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Papers presented at the
SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
ON PRISON EDUCATION
of Interest to the
Correctional Service of Canada
Oxford, United Kingdom
September 25-29, 1989
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Papers presented at the
SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
.9g9 e ON PRISON EDUCATION ( Z, )6/; I '
of Interest to the
Correctional Service of Canada/
Oxford, United Kingdom
September 25-29, 1989
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11 BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX
Note: All of the following papers are available through Susan McIntosh, Secretary to the Director of Education and Personal Development, NHQ and the NHQ Library. They have also been for distribution to Regional Administrators.
1. Coakley, Catherine, "Creativity in Prisons," September, 1989 (Ireland)
2. Coleman, James E. and Evans, A. Donald, "The National Issues Forum: Promoting Learning and Developing Community in Prison," 1988 (U.S.A)
3. Continuing Education Service of Leeds City Council, "Education for Ex-0ffenders," summary of special project, July 1989 (U.K.)
4. Davis, Susan, "T.I.E. and the Ohio Plan: Blueprint for Success," September, 1989 (U.S.A.)
5. Dharmadasa, H.G., "Prison Education Work in Sri Lanka," September, 1989 (Sri Lanka)
6. Dunbar, Ian, "A Sense of Direction," HM Prison Service, October, 1985 (U.K.)
7. Duquid, Stephen, "Education for What? Curriculum Pedagogy and Program Objectives," September, 1989 (Canada).
8. Eggleston, Carolyn, "Curriculum Issues for the Incarcerated Handicapped Learner," September, 1989 (USA)
9. Garner, T.G., "Prison Education in Hong Kong: A Brief Historical Perspective," September, 1989 (China)
10. Germscheid, R.D., "Cognitive Development for Short-term Sentenced Offenders: Some Propositions," September, 1989 (Canada)
11. Hartl, Pavel, "Educational Strategies in Group Work with Recidivists," September, 1989 (Czechoslovakia)
12. Jenkins, Harold, "Evaluation of Prison Education Programs," September, 1989 (U.S.A.)
13. Langas, Asbjorn, "The Sharing of Responsibility between Authorities, Educational Institutions and Voluntary Organizations in the Rehabilitation of Prisoners - the Import Model," September, 1989 (Norway)
14. Littlefield, John, "Characteristics of the Ohio Inmate Intake Population and the Implications for Correctional Education Programming," September, 1989 (U.S.A.)
15. Mangara, Jumane Jadji, "The Role of Curriculum Development in Prison Education: The Tanzania Experience," September, 1989
16. McF Strain, J., "Education in Northern Ireland Prisons," September, 1989 (N. Ireland)
17. McCollum, Sylvia, "Mandatory Programs in Prisons - Let's Expand the Concept," August, 1989 (USA)
18. McDougall, C., "Anger Control Training with Young Offenders," April, 1989 (U.K.)
19. Miller, Helen, "Project Friends: The Development of a Program of Independent Study for Special Confinement Prisoners," May, 1989 (U.S.A.)
20. Morin, Lucien, "Education or the Violence of Justice," July, 1984 (Canada)
21. Neale, Kenneth and Normie, Gerald, "Strategies for Education within Prison Regimes: Comparative Approaches," July, 1984 (U.K.)
22. Report of a Working Party of the Northern Ireland Office, "Adult Basic Education in Prison Establishments in Northern Ireland," May, 1988 (N. Ireland)
23. Ripley, Paul, "Staff Development in Prison Education Departments," September, 1989, (U.K.)
24. Ross, Jacqueline, "Gender Studies and the Criminal Justice System - Implications for Prison Education," September, 1989 (U.S.A.)
25. Sedlak, Robert and Karcz, Stan, "Descriptive Study of Teaching Practices and Efficacy of Correctional Education," August, 1989 (U.S.A.
26. Semmens, R.A., "Program Strategies for Community Re: Integration of Prisoners," April 1989 (Australia)
27. Semmens, R.A., "Some Issues in Prison Education in Australia," September, 1989 (Australia)
28. Simon Fraser University, "University Prison Education in British Columbia," October, 1988 (Canada)
29. Suvaal, Robert, "Education in the Dutch Penal Institutions," September, 1989 (Holland)
30. Suvaal, Robert, "The Training Programme at the Experimental Day-Detention Centre in Rotterdam", September, 1989 (Netherlands)
31. Wolford, Bruce, "Correctional Staff Training in the United States: Delivery Systems for Specialized Groups," July, 1989 (USA)
32. Ziehart, Peter, "Education and Treatment," September, 1989 (Austria)
(1) CREATIVITY IN PRISON
"There really is no such thing as Art. There are only artists.
Once these were men who took coloured earth and roughed out the
shape of a bison on the walls of a cave; to-day they buy their
paints and design their posters for the Underground. They did many
things in between. There is no harm in calling these activities
art as long as we keep in mind that such a word may mean very
different things in different times and places. And as long as we
remember that Art with a capital A has no existence." 1
INTRODUCTION
Creativity is the antithesis of imprisonment. Here is a
system that tries to stifle creativity. Here is a place where all
decisions are made for people, where there is great pressure to
'fit-in' and be the same because it is believed that there is great
safety for everybody in conformity. In prison people are cut off
from influences and stimulation. In this world, largely free from
responsibilities, prisoners are encouraged to sit back and ' do
their time'. Far from being encouraged to confront themselves in
any way and come to terms with who they are, often prisoners will
simplr see their sentence as a suspension of their 'real' lives and
are content to drift along in this 'unreal' world of prison.
Yet what is creativity if it isn't about making decisions,
making choices, making a personal statement? It's about being open
to stimuli and assimilating influences. It's about having
enthusiasms, taking responsibility and taking risks. It is as
Jimmy Boyle describes when he speaks of his work in sculpture,
when he found a 'freedom of the mind, a sense of awareness and the
pain that goes with it". 2
Within the prison system there are other kinds of prisons, like
the one described in this poem:
My prison is man made
But the prison that's so painful
Is the prison I have made for my soul.
It closes around me at night.
These walls are high too.
They stretch up and all around
Offering no escape to their weary prisoner. 3
Often the biggest obstacle to their own creativity are the
prisoners themselves. In my experience prisoners are nothing if not
resourceful and imaginative, whether in putting together a makeshift
(21
I
radio or doing a painting or sculpture. But the prisoner who
will be creative with wire and batteries may be the last person
to attempt a painting or a poem. The preconceived ideas prisoners
often have about what rear Art (with a capital A) should look like,
will not allow them to lose face if, in their eyes, they fail to
those preconceptions and paint a 'bad' picture or write a 'bad'
poem. So one has to try to get beyond the barrier of the 'tough
guy' image which prisoners often put between themselves and the
world.
Mountjoy is a very tough prison
Where men cry at night with their tears.
It's also a place for decisions
The first being the sheding of tears. 4
Of course creative activity isn't like some antidote that
will allow a person who has previously been repressed, to suddenly
express their feelings and thus change. But it is possible for a
person to maintain a hard man image and still write poems like
those quoted above. So some kind of balance is achieved, and a
process of self-awareness, however tentative, has begun.
A STRUCTURE FOR CREATIVITY
Sometibes the fact that zreative activity may seem to be so
much at odds with the rest of the prison, is its greatest attraction.
Because then it offers at the very least an escape from that
system, from the boredom, from the tension. Prisoners will come to
an art class or a writing group for many different reasons. Why
they come is not important. Simply,,they, are there and the
possibilities are many.
When I started working in Cork Prison there was no structure
in the art class. Prisoners came to school each day and tried a bit
of everything. So it" was necessary to create a structure because
good art and good writing requires discipline and structure. But
within this, there must be flexibility to allow for the many
different needs of the pupils. Also, it was important to have an
informal and non-threatening atmosphere. So the structure must be
mostly invisible.
To a large extent one could say that it's not possible to teach
art or creative writing. I always think of teaching art as really
teaching people how to see. Skills can be taught and they are vital. IIArt and writing are very much based on personal values which is one
reason why they are so difficult to define. With this in mind,
prisoners are encouraged to experiment and work at their own pace,
keeping in mind that to produce anything worthwhile it takes
hard work and thought and concentration.
Each day is given over to one particular subject e.g. .
on Monday - painting and drawing, on Tuesday - sculpture, on
Wednesday - batik etc. If they concentrate for some time on one skill then they develop what could be called a 'visual vocablary'
with which to express themselves. If they find they don't like it
or are not good at one thing then they can try something else.
Because lack of confidence is a big problem and since it is
important to build up self-esteem, the learning of a skill will
encourage and allow them to try more. Much emphasis is put on the
process because that is where most of the learning takes place. But often for the prisoner the most important thing is the end
product.Because a goal has been reached and the finished product is
like a concrete statement which says 'I have achieved something' or
'I'm good at this'.
Apart from all these more serious ideas it is important to
remember that art is good fun, it's enjoyable, it can be exciting
and it brings a lot of pleasure to people. It makes people happy.
TEAM-TEACHING
Art, like politics, can mean different things to different
people. Art can have a message, a political one, a social one. This was one of the many lessons learned from an experiment we did in team-teaching. A group of prisoners did a twelve week course in art and sociology, with a view to putting the information they learned at sociology into visual form in the art class.
The subject of their course was pollution. The prisoners, armed as
it were, with what they had learned from their course, had to set themselves a goal and set about reaching it. In this case the teacher was just a facilitator and technical advisor. Furthermore,
they had a common goal and this required group co-operation and agreement. In a clever way the group came up with an idea which would allow them to work both as individuals and as members of a
team. Tlieydecided to construct a life-size room from sheets of
board, each board containing a window which depicted a different kind of pollution. Therefore each prisoner could express his own personal vision, knowing it was part of a collective statement.
A recent report on Education in Prisons, prepared by the Select Committee of Experts on Education in Prison, states that
(3)
(s
1
1
'As far as possible, the curriculum is worked out jointly between
the students and teachers' 5 The fact that, in this instance, the
students took so much responsibility for the project, no doubt
contributed to its ultimate success.
Team-teaching doesn't have to be confined to group work,
which has many obvious benefits. And the advantages of the idea
apply not just to the prisoners but the teachers also. It's an
exciting way of working because it allows teachers to expand their
areas and develop new ideas. Sometimes teachers feel they are
working in isolation and the chance to work with one another
offers support and reassurance. When different subjects are brought
together and relate to one another, it puts education in a broader
context and re-enforces an overall philosophy of education. In
Cork Prison, most of the subject areas were brought together when
a whole week was devoted to the theme of Emigration, which is a
growing problem in Ireland.
ART IN AND OUT OF PRISON
In an interview on radio, when asked if he cared what people
thought of his work in an exhibition, a prisoner said 'No, I don't
really care what they think. I'm sure the public out there have
us stereotyped, you know, as a bunch of guys just sitting back
here getting fat...thinking about what's my next job when I get out,11
or crying, you know, self-pity, wallowing in self-pity...'
Exhibitions of art from prisons remind the public that there are II people in prison and that they are active and creative. And this is
a good arguement in their favour. However, many people outside
prison have certain preconceptions about what art from prison will
be like - . The media in particular, looks for the most sensational
and emotional aspects of the work. Exhibitions give the students
something to work for. If some work is sold, then there are
financial rewards. But there is always the satisfaction of
realising that other people are interested in and like their work.
However, the traffic in and out of prison seems to be mostly
one way and it is often easier to get artists and art into prison,
rather than out of it. Many prisons in Ireland have an Arts Week
each year when writers, artists, musicians and performers come
to the prison. If people want to be artists or writers then it's
necessary to see good art and read good books. Cultural events
may often provide a starting point or become a source of encourage-
ment for prisoners to become involved in a creative process. There I
is no doubt too that the staging of plays and exhibitions in
prison can only help to de-mistify these activities which often
seem elitist and inaccessable to prisoners.
The Irish Arts Council operates two schemes called the
Writers-in-Prisons and the Artists-in-Prisons schemes. In these
projects writers and artists come into the prisons to talk about
their work or do specific work with the prisoners. When a prisoner
meets an artist it turns art into a living thing. Coming into
contact with artists' and writers' enthusiasms and their belief in
what they do, can have a motivating effect on the students. And it
must be said, on the teachers also, whose belief in what they are
doing may be faltering after long years in prison. It's also a
chance for teachers to learn more. For the prisoners who might
wish to continue their work outside prison, then useful links have
been made between them and people already working in these areas
outside. (p.e.ecuse tutn to titan3c/cipt o4 Radio Intetview)
CREATIVE WRITING IN PRISONS
From 1985 - 1987 the English poet Ken Smith was Writer-in-
Residence at Wormwood Scrubbs Prison. Of his work there he wrote:
'In any case the problem defined itself as trying to keep the
imagination alive, where any stimulus to the starved prison self
might be a starting point, where language was always charged and
meaningful, mercilessly so, and where men somehow strived to tell their tales, and where my task was to encourage them to talk, to
write, to remember, to think, to keep the mind alive. Because I
believe in growth and the possibility of growth even amongst the
dammed, and because I believe that writing is a progression of
thinking out loud, I therefore worked on the principle that
the men I worked with were seeking help in figuring out who they were, their crimes, how they came here, and considered that they
in any case were their own starting points, and mine.' 6
Perhaps it is the belief in 'growth, and the possibility of
growth' which bring us into prison and keep us working there.
Compared with art and its many apparently intimidating processes
and techniques, writing seems much more accessable to the prisoner.
Who, even with the worst school experience behind the, hasn't
come across some poem or part of a poem that remains with them?
Consider this poem
Tea's up half past ten once more
This prison is a place where loneliness lurks
(5)
(11 But we who work the kitchen, mop the floor
Get tea each morning as our perk
To keep us happy on our work!! 7
It's a simple poem, yet it expresses humour, sadness, irony
and shows perception. It is a record of daily life. Apart from
trying to create literature, this function of recording life or
recording the past is one of the main reasons for writing. Take
a writer like Alexander Solzhenitsyn who wrote about prison.
One of his earliest books was One day in the life of Ivan Denisovich, II
a technically perfect.novella. However, over the years and under
the pressure of his prison experiences, he abandoned literary genres
and wrote the Gulag Archipelago, a series which is pure memory
and history rather than literature. Perhaps there is a lession
here for writing in prisons. That we should be conscious of what
has happened in the prisoners lives. We shouldn't be obsessed
with the creation of good literature. It is important that the
prisoner records what has happened in the past because it is
usually the past which has put him behind bars. I'm reminded of
another Russian writer, Irina Ratushinskaya, who wrote her poems
on toilet paper in an effort to preserve them, because there was
nothing else to write on.
