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Papers presented at the

SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE

ON PRISON EDUCATION

of Interest to the

Correctional Service of Canada

Oxford, United Kingdom

September 25-29, 1989

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Papers presented at the

SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE

.9g9 e ON PRISON EDUCATION ( Z, )6/; I '

of Interest to the

Correctional Service of Canada/

Oxford, United Kingdom

September 25-29, 1989

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11 BIBLIOGRAPHY

INDEX

Note: All of the following papers are available through Susan McIntosh, Secretary to the Director of Education and Personal Development, NHQ and the NHQ Library. They have also been for distribution to Regional Administrators.

1. Coakley, Catherine, "Creativity in Prisons," September, 1989 (Ireland)

2. Coleman, James E. and Evans, A. Donald, "The National Issues Forum: Promoting Learning and Developing Community in Prison," 1988 (U.S.A)

3. Continuing Education Service of Leeds City Council, "Education for Ex-0ffenders," summary of special project, July 1989 (U.K.)

4. Davis, Susan, "T.I.E. and the Ohio Plan: Blueprint for Success," September, 1989 (U.S.A.)

5. Dharmadasa, H.G., "Prison Education Work in Sri Lanka," September, 1989 (Sri Lanka)

6. Dunbar, Ian, "A Sense of Direction," HM Prison Service, October, 1985 (U.K.)

7. Duquid, Stephen, "Education for What? Curriculum Pedagogy and Program Objectives," September, 1989 (Canada).

8. Eggleston, Carolyn, "Curriculum Issues for the Incarcerated Handicapped Learner," September, 1989 (USA)

9. Garner, T.G., "Prison Education in Hong Kong: A Brief Historical Perspective," September, 1989 (China)

10. Germscheid, R.D., "Cognitive Development for Short-term Sentenced Offenders: Some Propositions," September, 1989 (Canada)

11. Hartl, Pavel, "Educational Strategies in Group Work with Recidivists," September, 1989 (Czechoslovakia)

12. Jenkins, Harold, "Evaluation of Prison Education Programs," September, 1989 (U.S.A.)

13. Langas, Asbjorn, "The Sharing of Responsibility between Authorities, Educational Institutions and Voluntary Organizations in the Rehabilitation of Prisoners - the Import Model," September, 1989 (Norway)

14. Littlefield, John, "Characteristics of the Ohio Inmate Intake Population and the Implications for Correctional Education Programming," September, 1989 (U.S.A.)

15. Mangara, Jumane Jadji, "The Role of Curriculum Development in Prison Education: The Tanzania Experience," September, 1989

16. McF Strain, J., "Education in Northern Ireland Prisons," September, 1989 (N. Ireland)

17. McCollum, Sylvia, "Mandatory Programs in Prisons - Let's Expand the Concept," August, 1989 (USA)

18. McDougall, C., "Anger Control Training with Young Offenders," April, 1989 (U.K.)

19. Miller, Helen, "Project Friends: The Development of a Program of Independent Study for Special Confinement Prisoners," May, 1989 (U.S.A.)

20. Morin, Lucien, "Education or the Violence of Justice," July, 1984 (Canada)

21. Neale, Kenneth and Normie, Gerald, "Strategies for Education within Prison Regimes: Comparative Approaches," July, 1984 (U.K.)

22. Report of a Working Party of the Northern Ireland Office, "Adult Basic Education in Prison Establishments in Northern Ireland," May, 1988 (N. Ireland)

23. Ripley, Paul, "Staff Development in Prison Education Departments," September, 1989, (U.K.)

24. Ross, Jacqueline, "Gender Studies and the Criminal Justice System - Implications for Prison Education," September, 1989 (U.S.A.)

25. Sedlak, Robert and Karcz, Stan, "Descriptive Study of Teaching Practices and Efficacy of Correctional Education," August, 1989 (U.S.A.

26. Semmens, R.A., "Program Strategies for Community Re: Integration of Prisoners," April 1989 (Australia)

27. Semmens, R.A., "Some Issues in Prison Education in Australia," September, 1989 (Australia)

28. Simon Fraser University, "University Prison Education in British Columbia," October, 1988 (Canada)

29. Suvaal, Robert, "Education in the Dutch Penal Institutions," September, 1989 (Holland)

30. Suvaal, Robert, "The Training Programme at the Experimental Day-Detention Centre in Rotterdam", September, 1989 (Netherlands)

31. Wolford, Bruce, "Correctional Staff Training in the United States: Delivery Systems for Specialized Groups," July, 1989 (USA)

32. Ziehart, Peter, "Education and Treatment," September, 1989 (Austria)

CREATIVITY IN PRISONS

Catherine Coakley, Education Unit, Cork Prison, Cork, Ireland

(1) CREATIVITY IN PRISON

"There really is no such thing as Art. There are only artists.

Once these were men who took coloured earth and roughed out the

shape of a bison on the walls of a cave; to-day they buy their

paints and design their posters for the Underground. They did many

things in between. There is no harm in calling these activities

art as long as we keep in mind that such a word may mean very

different things in different times and places. And as long as we

remember that Art with a capital A has no existence." 1

INTRODUCTION

Creativity is the antithesis of imprisonment. Here is a

system that tries to stifle creativity. Here is a place where all

decisions are made for people, where there is great pressure to

'fit-in' and be the same because it is believed that there is great

safety for everybody in conformity. In prison people are cut off

from influences and stimulation. In this world, largely free from

responsibilities, prisoners are encouraged to sit back and ' do

their time'. Far from being encouraged to confront themselves in

any way and come to terms with who they are, often prisoners will

simplr see their sentence as a suspension of their 'real' lives and

are content to drift along in this 'unreal' world of prison.

Yet what is creativity if it isn't about making decisions,

making choices, making a personal statement? It's about being open

to stimuli and assimilating influences. It's about having

enthusiasms, taking responsibility and taking risks. It is as

Jimmy Boyle describes when he speaks of his work in sculpture,

when he found a 'freedom of the mind, a sense of awareness and the

pain that goes with it". 2

Within the prison system there are other kinds of prisons, like

the one described in this poem:

My prison is man made

But the prison that's so painful

Is the prison I have made for my soul.

It closes around me at night.

These walls are high too.

They stretch up and all around

Offering no escape to their weary prisoner. 3

Often the biggest obstacle to their own creativity are the

prisoners themselves. In my experience prisoners are nothing if not

resourceful and imaginative, whether in putting together a makeshift

(21

I

radio or doing a painting or sculpture. But the prisoner who

will be creative with wire and batteries may be the last person

to attempt a painting or a poem. The preconceived ideas prisoners

often have about what rear Art (with a capital A) should look like,

will not allow them to lose face if, in their eyes, they fail to

those preconceptions and paint a 'bad' picture or write a 'bad'

poem. So one has to try to get beyond the barrier of the 'tough

guy' image which prisoners often put between themselves and the

world.

Mountjoy is a very tough prison

Where men cry at night with their tears.

It's also a place for decisions

The first being the sheding of tears. 4

Of course creative activity isn't like some antidote that

will allow a person who has previously been repressed, to suddenly

express their feelings and thus change. But it is possible for a

person to maintain a hard man image and still write poems like

those quoted above. So some kind of balance is achieved, and a

process of self-awareness, however tentative, has begun.

A STRUCTURE FOR CREATIVITY

Sometibes the fact that zreative activity may seem to be so

much at odds with the rest of the prison, is its greatest attraction.

Because then it offers at the very least an escape from that

system, from the boredom, from the tension. Prisoners will come to

an art class or a writing group for many different reasons. Why

they come is not important. Simply,,they, are there and the

possibilities are many.

When I started working in Cork Prison there was no structure

in the art class. Prisoners came to school each day and tried a bit

of everything. So it" was necessary to create a structure because

good art and good writing requires discipline and structure. But

within this, there must be flexibility to allow for the many

different needs of the pupils. Also, it was important to have an

informal and non-threatening atmosphere. So the structure must be

mostly invisible.

To a large extent one could say that it's not possible to teach

art or creative writing. I always think of teaching art as really

teaching people how to see. Skills can be taught and they are vital. IIArt and writing are very much based on personal values which is one

reason why they are so difficult to define. With this in mind,

prisoners are encouraged to experiment and work at their own pace,

keeping in mind that to produce anything worthwhile it takes

hard work and thought and concentration.

Each day is given over to one particular subject e.g. .

on Monday - painting and drawing, on Tuesday - sculpture, on

Wednesday - batik etc. If they concentrate for some time on one skill then they develop what could be called a 'visual vocablary'

with which to express themselves. If they find they don't like it

or are not good at one thing then they can try something else.

Because lack of confidence is a big problem and since it is

important to build up self-esteem, the learning of a skill will

encourage and allow them to try more. Much emphasis is put on the

process because that is where most of the learning takes place. But often for the prisoner the most important thing is the end

product.Because a goal has been reached and the finished product is

like a concrete statement which says 'I have achieved something' or

'I'm good at this'.

Apart from all these more serious ideas it is important to

remember that art is good fun, it's enjoyable, it can be exciting

and it brings a lot of pleasure to people. It makes people happy.

TEAM-TEACHING

Art, like politics, can mean different things to different

people. Art can have a message, a political one, a social one. This was one of the many lessons learned from an experiment we did in team-teaching. A group of prisoners did a twelve week course in art and sociology, with a view to putting the information they learned at sociology into visual form in the art class.

The subject of their course was pollution. The prisoners, armed as

it were, with what they had learned from their course, had to set themselves a goal and set about reaching it. In this case the teacher was just a facilitator and technical advisor. Furthermore,

they had a common goal and this required group co-operation and agreement. In a clever way the group came up with an idea which would allow them to work both as individuals and as members of a

team. Tlieydecided to construct a life-size room from sheets of

board, each board containing a window which depicted a different kind of pollution. Therefore each prisoner could express his own personal vision, knowing it was part of a collective statement.

A recent report on Education in Prisons, prepared by the Select Committee of Experts on Education in Prison, states that

(3)

(s

1

1

'As far as possible, the curriculum is worked out jointly between

the students and teachers' 5 The fact that, in this instance, the

students took so much responsibility for the project, no doubt

contributed to its ultimate success.

Team-teaching doesn't have to be confined to group work,

which has many obvious benefits. And the advantages of the idea

apply not just to the prisoners but the teachers also. It's an

exciting way of working because it allows teachers to expand their

areas and develop new ideas. Sometimes teachers feel they are

working in isolation and the chance to work with one another

offers support and reassurance. When different subjects are brought

together and relate to one another, it puts education in a broader

context and re-enforces an overall philosophy of education. In

Cork Prison, most of the subject areas were brought together when

a whole week was devoted to the theme of Emigration, which is a

growing problem in Ireland.

ART IN AND OUT OF PRISON

In an interview on radio, when asked if he cared what people

thought of his work in an exhibition, a prisoner said 'No, I don't

really care what they think. I'm sure the public out there have

us stereotyped, you know, as a bunch of guys just sitting back

here getting fat...thinking about what's my next job when I get out,11

or crying, you know, self-pity, wallowing in self-pity...'

Exhibitions of art from prisons remind the public that there are II people in prison and that they are active and creative. And this is

a good arguement in their favour. However, many people outside

prison have certain preconceptions about what art from prison will

be like - . The media in particular, looks for the most sensational

and emotional aspects of the work. Exhibitions give the students

something to work for. If some work is sold, then there are

financial rewards. But there is always the satisfaction of

realising that other people are interested in and like their work.

However, the traffic in and out of prison seems to be mostly

one way and it is often easier to get artists and art into prison,

rather than out of it. Many prisons in Ireland have an Arts Week

each year when writers, artists, musicians and performers come

to the prison. If people want to be artists or writers then it's

necessary to see good art and read good books. Cultural events

may often provide a starting point or become a source of encourage-

ment for prisoners to become involved in a creative process. There I

is no doubt too that the staging of plays and exhibitions in

prison can only help to de-mistify these activities which often

seem elitist and inaccessable to prisoners.

The Irish Arts Council operates two schemes called the

Writers-in-Prisons and the Artists-in-Prisons schemes. In these

projects writers and artists come into the prisons to talk about

their work or do specific work with the prisoners. When a prisoner

meets an artist it turns art into a living thing. Coming into

contact with artists' and writers' enthusiasms and their belief in

what they do, can have a motivating effect on the students. And it

must be said, on the teachers also, whose belief in what they are

doing may be faltering after long years in prison. It's also a

chance for teachers to learn more. For the prisoners who might

wish to continue their work outside prison, then useful links have

been made between them and people already working in these areas

outside. (p.e.ecuse tutn to titan3c/cipt o4 Radio Intetview)

CREATIVE WRITING IN PRISONS

From 1985 - 1987 the English poet Ken Smith was Writer-in-

Residence at Wormwood Scrubbs Prison. Of his work there he wrote:

'In any case the problem defined itself as trying to keep the

imagination alive, where any stimulus to the starved prison self

might be a starting point, where language was always charged and

meaningful, mercilessly so, and where men somehow strived to tell their tales, and where my task was to encourage them to talk, to

write, to remember, to think, to keep the mind alive. Because I

believe in growth and the possibility of growth even amongst the

dammed, and because I believe that writing is a progression of

thinking out loud, I therefore worked on the principle that

the men I worked with were seeking help in figuring out who they were, their crimes, how they came here, and considered that they

in any case were their own starting points, and mine.' 6

Perhaps it is the belief in 'growth, and the possibility of

growth' which bring us into prison and keep us working there.

Compared with art and its many apparently intimidating processes

and techniques, writing seems much more accessable to the prisoner.

Who, even with the worst school experience behind the, hasn't

come across some poem or part of a poem that remains with them?

Consider this poem

Tea's up half past ten once more

This prison is a place where loneliness lurks

(5)

(11 But we who work the kitchen, mop the floor

Get tea each morning as our perk

To keep us happy on our work!! 7

It's a simple poem, yet it expresses humour, sadness, irony

and shows perception. It is a record of daily life. Apart from

trying to create literature, this function of recording life or

recording the past is one of the main reasons for writing. Take

a writer like Alexander Solzhenitsyn who wrote about prison.

One of his earliest books was One day in the life of Ivan Denisovich, II

a technically perfect.novella. However, over the years and under

the pressure of his prison experiences, he abandoned literary genres

and wrote the Gulag Archipelago, a series which is pure memory

and history rather than literature. Perhaps there is a lession

here for writing in prisons. That we should be conscious of what

has happened in the prisoners lives. We shouldn't be obsessed

with the creation of good literature. It is important that the

prisoner records what has happened in the past because it is

usually the past which has put him behind bars. I'm reminded of

another Russian writer, Irina Ratushinskaya, who wrote her poems

on toilet paper in an effort to preserve them, because there was

nothing else to write on.

The need to write is expressed in this poem

Poems like cancer

Will not leave me.

They pain me

Especially in the morning

Begging for release.

I cast my pen

Into a resevoir of words.

Stagnant but deep.

If only I could swim. 8

The need to write is the need to express. This illustrates the

theraputic value of writing. People in prison love to write their

life stories, as if by writing them down, those lives take on a

significance and a permenancy which they previously did not have.

Sometimes this story is told in an long autobiography, sometimes

in a poem. Each prisoner must tell his tale, and poetry stirs

the dreams and the ghosts." 9

1 1

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1

( 7)

I' I

CONCLUSION

"Every day is automatic but that doesn't mean your thinking is

automatic. You don't think the same thing every time the door opens

or is locked...so it's a negative atmosphere but you can make it

positive." 10

Creativity is essentially a positive thing. Although the

motivation is often anger, hate, frustration, pain... The impulse

to create is a positive one. In prison it is important to balance

negative and positive experiences, otherwise life is distorted and

bleak. Writing, or working on art, allows people to express themselves

in a non-violent way, people who might previously have_expressed

themselves aggressively. The report on Education in Prison states

that 'At times, also, creativity can be misdirected in destructive

or anti-Social ways and this has been the case for many who are in

prison. '11.

When one is involved in a creative process for some time,

especially writing, then a pattern of attitudes appears, which is

often quite revealing and helps people to learn more about

themselves.It is vital that people remain intellectually alive

and free from their different kinds of prisons. There is much that

is creative in prison, in everybody, and we must look on this as

a great sign of hope. Creative talent is like a muscle that needs

constant exercise and the prisoner, like an athlete, must stay in

training for the world outside.

Catherine Coakley Cork Prison, Ireland.

Notes

1. from The Story of Art by E.M.Gombrich

n . from A Sense of Freedom by Jimmy Boyle

3. from poem Walls by 0.P., prisoner in Cork Prison

4. from poem Mountjoy Prison, by D.O'C., prisoner in Cork Prison

5. from Report on Education in Prison, Strasbourg, July 1989(5.3)

6. from Inside Time by Ken Smith

7. from poem Passing Months by 0.P., prisoner in Cork Prison

8. from poem Poetry by J.L., prisoner in Cork Prison.

9. from Inside Time by Ken Smith

10. from Radio interview with prisoners in Cork Prison.

11. from Report on Education in Prison, Strasbourg., July 1989.(10.1)

End

(1)

INTERVIEW WITH TWO PRISONERS, JOHN AND RAY, IN CORK PRISON, AFTER

AN EXHIBITION OF PRISON ART IN THE TRISKEL ARTS CENTRE, CORK.

Ray: I like painting. I like the feeling, you know, when you're

by yourself, you know what I mean. You've got no problems,

just the painting. That's the way I see it anyway.

And are there things here in Cork Prison that you can look

around at and paint? Are there things that would inspire

you?

Ray: I just work from magazines and posters. I wouldn't be into

painting cell windows and doors. You see a lot of drawings

of fellas painting their cells and things. I'm not into

that at all, you know what I mean? You've got enough of

that already. You're living with that, you know, so why

paint it as well? So when you're painting you're getting

something else.

What about you John?

John: Well, I don't paint. Well, I do paint but I don't paint

very much. I don't like painting.

Well, what would you call your work? It's sculpture really

isn't it?

John: If you want to call it sculpture you can call it sculpture.

I don't know what it is.

But I mean, why did you do it?

John: Am... .1 can't think of an answer to that. I just did it for

the buzz. It's kind of spontaneous, you know? It's just...

I looked around the Art room after being in there for a few

months. I was just sitting down and I saw a lump of wire and

so I decided to shape out something with the wire and got

gloves, garlening gloves, and cut out the wire and made a

model you know? So it turned out to be sculpture, if you

want to call it a sculpture. So it was spontaneous. Nothing

planned.

1

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1

(2)1 But why did you go to the art class in the first place?

Why not history or biology or...

John: I've done all that. I'm only in school really to get away

from the system, you know, the prison system. 'Cos it's

more relaxed and that's it.

Could you survive here if you didn't go to the school? Or

to classes?

John: Yeah. No problem. No problem. But that's the only reason

I'm in the school really.

Ray: It's a change from the yard. Most other people who're not

going to school are in the yard all day and just walking and

playing handball or football....

John: ...or watching video, you know, watching T.V. That's the way

it goes...

Ray: It's a drag isn't it?

Do you mind the fact though, that your day is set out. That

you get up at a certain time and you get up at the same time

every day? And you go to bed at the same time. You have your

dinner at the same time...

Ray: If you get caught up in it, you know what I mean? It's just

you don't get caught up in it, that's all.

John: It's automatic now, you know.

Ray: You just do different things.

John: You just switch on to it and switch off.

Ray: If you want to do it...say you want to get up... You all

get up, you go to bed, you walk, you sit down, you're

waiting for your dinner, you're waiting 'till after your

dinner, you're waiting, you're waiting, you're waiting,

you're waiting. You just do your own thing then. If you want

(3)

to do painting, you're in painting and that's it, you know

what I mean? That takes you away. Sculpture takes you away

you know what I mean...?

John: It doesn't take me away. I don't get any kick out of it. I

don't get a kick out of very much stuff, you know. I do

a lot of woodwork as well you know. That doesn't do anything

for me either. But I just like the school over here you

know 'cos I can come over here in the morning....

Ray: ...he's just a block of wood...

John: ...and I can have a class. I could have an english class

you know. And I don't have to go into that class you know.

I just tell the teacher I'll be hanging out in the art

class this morning. And that'll be O.K. with him. And

I'll go down to the art class and I'll just get a cup of tea

together and have a conversation with someone, mainly teachers.

So this is your way of escaping if you like, from the life

of prison?

John: Yeah, you could say I'm hiding out here, you know. Hiding

out in the school, that's it.

Ray: I always end up drawing or I'd figure out something to do to

pass the time. I'd always be doing something with my hands

instead of just sitting back and reading books. I'd always

figure out something, you know what I mean, matches or

drawing or markers. I just do something to keep occupied

anyway.

And do you find that, that's a relief from the environment

here?

Ray: I do yeah. That's where I get my release anyway.

How would you describe the environment?

John: Pretty tense.

1

1

(41 Ray: It's tense, yeah, it's very tense.

Well, the physical environment I mean, from an artist's

eye for instance?

John: Artist's eye. I don't have an artist's eye so I can't answer

that. I'll leave that one to Ray.

Ray: Well, I wouldn't call it an artist's eye but I just...I don't

know... I just look at the walls, look at the yards...

They're grey aren't they?

Yeah, they're grey but.. .1 don't know. I don't see no

darkness—like a lot of people...you see a lot of prison

poems and they say darkness, it's grey, it's depressing,

it's this and that...I don't see that you know what I mean?

I'm just...happy the way I am.. .1 get's on. I can make

it something, you know what I mean. You can walk in the

yard...you're walking by yourself there some days and you've

got the big walls. If you start thinking about it, like,

you're only going to depress yourself, you're going to

look... But you can think about it...you can go up and you

can look down and you can think what's it look like now,

you know what I mean, walking in the yard...

John: You can play a game as well. It's like one game, a long

game. You smile you know, when a guy cracks a joke you know.

That doesn't mean you're necessarily happy or that's a good

joke you know. You just laugh, you know, it's just a game

you know, you just get on with it. Every day at a time,

like.

What do the other prisoners think of you because you're in

the art class and because you have done some sculpture?

John: Am.. .1 don't know whay they think of me but some of them

are saying...they're calling me...they're saying your stuff

is very artistic you know. And I say..well...you know what

I mean...I'm a modest guy like you know.

Ray:

You're a modest guy or you don't care?

John: Well, a bit of both, you know. I really don't care but I try to be modest also.

How can you not care when you're told it's good and maybe

deep down inside you know it's good?

John: I look at it this way right? No matter what I do, right,

inside this prison, I'm going to be leaving all this behind

me you know, because I'm going out you know? Because it's

not going to be easy. I have to go back out there and

start from zero, you know? I came into prison four years

ago, you know, and I have to go back out now to nothing,

you know. Well, a family of course but...nothing, like...

financially wise. So I've to start from zero again.

So you think art is going to have nothing to do with your

new life when you get out?

John: No, not until I get myself steady.

Has art helped you to live in prison?

John: Ah.. .no it hasn't.

Ray: Well, I'd be the opposite now 'cos I think it has .

because when I came in first I was wild. I was only

sixteen when I came in...

John: ...And I met him three years ago in Limerick prison, right?

when he just came in and he was...a wildhead you know?

And then he was into drawing the whole time, you know. He

was always at that like. So he's into this.

Ray: So I reckon just...I don't know...by drawing and by...

relaxinjrhile I was doing a painting, I, I just relaxed

in myself. The tension went out of me. So instead of

just fighting all the time or just messing or arguing,

I just got cooler and cooler and just relaxed and just get

on you know.

(5)

( 6 )1 Ray, will you take it with you to the outside world?

Ray: Yeah well, I've learned a big lesson from it anyway, because

I'm able to relax over it, because if I.. .if I was feeling

tension now inside in the cell or something, I'd do a bit

of painting, I'd pick it up. That's it, you know what I

mean? It'd go into the painting then, you know what I mean?

And I'd relax and it'd come out of me and I'd be allright.

Do you get any sense of pride to think your work is on

exhibition and that people are going to look at it and say

it's good?

John: No I don't really care, you know, what they think. I'm

sure like, the public out there have us stereotyped you

know, as a bunch of guys just sitting back there, getting

fat...

Ray: ...talking about robbing...

John: ....what's my next job when I get out or crying, you know,

self-pity, wallowing in self-pity. There's not very much

of that here you know....Like, every day is automatic

but that doesn't mean your thinking is automatic, you know.

You don't think the same things every time the door opens

or is locked, you know. So it's a negative atmosphere but

you can make it positive.

Broadcast on Irish radio in January, 1989.

NIF in Prison

1

The National Issues Forums:

Promoting Learning

and Developing Community

in Prison

James E. Coleman

Education Supervisor

Central Correctional Institution

Macon, Georgia

A. Donald Evans

Department of Sociology

Mercer University

Running head: DEVELOPING COMMUNITY IN PRISON

NIF in Prison

2

Abstract

This is a qualitative study that applied the

National Issues Forums (NIF) as a method for

collaborative learning in a men's prison. From

May through September 1988 the authors used

participant-observation, informal interviews and

video-tapes with two small groups (N-14 and 13) of

prison inmates during 20 two-hour sessions. The

first group served as a pre-test for the second

10-week study. In the beginning there was

intolerance, distrust, hostility and lit:eral

shouting matches. In a matter of weeks group

members began to collectively refer to each other

as "family," "friends," who "trust" each other.

Tolerance for opposing ideas emerged and democracy

in the classroom became the norm. After

discussing crime and problems of education in

America at great length, inmates began to talk

about the welfare of society at large in lieu of

their own personal needs or complaints. While

traditional education programs in prisons teach

1 1

1 1

NIF in Prison

3

academic essentials, our evidence indicates that

NIF effectively teaches tolerance for diversity,

democratic behavior, and promotes the growth of

community and interpersonal trust.

1 1

1 1 1 1

1

NIF in Prison

4

The National Issues Forums:

Promoting Learning

and Developing Community

in Prison

In modern times, education has become the

major "treatment" modality for state prisoners.

Years ago, someone observed that we now ask

education to do for us what we once askèd God to

do. In truth, our strong faith in education has

very long historical roots. From the

morality-based education offered by the Quakers in

the 1700s, to the high-tech, computer-as.sisted

instruction found in many prisons today, educators

have led the way in habilitation.

It is important to realize that education for

prison inmates traditionally has provided the kind

of academic education that most prisoners missed

during childhood. Along with vocational training,

the greatest emphasis in recent times has been

placed upon basic reading, math, and English

skills while communication and interpersonal

skills have received short shrift (Gaither, 1982).

1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

a NIF in Prison

5

This work, therefore, is our response to this

particular vacuum. In this paper we report on the

use of small study circles (i.e., The National

Issues Forums (NIF]) to teach tolerance for

diversity, democratic behavior, to promote trust

and to develop Community in a hostile place. The

NIF approach is explained in the next section

below.

To be more specific, the chief approach to

prisoner education in America today is

individually prescribed instruction. Prisoners

are tested, specific deficiencies are identified,

and modules of instruction are then assigned to

remediate certain academic weaknesses. In short,

students progress at their own pace with only

occasional assistance from teachers who function

primarily as learning manaws (Fox, 1985).

In most correctional education classrooms,

students sit as isolates at a study carrel and

respond to programmed instructional materials.

Obviously, this method of learning provides few

opportunities for social interaction with a

1

NIF in Prison

6

teacher or, for that matter, with other students.

The passive role of the lone learner often results

in boredom and inertia (Gummere, 1988).

In addition to this segregative style of

learning, the nature of the prison environment

itself offers relatively few opportunities for

inmate students to self—express and to emote in a

positive way. In prison, one must always speak

with care or else prepare to defend oneself

verbally or possibly physically from some offended

person who didn't particularly like what you just

said. Furthermore, a careful person must never

express strong feelings about an issue because in

this environment strong feelings may be misread as

weakness; cogency is often perceived as a

challenge.

Spatially speaking, an ,inmate's movement is

significantly restricted. In addition, daily

activity is extremely regimented and casual

communication is strictly controlled by

authoritarian caretakers. In a word, one's

autonomy and liberty are limited; nearly every

NIF in Prison

7

aspect of daily life is regulated. One negative

consequence of this pervasive and strict control

is retardation of both personal development and

academic achievement (Goffman, 1961).

Since learning involves an opportunity to

speak, as well as listen to the responses of

others, a supplementary program that goes beyond

basic academic and vocational skills was needed at

CCI. Such a program would have to offer not only

opportunities for students to interact freely but

would also need to give them some sense of power

and control in their own lives. Ideally, a

program was needed that would encourage prison

students to examine their own values and beliefs

and it should also provide a positive social

environment where they might learn to more

effectively communicate with others (Brookfield,

1986). After reviewing several programs that

promoted interaction in the classroom we decided

that the National Issues Forums (NIF) would help

meet the overall educational needs of inmates at

CCI. This new approach to prison education is

NIF in Prison

8

described below.

The National Issues Forums

The NIF is a learning network used by

churches, libraries, prisons, and colleges, as

well as groups of private citizens. The forums

are designed to help people become more informed

about today's public policy issues, to identify

essential issues, and to explore commonalties that

are held on topics of national concern, topics

like crime and education (Matthews, 1985).

Specifically, NIF is a participant-centered

study group modeled after Swedish study « circles

(Oliver, 1987). Study circles are small groups of

friends, co-workers, and neighbors who meet for

in-depth discussions on current social issues in a

democratic way that facilitates the expression of

choice, the exchange of vies, the display of

leadership, and the exercise of political savvy.

In these small groups of 5 to 12 people,

timely and pressing issues are thoroughly

dissected through an intense process of analysis

and critical thinking in order to fully unveil

1

NIF in Prison

9

almost every possible facet of an issue--both pros

and cons. This is an effective dialectical

process that heightens awareness of important

issues and teaches cooperation, participation,

respect for opposing viewpoints, and inevitably

brings into sharp focus a litany of possible

solutions (Oliver, 1987).

In the free world, the official NIF

organization pinpoints three issues of public

concern each fall, and provides to-the-point,

"non-biased booklets" that effectively explain the

salient details related to these issues. In

effect, NIF provides a conduit by which a study

group's viewpoints can be made known to local,

state and national policy makers (National Issues

Forums Leadership Handbook).

Would this approach woii.k in a prison? Would

small groups of men meet on a volunteer basis to

discuss and debate topics of national concern?

Would they read the booklets, magazines, and

newspapers before each assembly? In the next

section of this paper we describe the physical and

1 1

NIF in Prison

1 0

social world where our experiment would occur.

Central Correctional Institution

CCI is an adult male prison operated by the

Georgia Department of Corrections. The prison,

located in Macon, Georgia, 85 miles south of

Atlanta, is a modern facility that was built in

1978. Although it is a close-security prison that

houses 540 felons (on 12/88) and officially

emphasizes custody, the physical lay-out of the

institution more closely resembles a college

campus than a prison.

A wide range of educational programming is

available at CCI. There are academic programs

designed to meet the overall academic/vocational

needs of the inmate population. For exaMple,

adult basic, remedial reading, and GED preparation

courses are offered (as mentioned earlier) through

a highly individualized curriculum. Students are

assigned to academic programs on the basis of the

competency levels measured on standardized tests.

This approach is meant to allow inmates to enter a

program and to progress at their own speed.

NIF in Prison

11

Another program at CCI is vocational training

which is provided by a local vocational and

technical school. These classes are held on the

institutional grounds, and include courses in

plumbing, brickmasonry, carpentry, electrical

wiring, and horticulture. Courses in this program

are primarily designed to provide job related

skills and to prepare inmates for even more

advanced training following their release from

prison.

Finally, two local schools in the community

provide post-secondary college classes at CCI. A

private Baptist-affiliated school, Mercer

University, offers a four-year program that leads

to a baccalaureate degree in Human Services. The

second school, a proprietary business college

offers courses toward an asspciate degree. The

major focus of this program is the development of

specific skills needed for organizing and managing

• a business.

NIF in Prison

12

NIF: A New Way of Learning

In the summer of 1988 we established two NIF

groups at CCI. The first group was composed of 14

inmate volunteers chosen from the general

population, the Education Supervisor who served as

facilitator, and (eventually) a Sociology

professor who teaches in Mercer University's

prison college program. The first issue we

studied was "Crime: What We Fear, What Can Be

Done." For 12 weeks the average length of all 10

sessions held was 2 hours long. For our research

this first group actually served as a practice

study.

Later, a second group was formed with an

inmate serving as facilitator. His

responsibilities were to encourage individual

participation, keep discussj.ons directed toward

the topic at hand, and take notes for reference.

The second study group was composed of eight men

from the first group, five new volunteers, plus

both authors who assumed the role of

participant—observers. The new topic studied by

1 1 1

•1 1

1 1 1 a 1 1

1

1 1 1

NIF in Prison

13

our second group was titled, "Priorities For Our

Nation's Schools." There were ten 2-hour sessions

that continued over a 14-week period.

Our study of learning and group dynamics is a

qualitative one. We made written notes on the

social interaction and dynamics of each session.

Another successful technique used was informal

interviews of inmate participants. Finally, and

perhaps best of all, our NIF participants held a

"rap session" about their recent study-circle

experiences, and these discussions were

video-taped. Afterward, the tapes were

transcribed and analyzed. We now turn to the

place of study, that is, the setting where we

worked.

The Anguish of

Incarceration

In prison, physical mobility is restricted

and opportunities for candid self-expression are

infrequent. In the words of Sykes (1958)

prisoners experience the "pains of imprisonment"

(p. 63), that is, the loss of liberty, the loss of

1

NIF in Prison

14

goods and services, the loss of heterosexual

relationships, the loss of autonomy, and the loss

of security. In this desolate environment, our

NIF study circle provided a safe social setting

where individuals could actually show genuine

feelings. In these volunteer groups prisoners

discovered that they could sincerely discuss

issues that affected their lives. To put it

another way, the study circle provided a-chance to

speak one's mind, to have an honest opinion, and

to talk without fear of retaliation. The NIF

sessions soon became sanctuaries of selfhood and

cognitive freedom. One articulate inmate said it

well:

Being in prison is being told when to eat, to

sleep, when to go to rec call [i.e.,

recreation call]....Up,here (in the study

circle], we're autonomous, man. We are a

group, we're friends, we talk. I can be real

and if I care about something, I can talk

about it.

NIF 'in Prison

15

Not only are thoughts, talk, and emotions

generally held tight at CCI, but prisoners are

also afforded little space for physical movement.

A 500—man prison sitting on 4 acres of land

epitomizes Collins' notion of "high social

density" (1985, p. 73) where the pressure of the

group upon the individual is strong. Prison time

is always long, but leisure time is all too brief.

Hard choices, therefore, had to be made by group

members about the allocation of their precious

leisure time.

Ah...movement is very restricted here in the

camp. We have...our recreation period which

is really important, but most of us give up

our recreation time and free time in order to

come to the NIF meetings.

Why would prisoners give up free time to discuss

something as abstract and macroscopic as national

issues? They came to the NIF meetings because a

new way of learning and a new freedom was

discovered. In these small circles men found a

social setting where they could learn, think,

NIF in Prison

16

debate and commune with one another in a

pro—social way. In the next section, we discuss

at greater length these new freedoms that emerged

in our study circles.

Freedom: Social and Mental

It turns out that the democratic study circle

provided, among other things, one of the few

opportunities for a person to temporarily escape

the absolute authority of the.. prison

administration in a positive way. The small group

of volunteers not only provided a platform for

self—expression, but it also created a social

climate that permitted a constructive exchange of

ideas. When information was dialectically given

and received without fear of retaliati .on, real

enthusiasm was gradually fostered. As learners

(and teachers), the participants became highly

animated and energized. One man explained both

the pleasure of and the hunger for social and

mental freedom he found in the study circle.

For us, we have very few opportunities within

the prison scheme of things, to be able to

a 1

NIF in Prison

17

sit at a table like this and exchange

intellectually and democratically...there's

no other time of our 24-hour day we have an

opportunity to do that.

To really understand, you'd have to walk

out this door with us and see sometimes.

We're told, 'Time is up,' and 'It's time to

leave,' [the study circle] and [ you should]

see us out there...ah...trying to squeeze out

another 5 or 10 minutes listening

to...ah...'you know, that was a good point

you brought up. I never heard that point

brought up in such a way.' [We'll try to]

spend another 5 or 10 minutes, [without]

being run-in, you know. [And a guard says,]

'It's time to go in, it's time,'

and...watching us walkt away [in different

directions] because one of us lives in this

building and one [in another building]....and

(we're] talking and...ah...spread apart and

yelling and our voices rising just so we can

(continue talking]...because we're trying to

NIF in Prison

18

squeeze every moment out of what we're doing

because our adrenaline is flowing. We're

going, we're excited about it, we have

learned something. You know, I felt like,

see, if every day could be a learning

experience...and, to learn from someone

else...and because of the wide variety of

people you have here, the wide backgrounds

that you have, you learn a lot of things that

were never...you know, never brouelt to your

attention before, that you've never been

exposed to.

In his own words he notes how collaborative work

with others (in lieu of traditional lectures)

produces learning and also dulls some of the pain

of prison life. There is no brighter picture of

the great pleasure that learning brings than this

one. It is learning, he observed, from a

cosmopolitan group of very diverse backgrounds and

cognitive resources. But things were not so

bright in the beginning as we point out in the

next section.

NIF in Prison

19

The Evolution of

Freedom and Cohesion

The democratic nature of our study circle was

not present from the beginning. Initially, there

was little respect or tolerance for the ideas of

others. At first, most group members focused on

the differences of others rather than on the

commonalities. But time and talk would turn this

-- around and one articulate man described this

radical transformation:

[Don] should have been here for some of our

first meetings....We had personal slurs.

Man! We had infighting! The whole macho, ego

thing, the competition for time on the table.

Absolutely no democracy....But we've gotten

closer....We've learned things and now, we've

all become...pretty tight. We've seen a lot

of changes up here.

After a short period of anarchy, displays of

egoism, and distrust, group members then began to

identify with each other and to collectively

construct issues, solutions, and definitions of

1 •

NIF in Prison

20

reality. Trusting relationships evolved and

increased tolerance for differing views slowly

emerged. During this transformation we observed a

complete validation of Homans' theorem that says

the more people interact, the greater is the

probability that they will become friends (1950).

At CCI some men began to talk in a language rarely

heard in prison.

This group...has evolved into...a trusting

relationship, between each other, which was

not present in the very beginning...and

that's what's different; that's what's

different in the rest of our life in this

prison system...is trust. When you're...down

there in the dorm, there is no trust. We've

learned that trust is important...ah...in

everything, in every.. c facet of life.

When people talk at length, they can hear and

see the inner self of the other. As these group

members disclosed their own views and positions on

a topic, personal needs and longings would often

surface. Through social discourse, the group

NIF in Prison

21

i l

1

slowly became a trusting unit. It seems that

whenever people, even convicted felons, talk long

enough, humanity emerges because talk is the

hallmark of that humanity. This verbal exchange

of views is clearly the principal means for

achieving high levels of intersubjectivity.

Knowledge, trust, and friendships were born in

these extended talkathons:

There are several conducive settings for

meeting people. And friendships, or trust,

or relationships develop based on knowing a

little more about each other and this is

where trust evolves from. So any of these

fellows here on...back in the dorm, or on the

yard, can know assuredly now that they can

say about anything they want to...to any of

the other guys in berg without any fears

whatsoever. It's because we have this

relationship, we have this friendship,

whatever you want to call it. We have this

trust...ahhh:...and it's an intellectual

meeting.

NIF in Prison

22

Typically, prisoners are sequestered from the

larger society and like many other incarcerated

people, our men harbored strong feelings of

alienation. Rejected, convicted, stigmatized, and

segregated--their sense of loss and

disconnectedness was great. What could improve

these negative effects? A collection of

individuals communicating with one another over a

considerable span of time and discovering that

they had some intermutual values that governed

their positions on national issues might remedy

this.

After several long talks NIF members actually

began to express a strong concern about national

policy issues. Intelligent conversations about

the greater good seemed to minimize some of the

effects of confinement by creating a link to real

problems and issues facing ordinary citizens in

the outside world. To put it another way, our

participants discovered a way to transcend their

own confinement and alienation by physically and

mentally banding together in the NIF study circle.

NIF in Prison

23

Here, the mind was free from the imposed

constraints of the main population; new roles were

assumed, responsible roles, roles that allowed

disenfranchised men an opportunity to grapple with

national issues, to become participants with

society—at—large. Through NIF participation

individuals became part of the whole again. Under

the NIF umbrella, they could inject themselves

into significant matters that touched their

country, their towns, their families. One man

explained how the sessions helped individuals look

beyond their own being:

We want to be involved in what's happening

outside of the walls. It affects everybody

around us. It affects our families and

everything, and that's the most important

thing, that we know wilat's affecting us even

though we're not out there in mainstream

society right now. But it will affect us

when we get out and....we have to

play--society has to play a part...with us in

order to give us a chance to come [back] into

NIF in Prison

24

society when we leave these walls...smoothly,

and not have a radical or a vengeful outlook.

We came here [to the study circle] and

we speak about the issues that are affecting

us personally--it's not a personal

thing--it's an interpersonal thing that were

dealing with. Issues that involve, not only,

just us, in here, but everyone, all over the

world. I mean...education...health, and —

crime...whatever you can think of, whatever

issue that comes into hand, or whatever issue

that would come into your mind--we deal with

it here, see?

In these social encounters the welfare of the

group took precedence over the mere individual.

Talk and thought focused upon the whole, something

quite contrary to usual talk and thought found in

a prison.

Democracy and Adult Learning

The format of the small study circle has made

a strong statement about how adults learn. First,

it was important to them to be in a structured,

NIF in Prison

25

yet highly flexible learning environment.

Secondly, the interdisciplinary nature of the

study-circle approach was identified as something

that contributed significantly to the learning

process. The group was able to draw from all

areas of academic study rather than being limited

to a single discipline. They appreciated an

opportunity to participate actively, sincerely,

and freely. Again, the egalitarian character of

the study-circle approach was praised.

With the study circle, we have a

democratic...ah...one-on-one

exchange....ah...everyone gets to

participate, everyone! Whenever they feel

they have.. .an idea or point, they want to

make, the format is flexible enough to allow

you to be able to maket that contribution;

whereas in a...college class it's an

instructional thing where basically you

have...ah...a bunch of students who

occasionally raise their hand, but basically

it's a lecturer who's an authority talking

NIF in Prison

26

down to you.

By coming together [in a study circle]

like this, we are furthering our education!

Now, it may drift from Sociology to

Psychology; it may interrelate different

subjects--whereas, in most traditional

college courses you are focused on one

subject and that's it! In a college class we

only hit upon one subject. When we deal with

this National Issues Forums, we deal on a

broad national basis of the issues that are

affecting us and everybody else around

us....that's the most important thing.

Thesis, Antithesis, Synthesis:

Finding Common Ground

Part of the magic of small study circles is

the topics that are read and discussed. Topics

like Crime and Education are macroscopic, timely,

and extremely relevant. These two particular

issues dominate daily news stories. By reading

and learning and then intelligently debating

solutions to these important societal problems,

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1

NIF in Prison

27

our inmates psychologically joined

America-at-large. The "petty-ass" talk of the pod

(dormitory) was transcended, replaced altogether

by very stimulating "talk" found in the NIF

sessions. In this circumstance a member felt

useful, felt like a normal contributing citizen of

society. Again, group discussions of common

problems combated alienation and promoted

integration.

This place [CCI] is so isolated that before

[National] Issues Forums, a lot of these guys

in this room, I wouldn't have a conversation

with because I didn't feel there was any

common ground to have a conversation about

and I didn't choose to talk about petty-ass

stuff going on in this institution.

I'm not so sure. 4 .I'm not so sure that

it's the topic, itself, that is really the

most important thing. I think that we could

get together around the National Issues

Forums...ah...topics, but I think what's

really, or what seems to me to [bel one of

1

NIF in Prison

28

the things that's really happening s here, is

the group dynamics...ah...that we are

learning to exchange, to be courteous to one

another, to be democratic, to...ah...have an

exchange of ideas, and be able to differ with

one another without getting into a fist

fight. Coming through prison, you know what

to expect. You go to prison, you're violent.

You don't put up with anybody treading on

your space, you hit them in the nose if

that's the case--and we are learning to

communicate!

In these study circles men replaced physical

encounters with verbal ones. Eventually, a social

situation evolved where one could speak freely,

openly, frankly, and without fear of physical

reprisal.

Communication is essential to community. The

successful conveyance of a participant's ideas

required not only the adoption of appropriate

listening skills, but the administration of

respect and tolerance as well. The interchange of

NIF in Prison

29

diverse thoughts and ideas resulted in increased

levels of understanding, mutual respect, and

personal growth.

Conclusion

At CCI the NIF format promoted analytical and

critical thinking skills not generally emphasized

in a core basic education curriculum. There also

emerged a significant development of respect for

and tolerance of diverse positions and viewpoints

set forth by other discussants. Such social,

civil, and cognitive skills are, of course,

prerequisites for many jobs on the outside.

Inmate participation in NIF study groups

seems to have potential for yielding immeasurable

benefits, not only for the individual, but for

society as well. At the very least, consciousness

of issues was raised, camaraderie and friendships

were developed, and some narrow—mindedness was

abandoned. In our small study circle every inmate

became a student and a teacher. In this unusual

setting they really exercised independent thinking

and talking. The result of this experience was a

1 •

NIF in Prison

30

reduction of feelings of inadequacy, alienation,

powerlessness, and the enhancement of self-worth.

Most free-society citizens enjoy democracy.

"Most," however, excludes prisoners. Prison

inmates constitute the most disenfranchised of all

groups in America. It would seem, therefore, that

it would be advantageous to all concerned if we

could nurture and develop in them a sense that

they too, still have a vital stake in American

society. We believe we have found strong evidence

that participation in NIF study circles can put

many inmates in touch with the free world and

simultaneously reduce ubiquitous alienation found

in most prisons. By creating community, combating

idleness, isolation, and mental decay, some of the

negative effects of institutionalization can be

minimized. We do not claim that participation in

the NIF has any effect on criminal behavior per

se, but we do claim that much useful learning took

place, that trust, tolerance, respect, and

friendships grew and developed during these

sessions. Will they last? Only longitudinal

NIF in Prison

31

observations of our people can tell.

t

NIF in Prison

32

References

Brookfield, S. D. (1986). Understanding and

facilitating adult learning. San Francisco:

Jossey-Bass, Inc.

Collins, R. (1985). Sociology of marriage and

family: Gender, love and property. Chicago:

Nelson Hall.

Fox, V. (1985). Introduction to corrections

(3rd. Ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice

Hall, Inc.

Gaither, C. C. (1982). Education behind bars: An

overview. The Journal of Correctional

Education, 33, 9-23.

Goffman, E. (1961). Asylums: Essays on the

social situation of mental patients and other

inmates. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books

Doubleday and Company, Inc.

Homans, G. (1950). The human group. New York:

Harcourt Brace.

Matthews, D. (1985). The Domestic Policy

Association: A test of public communication.

Association for Communication Administration

1

NIF in Prison

33

Bulletin, January, 75-78.

National issues forums leadership handbook.

Oliver, L. P. (1987). Study circleé. Cabin

John, MD: Seven Locks Press.

Sykes, G. M. (1958). The society of captives: A

study of maximum security prisons. Princeton,

NJ: Princeton University Press.

1

NIF in Prison

34

Author Notes

We wish to thank our students at Central

Correctional Institution for their participation

and their trust in the integrity of our study.

We also wish to extend our thanks to Jack

Stahlkuppe, whose tireless devotion beneath the

screen of an Apple Ile assisted us through untold

drafts of this paper.

A. Donald Evans is an associate professor of

Sociology at Mercer University in Macon, Georgia

where he has taught corrections for 18 years. He

received both an MA and a PhD in Sociology from

Louisiana State University and later conducted

research in Mexican prisons. He has conducted

several studies of prison inmate culture, deaf

children in residential schools and four different

tribes of American Indians. He has published in

all of these fields and presently is co-author of

a book manuscript about underground economic life

of a prison.

j

-

EDUCATION FOR EX-OFFENDERS

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 In creating and supporting the development of an Education for Ex-Offenders Unit within the Continuing Education Service Leeds City Council has established a unit which perhaps is unique in the United Kingdom.

2. Lawbreaking is not of course restricted to any one sex, race, class or age group, etc. Educationalists in the community will, laiowingly or otherwise, meet offenders/ex-offenders everywhere. However, work specifically designed to meet the needs of ex-offenders wàs initiated by Leeds Continuing Education Service, in conjunction with West Yorkshire Probation Service in Autumn 1981.

3. The rationale for initiating that work included:-

Beliefs - about the value of all individuals and their rights to appropriate education/training resources.

Experience - of the positive role of education in widening choices, enabling potential and changing lives.

Recoeition - that the accumulation of negative experiences faced by many offenders

a) made it unlikely that they would feel able to make use of existing provision.

h) led to the waste of their many abilities and potential contribution to society; and the repetition of disadvantage throu,gh the family cycles.

Concern - to identify and respond to the spebial and unrecognised learning needs of this group in accordance with the emerging priorities of the Service.

14. Target Group

4.1 It is important at this point to emphasize that within the unit there has never been (nor could be) any exclusive focus on the offender/ex-offender. Nor wa -s it appropriate or desirable simply to look at the education issues around offending behaviour. In educational terms it made no sense to distinguish the offender from a constituency of people who often shared a whole gamut of negative experiences which often isolate them from others and create very distinct special learning needs:

- long term unemployment and poverty; having to survive on benefits

- poor and often fragmented experiences of education with qualifications incomplete

- rootlessness - living in hostels/bedsits, not part of any community often moving round the country gravitating to the City Centre in the daytime

- relationships - often ephemeral - little good experience of friends or family

- "in trouble with the law", or at risk

2

- other problems - mental health, addiction, institutionalisation, physical disability

4.2 There are positive assets too, often ignored, which make it so important that opporttnities are provided:

- skills of all kinds and adaptability

- creativity, imagination and artistic talent

- humour, generosity, insight and resilience

5. Explicit Aims/Objectives

5.1 To provide appropriate access routes (guidance, counselling, information, support, advocacy, etc ) to existing mainstream and community based opportunities for education and training.

5.2 To make special provision in the City Centre where required in addition to or separate from existing opportunities.

5.3 Implici t Aims/Objectives

To explore the possibilities, the learning gained and the effectiveness of working closely with other caring agencies - especially with thé Probation Service.

5.4 To heighten educationalists' awareness of the issues around this non-traditional work.

5.5 To promote the work and lobby for resources.

6. Style of Work

- developmental and innovative

- perceptive and responsive

consultative and negotiated

- "collaboi-ative and non-compartmentalised

, - student-centred and needs led

7. The Unit has developed in four major directions so far, all based in "Oxford Place Education Centre":

7. 1 "The Basemen t" - special provision: an informal drop-in learning centre with a wide range of opportunities, not excluding educational guidance.

7.2 "Bridging the Gap" - (its name follows the report written for the Home Office by the National Association for the Care and Resettle-ment of Offenders)

- provides educational guidance, information and support i service to offenders inside prison and outside on their

release

1■■

1

- 3

7.3 "Outreach" - taking educational processes: provision and/or educational guidance and support into other settings acceptable to the target group, eg . in hostels and day centres.

7.4 Collaboration/Promotion - a wide variety of initiatives and active relation-ships developed:

a) to create, widen'or sustain the network of oppor tuni ties .

h) to validate the place of education in working with this client group.

- 4 -

"THE BASEMENT" OXFORD PLACE EDUCATION CENTRE

8. History and Structure

"The Basement" was the first of the joint Education Department/Probation Service initiatives, following a successful pilot project within an inner city Probation Day Centre.

"The Basement" can most easily be described as an educational day centre. It is situated in the basement of Oxford Place Chapel next to the Leeds Crown Courts, staffed by part-time teachers and a full-time Co-ordinator and Deputy Co-ordinator. There is a full-time Probation Service Assistant, who is a member of the Central Resources Team of Leeds Probation Division of West Yorkshire Probation Service. The Senior Probation Officer of the Central Resources Team is in regular contact, provides supervision, and attends Basement team meetings. The Centre is jointly funded by Leeds Education Department and the Probation Service. (Management structure and funding information at Appendix A and B).

9. Student Body and Specific Learning Needs

The life experience of Basement students is likely to include many of the elements described at 4. As a result they may:

- suffer loss of confidence and low self image

- seem apathetic, bored, uniable to articulate choice

- expect feilure and fear new opportunities

- feel thembelves to be the victim of circumstances, with no control of their lives

- lack interpersonal skills

- not see themselves as learners ( and indeed feel alienated from everything they understand as "education")

These feelings and self perceptions constitute a barrier to conventional teaching methods and matter, and are themselves a hidden curriculum to be addressed. Whilst they may sometimes be formally identified as "objects for study" it would be more usual for other subject material to function as a contextual framework in which such social education and fouidation learning can take place.

Other learning needs are well identified in "Adult Unemployment and the Curriculum" FEU 1985, and many recent publications about the "Adult Basic Education" s tud en t.

10. Aims - Objectives

10. 1 In this con text the Basemen t aims to provide:

- information to all who drop in to the Basement on appropriate education and training opportunities

- comselling and guidance to ensure Basement-student progression

- support to students also engaged in education/training elsewhere

- special provision as described in 11 and 12 below

-5-

10.2 In terms of its own provision, the Basement aims:

- to provide a safe environment

- to foster confidence, self worth and empowerment

- to ensure that students can take responsibility for their own learning

- to enable co-operative relationships

- to offer listening and caring

- to provide legitimate opportunities for fun and enjoyment

- to widen choices and so promote change

- to provide a wide range of opporttnities for learning, relevant to students' lives and using students' experience (skills knowledge, attitudes, behaviour).

- to promote equal opportmities

- to provide opportunities for achievement

- to enable a good learning experience on which students can build

11. Learning Programme

The current timetable is attached.

Learning also takes place via:

a) One to one - counselling, assessment, negotiation etc.

b) Educational visi ts

c) Residential experiences: cg, Northern College (3 groups this year) (mostly based round Basic Skills learning) Countryside residentials which focus on social and environmental learning

in 1989 • A women's group in Horton-in-Ribblesdale • A first-time residential group at Bretton

in the Peak District • An exoerienced group at Bakewell • A four-day hostel-to-hostel group in the

Peak District.

d) Project weeks, one day workshops, "theme" weéks, eg, anti-racist week, health week.

e) The Centre meetings , student committee and coffee bar involvement.

f) Social events jointly organised by staff and students.

12. The Basement also offers educational advice and encouragement to people who wiah to move on and look for other classes in the community, or for other ways of occupying their time. The Basement works with people of widely differing abilities and responds to referrals from people who have a sudden

- 6 -

desire to make better use of their time. Normal Further Education institutions have a formal atmosphere and tend t,o have set enrolment dates, but in the Basement people who are not sure of what they would like to do, can sample the various classes, or sit on the sidelines for a little while, and watch tritil they feel confident enough to participate.

13. Evaluation

The work of the Basement is evaluated from a variety of perspectives:

- by the students themsèlves. As with all basic education student-centred work, students' perceptions of their own progress towards their °WTI

goals is of major importance.

- by the staff - in measuring achievement of objectives and personal performance.

- by the agencies involved in identifying the contribution the Basement makes to work with clients (for the Probation Serviceextending the take-up and the understanding of work with this client group (for the Education Depar tmen t) .

14. Take- up and Comment

Attendance is not exclusively from people lalowin to the Probation Service, and the Centre is not approved for use as part of a Probation Order. Having said that, the Basement's activities are geared to dealing with Probation clients, and a substantial number of the users are made up of people known to the Service. The skills of staff and the emphasis on learning has made it possible to cope with a number of very demanding and difficult clients of the Probation Service who would have found it very difficult to engage in constructive activities elsewhere.

Statistical information follows. (See Appendix C)

fNETWORK AND PROMOTION

This represents other responsibilities initiated or undertaken by Co-ordinator

Mil MI am imp es or MI MS Urn MIS IOU let Ile

APPENDIX A

Senior Management

Co-ordinator Education Ex-Offenders [SL]

BASEMENT

Deputy Co-ordinator EL] (responsible for daily management etc)

Administrative/Clerical Assistant (P/T)

Probation Service Assistant*

1 Assistant Lecturer (responsible for special work with RSA Continuing Certificate of Education)

10 P/T Teachers

BRIDGING THE GAP

Education Guidance Worker [ L]

P/T Education Guidance Worker

P/T Admin/Clerical Assistant

1 Volunteer

OUTREACH

P/T teachers

P/T Educational Guidance Workers

P/T Outreach Support Worker

P/T Clerical Assistant

Volunteers and Placements

All based on premises in the semi-basement of Oxford Place Chapel.

Notes

* This Probation Worker is responsible to the Basement on a day to day basis.

•

APPENDIX B

FUNDING

Probation Service Education Department Basement Coffee Bar

P/T teaching budget approx £60,000

2 Admin/Clerical

Rent and upkeep of Bridging the Gap premises

£500+ per annum for other "extra mural" eventb.'

1 FIT Probation 3 F/T salary and oncosts Service Assistant

1 AL Rental of Premises

Upkeep

Cleaning ) of ) premises

Electüicity )

Telephone

Materials/equipment etc £5,500

Sundry other Contributions

Chari ties

£1,705 in 1989 for residentials

Total number of class attendances Student hours

Average weekly attendance Monday ---> Thursday (3)

Average class attendance (minimum/maximum) (4)

!It 1011111 1111111 ell/ VII» Olt MI MI lilt 11118 me nu uot IS MI

APPENDIX C

BASEMENT STATISTICS 1 SEPTEMBER 1987 -----> 31 JULY 1988

(1) Number of individuals recorded as attending

Number of new stud en ts

Number of students attending one class or more regularly (2)

Average number of classes attended regularly by these students (minimum/maximum)

New students who achieved regular attendance

Previous occasional students now attending regularly

Males Females

SEPTEMBER TO JANUARY TO APRIL TO WHOLE YEAR DECEMBER '87 MARCH '88 JULY '88

144 - 167 140 264

56 75 56 187

45 51 40 88 (10F/41M) (9F/31M)

not 3.1 3.4 available (1 - 10) (1 - 12)

7 15 8 27

not 7 available

2424 1939 1687 6050

4848 3878 3374 igloo

173 176 --

7 7.3 6.5 6.9

(2 - 12) (2 - 13) (2 - 15)

(5)

not 140 113 available 23 27

AGE RANGE RECORDED IN A TYPICAL WEEK'S SURVEY

Age Range

16 - 21 25%

21 - 30 42%

30- 45 20%

45 - 60 13%

1987 (1988 NOT YET AVAILABLE) STUDENTS' BACKGROUND IN TERMS OF OFFENDING, HOMELESSNESS, HAVING PROBATION OFFICER/SOCIAL WORKER ETC

Numbers acknowledging Probation Officer (past or present) 50%

Numbers acknowledging Social Worker 9%

Numbers from Detox, Prison, Addiction Unit, NACRO etc 7%

Number known to be on the circuit (ie, living in hostel using day centres etc) 11%

77%

Mg Mk MD MN INN 1111111 Mk IN Mlle MI 11111111 Sall MI IMO MI 1111111$ asp um

NOTES TO BASEMENT STATISTICS

1. These are all minimum numbers. Perhaps a further 10% are unaccounted for as it may be threatening, and inappropriate in the drop-in situation to take newcomer's name.

2. Regular attendance means five or more attendances within a 10 week period.

3. Weekly figures not provided for summer term since these are distorted by day visits, residentials, project weeks which are registered on a different basis.

4. It is a feature of all group work with these students that it is not possible to work with large numbers. A large group one day often leads to smaller numbers the next day, or on the next session. Students may feel threatened or neglected or can become disruptive. Compare with group size in mental health institutions.

5. Welcome increase in the proportion of women attenders is partly due to creche access made possible by grant from Women's Committee.

I

I

T.I.E. AND THE OHIO PLAN: BLUEPRINT FOR SUCCESS

by

Susan S. Davis, Ph.D.

Deputy Warden--Training, Industry, Education

Ross Correctional Institution

Chillicothe, Ohio, U.S.A.

Prepared for Second International Conference on Prison Education 1989

Wadham College, Oxford, United Kingdom •

mu T.I.E. and The Ohio Plan: Blueprint for Success

1 by

Susan S. Davis, Ph.D.

Deputy Warden--Training, Industry, Education Ross Correctional Institution

Chillicothe, Ohio, U.S.A.

The Ohio Plan for Productive Prisons has provided a clear policy

direction for extending and defining the mission of confining adult

offenders in safe, secure, humane institutions. Faced with the problems

of a rising population and inmate idleness, Ohio has responded by develop-

ing The Ohio Plan into a blueprint for combining basic components of train-

ing, work, and education into a systematic approach to benefit both inmates

and the institutions.

The programs to be described offer innovative approaches to the

T.I.E. (training, industry, education) concept. Each is designed to in-

crease participation in treatment programs; generate meaningful, productive

work through purposeful job assignments; and enhance employment skills

through directed personal career programming, thereby bettering offenders'

chances for success upon release. Highlighted T.I.E. programs include:

adult literacy, Outpost, the vocational-industrial Learning Center, high

school options, internships for inmate college students, and pre-release.

These programs may be operated on a low budget and in various institutional

settings.

T.I.E. AND THE OHIO PLAN: BLUEPRINT FOR SUCCESS

by

Susan S. Davis, Ph.D.

Former U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice Warren Burger has vigorously

and persistently called for reform of American correctional philosophy,

which would transform "human warehouses" into "factories and schools with

fences," whose goal would be to provide education, skills, and work experi-

ence necessary to enable inmates to secure and retain employment upon release.

He has further challenged the correctional system to assume a "role beyond

incapacitation." The source of his ideas may be traced back more than a

century to the first National Prison Congress convened at Cincinnati, Ohio,

in 1870, when U.S. prison leaders drafted a Declaration of Principles to

usher prison reform into the twentieth century. Productive work and

training were integral parts of the Declaration's foundation. To effect

this systemic change requires a very close, virtually symbiotic, relation-

ship among prison industries, vocational and academic programs. Until

recently, such cooperation has been rare.

The T.I.E. (Training, Industry, Education) concept received formal

recognition in 1985, when a T.I.E. Conference was held in Chicago,

Illinois. The conference, co-sponsored by correctional education and

industry associations, provided the first national forum for academic

and vocational educators and prison industry staff to jointly examine

obstacles to closer cooperation, develop strategies for overcoming these

obstacles, and formulate common goals and partnerships. The dialogues

gave rise to a movement which is gaining momentum steadily in America's

federal and state correctional systems.

The Ohio Department of Rehabilitation and Correction (ODRC)

embraced the T.I.E. concept in 1986. Faced with severe overcrowding,

aging institutions, an ambitious prison construction schedule, and the

need for more effective, structured programming, Director Richard P. Seiter

developed a concept paper which, by January 1987, had evolved into The

Ohio Plan for Productive Prisons. The Ohio Plan implemented a new approach

to inmate training, work, and education and redefined the ODRC's mission

to confine adult offenders in safe, secure, humane institutions and to pro-

vide a productive, work-oriented environment.

The Ohio Plan goals have two T.I.E. focuses: (1) Emphasis is on work

assignments linked to training and education. Inmates will be more active,

idleness will be reduced, and directed personal career programming will be

better directed. Meaningful work.programs contribute to a safer, better

controlled, positive prison environment and improve the efficiency of

institutional operations. (2) Inmates will acquire employment skills and

positive work habits and will be better prepared to enter the competitive

world of work upon release (ref. Figures 1 and 2).

The Ohio Plan has several noteworthy characteristics:

(1) Functional literacy is Priority One. Inmates demonstrating

literacy achievement below the 6.0 grade level (as measured by a stand-

ardized test) are required to participate in a basic education program

for a minimum of 90 days. Attendance beyond 90 days is voluntary.

(2) All work assignments have clearly defined job descriptions and

are coded according to the U.S. Department of Labor Dictionary of

Occupational Titles.

(3) Each job has specified requirements for education and training.

The more technical or complex the job, the more training or education

OHIO PLAN GOALS: TO INCARCERATE laMTES IN IleMNE, SAFE AND, SECURE INSTITUTIONS WITH MANDATORY WORK .PROGHAYS,

TO DEVELOP A MORE STRUCTURED MANAGEMENT I APPROACH THAT DIRECTLY BENEFITS EMPLOYEES, BY CLEARLY SETTING FORTH CONSISTENT 1 EPECTATIONS FOR INMATES, •

TO DEVELOP A SYSTEMATIC APPROACH FOR IN- • MATES TO HAVE AN OPPOPTUNITY TO DEe OP THEIR CAREER PLANS THROUGH A COMBINATION I OF INSTITUTIOAIAL WORI{ ASSIGNMENTS AND BASIC EDUCATION, 1

TO REDUCE INMATE IDLENESS AND PROVIDE PEANI INGFIll INSTITUTIONAL iliOff PROGRAMS AT ALL. LEVEL S,

TO MPLEMENT A CLEARLY ESTABLISHED TRAINAll INDUSTRY, AND EDUCATION (TIE) APPROACH TOI WOE( MOAK

TO OUTLINE INSTITUTION PROGRAMS AND PROVIDi OPPORTUNITIES FOR INMATES TO PARTICIPATE THESE PROGRAMS,

AIIIA Al 7 ill PAA elnieJelnie

gs.4

,W?e Olu.e 24m, is, the poliei /oft cieectiey

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is required.

(4) All inmates are required to work. If an inmate wants an

advanced job but lacks the qualifications, training and education are

available to him/her to acquire the necessary skills. An inmate may

request transfer to another institution to participate in a specialized

academic, vocational, or industry program, providing his/her security

level is compatible with that of the institution requested.

(5) A deputy warden of T.I.E. is assigned to each institution to

supervise and coordinate T.I.E. functions and departments interfacing

with T.I.E.--i.e., substance abuse (recovery services), psychological

services, religious services, and recreation.

(6) A job coordinator at each institution coordinates inmate assess-

ment, performs job counseling, maintains institution job listings, job

descriptions, inmate payroll, and inmate employment portfolios.

(7) All work is treated similarly, and the following elements are

addressed: instilled pride/purpose, pay incentives and disincentives,

useful productivity, career ladder, suitable rewards, job involvement,

proper work ethics, real world-related job duties, job performance evalu-

ations, and training-education-job linkage.

The Ohio Plan process consists of four (4) steps designed to provide

a continuum from entry to release. The steps are assessment and employment

portfolio, guidance and counseling, T.I.E. placement, and pre- and post-

release (ref. Figure 3).

Assessment and Employment Portfolio. Assessment begins at the reception

center and continues at the parent institution during orientation. All in-

mates are administered an appropriate level of the California Test of Adult

Basic Education (CTABE). Those scoring high enough on the CTABE take the

FIGURE 3

THE OHIO PLAN PROCESS

FLOW CHART

RECEPTION

I Ohio Plan Orientation

Testing

Portfolio Initiated

1 PARENT INSTITUTION

Ohio Plan Orientation

Testing

Portfolio Development

T.I.E. Assignment

Classification

Reclassification

1 INSTITUTIONAL TRANSFERS

Portfolio Reevaluation

T.I.E. Assignment

PRE-RELEASE (PAROLE, FURLOUGH, DETERMINANT SENTENCE RELEASE)

Portfolio Finalized

Community Linkages

General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB) and an interest inventory. The

test results are stored on a microcomputer disk which accompanies the

inmate on each institutional transfer. Also on the disk is pertinent

civilian information, pre-prison and prison education, training, and

employment data. These data comprise the inmate employment portfolio.

Guidance and Counseling. Job counseling is provided by the job

coordinator and housing unit management team, and work assignments are

made based on the employment portfolios provided by the job coordinator.

The guidance counselor places inmates referred for additional education

or vocational training. Career counseling is performed periodically by

the job coordinator and the unit team, and each work supervisor or teacher

provides periodic work evaluation and counseling.

T.I.E. Placements. Inmates are assigned to one of five TIE tracks

(job clusters). The T.I.E. concept identifies essential clusters for

inmates progressing through structured work and training experiences.

The Academic TIE encompasses all mandatory and voluntary education

programs--basic literacy through postsecondary. This TIE may extend into

post-release. Work assignments are linked to clerical positions and other

institutional jobs requiring academic preparation.

The Vocational/Apprenticeship TIE places inmates in vocational train-

ing, apprenticeship, or on-the-job training programs consistent with their

interests and aptitudes. This TIE includes all skilled trades such as

carpentry and culinary arts and may extend into post-release.

The Industrial TIE provides an inmate with pre-industrial and/or

specific vocational training prior to or concurrent with placement into an

,Ohio Penal Industries (OPI) job.

The Service TIE provides initial work assignments for offenders entering

the system and those not wishing to enter a specialized TIE. Assignments

in the less skilled work areas include laundry worker, janitorial worker,

and farm laborer.

The Special Needs TIE is designed for those inmates requiring sheltered

work and intensive programming, including the mentally and physically handi-

capped, geriatric, or psychologically impaired. Mainstreaming with other

TIEs whenever possible is stressed.

Pre- and Post-Release. Four regional pre-release centers in Columbus,

Cleveland, Cincinnati, and Toledo, Ohio, plus pre-release programs at each

parent institution service inmates who are within six weeks of release.

The programs emphasize transition from prison to the community. The curric-

ulum includes job readiness instruction, completion of employment portfolios,

community linkages, and job placement in cooperation with field represent-

atives from the Ohio Bureau of Employment Services.

To fully appreciate the value and challenge of diverse, innovative TIE

programming, it is beneficial to examine the goals of prison industry in

comparison with those of vocational training and academic education, as

Coffey's schematic 1 illustrates:

Goals of Prison Industry

Offenders Institutional Societal

Vocational training

Good work habits

Real work experience

Life management experience

Reduce idleness Reduce cost of corrections

Repay society Dependent support

Victim restitution

Future law-abiding

Goals of Vocational Training

Offenders Institutional Societal

Marketable skill Reduce idleness Future employability

Goals of Vocational Training (continued)

Offenders Institutional Societal

Future economic independence

Future law-abiding

Good work habits Training for prison industry

Wàrk experience Training for institutional

Learning haw to learn maintenance

Credentia1s

Goals of Academic Training

Offenders Institutional Societal

Future employability

Future economic independence

Future law-abiding

Fünctional literacy Reduced idleness

Learning how to learn Readiness for prison industry

Readiness for voca- Readiness for institutional jobs

tional training

Readiness for higher

academic education

Credentials

Not only are the societal goals virtually identical, but both

sequencing and interrelationships exist among the three areas. "Employ-

ability" is the key word; but the goals of the offender must be balanced

with societal and institutional goals if the ultimate goal--the offender's

successful reintegration to society--is to be attained.

One American institution serving as a model for the T.I.E. concept is

Ross Correctional Institution in Chillicothe, Ohio. The Ross complex,

composed of a medium-security compound (RCI - population 1450) and a

minimum-security honor camp (RCC - population 250), houses adult males age

18-50.

Academic offerings include Adult Basic Education (ABE), literacy tutoring,

high school equivalency (GED), high school options, and both in-house and

extension college degree programs. Five vocational programs--building

maintenance (2), culinary arts, carpentry, and residential electricity--

and several U.S. Department of Labor-approved apprenticeships are available.

The two Ohio Penal Industries (OPI) shops inside the compound manufacture

and assemble designer line office furniture for sale to state agencies and

to the public. The honor camp recently embarked on a cooperative subcontract

venture with a private, Japanese-owned company to assemble automobile variable

speed windshield wiper levers and lighting dimmer switches. This agreement

with a private sector business is a first in OPI's history and is leading the

way to further partnerships.

The highly-acclaimed literacy tutoring program at RCI and RCC serves

inmates in the non-reader through high school equivalency levels. Peer

tutors undergo intensive training by certified education staff and are re-

quired to provide extensive documentation of their tutoring sessions and

student progress. Tutoring is both individualized and small group and takes

place in each housing unit under the periodic supervision of a unit staff

member. The program administrator is a teacher much experienced in tutor

training and literacy techniques. Materials (purchased and donated) include

textbooks, periodicals, newspapers, and tutor-generated worksheets. Tutors

and tutees receive certificates of appreciation or achievement for produc-

tive participation. Those eligible under Ohio legislative guidelines re-

ceive two days reduction in sentence for each full month of productive

participation. At present, nearly 150 inmates are served by more than 60

tutors.

A concept unique to Ross is Outpost, programs which provide education

to inmates who need or want services apart from the traditional day school

program. RCC Outpost 1 provides quality ABE/GED educational opportunities

to minimum security inmates, all of whom hold full-time jobs on the

farm, at community facilities, or at RCC. Teachers spend 3.5 hours

weekly at RCC in classroom contact with the inmates, who are released

from their jobs to attend class. Evening tutoring hours conducted by

peer tutors make up the remainder of the required quarterly hours. RCI

Outpost 2 at OPI allows inmates employed in industry to enhance ABE/GED

skills while preparing for job advancement within industry. Classes are

held one (1) hour per day in the OPI training room located in the assembly

shop. RCI Outpost 3 is the Learning Center. The "LC" provides education

to inmates in vocational programs who need help in reading or mathematics;

those in various institutional maintenance and OPI shops who need help in

specific areas--e.g., reading a ruler; inmates in ABE/GED school who need

additional help in a specific area.

Other noteworthy T.I.E. programs are high school options and college

internship. The high school options program adds the traditional high school

diploma to the GED plan of acquiring high school graduate status as required

for many jobs and college. Depending upon interests and background, a

student may select either the academic or vocational high school diploma

option. He then completes a prescribed instructional plan approved by the

Ohio Department of Education to earn the diploma. The student may petition

to receive the diploma from either the public school/joint vocational school

from which he would have graduated as a private citizen or from the Ohio

Central School System (correctional institution schools). A detailed sample

options program appears in the Appendix of this paper.

The college internship program was born of a desire for greater inter-

action among the university, the institution's industries and social services,

and the community. What has evolved is an opportunity for qualified inmates

at RCI and RCC to earn college credit toward an associate or a bachelor's

degree in business or human services.

Before enrolling in a college-level practicum, the inmate submits

a detailed proposal for the internship to the university coordinator and

the T.I.E. deputy warden. The proposal includes a description of the

inmate's academic background, his career goals, suggested projects or

activities to be completed during the internship, and the signature of the

institution staff member who will supervise the internship. The university

coordinator identifies a faculty member from the specific discipline involved

to review the proposal and suggest any revisions. The T.I.E. deputy warden

works with the institution staff member and the inmate intern to ensure that

all academic and institution requirements are met. The necessary documen-

tation is then submitted to the university faculty member for grading.

Currently interns are working in OPI as middle managers and with the substance

abuse coordinator and housing unit case managers as encounter group facili-

tators and speakers/project coordinators at community elementary and middle

schools.

The programs described are but a sample of the integrated linkages of

training, work, and education possible when corrections professionals are

open and flexible in adapting new strategies for incarcerated offenders.

As the training and work reforms proposed in 1870 pointed the way into the

twentieth century, the T.I.E. concept is a harbinger of effective correctional

management in the twenty-first century.

FOOTNOTE

1Osa D. Coffey, "T.I.E.: Integrating Training, Industry and Education,"

Journal of Correctional Education, 37:3 (september, 1986), 105.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Coffey, Osa D. "T.I.E.: Integrating Training, Industry and Education."

Journal of Correctional Education, 37:3 (September, 1986), 104-108.

McGlone, Jerry and James Mayers. "Ohio Industries and Education: A Vital

TIE." Corrections Today (June, 1987), 32-34.

Ohio Department of Rehabilitation and Correction. Ohio Plan Manual for

Productive Prisons. Columbus, OH: The Department, 1987.

I

1 APPENDIX

inter-office communicatioill DR. SUSAN S. DAVIS, DEPUTY WARDEN, T.I.E. date . JANUARY 20, 1989 tO*

from MARK A. WHITE, TEACHING SUPERVISOR .

subject HIGH SCHOOL OPTIONS—VOCATIONAL, RCl/RCC

TITLE:

HIGH SCHOOL OPTIONS PROGRAM at RCl/RCC.

PURPOSE:

To add the option of high school diploma to the GED plan of acquiring high school graduate status as required for some institutional jobs/parole and college.

SCREENING:

Men will be screened by the following personnel: A). High School certified staff (1 of 4)

8). Teaching Supervisor

C). Guidance Counselor

D). Vocational staff (1 of 4)

STAFFING:

Five (5) staff members hold vocational certification. They will act as monitors of the men in the program. LeCl/OSR will provide course of study information as needed for required courses.

OPERATION:

1). Men must be six (6) hours or less from graduation.

2). Men must be screened for placement.

3). A screening committee will review hours (credits) required.

4). Men will be placed in a ODE approved Vocational Program.

5). An instructional plan will be required or developed (including activities, ' materials, and environment).

6). The educational Administrator will be notified for approval of the students and his plan.

7). Upon completion of tests and a statement of performance, all pertinent data will be sent to the Educational Administrator for approval of completion and issuance of a diploma.

UNITS OF CREDIT:

Units of credit for High School Option Program.

Section I, Rule 3301-35-02 (C) (3): A maximum of six units of credit may be applied toward the eighteen units required for graduation in paragraph(B) (6) . ' of this rule. No more than four of the six units may be applied requirements specified in paragraph (B) (6) (a) to (B) (6) (f) of this rule. The rule limits the number of units of credit earned by educational options which may be applied to required graduation units. With 18 units required, no more than six units may be educational options. Schools requiring more than 18 units may apply educational options to the units beyond 18 in accordance with board policy.

In addition, the requirement for high school graduation earned in grades nine through twelve shall include the following:

* English language arts, three units * health, one half unit * mathematics, two units * physical education, one half unit * science, one unit * social studies, two units which shall include:

American History, one half unit Amercian Government, one half unit

No more than four units of the above specified units may be earned through educational options.

Section II: RCI REQUIREMENTS:

1). Student must have 12 credit hours (passing). 2). A vocational program will make up six (6) credit hours. 3). Four (4) hours of required courses may need to be earned.

POSSIBILITIES:

OPTION 1

12 Credit hours with required course hours lacking 1-4 Credit hours required needed 2-5 Credit hours elective 18 Credit hours

OPTION 2

12 Credit hours with all required course hourq 6 Credit hours vocational program

18 Credit hours

OPTION 3

12 Credit hours with all required course hours 6 Credit hours elective

18 Credit hours

OPTION 4

12 Credit hours with required course hours lacking 1-4 Credit hours required needed

6 Credit hours vocational program 19-22 Credit hours

NOTE:

REQUIRED HOURS, see section I, final two (2) paragraphs.

I

I I j I I I I I I

L I I I

SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON

PRISON EDUCATION

Wadham College

Oxford

25th - 28th September 1989

"PRISON UCATION WORK IN SRI LANKA"

by

H.G. Dharmadasa Commissioner of Prisons

1,526 30,998

1,249 20,725

672 7,729 5

52.14

Non formal ;:dult Education zrogra=es were introduced

a voluntary basis for zrisoners after cease-labour in the

evenincs from 4 to 6 The teachers cawe their services

free of charge while only the bas ic amenit 4 es like exercise

books and tenons could be trovi.aed by the risons. leachi

to Sri Lanka Prisons in the

voluntary acencies for this

early fifties with the enlistment

turtose. classes we-= held on

)1 Second International Conference on Prison

Education - 1989.

PRISON EDUCATION WORK IN SRI LANKA.

1

1 1 1 1

1

1

1 1 1

The population of Sri Lakna is 16 million and it has

ten closed Prisons for convicted prisoners, six closed remand

*orisons, six Work Camps, two Open Prison Camos, two Correct-

ional Centres for Youthful Offenders, one Borstal Instituti-

on and one Work Release Centre. The average daily total

mopulation in all these is 12,180 of which a larger proportion

are Remandees constituting 563/4 of the total Prison population.

Literacy oroorammes are confined to the ion= term convicted

4-'nea

the country is 87.2% the

population onlv because for -,.rectic= 1 .reasons, it is nct

meaningful to include

in this programme.

the remandees and short term mrisoners

The literacy rate of the general population over 10 years

of ace in the Island is 87.2% (i.e. 91.1% for males and 83.2%

for females). The literacy rate of convicted prisoners, boh

male and female, according to statistics collected by

Prison Demartment for the year 1987 is shown below:-

tale. Pemale. Total. ==rcnt.ce

Illiterate. 29,472

Literate uoto grade 8. 19,477

Literate above " 8. 7,057

59,452

it will be ==sen that while the literacy rate in

literacy r_-_-ce amonc risoners 's sony

47.86% which shows that the majority o' pon ,, who ta

crime i:. Sri Lanka are

1 2 -

1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1

was confined to reaaing and writinc, the objective being to

teach prisoners at least to write their rames.

During this time and even before, Adult Education

programmes were conducted on an island wiaé basis by the

Sri Lanka Government E•ucation Department but Prisons we-e

not included in this programme till the early Sixties when

aLter much mersuation the Education Deuartment extended

to the major Prisons. Under this scheme too particimation

of prisoners remained voluntary while mrofessional teachers

serving in the Education Department were sent to teach

prisoners three •avs of th3 week in evenings from 4 to 6 u.m.

These teachers were uaid a minimal allowance for their

services in comparision to which, it could be said that

their services were larcely motivated by a deem sense of

social work. Each group of teachers had a supervisor who

co-ordinated their work. Teaching remained limited to

imparting a basic knowledge of reading and writing the thrEe

langugages in use - Sinhala, Tamil and English. A few

large prisons had the services of a Kandyan (Folk) Dancing

instructor to train prisoners in indegenous Dance Forms.

Thouah the Education Department maid the visiting

teachers the Prisons Demartment had to suply all the books

and other reauisites within a shoe-string budget, while

finding the necessary space in grossly overcrowded penal

institutions also mosed a serious problem. Nevertheless

these literacy i classes proved a creat boon to illiterate

inmates who showed much enthusiasm in following them, so

much so that a few inmates who were allowed to sit for

public exam 4 nations - marticularly the General Certificate

of Education Examinal:ion, both ordinary level and ::dvanced

level - were successful in them.

In 1971 the country faced an insurgency which resulted

in all existina prisons being overcrowded several fold and

the opening of about te m more camus as temuorary prisons to

house the arrested and surrendered thousands, which suddeni ,;

put a stou to the literacy -:,:'rogramme. This situation also

brought into the Prisons many ejucated youth to whom the

1

earlier eaucational urogramme would not have in any case

ca-erea for. The Prisons had to make suecial arrangements

after persaaniing

Examinations

the examination conducting agencies like

Department, Universities etc. to allow them the

to sit the examinations, relaxing rules and sometimes

persuading them to open suecial examination centres inside

prisons for many of these youths who were pesuina higher

education. Some institutions made special arrangements with

university authorities to :end their szudénts in detention

suecial correspondence courses and also allowed the lecturers

to visit them freauently to help them with tnese courses.

After the situation came back to normal in a couple of

vears all attempts to persuade the Education Department to

resume these literacy classes failed as by that time the

Education Denartment too had comoleted their phased out All-

Island adult education programme, covering over 25 years.

Hence from mid 3eventees individual prisons had to make their

own arrangements to find volunteers to conduct literacy

classes and most of the institutions succeeded in this only

a=ter enlisting the voluntary services of prison auards,

Jailors and Prison Welfare Officers to supplement the voluntary

services of outsiders.

The Prisoners' Welfare Association which is a state

sponsored voluntary organisation having branches in all major

towns has also made a significant cont±ibution in this regard,

havina organised literacy classes to run parellel to those

conducted by the Education Deuartment and in some places to

the void where the Education Department na U failed to o„7.en

From 1936 the inistrv of _ducation (Adalt :ducation

Branch)has introdoced literacy classes to all penal institution

Thèse are run uaraliel to those organi.:ed by the Prisoners'

Welfare Association, U12:ESCO clubs in Prisons and other bodies.

Suecial mention must be made of reaular Daham Pasal or Buddhist

religious educational classes run bv Chaplains and Prison

Officers' 3uadhist Associations through which also a great

deal of literacy is imparted. Likewise religious classes held

by other denominations, though population-wise minorities,

serve an eaually useful need - specially Bible Classes.

; 1 '

4

1 1

which young

The Ministry of Education Torovides part-time teachers

for three days a week from 4 to 6 p.m. and also the necessary

books, stationary and furniture. Classes are held in all

three media (English, Sinhala, Tamil) and it has been observed

that lately there has been a keen interest to learn English.

This is particularly motivated by foreign em-oloyment oortu-

nities, specia_ly in the Middle East countries for skilled

and sei-slilled labour grades.

A Prisoners' monthly Newsletter titled "Sannivedana"

("Communication") finds a ready avenue for prisoners following

IIthese classes to try out their literary skills. The :,risoners'

Welfare Association also runs a typewriting trainino- class in

the major Prison in Colombo.

Non formal educational services being provided for

prisoners include talks bv visiting lecturers, social workers

and Non Governmental Organisations on various themes s -oecially

those baséd on civic consciousness, crime prevention and

community development etc.

The UNESCO Regional office in Bangkok has initiated a

study on the educational needs of women who fail into diffi-

culties in life and are subjected to periods of suervision

with a view to effecting correctional measures, including a

com-orehensive educational component to enable them to accuire

basic skills and behaviour -oazterns useful to lead a normal

life. The _on formal.eucation section of the ?..inistry of

Education which has already initiated literacy projects in

7oenal institutions is examinino -oroaram_es already in oberazioII

with a view to determine i'ore combrehensive and needs-based

programmes.

lnere is only one 1,-orstal Instittion in the Island

the lraininc School for 'Zouthful Oifen.D.ers

mersons (males) between 15 and 22 years of ae are sent for

detention for a -ceriod of 3 years, subject to -oarole ---.fter one

year. In the oast these lads were zrovided literacy classes II

by the Sortal staff till zhe Education Deoartment took over

this task sevral years ago and now these cia2ses are hel -u

II daily as lo=al Education Like any other nor-al school, by

teachers of the :d - cation Iepartr"ent while the :=-risons _Jets.L- t-

IIment subtlies boo:çs an_: stationary. Classes leain: _tto the

.:;eneral C,rtificate of _d .,;_caticn examinaticn are held and la-s

-.i.ade to sit this tublic examination. II

1

c=1 1 11

.•

Report by Ian Dunbar

•

A SENSE OF DIRECTION

Ian Dunbar

31 October 1985

TABLE OF CONTENTS

OUTLINE

PREFACE 1

INTRODUCTION 4

CHAPTER 1 AIMS 11

CHAPTER 2 TASKS 34

CHAPTER 3 MEASURING 48

CHAPTER 4 MONITORING 64

CHAPTER 5 BASIS FOR ACTION 82

APPENDICES A Bibliography 88

B Reference Sources 102

C Visits and Acknowledgements 134

D Glossary of Terms 137

E Glossary 'of Abbreviations 139

1

1

OUTLINE OF THE REPORT

PREFACE

A Impetus for the Report

B Comparative Perspective

INTRODUCTION

A Focus of the Report 4

B A Coherent Approach 5

CHAPTER 1: AIMS

A STATEMENTS OF AIMS 11

I The situation here 11

II Comparisons

(a) Individualism 15

(h) Relationship 21

(c) Activity 22

III Implications 26

B COMMUNICATING THE MESSAGE

I The situation here 29

II Comparisons 29

III Implications 31

CHAPTER 2: TASICS

A DEFINITION: WHAT MUST BE DONE TO ACHIEVE AIMS 34

I The situation here 34

II Comparisons 34

III Implications 36

B IMPLEMENTATION: PUTTING TASKS INTO PRACTICE 37

I The situation here 37

. II Comparisons 38

(a) Planning for the individual 39

(b) The Manageable Unit 41

(c) Using time 44

III Implications 46

CHAPTER 3: MEASURING

A INFORMATION SYSTEM

I The situation here 48

II Comparisons 48

(a) Information routinely recorded within the system 30

(b) Technological advances 51

III Implications 54

(a) Consultation and Co-operation 54

(b) Technological development 55

B USING THE INFORMATION 55

I The situation here 55

II Comparisons 56

(a) Two way flow 56

(b) What the bottom wants too 57

(c) Information systems can be used well or badly 58

(d) Personal management style 58

(e) Consultation on problem points 59

(f) Using information to get an overview 60

III Implications 61

CHAPTER 4: MONITORING

A SETTING STANDARDS 64

I The situation here 64

II Comparisons 66

III Implications 714

1

82

85

1

B USING BENCHMARKS 75

I The Situation Here 75

11 Comparisons 76

III Implications 78

CHAPTER 5: BASIS FOR ACTION

A PROPOSED APPROACH

B THE NEXT STEP

APPENDICES

A Bibliography 88

B Reference Sources 102

C Visits and Acknowledgements 134

D Glossary of Terms 137

E Glossary of Abbreviations 139

PREFACE

A. Impetus for the Report

The inspiration for this report arose from a series of letters and discussions between the Director General of the Prison Service and the Chief Inspector of Prisons. Early in 1985 the Prison Department and the Inspectorate met to discuss of measuring and monitoring the work of the prison system. It was suggested that a way forward could be a survey of foreign experience; it might prove profitable to examine systems abroad in the area of prison regimes particularly those which already had highly developed arrangements for measuring and monitoring performance.

