CHILDREN'S LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: HOW PARENTS COULD TAKE ADVANTAGE AND GET INVOLVED

PSYCHOLINGUISTICS SCLE

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ZATUSY SYAMAM BINTI NAIMCHILDREN’S LANGUAGE ACQUISITION THEORIES: HOW PARENTS COULD

TAKE ADVANTAGE AND GET INVOLVEDMASTER IN APPLIED LINGUISTICS

MAY 8TH, 2015UNIVERSITI UTARA MALAYSIA

INTRODUCTION

The phenomenon of how a child acquires a language has long

been a mystery which has not quite been resolved. It is a

fascinating occurrence that has captured the interest of many

researchers or linguists to study on. Today, from the many series

of studies or researches that have been done, we are presented

with a number of language acquisition models or theories which

are developed not just in order to explain how the children start

to acquire a language or languages for that matter but to suggest

ways of how parents, caregivers or teachers could support their

language development as well.

In this paper, I will be focusing on giving suggestions to

parents who wish to help and guide their child’s language

development in English language specifically in a Malay-speaking

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environment. First and foremost, it is good for parents to know

about the theories so as to help them become aware of the process

their child is going through to becoming a good language user.

Children’s language development goes through a rapid process

which involves so many different aspects simultaneously.

Therefore, in my opinion, children’s language acquisition

theories could not work as separate entities. As parents, I think

the best way for us to help our children to acquire a language is

by taking bits and pieces of each theory. This is because as we

will discuss each theory in more detail later in this paper we

will see that each one of them has its own advantages and

disadvantages. Therefore, when we mix and match them it is in a

way compensate for what one theory is lacking so we would have a

more suitable and comprehensible approach so to speak. Parents

also should bear in mind that there is no right or wrong theory

It just depends on how we adapt those theories to suit our child

‘individually’. Our children have their own styles and needs when

it comes to language learning and acquisition so it is not wise

to overgeneralize their learning process based on one individual.

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Before we go into depth of what these theories are about and

how they could help a child to acquire a language, it is wise for

us to first know what it is meant by the term ‘acquisition’. The

language acquisition process is one rapid process which happens

instantaneously. It is not easy to monitor precisely how a child

develops his or her language knowledge and skills but it is not

impossible. When we talk about acquisition, there are so many

views that differentiate language acquisition and language

learning. To put in brief, language acquisition is when language

abilities grow naturally without going through any formal

teaching or instructions. Rice (1989) explained that language

acquisition consists of three main parts. The first is the

language to be acquired or the task to be mastered. Next are the

child and his or her abilities and predispositions brought to

language acquisition. The third component is the environment or

the setting in which the child hears the language in a spoken

context. If we observe, most of the language acquisition theories

deal with only one of these components. This is why the biggest

problem is to find ways on how to fit these three components into

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the spontaneous emergence of language. This is the reason that

shows that we need a combination of all the theories to make it

more comprehensive and so that it encompasses all of the three

components.

Going back to the topic at hand, when we talk about language

acquisition theories, we could see that there are a lot of them

but we could in a way divide them into two main categories which

are ‘nature’ versus’ nurture’. What does it mean by nature and

nurture? As mentioned earlier, researchers have come up with two

terms which are acquisition and learning. So, nature and nurture

are based on these two notions as well. Nature suggests that

language is natural. It stresses that a child is born with some

kind of language knowledge and ability or they are predisposed

with language. In contrast, nurture views language development as

something that is taught by outside forces instead of innate. In

this paper I will discuss on some of the available language

acquisition theories that I would suggest to parents who want to

get involved in helping their children to acquire a language.

BEHAVIORUIST THEORY

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This theory falls under the nurture category and from the

name itself we get some insights on what this theory is about.

This theory focuses on what can be observed and dismisses any

notion that suggests language development as an internal process.

