N G E N G L I S H C O M P O S I T I O N


Age :

V . A . A . Grade :

Vietnamese native dialect :

Date of recording :

The recorded text .

B . A C T U A L C O N V E R S A T I O N I N E N G L I S H

The Students ' names :

Ages :

V . A . A . Grade o f each Student :

Vietnamese nat ive dialect :

The Teacher ' s name :

Date of recording :

The recorded text .

R E F E R E N C E S

AUGEN , Einar

1 9 5 4

1 9 5 6

" Prob lems of Bil ingual Descrip t i on" , in G e0 4g e�own U niv e4a ity

Monog4aph No . 7 o n Lang uag ea and Ling uia tica . Washingt on D . C . ;

pp . 9 - 19 .

"The Phoneme in Bi lingual Description" , in Lang uag e L ea4ning

VII , 3-4 . Reprinted in S el ec�ed A4ticlea 6 40m Lang uag e L ea4n

i ng , No . 2 . Ann Arbor , Michigan , 1 96 3 ; pp . l 0 3-10 9 .

CHAO , Yen Ren

1 9 3 4 "The Nonuniqueness o f Phonemic Solutions o f Phonet ic Sy stems " ,

in Bulletin 0 6 the I n a �i�u�e 0 6 Hia �o4Y and Philo a o p h y , Aca

demia Sinica 4 : 3 63-9 7 . Reprinted in Martin Joos ( editor ) ,

R eadinga i n Ling uia �ica . American Counci l o f Learned Socie

t ie s , New York , 1 95 B ; pp . 3B-5 4 .

CHERRY , Col in E .

1 9 5 6 "Dist inctive Features as t he Normal Coordinate s o f a Lan

guage " , in Morri s Halle , Horace G . Lunt , and Hugh McLean

( editors ) , F04 Roman Ja�o ba o n . Mout on and Co . , The Hague ;

pp . 60-64 .

CHOMSKY , Noam , HALLE , Morris and LUKOFF , Fred

1 9 5 6 "On Accent and Junc ture in English " , in Morris Halle , Horac e

Lunt , and Hugh McLean ( editors ) , Fo� Roman Ja� o b a o n . Mouton

and Co . , The Hague ; pp . 6 B- BO .

CRAWFORD , John C .

1 9 6 3 To�o n�epec Mixe Phono�agmemica . Summer Institute of Lingui s t i c s of the Univers ity of Oklahoma , Norman ; ix+ 19 7pp .

2 0 3

2 0 4

EMENEAU , M . B .

1 9 5 1 Studie� in Vi etname� e ( A name� e ) G�amma� . University of

California Press , Berkeley and Los Angeles .

FRANC I S , W . Ne lson

1 9 5 9 The St�uctu� e 0 6 Ame�ican Engti� h . The Ronald Pres s Co . , New

York ; v+6 1 4pp .

FRIES , Charles C .

1 9 4 5 Teaching a n d L ea�ning E ngti� h a � a Fo � eig n Lang uag e . University

o f Michigan Press , Ann Arbor , Mi chigan ; vii+153pp .

GLEASON , H . A .

1 9 5 5 An I nt�o ducti o n t o Ve� c�iptiv e Lingui� tic� . Henry Holt and

Company , New York ; ix+3 8 9pp .

HILL , Archibald A .

1 9 5 8 I nt�o ductio n t o Ling ui� tic St�uctu�e� . Harcourt , Brace and

C ompany , New York ; vi+496pp .

HOCKETT , Char les F .

1 9 5 8 A C o u�� e i n M o d e�n Lingui� tic� . The MacMi l lan C ompany , New

York ; xi+621pp .

JONES , R . B . and HUYNH SANH THONG

1 9 5 7 I nt�o ductio n to Spo R en Vietnam e� e . American C ounc i l o f

Learned Soc ieties , Washington D . C . , xiii+29 5pp .

KENYON , John S . and KNOTT , Thomas A .

1 9 5 3 A P�o nouncing Victio na�y 0 6 Ame�ican E ngti� h . Springfield 2 ,

Mass . ; Ivi+4 84pp .