It became apparent that what was needed was a report which would be practical and easily understood by those working in the system, staff and management alike, and those working outside it. With this in mind, a brief was drawn up for a study which could provide for both needs, and more specifically "to consider similarities and variations in approach to the establishment and maintenance of prison regimes in various countries and to make recommendations for the Prison Service in England and Wales."

This was not conceived as an exercise in transporting wholesale final products from other systems, but as an examination of other people's methods with a view to developing a coherent plan of action appropriate for the needs and operational requirements of the Prison Service in England and Wales and of the Prison Inspectorate.

To undertake the work I was seconded for six months to the Prisons Inspectorate from the Prison Department, after my governorship of Wormwood Scrubs and before taking up my appointment as a member of the Prisons Board as South West Regional Director. I was to visit a number of different prison systems abroad and compare their approaches to the area of prison "regimes" with practice and experience in England and Wales. Dr Silvia Casale was appointed as external consultant to the Prisons Inspectorate to assist in the writing of my report. She has worked in the United States and in England on comparative research in the criminal justice area.

The plan of work for this project was as follows:

(i)

to draw together examples of practice which already exist in this country and which are based on long and valuable experience;

(ii) to link the former to experience and practice in other countries; and

(iii) to develop a coherent plan for future direction.

B. Comparative Perspective

To carry out this plan I decided to visit the following five prison systems:

(a) the Federal Prison System in the United States of America (the Federal Bureau of Prisons)

(b) the New York State Prison System in the USA (the New York State Department of Corrections)

(0) the National Canadian Prison System (the Correctional Service of Canada)

1

(d) the Provincial prison System in British Columbia (the Province of British Columbia Correctional Service)

(e) the National Swedish Prison (and probation) system (Kriminalvardsorganisationen)

There were practical considerations which I was forced to recognise in making my final choice of countries. One was the availability of information in the English language and the ease of communicating in English with people in the systems observed. There were also logistical considerations, as I had only limited time in which to complete my travels and the necessary analysis before putting pen to paper. This meant that, although initially it had been intended that I should visit four different countries, two of them European, in the event it was possible to concentrate only upon North America and one European country.

Within the North American continent there is a diversity of experience providing a good opportunity for comparison. In the United States of America alone there is a host of different prison systems. Apart from the federal system which is organised on a national level across the fifty-one states, each state has its own prison system. In addition, within each state there are numerous local prison systems, based at the county and city levels; New York City, for example, has its own prison system, which is separate from the New York State system.

In Canada there is a prison system organised at the national level (the Correctional Service of Canada) and prison systems within each of the ten provinces. Thus the Province of British Columbia has its own prison system. Sweden has a single national system combining the prison and probation services.

From the foregoing it follows that the systems chosen provide a variety of points of comparison. The U.S. federal system presents an example of a highly sophisticated organisation of prisons across a vast area; it is unified by an emphasis on standardisation, enhanced by the use of modern technological tools. The Canadian national prison system is a particularly important point of comparison because of the similarities of traditions (in particular the legal system) to the British. Later on in the report I shall argue that the development of Canada shows a coincidence of stages, which is interesting from the English point of view.

For different reasons, New York State provides an interesting comparison with the English system. In size the two prison systems are roughly comparable. The pressure of numbers and the history of crises arising from that pressure in the New York State prison system, together with resource problems and financial constraints, present important parallels with the prison system of England and Wales. My choice of countries to visit provides an interesting contrast between large scale systems, dealing with numbers broadly comparable with our own, and smaller systems, that is British Columbia and Sweden, which have much lower numbers and contrasting approaches.

The object of my visits to these countries was to seek out examples of good practice. It should be stated at the outset that in these different systems it is possible to find the extremes of good and bad practice. The variety of approaches and contexts makes this inevitable. Indeed on these and on my previous visits I saw features which were disquieting. At the same time I saw others worthy of emulation. It is axiomatic that one may learn from others' errors as well as from their good example.

In looking at other systems I wanted to explore developments in thinking and ways of approaching the area of prison regimes. In North America and in Sweden the term "programmes" is generally used to refer to the planned provision of a variety of services which make up the "regime" of a prison establishment, as it is known in the English system.

2

In looking at the area of "programmes" in other countrier,, I was conscious of the work of the Control Review Committee, following visits to Canada, the United States of America and the Federal Republic of Germany. From the Committee's conclusions it is apparent that there are transcending principles at work in each system. My approach has been to draw out from the variety of experience observed those basic principles which hold true beyond the particular context in which I have seen them at work.

3

INTRODUCTION

A. Focus of the Report

This report was set up to look at the area of prison regimes by comparing

practice and experience in this country with examples abroad. As I embarked on

this task I was aware that the term "regime" creates problems of comparison.

The Control Review Committee had already found this to be so from a visit to the

United States of America. Its report, "Managing the Long Term Prison System"

said that it would like to see a move towards individual programmes for

prisoners, incorporating more diverse activity than at present and geared

towards the abilities and needs of the inmate. This approach is important

because it shifts the emphasis from "regime" to individual planning for the long

term prisoner. My conclusion is that it should have a wider application.

"Encouragement of diverse activities and monitoring a prisoner's performance in them is no way opposed to the need to keep establishments' performance in delivering activities under close review too. The two objectives are complimentary. Nevertheless, we do think that one fact that has hindered progress in this field is the tendency in this country to speak and think in terms of the regime. As we have noted, the concept of the regime is large and vague, and implies generally that every prisoner in an establishment is subject to the same processes regardless of his needs or abilities; and measuring performance across its span raises complex questions. We would like to see the phrase "regime activities" replaced by some description that gives the accurate idea,that what is at issue is a bundle of prisoner-oriented activities that are amenable to objective performance-setting and efficiency audit."

(Control Review Committee Report, para. 97).

This line of argument introduced into the report three separate and important

concepts:

i. co-ordinated planning;

individualism; and

iii. measurement.

In rejecting the term "regime" the CRC was arguing not just for a change of

words but for a change in approach.

In my visits abroad I was struck by the emphasis on "programmes". Programmes

are all the provisions for the positive use of time in prison. The concept

implies a range of opportunities for activity available to those in prison.

4

It implies flexibility and the possibility of providing different combinations

to suit different individuals. "Regime" has come to mean different things to

different people. It implies that there is a discrete, distinctly defiped

functional area, the "regime", which can be looked at separately and can be

measured in terms of physical facilities provided, e.g. workshops, recreation

areas, etc. The danger is that there will be no attempt to plan the range of

services making up the "regime" in a coherent and comprehensive way, so that

they make sense to the member of staff and the prisoner in the total context of

prison life.

I am not advocating that the English system take over the term "programmes".

The latter term comes closer to conveying a sense of planning, but it carries

witl. it a mechanistic association. It places the emphasis on arrangements

provided by the system, whereas the emphasis should be on the delivery and use

of services. In the final analysis the concern should be for what individuals,

whether staff or inmates, actually do. Therefore I suggest that the term

"activity" be adopted for the English system. Activity is the planned use of

prison time. It implies a reappraisal of basic assumptions about what should be

happening in prison establishments.

I am not suggesting an entirely new approach, but rather a consolidation of what

is positive in current practice. My experience of working in the prison system

in this country and of visiting other systems convinces me that activity is the

key to a good prison. The best run establishments are those which have got this

right. The fundamental principles which can be seen at work in the positive

examples of prison establishments in this country and elsewhere are:

individualism; relationship; and activity.

I shall discuss these principles at length and argue that when the three come

together in an integrated and coherent approach they serve the various functions

defined for the prison service: security; control; humane handling of prisoners

and positive use of prison time.

B. A Coherent Approach

I am not presenting a single model because the complexities of the prison system

require something different. I am however, proposing an approach which

integrates the three principles above and applies them to the different

populations and problems which the prison system faces. In order to develop

this approach I shall briefly review the main trends in thinking about

imprisonment in this country. We are not the only country to have tried a

5

•1

number of different models for the prison system. Particularly in the North

American continent the systems I visited have gone through a similar process as

they developed large and complex prison organisations reflecting the societies

which those organisations serve. Each country has arrived at its own individual

set of responses. This country must go through a similar process to find a

coherent approach that fits its own context.

In recent years various strands of thought about the prison system have been

developing in this country. They have not developed in a co-ordinated way. The

two main strands have been the rehabilitative approach based on a treatment

model and the humane containment approach. I shall discuss them briefly,

beginning with the gradual disillusionment with the treatment model, in order to

set the background for where the English prison system finds itself today.

There has been a progressive disenchantment with the treatment model both within

and outside the prison system. The problem has lain in the difficulty of

interpreting treatment in a practical way so that there is consensus on how to

treat the individual and what the effects of treatment are. There were various

attempts to assess the treatment model and they all posed the basic question:

"does rehabilitation work?"

The development of this move to evaluate the effectiveness of

treatment/rehabilitation has been discussed elsewhere at considerable length

(see Cullen and Gilbert, Re-affirming Rehabilitation, 1982). Martinson's

article "What works - questions and answrs about prison reform" published in the

spring of 1974, brought the development to a head; his findings showed that

there was no conclusive evidence that renabilitation did have an effect in terms

of reducing recidivism. His work confirmed a growing feeling that whatever

model you adopted there was no discernible impact on reconviction rates, albeit

a crude measure of recidivism: nothing worked (see Cullen and Gilbert, page

111).

The sense of disillusionment began to spread, with academics, administrators

and, above all, practitioners sharing the general disenchantment: it appeared

not to matter how you treated the prisoner, the rate of reconviction remained

the same. As this occurred at a time when financial restraints were being

introduced, it was difficult to justify any kind of programme which would cost

more but did not have the guarantee of being more effective. As a result a

sense of futility has become pervasive and has led to what some observers have

called a moral vacuum.

6

The concept of humane containment did not supplant the treatment approach, but

it represented a shift of emphasis. It has as its focus what occurs while the

prisoner is in custody, rather than what he may or may not do after he leaves,

which is the ultimate focus of the treatment model. Nevertheless humane

containment has not represented a more down to earth approach. It has not been

translated into practical terms spelling out what should be done at the ground

floor level. Although it focuses on prison life more directly and exclusively

than does the treatment model its formulation has remained at an equally

abstract level. But in practice it has led to even greater disillusionment. At

least the treatment model gave the service something to believe in and some

hope. Humane containment has led to the cynicism of human warehousing. Humane

containment and treatment have co-existed uneasily in the English system,

neither providing a clear and comprehensive sense of purpose. There is

confusion about the direction in which the prison system should go. In the

absence of clear guidelines establishments and regions developed their own ideas

and directions.

Others have recognised the need to formulate a new approach. Those reports

which have addressed the problem, primarily the May Report, have fallen into the

same traps which led to the discrediting of the treatment model, by setting up

unrealistic expectations and replacing rhetoric with rhetoric (see page 67 of

the Committee of Enquiry into the United Kingdom Prison Services, October 1979,

subsequently referred to as the May Report). The concept of "positive custody"

is no more helpful in running a prison system than was the concept of

"treatment", since neither can be defined in practical terms. "Positive

custody" was defined as follows: "to create an environment which can assist them

(i.e. prisoners) to respond and contribute to society as positively as

possible".

This sets as the objective of the system an end product which is measured in

terms of future behaviour of prisoners beyond the prison system and contributes

little about how they should be treated inside. What concerns those who work

within the prison and those who comment on it are the day to day activities and

events within the walls. Governors and their staff need something more tangible

and clearly defined, immediate goals in addition to abstract aspirational aims.

Defining achievable targets as well as less tangible ideas has importance for

each and every member of staff and for each and every prisoner coming into the

prison system. The system offers little hope or satisfaction when its aims are

couched in abstract language and can find no practical interpretation.

7

Over the years in the absence of realistic aims and clearly defined tasks with

some hope of achievement there has been a gradual deterioration in the quality

of life and the nature of the regimes in many establishments. The Inspectorate

has commented on this fact. General concern has been voiced by governors,

members of their staff including prison officers and their union

representatives, in public statements and letters to the press, in addition to

statements made through official channels.

By and large this concern is based on an impressionistic assessment of the

system, because there is little concrete information available, either at

institutional or headquarters level, about the reality of daily life in prison

establishments. There are few useful measures of the prison system. This

report discusses the need for such measures and proposes ways in which the

system may be assessed both internally and externally and over time.

The move toward more systematic self assessment is already underway. The Prison

Department has recognised the need to obtain information and the Director

General, in outlining general functions of the prison service, (see Circular

Instruction 55/84) has attempted to link these definitions to a system of

management information. As part of this internal initiative there has recently

developed a move towards the setting up of "performance indicators"; these are

designed to produce information on the work performed in the prison system. At

this stage they constitute a necessary part of the assessment of what is

actually happening within the system. This is the first time such an attempt

has been made and it is to be welcomed.

Experience has shown that the choice of information about a system's workings

will seriously influence the way in which it will develop. It is crucial

therefore to define the appropriate set of questions, i.e. the right performance

indicators, otherwise the information generated may not go to the heart of the

matter. An information system must tell us about the organisation and relate

what it is achieving to what it ought to be achieving. It must be set up to

reflect the basic aims of the organisation.

That presupposes that the aims of the prison system have been clearly and

comprehensively formulated. As the above discussion indicates, this is not the

case in the English context. There is a need for a coherent approach which

forms the standardising and unifying framework informing and directing

everything that goes on in the prison system at every level and in every area.

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The immediate focus of this report is planned prison activities. I shall use

this focus as an example of how to pursue a strategy which is applicable to all

functional areas of prison organisation. I have seen examples of systems which

plan and deliver services in a professional way and which are monitored

carefully and systematically. The ways in which this is achieved have wider

implications than for the area of activities.

Practice and experience in this country and elsewhere dictates that a coherent

approach to the functional areas of the prison service, including planned

activity, should follow the logical progression:

i. clear articulation and communication of the aims of the prison

system

ii. clear definition and communication of tasks to be performed within

the prison system to achieve these aims

iii. establishment of measures for the performance of these tasks

iv. definition of benchmarks against which to measure performance, in

order to assess whether the aims of the system are being met and

whether the system as a whole and establishments individually are

functioning well or badly

This logical progression is important both for coherent internal management and

for coherent external monitoring of the prison system. Indeed it is difficult

to see how effective management or monitoring can occur in its absence. The two

operations - management and monitoring - proceed on parallel but separate paths

along this progression. In practice, however, monitoring will always rely to a

large extent upon internally collected information. For this reason my

immediate focus is upon that internal process. If management has not achieved

the steps towards self-evaluation, internal monitoring will be that much more

difficult.

Therefore this report devotes considerable attention to the steps to be taken

internally to establish a level of internal coherence, based upon sound and

systematic information which in turn may form the basis for more effective

external monitoring.

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It is structured so as to reflect the stages in this progression. Each stage

will be discussed in turn in a separate chapter. Within each chapter the

discussion will consider;

(i) existing examples in this country of the development of policy and

practice;

(ii) relevant examples of experience elsewhere concerning policy and

practice; and

(iii) practical implications for the way forward in the English system.

Thus, Chapter 1, AIMS, concerns the aims of the prison system. It discusses firstly

how these must be clearly articulated by the system itself and by the

Inspectorate in its role as the watchdog for society. Secondly it discusses how

the aims of the system must be clearly communicated to a variety of audiences

both within and outside the prison system.

Chapter 2, TASKS, deals with the tasks which must be defined and carried out if

the system's aims are to be achieved.

Chapter 3, MEASURING, discusses the information system which must be defined and

instituted so that the system itself may assess how it is performing its defined

tasks and whether or not it is achieving its aims.

Chapter 4, MONITORING, discusses the benchmarks which must be formulated and

applied in monitoring the system.

Chapter 5, BASIS FOR ACTION, sums up the main lines of the preceding argument

and suggests the next practical step.

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1 CHAPTER 1 : AIMS

A. STATEMENT OF AIMS

I. The Situation Here

Thinking about the aims of the prison system has been in a continual state of

flux since the first prisons were built. Although the aims were formulated

clearly in the nineteenth century, since then there has been wide variation in ii the way they have been restated and even wider variation in the way they have

been ignored. In the nineteenth century there was a clarity of vision which 11 allowed a comparatively simple statement of aims and enabled all staff, from the

IIGovernor down, to know what the job was and how they were expected to carry it

out.

We have moved away from that clarity of vision. Society has used the prison

system to answer a complicated series of problems confronting it. Since the war

IIthe tremendous pressure of overcrowding and the emergence of diverse ideological

directions have compounded the confusion.

IIIn recent years there has been a number of interesting attempts to cut through

the confusion. Roy King and Rod Morgan have discussed the development of modern

prison philosophy in considerable detail, (see Roy King and Rod Morgan, The

Future of the Prison System, 1980). They trace the primacy of deterrence and

IIreformation from the Report of the Gladstone Committee of 1895 through various

attempts in this century "to give meaning and substance to the possibility of

providing rehabilitative influences in prisons" (page 13). Joy Mott also

discusses the latter stages of this development, (Home Office Research Study No.

84, Adult Prisons and Prisoners in England and Wales 1970-1982).

Rather than retrace this historical background I shall take as my starting point

Prison Rule 1 (Prisons Act 1964) which states:

I/

"the purpose of the training and treatment of convicted prisoners shall be

to encourage and assist them to lead a good and useful life."

It is worthy of note that this refers to convicted prisoners and says nothing

about the treatment of unconvicted prisoners.

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This is an interesting omission. The aims of the prison system have been

formulated in terms of the sentenced population, when in fact an increasingly

significant proportion of persons dealt with by the system are not sentenced,

and indeed not even convicted of a crime. (At the time of writingthe proportion

of unsentenced prisoners - i.e. unconvicted and convicted but unsentenced

prisoners - among the average daily prison population is 20%; as a percentage of

receptions into prison the relative size of the remand population is even more

important: 42%).

This difference in the legal status of prisoners has profound implications for

the aims of the prison system. It must be readily apparent that the concepts of

"treatment" and "rehabilitation" are not appropriate to the handling of

unconvicted prisoners. When they come to be translated into practice, the

distinction between sentenced and unconvicted prisoners becomes of crucial

importance. A system as complex as the prison system must surely have several

aims, reflecting this and other divisions within its population. There are

issues of justice and equity involved in the questions: what are the aims of the

prison system in relation to its sentenced population and what are its aims in

relation to its unconvicted population.

The Prison Rules statement of aim is expressed in abstract terms which look to

the behaviour and character of the sentenced prisoner beyond his term in prison.

Whilst few would wish to disagree with this high minded idea they might question

its relevance to unconvicted prisoners, its practical utility, particularly for

staff on the landings, and its difficulty of interpretation for those who have

to run prisons.

In 1969 the emphasis shifted towards "humane containment", with vague references

to the continued role of treatment in the prison system. In introducing this

new concept the White Paper (Home Office, People in Prison, 1969) acknowledged

that prison conditions should broadly correspond to conditions currently

acceptable to society. In 1971 Alan Bainton's elaboration of this and other

aims (A. Bainton, Aims and Tasks of Prison Department Establishments, 1971) had

considerable influence within the system. The document (for full list see

appendix B item 1.) grapples with the need for moral imperatives and practical

directives.

Bainton presented a statement of the role of the prison service which focuses on

providing conditions of custody currently acceptable to society as well as

encouraging and assistj.ng prisoners' rehabilitation. Bainton's definition of

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IIthe aims of the prison system embraced treatment, minimizing the harmful effects

of custody and preparation for a law-abiding life beyond the prison; his

statement emphasized the importance of relationships among staff and prisoners.

He also defined tasks for each establishment in order to achieve the aims.

These tasks cover a wide range, including ensuring that all inmates are able to

exercise their rights and ensuring "that the management and organisation of

establishments is such as to:

(a) encourage and develop free and open communication between inmates and

staff;

(b) enable staff to appreciate the value of maintaining communication

between the inmate, his family and outside situations; .

(c) provide opportunities for staff to contribute to the assessment of

inmates;

II(d) establish procedures for the maintenance of documentation and for the

making of decisions which affect the inmate's treatment and his

progress towards release; and

(e) ensure that Health and Safety requirements are observed."

Unfortunately Bainton's initiative remained largely unacknowledged and

unlaborated, although it had an important effect on many practitioners in the

70's. The lead was not followed up and against a background of increasing

population pressures on the local prisons humane and secure containment

continued to exist in uncomfortable association with the treatment and training

concepts enshrined in Prison Rule 1.

The May Report was aware of the dissatisfaction with past formulations c.nd made

its own proposals:

"In putting "treatment and training" and "humane containment" aside, the last thing we intend is to suggest nothing should take their place. On the contrary we fully appreciate that every community, whatever its nature, requires a suitable ethic. .... We think that what we envisage might best be described as "positive custody". That is, it has to be secure and it must carry out all the intentions of the courts and society, in that respect. On the other hand, penal establishments must also so far as possible be hopeful and purposive communities and not be allowed to degenerate into mere uncaring institutions dulled by their own unimaginative and unenterprising routine." (paragraph 4.46).

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In my opinion this reformulation is no advance on Prison Rule 1. Since the

publication of the report I can find little evidence that this particular intent

has been carried forward. It certainly has not dispelled the confusion. It ià

still grounded in the treatment ethic, but has gone no further in assisting its

practical application.

The aims of the system are still not clearly and comprehensively stated. There

has, however, been a major step forward in the last two years in the related

task of formulating the functions of the Prison Service. It is worth quoting in

full the Prisons' Board's statement of the task of the Prison Service(Annex A of

Circular Instruction 55/84 "Management in the Prison Service"):

"1. to keep in custody untried or unsentenced prisoners, and to present

them to court for trial or sentence;

2. to keep in custody, with such a degree of security as is appropriate,

having regard to the nature of the individual prisoner and his

offence, sentenced prisoners for the duration of their sentence or for

such short time as the Secretary of State may determine in cases where

he has discretion;

3. to provide for prisoners as full a life as is consistent with the

facts of custody, in particular making available the physical

necessities of life; care for physical and mental health; advice and

help with personal problems; work, education, training, physical

exercise and recreation; and opportunity to practice their religion;

and

4. to enable prisoners to retain links with the community and where

possible assist them to prepare for their return to it."

The statement takes forward the initiative begun by Bainton. What is valuable

about this statement of functions is that it recognises the distinction between

different types of prisoners. It is more easily understandable by staff and

more readily transferable into practice, because it focuses on functions rather

than on aims. (For further information as to how this Circular Instruction

spells out in greater detail the functions of each establishment, see Annex B of

the document in Appendix B, Item 3).

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This is the first practical formulation and it cuts across the ideological

wrangling by concentrating on the question %that are we doing?" and not on the

question "why are we here?". It is necessary to know why'the prison system is

here as well as what it is doing. The two questions are intimately related.

The Control Review Committee Report, while concentrating on the control of

prisoners in the long term system, made an important contribution to the

definition of aims of the system (paragraphs 106 and 107, see Appendix B, Item

4).

It highlighted certain basic objectives of the system:

a. to keep prisoners out of society, axiomatically because it is a prison

system;

b. to provide for legal rights;

c. to provide basic living conditions;

d. to assume a duty of care.

There is a link between the basic objective of assuming "a duty of care" and the

idea underlying the Prison Department's functions 3 and U. The process of

defining at increasingly practical levels the work to be carried out in the

prison system has been taken forward in the regions, where the initiative begun

at headquarters has received further elucidation. Within each region yearly

targets are being set for Governors as a way of translating the functions

defined by the Prison Department down through the various levels of the

organisation into targets for practical implementation. However, as I saw

elsewhere, there is a danger that without a clear statement of aims the process

of defining tasks could lose its direction and the definitions be reduced to

mechanistic formulae.

IL Comparisons

. Every system which I have visited has produced a detailed statement of aims or

"mission". I have noted from official reports and in speaking with senior

officials, a concerted effort within the system to formulate the statement in

ways which can be more readily understood and translated into practice by staff

at all levels. In addition, several countries have a statement of the aims of

the prison system produced by outside organisations.

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The following is a selection from the different systems visited:

(a) United States of America

(i) The U.S. Department of Justice, the branch of government to which the

Federal Bureau of Prisons is responsible, has stated the following

aims:-

"1. Maintain secure, safe, and humane correctional institutions for individuals placed in the care and custody of the Attorney-General.

2. Develop and operate correctional programmes that seek a balanced application of the concepts of punishment, deterrence, incapacitation and rehabilitation." (US Department of Justice, Federal Standards for Prisons and Jails).

(ii) The American Correctional Association, a professional organisation

started by persons prominent in the prison field, has produced its own

statement of aims, widely used in the North American continent in

prison accreditation (for an explanation see Glossary of Terms in

Appendix D).

"To promote practices that protect the basic constitutional rights of inmates.

To operate in a manner that is decent, humane and safe."

The ACA has also described the purpose of the institution.

"Institutional purpose. The institution shall

1. protect society by providing incarceration as an appropriate deterrent to the commission of crime;

2. protect society by providing methods of training and treatment which correct offenders who violate laws;

3. provide an environment for incarcerated persons in which rehabilitation is possible. This shall include the protection of the offender from victimisation within the institution as well as the development of a system of due process and internal legality in institutions;

4. provide meaningful community supervision for offenders on parole and probation as well as develop community alternatives to traditional incarceration;

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5. provide programmes, which include both academic and vocational education, to incarcerated offenders and offenders being supervised in the community;

6. provide the courts with effective evaluation tools and information for use in sentencing decisions;

7. provide the necessary level of security in institutions." (ACA Guidelines for the Development of Policies and Procedures, p.1).

(iii) The five major goals of the federal system are stated by the Federal

Bureau of Prisons itself as:

"1. To provide a level of supervision that is consistent with human dignity and offers maximum protection to the community, staff, and inmates;

2. To increase significantly the number of Federal offenders achieving a successful adjustment upon their return to the community;

3. To provide a wide variety of programme alternatives for offenders, including those who do not require institutional confinement;

4. To provide institutional environments that minimise the corrosive effects of confinement;

5. To increase the knowledge of correctional technology through systematic evaluation and research."

(Federal Bureau of Prisons Breaking With The Past: The Changing View of Correctional Facilities).

(iv) The New York State Department of Correctional Services, which is

responsible for running the State's prisons, has stated:

"The departmental mission

To provide for public protection by administering a network of correctional facilities that:

1. retain inmates in safe custody until released by law;

2. offer inmates an opportunity to improve their employment potential and their ability to function in a non-criminal fashion;

3. offer staff a variety of opportunities for career enrichment and advancement; and

4. offer stable and humane "community" environments in which all participants, staff and inmates, can perform their required tasks with a sense of satisfaction." (New York State Department of Correctional Services, Master Plan 1980-1985, p.17).

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(b) Canada

The Correctional Service of Canada which is responsible not only for prisoners

but also for probation and after-care, has produced a statement of its mission:

"the custody, control, correctional training, and rehabilitation of persons

committed to the penitentiary."

(Correctional Service of Canada, Penitentiary Regulations).

"The primary purposes of the correctional component of the Canadian

criminal justice system are to contribute to the achievement of a safe and

just society and to promote responsible citizenship by:

1. providing appropriate measures of security, direction and control for

the accused or the convicted offender;

2. encouraging the offender's participation, whether in the community or

in a correctional institution, in programmes provided and designed to

aid his/her successful integration into the community;

3. co-operating with persons and agencies within and outside the criminal

justice system to prevent crime and offer services to all persons

involved in the criminal justice process."

(Adult Corrections in Canada, Manual of Standards in Prisons).

(c) Sweden

The aims of the Swedish organisation responsible for prisoners and probation

(the National Prison and Probation Administration) have been incorporated in

legislation:

"Correctional treatment in an institution shall be so designed as to

promote the adjustment of the inmate in society and to counteract the

detrimental effects of deprivation of liberties. In so far as this can be

achieved without detriment to the need to protect the public, treatment

should be directed from the outset towards measures which prepare the

inmate for conditions outside the institution. Preparation should be begun

in good time for release or the transfer of the inmate to treatment on

parole." (Section 4 of the 1976 Act on Correctional Treatment in

Institutions).

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In these various statements of aims there is a blur between the overall

objectives of the system and their translation into work targets. I am not

arguing for a sterile academic separation of these elements. What is important

is that any statement of work targets be accompanied by, or incorporated into, a

statement of general purpose, so that there is a guiding idea linking the

various practical directions towards which the work flows. Every organisation

needs a sense of direction; the concept of mission provides precisely that.

The various examples quoted above rightly incorporate general aims and more

specific functional targets. They demonstrate that the point of articulating

general aims is to help in developing a coherent set of practical objectives,

that may be understood at all levels of the organisation. It is obvious from

the statements that different countries still have problems in articulating

clear and concise aims.

These examples also show a marked contrast between the North American and the

Swedish approaches. The North American statements tend to be more explicit than

the Swedish. The Swedish system does not appear to have any more detailed

internal formulation of tasks relating to aims. It is relatively small and

appears to have a general belief system reflecting that of Swedish society.

This may in part explain why there is no need to be more explicit about the

tasks of the prison system.

II It is possible to go back to a stage when there appeared to be fairly general

agreement about aims in the English system. Hence the tasks were not in need of

further description, because all levels of staff seemed to be aware of why they IIwere in the Prison Service and how they ought to operate. Since then the system

has become more complex and is now a large bureaucracy. People would still like

11 to believe that there is a general community of feeling and service identity as

well as identity of aims. The hankering by some for a return to the Prison

Commission is evidence of the perceived need for a sense of identity, which the MR Commission reflected. Regrettably that sense no longer exists and those days

will not return by wishful thinking. The organisation has to take account of

the confusion of the previous generation.

For ethical and practical reasons there is a need to go further down the path of

defining the aims of the prison system and of translating them into tasks. No

longer can the operation of individual establishments be left entirely to the

discretion of individuals, no matter how well informed and professional they be.

This is as true of prison Governors as it is of prison officers or specialists.

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I have introduced the examples to show the need for a combination of general

aims and specific targets, which are conceptually linked, and which all can

recognise and support.

Having alluded to the importance of this link, I shall draw from the examples

certain underlying assumptions, which are important as instruments for

translating the aims of the system into more practical objectives. These are

basic principles which transcend the immediate context. I shall deal with them

in the following order: individualism, relationship and activity.

(a) Individualism

I assume that in any organisation it is the people within it who matter. It

follows for the prison system that both staff and inmates need to be treated as

individuals. If the organisation is to be run for individuals there must be

concerted planning involving

(0 individual staff members at all levels and

(ii) individual prisoners.

From what I noticed abroad it was the concentration on the individual staff

member and on the individual prisoner which distinguished those better

organisations from those which did not appear to be functioning as well. This

was the fundamental proposition underlying much of their organisation; it seemed

closely related to morale as well as to effectiveness.

Individualism is in line with the recommendations of the Control Review

Committee Report for individual planning for long-term prisoners; it used to be

enshrined in the belief system of the prison service and, despite considerable

problems of overcrowding, the present service should return to the principle and

extend it to all those in its care, whether young offenders or adults, male or

female, sentenced or unconvicted.

An individualistic approach has equally important implications for staff.

Mr Justice May referred to the need for individualism and the establishment of

P7 within the prison department recognised the importance of this principle.

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Individualism implies personal recognition and accountability. Assignment on an

individual basis both for staff and for prisoners, according to expertise,

talents or needs, brings human resources to the forefront puts them to the

best use. That in turn implies options for staff and prisoners in terms of

work, activity and facilities. In some of the places I visited it was the

facilities for staff which immediately caught the eye. Perhaps it is not

without significance that it was also those places where staff were apparently

able to operate with the highest degree of professionalism and where as a

consequence the atmosphere was good and purposeful.

(h) Relationship

It directly flows from the concept of individualism that the crucial

relationship is that which exists between the staff member and the prisoner.

Indeed, I would echo the statement of the Control Review Committee:

"nothing else that we can say will be as important as the general proposition that relations between staff and prisoners are at the heart of the whole prison system and that control and security flow from getting that relationship right." (Control Review Committee Report, para. 16).

From what I saw there can be no doubt of the validity of that statement.

The emphasis on personal relationships was evident in the institutions visited,

not only in the internal relationships between staff and prisoners, but also in

the relationship between the prison and the outside world. Again where this was

most noticeable, it was notable how this eased tension and reduced stress. It

manifested itself most commonly as an ease of communications between all

parties: staff, inmates, lawyers, business folk, professionals of all sorts

and, of course, personal and family visitors.

Freedom of communication is of such importance that it could almost be

annunciated as a principle in its own right. It is, however, an illustration of

an approach which views relationships as of utmost importance whether within the II

prison or between inmates and the outside world. Breaking down of physical

barriers is another manifestation of the importance attached to relationships

and individualism. This can be seen dramatically in many of the places I

visited, particularly in their relaxed visiting accommodation, the frequency of

visits, and arrangements made for contacting families and lawyers by telephone.

(This includes the facility in many North American prisons for the prisoner to

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reverse the charges from internal "call boxes" available from 7 o'clock in the

morning till after 10 o'clock at night).

It can also be seen in fundamental design elements, such as small units.

The Federal Bureau "operates a policy of decentralized and dedicated management teams within each of the separate housing units in its institutions. The teams are staffed with motivated and well trained people who have an ability to mix and communicate with the aim of breaking down psychological barriers and becoming familiar with inmates worries and problems at the lowest levels."

This is facilitated by architecteral design which encourages staff and prisoners

to intermingle and reduces physical barriers.

"The design of an institution should encourage informal contact between inmates and staff, organised around small management teams and plant to enable staff to oversee and control in an unobstrusive manner and without confrontations." (Home Office Prison Department, New Directions in Prison Design, p.79).

Design features can, of course, enhance the possibility of this taking place but

ultimately it depends on the quality of staff and the attitude of all within the

institution.

(c) Activity

Perhaps the most striking feature of those prisons visited was the attitude of

towards activity held by management and staff. Coming from a system where so

many prisoners are idle in their cells, I was impressed by the uniformity of

assumption that any prisoner who is left in his cell (other than when placed

there for due process) is a threat to security or control. This assumption has

led to the practice of giving prisoners the opportunity to be unlocked from

first thing in the morning to last thing at night: unlocking from 6.30 am until

11.0 pm was not uncommon.

On innumberable many occasions, it was brought home to me that an idle prisoner

is a dangerous prisoner. Apart from the assumption that activity was

fundamental in achieving and maintaining control and security, activity was also

seen as of

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value in itself, because it enhances both the life of the prisoners and the work

of the staff. It should be said that it was seen by some as valuable because of

its punitive connotations, i.e. society outside would not wish a man to be

imprisoneeand then to sit idly doing nothing; rather he should be involved in

some activity rather than "having an easy time of it". The soft option in North

America was the person sitting in his cell doing nothing and much of the

pressure to keep people active results from these assumptions. The punitive

approach to activity holds true for sentenced prisoners; it does not apply to

those on remand, for whom activity is seen rather as access to the means of

dealing with the court process and keeping in touch with the family and the

local community prior to conviction or acquittal.

The emphasis on activity goes hand in hand with the norm of unlocked cells

throughout the system. Even where prisoners do not work, they are at least in

association, although in some situations this time is not filled with purposeful

activity. This characterizes the remand situation more than it does the pattern

for sentenced prisoners; for them a high degree of involvement in activities

throughout the day was observed and is generally seen as essential, tf the life

of the prison is to continue both normally and properly.

Individualism, relationship and activity come together in the widely shared

concept of dynamic security. This approach to safety for the public (preventing

prison escapes) and safety for the prison (internal control) recognizes that

both are only really possible through the relationship between staff and

inmates. Dynamic security is knowing what is going on in a prison

establishment, in addition to providing a safe and secure background against

which the whole range of activity making up the life of a prison takes place.

Although it is not a common concept in this country, in North America it assumes

an overriding importance in terms of justifying all the above three principles.

"How can I achieve security in this prison without having the right

relationships, dealing with the individual and having all my prisoners active?"

It is this approach which has also led to a different emphasis on physical

security and mechanistic functions. I am not overlooking the obvious import of

the armed perimeter, whether in the form of guard towers or armed perimeter

vehicles in North America. The systems which I observed may not all have solved

their security problem. However, New York State claimed that, as a result of

their concentration on these principles, particularly activity, escapes and

assaults on staff had been dramatically reduced.

"Escapes and assaults on staff are down. The number of escapes is down a third and New York State now has the lowest escape rate of any state in the country." (Deputy Commissioner, New York State).

The emphasis on dynamic security, by involving all grades of staff in shared

responsibility, also enhances the job content and frees many correctional

officers from being nothing but guards. This approach limits the exclusive

guarding function and provides multiple outlets for staff to concentrate on a

wider range of security and interpersonal issues than in those places, which

also exist in the United States, where the concentration is on physical

supervision and mechanical security.

"With the recent financial cutbacks we try to work within the allocated dollars. The responsibility is on us to manage. Therefore we have decided to look at the way programmes are manned. We can then decide whether we have to suffer a steno or a teacher vacancy. The unions were not happy but they accepted it in the last two weeks. We pulled posts and reduced security. We kept programmes going because that is better security." (an official at Watertown, New York)

III Implications

It is clear from the above examples that different countries have different aims

for their prison system. The English system must find the right statement of

its aims, just as other systems have worked toward an appropriate formulation

for themselves.

What is clear from these examples is that an abstract statement is far from

being enough; the more abstract it sounds the more difficult is it to translate

into practice. This does not mean there is no place for idealism; but as well

as idealism it is necessary to translate the idea into practical directives.

Much that I have seen abroad demonstrates attempts to do that and in some

instances superbly well.

The English service has abstract formulations; the treatment model is an

example. (Perhaps this is one reason why no matter how widespread the concept

of treatment was, it was never consistently put into practice). At the ground

floor there was a great deal of ambivalence about what it meant in practice and

much of today's disillusionment has spread from an inability to translate that

model into an effective working system. Hence springs much modern sceptism as

to whether anything will work. My travels have demonstrated that it will.

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The treatment model is an example of how an objective that is not demonstrably

attainable is bound to fall into disrespect. There were no adequate measures of

performance; the only measure available was recidivism. That . was not a

reasonable measure of the effectiveness of treatment, since it is impossible to

assess the influence of the many other factors impinging on prisoners' lives

when they leave the prison system. In many ways such a measure was set up to

fail the test. The disillusionment that followed has done grave harm to the

morale of staff and to the effectiveness of the present system. It has led

people to see treatment as totally irrelevant, whereas in certain cases this is

far from being so. There is no evidence to show that treatment reduces

recidivism but there are indications that, without any attempt at treatment,

containment may lead to deterioration.

"Yet it would seem that to throw out the whole idea of good intentions, because most of the time they do not reach the lofty heights they were supposed to achieve, may be to throw out many other values that often accompanied them: human values, the wish, at least, to treat people humanely."

(Graeme Newman "Reaffirming Rehabilitation" in Cullen and Gilbert, page 262).

One senior official in America told me that although they no longer believe in

the treatment model per se, they found that the values which went with it were

still a very effective way of running a prison and motivating staff, with the

minimum of major incidents and control problems. By contrast they had found

that in adhering exclusively to the pure treatment model, initial high idealism

had turned to cynicism; this resulted from a sense of failure, when staff did

not achieve what had set out to do.

The recurring message was that sights should be set realistically on targets

which were measurable and attainable. They should bear a relationship to

existing circumstances and not merely to future aspirational aims.

The danger is that disillusionment with the treatment model, or any other model

which fails to address the need for practical targets, will lead to the opposite

extreme. This might take a variety of forms. On the one hand there might

develop the tendency towards purely negative, though practical, goals; this

might be exemplified by the Florence Nightingale principle, not to do the

patients any harm.

Alternatively there is a danger, in the absence of clearly stated, attainable

goals, of focussing exclusively on the readily articulated goal, security, which

can easily be measured by an absolute criterion of success: absence of escapes.

The goal is demonstrably attainable, though not without difficulty; and for

staff who do a difficult job with very little satisfaction it is not surprising

that they readily seize on the attainment of a secure prison, as at least one

way of demonstrating that they have had a successful day's work. Indeed, this

is the first of the four functions articulated by the Prison Department and

close attention has to be given to its proper performance. In the absence of

other measurable goals, there has been a tendency to stop there. Over the years

this has led to an imbalance in the way in which the functions of the English

prison service have been approached.

Morgan and King have pointed out that, whereas training and task definition for

the custodial function are clear to staff, this is not true for the functions

relating to treatment of prisoners:

"For prison staff, especially uniformed officers, working under a philosophy of treatment and training constitutes a real dilemma. On the one hand they know that their function is essentially custodial. They have to maintain a constant vigilance to ensure the security of the establishment, and to maintain good order and discipline with it. In these activities their role is clear and their training unambiguous. Above all it is perfectly apparent to themselves and everyone else whether they are discharging these activities successfully or otherwise. On the other hand they have been persuaded by the press, the public, prison reformers and prison administrators to concern themselves with the training of prisoners. But here their roles are imprecisely specified - often no more than a vague injunction to be concerned with 'the whole man' - and their own training is short and ambiguous because nobody knows quite what they are being trained for." (Rod Morgan and Roy King, The Future of the Prison System, pp. 17-18).

That imbalance is not peculiar to the English system. Indeed from my

observations other systems have gone through a similar process of veering

between different extremes in their search for the right balance.

The English prison system now needs to expand its goals realistically to

incorporate other principles beyond security. These are directly linked with

the four functions already mentioned and are, in fact, implicit in much that has

gone on within the prison system and evolved in many different localities.

There are individuals and particular establishments working to practical goals,

but there is a great need now to formalize them, so that they may be recognised

as a set of coherent goals for the whole system, rather than as the objectives

of certain individuals and establishments within the system as a

26

whole. Historically, as I have argued, the Mountbatten and Radzinowitz Reports

and critical incidents within the prison system of England and Wales have led to

a concentration on security. Without security the justification for the prison

system ceases. However, if security becomes the sole aim the quality of the

system will be measured by "negative" indicators, such as escapes or incidents.

The prison system should not be reduced to such terms but measured to reflect

the totality of aims.

It is time for some clear thinking about what these aimsare. It is important to

decide what role among the various aims of a complex system the aim of

rehabilitation should play and how that aim may be put into practice. Other

positive, more tangible aims must be balanced with rehabilitation.

It is necessary to decide the extent to which punishment is an aim of the prison

system. If incarcerationis in itself sufficient to meet the aim of punishment,

then it should be spelt out clearly that the conditions of incarceration are not

intended as a means of fulfilling that aim.

The distinction was clearly recognised by Alexander Patterson when he stated

that people were sent to prison as punishment not for punishment. Lord

Wilberforce in R v Honey has recently restated this issue with his assertion

that under English law: "a convicted prisoner, in spite of his imprisonment,

retains all civil rights which are not taken away expressly or by necessary

implication." (See: Raymond v Honey [1982] 1 All ER 756).

I woüld agree that imprisonment itself is the punishment. This should be

clearly stated. The people in the system need to know what is expected of

them and the public outside have a right to know that the staff are carrying

out their wishes and not exceeding or failing to meet them.

There has to be an overall accountability of the prison service to the public

and Parliamentinthe saine way that individual governors and staff feel themselves

accountable for the tasks which are now asked of them, however ill-defined they

are. The exercise of clear definition is a healthy one, because it forces

people to face the basic questions about why they are employed and what they

should be doing.

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It seems that the treatment ideal may sink into oblivion and disuse; but this

will leave a vacuum alongside which the pre-existing other aims of punishment,

retribution, etc. will continue to survive. Either these remaining aims will

tend to become the exclusive aims of the prison system or replacements for or

supplements to rehabilitation must be found. A more narrowly defined aim in

line with the 'duty of care' concept of the Control Review Committee Report is

one possibility. But that too needs to be spelt out. What I would say,

however, is that the aims of the prison system cannot be allowed to ebb and flow

in an unpredictable way and some clear statement is called for, if the vacuum

which I have already described is not to become the aim of the system. 'No

message' is in fact a very clear message.

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B. COMMUNICATING THE MESSAGE

I. The Situation Here

Earlier in the evolution of the prison system the aims of the service were

stated in a language carrying a strong ethical message. There was a real or

perceived sharing of moral values which finds an interesting parallel in modern

Sweden. I shall return to that analogy later when I discuss other examples.

The English prison system is now at a stage of development where that sense of

community has gone. As a result there has been a loss of identity which is

widely felt among all staff. There have been recent moves to articulate a set

of practical definitions of the functions of the system. The service has veered

away from the moral message to a concentration on the technical problems of

making things work.

I shall now look at examples from other systems which have passed through very

similar phases and have developed somewhat different approaches and conclusions.

In the light of other countries' experience we need to tread carefully so that

we do not jettison much of importance which has tacitly held the system together

over the years.

II. Comparisons

It is apparent that in some other systems the conviction has developed that you

need both simple messages and an elaboration of practical details. You need

them both to succeed. We can see this in the mission statements, which do not

exist in isolation, but have alongside of them quite extensive directives about

how to translate those ideals and aspirations into a set of workable targets.

We can see characteristics of systems that have developed that understanding:

the organisational structure reflects the prevailing philosophy. A combination

of aspirational objectives and functional directives are communicated through

clear lines of responsibility. The definition of the functions rests on the

objectives. The organisation passes the message down through the various layers

so that the functions describe what will be performed at all levels; therefore

the message is addressed to staff at every level in the organisation. The

structure is reinforced by lines both from the top and the bottom which

emphasize that message. It can be seen in examples of staff training systems

and effective communication systems within the organisation.

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This is not merely a sterile academic exercise. In other countries it is seen

as one of the fundamental requirements for effective management and successful

delivery of services. In recent years people have begun to understand the

importance of management principles for running large organisations, whether

Uusinesses or large bureaucracies. There is some measure of agreement in the

public and private sectors about certain fundamental principles for how to run

large enterprises; the prison system is one such. The baseline of their thought

has been more clearly articulated in the private sector; unambiguously, it is

motivating personnel within the organisation. "Almost everyone agrees people

are our most important asset!" (Rene MacFerson, former chairman of Dana, a

major American corporation).

"IBM's philosophy is largely contained in three simple beliefs. I want to begin

with what I think is the most important: our respect for the individual."

(Thomas J Watson Junior of IBM). (Selection of quotes from Peters and Waterman,

In Sear;ch of Excellence).

People who have studied the way successful large organisations work have noted

that these ideas translate themselves into a combination of achievable targets

and a simple statement of objectives which creates the conviction that the task

is inherently worthwhile.

In all my visits I observed a remarkable degree of agreement among all members

of the organisation at different levels about the recurring message. The

American federal system is particularly noteworthy in this respect. Whether

talking to Norman Carlson, the Director, or to the newly joined correctional

officer at one of the facilities visited, I heard the same message with the same

degree of conviction. People knew what they were about and were convinced that

this was the best way to do it. I shall quote a conversation with one

correctional officer from New York State to illustrate how he was aware both of

the overall aim and the specific task of his own institution, Watertown.

"I have a job as correctional officer in New York State. I am proud to have this job in corrections. Our job is care, custody and control. .... Times have changed all the way round. With programmes inmates are not idle; idle prisoners are trouble. Programmes provide incentives for them to better themselves. With programmes it does the same for us and programmes provide additional jobs for staff; it is a sales point."

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This officer was aware, not only of the general message, but also of the

specific one as how to operate in Watertown. His conviction that programmes

were a way forward in carrying out the basic aims of care, custody and control

is summed up in his powerful imagery of the change in recent years. "There was

a wall ten years ago. No longer."

He was using the imagery of the prison perimeter to refer to the elimination of

barriers of communication not only between staff and prisoners but also within

the administration.

III. Implications

From the foregoing examples I have drawn out the lesson that organisations are

only as good as the individuals in them. They need motivating. They also need

practical task definitions; but that is not what motivates them. It is a sense

of purpose that lies behind task definition that moves people, as does the way

in which the message is personally communicated.

People in organisations need to feel that there is someone who knows what it is

all about, cares and is running the show. Beyond that they need to be convinced

that it has a value, that it is worth being a part of the organisation. Its

value is defined not only by those who are part of it, but those outside. The

English prison system needs a more articulate formulation of aims and functions

and part of that work is underway. It is an exercise which must be carried

forward inside and outside the prison system. My experience abroad indicates

that once the aims of the system have been clearly defined, the important next

step is for management to take on the message and understand its importance for

the work of operatives and managers alike.

Illustrations can be found in many different fields but perhaps that of staff

training is worth quoting. Communicating the message means establishing and

keeping open lines to all members of the organisation. The content of staff

training programmes must reflect this overall purpose and the importance placed

by management on getting the message across. If it is not done at that stage,

then it is difficult to see how it can be done successfully at any other.

In the United States federal system for example, the Staff Training Academy at

Glynco in Georgia presents a series of programmes for training correctional

officers in correctional techniques. The course specifically concerned with

custody, security and control begins not with security techniques but with

training in prison system objectives. It covers the three primary I

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responsibilities that all correctional workers share, namely security,

programmes and job speciality. Thus a course designed to deal specifically with

security matters starts out by stressing the inter-relationship of the various

functions, of which security is but one.

The orientation towards managing people is even more clearly visible in the

lesson entitled "Inmates are People Too!" This course leads the officer through

a number of key concepts about the relationship between people working and

living in the institution. (For further details the outlines of these lectures

are provided in Appendix B, Items 5 and 6.)

A similar approach isevident in New York State where, on a visit to Clinton, I

found that the annual training programme requirements for staff showed a 50%

split between time spent on personal relationships and that on legal mandates,

weapons, use of force etc. The minimum number of hours spent by staff each year

was 32. (NB this falls below the ACA standard of 40 hours per year.) This

approach is found not merely in the federal system, where there has been some 15

years of continual development of these ideas, but also in New York State. A

prison system operating against a background of violent crime, prison

disturbances and pressures of numbers. Even there, following the Attica

disturbance in 1973 and the guard strike in 1979, there has been a tremendous

impetus toward "a programme push" and relationship training for staff has been

set in motion.

New York State is a particularly important point of reference, because they are

going through problems of overcrowding and of financial crisis which are

somewhat analagous to our own. Many of their prisons are under the most

appalling pressures. Yet they recognise that to surmount these problems they

have to implement measures now, in order to take control of a system which for

many years has been in crisis. They have recognised that crisis management is

no way to solve the problem in the long term. Following some particularly acute

upheavals and crises the New York State Correctional Services, under their

Commissioner Thomas A Coughlin, produced a master plan for correctional services

which clearly spells out the way ahead.

The message about the aims of the prison system needs incorporating from the

start, commencing with basic training; it must be reinforced at regional level

and in training at establishment level. The connection must be demonstrated

between basic aims and day to day work and task definitions for the individual.

1

This can only be achieved through training, retraining and refresher courses.

The message must be incorporated in the training manual at Wakefield and in the

Prison Officers Handbook. In the preface to the handbook the aims of the prison

system could be helpfully and more clearly elucidated.

I conclude that it is necessary to define the overall aims of the prison system.

The Prison Department must translate the overall aims into clear directives for

those working in the system. It must produce its own master plan interpreting

the aims into practical tasks. It will then be for the Inspectorate to assess

the performance of those tasks in the light of the overall aims.

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CHAPTER 2: TASKS

A. DEFINITION: what must be done to achieve the aims

I. The Situation Here

This chapter will discuss the primary tasks which are of interest to those

managing the system. It deals with what is in the first instance an internal

exercise, although ultimately one of interest and concern to those responsible

for external monitoring, such as the Inspectorate.

Tasks do not arise in isolation; as I have previously discussed, they must be

related to the overall aims and aspirations of the prison system. The

relationship between the defined tasks and the aims of the system must be clear.

Once that is established it is possible to define clearly what the functions and

the tasks are.

In case this sounds very abstract, let me take an actual example. If

rehabilitation is one major aim of the prison system, then the functions of the

prison service must be defined to make it abundantly clear how to put

rehabilitation into practice at ground floor level. Similarly, if punishment is

another major aim of the prison system, then definition of the functions must

include practical directives as to how best this is to be achieved, making it

clear that the conditions of incarceration themselves are not intended as a

means of fulfilling the aim of punishment.

With this approach in mind the Prison Department's statement of functions should

be further elaborated and reworked. The link must be drawn between the aims of

the prison system and the functional definitions.

II: Comparisons

It is interesting that functions which in this country have tended to be defined

as discrete and separate areas are defined in other systems in ways which

emphasise their inter-relationship rather than their discrete quality. So one

may find that security, control and what has been called 'programmes' are

treated as interdependent, both in terms of the definitions of functions and in

terms of practical implications. Particular definitions may vary somewhat, but

there are easily recognisable common strands; the manifestations may differ from

one context to another, but some of the ideas and their applications are

similar.

One of the ideas I have seen at work in other countries is dynamic security,

velichlinksall the flrictions of security, control and programmes and is readily

recognised as a synthesis of these functional elements.

"In order to stop security predominating over programmes, then programmes and security have to be closely intertwined. Programmes are security. If we don't keep inmates busy, they'll keep us busy." (Norman Carlson, Director, Federal Bureau of Prisons).

Dynamic security has implications for reducing control.problems. The Vantour

Report, addressed the level of violent incidents in Canadian prisons, and its

relationship to the traditional approach to security:

"Notwithstanding our desire to minimize the incidence of violence, we must state emphatically that more security - more fences, doors and gun cages - is not the answer. Short of total lock-up, inmates will come in conflict with one another. Furthermore, a more repressive system will simply produce more inner-directed violence (suicides) and system-directed violence - collectively in the form of riots and individually in the form of assaults on staff." (Report of the Study Group on Murders and Assaults in the Ontario Region, p.1, hereafter called the Vantour Report).

I have seen many approaches to security and establishments have not always

succeeded in putting the idea into practice. When relationship and

individualism come together in planned activity, whether in a high or low

security setting, the result is a relaxed and better ordered prison. Staff and

prisoners seem to feel it was a better and safer place to live and work. In my

experience the worst establishments visited were those which failed to recognize

and put into practice these basic principles.

The three principles of individualism, relationship and activity serve to bridge

the gap between the system's aims and the tasks to be performed. Owing to the

limits of this report, it is impossible to analyse in detail the many examples,

contained in a wealth of documents assembled from the systems visited, of how

the overall aims are translated down to the level of work targets for discrete

parts of the system. I provide one example of this process of reduction down to

the level of the living unit (see Manual on Unit Management, Raybrook p.2 ff in

Appendix B item 7).

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III. Implications

Dynamic security is not unfamiliar to those working in dispérsal prisons in this

country. Some establishments in the English system actively embody it, though

not expressly defined in the terms: "dynamic security". Nevertheless, many

people working in and outside the prison system recognize that good

relationships and activity are an essential part of running a successful prison,

particularly the most secure establishments. This is but one example of the way

in which good ideas exist in the present system, but need to be more clearly

stated and drawn together as a coherent and understandable package.

In presenting the package it is necessary to underline the interdependence of

the different functional elements, because that is the best way to ensure a

balance. Getting the right balance of aims is the pre-requisite for getting the

right balance of tasks. If the system recognises that it is involved in such a

balancing exercise, then it can organise itself to assess how it is managing to

do that and, equally, from beyond the system, assessments can be made about its

performance.

The functions of secure containment, court services, provision of a full life

and maintenance of community links, have already been spelt out for the English

system in Circular Instruction 55/84. They imply a duty of care which concerns

the prisoner here and now, rather than the ideal of changing his behaviour in

the long run.

There is an implied underlying ethos; it needs to be spelt out much more

clearly, because without it it is impossible to know whether there is a priority

among the functions stated and how they are to be successfully integrated. In

many places the functions of court service and containment have taken the

ascendance, the former as a response to external demands because their

translation in practical terms is more readily achievable than the functions of

providing a fuller life and maintaining community links. One of the purposes on

this report is to suggest ways of redressing the balance.

The danger is that the former two functions can be performed at a mechanistic

level, though not without detriment to those concerned; but it is hard to see

how the latter two can be reduced in this way to a mechanistic level and sound

management will be needed to ensure that the right balance is actually achieved

and maintained.

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B. IMPLEMENTATION: How to perform the defined tasks

I. The Situation Here

There is a consistent move now taking place towards greater management

accountability. This inevitably involves the necessity to look in greater

detail at tasks and functions. The move has recently led to an emphasis on

financial accountability. There is a danger that the focus will be concentrated

on accounting for resources in the narrow sense. Financial accountability

should serve functional accountability. That will result in true efficiency:

the highest achievement of prison service aims with the minimum of resources.

There are signs that functional accountability is beginning to take hold;

regions have been involved in operational assessment for a number of years.

They are now refining checklists for assessing how establishments operate and

are beginning to ask for functional definitions at different operational levels

with a specific time limit. Thus the Regional Management Committee for the

South West Region has recently made the following statement (7 June 1985):

"Objectives are to be established subject to annual review which the Regional Director will approve. This will form a sort of contract with the establishment. Objectives in this context must include long-term measures and will need to incorporate some performance standards for regime matters.

These objectives should lead to a list of operations which are agreed as making up the regime of the establishment. The target for this to be completed could be by the end of October. .... Governors should reduce the operations list to tasks in order to identify individual pieces of work for staff".

This development, which is taking the process of work definition down to grass

roots level from the circular instruction, is a constructive move. Unless my

earlier points about more clearly defining the aims and getting the balance

right are borne in mind, there is a danger that each region will set its own

norms.

At the end of the day if management is going to be in control and know what is

going on, it will be necessary, even at the basic level of costings, for each

region and each establishment to be measuring the same data. Real levels of

performance achieved could then be compared. It is at present possible for

similar establishments in separate regions to proceed on different lines in

interpreting what should be a common policy and for them to be monitored

according to carious or inconsistent criteria.

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This does not mean however that the system should be a slave to uniformity; a

certain degree of variation is necessary, desirable and healthy. Nevertheless

each establishment must face in the same direction and striee towards the same

overall and clearly defined aims. What is needed is a uniform system, but not

necessarily a uniform management style.

The end product of the move underway now will be a series of checklists

developed at ground floor level. These will state tasks which can be measured

both quantitatively and qualitatively. Theoretically the underlying concept is

sound; nevertheless there is the danger of it becoming a dull, repetitive,

mechanistic operation and of the exercise becoming an end in itself. If this

happens there will be no benefit to any of those living within the institution.

There is a danger that this process could merely produce more paperwork a risk I

deal with later.

I must also mention the caveat that what sounds very neat and logical in theory,

can prove more complicated in practice, as anyone who has worked in an .

establishment knows. Life is rarely as simple as theory implies. This is true

of the prison system, where random external demands continually impinge. The

two most obvious demands upon the prison system, over which it exercises no

control, are court requirements in relation to the judicial process of deciding

innocence or guilt and the results of the sentencing process which determines

the number of prisoners and the length of time they will spend in prison.

It will never be possible to develop a tight control mechanism either in terms

of financial management or service provision, because of these wide

fluctuations. Nevetheless this is no excuse for sitting back and letting

nothing happen. The sooner the task can be spelled out as I have earlier urged

the more rational will be the system's response to these outside influences,

which affect the prison system far more adversely than necessary.

IL Comparisons

The principles of individualism, relationship and activity occupy a half-way

house between aspirational aims and operational tasks. The most useful way of

looking at the examples from other countries is to view practical detail in the

light of these current themes thus providing a valuable guide as to how to

approach the job of translating aims into practical work tasks. I found a

planned network of activity which embraced the principles of individualism and

relationship. These principles were reflected in a number of key areas of

management practice.

(à) Planning for the individual

The network of activities was characterised almost everywhere I went by

individual planning, in some areas carried out to an extremely high level of

sophistication; indeed it might be described as almost over meticulous. For

example, the Swedish system shows an interesting approach to consulting the

inmate as a consumer and tailoring activities, whilst he is in prison or outside

on parole, very much to his individual needs.

This goes hand in hand with the idea of the prison system as being in loco

parentis, while the prisoner is in its charge, which leads to an almost

paternalistic way of dealing with prisoners, reminiscent of an earlier era in

the English system. The analogy does not fit our present day thinking; but it

is cannot be emphasised strongly enough that treating the prisoner as an

individual has tremendous pay-offs, not only for the prisoner, but also for the

atmosphere within the etablishment and for the individual satisfaction of

members of staff involved in the process.

An example worth quoting is the case of one of the very few lifers in the

Swedish system. He was in a security establishment, but,having been treated for

drug abuse, he was no longer able to be treated with the appropriate drugs

within the prison; these drugs however could be obtained outside and after a

great deal of deliberation it was agreed that he would attend the local hospital

without escort, in order to have the necessary drugs administered. He was

placed on trust and would be out of the establishment for anything up to an hour

before having to report back. This difficult decision involved balancing public

safety, security, control and treatment considerations. The problem was

considered carefully with input from a large number of staff. Ultimately the

decision rested on their knowledge of the prisoner as an individual. Enough of

the staff knew him well enough to make the decision despite the risk involved.

Planning for the individual has implications for and should influence the long-

term planning of the organisation and not the other way around, as tends to

happen now. Prisoners are often fitted into the straitjacket of the existing

regime. By aggregating the plans for individuals one can establish the need for

the long-term provision of facilities. The projection will need periodic

revision in the light of new information, but it represents a rational way of

planning.

39

Equally staff can be similarly restricted and close attention must be paid to

the role and individual needs of the people who work in prisons. Once it is

decided to plan on an individual basis, it is a great advantage to have the use

of modern technology to back-up the strategy with current information. I shall

look at this in greater detail in the next chapter.

Ultimately the reorientation of approach suggested here leads to the provision

of options which have been developed on past experience of individual need. The

process begins by approaching the prisoner as an individual and discovering what

his needs are; as he progresses through the system it is necessary to monitor

and to obtain feed-back from him as to ways in which the plan should be amended,

so as to take into account the progress or setbacks encountered. This means a

continuing involvement of individual staff, not only in the development of the

original plan, but also in the process of adjustment to the variety of responses

received.

If individual planning is to be truly flexible, there must be a degree of

flexibility within the overall system of classification. Robert Smith, in his

recent, unpublished, review of categorisation procedures, has pointed out a

traditional tension between attempts to classify prisoners for security risk

purposes and the pressure of available accommodation. There is a danger that an

individual will be put into an accommodation slot with certain security

implications, and will carry that classification throughout his career, without

the necessary attention to changes in his response, which could lead to

downgrading and move to another establishment.

At the other extreme, however, there is a danger highlighted by Professor Carson

in the Report of the Advisory Committee to the Solicitor General of Canada on

the Management of Correctional Institutions. Although impressed by the attempts

to structure decision-making with regard to the transfer of inmates, he wondered

whether the policy (known as "cascading") of a regular review of individuals for

transfer to lower security levels had not contributed to the excessive movement

which has characterised the Canadian service in recent years.

His Committee agreed that offenders should be afforded some increased freedom

and a normalising of their environment prior to release. In this respect, he

commented that the service's policy of cascading was essentially sound and

intended to be cost-effective. However he questioned 'whether offenders should

be relocated if this entailed an interruption of vocational, educational

training or other self-development programmes. He observed that transfers which

interrupt programme plans occurred, in Canada, much too frequently. He was

40

concerned to hear that many individuals may well be cascaded prematurely to

accommodate inflow, which often resulted in a failure of the inmates to adapt.

This in turn led to a subsequent return to higher levels of security. Any

viable system needs to build into itself the capacity for planned change.

The ability to Plan on an individual basis may be severely compromised by the

pressure on numbers. I have seen in the New York State system that there is a

gap between the aims, as expressed by the Commissioner and his staff, and what

it is possible to achieve in some very old, decrepit and overcrowded facilities.

Nevertheless, in New York State, despite all the difficulties, the fact that

these aims have been clearly spelt out and are now universally recognised has

made a significant difference. New York State has had its problems, including

crises like the Attica and Sing Sing (Ossinning) riots and the guard strike of

1979. Yet, as a result of these moves, New York State now claims to be the only

state which has avoided the litigation which is endemic in every other state.

There was a time when there was a vast amount of litigation, but the system

is perceived at the moment as making strides in the right direction and in

certain facilities succeeding against almost all the odds.

Despite the pressures of space and old and inappropriate buildings, the morale

of staff and industrial relations have improved significantly because of this

new approach.

(h) The manageable group.

As I became aware of how other systems have incorporated the idea of

individualism and relationship into practical organisation I recognised that

these ideas have important implications for physical design and the grouping of

people. The best examples were where there was an integrated approach to all

tasks.

I shall choose some examples to highlight the best features. Let us, by way of

illustration, look at the example of the federal institution at Ray Brook in New

York State. Ray Brook is a medium security establishment designed to hold 480

prisoners but at the present moment with a population of 800, because of the

pressure of places in the federal system. It is organised around units of a

hundred and fifty, split into two groups of 75. This is a manageable size of

unit.

141

There are organisational and architectural features which obviously come

together ip the design of this new establishment. For example, the physical

features are designed to enhance the ability of staff and prisoners to relate

within the group; supervision for staff is based on the group notion and is

comparatively easily attained, as compared with the design of so many our own

prisons.

Ray Brook is has only been open for four years. It was originally the winter

olympic village near Lake Placid and was designed initially so that athletes

could be protected from terrorist attack. It was also designed in the knowledge

that the Federal Bureau of Prisons would be taking it over to use as a medium

security establishment. The newness of the design obviously has advantages; the

architecture was clearly planned to promote the unit living approach.

There are of course other examples in the federal system of older buildings that

have been adapted in line with this philosophy and one such visited was the

penitentiary at Leavenworth. It is the major maximum security establishment

after Marion (which replaced Alcatraz). In spite of the architectural

difficulties of breaking down huge old "ranges", the architects and works staff

had done a good job in dividing the wings into discrete and manageable units. A

further example is Lewisburg, another old penitentiary.

There has been discussion about new designs in this country since the original

Control Review Committee visit to America in January 1984. In 1985 the Home

Office Working Party on New Generation Prisons, published its report, drawing

out basic principles of modern american prison architecture. The report points

out that whilst architecture can help in supervision and grouping, at the end of

the day of far greater importance is the personal contribution made by staff.

It discusses examples of "manageable units" and provides diagrams of dayroom

layout.

A day room, as an integral part of the overall design features, makes it easier

to have informal and structured interaction between staff and prisoners,provides

an escape from being "ranged up" all day in over-crowded cells and in some

degree mitigates the worst problems of overcrowding. The day room was found

across North America and in Sweden. Some of the plant features of older prisons

actually present barriers to this process but they are not insuperable, as is

evidenced abroad and by some of the older prisons in this country.

I am convinced that even within our existing building it is possible to adopt

the manageable group approach, or what the North Amercans call the living unit .

Underlying it all is the concept of "dynamic security", to which I have already

referred. Because it is part of the manageable group approach it is worth

discussing in some detail here how it can be implemented.

What does dynamic security mean in practice for staff? It means that every

single member whd goes through the gate sees himself/herself as having a

responsibility for security and control; this appears to reduce the number of

staff who have to be employed in mechanical tasks in relation to security and to

reduce the polarising effect between staff and inmate of having staff who

primarily guard. It also reduces the polarising effect between staff who see

themselves as totally involved in guarding and staff who see themselves as

involved in other more generalised tasks with the prisoner. Individual members

of staff may have areas of expertise but they do not operate exclusively in that

area and all staff can be called upon in time of incident to help resolve it.

It depends on considerable knowledge on the part of staff about each individual

inmate, so that early warnings can be given as to when trouble is imminent or an

individual is likely to be involved in it.

The Regional Director for the North Central Region in the American federal

system extolled the virtues of the living unit and described how it is

impossible to get along without it today. One of the reasons, as he explained,

was that "everyone in the unit team can do the job." It may be that the unit

manager himself will take the keys when necessary, but on certain occasions the

case manager, who is under him, could also do the same. When necessary other

support staff (here we would see them as specialists) also act as guards.

"Everyone is a correctional officer - you get back to where inmates are. Everyone acts together."

In a well integrated team like this, the barriers are broken down between the

different types of staff, reducing staffing distinctions. There is no longer

the breakdown between line staff and experts and specialists; all are

professionals. A large degree of reorientation in management and training is

required. As the Director of the Federal Bureau told me:

"Staff training has done more to help the Federal Bureau than any other factor. Everyone is trained together; all staff have the same curriculum - psychologists, correctional officers, etc. This has helped us instil the notion of one service. All staff wear the same uniform. Not we/they. We/we together. The total mission, not just the custodial mission."

4 3

Of course individual staff have particular areas of expertise, because of their

individual talents and inclinations. The advantage of the living unit idea is

that it allows these individual areas of expertise to be developed and

integrated into the armoury of the combined team under the group manager.

The living unit can be a flexible vehicle for allowing much more variety, not

only in placing prisoners in separate locations, but also in providing an

individual approach to his needs, whether they be security, control or social.

The visible and impressive effect of this was the sense of personal identity and

job satisfaction which staff exhibited; they were tremendously proud of the

service which they represented. They projected themselves as deeply involved

professionals making a worthwhile contribution to one of society's biggest

problems. Their contribution was individually recognised both within the unit,

which was small enough for their contribution to be conspicuous, and also within

the larger framework, where it was obvious that they mattered.

Other people have noticed the value of this system and the Deputy Commissioner

of the New York system told me

"We would like to emulate the federal system whereby all correctional staff are trained together. We very much admire this approach; the split can be ameliorated."

When talking to a senior representative of the Correctional Service of Canada I

heard a similar point made. I was told that this approach had been promulgated

in a number of Canadian establishments, but that a high security prison,

Drummond Institution, had been specifically organised so as to examine the

fullest potential of training and using staff in this way.

(c) USing time.

It would be easy to write-off the examples I have taken from other systems as

irrelevant luxuries, given the pressures of numbers and resources which the

English system faces. Therefore, I would emphasise that places like Raybrook

are dealing with almost twice their intended capacity and that New York State

exhibits all the problems of the English system, and more besides.

The approach described has been developed abroad as a means of deploying limited

resources as efficiently as possible to cope with all number of pressures

44

internally and externally. Central to this approach is a clear outlining of

tasks for the prison service and for individual establishments to promote both

financial and policy accountability; it leads to the more economic use of

resources, because priorities have been worked out in the first place as to the

aims and the main thrust of the system.

It is only when the service has decided what to do with the prisoners in its

care that it can translate that decision into a more meaningful use of its

resources. When I talked to people in North America and Sweden, they were not

blind to the economic consequences of what they were doing, nor were they

describing it simply in terms of moral imperative. In practice their approaches

varied considerably. It has to be said that direct line accountability was far

more highly structured in North America than in Sweden. I can contrast the

experience of Sweden because there does appear to be greater luxury in the

provision made for prisoners than in any of the other countries visited.

The base-line of my argument is summed up by the Director of the Federal Bureau

of Prisons who sees programmes and security as closely intertwined. He told me:

"Programmes are security. If we don't keep inmates busy, they will keep us busy".

He was using the word "programme" in precisely the same way as I would wish to

define activity, that is the planned use of time. The two ideas which I have

discussed earlier, that is individualism and relationships, are predicated on

the concept of activity. It is nonsense to talk of individual planning if you

are planning a vacuum. From a humane and security point of view it is no longer

satisfactory to justify keeping people locked in their cells throughout the

course of the day without recourse to activity. This a blot on the penal

landscape. Those with a local or dispersal background are particularly aware of

just how corrosive and counterproductive that can become.

Activity means different things for different types of prisoners. Remand

prisoners and sentenced prisoners present different problems and needs. It is

not sensible to involve remand prisoners in activities which are only meaningful

when the individual is going to be in the establishment for a long predictable

time without interruption. There must be different strategies for activity

which address the short-term, even urgent, interests of the remand prisoner, as

well as the longer term needs of the sentenced prisoner. Staff must plan

activity so as to reflect these differences and to create opportunities for

positive involvement.

115

A feature of the successfully run system in my experience is the clear line of

accountability and management structure which translates the overall aims down

through the organisation to specific tasks and job descriptions for staff

involved in day to day contact with the prisoner.

If the prison service manages its human resources properly, then it can overcome

the limitations imposed upon it by antiquated plant and move forward in this

direction towards more activity planned on an individual basis and, in the long

run, around smaller groupings of staff and prisoners.

The point was perhaps best exemplified at Clinton, a very old prison and one

which in many ways falls short of the ideals about which I have been writing.

The Deputy Warden mentioned the greater emphasis on programmes over the last 13

years.

"This dates back to Attica. Programmes since then have expanded considerably. They have improved security and control - there is now less confrontation. The aim is to keep him occupied. The biggest problem_is to make programmes meaningful so that the prisoner can get some sense of satisfaction from them. To keep him well motivated in an old place like this is very difficult but necessary."

When I asked how many sentenced prisoners were transformed into model citizens, the answer was:

"Very few. Many occupy their time privately - oh yes - it does prepare them for production lines on the streets, but my first concern is safety in this facility and programmes promote the safety of staff and prisoners."

This approach was pragmatic. The Warden saw this as the way to keep the prison

functioning in the best interests of staff and prisoners rather than as a means

of achieving a vague rehabilitative goal.

III Implications

The recent move in this country towards functional as well as financial

accountability provides an opportunity to incorporate the fundamental principles

which I have seen at work elsewhere. This is still in its early days and part

of my report involves making recommendations in this area.

I reiterate that in developing this approach it is necessary to link it directly

to the declared aims of the system which provide a moral impetus and a way for

staff to identify more readily with the complex task they face. Defining

functions so as to hold people accountable is not just a dull paper exercise; it

146

is not simply a matter of telling and informing staff and extracting

information, but also of involving staff, improving morale and enhancing a sense

of purpose. The three principles which I have already described become the link

between the overall aims of the prison system and a set of practical tasks for

service delivery. Defining the functions cannot be viewed as if simply in a

vacuum, because this would reduce them to sterile mechanistic devices. Prisons

have to deal with people and the service needs to know how to integrate the

above principles in order to make them understandable to all those who live and

work within the walls as well as to the society which the system serves.

147

CHAPTER 3 : MEASURING

Any successful organisation must have the ability to know what is happening in

it. The key is not to know every detail, but to have information about the way

in which the work being achieved is commensurate with the overall aims of the

organisation. How well is the organisation doing what it sets out to do?

Information is therefore critical to running any organisation properly. But

what is even more critical is understanding which information is necessary for

running the organisation well and which is not.

My visits reveal that one can go too far down the road of producing management

information, much of it thought to be relevant, but in fact not so. This is

counter-productive to overall achievement. People start working at producing

information rather than doing the work of the prison. Those who ask for

information and those who collect it must both understand the value of producing

that information. If it is not readily identifiable as helping at the pit-face,

why is the organisation intent on collecting it? If that question has to be

asked, and cannot be answered satisfactorily, then a gap develops between those

seeking information and those involved in collecting it. Even though there is a

value to the information, if that value is not understood clearly, our

experience abroad shows that the production of information is seen as being

counter-productive and intruding on the work. It is therefore not done well or

even adequately. Creating the right information system is also a means of and

an exercise in motivating and sending the right messages.

In this chapter I shall first discuss setting up an information system, which is

the prerequisite for measuring work achievement. In the second part of the

chapter I shall discuss using information in order to measure work achievement.

A. CREATING AN INFORMATION SYSTEM

I. The Situation Here

Recent developments in the Prison Department show that it has understood that

good management rests on the provision of relevant information. There has been

a dearth of systematic information which could be collated in any meaningful

way. Therefore it was not possible to know what was happening either in the

system as a whole, or in different establishments, other than by impressionistic

and incomplete sets of information required from time to time, as public

interest or the need to know dictated.

Even for financial purposes data had been collected in a rough and ready fashion

and the relative cost of different activities was not known to any degree of

accuracy. Nevertheless there are certain financial requirements which entail

answering questions about costing; in the absence of other questions, these have

ténded to form the basis of whatever information system was thought to be

necessary.

The Prison Department's recent search for performance indicators is evidence of

a move in a different direction. This is a critical moment in the evolution of

the English prison system. The right information system is a condition sine qua

non of achieving the work and aims of the organisation. When we look at

examples from other countries we will see that the nature of the information

collected steers the organisation, willy nilly, in a certain direction. An

information system is not just a mechanical appendage. It affects the very

heart of the organisation itself. It is not just a temporary loan; it is a

legacy for the future.

There is considerable work afoot at headquarters, in regions, and in

establishments to produce requests for information about a set of performance

indicators. This development seems to have emerged from the already existing

information system with its orientation towards financial matters. That system

has been augmented in the light of the statement of functions in Circular

Instruction 55/84.

It began as a top down exercise and undoubtedly the information will be useful

to top management, especially because it will fill gaps in the previously sparse

data. The component which now needs stressing is the involvement of the

information providers in the discussion of what is useful information. I

understand that this process is now underway. But from what I have seen from

abroad, it cannot be stated strongly enough how crucial this process is to the

ultimate successful collection and positive use of the information.

4 9

IL Comparisons

(a) Information routinely recorded within the system.

One of the most noticeable features to emerge from my visits to North America

and Sweden is the variety of information systems. I am of course talking about

considerable differences of scale. The whole population of Sweden is under 8

million, whereas that of America is over 235 million and that of Canada 24.6

million. In Sweden there are a total of roughly 5,400 people incarcerated; in

Canada the figure is 27,000 (in the Correctional Service of Canada 12,000). In

the United States of America there are 35,000 prisoners in the Federal Bureau of

Prisons (average daily population). In New York State alone on June 21st of

this year there were 35,308 prisoners.

The intimacy of the Swedish system is accompanied by a homogeneity of people and

belief systems, relative to the diversity seen in North America. In these

circumstances it is not surprising that Sweden has developed different

organisational structures and systems to deal with what in quality and quantity

are different types of problems. One characteristic is the relative paucity of

printed information in Sweden, whereas in North America the relative •

sophistication of information collecting machinery and its output varies

tremendously. For example, the Correctional Service of Canada has a most

impressive accumulation of printed information; however, it was described by

more than one person as paper overload.

From what I saw of the U.S. federal system, it is a much leaner organisation,

having already emerged from the stage in which Canada now finds itself. In

Canada even the Director admits that the system was swamped with reams of paper,

which at the end of the day had very little impact on improving schemes at the

ground floor level. He told me that they had made a conscious effort to reduce

the amount of paper to that necessary to produce results at the sharp end. This

is nowhere more clearly stated than in a report submitted to the Advisory

Committee to the Solicitor General of Canada on the Management of Correctional

Institutions entitled "Wardens Workload Study" (hereafter called Carson Report).

In the summary of conclusions in item 5, under the heading "Time Wasters", it

states:-

50

"Wardens identified four principal time wasters; that is, activities they are asked to perform or participate in because of the way the service is managed, but which can consume Wardens' management time and detract from their perceived priorities." The first of these four was: "The volume of paper." The other being: The number of requests and/or demands coming from RHQ with too short a turn around time; The volume of procedures and directives; The number of audits and investigations.

The report also pointed out that in certain establishments the achievement on

paper was greater than the achievement in the field, a fact borne out by my

observation.

Producing information has to be linked to the work that people are doing from

day to day. In a system such as the unit management system in the Federal

Bureau of Corrections the information required by management is already

available from staff working the system. In order to carry out their tasks as

case and unit managers to ensure that inmates are active, not idle, staff need

to know where the inmate is and when he is out of the cell. This is a basic

part of their management system. Information in relation to these factors is

easy to provide, because it is already integrated into staff work and because a

secretary is provided to each unit to help relay such information.

The information requested must be information actually used in the work

described as necessary to perform the overall aims. A well managed system

recognises that it takes time and resources to record and relay this kind of

information and takes care of the mechanical side of things by providing

administrative and technical back-up. The staff do not resent producing the

information because it is already assisting them with their job and in addition

they do not become involved with the mechanics and feel that they are being

drawn away from the substantive work at hand.

(h) Technological advances.

If the prison service wants to save time and money in the long run there are a

number of technological aids which will streamline the process and I understand

that considerable work has already gone on in this area. It is important when

considering the application of new technology to the prison system to recognize

the need to reappraise and improve management; otherwise the introduction of

computers will enshrine bad practices.

Technology is a tool and not an end in itself. It must be the servant and not

the master. Using up-to-date mechanical aids can provide several advantages to

51

the well run organisation. Et speeds things up; it streamlines the system; it

allows rapid communication and response of complicated messages; and it can cut

costs.

For example, as I sat in a Warden's office he was able to turn to his computer

screen (VDU) and call up information on a particular prisoner and give me a

print-out immediately of all the facts relevant to that prisoner's existence in

the system. The Warden informed me that he could do that for any prisoner

within the entire federal system. I noticed that the information included not

only the workshop in which the prisoner was employed but also the two days in

the last year when he had been unemployed.

It follows that within a short space of time it was possible to obtain aggregate

statistics, either at the institutional level, or throughout the system, about

the overall activities which are proceeding in any given establishment. Without

technological aids this would be a time consuming and laborious process.

At a remand centre in Vancouver I saw the tremendous advantage to management

that a computer gave, when placed in reception; when a new prisoner came in on

remand, all his details were immediately entered and the following allocation of

this particular prisoner to a location on a wing made it possible for the wing

staff to know immediately not only that the prisoner was in the prison, but also

where he was to be located. This contrasts with the traditional waiting around

in reception to have details taken and to be allocated an empty cell.

The streamlining effect of instituting a system which covered all five regions

of the federal system in the United States was apparent even to the casual

observer; comparable data were emerging and inevitably comparisons could be, and

were, made. A degree of uniformity has evolved as part of the process of

standardising the information system. This allows effective comparison t.) be

made between institution and institution, region and region. Without going as

far as total standardisation, some measure of comparability among diverse

institutions is obviously helpful and necessary for effective management and to

ensure that the overall aims of the system are being achieved in its disparate

parts.

At Watertown the streamlining of the system, using computer technology, was

demonstrated by the Warden who knew precisely where every inmate was. When he

talked about the activity of inmates, he was able to print out on the screen in

his office the groupings of inmates across the prison and hence was able to see

at a glance how well every inmate and every member of

52

staff was deployed that day. He described how useful it was to have this

capability. Without going out of his office, and without having to telephone

another member of staff, he could immediately see what the state of the prison

was that day in specified areas. He also mentioned that from time to time

headquarters would take a print-out in order to check for themselves the state

of activity, as compared with other establishments.

One of the most impressive features was the instant two-way communication which

was possible between staff members within the institution and with all other

institutions, regions and headquarters. The "electronic message" facility

enables a message to be instantaneously sent to one or any number of recipients

with the possibility of an immediate response where this is necessary. This is

possible not only on the screen, but also in print. Information can be

requested, it can be received and can be put to use rapidly; this almost creates

an "electronic dialogue". In reality it means that certain operational

decisions can be made rapidly with the maximum amount of available information

provided almost instantaneously. It is this directness of contact which, it

seemed to me, led to a feeling that operatives were far more involved in

management than in a system where communications can sometimes take days, if not

months!

Finally an important feature of the technically advanced information system is

its ability to cut costs. It was brought home to me clearly by the Warden of

Watertown Correctional Facility in New York, who indicated that the computers

enabled him to monitor more information with the same number of staff. He went

on to say that "we can know day by day how much the establishment is costing".

Not only can the computer give immediate access to necessary information in

terms of day-to-day running but also it can actually cut the cost of providing

the necessary information. A well chosen system will reduce the manpower needed

for mechanical tasks.

A senior official from the correctional programmes branch of the Federal Bureau

of Prisons headquarters in Washington spoke eloquently about the use of the

computer particularly as a communications tool.

53

"You can send memos to any establishment you wish. We used to use the teletype system - but this is much less expensive and we have instant communication and great width of distribution. Only yesterday we had 1,311 people communicating with us by this means."

As I said at the outset, modern technology is not a panacea for the ills of the

system; but it is undeniable that it can make a significant contribution.

However, one advantage of using modern technology is that, to be used properly,

it forces management into a clear definition of what it is they expect to

achieve. This is in line with my recommendations in this report about clear

definition of aims and tasks. Such a system should help the service to go

considerably further in the direction which I am indicating.

III. Implications

(a) Consultation and co-operation

I have seen that it takes time and clear thinking to make a decision about the

right information system; it is easy to have too much information and it is easy

to have the wrong information. The process has to be thoroughly worked out

first. I suggest that it can only be worked out in detail by consultation about

what information is useful to management and those on the ground floor. If that

process of consultation is properly achieved, then not only will it ensure co-

operation at ground level, but it will also ensure the collection of usable

information.

There is a value to this comparative analysis. I have seen examples of where

the wrong steps were taken and where this led not only to a costly review of the

systems needed, but also to alienation and frustration at different levels of

the organisation. This frustration has led to a blockage of communications,

which has.not assisted the overall control of the system. Indeed the

frustration was seen as contributing to the unrest which manifested itself in

certain Canadian establishments, (see Carson Report).

The provision of an information system is not an alternative to good management;

it should flow from it and in that situation it is necessary to listen fully to

those people at ground level who will be responsible for its implementation.

Otherwise, in the absence of good will which can so easily arise from non-

consultation, the information will only be sparsely, inadequately and

inaccurately provided. Those providing the information need to believe in its

worth if it is to be useful.

54

Because the setting-up of the information system must be viewed as a necessary

adjunct to the work, and not as the work itself, it isimportant to considarthe

appropriate level of administrative support, when setting up information

systems. Experience shows that if the administrative support is note inbuilt,

the system will not be nearly as effective as it should be. Where the support

is built-in, considerable gains are made and the system is recognised as

effective at all levels. The need for administrative backup is demonstrated by

discussions which are now going on and typified by a note from one Regional

Director to headquarters.

"This situation results in senior regional staff being unable to operate effectively through lack of senior administrative support. There is therefore a need to develop and extend the work of the present Management Services Section to give more comprehensive support to senior management".

Support both in region and institutions will need to be provided at more junior

levels.

(h) Technological developments

Even relatively simple mechanical aids would be a considerable advance for

improving information flow. It will be a long time before the English system

reaches the level of technological development shown, for example, by the

Federal Bureau of Correction in the United States. Nevertheless this is surely

the direction in which it must go and the size of the task should not prevent it

from taking the first steps immediately. Since a major part of the Prison

Department budget is spent on staffing, it is important to use staff to their

full potential and not to devote their energies to tasks which can more easily

be performed by using mechanical aids.

B. USING THE INFORMATION

I. The Situation Here

The first stages of developing and operating an information system have recently

begun. No-one at the present moment in England has extensive experience of

using the information which is currently provided. Neither is it clear that

that information is in line with the overall needs of the Prsion Service and the

aims of the system. Nonetheless, it is a welcome start.

55

IL Comparisons

An information system, set up properly, can be used to find out:

(i) whether the organisation is achieving its aims;

(ii) the extent to which it is not; and

(iii) how to improve the achievement of those aims.

If the system is integrated into the work of the prison system in such a way as

to generate knowledge about the specific tasks defined to achieve the system's

aims, it may be used as a tool to enhance work at all levels. It may function:

(a) as a means of reinforcing the philosopy;

(h) as a means of raising morale by demonstrating positive achievement;

(c) as a means of internal assessment; and

(d) as a basis for external assessment.

Observation of how information systems are used in the countries visited

demonstrates that at its best an information system can achieve just this; but

there are conspicuous dangers and these were repeatedly driven home to me by

headquarters, regions and the field. I shall now discuss approaches to the use

of information systems, demonstrating diversity of practice and underlying

shared management philosophies.