Skinner (1957) affirmed that language is nothing more than merely

human behaviour. This theory claims that child’s language

development is controlled by habit formation and reinforcement by

imitations, repetitions and analogy. Skinner who is one of the

prominent Behaviourists came up with the idea of operant

conditioning. He also put forth the notion that language development

is a learned set of habits. Based on this theory, language

development is observed and measured by looking at speech and

performance which is considered as ‘publically observable

responses’ (Heidar, 2012). This theory disregards altogether the

concept of consciousness, innateness and thinking processes and

because of this many linguists are opposed to this theory of

language acquisition. However, I think that there is some truth

behind this theory and that it can be used in order to help

children to acquire a language.

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From my own perspective which is based on personal

experiences, during the early age when a child still could not

form intelligible words or sentences, they communicate by using

actions or gestures which are mostly routines. What I mean by

this is that before language emerges, a child communicates by

imitating his or her parents’ actions that he or she sees or

hears all the time. According to Lightbown and Spada (1999), when

children hear sounds and patterns from around them and receive

some form of positive reinforcements for instance praises,

applause or probably just successful communication they will then

imitate said sounds and patterns. Consequently, with the

encouragement of those positive reinforcements, children will

continue to imitate them and eventually form a ‘habit of correct

language use’. I observed this during the time that I wanted to

teach my son to say ‘please’ and ‘thank you’. Instead of

explaining to him, which is obviously ludicrous because toddlers

will not understand those complex novel sentences that you use to

explain something, we as the parents just keep using those

expressions during suitable situations in front of him. We made

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it a habit of us which eventually becomes his habit as well. That

was after he successfully used those expressions in appropriate

situations and was given positive feedbacks every time. In fact

if we think about it parents teach their children to communicate

through this way. Bear in mind though, that imitations and habit

formation will not happen if you only teach or model a behaviour

once. The model or behaviour that we wish the child to follow

must be shown continuously followed by positive feedbacks to

ensure the success. Behaviourists confirm that imitations and

practices are the main and essential mechanisms for the language

to be acquired or learned.

Behaviourists believe that a child’s brain is empty and we

have to fill this void by showing repetitive behaviours followed

by reinforcements which then, will encourage the child to

continue the habit. Hence, if you as parents wish to assist your

child’s language acquisition you could provide them with an

environment which is rich with good models of behaviour or

language that you want them to acquire. Behaviourists also assert

the importance of repetition or drilling. Therefore, parents

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should encourage their children to repeat simple sentences. If

parents want their child to acquire a language there should

always be repetitions involved be it words, phrases or sentences.

For example, when I wanted to teach my son the word ‘ball’, I

would pick up a ball from his stack of toys and say the word more

than once. Then, whenever, we see a ball anywhere I would point

to it and again say the word ‘ball’. After repeating this for a

number of times, my son was able to utter the word ball and

associate it with the object. Every time that he was able to use

the word we would praise him and thus, he knows that he did

something good and the word ball is acquired. The positive

reinforcement given to a child will motivate him or her to

continue that good behaviour. As we are well aware, motivation is

also an essential part of language acquisition.

INNATENESS THEORY

The second theory or model that parents could apply is the

innateness theory made famous by Chomsky. This theory falls under

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the ‘nature’ category because of its criteria that suggest

children are ‘born’ with certain innate language abilities. Based

on its principles that language is internal and is there when the

child is born, we could say that this theory is the exact

opposite of the Behaviourist theory discussed earlier. In fact,

Chomsky is against Skinner’s idea on imitations because according

to him, if a child acquires a language merely by imitating their

parents or caregivers then, they are provided and exposed to

‘poor’ language stimulus. Therefore, the child will not be able

to form correct sentences which are free of grammar errors. As

mentioned by Brown (2000), Chomsky argued that we are predisposed

since birth with genetic capacity that enables us to perceive

language around us which then, helps us to develop an

internalized language system. Basically, while Behaviourist

theory looks at what could be measured, Innateness concerns with

what happens inside the head of the learner.

Chomsky affirmed that language acquisition does not only

result from mimicking or imitation. Also,, one of the scenario

that according to Chomsky showed that children do not just

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imitate language is when children use words, phrases or sentences

which they have never heard before. Other than that, children’s

tendencies to ‘overgeneralize’ language rules and structures show

that they have some sort of knowledge in their mind that enables

them to do so. For example the overgeneralization of the past

tense form such as ‘falled’, ‘runned’, ‘talked and many more.