The need to write is expressed in this poem
Poems like cancer
Will not leave me.
They pain me
Especially in the morning
Begging for release.
I cast my pen
Into a resevoir of words.
Stagnant but deep.
If only I could swim. 8
The need to write is the need to express. This illustrates the
theraputic value of writing. People in prison love to write their
life stories, as if by writing them down, those lives take on a
significance and a permenancy which they previously did not have.
Sometimes this story is told in an long autobiography, sometimes
in a poem. Each prisoner must tell his tale, and poetry stirs
the dreams and the ghosts." 9
1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1
( 7)
I' I
CONCLUSION
"Every day is automatic but that doesn't mean your thinking is
automatic. You don't think the same thing every time the door opens
or is locked...so it's a negative atmosphere but you can make it
positive." 10
Creativity is essentially a positive thing. Although the
motivation is often anger, hate, frustration, pain... The impulse
to create is a positive one. In prison it is important to balance
negative and positive experiences, otherwise life is distorted and
bleak. Writing, or working on art, allows people to express themselves
in a non-violent way, people who might previously have_expressed
themselves aggressively. The report on Education in Prison states
that 'At times, also, creativity can be misdirected in destructive
or anti-Social ways and this has been the case for many who are in
prison. '11.
When one is involved in a creative process for some time,
especially writing, then a pattern of attitudes appears, which is
often quite revealing and helps people to learn more about
themselves.It is vital that people remain intellectually alive
and free from their different kinds of prisons. There is much that
is creative in prison, in everybody, and we must look on this as
a great sign of hope. Creative talent is like a muscle that needs
constant exercise and the prisoner, like an athlete, must stay in
training for the world outside.
Catherine Coakley Cork Prison, Ireland.
Notes
1. from The Story of Art by E.M.Gombrich
n . from A Sense of Freedom by Jimmy Boyle
3. from poem Walls by 0.P., prisoner in Cork Prison
4. from poem Mountjoy Prison, by D.O'C., prisoner in Cork Prison
5. from Report on Education in Prison, Strasbourg, July 1989(5.3)
6. from Inside Time by Ken Smith
7. from poem Passing Months by 0.P., prisoner in Cork Prison
8. from poem Poetry by J.L., prisoner in Cork Prison.
9. from Inside Time by Ken Smith
10. from Radio interview with prisoners in Cork Prison.
11. from Report on Education in Prison, Strasbourg., July 1989.(10.1)
End
(1)
INTERVIEW WITH TWO PRISONERS, JOHN AND RAY, IN CORK PRISON, AFTER
AN EXHIBITION OF PRISON ART IN THE TRISKEL ARTS CENTRE, CORK.
Ray: I like painting. I like the feeling, you know, when you're
by yourself, you know what I mean. You've got no problems,
just the painting. That's the way I see it anyway.
And are there things here in Cork Prison that you can look
around at and paint? Are there things that would inspire
you?
Ray: I just work from magazines and posters. I wouldn't be into
painting cell windows and doors. You see a lot of drawings
of fellas painting their cells and things. I'm not into
that at all, you know what I mean? You've got enough of
that already. You're living with that, you know, so why
paint it as well? So when you're painting you're getting
something else.
What about you John?
John: Well, I don't paint. Well, I do paint but I don't paint
very much. I don't like painting.
Well, what would you call your work? It's sculpture really
isn't it?
John: If you want to call it sculpture you can call it sculpture.
I don't know what it is.
But I mean, why did you do it?
John: Am... .1 can't think of an answer to that. I just did it for
the buzz. It's kind of spontaneous, you know? It's just...
I looked around the Art room after being in there for a few
months. I was just sitting down and I saw a lump of wire and
so I decided to shape out something with the wire and got
gloves, garlening gloves, and cut out the wire and made a
model you know? So it turned out to be sculpture, if you
want to call it a sculpture. So it was spontaneous. Nothing
planned.
1
1
1
(2)1 But why did you go to the art class in the first place?
Why not history or biology or...
John: I've done all that. I'm only in school really to get away
from the system, you know, the prison system. 'Cos it's
more relaxed and that's it.
Could you survive here if you didn't go to the school? Or
to classes?
John: Yeah. No problem. No problem. But that's the only reason
I'm in the school really.
Ray: It's a change from the yard. Most other people who're not
going to school are in the yard all day and just walking and
playing handball or football....
John: ...or watching video, you know, watching T.V. That's the way
it goes...
Ray: It's a drag isn't it?
Do you mind the fact though, that your day is set out. That
you get up at a certain time and you get up at the same time
every day? And you go to bed at the same time. You have your
dinner at the same time...
Ray: If you get caught up in it, you know what I mean? It's just
you don't get caught up in it, that's all.
John: It's automatic now, you know.
Ray: You just do different things.
John: You just switch on to it and switch off.
Ray: If you want to do it...say you want to get up... You all
get up, you go to bed, you walk, you sit down, you're
waiting for your dinner, you're waiting 'till after your
dinner, you're waiting, you're waiting, you're waiting,
you're waiting. You just do your own thing then. If you want
(3)
to do painting, you're in painting and that's it, you know
what I mean? That takes you away. Sculpture takes you away
you know what I mean...?
John: It doesn't take me away. I don't get any kick out of it. I
don't get a kick out of very much stuff, you know. I do
a lot of woodwork as well you know. That doesn't do anything
for me either. But I just like the school over here you
know 'cos I can come over here in the morning....
Ray: ...he's just a block of wood...
John: ...and I can have a class. I could have an english class
you know. And I don't have to go into that class you know.
I just tell the teacher I'll be hanging out in the art
class this morning. And that'll be O.K. with him. And
I'll go down to the art class and I'll just get a cup of tea
together and have a conversation with someone, mainly teachers.
So this is your way of escaping if you like, from the life
of prison?
John: Yeah, you could say I'm hiding out here, you know. Hiding
out in the school, that's it.
Ray: I always end up drawing or I'd figure out something to do to
pass the time. I'd always be doing something with my hands
instead of just sitting back and reading books. I'd always
figure out something, you know what I mean, matches or
drawing or markers. I just do something to keep occupied
anyway.
And do you find that, that's a relief from the environment
here?
Ray: I do yeah. That's where I get my release anyway.
How would you describe the environment?
John: Pretty tense.
1
1
(41 Ray: It's tense, yeah, it's very tense.
Well, the physical environment I mean, from an artist's
eye for instance?
John: Artist's eye. I don't have an artist's eye so I can't answer
that. I'll leave that one to Ray.
Ray: Well, I wouldn't call it an artist's eye but I just...I don't
know... I just look at the walls, look at the yards...
They're grey aren't they?
Yeah, they're grey but.. .1 don't know. I don't see no
darkness—like a lot of people...you see a lot of prison
poems and they say darkness, it's grey, it's depressing,
it's this and that...I don't see that you know what I mean?
I'm just...happy the way I am.. .1 get's on. I can make
it something, you know what I mean. You can walk in the
yard...you're walking by yourself there some days and you've
got the big walls. If you start thinking about it, like,
you're only going to depress yourself, you're going to
look... But you can think about it...you can go up and you
can look down and you can think what's it look like now,
you know what I mean, walking in the yard...
John: You can play a game as well. It's like one game, a long
game. You smile you know, when a guy cracks a joke you know.
That doesn't mean you're necessarily happy or that's a good
joke you know. You just laugh, you know, it's just a game
you know, you just get on with it. Every day at a time,
like.
What do the other prisoners think of you because you're in
the art class and because you have done some sculpture?
John: Am.. .1 don't know whay they think of me but some of them
are saying...they're calling me...they're saying your stuff
is very artistic you know. And I say..well...you know what
I mean...I'm a modest guy like you know.
Ray:
You're a modest guy or you don't care?
John: Well, a bit of both, you know. I really don't care but I try to be modest also.
How can you not care when you're told it's good and maybe
deep down inside you know it's good?
John: I look at it this way right? No matter what I do, right,
inside this prison, I'm going to be leaving all this behind
me you know, because I'm going out you know? Because it's
not going to be easy. I have to go back out there and
start from zero, you know? I came into prison four years
ago, you know, and I have to go back out now to nothing,
you know. Well, a family of course but...nothing, like...
financially wise. So I've to start from zero again.
So you think art is going to have nothing to do with your
new life when you get out?
John: No, not until I get myself steady.
Has art helped you to live in prison?
John: Ah.. .no it hasn't.
Ray: Well, I'd be the opposite now 'cos I think it has .
because when I came in first I was wild. I was only
sixteen when I came in...
John: ...And I met him three years ago in Limerick prison, right?
when he just came in and he was...a wildhead you know?
And then he was into drawing the whole time, you know. He
was always at that like. So he's into this.
Ray: So I reckon just...I don't know...by drawing and by...
relaxinjrhile I was doing a painting, I, I just relaxed
in myself. The tension went out of me. So instead of
just fighting all the time or just messing or arguing,
I just got cooler and cooler and just relaxed and just get
on you know.
(5)
( 6 )1 Ray, will you take it with you to the outside world?
Ray: Yeah well, I've learned a big lesson from it anyway, because
I'm able to relax over it, because if I.. .if I was feeling
tension now inside in the cell or something, I'd do a bit
of painting, I'd pick it up. That's it, you know what I
mean? It'd go into the painting then, you know what I mean?
And I'd relax and it'd come out of me and I'd be allright.
Do you get any sense of pride to think your work is on
exhibition and that people are going to look at it and say
it's good?
John: No I don't really care, you know, what they think. I'm
sure like, the public out there have us stereotyped you
know, as a bunch of guys just sitting back there, getting
fat...
Ray: ...talking about robbing...
John: ....what's my next job when I get out or crying, you know,
self-pity, wallowing in self-pity. There's not very much
of that here you know....Like, every day is automatic
but that doesn't mean your thinking is automatic, you know.
You don't think the same things every time the door opens
or is locked, you know. So it's a negative atmosphere but
you can make it positive.
Broadcast on Irish radio in January, 1989.
NIF in Prison
1
The National Issues Forums:
Promoting Learning
and Developing Community
in Prison
James E. Coleman
Education Supervisor
Central Correctional Institution
Macon, Georgia
A. Donald Evans
Department of Sociology
Mercer University
Running head: DEVELOPING COMMUNITY IN PRISON
NIF in Prison
2
Abstract
This is a qualitative study that applied the
National Issues Forums (NIF) as a method for
collaborative learning in a men's prison. From
May through September 1988 the authors used
participant-observation, informal interviews and
video-tapes with two small groups (N-14 and 13) of
prison inmates during 20 two-hour sessions. The
first group served as a pre-test for the second
10-week study. In the beginning there was
intolerance, distrust, hostility and lit:eral
shouting matches. In a matter of weeks group
members began to collectively refer to each other
as "family," "friends," who "trust" each other.
Tolerance for opposing ideas emerged and democracy
in the classroom became the norm. After
discussing crime and problems of education in
America at great length, inmates began to talk
about the welfare of society at large in lieu of
their own personal needs or complaints. While
traditional education programs in prisons teach
1 1
1 1
NIF in Prison
3
academic essentials, our evidence indicates that
NIF effectively teaches tolerance for diversity,
democratic behavior, and promotes the growth of
community and interpersonal trust.
1 1
1 1 1 1
1
NIF in Prison
4
The National Issues Forums:
Promoting Learning
and Developing Community
in Prison
In modern times, education has become the
major "treatment" modality for state prisoners.
Years ago, someone observed that we now ask
education to do for us what we once askèd God to
do. In truth, our strong faith in education has
very long historical roots. From the
morality-based education offered by the Quakers in
the 1700s, to the high-tech, computer-as.sisted
instruction found in many prisons today, educators
have led the way in habilitation.
It is important to realize that education for
prison inmates traditionally has provided the kind
of academic education that most prisoners missed
during childhood. Along with vocational training,
the greatest emphasis in recent times has been
placed upon basic reading, math, and English
skills while communication and interpersonal
skills have received short shrift (Gaither, 1982).
1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
a NIF in Prison
5
This work, therefore, is our response to this
particular vacuum. In this paper we report on the
use of small study circles (i.e., The National
Issues Forums (NIF]) to teach tolerance for
diversity, democratic behavior, to promote trust
and to develop Community in a hostile place. The
NIF approach is explained in the next section
below.
To be more specific, the chief approach to
prisoner education in America today is
individually prescribed instruction. Prisoners
are tested, specific deficiencies are identified,
and modules of instruction are then assigned to
remediate certain academic weaknesses. In short,
students progress at their own pace with only
occasional assistance from teachers who function
primarily as learning manaws (Fox, 1985).
In most correctional education classrooms,
students sit as isolates at a study carrel and
respond to programmed instructional materials.
Obviously, this method of learning provides few
opportunities for social interaction with a
1
NIF in Prison
6
teacher or, for that matter, with other students.
The passive role of the lone learner often results
in boredom and inertia (Gummere, 1988).
In addition to this segregative style of
learning, the nature of the prison environment
itself offers relatively few opportunities for
inmate students to self—express and to emote in a
positive way. In prison, one must always speak
with care or else prepare to defend oneself
verbally or possibly physically from some offended
person who didn't particularly like what you just
said. Furthermore, a careful person must never
express strong feelings about an issue because in
this environment strong feelings may be misread as
weakness; cogency is often perceived as a
challenge.
Spatially speaking, an ,inmate's movement is
significantly restricted. In addition, daily
activity is extremely regimented and casual
communication is strictly controlled by
authoritarian caretakers. In a word, one's
autonomy and liberty are limited; nearly every
NIF in Prison
7
aspect of daily life is regulated. One negative
consequence of this pervasive and strict control
is retardation of both personal development and
academic achievement (Goffman, 1961).
Since learning involves an opportunity to
speak, as well as listen to the responses of
others, a supplementary program that goes beyond
basic academic and vocational skills was needed at
CCI. Such a program would have to offer not only
opportunities for students to interact freely but
would also need to give them some sense of power
and control in their own lives. Ideally, a
program was needed that would encourage prison
students to examine their own values and beliefs
and it should also provide a positive social
environment where they might learn to more
effectively communicate with others (Brookfield,
1986). After reviewing several programs that
promoted interaction in the classroom we decided
that the National Issues Forums (NIF) would help
meet the overall educational needs of inmates at
CCI. This new approach to prison education is
NIF in Prison
8
described below.