(a) Two-way flow

In several of the places visited I found in operation the conviction that

information must flow not only down from the top but also up from the ground

floor. Some of the organisations welcomed feedback and were continually

responding to that feedback so as to modify their plans to take account of it.

A much quoted example of this process is the Federal Bureau of Prisons' use of a

project group to look at and advise on certain major aspects of policy. The

'long-range plan' produced by the Federal Bureau is an example of policy

originating at the top, based on information about the system and adapted and

refined in the light of reactions in the field.

"The Bureau's five year long-range plan has been revised by a Wardens' Planning Committee appointed by the executive staff [the equivalent of the English Prisons' Board]. As in the development of the preceding plan, input was solicited from each chief executive officer and institution department head. The input provided by the field has resulted in the

56

change, deletion, or addition of many goals. This year the then Task force altered the format of the plan to reflect the Bureau's emphasis on such functions as sanitation/appearance, security, inmate services, inmate activities, staff services, population management, and management."

The result of this process of consultation ratified by their prisons board, is

not simply a general statement of 'mission' but also much more detailed

practical guidelines for future use. These address particular functional areas.

There follows an example in the area of activities/programmes.

"1. Provide support for continued employment and training of inmates in Unicor [prison industries].

2. Develop more active work programme for inmates placed but not permanently assigned and functioning in our open population.

3. Increase overall participation in education and vocational training by 10%."

The mechanism for consultation is taken down step by step to the grassroots of

the. organisation; it devolves through a series of more and more explicit plans

at different levels until it arrives at the final stage.

"The example Department Plan includes the "nuts and bolts" objectives that must be accomplished for the institutional plan to be realised. The Department Plan should be related to the goals in the institutional plan which in turn are related to the Bureau's overall goals." (Federal Bureau of Prisons, Department Plan).

(b) What the bottom wants too

I have seen that if the plan for collecting information does not include what

the people in the field want too, then not only is less useful information

collected but, because it is used solely by the top, it produces an overburden

for those beneath. They then may begin to resist producing the very information

which is thought to be useful. The US Federal System and the Correctional

Service of Canada have become aware that they have fallen into this error

(recognised sooner by the former than by the latter). Both systems are now in

the process of redressing the balance. The federal system is much further down

the line.

Professor Carson, when reporting on this phenomenon, found that

Mdardens have an excessive number of demands made on their time, both from the internal management needs of the institutions and from the external directions they receive from national headquarters through the regional office.

57

I

This demand has resulted in the wardens' two principal concerns. The first is that, given the number of directives, there can be conflicting objectives between the operational requirements of the institutions and the functional objectives which have an impact on institûtional management. The second is that much of the wardens' time and work can be filled too easily by responding to demands from regional headquarters - to the detriment of the leadership they provide and their visibility within the institution."

II

1

Where this happened Professor Carson reported that it seriously affected staff

morale.

(c) Information system can be used well or badly

It is a truism that the effective use of an information system depends on

management skill. Nevertheless this cannot be stressed too highly and from what

I have seen it is a common error to see an information system as existing in a

vacuum or to allow it to become an end in itself, rather than to recognize it as

a means of supporting the people who actually carry out the work.

It follows that an orientation towards the use of negative information is

counter-productive, because it sends the message that the system is only

interested in logging failure and identifying when goals have not been achieved.

It will respond only when it knows that something has gone wrong, rather than

responding also to indications that the organisation is doing successfully and

well. The essence of management skill is responding at least as often to

positive signals as to negative ones; otherwise the system reinforces the

negative factors upon which it is concentrating. Print-out needs to include as

much positive as negative achievement. If a system achieves the right balance

of aims and the information system reflects that balance, the danger of an

overemphasis on negative measures will be avoided.

(d) Personal management style

This principle must be carried further; not only must the system identify those

establishments which are operating well, it must also identify those individuals

within the organisation who are operating in an effective manner. The

information system can become a mechanism for identifying success, on which any

reward system is predicated.

Staff have an interest in the information system because it is on the basis of

that system that their contribution is recognised. Canada recognises the

58

importance of rewards for its staff and has published an attractive pamphlet

called "The Awards and Honours Programme - a Guide":

"The contribution of CSC staff is essential to the functioning of the total . criminal justice system and deserves recognition. While virtue is its own reward, we at the Correctional Service of Canada believe that it deserves a more tangible form of recognition. From the time of the laurel wreath awarded by the ancient Greeks, society has recognised that in every field of endeavour some people are outstanding in their particular work, and some people are outstanding simply as people. When we salute outstanding people, we do much more than honour and reward them; we also help set standards of achievement for all to emulate."

The use of information for an award system is part of an approach which focusses

on people and not bureaucratic methods. This has been recognised by the Vantour

Report. One of the points that Vantour makes is that, if prison management

moves too far down the bureaucratic road, it may be forced to focus on

satisfying the needs and requirements of external systems, pre-empting the

emphasis on its own people.

Professor Carson highlights this issue in a similar way:

"Correction is a human enterprise

With 10,569 employees and about 12,000 inmates in custody, there are close to 23,000 human beings in daily direct involvement with the organisation. Untold thousands of third parties (spouses, families, volunteers and victims) have an additional stake in the business.

The Service's policies and operations must, first and foremost, acknowledge and analyse their impact on the human elements of the system. All the possible interfaces must be considered; staff/staff; staff/inmates; inmates/inmates; inmates/staff/community." (Carson Report).

(e) Consultation on problem points

Part of the consultative approach to problem-solving is exemplified by the

Federal Bureau of. Prisons' use of a specific task force of staff to solve

particular problems. The Director of the Federal Bureau of Prisons told me that

when planning was superimposed from above it only had marginal impact. He went

on to say:

"Paper, plans, had no substance in improving schemes. They were counter-productive. We developed plans in central office. They submitted plans. There was no pay-off and there were no changes. Then I reconsidered matters and appointed a task force. I chose five wardens, one from each of the regions, [there are five regions within the Federal Bureau of Prisons]

59

to work with my own planning staff and to submit plans from the ground floor. The plans produced have great credibility. Most planning is top down - but they'll only really respond if they do it themselves."

This approach was enthusiastically endorsed by the Regional Director of the

North Central Regional office in Kansas City. He informed me that he used the

concept of task force for solving specific problems. He set up a task force for

specific purposes and its life was only as long as it was needed to resolve the

problem at hand. He went on to say:

"We have a lot of task forces. There is a warden for chairman and the proposals come to the executive staff for a decision. When this is done at Federal Bureau level, then I let the wardens get on with it, because I sit with the executive staff committee [the equivalent of our prisons board] when I can make my independent comments."

The task force is a technique which is not peculiar to prison management but is

part of the mainstream of business practice.

"We have come to believe that the key success factor in business is simply getting one's arms around almost any practical problem and knocking it off - now."

While extolling the virtues of the ad hoc task force, Peters and Waterman are

aware that it has not always been wisely used.

"Like any other tool adopted within a bureaucratic context, it eventually became an end in itself. Paper pushing and co-ordination took the place of task-directed activity. Stodgy, formal, paperbound, rule-driven institutions layered the task force on a maze that lay beneath.... Task forces became nothing more than co-ordinating committees - with a different name. Like other management tools adopted in the wrong context, the task force made things worse, not better. That's the bad news. The good news is that in organisations in which the context is right ... the task force becomes a remarkably problem-solving tool." (Peters and Waterman, In Search of Excellence, p.129).

(f) Using information to get an overview

The purpose of collecting information is to assess the whole system.

Information can pinpoint bad spots, but if action is based on a crisis response

to such signals, the approach becomes fragmented and the overall perspective is

lost. The purpose of information is to allow one to stand back and to assess

the overall health of the organisation. Experience of the past few years shows

that the prison service has responded too hastily to crises. Crisis management

6 0

has almost become the order of the day. There is a need to move away from

crisis management and establish a calm routine, keeping the ultimate aims in

sight.

The above discussion highlights the fact that the developmen: and application of

a useful information system depends on sound management, and that in turn such a

system is indispensable to good management.

III. Implications

Everything that I have said in this chapter, and indeed everything that I have

seen, reinforces the need for a relevant, highly selective and properly

structured information system. The general agreement is that is a sine qua non

for a modern and effective system. With that I would fully concur.

It has to be readily admitted that one of the present weaknesses of the English

service is that it is not fully aware of what is happening overall. Hence, it

needs to know what is happening within the system and to have an accurate

measurement of that position. There has to be functional and financial

planning. Functional planning with useful information will improve planning for

resource allocation. The service needs information to tell it whether what it

is doing is in line with its aims and whether the resources are being used in

the right way. Since it does not have infinite resources, it needs the

information to plan how best to use the existing reources to promote its aims.

In other words information provides the basis for accountability for the way

resources, both human and material, are based. In addition information is a

basis for creating incentives. It can be used as a tool for motivating people.

This latter point is delicately important. It is not an instrument for the

heavy-handed; I have seen examples where it has achieved the reverse effect.

The examples I have seen demonstrate both visible advantages (which are really

impressive) and conspicuous dangers. One such danger is overcentralisation at

the expense of local autonomy. The danger lies in using this particular tool

(management information) to the exclusion of all else and using it as an

intrusive technique which becomes an end in itself.

"The comprehensive rules and regulations and the need for accountability have also placed excessive demands on the institutional administrator's

61

time - providing ever increasing details on day-to-day operations in the interest of accountability - to the point where he no longer has the capacity to 'administer' ...

The màst obvious impact has been the decline of local autonomy. It is the feeling of both staff and inmates that institutions are being run by regional and national headquarters; that both staff and local management are over-regulated and have, in effect, become powerless. In fact, centralisation in itself leads to the feeling among staff that local management either is powerless or does not care about them." (Vantour Report, p.32).

The obvious implication is that a balance must be achieved, as the English

system continues to develop and use an information system. Let there be no

doubt, an information system is necessary to run the system efficiently and

effectively.

The current information system has been developed with a focus on its use at the

centre of the system. This is essential for longer-range planning; indeed it is

impossible to imagine an effective system which does not call upon information

to be managed centrally so as to create the capability for short-term

adjustment, budgeting and resource allocation, and to provide general

statistical information about what is going on. If the system is to be managed,

(and indeed this was one of the main conclusions of the Control Review Committee

Report) information flowing to the centre is an essential pre-requisite. In

addition, the uses at the ground level are equally vital, because the bottom

line is how effectively prisons are run, not how effectively information is

gathered.

There needs to be a balance between the need for information at headquarters and

regional level and the need for information for practical operations at the

sharp end. The information system must be developed in such a way that it does

not lose sight of the fact that this is the chief way in which headquarters

relates to people in the field. My experience is that if this process becomes

too mechanistic, it will alienate the very people upon whom the centre relies,

not only to provide the information necessary, but also to carry out the

satisfactory and safe running of our establishments.

I have been looking at the provision of information as a means of measuring for

internal purposes. It is also, however, the basis for external measurement.

The information system used for internal evaluation compares what is happening

62

with what the internal aims of the system are. That information may form the

basis for comparing how the prison system functions with the aims of the system,

as seen from the outside; these aims may be linked to the internal aims, but are

not necessarily identical. Similarly, the levels of performance thought to be

desirable on an internal basis may be different from those thought to be

desirable on an external basis.

There is a distinction between that information which is necessary for

successful management of the organisation and that information which is

necessary for external monitoring by an organisation such as the Inspectorate.

The examples which I have seen, particularly in North America, are of an

information system for use not only by internal management, but also as the

first step in evaluation by an organisation external to the prison system. I

can instance accreditation, auditing, ombudsman, watchdog role, and, in New York

State, the independent Commission of Corrections, which monitors the Department

of Correction.

It is recognised in the English system that:

"the criteria for a well-run prison will involve the development of acceptable standards of regime management and operations .... The clues (in no special order) include those already mentioned and the type and quality of work available to prisoners, the amount of time they spend locked-up in their cells, the visiting arrangements, the amount of formal and informal autonomy the prisoners may exercise, the availability and take-up of educational opportunities, staff/inmate ratios, the tasks and deployment of the prison staff, their attitudes to their work, their techniques of inmate management, the nature and quality of staff/inmate relationships, and the practice and attitude of the staff in enforcing the disciplinary code and in reporting infraction." (Joy Mott, Home Office Research Study No.84 Adult Prisons and Prisoners in England and Wales 1970- 1982, p.57)..

Mott envisaged this as a research task, in addition to the task of an internal

monitoring system, but it can equally be argued that it could form the basis for

an examination - such as the Inspectorate was set up to accomplish.

In the following chapters I am going to develop the logic of this approach,

first of all by discussing standards and benchmarks for the performance of tasks

and secondly by providing practical suggestions for a way forward.

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CHAPTER 4: MONITORING

A. SETTING STANDARDS

I. The Situation Here

The previous chapter was concerned with measuring; I dealt with that in term of

self-assessment, or self-auditing, by the system. This chapter is concerned

with monitoring; by this I mean assessment by an external agency. In the

English context this means the Inspectorate.

Monitoring which is other than self-assessment is the natural task for the

Inspectorate. In the middle of the nineteenth century the inspectors had a

central role in the prison system. Now after a considerable gap the

Inspectorate seems a natural vehicle for external evaluation. The May Report

stated:

u we have no doubt both that the prison service would benefit from and that public sentiment requires that as many aspects of government, which includes the prison service, should be opened up to as wide an audience as possible. We therefore think that there should be a system of inspection of the prison service which, although not 'independent' of the Home Office , should nevertheless be distanced from it as far as may be practicable."

Following the May Report the terms of reference of the Inspectorate are:

"to inspect and report to the Secretary of State on prison service establishments in England and Wales and, in particular, on:

a. conditions in those establishments;

b. the treatment of prisoners and other inmates and the facilities available to them;

c. such other matters as the Secretary of State may direct."

(Home Secretary, 30 April 1980)

The Inspectorate must carry out its role as watchdog for society. It has a duty

to ensure that in its practical workings the prison system does not lose sight

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of the fundamental aims which Parliament, the prison service and the general

public articulate. In order to carry out this role the Inspectorate needs

clearly defined yardsticks against which to measure the health of the

organisation and its constituent parts.

I would argue that the Inspectorate must follow a logical progression parallel

to that suggested in previous chapters: from articulation of aims to definition

of criteria and development of practical benchmarks by which to assess whether

society has the prison system it wants.

This is a task which cannot easily be taken on by the prison system itself.

Those who manage the system are subject to the constraints and pressures of any

operational concern. It is for the Inspectorate to follow the logic of this

progression in order to provide external assessment.

Organisationally the duties of external and internal evaluation are separate but

in terms of the content of the work there is a considerable overlap; without

• his, external monitoring would be impossible.

At the level of general aims there may be considerable agreement between

internal prison management and the Inspectorate. Indeed, in an ideal society

these views would be identical. However, under the pressure of operations they

may come to diverge. Each organisation has a different set of duties to perform

and it is important that this is recognised and that each pursues its own ends

with integrity.

As a practical matter the Inspectorate will always depend upon a considerable

amount of internal information as the basis for its own investigations. A sound

management information system is as important for the efficient workings of an

Inspectorate as it is for the prison system. On this base, the Inspectorate can

build its further enquiry, focusing on the complex and diverse problems it

encounters at-particular establishments and throughout the system. Alongside

this ground-clearing operation, the Inspectorate's central task is to measure

standards of performance.

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1

1

1 1

1

1 1

II. Comparisons

My visits abroad showed an impressive level of delivery of planned activities.

Why was this so? In previous chapters I have pointed out many features which

brought this about. Nevertheless the background contributing factor in North

American systems was a range of clearly articulated standards. These provided a

thrust toward better delivery of planned activities.

These standards are neither absolute nor enshrined in tablets of stone. The

approach to their establishment and implementation is characterized by

pragmatism and compromise. The standards differ between systems as to their

origins, legal status, their priority weighting, their timetable for

implementation, their application and their specificity. They are put into

practice by a process of consultation and negotiation. It is apparent that many

are not yet achieved. Some are translated into practice via interim targets:

they are approached along a scale of measures over a protracted period of time.

As a result of discussion and feedback they undergo review and modification.

A variety of organisations have tackled the dual task of monitoring the prison

system and developing standards.

In the Canadian system, for example, the independent monitoring organisation,

the Criminal Justice Association, sees its role as follows:

"To improve and evaluate correctional systems; to stimulate public awareness about corrections programmes; and to foster Canada's leadership and expertise among the international corrections community."

In order to fulfil this role it has found it necessary, not only to articulate

the aims of the prison system, but also to develop standards in order to judge

how that aim is being put into practice.

In the United States, the Task Force on Corrections was set up outside the

prison system as part of the National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice

Standards and Goals. It recognised the long tradition of guiding principles and

aspirational aims in the American prison system dating back to the mid-19th

century. It justified its own task of defining standards and goals in relation

to those aspirational aims in the following way:

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"Principles and recommendations are neither self-fulfilling nor self-interpreting. Standards and goals may be much more precise, while retaining sufficient flexibility to allow agencies some freedom. When clearly formulated and precisely stated in measurable terms, they can serve as the basis for objective evaluation of programmes as well as development of statutes and regulations relating to correctional services. ...standards and goals must be realistic and achievable, but that certainly does not mean that they need to be modest".

These organisations have taken up the task of developing standards and

monitoring their implementation.

Not all the standards developed in other countries have come from external

agencies. Some, like the standards for the province of British Columbia

(Canada), have been produced within the system.

Before I turn to a more detailed examination of the standards developed and

their implementation, I digress to consider briefly the contrasting approach of

Sweden. The Swedish prison system is relatively small, with 5,000 prisoners

overall. Here there appears to be, even in a modern complex society, a

generally accepted view of what the prison service is all about, founded as it

is upon the general mores of the country as a whole. This gives the Swedish

system a small "family" feeling about it and explains why they have not felt it

necessary to codify standards. In some ways the relatively small Scottish

prison system is not unlike the Swedish. Even though the values expressed are

quite considerably different, within the country itself they do not diverge

widely. There is a homogeneity in both which is immediately recognisable.

Observers of the English scene might well have noticed a similarity between the

present Swedish service and that of the English about 30 years ago. But the

English service has grown so enormously that a consensus about its aims no

longer exists; another kind of organisational response is necessary to give

identity and a sense of purpose once.again.

Other systems which have reached a size and complexity comparable to the English

have recognised the need to develop standards: to put on paper the values that

at one time did not need spelling out in print. Once a generally accepted

system of beliefs is eroded, it is not satisfactory to leave the interpretation

of what is appropriate to indivduals.

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Historically, throughout the North American continent the response to the vacuum

caused by the demise of shared norms, has been the development of codes of

standards. Additional impetus in this direction came from various crises in the

system, notably the prison riots of the late 60s and 70s and the ensuing lack of

general confidence. The noticeable increase in litigation added fuel to the

movement, so that at the federal, state and local levels there was a visible

trend towards the careful and specific codification of practical standards to

ensure the basic aims of the systems. They were involved in translating

existing elements of the constitution into everyday practical reality within

their prisons. This process did not go quite so far in Canada, because of its

different constitutional background and legal system; nevertheless, because it

is adjacent to the United States of America, many of the ideas about standards

were freely adopted.

In North America, these codes are characterised by a focus on practical detail

which is not the case at the inter-governmental level, either within Europe or

in the United Nations.

The United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners,

(Resolution 663 July 1957,) remains at the level of general principle, as do the

European Standard Minimum Rules (Council of Europe Committee Members' Resolution

73(5)).

Many of the standard minimum rules suffer from the same defect as Prison Rules

1. For example:

"The regime of the institution should seek to minimise any differences between prison life and life at liberty which tend to lessen the responsibility of the prisoners or the respect due to their dignity as human beings." (Rule 58 of the Council of Europe Standard Minimum Rules).

This is important, but unfortunately lofty and vague. However, Rule 58 becomes

somewhat more focussed:

"As soon as posalhle after admission and after a study of the personality of each prisoner with a sentence of suitable length, a programme of treatment shall be prepared for him in the llght of the knowledge obtained about his individual needs, his capacities and dispositions." (paragraph 70).

68

This is the broad brush of individualized treatment. Paragraph 71 relates to

activities.

Prisoners shall be given opportunity to participate in activities of the institution likely to develop their sense of responsibility and to stimulate interest in their own treatment.

"2. Efforts should be made to develop methods of co-operation and participation of the prisoners in their treatment. To this end prisoners shall be encouraged to assume responsibilities in certain sectors of the institution's activities."

Whilst enumerating the general principles of individualism, activity and

relationship, this statement, by itself, will not help the individual staff

member to understand how, at ground level, this is to be achieved. Nor would it

help the Inspectorate to judge, in any meaningful or measurable way, whether

those principles have actually been put into practice in any of the institutions

they visited.

Experience in the United States and Canada has taken the formulation of

standards further. American codes at the federal, state and local level address

themselves to the nitty gritty of the daily running of an establishment and what -

it means to translate higher aspirations into practice.

An example from the Federal Standards for Prisons and Jails follows:

"Recreation and inmate activities

Standards in this section do not apply to (remand) facilities.

1601. Written policy and procedure provide for a comprehensive recreational programme away from the inmate's cell or room that includes leisure time activities. Time required to be spent in the cell or room is kept to a minimum.

1602. The recreation programme includes both cultural and athletic activities. The programme provides the opportunity for at least one hour of physical exercise per day from the inmate's cell or room in an area which is designated for recreation and frequent opportunities to exercise outdoors, weather permitting.

1603. The facility employs a full-time, qualified recreation director who supervises all recreation programmes. In smaller facilities a part-time staff member or trained volunteer may perform this function.

1604. Sufficient facilities and equipment suitable for the planned recreation activities are maintained in good condition and are available to the inmate population.

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1605. There is a systematic approach to determine the personnel requirements for the recreational programme to ensure inmates' access to staff and services.

1606. Written policy and procedure permit inmates to participate in [outside] community activities, provided the inmates' [security] status _allows them to leave the facility."

The American Correctional Association has produced guidelines on inmates access

to the telephones. These are used as a benchmark in the accreditation of

American and Canadian prisons. This particular guideline covers two foolscap

sheets and goes into great practical detail as to the circumstances in which

inmates can contact outsiders via the public telephone. The document makes a

distinction between the policy and procedures for implementing the policy.

These procedures are quite detailed. As an example of policy:

"a. to provide inmates with reasonable and equitable access to telephones;

b. inmate telephone calls shall not be monitored except where there is sufficient probable cause and information to believe the telephone privilege is being abused in a manner that is a violation of law or detrimental to the security of the institution, employees or other inmates;

c. telephone calls to attorneys or other legal representatives shall be permitted to any inmate on request, as soon as reasonably possible. After verification of the identity of the attorney or legal representative, such communications shall be private;

d. inmates shall be allowed incoming emergency telephone calls. If an inmate receives an incoming call of an emergency nature the telephone number and name of the calling party will be obtained and the inmate shall be permitted to call pertaining to the emergency;

e. all inmate telephone calls shall be collect calls made at the expense of the inmate or the person who calls. All inmate telephone calls to be charged to the institution shall be authorised in advance by the assistant warden (programmes)."

The procedures relating to this policy statement are as follows:

"Access and use of telephone equipment

i. Model A

a. If and when proper security telephone equipment is procured and telephones are in areas accessible to inmates, telephone calls shall be unlimited for all inmates except those in disciplinary detention.

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b. Security telephone equipment is construed to mean telephones on which only outgoing, collect calls can be made.

c. Equitable access to telephones by all inmates shall be the responsibility of the peer group in each living quarter. Service

-shall be suspended in any living quarter where the supervisor presents reasonable evidence that equitability is not provided."

The document then goes on to talk of the monitoring of inmate telephone calls

and recording of inmate telephone calls in the same kind of detail. Examples of

this sort can be found at almost every level of prison administration; a similar

set of standards for telephone communication can be found in the New York City

Minimum Standards with the same level of specificity:

"Sentenced prisoners shall be permitted to make a minimum of two telephone calls each week. These calls shall be provided to indigent sentenced prisoners at Department expense if made within New York City. Long distance calls shall be made collect or at the expense of the sentenced prisoner.

By September 1, 1978 telephone calls may be at least 6 minutes in duration." (Sections 11.4 and 11.5 of the Minimum Standards for New York City Correctional Facilities).

The importance of this standard lies not only in its attention to detail but

also in its provision of a time schedule and a deadline by which time standards

must be implemented. Liowever, this specificity is not found across the entire

area of activities. The British Columbia standards illustate this point:

"PREAMBLE:

The f-)1lowing set of standards addresses itself to the issues of inmate work, education and recreation. Two statements from the Branch's Goals, Strategies and Beliefs form the essential philosophical basis of the following standards. Belief 8 reads, "offenders should not receive greater opportunities or rights than those generally available to other members of society." Activitiy 4, under Strategy of "Imprisonment", requires the Branch to "provide programs and activities in which the inmate is encouraged to exercise personal decision-making in areas of work, recreation, spiritual development, education and life skills."

1. The Corrections Branch shall provide sufficient institutional work program opportunities for all sentenced inmates.

[subject to resource availability] [secure and open settings]

Discussion:

An inmate work program may include industrial, agricultural, maintenance and service jobs, and shall ensure full-time employment for all eligible sentenced inmates. Sufficient jobs should be provided to ensure that no idleness is created through lack of programs.

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A traditional concern around the employment of inmates is that of the value of the work provided. These standards assume that work should be constructive and of real value, comparable to work that is both necessary and available outside of the institution.

In order to approximate a non-institutional working environment, no more inmates than necessary should be assigned to a given work area. Job opportunities available in the institution should provide opportunities to learn job skills and develop acceptable non-institutional work habits.

3. The officer in charge of a correctional centre shall structure the inmate working day to approximate the working day in the community.

[effective immediately] [secure and open settings]

Discussion:

The intent of the standard is to familiarize inmates with work habit expectations in the community. To the extent possible, scheduling of counts and other institutional activities should not interfere with the working day of inmates."

(Province of British Columbia, Corrections Branch, Ministry of Attorney General, Manual of Standards).

It is noticeable that the attention to specific practical detail is limited to

matters such as telephone and other communications, which lend themselves to

quantification. These standards are readily reducible to the level of provision

of equipment and to nature and duration of access. For other elements of

"programmes" this degree of specificity is absent. Equal attention is needed

for the entire area.

If an examination of the quality of life is to be properly conducted, other less

tangible elements need to be assessed. Quantification may be more difficult but

nevertheless an attempt must be made to develop criteria in this area. It is

noticeable in those places visited in North America that time and thought is now

being _focussed in that direction. The American Correctional Association is ridw

producing standards on the quality of life. There have been establishments

which have met a baseline of quantifiable standards where quality of life has

fallen far short of what independent assessors and prison officials would think

desirable.

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III. Implications

In the English system the Prison Rules, Standing Orders and Circular

Instructions provide a background to criteria for measurement. The Inspectorate

has a role to play in using these as a starting point for developing a coherent

and comprehensive set of criteria for assessing the prison system.

I have seen from examples of other countries with large scale prison systems

that even the clearly articulated aims of the system need careful

interpretation. The North American continent has tackled this task by

developing codes of standards. The development came from outside and within the

system and is characterised by continual consultation.

For example, the Manual of Standards for Prisons published by the Canadian

Criminal Justice Association states:

"Consultation has been a factor during production of the Manuals of Standards. Three sets of drafts were circulated across the nation in order to receive responses from individuals and organisations. The comments were reviewed and incorporated into the manuals when accepted. The Standards are based on the collective experience and input of a large number of individuals and organisations in Canada. The development of these manuals represent a consensus-building exercise, but it is difficult to achieve universal accord with all standards. The goal, however, is to encourage ongoing evolution of correctional practices." (Preface).

The CJA, like our Inspectorate, is an organisation independent of the

Correctional Service of Canada. While it obviously carried the ultimate

responsibility for standards, it was keenly aware of the need to involve

administrators and officials at all levels. It takes great care to make certain

that standards are updated and the process of consultation is continuing.

In the current annual report of the Chief Inspector of Prisons (1984) the

Inspectorate recognises the need for a similar development in this country.

"What is needed is a set of standards to which inspectors can make reference"

(Chapter 13, p.17). The Inspectorate has stated its eventual aim: "to establish

benchmarks which will enable inspectors to assess establishments more

objectively and with greater consistency". I recommend that in doing so it

takes into account the process of consultation noted in North America. It will

undoubtedly take some time before the task is completed; standards in different

714

North American systems appear to have taken between two and four years to

produce in their present detail. I recognise the importance of moving in this

direction. I also feel the need to address some immediate practical tasks

within this report.

I shall turn my attention to the development of practical benchmarks which could

be of use in helping the Inspectorate with the immediate job of evaluating

activity delivery. I shall draw my examples from the area of planned

activities.

B. USING BENCH MARKS

I. The Situation Here

The mechanism for inspecting establishments exists. The Inspectorate has

already devised informally a set of benchmarks to facilitate monitoring, but it

would be the first to admit that these must be developed and refined. It is

important to link the process of refinement to the development of performance

indicators already being introduced by the Prison Department as a basis of the

management information system.

However benchmarks are different from performance indicators. What management

wants in order to judge how it is carrying out its objectives is linked to but

not identical to how the Inspectorate judges whether the prison system is doing

what it should. Bearing in mind this distinction, it would be unrealistic not

to recognise the reliance of any monitoring system on internally produced

statistics.

Whatever the body undertaking the role of monitoring, it is unlikely to have

sufficient resources to produce all of the information it needs. It is arguable

that that would not be a good use of its time and resources. Healthy monitoring

is based on internal information, checked and verified through additional incidental

data collection, such as may be carried out on unannounced visits etc. This

presupposes access to all levels of the establishment. The Inspectorate is well

fitted to this task; it is the only independent body which has such powers.

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Benchmarks must be demonstrably practical. Setting up a benchmark, for which

there is no immediate application, because no relevant information exists, is

plainly nonsense. While not losing sight of the ultimate aima against which the II

syst-em is being assessed, the inspecting organisation must build from available

IIinformation. It may augment the data, within the limits of its resources. On

the basis of all the information it must set up targets which are not divorced

from reality and which can be achieved, given the will to do so.

IL Comparisons

The devising of benchmarks is therefore inextricably linked to their application

11 and I have seen that the most effective examples show a combination of realism

about what is happening at the moment and practical awareness of how to get from

II

that position to the next stage. Implementation should be built into the notion

of benchmark.

The Manual of Standards produced by Correctional Service of Canada, Inspector

General's Branch, provides a good example in the area of activities of how a

practical set of benchmarks can be developed to translate the principles of

indiiidualism, activity and relationship into practice. The section on

"Offender Programmes Case Management" lists the following questions:

"1. Is there a needs analysis profile and individual prisoner plan for each inmate?

2. What does the needs analysis profile and the individual prisoner plan Cor inmates include? What resources does it integrate and how successfully? (eg work/school, leisure activities, transactional analysis programme, group sessions, visits to case officers and various specialists).

3. Who participates?

4. If not all participate, why not?

5. Is there an institutional policy and procedure whereby inmates can initiate progress review? Is it used?

6. By whom and how often are the needs analysis profile/individual prisoner plans monitored and reviewed? (every four months)?

7. Problems in achieving objectives identified in these plans?

8. Are activity records used to record/monitor inmates progress and performance?

9. Is it difficult to schedule case management activities reviews and case conferences? Why? What is done to resolve the difficulties?

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10. What is the purpose of reviews and who chairs them? Needs analysis profile, individual prisoner plan, quarterly progress report, confidential information report?"

This approach is impressive in its attention to practical detail. It is also

clearly oriented towards the individual offender. Unlike management data which

may tend to be oèdented towards the organisation (cg how many programmes exist

for training, for education, for work etc?), this checklist asks about the

service provided to each individual inmate. The inmate is the unit of

measurement. Similarly the checklist is oriented to the individual staff

member. The staff member is also the unit on which the data are collected.

If the management information system only counts what the system provides, then

those inspecting will have considerable difficulty in uncovering information

about what each individual receives. They will need to augment the internal

data by sampling and survey. Ultimately the ideal would be to generate response

from within the system to this need. Internal data should reflect the

orientation to the individual inmate and staff member. It is not enough simply

to count activities. It is participation in the activities that matters. The

sooner a systematic way of providing this information is developed, with the aid

of technological advances, the better the internal and external assessment. It

will then be possible to know what is going on in establishments and whether

they are delivering the services provided.

It was noticeable from my observations abroad that the existence of clearly

defined benchmarks led to an increase in staff morale. Clear signals were given

about important areas. Staff were able to measure their own accomplishment

against the yardsticks offered. In response to the process of inspection the

different systems have moved towards greater self-assessment; this self-

regulation mechanism reinforced those areas of performance which were most

important in achieving success and running a healthy establishment. The process

of self-assessment pre-empts much of the work of inspection.

One of the successful establishments visited in New York State was Watertown.

This establishment was aware of the criteria set by the Inspectorate and was

involved in continuous self-assessment of the factors to be evaluated.

From the examples abroad it is apparent that there is a world of difference

between setting benchmarks and the ability of individual establishments to meet

77

them. In spite of what I have said, the mere creation of benchmarks does not

in my experience guarantee compliance. In the USA, where the courts have been

very active in enforcing standards, that has not guaranteed implementation.

Even When it has, the nature of the regime can still leave much to be desired,

because of the concentration on the physical rather than the less quantifiable

aspects of prison life. In one prison I saw on a previous visit, which had

replaced another closed down by court order, there was general agreement among

the inmates and staff that, despite the better physical conditions and the

provision of a law library etc, the atmosphere in the older prison was better.

They regretted the change.

No system has found a foolproof way of ensuring that the agreed benchmarks are

met. Nevertheless, my experience has shown that external and internal

initiatives firmly based on clear goal definition and consultation throughout

the organisation are more likely to lead to a better delivery of services.

III. Implications

From the foregoing it should be clear that the task of devising benchmarks is

closely linked to their use. There is a need for benchmarks which can be

applied to what is going on now in prison establishments. Their use will

involve reliance on internal information, supplemented through information

collected externally.

Inspectors may use benchmarks in different establishments, to document

(a) existing levels of service delivery within an establishment;

(h) comparative levels of service delivery across establishments.

They .may then relate these to the level at which the benchmark is set. For

example, the Inspectorate can use management information to find out how much

time out of the cell the prisoner spends on average per day and can supplement

this by information collected by direct observation during the inspection. The

inspectors can compare the average time out of cell at one establishment, with

the average time out of cell» at another. They can then relate both these

statistics to the Inspectorate's independent benchmark for time out of cell.

78

This exercise' allows the Inspectorate to:

(a) develop a profile of the individual establishment based on key factors

covered by benchmarks;

(h) pres-ent an overview of the range and diversity among establishments;

and

(c) rate the establishment in relation to benchmarks.

The purpose of the exercise is to inform the public and the prison system and to

make recommendations for change. The profile in (a) allows the Inspectorate to

make recommendations based on information about the existing situation. The

overview in (h) allows the Inspectorate to assess what might be appropriate

interim targets based on achievements in similar types of establishments. The

rating in (c) allows the Inspectorate to make recommendations for longer-term

change to achieve the levels set by the benchmarks.

There will inevitably be a great disparity of service delivery across the

establishments inspected. The Inspectorate's reports have in the past noted the

high level attained in some establishments (notably the training establishments)

with respect to activities and the "paucity of regime" in others (notably the

local establishments).

The following extracts from the inspection reports on different kinds of

establishments serve to illustrate the variety of "regimes" across the whole

range of prison establishments.

"There was a generous provision of resources and facilities which allowed for a regime sufficiently comprehensive to cater for the needs of a varied and sometimes difficult inmate population. One outstanding feature of this regime was the fact that it did not rely on segregation as a means of controlling difficult and disruptive inmates. Another laudible feature was the considerable commitment to community service work outside the establishment". (Inspection Report on HM Youth Custody Centre, Glen Parva, February 1985, paragraph 1.05).

"As to the quality of life for adult prisoners, with very few work opportunities, a limited education programme and little recreational association, it can only be described as barren. A vicious circle of deprivation is in danger of developing; because men cannot be got into the

79

industrial workshops, there is the possibility that the industries will be permanently withdrawn. We regard this state of affairs, in which the regime for convicted prisoners cannot by any stretch of the imagination be said to meet the requirements of Prison Rule 1, as quite unacceptable." (Inspection Report on UM Prison Manchester, October 1981, paragraph 1.07).

"-The regime of Wymott is broadly based, and is built upon substantial contributions from many sections of the establishment. The largest contribution comes from the prisons industries, which with the farms and gardens can provide employment for almost 600 inmates, but in addition the remedial education is much appreciated by prisoners, the PE department is an active one, the chaplaincy is well involved, the probation staff have a real influence upon the youth force of the establishment and there is a substantial involvement in community service. The resulting regime is relaxed and constructive and produces a pleasant and friendly atmosphere." (Inspection Report on HM Prison Wymott, July 1981, paragraph 7.01).

"We quickly became aware of the shortcomings of the regime at Birmingham. There were very few opportunities for employment, education, or cultural or recreational activities, even though some resources were available. Both convicted and unconvicted prisonerà experienced an extremely barren regime in cramped and uncomfortable conditions. As we record below, many of the individual aspects of the regime fell far short of what is required, but taken together the shortcomings mean that the establishment is able to exercise no positive or constructive influence upon the inmates".

"The barrenness of the prison regime is not the fault of local management, but is brought about by the shortage of staff resulting from the increasing cost of court commitments. The more we visit local prisons, the greater becomes our concern at the way in which the demands of the courts not only prevent the development of existing regimes but actually strangle them, until establishments are reduced to being human warehouses and nothing more." (Inspection Report on HM Prison Birmingham, November 1981, paragraphs 7.01 and 1.04).

"The regime is well balanced and constructive, with useful contributions from the education department, the physical education department and the prison's industries. There is great emphasis on maintaining as close a contact as possible with the outside community, with men going outside the prison on educational parole, job familiarisation and resettlement; this is entirely right in a prison of this kind, and although there is always the risk that such opportunities will be abused, that risk is worth the taking in view of the advantages to be gained. There is a very wide range of leisure activities, organised for the most part by the prisoners themselves with staff support; the Leyhill council, an elected body of prisoners, co- ordinates these activities and considers how the general purposes fund should be spent." (Inspection Report on HM Prison Leyhill, May 1981, paragraph 1.04).

This evidence indicates that the Inspectorate recommendations for change will

have different implications for different types of establishments, in particular

for the local versus training prisons. Part of the work of the Inspectorate is

to take this into account, while maintaining a clear view of the ultimate

objective: to ensure that the whole system meets its aims. The Inspectorate

must address the need for interim as well as long-term targets.

Rn

From the evidence, it can be seen that it is difficult to quantify the

differences between establishments. Precise benchmarks are needed, so that the

Inspectorate and the prison service will have a better knowledge about those

establishments which are performing well and those which are not, arid the

reasons why.

The Inspectorate is involved in highlighting the imbalances, not only between

different establishments, but also between different types of estblishments. My

survey of inspection reports leads to the recurrent theme of lack of resources

and facilities in local prisons, compared with the medium term training prisons.

In developing and using benchmarks, the Inspectorate is looking not only at

facilities but their use. This combination determines the conditions of life

which the individual staff member and inmate will experience. When an imbalance

occurs between facilities and use, the Inspectorate has a duty to bring this to

the attention of the public and of the prison department, as an example of the

ineffective use of public money and resources.

The Inspectorate has recently stated (in the Annual Report for 1984, Chapter 3)

that the basis of its assessment is "the balance achieved between three distinct

criteria: humanity, propriety and value for money." In a time of scarce

resources it is as important for the Inspectorate to discover those areas in

which there is an overprovision of facilities as those in which there is sparse

provision and the need cannot be met. There are instances of both which have

come to light in our deliberations. A reallocation of resources is obviously a

matter of importance in the interests of equity.

The use of benchmarks should generate efforts of compliance from within the

system. A greater consensus must be developed as to ultimate aims and how to

achieve them. This would produce a more professional basis on which staff in

the prison system and in the Inspectorate might operate.

It is important to foster this progression by feedback from those who monitor so

that a continual flow of information is available to staff at all levels,

reinforcing the external as well as the internal targets.

Because I am conscious of the risk of sounding abstract or theoretical I want to

end this report by providing some practical suggestions. They may serve to

point the way forward for the Inspectorate in the task of monitoring according

to set criteria and for the prison department in encouraging establishments to

achieve their stated tasks.

81

PROPOSED APPROACH

CHAPTER 5: BASIS FOR ACTION

CHAPTER I

IIIn the preceding chapters my method has been to consider experience and practice

in this country and in the five systems I visited abroad, focussing upon the

major functional area: the planning of activity. I have drawn out from my

observations and discussion of the varying approaches the essential elements for

a good prison system.

Throughout the report I have emphasised the principles of individualism and

relationship as fundamental to the development of a coherent approach to planned

activity. The two principles link the logical stages of the approach which I

propose: from aims, through tasks, to measures and benchmarks.

Before proposing the the next practical steps, I shall now retrace the steps in

my argument.

There must be a clear statement of aims. These should motivate all staff withinII

the prison service. Part of that exercise involves making a moral statement;

but the statement cannot end there, exclusively at the level of abstract ideals.

It must include attainable objectives. It must be possible for people at the

ground floor level to see how these aims can be achieved.

Communicating the message about the aims of the organisation is an exercise in

managing people. It is important to communicate the message clearly to all

members of the service and to all those concerned, either as groups or as

individuals, with the prison system.

CHAPTER II

The aims must be translated into a clear set of tasks which are defined in

concrete terms. Their definition must be sufficiently precise and practical to

allow individuals to put them into practice. In defining its tasks the

service must recognise that the people within it are its primary and most

important resource. It is necessary to concentrate on them as individuals.

This implies planning around the individual. That in turn implies organising in

manageable groups. 11 82

II

Since individuals are the service's primary asset, the most important task is to

get their relationships right. If that task is achieved, the barriers are

broken down between functional areas and between individuals (eg staff involved

exclusively on security duties, in the control room, as contrasted with staff

assuming a variety of other functions and more closely linked with the

prisoner). The relationships among the people within the service cut across the

functional areas which define its work; all the different relationships

involving staff and prisoners link security, control and planned activity.

In the past there has been an imbalance between the areas of security, control

and activity. It is of fundamental importance for that imbalance to be

redressed. There has to be a greater emphasis on planned activity. If activity

is planned around the individual, and relies on, and promotes the relationships

between individuals, it enhances the security and safety of the establishment.

To follow this approach the service must see its people as individually

responsible and accountable and must respond to them in that way. Clear lines

of organisational responsibility must be established, so that at every level -

on the wing, at each establishment, at regional level and at headquarters -

there is someone accountable for planned activity.

CHAPTER III

The good prison system needs relevant and selective management information. It

must have comparable data across individual establishments in order to know what

is going on and whether the work performed is in line with the system's aims.

At the same time the data must be perceived as being useful not only to those at

the top of the organisation but also to those at the ground floor level. It is

important to be selective about information as there is an equal danger of

having too much as too little.

CHAPTER IV

Relevant information is the basis for effective monitoring, either internally or

externally. The Inspectorate needs the same basic data for each establishment,

so that its reports can assess the individual prison and compare it with similar

types of establishments. External monitoring also involves evaluating the

extent to which the work achieved across the prison system is in line with the

aims.

83

IIThe Inspectorate needs to refine a series of checklists so that it can assess in

a quantifiable and systematic way performance in planned activity and other

11 functional areas. It will then be possible to compare establishments visited on

a more objective basis so that similar establishments' performance can be rated

and_sequential visits to the same establishment can measure any improvement or deterioration of planned activity and other areas.

Ultimately the Inspectorate must develop benchmarks against which to measure the

work carried out and judge how well the prison system is achieving what it

should be doing. Experience abroad indicates that a series of interim

performance levels might be formulated by consultation with the Prison

Department and others concerned. A model for this approach would be the task

force set up by the US federal system or the consultative process by which the

Inspectorate of British Columbia developed their system of standards.

I have argued that the prison system is a highly complex organisation and that

the different populations and problems which it must address are not readily

approached by a single model. I suggest an approach which focuses on

individualism, relationship and activity, based on experience and practice in

this country and elsewhere.

IIApplying these principles involves getting the balance right between a number of

elements which in the past have been perceived as conflicting. For example, it

11 forces the prison service and those who evaluate it to address the demands and

problems raised by different types of prisoners. The sentenced prisoner has

different needs and poses different problems from the remand prisoner.

II Provision has varied tremendously, in particular between the training and the

Local. prison. In the latter, where both types of prisoner co-exist, priority

has been given to court related demands. In the absence of a clear sense of 11 purpose the response reflected the most conspicuous external demand. Na one has

ii focused sufficiently clearly upon the implications of dealing with such I/ different prisoners within one establishment or one system. It is necessary to

get the balance right between the sentenced and the remand prisoner.

II

Similarly it is necessary to get the balance right between security and

activity, which must be viewed as interdependent rather than opposing functions; 11 between positive and negative indicators of performance, reflecting management's

interest in productive achievement as well as avoidance of crises; between II functional and financial accountability, emphasising the importance of achieving

aims as well as accounting for resources; between mechanical definitions and

84

a

1

1

1 1

statements of mission; between paperwork and practical performance; between

immediate targets and longer term objectives; between what the top wants and

what the bottom needs; between internal and external accountability, to ensure

that we have the prison system we want.

NEXT STEPS

What are the next steps suggested by this approach? First of all a decision

needs to be made on a clear formulation of aims. There are tasks here both for

the Prison Department and for the Inspectorate. It will require careful

consultation. I suggest that a task force be set up to begin this process

immediately and to produce a set of clear and comprehensive aims.

This follows directly from Chapter I where I have spelt out at length the need

for aspirational and achievable aims and the importance of communicating them

clearly so that those working in the prison system have a sense of purpose and

an understanding of what is expected of them in concrete terms.

Once this first step has been taken, the initiative already established in

Circular Instruction 55/84, "Prison Board Statement of the Functions of Prison

Department Establishments", can be elaborated so that the tasks defined for the

prison service reflect the aims. In Chapter II I have explained how the process

of defining tasks might be accomplished and how the three principles -

individualism, relationship and activity - are the cornerstone on which this

work must be built. That chapter suggests a number of practical strategies for

integrating these three principles. Overall this means that each unit in the

organisation, whether it be a wing of a prison, or a division of headquarters,

should be aware of these central themes. That will only be achieved by training

and constant reinforcement of a simple statement of aims and their translation

into practical tasks. In the individual establishment this also means building

the notion of a manageable unit into the structure of the prison, both its

physical plant and its organisation. That means breaking down larger wings and

providing communal space for activity, both for remand and for sentenced

prisoners.

Intimately related to this second step is the refinement of a relevant and

selective management information system. This is a further task for the Prison

Department in developing its recent initiative. I have pointed out in

Chapter III the risk of an excess of information. That is the lesson I learned

85

86 I

from Canada and the USA. It is no good adding layer upon layer of information

already being requested of the system. That alienates staff, who are already

hard-pressed by the demands made upon them. I have noted the importance of

carrying staff with management and of ensuring their commitment. I have

stressed that what matters in the organisation is relationships, between

individuals at the ground floor level, as well as throughout the system.

There is already a great deal of information collected in an uncoordinated way

in the prison system. An important task is to coordinate and rationalise the

existing information. Et must be drawn together, put in order and pared down.

It must be useful to the top and to the ground floor. It must be arranged in a

systematic and coherent way which makes it readily usable and easily adaptable

for new technology. (Indeed, putting the information in good order is a

prerequisite for the application of new technology. Otherwise the computer

serves merely to perpetuate a poor system.)

Therefore as a further practical step I suggest an examination of what

information exists at present, in order to rationalise and coordinate it -in the

context of the approach I propose in this report. The information must be

looked at in this new conceptual framework. It is a large task and entails a

big leap. In the past the way in which the information was looked at was

circumscribed by the notion of "regime". There was a lack of systematic

approach reflected in the way in which information has been handled; that in

turn is symptomatic of the way in which the work has been viewed.

At the same time there is a task for the Inspectorate in deciding what

information is relevant and useful in measuring how the system fulfils the

defined aims. Part of that task involves drawing together and ordering the

existing requirements, statutory and other, in the area of planned activity.

Eventually the same exercise might be undertaken for all the functional areas.

On this basis a set of benchmarks could be developed similar to the standards

seen in other systems, to be applied by the Inspectorate in individual

establishments and across the system.

All of this is predicated on an acceptance of activity as the core of what goes

on in prisons. Activity means what each individual, whether staff or prisoner,

is doing; what use is being made of time. That implies a basic orientiation

towards those who work and live in prisons.

Eventually I envisage a system based on the individual staff member and

prisoner. I recognize that in the current situation this is not immediately

achievable; but it is important to make a start in that direction by

streamlining and ordering existing practice. It will then be possible to decide

what information is relevant and what additional data based on the individual _ should be collected. Then at least the first steps will have been taken in the

right direction.

87

APPENDIX A

BIBLIOGRAPHY

88

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GREAT BRITAIN

A Bainton, Aims and Tasks of the Prison Department Establishments, Management Review, 3rd Stage, November 1971

A S Baxendale, Valedictory Address to Annual Conference of Education Officers, April 1985

Tom Burns, G M Stalker, The Management of Innovation, Tavistock Publications, London, 1961

Silvia Casale, Minimum Standards for Prison Establishments, NACRO, 1984

Len Curran, The Opening of Rollestone as a Category C Emergency Prison, Home Office Prison Department, 1981

Department of Education & Science, Ten Good Schools, A Secondary School Enquiry, HMSO 1977

Stuart Ellcombe, Measurement and Human Activity Systems: Can Prisons Perform, City University, May 1985

David Evans, "Comment", in POA Magazine, Sept 1985

Rick Evans, The Design and Operation of Rollestone October 1980 - February 1981, Home Office, Prison Department, July 1981

Harry Garner, A Good and Useful Life, Howard League, 1982

HM Chief Inpector of Prisons, Prison Categorisation Procedures, 1984

Report of H M Chief Inspector of Prisons, 1983

Report on H M Prison Birmingham, Nov 1981

Report on H M Prison Leeds, April 1981

Report on H M Prison Leyhill, May 1981

Report on H M Prison Long Lartin, April 1984

Report on H M Prison Manchester, Oct 1981

Report on H M Prison 1./mott, July 1981

Report on H M Youth Custody Centre Glen Parva, Feb 1985

Suicides in Prison, 1984

H M Prison Service College, Staff Training Synopsis - UK Service, 1985

Home Office Prison Department, Circular Instruction 55/84, "Management in thePrison Service", 20 Dec 1984

Management Structure in Prison Department Establishments, 1984

89

Home Office Prison Department, New Directions in Prison Design, Report of a Study of New Generation Prisons in the USA, 1985

Prison Department Costing System, Hours spent on optional activities, 1985

Report of the Working Group on the Review of the Role of the Probation Service in Adult Establishments, 1985

Statutory Rules and other Information for the Guidance of Prison Officers

Home Office, Research and Planning Unit, The Programming of Prison Activities 2 vols, 1985

Roy King, Rod Morgan, The Future of the Prison System, Gower, 1980

Mr Justice May, Committee of Enquiry into the UK Prison Services, October 1979

Mr Justice May, Committee of Enquiry into UK Prison Services, Home Office Evidence Vols 1, 2 & 3, 1979

Midland Region H M Prison, Management Targets, 1985

Midland Region H M Prisons, Statement of Functions, 1985

Rod Morgan et al., "H M Inspectorate of Prisons", in Prisons and Accountability, Tavistock 1985

Joy Mott, Adult Prisons and Prisoners in England and Wales 1970-1982, Home Office Research and Planning Unit, 1985

Prison Reform Trust, The Prisoner's Right, Implications of the Report of the Control Review Committee: Managing the Long Term Prison System, May 1985

Andrew Rutherford, Prisons and the Process of Justice: The Reductionist Challenge, London: Heinemann, 1984

Andrew Rutherford, "The New Generation of Prisons", in New Society, 20 Sept 1985

Rutter, Maughan, Mortimore, Ouston, Fifteen Thousand Hours, Secondary Schools and their Effects on Children, Open Books 1980

Scottish Home and Health Department, Report of HM Chief Inspector of Prisons for Scotland, 1984, October 1985

Sechrest, White, Brown, The Rehabilitation of Criminal Offenders: Problems and Prospects, National Academy of Sciences, 1979

J E Thomas, The English Prison Officer since 1850, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972

Graham Zellick, "The Prison Rules and the Courts," in Criminal Law Review p. 602-616, 1981

90

CANADA

D Ayers, S Duguid, C Montagne, Effects of University of Victoria Program, A Post Release Study, Ministry of Solicitor General.of Canada, May 1980

British Columbia, Corrections Branch, Correctional Centre Rules and -Regulations, 1982

British Columbia, Corrections Branch, Delegation of Authority for Fiscal Year, 1985-86

Prisoner Information Guide - Vancouver Pre-Trial Services Centre, 1983

British Columbia, Ministry of Attorney General, Annual Report Corrections Branch, 1982-1983

Standards of Corrections Branch, Manual, Jan 1981

Adult Institutional Services, Manual of Operations, to May 1985

Canadian Unity Information Office, The Charter of Rights and Freedoms, 1984

The Constitution and You, 1984

Correctional Service of Canada, Basic Facts about Correction in Canada 1984, 1984

Beyond the Walls, Introduction to the Correctional Service of Canada, 1983

Branch Progress Review, Planning & Administration, 1985

Carson Report on Management of Correctional Institutions, Nov 30 1984

CSC Direction II, Anticipated Results, December 1984

Case Management, Case Management Policy & Procedures Manual, May 1982

Community Based Residential Centres, 1985

Education, Training & Employment Operational Review Checklist

Goals, Strategies and Beliefs, revised May 1984

Highlights 1983, Challenge and Change, July 1984

Information Kit

Information Sharing

Inmates' Grievances and Appeals against the Denial of a Claim asainst the Crown, Commissioner's Directive, amended 1983

Inmates' Grievances, Handling and Processing, Commissioner's Directive. 1983

Inmate Population Management

q 1

Correctional Service of Canada, Inmate Rights and Responsibilities, April 1982

Inmates' Conferred Rights, Commissioner's Directive 1982

Inspector General's Branch, Fifth Annual Report 1984-5, June 1985

Management of Correctional Institutions, Report of Advisory Committee to the Solicitor-General, December 1984

Offender Retrieval System Print Out

Operational Information Package, May 1985

Options for Privatisation of CSC Activities, 1985

Overtime Hours Graphs, May 1985

Policy, Planning and Administration, CSC Direction and Policy Statement

Policy, Planning and Administration Manual, to June 1983

Product Catalogue

Program Setting and Evaluation, 1984

Proposal for Revision to the Anticipated Results Process, June 1985

Protected Status Submissions Sept 82-Sept 84, Basic Statistics

Statement of CSC Values, November 1984

Staff Handbook, Appearing in Court, Oct 1984

The Awards and Honours Program, 1984

The Strategic Planning Committee, Third Report, 1983

Understanding Between the Interfaith Committee on Chaplaincy and the Correctional Service of Canada

Volunteering in the Correctional Service of Canada, 1983

Working Together, Citizens' Advisory Committee, and the Correctional Service of Canada, 1984

Correctional Service of Canada, Education, Training and Employment Branch, Mandate and Description, 1984

Overview of Strategic Plan, 1984

Correctional Service of Canada, Inspector General's Branch, Checklist Management Review, Nov 1984

Management Review Checklist Manual, to 1984

Springhill Review, Management Review Report, March 1983

92

1 III !. corredtional Service of Canada, Pacific Region,

I 1 Skills for Living, A Developmental Approach to Life, Skills Programming in

1 II the Correctional Service of Canada 1 I 1 The Pacific Region Calendar of Studies

Correctional Service of Canada, Policy Planning and Systems Branch, Offender Population Forecasts 1984/8, September 1984

Correctional Service of Canada, Psychological Division, Inventory of Special Addictions Program, Services for CSC Offenders 1983-84, October 1984

Criminal Justice Association, Criminal Justice Congress, 1985

Justice Report, 1985 Congress on Criminal Justice, Vol 2 No 3, May-June 1985

Standards - Central Agencies, 1985

Standards - Community Correctional Centres, 1985

Standards - Community Residential Centres, 1985

Standards for Adult Corrections in Canada, 1985 -

Standards - Parole Field Services, 1985

Standards - Paroling Authorities, 1985

Standards - Prisons, 1985

Standards - Probation Services, 1985

Drummond Institution, Report Writing Course

Alain Jacques, Course on Quality and Quantity Control Methods, Drummond Institution, 16 October 1984

Institutional Reports, Drummond Institution

Mario Levesque, Introduction to Case Management, Drummond Institution

- Introduction to Philosophy of Drummond Institution, Drummond Institution, 15 Oct 85

"Liaison", Vol 10 No 2, Criminal Justice System, March 1984

Government of Ontario, Regulations - Correctional Services Act, May 1979

Matthew Hart, "Mary Dowson - She Runs the Toughest Business in Canada," Financial Post, June 1 1985

Kingston Penitentiary, Inmate Handbook

Ministry of Correctional Services, Metropolitan Toronto West D C: Information Booklet

93

1

1

1 1 1

1 1 a 1

1

1 1

Mission Institution, Inmate Handbook, revised Sept 1984

Living Unit Program

Montogomery Centre, Parole Supervision System Print Out

William R T Palmer, Long Term Inmates - Programming, A New Perspective, Correctional Service of Canada Psychological Services Division, August 1984

Programs for Long-Term Inmates, A process-orientated approach for the Ontario region and a 'pilot' proposal for Warkworth Institution, Correctional Service of Canada, Psychological Services Division, 1984

Elda Phipps Thomas, Effects of Colour, Effects of Colour on Human Mood/ Behaviour, Correctional Service of Canada, Psychological Division, Feb/March 85

Charles S Ponee, Drug and Alcohol Abuse Treatment Programs, A Management Strategy for Improving Service Delivery, Correctional Service of Canada Psychological Services Division, May 1984

Frank J Porporino, John P Martom, Prison Violence, Strategies to Reduce Prison Violence, Solicitor General, Programs Branch, Oct 1983

Vernon L Quinsey, Reducing Inmate Violence, Correctional Service of Canada, Psychological Services Division, Feb 1982

Specialist Handling Unit Behavioural Management of Inmates, Correctional Services of Canada, Psychological Services Division, April 1984

Jean-Marie Robichaud, Mary Steinhauser, Fred Luciani, Analysis of Programs, Task Force on Integration, 1976

Robert Ross, Opiate Addiction, Correctional Service of Canada, June 1982

Robert Ross, Paul Gendreau, Bambi D Ross, Jamie Shortt, Alcohol Abuse, Alcohol Abuse Treatment in Corrections Programs & Results, Correctional Service of Canada, June 1982

Simon Fraser University, Annual Report 1984-5, Prison Education Program, 1984

Solicitor General of Canada, Overcrowding in Canadian Penitentiaries, 1984-6

The Role of Federal Corrections, A Report of the Task Force on the Creation of an Integrated Service, Jan 1977

Vivien Stern, Report on Visit to Canada 1984, NACRO 1985

Treasury Board of Canada, Internal Audit Vol 1, July 1984

Standards for Internal Audit, 1982

Jim Vantour, Hank Henfeld, Bruce Northorp, Lisa Turcotte, Report of the Study Group on Murders and Assaults in the Ontario Region, (The Vantour Report), Correctional Service of Canada, May 1984

9 14

SWEDEN

G E Davies, Council of Europe visit to Sweden, 1985

Edholm and Bishop, Serious Drug Misusers in the Swedish Prison and Probation System, Swedish Prison and Probation Administration, March 1983

Kriminalvardsanstalten Mariefred, Some facts about the background and current activities at the Correctional Institution at Mariefred, 1985

Terence C Sullivan, How the relationship between the Prison and Probation Services in two countries, Britain and Sweden, may affect successful rehabilitation in the community, University of Sussex, Degree Thesis, 1985

Swedish Council for Crime Prevention, Crime and Criminal Policy in Sweden, 1984

Swedish Prison & Probation Administration, Norrkoping, Competitive Wages at Tillberga and Skogome

Corrections in Sweden, Report on Correctional Treatment in Institutions, April 1984

Decree containing certain regulations regarding the implementation of the act on Correctional Treatment in Institutions, 1974

Huddinge Corrections Institute, 1983

Kriminalvardsorganisationen, Map and statistics of Swedish Prisons

Probation in Sweden, 1982

Swedish Crime and Law in numbers, 1983

Taby Correctional Institution

The Helsingborg Correctional Institution, 1979

The Organisation of Prison and Probation Services, March 1984

The Organisation of Prison Industries, 1984

The Organisation of the National Prison and Probation Administration, June 1983

The Prison and Probation System 1983-1984, 1984

The Swedish System of Sanctions, 1984

95

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Albany County, Albany County Jail

Albany County Jail, Handbook, General Information and Rules and Regulations Albany County Jail and Penitentiary, 1984

Harry E Allen, Clifford E Simonsen, Corrections in America: An Introduction, 2nd edition, Glencoe Publishing Co, Encino, California 1978

Ed. Geoffrey P Alpert, Legal Rights of Prisoners, Sage Publications 1980

American Correctional Association, Conditions of Confinement; Facility Performance Inventory "Quality of Life Criteria", 1985

Corrections Today, 1985

Design Guide for Secure Adult Correctional Facilities, 1983

Guidelines for the Development of Policies and Procedures, May 1981

National Correctional Policies - A History and Process

On the line, Vol 8, No 4, July 1985

Ratified Correctional Public Policies, 1985

Standards for Adult Correctional Institutions, 2nd edition, Jan 1981

Standards for Adult Local Detention Facilities, 2nd edition, April 1981

American Medical Association, Standards for Health Services in Prisons, July 1979

W Araujo, A Cohn, Observing and Understanding Inmate Behaviour, National Institute of Corrections, US Dept of Justice, Jan 1983

Clement Bartollas, Correctional Treatment: Theory and Practice, Prentice-Hall, 1985

Camille G Camp, George M Camp, Private Sector Involvement in Prison Services and Operations, National Institute of Corrections, US Dept of Justice, Feb 1984

Hugh L Carey, Thomas A Coughlin III, Master Plan: Correctional Services 1980-85, New York State Department of Correctional Services, Jan 1981

Norman Carlson, "Corrections in the United States Today: A Balance has been struck", in American Criminal Law Review Vol 13, No 4, Spring 1976

The Development of the Federal Prison System, Federal Prison System, 1980

"The Federal Prison System: Forty-five Years of Change",in Federal Probation, June 1975

Andrew Coyle, A Comparative Examination of the Prison Services in North America, 1985

96

Cullen and Gilbert, Re-Affirming Rehabilitation, Anderson Publishing Co, 1982

Federal Bureau of Prisons, Automated Information Plan - System Plan, Jan 1985

Breaking with the past: Changing view of Correctional Facilities

Change Notices, to April 8 1985

Education for Tomorrow, 1979

Facilities 1982, 1982

Facilities 1984, 1984

Federal Prison System 50th Anniversary, The First Fifty Years 1930-1980, Feb 1980

Inmate Programs Reporting System, Sept 1981

Inmate Programs Reporting System Training and Reference Manual

Key Indicators and Inspection Questions, 1984-85

Leavenworth: Inmate Discipline

Leavenworth: Unit Management Manual

Management Audit Correctional Programs Branch, N Central Region

Office Staff N Central Region

Organisational Directory

Population and Other Statistics

Program Statement: Inspections, 1983

Statistical Report, Fiscal Years 1981-3, 1983

Synopsis of Academy Program Staff Training Academy at Glynco

Unit Management Manual, Standards and Direction for Unit Management, 1984

Federal Correctional Institution Raybrook, Admission and Orientation Handbook.

Federal Law Enforcement Training Center, Introduction to Correctional Techniques Glynco Georgia,

Federal Prison Industries Inc, Annual Report 1984, 50th Anniversary 1934-1984

Unicor Reports, 1985

Malcolm M Feeley, Lloyd E Ohlin, Criminal Justice and Corrections, National Governors' Association Center for Policy Research, Washington DC, 1982

Robert C Grieser, Neal Miller, Gail S Funke Guidelines for Prison Industries, National Institute of Corrections, Jan 1984

97

Gloria A Grizzfe, Ann D Witte, Efficiency in Corrections Agencies: Performance of Prisons

Wade Houk, Key Indicators, Federal Bureau of Prisons, 1985

D C Jarvis, Institutional Treatment of the Offender, McGraw-Hill, 1978

Paul W Keve, Corrections, John Wiley and Sons, 1981

Lawrence T Kurlander, The Disturbance at Ossining Correctional Facility Jan 8-11 1983, Report to Governor Cuomo, Sept 1983

Robert B Levinson, Donald A Deppe, "Optional Programming: A Model Structure for the Federal Correctional Institution at Butner", in Federal Probation June 1976

Robert B Levinson, Roy E Gerard, "Functional Units: A Different Correctional Approach", in Federal Probation, Dec 1973

Douglas Lipton, Robert Martinson and Judith Wilks "The Effective of Correctional Treatment: A Survey of Treatment Evaluation Studies. N.Y. Prager Publications 1975

Craig T Love, Gilbert L Ingram, "Prison Disturbances: Suggestions for Future Solutions", in New England Journal on Prison Law, Vol 8 No 2

Mark L McConkie, Management by Objectives, US Dept of Justice, July 1975

Robert Martinson "What Works? - Questions and Answers about Prison Reform" - Public Interest (Spring 1974 ppr. 22-54)

ed Norval Morris, Michael Toury, James B Jacobs, "The Prisoners' Rights Movement and Its Impacts 1960-80", in Crime and Justice, An Annual Review of Research, Vol II 1980

Jack Murray, Unit Management, Raybrook Conference Manual, Federal Bureau of Prisons, 1985

National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals, Task Force on Corrections, Standards

National Institute of Corrections, Designs for Contemporary Correctional Facilities, 1985

Interpersonal Communications in the Correctional Setting, Participant's Manual, May 1983

New Generation Jails, 1984

Offender Needs Assessment: Models and Approaches, 1984 •

Private Sector Involvement in Prison Services and Operations, 1984

National Institute of Justice, Measuring Prison Results, Ways to Monitor and Evaluate Corrections Performance, June 1981

National Sheriff's Association, The National Sheriff, Feb-March 1984

W Ray Nelson, "Isolation of Staff from Inmates: A Correctional Policy Issue for the 1980s", in Corrections Today, April 1984

98

New York City Department of Corrections, Minimum Standards and Consent Decrees

New York City Board of Correction, Minimum Standards for New York City Correctional Facilities, 1978

New York State Commission of Correction, Minimum Standards and Regulations for Management of County Jails and Penitentiaries

New York State, Department of Correctional Services, Clinton Dannemara

Commissioner's Task Force on Visiting

Directive - Reporting Unusual Incidents

Inmate Job Assignments

Internal Controls Self Assessment - Checklist, March 1985

Organisation Chart

Program Services Manual, Jan 1983

Report of Operations and Development 1987-84

Security Staffing Details, 1985

Sullivan Correctional Facility, Security Detail

System Description Manual, Feb 1985

Watertown

Oregan State Correctional Institution, Information for New Inmates

Herbert C Quay, Administrator's and User's Manual for the Behavioral Classification System for Adult Offenders, National Institute of Justice, US Department of Justice, August 1983

Managing Adult Inmates, National Institute of Corrections, Washington DC, 1984

Technical Manual for the Behavioral Classification Systems for Adult Offenders, National Institute of Corrections, US Department of Justice, 1983

Jack Reynolds, Management Oriented Corrections Evaluation Guidelines, Center for Human Studies, US Department of Justice, 1976

William T Russell, "Communications: The First Step", in Correctional Training, Winter 1983

Miles B Santamour, Bernadette West, Kevin Mays, Retardation and Criminal Justice, A Training Manual for Criminal Justice Personnel, President's Committee on Mental Retardation, Sept 1979

Richard Smith, Categorisation Procedures, US & Canadian Procedures for Security Categorisation of Sentenced Prisoners

99

W Alan Smith, C E Fenton, Unit Management in a Penitentiary, National Information Center

State of Illinois, Governor's Task Force on Prison Crowding: Recommendations, September 1983

State of Wisconsin, Medium Range Plan, Division of Corrections, June 1982

US Department of Justice, Federal Standards for Prisons and Jails, 1980

Long Range Plan, to 1985

David A Ward, Kenneth F Schoen, Confinement in Maximum Custody, Lexington Books, Lexington Mass, 1981

Watertown Correctional Facility, Inmate Orientation Handbook, N Y State, Department of Correctional Services, to 1985

Personnel Manual, New York State, Department of Correctional Services to 1985

Policy and Procedure Manual, July 1983

Judith Wilks, Robert Martinson, "Is the Treatment of Criminal Offenders Really Necessary?" in Federal Probation, March 1976

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GENERAL

Bundesgesetzblatt, Strafvollzugsgesetz, Federal Republic of Germany, 1976

Council of Europe, Prison Information Bulletin, No 2, Dec« 1983

Council. of Europe, Committee of Ministers, Standard Minimum Rules for the treatment of Prisoners, 1975

Mary Ellen Marsden, Thomas Orsagh, Prison Effectiveness Measurement, Performance of Prisons

Minister of Justice, New Zealand, Report of the Penal Policy Review Committee, 1981

Ministry of Justice, The Hague, The Price of Prisons Compared, 1984

United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners, 1958

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APPENDIX B

REFERENCE SOURCES

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Appendix B Item 1

A BAINTON, AIMS AND TASKS OF PRISON DEPARTMENT ESTABLISHMENTS, 1971

The role of the Prison Service is, first, under the law, to hold those committed to custody (whether on remand, committed for trail, convicted and awaiting sentence or lawfully detained by court order or executive action) and to provide conditions for their detention which are currently acceptable to society. Second, in dealing with convicted offenders, there is an obligation on the Service to do all that may be possible within the currency of the sentence to encourage and assist them to lead a law abiding life on discharge.

2. The Aims of those responsible for custodial care are to ensure that:

(a) the treatment of the inmate is such as to promote and preserve his self-respect;

(h) the harmful effects of removal from normal life are minimised;

(c) the organisation of the institution is such that inmates are encouraged to learn from staff and each other how to adjust in an acceptable way to the demands and pressures of society at large; and

(d) the inmates are prepared for and assisted on discharge.

3. In achieving these aims each institution has the following Tasks:-

(i) to hold each inmate in those conditions of security and supervision which are appropriate to his security category, the nature of his offence, his personality and the stage reached in his sentence;

(ii) to produce inmates at courts at due times and to service the courts;

(iii) to ensure that all inmates are able to exercise their rights and enjoy the privileges appropriate to their location and legal status;

(iv) to ensure that all inmates are protected from their own hostility and that of others, and that others are protected from them;

(v) to ensure that the treatment of inmates makes the most effective use of the accommodation provided and that the scales of food and clothing are used to the greatest advantage;

(vi) to ensure that there is available the means of relieving pain and suffering; a .system of medical care for the diagnosis and treatment of both physical and mental disorders; and specialist knowledge and expertise as required either from within the Service or by reference to the National Health Service facilities;

(vii) to provide for the religious needs of inmates of all denominations;

(viii) to ensure that inmates are, as far as the provision of work allows, suitably employed; and that the organisation of work in the institution fulfils the requirements set by Regional Office and Headquarters;

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(ix) in co-operation with the Probation and After-Care Service to provide support for welfare work in prisons and to ensure that inmates have ready access to social work resources both during sentence and in respect of their needs after their discharge;

(x) to provide, within the scale approved by HQ and as far as local resources allow, a system of education appropriate to the needs of the individual inmate;

(xi) to provide as far as resources allow a full and varied programme of leisure activities;

(xii) to ensure through the organisation of the institution and through staff training that staff understand the nature of the opportunities, demands and conflicts which may arise in institutions so that they are enabled to use them positively in the treatment and control of inmates and at the same time to tolerate the hostility within the situation;

(xiii) to ensure that the management and organisation of establishments is such as to:-

(a) encourage and develop free and open communication between inmates and staff;

(h) enable staff to appreciate the value of maintaining communication between the inmate, his family and outside situations;

(c) provide opportunities for staff to contribute to the assessment of inmates;

(d) establish procedures for the maintenance of documentation and for the making of decisions which affect the inmate's treatment and his progress towards release; and

(e) to ensure that Health and Safety requirements are observed.

(xiv) to organise and maintain any specific treatment and training tasks approved by headquarters; and

(xv) to promote good relationships with people in the neighbourhood to maintain the trust which the public at large should feel in any public institution.

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Appendix B Item 2

Home Office Prison Department, Circular Instruction 55/84, Annex A

PRISONS BOARD STATEMENT OF THE TASK OF THE PRISON SERVICE

The task of the Prison Service is to use with maximum efficiency the resources of staff, money, building and plant made available to it by Parliament in order to fulfil in accordance with the relevant provisions of the law, the following functions:

(i) to keep in custody untried or unsentenced prisoners, and to present them to court for trial or sentence;

(ii) to keep in custody, with such degree of security as is appropriate, having regard to the nature of the individual prisoner and his offence, sentenced prisoners for the duration of their sentence or for such shorter time as the Secretary of State may determine in cases where he has discretion;

(iii) to provide for prisoners as full a life as is consistent with the facts of custody, in particular making available the physical necessities of life; care for physical and mental health; advice and help with personal problems; work, education, training, physical exercise and recreation; and opportunity to practise their religion; and

(iv) to enable prisoners to retain links with the community and where possible assist them to prepare for their return to it.

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Appendix B Item 3

Home Office Prison Department, Circular Instruction 55/84, Annex B

PRISONS BOARD STATEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF PRISON DEPARTMENT ESTABLISHMENTS

CUSTODY OF UNSENTENCED PRISONERS

1. To receive and keep in custody prisoners awaiting trial or sentence, civil prisoners and any other persons lawfully committed to their custody.

2. To release such prisoners from custody on the directions of the court or other lawful authority or when the conditions of bail have been met.

THE COURT COMMITMENT

3. To ensure that prisoners are produced at court as required.

4. To provide the requisite reports and documentation.

5. To provide staff required at the Crown Court and Court of Appeal (Criminal Division) and keep prisoners there in custody.

CUSTODY OF SENTENCED PRISONERS

6. To receive sentenced prisoners and keep them in custody.

T. To calculate and implement release dates.

8. To assess prisoners for the purpose of determining or recommending (a) an appropriate level of security and (b) an appropriate allocation.

9. To keep each prisoner's security category and allocation under regular review. In the case of life sentence prisoners, to maintain regular formal Review Board procedures.

10. To give effect to the provisions relating to parole and release on life licence.

SECURITY, SAFETY AND CONTROL

11. To maintain a level of security appropriate to the prisoners who are or may be held at the establishment.

12. To maintain good order in the interests of the operation of the prison, and take such steps as are necessary for the safety of its staff and inmates.

SERVICES AND FACILITIES FOR PRISONERS

13. To provide in accordance with the statutory provisions and Departmental instructions: (a) accommodation, (b) meals, (c) facilities for personal hygiene and sanitation, (d) clothing, (e) opportunities for exercise and (f) access to privileges.

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14. To provide a service for the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of physical and mental disorders and the promotion of health.

15. To provide help and advice with personal problems.

16. To enable prisoners to practise their religion.

17. To provide, with a view to occupying prisoners as fully as possible throughout the whole week, a balanced and integrated regime, which may include work, education, physical education, access to libraries and individual and collective leisure activities.

18. To enable prisoners to spend the maximum possible time out of their cells.

COMMUNITY LINKS AND PREPARATION FOR RELEASE

19. To enable prisoners to maintain contact with the outside world, and in particular to communicate with their families, friends and legal representatives.

O. To operate the home leave scheme.

21. To assist prisoners to prepare for release, which may include (a) providing such opportunities as are practicable for them to go out into the community on temporary release, (b) providing pre-release courses, and (c) putting prisoners in touch with the probation service and other external agencies.

22. To make arrangements as required for prisoners' after-care.

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1

1

Appendix B Item 4

Report of the Control Review Committee, 1984

Functions and objectives

106. The sheer breadth and complexity of the subject may, as we have suggested, be one reason that has impeded the development of clear goals being set for prisons. Another reason has certainly been the long debate in the prison world about the very purposes of imprisonment which, it is said, must be brought to some conclusion before up-to-date requirements for the work of prisons can be drawn up.

107. Questioning the very foundations of the system seems to us to be healthy and necessary in the special circumstances of the penal world. Practitioners in a prison system need to be more rigorous than most in clearing their minds about the rationale of their work. The system is littered with fragments of discarded theories, but few people would now be able to accept the simple moral imperative of Prison Rule 1* as a complete and unqualified statement of their aims. The older work-dominated view of imprisonment is even more remote. But without some central statement of objectives a policy towards imprisonment is made, by default, in 122 places on the ground every day, and debate of the basic issues has come to seem "a preparation for something that never happens". In order to give some focus to a discussion that we see as healthy, and in order to allow management aims to be projected, we think that it should now be possible to state basic objectives that would command consensus support and we have tried our hands at an illustration of the kind of formula we have in mind.

108. It seems to us that the basic function of the prison system is to keep in custody untried or unsentenced prisoners and to present them to court for trial or sentence; to detain sentenced prisoners as required by law, and to do so (in the interests of management, staff and prisoners themselves) in an orderly fashion. We believe too that it is a fundamental principle that while retribution, deterrence and the protection of the public are all valid grounds for imprisonment, it is imprisonment itself that is the punishment inflicted by law and no further avoidable hardship should be imposed on a prisoner except by way of formal disciplinary action. With that in mind we believe the aim should be to make the most efficient use of the resources available to discharge the stated functions and to pursue the following objectives:

i. to ensure that prisoners' lawful rights are respected; .

ii. to provide, subject to the demands of security, safety and the running of the establishment with necessary order, that the life of a prison should be as close as possible to normal life;

iii. to ensure that the conditions of detention of prisoners are those appropriate, in terms of security, to the nature of the individual prisoner and his offence;

*Rule 1 of the Prison Rules 1964 (1964 SI No 388) states: "The purpose of the training and treatment of convicted prisoners shall be to encourage and assist them to lead a good and useful life".

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iv. to exercise a duty of care for those in custody, in particular by providing the physical necessities of life (including exercise, and access to open air), adequate care for physical and mental health, and opportunities for the exercise of religious, mental and other faculties;

v. to give prisoners the opportunity to participate in a programme of constructive activities to occupy at least the working day; such programmes to consist of activities such as: education, vocational or other training, work, counselling, physical education and recreation;

vi. to enable prisoners to retain links with the community and to assist them in their preparations for return to it.

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LESSON TITLE : Custody, Security and Control Segment 1

LESSON OBJECTIVES : Upon completion of this class, each student will be able to:

1

Appendix B Item 5

FEDERAL BUREAU OF PRISONS, STAFF TRAINING ACADEMY, 1984

LESSON PLAN

INTRODUCTION TO CORRECTIONAL TECHNIQUES

1. List the three primary responsibilities that all correctional workers share:

A. Security B. Programs C. Job Speciality

2. List the three primary reasons/rationale for establishing good custodial practices and procedures:

A. Protection of Society B. Protection of Inmate C. Protection of the inmate from his own

impulses and poor judgement.

3. List three important procedures to follow when handling keys:

A. Upon receipt of keys verify the correct number of keys.

B. Carry keys so they are not visible to inmates.

C. Never lay keys down.

4. List two procedures to follow if a key is lost, misplaced or broken:

A. Report lost, misplaced or broken keys immediately to the shift Lieutenant.

B. Do not leave the broken portion of a key unattended in a lock.

5. List the two categories of tool classification and define each category; and list at least three items in each category:

A. Hazardous - Class A - Definition: Tools most likely to be used in escapes and/or assaults.

(1) Hacksaw Blades (2) Files (3) Crowbars (4) Jacks

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B Non-Hazardous - Class B - Definition: Tools not likely to be used in an escape; used to manufacture or serve as weapons; or are not hazardous to institutional safety or personal safety.

(1) Screwdrivers (2) Hammers (3) Measuring Tapes

6. List the three types of counts made in the Federal Prison System and give a definition of each:

A. Formal Count: A formal or official count is taken at specific times each day. All movement ceases. The count is called in to the Control Center and a signed count slip will be turned in to the Control Center.

B. Census Count: A frequent but irregular check made by the officer to verify that all inmates under their charge are present. They are made during the hours of darkness and between formal counts.

C. Emergency Counts: An official count taken at other than one of the times specified for a regular official count.

7. Define the purpose of counts and be able to list three of the seven rules that apply to counting inmates:

A. Purpose of Counts - Definition: To insure around the clock accountability of all inmates.

B. Basic Counting Principles:

(1) Counts in a dormitory or open type unit must be performed by two staff members.

(2) There should be no movement of inmates. (3) The staff member must see living,

breathing flesh so as not to count a dummy.

(4) The staff member must use a flashlight when counting during hours of darkness.

(5) Staff members counting should remain in area until count has been varified.

(6) While counting staff members should allow nothing short of an emergency to distract them.

(7) Inmates are never allowed to count.

8. Define the purpose of security inspections; and list three of the seven security devices requiring inspection once each shift:

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A. Purpose of Security Inspections: Security inspections are necessary to control the introduction of contraband, to insure the safety and security of the institution, and to prevent escapes.

B. Devices to be inspected each shift:

(1) All detention bars (2) Window sashes (3) Locks (4) Lock boxes (5) Security grills (6) Exits (7) Entrances

9. List and define the three methods of inspection:

IIA. Visual - Definition: An inspection for bent or spread bars, broken welds, cracked or cut bars, any sign of steel filings. Any other evidence of tampering or weakness such as fresh paint or discolored areas will be noted and investigated.

B. Tapping - Definition: Tapping calls for the II use of a rubber or plastic mallet to tap security bars and sashes to set up sound waves which by their deviation from normal would indicate tampering or weakness.

C. Metal Instrument - Definition: A thin metal instrument such as a putty knife can be passed along sashes or bars to locate cuts of depressions which might indicate tampering. The instrument can also be used as a probe between walls and fixtures.

1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

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Appendix B Item 6

FEDERAL BUREAU OF PRISONS, STAFF TRAINING ACADEMY, 1984

LESSON PLAN

INTRODUCTION TO CORRECTIONAL TECHNIQUES

LESSON TITLE : Inmates Are People too!

PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES : At the end of this book of instruction the student will be able to:

1. Describe accurately the main differences between staff and inmates' social and ideological worlds.

A. A basic conflict exists between staff and inmates with stereotypes attributed to each group by the members of the other group.

B. The inmate society is governed by a code into which inmates are pressured: - do your own time - do not cater to officers - be loyal to one another - do not inform on other inmates

- - every man has his price - staff are generally corrupt - do not give anyone a break - nobody will give you a break - trust no one

C. Historically, staff and inmates have tended to alienate themselves from each other by maintaining excessive social distance and communicating minimally.

2. Verbally explain how effective communication facilitates the running of an institution.

A. Communication humanizes the very structured prison environment.

B. By reassuring inmates that "they are people too" we help to preserve their self-esteem.

C. Communicating means controlling inmates without being authoritative.

3. Define the term DEHUMANIZATION:

The process through which an inmate loses his sense of individuality, and begins to see himself as insignificant, unrecognized, and ignored.

4. Define the term INSTITUTIONALIZATION:

The process that occurs during an inmate's incarceration when he accepts institutional routines and regulations to such an extent that he is no longer capable of making independent decisions and controlling his life.

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5. List at least three programs created in the attempt to reduce dehumanization:

A. improved communication skills B. reduced regimentation • C. smaller institutions D. improvements within the facilities E. functional unit management F. furlough policies G. community based programs H. more reasonable rules

6. List at least three techniques for limiting the possibility of dehumanization:

A. treat people with basic respect B. be professional C. individualize D. be consistent E. never lie to or about an inmate.

7. Describe an employee's responsibility for using effective communication skills:

Every employee is expected, as much as possible, to develop a positive, facilitative relationship with inmates.

8. State why work supervisors are normally the most impactful employees in bringing about positive changes in inmates:

A. close daily contact with inmates B. talk the same language as inmates C. frequently have common interests D. work setting provides a common meeting

ground

Appendix B Item 7

Unit Management, Federal Institution Raybrook, 1.984.

5003. MAJOR OBJECTIVES OF UNIT MANAGEMENT

1. To divide large numbers of inmates into well-defined groups, whose members are encouraged to develop a common identity and close association with each other and with unit staff.

2. To increase the frequency of contacts and the quality of relationships between staff and inmates by placing decision-making personnel in proximity to those inmates who are being controlled.

3. To provide observation of inmates, thereby enabling early detection of problems before they reach critical proportions.

4. To improve inmate accountability and control by holding inmates accountable for their own self-control and actions.

5. To provide differential program strategies/interventions for each inmate depending upon his/her needs, ability, and ambitions.

6. To place special emphasis upon each of the following (in particular):

* Institution adjustment * Work skill acquisition and performance * Interpersonal communications * Positive self-esteem * Self-motivation * Problem solving techniques * Realistic goal setting * Education and training * Other life-skill acquisitions

5004. CENTRAL OFFICE ROLE

Unit Management is a function of the Correctional Programs Branch for the Federal Bureau of Prisons. Close coordination is necessary to assure that Unit Management is clearly understood. The following responsibilities are designated to this Branch:

1. Coordinating appropriate unit management training for all unit staff.

2. Coordinating research and evaluation efforts of unit management.

3 Developing policy for unit management throughout the Federal Bureau of Prisons.

4. Monitoring the development and implementation of unit management throughout the Federal Bureau of Prisons via close contact with Regional Administrators, comparative data collection, and periodic visits to the field.

5. Assisting Regional Office Administrators with Regional training projects, staff assistance visits, and problem areas.

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6. Budget/Financial planning responsibilities for unit management.

7. Technical Assistance to State and Local Correctional Departments.

8. Establishing Agency Standards for unit mangement with the Federal Bureau of Prisons.

5005. REGIONAL- OFFICES

Regional Directors are responsible for interpreting and monitoring Unit Management progress and compliance efforts with respect to "agency standards". Appropriate Regional Administrators are responsible for:

1. Conducting management assistance audits and visiting each institution's unit management operations within the region. Copies of all official Program Reviews and audits are to be forwarded to the Correctional Programs Branch in the Central Office within 30 working days of completion (Signed by the Regional Director).

2. Ensuring that all research and evaluation efforts and coordinated with the Research Section in the Central Office. Copies of research and evaluation reports are to be forwarded to the Correctional Programs Branch in the Central Office within 15 working days of completion.

3. Assisting with Unit Manager Training Programs for newly appointed Unit Managers.

4. Providing input in the development of policy regarding unit management.

5. Assuring that Agency data collection efforts are maintained in a timely manner.

6. Maintaining close working relatioships with Correctional Services and other Regional Disciplines.

7. Overseeing the development of Unit Management in all new facilities within the Region.

8. Budget/Financial responsibilities for unit management.

9. Technical Assistance to State and Local Correctional Agencies.

Regional and Central Office Personnel are to meet periodically to review the direction of Unit Management throughout the Federal Bureau of Prisons.

5006. INSTITUTION ADMINISTRATION

Unit Management should result in the delegation of much decision-making authority to Unit Managers which was previously centralized, or which was the responsibility of other departments to Unit Managers. This delegation of authority and unit-delegated autonomy have proven to be absolutely essential to the success of unit management.

5007. WARDENS & CAMP SUPERINTENDENTS

The Unit approach to correctional management does not alter the fact that the Chief Executive Officer of the institution retains final authority and responsibility for all matters occurring within the institution. However, for Unit Management to be fully effective, the Chief Executive Officer must ensure there is an appropriate delegation of authority to the Unit Managers.

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5008. ASSOCIATE WARDENS

Chief Executive Officers will usually delegate supervisory and monitoring responsibilities for unit management to one of the Associate Wardens. Agency standards encourage that the same Associate Warden maintain supervisory responsibility over unit management as well as correctional services (custodial).

The Association Warden shall monitor unit operations to insure consistency in addition to the quality of programes, etc. The Association Warden is to ascertain that the authority and responsibility delegated to the units is effectively managed.