Although, this overgeneralization is wrong, but it shows that

children are able to extract language rules from the language

that they have heard before without being specifically taught or

explained and applied them to all the things that they have never

known before. For example, I observed that after a while my son

was able to pick up the rule of ‘singular’ and ‘plural’ nouns

where you have to add ‘-s’. We have not taught him the rules

specifically but at three years old, he was able to pick up on it

which startled us at first. This just shows that children do have

some kind of innate language abilities that we do not know.

As opposed to the notion that the first theory suggests that

a child’s brain is an empty slate and is filled and developed

through imitations and repetitions, Innateness theory emphasizes

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that the mind of a child is not a blank state. Instead, children

are equipped with the blueprint of language that enables them to

discover on their own the language rules and structures without

any formal instructions or teaching (Lightbown & Spada, 1999).

According to Aitchison (1974), Chomsky has a good point when he

puts forth the notion that children acquire a language at such a

rapid pace. Furthermore, Aitchison also states that the

children’s ability to pick up on grammar rules from the language

they hear around them is evidence that shows they are born with

some internal knowledge of the structures and properties of

language. They are able to acquire a language in a short time

because they already have the outline of the language stored in

their mind. What they need is the ‘trigger’ or a realization on

how to fit that knowledge into their own language.

However, this theory also explains that this innate

knowledge can only be realized with the presence of social

milieu. This is why a child who is left in isolation without any

exposure to language will not be able to develop his or her

language abilities. According to Lightbown and Spada (1999), the

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environment or in other words the availability of people who

speak to a child or his or her biological environment is the

fundamental aspect for a child’s innate language knowledge to be

triggered or activated. This is what is missing from the first

theory and what Chomsky points out as the shortfall of the

Behaviourist theory (Chomsky, 1959).

Now, with all those lengthy explanation of the Innateness

theory of language acquisition, how can parents apply this in

real life? First and foremost, parents should bear in mind never

to underestimate their children’s ability to master a language

even at such a young age. In fact, that is the period when they

absorb all the knowledge faster and more successfully (Critical

Period Hypotheses). I would advise parents to not use ‘baby talk’

with their children. Parents assume that ‘baby talk’ is like

simplifying the pronunciation of words but in truth it gives our

children the wrong exposure to language. In order for children to

acquire a language effectively, they need the much needed

exposure to the language and that exposure should be the language

as it is not some kind of a simplified version of it. Children’s

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abilities to pick up and thus, acquire said language will marvel

us. They have the ability to discover the language by themselves

and absorb the grammar rules from the exposure given. Even if

there is no formal exposure or teaching as yet, they could

develop their language abilities and produce grammatically

correct utterance. With that being said, parents should also bear

in mind that this innate knowledge that the children supposedly

have must be ‘activated’ in order for it to help our children’s

language acquisition. As known researchers have stated social

factors is the basis for children’s internal knowledge to come

alive and to surface. This is why as explained earlier; children

should be exposed to an environment in which the language is

spoken so that they could get as much exposure as possible. In a

society where Malay is the first language, helping our children

to acquire English language is not impossible to do. The key is

to get them exposed. If the parents who provide the biological

environment for the children speak English with them at home

then, it is not impossible for them to acquire that language as

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well. In fact, they might also pick up the two languages which

are Malay from their surrounding and English simultaneously.

COGNITIVE THEORY

The next theory on children’s language acquisition is the

Cognitivist theory. As the word cognitive suggest this theory

deals with a child’s mind and his or her thinking processes. One

of the renowned Cognitivists is Jean Piaget. During the 1960s,

this theory raised as a response towards the Behaviourist theory.

Cognitivists disagree that language acquisition is solely habit

formation and is measured through physical responses which can be

observed. Instead, this theory recognizes and emphasizes on the

existence of children’s mental processes. Child’s behaviour

according to this theory is only a mean or a tool used to observe

what is actually going on in the mind. Piagetian theory can be

put in two parts. The first is the theory of adaptation and the

process of using cognitive schemes and the second is his theory

of cognitive developmental stages (Huitt & Hummel, 1998).