The National Issues Forums
The NIF is a learning network used by
churches, libraries, prisons, and colleges, as
well as groups of private citizens. The forums
are designed to help people become more informed
about today's public policy issues, to identify
essential issues, and to explore commonalties that
are held on topics of national concern, topics
like crime and education (Matthews, 1985).
Specifically, NIF is a participant-centered
study group modeled after Swedish study « circles
(Oliver, 1987). Study circles are small groups of
friends, co-workers, and neighbors who meet for
in-depth discussions on current social issues in a
democratic way that facilitates the expression of
choice, the exchange of vies, the display of
leadership, and the exercise of political savvy.
In these small groups of 5 to 12 people,
timely and pressing issues are thoroughly
dissected through an intense process of analysis
and critical thinking in order to fully unveil
1
NIF in Prison
9
almost every possible facet of an issue--both pros
and cons. This is an effective dialectical
process that heightens awareness of important
issues and teaches cooperation, participation,
respect for opposing viewpoints, and inevitably
brings into sharp focus a litany of possible
solutions (Oliver, 1987).
In the free world, the official NIF
organization pinpoints three issues of public
concern each fall, and provides to-the-point,
"non-biased booklets" that effectively explain the
salient details related to these issues. In
effect, NIF provides a conduit by which a study
group's viewpoints can be made known to local,
state and national policy makers (National Issues
Forums Leadership Handbook).
Would this approach woii.k in a prison? Would
small groups of men meet on a volunteer basis to
discuss and debate topics of national concern?
Would they read the booklets, magazines, and
newspapers before each assembly? In the next
section of this paper we describe the physical and
1 1
NIF in Prison
1 0
social world where our experiment would occur.
Central Correctional Institution
CCI is an adult male prison operated by the
Georgia Department of Corrections. The prison,
located in Macon, Georgia, 85 miles south of
Atlanta, is a modern facility that was built in
1978. Although it is a close-security prison that
houses 540 felons (on 12/88) and officially
emphasizes custody, the physical lay-out of the
institution more closely resembles a college
campus than a prison.
A wide range of educational programming is
available at CCI. There are academic programs
designed to meet the overall academic/vocational
needs of the inmate population. For exaMple,
adult basic, remedial reading, and GED preparation
courses are offered (as mentioned earlier) through
a highly individualized curriculum. Students are
assigned to academic programs on the basis of the
competency levels measured on standardized tests.
This approach is meant to allow inmates to enter a
program and to progress at their own speed.
NIF in Prison
11
Another program at CCI is vocational training
which is provided by a local vocational and
technical school. These classes are held on the
institutional grounds, and include courses in
plumbing, brickmasonry, carpentry, electrical
wiring, and horticulture. Courses in this program
are primarily designed to provide job related
skills and to prepare inmates for even more
advanced training following their release from
prison.
Finally, two local schools in the community
provide post-secondary college classes at CCI. A
private Baptist-affiliated school, Mercer
University, offers a four-year program that leads
to a baccalaureate degree in Human Services. The
second school, a proprietary business college
offers courses toward an asspciate degree. The
major focus of this program is the development of
specific skills needed for organizing and managing
• a business.
NIF in Prison
12
NIF: A New Way of Learning
In the summer of 1988 we established two NIF
groups at CCI. The first group was composed of 14
inmate volunteers chosen from the general
population, the Education Supervisor who served as
facilitator, and (eventually) a Sociology
professor who teaches in Mercer University's
prison college program. The first issue we
studied was "Crime: What We Fear, What Can Be
Done." For 12 weeks the average length of all 10
sessions held was 2 hours long. For our research
this first group actually served as a practice
study.
Later, a second group was formed with an
inmate serving as facilitator. His
responsibilities were to encourage individual
participation, keep discussj.ons directed toward
the topic at hand, and take notes for reference.
The second study group was composed of eight men
from the first group, five new volunteers, plus
both authors who assumed the role of
participant—observers. The new topic studied by
1 1 1
•1 1
1 1 1 a 1 1
1
1 1 1
NIF in Prison
13
our second group was titled, "Priorities For Our
Nation's Schools." There were ten 2-hour sessions
that continued over a 14-week period.
Our study of learning and group dynamics is a
qualitative one. We made written notes on the
social interaction and dynamics of each session.
Another successful technique used was informal
interviews of inmate participants. Finally, and
perhaps best of all, our NIF participants held a
"rap session" about their recent study-circle
experiences, and these discussions were
video-taped. Afterward, the tapes were
transcribed and analyzed. We now turn to the
place of study, that is, the setting where we
worked.
The Anguish of
Incarceration
In prison, physical mobility is restricted
and opportunities for candid self-expression are
infrequent. In the words of Sykes (1958)
prisoners experience the "pains of imprisonment"
(p. 63), that is, the loss of liberty, the loss of
1
NIF in Prison
14
goods and services, the loss of heterosexual
relationships, the loss of autonomy, and the loss
of security. In this desolate environment, our
NIF study circle provided a safe social setting
where individuals could actually show genuine
feelings. In these volunteer groups prisoners
discovered that they could sincerely discuss
issues that affected their lives. To put it
another way, the study circle provided a-chance to
speak one's mind, to have an honest opinion, and
to talk without fear of retaliation. The NIF
sessions soon became sanctuaries of selfhood and
cognitive freedom. One articulate inmate said it
well:
Being in prison is being told when to eat, to
sleep, when to go to rec call [i.e.,
recreation call]....Up,here (in the study
circle], we're autonomous, man. We are a
group, we're friends, we talk. I can be real
and if I care about something, I can talk
about it.
NIF 'in Prison
15
Not only are thoughts, talk, and emotions
generally held tight at CCI, but prisoners are
also afforded little space for physical movement.
A 500—man prison sitting on 4 acres of land
epitomizes Collins' notion of "high social
density" (1985, p. 73) where the pressure of the
group upon the individual is strong. Prison time
is always long, but leisure time is all too brief.
Hard choices, therefore, had to be made by group
members about the allocation of their precious
leisure time.
Ah...movement is very restricted here in the
camp. We have...our recreation period which
is really important, but most of us give up
our recreation time and free time in order to
come to the NIF meetings.
Why would prisoners give up free time to discuss
something as abstract and macroscopic as national
issues? They came to the NIF meetings because a
new way of learning and a new freedom was
discovered. In these small circles men found a
social setting where they could learn, think,
NIF in Prison
16
debate and commune with one another in a
pro—social way. In the next section, we discuss
at greater length these new freedoms that emerged
in our study circles.
Freedom: Social and Mental
It turns out that the democratic study circle
provided, among other things, one of the few
opportunities for a person to temporarily escape
the absolute authority of the.. prison
administration in a positive way. The small group
of volunteers not only provided a platform for
self—expression, but it also created a social
climate that permitted a constructive exchange of
ideas. When information was dialectically given
and received without fear of retaliati .on, real
enthusiasm was gradually fostered. As learners
(and teachers), the participants became highly
animated and energized. One man explained both
the pleasure of and the hunger for social and
mental freedom he found in the study circle.
For us, we have very few opportunities within
the prison scheme of things, to be able to
a 1
NIF in Prison
17
sit at a table like this and exchange
intellectually and democratically...there's
no other time of our 24-hour day we have an
opportunity to do that.
To really understand, you'd have to walk
out this door with us and see sometimes.
We're told, 'Time is up,' and 'It's time to
leave,' [the study circle] and [ you should]
see us out there...ah...trying to squeeze out
another 5 or 10 minutes listening
to...ah...'you know, that was a good point
you brought up. I never heard that point
brought up in such a way.' [We'll try to]
spend another 5 or 10 minutes, [without]
being run-in, you know. [And a guard says,]
'It's time to go in, it's time,'
and...watching us walkt away [in different
directions] because one of us lives in this
building and one [in another building]....and
(we're] talking and...ah...spread apart and
yelling and our voices rising just so we can
(continue talking]...because we're trying to
NIF in Prison
18
squeeze every moment out of what we're doing
because our adrenaline is flowing. We're
going, we're excited about it, we have
learned something. You know, I felt like,
see, if every day could be a learning
experience...and, to learn from someone
else...and because of the wide variety of
people you have here, the wide backgrounds
that you have, you learn a lot of things that
were never...you know, never brouelt to your
attention before, that you've never been
exposed to.
In his own words he notes how collaborative work
with others (in lieu of traditional lectures)
produces learning and also dulls some of the pain
of prison life. There is no brighter picture of
the great pleasure that learning brings than this
one. It is learning, he observed, from a
cosmopolitan group of very diverse backgrounds and
cognitive resources. But things were not so
bright in the beginning as we point out in the
next section.
NIF in Prison
19
The Evolution of
Freedom and Cohesion
The democratic nature of our study circle was
not present from the beginning. Initially, there
was little respect or tolerance for the ideas of
others. At first, most group members focused on
the differences of others rather than on the
commonalities. But time and talk would turn this
-- around and one articulate man described this
radical transformation:
[Don] should have been here for some of our
first meetings....We had personal slurs.
Man! We had infighting! The whole macho, ego
thing, the competition for time on the table.
Absolutely no democracy....But we've gotten
closer....We've learned things and now, we've
all become...pretty tight. We've seen a lot
of changes up here.
After a short period of anarchy, displays of
egoism, and distrust, group members then began to
identify with each other and to collectively
construct issues, solutions, and definitions of
1 •
NIF in Prison
20
reality. Trusting relationships evolved and
increased tolerance for differing views slowly
emerged. During this transformation we observed a
complete validation of Homans' theorem that says
the more people interact, the greater is the
probability that they will become friends (1950).
At CCI some men began to talk in a language rarely
heard in prison.
This group...has evolved into...a trusting
relationship, between each other, which was
not present in the very beginning...and
that's what's different; that's what's
different in the rest of our life in this
prison system...is trust. When you're...down
there in the dorm, there is no trust. We've
learned that trust is important...ah...in
everything, in every.. c facet of life.
When people talk at length, they can hear and
see the inner self of the other. As these group
members disclosed their own views and positions on
a topic, personal needs and longings would often
surface. Through social discourse, the group
NIF in Prison
21
i l
1
slowly became a trusting unit. It seems that
whenever people, even convicted felons, talk long
enough, humanity emerges because talk is the
hallmark of that humanity. This verbal exchange
of views is clearly the principal means for
achieving high levels of intersubjectivity.
Knowledge, trust, and friendships were born in
these extended talkathons:
There are several conducive settings for
meeting people. And friendships, or trust,
or relationships develop based on knowing a
little more about each other and this is
where trust evolves from. So any of these
fellows here on...back in the dorm, or on the
yard, can know assuredly now that they can
say about anything they want to...to any of
the other guys in berg without any fears
whatsoever. It's because we have this
relationship, we have this friendship,
whatever you want to call it. We have this
trust...ahhh:...and it's an intellectual
meeting.
NIF in Prison
22
Typically, prisoners are sequestered from the
larger society and like many other incarcerated
people, our men harbored strong feelings of
alienation. Rejected, convicted, stigmatized, and
segregated--their sense of loss and
disconnectedness was great. What could improve
these negative effects? A collection of
individuals communicating with one another over a
considerable span of time and discovering that
they had some intermutual values that governed
their positions on national issues might remedy
this.
After several long talks NIF members actually
began to express a strong concern about national
policy issues. Intelligent conversations about
the greater good seemed to minimize some of the
effects of confinement by creating a link to real
problems and issues facing ordinary citizens in
the outside world. To put it another way, our
participants discovered a way to transcend their
own confinement and alienation by physically and
mentally banding together in the NIF study circle.
NIF in Prison
23
Here, the mind was free from the imposed
constraints of the main population; new roles were
assumed, responsible roles, roles that allowed
disenfranchised men an opportunity to grapple with
national issues, to become participants with
society—at—large. Through NIF participation
individuals became part of the whole again. Under
the NIF umbrella, they could inject themselves
into significant matters that touched their
country, their towns, their families. One man
explained how the sessions helped individuals look
beyond their own being:
We want to be involved in what's happening
outside of the walls. It affects everybody
around us. It affects our families and
everything, and that's the most important
thing, that we know wilat's affecting us even
though we're not out there in mainstream
society right now. But it will affect us
when we get out and....we have to
play--society has to play a part...with us in
order to give us a chance to come [back] into
NIF in Prison
24
society when we leave these walls...smoothly,
and not have a radical or a vengeful outlook.
We came here [to the study circle] and
we speak about the issues that are affecting
us personally--it's not a personal
thing--it's an interpersonal thing that were
dealing with. Issues that involve, not only,
just us, in here, but everyone, all over the
world. I mean...education...health, and —
crime...whatever you can think of, whatever
issue that comes into hand, or whatever issue
that would come into your mind--we deal with
it here, see?
In these social encounters the welfare of the
group took precedence over the mere individual.
Talk and thought focused upon the whole, something
quite contrary to usual talk and thought found in
a prison.
Democracy and Adult Learning
The format of the small study circle has made
a strong statement about how adults learn. First,
it was important to them to be in a structured,
NIF in Prison
25
yet highly flexible learning environment.
Secondly, the interdisciplinary nature of the
study-circle approach was identified as something
that contributed significantly to the learning
process. The group was able to draw from all
areas of academic study rather than being limited
to a single discipline. They appreciated an
opportunity to participate actively, sincerely,
and freely. Again, the egalitarian character of
the study-circle approach was praised.
With the study circle, we have a
democratic...ah...one-on-one
exchange....ah...everyone gets to
participate, everyone! Whenever they feel
they have.. .an idea or point, they want to
make, the format is flexible enough to allow
you to be able to maket that contribution;
whereas in a...college class it's an
instructional thing where basically you
have...ah...a bunch of students who
occasionally raise their hand, but basically
it's a lecturer who's an authority talking
NIF in Prison
26
down to you.
By coming together [in a study circle]
like this, we are furthering our education!
Now, it may drift from Sociology to
Psychology; it may interrelate different
subjects--whereas, in most traditional
college courses you are focused on one
subject and that's it! In a college class we
only hit upon one subject. When we deal with
this National Issues Forums, we deal on a
broad national basis of the issues that are
affecting us and everybody else around
us....that's the most important thing.
Thesis, Antithesis, Synthesis:
Finding Common Ground
Part of the magic of small study circles is
the topics that are read and discussed. Topics
like Crime and Education are macroscopic, timely,
and extremely relevant. These two particular
issues dominate daily news stories. By reading
and learning and then intelligently debating
solutions to these important societal problems,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1
NIF in Prison
27
our inmates psychologically joined
America-at-large. The "petty-ass" talk of the pod
(dormitory) was transcended, replaced altogether
by very stimulating "talk" found in the NIF
sessions. In this circumstance a member felt
useful, felt like a normal contributing citizen of
society. Again, group discussions of common
problems combated alienation and promoted
integration.