Guidelines, dissemination of policy, and parameters within which the units are to work shall be set forth as part of the leadership responsibilities of the Associate Warden. He/she must assure that the philosophy and policy of the Federal Bureau of Prisons is adhered to, as well as contributing to the total mission of the institution accomplished. These two should not be considered mutually exclusive.

5009. CASE MANAGEMENT SPECIALIST

The Case Management Specialist is a resource person for the administration and staff in case management related areas. As a resource person for the Associate Warden (Programs) the Case Management Specialist assures quality control in Case • Management by reviewing study cases, transfer requests, and all official correspondence emanating from the units for the Chief Executive Officer's signature.

As a resource person to the unit, the Case Management Specialist has no direct supervisory responsibility for unit staff although he/she shall have input on all case manager performance appraisals insofar as technical skills and proficiency are concerns. Case management specialists shall be a part of the case manager promotion and selection processes.

5010. CAPTAIN

Unit managers and Chief Correctional Supervisors (Captains) are expected to maintain a cooperative working relationship, especially since they have overlapping areas of responsibility.

The Captain is the department head whose primary respr,nsibility is the security of the institution. With the unit approach to correctional management, however, some of this responsibility can be properly delegated to unit managers and their staff. This can only be done with prior approval from the administration, which shoùld be in writing and clearly understood by all concerned staff.

When there is a question regarding security matters which affects the unit, and the unit manager and the Captain cannot agree upon a course of action, the Associate Warden will have final authority. Whenever possible, decisions concerning emergency matters regarding a unit should be made jointly by the unit manager and captain. Combining the technical expertise of the captain with the unit manager's first-hand knowledge of his/her unit will enhance the quality of decision-making.

5011. LIEUTENANT

Correctional supervisors (Lieutenants) have delegated authority for institution .security matters in the absence of the captain. These individuals serve as advisors, consultants, and monitors for unit managers in matters pertaining to unit security.

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5012. UNIT MANAGER

The unit manager is the administrator and supervisor of a multi-disciplinary team of staff members who are assigned to work in the unit. As a department head, the unit manager will participate on institution committees, promotion boards, servce as institution duty officer, and perform other related aaministrative functions.

The unit manager has responsibility for all matters pertaining to the unit. Unless otherwise indicated by the Associate Warden, this responsibility will include case management, security, correctional programs, safety, sanitation, and financial management (i.e., when applicable). The unit manager serves as an ongoing advisor to the administration in matters pertaining to inmate management and programs.

In matters of security, the Captain and Unit Manager should consult, and use, each other's expertise to attain adequate security measures. Likewise, there are other department heads whose expertise can be used to develop and maintain other programs and procedures. A cooperative relationship among unit managers and other department heads is essential to insure an effective unit operation overall.

5013. CASE MANAGER

The case manager is directly responsible to the unit manager and has major responsibility for case management matters within the unit. The case manager will assist in other unit operations as directed by the unit manager.

Supervision, training, and technical assistance for the unit case manager is the responsibility of the unit manager (see case management specialist, Section 5009). These responsibilities cannot be delegated to others except when the case management specialist or senior case manager is used by the unit manager to assist with the training and technical development of the case manager. The degree of case management technical assistance required by each unit may be related to the level of case management expertise the unit manager and case manager possess.

5014. COUNSELLOR

The correctional counsellor's primary responsibility is the counselling of inmates. This may include formal, unplanned counselling and formal group and/or individual counselling. Other duties will be designated by the unit manager. However, it is expected that counselling and direct availability to unit inmates will consume the vast majority of each correctional counsellor's time.

The correctional counsellor's work shall be scheduled by the unit manager and counsellors are not to be removed from their work assignments by other institution staff without prior consultation and permission from the unit manager. In the unit manager's absence, this permission must be obtained from the Associate Warden with functional responsibility over unit management. Emergency situations such as escapes, riots, and evacuation are exceptions to the above.

5015. UNIT SECRETARY

The unit secretary should be permanently assigned to the unit. The duties are mainly those of a clerical/secretarial nature. Unit managers may elect to broaden the secretary's duties to include participation in unit team meetings or

118

unit disciplinary committee meetings or other unit activities when these duties are within the scope of the position description and do not conflict with his/her primimary clerical/secretarial responsibilities.

5016. UNIT CORRECTIONAL OFFICER

Unit officers should be regularly assigned to a given unit for not less than nine months, even though he/she may be rotated in the unit (between shifts). Correctional officers will assume primary responsibility for unit security and sanitation as well as other duties which are essential to carrying out rules and regulations applicable to that unit. Beyond this, correctional officers will communicate freely with other unit staff and may be called upon to perform additional duties as long as they do not interfere with those which have been determined to be primary; i.e., custody, security and control. Unit managers shall ensure maximum input is received from correctional officers who are assigned to the unit.

5017. EDUCATION ADVISOR

The education advisor is the unit team's consultant in all education/vocational training matters. This person is ordinarily permanently assigned to one or more unit teams, and is to ensure that all inmates are properly tested and informed of available education opportunities. The education advisor is also responsible for monitoring and evaluating the progress of unit inmates involved in education programs, and is to provide counselling in education matters on an as needed basis.

5018. UNIT PSYCHOLOGIST

This person is responsible for the performance of diagnostic, therapeutic, research, educational, and evaluative functions relating to psychological services. The psychologist plans, organizes, participates, and provides professional expertise for unit counselling programs. This function includes the assessment of inmate needs and the design of corresponding programs to meet specific needs.

All unit psychologists should work under the "technical" supervision of the chief psychologist even though their general day-to-day supervision may be provided by the unit manager insofar as unit-related issues are concerned. This is especially true for psychologists who are assigned to one of the Bureau's drug abuse units (Refer to Drug Abuse Unit Section 5041). The amount of supervision provided to the psychologist (by the unit manager) is wholly dependent upon whether the psychologist is assigned to the unit on a full-time basis.

119

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

John Howard Society A-4 Temporary Absence Program M-2 Induction Program Community Awareness Drug Study Group Jaycees Salavation Army Visits & Correspondence Alienated Youth Canada Manpower Bridge Club

- Gavel Club Zzoommm Group Creative Job Search Inside-Out Society of B.C. Matsqui Sumas Abbotsford Community Services Inmate Family Group Open House Social Group Transcental Meditation Leadership Group December Group Band Optimum Club Link-Up Program Quo Vadis Society of B.C.

TOTAL - 28 Program

VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Cooking Course Electrician Course Graphics Art Barbershop General Shop Related Training (Vocational) Welding (Metal Training) Auto Body Repair Carpentry Drafting Search & Rescue

Appendix B Item 8

Solicitor General of Canada, Programmes in Federal Corrections, 1976 ,

MASTER LISTS OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS

Master List 1 (a)

PACIFIC REGION: TITLE AND NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Alcoholics Seven Step Society Ontology Couples Group Psychiatric Services Psychological Services Transactional Analysis Group Therapy X-Kalay Foundation Group Therapy Marriage Counselling Phase Group II Contact Communication Group Native Alcoholics Anonymous Social Work Program Acute Psychiatric Program Heroin Addict Re-Direction Program Insight Directed Sex Reorientation Program Existential Therapy

Extended Care Program Lifeline Behaviour Modification Sex Reorientation Program Psychiatric Therapy Behaviour Modification Counselling Services Forensic Services

TOTAL _ 25 Programs

ACADEMIC DEVELOPMENT

University Course Graduate Art Class Music Group Correspondence Learning Literacy for Adults Computer Course Psychology Course Lecture Series in Individual Courses

TOTAL - 10 Programs

120

Master List 1(a)

PACIFIC REGION: TITLE AND NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS

VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (Contd)

INDUSTRIAL DÈVELOPMENT

Stock Car Group Harrison Lake Group Winslow Creek Camp Canvas Shop Upholstery Shop Machine Shop Paint Finish Shop Wood Products Shop Tryke Project Drill Project Adventure Playground Silk Screening Textile Manufacturing Nelof Study Improvement Group Industrial Arts Program Toba Inlet Forestry Program Camp Bernard Project Beecher Bay Project Industrial Cabinet Shop

TOTAL - 21 Programs

ENTERTAINMENT

Movie Group Recreation Program

TOTAL - 2 Programs

COMMUNICATION AND MANAGEMENT

Living Unit Program Classification Services Inmate Committee Video West Tarpaper The Shrink

TOTAL - 6 Programs

Occupational Therapy Mason & Plastering Course Hairstyling

TOTAL - 15 Programs

CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

Indian, Metis Education & Cultural Group Arts & Crafts Francophone Group Indian Education Group Native Hobby Craft

TOTAL - 7 Programs

SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT

Christian Group Religious Services (Protestant - Catholic)

Choir Jehovah Witness Divine Light Mission Phase Group 1 Native Hour Ukrainian Church Service Bible Study

TOTAL - 9 Programs

OCCUPATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Food Services Clerical Services Painting Plumbing Laundry Stores Cleaners Garbage Detail Grounds Runner Slash Crew General Construction Hospital Boiler Room Maintenance Engineers Dental Laboratory

121

Master List 1(a)

PACIFIC REGION: TITLE AND NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS

OCCUPATION DEVELOPMENT (Contd) -

Institutional Services Recreation Gang Mail Carrier Canteen

TOTAL - 20 Programs

OTHERS

Transactional Analysis Experimental Pilot Project

Zzoommm Pilot Project & Evaluation Project

Exceptional Children's Program Research Program

TOTAL - 4 Programs

122

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT .

Alcoholics Anonymous Psychological Services Psychiatric Services Add Can Group Seven Step Society Hopewell Group Native Counselling Services Henwood Better Life Group Discussion Group Drug Group Native Alcoholism Council Therapeutic Group Native Alcoholism Council Group X-Kalay Foundation

TOTAL - 14 Programs

ACADEMIC DEVELOPMENT

TOTAL - 12 programs

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT

Industrial Cabinet Shop Metal Shop Furniture Finishing Upholstery Graphic Arts Tailor Shop Canvas Shop Paint Shop Machine Shop Welding Neegan Project Carpentry Shop

TOTAL - 12 Programs TOTAL - 18 Programs

Master List 1(b)

PRAIRIE REGION: TITLE AND NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS

Visits and Correspondence Salvation Army John Howard Society Temporary Absence Life Skills New Experience Group Contact Group Gavel Group John Howard Society Volunteer Visitor Program

Teens & Twenties Youth Group Visitation Group Re-entry Club Chess Club Drama Club Bridge Club Native Women's Referral Service Information Unlimited Toastmasters Bridge Club with Parapalegics Lifers Group Canada Manpower Counselling Group . United Church Halfway House Group Citizen Discussion Group Inmate Socials Frank Discussion

VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Plumbing Barber and hairstyling Electrician Carpentry (frame house construction) Auto Body Electronics Driver Training Creative Job Search Related Training Division Canada Manpower Outreach Project Bricklaying Stationary Engineer (Theory) Boiler Oxy Acetylene Welding (Theory) Welding Auto Mechanics (Theory) and repair Forestry Architecture Drafting Mechanical Drafting Treeplanting and piling

Basic Literacy for Adults Upgrading (grades 5-10) Secondary School (11-12) Business Administration University and High School Correspendence Courses Music Instruction TOTAL - 25 programs University Non-Credit & Certificate Programs Graduat Equivalency Diploma Creative Writing Education Development Lab Photography Element de language anglaise

123

ENTERTAINMENT

Films Quet Games Library Band Participation Film Discussion Group

TOTAL - 5 Programs

COMMUNICATIONS AND MANAGEMENT

Inmate Committee Classification Inside News Inmate Sports Committee Welfare Committee Norkel Newspaper Inmate Orientation Inmate Newspaper Legal Aid Communicator Inmate Toastmasters Magazine Inside-Outside Inmate Newspaper Terminator Inmate Newspaper Living Unit Program

TOTAL - 13 Programs

Master List 1(b)

PRAIRIE REGION: TITLE AND NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS

CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

School Program Hobbycraft, Arts & Crafts Vanier Group Native Brotherhood Society Music, Photography & Drama Groups Indian Liaison Officer West Flat Art Club Cree Class Theatrical Work Shop Pent House Players Pow Wow Sketch Class Winnipeg Art Gallery Discussion Group

Music Appreciation

TOTAL - 14 Programs

SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT

Religious Services Volunteer Groups - First Baptist Emmanuel Koinpnia Glee Club Cursillo Christopher Leadership Courses Scripture Study Group Religious Films Bible Class Protective Custody Group Hebrew Class Chapel Choir Salvation Army Jehovah Witness Native Bible Study Prayer Group Bible Correspondence Courses Indian Alliance Bible Class

TOTAL - 19 Programs

124

Master List 1(b)

PRAIRIE REGION: TITLE AND NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS

OCCUPATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

1

Stationary Engineer Barber Laundry Clerical Services Kitchen Carpenters Painters Ornamental Grounds Electricians Plumbers Janitorial (cleaners) Automotive Maintenance Sheet Metal Works Heavy Equipment Operator Steers Piggery Slaughter House & Poultry Gardening & Vegetable Storage Dairy Operation Operation, care & maintenance of Farm Machinery Incinerator (garbage detail)

TOTAL - 21 Programs

OTHERS

125

Master List 1(c)

ONTARIO REGION: TITLE AND NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Temporary Absence Program Group Meeting (Montgomery Centre) Pre-Release Programs Alcoholics Anonymous Classification Services Circle Group Drop-In Centre Drug Group Psychiatric Services Psychological Services Awareness Group Discussion Group Group Therapy Elizabeth Fry Society Out-Patient Service Special Treatment Program Alcoholism & Drug Addiction program

TOTAL - 17 Programs

ACADEMIC DEVELOPMENT

Georgian Loyalist and St Lawrence College Courses

Business Administration Business School Training Polytechnical University Courses Correspondence Courses Social Studies Group Academic Upgrading Loyalist College Extension Program English as a Second Language (EASL)

TOTAL - 10 Programs

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT

Carpentry Shop Paint Shop Upholstery Welding Sheet Metal Tailor Shop Gym Shop Print Shop Cabinet Making Shop Sewing Room

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Umpring Program Discussion Group Les Ateliers Dominique, Project 2407

Ten Plus Effective Speaking Group Allied Indian Metis Society (AIMS) Chess Club Betterment of Us (BUS) Visits & Correspondence Bridge Club Springboard Program Upstart Program Music Groups Quarter Century Club Women's Centre Salvation Army (Motel) Street Haven Elizabeth Fry Society (Guests) John Howard Society Visiting Program

John Howard Society Discussion Group Life Skills Program Sociotherapist Service Service Club Involvement Jaycees Creative Development

TOTAL - 25 Programs

VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Accident Prevention Forestry Tehcniques Stationary Engineering Projectionist Course St. John's Ambulance Course Barbershop & Hairstyling Office Machine Repair Carpentry Shop Motor Vehicle Mechanics Plumber Shop Metal Work Shop & Welding Electronics Shop Related Training (Vocational) Sign Painting Machine Shop Auto Body Shop Construction Occupational Therapy Wood Working

126

COMMUNICATION AND MANAGEMENT

Citizen Advisory Committee Inmate Committee Avator (Newspaper) Allied Group Induction Program Inmate Newspaper Inter-Agency Committee Tightwire House meetings Changing Time Orientation Program The Outlook Living Unit Program Admissions Committee

TOTAL - 14 Programs

Master List 1(c) '

ONTARIO REGION: TITLE AND NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT (Contd)

Canvas Shop Mail Bag Repair & Production Shoe Repair Fruit Picking Community Works Program

TOTAL - 15 Programs

ENTERTAINMENT

Music program Library Services Films Concerts Music Group (Charitable) Bridge & Card Tournament Leather Works Copper Works Petitpoint Carving

TOTAL - 10 Programs

VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (Contd)

Beauty Parlour Audio-Visual Training Aids Pre-Employment (Wood) Pre-Employment (Metal)

TOTAL - 23 Programs

CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

Native Brotherhood French Group Hobbycraft Arts & Crafts Ceramics Class Music Instruction & Apreciation Black Culture Group Native Sisterhood

TOTAL - 7 Programs

SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT

Chaplaincy Program Mormon Group Jehovah Witness Bible Study Group Frankl Group Rover Group Hebrew Group Salvation Army Scripture Group Prayer Group Cursillo Religious Services

TOTAL - 12 Programs

OCCUPATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Farm Services Regional Warehouse and Stores Institutional Maintenance Services Carpenters Masons Painters Sheet Metal - General Labour Power Plant Electricians

127

Master List 1(c)

ONTARIO REGION TITLE AND NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS .

OCCUPATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (Contd)

Plumbers Ornamental Grounds Kitchen Institutional Cleaners Hospital Forestry Gangs Institutional Laundry Room

TOTAL - 17 Programs

OTHERS

128

Master List 1(d)

QUEBEC REGION: TITLE AND NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Alcoholics Anonymous Groups Sex Education Course Classification Services Group Therapy Cine-criminologie Cine-participation Encounter Group Yoga Group Meditation Group Toastmaster Group Group of Inmates with Life Sentences Solitaire Group Inter-personal Group Dynamics Therapy Group on the Various Stages of AA Office for the Prevention & Treatment of Alcohol & Other Addiction (OPTAT)

TOTAL - 15 Programs

ACADEMIC DEVELOPMENT

Academic Correspondence Course Technical Correspondence Course Elementary Courses Secondary Courses First Year CEGEP Introduction to Psychology Photography Course University Courses Commercial Correspondence Courses English Courses Humanities Correspondence Courses Remedial Literature Couse Course - Job Finding Technique Creative Writing Umpiring Clinics

TOTAL - 16 Programs

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT

Sheet Metal Work Machinist Welding Cabinet Making Painting (Wood & Metal) Tailors

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Bridge Club Chess Club Contact Group Visits & Correspondence Volunteer Visitors Temporary Absences Group Discussions Oasis Eureka Illot Meetings on Sports Evening Social Gathering Pre-parole Maison St-Laurent, St Hubert, St Edouard

Salvation Army Freedom Group Societe d'Orientation et de Rehabilitation Sociale (SORS)

Community Visits John Howard Society Visits - Contacts Foyer Notre-Dame St Lawrence Residence Christian Action Group St Hubert (CCC) Greater Wisdom Group St Edouard Residence Challenge Group Contacts River South Group

TOTAL - 27 Programs

VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Bricklaying & Masonry Woodworking Carpentry Men's Hairstyling Auto Body Repair Electricity Electronics Date Processing Auto Mechanics Plumbing & Heating Welding Related Training (Vocational) Sheet Metal Work Horticulture Visits to Industry Course in Farm Machinery Stationary Engineering

129

Master List 1(d)

QUEBEC REGION: TITLE AND NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS

INDUSTàIAL DEVELOPMENT (Cont'd)

Shoe ghop Canvas Work Repair of Metal Objects Packing Upholstery Metal Tubing Bookbinding Tile Work Warehouse Work Brush and Broom Workshop Preparation for Working World

TOTAL - 17 Programs

ENTERTAINMENT

Vacations Films and Programs Cine Club Library Variety Shows Music Record Library Music Class

TOTAL - 7 Programs

COMMUNICATIONS AND MANAGEMENT

Laval Free Press Inmate Committee Living Unit Program La Lueur Halfway House Committee Institution Radio Station Association Recreative et Culturelle

D'Aide aux Detenus (ARCAD) Legal Aid Conwansville Newspaper Le Resident Le Noëud Pilot Project NPS/CPS

TOTAL - 12 Programs

VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (Cont'd)

Painting Pre-Employment (Metal) Pre-Employment (Wood) Pasteurization

TOTAL - 20 Programs

CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

Art Class Library Dance Class Art History Painting Lessons Guitar Lessons Festival 74 Wood Carving Ceramics Handicraft Course Literature Course Educational Lectures

TOTAL - 12 Programs

SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT

Choir Audio-Visual Presentation Religious Services Prayer Meetings Shalom Group Comprehension Group Catechism Lessons Spiritual Dynamic Discussion Group

TOTAL - 8 Programs

OCCUPATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

On-the-job Training (Services) Linen Services Cleaning Services Ground Crews Clerks Maintenance Crews Kitchen Garage Electricians

" 130

Mantmr Lint 1(d)

QUEBEC REGION: TITLE AND NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS

OCCUPATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (Contd)

Plumbers Masonry Carpenters Sheet Metal Welding Painters

TOTAL - 14 Programs

OTHERS

131

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Family Visits Encounter Simsoc Jaycees Leadership in Action Life Skills Youth Speak Visits & Correspondence Temporary Absence Prescription Programming M - 2 Drama Club Salmonier Correctional Camp AA Reception Therapeutic Community Cine-Club Con-Action

TOTAL - 17 Programs

VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Barber & Hairstyling Small Engine Welding Auto Body Oil Burner Plumbers Bricklaying Automobile Repair Carpentry General Shop Forestry Technician Related Training (Vocational)

TOTAL - 11 Programs

ENTERTAINMENT

Chess Club Films Variety Shows Bingo Library

Black Inmate Association Arts & Crafts Ceramic Hobbycraft (Painting) Native Brotherhood

TOTAL - 5 Programs TOTAT - 5 Programs

Master List 1(e)

ATLANTIC REGION: TITLE AND NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

klcoholics Anonymous Group Therapy Behaviour Therapy Phychiatric Services Psychological Services Classification Services Family Visits Encounter Group Concern Greatful Group

TOTAL - 9 Programs

ACADEMIC DEVELOPMENT

University Courses Correspondence Courses Adult upgrading Basic Literacy for Adults Agricultural Field Trips Graduate Equivalency Diploma Tests Basic Training and Skills Development

TOTAL - 7 Programs

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT

Shoe Shop Upholstery Tailor Shop Machine Shop Canvas Shop Woodworking Metal Fabrication Paint Finishing

TOTAL - 8 Programs

CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

13 2

Master List 1(e)

ATLANTIC REGION: TITLE AND NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS

COMMUNICATIONS AND MANAGEMENT SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT .

Inmate Jehovah Witness Echo Religious Study Group Living Unit Program Religious Services (Protestant Communicator and RC Citizens Advisory Committee Castalia (Yoga)

TOTAL - 5 Programs TOTAL - 4 Programs

OCCUPATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Mason Sheet Metal Dome Cleaners Clerical Work Carpenter Paint Shop Food Services Electrical Boiler Room Forestry Program Farm Training Dairy Herdsman Piggery Herdsman & Abatoir Horticulturist Small Engine Repair Poultry Keeper Mechanics & Welding Pasteurization Plant Operation Cattle Showing Laundry Institutional Services Garage Plumbers Ornamental Labour Gangs Service Plant Hospital Project Golf Course Project

TOTAL - 28 Programs

OTHERS

133

APPENDIC C

VISITS and ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

13)4

C.

D.

E.

A.

A

Appendix C

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report could not have been written without the help and co-operation of a

large number of individuals and organisations in Canada, the United t;tates of

America and Sweden, ai] or whom, without exception, went out or their way to help

me understand how their own Service worked and the nature of their own individual

ontribution.

I spoke with many Headquarters, Regions and Establishments, too numerous to name.

I thank them all for their help, interest and friendship and Cor ensuring, often at

great personal inconvenience, that I was taken, sometimes vast distance, to keep

to an over tight schedule.

In this country thanks are due to many colleagues in the Prison Service and

Inspectorate: to my wife Sally and our children for coping with my extended

absences from home, and to Silvia Casale whose advice and practical assistance

in helping me collate and complete this report was invaluable.

ORGANISATIONS AND ESTABLISHMENTS VISITED

United States of America

Federal Bureau of Prisons

National Institute of Corrections, Washington

FM(, ral Bureau of PriL;ons, 'IS Department of justice, Washington

North Central Regional Office, Federal Bureau of' Pri:-,ons, Kansas City, Missol

United States Penitentiary, Leavenworth, Kansas

Federal Correctional Institution, Raybrook, New York State

B. âmerican Correctional Association, Rockville, Marylano

New York State, Department of Correctional Services

Department of Correctional Services, HQ, Albany,New York State

Watertown Correctional Facility, Dry Hill, Watertown

Clinton Correctional Facility, Dannemora, New York State

Albany State Jail and Penitentiary

Oregon State Correctional Institution, Salem, Oregon

Canada

Correctional Service of Canada

Correctional Service of Canada, Headquarters, Ottawa

Kingston Penitentiary, Ontario

Regional Headquarters, Ontario Region, Kingston, Ontario

Regional Headquarters, Pacific Region, Abbotsford, British Columbia

Mission Institute, British Columbia

R. Metrowest Detention Centre, Ontario Correctional Service

135

C. Province of British Columbia, Corrections Branch

Regional Office, Vancouver Region

Inspection and Standards Division

Vancouver Detention Centre

D. Canadian Criminal Justice Association Congress, Vancouver

Sweden

Kriminalvardsanstalten, National Prison and Probation Administration, Norrhoping

Kriminalvardsanstalten Mariefred, Closed National Prison

Kriminalvardsanstalten Osteraker, Closed National Prison

Taby Correctional Institution

APPENDIX D

GLOSSARY of TERMS

137

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

accreditation evaluative process to which U.S and Canadian prison establishments may voluntarily submit; The Commission on Accreditation for Corrections assesses establishments against the ACA code of standards and certifies establishments which meet the approved levels

activity the planned use of prison time

benchmark a level of performance measurement

correctional facility prison establishment (U.S.A)

dynamic security the approach to safety for the public (preventing escapes) and safety for the prison (internal control) which recognizes that both are only really possible through the relationship between staff and inmates. Dynamic security is knowing what is going on in an establishment in addition to providing a safe and secure background against which the whole range of activity making up the life of a prison takes place

efficiency maximum achievement of aims with the minimum of resources .

executive staff committee equivalent in U.S. of English Prisons Board

kriminalvardsanstalt prison establishment (Sweden)

performance indicator measure of work carried out

relationship effective interaction between individuals (all the combinations of people within the organisation)

138

APPENDIX E

GLOSSARY of ABBREVIATIONS

139

GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS

ACA American Correctional Association

CI - Circular Instruction (Prison Department)

CJA Criminal Justice Association (Canada)

COAFC Commission on Accreditation for Corrections (USA)

CRC Control Review Committee

CSC Correctional Service of Canada

DRSMU Director of Regimes and Services Management Unit

ESMRs European Standard Minimum Rules

NIC National Institute of Corrections (U.S. Department of Justice)

NIJ National Institute of Justice (U.S. Department of Justice)

RPU Home Office Research and Planning Unit

UNICOR U.S. federal prison industries

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EDUCATION FOR WHAT?

Curriculum, Pedagogy and Program Objectives

Stephen Duguid 2nd International Conference on Prison Education

Wadham College, Oxford

September 1989

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2

The marriage of education with incarceration is fraught with both conflict

and potential. Education perceived as a liberating, empowering force for

individual growth and change inevitably clashes with the more restrictive and

dependency-producing nature of the prison while at the same time giving life

and substance to the prison's mandate to assist with rehabilitation and re-

integration. At the extreme poles of the spectrum we may advocate education

as a right due to all citizens and thus an end in itself or, conversely, education as

an integral part of prison management, administration and mission. Norman

Jepson posed the choic e as follows:

Is the purpose of Education Services' entry (to the prison) simply to

provide a programme akin to that outside the prison -- part of the

normalization of prison -or is it also to cater specifically for the needs

of the prisoner per se and/or to reflect the concern about the future

behaviour of the criminal.

Whichever choice or direction one takes has implications for curriculum and

for program structure. I propose that a case can be made for an approach to

prison education which respects the essence of education being the process of

discovering, acquiring and developing individual skills, abilities and

perspectives while at the same time recognizing that in prison this involves an

appreciation of the special needs of prisoner-students, the special context of the

school-in-prison and the special social/behavioural expectations which society

may impose.

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PART I. The Corrections Problem: Crime and Recidivism

We start on common ground with some basic facts and statistics, a shared

context and a set of problems that are global in their extent. With the continued

spread of modernity and its accompanying urbanization, value relativity,

economic disparities and social dislocations, criminal activity remains a

powerful and possibly growing individual and corporate response to reality .

Crime rates vary with demography and the state of economy and the range of

criminal activities alters with the seasons and the evolution of culture, but on the

whole it is an increasing realiry in our lives, growing in complexity, in violence

and in extent.

We dont apprehend a very large percentage of the people who commit

crimes. but OUT prisons are nonetheless full, and that's a second area of common

ground. We worlc in over-crowded conditions and our students have to live in

those same conditions. As citizens and as taxpayers we are also aware of the

tremendous costs associated with imprisonment: £13,100/year in the United

Kingdom to keep a person in prison. 1 and $34,300 per year in Canada. 2

Finally, we know that for many of our students the gate to the outside is really

just a revolving door. A 1987 study by the U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics

found that 69% of the 11,300 parolees in 22 states were re-arrested for more

than 36,000 new felonies or serious misdemeanors within six years. 3 Other

studies cite very similar rates, with a 50% rate of return being the usual

minimum for any group of parolees.

NAC.R.0 Briefing, The Cost of Penal Measures, May 1988. 2 Canadian Social Trends. Summer 1987. 3 Reported in the Stage, Columbia, South Carolina, 25 May 1987.

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4

We also know that once arrested and imprisoned, the odds increase

dramatically that re- aimst and re-imprisonment will occur. On the one hand

our police arrest only the small percentage of criminals dumb or unlucky

enough to gct caught and our courts convict and sentence a higher percentage of

those unable to acquire skilled lawyers. The time spent in prison can be

decisive in terrns of character and attitude. On the one hand, a prison stay can

result more in skills acquisition than in lessons learned, the parolee leaving a

potentially more embittered and highly skilled criminal than when he entered.

On the other hand, the prison is structured to create dependency, to 'infantalize'

or take away decision-making and thus to release into society individuals unable

to cope with what for most are the normal pressures of everyday life,

This is the 'Corrections Problem' and at the same time ic is our collective

problem as citizens. How we wish this to relate to our vocation as 'educators',

however, is quite another matter. For good or ill, education, both academic and

vocational, has in the past been linked to the corrections agenda and measured,

evaluated and judged according to their criteria.

PART JL Education, Treatment and Trades Training

There are no simple solutions to the problems of crime, recidivism and

rehabilitation and we should know because we've tried them all at one time or

another. Education, Treatment and Trades Training have all had their day in

the sun and have all come up wanting. Vv'ithin the context of looking at our

objectives it will be useful to see where we have been.

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5

In the 18th century, an age of enlightenment and belief in progress and

virtue, education was the key to employing reason in order to realize our truely

'good' and beneficent natures. Building on these ideas, 19th century Victorian

moralists could assert confidently that: "...pauperism and crime prevail in

proportion to the absence of education amongst the labouring classes"I When

faced with rising crime rates and improved public education, the argument

turned to advocating specific kinds of education, asserting even that education

without strong moral content will in fact cause crime. In our time the

experience of 20th century civilized totalitarianism has driven home the lesson

that , to quote Christopher Lucas, "However much logic and commonsense

insist on a connection between knowledge and morality, or learning and

character, experience suggests that the tie...may be tenuous at best..There are no

guarantees that precepts will inform action, that sensibility confers civility, or

that wisdom issues from erudition." 2 In prison education there have always

been high hopes that education will bring about decisive changes in attitude,

values, literacy or vocation, but little evidence that education narrowly

conceived can achieve these ends.

Treatment has had an even more disillusioning history, perhaps because

its claims were so much more extravagant. "Reformation through

indiVidualized treatment " and "...treatment services which are • ..directly aimed

at altering the criminals' personalities" was the goal as Donald Cressey

described it in 1960. 3 Professionals were hired by prison systems to diagnose

each inmate's needs, prescribe the treatment and see that it was provided. By

1 Edgerton Ryerson, cited by Harvey Graff in Literacy and Criminality. 2 Christopher Lucas, Liberal Learning and the Humanities, Journal of General Education, v.36:1, 1984 3 Donald Cressey, Limitations on Organization of Treatment in the Modern Prison, Theoretical Studies in

Social Organization of the Prison, Social Science Research Council, 1960.

4

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6

1978, Robert Ross in his review of correctional programs could say, with some

acerbity, that the treatment cra had done little more than "...modify our

language, aid in the documentation of the failure of corrections, engender major

role conflict for criminal justice personnel, and increase the cost of preparing

the offender to recidivate to his correctional home» More recently Ian

Dunbar pointed out in his review of programs in the English prison system that

by relying solely on recidivism reduction as a measure of success, "the

treatment model is an example of how an objective that is not demonstrably

attainable is bound to fall into disrespect." 2 It vvas simply impossible to prove a

linlcage between treatment and post-release behaviour.

The issue of vocational or trades training would seem to be more

straight-forward. Responding to the social science analysis of crime prevalent

in the last twenty years, the criminal is perceived as being victimized by

poverty, racism, and poor education, all this leading to unemployment or

under-employment and hence to crime. 3 Imprisonment becomes an opportunity

to teach a trade and give the individual a new lease on life. Unfortunately,

research indicates that only about 20% ever use their prison training in

subsequent employment. 4

Robert Ross, Behavioral Approaches to Treatment in Corrections: Requiem for a Panacea", Canadian Journal of Criminology, v.20:2, 1978. See also his text, Effective Correctional Treatment, Toronto, Butterworths, 1980. Ian Dunbar, A Sense of Direction, Prison Deparunent, Home Office, 1985 As Jean Harris says in her observations of her fellow prisoners, "Every woman here who did whatever she did,

had a reason for doing it. Sometimes it was irrationid and unplanned, sometimes it was premeditated Whichever was the case, I believe...she was strongly influenced, directly or indirectly, by economic considerations. She may have been hungry or frantic or angry or frustrated or just plain greedy, but money touched the offense in some way. The fact that prisons are, and always have been, filled with the poor instead of the rich is not simply a great cosmic coincidence. Stranger in Two Worlds (New York: Macmillan) 1986.

Earl Schaeffer, A Follow-Up Study of Vocational Education Graduates from the Ohio Central School System during 1979, Proceedings, 39th International Correctional Education Association conference, 1984; Morgan Lewis, Prison Education and Rehabilitation: Illusion or Reality?,

2

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7

Even more disturbing are reports that employment acquisition is not the

real problem anyway, but rather employment retention and even the will to be

employed at all is the central issue. After reviewing major research studies in

Minnesota, Oklahoma, Michigan and from the National Council on Crime and

Delinquency Research Center, Dennis Anderson notes the following general

conclusions:

1. Attitudes toward the work situation are more important than skills.

2. Training programs in the period prior to release are ineffective.

3. Employment status has little relationship to post-release success.

4. Employers identified absenteeism, alcohol and drugs as the major problems

of ex-offenders as employees - absenteeism being #1. 1

In a similar study, Robert Homant found that in a group of 145 randomly

selected juveniles, 96% were employed at least once within the first year after

release, but at any one time the group had an unemployment rate of 55%. A

third lost their jobs due to "unfavourable dismissals", but the majority left

because they could not get along with boss or co-workers or could not conform

to the work schedule. 2 This may indicate a need for more emphasis on 'life

skills', workshops on 'anger management' and counselling sessions on tolerance,

but it could also be indicative of a deeper 'dispositional' or attitudinal problem

Institute for Research on Human Resources, Pennsylvania State University, 1973: Otto Feinstein, A Humanities-Based Curriculum for Working Adults, Wayne State University, 1979

Dennis Anderson, The relationship between correctional education and parole success, Journal of Offender Counselling, v.5:3-4, 1981. lames Reinhardt comments that. "1 am impressed by the poor employment histories of a very large proportion of prison inmates, but no so much u by the amount of useful craftsmanship these men have thrown away or turned to ignoble ends. Metal fabricators, welders, tailors, cooks, shoe- makers, farmers, repairmen and carpenters abound in prison." Prison Education As An Aid to Therapy, International Journal of Offender Therapy, v.12:3, 1968, p.113.

Robert Homant, Employment of Ex•Offenders: The Role of Prisonization and Self Esteem, Journal of Offender Counselling, Services and Rehabilitation, v.8:3, 1984. See also, Michelle Sviridoff and James Thompson, Links between employment and crime: A qualitative study of Rikers Island releasees, Crime and Delinquency, v.29:2,1983.

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8

which transcends the issue of skill acquisition, is immune to treatment and is too

complex for basic education.

All the usual solutions, tricks and prescriptions, then, have failed to

address the problem in any systematic way. The men, women and young people

we face in our prison classrooms have proven too complex or their problems

too manifest for the usual approaches. Formal education, standard therapy and

counselline, and skills acquisition have been well-received, but have not been

the hoped for decisive intervention in the lives of the individuals caught up in

crime. If, and it is still an open question, we wish to be concerned with

outcomes beyond credits earned, adjustments made or trades mastered, then we

must examine more deeply the nature of our problem, and that examination

starts with our students.

Prisoners are individuals first and foremost, complex in their own right,

a mixture of attitudes, desires, attributes, dispositions, values, skills and powers.

Secondarily, prisoners are part of an authoritarian system or structure which

shapes, represses, punishes and rewards according to its own sense of mission

and purpose and its own bureaucratic imperatives. Thirdly, prisoners are part

of a unique social group, disproportionately coming from racial minorities,

poor and working class backgrounds, with truncated formal education and all

too often chaotic domestic histories. Finally, prisoners are actors, individuals

who in taking action in the world have done something which involved stepping

outside the accepted mies, perhaps even declaring war on society.'

I This was Jean-Jacques Rousseau's notion of the criminal, someone who had 'declared war on society', in the Social Contract.

1

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91

PART III. An Agenda for Prison Education

We have a complex task as prison educators. By combining these two

words we imply more, I would suggest, than merely educators who happen to

teach in prison. The combination is recognition that there is something unique I

about this kind of education, unique in the same sense that 'adult' education is

different from 'primary' or 'post-secondary' education. Our task is to

recognize and identify the particular objectives of prison education and while

pursuing them make very sure they are compatible with the generic values and I

objectives of education per se.

This is far too complex a pictures to investigate fully in one session, bull

would like to suggest some of the educational objectives we might want to

consider in thinking about our students, their backgrounds, needs, deficiencies'

qualities and prospects. These objectives will affect our choice of pedagogy and

curriculum, our selection of staff and our method of program e ■, uluation. Thil

should as well, I will argue, be central to any good education program whethe

in prison, community centre or university.

Such a list of objectives is highly dependent on the assumptions and even*

ideology of the speculator. For me they include the following (1) the role off

choice and decision-making; (2) the issue of self-esteem and confidence; (3)

cognitive abilities and skills; and finally (4) the importance of social

engagement.

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(1) Decision-Making

Behind the education, treatment and vocational models lay a set of more

or less 'grand theories' about why the students/subjects were in jail, assumptions

which we may presume were somewhat in error given the failure of the models .

The search for origins is probably a sterile quest, the thread of causation being

too deeply embedded in individual pasts. John Wideman in his autobiographical

Brothers and Keepers, put it this way after giving up on trying to figure out

why his brother turned out to be a murderer:

l'(_-)u never know exactly when something begins. The more you delve

and backtrack and think, the more it becomes clear that nothing has a

discrete, independent history; people and events take shape not in

order:2.. chronological sequence but in relation to other forces and

events , tangled skeins of necessity and interdependence and chance that

after all could have produced only one result: what is. The

intertwining strands of DNA that determined a creature's genetic

predispositions might serve as a model for this complexity , but the

double helix, bristling with myriad possibilities, is not mysterious

enough. The usual notion of time, of one thing happening first and

opening the way for another and another, becomes useless pretty

quickly when I try to isolate the shape of your life from the rest of us,

when I try to retrace your steps and discover precisely where and

when you started to go bad.

If we cannot figure out where it all began to wrong for our students, we can at

least speculate a little more intelligently in the area of 'process'; how they lived

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their lives and what kinds of factors -- both internal and external -- reinf .1/4:el

ii their apparent predisposition to engage in persistent criminal activity or even t

commit, their one grand criminal act which led to incarceration.

As we in the West move ever forward into a more entreprcnurial

political culture we move steadily away from the 'victimization' approach to tle

criminal. 'Choice', 'will', 'decision-making' are all more popular expl anations

of how humans move through society than they were a few years ago. A hull

while ago the President of the United States asserted that the poor and homeless

in his country may have chosen that life (one hesitates to say lifestyle) and the'

silent assent spoke volumes about the popular mood.

In the world of thinking about crime and criminals the most convincinl

proponent of a decision-making approach is Robert Ross;

1 suggest that, like most people, the offender has some role in

determining his own destiny. His environment may drastically restrict I

the number of choices he has but, with rare exception, it does not le

prohibit him from choosing not to engage in criminal behavior. We t suggest that most offenders are responsible for their behavior and char

they choose to commit criminal acts."

This perspective can have a povverful impact on how we approach education in

prison. For instance, it contains a central focus on individual responsibility Or

actions which in turn involves a notion of citizenship. Prisoners in North

1 Robert Ross, Time To Think, p.157.

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1 2

America are, for instance, well versed in claiming their rights as citizens, but

have, I would argue, a weakly developed concept of the responsibility that must

go hand-in-hand with rights . This might have implications for curriculum and

for pedagogy as well as for the way in which we administer our schools in

prisons. If, as Ross argues, we are to focus on the realm of choice, then as

educators we have a clear mandate to strive for making those choices informed

choices. Thus within this paradigm or approach to understanding the criminal,

education has a major role. Finally, we must recognize along with Ross that to

argue for choice is not to argue for free will, that in fact the biographies of the

individuals we work with have severely constrained the range of choices open to

them in any given situation. After giving our students the intellectual skills and

abilities to make different choices. the task remains -- and it is our task as well -

to help them broaden that range of possible choice.

Finally, before leaving this issue I must raise a cautionary note. The act

of choosing may not be as powerful a guide to action as Ross and others

perceive it to be. In examining our own histories and dwelling on a shameful

or guilty moment, we may agree with Iris Murdoch that:

...human wickedness is sometimes the product of a sort of conscious

leeringly evil intent...But more usually it is the product of a ,serni-

deliberate inattention, a sort of swooning relationship to tinze...We

ignore what we are doing until it is too late to alter it. We nevul allow

ourselves quite to focus upon moments of decision; and these are often

in fact hard to find even if we are searching for them. We allow the

vague pleasure-seeking annoyance-avoiding tide of our being to hurry

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us onward until the moment when we announce that we can do no

other. 1

Now, wc all know the truth of this slippery slope. For most of us, however,

these are occasional lapses, momentary wanderings from an otherwise more

conscious and deliberative approach to life. It may be that such inattention to

self-awareness becomes a norrn for some of our students, resulting in that

annoying shrug of the shoulders when asked to explain the cause for an ill-

advised action. The predicaments our students find themselves in are often

calamitous or even hopeless, leading them to fatalistic conclusions about their

ability to steer a different course. A focus on the role of choice and decision-

making, may go some way toward righting the balance.

(2) Self-Este2rn

Many prison programs, including education programs, start from the

assumption that prisoners lack self-esteem, a condition stemming from their

failure as criminals, and perhaps from a series of failures in school, family and

employment. Jean Harris, the boarding school headmistress imprisoned for

shooting lier fickle lover, singled out the absence of self-love in the women she

lived among as "...probably their outstanding quality and their first tragedy."2

There is, of course, the opposite situation of the criminal/prisoner quite satisfied

with his or her role and filled with self-esteem in contemplation of' the status a

I Iris Murdoch, The Black Prince, p.189. 2 Jean Harris. Stranger in Two Worlds, (New York: Macmillan), 1986. $ he cites a classroom experience

in which the students read lbsen's A Doll's House: "...no amount of explaining would convince them that Nora wasn't some kind of a nut to walk away from all that good stuff her husband had provided for her. So what if he called her 'My little sparrow' and treated her like a brainless child, and put his Oven interests first? He didn't get drunk, or womanize, or smack her across the room. No one in her right mind would walk away from all that. 'He could call me any fuckin thing he want to as long as he payin the bills. —

p.230

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14

prison sentence may impart. Jean Genet's autobiographical wanderings in the

French underworld is full of such cases, such as the young boy who described

with "haughty elegance" his 15 year sentence which was, as Genet says,

"...enabling him to be what everything within him was tending toward: a tough

among other toughs."'

Whether absent or misplaced, self-image, self-esteem and self-love are

important arcas to address in working with prisoners. They are elusive notions

and while influenced of course by one's position in the world, they are in reality

entirely subjective. This was brought home to me in a letter from one of my

ex-prisoner students. A brilliant poet and writer, a gifted Jailhouse lawyer' and

natural teacher/counsellor, Frank left prison with high hopes despite a lifetime

having bee.n spent in a series of incarcerations. He was working as a day

labourer on construction sites and wrote me the following:

...I've been out some 21 months but l've been on welfare for most of it,

and though presently working, I'm not utilizing directly the equipment

you gave me....I don't know if I am beast or fowl, success or failure.

Did the university experience bring a change in attitude? New

confidence? I can't tell. Certainly it gave me the inner knowledge that

I can do some things w. ell, and no faking it -- for instance, I could be a

teacher, and a goddam good one, and maybe I will some da-v."

I Jean Genet, Miracle of the Rose, p. 193. "And though he must have known , for fifteen years and afterward, those islets of regret for what you call a wasted youth, this in no way negates his at.:t ut his

desire. On the contrary. His longing to be a big shot was great enough for him to sacrifice his youth and life for it."

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Self-esteem is an inner quality, held solely by the self and only superficially

dependent on the material circumstances of one's life. As educators we need to

remember this lest we fall into the trap of thinking we must transform all

aspects of our students' lives in order to have an impact on their notions of who

they are.

(3) 'Thinking: Cognitive Abilities

Problem-solving, linking cause with effect, malcing analogies between two

or more objects or events, considering future consequences in making

judgments, appreciating the complex nature of phenomena, being reflective

rather than impulsive and being able to employ empathy in social situations are

all examples of cognitive abilities. Many prisoners have weaknesses or

deficiencies in some or all of these areas and it is argued by a growing body of

researchers that this may have a crucial impact on the possibilities for

rehabilitation or change. The Correctional Service of Canada has shown

considerable interest in this topic, adopting in the past year a national program

in cognitive skills training which is focussed on "...modifying the impulsive,

egocentric, illogical, and rigid thinking of the offenders and on teaching them to

stop and think before acting, to consider the consequences of their behaviour, to

conceptualize alternative ways of responding to interpersonal problems and to

conSider the impact of their behaviour on other people. "

1 Robert Ross and Elizabeth Fabiano, Correctional Service of Canada. Cognitive Skills Program, 1937. The component parts of the program include: Structured Learning Therapy (to teach social skilLs); lateral thinking (to teach creative problem-solving); critical thinking; values education; assertiveness training; negotiation skills training; interpersonal cognitive problem-solving; role pjaying; modelling ; and soc i al perspective taking.

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Of all the skills and abilities associated with this area of cognitive

development, the issue of empathy, of being able to put oneself in another's

position, is the most difficult and in many ways the most important. Addressing

the problems raised earlier around the job retention issue and the importance of

making informed choices hinges on the development of empathy. Putting

oneself in the place of another and using that perspective to evaluate actions is a

very sophisticated skill and no one has described it more acutely than Adam

Smith more than 200 years ago in his Theory of Moral Sentiments. His

words bear repeating:

"As we have no immediate experience of what other men feel, we can

form no idea of the manner in which they are affected ., but by

conceiving what we ourselves should feel in the like situation. Though

our brother is upon the rack, as long as we ourselves are at our ease,

our senses will never inform us of what he suffers. They never did, and

never can, carry us beyond our own person, and it is by the imagination

only that we can form any conception of what are his sensations.

Neither can that faculty help us to this any other way, than by

representing to us what would be our own, if we were in his case. It is

the impressions of our own senses only, not those of his, which our

imaginations copy. By the imagination we place ourselves in his

situation, we conceive ourselves enduring all the same torments, we

enter as it were into his body, and become in some rrzeasure the same

person with him, and thence form some idea of his sensations, and even

feel something which, though weaker in degree, is not altogether unlike

them. His agonies, when they are thus brought home to ourselves, when

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we have thus adopted and made them our own, begin at last to affect us,

and we then tremble and shudder at the thought of what he feels." I

Not only do enhanced sensibilities in the area of empathy allow for greater

understanding and appreciation of fellow humans (or fellow species), these

sensibilities may also act as an essential check or brake on behaviour. Since our

students so often engage in behaviours which involve potential harm to others,

development of empathy should be a major educational objective.

(4) Social Engagement

Criminals are outlaws in the sense that they spend a significant portion of

their social lives outside the world of formally sanctioned structures. They may

lead a double life, but more commonly they exist outside or on the fringe,

underground or incarcerated. For the prisoner, the isolation or 'apartness' is

even more extreme, his stake in the values and systems of the society even more

tenuous. In an ironic sense, they are freer than the rest of us in that we are

imprisoned in a web of responsibilities, commitments, beliefs and sentiments

which serve to constrain us, to limit the range of possible behaviours. 2

Research into successful 'exiting' from criminal careers indicates clearly that

the "...establishment of a bond to the conventional world" is a key factor. 3 Such

bonds include friends, lOved ones and employment and can be decisive in

enabling the ex-offender to break with past associates and past patterns.

1 Cited in David Marshall, The Surprising Effects of Sympathy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), p,4

2 Elliott Leyton, Hunting Humans: The Rise of the Modern Multiple Murderer, (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart. 1986)

3 Thomas Meisenhelder, An Exploratory study of Exiting from Criminal Careers, Criminology, v.15:3, 1977.

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The most powerful explanation I have seen of the central role of social

engagement by the ex-offender is the following excerpt frotn a newspaper

interview with John McVicar:

...the part of me that now I value most - my identity - is

irreconcilable with being the type of criminal that I was. The change

was largely the unintended consequence of following a degree course; I

didn't plan it and it certainly wasn't anything like what we normally

associate with a conversion. I decided to tak,e a degree because it seemed

to me about the best of my options to offset the corrosive effects of long-

term imprisonment . What wrought my change was not any effort to

reform but the process of implementing my decision. Similarly, I

cannot claim any moral victory if I never return to crime, since

nowadays it is not so much that I find crime repugnant as that I am more

interested in other things.)

It is in this realm of engagement or re-engagement with society, with the

gathering of commitments and allegiances which imply, perhaps even

necessitate, a new kind of life and a new set of behaviours that education can

make its most powerful impact in the prison. As educators we represent a

World apart from the justice system, the criminal subculture and the world or

corrections. In many cases we actually represent other institutions or other

kinds of jurisdictions. We can offer the prisoner-student an alternative identity

complete with career goals, potential social networks, new languages and

rituals, and new values.

I Times Higher Education Supplement, 22 September 1978.

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We can assist this process immeasurably by bringing as much of the

school, college of university into the prison as we can, including standards.

curriculum and systems of governance. Indeed such an importation of school

into prison should perhaps be a prerequisite of prison education programming.

CONCLUSION

In each of the four areas touched upon, education can and should make a

major contribution, but not through twisting itself into a pretzel by trying to

become correctional, or rehabilitative, or obsessed with behavioural outcomes.

The contribution comes instead by insisting on quality, by being sensitive to

context, by accepting a link with individual development and by a focus on

empowerment and engagement.

One of our instructors in the Simon Fraser University program has

summarized the choices as follows:

The goal of the university program is education. However the

meaning of the educational process within a prison is highly complex.

It haS implications for the personal development of prisoners, as is the

• case on a regular campus with students who become engaged with

education, but in the case of prisoners the result can be quite dramatic

lifestylelsocial class changes compared to earlier experience. Thus we

arrive at another implicit program goal: major life changes in students.

lt is because such life changes are so important that some of us would

like to address them in a direct manner, in effect making such change .

1

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the primary goal of the program, with education a secondary goal. This

conceptual reversal, however, cannot work in practice - education is

seductive, socialization therapy is not.

W ithin the parameters of these two goals there are two potential

errors: the error of academic degeneration and the error of academic

insularity. The goals of the program could be thwarted by sacrificing

academic quality, such that the prisoners dismiss the program as another

social therapy exercise, or the program and faculty could remain aloof

from the social reality of prison and prisoner and fail to provide

sufficient support for the development of a cohesive, identifiable

scholastic community of prisoners.]

I Wayne Knights, The Scholarly Community within Federal P risons in the Pacific Region, unpub. mss.

Curriculum Issues for the Incarcerated

Handicapped Learner

BY

Carolyn R. Eggleston, Ph.D.

State University of New York

New Paltz, New York

U.S.A.

Second International Conference

on Prison Education

Wadham College, Oxford University

September, 1989

Curriculum Issues for the Incarcerated Handicapped Learner

Carolyn R. Eggleston, Ph.D.

International Prison Education Conference

Experienced advocates of the interests of

institutionalized (i.e., delinquent) children

are relatively unwelcome in a law and order

society. Pleading the cause of the sixteen year

old murderer, purse snatcher, multiple burglar,

or just plain 'incorrigible' is a lonely pasttime

not particularly conducive to increased popularity.

Presently, the rush to pour public resources into

quality treatment for institutionalized children

has been more like a saunter, and in some

instances, a dead stop. A few states have shifted

into reverse (Kennan & Hammond, 1979, p. 373).

The purpose of this paper is to investigate curricular

issues and options for the educationally handicapped offender.

Progress in curriculum development for this group has been slow

and sporatic. The paper will trace the historical development

of educational programs for the handicapped offender and suggest

some alternatives for modern service delivery.

2

The educationally handicapped offender is an inmate of a

juvenile or adult prison system who experiences particular

learning problems, is identified as mentally or physically

impaired, has serious emotional problems, has disordered speech,

or other problems which inhibit his/her ability to learn.

Hallahan and Kaufman (1986), in referring to public school

educationally handicapped students, advocate specially designed

programming in order to meet their particular learning needs

(P. 5).

British authors Ford, Mongon, and Whelan (1982) suggested

that many of the problems in educating the emotionally disturbed

and maladjusted lie in the programs and not with the students.

They proposed that the bias against these students and the need

for society to control the unacceptable populations has more to

do with the profession than students. The effort to control and

reform deviant groups through education led to the development of

programs for the educationally handicapped (pp. 12-14). Becker

(1973) reinforced this perspective when he stated that society

decides what is deviant, "[T]he deviant is one to whom that label

has successfully been applied: deviant behavior is behavior that

people so label" (in Kittrie, p. 1).

Whether it is accepted that educationally handicapped

students exist because they are truly present in the society or

have been "created" largely by social control and bias, most

3

experts agree that percentages of educationally handicapping

conditions among the incarcerated are higher than in the general

population. Estimates of this number range from 0% to 100% of

the population. Rutherford, Nelson, and Wolford (1985), in a

nationwide American study found that approximately 28% of the

juvenile population was educationally handicapped (p. 62). They

further found that the estimated percentage of educationally

handicapped offenders in adult corrections was 10% (p. 63). The

study discovered a wide discrepancy between service delivery in

juvenile facilities compared to adult corrections. In another

national study in the United States, Eggleston (1984) found that

between 35% and 42% of the juvenile and adult correctional

population was considered educationally handicapped (p. 13). In

both the Rutherford and Eggleston studies service delivery levels

did not positively reflect the percentages in the population.

Keilitz (1984) claimed that educational services to the

handicapped in correctional facilities is significantly

deficient. He stated, "The education of handicapped juvenile

offenders is an issue that lies on the boundary between special

education, regular education, and juvenile justice and often is

neglected by professionals in all three fields" (p. 2).

Correctional/special education has been slow in developing,

falling behind even the development of "regular" correctional

education.

4

This has been true historically. Prison development in the

United States began with the opening of the Walnut Street Jail in

Philadelphia (Wallack, 1939, p. 9). It is credited with being

the first genuine American prison. The Jail was established in

1773 and became a state prison in 1790.

Correctional education programs began in the early

penitentiaries, initially as "Sabbath Schools." Sabbath schools

were started by community churchmen to teach inmates to read the

Bible in order to develop a religious conscience and become

penitent. The emphasis was on literacy and basic skill

development to achieve these ends. Criminal justice historian

Roberts (1973) cited the year 1801 as the beginning of

correctional education in New York State (p. 4). Although still

considered in the context of Sabbath schools, early correctional

education was elementary in nature and was taught to "meritorious

inmates" by inmate instructors during the winter season. Some

prisons provided Bibles for inmate reading, but in most

institutions reading of any kind was considered a special earned

reward. -

Some Sabbath schools offered instruction on weekends,

evenings, and in the winter. They were structured in this

fashion to avoid interruption of institutional work schedules.

Education was initiated in an effort to "save" or "redeem"

inmates. Generally it took the form of one chaplain working with

5

particularly interested inmates.

Education concentrated on reading the Bible on the

assumption that being able to read it would help inmates see the

error of their ways and teach them to lead lawful Christian lives

(Magill, 1810, p. 60). In this way, prison chaplains believed

they truly fulfilled the stated purpose of the penitentiary, a

place where a person could go to think about what he had done and

be repentant. This idea did not endure, and penitentiary quickly

became a warehouse where problems were kept away from public view

(Roberts, 1971, p. 6). There is no evidence to suggest that

attention was given to the low level inmate or one with

particular learning problems.

Zebulon Brockway, when he opened Elmira Reformatory in 1876

initiated the first genuine correctional/special education

program in an American prison. Brockway's great talent as a

corrections manager was his ability to attract innovative

professionals to Elmira Reformatory interested in experimenting

with eduàation and training. In 1883, Elmira Reformatory began a

series of special experiments which addressed the particular

problems of the low level inmate. In truth, these experiments

were initiated because of frustration over management problems,

but the programs addressed a number of issues relevant to

educationally handicapped offenders. The curriculum content drew

on public school efforts and mainstream special education

6

programs, particularly the work of Edouard Seguin (Talbot, 1964,

pp. 34-35, 64).

The first Elmira experiment focused on a group of "dullards"

at the facility, and taught industrial arts activities (State of

New York, 1884, Senate Document #15, pp. 55-56). The program was

designed as a reform tool, using education as the vehicle.

Education was defined as more than rote memorization, "by

education is here meant, not so much the acquisition of

knowledge, as the disciplining of the mind to a healthy activity"

(p. 56). This experiment, and its success, set the tone for more

programs of its type.

Other programs through the 1880s concentrated on special

diets, including increased green vegtables, and milk, and less

meat protein; massage; multimodal instruction; physical training;

specially fitting clothing; and steam baths (State of New York,

1887, Senate Doc. #18, pp. 60-65; Winter, 1891, p. 134; Brockway,

1912/1968, pp. 243-246). Significant success was noted during

these experiments, with inmate students showing weight gain,

growth, reduction in medical problems, and improvement in

academic abilities. The programs were discontinued when Brockway

came under fire for management irregularites and was forced to

resign. The experiments were not continued after his tenure.

7

One of the most interesting facets of the Elmira Reformatory

program was the development of comprehensive curricula for the

high level, average, and low level student. The curriculum was

extensive in scope, and had many similarities with public school

curriculum of the same era. Although the Elmira Reformatory

educational program early established itself as being different

from public school counterparts, it was similar in several

significant ways. Brockway made use of local public school and

college professionals when the program was developed. The higher

level student at Elmira Reformatory studied ethics, political

economy, and psychology, much as a public school high school

student (State of New York, 1899, Assembly Doc. #8, pp. 56-58).

Academic efforts for the low level student centered on basic

skill development, using multimodal instruction, clay modeling,

and real life example (Brockway, 1912/1968,

pp. 243-246). After the Elmira experiments were discontinued,

there was little effort in American correctional/special

education. Except for a brief period in the 1930s, the field

went unrecognized.

The modern emphasis on correctional/special education in the

United States is due in large part to the Federal legislation

passed in 1975, P.L. 94-142, and increased correctional education

programs. This legislation, which includes the incarcerated as

one of the groups identified for attention, addressed the serious

lack of services available for the population. For the first

8

time, a critical investigation of service levels was initiated.

A serious look at appropriate education for the incarcerated

handicapped was again undertaken.

Curricular issues for the incarcerated handicapped are made

even more complex due to the population and the setting.

Curriculum must be developed that is relevant to the older

adolescent and adult student who has not experienced success

through the regular channels of education. Reworking the same

public school curriculum is not appropriate. In addition to this

constraint, the institutional placement makes the problems more

difficult. People are not incarcerated because they cannot read,

and reading may not be the most important concern in their lives.

The educationally handicapped offender, often with social

perception deficits, may lack the skills to manage his/her way

successfully through the institution, and is prone to

victimization and aggression. These factors, although they

cannot be used as an excuse to prevent educational attempts, must

be considered by the teacher when developing and implementing

curriculum for the educationally handicapped.

Curriculum, as described by Thomas, Sands, and Brubaker

(1968), includes "all of the learning goals, experiences,

teaching materials, and evaluation techniques which educators

plan and/or use (p. 6). This is a useful description, and

reminds the educator that curriculum is relevant to all

9

educational endeavors. It includes much more than materials

selection. Curriculum content for the educationally handicapped

offender should parallel the content of the "regular"

correctional student to the extent possible. The purpose of the

curriculum is to enhance learning, and if the student can learn

using the class curriculum, every effort should be made to make

the educationally handicapped student part of the regular

program. The best curriculum for the educationally handicapped

is closest to the regular as possible. For those students who

cannot manage their ways, through the regular course curriculum,

specific considerations should be addressed.

Sugai (1985) in the Correctional/Special Education Training

Project, distinqushed between curriculum and instruction (p. 13).

He considered strategies and techniques to be instruction, and

curriculum as that which is taught to students. Sugai emphasized

assessment of current skill levels and background to determine

exactly where the instructional program should start (p. 14). He

also considered the curriculum to be centered on being functional

and useful to the student (pp. 19-22). This functional

curriculum should also be adapted to the deficits of the

individual student.

Fredericks and Evans (1987) also stressed a functional

curriculum for correctional/special education students. They

suggested that a functional curriculum is also useful for the

10

incarcerated student who is not educationally handicapped

(p. 189). Fredericks and Evans do not suggest that the

functional curriculum replace all academic subject areas,

however, particularly because this may lead to conflicts with

graduation requirements. The focus, they suggested, should be on

three areas of functional instruction: independent living

skills, social skills, and vocational skills (p. 193).

An exciting new curriculum dealing with the social skills

area has been developed by Goldstein (1988). The program was

developed from his earlier work on skill training called

Structured Learning. The Prepare Curriculum establishes a series

of competencies which can be used to teach a number of prosocial

behaviors. For example, Goldstein defined the area of problem

solving ability as "a stepwise sequence of problem definition,

identification of alternative solutions, choice of one solution

as probably optimal, implementation of this chosen resolution,

and evaluation of the solution's effectiveness" (p. 11). The

Prepare Curriculum uses such steps to teach prosocial behaviors

like anger control, moral reasoning, and empathy.

These examples of correctional/special education curricula

are a few illustrations of curriculum material available to the

teacher of the incarcerated handicapped. Most rely heavily on

the mainstream special education literature and curricula. This

reliance is perhaps understandable, as training of special

11

education teachers centers on public school education.

Unquestionably functional skills such as filling out job

application forms, anger control, and getting along with ones'

co-workers are important for the educationally handicapped, as

they are for all older learners. Educationally handicapped

students often possess a number of deficits, and are attending

what may be their final formal educational involvement. The

teacher may experience a great deal of frustration simply trying

to select from the world of deficits and needs.

There is a problem, however, in focusing too rigidly on the

functional skills, and on the deficits the students exhibit. The

incarcerated handicapped student is an older student,

particularly in adult facilities, and has had life experiences

beyond his/her public school counterpart. The experiences may

not be ones that professionals find acceptable, but they

contribute to what the student brings to the classroom

environment. These experiences must be considered. At the very

least the student should have a part in planning the educational

process. • It is amazing what some students already know--

perhaps learned from illegal activity, but often relevant to

academic skill instruction.

Of particular concern is the core of the functional

curriculum, in which practical skills are stressed. This

prevents the educationally handicapped student from getting an

12

introduction to any form of liberal arts. The low level student

cannot be given Shakespeare to read, but adapting programs by

reading to the students, or selecting issues for discussion can

be implemented. A curriculum like the one Duguid (1987)

developed for humanities instruction is an excellent place to

begin. His Readings in Critical Thought and Cultural Literacy is

a humanities core curriculum designed to teach knowledge,

judgement, and choice to the incarcerated through a study of the

Great Works. The reading level is often too high for the

educationally handicapped student, but the content is relevant,

and can be adapted by the teacher. The topics are of interest to

all student levels. Duguid uses the core curriculum to

facilitate discussion about moral and ethical issues, and

provides an environment in which students can evaluate their own

attitudes and values. Utilizing the great literature exposes

the student to the best that has been written, and allows the

teacher to avoid preaching or moralizing about what is "right"

and "wrong." In this way attitude change can be encouraged as

needed without defensiveness by the student. Humanities

instruction in correctional facilities, where available at all,

has centered on the postsecondary student. Humanities

instruction with students considered educationally handicapped

may be difficult to implement and even more difficult to "sell"

to administrators, but it is a vital portion of the curriculum

and long ignored.

13

References

Becker, K. (1973). in Kittrie, N. The Right to be different: deviance and enforced therapy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins.

Brockway, Z. (1968). Fifty years in prison service: an autobiography. Montclair, NJ: Patterson Smith. (original work published in 1912).

Duguid, S. (1987). Readings in critical thought and cultural literacy. Ottawa: Correctional services of Canada, reprinted by the Institute for the Humanities, Simon Fraiser Univ.

Eggleston, C. (1984). "Results of a national correctional/special education survey." Arlington, VA: Correctional/Special Education Training Project.

Ford, J., Mongon, D., & Whelan, M. (1982). Special education ane. social control: invisible disasters. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Goldstein, A. (1988). The Prepare curriculum. Champaign, IL: Research Press.

Hallahan, D. & Kauffman, J. (1986). Exceptional children. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Third Ed.

Keenan, P. & Hammond, C. (1979). "The Institutionalized child's claim to special education: a federal codification of the right to treatment." Univ. of Detroit Journal of Urban Law. 56/2, 337-404.

Keilitz, I. (1984). "The Handicapped youthful offender: prevalence and current practices." Arlington, VA: Correctional/Special Education Training Project.

Magill, S. (1810). Remarks on prisons. Glasgow:Hedderwick.

Nelson, C., Rutherford, R., & Wolford, B. (1987). Special education in the criminal justice system. Columbus, OH: Merrill.

Roberts, A. (ED) (1973). Readings in prison education. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

Roberts, A. (1971). Sourcebook on prison education: past, present, & future. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

14

Rutherford, R., Nelson, C., & Wolford, B. (1985). "Special education in the most restrictive environment: correctional/special education." Journal of Special Education, 19/1, 59-71.

State of NY. (1884). Senate Document #15. Annual Report of the board of managers for NY state reformatory. Albany: Weed, Parsons. Jan. 11, 1884. Vol. 2.

State of NY. (1887). Senate Document #18. Tenth annual report of the board of managers of the NY state reformatory at Elmira for the year ending Sept. 30, 1886. Albany: Argus Co. Jan. 12, 1887, vol. 2.

State of NY. (1899). Assembly Doc. #8. Twenty-third yearbook of the NY state reformatory at Elmira for the fiscal year ending Sept. 30, 1898. Albany: Wynkoop, Hallenbeck, Crawford. Jan. 11, 1899. Vol. 2.

Sugai, G. (1985). "Curriculum for exceptional individuals." Teacher training module, C/SET Project.

Talbot, M. (1964). Edouard Seguin: a study of an educational approach to the treatment of mentally defective children. NY: Teachers College, Columbia.

Thomas, R, Sands, L. & Brubaker, D. (1968). Strategies for curriculum change: cases from 13 nations. Scranton, PA: International Textbook.

Wallack, W. (ED). (1939). Correctional education today. NY: American Prison Association.

Winter, A. (1891). The New York state reformatory at Elmira. London: Swan, Sonnesschein, & Co.

PRISON EDUCATION IN HONG KONG

A BRIEF HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

T.G.Garner, CBE., FBIM., Hbng Kong.

Prison Education in Hong Kong

A Brief Historical Perspective

by

T.G. Garner, C.B.E., F.B.I.M.*

Introduction

Shortly after a British Naval Party under the command of

Captain Charles Elliot took formal possession of Hong Kong Island (then

known as Victoria) one of the first two buildings to be constructed of

durable material was a prison, which at the time became known as Victoria

Gaol.

The first person appointed to be in charge of the gaol also

held the post of Chief Magistrate1

. In 1857 the post of Governor of

the gaol was created. This was followed in 1863 with a change of title

to Superintendent. I presume at the time someone realised that the

creation of the post of Governor of Hong Kong would obviously give rise

to some derogatory comment if the same title was used for the head of a

gaol. As it was, the first person to hold the position of Superintendent,

a Francis Douglas, apparently initiated some reforms in the gaol which

later was often referred to as the "Douglas Hotel". In 1906 the title

was again changed to Superintendent of Prison. The post of Commissioner

of Prisons was created in 1938. The most recent change occurred in 1882

when this title was changed to Commissioner of Correctional Services.

Until 1922 funding for the Police and the Prison appeared under the same

heading in the annual estimates. The separation of these two services

occurred presumably in the same year.

* Commissioner of Correctional Services, Hong Kong, 1972 to 1985 having joined the Service in 1947. Presently a Consultant in Correctional Administration, he is also the Founder/Editor of "The 1(5F", a newsletter for Commonwealth Correctional Administrators.

Having bored you with all that trivia I would like to go on to

2 -

say that in my view education in prisons is essential, more essential

perhaps than soMe prison administrators tend to realise. The same can

be said for some governments and their respective legislators along with

others who have the responsibility to see that a prison service has the

necessary resources to do the job expected of it. I refer of course to

the carrying out in penal institutions of programmes based on humanitarian

principles and justice, sadly even today such is not the case in all

countries around the world.

Conversely I am also aware that there are a number of countries

which, although they have the will, simply cannot afford the financial

commitment to do all that their prison administrators and others would

like to do. This places serious obstacles in the way of those who strive

to achieve improved standards and programmes with virtually nothing in

the way of funds to assist them.

There are occasions when some prison administrators find it

embarrassing to attend international conferences or engage in meaningful

discussion on prison matters without the thought of being at the very

least a poor cousin. They are at a distinct disadvantage during discussions

with their counterparts from countries which have the required funding,at

least—in part if not in full, to carry out what to them amounts to advanced

programming. Having once been in this position I speak from experience,

fortunately I was able at a later stage to obtain the necessary support to

do something about it.

Having had this experience I cannot help but be sympathetic to

those who find themselves in a similar predicament. Apart from deserving

a fair measure of understanding, they should always find encouragement for

their endeavours. We should try when possible to offer some form of

assistance. I hope, therefore, that all present here can at some stage

spare a thought to ways and means of helping those who through no fault

of their own do not have the resources available. I am not referring to

funding but to ideas and practical suggestions for ways in which a

programme of education can be initiated or improved at minimum cost.

In a book "Prisoners are People" 2 written by Kenyon J. Scudder

the founder of the first minimum security prison in the United States, reference

is made to the need to provide regular courses of instruction in prisons

from the first grade through to high school. He based this need on the

fact that some nine per cent of men in prison at the time, had never

learned to read or write and most of the others had dropped out of school

early. Today we could say, so what, it is an old story. Old indeed and

precisely my point for he was referring in his book to the years 1940/41

a time almost 50 years ago. Sadly the academic standards of men and women

on admission to prison today is not much better. The book I referred to

shortly after it was published, was made into a film. The actor Chester

Morris played the part of Kenyon Scudder and it was for this film that the

very familiar tune "Unchained Melody" was composed.

Education in prisons should have a much wider meaning than the

accepted norm. Once you have taken care of the requirement for safe

custody (which in any case only affects a small minority), I consider it

to be the foundation for a good correctional service. It provides the

basis for attracting men and women of the right calibre with good

qualifications and a good standard of academic achievement.

Education should encompass not only the classical teacher/student

classroom setting but also extend from recognizable norms of acceptable

behaviour through to personal hygiene and the rights of others. Vocational

and industrial training or re—training must be included along with attainment

Such a wide definition embracing so many factors requires

a deep sense of commitment on the part of all members of the staff.

This sense of commitment should be clearly demonstrated particularly by

front line staff including of course teachers and instructors.

3 I believe that this view is shared by Dr. Lucien Morin who

delivered a paper on An Educational Prison "Model" a Canadiàn Perspective

in July 1984 at Wiston House. I contend that a good prison programme,

irrespective of what it is called, must enable each and every prisoner,

irrespective of his offence, to be able to serve his sentence without

interference of any kind from fellow prisoners. This is no different to

what we expect from others as we get on with our daily lives.

I suspect that it is possible that Dr. Morin and I may disagree

on the extent to which discipline within a prison community must be

maintained, and how it should be applied.

The Hong Kong Situation

In Hong Kong the concept of education for adult prisoners is

relatively new. To be practical I should mention that the concept of

rehabilitation of offenders, or as I put it the correctional approach is

even more recent. A rather strange situation considering that a number

of countries have now adopted the "Just Deserts" model.

However, I am inclined to believe that the previous correctional

approach in some of the countries which have adopted the "Just Deserts"

model was never really implemented for a change of name alone (for instance,

Prison or Penitentiary Service to Correctional Service) does not bring about

a change in thinking or programmes, thus no practical benefits were realised.

To highlight the change which occurred in Hong Kong I should

mention that it was achieved against much opposition. It took time,

many years in fact to convince the Government, legislators and the media

that it was a progressive step designed to bring about improvements in

the service. This was of importance particularly in the area of staff

recruitment, finally it was accomplished in 1982. Although it still has

its skeptics, nevertheless, it now receives wide support. Another

important change it brought, was that it became easier to justify applications

for funds to improve such programmes as education and vocational training.

Now to get back to my comment regarding the concept of prison

education for adult prisoners in Hong Kong being relatively recent.

The Prisons Ordinance of 1899 and the regulations which stemmed

from it made only a passing reference to what is termed "books of

instruction"; t'nis was in relation to the library and library books and

only applied to male juvenile offenders under the age of 16. In those

days such offenders, although not many, were housed in the same institution

as adults. The regulations did provide a reference to juveniles being kept

apart from anyone over 16 years of age but I doubt that this was ever fully

realised.

The Ordinance . also contained a reference to employment and

instruction in a trade which could be useful on release. There was however

another rule, this stated that every juvenile offender sentenced to hard

labour would be made to work at such industrial labour as the Superintendent

with the agreement of the medical officer may direct. A contradiction of

aims to say the least.

These rules and subsequent amendments were replaced in May of

1925. The new rules included a provision for schoolmasters, whom it was

-6

I

stated should attend at such times as the Superintendent may direct.

The revised section for juvenile offenders contained much the same

provisions as the previous rules in respect of age and book of instruction.

In the late 1930's a juvenile remand home under the control of

the Police opened. This was intended to function in a dual role combining

the functions of a Remand Home and an Approved School. Although well

intentioned it did not prove successful and it was subsequently handed

over to the Prison Service in 1941.

After liberation the Juvenile Remand Home was found to be

completely gutted and as it was never suitable as a place of detention

for very young offenders it was decided not to rebuild it. Boys of

reformatory age were housed in a separate block in a prison as a temporary

measure. In December 1946 some former food storage huts were acquired

and boys aged 3 to 16 (raised to 17 the following year) were moved into

what was then referred to as a Reformatory. (A point of interest is that

this particular institution was housed in buildings which prior to World

War II had been constructed as temporary godowns. Temporary or not the

same buildings stand today and are used as a minimum security institution

for prisoners serving very short sentences all of whom may be employed

outside of the institution on working parties carrying out a variety of

tasks: They also house a section for geriatrics. In effect it is the

closest we have in Hong Kong to an "Open Institution".)

In February of 1953 the boys in the Reformatory were transferred

to a new Boys' Home under the control of a Social Welfare Officer in

cooperation with The Salvation Army. The buildings which formerly housed

the Reformatory were then converted for use as a Training Centre for young

male offenders 14 to 20 years of age.

Although the setting up of the Reformatory in 1946 heralded

the first educational programme for offenders, it was not until the

introduction of the training centres prograMme for young male offenders

in 1953 that planned education programmes in the true sense of the word

began.

In 1954 the Prisons Ordinance of 1899 was replaced and new

prison rules were implemented. These eliminated many of the archaic rules

which had been carried out up until that time.

By 1958 a total of nine schoolmasters were employed in the

service. All except one were employed in training centres for young

offenders. The exception being the first schoolmaster to be appointed to

start a programme of adult education which was at that time limited to

first offenders in the maximum security prison. (It was then, the only

maximum security facility in Hong Kong.) This appointment involving as

it did only one teacher marked the beginning of programmes of education

for adult offenders. I am aware that at the time the Commissioner who

was formerly a housemaster in the Prison Service in England and Wales found

it very heavy going to try to speed up the progress of adult education.

An example of this occurred in the following year (1959) when an application

for two additional posts of schoolmaster was refused.

In 1963 the adult education programme which was still only

available at one institution was reviewed, a new syllabus drawn up and

two improvised classrooms were brought into use. From that year onwards

there was a gradual expansion of adult education programmes to other

institutions mainly carried out by teachers from the Education Department

taking evening classes. By 1970 the total number of full time teachers

had grown to over 20. In that year the syllabus included Chinese at 2

levels, English at 3 levels, Arithmetic at 2 levels, tuition on the use

■•••• 8

I

of an abacus, and elementary book-keeping. It was the first year that

students studied for academic qualifications. In this case a total of

3 for '0' or 'A' Levels.

Broadly speaking however, teaching materials,,textbooks,

classrooms, desks, chairs and the other necessities essential to any good

programme were in very short supply and usually came second hand from

outside schools as and when they procured new supplies and furniture.

Anyone present here today will be aware of at least one problem that this

brings, that is the task of seating adult students at desks built for a

more junior age group.

It was not until February 1974 that the Prison Rules were amended

enabling the time spent by a prisoner in educaitonal classes to be counted

as time engaged in useful work. In late 1974 education programmes for all

classes of convicted persons detained within the confines of penal

institutions were reviewed. Young offenders on admission sat attainment

tests and based on results were classified accordingly. There were three

grades: Advanced, Intermediate and Elementary. Self-study courses were

also introduced for adults and by 1976 a total of 42 teachers were involved

in education programmes full time.

1979 saw the first year of the Telecommunication Technician

Course which was a great success and a milestone in the history of the service.

19 young male offenders who took the course sat for the City and Guild of

London Institute first year examination. This consisted of three subjects:

practical mathematics, engineering science, and telecommunications practice.

The results were most encouraging, 18 out of the 19 candidates passed and

a total of 25 distinctions, 16 credits, and 7 passes were achieved. You

might ask why am I highlighting this, the number of candidates was only 19?

9

The answer is very simple, all examinations were in English which is

not the mother tongue of the candidates, some of whom virtually had to

learn the English language from scratch in order to sit for the examinations,

the others required at the very least intensive coaching.

I am sure that by now you will have noticed I keep on referring

to young male offenders. This is because young female offenders were

virtually unheard of. Delinquent girls were committed to the care of The

Salvation Army which maintained a special institution for them. The

institution was supported by a Government subvention and coordination was

effected through the Social Welfare Office. Young female offenders did

not appear on the criminal justice scene at least for major crimes until

the late 1960's. Even then they were considered too few in number to

justify the cost of a separate institution. When a new facility for women

was opened in 1969 the opportunity was taken to make available separate

facilities for them, this included a classroom. At the time the institution

was opened, there were only 4 female inmates. By 1971 the figure had only

climbed to 7. Consequently the first completely independent training

centre for young female offenders did not open until 1980; at the time it

opened some 57 trainees moved in.

By 1983 the Education Section of the department had an

establishment of 48 staff with an Education Officer as the administrative

head of the section. With the continued cooperation of the Adult Education

Section of the Education Department, ties to which had grown closer over

the years, 23 part-time teaching staff were available to teach in the

evening remedial education classes. By that time all convicted men and

women in the custody of the department had access to appropriate education

facilities during their period of incarceration of whatever length. To put

it in a nutshell, compulsory education programmes were provided for young

- 10 - 1

1

1 1

1

1

offenders from 14 to 21 years of age in all training centres, while

education on a voluntary basis, was provided for all adult prisoners and

a small number of young offenders re-classified as adult offenders.

The basic subjects for young offenders included: English,

Chinese, Mathematics and Social Studies. In addition, special subjects

such as Technical Drawing, Engineering Science, Computer Studies, Book-

keeping and Typewriting were also offered in various institutions catering

for the different kinds of inmates with different interests and aptitudes.

The education system for young offenders was geared in the main to follow

as closely as possible that which took place in normal schools. Education

Television Programmes were used extensively. Extra-curricular activities

in the form of hobby classes were available, these were designed to

cultivate interests and encourage cooperation between inmates.

As previously mentioned. subsequent to the change in the title

of the department which occurred in 1982, it became much easier to obtain

funds to improve programmes such as education and vocational training.

Accordingly we found ourselves able to progress at a more rapid pace than

was possible prior to that year.

By 1988 the Education Section of the department had a total of

II74 staff including teaching staff at various levels. However, also included

were the technical instructors involved in teaching the various trades

within the vocational training field for young offenders. The latter,

some of whom had been carrying out this task for years, were not previously II

included in statistics covering education. One reason for this was the

exclusion of uniformed prison officers who also possessed a teaching

qualification and who were utilised from time to time for the purpose of

teaching.

1

- 11 -

Subjects available to young offenders incluFled: Chinese,

English, Mathematics, Social Studies, Moral and Civic Education.

Commercial and technical courses leading to public examinations in

Telecommunications Technicians, Food and Beverage Service, Book-keeping,

Accounting and Typing.

As I mentioned at the First International Conference on Prison

Education in 1984, vocational training courses are run in conjunction

with education programmes. Subjects covering include air-conditioning, book-

binding, brick-laying, carpentry, cookery, electrical installation,

hair-dressing, pipe-fitting, plumbing, paint spraying, panel beating,

plastering, pottery, printing, metalwork, radio and television maintenance

and repair, telecommunications and tiling.

In 1985 the first students sat for the examination leading to

the Hong Kong Cerzificate of Education. In 1988, 19 students sat for

the examination and achieved a pass rate of 80%. It is expected that

24 students will sit for the examination in 1989.

Presently education programmes available to adult offenders

consist of: remedial education classes, self study courses and

correspondence courses. 61 remedial educational classes with an enrolment

of just over 1000 students were available in 12 institutions during the

evenings in 1988. Subjects taught included Chinese, English, Mathematics,

History, and Social Studies. Correspondence and special courses are

available mainly to cater for the requirements of those who are interested

in studying at a higher level than that which is provided for in the

remedial education classes. At the end of last year (1988) a total of

219 students were enrolled in correspondence courses. 31 students were

enrolled in technical courses by arrangement with the East Asia Open

University which is located in the Portugese territory og Macau, some 30

miles from Hong Kong. Self study courses are available to those who prefer

- 12 -

Since public examinations were introduced in 1979 a total

of 1129 students have taken part, sitting for 1580 papers. They have

achieved 466 distinctions, 188 credits and 755 passes. Overall pass

rate equals 89.18%.

At the end of 1988 a total of 9243 convicted persons were in

the custody of the Correctional Services Department excluding a further

794 persons who were being held on remand. A little over 3000 inmates

in a number of different categories were enrolled in the various education

programmes. 11

I believe that at a gathering such as this it is not appropriate

for me to measure success or failure if indeed that is possible in prison

education, at least in the way I view it. So having delivered the facts

I leave it to you to pass judgement.

Footnotes:

(1) Historical facts have been extracted from official public records.

(2) Prisoners are People by Kenyon J. Scudder. Published by Doubleday, I/

Inc., Garden City, N.Y. 1952.

(3) An Educational Prison "Model" A Canadian Perspective by Dr. Lucien 11 Morin, International Seminar on "Strategies for Education within Prison Regimes", Wiston House, Steying, Sussex, U.K. 3rd - 5th July 19811 The Open University/Home Office Prison Department.

I

1

by R.D. Germscheid, Ph.D.

Manager, Industries and Education, Alberta Solicitor General

Correctional Services Division Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT FOR SHORT-TERM

SENTENCED OFFENDERS: SOME PROPOSITIONS

Presented at the Second International Conference on Prison

Education OXFORD, U.K.

September, 1989

ABSTRACT: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

FOR SHORT-TERM SENTENCED OFFENDERS

There is a large body of evidence in the educational, sociological and

anthropoligical literature which suggests that much human behavior is

learned. If the traits normally assigned to criminal behavior are not

the result of psycho-sociopathic or neuropathic sysfunction, it seems

reasonable to conclude that new behaviors can be learned; and, if they

can be learned, they can be taught.

Many correctional systems in Canada have opted to place the

"correctional" emphasis on containment, institutional work assignments

and community service on the basis that the length of inmate's sentences

precludes expenditures of scarce resources. While inmate warehousing

may be convenient and cost-effective in the short run, it will surely

have some long-term costs.

The highly differentiated, compartmentalized types of programs in

prisons have not had the desired affect on offenders. While there is no

questions on the quality of, and the need for, academic, personal

development, vocational and similar courses in prisons, more of the same

is not apt to have the desired affect either.

More attention must be given to providing conceptual linkages among the

skills required for reading, computing, behaving, working and living.

a On the basis of the observations made above the following propositions are presented as a basis for further analysis and research.

It

Proposition One. Offender resistance to change will vary with previous ° admissions and the strength of identification with a group subculture.

Proposition Two. Offender resistance to change will vary with the sexl of the offender.

Proposition Three. Offender change will be most apt to occur in those" programs in which the offender is given an active role in thelm instructional process.

Proposition Four. Offender change will be most apparent in those programs where short, purposeful modular curricula are featured.

Proposition Five. Offender enrollment in literacy programs will vary with the degree to which those programs meet personal needs to know. It

Proposition Six. The effectiveness of programs in reducing crime rates among ex-offenders will vary with the strength of the association of those programs with industry demands for skilled labor.

Proposition Seven. The effectiveness of programs in reducing crime rates among ex-offenders will vary with the degree to which thos programs reflect relative and regional social patterns.

Proposition Eight. The effectiveness of programs in reducing crime rates among ex-offenders will vary inversely with the degree to which individual programs are differentiated.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 1

The Long-Term Server (LTS) 2

The Short-Term Server (STS) 3

THE OFFENDER IN ALBERTA 5

Offender Resistance to Change 5

Proposition One 7

Proposition Two 7

Offender Age and Sentence 7

Proposition Three 8

Proposition Four 9

Offender Education Levels 9

Proposition Five 10

Offender Employment and Skill Levels 11

Proposition Six 12

Offender Residence 12

Proposition Seven 13

SUMMARY 13

THE TRADITIONAL MODEL 14

Proposition Eight 15

THE CASE FOR EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM INTEGRATION 15

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT FOR SHORT- TERM SENTENCED OFFENDERS

INTRODUCTION

Many citizens, when asked to describe the typical criminal, would

respond with terms such as power seeker, self centered, sociopathic,

psychopathic, easily angered, thrill seeker, poorly educated and the

like. Ask those same people to describe the typical, law abiding labor

leader, and many of the same terms would be used. When pressed to explain

the similarities in characteristics between the criminal and the

non-offender, respondents would be apt to explain that the offender merely

got caught or that it is a question of the degree to which those

characteristics are apparent.

To be sure, there are psychopaths and sociopaths within the

offender population. Certainly, there are many inmates who manifest

antisocial and asocial behavior; who lack empathy, affect, responsibility,

ability to love and loyalty; who are pretentious; and, who exert brutal

power and force over their fellow human beings. But, these behaviors are

not necessarily psychotic as most offenders are capable of making logical

and rational decisions even under the most stressful of situations. It

would seem to follow that in the absence of some psycho-sociopathic or

neuropathic disorder, behavior change should be possible through

disciplines other than psychology, psychiatry or medicine.

There is a large body of evidence in the educational,

sociological and anthropological literature which suggests that much human

behavior is learned. If the traits described above are interpreted as

coping behaviors it seems reasonable to conclude that new coping behaviors

can be learned; and, if new behaviors can be learned, they can be taught.