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According to Piaget, children are born with biological

processes or reflexes which then build on their cognitive

structure. This cognitive structure is what helps the children to

adapt, make sense and understand the world around them. According

to Piaget (1973), children are active participants in their own

learning and they learn by doing. This theory emphasizes also on

mental processes such as remembering, believing, perceiving and

reasoning. Singer & Revenson (1997) mention that Piaget believed

that reasoning is the basis for intelligence and that cognitive

development is cumulative in a sense that children comprehend a

new experience out of a previous learning experience

According to Berk (1997), Piaget believed that children grow

and develop steadily and gradually and in different stages.

Moreover, the experiences that the children get from one stage

act as the basis for them in order to move on to the next one.

Everyone is thought to go through each stage without skipping.

Children also move on to the next stage as they mature

cognitively. There are four key learning stages that have been

identified by Piaget. However, I will discuss only the first

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three of stages up to before they reach adolescence because I am

focusing specifically on children’s language acquisition.

The first is the sensorimotor stage which is for children from

birth to two years old. At this stage as explained by Piaget,

children learn through immediate experience through their five

senses (Meyer & Dusek, 1979). This stage is also characterized by

the progressive acquisition

n of object permanence. This means that a child is able to

find an object even if it is displaced or hidden. Piaget (1997)

also explained that during this stage a child is able to relate

object with number and has the basic understanding of numbers and

counting. For example, two cups, four balls and so on. At this

stage parents could support their child language acquisition by

providing them with the opportunities to explore their

surrounding in a safe way and develops their understanding of

concepts (Martin, 2000). I would suggest that parents buy books

which relates numbers with pictures (illustrations is important

for children at this age). In this way children could benefit

from both pictures of objects and numbers simultaneously. They

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will not just be exposed to mathematical concepts but also their

reading skill and comprehension. Parents could also encourage

children thinking processes by asking questions such as “How many

do we need?”, “is it enough?” and many others. Also, because at

this stage children learn through their senses therefore, parents

should take advantage of this and let them explore things by

themselves. For example, take them to the park and let them see

the surrounding touch the flowers, trees, grass and so on. Of

course, while doing these parents should converse with the child.

By doing this, we are stimulating their thinking process through

their senses. Children are constantly making sense of what is

around them so it is a good step to expose them as much as

possible to the world.

Moving on, the second stage is the preoperational stage which is

from age two to seven years old. It is also called intuitive stage.

During this stage, children start to build on their ability to

use language observed through overgeneralization, symbolic

thought egocentric speech and limited logic. At the second stage,

children are able to mentally represent events and objects. In

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addition, children develop their memory and imagination as well.

Children at this stage are able to perform monological

nonreversible thinking for example they are able to solve 2 plus

3 equals 5 but not when it goes the other way around like taking

2 out of 5 equals to 3. They can only do one dimensional problem

solving at this stage. During this age, I would suggest parents

to engage children in activities which involve characterizing.

For example, parents could ask the children to sort objects into

different groups according to their characteristics like colors,

shapes and so on. Parents should make sure that they converse

with their children by asking questions so that the children can

develop their language skills as well (Thompson, 1990). Other

than that, parents could also teach their children songs, nursery

rhymes and get them to talk in dialogues and so on. Moreover,

Flavell (1997) suggest that we encourage children’s at this stage

to use their imagination by involving them in activities such as

role-playing and storytelling. Parents are also advised to get

their children involved with daily conversation such as asking

them to retell an event, to describe an object and so on. Also,

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asking questions could encourage the child to think. If during

the first stage questions are more straightforward and usually

requires only yes or no answer, at this stage more challenging

questions could be asked. For example, asking children ‘what will

happen next?’ ‘Why do you like the ball?’ and many others. One of

the children’s games that parents could use is ‘I Spy’. Parents

will describe an object and the children will guess what the

object is. This is really good in stimulating their thinking

process.