This place [CCI] is so isolated that before
[National] Issues Forums, a lot of these guys
in this room, I wouldn't have a conversation
with because I didn't feel there was any
common ground to have a conversation about
and I didn't choose to talk about petty-ass
stuff going on in this institution.
I'm not so sure. 4 .I'm not so sure that
it's the topic, itself, that is really the
most important thing. I think that we could
get together around the National Issues
Forums...ah...topics, but I think what's
really, or what seems to me to [bel one of
1
NIF in Prison
28
the things that's really happening s here, is
the group dynamics...ah...that we are
learning to exchange, to be courteous to one
another, to be democratic, to...ah...have an
exchange of ideas, and be able to differ with
one another without getting into a fist
fight. Coming through prison, you know what
to expect. You go to prison, you're violent.
You don't put up with anybody treading on
your space, you hit them in the nose if
that's the case--and we are learning to
communicate!
In these study circles men replaced physical
encounters with verbal ones. Eventually, a social
situation evolved where one could speak freely,
openly, frankly, and without fear of physical
reprisal.
Communication is essential to community. The
successful conveyance of a participant's ideas
required not only the adoption of appropriate
listening skills, but the administration of
respect and tolerance as well. The interchange of
NIF in Prison
29
diverse thoughts and ideas resulted in increased
levels of understanding, mutual respect, and
personal growth.
Conclusion
At CCI the NIF format promoted analytical and
critical thinking skills not generally emphasized
in a core basic education curriculum. There also
emerged a significant development of respect for
and tolerance of diverse positions and viewpoints
set forth by other discussants. Such social,
civil, and cognitive skills are, of course,
prerequisites for many jobs on the outside.
Inmate participation in NIF study groups
seems to have potential for yielding immeasurable
benefits, not only for the individual, but for
society as well. At the very least, consciousness
of issues was raised, camaraderie and friendships
were developed, and some narrow—mindedness was
abandoned. In our small study circle every inmate
became a student and a teacher. In this unusual
setting they really exercised independent thinking
and talking. The result of this experience was a
1 •
NIF in Prison
30
reduction of feelings of inadequacy, alienation,
powerlessness, and the enhancement of self-worth.
Most free-society citizens enjoy democracy.
"Most," however, excludes prisoners. Prison
inmates constitute the most disenfranchised of all
groups in America. It would seem, therefore, that
it would be advantageous to all concerned if we
could nurture and develop in them a sense that
they too, still have a vital stake in American
society. We believe we have found strong evidence
that participation in NIF study circles can put
many inmates in touch with the free world and
simultaneously reduce ubiquitous alienation found
in most prisons. By creating community, combating
idleness, isolation, and mental decay, some of the
negative effects of institutionalization can be
minimized. We do not claim that participation in
the NIF has any effect on criminal behavior per
se, but we do claim that much useful learning took
place, that trust, tolerance, respect, and
friendships grew and developed during these
sessions. Will they last? Only longitudinal
NIF in Prison
32
References
Brookfield, S. D. (1986). Understanding and
facilitating adult learning. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass, Inc.
Collins, R. (1985). Sociology of marriage and
family: Gender, love and property. Chicago:
Nelson Hall.
Fox, V. (1985). Introduction to corrections
(3rd. Ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
Hall, Inc.
Gaither, C. C. (1982). Education behind bars: An
overview. The Journal of Correctional
Education, 33, 9-23.
Goffman, E. (1961). Asylums: Essays on the
social situation of mental patients and other
inmates. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books
Doubleday and Company, Inc.
Homans, G. (1950). The human group. New York:
Harcourt Brace.
Matthews, D. (1985). The Domestic Policy
Association: A test of public communication.
Association for Communication Administration
1
NIF in Prison
33
Bulletin, January, 75-78.
National issues forums leadership handbook.
Oliver, L. P. (1987). Study circleé. Cabin
John, MD: Seven Locks Press.
Sykes, G. M. (1958). The society of captives: A
study of maximum security prisons. Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press.
1
NIF in Prison
34
Author Notes
We wish to thank our students at Central
Correctional Institution for their participation
and their trust in the integrity of our study.
We also wish to extend our thanks to Jack
Stahlkuppe, whose tireless devotion beneath the
screen of an Apple Ile assisted us through untold
drafts of this paper.
A. Donald Evans is an associate professor of
Sociology at Mercer University in Macon, Georgia
where he has taught corrections for 18 years. He
received both an MA and a PhD in Sociology from
Louisiana State University and later conducted
research in Mexican prisons. He has conducted
several studies of prison inmate culture, deaf
children in residential schools and four different
tribes of American Indians. He has published in
all of these fields and presently is co-author of
a book manuscript about underground economic life
of a prison.
-
EDUCATION FOR EX-OFFENDERS
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 In creating and supporting the development of an Education for Ex-Offenders Unit within the Continuing Education Service Leeds City Council has established a unit which perhaps is unique in the United Kingdom.
2. Lawbreaking is not of course restricted to any one sex, race, class or age group, etc. Educationalists in the community will, laiowingly or otherwise, meet offenders/ex-offenders everywhere. However, work specifically designed to meet the needs of ex-offenders wàs initiated by Leeds Continuing Education Service, in conjunction with West Yorkshire Probation Service in Autumn 1981.
3. The rationale for initiating that work included:-
Beliefs - about the value of all individuals and their rights to appropriate education/training resources.
Experience - of the positive role of education in widening choices, enabling potential and changing lives.
Recoeition - that the accumulation of negative experiences faced by many offenders
a) made it unlikely that they would feel able to make use of existing provision.
h) led to the waste of their many abilities and potential contribution to society; and the repetition of disadvantage throu,gh the family cycles.
Concern - to identify and respond to the spebial and unrecognised learning needs of this group in accordance with the emerging priorities of the Service.
14. Target Group
4.1 It is important at this point to emphasize that within the unit there has never been (nor could be) any exclusive focus on the offender/ex-offender. Nor wa -s it appropriate or desirable simply to look at the education issues around offending behaviour. In educational terms it made no sense to distinguish the offender from a constituency of people who often shared a whole gamut of negative experiences which often isolate them from others and create very distinct special learning needs:
- long term unemployment and poverty; having to survive on benefits
- poor and often fragmented experiences of education with qualifications incomplete
- rootlessness - living in hostels/bedsits, not part of any community often moving round the country gravitating to the City Centre in the daytime
- relationships - often ephemeral - little good experience of friends or family
- "in trouble with the law", or at risk
2
- other problems - mental health, addiction, institutionalisation, physical disability
4.2 There are positive assets too, often ignored, which make it so important that opporttnities are provided:
- skills of all kinds and adaptability
- creativity, imagination and artistic talent
- humour, generosity, insight and resilience
5. Explicit Aims/Objectives
5.1 To provide appropriate access routes (guidance, counselling, information, support, advocacy, etc ) to existing mainstream and community based opportunities for education and training.
5.2 To make special provision in the City Centre where required in addition to or separate from existing opportunities.
5.3 Implici t Aims/Objectives
To explore the possibilities, the learning gained and the effectiveness of working closely with other caring agencies - especially with thé Probation Service.
5.4 To heighten educationalists' awareness of the issues around this non-traditional work.
5.5 To promote the work and lobby for resources.
6. Style of Work
- developmental and innovative
- perceptive and responsive
consultative and negotiated
- "collaboi-ative and non-compartmentalised
, - student-centred and needs led
7. The Unit has developed in four major directions so far, all based in "Oxford Place Education Centre":
7. 1 "The Basemen t" - special provision: an informal drop-in learning centre with a wide range of opportunities, not excluding educational guidance.
7.2 "Bridging the Gap" - (its name follows the report written for the Home Office by the National Association for the Care and Resettle-ment of Offenders)
- provides educational guidance, information and support i service to offenders inside prison and outside on their
release
1■■
1
- 3
7.3 "Outreach" - taking educational processes: provision and/or educational guidance and support into other settings acceptable to the target group, eg . in hostels and day centres.
7.4 Collaboration/Promotion - a wide variety of initiatives and active relation-ships developed:
a) to create, widen'or sustain the network of oppor tuni ties .
h) to validate the place of education in working with this client group.
- 4 -
"THE BASEMENT" OXFORD PLACE EDUCATION CENTRE
8. History and Structure
"The Basement" was the first of the joint Education Department/Probation Service initiatives, following a successful pilot project within an inner city Probation Day Centre.
"The Basement" can most easily be described as an educational day centre. It is situated in the basement of Oxford Place Chapel next to the Leeds Crown Courts, staffed by part-time teachers and a full-time Co-ordinator and Deputy Co-ordinator. There is a full-time Probation Service Assistant, who is a member of the Central Resources Team of Leeds Probation Division of West Yorkshire Probation Service. The Senior Probation Officer of the Central Resources Team is in regular contact, provides supervision, and attends Basement team meetings. The Centre is jointly funded by Leeds Education Department and the Probation Service. (Management structure and funding information at Appendix A and B).
9. Student Body and Specific Learning Needs
The life experience of Basement students is likely to include many of the elements described at 4. As a result they may:
- suffer loss of confidence and low self image
- seem apathetic, bored, uniable to articulate choice
- expect feilure and fear new opportunities
- feel thembelves to be the victim of circumstances, with no control of their lives
- lack interpersonal skills
- not see themselves as learners ( and indeed feel alienated from everything they understand as "education")
These feelings and self perceptions constitute a barrier to conventional teaching methods and matter, and are themselves a hidden curriculum to be addressed. Whilst they may sometimes be formally identified as "objects for study" it would be more usual for other subject material to function as a contextual framework in which such social education and fouidation learning can take place.
Other learning needs are well identified in "Adult Unemployment and the Curriculum" FEU 1985, and many recent publications about the "Adult Basic Education" s tud en t.
10. Aims - Objectives
10. 1 In this con text the Basemen t aims to provide:
- information to all who drop in to the Basement on appropriate education and training opportunities
- comselling and guidance to ensure Basement-student progression
- support to students also engaged in education/training elsewhere
- special provision as described in 11 and 12 below
-5-
10.2 In terms of its own provision, the Basement aims:
- to provide a safe environment
- to foster confidence, self worth and empowerment
- to ensure that students can take responsibility for their own learning
- to enable co-operative relationships
- to offer listening and caring
- to provide legitimate opportunities for fun and enjoyment
- to widen choices and so promote change
- to provide a wide range of opporttnities for learning, relevant to students' lives and using students' experience (skills knowledge, attitudes, behaviour).
- to promote equal opportmities
- to provide opportunities for achievement
- to enable a good learning experience on which students can build
11. Learning Programme
The current timetable is attached.
Learning also takes place via:
a) One to one - counselling, assessment, negotiation etc.
b) Educational visi ts
c) Residential experiences: cg, Northern College (3 groups this year) (mostly based round Basic Skills learning) Countryside residentials which focus on social and environmental learning
in 1989 • A women's group in Horton-in-Ribblesdale • A first-time residential group at Bretton
in the Peak District • An exoerienced group at Bakewell • A four-day hostel-to-hostel group in the
Peak District.
d) Project weeks, one day workshops, "theme" weéks, eg, anti-racist week, health week.
e) The Centre meetings , student committee and coffee bar involvement.
f) Social events jointly organised by staff and students.
12. The Basement also offers educational advice and encouragement to people who wiah to move on and look for other classes in the community, or for other ways of occupying their time. The Basement works with people of widely differing abilities and responds to referrals from people who have a sudden
- 6 -
desire to make better use of their time. Normal Further Education institutions have a formal atmosphere and tend t,o have set enrolment dates, but in the Basement people who are not sure of what they would like to do, can sample the various classes, or sit on the sidelines for a little while, and watch tritil they feel confident enough to participate.
13. Evaluation
The work of the Basement is evaluated from a variety of perspectives:
- by the students themsèlves. As with all basic education student-centred work, students' perceptions of their own progress towards their °WTI
goals is of major importance.
- by the staff - in measuring achievement of objectives and personal performance.
- by the agencies involved in identifying the contribution the Basement makes to work with clients (for the Probation Serviceextending the take-up and the understanding of work with this client group (for the Education Depar tmen t) .
14. Take- up and Comment
Attendance is not exclusively from people lalowin to the Probation Service, and the Centre is not approved for use as part of a Probation Order. Having said that, the Basement's activities are geared to dealing with Probation clients, and a substantial number of the users are made up of people known to the Service. The skills of staff and the emphasis on learning has made it possible to cope with a number of very demanding and difficult clients of the Probation Service who would have found it very difficult to engage in constructive activities elsewhere.
Statistical information follows. (See Appendix C)
fNETWORK AND PROMOTION
This represents other responsibilities initiated or undertaken by Co-ordinator
Mil MI am imp es or MI MS Urn MIS IOU let Ile
APPENDIX A
Senior Management
Co-ordinator Education Ex-Offenders [SL]
BASEMENT
Deputy Co-ordinator EL] (responsible for daily management etc)
Administrative/Clerical Assistant (P/T)
Probation Service Assistant*
1 Assistant Lecturer (responsible for special work with RSA Continuing Certificate of Education)
10 P/T Teachers
BRIDGING THE GAP
Education Guidance Worker [ L]
P/T Education Guidance Worker
P/T Admin/Clerical Assistant
1 Volunteer
OUTREACH
P/T teachers
P/T Educational Guidance Workers
P/T Outreach Support Worker
P/T Clerical Assistant
Volunteers and Placements
All based on premises in the semi-basement of Oxford Place Chapel.
Notes
* This Probation Worker is responsible to the Basement on a day to day basis.
•
APPENDIX B
FUNDING
Probation Service Education Department Basement Coffee Bar
P/T teaching budget approx £60,000
2 Admin/Clerical
Rent and upkeep of Bridging the Gap premises
£500+ per annum for other "extra mural" eventb.'
