Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 65, 2013

1892 Addo

Assessing Coastal Vulnerability Index to Climate Change: the Case of

Accra – Ghana

Kwasi Appeaning Addo

Department of Marine and Fisheries Sciences

University of Ghana

P.O.Box Lg 99 Legon-Accra.

Email: kappeaning-addo@ug.edu.gh

INTRODUCTION The dynamic and complex multi-functional coastal environment

is constantly changing due to natural and anthropogenic driving

factors. These changes affect a number of often conflicting human

socio-economic activities that occur in these areas. The human

induced influences generally tend to exacerbate the natural stress

from wave and tide climates on coastal resources. Climate change,

as a result of the shifts in the mean state of the climate or in its

variability, has led to a rise in the earth's average surface

temperature (Gornitz, 2000). The resultant thermal expansion of

the ocean and the increased melting of the glaciers have facilitated

sea-level rise at a rate of about 1-2 mm/yr (IPCC, 2007).

Accelerated sea-level rise represents a significant coastal

management challenge to coastal nations, especially in developing

nations where there is scarcity of geospatial data. Sea-level rise

has resulted in increased erosion, inundation of vulnerable areas

and more frequent storms in Accra (Amoani et al., 2012). These

developments threaten coastal life and properties. There is

therefore the need to critically assess coastal vulnerability to

climate change.

Vulnerability assessment of the coastal zone takes into account

several factors that drive changes in the coastal zone. These

factors when identified, combined and quantified determine the

resilience of the coastal environment to these forces. Information

on the effectiveness of the factors driving erosion enables the

vulnerable state of a coastal area to be quantified. Vulnerability

assessments are specific to a given location, sector or group and it

depends on the local ecological and socio-economic

characteristics (Hinkel and Klein, 2007). The vulnerability of

coastal systems to sea-level rise and to other drivers of change is

determined by their sensitivity, exposure and adaptive capacity

(Nicholls and Klein, 2005). A more detailed vulnerability

assessment at the local scale enables understanding into the

complexities of the coastal system at a localized scale in a specific

area.

Shoreline erosion in Accra has been reported by previous

studies (Anokwa et al., 2005; Campbell, 2006; Appeaning Addo

et al., 2011). It is estimated that about 80% of the shoreline is

threatened by erosion, while the remaining 20% is either stable or

accreting (Appeaning Addo et al., 2008). Coastal erosion has

affected the social and economic life of the local population,

threatened cultural heritage and hindered coastal tourism

development (Sagoe-Addy and Appeaning Addo, 2012).

According to Boateng (2012), substantial amount of houses has

been lost to coastal erosion in the past and the trend continues in

some areas along the coast. In the western part of the Accra coast,

17 coastal inhabitants in two coastal communities have lost their

buildings to coastal erosion over 26 years (Campbell, 2006). A

study by Appeaning Addo et al. (2011) estimates that about 85

houses will be lost to erosion in three communities in the western

part of Accra by 2025 under increasing sea-level rise, which will

displace over 2000 coastal inhabitants.

Causes of erosion in Accra are as a result of natural and

anthropogenic forcing factors (Appeaning Addo et al., 2011).

These driving forces of varying intensity and energy interact

within the Accra coastal area to initiate or exacerbate erosion.

Anokwa et al. (2005) identified the varying geological

constituents along the coast as a major driver of erosion. Beach

sand/gravel mining and general lack of enforcement of laws

banning beach sand mining have been identified by Appeaning

ABSTRACT

Appeaning Addo, K., 2013. Assessing Coastal Vulnerability Index to Climate Change: the Case of Accra – Ghana,

Proceedings 12th International Coastal Symposium (Plymouth, England), Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue

No. 65, pp. 1892-1897, ISSN 0749-0208.

Coastal zones are under severe threat from climate change and its associated sea-level rise. Areas with relatively low

elevations will experience either temporal or permanent flooding, while other areas will experience increased coastal

erosion. Several factors within the coastal environment combine to drive coastal erosion. Identifying these variables and

quantifying their risk levels enable the vulnerability index of a particular location to be estimated. This study divided

the coast of Accra into three sections based on the geomorphology. The vulnerability index was estimated for the three

sections by determining their relative risk factors. The ‘square root of product mean’ (CVI5) method was adopted for

this study. The results indicate that the coastal vulnerability index for the entire coast of Accra is 7.7, which falls within

the moderate risk category. The western section is more vulnerable to sea-level rise followed by the eastern and the

central sections. Inundation in the western section will result in displacement of the local population, destroy their

source of livelihood and flood the Densu wetlands – a RAMSAR site.

ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS: Vulnerability index, Accra coast, risk factors, climate change, sea-level rise.

www.JCRonline.org

www.cerf-jcr.org

____________________ DOI: 10.2112/SI65-320.1 received 07 December 2012; accepted 06

March 2013.

© Coastal Education & Research Foundation 2013

Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 65, 2013

Assessing Coastal Vulnerability Index to Climate Change: the Case of Accra – Ghana 1893

Addo et al. (2008) as a major cause of increased erosion in Accra.

Appeaning Addo (2012) identified the unplanned physical

infrastructure development, population increase and increasing

tourism development in the coastal zone as a cause of increased

erosion. Coastal vegetation is cleared and wetlands are drained for

infrastructural development (Alvarado, 2003).

The Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI) is one of the most

commonly used and simple methods to assess coastal vulnerability

to sea-level rise, in particular due to erosion and/or inundation

(Gornitz et al., 1991). CVI provides numerical basis for ranking

sections of coastline in terms of their potential for change as a

result of several factors such as sea-level rise, geology, wave

climate and geomorphology. It enables coastal managers to

identify regions where risk may be relatively high and develop

appropriate management strategies.

This paper assesses and estimates the vulnerability index of the

Accra coast by identifying the various factors that can be

influenced by climate change to drive changes in the coastal

environment. The study involves two phases. The first phase

involves creating a database of geologic and environmental

variables. The variables included in this database are geology,

geomorphology, elevation, relative sea-level rise rates, shoreline

recession rates, tide range and mean wave height (after Gornitz

and White, 1992). The second phase of the study was conducted in

two parts. The first part entails assessing the potential impacts on

the shoreline due to these variables, while the second part

quantified the relative vulnerability of the different Accra coastal

environment to sea-level rise.

STUDY AREA Accra lies along the Gulf of Guinea (Figure 1) and it is the

political and economic capital of Ghana. It is part of the Greater

Accra region of Ghana and the shoreline is about 40 km long. The

region is the smallest in Ghana but densely populated with about

3,909,764 inhabitants based on the 2010 population and housing

census figures (GSS, 2011). Accra is located at latitude 5.6260 N

and longitude 0.10140 W, which influences the climatic conditions

that prevail along the coast.

Figure 1. Location of the study area along the Ghana coast (adapted from

Survey and Mapping division of Ghana Lands Commission).

The study area is generally a low lying area (elevation ranges

between 2 and 12 m) with successions of ridges, slopes and

occasional rocky headlands. The coastal zone is underlain by a

gentle, mature topography that slopes towards the shore (Muff and

Efa, 2005). Along the shoreline, sandy platforms are associated

with lagoonal inlets and river deltas. Figure 2 shows the underlain

rocky beach and the devastating effect of coastal erosion along

part of the western section in the study area.

Figure 2. Coastal erosion along portion of western Accra coast.

The coastal area experiences significant differences in the

amount and seasonal distribution of precipitation. It has two rainy

seasons with the major season between April and July, and the

minor one between September and November. Sediment transport

to the littoral zone is high during the rainy season as the rivers

discharge their sediment from the upland catchment areas into the

sea (AESC, 1980). Inversely, sediment transport reduces during

the dry season when temperatures are over 300 C resulting in the

drying up of most of the rivers.

Waves approach the open coast from the south-southwest

direction. Currents that transport sediment include the longshore

current, the Guinea current that can measure up to 0.5 m/s during

raining season but is weak most of the year and the weak tidal

current (Wellens-Mensah et al., 2002). Various sizes of lagoons

exist along the coast with some associated with rivers and rivulets.

Some of the lagoons remain closed until opened by high river

flows due to heavy rains. The vegetation found along the coast of

Accra includes grasses, herbs, shrubs and different kinds of

mangroves usually located around the lagoons. Clearing of coastal

vegetation to put up shelter to accommodate the increasing

population and the emerging coastal tourism business has resulted

in a ‘land squeeze’ situation (Appeaning Addo, 2012).

This study adopted the division by Appeaning Addo et al. (2008)

where the study area was divided into three (3) sections based on

the geomorphology. These include the western (19.1 km) which

extends from Bortianor to Jamestown; Central (14.4 km) covering

the distance between Jamestown and Teshie; and the Eastern (14.6

km) which starts from Teshie to the Sakumo lagoon (refer to

results and Figure 3 for detailed description of the divisions).

METHODOLOGY In order to develop a database for a local-scale assessment of

coastal vulnerability for the Accra coast, relevant data were

gathered from various sources. The sources include government

agencies such as the Geological Survey Department and the

Survey and Mapping Division of the Ghana Lands Commission as

well as journal articles. The compilation of this data set is essential

to mapping potential coastal changes due to climate change.