The third stage is the concrete operation stage. This is the stage

when the child shows drastic cognitive growth and that the

child’s language acquisition develops at such a rapid pace. They

are now able to process multidimensional problem-solving. At this

stage, children are able to solve mathematical problems which are

more complex. Also, according to Burns & Silbey (2000), hands-on

experiences and multiple ways of representing a mathematical

solution can be a way of fostering this developmental stage.

Children at this stage are able to center their thinking on more

than one dimension or aspect of an object (Elkind, 1969). This

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allows them to think about more than one thing at once for

example the concept and relationship of size and weight at the

time. Children at this stage are in school already, they are

excited and eager to learn. They also need more hands-on

activities in order for them to make abstract concept concrete

thus, enhance their understanding (Anita, 2004). Parents need to

allow them to examine and explore freely as many relations as

possible among various variables. Parents could provide them with

counters, stickers and so on. These are concrete materials which

can be put into different groups according to their different

criteria. Moreover, at this stage children already have quite a

good command in language. If you have exposed them to English

during the previous stages then, they are probably able to speak

the language at this stage. However, they might not be as

proficient in writing just yet. So, as parents we need to

encourage them to speak more. Let them tell or retell stories.

Role-play during playtime where parents also participate and talk

with them.

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SOCIAL INTERACTIONIST THEORY

The last theory which is going to be discussed in this paper

is the social-interactionist theory which is put forth by Lev

Vygotsky. Basically, this theory believes that the success of the

language acquisition process depends on the interaction between

the learners’ mental abilities and their linguistic environment.

According to Long (1990), interaction is essential for language

acquisition. He explains that there are three aspects of verbal

interaction which are input, production and feedback. Input is

viewed as the language offered to the learners by native speakers

or other learners, production also known as output is the

language spoken by the language learners and feedback is the

response given by the people who participate in that conversation

with the learner. Vygotsky (1978) believes that interaction is

crucial for the development if both independent cognitive and

linguistic functioning. He views a child as developing and

functioning in a social context. If we compare this theory to the

one of Piaget’s, we could say that Cognitivist theory sees a

child as an active learner alone in the world full with a variety

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of objects whereas, Vygotsky’s views a child as an active learner

in the world full of people. These people play a major part in

the child’s development including his or her language

acquisition. These people for example their parents help the

child by playing and talking with them, bringing objects and

ideas to his or her attention and so on. We can also say that

these people or adults who know more than the child mediate the

world for him or her and make it more accessible.

One of the prominent ides put forth by Vygotsky in his

theory is the notion of Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). It is

viewed as the difference of the child’s ability during his

current level of development in problem solving and the potential

development of said child in problem solving with the adult’s

guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers (Vygotsky,

1978). The idea is that with guidance from more knowledgeable

other children’s performance will be higher compared to when they

do the task independently. Eventually, through this interaction

children will be able to carry out similar activities on their

own. This is because the guidance and knowledge they get from the

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interaction with a more capable other has been internalized.

According to this theory, with the help of adults or more capable

peers children will be able to understand more of the world than

they can do on their own. In order for a child to develop adults

must place them in the ZPD. It aims towards developing the child

so that they eventually will be able to take over and do the task

on their own. Adults do not guide the child solely for the

purpose of completing the task. Instead, the child is challenged

and is given opportunities to improve himself as the adults

slowly relinquish their control and the child slowly gain more

control over the task.

Based on this theory, parents who want their child to

acquire English in a Malay-speaking environment should guide and

assist their children to do so. There are so many ways that

adults can help their children to develop their language

abilities. Bear in mind that this theory emphasizes on the

language development and the influence that the social factors

has on it. Therefore, the children need to interact with people

who speak the target language and who are more capable at the

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language than they are. These people could be their parents or

their more capable peers. When they are frequently exposed to and

interacting with these people they will essentially develop their

own abilities thus, acquire the language. In the end the children

will be able to speak the language and interact with others

without any assistance from others. Parents could take advantage

of this and help their children starting from such a young age.