■■■ 1

••■ 2

I/ The vast majority of the studies reported in the correctional

education literature focus on programs for the offender who is servit

three, five, ten or more years. The vast majority of these reports,

unfortunately, are descriptive in nature and the conclusions at which mallt i

of these authors arrive depends to a great extent on hunch or far- ,

rather than sound scientific reasoning and analysis. Even so, so-

tantalizing pieces of information have been brought to the surface and t Ir . . . . . .

Buttram (1977) found that significant differences exist betwle

post-secondary students and no-program samples of prisoners where

employment and social adjustment measures were juxtaposed against arrII t

11 and parole violation rates. Another finding was that no inmate in eit er

the control or the experimental group pursued further education af

release. It is important to note that these data were gathered durin a

period of high unemployment in the United States. Post-secondary stude s

11 Alston (1981) and Duguid (1982), among others, noted correlationE

between educational deficiencies and recidivous behavior. There IIE

agreement between these writers that the humanities and the social

sciences help offenders face important ethical, social and politi 1 II

issues. And, to this list Alston has added vocational education. 9e

argues • hat educational deficits, combined with unacceptable cultu

IFreligious and moral attitudes constitute the single major cause

criminal behavior.

More recently, a study conducted by Holloway and Make (1911

reported the existence of a linear relationship between the level (

11

The Long-Term Server(LTS)

following reports are characteristic.

were more likely to find employment and less likely to reoffend.

education gained while the offender was in custody and the liklihood of

that person gaining work and remaining employed after release. Their

reintegration criteria included one year with no return to prison, freedom

from arrest and .the length of time the offender maintained full-time

employment.

These and other studies demonstrate that something may be

happening to offenders while in custody, and that education appears to be

one of the change agents. However, it may be somewhat premature to assume

that education, per se, has been the sole change agent. Even if it

assumed that the educational process is a major contributor to

rehabilitation we are not yet in a position to state that education is

occurring solely within the environment normally designated as school.

The Short-Term Server (STS)

Extended periods of time spent in custody makes the offender

available for the longer developmental types of program. If the results

of programs for the longer serving inmate are sparse and equivocal the

problems are significantly magnified for the short termer. The LTS and

the STS have many traits in common: age, education, employment history and

attitudes for instance; and, in terms of the Alberta prisoner profile,

they are inextricably mixed; economically, socially, behaviorally and

legally. Further, the LTS and STS have similar prior arrest and admission

histories. Where the LTS and the STS characteristics diverge is in the

lengths of their sentences (LTS sentence = 3.4 years; STS sentence = 0.4E

years).

When the sentence of the STS is attenuated further through earnec

remission, temporary absence and other correctional system policies, thE

actual time a provincial offender may spend in custody could be as littlE

3

••• 4

as one month. The literature is silent on programs for this category

offender but it is in this context that most provincial prison programs

must function. 11 Many correctional systems have opted to place the emphasis n

containment, institutional work assignments and community servi .

Proponents of warehousing frequently cite Enochsson (1980) or ot '-

writers who observe that no program can be said to work all or most of te

time; therefore, limited resources should be conserved. However, th -It

does not countenance warehousing, nor should it discourage planners from

leseeking ways in which programs may contribute to institutional stabil .

and reductions in crime rates. Duguid (1983:53) placed the issue into

perspective in his assertion that; 11

1 11

Even so, there is a significant vocal public which includes

many legal, law enforcement and corrections personnel, who perceive an l

kind of programming, other than hard labor, the paddle and other form

of debasement, as the correct way of treating criminals. Enochsso

(1980:5) argued that those publics had not seen any "real" effect"•

resulting from prison programming in terms of diminished crime rates!'

The conflict among correctional workers in Alberta, according to Nixo11

and Bumbarger (1983:129) is minimal. In fact, there is a fairly high

degree of consensus among Alberta correctional workers that programs ar11

necessary and useful, regardless of the length of inmate sentences.

We are too sensitive, and indeed too moral a society to be content with the simple utilitarianism of incapacitation or punishment as the sole end of (the correctional) vocation.

1

1

Correctional planners must be concerned with issues beyond

keeping the prisoner busy. There must be an effort made to provide

programs which benefit both the inmate and the institution in which that

person resides. Institutional tranquility and offender rehabilitation

need not be inimicable goals.

THE OFFENDER IN ALBERTA

Alberta Correctional Services is comprised of thirteen adult

centres of which four are classified as remand and nine as serving

centres. Although five of the nine serving centres hold minimum, medium

and maximum security classified inmates, four have been designated as

minimum security facilities. The offender population levels in the

province range from approximately 2,100 to 2,800 with a mean of 2,300.

The following data were derived through an analysis of a random

sample of approximately 20% of the inmate population in custody during

the week of June, 1987. Each computer file was examined for data

relating to specific variables which were considered important for

designing educational programs within the context of the prison

environment. This profile was verified through a random sampling of 20

inmates which data were compared to the original sample on

March 9, 1989.

Offender Resistance To Chancre

The number of previous admissions to prison and the number and

type of violations on which the offender was convicted are used as a

measure of that individual's possible resistance to behavior change.

18.1 9.7 Totals

4.5 2.4 0.1 0.7 3.2

McKenzie and Goodstein (1985:398) identified two types of prisoners: thell

traditional lifer who has had little or no previous history of criminal

behavior; and, the repeat offender who has had a less than stable life 11

style and a history of experience with the criminal justice system.

There is sufficient evidence in the literature to support the I/

contention that cognitive and social bonds among members of a sub-group

become increasingly strong over time. On this basis, one would expect

that those prisoners with long histories of offences (Table 1),

II

TABLE I PROVINCIAL OFFENDER

PREVIOUS ADMISSIONS AND PRESENT CASE VIOLATIONS

Population Previous X X Present Case Violations Segment Admissions Crim. Narcot. Prov. Total

Code Chg. Stat. Viol.

Non-Native Male 5.6 3.1 0.1 0.7 3.9 Female 1.7 0.9 0.1 0.4 1.4

Native Male 6.6 3.0 0.1 0.7 3.8 Female 4.2 2.7 0.1 0.9 3.7

0.4 2.7 12.8

11 particularly those associated with chemical and alcohol use, would b

more resistant to change than the first time offender. This type o

II

association would be likely intensified and be even more resistant to

change where the identification was with a drug or similar sub-cultur11

2.4

-6- 6-

In terms of the criteria established above it is likely that

the most resistance to change would be observed, in descending order,

with male natives, male non-natives, native females and non-native

females as there is a rough linear relationship between previous

admissions and the total number of present case violations.

Orsagh and Marsden (1985:271), arguing in support of Rational

Choice Theory, state that ". . . behavior is motivated by a desire to

maximize well-being." Vroom's (1964) Expectancy Theory would suggest

that a person's desire to act in a certain way is a function of that

individual's goals and his perception of the relative worth of his

efforts as a path to the attainment of those goals. More simply stated,

if an offender desires inmate or other sub-group acceptance,

institutional rewards and/or programs which do not enhance peer

acceptance will not be important.

Proposition One. Offenders' resistance to change will vary with previous admissions and the strength of identification with a group subculture.

Proposition Two. Offenders' resistance to change will vary with the sex of the offender.

Offender Age And Sentence

The age of the offender and the length of time that person will

be in custody are important variables in prison programming. Age is

important as a guide to the ways in which instruction and guidance may

be approached; whereas, sentence length will provide a rough measure of

how long one has to do whatever one plans to do. Table II provides

information relating to mean age and sentence.

The mean age of offenders engaged in educational activities is

nearly 29 and the average sentence is approximately six months. As will

be shown later, these people may have been out of a formal educational

environment for as long as seventeen years. -7-

Population Segment Mean Age Mean Sentence

Totals 114.9 1.92

TABLE II PROVINCIAL OFFENDER

MEAN AGE AND SENTENCE 1

Non-native Male 29.0 0.59 Female 27.4 0.48

Native Male 29.2 0.53 Female 29.5 0.32

28.7 0.48

Many offenders would have been accustomed to making some Il

relatively independent decisions, regardless of the_quality of thos

decisions, for 40% to 60% of their lifetime. Independence, combine

with criminal history, social affiliation and, perhaps, a basic contemp 1

or ignorance of the law and other social norms, suggests that

traditional approaches to instruction may not be effective in promotint

behavior change. It is not likely that the mature adult, offender or

not, will accept a passive role in the instructional process. Program"

should challenge the client-offender, but challenge should be tempere

in the -knowledge that many of the exercises, mental and physical, whic

are needed to meet those challenges may not have been employed for man

11 years.

Proposition Three. Offender change will be most apt to occur those programs in which the offender is given an active role in the instructional process.

-8- 11

9

Most provincial offenders (70% or better) will have drawn from

four to seven month sentences with an average of six months. When this

sentence pattern is juxtaposed with earned remission, temporary absence,

illness, transfers and the like, the actual time in which instructional

personnel must reach the individual may be as little as one month. If

the inmate is to be affected in any meaningful way there is no time to

spend on sophisticated developmental, generalized activity. Programs

must be short, purposeful and devoid of non-related material.

Proposition Four. Offender change will be most apparent in those programs where short, purposeful modular curricula are featured.

Offender Education Levels

Education, formal or informal, is the basis on which our

industrial society is built; and, without education the individual may

be locked into making a living at the lower end of the earning scale or

seek alternative ways of enhancing income. Few occupations in Canada

TABLE III PROVINCIAL OFFENDER

REPORTED EDUCATION LEVELS

Population Reported Education Level% Segment 1-6 7-9 10-12 Post-Sec

Non-Native Male 5.5 30.7 63.5 0.4 Female 0 43.5 56.5 0

Native Male 7.4 50.0 42.6 0 Female 4.3 52.2 43.5 0

Totals

7

17.2 176.4

4.3 44.1

206.1 0.4

51.5 0.1

are open people who possess less than a grade nine education and nearly

50% of provincial offenders fall into this category (Table III). In

fact, the ratio could be much higher.

In a recent study of low literacy prisoners and mainstream

adults, Fagan (1988:4) found that prisoners, while they had spent anII

average of 11 years in school, had a mean reading achievement level of

grade 4.7., a difference of more than five grade levels. If these 1

differences are distributed among the population described in Table III

it would imply that the vast majority of the provincial inmate -

population would be below the functional literacy level of grade nine. II

Education programs in Alberta correctional centres are based on

voluntary participation. As Fagan has stated ". . . adults who cover up 11

their low literacy skills are not in a position to benefit from literacy

upgrading." Nor are they likely to volunteer unless there is some

compelling reason to do so.

With nearly 57% of the native inmate population reporting all

grade nine or less education, Fagan's findings aside, there is a need to

II design computational and reading skills within the context of the native

experience and their need as adults. The same observation can be madeII

in respect to the non-native offender population, particularly for

women. The more generalized curricula of our high schools an

post-secondary institutions may not meet the needs of this select

segment .of mainstream society. The needs of women are somewha

different from men; the needs of native women may not be the same as

II those of non-native women; and native males may not necessarily share

the same deficits as other men.

Proposition Five. Offenders' enrollment in literacy programs wil: vary with the degree to which those programs meet personal needs tc know.

- 10 -

Offender Employment and Skill Levels

At the time of admission to prison three quarters of the

provincial inmate population were unemployed and nearly 90% of them had

no identifiable, marketable occupational skill. Times of economic

depression are a difficult time for the unskilled; therefore,

TABLE IV PROVINCIAL OFFENDER

EMPLOYMENT STATUS AND SKILL LEVELS

Population Employed Unemployed Unskilled Skilled (%) (%) (%) (%)

Non-Native Male Female

41.2 22.7

58.8 82.6

77.3 78.6 17.3 21.4

Native Male Female

Totals

7

26.1 73.9 90.4 9.6

4.5 95.5 100.0 0

94.5 305.5 351.6 48.3

23.6 76.4 87.9 12.1

it is not surprising that unemployment levels are associated with low

skill level. Ninety percent of non-natives and 95% of natives, where

an occupation was reported, would be defined as unskilled.

Flanagan (1988:5) argues that ". . . work is . . . the most

important determinant of a successful adjustment to life." Assuming

that there is a connection between economic deprivation and the

willingness of some elements of society to engage in criminal activity

(Flanagan, 1982, 1985; Enochsson, 1980; Orsaugh and Marsden, 1985) it

would follow that vocational and industrial training should contribute

- 11 -

11 to the economic independence of many offenders, and thus, decrease the

incidence of reoffending.

Proposition Six. The effectiveness of programs in reducing crime rates among ex-of fenders will vary with the strength of the association of those programs with industry demands for skilled labor.

Offender Residence 11

The distinction between urban and rural residence is largely

arbitrary. Those centres which feature a diverse economic base are

IIdefined as rural; whereas, those population areas which rely primarily

on retail trade for employment are defined as rural. On this basis it

was determined that nearly half of the inmate population in provincial 11

correctional centres had lived in rural locations prior to detention

(Table V). Nearly two-thirds of native offenders claim a rural

address; whereas, only one-third of non-natives make the same

declaration.

TABLE V PROVINCIAL OFFENDER

RESIDENCE DISTRIBUTIONS

1

1 1

Population Urban Rural (%) (%)

Out-of-Province (%)

Non-Native Male 63.7 33.2 3.1 Female 66.7 33.3 0

Native Male 36.8 57.0 6.1 Female 42.9 57.1 0

Totals 210.1 180.6 9.2

52.5 45.2 2.3

- 12 -

The vast majority of offenders will likely return to, or close

to, their previous residence soon after release. At home they find

familiar surroundings, friends, relatives and social networks and, if

unemployment is a likelihood, a return to unacceptable social behavior

may be expected. While a program in welding may be useful in

developing important psycho-motor skills it has no direct utility for

the person who has no access to the technology or employment in a

related area after release. The notion that academic upgrading, life

skills and other programs are important to any one person, or a group

of people, must be considered in the context of that individual's

background.

Proposition Seven. The effectiveness of programs in reducing crime rates among ex-offenders will vary with the degree to which those programs reflect relative and regional social patterns.

SUMMARY

The majority of offenders held in Alberta prisons are not

psychotic; therefore, the majority of them are educable,

notwithstanding that many inmates have had a history of instability.

The majority of inmates held in correctional centres in Alberta are not

new to the criminal justice system, nor are they a young population.

The typical provincial Short-Term-Server will likely possess less than

a functional grade nine level education, will have been unemployed

prior to admission to prison and will have no marketable skill.

Finally, there is an almost even split between rural and urban

residents in the offender population.

- 13 -

1 THE TRADITIONAL MODEL

Traditional models for the education of prison inmates have

not been effective in ameliorating crime rates. College and other

post-secondary programs have not been particularly successful in

changing inmate behavior beyond the course syllabus. Inmates have

learned skills: they have learned to read and to calculate and they

interpersonal skills; yet, return to prison in undiminishing numbers.

The primary purpose of educational programs in prisons is to

IIprovide offenders with the opportunity to develop skills which assist

them in remaining in the community after release. While academic, II

personal development, vocational and industrial training programs are

important facets of education they are not, in isolation, sufficiently 11

complete to affect the majority of offenders.

Traditionally, educational programs have been designed to II

provide learners with specific types of skills (reading, computational,

vocational and developmental) and as these disciplines have become more

complex there has been a corresponding decline in addressing concepts

not directly related to them. When program differentiation is extended «.

11 to include inmate placement, psychology, case management, and the

various forms of parole and probation as well as education, it should

11 come as no surprise that most prisoners are apparently unaffected by

correctional education programs. As differentiation has proceeded it

11 has become increasingly difficult for learners to make conceptual

linkages among reading, behaving, working, and living. We have been -

II applying topical remedies without dealing with the complex underlying

causes of the problem or we have been dealing with the problem at an

inappropriate time in the offender's sentence.

- 14 -

have been given the opportunity to acquire important vocational and

11

Proposition Eight. The effectiveness of programs in reducing crime rates among ex-offenders will vary inversely with the degree to which individual programs are differentiated.

Educational and other correctional programs have the potential

to profoundly affect the human potential of offenders; socially,

academically and vocationally. But, this will require a strong and

sustained commitment from correctional planners to ensure that

offenders are affected, in the broadest sense, through a program which

develops the entire rather than a selected, range of abilities.

Programmers must examine their plans in the context of the needs of the

inmate, the community, and the correctional facility.

THE CASE FOR EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM INTEGRATION

If educational and other programs in correctional centers are

to be effective in providing offenders with.the skills and desire to

engage in legal, productive activity after release, prison programs

must reflect the needs of the offender and the community in the context

of the institution in which he or she is held. Each facility has a

range of job assignments for inmates where they are able to learn

important marketable skills through on-the-job training, but who may

lack important educational and social foundations. Academic and

vocational education, personal development and job placement, if

properly managed and coordinated, have the potential to provide

foundations for offenders who desire an altered lifestyle. This will

not occur solely through highly differentiated educational programs,

nor will it happen by assuming that psychology, medicine or case

management counselling techniques hold the key to success. While these

- 15 -

1 11 programs are important in dealing with specific needs they do not

remedy the underlying causes of much chronic criminal behavior:

inappropriate coping skills and poorly developed decision making II

skills.

Historically,

self-help, psychological and other correctional programs have

maintained a rather autonomous, arm's length relationship with each

other. In some cases, protection of the integrity of the program,

apprenticeship for instance, has overridden the obvious merits of the

contributions of other programs to human development.

Although inmate labor is useful and necessary to institutional

operations this is is not the reason offenders are incarcerated. II

Though educational programs must maintain a reasonable fidelity to

11 their institution's goals and curriculum, this is not their purpose in

a correctional center setting. One or two programs and/or coursesa

cannot be or do everything to offenders; yet each has an important

role to play.

Synergy, the notion that the simultaneous efforts of each

program will have a greater affect on the inmate than the individual"

affect of any program, is a concept which has been largely ignored by

many prison education planners.

secondary, post-secondary, chaplaincy, II

I

- 16 -

REFERENCES

Alston, J.G. "Preparation for Life After Incarceration." 1981 American Association of Community and Junior

College. Washington, DC.

Buttram, J.L., Dusewicz, R.A., "Effectiveness of Educational 1977 Programs in State Correctional Institutions: A

Follow-Up Study of Ex-Offenders." Research for Better Schools. Office of Planning and Evaluation. Philadelphia, PA.

Enochsson, K., "Correctional Programs: A Review of the 1980 Value of Education and Training in Penal

Institutions." Journal of Offender Counselling, Services and Rehabilitation. Vol. 5(1), Fall.

Duguid, S., "Rehabilitation Through Education: A. Canadian 1982 Model." Hawthorne Press

Fagan, W.T., "Low Literate Prisoners and Mainstream Society 1987 Adults' Attributional Characteristics."

Unpublished Article. University of Alberta, Department of Elementary Education. Edmonton, AB.

"Reading Competencies: The Performance of Low-Literate Adults." Unpublished Article. University of Alberta, Department of Elementary Education. Edmonton, AB.

1988

Flanagan, T.J. "Correctional Policy and the Long-Term 1982 Prisoner." Criime and Delinquency. January.

Holloway, J., and Make, P., "Post Secondary Correctional 1986 Correctional Education: An Evaluation of

Parolee Performance." Wilmington College, OH.

Levy, G.W., Abram, R.A., DaLow, D., "Vocational Preparation 1975 in U.S. Correctional Institutions: A 1974 Survey."

U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower Administration. Washington, DC.

- 17 -

McClain, T.W., and Caples, R., "The Impact of Vocational 1978 Education on Ex-Offenders in Massachusetts."

Institute for Governmental Studies, University of Massachusetts, Boston, MA.

McKenzie, D.L., and Goodstein, L., "Long-Term Incarceration 1985 Impacts and Characteristics of Long-Term

Offenders: An Empirical Analysis." Criminal Justice and Behavior. Vol. 12(4). December.

Nixon, J., and Bumbarger,D.S., "Education Programs in 1983

Correctional Centers." Journal of Correctional Education. vol. 34(4). December.

Orsagh, T., and Marsden, J.E., "What Works When: Rational-1985 Choice Theory and Offender Rehabilitation."

Journal of Criminal Justice. Vol. 13.

Rice, A., Etheridge, R.M., Poe, J.R., and Hughes, J.H. 1979 "Vocational Education in Correctional

Institutions." U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education. Washington, DC.

Vraom, V. Work and Motivation. John Wiley, N.Y. 1964

I ii I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

EDUCATIONAL STRATEGIES IN GROUP WORK WITH RECIDIVISTS

PhDr Pavel Hartl, Charles University, Prague, Czechoslovakia.

ABSTRACT

The contribution describes our experience over ten-years-

running counselling for groups of 12 - 14 male prisoners aged 21

to 50 years. The criteria for selection of the prisoners for the

project were as follows: only those who were recidivists and were

supoosed to leave the prison in 3 - 12 months were enrolled into

a grou. Whenever someone left, another prisoner was accepted. The

enrollement was compulsory for those selected.

The educational aims were designed to improve the life and

social skills of' the participants, with the halo of discussions

on life-stories, role-playing, art-therapy and relaxation techniques

etc.

Educational sessions of the author's lasted for 90 minutes,

once a week, in a circle setting. Every meeting hnd a stable

structure - starting with relaxation, going on with discussions

and a number of group techniques, ending with diary-writing. . For

experimental reasons, there was a co-leader at several periods of

time.

Evaluation of the progress in educational work was as follows:

the participants' own affirmations, analysis of all written

materials /participants' diaries, recording of group sessions/,

sociometric technicues, attitudes scaling, questionnaires for

staff, observations of the leader and his co-worker and staff.

The research effort was centred on finding.the best setting

of the group regarding the age e the participants, their educatio-

nal and social levnl, type -o' offence. The influence of the leader 's

personality on the group activity W96 proved, as there were 4

parallel groups led by four dil'erent sonoillists le ps7c::-L1.2.trist,

an educational psychologist, an educationalist and a non-professio-

nnl/.

EDuuATIONAL STRATEGIES IN- GROLTP WORK WITH' RECIDIVISTS

My speech here is a result of long-term work with male groups

of young offenders and adult recidivists, but also with alcohol

addicts and female prostitutes. In all cases the people mentioned

above were placed in institutions, le. home for delinauent boys,

prison, hospital department for treating alcoholism and venerolo-

gical diseases respectively.

A number of research projects took place, lasting from 3

months in the case of women, 3 - 6 months for alcoholics, 1 ver

projects with young offenders, and up to 3 years projects with

adult l'ecidivists, where p-cg-Trms were adjusted periodically.

The following text will mainly concern the last period of

my practise in this field, that is the results of ten-years work

with male adult recidivists.

Historical Outline

If we had a brief look at the historical development of

Czech oenology, et the beginning there was a belief that mere

punishment and imprisonment /ie. isolation from society/ reforms

a person;. if it is possible at all and criminality is not a

question of heredity, given biologically.

Then, after the first war, a more human theory came that

it is possible to reform a single imprisoned person by a single,

understanding jailer/Warder. In the fifties, the change of the

social order brought, among other things, changes of attitudes

2 1 towards the implementation of punishment. The ideas of Makarenko II

were taken as a basis. Makarenko regarded an interaction between

Ian educator and a person being educated as a pair influence. Eut

he also created the so called "pedagogy of parallel influence", II that is, an educator influences individuals not directly, but

Ithrough a group. In fact it means being non-directive towards an

individual, but directive towards a group. The combination of

a directive and non-directive approach is very «basic for Makarenko -IF system. It is mediated by the regime, which in Makarenko's sense

means not a mere daily programme, but a series of tasks. II

From 911 of his idees, in our practice only two damands II remained: herd, exhausting labour, and total discipline and

IIobedience. "Collective punishments" were often used, je. for an

individual's transgression of prison - orders, the whole group was

punished. II Continuously, it was becoming more and more clear that this

Ilprison system was not bringing successful results. In the sixties

I was pursuing a catamnestic observation of about a thousand youn -

offenders that had come.through homes for delinquent boys - where

this collective education was taking place - and the result II

discovered was that only one out of ten boys did not have any

eurther Sentence.

Influenced by the development of world penology and psycho-

therapy, results of which reached our country in the 60s, we trie

to bring new ide a.s into Prisons, homes for young offenders and

91 5 0 into preventive, as well es post-penitentiary work "in the

straet".

Research Proect

A number of research projects started in Czechoslovakia, and

one of them was also the project of counselling groups of 12 to 14

male recidivists /aged 21 to 50/.

The research was realized in the Prague Penological Institute

during the late 60s and 70s. The institute was placed in a two-floor

building inside the prison area; on the ground floor there were the

prisoners' dormitories and social rooms, on the first floor office

rooms, and rooms for staff. The prisoners belonged to the "second

corrective category". /Into the first category, light cases were

usually enrolled. The second category included so called recidivists,

that was criminals that were imprisoned for the second, or more

times for the same crime. To categorize a prisoner as a recidivist

was a judge's resnonsibility. There is also the third categzory,

where prisoners are enrolled for persistent criminality, brutal

and multiple murder etc./ During the day, prisoners worked in

eactories.

Criteria for selection of prisoners. for the counselling

cfrouns were as follows: thev were recidivists from the second

-corrective category, were supposed to leave the prison in 3 - 12

months;-- the enrollement of a "new" Prisoner took Place whenever

an "old" prisoner was released. The selection was done by the

governor of the whole prison.

There were 50 places in the Institute, in 4 dormitories, and

all th ,. Prisoners present were Pnrolled into one of the four

counse, lling rouos /tht di. nit corresoond with the distribution

to the dormitories/. It was considered as an advantag.e that every-

body too'.f: part in the educational sessions, not a sinle prisoner

4

IIstood aside, all of them were in the hands of "the crazy research-

ers".

Basic Princi2les

It was in fact forced psychotherapy, and I believe that

with people like prisoners, alcoholics, drug addicts, etc. the

enforcement is not a barrier for good results. 1 had come to this

conclusion many years before, at the beginning of my educationnl II

work with young offenders. One of the most successful groups of

IImine was formed lik= this: 7 ask=d all the =ducators, teachers and

felr=m=n to write down names of boys they had the biggest troubles

II with. Eight boys, whose names were stated most frequently, formed

II= gr"uo. Th=n 7 asked the di-ector to st=t= a rul= thnt the bovs

enrol'.d hnd to take part in the ZrOUD sessions regularly twice a

week for two hours each time, during their leisure time.

ihe first two questions in the first meeting were: "Whose's

this idiotic i''..=a?" and "or how long do we have to take part in

these stupid sessions instead of football and TV?"

lhe answeres were: "Mine." and "Until Ohristmas; after New

Year it's going to be voluntary." It was the end of September.

A -eter three months of sessions, when the time came for making

dacisions . whether to go on or not, only one out of the eight

rejected any further participation. /His problem was alcohol.

A few months later, when he was walking along a road in a drunken

state, he was knocked down by a car and died in hospital./

---le 4 r d.cis 4 on to remain in the 5,--oup was f 2/' from b=inc

the result of my professional skills. The reason w2s thnt the,

were the strongest personalities of all - they were the stronF:est

in their resistence and aggression, but also in their will and

willingness to co-operate when they had once decided to.

On the other hand, the least successful results were achieved

with a group formed of those boys with whom I was close and had

warm emotional contact. We all know that it is most unfavourable

to have a group of youngsters of about the same age and the same

sex for corrective work. I thought this arrangement would help.

Eut I was wrong. This selection strengthened their mutual jealousy

and competitiveness and increased their ags,ressiveness and

prevented co-operation.

It was only later that I realized that the age range such as

from 12 - 19/19 would be a more natural setting and would enable'

me to create variable relations of: fighting, but nlso protecting;

hating, but also liking etc. An 1-year-boy would not improve his

self-confidence by beating a 12-year, but by protecting him.

Similar poor results can be seen in individuel treatment in

corrective, probational or social work, where a delincuent might

try to look nice, to gratify an educator, to satisfy him/her,

but it is only true when the two people are in personal contact.

When the person leaves, everything goes back to the old way of

behaviou14 . It is not exceptional that the person soon flies into

an aggreSsive attack.

I can remember another case from the beginning of my

orofnssional career. With the help of hypnosis I managed to

suppress • rat aggressiveness of a very raging delinquent boy,

bnlieving it wnuld allow me to start corrective work with him.

But in a few weeks his aggression gave way - with multiple force -

during a massive rebellion in the Home. He was the most furious

destroyer.

6 1

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1

Zo come back to our recidivists - the enrollement into the

corrective groups was accidental, the group leader could not choos

the nerticipents, and regard was paid to having prisoners of a wid

age-variety in each group. Later, it was also found out that it

is fevoureble to have a range of IQ, education and kind of criminal-

ity in the group.

During the whole research period, there was not a single case

Iof a prisoner who remained in onposition towards the sessions and

wanted to leave the institute. It is true that the dormitories

were nt es crowded as in the other parts of the prison area and

the Ruards perheps not so strict, but the differences were not

really significant. Exceptionally, there was a wish to be transfer-

Ird into another educational group, but I will come back to that

later.

Each of the four corrective groups or recidivists was so

celled open, es the settin2 of the members was changeable. Some- IItinic2.m two or three members of a zroup changed within a few weeks,

sometimes there was no change for weeks. But the work of the group II

was not disturbed by this. On the contrary, every new member is

II. "terre incoznite" and meant a chance for the others to learn from

his case how to improve their own insight into psychology, become

IImore sensitive in human relations and understand his own problems

better.

TImP schdule of sessions

"rlh. four rous were ("i' ->-=nt in their time szItting. In

two P.,,, puns the-e -;as not '.., st-itm- : timm structure, in one dim.ries II

were written durin›.7 the lqst te n minutes of eqch session. In mv

own P:roup, there -!ere three rel-ar, stable time arrangements: II

1

1

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7 •■■

710rC easily

The first ten minutes were devoted to autorelaxation after Schultz,

last ten minutes to diary-writing and immediately after the end of

each session, books were lent, brought on request from the municipal

library.

So, each of m7 sessions regularly started with autorelaxation.

The sessions commenced shortly after the prisoners' returning from

work, and that is why its aim was to re-orintate their mirds

from working and prison- reality. Autorelaxation was realized while

sitting on chairs and it was regularly practised by about half of

the group membe-s. Those who did not want to exercise were sitting

Autorelamation was included into the sessions for my good

_experience with it among yourc offenders. Boys used to Practise

it lying on the clubroom carpet and enjoyed it so much that they

often remained lying for a -eew more minutes and had to be brought

back into reality. There we ,-.9 Probably two reasons l'or this: the

young are more suggestible than adults; and they are

1

1 1 1 1

dependent on everything that dissolves anxiety end inner tension

/nicotine, alcohol, drugs/.

Corrective group sessions in the Penolo.zical Institute were

always : held in an - apart from chairs - empty room, in a circular

setting, including the theraoist, or, if need be, other people

/trainees, students, guests etc./.

The educational aims were designed to improve the life and

social skillq of the Participants, with the help of discussions

of 1-2n-qt0 .'“n, "'".1 =-01c7/i.O.L-7 , art-thPraPy and rlaxation technices

bibliopedagogy, imago-therapy etc.

In accordance with other authors' exPerience, the group was

going through four stages of development.

1 1

1 -8-.

1 The first stage

The prisoners blame the police, the judges, their spouses or

IIother institutions or individuals for their sentence and imprison-

ment. Their statements are usually full of strong affections and

II it is no good trying to oppose them. To listen does not necessarily

mean to agree and, after all, these are the most freauent topics I

of their everyday conversation.

This stage lasts fairly shortly, usually two, three sessions. I

Studies realized repeatedly in a later, fourth stage, revealed.

that liking for talks on criminal topics was shifted to the last, Il

12th place among items such as TV watching, radio listening, I magazines and books reading, sports and games, chess playing etc.

Participation in the croup sessions was usually on the second or II

third place. .

The first stage terminates with a realization that courts are I

imperfect, the police do not always act properly, imprisonment

itself cannot reform anybody, and human society is not fair. Which I

is a typicn1 example of the pattern "I'm OK - You're not OK" from

the Transactional Analysis after Thomas Harris. But is a prisoner

in a position allowing him to change things, to become a herald of II

new morals and better society?

The second stage

It is chnracterized by constant efforts of the prisoners to

make the therapist give them advice on how to behave in their

future life, so as not to get back to prison. But our exPerience I

says thçlt the group leader must not accept this, must not provide

Iany piece of advice, must not become an "adviser", talking about

good human properties that should be achieved. This is his/her

1 1

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only task in this stage. He/she must keep returning the questions

and make the group look for the answers and ways actively. It is

one of the most difficult stages for the leader. It is so tempting

to act as an omnipotent adviser - as an "agony aunt".

The thi ,"r' stacc.

The prisoners start Producing pseudo-Problems. While the

f'irst and the second stages might last f'rom 2 - 4 sessions only,

the third one tends to be rather long and there is a risk that the

group will remain here for ever. The Produced Pseudo-problems

represent escapes of various kinds. The prisoners see their

salvation in: workirg somewhere else, having better accommodation,

finding a "good girl", saving money in the bank, starting with 2

nice hobby etc.

The fourth stage

It is based on a sincere effort to open up about everybody's

problems, about the roots, reasons and forms of their previous

social conflicts, about their character and properties. The fact

itself that they are able to talk about such things, has an

important, ebreactive role. Nevertheless, the main tesk is to

come to see deep personality features that are the roots of the

prisoner's conflicts, anti-social behaviour, to discover the

central point of his difficulties and to fight step by step for

the desired chance, to increase demands of him on social behaviour,

control end subdue emotions, try to solve or'oblems in productive

ways, learn to react to frustration adequately.

7 h=, ra tools hiping tq ar, hivz

such as diary-writing /detsil and sincere entries are recuired,

without en:, ro1=-nls7in snsivs 4 hg of

- 1 0 -

each behaviour inefficiency/, active participation in the

sessions, and a number of others.

There is also a useful technique of graphic biography. In

principle it is based on the fact that the best part of human

perception and most contacts with the surrounding world goes

through one's sight. The life story is not only verbalized, but

it is demonstnated with the help of concrete, material aids, !and the -nesult of the effort is visible in the end. And the technicue ›

11 makes it possible to examine the past history of an individual

deeolv. 11

This gMOUD d ,evelopment is different with youngsters, where

II the whole P-nocesq can be undel-gone within several sessions. 2eve-

lopment of spontaneity is opoosite with youngsters and adults. As 11

for the Young offenders, they stnrt with very lively chatting nt

the beginning, interrupting and accusing each other. It is only I

after 9 number of sessions thnt they learn how to control them-

selves, respect the others' °Pinion and accept criticism. "Tith 11

adult recidivists, it takes longer beore they stnrt tnlking,

become spontaneous and.befol"e behaviou- called "acting-out " occurs.

A very specific development of sessions I experienced while

working with "women of easy mornls" - they produced very lively

discussions full of emotion, tears and lnughter, but their 11

attitudes and behaviour remained practically unchanged.

As I have mentioned above, there was diary-writing at the I end of each group session. The prisoners reported about their

II feelings, experiences, opinions, night drenms, and expressed

thei ," satisfaction with the session on a 5-point scale. T1-1

II diaries also made personal contact with the therapist possible.

- 1 1 -

1 Diaries were also used for the technique called VIN /Very Importan11 -

News of the Lay/. The technique was developed in 1975 and used in

following up a flow of information in the psychotherapy community I

at the Drug-Addicts and Alcoholics Treatment Department of the

Psychiatric Clinic; the daily report of every community member

had to include just the one very important item of information,

11 its source and part of the programme from which it derived. The

teGhniaue was then used successfully at several other occassions. 11

A prisoner's report might have looked like this:

"My girl's still waiting for me. From her letter. Clubroom." or: 1

"D.ter Z. believes he will not rturn to orison. Hates his mother

being unhappy. Peter. Group session." or:

""Tho does not like himself, cannot like the others. The leader.

Group session." . The course of each session was registered by a girl-secretary II

She usually managed to put down about 60 of what WaS said. When

using a tape recorder, some 80 c. was covered, in the combination 11

of both ways it was about 90 %. The information registered always

reflected selective perception of the girls. One was completely II

deaf to statements accusing prisoners' wives, another one to

strong expressions, another still to all statements of a prisoner

whom she found most unpleasant. The prisoners got used to the

recording very soon« and starting from the second or third session II

they did not notice it. II

The grnup session records were at the disposal of the other

IIgroups' leaders. And so all were able to see not only the progress

and failures of one 's own group, but what was going on in the .

IIother groups as well..Of course, the leaders had their own regular

sessions or meetings where they discussed their work.

II

- 1 2 -

Group Leaders

There were two male leaders - a psychiatrist and an educa-

tional psychologist, and two female leaders - an educationalist

and a non-professional. During various periods, students from the

last study year were hired as co-therapists. In accordance with

literature sources, this always proved to be useful, especially

if the student was of the opposite sex to the group leader. An

exception to this rule was a group of female prostitutes again,

where the sessions were the most successful when led by three male

professionals.

In the Penological Institute, meetings of the leaders and

co-therapists and the head of the Institute, together with various

technicues used for many studies /VIN, diary analysis,• sociome trio

technicues, scant-1,7, attitudes measurements, cuestionnaires complet-

ed by orison staff etc./ revealed that personalities and styles of

work of each of the group leaders were reflected in orientation

and results of each group.

The non-professional female therapist focussed her work on

emotional support and cultural activities; her group kept prepar-

•ing Programmes at the occasions of Christmas end other common

meetings of the four groups. The prisoners liked attending the

sessions, but they did not feel anything was charu. ing with them.

The female educationalist focussed on pedaogical aims:

education, smooth running of the sessions, with a tendency to

reward every single performance or a group member. The prisoners

were not ver7 keen to attend the sessions, but they appreciated

the new pieces of information they learned there and found them

useful.

- 13 -

The male educational psychologist's work was typical of a 11

wide range of employed techniques and focussed especially on those

who needed emotional support. In this group, prisoners'attitudes II

towards the sessions varied a lot, from enthusiasm to indolence,

IIand also their views of personal changes varied, from feeling of '

0.reet Proaress to those of deep scepticism and frustration. . -- _ .

The male psychistriqt's sessions were the most stormy. He 11

IIused a combination of doctor's directiveness and dominance after

Pavlov, and psychoanalytic approaches trying to uncover sub-

conscious depths of each prisoner. The Prison staff often e

comoleined about their noisy end azgressive behaviour after eech

session. The .erieoners themselvec hete ,' the sessions and in sever II

cases the aversion between a prisoner and the psychiatrist was so

strone: thet either one or the other asieed for the oris crier 's trsn ,

Ilsfer to another group. Althowfn this was a..ainst e. iven princinles,

it was necessary to agree with sri exception several times.

Conclusions

, This contribution can be concluded by the following findings:

11 - it is well possible to realize the above described work with

'recidivists inside a prison; regardless the fact that it is com- I

pu.lsory , .

- it is without zreater problems to have an "open 5zroun", it cari •

even be regarded as advantageous;

11 _ for the selection of group meTT'bers it is elweys Profitable to

choose individuals of various eEes /the range in our case wes 11

from 21 to 50/, various levels of achieved education snd intellect,

as well as of various sorts of crime committed;

- three-month period for attending the sessions proved to be

insufficient /in that case sessions twice a week could halp/; a

Period from 1/2 to 1 year seems to be long enough;

- it is most beneficial when there is a pair of therapists/group

leaders, preferably a woman and a man;

- the group leader's profession is certainly important, but not

as much as his/her personality, gifts and experience;

- a combination of educational sessions and vocational training

directed to a professional qualification or re-cualification

seems to be the most promisinz for a Prisoner's future behaviour.

Those who were so luck7 to te2k- na-t in both vocational and

counselling courses had the most positive and active attitudes

towards group sessions.

I

Deputy Director General

AsbjOrn Langàs

Central Prison and

Probation Administration

Ministry of Justice

Norway

THE SHARING OF RESPONSIBILITY BETWEEN

AUTHORITIES, EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS AND

VOLUNTARY ORGANISATIONS IN THE REHABILITATION

OF PRISONERS - THE "IMPORT MODEL"

The treatment of inmates in prisons is to

underline the fact that the prisoner is still

a member of society, and is not to be

excluded from it.

Therefore, it must be emphasized that any

person sentenced to imprisonment shall not

lose his right to receive the help, service

and support from society.

All citizens have an equal right to education,

work, health-services and culture. This is

one of the ideas that govern the implementa-

tion of the policy for which the Norwegian

1

Storting drew up the guidelines in the 70s.

By saying so, the Government has taken on

responsibility for groups which for various

reasons are unable to take part in ordinary

activities and services.

Prison inmates are one such group. It is

generally difficult for them to get out to

participate in the services offered to the

public. At the same time-they are perhaps in

greater need of positive and construtive

impulses than others. In conjunction with

other measures a positive cultural programme

may reduce the damaging effects which

isolation in prison can inflict on a human

being. In this context the challenge lies in

bringing professional and cultural activities

into the institutions with subsequent

follow-up after release.

According to the Norwegian Prison Act it is

the duty of the Prison Service: "To ensure

that the deprivation of liberty is implemented

in such a way as to promote their ability and

chances of socially adopting to a subsequent

2

life of freedom and to ensure that the

harmful effects of imprisonment are reduced as

far as possible".

By Norwegian standards - and this probably

also applies to other countries affiliated to

the Council of Europe - there is good

correspondence between the general legislature

and the Prison Act in terms of the

rehabilitation of inmates. But the problems

surface when we look at the practical

implementation of a binding cooperation

between the Prison Service and the relevant

authorities for the individual inmate.

Problems which arise from insufficient

information and communication, general

attitudes towards offenders, small budget

allocations, etc.

Characteristic features of the development in

this field which have taken place in the 70s

and 80s are due to the fact that the Prison

Service has not developed its own educational

system, but has imported the general school

system (the import model). The responsibility

3

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4

for both the subject matter and economy of

prison education lies with the school

authorities under the local and county

governments. An agreement between the

Ministry of Church and Education and the local

counties was put into force from 1989. The

agreement draws up the guidelines and the

terms for providing a full subsidy for all

expenses in connection with educational

programmes. The import model has successfully

been applied to the educational sector and has

also been sanctioned in principle by the

Parliament for the health services, the labour

market services and the cultural and

recreational services.

As educational programmes in prisons are

considered a national responsibility in

economical terms, the local governments will

have no excuse for not establishing

educational programmes in prisons. The

individal penal institution is responsible for

classroom facilities. Due to this financial

agreement, the Prison Service today is able to

offer programmes at 26 of our 42 penal

establishments, mainly on lower and upper

secondary level. Additional courses in

various subjects are also available and some

prisoners are studying on university level.

From April 1987 the prison health services are

integrated into the ordinary health services,

which are administered by the local

municipalities and counties. This is

according to the intentions of the import

model. When the new organization of prison

health services is fully operational, our aim

is to develop it to include measures to

promote health, prevent disease or injury,

including individual an environment-oriented

measures etc.

Furthermore, the import model has been the

basic philosophy for developing library

facilities for inmates. Agreements have been

made upon cooperation with local public

5

libraries in 9 of our largest prisons. The

Ministry of Justice has been working very

closely together with the Directorate for

Public and School Libraries in this matter.

Additionally, agreements have been made

upon regular services from the local public

library in 4 prisons. The librarians pay

regular visits to the prisons and render the

services needed in supplying books and

magazines. All expences are subsidized by the

Ministry of Culture and Science.

Sport activities among inmates

With a view to a more deliberate effort to use

physical training as an integral part of

rehabilitation, the prison authorities has

employed 6 sport consultants who are

responsible for preparing and implementing

activities for inmates. In addition their

task is also to train prison officers to

coach inmates in physical activities. Under

expert guidance from the

6

sport consultants, prison officers will

represent a greater resource in this work

than previously.

The Prison Officers Training School has

increased efforts to strenghten the basic

education in physical activities for prison

officer trainees. The subject has recently

been revised in order to give the officers the

skills needed for coaching physical activities

among inmates in our prisons.

The contact with voluntary organizations and

sports associations will be maintained through

regular matches and competitions between

prisons teams and local teams. Some inmates

are granted leave for participating in

competitions.

In 1983 the Central Prison Administration

launched a project with a physical activity-

programme for chemical abusers in prison.

7

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The purpose of the project is to strenghten

inmates' physical capacity and to create a basis

for an active and positive use of their

leisure time during the stay in prison as well

as after discharge. Since 1983 the project

has increased its capacity and today approxi-

mately 300 inmates a year are offered this

training programme.

The training programme consists of 4 weeks of

intensive training both inside and outside the

prison. The peak of the programme is a stay

for a week outside the institution. This week is

used for all sorts of sport activities, and in

addition there may also be a hike in the

mountains for 2-3 days. After returning to the

prison, the training continues for 4 weeks in

cooperation with prison officers. Afterwards,

the inmates are offered training programmes until

they are released.

The efforts to maintain and develop physical

acitivity in our prisons are considered

important to the rehabilitation of prisoners,

and supports the intentions related to

resolution no. 3 adopted by the 5th Conference

of European Ministers responsible for sport in

1986.

I will be showing a videoprogramme on the

above-mentioned project shortly after my

presentation.

In order to establish a binding cooperation

for the individual rehabilitation of inmates,

the Norwegian Government appointed, in 1977,

an interministerial council (Council for

Prison and Probation Administration). The

Council was commissioned to ensure that

inmates were offered the same programme within

the educational sector, the health sector, the

labour market sector, and the cultural and

recreational sector as the services offered to

other citizens in the country. The work of the

Council has, without doubt, been of great

importance to the extended cooperation between

these sectors and the prison authorities. It

meant positive development to the terms of

9

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imprisonment as well. An essential reason for

this is that the councillors are senior

officials in prominent positions in their

respective ministries who display a particular

interest in the less privileged groups in our

society. By virtue of their positions the

councillors are also able to influence

authorities at local and county government

level within their fields of responsibility

and expertise.

Let me point out the importance and

recognition of the involvement of local

communities and volunteers in the prison work

by quoting from the draft conclusions of the

Ninth Conference of Directors of Prison

Administrations in April 1989 (Council of

Europe): "Volunteer and community involvement

is an essential element of a modern prison

*system because only by involving the community

can prison treatment prepare prisoners for

their return to the community and the

community come to accept that prisoners are

its responsibility." (11.2.) Also in the draft

conclusions the import model

is referred to as one of the means to achieve

a better community and volunteer involvement.

What characteristics do inmates in the penal

institutions display?

- Many of them lack qualifications due to poor

performance in school

- Approx. 30% display reading and writing

problems (dyslexia).

- Many inmates have little or no work

ecperience.

- Many of them have no permanent residence

and no job at the time of their release from

prison.

- Many prisoners have little or no experience

of cultural or recreatinonal activities.

- Few inmates have been members of

organisations, clubs, or teams.

1 1

- Poor health status among inmates is above

average compared to the rest of the

population.

- A majority of the prison population

have drug- and alcohol problems.

- Some inmates are zeropositive, j. e.

infected by the HIV-virus).

Bearing in mind the disadvantaged clientele

which we find in prisons we shall now look

more closely at the authorities, educational

institutions and voluntary organisations

involved in the rehabilitation work for

inmates and the scope of this work.

Estimates show that the penal system receives

annual funds totalling approx. NOK 73 million

or US$ 10,7 million from various ministries

other than the Minisry of Justice itself.

Additionally there are services rendered by

various authorities, such as unpaid social and

cultural services, use of equipment and

facilities etc.

12

For 1989 a breakdown of the financial

contributions to prisons looks as

follows:

1. FROM THE MINISTRY OF CHURCH AND EDUCATION

At present teaching and training during the

day is offered to 20% or 450 inmates. Well

over 100 teachers are employed by the

general educational authority and teach

daily in the prisons.

The cost to the educational

authority is NOK 34,2 mill.

2. FROM THE MINISTRY OF HEALTH AND SOCIAL

AFFAIRS

Prison health service NOK 33,8 mill.

3. FROM THE MINISTRY OF CULTURAL AND

SCIENTIFIC AFFAIRS

Norwegian Directorate for

Public and School Libraries NOK 2,6 mill.

Prison library service

13

4. FROM THE MINISTRY OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT AND

14

LABOUR

Directorate of Labour

18 officers have been ear-

marked for work with the

Rehabilitation of

offenders NOK 1,8 mill.

We also receive contributions from:

5. THE MINISTRY OF DEFENCE

Free use of premises, equipment and

facilities from army camps.

6. THE NORWEGIAN RED CROSS

310 prison visitors visit inmates in 22

prisons. Free use of instructors,

equipment and facilities.

15

7. THE NORWEGIAN COLLEGE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

AND SPORT (NIH)

For years prison authorities have worked

closely with the Norwegian College of

Physical Education and Sport (NIH). As of

today there are two prisons which accept

students from NIH who practise teaching

there. This arrangement should be further

expanded.

All the measures which have been outlined

above are part of our efforts to share the

responsibility to combat crime with different

authorities - a fight which the police, the

Public Prosecution Authority, the courts of

law and the Prison Service are unable to

conduct alone. Crime and criminal behaviour

is a social problem - a problem which concerns

- us all.

16

THE SHARING OF RESPONSIBILITY BETWEEN

AUTHORITIES. EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS AND

VOLUNTARY ORGANISATION IN THE REHABILITATION

OF PRISONERS - THE "IMPORT MODEL". SUMMARY

A distinctive feature in the development of

shared responsibility for public services to

inmates, is that the prison administration has

not established its own services in all areas,

but has imported the different services into

the prison.

The import model has succesfully been applied

to the educational sector, and the responsi-

bility for both the subject matter and the

economy lies with the local school authori-

ties. The national government, through the

Ministry of Church and Education, provides a

full subsidy for all expenses in connection

with . prison educational programmes.

A further development of the import model has

been achieved through the 1980s within several

17

sectors of the prisons. The objective is to

ensure that inmates receive the same

services as other citizens within the health

sector, the labour marked sector and the

cultural and recreational sector. Our work is

still concentrated on expanding binding

cooperation between the various authorities.

These concepts are in line with the

guidelines adopted by the United Nations in

its standardised minimum rules for the

treatment of prisoners. The European

Committee on Crime Problems (Council of

Europe) has taken interest in the ideas of the

import model.

In the draft conclusions of the Ninth

Conference of Directors of Prison

Administrations (Council of Europe, April

1989), sPecial attention was drawn to the

import model and the importance of volunteer

and community involvement in prison systems.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE OHIO INMATE INTAKE POPULATION AND THE IMPLICATIONS

FOR CORRECTIONAL EDUCATION PROGRAMMING

A PAPER PRESENTED AT THE SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON

PRISON EDUCATION, 1989 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY MILTON KEYNES, UK. •

I BY

JOHN F. LITTLEFIELD, Ph.D., CHIEF

DIVISION OF MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS OHIO DEPARTMENT OF REHABILITATION AND CORRECTION

COLUMBUS, OHIO, USA.

SEPTEMBER, 1989

ABSTRACT

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE OHIO INMATE INTAKE POPULATION AND

THE IMPLICATIONS FOR CORRECTIONAL EDUCATION PROGRAMMING

The paper looks at a sample of 1722 inmates received by the

Ohio Department of Rehabilitation and Correction in September

and October of 1985. The sample consisted of 166 females and

1556 males sent by the courts to begin serving various terms

of incarceration within the state prison system. The author

presents preliminary data on the characteristics of this

sample. Included in the presentation are the race, age,

claimed educational level, estimated time to serve, and tested

educational level which are described in the analysis. Based

on the description of the characteristics of this group, the

author makes a number of recommendations for the Ohio Central

School District, the education authority of the Ohio

Department of Rehabilitation and Correction. The author

concludes that the pnimary goal of the education programs is

to provide opportunities for the inmates to increase their

preparedness academically and vocationally for the transition

from the institution to the community.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE OHIO INMATE INTAKE POPULATION AND

THE IMPLICATIONS FOR CORRECTIONAL EDUCATION PROGRAMMING

INTRODUCTION

The prison systems in the United States consist of both state

and federal jurisdictions. In recent U.S. history, the level

of the prison population has reached epidemic proportions. A

recent publication by the Bureau of Justice Statistics of the

U.S. Department of Justice reported that the number of persons

under correctional supervision, in 1986, exceeded 3.2 million

or approximately 1.8% of the U.S. adult population. Of this

number, 272,736 were confined in jails and another 545,133

were in state or federal prisons (U.S. Department of Justice,

1989). The general characteristics of the incarcerated

population include significant alcohol and substance abuse,

above-average unemployment and under-employment, as well as a

general lack of basic educational skills such as functional

literacy and computational skills. Therefore, developing

educational programs for this population provides an enormous

task for the correctional education profession.

The State of Ohio has experienced similar difficulties,

although on a smaller scale. Ohio can generally be considered

representative of the larger United States. Ohio has both

rural and urban populations as well as a mix of both

industrial and agricultural enterprises. The Ohio Department

1

of Rehabilitation and Correction (DR&C), paralleling the

nation's experience, has experienced a tremendous growth in

the incarcerated population in the last decade. In 1979, the

total inmate population was 13,360. By the beginning of 1989,

the inmate population had increased to 25,857 and the

Department was experiencing record numbers of new commitments

being received at the three reception centers as reflected

by the latest intake count. Similarly, in almost every other

state prison system and the Federal Bureau of Prisons, the

adult incarcerated population has soared in the past decade.

The total U.S. prison population in 1976 was 314,457 as

compared to the 1986 census of prison population which totaled

545,133 (U.S. Dept. of Justice 1986, 1989). The combination

of the increase in the years of average prison sentences and

the increase in the rate of incarceration have exacerbated the

problem of overcrowding in our nation's prisons.

The questions most frequently asked of this population in

terms of educational need revolve around the areas of

educational and employment skills. The general consensus has

been that the majority of the incarcerated population have not

received a high school diploma or equivalency and that a

significant proportion are functionally illiterate. In

addition, this population suffers from extensive unemployment

and under-employment compared to the general population. The

purpose of this paper, then, is to analyze the characteristics

of the Ohio inmate intake population in an attempt to draw

conclusions and implications for the planning of

appropriate correctional education programs. Most literature

2

on adult correctional education include estimates of

educational and achievement levels of this special population.

In a national survey of correctional education programs in

1979, Raymond Bell and his colleagues estimated that over 50%

of the inmate population is illiterate and that over 90%

lacked a high school diploma. These figures were based on

previous estimates of the educational achievement of the

incarcerated learner (Bell, et al., 1979). One of the

objectives of this paper is to provide specific data regarding

these characteristics as well as other information germaine to

the problems of program development in the Ohio adult

correctional education system.

The Ohio Central School District was established as part of

the DR&C in 1974. A special school district charter was

granted by the Ohio Department of Education. Each of the

institutions served as branch campuses of the school district.

Currently, the Department of Rehabilitation and Correction

operates 21 correctional facilities. In response to the

expansion of the number of facilities, as well as to the

number of inmates within the system, the DR&C Bureau of

Education and Training has developed into regions which

administer the educational programs within the prisons. Over

4500 students are enrolled in academic programs and 850

enrolled in vocational programs in the 21 prison facilities

(See Appendix A). Current student enrollment represents about

20% of the total Ohio inmate population.

3

The Ohio Central School District has also increased the level

of funding for the operation of the academic, voçational,

pre-release, and library programs. A greater number of

teachers and related staff have been employed to provide

educational services. In addition, increased funding has been

received through the Ohio State Department of Education to

assist in the development and provision of educational

services (See Appendix 8).

OBJECTIVES

In the analysis, the following objectives will be addressed;

o To provide demographic characteristics of both the male and female inmates at the initial reception in the Ohio prison system.

o To provide general information concerning the type of felony, and other criminological information of this population.

o To present the available educational information on this population.

o Make recommendations concerning the design of correctional education programs for future Ohio Central School District programs.

PROCEDURES

The data for this report were gathered on all individuals who

entered the Ohio adult prison system in September and October

of 1985. This includes all new admissions that were received

froM the 88 counties in Ohio, all parole supervision violators

and shock probation violators who were returned for not

conforming to their respective parole and probation

guidelines, and those convicted of new felony offenses while

under parole supervision. A total of 1,722 individuals were

received in the three DR&C reception centers. The intake of

4

prisoners consisted of 166 females and 1,556 males.

Information was collected on these individuals and placed in

their respective inmate master files. The inmate master files

will be transferred with the inmate during his/her

incarceration. The data for this analysis was collected at

both the reception centers during the intake process, and at

the institutions. This aspect of the study is the first phase

of a longitudinal study of this group of individuals.

Currently, data are being collected on the institutional

aspects of the group's behavior; and the final phase of

the study will collect data on the group's post release

behavior.

FINDINGS

In 1985, the Ohio Department of Rehabilitation and Correction

received approximately 9,100 inmates into the three reception

centers. Currently, the average number received on an annual

basis exceeds 11,000. Therefore, the number of inmates

included in this sample is approximately 18.9% of the total

number received for the year 1985.

As mentioned above, a total of 1,722 individuals were included

in the study. One hundred sixty-six females were received in

the Months of September and October of 1985; and one thousand

five hundred fifty-six males were received. The reception

sample of 1977, with 9.6% females and 90.4% males approximated

the annual percentage of females and males received by DR&C in

1985. Racially, the male intake consisted of nearly 40%

black, less than 2% Hispanic, and the balance of 58% white.

5

The females, however, were over 55% black, less than 1%

Hispanic, and 43.4% white.

Table 1. Racial Breakdown of 1985 Intake Sample

Race 4 of Females % of Males

Black 55.42 92 39.72 618

White 43.37 72 58.48 910

Hispanic .60 1 1.74 27 Native American .60 1 .06 1

Totals 100.00 166 100.00 1556

Data were also gathered on the employment status at the time

of arrest for the offense. Over 32.5% were unemployed at the

time of arrest, while only 21.78% reported being employed

full-time at the time of the offense. The data concerning the

employment status of the offenders (as well as a number of

other variables) were self-reported. This information was not

verified either during the data gathering process, nor after

the reception process was complete. Although the

information is assumed to be reliable, it has not been

verified. The self-reported data includes: Employment Status,

Marital Status, and Claimed Educational Level which will be

• presented below.

6

Employment Status

% of % of Females N Males

Table 3. Marital Status of 1985 Intake Sample

Marital % of % of Status Females N Males

Single 50.0 83 50.2 781 Married 13.9 23 23.7 368 Divorced 15.7 26 8.2 127 Widowed 4.2 7 .2 4 Separated 6.6 11 3.1 48 Common Law 2.4 4 14.3 22 No Response 7.2 12 .3 5

Totals 100.0 166 100.0 1556

Table 2. Employment Status of 1985 Intake Sample

Employed Full Time 13.26 23 22.69 353 Employed Part Time 3.01 5 1.87 29 Unemployed 47.59 79 30.91 481 Disabled 0.00 0 .96 15 Student 0.00 0 .90 14 Housewife .60 1 0.00 0 No Response 34.94 58 42.67 664

Totals 100.00 166 100.00 1556

The marital status of the inmates was also recorded during the

initial intake process. For both males and females,

approximately 50% reported being single, while only 16% of the

females reported being married or in common law relationships.

The males, however, reported that 38% were either married or

in common law relationships.

The age at the time of arrest is interesting to note for each

of the sub-samples of the population. Nearly half of the

7

Totals 100.0 166 100.0 1556

females were 29 years or under at the time of the arrest and

for the males 62.6% were 29 years or under at the time of

arrest. Over 88% of this sample were under the age of 40.

Table 4. Age at the Time of Arrest - 1985 Intake Sample

Age at the Time of Arrest

% of % of Females N Males N

Under 20 20 - 24 years 25 - 29 years 30 - 34 years 35 - 39 years 40 - 44 years 45 years & older

5.4 9 9.3 145

19.3 32 28.6 445

23.5 39 24.7 384

24.7 41 17.2 268

16.9 28 8.6 134

8.4 14 5.7 89

1.8 3 5.9 91

Another area of concern for the correctional education

administrator is whether or not the inmate has a history of

drug and/or alcohol abuse, or a history of mental illness.

Table S. summarizes the information collected during the

reception process as well as information gathered from

Pre-Sentence Investigations (PSI).

8

Females (N=166) Alcohol Abuse 22.3 Drug Abuse 44.0 Mental Illness 20.5

37 73 34

78 44 80

51 49 52

47.0 26.5 48.2

30.7 29.5 31.3

Table 5. Presence of the History of Alcohol Abuse, Drug Abuse, or Mental Illness in the 1985 Intake Sample

No Missing

% N % N % N

Yes

Males (N=1556) Alcohol Abuse 42.4 660 57.4 893 .2 3 Drug Abuse 38.9 605 60.9 948 .2 3 Mental Illness 13.7 213 85.7 1334 .6 9

As part of the initial reception process, inmates are

classified into security levels. The DR&C currently uses four

security classification levels: maximum, close, medium,

and minimum security. The classifications are based on the

severity of the crime, years to be served, whether violence

has been part of the current crime, evidence of escapes or

escape attempts, and previous criminal history. Initial

security designations will assist

reception coordinators in determining which institutions

inmates should be sent to. The data, as presented in Table 6,

show that a majority of the females and over 33% of the males

are 'initially classified as minimum security. In addition,

over 85% of the females and 77% of the males are classified as

medium security or less.

9

Table 6. Initial Security Classification - 1985 Intake Sample

Initial Security lc of % of Classification Females N Males

Maximum Security 0.0 0 0.4 7

Close Security 0.6 1 15.0 233 Medium Security 24.7 41 43.2 672

Minimum Security 63.3 105 34.1 530

Missing Data 11.4 19 7.3 114

Totals 100.0 166 100.0 1556

The data collection process also included a recording of the

estimated length of incarceration for individual inmates.

Calculations were based on the date of admission into the

prison system and the date of the inmates' first parole

hearing or the end of the definite sentence release date. The

difference between the two were calculated and recorded. Ohio

has both determinate and indeterminate sentencing. The type

of sentences are dependent upon the severity of the crime and

the level of the felony. Generally, the lower levels of

felonies are determinate sentences; as the felony level

increases, a greater proportion of the sentences are

indeterminate. The significance of the data on the estimated

time of release is that the inmate will be aware of his/her

first parole or release date. Inmate decisions regarding

whether or not to participate in correctional education

programs may be influenced by their perception regarding the

length of time of their incarceration. It is believed that

the inmate would then consciously or unconsciously determine

if he/she would have "enough time" to get involved in academic

or vocational programs within the institution. The estimated

10

Totals 100.0 166 100.0 1556

time of release may also influence educational counselors

regarding the placement of the inmates into academic and

vocational programs.

As summarized in Table 7, the majority of the sample have an

estimated time of release of 2 years or less. A significant

percentage of the inmates are estimated to spend less than a

year in the prison system. It should also be noted that 12%

of the sample group had estimated release dates of 5 years or

more. This group may tend to increase proportionately in the

population as the "short timers" matriculate through the

prison system and return to the community.

Table 7. Estimated Time of Release for the 1985 Intake Sample

Estimated Release Time % Females N % Males N

1 year or less 53.6 89 44.9 761 1.1 - 2 years 26.5 44 21.9 341 2.1 - 3 years 6.6 11 10.4 162 3.1 - 4 years 7.3 12 7.8 121 4.1 - 5 years 3.0 5 3.0 48 5.1 yrs or more 3.0 5 12.0 186

Another area of self-reported data involves the claimed

educational level. Inmates are requested to give the last

grade level of school attended and to state whether or not

they have earned a high school diploma or a high school

equivalency certificate (GED). Over 42% of the

females and 60% of the males in the sample reported they did

not complete high school. The claimed educational level is

11

88 138 246 377 372 209 126

5.7 8.8

15.8 24.3 23.9 13.4 8.1

0.0 - 2.0 2.1 - 4.0 4.1 - 6.0 6.1 - 8.0 8.1 - 10.0 10.1 or above Missing Data

Totals 100.0 1556

summarized in Table 8.

Table 8. Claimed Educational Level - 1985 Intake Sample

Claimed Educational Level

Is of % of Females N Males

6th Grade or Less 1.2 2 2.0 31

7th to 12th Grade 41.0 68 57.3 891

High School/GED 15.1 25 29.6 461 Beyond High School 9.6 16 10.3 160 Missing Data 33.1 55 .8 13

Totals 100.0 166 100.0 1556

During the reception process the inmates are administered the

Test of Adult Basic Education to determine the approximate

level of educational achievement. The Test of Adult Basic

Education measures achievement in the areas of reading,

grammar, spelling, and math. The composite grade level scores

of the Test of Adult Basic Education were used in the

following table. The test results of the female sample of the

1985 Intake Study were not available or were not recorded at

the time of the initial data collection and, therefore, only

male data are reported in Table 9.

Table 9. Tested Educational Level of the 1985 Intake Sample

Tested Grade Level % of Males N of Males

12

SUMMARY

From the above data, the general characteristics of the male

and female offenders upon entry to the correctional system are

similar to a certain degree. Offenders are disproportionately

black. Over 41.2% of the offender population is black versus

9.97% of the overall Ohio population (U.S. Census 1980). A

significant number of offenders were unemployed at the time of

arrest. Over 32.5% reported that they were unemployed at the

time of arrest, and only 21.8% of the offender population

reported being employed full-time at the time of arrest. The

majority of the intake sample is under the age of 30 and

nearly 90% of this population is under the age of 40. A

significant portion of the offender population at initial

reception has acknowledged the influence of alcohol and drug

abuse, as well as a high proportion of this group have

experienced some mental illness. Another interesting aspect

of this analysis is that the over three-quarters of this

population is classified as medium and minimum security, and

the vast majority are expected to serve less that 2 years of

prison time.

Over time there will probably be a gradual concentration of

long-term offenders in the close and maximum security

institutions. As the short term offenders are received and

processed through the system, the rate of turnover in the

medium and minimum security institutions will increase.

Meanwhile, the higher security institutions will probably

13

I

• 14

stagnate relative ta the turnover rate in the lower security

institutions because of the concentration of long.term

offenders in the higher security institutions.

CONCLUSION

The challenge, then, is ta determine the best educational

programs appropriate to the population and the resources

available. Currently, the DR&C offers a variety of programs

including Adult Basic Education, High School Equivalency

Preparation (GED), vocational, and pre-release programs. In

addition, post-secondary institutions offer both academic and

technical programs at the Associate and Bachelor's degree

level. The Adult Basic Education Programs concentrate on

basic literacy and computational skills. Adult Basic

Education (ABE) is mandatory for those inmates which test

below the 6th grade level on the Test of Adult Basic

Education. Inmates are required to participate in the ABE

program for at least 90 days or 1 quarter. Attendance beyond

the initial 90 days is voluntary. GED classes prepare

students for Test of General Educational Development; when the

GED is passed, the student is awarded a high school

equivalency certificate. This certificate is widely

recognized in lieu of a high school diploma for bath

employment and college entrance requirements.

One of the advantages of the Adult Basic Education program is

that students are able ta enter the program on a "open entry,

open exit" basis. This allows for the students to come into

the program throughout the time of incarceration. When

transfers to other institutions occur; inmates are able to

continue their education without a tremendous disruption.

The vocational education programs on the other hand are based

on the high school standards developed for the public school

systems in the State of Ohio. Generally, these programs

require 720 hours of both classroom instruction and lab

participation. Within the prison system, this takes

approximately 6 to 8 months to acquire. With the rapid

turnover of a significant number of inmates in the system, the

opportunity to participate in the vocational education

programs is effectively denied to a large proportion of the

population. With the ti. me required for initial processing,

adaptation to the "home" institution and the future of

possible transfer to another institutidn, the chance for

enough time to complete a vocational program is greatly

diminished.

The same holds true for post-secondary educational

opportunities. The initial quarter/semester of education may

be a possibility, but the chance to complete an associates'

degree is prohibitive, unless the inmate is doing a

significant amount of time. The colleges and universities

which offer post-secondary educational programs in the prisons

are locked into their respective quarter and semester

calendars. The academic terms for the prisons replicate the

calendars of the sponsoring post-secondary institution.

Administratively, it is justifiable to operate in this manner;

but, given the situation of the incarcerated student it may

15

not be the optimum method to provide post-secondary

educational opportunities.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The following recommendations are based on an analysis of the

intake population sample of the months of September and

October of 1985. The 1722 inmates selected are considered to

be representative of the general population of inmates

received by the DR&C. These recommendations are made in the

hope that the educational programs will become more attuned to

the characteristic needs of the inmates received in Ohio.

Adult Basic Education

o Continue to provide mandatory education programs for those

inmates testing below the 6th grade level. The mission of

the education department should be to deliver literacy

programs to those who are most lacking in basic skills.

The ABE programs should also continue the "open entry,

open exit" method of enrollment and continuing efforts

should be made to assist students in their transition from

one institution to another within the system.

GED

o The preparation for the GED should be continued and most

likely be enhanced with the future acquisition of computer

assisted instructional programs. In fact, the CAI program

will improve the delivery mechanism of bath the Adult

Basic Education as well as the preparation for the high

school equivalency tests.

16

Vocational Education

o The opportunity for vocational training is limited due to

the structure and time requirements of these programs.

The Department should endeavor to work with the State

Department of Education to restructure the program

requirements into shorter time segments. One program that

has received some success has been used in the Kentucky,

Michigan, and New Mexico prison systems (Norton,

Kiplinger, and Littlefield, 1986). The specific vocational

course remains basically intact. The training is divided

into specific skill areas or modules. Specific skill

areas can then be mastered by the student in about a month

to 6 weeks. Once the student completes the first training

module, then he/she is eligible for a certificate for that

module. If the student is able to continue the training,

then he/she may enroll in the next module. The student

continues to gain skills in each module that he/she has

time to complete. Once the student completes all of the

basic training modules then a certificate outlining all

the modules of the total vocational program is granted.

If the student is unable to complete all of the modules,

at least he/she has documentation of training in one or

several modules. For example, in an automotive mechanics

program, the modules may consist of subtopics: Engine

Tune-ups, Brakes, Transmissions, Carburetors, Automotive

Electronics, etc. Each of these modules would be broken

down into four to six week segments and each could be

17

mastered in a relatively short time period. This would

allow a greater number of inmates to have the opportunity

to gain some much needed vocational skills prior to

returning to the community.

Post-SecondarY Education

o The efficient transfer of information and documents

among the participating post-secondary institutions is

essential. The DR&C has made strides to assist in this

process by convening the Ohio Penal Education Consortium

(OPEC). The members of this group consist of

representatives from each of the post-secondary schools

offering college-level programs in Ohio prisons. In

addition, these representatives of the DR&C are also

voting members of OPEC. The primary objective of the

consortium is to increase the communication among the

member colleges and the Department, and to attempt to

solve mutual problems. One consistent problem is the

transfer of academic credit as well as tuition grant

information. Each educational institution processes

information differently and attempts at cooperation have

not yet developed into an efficient system of

information transfer.

Other Recommendations

The Department of Rehabilitation and Correction should

continue to support both the substance abuse program and the

pre-release programs. With the significant percentage of

offenders who have substance abuse problems, the need for

18

these programs is evident and should be continued as a high

priority of the Social Services section of the Department.

The development and enhancement of the Pre-Release programs

should continue. This program provides an inmate with the

opportunity to improve his employment and transition skills

prior to release to community. The Pre-Release Program

concentrates on job readiness, job seeking, and job retention

skills. Given the high unemployment of the intake population,

these employment, as well as the transition skills are needed

to increase the basic chance of obtaining employment once the

inmate is released to community.

Finally, the concept of integrating the total academic,

vocational, and work experiences while incarcerated into as

meaningful a continuum should be the highest priority of the

Bureau of Education and Training. The Training, Industry and

Education (T.I.E.) conept as presented by the Ohio Plan by the

Department of Rehabilitation and Correction needs to be

fulfilled. An on-going process of honing and developing

linkages within the correctional system among academic and

vocational education and related job assignments within the

incarceration experience would give greater meaning to the

inmates prison time and enhance the chances of success after

relèase. The develOpment of an academic and vocational

transcript with an associated job portfolio will assist the

ex-offender in the transition from the institution to the

community and, hopefully, to become a tax payer rather than a

tax burden.

19

APPENDIX A

ABE 1309 29%

GED 559 12% MABE

398 9%

PSE-T 298 6%

Business 108 13%

Culinary 93 11%

Textiles 43 5%

Automotive 124 15%

Tech/Manuf 87 10%

Welding 56 7% Barber

29 3%

PSE-A 2027 44% Construction

310 36%

SO OM 11111 UM 1111111 MI MI ale MI Mg UM Mt 11110 11111

Ohio Central School District Educational Program Enrollment

Total Enrollment = 5431 students

Academic Programs Vocational Programs (4581 students) (850 students)

Source: DR&C Education Bureau 4/89

POPULATION STUDENT AREA BREAKDOWN BY INSTITUTION

Humber Enrolled 650

500 I-

C C D F a C a C P C I C I R I

C

H L C C F I

L 4 1.1 0 A C C C I I I

Institution

0 0 0 P R 8 CR itCCC I WR I I I

A

460

400

360

300

260

200

160

100

50

0

AcadsmIc Vocational

Source: Training, Industry & Education Date: April 14, 1989

10113 all MI ale 1111111

um tali aub am am um mu is 11111 11111 allb ISM OM OM UM

Ali- Del:ailment f Rehabilitati.m and Corrti,,

01 1 i, Central Sou , ,1 District advational il I ijt1i Awar.-1,1

July 1, 1187 - Juo , Ij88

AC1 CC1 DIII vF LEL1 Li[ LOCI MAC1 MCI ur! qhW OSk WI kCl 3GC.1 el T(:tal

High School Equivalency 2 5 55 0 11 54 4? III 7', hf. d4 ,8 11r.: 41 33 4 118 11;92

ICED)

ABE Certificates 6 12 11 10 117 U 411 57 ,i0 .1.) 51 52 .,

i. 14 •17 .1 574

' High School Diploma d d q 11 d 0 0 d 11 0 15 d d 0 31

u /

Vocational d 62 1 5 8J 3Z 56 0 47 I :II :12 0 i; ::1 III 57 .3

Collile: Tech. 1 Yr. 0 15 1 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 14 d 0 0 0 0 11

AA 2 yrs. 0 I d 3 16 10 41., 0 6 5 2'.; 14 0 1 3 4 0 213

ES 1 yrs. 0 û d d 10 2 0 0 d d 0 1 0 L 0 0 15

Apprenticeships J J d 0 0 4 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 1

Total 35 1 15 81 42 340 163 250 134 138 1411 241 326 43 51 14 -.1 184 2517

ACI

CC'

DCI

BCE

LeCT

LCI

NCI

LoCI

OCT

ORW

Ohio Dept. of Rehabilitation & Correction Ohio Central School District

Cumulative Enrollment By Institution

July 1, 1987 - June 30, 1988

High

MIE School Special Vocational College College College

Institution FT FT Programs Ed. In-House Corr. Tech. Total

288 0 0 8 87 17 0 400

371 0 0 141 570 NG 225 1.156

429 0 0 21 203 0 0 653

173 0 0 16 186 21 0 426

509 172 172 256 125 0 0 1534

593 0 25 225 810 27 0 1680

MCI 370 0 0 52 40 18 0 480

423 0 0 160 32 38 132 785

496 0 0 135 328 99 89 1147

477 0 0 56 353 25 0 911

601 0 11 168 172 38 35 1058

OSR 395 165 76 239 313 0 0 1218

PC1

RCI 777 0 0 40 508 56 . 42 1423

SOU 513 0 0 86 380 41 0 1020

SC1 547 0 316 183 520 111 132 1809

Totals 71 -18 33 1 633 1819 5139 158 65 16189

186 0 0 0 182 121 0 489

Ili Me MIMI MO IMO IS Mlle I. VIP 1111111 ale fie 1111111 IMP ill ill OM

Ohio Department oe Rehabilitation and Correction Ohio Central School District Average Quarterly Enrollment Julv 1, 1987 - June 30, 1988

Hieh Suecial Colleee Colleee College Institution ABE School Programs Vocational In-House Tech. Lor i' . Total

Ad I 76 0 6.5 69 0 0 131.5

CCI 148.5 0 59.75 105.25 53.3 27.25 394.23

DCI 111.73 0 7.5 76 0 0 193.25

11CP 30 0 11.5 0 48 4.75 114.25

LECI 210.25 79.75 24.5 96.75 297.75 0 0 709

LCI 148.75 6 72 202.5 0 6.75 436

LCCI 195.3 0 53 190.5 40.5 76.3 556

MACI 107.75 0 15 22.23 0 6.75 131.75

>ICI 187 0 104.3 51.3 72.5 . 49 464.5

OCI 172 0 32 136.6 0 13.6 334.2

OR W 242.73 0 14.5 63.75 95.73 34.5 25.73 479

OSR 162.5 69.25 17.73 111.25 170.73 0 0 5 1.5

PCI 6.6.3 0 0 0 27.3 0 0 93.6

RCI 193 0 0 17.5 134.5 10.5 17 372.5

SOC 170 0 0 37.3 219.25 0 20.25 447

SCI 120 0 79 43.75 130 33 27.73 435.5

TOTALS 2362.03 149 141.75 736.25 1928.9 292.5 275.33 5883.8

and— .

3 4.1:::..):; Ii.:•,....:::. ;1

-....,::A ..-,ha9,,,..r : :::?.,:,..... F.: -.:•,-;:r»...,r. i'...:).117..:):; 2'....:',...1. 4,:;.3e 3::',4.'d'.....',.. i'.4.: .;:,;•; 3:::.:.: —.. .!

3:7.:A Cn... ? „...... :. :3:aff D.E....el:p;3'.1.'.14.:;(': 3Y; 1 ". iiG.F."..A...) 1:. i',.4:;.,.':: ::. j...1 . r.!.̀.111

.ipi•:::...,». i''',.:; , '; :',.):) 3;',...)1) i:1 1 ..;':',...::: ' le

I II

5:Ze.C'..a: `.1:: ,...4.:: i'..... ,.) 1.:C.,.1.'; , '; ) 111

';.;c:i.zi•;:•.a .. Up».. -, F.1:•••'.'.r.q. i' ...17:;.:).`: *.s.••: '1' ii,1 ,2.!.5:;?•,...M 3: ''." ';',....':1'. , iïl'...::::.; ...;

.....,.;:ar7

11 ',F..; - ..: '.. r•r:7 ".:1;:•:•7::2i.: ,. -..i. 3:: .̀1,18 ,z..,)1) 3 .,";.3!:j.li:. 31.15:.*;.; 3'.:.4":',..M !II' :;!.';'111

';• -...,::r,eir 7...; -....É 7:74.f.r.: i • •''. i'.:;.' i'fl.....'i•";‘'. i'.•: : .. 1 i.......,1,:::..11

, :; 10 7 .... •.- — :•

...31 .1.:'_ -.• --;.•—cazi;r. i'..:.1.0 .e;:,:`,.: :::;.?,,,,, . ',.; 11•'..i,"-;:'...)..• :1";.».:....:, i.:.:.;"....;

I

APPENDIX B

••••

•••• dr•••■•1

•:•••••I i i

1• •••••

St

M Vocational

L.1 Grant Totale

MI Academic

111111 JTPA

Library

UM ISO MI 1111111 1111 al. INC 1111111 IIIIII III OM IN III 111•1

3000

2600

2000

1600

1000

600

0

Dept. of Rehabilitation & Correction Ohio Central School District Educational Funding - Grants

Thousands

1984 1986 1986 1987 1988

Source: Bureau of Education

REFERENCES

Bell, R.; Collard, E.; Laffey, T.; Lutz, J. G.; Miller, P. V.; Simon, C.; Stakelon, A.; and Wilson, N. J. Correctional Education Programs for Inmates: National Evaluation Program Phase I Report. Bethlehem, PA: School of Education, Lehigh University, 1979. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 175 982).

Norton, Lee; Kiplinger, Janet; Littlefield, John F., Improving Vocational Education Opportunities for Female Offenders, Columbus, Ohio: The National Center for Research in Vocational Education, 1987.

U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1980 Census of the Population - General Population Characteristics, Volume 1. Washington, D. C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1983.

U.S. Department of Justice., Prisoners in State and Federal Institutions on December 31, 1983. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, June, 1986.

U.S. Department of Justice., Correctional Populations in the United States, 1986. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, February, 1989.

SECOND ITEMINATICUL CONFERENCE ON PRISON EDUCATION, 1989

TEE RCM ap CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT LN' PRISON EDUCATION:

TEE TAIZANIA EXIMMarE

(Presented by JUMANNE "RADJI MAMMA — COMMISSIONER CP TAEZelIA PRISONS)

INTRODUCTION: •

This . ba,pEsfrtries to give in brief the role played by curriculum

development'in enhancirE education in prisons: Tanzania has been taken

as the country of reference and that particular attention has been placed

to the Tanzania Prisons.'

In trying to elaborate the extent to which a good desiGmed curricula

can helm to enhance learning in any institution, the experience of Tanzania

as the basis of comparison taking into consideration that curriculum itself

is governed by educational airn and objectives which in most cases are

pronounced by the . governments or political parties in different countries.-

The Damer bas been divided into three main parts. Part one of this

paper forms the introductory part under which apart from introducing the

general issues discussed in this paper, brief examination of educational

history and development in Tanzania before and after indemendence will

be highlighted: The second part has been dedicated to education in

Tanzania Prisons whereby the last part will appraise the role ever played

by curriculum used to consolidate education in Tanzania Prisons.

Before the Germans and the British as colonial administrators came

to Tanzania, formal education was non existent in the country. With the

coming of those colonial masters is when the first schools were built

and formal education in'z'oduced in the country. Few :Primary Schools

and later some Secondary Schools were built to ovide clerks, teachers,

junior administrative cadres and the messengers to serve the running of

administration in the country.

As days went on education started to get tempo in different parts

of the country and that parents started to think of taking their children

to schools thoue the majority of them could not afford the fees charged

at that time given that incomes of the majority was still very low.

As the result in many places very few got education. Nith thatwe

find that it was the coming of Germans and later the British as

administrators which mnrked the introduction of formal education in

. Tanzaniawhich by thenwas known as Tanganyika.

1

2 —

Af. ter attainment of her indemendence in December 1961, Tanzania

contirrend to offer education quite similar and. within the trend. left

by the former colonial Plasters. Given the fadt that malzi scb.00l ae

children could not go to sc.b.00l due to the above given reasons, the

de.cision was reached. to see how education could have been for the

majority instead of the minority as Irac the original case.

In 1967 Tanzanis. released the Policy paper on education krioirn as

Education for Self Reliar_ce. Mie air. of the Education for Self Reliance

was to make sure that education .'r.iven in the country is received. by

the majorii-t.y. Despite making sure that the majority .get education.,

F.aucation for Self -..teliance also gave the general aims of educa.tion in

Tar-zan4.1.2... It -ls the release of L:aucation for Self Reliance as policy

paper which r.-arked the turnir--r point of education in Tanzania..

■That is -Education for Self Reliance?

The pro and Post inde -cendence tv - -a e of education zuve wrong notion

to the 1-.-Linds of the reci -oients. Education was re.garded. as training for

the skills reouired to earn hict salaries in the modern sector of the

econory. Given the needs of the country, the above notion was therefore

rejected by givincr a clear direction on wl-la.t type of ed_ucation was to be

pursued in Tar_ze..nia. Education for Self Reliance was a policy pa-Per

issued to carter for what t7y-oe of education was reauired in Tanzania.

The definition for Education for Self Reliezme was given by Te.:walimu.

1.7yerere to be lfae 'type of education which need to encourage develo -oment .

and inculcate to each reciPie,nt, an e:nquiry mind, an ability to learn

from what others do e and reject or ads.. -ot it to his crun neec3_s, the tyne

which G.-ives the recipient basic confidence in his own. Position as an

equal member of the society, to value others as well as beirc, valued

by them for what he does and. not for what he obtaizis. irarrowly defined.,

Edu.cation. for Self Relia-nce is education which is relevant, applicable,

inculcatLig critical thii±ing and co—operation.

3 ■•••

1

1

I I Relevant education is the one whose content and methods are connected

with the needs and aspirations of the country, and that it àhould be

education for understanding and aavancing the country by relatinE nresent

and future needs, one which can helm to tn-msmit from one Eeneration to

the nezt the accumulated wisdom and knaaledge by PrenarirT2 the people for

their active role in the maintanance and develonment of the country -

these are essential since no society is states but are all in state of fluz.

Atmlicable education means education:Inch offers and rende-s the

learned knowledEe and skills to be applicable in the real country situation.

This is simply an application of learned knauleam and skills through action.

The education which helps to inculcate the critical thinking to the

learners is the type which cultivates an ability to discover, to create

and to ezPress. In so doing, itwill hein to dovelon critical and

dependable minds. Critical thinking menas nothing short of ability to

Probe into issues, relate and have solutions -.workable solutions for

tlat matte -r•.

:Lastly is that the relevant, atplicable ana critical education will

be meaningless if the learner will be uncome-ative. In order to

the three cualities of Education for SeLf Reliance as defined above,

education must instil a sense of co-operative endouver. This simpb-

means individuals self azcellencewità co-oreration. It is with co-creration

when the learned knouledge can be applied for the benefit of the majority.

Adult Education in Tanzania:-

Education for Self Reliance was Pronounced ,s an official Policy

na2er on educational issues in Tanzania since 1967. In order to effect

the Education for Self Reliance as a policy, there was need to make sure

every citizen had the rirT;lt to receive education for the benefit of the

whole society.' This could have been a tidious task if there couldn't

have been demarcation between education to whom.

Ilearly in every society there is a clear demarcation between formal

and non-formal education. It is eouallv easy to conduct formal education

since this is more structured as compared to non-formal education.

27on-formal education starts at home ana continues throush the adulthood.

Sens 4 r- the danger that there were adults who couldn't read and w7-ite,

the country launched Adult Education to care both for those :rno didn't

go to school and those who did. Adult Education was therefore . launched

to mplement ti , e Policies advocated:by Education for Self Reliance as a

nolicy parer.

-4- 1 It is wrong to think that Adult Education was simmly launched to

ensIxe that the illiterate citizens could know haw to read and write.

Adult education actually goes beyond simply learuing to read and write.

It was explained that adult education means learning about anything at

all which can helm us to understand oui' enviroment we live in, and a

manner in which that can be done in order to effect changes in oui' day

to day life. It is simply to learn by doing and to lern what one wants

to learn. It means all educational activities mlanned for adults outside .

the formal school system.

A-cart from learning how to read and write, the other important branch

of adult education is vocational training. It is within vocational training

framework -where the recipients can actually engage in learning by doing.

Statistics show that 54 -; of all Tanzanians above the school age can read and write. Desmite such achievement through adult education cammaigns,

yet we can not afford to underate the share of vocational training in

Tanzanian development. Through vocational training, we have managed to

produce good craftsmen, artisans, and the like. Given our low level of

technological develomment, yet we can still never underestimate the share

of vocational training in enhancing small holder farmers, cattle keeping

and other non—formal activities which forms the backbone of our mrimary econorTf.

It is concluded that when one talks of Education in Tanzania l one do talk of Education for Self 2eliance. At the same time when one talks of non—formal educational in Tanzania, this refers to nothing short of

Adult Education with its sub—branches which are consolidated to take care

of differenct needs of the society given the bachounds of learners. Any Educational activities in Tanzania can only -be evaluated within the

above framework since Education for Self 2eliance remains the only official policy maper givir.P• direction of all educatonal aci-Av4ties in the country.

5

02. 1=01702,211107

As pointed in the introductory part of this maper, much emphasis

has been ulaced on education in Tanzania. Since education is an instrument

of social change, every society strives to make sure that education rbceived

is the one which is beneficial to the needs of that society.

Tanzania as a ievelouing country did proncqmee Education for Self

Reliance as a directional uolioy rauer regarding educational matters in

Itnzania. At the same time we find that avery society lias fmt its needs

and problems. The needs and urdblems of any society are created by

advances or lack of advances in science and technolou,r, commerce, industry,

law and order, molitics, diulomacy, economics, defence, medicine, human

relations, etc. To deal with such -zoblems and necds, there are institutions

within the society itself suecifically designed to deal with such areas.

Prisons is one of the institutions designed to deal with certain needs of

the society.