According to Gornitz et al. (1991), a vulnerable coastline is

characterized by low coastal relief, subsidence, extensive

Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 65, 2013

1894 Addo

shoreline retreat, and high wave/tide energies. The manipulation

process was simplified by classifying the geologic and

environmental data variables into new "risk" variables. Each risk

variable ranges in value from 1 to 5 and indicates the region’s

relative risk to erosion or inundation. The risk variables were

based on ETC-ACC (2011). The risk assignments for mean

elevation, mean shoreline displacement, local subsidence trend,

mean tidal range, and maximum significant wave height adopted

for this study are given in Table 1 (after Gornitz et al., 1991). The

risk assignments for geology and geomorphology are also given in

Tables 2 and 3 respectively where using the Likert scale with 1

being very low to 5 being very high.

Based on the information in Tables 1, 2 and 3, the risk factors

for the variables identified along the Accra coast in the three

sections are presented in Table 4. The maximum significant wave

height was obtained from AESC (1980) that gives indication of

the wave energy in transporting sediment; mean tidal range was

obtained from Wellens-Mensah et al. (2002); local subsidence rate

was derived from Takoradi tide gauge station data obtained from

the Survey and Mapping Division of the Lands Commission of

Ghana; mean shoreline displacement was obtained from

Appeaning Addo et al. (2008); and relative elevations was

obtained from Appeaning Addo (2009). The geomorphology

variable, which expresses the relative erodibility of different

landform types, were derived from 2005 orthophoto maps

obtained from the Survey and Mapping Division of the Lands

Commission of Ghana and information on the geology that shows

the different types of rocks along the Accra coast was obtained

from Muff and Efa (2005).

Table 1: Relative risk factors for elevation, shoreline displacement, local subsidence trend, tidal range, and wave height (after Gornitz et

al., 1991).

Variable 1 2 3 4 5

Mean elevation (m) >30 >20 and ≤ 30 >10 and ≤ 20 >5 and ≤ 10 ≥ 0 ≤ 5

Mean shoreline displacement (m/yr) > 2.0 accretion >1 and ≤ 2 >-1 and ≤ +1 > -2 and ≤ -1 ≥ -2 and erosion

Local subsidence trend (mm/yr) ˂ -1 land rising ≥ -1 and ≤ 1 > 1 and ≤ 2 > 2 and ≤ 4 > 4.0 land sinking

Mean tidal range (m) ˂ 1.0 microtidal ≥ 1 and ˂ 2 ≥ 2 and ≤ 4 > 4 and ≤ 6 > 6.0 macrotidal

Maximum significant wave height (m) ≥ 0 and ˂ 3 ≥ 3 and ˂ 5 ≥ 5 and ˂ 6 ≥ 6 and ˂ 6.9 ≥ 6.9

Table 2: Risk factors for geology (after Gornitz et al., 1991).

Variable 1 2 3 4 5

Sandstone

Unconsolidated soil

Lagoon/fluvial sediment

Metamorphic

Sand

Clay

Gravel

Table 3: Risk factors for geomorphology (after Gornitz et al., 1991).

Variable 1 2 3 4 5

Beach poorly developed

Marine with wave erosion

Non-marine (land erosion)

Non-glacial irregular coast

Barrier coast

Delta coast

Embayed non-rocky coast

Table 4: Risk factors for identified variables in the three geomorphic sections.

Variable Western section Central section Eastern section

Mean elevation (m) 5 4 5

Mean shoreline displacement (m/yr) 3 3 4

Local subsidence trend (mm/yr) 2 2 2

Mean tidal range (m) 1 1 1

Maximum significant wave height (m) 1 1 1

Geomorphology 5 3 3

Geology 4 2 3

The relative risk variables contained within the database created

in GIS environment were used to formulate a coastal vulnerability

index (CVI). CVI may be used to identify areas that are at risk to

erosion or inundation. Gornitz and White (1992) and Gornitz et al.

(1997) proposed and tested (in terms of sensitivity analysis)

different formulas (considering 7 key variables) for the derivation

of the final CVI. The studies (Gornitz and White, 1992 and

Gornitz et al., 1997) identified that the methods were adequate for

the task when the number of risk factors that are missing data, for

a given location, are less than three. These formulas were adopted

for this study.