1 FIT Probation 3 F/T salary and oncosts Service Assistant
1 AL Rental of Premises
Upkeep
Cleaning ) of ) premises
Electüicity )
Telephone
Materials/equipment etc £5,500
Sundry other Contributions
Chari ties
£1,705 in 1989 for residentials
Total number of class attendances Student hours
Average weekly attendance Monday ---> Thursday (3)
Average class attendance (minimum/maximum) (4)
!It 1011111 1111111 ell/ VII» Olt MI MI lilt 11118 me nu uot IS MI
APPENDIX C
BASEMENT STATISTICS 1 SEPTEMBER 1987 -----> 31 JULY 1988
(1) Number of individuals recorded as attending
Number of new stud en ts
Number of students attending one class or more regularly (2)
Average number of classes attended regularly by these students (minimum/maximum)
New students who achieved regular attendance
Previous occasional students now attending regularly
Males Females
SEPTEMBER TO JANUARY TO APRIL TO WHOLE YEAR DECEMBER '87 MARCH '88 JULY '88
144 - 167 140 264
56 75 56 187
45 51 40 88 (10F/41M) (9F/31M)
not 3.1 3.4 available (1 - 10) (1 - 12)
7 15 8 27
not 7 available
2424 1939 1687 6050
4848 3878 3374 igloo
173 176 --
7 7.3 6.5 6.9
(2 - 12) (2 - 13) (2 - 15)
(5)
not 140 113 available 23 27
AGE RANGE RECORDED IN A TYPICAL WEEK'S SURVEY
Age Range
16 - 21 25%
21 - 30 42%
30- 45 20%
45 - 60 13%
1987 (1988 NOT YET AVAILABLE) STUDENTS' BACKGROUND IN TERMS OF OFFENDING, HOMELESSNESS, HAVING PROBATION OFFICER/SOCIAL WORKER ETC
Numbers acknowledging Probation Officer (past or present) 50%
Numbers acknowledging Social Worker 9%
Numbers from Detox, Prison, Addiction Unit, NACRO etc 7%
Number known to be on the circuit (ie, living in hostel using day centres etc) 11%
77%
Mg Mk MD MN INN 1111111 Mk IN Mlle MI 11111111 Sall MI IMO MI 1111111$ asp um
NOTES TO BASEMENT STATISTICS
1. These are all minimum numbers. Perhaps a further 10% are unaccounted for as it may be threatening, and inappropriate in the drop-in situation to take newcomer's name.
2. Regular attendance means five or more attendances within a 10 week period.
3. Weekly figures not provided for summer term since these are distorted by day visits, residentials, project weeks which are registered on a different basis.
4. It is a feature of all group work with these students that it is not possible to work with large numbers. A large group one day often leads to smaller numbers the next day, or on the next session. Students may feel threatened or neglected or can become disruptive. Compare with group size in mental health institutions.
5. Welcome increase in the proportion of women attenders is partly due to creche access made possible by grant from Women's Committee.
T.I.E. AND THE OHIO PLAN: BLUEPRINT FOR SUCCESS
by
Susan S. Davis, Ph.D.
Deputy Warden--Training, Industry, Education
Ross Correctional Institution
Chillicothe, Ohio, U.S.A.
Prepared for Second International Conference on Prison Education 1989
Wadham College, Oxford, United Kingdom •
mu T.I.E. and The Ohio Plan: Blueprint for Success
1 by
Susan S. Davis, Ph.D.
Deputy Warden--Training, Industry, Education Ross Correctional Institution
Chillicothe, Ohio, U.S.A.
The Ohio Plan for Productive Prisons has provided a clear policy
direction for extending and defining the mission of confining adult
offenders in safe, secure, humane institutions. Faced with the problems
of a rising population and inmate idleness, Ohio has responded by develop-
ing The Ohio Plan into a blueprint for combining basic components of train-
ing, work, and education into a systematic approach to benefit both inmates
and the institutions.
The programs to be described offer innovative approaches to the
T.I.E. (training, industry, education) concept. Each is designed to in-
crease participation in treatment programs; generate meaningful, productive
work through purposeful job assignments; and enhance employment skills
through directed personal career programming, thereby bettering offenders'
chances for success upon release. Highlighted T.I.E. programs include:
adult literacy, Outpost, the vocational-industrial Learning Center, high
school options, internships for inmate college students, and pre-release.
These programs may be operated on a low budget and in various institutional
settings.
T.I.E. AND THE OHIO PLAN: BLUEPRINT FOR SUCCESS
by
Susan S. Davis, Ph.D.
Former U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice Warren Burger has vigorously
and persistently called for reform of American correctional philosophy,
which would transform "human warehouses" into "factories and schools with
fences," whose goal would be to provide education, skills, and work experi-
ence necessary to enable inmates to secure and retain employment upon release.
He has further challenged the correctional system to assume a "role beyond
incapacitation." The source of his ideas may be traced back more than a
century to the first National Prison Congress convened at Cincinnati, Ohio,
in 1870, when U.S. prison leaders drafted a Declaration of Principles to
usher prison reform into the twentieth century. Productive work and
training were integral parts of the Declaration's foundation. To effect
this systemic change requires a very close, virtually symbiotic, relation-
ship among prison industries, vocational and academic programs. Until
recently, such cooperation has been rare.
The T.I.E. (Training, Industry, Education) concept received formal
recognition in 1985, when a T.I.E. Conference was held in Chicago,
Illinois. The conference, co-sponsored by correctional education and
industry associations, provided the first national forum for academic
and vocational educators and prison industry staff to jointly examine
obstacles to closer cooperation, develop strategies for overcoming these
obstacles, and formulate common goals and partnerships. The dialogues
gave rise to a movement which is gaining momentum steadily in America's
federal and state correctional systems.
The Ohio Department of Rehabilitation and Correction (ODRC)
embraced the T.I.E. concept in 1986. Faced with severe overcrowding,
aging institutions, an ambitious prison construction schedule, and the
need for more effective, structured programming, Director Richard P. Seiter
developed a concept paper which, by January 1987, had evolved into The
Ohio Plan for Productive Prisons. The Ohio Plan implemented a new approach
to inmate training, work, and education and redefined the ODRC's mission
to confine adult offenders in safe, secure, humane institutions and to pro-
vide a productive, work-oriented environment.
The Ohio Plan goals have two T.I.E. focuses: (1) Emphasis is on work
assignments linked to training and education. Inmates will be more active,
idleness will be reduced, and directed personal career programming will be
better directed. Meaningful work.programs contribute to a safer, better
controlled, positive prison environment and improve the efficiency of
institutional operations. (2) Inmates will acquire employment skills and
positive work habits and will be better prepared to enter the competitive
world of work upon release (ref. Figures 1 and 2).
The Ohio Plan has several noteworthy characteristics:
(1) Functional literacy is Priority One. Inmates demonstrating
literacy achievement below the 6.0 grade level (as measured by a stand-
ardized test) are required to participate in a basic education program
for a minimum of 90 days. Attendance beyond 90 days is voluntary.
(2) All work assignments have clearly defined job descriptions and
are coded according to the U.S. Department of Labor Dictionary of
Occupational Titles.
(3) Each job has specified requirements for education and training.
The more technical or complex the job, the more training or education
OHIO PLAN GOALS: TO INCARCERATE laMTES IN IleMNE, SAFE AND, SECURE INSTITUTIONS WITH MANDATORY WORK .PROGHAYS,
TO DEVELOP A MORE STRUCTURED MANAGEMENT I APPROACH THAT DIRECTLY BENEFITS EMPLOYEES, BY CLEARLY SETTING FORTH CONSISTENT 1 EPECTATIONS FOR INMATES, •
TO DEVELOP A SYSTEMATIC APPROACH FOR IN- • MATES TO HAVE AN OPPOPTUNITY TO DEe OP THEIR CAREER PLANS THROUGH A COMBINATION I OF INSTITUTIOAIAL WORI{ ASSIGNMENTS AND BASIC EDUCATION, 1
TO REDUCE INMATE IDLENESS AND PROVIDE PEANI INGFIll INSTITUTIONAL iliOff PROGRAMS AT ALL. LEVEL S,
TO MPLEMENT A CLEARLY ESTABLISHED TRAINAll INDUSTRY, AND EDUCATION (TIE) APPROACH TOI WOE( MOAK
TO OUTLINE INSTITUTION PROGRAMS AND PROVIDi OPPORTUNITIES FOR INMATES TO PARTICIPATE THESE PROGRAMS,
AIIIA Al 7 ill PAA elnieJelnie
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is required.
(4) All inmates are required to work. If an inmate wants an
advanced job but lacks the qualifications, training and education are
available to him/her to acquire the necessary skills. An inmate may
request transfer to another institution to participate in a specialized
academic, vocational, or industry program, providing his/her security
level is compatible with that of the institution requested.
(5) A deputy warden of T.I.E. is assigned to each institution to
supervise and coordinate T.I.E. functions and departments interfacing
with T.I.E.--i.e., substance abuse (recovery services), psychological
services, religious services, and recreation.
(6) A job coordinator at each institution coordinates inmate assess-
ment, performs job counseling, maintains institution job listings, job
descriptions, inmate payroll, and inmate employment portfolios.
(7) All work is treated similarly, and the following elements are
addressed: instilled pride/purpose, pay incentives and disincentives,
useful productivity, career ladder, suitable rewards, job involvement,
proper work ethics, real world-related job duties, job performance evalu-
ations, and training-education-job linkage.
The Ohio Plan process consists of four (4) steps designed to provide
a continuum from entry to release. The steps are assessment and employment
portfolio, guidance and counseling, T.I.E. placement, and pre- and post-
release (ref. Figure 3).
Assessment and Employment Portfolio. Assessment begins at the reception
center and continues at the parent institution during orientation. All in-
mates are administered an appropriate level of the California Test of Adult
Basic Education (CTABE). Those scoring high enough on the CTABE take the
FIGURE 3
THE OHIO PLAN PROCESS
FLOW CHART
RECEPTION
I Ohio Plan Orientation
Testing
Portfolio Initiated
1 PARENT INSTITUTION
Ohio Plan Orientation
Testing
Portfolio Development
T.I.E. Assignment
Classification
Reclassification
1 INSTITUTIONAL TRANSFERS
Portfolio Reevaluation
T.I.E. Assignment
PRE-RELEASE (PAROLE, FURLOUGH, DETERMINANT SENTENCE RELEASE)
Portfolio Finalized
Community Linkages
General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB) and an interest inventory. The
test results are stored on a microcomputer disk which accompanies the
inmate on each institutional transfer. Also on the disk is pertinent
civilian information, pre-prison and prison education, training, and
employment data. These data comprise the inmate employment portfolio.
Guidance and Counseling. Job counseling is provided by the job
coordinator and housing unit management team, and work assignments are
made based on the employment portfolios provided by the job coordinator.
The guidance counselor places inmates referred for additional education
or vocational training. Career counseling is performed periodically by
the job coordinator and the unit team, and each work supervisor or teacher
provides periodic work evaluation and counseling.
T.I.E. Placements. Inmates are assigned to one of five TIE tracks
(job clusters). The T.I.E. concept identifies essential clusters for
inmates progressing through structured work and training experiences.
The Academic TIE encompasses all mandatory and voluntary education
programs--basic literacy through postsecondary. This TIE may extend into
post-release. Work assignments are linked to clerical positions and other
institutional jobs requiring academic preparation.
The Vocational/Apprenticeship TIE places inmates in vocational train-
ing, apprenticeship, or on-the-job training programs consistent with their
interests and aptitudes. This TIE includes all skilled trades such as
carpentry and culinary arts and may extend into post-release.
The Industrial TIE provides an inmate with pre-industrial and/or
specific vocational training prior to or concurrent with placement into an
,Ohio Penal Industries (OPI) job.
The Service TIE provides initial work assignments for offenders entering
the system and those not wishing to enter a specialized TIE. Assignments
in the less skilled work areas include laundry worker, janitorial worker,
and farm laborer.
The Special Needs TIE is designed for those inmates requiring sheltered
work and intensive programming, including the mentally and physically handi-
capped, geriatric, or psychologically impaired. Mainstreaming with other
TIEs whenever possible is stressed.
Pre- and Post-Release. Four regional pre-release centers in Columbus,
Cleveland, Cincinnati, and Toledo, Ohio, plus pre-release programs at each
parent institution service inmates who are within six weeks of release.
The programs emphasize transition from prison to the community. The curric-
ulum includes job readiness instruction, completion of employment portfolios,
community linkages, and job placement in cooperation with field represent-
atives from the Ohio Bureau of Employment Services.
To fully appreciate the value and challenge of diverse, innovative TIE
programming, it is beneficial to examine the goals of prison industry in
comparison with those of vocational training and academic education, as
Coffey's schematic 1 illustrates:
Goals of Prison Industry
Offenders Institutional Societal
Vocational training
Good work habits
Real work experience
Life management experience
Reduce idleness Reduce cost of corrections
Repay society Dependent support
Victim restitution
Future law-abiding
Goals of Vocational Training
Offenders Institutional Societal
Marketable skill Reduce idleness Future employability
Goals of Vocational Training (continued)
Offenders Institutional Societal
Future economic independence
Future law-abiding
Good work habits Training for prison industry
Wàrk experience Training for institutional
Learning haw to learn maintenance
Credentia1s
Goals of Academic Training
Offenders Institutional Societal
Future employability
Future economic independence
Future law-abiding
Fünctional literacy Reduced idleness
Learning how to learn Readiness for prison industry
Readiness for voca- Readiness for institutional jobs
tional training
Readiness for higher
academic education
Credentials
Not only are the societal goals virtually identical, but both
sequencing and interrelationships exist among the three areas. "Employ-
ability" is the key word; but the goals of the offender must be balanced
with societal and institutional goals if the ultimate goal--the offender's
successful reintegration to society--is to be attained.
One American institution serving as a model for the T.I.E. concept is
Ross Correctional Institution in Chillicothe, Ohio. The Ross complex,
composed of a medium-security compound (RCI - population 1450) and a
minimum-security honor camp (RCC - population 250), houses adult males age
18-50.
Academic offerings include Adult Basic Education (ABE), literacy tutoring,
high school equivalency (GED), high school options, and both in-house and
extension college degree programs. Five vocational programs--building
maintenance (2), culinary arts, carpentry, and residential electricity--
and several U.S. Department of Labor-approved apprenticeships are available.
The two Ohio Penal Industries (OPI) shops inside the compound manufacture
and assemble designer line office furniture for sale to state agencies and
to the public. The honor camp recently embarked on a cooperative subcontract
venture with a private, Japanese-owned company to assemble automobile variable
speed windshield wiper levers and lighting dimmer switches. This agreement
with a private sector business is a first in OPI's history and is leading the
way to further partnerships.