KURATH , Hans and McDAVID Jr . , Raven I .

1 9 6 1 T h e P�o nunciatio n 0 6 Eng li� h i n t h e Atlantic State� . Uni

versity of Michigan Pre s s , Ann Arbor , Michigan ; xi+ 1 8 2pp .

LADO , Robert

1 9 6 1 Lang uag e Te� ting . Longmans , London ; xxii i + 3 89pp .

MARCHAND , Hans

1 9 5 8 "Notes o n Nominal C ompounds in Pre sent -day Engli sh" , i n

Harold B . Al len ( editor ) , Apptied E ngti� h Ling ui� tic� . Apple

ton-Century-Croft s , Inc . , New York ; pp . 1 1 8 -2 7 .

McDAVID Jr . , Raven I .

1 9 5 8 " American English Dialect s " , in W . Nelson Franc i s , T h e St�u c

tu�e 0 6 Am e�ican Eng ti� h ; pp . 4 80-54 3 .

MOULTON , Will iam G .

1 9 6 2 The S o und� 0 6 Engli� h and G e�man . University of Chicago

Pres s , Chi cago and London ; xi+16 8pp .

� .... .. NGUYEN £lANG L IEM

20 5

1 9 6 2 E ng li� h P�o nunciatio n 6 0 � Vietname� e . SEAREP - USOM , Saigon ;

2 80pp .

P IKE , Kenneth L .

1 9 4 5

1 9 4 7

1 9 4 8

1 9 5 4

1 9 5 5

T h e I nt o natio n 0 6 Ame�ican E ngli� h . Univers ity o f Michigan

Pre s s , Ann Arb or , Mic higan ; xi+20 3pp .

P h o n etic� . University of Michigan Pres s , Ann Arb or , Michi

gan ; 1 82pp .

Pho n emic� : A Technique 6 0 � R educing Lang uag e� t o W�iting .

The University of Mi chigan Pres s , Ann Arbor , Michigan ; xx+

2 5 4pp .

L ang uag e in R elatio n to a Uni6ied T h e o � y 0 6 t h e St�uctu�e 0 6

H uman 8 ehavio � . Part I . Summer Institute of Lingui s t i c s ,

G lendale , California ; x+17 0pp .

Lang uag e in R elatio n to a U n i 6 i ed Theo�y 0 6 t h e St�uctu�e 0 6

H uman 8 ehavio � . Part I I ; v+85pp .

SHEN , Yao and PETERSON , G . G .

n . d . I � o c h�o ni�m i n E ngti� h . University o f Buffalo , New York

( Studies in Lingui s t i c s - Occasional Papers 9 ) ; 36pp .

STOCKWELL , Robert P . and BOWEN , J . Donald

1 9 6 5 The S o und� 0 6 E ng ti� h a n d Spani� h . University of Chicago

Pres s , Chicago and London ; ix+ 1 4 5pp .

THOMPSON , Laurence C .

1 9 5 9 " Saigon Phonemic s " , in Lang uag e , 35 ; pp . 4 5 4-76 .

1 9 6 5 A Vietname� e G�amma� . University of Washington Pre s s ,

Seatt le , Washington ; xxi+3 86pp .

TRAGER , George L . and SMITH Jr . , Henry Lee

1 9 5 1 A n Outline 0 6 E ngli� h St�uctu� e . Studies in Lingui s t ic s : Oc

cas ional Papers No . 3 . American C ounc i l of Learned Soc iet i e s ,

Washington D . C . ; 9 2pp .

TROUBETZKOY , N . S .

1 9 5 7 P�incipe� d e Pho nolog y ( French Trans lat ion by J . Courtineau ) .

Pari s ; xxx iv+ 39 6pp .

20 6

VAN SYOC , Bryce

1 9 6 4 "Teaching English I r l and I I I ( with Spp.cial Re ferences t o

Speakers o f Thai ) " , in Lang uag e L ea�n�ng XIV , Nos . 3- 4 ; pp .

1 37-4 7 .

WH I TEHALL , Harold

1 9 5 1 St�uetu�ai E � � e nt�ai� 0 6 Engi�� h . Harcourt , Brace and C om

pany , New York ; vi+154 pp .