By law, Tansania Prisons is a correctional institution charged with

the task of rehabilitation of convicted of-'enders in Tanzania. In order

to make sure that the above task is urouerly uerformed, activities taking

place ins ide and within the prisons are linked with the actual life in

the society. With that tssk, the Purpose of education in Tanzania Prisons

is to preuare the inmates for real life in the society when they finished

their sentences. In short, we say that education in Tanzania Prisons is

part of the whole educational system in the Tanzania since the inmates are

prepared to 3o back and serve the same society after completir their

sentences and that's why we say that the principal task of Tanzania Prisons

is the rehabilitation of convicted off enders in the society.

Since edueation in Tanzania Prisons is part and marcel of the

educational systems within the country, the azamination of educational

dbjectivies and aims have remained within the Education for Self Reliance

framework. To effect that, we are trying our level -best to make sure that

edueation 3iven to the inmates do aim at eauiping them with the knowledge,

skills and attitudes for tackling the society Problem upon their return

back to their free life takir into consideration that imprisonment means

restricted life.

flat T7Pe of laducation Taldng Place in Tanzania Prisons?

Disciplinewise ; education offered in Tanzania Prisons is just

similar with education offered in other institutions such as vocational

training schools, folk develoPment colleges and other trade schools.

By basing our education on learning by doing, we do find that ours

is nonformal based education.

Given the advantages of nonr.formal education and taking into

consideration the differing backgrounds of the inmates, non,formal

education has been found to bemry advantageous in the Prisons situation.

The advantages of non—formai education is that learners can learn «what

they want in ordor to solve szecific problems or set scecific knowledge

required.

liducation in Tanzania Prisons is divided in-tot-0 main parts.

Part one demis with the education for Prison staff while the other part

deals -Jitn education for prisoners. Cne can not talk of education for

learners without giving account to education for their tutors. Similarly,

in Tanzania we do talk of education for Prisoners as related to education

for Prison staff since the later are the tutors of the former.

Giving the level of develoPment in Tanzania to the moment, we

haven't embarked on formai education to the jhunate.s. Formal education

is still given only to the prison staff encept to youn,.: offenders who

undergo formal rrimary school education -which is uniform all over the

country. Ue have got a special Prison for young offenders where they

don't min- ;iitn other Prisoners encePt themselves. It is within the

said Prison where we have a primary school for young off enders.

The Prison staff do get their formal education outside the prisons

demendin7 on the discipline concerned. From this stand:mint we have

got sualified lawyers, doctors, economists ; accountants, a=iculturalists,

engineors, social workers, administrators, teachers, etc. Coupled -with

formai edueation received outside the Prisons, we do have our awn few

vocational training schools apart from prison administrative colleges

known as staff colleges. From the above we find that the basis of

education for trisoners is education for staff given the country's

educational policies. Together with the above, we have got one secondary

school where our Prison staff who haven't undergone secondai - education

are taken for their formal secondary school education.

Apart from the prison staff, on the other hand ue have got Prisoner's.

It has been mointed out earlier that education provided to the Prisoners

must helm and pretare them towards life in the society when they

commlete their sentences.

The question than -nises that what is the best tyme of education

to the inmates? Tao will determine the best education to the inmates?

Such auestions and the like are not easy to tackle. Zowever, we do agree

that since the general educational framework has already been given by

the Education for Self Reliance policy paper then cornes the auestion of

how the implementation of Education for Self Reliance can be done within

the prisons contamt.

It is true that the available facilities in the country do not

allau the introduction of formal education system within the Tanzania

Prisons coutemt. Beariuz in minci such limitations, we came to conclude

that it is vocational education system which can help to serve the purPose.

Ibwever, those who ao enter the Prisons illiterate rare er:rolled in special'

classes to enable them learn how to read and write.

In determining what tyPe of vocational training is suitable to

which inmate, the educational background. and . the emPerionce of the prisoner

is used in the determination of their classificatior. Peasants will be

taken to trison farms where they are tau;jht modern ways of asricultural

Production. The pastoralists are taken to the Prison ranches where

they learn modern ways of cattle rearire'; Artisans and craftsmen are

Posted to various prison buildingbrigades where thg7 continue to sharPen

their Iniauledge. The Prisons itself have Tot a vocational training

colleze where masonry, mlubbing, carPentry, electrical installation and

Painting are taoh±t among other disciplines. Those who mass through

our vocational training college finally do sit for national traie test

enuminations and if successful are awarded trade test ce-tificatas

recognised all over the country.

Tanza ..rla prisons do run and operate a nuMber of small scale industries.

Our common induztries include metal works, soap making, shoe makinz,

handcrafts, salt Processing, lime mining and wood work to include

car;entry and :- ener-al furniture making. The above small scale industries

do provide ve-fly adeauate training grounds on the trades concerned for

those who do not qualify to be taken either in the Prison farms, building

brigades and the colleges.

8 ed.

Since most training is matched with pradtice, it has been very

easy for the inmates to learn the actual aspects of their training.

IL prisoner posted in the furniture factory is taught first in theory

haw to maim different furnitares and later given wood to make certain

furnitures - first under sumervision and later justby assignment umon

successful demonstration of ones camability..

Our education in prisons is mostly gauzed in vocational training

since this is the best way o 1iin law, medium amd h-là technology.

Vocational training is given mucà wei2at uità the view of improving oui'

developi= technology since technology àas got a determining influence

on the economic and social advancement of the country. The choice of

vmcational training as the basis of education in Tanzania Prisons kas

been necessitated by the fact that thour4, still economically poor, Tanzania

is reputably rich both in material and iman resources: Vocational

training àhould àelm the nation to ta m tàe available human and mraterial

resources. Our choice for ymcational training has Proved to be very

mractical and amplicable.

03. (.7.77_2..ICT=:. D 717-1LT-1-11. C CI:DAME- -7)11C.4.1.11-707. «77 '-').._1:301.73 • -

In the above chamters ue have discussed the tyme of education pursued

in Tanzania as a practical example. In this charter we new shift our

attention to the type of curriculum, which is euitable to consolidate

such education.

The immortarce of discussing suitable curriculum arises from the

fact that it is the curricula which àhould smell out -what should be taught

and haw. A. well mlanned curricula starts with the smelling out of the

educational aims to which it is designed to carter for. In Tanzania the

Question of educational aim has already been solved by the release of

Education for Self Reliance as a policy paper. It should be remembered

t:Jat Education for Self Reliance was a call to the nation to re-appraise

the country curricula and relate it to the needs of the country.

In the ideal situation any curricual àhould be either society, learner

of subect centred. To our case, we do strike the balance between the

three becau2e art from the society needs, there is also individual

needs which mijht not necessarily conform with the society needs.

Tanzania is still a moor nation. Poor societies like ours can not af'ord

to exclude their immediate needs while planning their educational curr iculum

so that the benefits of education i.e. the knowled:e, skills and attitudes

acaudred in the Prisons should be ploughed back into the society.

The selection of relevant, um-to-date, significant contents and

indication in broad outline the kind of learning ammeriences that are

considered apPropriate for learning the content is the initial stages of

well planned curricula. Initial stage is follaned by evaluation of the

learned material. .-Por vocation training we have 701; immediate and long

term evaluation. Immediate evaluation and long term evaluation helms

the trainers to kna:7 eractly:zhat stems should be taken to enhance

learning exPerienoss. Immediate evaluation take place in the prisons

itself when the learner is still in the prisons control. 0, -r, ampe-nience

has shown that a good curricula should emphasise on the lealming by

doing esPecially on vOcational type of education. Immediate evaluation

has indicated a very significant trend.

The long term °vs.:bat -ion where wo can assess the impact of the

learned material to the develomment of the society has not been easy

to our case. -Je have no mandate by law to make follow-ups on whether

our ex-mrisoners do enage themselves 17itn some activities learned in

the prisons or not 0 alven though unofficial sources indicates that others

continue while the rest do not. There are some notable reasons why

othersdo continue to practice what they learned_inlorisons'while others

do no -t. Backgrounds of prisoners is a leading factor to tais issue.

Some prisoners do have various professional backzrounds. These would

prefer to rejoin their former professions rather than embarking on new

Projects. 7inancial constraint is another headache facinE many am-Prisoners

who might like to practice what tLey learned in prisons. Ihis is'bedaiàse

establishment'of new projects do require funds which molly can not afford.

It is hereby concluded t:Lat curriculum develonment for education

in Prisons in developing countries should take into account technological

develoPment in the càuntry conCerned, educational background of the

prisone-cs and available facilities among other things. In order for such

curriculum to be meaningful, there should be parallel plans to carter for

staff tring to match with -the intended education for the Prisoners. Uliile

it is generally accepted that it as not easy to d3si -12 a curricula which can

carter for the inRivirlual needs as well as the society needs, our experience

in Tanzania'as shawn that the society should first sive guidelines umon

which cur-icula for education in -prisons should 'ce based.

5.+c

SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON PRISON EDUCATION

WADHAM COLLEGE, OXFORD

25-28 SEPTEMBER 1989

EDUCATION IN NORTHERN IRELAND PRISONS

The Northern Ireland Prison Service was set up as a direct

result of the Government of Ireland Act 1921, which brought

about the partition of Ireland and the establishment of 2

separate Parliaments.

The Northern Ireland Prison Service is therefore a direct

descendant of the Irish Prison Service, under the British Crown

which up to the 18th Century operated on the twin E principle,

namely EXILE or EXECUTION. In these more enlightened days the

penal policy pursued in Northern Ireland follows, or dare I say

in areas leads the current practice in England and Wales.

There are, however, several significant differences which I

should mention:-

(i) There are no Community Homes or Detention Centres

in Northern Ireland. There are, however, Training

Schools and Intermediate Treatment Centres.

(ii) There is no parole system in Northern Ireland

similar to that operated by the Home Office. Yet

from 15 January 1976 remission under Prison Rules

was increased from 1/3 to 1/2 sentence for those

serving sentences less than 12 months and this was

•1 à

1

1 1

1 1 1

-2-

extended in March 1976 to those serving

determinate sentences of 12 months or more

However the remission advantage that prisoners

enjoy in Northern Ireland is due to cease later

this year, as a result of Government policy to

harmonise remission rates throughout the

United Kingdom.

1 (iii) Although the administrative category of "Special

Category" prisoner was abolished in respect of

offences committed after 1 March 1976 there are 65 II

such prisoners as well as several hundred

paramilitary types in HM Prison, Maze, and these

present unique problems administratively and

educationally.

(iv) Despite the continuing civil unrest there is

provision for special home leave for certain

groups of prisoners at Christmas and in the

summer. This is rarely abused. In fact all 143

long-term and life sentence prisoners

(approximately 10% of the sentenced population)

who recently availed of summer leave returned on

time.

a Only the third of these differences gives rise to

very serious problems and these will be referred II

to later.

1

1

-3-

*Those granted remission are liable, if convicted

of an imprisonable offence during the remitted

period, to be returned to prison for all or part

of the balance of their sentence.

Broadly speaking, the educational policy pursued in Northern

Ireland follows current practice in England and Wales. The

Northern Ireland approach is outlined in paragraph (b) of The

Aim and Objectives of the Northern Ireland Prison Service

(Transparency 1).

In legislative terms there is, perhaps, more emphasis on the

notion of Further Education. This is reflected in The Prison

Rules, Northern Ireland which in turn relates to The European

Rules. Both, as far as we are concerned, tend to reinforce the

concept of Further Education, Recurrent Education, Lifelong

Learning, education permanente if you like, or Adult and

Continuing Education as it is more commonly referred to

nowadays. The relevant extracts are shown in transparencies 2

and 3.

TRANSPARENCY 2 - Education, Rule 47, Prison Rules,

Northern Ireland 1982.

TRANSPARENCY 3 - Education, Paragraph 78, Council of Europe,

Standard minimum For The Treatment of

Prisoners.

-4-

11 In other words, in keeping with our legal obligation, we

endeavour to provide a range of adult and continuing education 11 opportunities for people in custody to a standard to that which me

is available in society generally. Il

II PRISON POPULATION

One of the most encouraging trends over the past decade has

been the steady fall in the prison population which has

decreased by almost 30%, je just over 1,000. This is outlined 11 in Transparency 4.

TRANSPARENCY 5 - Compares the Prison Population by Sentence in

Northern Ireland, Scotland and England and Wales. Although

short sentence prisoners form the bulk of receptions into

prison, they stay in prison for such short periods that most ofil the inmates at any one time are in custody for lengthy

sentences. At the end of March 1988 only 5% of prisoners in

custody at that date had sentences of 3 months or less; 30% hadll determinate sentences of 4 years or over, and one-quarter were serving life sentences or were detained at the pleasure of the 11 Secretary of State. This is considerably higher than the

corresponding proportion for England and Wales which is about

6% and is largely attributable to the high incidence of 1/ terrorist-related crime in Northern Ireland.

-5-

TRANSPARENCY 6 - PARAMILITARY AFFILIATION, SENTENCED

POPULATION AT 27 APRIL 1989

The important point to note in this transparency is the number

of paramilitary aligned groups, and the fact that only 42% of

the total prison population are serving sentences not connected

with the communal strife.

TRANSPARENCY 7 - THE MAZE PRISON, PARAMILITARY AFFILIATION AT

27 APRIL 1989

This is, arguably, the most widely known penal establishment in

Christendom, and I thought that delegates would be particularly

interested to see the composition of this unique prison

population. Presents serious problems of control, and control

measures present problems for educators.

TRANSPARENCY 8 - POPULATION BY ESTABLISHMENT

Our present population of around 1,800 is housed in 6

institutions shown in transparency 8.

HQ is situated in Belfast as is Belfast Prison, which is

analogous to a local prison in England and Wales.

Maze Prison - approximately 17 miles from HQ, was formerly

known as Long Kesh.

-6-

Maahaberry (Male) Prison - new purpose built establishment,

operational since 1987 - is 23 miles from HQ.

Maahaberry (Female) Prison - part of the Maghaberry Complex - I/

is a separate establishment for female prisoners.

Magilligan Prison - contains short-term and medium security

risk prisoners - is situated 75 miles from HQ.

Hydebank Young Offenders Centre - is 7 miles from HQ and houses II

• • - -

TRANSPARENCY 9 - STRUCTURE OF THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING

SERVICE

Education Services were re-organised and re-structed in the mid II

1970s to cater for the dramatic growth in the prison population II

which mushroomed from 600 in 1969 to 2,600 in the early 1970s.

In 1974 Mr A Baxendale, Chief Education Officer (Home Office) 11

and senior members of his staff visited Northern Ireland and

recommended how thls and the subsequent expansion and

development might proceed. The links which were established at"

that time, I am pleased to say, have continued and the exchange

of visits, interests and ideas are an ongoing feature of the

relationship which we enjoy with our Home Office counterparts.

This also applies in the case of our colleagues in Scotland andll

in the Republic of Ireland.

young male prisoners in the 17-21 age bracket.

I should also like to acknowledge the help and support receivedll

frnm I-11P Onen University, particularly from the Director and

-7-

STRUCTURE

Headquarters Chief Education and Training Officer

1

Deputy Chief Education and Training Officer

Establishments Education Officers

Senior Teachers Chief Instructors (VT)

Officer Librarians Teachers VT Instructors

Under the stewardship of the Chief Education and Training

Officer the Education, Vocational Training and Library

functions are carried out by the Deputy Chief Education and

Training Officer supported with HQ administrative staff. At

institution level the Education Officer and Chief Instructor

(V) are appointed as head of department and head of section

respectively, directly responsible to the Governor and HQ

staff, the Education Officer being responsible to HQ for the

Administration of Vocational Training.

ORGANISATION

There is an education service in every prison and young

offenders centre in Northern Ireland. It is provided by the

-8-

Northern Ireland Office and operates as a branch of the Civil

Service. In every establishment it is managed by an Education

Officer, a trained, qualified and experienced teacher, who is

accountable to the Governor for its day-to-day operation and to

the Chief Education and Training Officer, Prison Education

Branch, for the professional content of the task. The

Education Officer's main function is to interview prisoners in

order to ascertain their educational needs and to organise

programmes, classes and courses to meet these needs.

The Chief Education and Training Officer and support staff

located in Dundonald House, Prison Department Headquarters,

provide the Branches links with the Local Education and Library

Boards, the Departments of Education and Economic Development,

the Northern Ireland Council for Continuing Education, and

voluntary and other educational agencies in the UK and abroad.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The aims of education for adults in custody are much the same

as those for adults in general, ie to enable the individual to

reach his or her potential and to play a constructive part in

society. For people in prison, education has an even more

vital role to play. Apart from the most basic purpose of

equipping people to compete more effectively for employment on

release it can also be a powerful agent in acquiring

flexibility of mind which enables individuals to cope with a

rapidly changing society. Education helps to reduce certain

-9-

inadequacies which may have contributed to an inmate's

anti-social behaviour but there is not evidence that education,

in itself, will prevent further criminal behaviour. Adult

education now tends to be seen in the context of continuing

education and this includes academic, vocational and

recreational subjects. Any activity or interest which provides

fresh stimulation to an individual and helps to maintain his or

her ability at peak capacity adds meaning to life and is of

particular value in a prison. The philosophy of prison

education, in Northern Ireland like adult education in the

wider community, is regarded as contributing to the growth and

development of the prisoner as a human being. Above all prison

education helps the prisoner through his sentence. It absorbs

time in a most constructive manner.

The prison education service, therefore offers continuing

education on a voluntary basis to all adults in HM Prisons and

HM Young Offender Centres. As far as possible, the service is

orientated towards the needs of the individual rather than the

requirements of the institution and indeed the aim is to keep

in step with developments in education generally. At the

present time the range of subjects taught runs from basic to

Open University level. Students are also prepared for

examinations set by national bodies such as the Royal Society

of Arts and the City and Guilds of London Institute. Cultural

Studies courses designed to cultivate and increase mutual

sensitivity and tolerance of the historical, cultural and

religious differences in Northern Ireland are also available.

Curriculum development is ongoing in relation to distance

learning and the new GCSE courses, and aspects of the education

Provision for Young Offenders are recognised as part of the

-1 0--

BROAD OBJECTIVES

The broad objectives are to:-

1. support the prison authorities in their efforts to

provide humane and positive custody of offenders;

provide education, vocational training and library

services for people in custody to a standard

comparable to that which is available in society

generally;

The specific objectives reflecting different needs, abilities

and aspirations, as well as the unique nature of the prisoner

population, lie in the following areas:-

a. Basic Education - To help inmates who are handicapped in

their reading, writing and numerical abilities to perform

more competently in these skills;

b. Maintenance Education - To help keep in touch with their

studies or training those inmates who at the time they were

sentenced were engaged either in full-time education or

training or in regular part-time education as part of their

employment;

c. Continuing Education - To encourage inmates with the

aptitude, intelligence and motivation to follow academic

-11-

courses of study ranging from post-basic to post-primary

degree level;

d. Vocational Training - To assist inmates to compete on

release more effectively for employment either as employees

or self-employed; to prepare trainees through courses in

basic skills to cope in their personal and domestic lives

and give more general preparation for work; to encourage

suitable trainees to enter for tests and examinations

offered by City and Guilds of London Institute and other

national bodies.

e. Social and Life Skills Education - To help inmates to

identify, consider and understand some of the common

problems and requirements of everyday life and work in

contemporary society;

f. Personal Education - To help each inmate with advice and

guidance about the opportunities available in society for

education - training - employment - leisure;

g. Cultural Studies - To encourage inmates to participate in

cultural study courses designed to foster and sustain

mutual tolerance and sensitivity of the historical,

cultural and religious differences in Northern Ireland.

While education cannot solve the conflict (the cause of

many people being in prison) it clearly has a crucial role

. to play in helping people understand its nature and

origins, and to consider the possibilities before them;

-12-

h. Library Education - To encourage every inmate to make the

fullest use of the library service.

TEACHING STAFF

A total of 139 staff are in service; 6 Education Officers,

14 full-time and 73 part-time teachers, 5 full-time and

4 part-time Library Officers, 3 Chief Instructors,

29 Vocational Training Instructors and 5 clerical grades. In

addition there are 23 visiting Open University tutors.

Unlike the position in Great Britain, trained educational staff

are recruited by the Northern Ireland Office and employed as

Civil Servants rather than as teachers in the service of the

local authority. This gives rise to a number of interesting

complications - some advantageous to the staff and some not.

For example, teachers do not enjoy the long vacations but this

is recognised in the salary scales which are enhanced by 20% to

compensate for the loss of holidays. There is limited

opportunity for promotion within the service but posts of

Senior Teacher and Education Officer are filled from the rank

of teacher wherever possible. As far as teaching hours are

concerned we work the normal 10 sessions but one or more may be

devoted to educational guidance and counselling of inmates or

supervision of part-time teachers in the evening.

-13-

Neither the LEA not the Department of Education inspectors have

any responsibility for the work in our prisons. Nonetheless

consultations take place on a regular basis with LEA advisors

and our service is represented on the province-wide panel of

staff development tutors. Similarly, members of the

Inspectorate, Department of Education, have been invited both

to act as liaison officers at the various establishments and to

conduct in-depth surveys of prison education services, and

teaching staff are welcomed at summer courses for teachers in

mainstream further education. This cordial relationship has

been most valuable in the field of vocational training where

the HMI for craft studies served as the external assessor for

City and Guilds Skills Testing Certificates which we offer in

several of the prisons.

PROGRAMMES And Learning Outcomes

During the academic year 1987/88 approximately 58% (1,050

average) of inmates were enrolled in classes and courses

offering the following range of subjects:-

English Language German Cookery

English Literature French Economics

Mathematics Irish Religious Education

Art Spanish Non-Verbal

Handicrafts Sociology Communication

Geography Technical Drawing Pre-release Courses

-14-

History Biology Braille Transcription

Music Open University Studies Life and Social Skills

Photography Yoga Pottery

Woodwork Horticulture Industrial Cleaning

Catering Carpentry and Joinery Painting and

Welding Plastering Decorating

Bricklaying Mechanical Engineering Motor Vehicle

Hairdressing Basic Education Maintenance

Typing Family and Community Motor Vehicle Body

Computing Studies Repair/Spray Painting

Statistics First Aid

Although programmes vary from prison to prison, basic education

is the core element of the day provision and accounts for 35% of

all student class hours recorded. The more able students

engaged in basic education are encouraged to sit City and Guilds

of London Institute Communication Skills and Numeracy

examinations. The pass rate for the last academic year was

high; of 143 entries 120 passes were achieved. Computer

awareness and computer literacy classes attract substantial

enrolments in the Young Offenders Centre, Hydebank, Belfast,

Maze and Magilligan prisons. Software packages are available

and are increasingly being used as a valuable classroom aid

particularly in the teaching of basic skills.

The majority of the classes in the area of post-basic and higher

education are geared to public examinations at General

Certificate of Secondary Education and beyond. Most of the

-15-

prisoners involved in education tend to engage in academic

studies but naturally not all wish to take examinations.

Nonetheless, last year, for example, there were 142 GCSE and 'A'

Level entries in a wide range of subjects and an 85% pass rate

was recorded overall.

Seventy-eight inmates are presently enrolled for Open University

courses including 60 at Maze (approximately one in 9 of the

population). Last year 69 took examinations and 65 were

successful, including 10 with distinction. Three students were

awarded BA degrees and 2 others BA Honours. Of our sentenced

population one in 20 is doing OU - an extraordinarily high ratio

for any prison system in the world.

A number of former prisoners are continuing their studies at

universities here and in Great Britain.

Social and practical subjects such as Handicraft, Photography,

First Aid, Dressmaking, Sign Language, Yoga, Weight-lifting,

Cooking, Guitar playing comprise the majority of the

recreational classes that we offer in each establishment (except

Maze Prison) as part of the evening programme. In the main

these are non-examination activities although Sign Language,

Weight-lifting and First Aid are formal courses which culminate

in examinations. Again successful entrants were awarded by the

relevant examining body.

Inmates engaged in vocational training which I refer to later,

were equally successful, with over 100 obtaining City and Guilds

Skills Testing Certificates.

-16-

To summarise, last year, a total of 519 inmates were presented

for examinations set by external bodies and 477 passed, a good

proportion with either a credit or a distinction.

While the success of a habilitative or a rehabilitation

programme cannot be gauged by GCSE or other results I am

persuaded that any measure which tends to improve the

self-esteem, particularly of an inadequate individual, at least

prepares the ground for more socially responsible behaviour.

VOCATIONAL TRAINING

Vocational Training consists of carefully organised programmes

of instruction by expert craftsmen instructors. The aim is to

equip unskilled people of all ages held in custody with a sound

working knowledge of a useful and profitable skill in

preparation for their release and resettlement in society. It

provides a serious of courses dovetailing practice and theory,

ranging in length from 2% months to 12 months and all meeting

the recommendations of the recognised training organisations

and/or the City and Guilds of London Institute.

The valuable practical experience gained is backed up by schemes

of part-time study, which gives the added bonus of getting a

worthwhile understanding of the principles and techniques

involved in a chosen skill.

-17-

In addition, there is an interesting programme of general

studies geared towards developing the trainee's ability to

absorb, interpret and transmit information, in speech as well as

writing, and to aid general education and personal development.

Vocational training is part of the process of preparing those on

the inside for their return to the outside, with improved job

prospects. Those chosen for a course work together in classes

of 8 to 12 places, depending on the location and type of course.

AIMS

To teach an acceptable degree of skill in the use of tools,

equipment and materials so as to increase job prospects on

release.

To give basic knowledge of the tools and equipment used in

industry.

To instruct in safe working practices, to comply with safety and

health regulations.

To provide opportunities for trainees to obtain examination

qualifications or City and Guilds Skills Testing Certificates.

SELECTION PROCEDURE

As part of their initial assessment prisoners are given details

of courses available. Vacancies are advertised and prisoners

make application for the courses of their choice.

Establishment Skill Training

Places

-18-

Preference is given to those nearing the end of their sentence.

Prospective trainees are interviewed by the Chief Instructor,

Course Instructor and Education Officer Representative, and

trainability tests may be administered to test the candidate's

suitability for particular courses.

Names of recommended candidates are submitted to the Labour

Allocation Boards which allocate all prisoners to work and

training.

At the Young Offenders Centre, trainees are allocated to

suitable training after a period of assessment. The preferences

of trainees, past work records and future prospects are taken

into consideration.

DETAILS AND LOCATION OF COURSES

HM Prison, Belfast Catering 6

Industrial Cleaning 6

Horticulture 12

Motor Vehicle Body Repair 12

and Spray Painting

Welding 12

Catering 8

Computers 10

HM Prison, Maze

Establishment Skill Training

Places

-19-

DETAILS AND LOCATION OF COURSES

HM Prison, Magilligan Bricklaying 1 and 2 24

Plastering 12

Painting and Decorating 12

Carpentry and Joinery 12

Computers 10

YOC, Hydebank Joinery 10

Motor Vehicle Maintenance 10

Bricklaying 10

Plastering 10

Industrial Cleaning 6

Catering C & G Specific 6

Skills Testing Scheme

Painting and Decorating 10

Horticulture 10

Hairdressing 8

HM Prison, Maghaberry Braille Transcription 8

Carpentry and Joinery 10

Painting and Decorating 10

Bricklaying 8

Establishment Skill Training

-20-

DETAILS AND LOCATION OF COURSES

Places

Motor Vehicle Maintenance 10

Computers 10

Catering 6

*Mechanical Engineering 10

*Fabrication Engineering 10

*Furniture Craft 10

*Enterprise Training 10

* Due to commence December 1989 318

All courses are recognised by City and Guilds of London

Institute for Award of Skills Testing Certificates.

PRISON LIBRARIES

Because of our unusual circumstances it is not always possible

to bring inmates to the libraries. At Maze and Magilligan the

provision is made through the operation of a mobile library

service. This means that the officer librarian and his or her

deputies are kept very busy

-21-

and in fact there is a prison library van which clocks up an

appreciable mileage in HM Prison, Maze. Due to the nature of

our prison population, the demand for non-fiction is very much

higher than would be the case in ordinary circumstances.

Nonetheless the library services forms an important part of the

overall regime and generally they are well used. On a sample

day 78% of the total population had 4,800 books on loan. The

inter-library loan scheme of which prisons are a part makes a

valuable contribution to the quality of the service and last

year 1,077 special requests were processed. The prison

libraries carry a total stock of around 35,000 books, all

supplied by our local Education and Library Boards, whose

professional expertise and practical support I would like to

acknowledge.

PROBLEMS

Lest I paint too rosy a picture I should mention that the

existence of the "Special Category" of prisoner and the high

proportion of long-term and life sentence prisoners with

paramilitary affiliation has presented everyone - Government,

Governors and Education Staff with the most appalling

difficulties. The different campaigns have been well

chronicled and I do not propose to deal with them other than to

say in some cases it resulted in boycotts of education, dual

provision and limited contact between the Education Officer and

individual students. In Maze it led to a clampdown on class

based tuition and a proliferation of distance learning

-22-

schemes. However the situation seems more stable nowadays and

I am pleased to say that education developments continue apace

particularly in relation to the provision of Open Learning

Centres, pre-release courses, Information Technology and the

National Council for Vocational Qualifications.

This concludes our rapid survey of education services in

Northern Ireland Penal Establishments but I should be happy to

answer questions as time permits.

J McF STRAIN Chief Education & Training Officer

22 September 1989

\

MANDATORY PROGRAMS IN PRISONS - LET'S EXPAND THE CONCEPT

Sylvia G. McCollum Education Administrator Federal Bureau of Prisons

INTRODUCTION

The idea that prisoners must work has'been widely

accepted for long time in the United States, and probably

throughout the world. Why? - because work is not really

regarded as a joyful experience. In fact, having to work,

particularly at the kind of work traditionally available in

prisons, could come under the heading of punishment. Good '

behavior has also beèn required of prisoners, although it is

probably safe to observe that it has seldom, if ever, been

regarded as a "mandatory program". It was just required, and

specific unpleasant sanctions were the penalty for non-

compliance. And, intertestingly enough, eating has generally

been viewed as mandatory - or at least eating enough to

survive. The early suffragettes were not the only prisoners

in history to suffer forced feedings in order to satisfy the

requirements of correctional administrators.

At-the same time that the mandatory concept was limited to

1

these few requirements -few in number but none the

less important - prisoners were offered inducements for

selected behaviors and accomplishments. "Good time", or time

off sentence served, was available in some jurisdictions for

pai:ticular kinds of work and for the maintenance of good

conduct over specified periods of time. Furloughs home were

also possible, as was the upgrading of living conditions, and

even paid vacations from prison industry or other work

assignments, as rewards for meeting various behavior

standards.

MANDATORY LITERACY IN THE UNITED STATES

Chief Justice Burger's Speech

The application of the mandatory concept continued to be very

limited for what now seems an inordinately long time. The

assumption that correctional aministrators had exhausted the

acceptable limits of required performance from prisoners

went unquestioned for a long time, at least in the United

States. And then a window of opportunity opened in the U.S.

Federal Prison System. Warren E. Burger, then Chief Justice

of -the United States, who frequently admonished all involved

2 «lb

in the criminal justice system to do better, spoke to the

graduating class of the George Washington University School

of Law, located strategically for purposes of the speech, in

Washington D.C., the nation's capitol. He stressed that

soCiety lacks direction about what to do with criminals. He

eloquently referred to "an intractable problem that has

plagued the human race for thousands of years." He repeated

his disappointment that not much new was taking place and

restated his earlier and long-held position that we have a

moral obligation, stronger than any legal one, to try to find

a better way to manage prison programs. While he realized --

that his personal vision of rehabilitation of prisoners had

to be revised, somewhat, he still felt that much more could

be done. He proposed two specific actions which he thought

were feasible, given the tight budget constraints ana the

mood of the general public and its elected representatives:

1. the careful screening, training and better pay for correctional workers, and

2. the encouragement or requirement for all prisoners to become literate and acquire a marketable skill

The Federal Prison System Reacts

At least one person heard that speech and took it seriously.

The speech was made on May 24, 1981 and on May 29, just five

Jim

1

days later, Norman A Carlson, then Director of the Federal

Bureau of Prisons, appointed a task force on education and

training to advise him of the policy implications of Chief

Justice Burger's speech.

The writer was one of the five task force's members, chaired

by Joseph Bogan who, at that time, was the Warden of the

federal prison in Butner, North Carolina. The group's report

was issued on November 12, 1981, and is known throughout the

U.S.federal correctional community as "The Hogan Report."

- The report made at least three recommendations with respect

to staff training and eight regarding inmate education and

training. One of the education recommendations read

simply:

"Develop a comprehensive ABE policy which will require

enrollment in, while simultaneously encouraging

meaningful participation."

The Bureau of Prison's mandatory literacy program,

established in May, 1982, flowed from these fifteen words.

There was a good deal of anxiety over the impact of a

mandatory education program. Would forcing inmates to do

something they really did not want to do create more problems

thàn it would solve? What would the staff think? Would

4

there be passive, and perhaps active, reisitance by both

staff and inmates? These and aother questions surrounded the

task force's initial discussions. Partially to allay some of

these concerns, the task force distributed a questionnaire

to assess staff reactions and opinions on issues under

review. The questionnaire asked- should we have mandatory

education programs? 84% of the staff surveyed answered

"yes", in so far as literacy programs were concerned. The

support dropped to 74% for mandatory high school equivalency

(GED), to 73% for mandatory counseling and to 60% for

mandatory prison industry employment. A second question

asked what action should be taken against an inmate who

refused a mandatory program. A large minority of staff --

around 45%, were against any sanctions, but a majority

favored disciPlinary action and that position was formalized

into the final policy which emerged.

The fist mandatory literacy standard was a sixth grade

achievement level as measured by the Stanford Achievement

Test. Any federal prisoner, with minor exemptions, who tested

below that standard was required to enroll in a literacy

program for 90 days. Inmates could opt out after 90 days,

but --and this was the winning provision--they could not be

prSmoted above the entry level labor grade either in prison

5

industries or in institutional work assignment if tbey didn't

meet the sixth grade standard.

The tie between pay level and education was clear and

was easily recognised as a reflection of the real world. We

wei-e all pleasantly surprised at the ease wiith which the

mandatory ABE program was implimented and within a few years

the minimum standard was raised to the 8th grade in

recognition of community literacy standards. And sure

enough, before too long, some states began to experiment with

and adopt mandatory literacy standards for state prisoners.

MANDATORY HIGH SCHOOL EQUIVALENCY - GED

The success of the mandatory literacy program led directly to

enlarging the mandatory concept to include the coMpletion of

high school, or its equivalent, in order to qualify for the

top inmate jobs in federal correctional institutions. In

September 1987, the executive staff of the Federal Prison

System authorized a one-year pilot effort in ten institutions

in the bureau's southeast region to test the establishment of

the GED standard for top labor grade jobs. The pilot began on

January 1, 1988, and ended successfully on December 31 of

that year. The new requirement will become nationwide in the

Spi.ing or Summer of this year.

WHAT WERE THE SUCCESSFUL INGREDIENTS?

The mandatoy literacy program in the federal prison system in

the United States included the following significant

elements:

1. All inmates, with minor exceptions, who tested below the

required grade level on a standarized test had to enroll in a

literacy program for a minimun of 90 days. ( the 90 days is

really the only mandatory feature of the program )

2. Inmates could opt out of the program after the the

required time period without incurring any sanctions, except

that they could not be promoted above the entry level pay

grade for any industrial or institution job.

The relative success of the mandatory programs has led many

federal correctional administrators to begin to examine the

outer limits of mandatory programming -- or at least the next

steps. Current discussions suggest that if a required program

is coupled with substantial incentives and/or specific,

significant entitlements, it will work. The model of having

to meet some requirement in order to get something you want,

is so deeply embedded in our culture that it has an almost

immediate and uncontested acceptance, provided, of course,

7 4•11

that the quid pro quo is perceived to be desirable,

reasonable and fair.

If this perception is correct, the possibilities for

mandatory programming are extensive. What is it that inmates

want that are in the power of correctional administrators to

give, and what can we reasonably ask from inmates in

exchange? Should we require quality occupational training

before we assign any inmate to a paid institution or prison

industry job? Should certain privileges, such as preferred

housing or priority access to high demand - recreation

opportunities, be contingent on enrollment and completion of

parenting programs, Alcoholics Anonymous, or other programs

designed to strenthen inmate coping skills? Should release

through a half-way house be available only to those who

complete a rigorous pre-release program? You can see how

challenging the options are, and how creative we can be in

our attempt to plumb the potential of tying what the inmates

want to what society wants, at least as interpreted by the

correctional administrators, checked as always, in the United

States at least, by judicial review and congressional or

state legislation. When you begin to think of the

possibilities involved in this concept they are very exciting

and may offer the criminal justice system some new options.

8

THE CASE FOR MANDATORY PROGRAMS

Many thoughtful correctional administrators and others in

related fields of work do not subscribe to the extension of

mandatory requirements to inmates beyond work and acceptable

behaviour, and maybe not even that. They argue that coercion

doesn't buy permanent change; that inmates can run games to

obtain what we have to offer without any real committment to

the required performance; that mandatory programs are

invasive and violate individual freedom; that correctional

administrators do not have the right to do more than confine

prisoners in a humane fashion during their adjudicated

sentences.

This approach neglects the realities that an inmate will have

to deal with after release. There is very little in

organized society which doesn't have a prerequisite in front

of it. If you want to drive a car, you must apply for a

license and pass a test. If you want to rent an apartment,

you generally have to sign a lease and make an advance

deposit. If you want to work in certain occupations you have

to demonstrate some education achievement or competence

level, and even then you may have to pass some additional

exàminations. You can't even get married in some

9

jurisdictions unless you meet some specific requirements-pass

a health test and get a license. The theme-if you want

something from us you have to meet prescribed standards runs

through much of organized society's activities. And this is

esentially what is envisioned in mandatory prison programs

which make certain activities or privileges contingent on

meeting specified standards. Aren't we creating a make

believe world in prison when we say to inmates, you don't

have to do anything special to qualify for oportunity systems

- meagre though they may be- while you are in prison? But

watch out when you are released, eveything out there has

catch to it. What we really are talking about is the

establishment of program standards and prerequsites for

various entitlements -- just like in real life.

We think the 1990's will see a growth of the program

standard concept in prisons, both in the United States and

elsewhere, because, very simply, it makes sense.

10-

RECOMMENDED READING

US Bureau of Prisons, Task Force on Education, Training and Selection. November 12, 1981. Final Report.

McCollum, Sylvia G., 1990. Mandatory Literacy For Prisons. 1990. The Yearbook of Correctional Education.

1

1

1 1

1 1 1

Ancter Control Training with Young Offenders

C. McDougall, D.Phil. Principal Psychologist H.M.P. Wakefield

Anger control courses have been run by prison officers in a Youth

Custody Centre, using programmes designed by psychologists and

based on the anger control techniques of Novaco. Novaco's anger

control training includes self-monitoring of anger using diaries,

an educational component about why people get angry, the teaching

of calming self-statements, and relaxation training as a means of

11 coping with physical tension. Officer-run courses have been

evaluated, and found to reduce the incidence of institutional

disciplinary reports. Research carried out contrasting staff

selected 'angry' and 'non-angry' offenders, showed that, on

self-report questionnaires, 'angry' subjects did not produce

significantly high anger scores but did have high 'aggression'

scores. This has led to the development of courses which

particularly focus on controlling aggression. Experience of

training officers and monitoring officer-run anger and aggression

control courses indicates that these can be run effectively by

non-psychologists.

1 1

1

HM YOI CASTINGTON

<

ANGER CONTROL

APRIL 1989

S-R Scores Before and After Courses

Attack Aggression t = 3.02, p <.02* Anger t = 3.33, p <.009** Arousal t = 0.87, NS.

Frustration Aggression t = 1.80, p <.05* Anger t = 2.72, p <.02* Arousal t = 1.04, NS.

• significant **very significant

Ancier Research

We are constantly trying to improve anger control courses and have

noticed differences in young offenders' anger and their responses

to different aspects of courses.

A research study was carried out comparing 20 "angry" offenders and

20 "non-angry" offenders, as identified by prison officer staff,

over a wide range of psychometric and behaviour measures.

Results suggested that "angry" young offenders have the following

characteristics:

Aggressive (Special Hospitals Assessment of Personality and Socialisation - S.H.A.P.S.)

High Governor's Reports

Impulsive (S.H.A.P.S.)

High Rehearsal (Emotional Control Questionnaire - E.C.Q.)

Low Aggression Control (E.C.Q.).

They were however NOT anxious NOR were they angry. In this study

Young offenders who came to the notice of staff as having an anger

problem were therefore more aggressive than angry and this may be

attributed to a cultural influence on their behaviour.

_ , /1-..,.' .

, •

-- : • ;:-.. .-. Results also explain why, in the

practical experience of running courses, it was necessary to

convince young offenders of the need to control their anger using

the negative consequences technique, as there was a need to control

II aggression rather than anger.

These findings have implications for anger control courses in

institutions which include self-instructions for control of anger

and relaxation instructions to cope with physiological arousal

associated with anger. Since the majority of our subjects are

neither particularly angry nor anxious, it seems that the anger

control course content could be adapted with courses concentrating

mainly on the negative consequences aspect of the course.

There will still be a need for full anger courses for those who do

have reactive anger or anxiety associated with their anger, cg

those who commit violence in a state of panic, however a selective

approach could be employed with full courses reserved for these

people and a much shortened course available for the majority of

aggressive referrals. Such a shortened course is currently being

evaluated.

Implementation of the new course would have the advantage of

courses being targeted to the problem behaviour, in addition to

allowing more subjects to be included on shortened courses. It

would also allow for more officers to be involved, as the training

for tutors could be simplified. It might then be possible for

courses to be run in institutions where there was no psychology

<

I.

1.

f

A detailed anger control programme for the full course is available

and a shortened course programme will be designed following

evaluation.

References:

Blackburn, R. (1982). The special hospitals assessment of personality and socialisation (SHAPS) and the personality deviation questionnaire (PDQ). Unpublished manuscript, Park Lane Hospital.

Blackburn and Lee-Evans (1985). Reactions of primary and secondary psychopaths to anger-evoking situations. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 24, 93-100.

Novaco, R.W. (1975). Anger control: the development and evaluation of an experimental treatment. Lexington, D.C.: Heath Sand Co.

Roger, D. and Nesshoever, W. (1987). The construction and preliminary validation of a scale for measuring emotional control. Personality and Individual Differences, 8, 4, 527-534.

15

PROJECT FRIENDS

The Development of A Program of Independent Study for

Special Confinement Prisoners

Helen Eano Pecht Miller Maryland State Department of Education Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.A May 1989

ABSTRACT

Project FRIENDS was developed by the Correctional Education Office of the

Maryland State Department of Education to provide individualized educational

services for special confinement prisoners who could not attend institutional

schools. Project materials were designed which could be used by students who

never saw their teachers face-to-face. Units of instruction consisting of

from six to twelve modules were developed by consultants employed with funds

from a federal grant. Maryland correctional education teachers with talents

in curriculum design also participated in module development. The curricular

framework for the units was the Maryland Adult Performance Program (MAPP), a

functional life skills curriculum utilized statewide in Maryland's adult

education centers, as well as in the state prison education programs. This

curriculum provided continuity of programming when special confinement

students returned to regular prison education classrooms, or to adult

education centers upon release from prison.

The needs of special confinement students, acquisition of resources, and

curricular base are described in the article. The credentials of the

consultants, and the process by which the instructional materials were

developed and piloted are discussed.

Educational Needs of the Special Confinement Population

During 1985, correctional facilities . operated by the state of Maryland

housed approximately twelve thousand prisoners, ninety percent of whom did not

possess high school diplomas. The educational deficits of the special

confinement population appeared to be even greater then those of the general

population. These prisoners, however, because of their restricted housing

status did not have access to the school programs operated at each of

Maryland's major correctional institutions and pre-release units.

Because of limited fiscal resources available for educational staff and

instructional materials, there had been little systematic educational

involvement with prisoners housed in restricted access areas, especially in

disciplinary segregation, but also in protective custody and medical units.

No education was provided to prisoners on admission or transfer status, and

only a small percentage of students working outside of pre-release units were

able to access educational services. State funds were not available to

provide sufficient instructional staff to offer the direct one-on-one

instruction needed for the majority of prisoners housed in restricted

areas---many of whom were restricted from assembling in a room together, even

within the confines of the security tier. Staff time could not be made

available on short notice for those prisoners on reception or transit status.

Twenty percent of the prisoners in Maryland Division of Correction

facilities were housed in areas inaccessible to general education programs, or

had a status that made it impossible for them to attend these programs.

1

a

I

1

Eight and a half percent of the total incarcerated population was on

disciplinary segregation, over two percent were in protective custody,

six-tenths of a percent were in medical units and eight and a half percent

were on reception status or were awaiting transfer to another facility.

The average last grade completed in school for members of the Maryland

incarcerated population was the ninth. The average grade level achievement on

reading and mathematics on intake achievement tests was even loWer, between

the sixth and the seventh grades. The average age was twenty-six years.

Fewer than eighty percent of the pre-release population had held a job prior

to incarceration; most of those jobs lasted less than a year and paid the

minimum wage or less. The statistics for the members of the special

confinement population who were on restricted status were even worse. This

population had tremendous educational needs, abundant time with little

positive stimulus to fill it, and little or no educational services. What

could be done?

National Institute of Corrections Grants Program for Special Confinement Offenders

During 1985, the Maryland director of Correctional Education received a

request for proposals from the National Institute of Corrections, (NIC) an

institute of the United States Department of Justice. A number of thirty

thousand dollar grants had been made available, on a competitive basis, for

the provision of educational services to special confinement offenders. This

new funding source presented an opportunity for addressing the problem.

There was concern at the time that the newly passed Gram-Rudman Act would

result in the withdrawal of NIC support for correctional education. It was

2

determined, however, that the grant program, if implemented, would be of

sufficient value to Maryland Correctional Education programs to risk staff

time for grant development in the hope that NIC monies for support of

correctional education would be sustained.

The grant application was prepared and submitted to the NIC during

January 1986. Little response was provided by the NIC for the next six

months. Correctional education staff members went about their other duties.

Suddenly, in June of 1986, the FRIENDS project director received a surprise

telephone call from the NIC announcing that the grant had been approved, and

funds would be forthcoming.

Why Independent Study Packets Instead of a "High-Tech" Approach?

When the grant application was prepared, decisions were made regarding

the instructional approach to be used in the provision of services to special

confinement offenders. Responses to the problem in those few correctional

systems which had addressed the needs of this underserved group of offenders

included the use of equipment such as computers in the cells or videotaped

presentations. Such "high tech" approaches were considered by Maryland

correctional education staff members, but were rejected for two reasons.

The first reason was related to cost. Only a small percentage of the

approximately twenty-four-hundred special confinement prisoners in the system

could be served with expensive technology from a program funded at thirty

thousand dollars. The second, and even more compelling, reason was that many

3

I

1

of most needy special confinement prisoners, those with mental health problems

and/or impulsive, aggressive behavior, could not be trusted with expensive

"high tech" equipment, for reasons of institutional security and economics.

They could,however, be trusted with an independent study module--- a packet of

paper which could easily be replaced if torn up, or thrown away.The decision

was made therefore, to use the grant monies to pay consultants to develop

independent study modules, to purchase supplementary materials which could

used in the modules, and to cover the cost of printing and binding the

materials.

The name Project FRIENDS was chosen as an acronym for Functional

Road-MAPP for Individualized Educational Needs Delivery System. The acronym,

however, was deliberately contrived, as the project was conceived to bring

friendship and support to prisoners, many of whom were living in bleak,

non-sustaining conditions.

The Relationship of Project FRIENDS to Project MAPP, the Functional Life Skills Curriculum

During 1985, the year the Project FRIENDS grant application was

generated, Correctional Education adopted the Maryland Adult Performance

Program (MAPP) as the approved curriculum for academic programs. During 1984

and 1985, Project MAPP activities had been initiated in the public adult

education centers throughout Maryland. MAPP was a competency-based adult

education program designed to emphasize the integration of basic skill

learning and life skill learning to educate adults to perform effectively in 11

modern American society. The basic skills identified were reading, listening,

4 . ,

speaking, writing and computation. The life skills were consumer economics,

community resources, health, occupational knowledge, and government and law.

The Correctional Education staff members developing the FRIENDS grant

decided to use the newly initiated MAPP curriculum as the framework for

Project FRIENDS. The functional skills would be more useful to these adults

than a traditional academic curriculum. In addition, linking with the

state-wide adult education curriculum which was being initiated in public

adult education centers and prison classrooms would provide continuity of

programming for students as they moved from special confinement to prison

classrooms to adult education centers in the free world.

The major problem encountered in using the newly initiated MAPP

curriculum as a framework was that it was being built on an evolving

structure. Project MAPP was itself being piloted, the instructional manual

was under revision, and the assessment and management systems were still under

development. However, the basic outline of units and sub-topics to be covered

under each of the life skills had been organized. These life skills with the

accompanying to units and sub-topics provided the structure for the

development of the FRIENDS independent study units. Basic skills, where

necessary, were incorporated within the units.

The Process of Developing the Independent Study Packets

When the grant application process was completed, and the monies at last

committed, it was necessary to identify and employ consultants. With two

5

I I 1 I 1 I I I I 1 I I I I I I

I 1

bureaucracies---the Maryland State government and the United States federal

government---to satisfy, simply initiating the recruiting process in

accordance with all the guidelines was a painstaking process. Eventually

however, four consultants were selected. One consultant was an adult educator

who was also project director of the instructional component of Project MAPP.

Her involvement was of immense help in keeping Project FRIENDS consistent with

the evolving Project MAPP. A second adult educator, one involved in the pilot

of the MAPP project, also was selected as a consultant. The third and fourth

consultants were, respectively, a public school teacher with extensive

experience in curriculum development, and a professor in special education

from one of the local universities.

Decisions were made as to which units in the functional skills curriculum

would be prioritized, what range of instructional levels were appropriate to

specific units, the format of the independent study units, and the modules

within the units. These decisions were modified in the course of unit

development and preliminary piloting of the materials, but provided a

framework for initiation of the materials development.

The goal was to develop materials with such clear instructions that

students would be able to use them independently of teacher presence or

direction. It also was determined that modules within units could be

completed independently. Because of the range of levels within certain units,

students in many cases would not complete total units. Unit pre-tests would

determine students' placement within modules. Some students would begin at

the lowest level, working module by module, and would complete only those

modules within their current level of comprehension, then switching to the

lower levels of a new unit.

6 s

Other more advanced students would begin with the hibher level modules

within a unit, having demonstrated a grasp of the lower level materials. The

unit on the clock provided a good example of this type of pattern, beginning

with modules focusing on rudimentary time telling exercises, and progressing

to modules in which the time zones of the world were demonstrated. Other

units, such as those relating to seeking and maintaining employment, or the

use of leisure time, were more likely to be completed in total by individual

students, because the information presented was more varied than progressive

in nature.

It was determined that each unit would contain management information for

the teachers, including the achievement level of each module in the unit. It

also determined that each module would contain a form for the student so that

the student could record his or her own progress. Unit and module pre-tests

and post-tests were included as well as unit and module overviews for the

student, a glossary of vocabulary words, necessary for understanding the

material, and answer keys. No firm determination was made on whether the

answer keys would be issued to the students, allowing flexibility among

teachers, and even among differing students. Some students might demonstrate

the ability to use the answer key in a positive fashion and others might use

it to cheat, denying themselves the opportunity to benefit from the

experience.

Developing each unit proved to be an incredibly time-consuming

task---approximately forty hours for each unit, after initial materials had

been gathered; and not including the time for final formatting and insertation

of management system elements. For this reason, certain teachers who had

7

1

1

been piloting Project MAPP in the Maryland correctional education system were provided release time and were trained by the consultants to assist in the

development of independent study materials.

The Preliminary Pilot of the Materials

A preliminary pilot of the materials in rough form was run using

classroom teachers and their students. Some of the students were in

classrooms and some were on restricted housing status. In either case,

piloting teachers were asked to have students complete the units

independently, without teacher assistance. Both teachers and students were

given evaluation forms to complete.

The preliminary pilot proved to be a worthwhile exercise. In nearly all

cases, more instructions, and more clearly written instructions with lower

comprehension levels were needed. In a few worst case scenarios, units which

developers believed would be appropriate for students functioning on the fifth 11 to seventh grade achievement levels were pronounced too difficult by inmate

instructional aides with high school diplomas and a year or two of college!

Even acknowledging these problems, however, the teachers and students piloting II

the materials expressed positive feelings about the usefulness of the concept

and the materials themselves, once needed adjustments could be made.

The two adult educators, who were the consultants with the most time to

offer the project, both of whom had an excellent grasp of the adult learning

patterns, undertook the task of modifying the existing units, and using the

experience of the preliminary pilot in the development of additional

materials. They also formatted all of the units identically and provided

8

1

uniform management materials for each. All was in readiness for the formal

pilot of the FRIENDS materials.

The Project FRIENDS Formal Pilot with Special Confinement Prisoners

Three teachers who were offering educational services to protective

custody prisoners in small group settings were selected to pilot Project

FRIENDS. They were provided time from their regular duties to organize the

use of Project FRIENDS materials with students on disciplinary segregation and

mental health units.

The pilot teachers received training from the two consultants who were

adult educators and the FRIENDS project director. Some of the questions to be

explored in the pilot included the following:

(a) What information would be utilized to identify

students instructional level and the topics within

that level on which they would work?

(b) How would materials be delivered to and received

from the students?

(c) How many modules would be sent at one time?

(d) How much teacher time and/or inmate instructional

aide time per student was needed to implement the

program?

(e) To what degree could students successfully complete

these materials independently?

9

1

1 1 1 a

Two of the pilot teachers saw their students face-to-face. One of the

pilot teachers never saw any of her students; the segregation unit was, in

fact, moved to a different prison unit within the compound during the course

of the pilot. All of her materials were delivered and returned by

correctional officers.

Two of the three pilot teachers---including the one who neyer saw her

students--- used inmate instructional aides extensively. The third pilot

teacher operated without the assistance of an aide or aides. All three of the II

pilot teachers were reluctant to allow their students to have answer keys.

One of the three pilot teachers was convinced by the project director to

experiment with this approach late in the pilot.

Some answers to the questions explored in the pilot included the

following:

(a) Students' approximate instructional levels were

most frequently identified through records of intake

achievement testing, found in the institutional records,

or scores and data in the correctional education school

records, if the students had been in school. Students'

interests were determined by an interest survey which was

part of the Project MAPP materials package.

(b) Materials were delivered to and received from the students

using correctional officers, the teachers or aides, or the

institutional mail system.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

10

(c) The number of modules to be sent to a student at one time

was determined by two factors: the student's learning rate,

and the frequency by which materials could be exchanged in

the particular setting.

(d) Teacher and/or inmate instructional aide time utilized

varied widely according to the personal styles of the

teacher and aide, and whether or not students were

given the answer keys and allowed to check their own

answers. Grading students' work was by far the most

time intensive aspect of the process.

(e) Students from the fourth or fifth to seventh-grade

levels were most suited to gain maximum benefit from

independent use of the materials. Students below that

level needed some additional explanation and support.

Students at the more advanced level were able to benefit

from the materials, but were often capable of working

independently on more advanced published materials.

Although the entire process of development for Project FRIENDS was

originally projected for one year, because of bureaucratic delays and the

time-intensive nature of deNielopment of instructionally sound materials

appropriate to the use for which they were intended, it was over two years

before the formal pilot could be performed. Following the formal pilot,

updating and reformatting of the materials continued.

11

Applications of Project FRIENDS

During the summer of 1989, materials were to be printed or duplicated,

and circulated in looseleaf binders to correctional facilities throughout

Maryland, where they could be duplicated for student use. Teachers who would

facilitate the program at each institution would be trained. Students would

be given the materials to keep upon final completion and evaluation, so they

could have them for personal reference.

A new institution had been opened in Maryland since the initiation of

Project FRIENDS. This institution, dubbed the "Super-Max", had a total

population of two hundred-eighty-eight special confinement inmates who

remained alone in their cells and never mixed with each other or with members

of the staff. Project FRIENDS was to be the main educational program at the

institution beginning in July 1989 when formal school services were to be

initiated.

Adult education teachers in the "free world" were excited about the

possibilities Project FRIENDS could afford them---packets could be mailed to

students who were unable to come to class because of disability, child care

responsibilities, or lack of transportation. Regular classroom teachers in

correctional education and/or adult education programs found the materials to

be useful tools in the regular classroom.

Most importantly, special confinement prisoners in Maryland, especially

those in restricted housing status who spent long hours and days alone in

bleak surroundings with little to occupy their time, would have the

opportunity for mental stimulation, and would be able to develop skills which

12

would be useful in the outside world. Prisoners in pre-release units would

advance their knowledge of valuable life skills in the evenings when they came

in from their work assignments. Prisoners on reception or transfer status

would be able to make positive use of what would otherwise be empty time.

The development of Project FRIENDS was a longer and more tedious process

than was envisioned at its inception. Yet, with a relatively small investment

of money, materials and processes were generated which, if implemented over a

sustained period of time, would result in the provision of valuable

educational services to literally thousands of prisoners---including the most

needy segments of Maryland's incarcerated population.

13

APPENDIX

Contributors to Project FRIENDS

Consultants:

Janet Niblock Francis Brecker

Anne Steinberger Ann Bain

Correctional teachers who developed materials:

Frances and Charles Kauffman Karyn Lindsay

Russell Fisher

Vicki Shirk

Tina Cameron

Pilot teachers:

Beatrice Gallop James Powell

Edna White

Pilot instructional aides:

William Sargent Eugene Taylor

Inmate Advisory Council-Maryland Correctional Institution-Jessup

Assistance with grant application:

Kitty Thompson Steven Swisher

John Linton

Assistance with selection of consultants:

Margaret Wicks

Project director:

Helen Eano Pecht Miller

14

I t I I I, I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

Prison Education and Training Branch

NORTHERN IRELAND OFFICE

ADULT BASIC EDUCATION

• IN PRISON ESTABLISHMENTS

IN NORTHERN IRELAND

A report by a Working Party of the

Northern Ireland Office

FOREWORD BY J McF STRAIN, CHIEF EDUCATION AND TRAINING OFFICER

I have much pleasure in writing the foreword to this Report on Adult Basic Education in Prison

Establishments in Northern Ireland. While endorsed by the Prison Education and Training Branch of

the Northern Ireland Office, it remains the work of a group of practising teachers working in our

prisons, some full-time, some part-time, all with considerable experience of Northern Ireland prisons

and prisoners, and most ably led by the Chairman, who is currently a senior teacher at HM Young

Offenders Centre, Hydebank Wood, Belfast.

Prison education dates back at least to 1823 when legislation was introduced making basic education its first priority. Developments have continued apace since then but the first priority as we see it

I . remains unchanged. More publicity may on occasions go to the many prisoners in Northern Ireland who obtain Open University degrees, but the considerable value of education at more basic lévels

needs to be recognised as vitally important in the prison system. What hope is there of coping in an

increasingly complex society if basic skills in reading, writing and communicating are missing or at a

very low level?

111 The Report is one of a number of steps being taken to keep prison education in the vanguard of

educational progress. The Working Party have eloquently advocated a series of measures to that end

and I would like to thank them for their thorough review of the situation and for the thoughtful and

lucid Report which they have produced.

I hope that the Report will be widely read and considered by all concerned and that it will serve both to encourage what is already being done in terms of good policy and practice and to stimulate fresh thinking and development.

J McF STRAIN 10 May 1988

Mr J McF Strain Chief Education and Training Officer Prison Education and Training Branch Northern Ireland Office Dundonald House Belfast BT4 3SU

EDUCATION DEPARTMENT HM YOUNG OFFENDERS' CENTRE HYDEBANK WOOD HOSPITAL ROAD BELFAST BT8 8NA

7 September 1987

Dear Mr Strain

I am pleased to present, herewith, the Report of the Working Party established in May, 1986, to consider Adult Basic Education in Prison Establishments in Northern Ireland.

We were in complete agreement with the view that a reappraisal of our educational system was at least due, if not overdue, and we felt privileged to have been invited to carry out this responsible task.

It was not our concern in making our recommendations to be destructively critical of any, or all, of our establishments, but rather to take an overview of our adult basic education provision, to examine closely our current practice, and to make worthwhile suggestions for possible improvement. We were pleased to note, and, indeed, to acknowledge and commend the volume of good work that has been done and is currently being done in all our institutions. By way of exemplification, mention might be made of the following:

(1) We were the first adult educational providers in the province to enter candidates for the City and Guilds of London Institute examinations in Literacy and Numeracy;

(2) Our validation, as part of a joint project, of booklets commissioned by the Adult Literacy Liaison Group;

(3) The Computer Literacy programmes devised by, and operating in., several of our institutions;

(4) The successful peripatetic approaches which have been adopted and developed in HMP Belfast, HMP Maze and HMYOC Hyde bank Wood;

(5) The Vocational Training Related basic education programmes in practice in several of our establishments;

(6) The Social Education Cultural Studies course currently being designed by education staff in HMP Maze (Compound);

(7) • HMP Magilligan's "Guide to Basic English";

(8) The Educational Prognosis Scheme used to identify the Basic Educational needs of remand prisoners in HMP Belfast;

(9) The Inmate-Produced Booklets used as resource reading material .in HMYOC Hydebank

Wood;

(10) The Special Curriculum Development programme of HMP Maze (Cellular):

and (11) The Community Education Learning Packages, and the current initiative focusing on

various aspects of modern society especially in the fields of Literacy and Numeracy - at present being adopted and adapted in all our institutions.

The production of this Report has proved to be a salutary and stimulating experience for all of us, and,

as practising teachers, we are grateful for the opportunity to express our ideas and our findings in constructive and practical terms. The element of participant observation played a major part in our

deliberations, and enabled us to consider, to examine critically, and to present our various views forcibly

and objectively, without any aggrieved sense or feelings of rancour. Indeed, although our discussions

were, at times, intense and highly-charged, we maintained a great degree of h,armony and consensus

throughout.

We are most grateful to our colleagues in Scotland, England, Wales and the Irish Republic for their co-

operation in forwarding written submissions regarding the educational provision in their various penal

establishments. We also appreciated the interest, courtesy and co-operative response to our enquiries

shown by other various individuals and agencies involved in the general field of Adult Basic Education.

The information and resource material received proved most interésting, helpful and reassuring, and

enabled us to clarify our own ideas, to see our concerns in proper perspective, and to focus on our aims, objectives, and general strategies with greater accuracy. A detailed list of all our contributors is set out

in Appendix A.

We also wish to place on record our thanks to yourself and your headquarters staff at the Northern

Ireland Office for the general encouragement, assistance and hospitality extended to us, and for the

provision of excellent accommodation for all our meetings. In particular, we are most grateful to Mr Arthur Heaney for his invaluable and efficient secretarial services at our early sessions.

Our thanks are also due to Miss Joan McCauley of Hlti Young Offenders' Centre, Hydebank Wood, Belfast, for typing this Report with her usual competence and efficency.

Yours sincerely

ROBERT W STREIGHT Chairman

Paras

1-2

3-5

6

7

8-9

10-20

21

22

23-26

27

28-30

31

32-33

34-35

36

37

38

Chapter I

Chapter II

Chapter III

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS

Definitions

Aims and Objectives

Definition difficulties

Adult Basic Education

Adult Basic Education in the Custodial Setting

Individual factors

•• The Provision and the .Providers

Pedagogy and Philosophy of Adult Education

Current Guidelines

Needs of Individual Students

Components of an Adult Basic Education Programme

Provision available

Computers in Adult Basic Education

Low-attainment students

Adult Literacy

• Resource material

Day-time Part-time Teachers

Literacy/Numeracy Seminars/Workshops

The Education Officer's Teaching Role

Ratings, Reports and Records

Current Assessment and Class Allocation Criteria

Test Battery Survey of 1981

Current Test Battery

Tests and Testees

Rejection Reaction

Professional Judgements

39-41

42

43-44

45-46

47

48-49

The Value of Statistics 50-51

One Light in the Tunnel 52

The Alternative to Formal Testing 53

The In-depth Structured Interview 54

Class Allocation 55

Informal Tests or Checklists 56

Registers of Attendance 57

Profiles and Checklists 58-59

Staff Meetings 60

Guidelines — Present and Future 61

Respondents and Supporters 62

Appendix A List of Respondents

Appendix B Suggested Informal Tests/Checklists

Appendix C Profile Progress Records/Checklists

Appendix D Suggested Committal Interview Record

Appendix E Additional Optional Proformae

Appendix F Bibliography

INTRODUCTION

It was decided at the monthly meeting of Education Management held on 30 April 1986 in Dundonald

House, Belfast, to appoint a Working Party to consider Adult Basic Education provision in prison establishments in Northern Ireland.

The Working Party would be comprised of serving teachers (full-time and part-time) from each of the penal establishments in the Province - with the exception of HMP Maghaberry.

HMP Maghaberry came into operation on 18 March 1986 and to date (Sept 1987) has a population of only 30+ inmates. As there is no full-time teacher nor any part-time day-time specialist teacher as yet, the current Adult Basic Education programme is provided solely by the Education Officer. However, the Education Officer of HMP Maghaberry agreed to forward written and/or oral submission(s) to the Working Party if/when required, and thus to make her views known with regard to the Working Party's brief.

The Working Party's terms of reference were:

i. to define adult basic education in the custodial setting;

ii. to survey current arrangements in all establishments, including assessment, allocation criteria, curriculum and level of provision;

iii. to compare this with present practice in adult education; and

iv. as a result of its findings, to make recommendations on the most appropriate arrangements (with regard to (ii) above) which would rationalise our provision in individual establishments and throughout the Prison Service, ensure efficient and effective use of all resources, and keep us abreast of developments in the field of adult basic education.

The members of the Working Party were:

Chairman: Mr R W Streight - HM YOC, Hydebank Wood, Belfast Mrs V Newell - HMP Belfast Mr T O'Reilly - HMP Magilligan Mrs H Sloan - HMP Maze (Cellular) Mr M D Scott - HMP Belfast Mr J A Turley - HMP Maze (Compound)

The Working Party met on 12 separate occasions, and received written submissions from Prisons, Detention Centres, and Youth Custody Centres in Scotland, England and Wales, as well as information from a range of individuals and agencies with particular knowledge of, or interest in Adult Basic Education, and also a comprehensive report on basic education provision in prisons and places of detention in the Irish Republic.

September 1987

36

34

SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS

Paragraph

1. The term "Remedial" as applied to Education should be discarded. 1

2. Each establishment should produce (and reg-ularly update) a "prospectus" booklet outlining the educational provision available. 27

3. Adult Basic Education provision should have 3 interactive and flexibile core units, viz: Communication; Mathematics; Social/Occupational Skills. 23

4. All formal testing should be abolished, and should be replaced by structured interviews for all inmates shortly after their committal. 47

5. There should be two teachers in each establishment responsible for conducting structured interviews, and the teachers concerned should be specificially trained in this respect. 54

6. A battery of informal tests/checklists should be compiled for use by class tutors. 56

7. All inmates of low educational attainment should be guaranteed day-time educational provision if they so wish it. All such students enrolled in day-time classes should receive a minimum of 4 hours of education per week. 31

8. There should be at least one teacher in each establishment specially trained/qualified to teach Adult Literacy. 32

9. Adult Literacy provision should be two-tiered — on a one-to-one basis, and/or then progression to enrolment in a class. 33

10. The size of an Adult Literacy class should not normally exceed 6 students. 33

11. Accurate attendance records should be maintained, and absentees or "drop-outs" should be followed up. 57

12. Records in the form of individual Profiles should be kept on a monthly basis. These Profiles should be forwarded to other establishments when prisoners are transferred, and there should be whatever inter-establishment "follow-up" considered necessary or desirable. 58

13. Progress checklists for each student should be maintained. 59

14. Day-time part-time teachers should be accorded equality of status with full-time teachers, with regard to responsibilities, privileges, attendance at courses etc.

15. An inter-establishment (as well as an intra-establishment) bank of materials and resources should be maintained, and there should be greater inter-establishment liaison.

38

61

Paragraph

16. An on-going representative group should be set up with the task of producing, revising, improving and advising upon useful written, graphic and other such resource material, including Computer-Assisted Learning programmes.

A catalogue of this material should be produced and circulated to all establishments. (The material could either be kept in some central repository, or be reproduced for all establishments.)

17. Regular Literacy/Numeracy Seminars/Workshops should be held at 6-monthly intervals. These should be organised by "internal" tutors, although from time to time specialist educationalists from Scotland, England, Wales and the

Irish Republic should be invited to act as guest tutors. 37

18. Monthly staff-meetings for both full-time and part-time (day-time) teachers should be held in each establishment to discuss/report on educational matters. 60

19. Day-time part-time teachers should be paid for attendance at staff-meetings

and Seminar/Workshop sessions. 36

20. With regard to ensuring "efficient and effective use of all resources", and in the

interest of constant awareness of involvement in current classroom practice, as well as the fostering of good prison staff/teaching staff/inmate relation-ships, all Education Officers should participate in a minimum measure of

teaching per week.

21. The current "Guidelines" (regarding educational provision in Northern Ireland penal establishments) should be revised or modified so as to incorporate the recommendations contained in this Report and

all teachers (full-time and part-time) should be issued with copies of the new guidelines.

22. All the individuals who sent us submissions should be provided with copies of the Working Party's Report. 62

35

CHAPTER I

DEFINITIONS

1. The Working Party agreed at the outset to discard the term "Remedial" as applied to Prison Education. It has a malaise penumbra and carries with it the same kind of stigma as such terms as "backward", or "retarded", or "educationally sub-normal" which were used in educational circles in former times. Classes of low educational attainment students will henceforth be referred to as "Basic" education classes — irrespective of the level of attainment prevailing.

2. i. As committed teachers in penal establishments we agree that we have a three-fold aim, viz:

a. to provide an adult, further and continuing education service which is voluntary in its approach, liberal and flexible in curriculum, and student-centred in methodology;

b. to maximise the efficient use of learning resources — not the least of which is the human one — to enable as many inmates as possible to take advantage of our provision according to their individual educational needs; and

c. to counteract previous negative, unsuccessful, unproductive and hence unpleasant formal education experiences as well as the consequences of institutional confinement, thereby creating avenues for personal growth and development.

ii. In attempting to achieve these goals we feel that our principal objectives must be:

a. to interview inmates and by mutual consent to identify their individual needs, to present them with facilities, to maintain educational profiles and to counsel them where appropriate;

b. to encourage both among prison staff and inmates a positive attitude towards education, training, learning and the use of non-work time;

c. to provide for inmates an appropriate programme of classes, courses and activities to bring about levels of attainment commensurate with ability;

d. to improve the quality of life and personal relationships within the prison establish-

ment — and all that this entails;

e. to develop, and attempt to maximise the potential of each individual inmate; and

f. to aid resettlement on release by providing inmates with suitable skills, by developing attitudes and by establishing links with supporting external agencies wherever possible.

3. We were anxious to avoid unnecessary meaningless jargon in compiling this Report and to express clearly and unequivocally what is meant by "Adult Basic Education", working from the premise that a definition is a proposed treaty governing the use of terms. However, after considerable research and deliberation we concluded that there is, and indeed, can be, no perfect or ideal definition.

4. Each of us held an intrinsic notion of what Adult Basic Education means, but to collate all these notions into an agreed form of words that would withstand careful critical scrutiny proved extremely difficult.

5. i. We looked at submissions from our colleagues in Prison Education in the rest of the United Kingdom, as well as a report on the Irish Republic's education provision in penal establishments, and noted them with interest. Most chose to ignore the need for a written definition, or simply stated that they hadn't one. External agencies in Northern Ireland also acknowledged the difficulty of articulating an acceptable definition.

ii. The Northern Ireland Council for Continuing Education in their 1985 Report on Adult Basic

Education in Northern Ireland, wrote at length about this very difficulty, noting that both the Adult Literacy and Basic Skills Unit (for England and Wales) and the Scottish Adult Basic

Education Unit had avoided any attempt at a tight definition, and whereas the Council did

produce a form of words to serve the situation, we felt that it was not a definition we could fully

accept.

6. i. We (with the exeption of one member) are of the opinion that Adult Basic Education is any

programme that attempts to raise the consciousness of individuals who experience communica-

tion and/or numeracy difficulties and possible resultant inadequacies with social skills, and who,

in. extreme cases, may suffer social deprivation or alienation. Such individuals may wish simply

to cope more effectively with their environment and in their relationships with others.

ii. We are, of course, aware that interpretation plays a major part in the acceptance of any

definition, that any ideal definition is impossible, and that indeed no definition can be rigidly

exclusive. Nevertheless, within the context of our stated aims and objectives, we finally agreed

on the .following definition for Adult Basic Education in the Custodial Setting:

7. i. Adult Basic Education in the Custodial Setting, is any programme constructed to meet the identified needs of inmates who lack the basic educational and/or social skills necessary to cope effectively with everyday life.

ii. Such programmes should comply with Rule 47 (iii) of Prison Rules (Northern Ireland) 1982.

8. We fully acknowledge that an inmate's need for basic education has to be gauged or assessed on an individual or personal basis.

9. We are also of the opinion that lack of basic educational skills is often a causal factor in an individual's being in custody.

CHAPTER II

THE PROVISION AND THE PROVIDERS

10. The Working Party felt that greater consideration should be g -iven to the whole philosophy and pedagogy of teaching in the penal establishment and that all teachers (both full-time and part-time) should be made fully aware of what is involved. We wish to stress that even for an experienced teacher of long standing the transition from teaching in schools to teaching in prison establishments is not an

easy one.

11. We feel that hitherto there has been insufficient emphasis placed on this change and that there

should be a more detailed induction period of training for all new teachers. We believe that it has to be

stressed that there are a number of differences between the adult learner and the child learner that

are particularly relevant when one considers our target population. For example, we need to accept

that adults are not old children. Hence the former school teacher must modify his/her thinking and

modus operandi accordingly and should accept and apply the usual principles and practices current in Adult Education. We agree that this may seem a strange philosopy to adopt particularly with Young

Offenders. Nevertheless, it is one that ought to be followed.

12. Admittedly the Young Offender is a peculiar amalgam of adult learner and child learner with an

odd mixture of concepts, ideas, values, attitudes, skills and weaknesses. But in chronological and legal

terms, at the age of 18 years he is an adult and should be treated as such.

13. With regard, then, to Adult Education Code of Practice, in our establishments we suggest that

the following set of principles should be followed:

Informality should be the keynote

i. Forms of addressing the teacher such as "Sir" or "Miss" should be discouraged. We are not

necessarily advocating that Young Offenders should address the teacher by Christian name — "Mr X" or "Miss Y" would be acceptable.

ii. The learners should be spoken of as "students" rather than "pupils".

iii. The class room or study area should not be arranged in the traditional way with desks set out

in neat rows. Instead, the desks (if required) and chairs might be arranged in a semi-circle. An

even better arrangement would be to organise the accommodation in the form of a seminar room,

with the students and teacher grouped around tables in the centre of the room.

iv. A student should be permitted to leave the room if the need arises, without undue reference to

the teacher or distracting the attention of the other students.

v. The adult class room should be comfortable and as attractive as possible and tea-breaks and

permission to smoke should be as appropriate as they would in the adult's normal place of work.

14. We acknowledge that the adult learner has several advantages over the child learner. Even if he

lacks "formal" education, he has been educated by living and this very lack may have resulted in the

cultivation of shrewdness, the ability to think and a high level of common sense.

15. We also agree that the adult learner has infinitely more knowledge of the world than even the most advantaged child. He does not have to learn what words mean before he learns to read; he already knows what numbers are for - he must learn only how to use them.

16. Also, as our system of educational provision is not an imposed one, he has an urgent reason for wanting to learn; he is a uoluntary, purposeful consumer of new information and skills. If the class is not providing what he wants, he will decide to "vote with his feet" and drop out of the class.

17. We also accept that the big disadvantage of being an adult learner is one that he creates for himself: anxiety and a feeling of inferiority, or uncertainty about his ability to succeed in a classroom situation from which he has been absent for a considerable time and in which, perhaps, he often experienced failure, frustration, lack of understanding and unhappiness.

18. We believe that the teacher of Adult Basic Education in penal establishments requires to:

L determine each student's learning disabilities or weaknesses;

ii. understand the reasons for them;

iii. empathise with the student's desire to succeed in spite of his disabilities; and

iv. plan a programme to help the student achieve the goals he has set for himself.

19. Amongst other things the teacher should create the proper climate for learning. His/her basic rules should be:

a. Don't frustrate the student's good intentions or get in the way of his learning;

b. Do present the right material at the right time in the right quantity so that motivation and satisfaction are not thwarted;

c. Do help the student to learn! Simplify difficult tasks and present them in ways that will make them easier for the student to tackle;

d. Do help the student to remember. Show him how to reinforce his learning and give him appropriate exercises or assignments; and

e. Do help the student to assess his progress. Evaluate all his efforts, help him to learn from his mistakes and show him where and how he can improve his work.

20. We accept that the teacher in the penal establishment will have to win the respect of his/her students. No longer can helshe rely on age as a claim to authority. He/she is superior to the students only in the sense that he/she knows more about certain subject matter - and the students may be (and undoubtedly, will be) more expert than the teacher in many other subjects!

21, The Working Party considered at some length our current "Guidelines on Remedial/Basic Education". We felt that this was a very commendable document but that it now needs to be modified, to some extent simplified and to be generally updated.

22. We are of the opinion that because the needs of the individual students are individual needs and cannot be categorised as a general need, any educational course or programme of learning must have considerable flexibility and must make provision for individuality and for personal choice - as far as is practicable.

23. We suggest that an Adult Basic Education programme should consist of 3 Core Units or components, namely:

a. "Communication";

b. "Mathematics";

c. "Occupational/Social Skills"

A possible "breakdown" or analysis of each of the suggested Core Units is shown below. In considering this we emphasise that the flexibility, individuality and personal choice factors mentioned in para 22 above should be borne in mind.

24. CORE UNITS OR COMPONENTS (referred to in para 23)

(1) Communication

Reading

Written Expression

The Alphabet and Alphabetical Order

Spelling

Handwriting

Word Games

Listening

Form Filling

Types of Letterwriting

Story Telling

Crossword Puzzles

Simple Punctuation

Structured Seminars

"Telephone" Conversations

Use of Reference Books

Tape Recordings

Book Reviews

Extracting/Giving Information

Job Cards

(2) Mathematics

The Four Rules

Number Games & Puzzles

Applications of the Four Rules

Fractions

Percentages

Metrication

Time

Estimation

Measurement

Shapes and Sizes

City & Guilds "Numeracy" (level I) - "C redit" Standard

Mathematics to RSA (Stage I)/CCE/ Pre-"0" level standard

(3) Social/Occupational Skills

Participant Profiling (Personal)

Running a Meeting

Interviews

Budgeting

Social Situation Problems

Leisure Organisation

Simple Educational Technology

Simple Political Science

Trades Union Organisation

Getting Married

Traffic Education

Renting Accommodation

Buying A House

Banking and Credit Cards

Vocational Training Related Problems

Making a Speech

(1) Communication

(2) Mathematics

(3) Social/Occupational Skills

English to City & Guilds "Communication Skills" (level I) — "Credit" Standard

English to RSA/CCE/Pre-"0" level standard

Hire Purchase

Borrowing Money

Using a Library

25. The above list is neither comprehensive nor exhaustive, and the units may be either inter-active or treated in isolation, and may embrace all curricular subjects. Full use should be made of all available media and resources, and further studies to a higher level should be encouraged.

26. We agree with Mary Kett of the Southern Irish Prison Education Service that a common misconception "amongst new adult numeracy tutors" (and, we would add, amongst non-practising educators generally) is that students will be mainly interested in working on topics that fit into the general category of "social mathematics"; examples would include topics like "Travel", "Bills", "Pay Cheques", "Budgeting", etc. The experience of teachers working on Basic Mathematics with prisoners shows that this is not necessarily the case! In other words tutors should concentrate on the fundamentals of number work before dealing with topics in the social mathematics category. Again, common sense, or life experience agrees. If on é wishes, for example, to find out what train one has to catch, one may well read the railway timetable, but one invariably also asks a porter, or ticket-collector, or such like official. One would seldom rely solely on one's own ability to understand timetables!

27. We are of the opinion that each establishment should produce (and regularly update) a "prospectus" booklet outlining the educational provision available. This booklet, should, if possible, be complemented by a short video-tape which would show the various classes/activities ("academic" and "leisure") in action — although the Working Party acknowledges that the production and/or showing of such a video-tape may not be feasible .in all establishments. But certainly all inmates, as part of their induction process shortly after arrival in the institution, should be issued with a copy of the booklet, and, where applicable, should be given an opportunity to view the video-tape.

28. We felt that attention should also be given to Computer Assisted or Computer Managed Learning with regard to Adult Basic Education and in arriving at the conclusion that computers can make a considerable impact on learning with students of all levels of ability and attainment, we relied not only on our own experiences but also on the results of research carried out in the United States of America.

29. We are of the opinion that a computerised basic skills learning system is unique because it seeks to develop learning ability through a modular network of computer-assisted lessons, drills, tests, printed materials and videotaped presentations. These strategies are directed at helping adults whose competency in basic reading, mathematics and language skills is at a very low level.

30. From experience we have also found that with adult students the "novelty factor" of computers is important — they did not show any inherent or in-built opposition to using computers, having had no sense of failure with them during their formal education years. However, despite the ever-growing quantity and range of soft-ware available, we feel that some in-service training needs to be given to teachers who wish to utilise computers in their teaching.

31. The Working Party considers that all inmates of low attainment level should be guaranteed day-time educational provision if they so wish it and that such students enrolled in classes should receive a minimum of 4 hours (je 2 sessions) of education per week.

32. We are firmly of the opinion that there should be at least one teacher in each establishment specifically trained/qualified to teach Adult Literacy, and, in fact, we noted that in five of our six establishments this is the case. We suggest that this good practice should be encouraged and developed to the extent that every teacher involved in the basic education programme should be suitably trained in the distinctive approaches to teaching of adults.

33. It is our opinion that Adult Literacy classes cannot always be organised on a logistical basis. It is obvious that Adult Literacy classes must be numerically small. Indeed, we recommend that Adult Literacy should be two-tiered — on a one-to-one basis and/or then progression to enrolment in a class, with the proviso that any such class should not have more than 6 students at any one time.

34. Until recently there has been a shortage of good, up-to-date and suitable "home-produced" material, but this situation is improving. It is suggested that there should be an inter-establishment, as well as an intra-establishment, bank of materials and resources and that there should be greater inter-establishment liaison and hence co-operation with regard to interchange of ideas, schemes and materials.

35. i. We further suggest that an ongoing representative group should be set up with responsibility for producing, revising, improving, and advising upon useful printed, graphic, and other such resource material — including computer software in the form of tapes and/or discs, and relevant notes and/or print-outs. (Several members of the present Working Party would be willing to act initially as a nucleus of this support group.)

ii. A catalogue of all this support material should be published, regularly updated, and circulated to each establishment. The original material could either be kept in some central repository and copied whenever required, or could be reproduced for all establishments.

iii. It is further suggested that in the interest of economy of time, effort and materials. , there should be an area set aside as a resource centre in each establishment. Ideally, this "area" would be a specially-designated room, but a section of the library, or a specific corner of an office, or part of a store, or even two drawers of a filing-cabinet would serve perfectly well.

iv. We have found from experience that some worthwhile material in the form of illustrated booklets can be produced by inmates, and we received some excellent samples of such booklets from Mountjoy Prison, Dublin.

v. Indeed, the production of "in-house" booklets has been in operation in HM YOC, Hydebank Wood, for some time now. Initially the idea is launched by informing the inmates that there is always a great shortage of simplified books for young children. Some samples are handed out by the teacher, and then the inmates are asked if they could try to produce similar books. It is explained that the illustrations must be very simple, the stories must be short, and the language must consist of fairly "easy" words. Hence, any stigma, sense of inadequacy, or lack of confidence is dispelled, and the students invariably set to quite willingly.

vi. We are convinced that this system of producing "in-house" material has several commendable features. To name but a few, it means that the inmatés' written and art work becomes purposeful in real terms; it builds self-confidence; the results are cost-effective; and it means that the mature adult illiterate or semi-literate students do not have to resort to "Dick-and-Dora" type books, or publications with over-simplistic or puerile story-lines, out-of-date illustrations, and unreal or immature vocabulary.

vii. The Working Party was also highly impressed by the excellent range of graded, interesting and imaginative "Open Learning Packs" produced by teachers for internal use at HMP

Birmingham. We are of the opinion that similar publications from the support group mentioned in paragraph 35(i) above could prove very worthwhile.

viii. We also highly commend the book "Resources", published in 1986 by the Adult Literacy and Basic Skills Unit. This is described as "a guide to materials in adult literacy and basic skills", and we suggest that it is a very useful reference book for any teacher involved in Adult Basic Education.

36. The Working Party feels that day-time part-time teachers should be accorded equality of status with full-time teachers, with regard to responsibilities, privileges, entitlement to attend coures etc. It would appear that very often the contribution and worth of these part-time teachers is underrated, and yet very often they are the very hub or back-bone of an establishment's educational set-up. We believe that our part-time teachers bring a high degree of commitment, expertise, work preparation, and loyalty to their respective establishments. We therefore feel that this interest could be more fully utilised in areas such as guidance and counselling, curriculum development, and staff training committees. Furthermore, their attendance at in-service or external courses/conferences/seminars should attract the same payments and allowances as those of their full-time colleagues.

37. i. We are of the opinion that one of the most important areas of our work in penal establishments is dealing with Adult Literacy/Numeracy. We feel that not only the students who have literacy and/or numeracy problems, but also the teachers of such students could benefit from réassurance and support from colleagues. Hence it is suggested that regular Literacy/Numeracy workshops or seminars should be held at 6-monthly intervals. Quite apart from the benefits to be gained at these sessions, such as advice, expertise, guidance and the experience of specialists engaged in this type of work, there are worthwhile "spin-offs" such as the interchange of useful practical ideas of others, and the comforting realisation that one is not working in isolation.

ii. These Workshop/Seminars could well be organised by experienced trained experts within our own service, although we see obvious advantages in inviting from time to time, specialist educationalists from other parts of the United Kingdom and the Irish Republic to participate as guest tutors.

38. i. From experience, we appreciate that in any teaching situation, the successful outcome of our efforts is dependent upon the establishment of sound interpersonal relationships, good teacher-student rapport, and the selective deployment of teacher-power. This is particularly true within the ambience of the penal institution where, to a certain extent, we have Society in microcosm.

ii. In the custodial setting we have a heterogeneous group of people constituting an artificial community, often with heightened tensions, low tolerance levels, and hypercritical attitudes prevailing. Strongly-held divergent views, inflamed passions, petty jealousies, and unrealistic values are rife and often come to the surface, and, in consequence, problems are sometimes unwittingly exaggerated and relationships can be strained. All this can lead to unwarranted critical approaches and unnecessary frustrations, and a hotch-potch of emotions can come into play.

iii. Frequently there are situationaUbehavioural problems that only manifest themselves within the confines of the classroom, and, indeed, sometimes completely unexpected and unsuspected personality traits (both good and bad) materialise. The prison establishment teacher, daily in situ, is cognisant of, and has to contend with, these various and often-trying situations, and whereas we realise that in fact each of our present Education Officers has a guidance and counselling role, and that, indeed, some of them already have teaching commitments, nonetheless, all would have a greater appreciation of some of the afore-mentioned situations if they could ideally have teaching commitments on a scheduled regular basis.

iv. Hence, we recommend that all Education Officers should if possible participate in, at least one session of the weekly téaching programme! VI;re firmly believe that many advantages woufd accrue from such a policy. Amongst other things, it would mean that:

a. the Education Officer would be more aware of current classroom practice, and the various difficulties regularly encountered by teachers;

b. the Education Officer would get to know the students as individuals rather than as names with numbers;

c. it could help to dispel much of the (perhaps unwarranted) suspicion with which inmates view administrators. The presence of "normal" sympathetic significant others is not only accepted but welcomed by the student personnel — hence the success that is usually generated by team-teaching or shared-class teaching;

d. the inmates would get to know the Education Officer as a "real" willing-to-help individual, rather than as someone whose sole responsibility is administration.

e. prison staff attitudes (both sympathetic and sometimes faintly but overtly hostile) could be changed for the better;

f. relationships between prison staff and teaching staff would improve;

relationships between teaching staff and inmates would improve; and

h. drawing on the Education Officer's skills, knowledge, experience and expertise would be one way of ensuring "efficient and effective use of all resources" available within the Education Department of each institution.

g.