The highly-acclaimed literacy tutoring program at RCI and RCC serves
inmates in the non-reader through high school equivalency levels. Peer
tutors undergo intensive training by certified education staff and are re-
quired to provide extensive documentation of their tutoring sessions and
student progress. Tutoring is both individualized and small group and takes
place in each housing unit under the periodic supervision of a unit staff
member. The program administrator is a teacher much experienced in tutor
training and literacy techniques. Materials (purchased and donated) include
textbooks, periodicals, newspapers, and tutor-generated worksheets. Tutors
and tutees receive certificates of appreciation or achievement for produc-
tive participation. Those eligible under Ohio legislative guidelines re-
ceive two days reduction in sentence for each full month of productive
participation. At present, nearly 150 inmates are served by more than 60
tutors.
A concept unique to Ross is Outpost, programs which provide education
to inmates who need or want services apart from the traditional day school
program. RCC Outpost 1 provides quality ABE/GED educational opportunities
to minimum security inmates, all of whom hold full-time jobs on the
farm, at community facilities, or at RCC. Teachers spend 3.5 hours
weekly at RCC in classroom contact with the inmates, who are released
from their jobs to attend class. Evening tutoring hours conducted by
peer tutors make up the remainder of the required quarterly hours. RCI
Outpost 2 at OPI allows inmates employed in industry to enhance ABE/GED
skills while preparing for job advancement within industry. Classes are
held one (1) hour per day in the OPI training room located in the assembly
shop. RCI Outpost 3 is the Learning Center. The "LC" provides education
to inmates in vocational programs who need help in reading or mathematics;
those in various institutional maintenance and OPI shops who need help in
specific areas--e.g., reading a ruler; inmates in ABE/GED school who need
additional help in a specific area.
Other noteworthy T.I.E. programs are high school options and college
internship. The high school options program adds the traditional high school
diploma to the GED plan of acquiring high school graduate status as required
for many jobs and college. Depending upon interests and background, a
student may select either the academic or vocational high school diploma
option. He then completes a prescribed instructional plan approved by the
Ohio Department of Education to earn the diploma. The student may petition
to receive the diploma from either the public school/joint vocational school
from which he would have graduated as a private citizen or from the Ohio
Central School System (correctional institution schools). A detailed sample
options program appears in the Appendix of this paper.
The college internship program was born of a desire for greater inter-
action among the university, the institution's industries and social services,
and the community. What has evolved is an opportunity for qualified inmates
at RCI and RCC to earn college credit toward an associate or a bachelor's
degree in business or human services.
Before enrolling in a college-level practicum, the inmate submits
a detailed proposal for the internship to the university coordinator and
the T.I.E. deputy warden. The proposal includes a description of the
inmate's academic background, his career goals, suggested projects or
activities to be completed during the internship, and the signature of the
institution staff member who will supervise the internship. The university
coordinator identifies a faculty member from the specific discipline involved
to review the proposal and suggest any revisions. The T.I.E. deputy warden
works with the institution staff member and the inmate intern to ensure that
all academic and institution requirements are met. The necessary documen-
tation is then submitted to the university faculty member for grading.
Currently interns are working in OPI as middle managers and with the substance
abuse coordinator and housing unit case managers as encounter group facili-
tators and speakers/project coordinators at community elementary and middle
schools.
The programs described are but a sample of the integrated linkages of
training, work, and education possible when corrections professionals are
open and flexible in adapting new strategies for incarcerated offenders.
As the training and work reforms proposed in 1870 pointed the way into the
twentieth century, the T.I.E. concept is a harbinger of effective correctional
management in the twenty-first century.
FOOTNOTE
1Osa D. Coffey, "T.I.E.: Integrating Training, Industry and Education,"
Journal of Correctional Education, 37:3 (september, 1986), 105.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Coffey, Osa D. "T.I.E.: Integrating Training, Industry and Education."
Journal of Correctional Education, 37:3 (September, 1986), 104-108.
McGlone, Jerry and James Mayers. "Ohio Industries and Education: A Vital
TIE." Corrections Today (June, 1987), 32-34.
Ohio Department of Rehabilitation and Correction. Ohio Plan Manual for
Productive Prisons. Columbus, OH: The Department, 1987.
inter-office communicatioill DR. SUSAN S. DAVIS, DEPUTY WARDEN, T.I.E. date . JANUARY 20, 1989 tO*
from MARK A. WHITE, TEACHING SUPERVISOR .
subject HIGH SCHOOL OPTIONS—VOCATIONAL, RCl/RCC
TITLE:
HIGH SCHOOL OPTIONS PROGRAM at RCl/RCC.
PURPOSE:
To add the option of high school diploma to the GED plan of acquiring high school graduate status as required for some institutional jobs/parole and college.
SCREENING:
Men will be screened by the following personnel: A). High School certified staff (1 of 4)
8). Teaching Supervisor
C). Guidance Counselor
D). Vocational staff (1 of 4)
STAFFING:
Five (5) staff members hold vocational certification. They will act as monitors of the men in the program. LeCl/OSR will provide course of study information as needed for required courses.
OPERATION:
1). Men must be six (6) hours or less from graduation.
2). Men must be screened for placement.
3). A screening committee will review hours (credits) required.
4). Men will be placed in a ODE approved Vocational Program.
5). An instructional plan will be required or developed (including activities, ' materials, and environment).
6). The educational Administrator will be notified for approval of the students and his plan.
7). Upon completion of tests and a statement of performance, all pertinent data will be sent to the Educational Administrator for approval of completion and issuance of a diploma.
UNITS OF CREDIT:
Units of credit for High School Option Program.
Section I, Rule 3301-35-02 (C) (3): A maximum of six units of credit may be applied toward the eighteen units required for graduation in paragraph(B) (6) . ' of this rule. No more than four of the six units may be applied requirements specified in paragraph (B) (6) (a) to (B) (6) (f) of this rule. The rule limits the number of units of credit earned by educational options which may be applied to required graduation units. With 18 units required, no more than six units may be educational options. Schools requiring more than 18 units may apply educational options to the units beyond 18 in accordance with board policy.
In addition, the requirement for high school graduation earned in grades nine through twelve shall include the following:
* English language arts, three units * health, one half unit * mathematics, two units * physical education, one half unit * science, one unit * social studies, two units which shall include:
American History, one half unit Amercian Government, one half unit
No more than four units of the above specified units may be earned through educational options.
Section II: RCI REQUIREMENTS:
1). Student must have 12 credit hours (passing). 2). A vocational program will make up six (6) credit hours. 3). Four (4) hours of required courses may need to be earned.
POSSIBILITIES:
OPTION 1
12 Credit hours with required course hours lacking 1-4 Credit hours required needed 2-5 Credit hours elective 18 Credit hours
OPTION 2
12 Credit hours with all required course hourq 6 Credit hours vocational program
18 Credit hours
OPTION 3
12 Credit hours with all required course hours 6 Credit hours elective
18 Credit hours
OPTION 4
12 Credit hours with required course hours lacking 1-4 Credit hours required needed
6 Credit hours vocational program 19-22 Credit hours
NOTE:
REQUIRED HOURS, see section I, final two (2) paragraphs.
SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
PRISON EDUCATION
Wadham College
Oxford
25th - 28th September 1989
"PRISON UCATION WORK IN SRI LANKA"
by
H.G. Dharmadasa Commissioner of Prisons
1,526 30,998
1,249 20,725
672 7,729 5
52.14
Non formal ;:dult Education zrogra=es were introduced
a voluntary basis for zrisoners after cease-labour in the
evenincs from 4 to 6 The teachers cawe their services
free of charge while only the bas ic amenit 4 es like exercise
books and tenons could be trovi.aed by the risons. leachi
to Sri Lanka Prisons in the
voluntary acencies for this
early fifties with the enlistment
turtose. classes we-= held on
)1 Second International Conference on Prison
Education - 1989.
PRISON EDUCATION WORK IN SRI LANKA.
1
1 1 1 1
1
1
1 1 1
The population of Sri Lakna is 16 million and it has
ten closed Prisons for convicted prisoners, six closed remand
*orisons, six Work Camps, two Open Prison Camos, two Correct-
ional Centres for Youthful Offenders, one Borstal Instituti-
on and one Work Release Centre. The average daily total
mopulation in all these is 12,180 of which a larger proportion
are Remandees constituting 563/4 of the total Prison population.
Literacy oroorammes are confined to the ion= term convicted
4-'nea
the country is 87.2% the
population onlv because for -,.rectic= 1 .reasons, it is nct
meaningful to include
in this programme.
the remandees and short term mrisoners
The literacy rate of the general population over 10 years
of ace in the Island is 87.2% (i.e. 91.1% for males and 83.2%
for females). The literacy rate of convicted prisoners, boh
male and female, according to statistics collected by
Prison Demartment for the year 1987 is shown below:-
tale. Pemale. Total. ==rcnt.ce
Illiterate. 29,472
Literate uoto grade 8. 19,477
Literate above " 8. 7,057
59,452
it will be ==sen that while the literacy rate in
literacy r_-_-ce amonc risoners 's sony
47.86% which shows that the majority o' pon ,, who ta
crime i:. Sri Lanka are
1 2 -
1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1
was confined to reaaing and writinc, the objective being to
teach prisoners at least to write their rames.
During this time and even before, Adult Education
programmes were conducted on an island wiaé basis by the
Sri Lanka Government E•ucation Department but Prisons we-e
not included in this programme till the early Sixties when
aLter much mersuation the Education Deuartment extended
to the major Prisons. Under this scheme too particimation
of prisoners remained voluntary while mrofessional teachers
serving in the Education Department were sent to teach
prisoners three •avs of th3 week in evenings from 4 to 6 u.m.
These teachers were uaid a minimal allowance for their
services in comparision to which, it could be said that
their services were larcely motivated by a deem sense of
social work. Each group of teachers had a supervisor who
co-ordinated their work. Teaching remained limited to
imparting a basic knowledge of reading and writing the thrEe
langugages in use - Sinhala, Tamil and English. A few
large prisons had the services of a Kandyan (Folk) Dancing
instructor to train prisoners in indegenous Dance Forms.
Thouah the Education Department maid the visiting
teachers the Prisons Demartment had to suply all the books
and other reauisites within a shoe-string budget, while
finding the necessary space in grossly overcrowded penal
institutions also mosed a serious problem. Nevertheless
these literacy i classes proved a creat boon to illiterate
inmates who showed much enthusiasm in following them, so
much so that a few inmates who were allowed to sit for
public exam 4 nations - marticularly the General Certificate
of Education Examinal:ion, both ordinary level and ::dvanced
level - were successful in them.
In 1971 the country faced an insurgency which resulted
in all existina prisons being overcrowded several fold and
the opening of about te m more camus as temuorary prisons to
house the arrested and surrendered thousands, which suddeni ,;
put a stou to the literacy -:,:'rogramme. This situation also
brought into the Prisons many ejucated youth to whom the
1
earlier eaucational urogramme would not have in any case
ca-erea for. The Prisons had to make suecial arrangements
after persaaniing
Examinations
the examination conducting agencies like
Department, Universities etc. to allow them the
to sit the examinations, relaxing rules and sometimes
persuading them to open suecial examination centres inside
prisons for many of these youths who were pesuina higher
education. Some institutions made special arrangements with
university authorities to :end their szudénts in detention
suecial correspondence courses and also allowed the lecturers
to visit them freauently to help them with tnese courses.
After the situation came back to normal in a couple of
vears all attempts to persuade the Education Department to
resume these literacy classes failed as by that time the
Education Denartment too had comoleted their phased out All-
Island adult education programme, covering over 25 years.
Hence from mid 3eventees individual prisons had to make their
own arrangements to find volunteers to conduct literacy
classes and most of the institutions succeeded in this only
a=ter enlisting the voluntary services of prison auards,
Jailors and Prison Welfare Officers to supplement the voluntary
services of outsiders.
The Prisoners' Welfare Association which is a state
sponsored voluntary organisation having branches in all major
towns has also made a significant cont±ibution in this regard,
havina organised literacy classes to run parellel to those
conducted by the Education Deuartment and in some places to
the void where the Education Department na U failed to o„7.en
From 1936 the inistrv of _ducation (Adalt :ducation
Branch)has introdoced literacy classes to all penal institution
Thèse are run uaraliel to those organi.:ed by the Prisoners'
Welfare Association, U12:ESCO clubs in Prisons and other bodies.
Suecial mention must be made of reaular Daham Pasal or Buddhist
religious educational classes run bv Chaplains and Prison
Officers' 3uadhist Associations through which also a great
deal of literacy is imparted. Likewise religious classes held
by other denominations, though population-wise minorities,
serve an eaually useful need - specially Bible Classes.
; 1 '
4
1 1
which young
The Ministry of Education Torovides part-time teachers
for three days a week from 4 to 6 p.m. and also the necessary
books, stationary and furniture. Classes are held in all
three media (English, Sinhala, Tamil) and it has been observed
that lately there has been a keen interest to learn English.
This is particularly motivated by foreign em-oloyment oortu-
nities, specia_ly in the Middle East countries for skilled
and sei-slilled labour grades.
A Prisoners' monthly Newsletter titled "Sannivedana"
("Communication") finds a ready avenue for prisoners following
IIthese classes to try out their literary skills. The :,risoners'
Welfare Association also runs a typewriting trainino- class in
the major Prison in Colombo.
Non formal educational services being provided for
prisoners include talks bv visiting lecturers, social workers
and Non Governmental Organisations on various themes s -oecially
those baséd on civic consciousness, crime prevention and
community development etc.