PAC I F I C L INGU I ST I CS ( Se r i e s A , N o s . 1 - 9 , S e r i e s B , No s . 1 - 6 , Serie s C , No s . 1 and 3 , and Bul l e t i n s

1 and 2 were c a l l e d LINGU I ST I C C I RCLE O F CAN B E R RA P U B L I CAT I O N S )

S E R I E S A - OCCAS I ONAL P A P E R S

No . 1 WURM , S . A . Some R ema��4 on the Role 0 6 Lang uag e � n the A 4 4 imi - $ 0 . 3 0

latio n 0 6 AU4t�alian A b o �igine4 . 1 9 6 3 ; 1 2 pp .

No . 2 . HEALEY , Alan Handling U n 4 0 phi4 ticated Lingui4tic I n 6 0 �mant4 .

1 9 6 4 ; i i i + 3 0 pp .

$ 0 . 7 5

No . 3 PENCE , Alan , DEI BLER Jr . , E l l i s , HEALEY , Phy l l i s M . and HOOLEY , $ 0 . 9 5

Bruce A . Pape�4 in New Guinea Lingui4tic4 No . 1 . 1 9 6 4 ;

iv + 4 2 pp .

No . 4 WORM , S . A . Pape�4 in N ew Guinea Ling ui4 tic4 No . 2 . 1 9 6 4 ;

iv + 4 1 pp . ; 1 map

No . 5 HEALEY , Phy l l is M . Pap e�4 in N ew Guinea Ling ui4tic4 No . 3 .

1 9 6 5 ; iv + 5 3 pp . ; 3 tabl e s

No . 6 BEE , Darlene Pape�4 in New Guinea Ling ui4 tic4 No . 4 . 1 9 6 5 ;

iv + 6 8 pp . ; 4 d i agrams

No . 7 FRANTZ , C . I . & M . E . , OATRIDGE , D . & J . , LOVIN� , R . , SWICK , J . ,

PENCE , A . , STAALSEN , P . and BOXWELL , H . & M . Pap e�4 in New

Guinea Ling ui4tic4 No . 5 . 1 9 6 6 ; v i i i + 9 3 pp .

No . 8 SHETLER , J . , P ITTMAN , R . , FORSBERG , V . and HUSSEY , J . Pap e�4

in Philippine Lingui4 tic4 No . 1 . 1 9 6 6 ; iv + 38 pp .

No . 9 NGUYEN DANG LIEM , A . TRAN HUONG MAl and DELLINGE R , David W .

Pap e�4 i n S o uth Ea�t A�ian Ling ui4tic� No . 1 . 1 9 6 7 ;

iv + 4 3 pp . + 3 0 t a b l e s + 3 c hart table s,

+ 2 7 c hart s . R e

printed i n 1 9 7 0 a s Pacifi c L i ngu i s t i c s , Series A , N o . 9

$ 0 . 9 5

$ 1 . 2 5

$ 1 . 5 0

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$ 2 . 1 5

No . 1 0 GLASGOW , D . & K . , K I RTON , Jean F . , OATES , W . J . and SOMMER , B . A . $ 1 . 2 5

& E . G . Pape�� in AU4 t�alian Ling ui4 tic4 N o . 1 . 1 9 6 7 ;

v + 5 9 p p . ; 1 8 c hart s

No . 1 1 VON BRANDENSTEIN , e . G . , CAPELL , A . and HALE , K . Pap e�� i n

AU4 t�alian 'Ling ui4 tic4 No . 2 . 1 9 6 7 ; i i i + 7 3 pp . + 7 map s

$ 1 . 8 5

2

P AC I F I C L I N G U I ST I C S

O c c a s i o n a l P a p e r s - c o n t i nued

No . 1 2 McELHANON , K . A . and RENCK , G . Pape�� in N ew Guinea Lin

g ui� tic� No . 6 . 1 9 6 7 ; i v + 4 8 pp . ; 6 c hart s ; 2 f igur e s

NO . 1 3 GODDARD , J . and FRANKLIN , K . J . Pape�� in New Guinea Lin

g ui� tic� No . 7 . 1 9 6 7 ; i v + 5 9 pp .