CHAPTER III

RATINGS, REPORTS AND RECORDS

39. The Working Party spent some considerable time and effort in surveying the system of educational assessment and class allocation criteria currently in operation not only in each of our establishments but also in prison establishments in the rest of the United Kingdom and in the Irish Republic. We also investigated current thinking on this, and the present practice of adult education "on the outside".

40. We concluded that these elements are both out-dated and out-of-step with current thinking in the general field of adult basic education. We feel that they are, if anything, at variance with our main

aims and objectives, are unsuited to our student population, open to mismanagement, generally misunderstood, and counter-productive.

41. The system currently in practice in most of our establishments entails inmates being subjected to formal testing — using the following battery of tests:

Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices (to measure intelligence and obtain an IQ score);

ii. Vernon's Graded Arithmetic — Mathematics Test (to ascertain "Arithmetic/Mathematics Age"); and

iii. The Daniels and Diack Test of Graded Reading Experience (to discover "Reading Age").

42. A 1981 survey of "the test battery used in Northern Ireland penal establishments for educational assessmene', by the then Deputy Chief Education Officer, revealed that the above 3 tests, plus the Otis-Lennon Mental Ability Test, and Schonell's Word Recognition and Spelling tests, had been in operation in our penal institutions since 1963, and the Department of Education for Northern Ireland view at the time of the survey was that the Raven's test combined with the Mill Hill Vocabulary Scale might yield a better indication of level of ability.

43. We dispute these claims, and, in fact, we question both the value and the efficacy of these tests for a variety of reasons. For example, we maintain that:

a. the person administering these tests ought to be specially-trained;

b. leading educational psychologists question the accuracy of "intelligence tests", and contend that not only do a vast array of extraneous factors affect the final score, but that the score in itself is not to be taken as a definitive value, and that such things as standard deviation, date and timing of the test, testing conditions etc must be taken into account. (Many expert education-alists now take the view that there is considerable uncertainty as to the nature of "intelligence" and that the only real thing intelligence tests measure is the ability to do intelligence tests!):

c. the Mathematics test was designed for children as the cover page clearly shows, and even if this is removed, three pages of questions can be rather daunting and unnerving for anyone with limited ability. To present such an inmate with this test is psychologically unsound; and

d. the Daniels and Diack test is out-of-date! In this test, the person being tested is presented with a set of 50 incomplete sentences. At the end of each sentence within brackets are 4 words one of which would complete the sentence correctly, and the testee has to underline the correct word in each case. But many of the sentences are unsatisfactory:

i. Sentence No 2 states: If you write with a pen, you also need (crayon, money, help, ink). But nowadays most inmates use a ball-pen — where the writing-fluid (or, ink) is an integral part of the pen. Hence, if the inmate writes with a pen, he doesn't need ink!

ii. Similarly sentence No 28 states: A place where talking films are shown is called a (theatre, cinema, gallery, house). The term "talking films" is no longer in use in common parlance, to say the least about this sentence!

iii. Both above anachronistic sentences indicate the test's unsuitability, and there are other aspects of this test that leave much to be desired. For example, sentence No 32 states: A prisoner usually longs for his (sentence, toleration, serenade, freedom). The correct word is supposed to be " freedom", but many inmates on remand long for their sentences! So should the word "sentence" be accepted as an alternative correct answer?

iv. Unlimited time is allowed for this test, but adults will invariably wish to finish as early as possible, so, bearing in mind that the inmate is anxious to complete the test quickly, and that he may well be nervous — conscious of the fact that he is participating in a test, he may well inadvertently underline "lather" rather than "leather" for sentence No 14 which states: Shoes are usually made of (leather, lather, laces, soles). Or, similarly with sentence No 9 — Books are made of (patent, paper, pamper, pepper), he could easily underline "pamper" rather than "paper".

v. Random selection of answers (je guesswork) can easily result in unrealistic and incorrect results, but in any case, the rubric that accompanies the test clearly states that "Reading Ages above 10.0 years are unreliable and misleading"!

44. We are of the opinion that the following extract from a recent publication produced by a Department of Education for Northern Ireland/North Eastern Education and Library Board study group considering a structured approach to educational provision for less able 4th and 5th year pupils, and quoted in a booklet entitled "Educational Assessment, Guidance and Counselling" by the current Education Officer of HM YOC, Hydebank Wood, Belfast, is worth considering.

Even limited experience in working with young offenders teaches those who come in contact with them that they have undoubted strengths and weaknesses. We include among their strengths:

A sense of humour

A sense of loyalty to their peer group

A degree of sensitivity to the physically helndicapped or elderly

The derivation of a deal of pleasure from even a modicum of success

An ability to beat the system" in the most imaginative of ways

We also recognise that they have educational, social and environnzental weaknesses and we include among these weaknesses:

Repeated failure in formal education caused by limited ability

An inability to form worthwhile relation,ships Limited first hand" experience

Low motivation and "stickability" Poor personal organisation

Being easily confused

We have therefore perceived the following to be their educational and training needs:

To be treated with dignity and respect

To be valued as people with emotions

To be treated fairly and in an adult and friendly manner

To be properly assessed

To be challenged according to their ability

To be provided with an interesting and uaried curriculum

To be given short term objectives

To be given responsibility

To be made aware of the parameters which constitute acceptable classroom behaviour.

45. We believe, that "reading between the lines", it can be deduced that not only do inmates have a

fair measure of shrewdness, as well as the ability "to beat the system" but that they will freely and

deliberately exercise this ability so that the accuracy of test results cannot be strictly relied on as far

as these young offenders are concerned. And in our experience, adult prisioners also from time to time have manipulated results - through deliberately-controlled test performance - to suit their own particular ends.

46. Furthermore, we feel that with inmates of the adult prisons the above-mentioned tests are totally inappropriate and unnecessary. If a man cannot read, or write, or spell very well, or, if he lacks ability in Arithmetic, and is ready/willing to admit his weakness, he doesn't need a formal test to confirm it.

For such an inmate, whose school-life was not a particularly very successful or happy one, to be confronted with a series of tests - possibly administered in a traditional classroom setting - is, to say the least, a harrowing and possibly discouraging experience.

47. Mary Kett of the Southern Irish Prison Education Service puts the whole thing into proper perspective when she states quite succinctly: ". . . however basic the level, teaching materials are

generally adult in both content and style. In this context, formal testing procedures (le Reading tests)

are seen as inappropriate, not only because they do not provide an accurate picture of a student's ability, but because they are demeaning"! We heartily endorse this view, and we strongly recOmmend that all formal testing as initial assessment procedure should be discontinued, and should be replaced by in-depth structured interviews for all inmates - shortly after their committal to the institution.

48. i. In one submission to the Working Party, an Education Officer stated that he was required to provide statistical evidence to the prison authorities in order to justify a prisoner's being kept off work during the day! While we appreciate the Education Officer's position in such a situation, we are totally opposed to this policy.

ii. Here in Northern Ireland the "Statutory Rules of Northern Ireland 1982 No 170: The Prison Rules 1982" paragraph 47(2) states: 'Prisoners whom the Governor considers able and willing to profit from further education and

prisoners who because of illiteracy require (sic] remedial education may have provided for them special classes or facilities for private study: these classes or facilities may, if the Governor approves, be provided within the hours normally allotted to work". We quite accept this but contend that it does not mean that statistical evidence has to be produced to convince the Governor!

If an inmate reports to the prison hospital and a doctor states that the inmate is ill and requires treatment, this professional judgement is accepted without eluestion. The doctor does not have to produce figures to show the inmate's temperature, pulse-rate, blood-sugar level etc, to back up his judgement.

49. In the same way, we consider that if an experienced teacher diagnoses that an inmate is in need of, or would benefit from, basic education at whatever level, he has made a professional judgement which should be accepted as such! (And it should be borne in mind that selection of teachers for prison education is such that they are all experienced, and not just newly-trained inexperienced graduates.)

50. Furthermore, we maintain that any set of statistical evidence resulting from formal testing would be, in reality, meaningless not only to the afore-mentioned "prison authorities", but to government officials, politicians, or, indeed, to anyone outside (and even to many within) educational circles. What, for example, does it mean to say that inmate "A" has a Reading Age of 10.8, and that inmate "B" has a Reading Age of 8.4? The only obvious inference that can be made is that both are weak readers, and that inmate "B" is worse than inmate "A". But given the above statistics would the "prison authorities" be able to tell: •

a. if either inmate could read the main headline or the sports page of a popular daily newspaper;

b. the size of vocabulary each of the inmates has;

c. whether either (or both) could read a letter from home;

d. whether either (or both) could write a letter home or fill in a simple application form correctly; or

e. if one of the inmates had a Mathematical Age of 10.4 whether he would be able to calculate his weekly wages, or work out his winnings if he gambled on a horse raCe?

51. We contend that there can be no justification for formal testing on the grounds of a need for a set of figures. In fact, we decided that we should eschew statistics as far as possible, by virture of the fact that they are usually quite meaningless, and that, indeed, they are often used as a drunk man uses a lampost - more for support than enlightenment!

52. i. We noted with interest that in one of our establishments - HMP Maghaberry - no formal testing procedure takes place. According to the Education Officer, who is the sole provider of basic education in that particular institution, the regular method of assessment is by in-depth committal interviews and "in-class observation".

ii. Nevertheless, the system seems to work well. The entire inmate population, albeit numerically small, is highly-motivated, and all inmates participate in at least one element of the programme provided.

53. i. Several establishments in other parts of the United Kingdom - HMP Dungavel, to name but one - have abandoned formal testing procedures as a means of assessment. And we found that formal testing does not take place in Adult Literacy circles, nor in adult Basic Education Centres "on the outside". Instead, use is made of structured interviews and/or the guidelines of the Adult Literacy and Basic Skills Unit's booklet, "How's it Going?" - described as an alternative to testing

students in adult literacy.

ii. We concur with the view expressed recently by Frank Smith at Reading University that testing only serves as proof for failures and is not a procedure for providing positive feedback.

54. i. With regard to the structured interviews mentioned in paragraph 47 above, we suggest that there should be two teachers (not necessarily both full-time) in each establishment responsible for conducting these interviews.

ii. All inmates should be interviewed within 2 weeks of their arrival in the institution. We suggest that the format and general arrangement should be as follows:

a. Ideally, the interviews should be held in a room specially designated for this purpose, and

suitably furnished (le with comfortable chairs and a table, rather than classroom desks). Certainly the surroundings should be as attractive and comfortable as possible, and the

atmosphere should be relaxed and informal.

b. The first part of the interview could well be a group session (number of committals permitting) with the aim of making inmates more fully aware of the educational provision

available. (They would already have received copies of the "prospectus" booklet mentioned in paragraph 27 above.) At this stage the video-tape (see paragraph 27) could be shown.

c. The second part of the interview should be on an individual basis. The interviewer should stress the confidentiality of the proceedings; should invite the inmate to specify the class or classes in which he wishes to be enrolled; should explain the correct procedure for terminating enrolment; and should emphasise the need for a firm commitment from each inmate with regard to attendance. During the course of the interview, the interviewer will have gained some insight into the inmate's educational background, experience, ability and

interest, and so, through guidance and counselling will be able to influence the inmate's choice of class or classes. Where an inmate is deemed to be in need of teaching on a one-to-one basis, he should then be further counselled by the Adult Literacy specialist teacher.

55. After the structured interview, with the approval of the institution's Labour Allocation Board - acting on the advice of the Education Officer or his deputy - the potential student should be allocated to the appropriate class/classes (or to a one-to-one arrangement) - or his name should be placed on a waiting list if the agreed suitable class is numerically full. The inmate should then be interviewed again by the Education O fficer (or deputy) and informed of the situation regarding his studies.

56. We appreciate that some teachers may wish, or feel a need for, some kind of grading system within a class. Careful monitoring of work and behaviour may make this unnecessary, but certainly we acknowledge that some form of tangible proof of progress is desirable - not only for the teacher, but also for the reassurance, satisfaction, and encouragement of the student. Therefore, we suggest that a battery of informal class tests or checklists should be compiled by the class teachers in each establishment. Samples of such tests/checklists are shown in Appendix B.

57. i. The Working Party suggests that all teachers must maintain proper attendance registers or roll-books, and that these must be accurate records, showing not only the attendance at each session, but should also include relevant details with regard to class personnel (prison numbers, work allocation, release dates, etc), as well as the theme or content of each lesson. Not only is this the standard practice employed by most teachers as a professional discipline, but, as is pointed out in our current "Guidelines", it can also serve as protection of the teacher in case of subsequent enquiry or detailed inspection. Hence, to do otherwise would be both unprofessional and foolish!

ii. Furthermore, not only do such records provide essential information for the Education Officer, but they also prove most useful for temporary teachers when the normal class teachers are absent through illness or on annual leave.

iii. We also suggest that erratic attenders, regular absentees and apparent "drop-outs" should be contacted to ascertain the underlying reason for their absenteeism. O ften for a very trivial — although, for the student, significant — reason, he has become disenchanted with the class, but shyness, self-consciousness, or lack of confidence has prevented him from confiding in the teacher, and he has simply stayed away.

58. We believe that class teachers should keep up-to-date monthly records with regard to courses followed (and possible outcome), standards, attitudes; behaviour and general progress, on an individual Profile basis. The content of the Profile should be agreed between the student and the tutor. When the Profiles have been completed they should be collated by the Education Officer, and in each case, the Profile should either accompany an inmate, or be forwarded to his next institution, on transfer. We suggest that it is the responsibility of the Education Officer to ensure that he receives the necessary Profiles when inmates are transferred to his establishement. A sample Profile record form is shown in Appendix C.

59. We feel that class teachers should closely monitor progress, and should maintain regular progress checklists for each student. Resultant information should be added to the student's monthly Profile record. A sample progress checklist is shown in Appendix C.

60. It is suggested that staff meetings for the specific purpose of discussing and/or reporting on educational matters (problems, progress, difficult or unusual students, resource materials, requisitions etc) should be held in each establishment on a monthly basis. All day-time teachers (full-time and part-time) should attend these staff meetings.

61. i. We critically examined the current "Guidelines" (relating to educational provision in Northern Ireland penal establishments) and whereas we contend that they contain some very useful and very relevant material, we feel that they are now somewhat out-of-date. We also were rather disconcerted to discover that a number of teachers had never seen them, nor were even aware of their existence.

ii. We suggest that the Guidelines should now be revised or modified so as to incorporate the recommendations contained in this Report, and that all teachers (full-time and part-time) should be issued with copies.

62. i. The Working Party also suggests that all the individuals who sent us submissions, or expressed an interest, or supplied us with information or responses to our enquiries should be provided with copies of this Report. We are grateful to all of these individuals for their invaluable assistance.

ii. Similarly we should like to place on record our gratitude to all those who supported us in various ways — not the least of these supporters being our respective Education Officers. Their co-operation and encouragement was much appreciated.

APPENDIX A

PENAL ESTABLISHMENTS, AGENCIES, AND INDIVIDUALS WHO FORWARDED SUBMISSIONS AND/OR PROVIDED INFORMATION OR RELEVANT MATERIAL TO THE WORKING PARTY

HM Prison Aberdeen

HM Prison Barlinnie

HM Prison Birmingham

HM Detention Centre Blantyre House Goudhurst Cranbrook Kent

HM Prison Bristol

HM Prison Brixton

HM YCC and Prison Bullwood Hall

HM YCC Campsfield House

HM Prison Cornton Vale

HM Prison Dartmoor

HM Prison Dumfries

HM Prison Dungavel

HM Prison and YCC Exeter

HM Prison Gartree

HM YOC Glen Parva

HM Prison Gloucester

HM Prison Inverness

HM Prison Leicester

HM Prison Lincoln

HM Prison Longport

HM Prison Low Moss

HM Prison Maghaberry

HM Prison Magilligan

HM Prison Medomsley (Extract from Inspectors' Report)

HM Prison Northeye

HM YCC Onley

HM Prison Perth

HM Prison Peterhead

HM Prison Rochester

HM Prison Shotts

HM Prison and YCC Styal Wilmslow Cheshire

HM Prison Swansea

HM YCC Swinfen Hall Lichfield Staffordshire

HM YCC Werrington

HM Detention Centre Whatton, Nottingham

HM Prison Winchester (Extract from Inspectors' Report)

Adult Literacy Liaison Group

Ballymoney Technical College

Coleraine Technical College

Fermanagh College of Further Education

Institute of Continuing Education, University of Ulster

Lisburn College of Further Education

Lurgan Technical College

Newcastle College of Further Education

North Down College of Further Education

Northern Ireland Adult Education Association

NIACRO

North-West College of Further Education

Rupert Stanley College of Further Education

St Louise's Comprehensive College

Ulster People's College

Workers' Educational Association

Miss Mary Kett (Prison Education Organiser in the Irish Republic)

Mr Denis Wolinski (Adult Literacy Organiser, Newcastle FE College)

APPENDIX B

1. INFORMAL ADULT READING TEST

This test, to be used on a one-to-one basis, has been designed to highlight difficulties

in Reading, not to find Reading Ages.

DOWN WOMEN TOILETS PUSH POLICE ON OFF

OUT STOP MEN DANGER UP PULL IT

HE OF A I WAS THE IN

THAT IS AND TO ALL ARE HIS

SO AS FOR NOT THEY AT HAD

ON WE BE HAVE ONE WITH BUT

HIM SAID YOU

Stop Police. There is danger. Slow down and stop the car.

There hs been an accident. It is by the school.

A car has hit a lorry. The men and women cannot get out. We will have to lift up the lorry. We must

pull the car and push them apart. A doctor looks to see who is hurt. The ambulance will soon be here.

The firemen are on their way. I can hear them. The ambulance has come. It has been very quick. The

firemen are here as well. They have been quick too.

They get the men and women out of the car. One man has a broken leg. He is carried to the

ambulance. The driver will open the back doors for the people to get in. They are very glad to sit down

on the seats. When the doors are closed the ambulance will be driven to the hospital. All the traffic

stops to let the ambulance go by. It travels at a fast speed along the roads and streets. The driver is

very careful. It is not long before he has to reduce speed as he gets near the hospital.

The ambulance is backed up to the entrance to the Casualty Department. Inside, the nurses are ready

and waiting for the patients. Immediately the doors are opened the injured man is carried in on a

stretcher. The other people are able to walk in without help. The doctor will look at these people to see

if they need treatment. They are very lucky, they are suffering only from cuts and shock. When they

have had a rest they will be allowed to go. By now their friends are arriving to take them home by car

and taxi.

The injured man will have to be detained. He has a complicated fracture and will be put to bed in a

ward and made comfortable. When he has been examined by a specialist he will be prepared for an

operation and taken to the theatre on the fifth floor. He will be given an anaesthetic and his leg will be

straightened before it is put in plaster. If the operation is successful, he will have to remain in hospital

for several more days until the surgeon decides that it is convenient for him to go home and

re-cuperate.

2. WORD RECOGNITION TEST

(Using the Dolch Basic Sight Vocabulary)

These 100 words make up, on average, one half of all reading:

a and he

I in is

it of that

the to was

all as at

be but are

for had have

his him not

on one said

so they we

with you about

an back been

before big by .

call came can

come could did

do down first

from get go

has her here

if into just

like little look

made make • more

•me much must

my no new

now off old

• only or our

other out over

right see she

some their them

then there this

two up want

well went were

what when where

which will who

your

The one hundred next most used words:

after again always

am another any

away ask bad

because best bird

black blue boy

bring day dog

don't eat every

far fast father

fell find five

fly four found

gave girl give

going good got

green hand have

head help home

house how jump

keep know last

left let live

long man many

may men mother

Mr. never next

once open own

play put ran

read red room

round run sat

saw say school

should sing sit

soon stop take

tell than these

thing think three

time too tree

under us very

walk white why

wish work would

year

3. READING TEST — LEVEL 1

Anyone for the Moon?

People will soon be able to pay to travel in space. It could happen eight years from now.

It will be a "Space Shuttle" which is a cross between a rocket and a plane.

The first people to use it will be scientists. It will ferry them to "Skylab" — their work-room in space.

There they will be able to watch the Earth, and to carry out tests.

The Shuttle made its first test-flight this year, butonly to the edge of space.

It was carried very high into the sky by jet-plane. Then it was released, and it glided down to a safe

landing.

Two spacemen were in the Shuttle. They said the flight went very well.

Some people have already booked a flight on the craft, even though they cannot go on board until 1995.

One day we may be able to go to the Moon for our holidays, and even further into space.

QUESTION FOR READING TEST - LEVEL 1

J. Who will first use the Space Shuttle?

Answer: Scientists.

2. How far did the Space Shuttle go?

Answer: To the edge of space.

3. Why will the scientists be able to observe the Earth?

Answer: Because they will be looking down on the Earth from their workshop in. space.

4. What is the earliest date you can board the craft for a fl ight?

Answer: 1995.

5. How much would you be prepared to pay for such a flight?

(This answer will depend on., amongst other things, the student's interest in Space travel.)

4. READING TEST — LEVEL 2

INSTRUCTIONS FOR PAPERING WALLS

1. Cut the rolls of paper into lengths the height of the wall, matching the pattern carefully.

2. Use a plumb-line to ensure the paper is hung vertically. Window-frames and door-frame do not always give a true vertical line.

3. Lay the cut sheets, pattern side down, on the pasting table. Paste each sheet in three strips, the central one first.

4. Carry the looped-over sheet to the wall, using a step-ladder to reach the ceiling comfortably.

5. Position the paper slightly overlapping the ceiling, against the marked vertical line. Run the hanging brush down the centre of the paper to smooth out any bubbles.

6. Peel the paper back slightly, and cut off any surplus, so that it fits neatly into place.

7. Place the next sheet of paper loosely on the wall, as close to the first sheet as possible. Slide it into position, so that it fits and matches exactly. Smooth and trim in the same way as for the first sheet.

The following checklist may be used when assessing higher order reading skills:

HIGHER ORDER READING SKILLS CHECKLIST

SKILLS COMMENTS

Gets main idea

Recalls supporting details

Makes inferences

Draws critical conclusions

Skims for information

Notes sequences

Uses context

Surveys new material

Appreciates mood

1

APPENDIX C

L PROGRESS RECORD CHECKLIST - ENGLISH LANGUAGE

INMATE: No.: ESTABLISHMENT

Type of Work Practice Confident

Date Date Date Date Date

Written Work Persortal experience

Descriptive

Imaginative

Short story

Discussion

Magazine article .

Letter Writing (Informal):

To a friend

Replying to an informal invitation

Letter of thanks

Letter of sympathy

(Formal):

Replying to a formal invitation

(Business):

Ordering goo. ds

Reserving a room

Complaint

Application for a job

Letter to a newspaper

Report writing Work situation

Understanding A newspaper article

Comparing two or more accounts of the same incident

1

Reading between the lines

Distinguishing between fact and opinion

Making a value judgement

Appreciation of language

Making notes

W riting a summary

Form filling

Short form (name, address, d. of b.)

Bank depositlwithdrawal

Job application

Driving licence

Vehicle re-licensing

Study skills

Survey of a book: contents, . index, author

Using a dictionary

Using a thesaurus

Using an encyclopedia

Using general reference books

Using a library catalogue

Reading through a piece of own writing and identifying errors

1 COMMENTS:

Signed:

APPENDIX C

2. INDIVIDUAL PROFILE RECORD

NAME OF ESTABLISHMENT

Inmate: No: HouselWing:

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS

The student is able to:

(a) produce straightforward written work that is legible, relatively free of spelling errors, and clearly punctuated. )

(b) present straightforward written work, clearly structured and in an appropriate format. ( )

(c) write appropriate formal and informal letters, exhibiting a knowledge of the necessary conventions. )

(d) produce information on a subject in note-form. )

(e) write straightforward essays and reports, presenting and supporting a point of view. )

(f) understand and complete forms in everyday use. )

ORAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS

The student is able to:

(a) give a short talk or report.

(b) prepare for, and take a constructive part in, various types of interview.

(c) make, and accept and understand, simulated telephone calls, giving instructions.

(d) give involved directions/instructions to others, and learn from the practical examples and explanations of others.

( )

( )

( )

( )

NUMERACY

The student is able to:

(a) use and understand the 4 Basic Concepts, and apply them to Length, Weight, Capacity, Money, Time, Speed, Area and Volume, Fractions, Decimals and Percentages. )

(b) understand Metrication, and successfully manipulate Conversion Tables. )

(c) interpret and produce everyday explanatory diagrams. )

(d) understand and use timetables. )

(e) interpret basic graphs and tables. )

(f) carry out everyday rmancial transactions. )

COMPUTER STUDIES

The student is able to:

(a)• recognize and use the keyboard. )

(b) respond correctly to programme prompts. )

(c) use the keyboard to gain access to data. )

(d) run and save simple programmes. )

(e) de-bug simple programmes. )

(D understand and construct algorithms. )

(g) construct simple error-free programmes. )

STUDY SKILLS

The student is able to:

(a) use a dictionary both to check spelling and to find the meanings of words. )

(b) use encyclopedias and other reference books. )

(c) discover the general meaning of a piece of writing by skimming, and the exact meaning by careful reading.

)

(d) record in note form essential details of both oral and written material. )

(e) use the range of facilities offered by the Library. )

(f) plan his own study programme. )

COMMENTS BY TUTOR/TUTORS:

COMMENT BY STUDENT:

Signed: (Education Officer) Date:

Inmate: No.: Establishment:

3. PROGRESS RECORD

STUDENT S ATTITUDE:

(a) to work in class:

(b) to attendance at class:

(c) to teacher:

(d) to working with others individually:

( e) to working: with others in a group:

ADDITIONAL COMMENTS:

Signed: (Teacher) Date:

APPENDIX D

SUGGESTED COMMITTAL INTERVIEW RECORD

NAME OF ESTABLISHMENT:

Inmate's Surname Christian Names

Date of birth No Sentence

Date of committal HouselWing EDR

PREVIOUS SENTENCES:

1. From To Work Allocation

2. From To Work Allocation

3. From To Work Allocation

4. From To Work Allocation

EARLY HISTORY :

Primary School (no of years)

Secondary School (no of years)

Tertiary Education

Educational Qualifications

Training School: Yes E No [] (Period)

Special Care Institution: Yes E] No El (Period)

Employment 1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6.

InterestsIHobbies:

Special Skills:

ClubslYouth Organisations:

Declared Weaknesses:

GENERAL ASSESSMENT:

Reading (GoodlAveragelWeak)

Spelling (GoodlAveragelWeek)

Speech (Goodl AveragelWeak)

Numeracy (GoodlAueragelWeak)

Personality (Strong1PleasantINervouslImrnaturelWeak)

CLASSES APPLIED FOR: 111 (a) Day-time:

11 (b) Evening:

111 11/

1. I certify that I have discussed with my possible enrolment in the above classes.

2. I understand that if it is not possible at present to enrol me in any of the classes I have asked for, my name will be placed on a vvaiting-list, and that I will be allocated to a class as soon as possible and practicable.

3. I also understand that if I am enrolled in a class, I will be expected to attend on each occasion the class is held, and that to cancel my enrolment I must obtain the approval of the class teacher and 111 the Education Officer.

Signed: Witnessed: •

Date: Date: 1

Interviewer's Comments: 111

Signed Date 111

APPENDIX E

I . Attainmentl Ability Checklist

Naine: No.: Establishment:

Communication

Talking and Listening: The student can:

make sensible replies when spoken to. ( hold conversations and take messages. (

follow and give simple descriptions and explanations. ( )

communicate effectively with a range of people in a variety of situations.

present a logical and effective argument, and analyse the arguments of others. (

Reading: The student can:

read words and short phrases. (

read straightforward messages. ( follow straightforward instructions and explanations.

understand a variety of forms of written material.

select and judge written material to support an argument. (

Writing: The student can:

engage in neat, legible cursive writing. ( )

write words and short phrases. (

write straightforward messages. (

write straightforward instructions and explanations.( )

write reports describing work done.( write a critical analysis, using a variety of sources. (

Alphabetical Order: The student can:

arrange letters in alphabetical order.(

arrange in alphabetical order words beginning with the same letter.

arrange in alphabetical order words beginning with different letters.

arrange in alphabetical order words starting with the same two letters.

arrange in alphabetical order words starting with the same three letters. (

use correctly the index in a book. (

use a dictionary adequately. (

use a telephone directory. (

use an encyclopedia. (

Grammar: The student can:

understand sentence construction.(

understand the difference between a phrase and a sentence. (

use conjuntions to join sentences. (

)

)

tell the difference between the different parts of speech.( ) Il use 'a" and "an" correctly. ( ) understand subjectlobject. ( ) understand tenses. ( ' ) 1

Punctuation: The student can: 1 use capital letters properly. ( ) end sentences with .1?I ! ( )

I use commas correctly. ( ) use inverted commas. ( ) abbreviate correctly. ( )

11 understand the use of dashes and brackets. ( ) paragraph letters and essays. ( ) punctuate poetry. ( ) I use the apostrophe correctly. ( )

. .

Vocabulary: The student can: 1

distinguish between "to", 'two", and 'too": "their" and "there"; 'your" and 'you're"; 'were", 'wear" and "where"; "whose" and 'who's". ( ) I

understand common prefixes and their effect on the meaning of words.( ) use common homophones correctly. ( ) - I understand synonyms and antonyms. ( ) understand meaning and derivations of words. ( ) avoid the use of 'over-worked" words. ( ) I apply common rules of spelling.( ) avoid the use of tautology, verbosity and slang. ( ) 1

Letter writing: The student can:

understand different types of letters — personallbusirwsslinvitations. ( ) I write with help a simple letter.( ) lay out a letter successfully. ( ) I tell when to use "Yours sincerely," and 'Yours faithfully,". ( ) compose an adequate letter of application for a job. ( )

I

Comments:

Signed: Date:

Student: No.: Establishment:

2. MATHEMATICS ATTAINMENT CHECKLIST .

Tutor: Date:

THE ABOVE STUDENT CAN DEAL SUCCESSFULLY WITH THE FOLLOWING:

1. The 4 Rules:

(a) Whole Numbers (b) Fractions (c) Mixed Numbers (d) Decimals (e) Percentages

2. Percentages:

(a) Fractions as percentages, and vice-versa (b) Calculation of given percentages (c) Expressing one quantity as a percentage of another (d) Calculating Discount (e) As applied to Simple Interest

3. Usage and Conversion of units:

(a) Changing between Imperial units (b) Changing between Metric units (c) Changing Metric to Imperial, and vice-versa (d) Converting Currency, Temperature, Weight, etc, with suitable scale (e) Making reasonable estimation of sizes in various units

4. Sets and Series:

(a) Sort in ascending and descending order (b) Calculate missing numbers (c) Simple averages (d) Mean, Mode and Median (e) Weighted and moving averages

5. Formulae

(a) Use appropriate formulae in various types of calculations (b) Know and explain various formulae

COMMENTS:

Signed: Date:

APPENDIX F

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The Working Party consulted a number of publications and papers including:

Adult Basic Education in Northern Ireland (NICCE Report 1985)

Adults Learning by Jennifer Rogers (Open University Press 1971)

Assessment and Testing in the Secondary School (Schools Council Examinations Bullentin 32: 1975)

Basic Education in Prisons and Places of Detention in the Republic of Ireland by Miss Mary Kett (1986)

Clickin:g into Place (Hereford and Worcester LEA 1985)

Developments in Adult Literacy and Basic Skills (ALBSU 1984)

Education in Prisons by Mrs A J Clark (ALBSU Newsletter 1986)

Guidelines for Good Adult Literacy Work (NALA 1985)

Guidelines on RemediallAdult Basic Education (NIO 1982)

How's it Going? (ALBSU 1980)

Resources (ALBSU 1986)

Survey of the Test Battery used in Penal Establishments for Educational Assessment (N10 1981)

Teaching Prisoners to Read by Florence Edwards (1969)

The Case for Adult Basic Education (ACACE Report 1979)

Teaching the Disadvantaged Adult by Curtis Ulmer (Georgia 1969)

The Right to Learn (UNESCO Report 1985)

Training in Adult and Continuing Education by A Rogers (1980)

Various ALBSU Newsletters (1986)

WEA Syllabus for Adult Basic Education (1984)

INSTITUTIONAL NEEDS THE CURRICULUM

SOCIETAL NEEDS

/1\ TEAéHER'S NEEDS

STAFF DEVELOPMENT IN PRISON EDUCATION DEPARTMENTS

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF STAFF DEVELOPMENT?

SD must not be confused with personal development or the means by which keys to promotional doors are opened. SD is essentially about improving the quality of curriculum we offer to our students by improving the ability of the teachers to develop his or her skills in managing and delivering the curriculum.

SD is about improving the interaction between the learner and the teacher. It should be focused firmly upon the needs of the student.

HOW IS THE STAFF DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME RELATED TO THE CURRICULUM?

Education Officers should be constantly reviewing their educational programmes. Programmes should not be left at a fixed point. They should be regularly examined, assessed and developed. Curriculum Development should be a dynamic process bringing to the curriculum:-

* New initiatives i.e. NVQ; BTEC; Core Curriculum

* Changing student needs i.e. ABE; Exam led Courses

* Educational constancies i.e. Equal Opportunities; Counselling

SD will only be effective if it is related to the needs of the curriculum and system already planned to ensure efficient and effective development. It will be effective only if it considers the interaction between the dimensions influencing the curriculum. Curriculum is influenced, especially in Prisons, by factors over which it has little or no control.

(OVERHEAD)

FACTORS INFLUENCING CURRICULUM

STUDENT NEEDS

-2

1

- The Curriculum needs therefore, a clear statement of policy which

is reviewed on a constant basis taking into account the needs of the factors with which it interacts.

CURRICULUM POLICY

Education Officers should have a clearly understood and published statement of curriculum policy. The policy should be systematically reviewed. In light of the responsibilities LEAs now have to formulate and implement a strategy for FE within the Authority, Prison Education Departments should submit their strategic plans for both Curriculum and Staff Deveopment as part of the Colleges' planning, or if not linked to a College, as part of the LEAs special area of responsibility.

The Curriculum policy statement should encapsulate the planned developments for the short, medium and long terms. It should be prepared in consultation with the staff, both full and part time, instructors, the Head of Inmate Activities, the Race Relations Officer, the College and the Governor. The statement, as well as considering the educational aims and objectives, should take into account:-

(OVERHEAD with A)

* Student expectations

* Student ability

* Student needs

These three not necessarily being compatible recognition should be given to the importance of counselling and guidance as an integral part of the programme.

Staff and the institutional situation will play a major role in preparation of the policy. Consequently, the effects of other issues such as:-

(OVERHEAD with A)

* Accessibility of education

• Resources

* Staff expectations, both teaching and non-teaching

• Length and type of sentence

* National and local curriculum developments

must be taken into account. The list is not exhaustive. Each institution will need to consider its own specialties and peculiarities.

•••• 3 ■■•■

IDENTIFICATION OF NEED

CURRICULUM POLICY _

ANALYSIS OF NEED

I CATEGORISING NEED

STAFF DEVELOPMEN ! T 1 POLICY

The completed Curriculum statement is only partially prepared at this stage. The obvious will appear. Very few institutions will find that they have the staff resources or staff expertise and skills to fulfill the needs of the curriculum programme. Consequently, the Staff Development Policy and programme should reflect the needs of the curriculum which in turn, reflects the needs of the students.

THE DETERMINATION OF STAFF DEVELOPMENT REQUIREMENTS

The LEA will have identified and analysed the local needs; the DES will have published the National priorities, the Education Department, preferably in conjunction with the College, needs to determine the Institutions Staff Development Policy in light of the curriculum statement.

(OVERHEAD)

THE DETERMINATION OF STAFF DEVELOPMENT REQUIREMENTS

STAFF DEVELOPMENT REQUIREMENTS/PRIORITIES

4

CATEGORISING NE -WS

Needs derived from the perceived requirements of individual staff will relate to the extent of professional skills and knowledge, personal development and career enhancement and advancement.

Professional development will include such areas as:-

(OVERHEAD)

* General teaching skills

* Knowledge of curriculum change

* Subject updating

* Administrative skills

* Management skills

Alongside such professional needs however, often goes the necessity to modify attitudes rlwards curriculum changes and towards the different types of students and their styles of inter-personal behaviour.

These needs help set an agenda for personal development. The Department's Staff Development Programmes will be more effective if they can be seen to relate to the individual's aspirations and potential for progression and career advancement.

To ensure staff development is fully effective in optimising the delivery of the curriculum, it is essential that staff feel, and indeed have, a true sense of ownership of the process. Staff need to see the interactive process within the programme, these being the facts which determine the situation from which the programme is developed and within the constraints of which the programme must be evaluated. Staff Development must be staff led. They should take part in the cycle of eudcation which leads to a continuous programme of Staff Development.

CURRICULUM OBJECTIVES

ORGANISATIONAL OBJECTIVES

DEPARTMENTAL OBJECTIVES

(OVERHEAD)

A STAFF DEVELOPMENT EVALUATION CYCLE

EVALUATION OF DATA

MONITORING

STAFF DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

REVIEW/ DECISIONS/ CHANGE

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

A STAFF DEVELOPMENT EVALUATION CYCLE

The monitoring and evaluation of staff development can be seen as part of a four stage cycle. Having set the aims and objectives of the staff development/INSET programme it becomes necessary to monitor activities and performance. The data gathered is used to evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of the programme, leading to a review of the programme. The results of this review will inform, together with newly collected data from needs analysis exercises, a revision of the programme aims and objectives.

This cycle is a continuous process. In practice, however, objectives, data collection and presentation and reviews often have to be undertaken at fixed times during the annual staff development programme; at any rate, a systematic approach which follows a planned timetable should be adopted.

In the model shown, information required at each stage relates to information gathered at the previous stage. It follows that decisions about what should be evaluated and reviewed are crucial and must be made before decisions about what is to be monitored are made and which indicators are to be selected.

The process of Staff Development must have clearly defined aims and objectives. These should be available for staff to use in their participation of the educational and development process.

6

Enable staff to meet the needs of the Education Department College

Encourage staff to be equipped to respond to changing educational needs of the students

Provide an opportunity for staff to pursue a subject interest

. (OVERHEAD)

AIMS OF STAFF DEVELOPMENT

The aims of staff development should be to:-

(i) Provide an opportunity for staff to contribute to different areas of activity to enable individual job growth and satisfaction

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v) Enable staff to develop educational responses (e.g. course and curriculum development) in their area of expertise

(vi) To afford scope for advancement within or outside the Department

(vii) To maintain and improve teaching skills and methods.

(OVERHEAD)

These aims can be achieved by a mix of the following, that mix being determined by the needs of individuals and groups:-

(a) an identifiable staff development responsibility being exercised by the Education Officer

(h) involving staff in the process of staff development and in the allocation of departmental responsibilities

(c) advising staff on training opportunities which would contribute to their advancement

(d) developing in-service training where appropriate

(e) encouraging staff to attend courses, read for research degrees, publish articles, papers or books

(f) conscious recognition of the need to encourage staff's strengths and build upon them

(g) placements

(h) development of administrative responsibilities

7

The policy Cannot be implemented without a commitment of resources. The resources will be both internally devolved from PD funds or LEATGs funded and should be run in conjunction with other Education Departments or linked Colleges and LEA provision.

For example:-

(a) Heads of Faculties' time in developing the programme

(h) use of a "Professional Tutor" in the College

(h) resources for visiting teachers and covering staff

(d) provision of appropriate seminars and workshops

(e) organisation of timetable to enable placements

(f) some modest provision for sabbatical leave

(g) a commitment by colleagues to helping others in their development

SUMMARY

The vital ingredient which should determine any Staff Development programme is that special and often unobserved interaction between the students and the teacher.

All the suggestions made in this Paper are simply a recognition of the very real forces which act upon the development of teachers and students in Penal establishments.

SD must be both a formalised and an intimate operation. It should be done with sensitivity, understanding and with the special dimensions of prior education being firmly in mind. It is about prisoners enhancing their self-esteem and life chances through an efficient and sensitive educational programme.

PR/JAC/ 15.9.89.

Gender Studies and the Criminal Justice System

Implications for Prison Education

Jacqueline Ross University of Wisconsin Centers

150 E. Gilman Street Madison, Wisconsin 53708-8680

USA

*

CF

Jacqueline Ross

Gender Studies and the Criminal Justice System

Implications for Prison Education

I

Over ten years ago, as a teacher of women's studies, I became

interested in working with women offenders. A major purpose of

women's studies or gender studies, as many of you know, is to

examine the roots of the problems women and men face in society and

to create an awareness among the students which will enable them to

change themselves and the world in which they live in positive

ways. Since these problems had, I suspected, significantly

affected the lives of offenders, I became convinced, somewhat

prematurely and naively, that what they needed was feminist

education. I developed a program -- the Postsecondary Re-Entry

Education Program (PREP) -- at a women's institution aimed at

providing, along with college degrees, the knowledge to help them

build new lives. (PREP as it exists today serves both incarcerated

men and women -- over 200 a year).

My enthusiasm was dampened to some degree when we offered our first

women's studies class to a less than enthusiastic group of women

(Ross and Holbrook). Most of them at the outset were hostile to

the material, resentful of the teacher, and suspicious of each

other. Writing about the experience a few years later, I noted

1

II

1

2

that by the end of the semester the attitudes of some of the

students, at least, had changed markedly and, even more important,

had seemed to have a ripple effect -- that is, the feminist

attitudes of students who had been in the class were beginning to

influence students new to the program. Most notable were the links

they began to make between sexist myths and attitudes and the

problems that got them into prison.

Encouraged by this response, however tentative, I set out to look

for further evidence of the relevance of women's studies to

criminality, beginning with a focus on recent studies on women and

crime.

The growing concern with women and crime, reflected in a

proliferation of writings in the past ten to twenty years, has

expanded to feminist analyses of women and the criminal justice

system, and, most recently, of gender and the criminal justice

system, including, to some extent, gender and crime: The research

indicates correlations between female criminality and the social

status of women in general and women offenders in particular. In

addition, scholars have raised insightful questions concerning

gender as a factor in the etiology of crime, both female and male:

Very little, however, has been written in the literature on prison

education relevant to gender studies or feminist education in

prison. Although a few feminist pioneers have writter thought-

3

provoking accounts of their teaching experiences with offenders,

their enthusiasm has not apparently spread to the mainstream of

prison education.

That gender studies have not become part of the mainstream of

prison education is not, however, unusual for several reasons. On

traditional college campuses, the concept of integrating women's

studies into the curriculum, while gaining acceptance, remains

controversial. Similarly, as feminist criminologists are quick to

point out, most of their male colleagues mistakenly assume that

gender issues refer only to women. Since men make up the vast

majority of inmates in the penal system, it is not surprising that

male criminologists have tended to set aside feminist research in

their field as relevant to only a small percentage of the offender

population. In addition, while professionals in such fields as

criminal justice, sociology, women's studies, and correctional

education may publish on some aspect of the subject of feminism and

criminality, each group seems largely unaware of what the others

are doing. In other words, there is no clear articulation in the

research between gender studies and the problems created by gender-

related issues in the criminal justice system. Moreover, while

there have been scattered attempts to introduce these studies in

educational programs for offenders, there has been no systematic

attempt to provide such offerings or to ascertain the value of

gender studies for these groups.

4

The significance of gender and the criminal justice system has

implications for all of us which deserve further attention. It is

my purpose here to consider the working hypothesis that issues

relating to gender have influenced the behavior of incarcerated

women and men and will continue to affect them and, ultimately,

society in a negative way in the future if they are not educated to

deal with the implications of traditional gender concepts in their

lives. This paper is intended to be suggestive rather than

conclusive, exploring how as well as if integrating gender studies

into the curriculum could serve to further the goals of prison

education.

III

In order to put this hypothesis into perspective, I would like to

review briefly some of the more recent literature on women and

crime and on gender and crime. While offenders share many of the

same problems as other students, particularly those from minority

and other disadvantaged groups, they are also distinguished in ways

that are not entirely clear, by the circumstances that led them to

commit crimes. Added to these are the problems that they will

encounter upon release as a result of incarceration.

Because gender and the criminal justice system has only recently

become a subject of serious inquiry, feminist criminologists have

not presented conclusive findings; rather, in arguing the

centrality of gender in their field, they have raised a number of

5

intriguing questions. The most obvious, described as the gender-

ratio problem (Daly and Chesney-Lind 514), relate to the

disproportionate ratio of women to men in prisons. While women

outnumber men in the population as a whole, women have

traditionally made up a very small percentage of the prison

population. Why are there so few women criminals? Do theories

explaining men's crimes apply to women?

Very little was written about female criminality until the late

1960's when the idea began to emerge that most of the accepted

theories of crime were based on studies of men and were unlikely to

be applicable to women (Daly and Chesney-Lind 506-7). In addition,

those earlier theories which did focus on women, linking

criminality to biological causes and sexual deviance, came under

serious scrutiny (Daly and Chesney-Lind 508). In the 1970's

environment of the developing women's movement, these critiques

gained momentum and were expanded to encompass new theories about

women's criminal activity, which it appeared had, during the same

period, seemed to grow. The most sensational and controversial

theory, proposed in writings of the 1970's, notably by two

criminologists, Frieda Adler and Rita Simon, linked the upsurge in

female crime with the women's movement. According to them,

"women's lib," while aiding the struggle for social and economic

equality, had also resulted in encouraging increasing numbers of

"liberated" women to participate in major crimes. It is safe to

say that virtually every work dealing with the female offender

written since 1975 has responded to Adler and Simon, usually to

6

disagree with both the substance of the liberation theory and with

the supporting research; in addition, feminist criminologists have,

for the past fifteen years, tried to set the record straight about

the characteristics of female offenders and their crimes. These

criminologists have pointed out that, far from being liberated,

female offenders are generally poor and/or minority women with

traditional attitudes toward gender roles in society. Despite or

partly, at least, because of these attitudes, these offenders were

seen as particularly disadvantaged by feminist scholars who looked

to social and economic forces as the primary agents of female

crime.

What we can glean from these feminist studies, dating mainly from

1975-1985, is a great deal of factual data and other information

that can help provide a corrective to the mainstream of criminal

justice theory. Unfortunately, as the most recent feminist

critiques have pointed out, much of the work on the female offender

written in that decade tended to be atheoretical (Chesney-Lind

1986:84; Daly and Chesney-Lind 1988:512). As a result, the complex

implications of gender issues in criminology have tended to be

overlooked. Except for the field of victimology, where gender

issues have been acknowledged to some degree, the work of feminist

criminologists has been generally assumed to have relevance for

female offenders only, who make up a small portion of the criminal

population. Hence, feminist scholarship has made little impact on

the larger field of criminology.

7

Challenging these assumptions are Meda Chesney-Lind, Kathleen Daly,

and others in the field from the United States and abroad who

believe that feminist theories and research should be "far more

than a focus on women or sexism in extant theories. They offer an

opportunity to study still-unexplored features of men's crime"

(507). Frances Heidenson, a British criminologist, argues that

"the deeper understanding which studying women and crime brings to

criminology ought to result in a paradigm shift. Gender, and hence

the explanations of gender-related patterns, should become central"

(24). Beginning with the gender-ratio problem, these feminist

scholars have raised a number of thought provoking questions. On

the most basic level we ought to know more about the relationship

between the women's sex roles, their status in society, and female

crime. In addition, the effect of gender on men's as well as

women's criminality needs exploration.

Despite the many recent studies which attempted to address these

and other questions, relatively little is known of the relationship

between gender and crime.. Yet, a number of researchers have begun

to present evidence that calls for further examination of this

relationship. One such study of high-school-aged males and females

found that "positive attitudes toward feminism tend to inhibit

rather than promote delinquency involvement" (James and Thornton

240). Other studies have considered the importance of masculinity

in male crime (Heidensohn 24-25). And the importance of gender in

victimology is relevant to both male and female offenders.

8

IV

Thus far, I have described the perspectives of feminists who argue

that gender studies should play an integral part in mainstream

criminological theory, research, and policy. Of what importance

are such studies or, indeed, the work of feminist criminologists to

those involved in education programs for offenders.

Leaders in prison education stress the importance of literacy,

vocational education, and, in some instances, the acquisition of

positive moral values -- all of which I agree should be major

components of any prison program that hopes to serve a

rehabilitative purpose. As educators, we are aware of the

importance of addressing our inmate students' basic skill

deficiencies and lack of marketable skills in order to provide them

with the practical knowledge they will enable them to make a lawful

living upon release. But, if part of our job as educators is to

help our students address the problems that lead to their

lawlessness, then we ought to pay serious attention to studies of

the relationship of gender issues and criminality. There is little

evidence, however, of such concern.

The situation in the prison establishment appears to closely

parallel that of criminology. That is, prison programs have been

affected by the women's movement in beneficial but limited ways.

Dramatic changes relating to gender issues have been reflected in

some women's prisons by the introduction of feminist treatment and

9

non-traditional occupation programs and in the growing sensitivity

to parity issues on the part of administrators. Clearly, for

incarcerated women in such progressive institutions, opportunities

have expanded. Unfortunately, however, like criminologists, few

prison educators have seen the broader implications of gender

issues and integrated relevant study into their curricula.

V

There are a number of reasons why gender studies or women's studies

have not found yet found their place in the prison education

curriculum. Without recounting all the possibilities, it is safe

to suggest that it is primarily because such studies have been seen

as relevant to women only and, to restate the obvious, there are

far more men in the system. I would also surmise that, with their

limited financial resources and understandable lack of knowledge of

the relevance of feminist education to the goals of rehabilitation,

prison administrators and educators would be loathe to limit their

practical vocational offerings for what might be perceived as

"fluff." In that attitude they are not alone. In two of the few

articles on teaching such courses to women's offenders, university

women's studies faculty, describe their experiences as irrelevant

and unsuccessful, suggesting that the courses were frivolous and

useless. 2 While other feminist teachers report quite different,

more positive experiences, the fact remains that apparently very

few women's studies faculty have reached out to the offender

community. 3 Unfortunately, as Chesney-Lind points out, many in the

10

women's movement -- and I would add to this the women's studies

movement in the universities -- have focused in recent years on the

female victim as distinct from the female offender, despite the

fact that the two are related (1986: 97).

In trying to learn about the extent to which, if at all, women's

studies has been offered in prison environments, I conducted an

extensive search for literature on the subject and uncovered a

handful of articles. On the assumption that such courses would

most likely be sponsored through universities (and because my

research had turned up few other examples of feminist education

behind bars), I surveyed hundreds of prison college programs and

university women's studies programs. Before summarizing my

findings, I'd like to expand briefly on my own experience in this

regard.

As I indicated at the beginning of this paper, it took a while for

the students in the first women's studies course offered

by PREP to overcome their hostility and become receptive to the

subject matter. Since then, we have offered other courses with

feminist content at both the women's and men's institutions to

increasingly more responsive student bodies. Most recently -- in

fact, this past summer, seven years later -- I again taught a

women's studies course to women in prison, and the situation was

very different from my initial experience. The women students were

absorbed in the material and fascinated by the guest lecturers in a

way I've never seen in my years of teaching both on regular

11

university campuses as well as in the prison program. And the guest

lecturers, faculty from around the state, were impressed by the

enthusiasm and intellectual vigor apparent in the discussions.

Many of the articles I've read and survey replies I've received

echo my experience. Those who taught some form of gender or

women's studies to offenders in the early 1980's report dismay over

their students'-- particularly, the women students' -- initial

negative response to feminist ideas. Looking back on their

experiences in the prison classroom, however, some of the teachers

recognized the women's reactions to oblique feminist content -- in

literature, for example -- indicated that they were feminists

without knowing it. In addition, as Chesney-Lind recently

suggested, in response to my survey question regarding the

attitudes of the women offenders toward feminism in a class she

taught, it was not only the students who were naive in the early

1980's; many teachers teaching in correctional environments were

unclear about what they were trying to accomplish in their courses.

More recent accounts of teaching courses with feminist content have

elicited much more positive responses from both the women and the

teachers. One recent article, for example, which describes how

teaching women's literature to adolescent female offenders had

effected positive change in their self-concepts and perceptions of

themselves as women, concludes that such material should be an

"integral component" of curricula for adolescent girls (Miller and

Carrington (6). Student responses to courses corroborate those of

1

1

12

their teachers and indicate significant changes in attitudes toward

feminism. One of the women in my class wrote, for instance, that

she had previously associated the woman's movement with negative

images of man-hating; at the saine time, her belief that a "woman is

nothing without a man" continually caused problems in her life."

Now, she says, her eyes have been open to "wanting to know what is

to be a woman -- that there is another reality to life, one where I

don't have to feel threatened to express my own ideas, needs, and

wants."

Another women wrote: "When I think of how my family raised me, to

be submissive and in a sense a sex object for the man of my choice,

I get very disgusted." While not entirely relinquishing

traditional attitudes, they are beginning to question them as they

see connections between feminist perspectives on women and gender

issues and the problems they've encountered in their own lives. In

addition, the suspicion that attended many of the feminist classes

of the early 1980's has been replaced by a supportive atmosphere;

the group appears to be unified by a sense of themselves as women

together. A Black woman, who had initially been ambivalent about

the course, wrote on her evaluation that "It was interesting,

informative, and very satisfying to know that there are other women

whose beliefs are similar to my own." Midway through the summer,

the women petitioned for a course during the regular semester, an

action demonstrating a sense of cohesiveness and empowerment

contradictory to the image of passivity often used to characterize

them.

It is unfortunate that at this time it appears that courses with

gender or women's studies content have become less prevalent than

ever in women's institutions. On the other hand, such courses,

while still rare, are beginning to be offered to incarcerated

males. 4 Most exciting and promising have been the experiences

described by Holly Devor who, through Simon Fraser University in

Canada, has offered women's studies courses to male inmates. In a

particularly intriguing account of a class for sex offenders, she

recounts their initial "confusion and dismay about the changing

roles of women and the demands that those changes placed on men.

They seemed disgruntled by those changes and expressed some

hostility towards feminists whom they identified as the force

behind changing gender roles and their own unhappy circumstances as

convicted sex offenders" (133). As the class progressed, their

attitudes gradually changed as she dealt with such challenging

topics as sexual harassment, wife abuse, and rape, courageously

confronting their sexism. By the end of the semester, the students

were asserting that if they'd had the course earlier, they wouldn't

have ended up as they did.

Devor's assessment of her course is modest; she views it as a

"first step out of their ignorance." Yet her experience appears to

corroborate the feminist criminologists' views on the importance of

gender to criminality. Moreover, her conclusion that the

13

14

information, insights, and empathy gained through women's studies

should help their rehabilitation deserves to be taken seriously and

pursued by all educators who work with male offenders.

In fact, offenders of both sexes are unlikely to be rehabilitated

by educational programs which ignore basic gender issues. As for

the women, Chesney-Lind has pointed out that those she interviewed

in a 1982 study were nothing like the "liberated crooks" described

by some criminologists; she suggests that "the search for the

'right' man and the desire to establish an 'appropriate' dependency

relationship with him is a greater source of female criminality

than the desire for independence" (1983: 59-60). Corroborating

this view were the women in my class last summer; typical was this

comment on the course: "I became much more aware of how my crime

related so heavily to the fact that I was very submissive and

didn't have a good understanding of the world around me." Women

offenders who are passive and maintain traditionally "feminine"

illusions about their lives -- for, example, expecting Prince

Charming to come along and support them -- are not likely to be

interested in learning skills for nontraditional jobs. Rather than

become independent, they are likely to continue to return to the

same kind of abusive relationships that got them into trouble in

the first place. Feminist education can help to break this

destructive cycle, as many in the women's studies class suggested.

As one woman wrote, women's studies "has brought to me an

understanding about the relationships between men and women, and

that women do not have to remain in submissive, abusive or

15

subservient roles in these relationships." Another representative

response was that women's studies "has given me insight and

knowledge into how our roles and positions came to be, why they

continue to exist, and what I can do to change them." In answer to

a question on their evaluation forms, all but one of the students

stated that the class should be required.

And what of the men? The questions raised by feminist

criminologists regarding the correlations between gender issues and

male criminality strongly suggest the importance of dealing with

such issues in education programs. Moreover, the accounts by

feminist teachers such as Holly Devor of their experiences in

prison classrooms strongly suggest that gender issues are of

particular significance to all offenders, women and men. And

several male responders to my questionnaire stressed the important

of feminist education for male offenders. Said one, "I think every

student should learn about this Egender/women's studies], get clear

about ethical and political ideals, and argue about public policy."

An administrator wrote: "We feel there is a continuing need for

these courses in our curriculum and we shall continue to offer

them." Finally, the positive responses to women's studies courses

by inmate students of both sexes point to the relevance of the

subject matter to their lives.

A final point needs to be made about teaching gender and women's

studies to the incarcerated, and that concerns the value to the

teachers themselves. While almost all of them report personal

16

feelings of trepidation and even hostility among other reactions in

front of their classes, particularly when facing male offenders,

they also felt that they had learned a great deal from the

experience -- about themselves, their subject matter, and their

students. With very few exceptions, teachers who have had this

experience are convinced that feminist education made a significant

difference in the lives of their students and believe strongly that

its inclusion in correctional education curricula should be

widespread.

VI

What I have tried to demonstrate here is that by bringing together

the findings of feminist criminologists who write about offenders,

and feminist educators who have taught offenders, we can find

compelling evidence of the importance of gender issues not only in

explaining criminal behavior but in helping to remedy it. The

study of such issues is of great importance to women offenders.

However, it is clear that such study should not be relegated to

women's sphere alone. As Daly and Chesney-Lind point out, "Of

whatever age, race, or class and of whatever nation, men are more

likely to be involved in crime, and in its most serious forms. . .

A large price is paid for structures of male domination and for the

very qualities that drive men to be successful, to control others,

and to wield uncompromising power. . . .[Gender differences]

17

challenge us to see that in the lives of women, men have a great

deal more to learn" (527). Their argument here is directed at

criminologists, but the point can be made in regard to educators

and to offenders themselves.

Gender studies, I maintain, should become integrated into the

philosophy and practice of all educational programs for offenders,

both women and men. Faculty from women's studies programs should

forge linkages with the criminal justice establishment in order to

cooperate in bringing this about. However, such studies should not

be considered impractical or the province of the university alone;

experiments should be undertaken incorporating such education into

vocational and literacy curricula. Courses and workshops for

prison staff should also contain such material. Moreover, further

educational research, informed by feminist criminological theory,

should be undertaken to assess these efforts. Through these

combined initiatives, we can begin to attack the gender-based

causes of lawbreaking in our society and to help the lawbreakers

discover the knowledge they need to lead productive and satisfying

lives.

18

For an excellent critical survey of this scholarship, see Meda Chesney-Lind's 1986 article, "Women and Crime: The Female Offender." The best, most recent, discussions of gender and crime include "Feminism and Criminology," by Chesney-Lind and Kathleen Daly; "Introduction: Gender, Crime, and Justice," by Pat Carlen and Anne Worrall; "Women and Crime: Questions for Criminology," by Frances Heidensohn; and Female Crime by Ngaire Naffine.

2See "I Have Lived with All the Women I Ever Want to Here: Teaching Women's Studies in a Women's Prison" by Martha Vicunus and Cynthia Kinnard and "A Jury of Our Peers: Teaching and Learning in the Indiana Women's Prison" by Susan Gubar and Anne Hedin. For a critique of these views, see "The Taycheedah Experience: Teaching Women's Studies in a Women's Prison" by Jacqueline Ross and Jane Holbrook.

3Sandra J. Holstein's unpublished paper, "Maximum Risk in Maximum Security," an enthusiastic account of the use of feminist pedagogy in Sing Sing prison, was written almost ten years ago, making it the earliest known (to me) record of such education in a correctional setting. In the paper, Ms. Holstein describes teaching three classes -- one all female, another all male, and the third evenly divided between the sexes -- and concluded that these experiences, while different, were valuable to her and the students.

4Most of the responses to my questionnaire described, in positive terms, courses and/or workshops with feminist content for male offenders.

19

Selected List of Works Consulted

Adler, Freda, Sisters in Crime: The Rise of the New Female

Criminal. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975.

Carlen, Pat and Anne Worrall, eds. Gender, Crime, and Justice.

Philadelphia: Open University Press, 1987.

Chapman, Jane Roberts. Economic Realities and the Female

Offender. Lexington: Lexington Books, 1980.

Chesney-Lind, Meda. "Women and Crime: The Female Offender."

Signs 12 (1986): 78-96.

"Women Under Lock and Key: A View from the Inside." The

Prison Journal 63 (1983): 47-65.

Daly, Kathleen and Chesney-Lind, Meda. "Feminism and

Criminology." Justice Quarterly 5 (1988): 497-537.

Devor, Holly. "Teaching Women's Studies to Convicted Sex

Offenders." Yearbook of Correctional Education (1989): 129-

154.

"Teaching Women's Studies to Male Inmates." Women's

Studies International Forum 11 (1988): 235-244.

Gubar, Susan and Hedin, Anne. "A Jury of Our Peers: Teaching and

Learning in the Indiana Women's Prison." College English

(1981): 779-789.

Heidensohn, Frances M. "Women and Crime: Questions for

Criminology." Gender, Crime, and Justice. Ed. Pat Carlen

and Anne Worrall.

Women and Crime: The Life of the Female Offender. New

York: New York University Press, 1085. .

20

Holstein, Sandra J. "Maximum Risk in Maximum Security." [c.

1980].

James, J. and Thornton, W. "Women's Liberation and the Female

Delinquent." Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency

17 (1980): 131.

Miller, Darcy and Carrington, Ruth. "Teaching Women's Literature

to Adolescent Female Offenders." The Journal of

Correctional Education March 1989: 6-9.

Naffine, Ngaire. Female Crime. North Sydney: Allen and Unwin,

1987.

Price, Barbara Raffel and Sokoloff, Natalie, eds. The Criminal

Justice System and Women. New York: Clark Boardman, 1982.

Ross, Jacqueline and Holbrook, Jane. "The Taycheedah Experience:

Teaching Women's Studies in a Women's Prison." Journal of

Thought. 20 (1985): 97-105.

Shakur, Assata and Chesimard, Joanne. "Women in Prison: How We

Are." The Black Scholar 9 (1978): 50-57.

Simon, Rita. Women and Crime. Lexington: Lexington Books, 1975.

Vicinus, Martha and Kinnard, Cynthia. "I Have Live with All the

Women I Ever Want to Here: Teaching Women's Studies in a

Women's Prison. Unlocking Shackled Minds: A Handbook for

the College Classroom. Ed. Frank Cioffi. Bloomington: The

Poynter Center, Indiana University, 1980.

Descriptive Study of Teaching Practices and Efficacy of Correctional Education

Robert A. Sedlak University of Wisconsin-Stout Menomonie, Wisconsin 54751

USA

Stan A. Karcz Karcz, McGing and Associates

P.O. Box 75502 St. Paul, Minnesota 55175

USA

Descriptive Study of Teaching Practices and Efficacy of Correctional Education

Within the last dozen years research has emerged that begins to identify those practices of teachers that facilitate learning. Concepts such as engaged time, allocated time, and academic learning time, efficacy and interactive teaching are now repeatedly discussed in special education literature. The studies that have been conducted on the topic generally involved elementary school teachers and a smaller number included secondary school teachers. Some were subject specific while others were generic. The research from these studies started filtering into the special education literature about six years ago and there has been an increasing volume of work done with exceptional learners and special education teachers since that time.

To our knowledge there has not been any effort made to examine the practices in correctional facilities against these new concepts. We know from the extant literature that the teaching environment within correctional facilities is qualitatively different from what one encounters in a typical school program. Adolescent-aged students turn over within these facilities every two to three months. The "class" of students that a teacher faces each day is likely to be slightly dif ferent as a result of new arrivals and departures. In an adult facility there is likely to be more stability.

There are only a few training programs in the country that prepare teachers to teach in correctional facilities and, by the nature of the clients and students being served, the composition of teachers may be somewhat atypical of teachers in other settings. This type of rationale then served as the backdrop for the present study.

In simple terms the study sought to elicit responses from teachers in correctional facilities on the topics of:

I. how they teach, 2. what they believe about teaching, and 3. what factors besides teaching they feel affect learning.

Before describing the study and some of the results, it is important to reiterate that these findings are preliminary and that additional data is arriving daily. It should also be mentioned that these data are all based upon a self-report methodology and are, therefore, subject to built-in biases. We did undertake this study as a starting point to learn more about the correctional educator and we anticipate that as we examine this data more closely we will undertake additional studies using dif ferent methodologies and viewing the questions posed from dif ferent perspectives.

Methodology

This particular research used a survey of correctional educators as the vehicle for data collection. A 1988 membership list of the Correctional Education Association served as the subject pool. Each entry was numbered and a 20% random sample was drawn. The random number generator in SPSSX selected the cases for the sample. In as much as the investigators knew that the membership was composed of nonteachers, the cover letter and survey instrument asked nonteachers to answer only the first six questions and return the survey.

Each mailed entry contained a survey and a self-addressed postage paid business envelope. Names and addresses had been directly typed onto the mailed entries. Surveys were mailed the week of March 1, 1988, and the results of these findings include responses received by May 30, 1988.

-1-

Instrumentation The survey instrument was composed of a cover letter on University letterhead explaining the purpose of the research and 112 statements or questions.

The first nine questions dealt with demographic information. Questions 10 thru 74 dealt with teaching practices; 75 thru 81 awareness issues; 82 thru 106 beliefs about teaching; 107 thru 109 educational standards; and 110 thru 112 educational philosophy. All responses were forced choice except for questions 110 thru 112 on philosophy.

Respondents A total of 320 surveys were mailed and 157 responses were received, representing a return rate to date of 49%. Seventy-seven responses were received from nonteaching members who completed only the short form of the survey. Eighteen surveys were returned due to change in address. The sample of responders who were teachers consisted of 62 surveys or 39% of the response sample. The following demographics of this sample are summarized below.

o The age range for these respondents was from 26 to 65 with both a mean and a median of 44. By sex there were 27 males and 32 females.

o Only two people had degrees less than a bachelor's degree. Twenty held bachelor's degrees. Thirty-nine held master's degrees or master's plus, and one held a doctorate.

o The number of years in their current positions ranged from 1 to 20 years, with a mean of 7.19, a median of 5.5, and a mode of 5.

o The most frequently cited description of their facility was an adult institution (N=39; 63%); the next largest was a juvenile institution (n=8; 13%) and then adult jail (n=5; 11%). Only one was in a juvenile detention facility.

o The size of the facilities included the entire range from less than 50 to over 499. The most frequent citation was between 100 and 149 or over 499.

o In regard to the average number of students (n=11 in each case) taught on an average day, there was a mean of 32.4 and a median of 26. The range was from 4 to 130. The maximum number served in any time period of the day ranged from 2 to 30 with a mean of 15.26 and a median of 15.

o Responses were received from educators in 29 different states.

Analysis

The data were summarized using mean ratings of the questionnaire item and then using a z-score transformation of the score. The means show the average rating for each item but do not account for the variability in the rating. For example a rating of 1 and a rating of 5 computes to a mean of 3 in the same way as a mean of 5 could be gained by two ratings of 3. In contrast the z-score transformation of the data takes into account the standard deviation. The formula used for the z-score transformation was mean divided by standard deviation. This new statistic is sensitive to the variability and occasionally represents the data in a fashion different from that shown by the mean scores alone. The z-score transformation also allows you to compare the ratings across the items using a common point of reference.

Results and Discussion

Figure 1 depicts the mean ratings for the clusters of statements that dealt with teaching practices. The three categories that gainered the lowest mean ratings were:

o Teaching of Regulations o Allocation of Time o Learner Sensitivity

Regulations Figure 2 depicts the individual ratings of statements in this category. Six of the seven statements were relatively low and only the first on "communicates clearly what behavior will be tolerated and what will not" has a significantly high rating. While each of the other six questions dealt with methods of the teaching of regulations these were considerably lower than the first. There are several possible interpretations we could make regarding these ratings and each of these should be considered a conjecture.

I. The actual teaching of regulations may not be taking place. 2. The low rated items deal with before-the-fact circumstances while the highly

rated item deals with behavior at the point of its occurrence. There may be considerably less being done to prevent regulation violations and more being done based upon consequences.

3. A variety of ways of teaching regulations are not attempted.

Allocated Time The second cluster of items with low ratings dealt with allocated time. The item ratings in Figure 3 show a graphic picture of how allocated time is used. Items 29 thru 33 deal with behaviors that relate to teaching practices. They represent the small things that take place in a lesson and actually talk about the behavior of the teacher. Items 25 thru 28 are more global in the manner in which they are phrased. It may be that the strategies suggested in 29 thru 33 are not practiced often by the teachers and that other strategies are used.

Learner Sensitivity Figure 4 shows the item means for this category. It may be that all the items in this class are not adequately described under this title. Item 20, for example, involves communication with others in the institution. It appears that educational objectives are only perceived as being relevant in the classroom and that little communication takes place with noneducational staff.

Item 73 may relate more to the fact that the institutional environment is such that these types of enrichments are beyond the scope of an educational program.

Both items 71 and 72 are rated highly and demonstrate a recognized need on the part of the teachers to individualize instruction.

Philosophical Implications

Fifty-two percent of the respondents answered the three open ended questions at the end of the survey. A wide variety of responses resulted. The variability in the responses may be due in part to the lack of an operational definition for "educational philosophy" in the first two questions. In general the provided responses addressed curriculum objectives more than they addressed issues of expected student outcomes, issues of truth and value, learning theory and how thinking activities are or should be structured and processed.

-3-

The responses reflected a mental set of "immediacy" and of measurable concrete activities but did not address in general well rounded philosophies. The preeminence of the GED as an outcome objective is probably one of the most common responses. That achievement in and of itself is viewed by the respondents as the critical element in education. Numerous objectives related to providing adult education experiences, academics, life skills, pre-employment training and programs to motivate the inmate were included.

The responses provided indicated that the underlying rationale for how inmates learn (change) was not adequately addressed. The values that emerged from these responses suggest that correctional educators believe a general education program to pass the G.E.D. is important and that pre-employment is important. It would appear that the educational programs delivered within the institutions are more a result of institutional need and of the perceived importance of G.E.D. and pre-employment training than the result of a clearly defined, well articulated educational philosophy.

Some of the stated strategies for attaining educational objectives were to:

* provide positive experience to inmates for purposes of raising self esteem * assist inmates to become responsible for their own actions * assist inmates to understand that education provides them with more choice

making opportunities in their lives * provide multiple grade level increases during an academic year * utilize an individualized competency based instruction format for delivering

educational services

It is interesting to note that none of the stated educational strategies referred to specific educational strategies such as engaged time, allocated time, academic learning time, or mastering learning principles. This might suggest that more need for such information is needed than suggested in the preceding discussions on these topics.

In our view this narrow focus does not adequately address the skills needed by inmates to begin to be integrated into society. We do acknowledge that while the "GED outcome" was the most common thread in the responses, there was sufficient variance to permit us to hypothesize that there is hope that a great deal more can occur and the teachers are willing to do more if given some encouragement or leadership.

Summary

Based upon the objectives and the open ended responses the following statements can be supported.

1. Security issues are preeminent in the minds of correction educators and supercede educational issues and priorities.

2. Current focus of philosophy and success of educational programs is narrowly def ined by successfully passing the GED.

3. Educators appear to know what the curriculum should contain and how it should be delivered but the environmental forces and structure work against them.

4. The results indicate a need for educational leadership for corrections education and a strong spokesperson to champion the cause. The teachers have the skills and knowledge but they are bound to the security faction to maximize educational potential.

1888L -4-

A B C D F G H i

Z Score Transformations and MEAN Ratings for Clusters of Statements on Teaching Practices

Descriptive=5 6.79

A—Teaching Set-up and Organization B—Teaching Regulations C—Maintaining Order D—Allocation of Time E=Engaged Time F—Lesson Presentation - Introduction Phase G—Lesson Presentation - Demonstration Phase H=Lesson Presentation - Extended Practice Phase and Evaluation I=Learner Sensitivity

4.69

4.68 11 Ratings

• V.

Z Score Transformations and MEAN Ratings for Clusters of Statements on

Organized and Institutional Awareness Descriptive=5

5 r

4

3

2

0

J-Organizational Awareness K-Institutional Awareness

6.34

1 4 1 4 • 4

1

•

4 • 4 I> A

e >4.4 •44,.

•-

3.44 3.67 3.65

3.24 2.98

Ratings 7

6

5

2

1

15* 16 17 18 19 20 21

II17. Incorporates reasonable suggestions from students regarding the content of regulations for acceptable school behavior.

15. Communicates clearly what behavior will be tolerated and what will not.

II16. Works with institutional staff to determine their expectations for student behavioral standards. (Conditions for lock up, etc.)

1

1

Z Score Transformations and MEAN Ratings for Statements on Teaching of Regulations

Desc rip tive=5

Correspond to Numbered Statement in Questionaire

18. States regulations, posts regulations, and provides discussion of regulations at the time of their introduction.

II19. Presents examples of regulation compliance and of regulation noncompliance.

20. Requires students to read or explain regulations and procedures.

II21. Monitors regulation compliance and provides specific feedback during class.

Descriptive=5 5 r

4.45 Ratings

4

" 7

>>:

26* 27 28 29 30 31 33

VC7N

Z Score Transformations and MEAN Ratings for Statements on Allocation of Time

Correspond to Numbered Statement in Questionaire

26. Maximizes time in instruction by continually scheduling students in direct instruction (e.g., interacts with 70% or more of the students per hour).

27. Minimizes time in non-instructional activities (e.g., spends 80% or more of class time in instructional activities).

28. Maintains classroom activities and selects materials that are related to identified student outcome behaviors.

29. Coordinates transportation activities between residential facility and the education building to minimize time lost in transitioning from building to building.

30. Keeps transition time between lessons short (e.g., no more than 3 minutes between change of students and activity; no more than 30 seconds when a change of activity only).

31. Establishes procedures for lessons that signal a clear beginning and end.

32. Gains all students' attention at the beginning of the lesson and maintains student attention during lesson at 90% level.

33. Prepares students for transitions among classes in advance by stating

behavioral expectations and informing that lesson is drawing to a close.

6.22

4.5

1

5.40

4.1 b• 1

1 3.38 '.99 ' .99

3.50 3.35 P .84 3.08 b• 1

•• •• • 1 •

>el wyl .. _ •• .55 • ■ '• ■ ■

il -

>*4 . ■ >e4 • ■ W.2

•• • 4

> ' > 4 • 4 . • • • •1 •• I ■ • ■ •• • • *. M4W 4 .4 › 4 I . 4 % 4

3.46 3.11

1.84

IN Ratings

Descriptive=5 7r

6 I-

5 I-

4 P • 743.67

66* 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74

Z Score Transformations and MEAN Ratings for Statements on Learner Sensitivity

Correspond to Numbered Statement in Questionaire .

66. Stays abreast of the current literature about the educational needs of the numerous special populations served.

67. Is aware of nondiscriminatory educational diagnostic assessments instruments and procedures.

68. Uses appropriate nondiscriminatory educational diagnostic information, if available, from Chapter 1 services, from special education services, from intake services, and from self administered instruments.

69. Regularly relates to residential staff personnel about mutual expectations for addressing the educational needs of the students served.

70. Regularly relates to noneducational staff (other than residential saff) at the institution about mutual expectation for addressing the educational needs of the students served.

71. Reasonably individualizes instruction for every student in class.

72. Provides learning activities that result in a high success rate (80% or more at the time).

73. Provides quality growth experiences (such as guest speakers, plays, authorized absence field trips when appropriate to museums, etc.) whenever possible and feasible.

74. Assists the student to communicate in a manner that permits the student to

stand up for his/her rights without violating the rights of others (i.e. to be assertive).

Ratings

3.78

3.28

2.88 ' 1

'

'

75*‘ 76

1

4 4 1

• 4 4 4 4 1 4 4 4

• • 1

4.12

77 78

Z Score Transformations and MEAN Ratings for Statements on Organizational Awareness

Descriptive ,---5 5 r

4.71

4

3

2

Correspond to Numbered Statement in Questionaire

75. Adheres to the national Correctional Education Association's current draft of correctional education standards.

76. Understands and complies with the federal and state education agency

laws, regulations and guidelines as they apply to the correctional setting.

77. Understands and complies with the State Corrections Agency administrative

regulations and the national American Correctional Association's (ACA) standards as they affect his/her correctional education program.

78. Understands how to communicate within the corrections organizational

system to affectuate positive educational program results for

his/her students.

Descriptive=5 5r

4

3

2

0

4.69

3.88 3.79

- -

:

q.

:

:

79* 80 81

• Ratings

Sd

1 1

1 •1 1

1 1 1

Z Score Transformations and MEAN Ratings for Statements on Institutional Awareness

Correspond to Numbered Statement in Questionaire

79. Is aware of the various priorities of security, health and sanitation, program services, purchasing and business personnel at the institution as these priorities relate to education.

80. Understands public school educational requirements (outside of the correctional institution) necessary for a student's graduation from elementary school and high school.

81. Understands public school educational requirements (outside of the correctional institution) for facilitating a student's: admission to an advanced institution for learning; for admission into a vocational education program; for admission into a vocational rehabilitation program; and for entrance into the work force.

1 1

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

Teaching Sel-up and Organization Not

Descriptive ....Descriptive

NM NM MI UM MI Ili SIN On I» MI BO INN MIR MI MI

Nol Descriptive ....Descriptive

Demographic Information

I. Please specify your age

2. My sex is: a. male b. female

3. Highest degree

4. Years in current position

S. 1 primarily work in a: (select one)

a. juvenile institution

b. juvenile detention facility c. juvenile education program (other titan in a detention facility or institution)

d. adult Institution

C. adult jail f. adult education program (other than in a jail or institution)

g. other. Please specify

6. The number of inmates, jailers or detainees who arc students at my institution/facility

today is: a. Less than 50 g. 300 to 349

- b. 50 to 99 h. 350 to 399 c. 100 lo 149 i. 400 to 449 d. 150 to 199 j. 450 to 499 c. 200 to 249 k. More than 499 f. 250 to 299

If you do not etch. please do not complete the rest of this questionnaire. Return it in the

enclosed business reply envelope.

Please (Ill in the blank for the following items.

7. How many students do you teach on an average each day7

I. What is the maximum number of studcnts you teach at any given period of the day?

9. What state is your educational program located in?

Plane respond to each item In (arma of 11.1 gxtent. j n bleb li. describei voit NO!:

(I) Not at all descriptive

(2) Descriptive to a small extent

(3) Descriptive to a moderate extent

It Arranges physical space and instructional materials to facilitate cosy access to high-use materials.

12 Establishes and implements minimally disruptive traffic patterns and guoccdurcs in ihe teaching environment.

13 Establishes and implements procedures for nonacademic class business (cg., lock ups. tardiness, material use, movement in and out of room, distributing materials, talk among students, bathroom breaks).

14 Establishes and implements procedures for academic business (e.g., sealwoik procedures , obtaining help. volunteer behavior during sinalt gloms. learning centers, computer use).

Teaching Regulations

15 Communicates clearly what behavior will be tolerated and what will not.

16 Works institutional staff to determine their expectations for student behavioral standards. (conditions for lock up etc.)

17. Incorporates reasonable suggestions from students regarding the

content of regulations for acceptable school behavior.

States regulations , posts regulations, and provides discussion of regulations at the time of their introduction.

19. Presents examples and of regulation compliance and regulation noncompliance.

20. Requires students to read or explain regulations and procedures.

21 Monitors regulation compliance and provides specific feedback during class.

Afaintnining Order

22. Positions self in the room to provide high degree of visibility (e.g., can make eye contact with all students).

23. Detects disruptive behavior early and follows standard procedure in responding to disruptive behr.vior.

24 Reinforces appropria tc performance through specif ic praise statements (c g, states specific behaviors).

25 Includes students in the management of their own behavior. (4) Descriptive to a large e s tent

(5) Descriptive to an extremely large e>.tent

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 ) 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

1 23 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

10. Arranges physical space to minimize possible security conflicts 1 2 3 4 S

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

Not Descriptive ....Dcscriptivc

1 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

Not Icriptivc

Allocaicd Tinte

26. Maximizcs timc in instruction by continually schcduling studcnts

in direct instruction (c.a., inicracts with 70% or litote of thc

studcnts per hour).

27. Minimizcs time in non-instructional aclivitics (cg., spcnds 80%

or more of class time in instructional activitics).

28. Maintains classroom activilics and sciccts materials that arc

related to jdcntificd studcnt outcomc bchaviors.

29. Coordinatcs transportation activitics between residential facility

and thc education building to minimize time lost in

transisioning front building to building.

30. Kceps transition timc bctween lessons short (c.g., no more than

3 minutes between change of studcnts and activity; no morc

than 30 scconds whcn a change of activity only).

• 31. Establishcs proccdurcs for Icssons that signal a cicar beginning

and end.

32. Gains all studcnts' attention at thc bcginning of the Icsson and maintains studcnt attention during Icsson at 90% levc1.

33. Prcparcs students for transitions among classes in advancc by stating

behavioral cxpectations and informing that lesson is drawing to a close.

Engaged Tinte

34. Maintains students' attention during indcpendcnt work at 80% Icycls

or higher.

35. Circulatcs among studcnts working indcpendcntly between lessons to assist studcnts and to monitor progrcss.

36. Maintains indcpcndent work accuracy al 201 Icycl or higher.

37. Tells fatiOnalc for indepcndcnt work and communicates the importance

of the assignment.

38. Providcs active forms of indepcndent work practice glearlv rclalcd 1.0

'cadmic gull

39. Sets assignment standards (ncatness, accuracy, duc dates).

40. Uses tutoring (c.g., pccrs, voluntccrs, aides) and other specialized instructional tcchnology to increase academic performance.

41. Establishcs proccdurcs for carly finishcrs, studcnis who are

stalled, and thosc sccking hclp.

Desctiptivc

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 5

42. Schedules timc to rcvicw indepcndcnt work and ig guitgle written deuriotivg fecrlback to the students.

43. Rcquircs that students correct work and make up missed or unf inished work.

44. Givcs informative feedback to students in making written or verbal corrections.

Lesson Presentation - Introduction Phase

45. Providcs scnsitivity to students' readincss for learning.

46. Addrcsscs rcsidcntial experience concerns that relate to readincss for lcarning.

47. Rcvicws prior lcarning by rcquiring student recitation or practice of prcvious day's skills.

48. Rcasonably involvcs students in the selcction of appropriatc classroom activitics.

49. States the objcetivc of the lesson and communicates to students what thcy will be cxocctcd to do to dcmonstrate mastcry of the new skill.

50 Providcs an ovcrvicw of the Icsson.

5I. Rclatcs ncw concepts to old by stating how a new skill is like or differcnt front thosc the studcnt alrcady knows.

52 Aciivatcs the studcnt's prior expericnces to aid comprehcnsion and undcrstanding.

53 Convcys purposcfulncss for lcarning by stating the rationale.

Dentons I ration Phate

54. Dcmonstratcs by use of examples, new behaviors and procedures for studcnts

55. Rcquircs studcnts to practice new behaviors and procedures based on imitation of the tcachcr's demonstration.

56. Prcscnts many cxamplcs and nonexamplcs of new concepts or gcncralization and cxplains why they arc examplcs or nonexamplcs.

57. Dclivcrs soccific etics. p& l prompts prior to the initiation of studcnt rcsponsc, to maintain accuracy above 80%.

58. Asks frcquent questions to test understanding and provides opportunitics for acadcmic practicc.

I 2 3 4 5

wig um sup tim I» MU luir Om Me am MI OM Mt Ms Ms

Not lb:scripts Descs Sot ive

Not Descriptive ....Descriptive

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

79. is awarc of 111C VariOUS prioritics of security, health and sanitation, program 1 2 3 4 5 services, purchasing and business personnel at the institution as these prioritics relate to cducation.

80. Undcrsiands public school educational rcquiremcnts (outside or the corrcctional institutional) necessary for a studcnt's graduation from cicrncntary school and high school.

81. Undcrstands public school cducational requirements (outside of the correctional institution) for facilitating a student's: admission to an advanced institution of learning; (or admission into a vocational education program; for admission into a vocational rehabilitation program; and for cntrancc into the work force.

1 2 3 4 $

I 2 3 4 5

Please indicate Ilse degree to which you agree or dls•gree with each statement below by circling the appropriate numeral to the right of each utilement.

llebels About Teachnig Disagree...Agrcc

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

1

2 345

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

OM WM WM Mg OM glib UM UM 111111111k MS URI IllIle MI MIMI MU 1111111 OM MI

Extended Practsre Phase and Evaluation

59. Repeals practicc opportunitics until students arc not making wars.

60. Uses error correction proccdurcs (c.g., prompts or modcls) rather than tell answcr or call on anothcr studcnt.

61. follows gft oft corrcct rcsnonscs v_dift ontinacnt and nccifiç praise.

62. Maintains a brisk pacc during thc lcsson.

63. Providcs frequcnt tcsts to dcicrminc studcnis' mastcry of academic objcctivcs.

64. Rctcaches or makcs instructional dccisions on the basis of students' performance on tests.

65. Maintains continuous records and/or graphs of studcrit progress.

Learner Sensitivity

Organizational Awareness

75 Adheres in the national Correctional Education Association's current draft of corrcctional education standards.

76. Undcrstands and complies with the fcdcral and statc cducation agency laws, rcgulations and guidclincs as thcy apply to the

corrcctional sciting.

77. Undcrstands and complies with the Siatc Corrections Agency administrative rcgulations and the national Amcrican Correctional Association's (ACA) standards as thcy affect his/hcr correctional

cducation program.

78. Undcrstands how to communicate within the corrections organizational system to affCCIUMC positive educational program rcsults for his/hcr studcnts.

insitlittiolleti Awareness

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

66. Stays abrcast of the currcnt litcraturc about the educational nccds of the 1 2 3 4 5 numerous spccial populations scrvcd.

67. h aware gt nondiscriminatory çducationat diagnostic asscssmcnts 1 2 3 4 5 Lulu/mum and. oroccdurel.

68. Uses appropriate nondiscriminatory educational diagnostic information, I 2 3 4 5 if available, from Chapter I services, from spccial education services, from intake services, and f rom self administered instrumcnts

69. Regularly relates to residential staff personnel about mutual cxpcct- ations for addrcssing the cducational nceds of the students scrvcd.

70. Rcgularly relates to noncducational staff (other than rcsidcntial staff) at the institution about mutual cxpectation for addrcssing the educational nccds of the students scrved.

71. Rcasonably individualizes instruction for evcry studcnt in class.

72. Provides learning activitics that rcsult in a high succcss (80% or more of the time).

73. Provides gualitv growth çxpericnccs (such as guest speakers, plays, authorizcd absence ficld trips whcn appropriatc to muscums, etc.) whenever possible and Cessible.

74. Assists the student to communicatc in a manncr that permits thc studcnt I 2 3 4 5 saflsi. ftft Loi bisitici rights without violating the. right8 la Others

(i.e. to bc asscrtivc).

82. Whcn a studcnt docs bettcr than usual, many timcs it is because I exerted 1 2 3 4 5 a little extra effort.

83. Thc hours in my class have littic influence on studcnts compared to the 1 2 3 4 5 influence of thcir pecrs.

84. The amount that a student can learn is primarily related to family 1 2 3 4 5 background.

85. If a teachcr Iras adcquate skills and motivation, s/he can get through 1 2 3 4 5

to the most dif ficult studcnts.

86 1 havc cnough training to dcal with almost any lcarning problcm. I 2 3 4 5

95. A Icacher is vcry limited in what s/he can achicvc bccausc

studcnt's past cxpericnccs havc a grcat influencc on thc student's achievcmcni.

I 2 3 4 5

The influcnccs of a studcni's prior cxpericnccs can bc ovcrcomc by I 2 3 4 5

good tcaching.