For example, when we want to teach our children to feed

themselves we could start off by putting our hands over their

hands and show them how to use the spoon and put the food into

our mouth. We then, gradually let the children take over and use

the spoon and eat on their own I think most parents are doing

this already even if they are not aware of Vygotsky theory. The

same principle can be applied to language acquisition. Parents

could provide the children with toys such as different coloured

or shaped blocks. At the beginning parents could assist the

children by showing them how to sort those blocks. Then, parents

should give children the opportunity to sort the blocks with

little help and eventually let them do it independently. This

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theory also suggests that parents could help children development

by always placing them in ZPD. In order to do this, parents

should be aware of their children current level of development or

what they are able to do and provide activities which are just

above that level. This is so that the tasks are in a way

challenging to the children but not impossible to be completed

especially with the presence of more capable others to help and

guide them. The best activity to do this is through role-playing,

games and storytelling. These activities require the children to

act beyond their year and take on other people’s roles.

Therefore, it provides a challenge for them. Also, parents should

let their children interact with other adults and children.

Preferably, expose the children and let them interact with people

who could speak the target language well. By interacting with

others, they will gain knowledge of said language. This knowledge

will be internalized and they will in the end be able to speak

the target language as well.

CONCLUSION

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With all that has been said, I personally think that there

is no theory that is the absolute right when explaining and

assisting children’s language acquisition process. I believe that

the best way to help children acquire a language is by taking

bits and pieces from each theory and make it into a more

comprehensive approach to language acquisition.my opinion is

based on my observation that children do go through all of these

theories as they grow and mature. So, to say one theory is the

ultimate truth is too overreaching for me. In fact, if we think

about it when we take some criteria from each theory one could

complete what the other is lacking.

Looking at how children grow, we could see that at the

beginning of their lives they do learn through repetitive

behaviours including language. In fact, that is what most parents

do and teach their children regardless of whether or not they

know about Behaviourist theory. Children learn almost anything

during the early years of their lives through imitating people

around them and repeating the same behaviour when they are

praised or rewarded or stop if they are punished. In addition, I

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also believe that to some extent children do have an innate

knowledge when it comes to acquiring a language. This is because

apart from children learning through repetitive behaviour and

habit formation they sometimes utters words which they have never

heard or used before. As they grow also and are able to use the

language although not proficiently, we could see that they do

overgeneralize grammar and phonological rules. Both of which

parents obviously do not explain to them but they extract all by

themselves from the people around them who speak the target

language. Other than that, children are also active learners in

the world. They are constantly making sense of the world and

learn new things by doing and exploring their surroundings. If we

observe them, we could also see that they do go through some sort

of developmental stages as proposed by Piaget’s theory. They do

start learning first through their senses and as they grow they

are able to think and solve more complicated problems. Lastly, I

also think that without the presence of other people to interact

with the children then, they will not be able to acquire a

language effectively. This is even more so when the parents want

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their children to acquire English in a Malay-speaking

environment. Language and social interaction go hand in hand and

it is impossible to have one without the other.

We could also see and conclude that all of these theories

suggest the presence of other people in children’s language

acquisition process. Therefore, it is important for parents to

take part in their children’s lives and developmental process.

Parents play an important role in every aspect of the children’s

lives including language development. Parents should provide an

environment which is rich with the target language. They should

model good behaviour by speaking the language with the children.

They also should not underestimate children’s abilities and use

baby-talk with them when the truth is children have remarkable

abilities when it comes to acquiring a language. Parents should

also let them explore the world. They should also provide tasks

which encourage the children to think. Parents should also guide

the children as they move on from one stage to another and slowly

relinquish their control and let the children be independent.

Last but not least, let the children interact with other people

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who are more capable at speaking the target language such as

other adults or more knowledgeable peers. Children grow in such a

rapid pace especially when it comes to language. However, it is

the job of the parents to make sure that the development process

goes smoothly and successfully. Therefore, I think it is wise for

parents to know briefly about all the theories and take advantage

of them. This will help our children and ensure the success of

their language acquisition.

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CHILDREN'S LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: HOW PARENTS COULD TAKE ADVANTAGE AND GET INVOLVED

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