No . 1 4 AGUAS , E . F . and TRYON , D . T . Pap e�� in Au� t�alian Lingui� tic�

N o . 3 . 1 9 6 8 ; i i i + 46 pp . + 1 map ; 1 table

No . 1 5 CAPELL , A . , PARKER , G . J . and SCHUT Z , A . J . Pape�� in Lin

g ui� tic� 0 6 M elane�ia No . 1 . 1 9 6 8 ; i i i + 5 2 pp . + 1 map

No . 1 6 VOORHOEVE , C . L . , FRANKLIN , K . J . and SCOTT , G . Pape�� in New

Guinea Ling ui� tic� No . 8 . 1 9 6 8 ; iv + 6 2 pp . ; 2 map s

No . 1 7 KINSLOW HARRIS , J . , WURM , S . A . and LAYCOCK , D . C . Pape�� in

Au� t�alian Ling ui� tic� No . 4 . 1 9 6 9 ; v i + 9 7 pp . ; 3 map s

No . 1 8 CAPELL , A . ; HEALEY , A . , I SOROEMBO , A . and CHITTLEBOROUGH , M . :

and WILSON , D . B . Pape�� in New Guinea Ling ui�tic� N o . 9 . 1 9 6 9 ;

v i + 1 1 0 pp . ; 1 map

No . 1 9 MI LLER , J . and MI LLER , H . W . Pape�� in Philippine Lingui� tic�

No . 2 . 1 9 6 9 ; i i i + 32 pp .

No . 2 0 PRENTICE , D . J . Pape�� in B o �neo Lingui� tic� No . 1 . 1 9 6 9 ;

iv + 4 1 pp .

No . 2 1 CAPELL , A . , CHOWNING , A . and WURM , S . A . Pap e�� i n Ling ui� tic�

0 6 Melane�ia N o . 2 . 1 9 7 0 ; v + 1 0 5 pp . ; 5 map s

No . 2 2 LAYCOCK , D . C . , LLOYD , Richard G . and STAALSEN , Phil ip Pap e��

in N ew Guinea Lingui� tic� No . l 0 . 1 9 6 9 ; v + 8 4 pp .

$ 1 . 0 0

$ 1 . 2 5

$ 1 . 00

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$ 2 . 1 5

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$ 1 . 0 5

$ 2 . 2 5

$ 1 . 9 5

No . 2 3 BUNN , G . & R . : PENCE , Alan , GEARY , Ela ine and BJORKMAN , Dor i s : $ 2 . 0 0

WEIMER , H . & N . : and CLAASSEN , O . R . and McELHANON , K . A . Pape��

i n N ew Guinea Lingui�tic� N o . l l . 1 9 7 0 ; v + 78 pp . ; 1 map

NO . 2 4 ABRAMS , N . , FORSTER , J . and BRICHOUX , R . Pap e�� in Philippine

Lingui� tic� No . 3 . 1 9 7 0 ; v i + 7 7 pp .

No . 2 5 VOORHOEVE , C . L . , McELHANON , K . A . and BLOWERS , Bruce L . & Ruth

Pap e�� in New Guinea Ling ui� tic� No . 1 2 . 1 9 7 0 ; iv + 6 0 pp . +

1 map

$ 1 . 9 5

$ 1 . 2 5

3

P AC I F I C L I N G U I S T I C S

O c c a s i o n a l P a p e r s - cont inued

No . 2 6 BLOWERS , B . L . , GRIFFIN , Margie and McELHANON , K . A . Pap e�� n

N ew Guinea L �ngui�t�e� No . 1 3 . 1 9 7 0 ; iv + 4 8 pp .

I n prepara t ion :

No . 2 7 K I RTON , Jean F . Pape�� n Au� t�atian Lingu�� t�e� No . 5

S E R I E S B - MONOG RAP H S

No . 1 WURM , S . A . and HARRIS , J . B . PO L I C E MOTU , An int�o duct� o n to

the T�ad e Languag e 0 6 Papua ( New Guinea ) 6 0 � Anth�o potog��t�

and o the� 6 i etdwo � � e�� . 1 9 6 3 ; v i + 8 1 pp .