Product mean: CV1

Square root of product mean: CV5 = [ CV1]1/2

Where: n = variables present x1 = mean elevation

X2 = local subsidence trend x3 = geology

Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 65, 2013

Assessing Coastal Vulnerability Index to Climate Change: the Case of Accra – Ghana 1895

X4 = geomorphology x5 = mean shoreline

displacement

X6 = maximum wave height x7 = mean tidal range

The methods have been discussed extensively in ETC-ACC

(2011). The CVI5 formulation was used to determine the CVI for

the Accra coast because it has been widely used in other

applications at the local, regional and supra-regional level (Thieler

et al., 2002; Thieler and Hammar-Klose, 1999; Gornitz et al.,

1991, Gornitz, 1990; Gornitz, 1991a).

The results were mapped through a GIS system that enabled the

most vulnerable areas to be identified. The data values of the CVI5

calculated for the three sections were used to construct a

histogram for this study. Based on the histogram, three risk classes

were developed (i.e., low-, moderate-, and high-risk based on 33

percentile ranges) based on ETC CAA (2011). Low risk class

values are those values less than 6, moderate risk values range

from 6 to 9, and high risk values are greater than 9.

RESULTS

The three sections of the Accra coast (Figure 3) have similar

geological and physical features. Most of these features that have

been formed as a result of erosion are now also enhancing the

effectiveness of erosion.

Figure 3: Three sections with similar features (based on Appeaning Addo et al., 2008).

The geology of the Accra coastal environment is made up of

various types of rocks. They include unconsolidated sediments,

sandstones, quartz and lagoonal sediment (Figure 4). The western

part is predominantly unconsolidated soil while the eastern part is

more of quartz and little portions of lagoonal sediment. The

central part is mainly sandstone and a little portion of quartz.

Figure 4: Geology distribution along Accra coast (based on Muff

and Efa, 2005).

The landforms identified from the 2005 orthophoto maps

included those formed by erosion and those formed by deposition.

Several geomorphic features occur in all the three sections (Figure

5). The varied types of rocks in the study area and the prevailing

geomorphic features informed the selection of these maps over the

others.

Figure 5: Geomorphic features along Accra coast.

Transects along the shoreline at 100 m intervals were used by

Appeaning Addo et al. (2008) to estimate the historic rates of

erosion (Figure 6). Four shoreline positions of 1904, 1974, 1989

and 2002 were used to determine the historic shoreline rates of

change. The lateral movement of the different date shoreline

positions along Accra coast revealed the erosion pattern in each of

the three sections.

Figure 6: Orthogonal transects for rates of change estimations

(Appeaning Addo et al., 2008).

The western and eastern sections are eroding more relative to

the central section (Figure 7). The rate of erosion for Accra is

estimated as 1.13 m/yr ± 0.17 m/yr (Appeaning Addo et al., 2008).

The western part is eroding at a rate of 1.30 ± 0.17 m/yr, the

central part is eroding at a rate of 0.40 ± 0.17 m/yr and the eastern

part is eroding at a rate of 1.50 ± 0.17 m/yr. This trend is expected

to continue and possibly increase under influence of increasing

sea-level rise.

Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 65, 2013

1896 Addo

The vulnerability index values computed for the Accra coast

range between 4.5 and 12.0 and they vary along the coast. The

average CVI5 for the three sections are: western section 9.0,

central section 4.8 and eastern section 7.3. The mean value for the

Accra coast is 7.7 which fall within the moderate risk category.

Based on the CVI5 values computed, the high risk area to sea-level

rise is the western section; the eastern section is classified as a

moderate risk area to sea-level rise while the central section is low

risk area to increasing sea-level rise (Figure 8).

Figure 8: Vulnerable areas along the Accra coast.

DISCUSSION

Climate change and accelerated sea-level rise will affect the

western, central and eastern coastal sections of Accra differently.

The western section has a CVI value of 9.0, which makes it the

highest risk area to climate change compared to the eastern (7.3)

and central (4.8) sections. Although the entire Accra coast is

considered moderate in terms of risk to climate change according

to this study, the relatively high mean CVI value of 7.7 is

considerably high. The value is not consistent with other parts of

the world due to differences in the risk factor of variables used to

estimate CVI. The level of resistivity of the geomorphological and

geological features within the three sections to oceanic forcing

account for the CVI values obtained.

The sea level, which is rising at a rate of over 2 mm/yr (Sagoe-

Addy and Appeaning Addo, 2012) will facilitate waves to break

closer nearshore and tides to flood low lying areas during very

high tides. Although the risk factors for wave (significant wave

height 1.4 m) and tide (tidal range 1 m) activities are very low

(refer to Table 4), they are significant in driving sediment along

and across shore (AESC, 1980). The longshore current moves

along the coast from west to east transporting sediment that

shapes the shoreline configuration. The resulting shoreline

orientation influences the breaking pattern of waves and how they

impact the shoreline. This in part explains the different CVI

values obtained for the three sections.