The UNESCO Regional office in Bangkok has initiated a
study on the educational needs of women who fail into diffi-
culties in life and are subjected to periods of suervision
with a view to effecting correctional measures, including a
com-orehensive educational component to enable them to accuire
basic skills and behaviour -oazterns useful to lead a normal
life. The _on formal.eucation section of the ?..inistry of
Education which has already initiated literacy projects in
7oenal institutions is examinino -oroaram_es already in oberazioII
with a view to determine i'ore combrehensive and needs-based
programmes.
lnere is only one 1,-orstal Instittion in the Island
the lraininc School for 'Zouthful Oifen.D.ers
mersons (males) between 15 and 22 years of ae are sent for
detention for a -ceriod of 3 years, subject to -oarole ---.fter one
year. In the oast these lads were zrovided literacy classes II
by the Sortal staff till zhe Education Deoartment took over
this task sevral years ago and now these cia2ses are hel -u
II daily as lo=al Education Like any other nor-al school, by
teachers of the :d - cation Iepartr"ent while the :=-risons _Jets.L- t-
IIment subtlies boo:çs an_: stationary. Classes leain: _tto the
.:;eneral C,rtificate of _d .,;_caticn examinaticn are held and la-s
-.i.ade to sit this tublic examination. II
1
c=1 1 11
TABLE OF CONTENTS
OUTLINE
PREFACE 1
INTRODUCTION 4
CHAPTER 1 AIMS 11
CHAPTER 2 TASKS 34
CHAPTER 3 MEASURING 48
CHAPTER 4 MONITORING 64
CHAPTER 5 BASIS FOR ACTION 82
APPENDICES A Bibliography 88
B Reference Sources 102
C Visits and Acknowledgements 134
D Glossary of Terms 137
E Glossary 'of Abbreviations 139
1
1
OUTLINE OF THE REPORT
PREFACE
A Impetus for the Report
B Comparative Perspective
INTRODUCTION
A Focus of the Report 4
B A Coherent Approach 5
CHAPTER 1: AIMS
A STATEMENTS OF AIMS 11
I The situation here 11
II Comparisons
(a) Individualism 15
(h) Relationship 21
(c) Activity 22
III Implications 26
B COMMUNICATING THE MESSAGE
I The situation here 29
II Comparisons 29
III Implications 31
CHAPTER 2: TASICS
A DEFINITION: WHAT MUST BE DONE TO ACHIEVE AIMS 34
I The situation here 34
II Comparisons 34
III Implications 36
B IMPLEMENTATION: PUTTING TASKS INTO PRACTICE 37
I The situation here 37
. II Comparisons 38
(a) Planning for the individual 39
(b) The Manageable Unit 41
(c) Using time 44
III Implications 46
CHAPTER 3: MEASURING
A INFORMATION SYSTEM
I The situation here 48
II Comparisons 48
(a) Information routinely recorded within the system 30
(b) Technological advances 51
III Implications 54
(a) Consultation and Co-operation 54
(b) Technological development 55
B USING THE INFORMATION 55
I The situation here 55
II Comparisons 56
(a) Two way flow 56
(b) What the bottom wants too 57
(c) Information systems can be used well or badly 58
(d) Personal management style 58
(e) Consultation on problem points 59
(f) Using information to get an overview 60
III Implications 61
CHAPTER 4: MONITORING
A SETTING STANDARDS 64
I The situation here 64
II Comparisons 66
III Implications 714
1
82
85
1
B USING BENCHMARKS 75
I The Situation Here 75
11 Comparisons 76
III Implications 78
CHAPTER 5: BASIS FOR ACTION
A PROPOSED APPROACH
B THE NEXT STEP
APPENDICES
A Bibliography 88
B Reference Sources 102
C Visits and Acknowledgements 134
D Glossary of Terms 137
E Glossary of Abbreviations 139
PREFACE
A. Impetus for the Report
The inspiration for this report arose from a series of letters and discussions between the Director General of the Prison Service and the Chief Inspector of Prisons. Early in 1985 the Prison Department and the Inspectorate met to discuss of measuring and monitoring the work of the prison system. It was suggested that a way forward could be a survey of foreign experience; it might prove profitable to examine systems abroad in the area of prison regimes particularly those which already had highly developed arrangements for measuring and monitoring performance.
It became apparent that what was needed was a report which would be practical and easily understood by those working in the system, staff and management alike, and those working outside it. With this in mind, a brief was drawn up for a study which could provide for both needs, and more specifically "to consider similarities and variations in approach to the establishment and maintenance of prison regimes in various countries and to make recommendations for the Prison Service in England and Wales."
This was not conceived as an exercise in transporting wholesale final products from other systems, but as an examination of other people's methods with a view to developing a coherent plan of action appropriate for the needs and operational requirements of the Prison Service in England and Wales and of the Prison Inspectorate.
To undertake the work I was seconded for six months to the Prisons Inspectorate from the Prison Department, after my governorship of Wormwood Scrubs and before taking up my appointment as a member of the Prisons Board as South West Regional Director. I was to visit a number of different prison systems abroad and compare their approaches to the area of prison "regimes" with practice and experience in England and Wales. Dr Silvia Casale was appointed as external consultant to the Prisons Inspectorate to assist in the writing of my report. She has worked in the United States and in England on comparative research in the criminal justice area.
The plan of work for this project was as follows:
(i)
to draw together examples of practice which already exist in this country and which are based on long and valuable experience;
(ii) to link the former to experience and practice in other countries; and
(iii) to develop a coherent plan for future direction.
B. Comparative Perspective
To carry out this plan I decided to visit the following five prison systems:
(a) the Federal Prison System in the United States of America (the Federal Bureau of Prisons)
(b) the New York State Prison System in the USA (the New York State Department of Corrections)
(0) the National Canadian Prison System (the Correctional Service of Canada)
1
(d) the Provincial prison System in British Columbia (the Province of British Columbia Correctional Service)
(e) the National Swedish Prison (and probation) system (Kriminalvardsorganisationen)
There were practical considerations which I was forced to recognise in making my final choice of countries. One was the availability of information in the English language and the ease of communicating in English with people in the systems observed. There were also logistical considerations, as I had only limited time in which to complete my travels and the necessary analysis before putting pen to paper. This meant that, although initially it had been intended that I should visit four different countries, two of them European, in the event it was possible to concentrate only upon North America and one European country.
Within the North American continent there is a diversity of experience providing a good opportunity for comparison. In the United States of America alone there is a host of different prison systems. Apart from the federal system which is organised on a national level across the fifty-one states, each state has its own prison system. In addition, within each state there are numerous local prison systems, based at the county and city levels; New York City, for example, has its own prison system, which is separate from the New York State system.
In Canada there is a prison system organised at the national level (the Correctional Service of Canada) and prison systems within each of the ten provinces. Thus the Province of British Columbia has its own prison system. Sweden has a single national system combining the prison and probation services.
From the foregoing it follows that the systems chosen provide a variety of points of comparison. The U.S. federal system presents an example of a highly sophisticated organisation of prisons across a vast area; it is unified by an emphasis on standardisation, enhanced by the use of modern technological tools. The Canadian national prison system is a particularly important point of comparison because of the similarities of traditions (in particular the legal system) to the British. Later on in the report I shall argue that the development of Canada shows a coincidence of stages, which is interesting from the English point of view.
For different reasons, New York State provides an interesting comparison with the English system. In size the two prison systems are roughly comparable. The pressure of numbers and the history of crises arising from that pressure in the New York State prison system, together with resource problems and financial constraints, present important parallels with the prison system of England and Wales. My choice of countries to visit provides an interesting contrast between large scale systems, dealing with numbers broadly comparable with our own, and smaller systems, that is British Columbia and Sweden, which have much lower numbers and contrasting approaches.
The object of my visits to these countries was to seek out examples of good practice. It should be stated at the outset that in these different systems it is possible to find the extremes of good and bad practice. The variety of approaches and contexts makes this inevitable. Indeed on these and on my previous visits I saw features which were disquieting. At the same time I saw others worthy of emulation. It is axiomatic that one may learn from others' errors as well as from their good example.
In looking at other systems I wanted to explore developments in thinking and ways of approaching the area of prison regimes. In North America and in Sweden the term "programmes" is generally used to refer to the planned provision of a variety of services which make up the "regime" of a prison establishment, as it is known in the English system.
2
In looking at the area of "programmes" in other countrier,, I was conscious of the work of the Control Review Committee, following visits to Canada, the United States of America and the Federal Republic of Germany. From the Committee's conclusions it is apparent that there are transcending principles at work in each system. My approach has been to draw out from the variety of experience observed those basic principles which hold true beyond the particular context in which I have seen them at work.
3
INTRODUCTION
A. Focus of the Report
This report was set up to look at the area of prison regimes by comparing
practice and experience in this country with examples abroad. As I embarked on
this task I was aware that the term "regime" creates problems of comparison.
The Control Review Committee had already found this to be so from a visit to the
United States of America. Its report, "Managing the Long Term Prison System"
said that it would like to see a move towards individual programmes for
prisoners, incorporating more diverse activity than at present and geared
towards the abilities and needs of the inmate. This approach is important
because it shifts the emphasis from "regime" to individual planning for the long
term prisoner. My conclusion is that it should have a wider application.
"Encouragement of diverse activities and monitoring a prisoner's performance in them is no way opposed to the need to keep establishments' performance in delivering activities under close review too. The two objectives are complimentary. Nevertheless, we do think that one fact that has hindered progress in this field is the tendency in this country to speak and think in terms of the regime. As we have noted, the concept of the regime is large and vague, and implies generally that every prisoner in an establishment is subject to the same processes regardless of his needs or abilities; and measuring performance across its span raises complex questions. We would like to see the phrase "regime activities" replaced by some description that gives the accurate idea,that what is at issue is a bundle of prisoner-oriented activities that are amenable to objective performance-setting and efficiency audit."
(Control Review Committee Report, para. 97).
This line of argument introduced into the report three separate and important
concepts:
i. co-ordinated planning;
individualism; and
iii. measurement.
In rejecting the term "regime" the CRC was arguing not just for a change of
words but for a change in approach.
In my visits abroad I was struck by the emphasis on "programmes". Programmes
are all the provisions for the positive use of time in prison. The concept
implies a range of opportunities for activity available to those in prison.
4
It implies flexibility and the possibility of providing different combinations
to suit different individuals. "Regime" has come to mean different things to
different people. It implies that there is a discrete, distinctly defiped
functional area, the "regime", which can be looked at separately and can be
measured in terms of physical facilities provided, e.g. workshops, recreation
areas, etc. The danger is that there will be no attempt to plan the range of
services making up the "regime" in a coherent and comprehensive way, so that
they make sense to the member of staff and the prisoner in the total context of
prison life.
I am not advocating that the English system take over the term "programmes".
The latter term comes closer to conveying a sense of planning, but it carries
witl. it a mechanistic association. It places the emphasis on arrangements
provided by the system, whereas the emphasis should be on the delivery and use
of services. In the final analysis the concern should be for what individuals,
whether staff or inmates, actually do. Therefore I suggest that the term
"activity" be adopted for the English system. Activity is the planned use of
prison time. It implies a reappraisal of basic assumptions about what should be
happening in prison establishments.
I am not suggesting an entirely new approach, but rather a consolidation of what
is positive in current practice. My experience of working in the prison system
in this country and of visiting other systems convinces me that activity is the
key to a good prison. The best run establishments are those which have got this
right. The fundamental principles which can be seen at work in the positive
examples of prison establishments in this country and elsewhere are:
individualism; relationship; and activity.
I shall discuss these principles at length and argue that when the three come
together in an integrated and coherent approach they serve the various functions
defined for the prison service: security; control; humane handling of prisoners
and positive use of prison time.
B. A Coherent Approach
I am not presenting a single model because the complexities of the prison system
require something different. I am however, proposing an approach which
integrates the three principles above and applies them to the different
populations and problems which the prison system faces. In order to develop
this approach I shall briefly review the main trends in thinking about
imprisonment in this country. We are not the only country to have tried a
5
•1
number of different models for the prison system. Particularly in the North
American continent the systems I visited have gone through a similar process as
they developed large and complex prison organisations reflecting the societies
which those organisations serve. Each country has arrived at its own individual
set of responses. This country must go through a similar process to find a
coherent approach that fits its own context.
In recent years various strands of thought about the prison system have been
developing in this country. They have not developed in a co-ordinated way. The
two main strands have been the rehabilitative approach based on a treatment
model and the humane containment approach. I shall discuss them briefly,
beginning with the gradual disillusionment with the treatment model, in order to
set the background for where the English prison system finds itself today.
There has been a progressive disenchantment with the treatment model both within
and outside the prison system. The problem has lain in the difficulty of
interpreting treatment in a practical way so that there is consensus on how to
treat the individual and what the effects of treatment are. There were various
attempts to assess the treatment model and they all posed the basic question:
"does rehabilitation work?"
The development of this move to evaluate the effectiveness of
treatment/rehabilitation has been discussed elsewhere at considerable length
(see Cullen and Gilbert, Re-affirming Rehabilitation, 1982). Martinson's
article "What works - questions and answrs about prison reform" published in the
spring of 1974, brought the development to a head; his findings showed that
there was no conclusive evidence that renabilitation did have an effect in terms
of reducing recidivism. His work confirmed a growing feeling that whatever
model you adopted there was no discernible impact on reconviction rates, albeit
a crude measure of recidivism: nothing worked (see Cullen and Gilbert, page
111).
The sense of disillusionment began to spread, with academics, administrators
and, above all, practitioners sharing the general disenchantment: it appeared
not to matter how you treated the prisoner, the rate of reconviction remained
the same. As this occurred at a time when financial restraints were being
introduced, it was difficult to justify any kind of programme which would cost
more but did not have the guarantee of being more effective. As a result a
sense of futility has become pervasive and has led to what some observers have
called a moral vacuum.
6
The concept of humane containment did not supplant the treatment approach, but
it represented a shift of emphasis. It has as its focus what occurs while the
prisoner is in custody, rather than what he may or may not do after he leaves,
which is the ultimate focus of the treatment model. Nevertheless humane
containment has not represented a more down to earth approach. It has not been
translated into practical terms spelling out what should be done at the ground
floor level. Although it focuses on prison life more directly and exclusively
than does the treatment model its formulation has remained at an equally
abstract level. But in practice it has led to even greater disillusionment. At
least the treatment model gave the service something to believe in and some
hope. Humane containment has led to the cynicism of human warehousing. Humane
containment and treatment have co-existed uneasily in the English system,
neither providing a clear and comprehensive sense of purpose. There is
confusion about the direction in which the prison system should go. In the
absence of clear guidelines establishments and regions developed their own ideas
and directions.
Others have recognised the need to formulate a new approach. Those reports
which have addressed the problem, primarily the May Report, have fallen into the
same traps which led to the discrediting of the treatment model, by setting up
unrealistic expectations and replacing rhetoric with rhetoric (see page 67 of
the Committee of Enquiry into the United Kingdom Prison Services, October 1979,
subsequently referred to as the May Report). The concept of "positive custody"
is no more helpful in running a prison system than was the concept of
"treatment", since neither can be defined in practical terms. "Positive
custody" was defined as follows: "to create an environment which can assist them
(i.e. prisoners) to respond and contribute to society as positively as
possible".
This sets as the objective of the system an end product which is measured in
terms of future behaviour of prisoners beyond the prison system and contributes
little about how they should be treated inside. What concerns those who work
within the prison and those who comment on it are the day to day activities and
events within the walls. Governors and their staff need something more tangible
and clearly defined, immediate goals in addition to abstract aspirational aims.