No . 2 WURM , S . A . Pho no to g ieal Viv e�� i 6 �cat�o n in Au� t�at�an N ew

Guinea Hightand� Languag e� . 1 9 6 4 ; i i i + 8 7 pp . ; 1 map

No . 3 HEALEY , Alan Tet e 6 0 t Pho n otog y . 1 9 6 4 ; i i i + 1 f i gure +

5 3 pp . + 5 tabl e s

No . 4 HEALEY , Phy l l i s M . Tet e 6 0 l N o u n Ph�a� e� . 1 9 6 5 ; i i i + 5 1 p p . ;

3 tabl e s

No . 5 HEALEY , Phyl l i s M . L ev et� a nd C haining i n Tet e 6 0t S ent ence� .

1 9 6 6 ; iv + 6 4 pp . ; 5 table s

No . 6 TRYON , Darre l l T . Neng o n e G�amma� . 1 9 6 7 ; x + 9 1 pp . ;

1 0 tabl e s

No . 7 TRYON , Darre l l T . Vehu G�amma� . 1 9 6 8 ; i x + 1 1 1 pp . ;

1 0 t ab l e s

No . 8 TRYON , Darre l l T . l ai G�amma� . 1 9 6 8 ; x i i + 1 2 5 pp . ;

1 1 t a b l e s

No . 9 DUTTON , T . E . The Peopling 0 6 C e nt�at Papua : Some P�etim�na�y

O b � e�vat�o n� . 1 9 6 9 ; viii + 1 8 2 pp .

No . 1 0 FRANKLIN , K . J . The Viateet� 0 6 Kewa . 1 9 6 8 ; iv + 7 2 pp . ;

2 0 map s

No . l l SOMME R , B . A . Kunjen Phonolo g y : S yne h�o nie and Viae h�o nie .

1 9 6 9 ; iv . + 7 2 pp . ; 3 map s

No . 12 KLOKE ID , T . J . Tha�g a�i Phonotog y and Mo�pho to g y . 1 9 6 9 ;

v i i i + 5 6 pp . ; 1 map

$ 1 . 3 5

$ 1 . 8 5

$ 1 . 8 5

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$ 2 . 5 0

$ 1 . 9 5

$ 1 . 2 5

4

P A C I F I C L I N G U I ST I C S

Mo n o g ra p h s - oon t inued

No . 1 3 TREFRY , D. A Compa�at� v e Study 0 6 Kuman and Pawa�an . 1 9 6 9 ;

iv + 9 4 pp . ; 1 map

No . 1 4 McELHANON , K . A . S ei epet Pho noio g y . 1 9 7 0 ; v + 4 7 pp . ; 1 map

No . 1 5 TRYON , D . T . An I nt�o duct�o n to Ma�anungku ( No �t h e�n Au�

t�al�a ) . 1 9 7 0 ; v i + 1 1 1 pp . ; 1 map

No . 1 6 McELHANON , K . A . and VOORHOEVE , C . L . The T�an¢ - New Gu�nea

Ph yium : E x pio�at�on� �n V e e p - i e v ei Gen et�c R eiat�on� h�p� .

1 9 7 0 ; v + 1 0 7 pp . ; 4 map s

No . 1 7 KUKI , Hi roshi Tuamo tuan Phonolo g y . 1 9 7 0 ; i x + 1 1 9 pp . ;

2 map s

I n p r e p a ra t i o n :

No . 1 S YOUNG , R . A . The Ve�b �n S e na - 8 ena : �t� Fo�m and Funct�o n

No . 1 9 PATON , W . S . Amb � ym G�amma�

SER I E S C - BOOKS

No . 1 LAYCOCK , D . C . The Ndu Lang uag e Fam�l y ( S ep�k V�� t��c t , New

Gu�n ea ) . 1 9 6 5 ; x i + 2 2 4 pp . ; 1 map

No . 3 NGUYEN DANG LIEM E ngi�� h G�amma� ( A C o nt�a�t�v e Anaiy�� 0 6

Engi�� h and V�etname� e vo l . l ) . 1 9 6 6 ; x l iv + 1 7 7 pp . ;