The western section of Accra coast is highly vulnerable to

climate change. Several factors account for the CVI value

obtained for the western part. The area has a barrier coast, poorly

developed beaches (refer to Table 3) and low mean elevation

(refer to Table 1) relative to the other sections. The very low lying

areas get flooded during very high tides and whenever there is a

storm surge. Recent incidence of flooding in some coastal

communities in the western section (e.g. Gleefe) can be attributed

to sea-level rise as a result of climate change (Amoani et al.,

2012). This section of the coast is also dominated by soft rock and

unconsolidated sediment that are easily erodible. The shoreline in

this section is eroding at a rate of about 1.30 m/yr, which is

relatively high. The observed historic erosion trend is expected to

continue under increasing sea-level rise as has been observed by

Appeaning Addo (2009). These factors account for the high CVI

value estimated for the western section of the Accra coast.

The central and eastern sections are dominated by soft and hard

rocks that influence shoreline morphological change. The central

section is eroding at a rate of about 0.4 m/yr which is relatively

low and the eastern part is eroding at a significantly high rate of

about 1.50 m/yr. The relatively deep bathymetry in the nearshore

area of the eastern section (Appeaning Addo, 2009) enables waves

to break closer to the shore and attack the shoreline, thereby

eroding the softer part of the shoreline. Although the historic

erosion rate is high in the eastern section, the presence of

relatively hard rocks will slow the rates down. This in part

explains the CVI value estimated for the eastern section. Non-

marine erosion as a result of rain water runoff into streams and

lagoons are dominant along the portions of the central and eastern

coast (refer to Figure 5). The channels created enable the sea to

move more inland during very high tide and contaminate the fresh

water system. This has the tendency to affect fresh water fishing

activities in the lagoons and streams. They can also affect crop

farming in the coastal zone. Continuous widening of the channels

will result to increased erosion problems which will lead to loss of

coastal land and properties. The relatively low risk factor for the

geomorphic features in the central and eastern sections partly

account for the CVI values obtained for these two sections

respectively.

The high risk state of the western section requires pragmatic

measures to manage the coastal environment and resources.

Although Oteng-Ababio et al. (2011) suggested relocating the

inhabitants as a measure to manage the erosion problem in the

western section, the residents are resolved to maintain their

occupancy due to their strong cultural and social ties to the

communities. The government has adopted constructing hard

engineering structures, such as groynes and revetments, to manage

coastal erosion in the critical areas along the coast. This approach

is not sustainable as the erosion problem is simply transferred

down-drift of the coast. There is therefore the need to explore the

option of using soft engineering measures, such as beach

nourishment which facilitate managing with nature, to manage the

erosion problems in the western section. The measures if adopted

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40-3

-2.5

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

Distance along shore (km)

Rate

of

change (

m/y

r)

Western Central Eastern

A B C D E F

Figure 7: Historic rates of shoreline change in Accra (Appeaning

Addo et al., 2008).

Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 65, 2013

Assessing Coastal Vulnerability Index to Climate Change: the Case of Accra – Ghana 1897

would preserve the source of livelihood of the inhabitants as well

as their social life.

CONCLUSION The study has demonstrated that the coast of Accra is vulnerable

to climate change and its associated sea-level rise. The risk level

for the entire coastal area can be categorized as moderate. The

most vulnerable area is the western section where sea-level rise

will result in increased erosion and inundation of the low lying

areas, especially the Densu wetlands area. This confirms studies

by Appeaning Addo et al. (2008) and Anokwa et al. (2005) that

identified the western section is erosion prone. Increased erosion

and flooding in the Densu wetlands will affect the habitats of

migratory birds and destroy the ecology. The study has also

revealed that the combined effect of several factors within the

coastal domain places the risk factor to climate change at a higher

level. Geology, geomorphology and relatively low elevation are

the major factors that facilitate the high risk level in the western

section. Generally, the risk factor associated with wave and tide

actions will be minimal according to the standard risk categories

adopted (refer to Table 1) but based on the Accra coastal

conditions they will be significant. In the eastern section, the

presence of relatively deep bathymetry (Appeaning Addo et al.,

2008) will facilitate considerable impact from wave actions. This

will result in weakening the geology and lead to increased erosion

as the sea-level continue to rise. The low risk area to sea-level rise

along the Accra coast is the central section. This confirms model

simulations by Appeaning Addo et al. (2008).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author is grateful to the University of Ghana for supporting

the author to present this paper at the ICS2013 conference in

Plymouth, UK.

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