If one of my studcnts couldn't do an assignincrit. I would bc able to 1 2 3 4 5

assess whciltcr the assignntcni was at a rcasonablc Icycl of difficulty.

Evcn a teachcr with good tcaching abilitics may not rcach many students I 2 3 4 5

who arc incarcerated.

I'lcase intlicalc which of thcsc statcmcnts is more correct by circling the alternative to the right of

the statcmcnt.

Primary Source of Education Standards

107. My corrcctional cducation program at this institution is part of a statcwidc Ycs No

approvcd curriculum.

108. My corrcctional cducation program at this institution is part of a (non-DOC) Ycs No

public school district approvcd curriculum.

109. Each tcaclicr is primarily rcsponsiblc for determining the curriculum at Ycs No

his/her institution.

Philosophy

110. If you arc not too tircd, School Rationalc—Plcase attach a copy of it or in 50 words or less

a bricf statcmcnt of your school's educational philosophy.

Ill. If your philosophy diffcrs in one somc way from the school's, please dcscribc how.

104

105

106

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

1

2345

112. Plcase idcntify and describe vour program in 50 words or less.

Thank you.

Disagrcc...Agrcc

87. My tcachcr training program and/or caperictece has givcn me thc

ncccssary skills to bc an cffectivc tcachcr.

88. Many tcachcrs arc stymicd in thcir attcmpts to hclp students by

their lack of support from the institution.

89. Somc students nccd to be placcd in slowcr groups so thcy arc not

subjcctcd to unrealistic expcctations.

90. Individual differcnccs among Icachcrs account for Clic widc variations

in student achicvcmcnt.

91. When a studcnt is having difficulty with an assignmcnt, I am usually

able to adjust il to his/hcr Icycl.

92. If one of nty ncw studcnts docs not want to do an assignmcnt, thcrc is littic that I can do to incrcasc his/hcr attcntion until s/hc is rcady.

93. Whcn a studcnt docs bctler in class than s/lic normally docs, it is usually laccause I found a bcticr way of tcaching.

94. Whcn I really try, I can gct through to most difficult studcnts.

96. Tcachers arc not a very powerful influence on studcnt achicvcmcnt

whcn all factors arc considered.

97. If studcnts arc particularly disruptive onc day. I ask mysclf what I havc bccn doing diffcrcntly.

98. Whcn thc performance of nty studcnts improvcs, it is usually becausc

I found more cffcctivc (caching approaches.

99. If my supervisor suggested that I changc somc of my class curriculum . I would feel confident that I could crcatc and implcincnt the

new curriculum.

100. Studcnt confcrenccs can hclp a tcachcr judge how much to cxpect from a studcnt by giving thc tcachcr an idca of the studcnts' values toward cducation, socicly, gcuing a job, and staying out of trouble

Disagice . Agicc

2 3 4 5

I 2 3 .1 5

I 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

I

2345

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

1

23 45

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

I 2 3 4 5

101. If a studcnt did not rcmcmbcr information I gave in a prcvious lcsson, I would know how to incrcase his/hcr rctcntion in thc ncxt lcsson.

102. If a studcnt in my class bccomcs disruptive, I fcel assurcd that I can redirect and control him/hcr quickly.

103. Institutional rcgulations and policics hindcr my doing the job I was hircd to do.

tit 110111i 1111111 Sib MI lee MI MN 1.1111\ MO OBI IIat MI MI Mil

1

4

1

PROGRAM STRATEGIES FOR COMMUNITY RE-INTEGRATION

OF PRISONERS

Paper for presentation at the Second International*

Conference on Prison Education, September 25-28, 1989.

Dr. R.A. Semmens Senior Lecturer, Institute of Educ. University of Melbourne

April, 1989

Program Strategies for Community Re-integration of Prisoners.

Abstract

Two major types of community re-integration program

are identified - skill development and community

linkage programs. Some of the latter type involve

prisoners in decision-making processes relating to

their program and possibly prison management

structures aimed at linking training programs to

further education and work after release. The

paper outlines how the principles of this type of

approach could be implemented in two stages at a

new security prison for males in Victoria,

Australia.

-1-

STRATEGIES FOR COMMUNITY RE-INTEGRATION

PROGRAM STRATEGIES FOR COMMUNITY RE-INTEGRATION OF PRISONERS

INTRODUCTION

The literature on correctional training programs tends to recognise

the importance of community re-integration of offenders, although

there are two clearly different strategies for achieving that end.

One type of training program seeks to achieve community re-integration

through individual skill development and/or counselling, whereas the

other type of training program emphasises development of community

links that will endure beyond the period of detention. A small number

of community linkage programs is organised so that participants become

involved in changing community attitudes and practices at the same

time as they are adjusting to the requirements and responsibilities of

community living. Examples of each of these types of program are

detailed below, and the benefits of the more far-reaching community

linkage programs are clarified.

INDIVIDUAL SKILL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS

The underlying assumption of skill development programs appears to be

that the development of skills will prepare participants for the world

of work upon release. Some contact with community agencies in the

-2-

vicinity of the correctional facility may be arranged although

there is rarely any planned intention that such contact form the

basis of permanent community links. Such programs are

practically oriented and there is no statement of theory.

Sometimes, however, there is no statement either about what jobs

the program designers expect that participants will be able to do

upon release.

Other evaluation criticisms of this type of program are in the

area of prison administration or transition arrangements from

prison to community, but these rarely include relevance of prison

training to community work opportunities.

In an extensive survey of vocational training programs in the

U.S., Day and McCane (1983) traced the development of prison

systems from an era of retribution to an era of reform and then

an era of rehabilitation. They claim that rehabilitation is naw

being superseded by an era of re-integration and that work

training fits into this new era. Work training is usually

institution-based but its administration may take three forms -

sole control by the custodial staff; involvement of community

members in curriculum design and instruction; or, the use of

inmates for institutional maintenance and industries.

Day and McCane report that changes have taken place in

correctional systems to facilitate vocational training. The

major changes are:

-3-

1. using instructors from local educational institutions and

possibly enrolling prisoners at those institutions and allowing

some prisoners early release to complete courses;

2. involvement of the private sector in providing realistic work

opportunities within prisons;

3. the school district concept which provides for instructional

services under collaborative agreements between correctional

institutions and state education agencies or local education

agencies. This arrangement has the advantage of linking

prisoners with community-accepted credentials;

4. co-operative community programs which allow for members of a

local community to take special courses in a prison e.g.

emergency medical technician, or for prisoners to assist in the

operation of a local community facility e.g. fire station.

Day and McCane believe that these administrative and program

innovations give rise to optimism for the future in corrections,

but they regret that 'rigorously designed research of program

effectiveness is conspicuously absent'.

Another extensive piece of evaluative research was carried out in

the U.S. by Rice(1980), who analysed the characteristics of

successful vocational education programs in adult

State-administered prisons and the outcomes of these programs.

Program success was determined by analysis of existing

-4-

quantitative data at the institutional level on post-release

employment, performance evaluation, and recidivism. A

quasi-case-study approach was used in nine prisons across the

United States. Successful programs were found to be

characterised by the ways they overcame typical problems in

vocational training programs. These major characteristics

according to Rice, are similar to those outlined by Day and

McCane (1982) and include: efficient co-ordination with

community training facilities, and evaluation for relevance to

post-release employment opportunities.

In the light of these types of research reports of vocational

training programs, Braithwaite's (1980) review of education and

work programs in Australian prisons is pertinent. Braithwaite

states that the proportion of overseas findings which show that

vocational programs do reduce recidivism is sufficient to

encourage further development of such programs 'as one of the few

types of intervention which can have an impact on crime'.

According to Braithwaite, one of the most important aspects of

vocational programs is success in gaining employment, in the area

of training, upon release. Braithwaite concludes that on the

recidivism criterion, vocational programs are more likely to be

successful. Braithwaite also believes that educational provision

would be improved if there could be greater co-operation between

education and work program administration and if education were

valued by prison administrators. Other 'improvements' could

include the involvement of prisoners and ex-prisoners in teaching

courses and the availability of study release for selected

-5-

prisoners. Braithwaite's observations about prison

administrators and the need for community-based education

programs, are reflected in the work of Brennan and Brennan (1984)

and in reports from other countries (S.U.R.C., 1973; Buttram and

Dusewicz, 1977; Keesling, 1979; Ball, 1982) and suggest a tension

between custodial requirements and community re-integration

goals. This problem needs to be addressed in the re-development

of prison training and work programs currently being carried out

in Victoria (Australia).

Other, more extensive community linkage programs need to be taken

into account when developing new programs in correctional

education because they attempt to develop training programs with

a basis in theory and aimed at overcoming institutional and

community impediments to community re-integration.

COMMUNITY LINKAGE PROGRAMS

This type of community re-integration program differs from the

individual skill and counselling programs in that linkage

programs rely more heavily on co-operative involvement of

participants in the integration process. Project Newgate

(Seashore et al, 1976) and the Lorton Project (Taylor, 1974) are

early examples of this approach.

More recently in Therapeutic Communities in Corrections, Grant

(1980) has argued a case for participatory training as a primary

strategy for community linkage. He asserts that democratisation

is a necessary but not sufficient condition for increasing access

-6-

of all citizens to the power systems of their society.

Participation in decision-making also requires an informed

constituency. Applying this argument to work in mental health

and correctional institutions, Grant observes that:

The merging of learning with participation in program development is a way to build an informed constituency for participation in the present and for determining alternative futures. It is also therapeutic.

Grant believes this occurs because the merging of training with

participation in program development is really a living-learning,

problem-centred method of training that starts where the learner

is and can extend his or her horizons of knowledge.

Grant's 'project learning model' is based on two principles:

1. that knowledge is acquired through using knowledge;

2. that learning is facilitated by maximising learners'

participation in developing their own learning programs and in

providing knawledge to themselves and others.

In another book, edited by Riessman and Popper (1968) and

entitled Up From Poverty, Grant details how the 'project learning

model' was applied to a correctional program. Grant reports that

eighteen felony offenders were paroled from a California State

Prison to work in training and job development programs for the

poor.

After three years one was back in prison, four had returned to

the kind of semi-skilled jobs they held before incarceration, one

-7-

had entered tertiary education, and the remaining twelve had

continued in training, job and program development work, reaching

positions of middle management responsibility.

The project was undertaken as a demonstration of the potential

within the offender population for contributing to the solution

of crime and delinquency problems. This project was called the

New Careers Develoliment Project. Almost all of these 'new

careerists' had long histories of known delinquency, and half

were in prison on charges of armed robbery.

The project required that the men read at least at eighth grade

level and score at least average (90 or above) on the

prison-administered group intelligence test. The group

participated in a training program lasting four months. Grant

expected that behaviour would change although he was not

primarily concerned with changing behaviour. Rather, he focussed

on developing knowledge around social problems and the operation

of organizations, skills in working with groups, in collecting,

summarising and interpreting data and in writing.

The training principles emphasised maximum participation of the

men in developing and carrying out the training program, emphasis

on task and problem-solving rather than on personal and

interpersonal concerns, and provision for self-direction and

self-discovery.

Grant postulates a principle of 'contagion' to at least partly

explain the success of the project. He defines 'contagion' as

-8-

the transmission of a set of beliefs and commitments. Grant

identifies five conditions necessary for the 'contagion

phenomenon' to appear. These are:

providing participatory roles; making room for autonomy of action; decision and choice; building a group culture around a cause to which one can be committed; offering a meaningful future; and allawing natural leaders to emerge.

Grant's evidence of 'contagion' is that the first phase of the

Californian project and the staff's activities in it created a

climate and set a process in motion that allawed it to be carried

on by the trainees and transmitted to other trainees who in turn

transmitted it to others. After their release the trainees had

an increasing impact on both people and programs.

The group became committed to a cause that was apart from the

maintenance of the group itself. The cause was the demonstration

of the manpower potential of all those classed as 'outs' and the

building of bridges for the 'outs' into the established culture.

Grant concludes by challenging professional approaches to

behaviour change on either an individual or group level, because

most programs designed to do something about social problems

focus on the individual and ignore the social context. Such

programs also tend to impose solutions from the top, despite

evidence that this does not work very well. Grant concedes that

reluctance to involve clients in change programs may quickly

alter the character of the program, the professional role, and

even challenge the professional control. However, Grant argues

that if professionals can live with such changes they will find

-9-

that they have a tremendous source of strength and manpower

available to reach more people more effectively. Influence will

extend from one program to another and behaviour change will

merge with organization change.

These claims are exemplified in another project developed by

Grant (1982) at the Berkshire House of Corrections. Firstly, a

governance board was established with elected representatives of

each group concerned. The board proceeded by establishing

educational and management aims, devising means and developing

strategies for overcoming obstacles to achievement of aims. This

co-operative approach to learning also involved local community,

education and welfare agencies, some of which became sources of

post-release employment. Grant summarises the overall effect in

the following way:

The officers found more dignity and responsibility in their roles, the inmates took control of their lives and the jail took on a new image in the community.

While Grant's work emphasises the importance of the context for

learning in facilitating community integration, the work of

Hirschi (1969) and of Elliot et al (1979) explains haw community

integration is maintained thrOugh involvement in conventional

activities, such as meaningful work, and through attachment to

other people. According to Elliott et al, the more the

individual has invested in conventional activities and

attachments the less likely he/she is to jeopardise those

interests through breaking the law. Ties to people and activities

become attenuated through repeated experience of failure in those

areas.

-10-

Success in gaining a credential that has currency in the

community, both in terms of employment and promotion

opportunities, will possibly develop confidence in social

relationships as well. However, training program development

needs to include applications of understandings and competencies

in the broader social context.

RELEVANCE OF OVERSEAS RESEARCH TO AUSTRALIAN SITUATION

The community linkage program data, outlined above, indicates

that while training in work skills is important, the way in which

these skills are taught can make a difference to the thoroughness

of preparation for community living. This observation is also

made by Semmens (1986) upon evaluation of training programs at

the Malmsbury youth training centre for 17-21 year old male

offenders in Victoria. Despite the quality of the education and

work programs at MaLmsbury, those youths who had longer previous

experience of institutions and less experience of education and

work were more likely to re-offend. Conversely, those least

likely to re-offend had less institutional experience and higher

levels of schooling. Significantly, the most successful youths

also understood more of the decision-making processes, the

cultural life and more positive ways of interacting with other

people in our society. Thus it is suggested that those inmates

who have not completed their compulsory schooling years and/or

who have a previous history of institutionalisation are most in

need of a radically different training program, if they are to be

successfully re-integrated into the life of the community.

Grant's concepts and practice may be radical but probably quite

realistic given the situation of large numbers of prisoners.

-11-

STEPS TOWARDS A PARTICIPATORY MODEL IN VICTORIA

A recent'report (Semmens 1988) to the State Training Board and

the Office of Corrections in Victoria made the following

recommendations:

1. that prison industries be selected in areas which reflect labour

market expansion so that access to available post-release

employment is increased;

2. that prison industries be co-ordinated with vocational training

programs so that industrial experience can become accredited as

part of vocational training programs;

3. that prison vocational training provision be structured so that

prisoners may enter short courses, preparatory courses,

apprenticeship and other accredited courses according to their

level of skill and experience in a particular industry or career

path;

4. that correctional administration be re-structured so that

continuity of education and vocational training programs is

possible upon transfer from one prison to another and from prison

to community-based supervision;

5. that access to up-dating of qualifications and work experience

for industrial supervisors and study leave be a right for prison

officers, in order to improve career prospects, strengthen

-12-

morale, and develop greater support for prisoner access to

vocational training;

6. that a participatory model for prison management be introduced

initially in a new prison where existing practices and proCedures

do not have to be phased out.

In the twelve months since the above recommendations were made

prison education and vocational training programs have come under

the control of thé State Training Board which is responsible for

technical and further education (TAPE) throughout the State via

regionalised colleges. This means that prisoners can enrol for

courses in prison, complete them during their sentence, and

continue their studies upon release. The options of part-time,

evening, and correspondence modes of study are as available to

prisoners and ex-prisoners as to any other student enrolling at a

TAPE College. Negotiation of credits from these studies towards

more academically oriented courses at universities is also

underway. Thus there has been a lot of progress tawards

achievement of the first four recommendations. Action on the

fifth and sixth recommendations is vital to the development of

more effective education and vocational training provision. A

new maximum security prison for 240 prisoners at a cost of $52 m.

will open shortly in Victoria. Future papers at C.E.A.

conferences will hopefully evaluate the progress of program and

management innovations there - especially the extent to which

prisoners can take responsibility for decisions relating to

themselves and their future.

-13-

morale, and develop greater support for primoner accens to _

vocatianal training;

6. that a participatory =del for prison management be introduced

initially in a new prison where existing practices and proCedures

do not have to be phased out.

In the twelve months since the above recommendations were made prison

education and vocational training programs have come under the control

of the State Training Board which is responsible for technical and

further education (TAPE) throughout the State via regionalised

colleges. Prisons have become campuses of their nearest TAPE College.

Each prison has an education and training committee which includes

representatives of custodial, educational, vocational and recreational

staff, but no prisoner representatives yet. However, the committee

does co-ordinate programs and ensure that prisoners can enrol for

courses in prison, complete them during their sentence, and continue

their studies upon release. The options of part-time and

correspondence modes of study are as available to prisoners and

ex-prisoners as to any other student enrolling at a TAPE College.

Negotiation of credits from these studies (and related work

experience) towards more academically oriented courses at universities

is also underway. Thus there has been a lot of progress towards

achievement of the first four recommendations. Action on the fifth

and sixth recommendations is vital to the development of more

effective education and vocational training provision.

A new maximum security prison for 240 prisoners at a cost of $52 m.

will open shortly in Victoria and this provides the opportunity to

implement all six recommendations.

Program parameters have already been established for the prison.

Implementation of a participatory learning model is not necessarily

limited by these parameters. The key to implementation of a

participatory learning model is the extent to which prison facilities

and programs are organised in the traditional (vertical) manner, or,

-14-

in a" more democratic (horizontal) manner in the style of Grant's

project learning model. Implementation of this model could be

achieved in two stages. The first stage would relate only to training

programs rather than a total management model. The second stage would

implement participatory management throughout the prison. This

'staged' approach to reform is necessary to allow prison

administrators time to gain confidence in managing a new style of

prison environment. While the 'staged' approach runs the risk of

stage two never being implemented, commitment to reform will be

maintained by staff selection and training, by the amount of care

taken in planning genuine community re-integration programs for

prisoners, and by the development of an environment in which there are

high expectations of staff and prisoners. These strategies will

increase staff competence and confidence in the emerging participatory

model. In the long run this is the only way to proceed because there

is no logical basis for imposing a participatory model and also

because this type of reform requires not only the weight of numbers

but also depth of experience.

CONCLUSION

The paper began with a review of correctional training programs and

then attempted to develop the community linkage theme of some

participatory programs of the 1970's. This theme was then cautiously

applied in two stages, to a new prison in Victoria, Australia,

recognising that there is a risk in this approach that the reform

movement will run out of energy before stage two is reached. However,

commitment to reform has to be won and re-won in the correctional

field - it can be stimulated by a new program or prison but

maintenance strategies need to be constantly reviewed.

Braithwaite, J. (1980). Queensland Press.

Prisons, Education and Work, Australia, Univ.

-16-

REFERENCES

Ball, E.R. et al (1982). Learning Disabled Juvenile

Incarceration and the Rate of Achievement of Delinquents, J. Experimental Education, 51, 2.

Brennan, M. and Brennan, R. (1984). Literacy and Learning: The Human Factor, Report to the Criminology Research Council, Canberra, Australia.

Buttram, J. and Dusewicz, R. (1977). Effectiveness of Educational Programs in State Correctional Institutions: A Follow Up Study, Philadelphia, Research for Better Schools.

Day, S.R. and McCane, M.R. (1982). Vocational Education in Corrections, Washington D.C., Office of Vocational and Adult Education.

Grant, J.D. (1980). Therapeutic Communities in Corrections, New York, Praeger.

Grant, J.D. (1982). Individual Initiative and Experiential Learning, Draft Paper Social Action Research Centre, California.

Keesling, J.W. et al (1979). Compensatory Education and Confined Youth, Systems Development Corp., Santa Monica, California.

Martinson, R. et al (1975). The Effectiveness of Correctional Treatment, New York, Praeger Publishers.

Rice, J. (1980). Assessment of Quality Vocational Education in State Prisons. Paper presented at the American Education Research Association Annual Meeting, Boston.

Reissman, F. and Popper H.I. (eds) (1968). Up from Poverty. New York, Harper and Row.

Seashore, M., Haberfield, S., Irwin, J. and Baker, K. (1976). Prison Education: Project Newgate and Other College Programs, New York, Praeger.

Semmens, R. (1986). Curriculum Aims for a Youth Training Centre. Unpublished doctoral theéis, La Trobe Univ., Melbourne.

Semmens, R. (1988) T.A.F.E. Research Proiect: Vocational Training in a Prison Environment, Office of Corrections, Victoria, Australia.

Syracuse University Research Centre (1973). School Behind Bars: A Descriptive Overview of Correctional Education in the American Prison System, New York, S.U.R.C.

Taylor, A. (1974). Beyond Rehabilitation: The Federal City College Lorton Project - A model Prison Higher Education Program, The Journal of Negro Education, 43. 2., September.

SOME ISSUES IN PRISON EDUCATION IN AUSTRALIA

Paper presented at Correctional Eduction Conference, Oxford University, September 25-29, 1989.

R.A. Semmens Senior Lecturer Institute of Education Melbourne Univesity

SOME ISSUES IN PRISON EDUCATION IN AUSTRALIA

A B S TR A C T"

This paper focuses on recent developments in prison education in

Victoria and presents some comparative data from other States

particularly on the issues surrounding vocational education. This is

largely because the author resides in Victoria but also because the

State Government's social justice policy ("a fair go for everyone")

extends to prisoner education programs. An attempt is made in this

paper to evaluate recent changes in educational provision in Victorian

prisons. Other issues canvassed in the paper include: the effects of

distance, size and aboriginality on prison program provision, the

constraints of security on education, the normalisation of

credentials, and who should be the employer of teachers in prisons.

1

SOME ISSUES IN PRISON EDUCATION IN AUSTRALIA

Preface

Australia is a federation of six States, the Northern Tèrritory, and

the Australian Capital Tèrritory. Each State has its own government

and there is also the Federal or Commonwealth Government, located in

Canberra. There is no Federal prison system so offenders against the

National Crimes Act are detained in their State of residence.

The Australian population is concentrated in the South-east of the

continent, and principally in the cities of Sydney (4 million people)

and Melbourne (3 million people). More than half of the nation's

16 million people live in New South Wales and Victoria. The rest of

the population lives mainly along the east coast to Brisbane, part of

the southern coast around Adelaide and Perth, and in Tàsmania.

Approximately two-thirds of the continent is either desert or

semi-desert and therefore sparsely populated. The small size and

dispersal of the population means that comprehensive prison education

and industry programs cannot be offered outside of the State capital

cities, except in parts of New South Wales and Victoria where rural

prisons tend to be larger than elsewhere in the country. A large

prison outside the metropolitan areas of Sydney and Melbourne would

cater for up to 250 inmates, but generally around 100 inmates. The

metropolitan prisons for males in Sydney and Melbourne hold around

1,000 inmates in different divisions or security ratings. The vast

2

size of Western Australia means that the range of training options in

some of its prisons is limited to localised opportunities such as

fishing and farming, and part-time or correspondence educational

services.

Lnprisonment rates also vary from State to State, (Australian Prison

Ttends, 1989) ranging from Victoria's 79.1 per 100,000 adults to

Western Australia's 154.5 per 100,000 adults although the Northern

Térritory has an even higher rate of 346.2 per 100,000 adults. This

is partly due to the numbers of aborigines in the north and west of

Australia but also due to the small total population in these areas.

This latter factor may also effect interpretation of the proportion of

women in prison. For example, six women in prison in the Northern

Tèrritory constitutes 1.7% of the total whereas 255 women in New South

Wales prisons constitutes 5.3 7., and 108 women in Western Australian

prisons constitutes almost 7%.

Overall, the small numbers of women generally in Australian prisons

means that they tend to be located in one or tx,io prisons close to the

centre of the capital cities. This means that some wo men are detained

a long way from their families even though their chances of

participating in a range of education or training program are

increased by their congregation in one place.

DarwirIze; Weipaie

1 1

II • E;

Cairns

Derby o • Btirketowii

LT,ownsville :

Mackay Dampier •

--'

ickhamptor • Alice Springs

ladstone

•

W . A .

opulation in dir -se ustralia "7".z,

ban

eraidtone

Perth

Bunbury

4%.

Kalgoorlie • i7

GA,

0

Albany

Port Pirie

ite Adelaidee.5j.

Ho'?

Mount Gambier;

Eucia Catis Marbou.

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Introduction

A major theme running through all Sate prison administrations is that

education should have vocational relevance. Thus literacy and

numeracy programs are a major feature of educational provision.

However training in work habits has tended to take precedence over

training for particular vocations, and relevance of vocational,

education to labour market opportunities has taken a much higher

profile since the publication of Federal Minister Dawkins document

Skills for Australia (1987). The skilling and re—skilling debate,

along with the Labor Governments social justice policy, has

contributed to the prominence of vocational education as a major issue

in prison education as well as in the general community. Access to

labour market opportunities is seen as a critical factor in prisoner

rehabilitation. There is strong competition for a limited number of

jobs and the unskilled or those with redundant skills have little hope

of making an independent living.

While prison administrators have encouraged training and education for

a long time they.also make it clear that custodial requirements are

paramount. Teachers often report instances of custodial staff being

overenthusiastic in their implementation of the administration's

priorities. One example that I like is the refusal of a prison

officer to allow a copy of Dostoevsky's Crime and Punishment into the

education centre on the grounds that it was a threat to prison

security.

4

But even if we allow that some educational activities are a little

esoteric for the vocational orientation of prisons, there are other

limitations to achievement of that pragmatic aim. Firstly, there is a

preference for labour intensive rather than capital intensive

activities. This restricts the quality of training, although South

Australia may be an exception to this generalisation. Secondly,

production must not compete with union labour outside prisons so

prisoners are limited to work experiences that compete with imports,

or to activities for which there is no competition at all, such as

making registration plates for cars. The 'no competition' constraint

does little for a prisoner's employability upon release. Another

constraint is imposed by the difficulties of replacing an unprofitable

or outmoded industry with a more relevant vocational and/or

educational activity. There are costs involved in terms of finance

for refurbishment, time taken to make the changeover and how to find

alternative space and activities in the changeover period. In this

age of fluctuation and change in labour market opportunities, this

lack of flexibility within prisons reduces the strength of the

vocational orientation of prisons. Add to this the interruptions to

production caused by fluctuations in the supply of materials and the

domestic exigencies of prison life - interviews for this or that,

medical and dental appointments, security arrangements etc. - which

further reduce the capacity of prisons to replicate real work training

or conditions.

. On the one hand we are a long way from allowing trade unions to

develop in prisons and on the other we are just as far from

appreciating education for education's sake. One recent development

- however, has been the formation of an association of teachers in

5

prisons around Australia - known as the Prisoner Education National

Network (P.E.N.N.). This association discusses common issues and

should be an important pressure group for educational reforms in

prisons. Some State Governments have been more responsive than others

in making reforms that increase the access of prisoners to vocational

education and lead to a useful destination in the community. Some of

these developments are outlined in the following State by State

overview of vocational and educational provision.

Victoria

The major emphasis in Victoria's correctional education until recently

has been more on general education than vocational education. This is

at least partly due to the teachers being employed by the Schools

division of the iducation Ministry rather than by the Office of

Corrections. Additionally, the teachers were almost entirely primary

teachers with a qualification in special education. This meant that

teachers were not contracted to the Office of Corrections and could

apply for transfer or promotion to other types of special school or

mainstream primary schools. This interesting situation came about

originally because it was administratively easier to include prison

education and youth corrections' teachers from the special category of

teachers who provided remedial education to a wide range of disabled

and disadvantaged schools in institutions and the community.

This arrangement was questioned in the Education Ministry's enquiry

into educational services for disabled students in 1984, known as the

Integration Report. Consequently, education provision has recently e

been transferred to colleges of technical and further education (TAIE),

6

Prison education centres have now become campuses of their nearest

TAFE college. With this transfer Victorian prison education has moved

into line with the vocational education emphasis of other states.

Under the old system primary teachers provided basic education and

assisted with correspondence courses at senior secondary and tertiary

level.

This provision will remain under TAFE and possibly more direct

teaching will be available on a sessional basis for the more advanced

levels of education. One of the perceived advantages of the old

system, that is involvement in assessment and review of prisoner

progress, appears to be under threat as TAFE Colleges strive to

balance their budgets and reduce their involvement as far as possible,

to classroom teaching. Issues like this are monitored by the Office

of Corrections' Education Policy Committee which is broadly

representative of the various parties involved in educational

provision and has a co-ordinating role across all prisons and TAFE

College providers of education. One person on this policy committee is

the State co-ordinator of correctional education whose responsibility

extends to community-based correctional facilities as well as prisons.

Additionally, each prison has a Correctional Education and Ttaining

committee which monitors program implementation. Et is noted here

that while education and custodial staff are represented there is no

prisoner representation.

7

The main aim of these new arrangements is to enable prisoners to

retain continuity of training when transferring from one prison to

another or from prison to community. Part of the new plan involves the

inter-relationship between education programs and prison industries so

that prisoners can gain course credits for practical work experience

in prison industries. Table 1 (Articulation Model) provides a flow

chart for prisoner advancement from basic education to tertiary

credentials. Upon establishing an acceptable standard of literacy and

numeracy a prisoner will become eligible for enrolment in a

certificate of occupational studies or more advanced studies and these

studies will be linked to prison industry experience where

appropriate.

The certificate of occupational studies is generally available at TAFT

Colleges and while not offering on-the-jpb experience, is designed to

provide experience in, and knowledge of, a range of occupations so

that students can make a more informed employment choice. The

certificate comprises approximately 400 hours of core studies

(communications, technology, work education, career planning and

essential mathematics). These studies are followed by 500 hours of

stream study options in areas such as business studies, hospitality,

horticulture, automotive, metal trades and textile. The programs are

sufficiently flexible to be suitable for trade-based pre-employment,

pre-apprenticeship, pre-vocational, or as part preparation for

tertiary courses.

■IIC t I

s s Work Work

À i

A t 1

A I t 1 t 1 1 1 t

Articulation Model

Advanced Certificate

Associate Diploma

;

Associate Diploma/ Advanced Certificate

A s t e 1 1 t 1 s t

1 1 1 1 1

VCE — Year 12

A _!

Traineeships Apprenticeships

VCE — Year 11

Pre Employment Programs

Certificate in Occupational Studies

À 1 1 1 1 1 t t 1

8

It is too early to assess whether these developments contain

advantages over the previous system for prisoners. Perhaps

educational programs with a very specific focus on the labor market,

provide the most hopeful strategy for successful community re-entry

and integration of prisoners. For those educationists who see

skilling as just one aspect of the educational task, alongside

cultural, political and social competence, these recent developments

may be a continuing source of disillusionment.

New South Wales

The New South Wales prison system grades its prisons from maximum

security through to open institutions, using the classifications A,B

and C. 'C' classification has further sub-classifications which denote

increasing access to the outside community.

However, the new maximum security jail at Parklea has a strong

commitment to training as well as industry. Typically, TAPE

apprenticeship trade training courses (wood machining, sheetmetal,

welding and fitting and machining) run for thirty-six weeks. The TAPE

training is provided on one day each week and the prison industrial

supervisors provide practical supervision on the other four days while

they meet production orders from government departments and voluntary

organizations. While continuity of training is not automatic there is

some flexibility in transfer arrangements so that a prisoner may stay

longer at Parklea to complete a course module and/or complete further

theory modules at the next prison. Course work completed in prison

gains equivalent credits in TAPE courses run outside the prison (i.e.

at TAFE colleges).

9

At Bathurst, a medium security prison, there is a similar commitment

to training. Apprenticeships can be commenced in metal trades

(fitting and machining, metal fabrication, motor mechanics) and in

timber trades, (fitting and machining, metal fabrication, motor

mechanics) and in timber trades.

A complete apprenticeship takes four years but few prisoners stay at

Bathurst long enough to complete more than the first year (Stage One).

It is possible that a less secure prison will provide some continuity

of training for apprentice motor mechanics in the near future. If a

prisoner wishes to start an apprenticeship he must have at least

twelve months to serve and be in the prison by march of any given year

so that he has a chance of completing the year's work by the end of

year. There is no entry requirement of literacy or numeracy - simply

the desire to learn. There are pre-vocational programs for those who

want some introduction to training prior to commencement of the

course. When the course begins, two days per week are provided by

TAPE instructors and the other three days are spent in simulated

industrial experience under the guidance of the industrial supervisors

at the prison. Approximately forty prisoners complete Stage One each

year. Additionally, the education centre at the prison accommodates

approximately fifty full-time students in basic education through to

tertiary studies and is separate from the training and industry

program although TAPE lecturers are employed in both the educational

and vocational (trade) training programs.

10

The educational and vocational (trade) programs account for about half

of the total prison population at Bathurst. The remaining prisoners

are engaged in other activities and duties in order to earn their

weekly 'pay' which is generally more than that received by education

and vocation (trade) participants.

Education and vocation (trade) staff are concerned about this

discrepancy on the grounds of equity. There may be even more interest

in educational and vocational (trade) training if 'pay' rates were

more equal and these prisoners could send out as much money to their

families each week as other prisoners. The success of the vocational

(trade) training courses is at least partly due to the small size of

each study and practice module as this facilitates achievement.

Perhaps prisoners could also be given the option of whether they want

to stay longer in order to complete a larger number of modules or even

to complete Stage Tt. As a consequence productivity would be

increased and wastage of materials, due to untrained labour, would be

reduced.

The new conservative government in New South Wales may have its ostm

answers for this type of problem. It appears that it will economize

on staffing as well as materials - particularly in the welfare and

education areas. Prison superintendents are now responsible for

education programs in prisons, thus making the positions of regional

education co-ordinators redundant. Total custodial control of

education programs is unlikely to lead to development of new and

creative initiatives in prison education.

1 1

Western Australia

Despite the vast size of Western Australia there is an educational

service available in all but one of its fifteen prisons. Education

programs emphasise literacy and numeracy, vocational/academic

education and personal development. Advanced studies are taken by

correspondence and there are also short term trade skills courses

available in several prisons.

A major issue is the development of appropriate courses for the high

proportion of aboriginal prisoners (33% overall but 80% in the

northern half of the State). Some progress has been made in involving

aboriginal communities in program development but this issue requires

broader collaboration with other agencies working with aborigines. As

the teachers are employed by the correctional services department they

are isolated from community processes and even from other members of

their own professions.

However, in the southern part of the state there has developed an

emphasis on apprenticeships for longer term prisoners motivated to

join the work-force. There are six trades offered for apprenticeship

in Western Australia prisons - cooking, cabinet making, butchering

(theory only), metal fabrication, bootmaking, and motor mechanics. As

the trainees are not formally indentured to the W.A. prisons

department they are classified as provisional trainees. TWo months

prior to work release, each trainee is tested by a tradesman

representative of the Division of Industrial Ttaining.

12

The examiner determines the trainee's level of skill compared to an

indentured apprentice and credit is formally given. Upon release, the

trainee must gain employment as an indentured apprentice and complete

the remaining period of training as determined by the examiner.

A provisional trainee must also complete the same theoretical

component as an indentured apprentice. This is undertaken by

correspondence lessons and is usually of three years duration. Upon

successful completion of these studies the trainee qualifies for a

certificate of trade studies, which may be awarded whilst the trainee

is in prison.

Only prisoners having at least two years left to serue on their

minimum term are eligible to commence trade instruction, provided that

he/she has mastered basic literacy and numeracy skills. A period in

the prison education centre may be required of applicants who do not

have these basic skills. Applicants must then successfully complete a

two month probationary period before being accepted as a trainee.

Western Australia, as with other States, has not yet found a way to

deal with the problem of . continuity of training following transfer to

another prison. While theory studies can continue, practical trade

training is unlikely to be available except for cooking trainees, and

possibly carpenters and motor mechanics, depending on the prison to

which the prisoner is transferred.

Unfortunately there are no figures available on the number of trainees

who gain employment in their trade following release. This suggests

that continuity of training is not seen as an area of prison

department responsibility. Hopefully someone takes that

13

1

responsibility because connection to community resources, particularly

a sympathetic employer, may be critical in making the transition to a

conventional community life-style. The task of negotiating

apprenticeship credits with an employer is not simple and may require

at least the availability of a representative of the Division of

Industrial Training.

These apparent weaknesses in the W.A. system could be remedied with

additional attention to linking the stages of the prisoner's progress

through his/her sentence and community re-entry.

South Australia

Correctional Services in South Australia are graded from maximum

security to medium security and then to low security and to work

release. Typically a long term prisoner would spend nio or more years

at Yatala (maximum security), about the same time at a medium security

prison such as the new prison at Mobilong, and then transfer to Cadell

(minimum security) on the Murray River possibly finishing his time on

work release based at Northfield which is close to the city of

Adelaide. Yat'ala has a strong emphasis on prison industries such as

motor mechanics, spray painting, welding, cabinet-making, boot and

shoe making, and possibly tailoring. While education is available

there is some resistance to prisoners being involved in much more than

literacy and numeracy programs during the day. Night classes may be

available in the future. The industries provide on-the-job training

and prisoners are expected to work from 8.00 am to 4.30 pm with a 30

minute lunch-break. When the prison operates at full capacity there

are not enough jobs to go around and prisoners are interviewd for

14

work positions and may be sacked for poor performance. Good

performance is rewarded by pay scales and through improved gradings,

then transfer to a less secure prison.

The new prison at Mobilong is not so strongly oriented to security and

profit—making industry. Instead the primary emphasis is on training.

Some classrooms are located adjacent to workshops so that theory and

practice cari be easily inter—related. Each prisoner has to be

timetabled so that he gets training as well as work. The industries

available at Mobilong are: plastics, autoshop (welding, spray

painting, motor mechanics) and the bakery.

A nearby Technical and Further Education College (TAFE) co—operates in

the provision of courses in horticulture, baking, cooking (short order

certificate) computing (various levels), signwriting, panel—beating,

welding, typing, food preparation, desk—top publishing, guitar,

fabrics, health care (includes hairdressing), fitness leader, sports

trainer, and aboriginal history.

All of these courses are provided by the TAFE on two days per week and

prisoners engage in industry for two days per week. The remaining day

is for personal projects. All courses are short—term with end—product

certification. Most are at pre—vocational level because it is not

possible to provide adequate supervision for a large number of

apprenticeships. Traineeships are also available. Ttaineeships oft-

combine,\off—the—job training in non—trade areas. Currently at

Mobilong traineeships are offered in cooking and plastics, but they

may also be offered in office and clerical work and aspects of the

15

While the courses are in response to growth in labour market

opportunities, there is a problem in the lack of continuity of

training if a prisoner leaves Mobilong before completing a course. If

he is transferred back to Yatala or on to Cadell, continuity of

training is not guaranteed. By the time the prisoner reaches the work

release cottages there may well be a gap between his period of

training and the related work which he now seeks. The co-ordination

of each prisoner's program throughout the duration of his sentence is

a problem which still needs to be addressed. The lack of continuity

of training is a barrier to a sense of vocational competence.

Nevertheless facilities are first-rate and organizationally,

especially at Mobilong, there is ::.trong emphasis on community

connection: for example, the senior TAFE lecturer is on the prison

management committee. Additionally, the inter-relationship of the

various prison committees facilitates communication and retains the

prison focus on the training needs of each prisoner. The prison

complex is designed so that security requirements are not compromised

by allowing prisoners to use the classroom up until 10.30 pm.

At Cadell on the banks of the Murray river, most classes are taken at

night partly because of the work (mainly farm and citrus fruit

growing) program during the day, and partly because the classes are

shared with members of the local community and with corrections'

staff.

16

The progression from maximum to minimum security and the range of

programs for men is not available to women. This may be partly due to

the small numbers of women but the largely domestic nature of the

programs that are offered suggests something about the perspective on

the role of women in Australian society. This perspective is also

reflected in programs in other states of Australia.

At the Northfield women's prison, short courses in sewing, cooking and

horticulture are offered with a statement of completion which has no

currency in terms of employment or further training. While a twelve

week vocational akareness course is run, and this does gain credits in

the business studies course at the Adelaide TAFE, the course does not

lead on to any further training whilst in prison.

Tasmania

There are only two prisons in Tasmania,a secure prison and a prison

farm with a total prison population of less than 300. Et is therefore

difficult to generate the economies of scale necessary to offer a wide

range of training options. This is also true of the Northern

Tèrritory except that the Northern Territory covers a vastly greater

area. In the Tasmanian secure prison basic education is provided by

the education officer who also supervises correspondence courses from

a range of secondary and tertiary education institutions within

Tasmania and interstate. Apprenticeship is possible in the prison

bakery but as external studies are not possible in this area in

Tasmania, arrangements are made with a New South Wales institution for

accreditation of bakery studies.

17

Skills training is available in welding, tailoring and upholstery.

Some thought has been given to combining skills training to education

studies and labour market opportunities. Social education is also

seen as important for community re-integration and some pre-release

short courses seek to develop community survival skills such as living

on a limited budget, basic cooking, and recreational activities.

Queensland and Northern Tèrritory

At the time of writing, no information about recent development was

available. The most reliable account is ten years old (Braithwaite,

1980). At that time very little education or training was provided

and recent verbal accounts suggest that the situation has not improved

greatly. Some support is provided by T.A.F.E. but there is little

personal or financial support from the head office of the Prisons

Department. Consequently, the turnover rate of teachers is high.

Fàrther, while education and traiaing courses are available to a

limited number of prisoners in the major prison, transfer to another

jail almost certainly involves curtailment of the program due to lack

of facilities and lack of co-ordination between prisons.

Both Queensland and the Northern Territory have the natural barriers

of distance and sparse inland populations, but prison reform and

prisoner rehabilitation have never been high priority issues in

Queensland. Lack of suitable programs for aborigines is an issue

which Queensland and Northern Territory share with Western Australia.

It is not known whether the southern states would handle this issue

better if their aboriginal numbers were greater, although the Black

Rights Movement has popular support in the southern states. However,

18

the long-running Royal Commission of Inquiry into black deaths in

custody suggests that the European population of Australia needs a lot

more education about aboriginality - the issue extends far beyond the

provision of appropriate education programs in prisons.

Further Issues for Prison Education in Australia

This overview of prison education in Australia leaves some issues

untouched. For example, no State has addressed the issue of whether

it is possible to educate in a prison at all. Are the constraints of

custody too severe for formative educational programs to have any

positive impact on the future community living situations of released

prisoners?

Secondly, there is the issue of who should control prison education.

Most prison administrations seem to have always kept education within

their own structure. Does the locus of control have differential

effects on prisoner and custodial staff attitudes and performance in

relation to education?

Finally, there is the issue of full-time generalist education staff

vs. part-time specific contract staff. The trend in Australia appears

to be in the direction of minimising the number of full-time

generalists in favour of a wider range of special purpose teachers.

Will this further isolate prisoners from opportunities for personal

development afforded by continuous contact with non-custodial role

models? Es this issue merely a vestige of a bygone era of

humanitarian concern for prisoner rehabilitation?

19

Part of the resolution of all of these issues is to ensure that prison

education philosophy and practice provides exactly the same

opportunities for prisoners as those offered in mainstream schools and

colleges.

Conclusion

This paper has focussed mainly on vocational education provision in

Australian prisons. There are other important issues relating to

educational provision generally, and the interface between education

services and custodial requirements. These issues have been touched on

and parallel the difficulties experiencedt elsewhere in attempting to

open minds in a closed environment. The reference list enableq

interested readers to pursue these issues further.

20

References

Australian Institute of Criminology (1989) Australian Prison Trends,No 157 (Projected populations derived from Australian Demographic Studies, June Quarter, 1987, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Canberra).

Braithwaite, J (1980) Prisons, Education and Work, University of Queensland Press, Queensland.

Brennan, M and Brennan, R.E. (1984) Literacy and Learning: The Human Factor. Report to the Criminology Research Council of the Australian Institute of Criminology, Canberra.

Dawkins, J.S. and Holding, A.C. (1987) Skills for Australia, Australian Government Printer, Canberra.

Ekstedt, J.W. (1987) Prison Education in Western Australia: A Case Study of Policy Analysis in Sentence Administration, University of Western Australia Law Review, 17,1,69-93.

Findlay, M (1982) Prison Programs: Labour, Educational and Vocational Training. The State of the Prison: 4 Critique of Reform, Mitchell Search Ltd., Bathurst.

Harmsworth, P (1988) Corrections Education and Health Programs, Newsbreak, Melbourne, 3,5,1-3.

Isles, T. (1988) Unlocking the Mind, Aboriginal Employment and Education News, T.A.F.E. Aboriginal Education Unit, Goulburn, 17, 10-11.

Isles, T. Hancock, G and Brown C. (1984) Learning to Use Time, Education News, New South Wales, 18, 10, 12-14.

Noad, B.M. and Hancock G. (1984) Programming for Prisoners in New South Wales, Development Programs for Prisoners: Proceedings 2-5 October, Australian Institute of Criminology, Canberra.

Semmens, R.A. (1981) Unlocking Correctional Education, Occasional Paper No.8. Melbourne State College, Melbourne.

Semmens, R.A. (1986) is it Possible to Educate in a Correctional Setting, paper presented at A.N.Z. Criminology Society, second annual conference.

Semmens, R.A. (1988) Vocational Training in a Prison Environment, T.A.F.E. Research Project, Office of Corrections, Melbourne.

South Australian Department of Correctional Services (1987). Review of Prisoner Education, S.A. Government Printer.

Tasker, R.G. (Chairman) (1978) Prisoner Education in South Australia, report of an interdepartmental committee on the provision of educational programmes for inmates.

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I

EDUCATION IN THE DUTCH PENAL INSTITUTIONS

Robert Suvaal, The Hague, Netherlands.

EDUCATION IN THE DUTCH PENAL INSTITUTIONS

(1) The Dutch prison system: Extent: about 50 penal institutions for adults with a total of about 6000 inmates (approximately 5750 males and 250 females) at this moment.

(about 14 million inhabitants in the Netherlands) Expansion:

1990: 7400 inmates

1991: 7600 inmates

1992: 7800 inmates

1993: 8000 inmates.

Signature: a humane and rather progressive vision on detenti- on, but less progressive than in the seventies ( e.g. more realistic goals with regard to rehabi-litation). One inmate in one cell; legal right to complain about the treatment in the institutions; possibili-ties to leave the institution etc.

The composition of the population in the institutions: a.) 78 different nationalities, 40 different languages

(1986); b.) 50% inmates of Dutch nationality and with a Dutch cultu-

ral background; 25% foreigners and 25% inmates belonging to ethnic minority groups (1988/1989).

(2) The penal institutions for adults (18 years and older): Kinds of institutions: a.) Remand houses (for people in custody) b.) Prisons for short-term offenders (less than 6 months) c.) Prisons for long-term offenders ( 6 months and more) d.) Open institutions ( for the last 5 - 6 months of a

long-term detention: working or studying outside, sleep-ing inside, at home in the weekends)

e.) Daydetention (as an experiment): see my paper.

The size of the institutions: from very small (some tens of inmates) to much bigger (the biggest institution in Rotterdam has 340 inmates).

(3) Trends: 1.) a policy of deconcentration/decentralization, i.e. the insti-

tutions will be as autonomous as possible (their own budget, their own staff management etc.); only a global framework of national penal policy remains;

2.) bigger institutions (with preference of a capacity of 240/250 inmates: 2 wings of each about 120 inmates, divided over departments of 24 inmates);

3.) severe analysis of costs and credits (what is done for what it costs?): the no nonsense-trend. The eighties are the years of making cuts.

The combination of 1. and 3. leads to contract-management etc.

(4) Regimes, daily-programs: We distinguish the living-sector, the work-sector and the social-cultural (=education)- sector. We manage the system of 1/2 days work and 1/2 days social-cultural activities. History in short: developed in the seventies from ideological points of view: to improve the relation between staff and inmates. The philosophy was to relate prison officers to the activities by accompanying them to and in the workshops and the rooms for social-cultural activities. The system however was introduced in 1982/1983 for reasons of efficiency: the job could be done with fewer prison officers than before. The 1/2 day of work is blocked, that means no interruptions. The activities in the other half day can be interrupted by visitors, lawyers, social workers, doctors, dentists etc. Most of the social- cultural activities take place in the dayti-me (morning or afternoon), only a few activities take place at night or in the weekends. The evenings and the weekends are espe-cially for recreation. The inmates receive the same renumeration now as before 1982/ 1983 (about 8 - 11 pounds a week).

- Social- cultural activities: 1.(school)education; 2.physical education and sport; 3.1ibrary; 4.creative activities; 5.cultural activities. Participation in (school)education, physical education & sport and library is a legal right in Dutch penal institutions. Of course the participation in these activities is not compulsory.

- The social-cultural team: 1.the chief of the team; 2.the teachers; 3.the physical education instructors; 4.the librarians; 5.the consultants for creative activities (which are taught by prison officers). Only in the prisons for longterm- offenders we employ artists for these activities. Prison officers are also active in sports activities for inmates and we try to relate them to simple educational activities e.g. the training for the theory-exam of the drivers license.

In the Ministry of Justice we have a full-time consultant/ advi-sor/ coordinator for the libraries, a half-time consultant/advi-sor/coordinator for creative activities and a full-time advisor/ coordinator for education (social-cultural activities).

5) (School)education: The legal right to participate in (school)education has not been quantified in the Prison Law in contrary to the participation in library-activities (once a week) and p.e.& sport (at least 2x 45 min. a week). There is howevsr a central directive for participation in (school)education of at least 2x 60 min. a week. The Dutch penal institutions have their own teachers i.e. they are employed by the Ministry of Justice. Some institutions have also teachers employed bij external institutions for adult educa-tion. All the teachers are qualified. 60 - 70 % of them are women. We request of new teachers that they are experienced in adult education. There is a national framework for the curriculums of the separate institutions. It comprises: a philosophy about education in pri-son, directives/information about contents, priorities, methods, the size of groups, etc. Contents/priorities; 1.basis education (including the theory for the drivers license) 2.vocational training (orientation and qualification) 3.further and higher education 4. distance learning. Methods and materials: as in adult education outside the prison-walls. Characteristics (as you will know): active ways of learning (lear-ning by doing); learning in small groups; use of the approach by themes; aiming on the interests/ needs/ experiences etc. of the participants; directed at the suitability in daily life; a preference for modules, etc. The size of groups: rather small (5 - 8), sometimes more (depen-ding on the subject). The participants: about 50% of the inmates participates in (school)education. In average the motivation is good. We try to tune in on the adult education outside and we strive after a mutual tuning in. Strategies: 1.the national framework; 2.meetings of our teachers (mostly regional); 3.reports developed by working groups of teachers and external experts; 4.contacts with external institutes for adult education; 5.an Educational Newsletter for our teachers.

(6) A short evaluation of (school)education in the Dutch penal institu-tions:

Negative points: The number of teachers does not meet the educational needs and interests of the inmates; Especially in smaller institutions there is the problem that each course /activity has to be given twice because of the 50/50 daily programma (half day work, half day other activities); This system does not provide enough time to be available for education: too much competition by other activities in the half day not intended for work. (School)education in stead of work is possible (Prison Law) but in reality it is rather exceptional. Vocational training is limited to only a few institutions.

Positive points: The quality of the teachers in our institutions is in average satisfying; i.e. quality in two ways (educational qualities and to know how to manage inmates). The level of tuning in on adult education outside the walls is also satisfying. The motivation and interest of inmates for (school)education are good. The cooperation of education and library in most of the penal institutions is first-rate.

The Hague, august 1989

Robert Suvaal.

THE TRAINING PROGRAMME AT THE EXPERIMENTAL DAY-DETENTION CENTRE IN RDTTERDAM (THE NETHERLANDS)

Robert Suvaal, Ministerie van Justitie, Postbus 20301 2500 EH 's-Gravenhage, The Netherlands.

Summary

In May 1989, in Rotterdam (The Netherlands), a small-scale day-detention

experiment commenced. For the purposes of this experiment, a training

programme was developed.

In this paper, the following are described:

- the nature of the experiment;

- why and how it was set up;

- the various stages in the development of the programme;

- what the programme comprises.

During the conference, preliminary results will be presented on the

experiment as a whole and the training programme in particular.

Attention is focussed on the methods used in developing the programme, and

the various factors that were taken into consideration during this process.

The groups involved are described, as are the final programme content and

the ways in which it is implemented. Emphasis is placed on the fact that

the participants are constantly involved in determining the content of the

programme, with the intention of producing a course that meets their

specific needs.

It is stated that this type of "social education" could be applied on a

much broader scale, for example during the final phase of detention in a

closed prison.

Finally, the ways in which the project is being evaluated are described.

11

The training programme at the experimental day-detention centre in

Rotterdam (The Netherlands)

Reason for the choice of this subject

I chose to discuss this particular training programme primarily due to its

educational aspects, the fact that it is being used in an experiment within

the Dutch prison system being only of secondary importance. Recently, an

international work-group, under the auspices of the Council of Europe, has

produced a report entitled "Education in Prison". In this report, soon to

be published, a chapter is devoted to "Social Education", which forms the

basis of the training programme used in the day-detention experiment in

Rotterdam. I believe that this form of education, the content and

methodology of which I shall describe in this presentation, could be

applied in many prison establishments. I am also of the opinion that social

education is extremely relevant to those in detention.

Introduction: what is the role of day-detention in the Dutch penal system?

Day-detention in The Netherlands is the subject of a recently set-up

experiment in Rotterdam, where prison inmates, in groups of twelve at a

time, spend the last six weeks of their sentence.

During weekdays they follow a training programme in a former

staff-house adjacent to a remand centre in a busy residential area of

Rotterdam. Participants in the experiment are allowed to spend the evenings

and weekends at home.

1

Day-detention should not be regarded as an exercise apart, but as the last

phase of detention; it is an extension of the sequence closed/half-

open/open detention.

The main aims of day-detention are as follows:

- to help remove the feeling of social isolation associated with

imprisonment;

- to introduce phases of detention in which inmates are

gradually given increased freedom and orientated towards re-

integration into society;

- to provide instruction and training with a view to improving

the ways in which participants function within society.

The selection criteria for participation, described below, are comparable

to those applied to candidates for open prisons. The candidates should:

- have received a prison sentence of at least eight months' duration;

- have approximately six weeks of the sentence remaining to be served;

- have a home address not more than one hour away from the remand centre

in Rotterdam (based on public transport travel times;

- be considered suitable by the committee responsible for selecting

candidates for open prisons.

In principle, both men and women may participate; however, in the early

stages only men are to be selected.

2

The rationale behind the experiment

This experiment was set up for two reasons:

firstly, due to the need to test a new system which may be regarded as

an alternative to the open prison; if the experiment is a success, day-

detention will represent a viable option for the period of transition

between detention in a closed prison and re-introduction into society;

secondly, due to an economic aspect, day-detention being considerably

cheaper than a prison system.

If this experiment is successful, similar programmes could be implemented

in other areas of the country.

The preparatory phase

Setting up the experiment was not a simple exercise. From the start, a .

number of experts stated that it was bound to fail. In addition, an

influential advisory group insisted that physical labour should comprise a

large part of the programme, this being incompatible with the set-up

proposed by the group responsible for planning the project, whose programme

had three main components: the teaching of manual and social skills, and

the provision of practical help and advice according to the individual

needs of the participants. It was not anticipated that work would play a

major role in this programme.

3

Finally, the necessary practical steps were taken:

conversion of the former staff-house for the purposes of the experiment;

selection of suitable members of staff (hereafter referred to as "the

project team");

finalization of the training programme;

selection of participants.

Setting up the training programme

As chairman of a work-group in which the project team was also represented,

I was involved in working out the final form and content of the training

programme.

The main points that were taken into consideration were:

the special nature of the period spent at the centre, i.e., a period of

six weeks during which the transition is made from detention in a closed

prison to re-introduction into society;

the fact that the participants will have spent a (fairly) long period in

a closed prison;

current opinion in The Netherlands with regard to the aims of

imprisonment, which can be summarized as follows: (a) prison regimes

should be

detention

cooperate

as humane

should be

should be

as possible; (b) damage suffered as a result of

minimized; (c) prisoners who are willing to

aided in preparing for their release from prison.

(Fairly tame in comparison with the idealistic attitude to

4

enough to accommodate groups,

on a fairly tight budget; for

rehabilitation that prevailed in the seventies!)

the main aims of day-detention (as described above);

the three main components of the programme (also described above).

Practical points that were of importance in developing the programme were:

the size of the group;

the fact that initial participation was voluntary, and that participants

could choose to return at any time to a prison environment to serve out

their sentence;

the number and qualifications of the members of staff (this will be

discussed in more detail below);

the size of the building in which

staff-house with only a few rooms large

and a large garden);

the fact that the project was to be run

the centre was to be based (a former

example, equipment would have to be chosen

few external lecturers could be invited to

extremely carefully, and very

participate.

On the basis of the above-mentioned points, the following proposals for the

programme were formulated:

it should focus on the transition from imprisonment to freedom, in which

day-detention represents a first step;

it should be designed to take into account the need of most inmates for

a well-defined structure;

its content should be subject to continual evaluation, with a balanced

consideration of the questions and aims of both the participants and the

5

project team;

it should contain a mixture of practical and theoretical items;

it should to a significant extent comprise items from which the

participants gain immediate benefit;

it should focus on a variety of main themes, each of a week's duration,

since each week a number of new participants would be entering the

programme;

certain subjects should be dealt with in groups and others in sub-

groups, with individual problems being dealt with on a one-to-one basis.

Finalization of the programme

On the basis of the above-mentioned practical and theoretical

considerations, the following programme was devised:

(1) A total of six modules, each lasting one week and with a different

central theme.

(2) These central themes are:

- further education;

- work;

- housing;

- social contacts;

- personal care and hygiene;

- leisure activities.

The choice of these themes was based on their direct relevance to the

participants and also with a view to fulfilling the aims of day-

detention.

6

(3) Each main theme is divided up into more specific topics, among which a

choice can be made by both the participants and members of the project

team. During the preparatory phase, the work-group defined a number of

subjects for each of the central themes, to be used by the project team

as a basis to work on prior to the start of the experiment.

An example is presented below.

Central theme: Work

Topics: what work represents to different individuals;

types of work;

choosing a trade/profession;

looking for work;

the job centre;

employment agencies;

starting your own business;

applying for jobs;

unemployment;

social security payments;

living on a budget;

etc.

(4) The participants, in discussion with members of the project team,

indicate for each main theme which topics they wish to see covered;

they may also suggest additional items.

Once a choice has been made, the participants are asked to explain what

they hope to learn in each case; this determines the way in which the

particular subjects are dealt with.

7

Examples of the types of question that could be asked in relation to a

certain topic are given below:

Central theme: Work

Topic: the job centre

Questions: what does it have to offer me?

what purpose does a job centre serve?

what can they do for me?

what questions should I ask?

how should I present myself?

what should I take with me?

do I have to accept any job they offer me?

what should I concentrate on during the

interview? etc.

(5) The questions posed also indicate to the project team what approach

they should take in dealing with the various topics. A question which

requires a fairly concrete answer will have to be handled in a

completely different way than one in which values and norms are

involved, or when advice regarding a particular skill is requested.

The educational methods to be used will also be decided upon in relation to

the types of question raised. The project team will to a great extent

employ adult education methods that are commonly used in The Netherlands;

i.e., interactive methods, the use of reading material that is directly

relevant to the participants, and minimizing the amount of information

8

that should be memorized.

A great deal is demanded from the project team; they are required to be

knowledgeable on an extremely wide range of subjects, at various levels,

and also to be able to choose and apply the most appropriate educational

methods. They are aided in this respect by a consultant, as discussed

below.

(6) The training programme is alternated with various physical tasks (e.g.,

gardening, or the production of a range of toys). There are two reasons

for this: (i) to accommodate to a certain extent the wishes of the

previously mentioned advisory group; and (ii) to introduce a complete

contrast to the training programme activities.

The project team

The team comprises:

the team leader (full-time)

two prison officers (full-time)

a social worker (half-time)

a consultant (half-time)

i.e., a total of 4 full-time positions.

At a very early stage it was decided, for various reasons, that individuals

familiar with working in a prison environment should be well represented

within the project team and that they, together with the social worker,

9

would be responsible for carrying out the entire programme- In order to

obtain a more objective view of the way in which the programme was

progressing, an experienced consultant was also hired for a period of at

least a year, to instruct the project team and give feedback on their

performance.

Evaluation of the project

Due to the project's experimental nature, it is being subjected to a

thorough evaluation. As is usual in such projects, participants and the

project team make their own appraisal. In addition, the experiment is being

evaluated by the Scientific Research and Documentation Centre of the Dutch

Justice Ministry,

10

I I I I I I I I 1 I I I I I I I I I •

CORRECTIONAL STAFF TRAINING IN THE UNITED STATES;

DELIVERY SYSTEMS FOR SPECIALISED PROFESSIONAL GROUPS

Bruce Wolford, Professor of Correctional Services, Eastern Kentucky University,

1

CORRECTIONAL STAFF TRAINING IN THE 'UNITED STATES:

DELIVERY: SYSTEMS FOR SPECIALIZED PROFESSIONAL GROUPS

Bruce Wolford

Professor of Correctional Services

Eastern Kentucky University

Overview of Correctional Training

'Funds expended for staff training constitute

the best investment in corrections."

(Breed, 1976)

Despite recognition by many leaders in the field of corrections, the importance

of professional development to the basic operation of corrections staff training has

remained a relatively low priority in many agencies. The modern era of correctional

training was ushered in with the establishment of the Law Enforcement Assistance

Administration in 1969 (Snarr & Wolford, 1985). Additional pressure to modern ize

correctional training came as a result of federal and state court interventions in cases

involving vicarious liability as a result of the failure to train staff (Falkenberg & Baird,

1987).

Currently all state juvenile and adult correctional agencies have a training

program. The size and scope of the training provided by correctional agencies varies

significantly. The most common delivery systems include some combination of

centralized training academies and individual institutional based training programs

(Wolford, 1989). Other delivery systems include contract training, university based

programs and various inter -agency collaborative efforts.

The primary focus of most training programs is on-line or entry level staff. The

majority of training resources are directed at the largest worker groups such as

correctional officers or juvenile care workers. In some jurisdictions limited resources

2

and the demands of basic training prohibit the development and /or delivery of

training for specialized correctional professionals.

Two national organizations have been formed by correctional trainers to

professionalize and focus on the need for training. They are:

American Association of Correctional Training Personnel*

Juvenile Justice Trainers Association*

The two associations hold an Annual National Correctional Trainers Conference each

October to explore issues of concern to the profession.

Training for Specialized Personnel

Educators who comprise one of the largest specialized professional groups

within corrections have been viewed as part of an institution within an institution

(Horvath, 1982). The educators were generally trained in and have embraced

professional goals that are fundamentally at odds with the emphasis upon order,

discipline, security and expedience that characterize many correctional institutions

(Horvath, 1982). In a survey of correctional educators perceptions of corrections it was

determined that a significant difference existed between the professional goals of

teachers and the perceived institutional goals for education (Wolford & Snarr, 1987).

The sense of personal and professional isolation which has been identified by

correctional educators also exists within many other specialized groups. In a recent

survey of correctional institutional wardens and superintendents it was reported that

even these veteran correctional leaders have had only limited specific training for their

positions (Wolford & Scroggy, 1988). Among the other professional groups with limited

training opportunities are psychologist, caseworkers/counselors, medical personnel,

chaplains, food service workers, recreation specialists and industry managers.

The Need for Specialized Training

There are many justifications for specialized correctional training not the least

of which is professional identity. Because of the professional isolation that many

correctional snecialist exnerience there is often a lack of identity with eorreetions as a

3

profession (Pecht, 1983). Training programs can help the corrections specialist to

connect with his/her discipline and establish and maintain a link with other

professionals with his/her training and orientation.

Like the wardens and superintendents many specialized workers have had no

specialized training to aid them in adapting their professional skills to the

correctional setting. A survey of Texas correctional educators revealed that over

seventy percent had no corrections related training prior to employment by the

Windham School System (Loeffler, et al, 1986).

The federal courts have repeatedly held the necessity for employers to

systematically document the job readiness of employment requirements (Falkenberg &

Baird, 1987). The courts' general acceptance of professional standards such as those

developed by the American Correctional Association (ACA) have further reinforced the

need for correctional training. The current ACA standards for adult and juvenile

correctional facilities call for a minimum of forty hours of annual in-service education

and an additional forty hours of pre-service education during the first year of

employment.

The Correctional Education Association has gone even further ca lling for an

additional (beyond the ACA Standards) mandatory specialized training:

Standard 012 Pre-Service Training

New correctional education staff are provided pre-service orientation

and training in the procedures and principles of providing educational

services in a correctional setting (Correctional Education Association,

1988) .

Traditional Delivery Systems

Although there are a variety of administrative organizations for the operation

of training the primary delivery system in adult corrections is built around the needs of

the correctional officer. The foundation of most correctional training programs is the

basic academy. This is generally a concentrated entry level training program that

varies in length from two to twelve weeks. The best organized of these academies are

based on a correctional officer job task analysis and include a comprehensive

4

competency based curriculum. The academies are typically either centralized or

regionalized and include trainees from a variety of facilities. In most jurisdictions the

academy is supplemented with a structured on-the-job training program and/or

institutional based training program.

Policy and practice regarding the pre-service training of specialized

professionals within corrections varies widely. In some jurisdictions all new

employees must complete basic academy. In other systems non-custodial personnel are

exempted from portions or all of the academy training. Very few systems have

specialized entry level training for non-custodial employees.

In-service training programs are similarly oriented toward the largest worker

group in the profession, the correctional officer. Many of the in-service training

progranis are based at the correctional institution and include re-training on weapons

use, life safety skills and agency policy and procedures. In-service training for

specialized correctional professionals are often fulfilled through annual meetings of

selected worker groups. These meetings are supplemented with standard retraining

programs delivered at the institution. Individual participation in non-credit and

academic credit training programs often is counted in lieu of completion of more

traditional agency-sponsored activities.

Limitations

One of the primary limitations that correctional systems faces in providing

specialized training is the size of the system. In many smaller correctional agencies the

number of correctional specialist in any given discipline may be viewed as too small to

make specialized in-house training cost effective. The ,size issue takes on even greater

importance in systems where the primary delivery of in-service training is based at the

individual correctional institution.

The size and scope of correctional agencies has increased dramatically in recent

years. In an increasing number of correctional systems the number of specialist within

a single system has grown to the level that would make in-service delivery of training

cost effective. However, the advocates of specialized training are still competing for

I I I

scarce training funds. In addition to limited funding specinlized training must be added

to the planning agenda of many training managers. Correctional specialists need to be

proactive in their efforts to obtain training opportunities. In many instances

alternative delivery systems will need to be used to provide specialist with the high

quality training they both need and deserve.

111 Alternative Delivery Systern.s

The three primary goals which have been identified for in-service training are:

I to acquire an understanding of correctional and justice system; to develop skills

111 necessary to work effectively; and to possess and maintain an attitude of

professionalism and self confidence (McKeen, 1983). There are a variety of

I mechanisms to achieve these three goals. The remaining portion of this article will

attempt to highlight some of the alternative training progranas which have been

Ill developed for correctional specialists.

Various job task analysis processes have been used to retrofit existing training

111 programs to meet the needs of specialized groups. For training to be meaningful there

I must be a clear relationship between the curriculum and the job (Falkenberg & Baird,

1987). The National Academy of Corrections recently conducted a training needs

1 assessment for chaplains. Based upon the results of this assessment a redesigned

correctional management training was developed for chaplains. The National

8 Academy of Corrections is currently using the DACUM (Developing A Curriculum)

Il process to develop worker profiles for various correctional professionals. The DACUM

process results in the development of a listing of worker task skills and traits which

I can be used in the design of training curriculum (Carter, D. 1989).

The Correctional/Special Education (C/SET) Project adopted a module based

III training approach (Posluszny, 1986). The C/SET modules were designed to provide

III correctional personnel with basic information regarding the educational and related

needs of learning han.dicapped offenders. The modules were designed to be independent

8 ready-to-train units. The module concept attempts to provide quality training

materials in a useable format. One of the problems encounter by correctional trainers

6

attempting to serve specialized worker groups is the availability of relevant training

material. Nationa' 1 efforts such as C/SET have been able to provide high quality

training materials which are useful to trainers throughout the country.

The Illinois Department of Corrections has adopted an administrative directive

system which includes a training component. Management team produced

program/facility audit reports are often dealt with as training needs assessments. A

negative audit will frequently lead to a new training program. Trainers assist in the

audit process which further strengthens the link to training. Training evaluations can

lead to issuance of administrative directives. The strong link between management

and training in the Illinois system provides information which can be invaluable in

the development of meaningful curriculum (Hanford, 1988).

Self directed independent learning and the use of study circles can be restricted

by limited access to relevant professional literature. The development of professional

staff libraries in correctional institutions is one alternative solution to this problem

(Drewett, 1985). Trainers and librarians can work together to identify relevant

Information sources which are needed to establish a professional/staff library within a

correctional institutions. By sharing the resources of both the library and training

departments it is often possible to develop a fine local collection of professional

literature. The availability of a local staff library can help to overcome some of the

professional isolation felt by many individuals who work in corrections.

The Maryland Department of Education in conjunction with John Hopkins

University developed a graduate program for correctional educators working with adult

illiterates (Gold & Steurer, 1983). Using a variety of funding sources the two

organizations were able to provide correctional educators with both relevant training

and the opportunity to earn both graduate credit and a degree. Innovative programs

such as this are especially useful when there is a need for longer term in-depth training

for a relatively large worker group within a correctional system.

A number of specialized training symposiums have been developed for

correctional professionals. One of the longer running events is the ann.ual correctional

caseworkers symposium which is supported by the Federal Bureau of Prisons, Kentucky

7

Corrections Cabinet and Eastern Kentucky University. Each year this three day

training symposium' focuses on a different topic in corrections as it relates to the duties

and responsibilities of caseworkers. Recent topics have included classification, mental

health, custody and substance abuse treatment. This training format provides relevant

Information for correctional caseworkers from throughout the eastern United States.

An annual monograph based upon selected presentations made at the symposium is

published and distributed to participants each year.

Other approaches which have been used to meet the training needs of specialized

groups include conferences and seminars sponsored by professional organizations and

the American Correctional Association correspondence course programs. The

National Academy of Corrections is currently developing a regional network for the

dissemination of training information. This network will hopefully further

cooperative efforts among states. The potential for multi-jurisdiction development of

training programs may help reduce some of the cost associated with the design and

delivery of specialized training.

The use of both interactive video and teleconferencing hold great promise for

serving specializ,ed correctional populations. The recent Public Broadcast System

teleconference which involved the Correctional Education Association and the

Correctional Industries Association is an excellent example of the use of the media to

reach large numbers of correctional professionals with relevant information.

Summary

Corrections like many other human service professions faces major challenges

in its efforts to maintain a well-trained staff. The task for correctional trainers is

compounded because the institutional setting requires that a diverse range of

professionals be employed by a single agency. To effectively operate a correctional

institution it is important that ail staff are provided the opportunity to participate in

relevant training experiences. There will never be a single solution to the diverse

training needs which exist in corrections. Effective correctional training programs

8

will need to adopt a wide range of delivery systems if there is to be a comprehensive

training effort serVing all professionals.

Cooperative efforts among agencies and jurisdictions cari help to facilitate the

development of high quality training for specialized populations. The leadership taken

by the National Academy of Corrections in its development of regionalized training

networks appears to provide the foundation for greater cociperation. Hopefully some of

the first areas of cooperative training will be focused on the needs of previously under-

served specialized correctional worker groups.

*American Association •of Correctional Training Personnel, c/o Dade. County Department of Corrections, 1500 N.W. 12th Avenue, Miami, Florida 33136.

*Juvenile Justice Trainers Association, c/o J.K. Mullen, Center for Juvenile Justice Training and Research, Room #228, Horton Hall, Shippensburg University, Shippensburg, Pennsylvania 17257.

9

References

Breed, A.F. (1976) "Mobilizing 'rraining/Education for Today's Crisis". Proceeding of the 106th Annual Congress of Corrections, pp. 250-254.

Carter, D. (1989) National Academy of Corrections Develops Dacum Competency Profile on Wardens, The Grapevine. pp. 2.

Correctional Education Association (1988) Standards for Adult and Juvenile Correctional Education Program, Laurel, Maryland, pp. 1-9.

Drewett, D. A. (1985) The Staff Library and Training: A Concept in Corrections Comes of Age, Journal of Correctional Education, 34, 3, pp. 85-88.

Falkenberg, S. & Baird, R C. (1987) 'Developing Job Validated Training Curricula in Corrections: Methods and Procedures", in Issues in Correctional Training and Casework, 3 pp. 8-13.

Gold, P.C. & Steurer, S. J. (1983) "Graduate Training of Correctional Education Staff Worlçing with Adult Illiterates: A Model Program", Journal of Correctional Education, 34, 2, pp. 52-53.

Hanford, S. J. (1988) "Corrections Training," The Journal of Correctional Training, 4, 1, pp. 20-22.

Horvath, G.J. (1982) "Issues in Correctional Education: A Conundrum of Conflict". Journal of Correctional Education. 33, 3, pp. 8-15.

Loeffler, C.A., Martin J.C., Henderson D. L. & McNesse, R (1986) "Anatomy of a Prison Educator: A Profile of Correctional Education in Windham School System, Huntsville, Texas", Journal of Correctional Education. 37, 1, pp. 24-29.

McKeen, R 13. (1983) "In Service Training and Staff Development for Correctional Educators", Journal of Correctional Education, 34, 1 pp. 12-14.

Pecht, H.E. (1983) 'The Emergent Correctional Education Profession: Special Problems Require Tested Criteria for the Selection of Effective Teachers", Journal of Correctional Education, 34, 3, pp. 85-88.

Posluszny, M. (1986) Implementing Module Based Training in Implementing Training for Correctional Educators, Wolford, B.I., Rutherford, R B. & Nelson, C. M. Richmond, Kentucky, Eastern Kentucky University, pp. 4-7.

Snarr, R. W. & Wolford, B. I. (1985) Introduction to Corrections , Dubuque, Iowa. W.C. Brown, p. 47.

Wolford, B.I. (1989) Directory of Correctional Training in North America, (in press), Richmond, Kentucky, Eastern Kentucky University.

Wolford, B. I. & Snarr RW. "What is the Goal of Correctional Education?" Journal of Correctional Education, 38, 2, pp. 60-64.

Wolford, B. I. & Scraggy, G. (1988) Correctional Wardens and Superintendents: Changing Profiles. Richmond, Kentucky, Eastern Kentucky University, pp. 1-9.

SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON

PRISON EDUCATION

Wadham College

OXFORD

25th - 28th September 1989

"EDUCATION AND TREATMENT"

by

Peter Ziebart

Austria

- 2 -

As a trained judge, who has been working for more

than 12 years in the prison branch of the Federal Ministry

of Justice in Austria I want to outline above all the

present legal situation of the Austrian Correctional

System.

Up to the year 1970 the Austrian Correctional

System lacked comprehensive legislation. Only very few

articles of the old criminal code, which in its basic

principles dates back to the year 1803, referred to the

position of the prisoners and the nature of their custody

during detention. In 1954 the preliminary work for a law to

regulate the execution of sentences began. It was 1969 when

the parliament came to a decision. The correctional law

finally went into force on 1 January 1970. Compared with

other European countries it is the first legal provision

for the regulation of a correctional system.

The next step in the Major Criminal Law Reform in

the year 1974 was the new Criminal Code, which went into

force on 1 January 1975. This Act has so far proved very

satisfactory.

Both the judicial and the penal system are under

the responsibility of the Federal State. Criminal justice

is exercised by judges who are not elected but appointed.

Now to the objectives of our correctional system: The

execution of sentences of imprisonment should, above all,

assist the prisoner to an honest view of life, conforming

to the requirements of the community. The law further

states that, in order to achieve this aim, the inmates are

to be cared for in an educational manner. What is

understood by such educational care, what methods should be

applied ? Concrete answers to these questions will not be

found. Corrective and therapeutic methods can be chosen in

Dok.Nr. 7235F

3

accordance with current scientific findings. Medical

experiments are by all means forbidden.

The Austrian penal establishments include

penitentiaries as well as court prisons. In penitentiaries

sentences of more than one year are served. Court prisons

are used for the execution of shorter sentences, primarily,

however, for the holding of untried prisoners.

At this point let me deal with the question of

staff. More than 3500 people are employed in Austrian penal

institutions. Almost 3000 are uniformed officers, the

others belong to special services, e.g. doctors,

psychologists, chaplains, teachers, social workers, nurses,

etc.

You can see, that the uniformed officers carry the

main burden of the daily prison routine. They are

responsible for the safe custody of the inmates and have to

satisfy the corrective demands laid down by the law.

In Austria the general public has become aware to

a far-reaching extent that this profession covers a wide

field from the matter of security, on the one hand, to

social work on the other.

At this stage I want to draw your attention to the

important relation between prison administration and the

public.

In any developed, pluralistic, democratic society

there is a permanent discussion about the justification and

the purposes of punishment and the objectives of the

enforcement of prison sentences in their variety and

inevitable contradiction. The particular causes and

conditions of criminality in the individual case are also

tried to be discovered.

In any democratic society public relations work of

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•••• 4

the government and the public administration is a generally

acknowledged necessity in order to inform the public. There

is no successful legislation without a preceding process of

making the general public realize what the demands are. Any

society needs legal reforms at the right time and in the

right measure. Social development and alterations of the

law are interdependent as a relation of cause and effect.

Administrative reforms require common consent as well.

Major reforms must be carried by the understanding and

approval of the majority of the public. To obtain a common

consent in the public takes time, often years. Reforms

against strong opinions of the public are not promising.

These principles fully apply to prison administration.

The frequency and severity of criminality, the

means of crime prevention and prison administration, are

legitime topics of discussion by the general public.

Generally, crime is not considered so dangerous by the

individual in his neighbourhood as he thinks it is in the

case of larger, abstract units like the state or society as

a whole. There is still a mingling of reform tendencies and

a certain scepticism about the prison administration and

the offenders. Tendencies of generalization, simplification

and distortion of the reality are promoted by the lack of

real knowledge about criminality and prison administration.

In any case, however, information of the public is

necessary. An important task falls to the mass media; they

might be able to achieve some corrections of commonplace

views by reporting objectively, impartially and as

unprejudicedly as possible. Just a glance into the daily

newspapers shows how differently cases of crime can be

reported. The permanent overpresentation of acts of

violence and the commercialized aiming at unusual, dramatic

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■■• 5 ■••

or sentimental events can intensify existing dispositions

in the consumer of mass media. It can be presumed that the

mass media make an important contribution to form the

collective knowledge of "good and evil". As long as mass

media are interested in any prison administration only in

connection with sensational incidents like escapes,

hungerstrikes or riots, any understanding of the aims and

problems of prison administration can hardly be expected

and a negative stigmatization of prisoners will be caused.

There is only little knowledge of the real situation of

prison administration in the public; the reasons for that

must not only be seen in a lack of interest of the public

and the mass media in prison affairs but also in a

seclusion of the penal institutions from the public,

permitting only few glances into the world "behind prison

walls".

Any public relations work which informs the public

thoroughly can be of great value. Public relations work

must positively inform of the actual situation, of events

and projects. Any reform in the field of prison

administration, in particular, any new method of treatment•

aiming at the rehabilitation of offenders, seems to be

successful only when it is carried by the public. The

public must be informed that crime is not carried into

society from outside but that crime occures within society

and that, therefore, crime and any sanction as well as

prison administration are a matter of the entire society.

This finally leads us to the question, how prison

administrations can meet the objectives of imprisonment.

The effectiveness of any enforcement of sentences

that intends to meet the requirements of treatment as well

as those of the protection of society, security and order,

Dok.Nr. 7235F

6 •••••

depends primarily on the creation of appropriate prison

regimes.

The basic idea is rather simple. From all those in

custody, the really dangerous prisoners who require special

security measures and the mentally disabled and

psychopathic prisoners who need special medical,

psychiatric or psychological treatment are to be separated.

There is also a need for separation for juvenile

delinquents, first offenders, delinquents who committed

their offences by mere negligence and not with criminal

intent and all other offenders who may qualify for open or

semi-open institutions.

A security orientated penal institution without

treatment tasks will be organized in a way that the

institution is well protected and that, with as little

personnel as possible, as many prisoners as possible can be

housed, catered for, occupied and supervised. The typical

style of a traditional custodial institution is the big

pentagon-shaped penitentiary.

Any institution, in which treatment prevails,

requires no or relatively few security measures; of main

importance is the organisation inside the institution, the

treatment groups, the supply of treatment personell and a

sufficient flexibility to meet the different requirements

of treatment.

The type of any regime will primarily depend on

the question of how far treatment prevails and to what

extent security measures are required. The kind of regime

is, therefore, closely related to the question, which of

the various possible objectives of imprisonment

predominates.

The different regimes vary from open, semi-open

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and relaxed regimes to regular regimes, and to security and

high security regimes. Special regimes exist also for

mentally disabled and psychopathic offenders, for alcohol

and drug addicts and for dangerous recidivists. For

juvenile and young offenders as well as first offenders and

traffic offenders, special regimes are common. In several

penal systems imprisonment in stages is introduced and all

systems know pre-release regimes.

Work in penal institutions is closely linked to

the preparation of prisoners for life in society outside

prisons. The history of work in penal institutions is its

progress from an essential punitive element in penal

regimes, through a role of mere occupation, to an important

means of positive contribution to the rehabilitation of

offenders. At one time, work, in the form of "hard labour",

was seen as an effective additional punishment to the

deprivation of liberty. It had no purpose other than

deterrence. Three hundred years ago Puritans saw work as

good in

personal

itself. Lateron, work

and social virtue on

was seen

those who

as conferring

performed it.

Afterwards, work has long been accepted as beneficial and a

major element in penal regimes. Today,

a necessity, a normal condition of

activity. Outside prison, people who

enjoy the esteem which employment in

work is regarded as

life and a human

do not work do not

socially acceptable

work normally brings. Even workers on the lowest labouring

levels are respected and can be seen as "honest workmen".

Whatever the degree of social esteem may be, the implied

acknowledgement of the usefulness of the work for earning a

living for oneself or one's family is an important element

of self-respect. There ist also the socialising influence

of work, insofar as it offers social relationships outside

Dok.Nr. 7235F

- 8 -

the family and the neighbourhood. These social

relationships are beneficial to the development of human

personality and essential to the quality of life. For most

people it is difficult to contemplate life without such

relationships.

In prisons too, work is an element in the make-up

of the institutional society. In a penal institution where

a variety of work opportunities are offered, it is

reasonable to assume that the kind of occupation affects

the status of the individual inmate in some way. Very often

prisoners are socially inadequate, lacking in social norms

and not used to regular work. It is therefore vital for

their rehabilitation to develop a positive attitude towards

work and its fulfilling character. It is also important for

those inmates to be trained to perform work as a habit, as

well as to appreciate the quality of work and the rewards

that flow from it in terms of pay, self-respect and status.

There are also the socialising influences of work in

association. Prisoners, like any other people, value the

part they play with their fellows in achieving the

objectives of a work task. They benefit too from the

interplay of personalities that results from working within

a team and the experience of being managed for defined

purposes. The contribution they make to the production of a

workshop, the construction of a prison building or the

cultivation of crops is measured in terms of personal

achievement, usefulness and self-respect. In all these ways

work is important for the development of social personality

and readjustment for life outside penal institutions.

The two main requirements any prison

administration has inevitably to deal with are security, on

the one hand, and treatment in order to try to enable the

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- 9 -

prisoner to live a socially adapted life in the future, on

the other.

It is of greatest importance, therefore, to

counteract the negative consequences of imprisonment. We

all know, regimes are often not normally such as to prepare

the prisoner for his release. A treatment, as effective as

possible, must therefore be offered. Sufficient medical

service, suitable work, vocational training, leisuretime

activities, bodily exercise, reading books and newspapers,

listening to the radio, correspondence and visits should be

ensured, although the security tasks prevail.

Prisoners are an important target group for

education on the grounds that it is often a lack of

education which leads to crime and that what they need ist

to learn a trade and to develop social competence.

What can be done through education to help that

target group to improve the present condition? The

overriding problem is how to stimulate people so that they

will want to learn. Far too little empirical research has

been undertaken into the nature of the barriers to learning

but certain facts are clear enough. The root problem is

that the prisoners are convinced that education has nothing

to offer them. In their own eyes they have failed either

because they did not go to school or because they failed to

make the grade and were then cast into outer darkness. They

do not discern any possibility of improving their job

prospects by means of education even when labelled as

"training". If they are conscious of the high private

returns that may accure from education, they may

nevertheless reject it, because their aversion is so

intense.

These are daunting barriers and it is idle to

Dok.Nr. 7235F

- 10 -

pretend that they can easily be scaled. More than one

country in recent years has devoted substantial funds and

effort to the war on criminality, treating education as a

major arm of attack, only to find that the results were

disappointing. The truth is that the education of the

underprivileged is a very high-cost undertaking, far more

costly than conventional adult education and probably more

costly, indeed, than the expensive sector of higher

education. This severe cost factor and long deferment of

returns may well explain why many approaches to the problem

are localized and short-term.

The scale of the problem can be minimized by

concentrating initially upon particular categories of

people. In developing countries this will almost certainly

mean the functionally illiterate; in more developed

countries it may mean the unemployed or the prisoners.

The needs of the educationally underprivileged can

be met by two complementary approaches. One is to take

facilities to the prison. The second is not to offer

programmes that are labelled educational but to offer

attractive incentives.

For most prisoners the point of entry may well be

a desire to increase their earning power for the time after

their release by upgrading their vocational skills, since

there is a glimmer of hope that once a man's interest has

been arrested by an appeal to his pocket, he may be induced

to explore wider educational horizons.

There is one aspect of the problem of dealing with

the educationally underprivileged in prisons that is

extraordinarily delicate. Outside observers have tended to

designate those underprivileged as a special social group.

If, however, the underprivileged are made to feel like some

Dok.Nr. 7235F

- 11 -

subspecies or the recipients of charity, they are likely to

react by spurning assistance or by shrewdly accepting

material hand-outs but rejecting the attached educational

strings.

The problem of the educationally underprivileged

will always be with us. It is ultimately a cultural problem

that cannot be removed altogether but it can be mitigated

if we work hard on it.

It is impossible to offer ready made or

comprehensive solutions for the organisation of the various

prison regimes and the application of the many treatment

strategies. It is up to the national prison administrations

to create proper institutions by differentiation. The range

of treatment covers all measures that may help to enable

the prisoner in future to lead a socially responsible life

without committing criminal offences. The list of treatment

possibilities in Austria is large. It covers work,

vocational training, schooling, general education, medical

care, social care, social training, religious welfare,

reasonable leisure-time activities, bodily exercise, books,

newpapers and magazines, radio and television,

correspondence and visits, prison-leave and preparation for

release.

The strategies may reach from teaching, practical

education and supervision, individual conversation-therapy,

individual and group councelling, to medical and

psychiatric measures.

According to the European Prison Rules the

treatment of offenders should emphasize not their exclusion

from society but their continuing part of it.

The idea of total treatment in total therapeutic

institutions was given up in recent years. It was

Dok.Nr. 7235F

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recognised that not every prisoner can become resocialised

and that it is a matter of fact that any success of

treatment depends primarily on the willingness and fitness

of the prisoner to undergo treatment and to cooperate. The

basic idea of the member states of the Council of Europe

is, therefore, no longer to impose obligatory treatment for

all offenders in penal institutions but to offer all

treatment possibilities to all those who are willing and

fit to undergo treatment and to cooperate.

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PRINTED IN U.S.A. ,

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(HV 8875 157 1989 Papers presented at the Sec ond International Conferenc e on Prison Education of in

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