1 6 tabl e s . Reprinted in 1 9 7 0 a s Pao i fio L i ngui s t i o s , S e r i e s

C , No . 3

No . 4 NGUYEN DANG LIEM V�etname� e G�amma� ( A C o nt�a� t�v e Analy��

0 6 E ngl�� h and V�etname� e vo l . 2 ) . 1 9 6 9 ; x l i i i + 2 0 9 pp . ;

3 7 tabl e s

$ 2 . 0 0

$ 1 . 2 5

$ 2 . 5 0

$ 2 . 5 0

$ 2 . 5 0

$ 5 . 0 0

$ 5 . 0 0

$ 5 . 5 0

No . 5 NGUYEN DANG LIEM A C o nt�a�t� v e G�ammat�cal Anaiy�� 0 6 Engi�� h $ 3 . 2 5

and V�etname� e ( A Co nt�a� t�v e Analy�� 0 6 Engl�� h and V�et-

name� e vo l . 3 ) . 1 9 6 7 ; xv + 1 5 1 pp . ; 1 5 t ab l e s

No . 6 TRYON , Darrell T . Vehu - Engl�� h V�ct�o na� y . 1 9 6 7 ; v + 1 3 7 pp .

No . 7 TRYON , Darrel l T . Engi�� h - Vehu V�ct�o na� y . 1 9 6 7 ;

i i i + 1 �2' pp .

$ 2 . 9 5

$ 3 . 2 5

5


B o o k s - con t i nu e d

No . 8 NGUYEN DANG L I EM A C o nt�a� t�v e Phonolog�cal A nal y� �� 0 6

E ngl�� h and V�etname� e ( A C o nt�a� t�v e A naly� �� 0 6 E ngl�� h and

V�etname� e vo l . 4 1 . 1 9 7 0 ; x v + 2 0 6 pp . ; 2 2 chart s ; 1 9 t ab l e s

No . 9 TRYON , D . T . and DUBOI S , M . -J . Neng o n e V�ct�ona� y . Pa�t 1 : N e ng o n e - E ngl�� h . 1 9 6 9 ; v i i + 4 4 5 pp .

No . lO OATE S , W . and OATES , L . Kapau P edag o g �cal G�amma� . 1 9 6 8 ;

v + 1 7 8 pp .

No . l l FOX , C . E . A�o � � - Engl�� h V�ct�o na� y . 1 9 7 0 ; iv + 4 0 6 pp . ;

1 map

No . 1 3 WURM , S . A . and LAYCOCK , D . C . , eds . Pac� 6�c L�ng u�� t�c

Stud�e� �n H o n o u� 0 6 A�thu� Capell . 1 9 7 0 ; v i i i + 1 2 9 2 pp . ;

2 5 map s , 1 photograph .

Art i c l e s authored , or c o -authore d , by :

B . W . Bender , C a t herine M . Berndt , R . M . Berndt , H . B l uhme ,

J . E . Bo l t , C . G . von Branden s t e in , t C . D . Chre t ien , J . R .

C l everl y , C . Court , R . M . W . D i xo n , W . H . Doug la s , T . E . Dutton ,

I . Dye n , S . H . E l bert , A . P . E l k i n , E . H . F l int , K . J . Frank l in ,

Marie Godfre y , G . W . Grac e , K . Hale , Joy Harr i s , A . H e a le y ,

H . Hershberger , Ruth Hers hberge r , W . G . Hodd ino t , P . W . Hohepa ,

N . M . Holme r , B . A . Hoo le y , Dorothy J . Jame s , H . Kahl e r , Susan

Ka ldor , H . Kerr , Jean F . Kirt o n , D . C . Laycoc k , Nguyen Dang

Liem , K . A . McE l hanon , H . Mc Kaughan , G . N . O ' Grady , A . Pawle y ,

Eun i c e V . Pike , R . P i t tman , D . J . Prent i c e , A . J . Schut z , M . C .

Sharpe , tW . E . Smyt he , A . J . Taylor , D . T . Tryon , E . M . U h l e n

beck , C . F . Voege l i n , F . M . Voege l i n , C . L . Voorhoeve , S . A . Wurm ,

J . Z ' Gragge n .

No . 1 4 GEERTS , P . ' A�e ' a� e V�ct�o na�y . 1 9 7 0 ; i v + 1 8 5 pp . ; 1 map

No . 1 5 McELHANON , K . A . and N . A . S elepet - E ngl�� h V�ct�ona� y . 1 9 7 0 ;

x x i + 1 4 4 pp .

No . 1 6 FRANKL IN , K . J . A G�amma� 0 6 Kewa , N ew Gu� n ea . 1 9 7 0 ;

i x + 1 3 8 pp .

$ 5 . 2 5

$ 9 . 0 0

$ 3 . 7 5

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$ 2 . 9 5

No . 1 7 PARKER , G . J . S o uthea�t Amb�ym V�ct�o na� y . 1 9 7 0 ; x i i i + 6 0 pp . $ 1 . 5 0

I n p r e p a r a t i o n :

No . 2 WURM , S . A . Hand bo o � 0 6 N ew Gu�nea P�dg�n

6


B o o k s i n p r e p a r a t i o n - c o n t i n u e d

No . 1 2 LAYCOCK , D . C . Ba�� Mat e��al� �n Bu�n : G�amma� , T e xt� , and V��t� o na�y

No . l a P RENTICE , D . J . T h e Mu�ut Lang uag e� 0 6 Sabah

No . 1 9 Z ' GRAGGEN , J . A . Cla4 � � 6��ato �y and T ypolog��al Stud�e� i n Lang uag e�

0 6 the Madang Vi� t�i�t

No . 2 0 LANG , C . A . E ng a - E ng li� h and Engl�� h - Enga Vi�tio na�y

No . 2 1 PATON , W . S . Amb � ym ( L o nwo!wol ) Vi�tio na�y

S E R I E S D - S P EC I A L PUBL I CAT I ON S

( B u l l e t i n s , a rc h i v a l m a te r i a l s a nd o t h e r p u b l i c a t i o n s )

No . 1 B uU et�n No . 1 . 1 9 6 4 ; 9 pp .

No . 2 Bull et�n No . 2 . 1 9 6 5 ; 8 4 pp .

No . 4 WURM , S . A. Languag e Map 0 6 the Ea4 te�n , We4 te�n and S o ut h e�n

H�g hland4 , T e��to�y 0 6 Papua and New Gu�nea ( in 1 4 c o l ours ) .

1 9 6 1

No . 5 LAYCOCK , Don Mate��al4 � n New Gu�nea P�dgin ( Co a� ta! and L ow

land4 ) . 1 9 7 0 ; xxxv i i + 6 2 p p .

No . 6 NGUYEN DANG L I EM F o u� - S ylla b!e I d�omat�� E xp�e � 4 i o n4 �n V�et

name4 e . 1 9 7 0 ; v + 6 0 pp .

I n p r e p a r a t i o n :

$ 0 . 2 5

$ 1 . 5 0

$ 0 . 3 5

$ 2 . 5 0

$ 1 . 5 0

No . 3 WURM , S . A . N ew Gu�nea H�g h!and� P�dg�n : G.'tamma� Note4 a n d Mate�ial4

No . 7 ELBERT , S . H . Th�ee L e g end4 0 6 Pu!uwat and a B�t 0 6 Talk

No . a LANG , C . A . , MATHER , K . E . W . and ROSE , M . L . I n 6 0 �mat�o n Sto�ag e and

R et��eval : a V��t�ona�y P�o j e�t

No . 9 I nd e x to Pa� � 6 �� L�ng u�4 t��4 , S e��e4 A - V , a4 at t h e end 0 6 1 9 7 0

No . l O PATON , W . S . Tal e� 0 6 Amb � ym

No . l l PATON , W . S . CU4tom4 0 6 Amb�ym , w�th T ext4

a contrastive phonological analysis of english and vietnamese

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