Defining achievable targets as well as less tangible ideas has importance for
each and every member of staff and for each and every prisoner coming into the
prison system. The system offers little hope or satisfaction when its aims are
couched in abstract language and can find no practical interpretation.
7
Over the years in the absence of realistic aims and clearly defined tasks with
some hope of achievement there has been a gradual deterioration in the quality
of life and the nature of the regimes in many establishments. The Inspectorate
has commented on this fact. General concern has been voiced by governors,
members of their staff including prison officers and their union
representatives, in public statements and letters to the press, in addition to
statements made through official channels.
By and large this concern is based on an impressionistic assessment of the
system, because there is little concrete information available, either at
institutional or headquarters level, about the reality of daily life in prison
establishments. There are few useful measures of the prison system. This
report discusses the need for such measures and proposes ways in which the
system may be assessed both internally and externally and over time.
The move toward more systematic self assessment is already underway. The Prison
Department has recognised the need to obtain information and the Director
General, in outlining general functions of the prison service, (see Circular
Instruction 55/84) has attempted to link these definitions to a system of
management information. As part of this internal initiative there has recently
developed a move towards the setting up of "performance indicators"; these are
designed to produce information on the work performed in the prison system. At
this stage they constitute a necessary part of the assessment of what is
actually happening within the system. This is the first time such an attempt
has been made and it is to be welcomed.
Experience has shown that the choice of information about a system's workings
will seriously influence the way in which it will develop. It is crucial
therefore to define the appropriate set of questions, i.e. the right performance
indicators, otherwise the information generated may not go to the heart of the
matter. An information system must tell us about the organisation and relate
what it is achieving to what it ought to be achieving. It must be set up to
reflect the basic aims of the organisation.
That presupposes that the aims of the prison system have been clearly and
comprehensively formulated. As the above discussion indicates, this is not the
case in the English context. There is a need for a coherent approach which
forms the standardising and unifying framework informing and directing
everything that goes on in the prison system at every level and in every area.
8
The immediate focus of this report is planned prison activities. I shall use
this focus as an example of how to pursue a strategy which is applicable to all
functional areas of prison organisation. I have seen examples of systems which
plan and deliver services in a professional way and which are monitored
carefully and systematically. The ways in which this is achieved have wider
implications than for the area of activities.
Practice and experience in this country and elsewhere dictates that a coherent
approach to the functional areas of the prison service, including planned
activity, should follow the logical progression:
i. clear articulation and communication of the aims of the prison
system
ii. clear definition and communication of tasks to be performed within
the prison system to achieve these aims
iii. establishment of measures for the performance of these tasks
iv. definition of benchmarks against which to measure performance, in
order to assess whether the aims of the system are being met and
whether the system as a whole and establishments individually are
functioning well or badly
This logical progression is important both for coherent internal management and
for coherent external monitoring of the prison system. Indeed it is difficult
to see how effective management or monitoring can occur in its absence. The two
operations - management and monitoring - proceed on parallel but separate paths
along this progression. In practice, however, monitoring will always rely to a
large extent upon internally collected information. For this reason my
immediate focus is upon that internal process. If management has not achieved
the steps towards self-evaluation, internal monitoring will be that much more
difficult.
Therefore this report devotes considerable attention to the steps to be taken
internally to establish a level of internal coherence, based upon sound and
systematic information which in turn may form the basis for more effective
external monitoring.
9
It is structured so as to reflect the stages in this progression. Each stage
will be discussed in turn in a separate chapter. Within each chapter the
discussion will consider;
(i) existing examples in this country of the development of policy and
practice;
(ii) relevant examples of experience elsewhere concerning policy and
practice; and
(iii) practical implications for the way forward in the English system.
Thus, Chapter 1, AIMS, concerns the aims of the prison system. It discusses firstly
how these must be clearly articulated by the system itself and by the
Inspectorate in its role as the watchdog for society. Secondly it discusses how
the aims of the system must be clearly communicated to a variety of audiences
both within and outside the prison system.
Chapter 2, TASKS, deals with the tasks which must be defined and carried out if
the system's aims are to be achieved.
Chapter 3, MEASURING, discusses the information system which must be defined and
instituted so that the system itself may assess how it is performing its defined
tasks and whether or not it is achieving its aims.
Chapter 4, MONITORING, discusses the benchmarks which must be formulated and
applied in monitoring the system.
Chapter 5, BASIS FOR ACTION, sums up the main lines of the preceding argument
and suggests the next practical step.
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1 CHAPTER 1 : AIMS
A. STATEMENT OF AIMS
I. The Situation Here
Thinking about the aims of the prison system has been in a continual state of
flux since the first prisons were built. Although the aims were formulated
clearly in the nineteenth century, since then there has been wide variation in ii the way they have been restated and even wider variation in the way they have
been ignored. In the nineteenth century there was a clarity of vision which 11 allowed a comparatively simple statement of aims and enabled all staff, from the
IIGovernor down, to know what the job was and how they were expected to carry it
out.
We have moved away from that clarity of vision. Society has used the prison
system to answer a complicated series of problems confronting it. Since the war
IIthe tremendous pressure of overcrowding and the emergence of diverse ideological
directions have compounded the confusion.
IIIn recent years there has been a number of interesting attempts to cut through
the confusion. Roy King and Rod Morgan have discussed the development of modern
prison philosophy in considerable detail, (see Roy King and Rod Morgan, The
Future of the Prison System, 1980). They trace the primacy of deterrence and
IIreformation from the Report of the Gladstone Committee of 1895 through various
attempts in this century "to give meaning and substance to the possibility of
providing rehabilitative influences in prisons" (page 13). Joy Mott also
discusses the latter stages of this development, (Home Office Research Study No.
84, Adult Prisons and Prisoners in England and Wales 1970-1982).
Rather than retrace this historical background I shall take as my starting point
Prison Rule 1 (Prisons Act 1964) which states:
I/
"the purpose of the training and treatment of convicted prisoners shall be
to encourage and assist them to lead a good and useful life."
It is worthy of note that this refers to convicted prisoners and says nothing
about the treatment of unconvicted prisoners.
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This is an interesting omission. The aims of the prison system have been
formulated in terms of the sentenced population, when in fact an increasingly
significant proportion of persons dealt with by the system are not sentenced,
and indeed not even convicted of a crime. (At the time of writingthe proportion
of unsentenced prisoners - i.e. unconvicted and convicted but unsentenced
prisoners - among the average daily prison population is 20%; as a percentage of
receptions into prison the relative size of the remand population is even more
important: 42%).
This difference in the legal status of prisoners has profound implications for
the aims of the prison system. It must be readily apparent that the concepts of
"treatment" and "rehabilitation" are not appropriate to the handling of
unconvicted prisoners. When they come to be translated into practice, the
distinction between sentenced and unconvicted prisoners becomes of crucial
importance. A system as complex as the prison system must surely have several
aims, reflecting this and other divisions within its population. There are
issues of justice and equity involved in the questions: what are the aims of the
prison system in relation to its sentenced population and what are its aims in
relation to its unconvicted population.
The Prison Rules statement of aim is expressed in abstract terms which look to
the behaviour and character of the sentenced prisoner beyond his term in prison.
Whilst few would wish to disagree with this high minded idea they might question
its relevance to unconvicted prisoners, its practical utility, particularly for
staff on the landings, and its difficulty of interpretation for those who have
to run prisons.
In 1969 the emphasis shifted towards "humane containment", with vague references
to the continued role of treatment in the prison system. In introducing this
new concept the White Paper (Home Office, People in Prison, 1969) acknowledged
that prison conditions should broadly correspond to conditions currently
acceptable to society. In 1971 Alan Bainton's elaboration of this and other
aims (A. Bainton, Aims and Tasks of Prison Department Establishments, 1971) had
considerable influence within the system. The document (for full list see
appendix B item 1.) grapples with the need for moral imperatives and practical
directives.
Bainton presented a statement of the role of the prison service which focuses on
providing conditions of custody currently acceptable to society as well as
encouraging and assistj.ng prisoners' rehabilitation. Bainton's definition of
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IIthe aims of the prison system embraced treatment, minimizing the harmful effects
of custody and preparation for a law-abiding life beyond the prison; his
statement emphasized the importance of relationships among staff and prisoners.
He also defined tasks for each establishment in order to achieve the aims.
These tasks cover a wide range, including ensuring that all inmates are able to
exercise their rights and ensuring "that the management and organisation of
establishments is such as to:
(a) encourage and develop free and open communication between inmates and
staff;
(b) enable staff to appreciate the value of maintaining communication
between the inmate, his family and outside situations; .
(c) provide opportunities for staff to contribute to the assessment of
inmates;
II(d) establish procedures for the maintenance of documentation and for the
making of decisions which affect the inmate's treatment and his
progress towards release; and
(e) ensure that Health and Safety requirements are observed."
Unfortunately Bainton's initiative remained largely unacknowledged and
unlaborated, although it had an important effect on many practitioners in the
70's. The lead was not followed up and against a background of increasing
population pressures on the local prisons humane and secure containment
continued to exist in uncomfortable association with the treatment and training
concepts enshrined in Prison Rule 1.
The May Report was aware of the dissatisfaction with past formulations c.nd made
its own proposals:
"In putting "treatment and training" and "humane containment" aside, the last thing we intend is to suggest nothing should take their place. On the contrary we fully appreciate that every community, whatever its nature, requires a suitable ethic. .... We think that what we envisage might best be described as "positive custody". That is, it has to be secure and it must carry out all the intentions of the courts and society, in that respect. On the other hand, penal establishments must also so far as possible be hopeful and purposive communities and not be allowed to degenerate into mere uncaring institutions dulled by their own unimaginative and unenterprising routine." (paragraph 4.46).
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In my opinion this reformulation is no advance on Prison Rule 1. Since the
publication of the report I can find little evidence that this particular intent
has been carried forward. It certainly has not dispelled the confusion. It ià
still grounded in the treatment ethic, but has gone no further in assisting its
practical application.
The aims of the system are still not clearly and comprehensively stated. There
has, however, been a major step forward in the last two years in the related
task of formulating the functions of the Prison Service. It is worth quoting in
full the Prisons' Board's statement of the task of the Prison Service(Annex A of
Circular Instruction 55/84 "Management in the Prison Service"):
"1. to keep in custody untried or unsentenced prisoners, and to present
them to court for trial or sentence;
2. to keep in custody, with such a degree of security as is appropriate,
having regard to the nature of the individual prisoner and his
offence, sentenced prisoners for the duration of their sentence or for
such short time as the Secretary of State may determine in cases where
he has discretion;
3. to provide for prisoners as full a life as is consistent with the
facts of custody, in particular making available the physical
necessities of life; care for physical and mental health; advice and
help with personal problems; work, education, training, physical
exercise and recreation; and opportunity to practice their religion;
and
4. to enable prisoners to retain links with the community and where
possible assist them to prepare for their return to it."
The statement takes forward the initiative begun by Bainton. What is valuable
about this statement of functions is that it recognises the distinction between
different types of prisoners. It is more easily understandable by staff and
more readily transferable into practice, because it focuses on functions rather
than on aims. (For further information as to how this Circular Instruction
spells out in greater detail the functions of each establishment, see Annex B of
the document in Appendix B, Item 3).
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This is the first practical formulation and it cuts across the ideological
wrangling by concentrating on the question %that are we doing?" and not on the
question "why are we here?". It is necessary to know why'the prison system is
here as well as what it is doing. The two questions are intimately related.
The Control Review Committee Report, while concentrating on the control of
prisoners in the long term system, made an important contribution to the
definition of aims of the system (paragraphs 106 and 107, see Appendix B, Item
4).
It highlighted certain basic objectives of the system:
a. to keep prisoners out of society, axiomatically because it is a prison
system;
b. to provide for legal rights;
c. to provide basic living conditions;
d. to assume a duty of care.
There is a link between the basic objective of assuming "a duty of care" and the
idea underlying the Prison Department's functions 3 and U. The process of
defining at increasingly practical levels the work to be carried out in the
prison system has been taken forward in the regions, where the initiative begun
at headquarters has received further elucidation. Within each region yearly
targets are being set for Governors as a way of translating the functions
defined by the Prison Department down through the various levels of the
organisation into targets for practical implementation. However, as I saw
elsewhere, there is a danger that without a clear statement of aims the process
of defining tasks could lose its direction and the definitions be reduced to
mechanistic formulae.
IL Comparisons
. Every system which I have visited has produced a detailed statement of aims or
"mission". I have noted from official reports and in speaking with senior
officials, a concerted effort within the system to formulate the statement in
ways which can be more readily understood and translated into practice by staff
at all levels. In addition, several countries have a statement of the aims of
the prison system produced by outside organisations.
15
The following is a selection from the different systems visited:
(a) United States of America
(i) The U.S. Department of Justice, the branch of government to which the
Federal Bureau of Prisons is responsible, has stated the following
aims:-
"1. Maintain secure, safe, and humane correctional institutions for individuals placed in the care and custody of the Attorney-General.
2. Develop and operate correctional programmes that seek a balanced application of the concepts of punishment, deterrence, incapacitation and rehabilitation." (US Department of Justice, Federal Standards for Prisons and Jails).
(ii) The American Correctional Association, a professional organisation
started by persons prominent in the prison field, has produced its own
statement of aims, widely used in the North American continent in
prison accreditation (for an explanation see Glossary of Terms in
Appendix D).
"To promote practices that protect the basic constitutional rights of inmates.
To operate in a manner that is decent, humane and safe."
The ACA has also described the purpose of the institution.
"Institutional purpose. The institution shall
1. protect society by providing incarceration as an appropriate deterrent to the commission of crime;
2. protect society by providing methods of training and treatment which correct offenders who violate laws;
3. provide an environment for incarcerated persons in which rehabilitation is possible. This shall include the protection of the offender from victimisation within the institution as well as the development of a system of due process and internal legality in institutions;
4. provide meaningful community supervision for offenders on parole and probation as well as develop community alternatives to traditional incarceration;
16
5. provide programmes, which include both academic and vocational education, to incarcerated offenders and offenders being supervised in the community;
6. provide the courts with effective evaluation tools and information for use in sentencing decisions;
7. provide the necessary level of security in institutions." (ACA Guidelines for the Development of Policies and Procedures, p.1).
(iii) The five major goals of the federal system are stated by the Federal
Bureau of Prisons itself as:
"1. To provide a level of supervision that is consistent with human dignity and offers maximum protection to the community, staff, and inmates;
2. To increase significantly the number of Federal offenders achieving a successful adjustment upon their return to the community;
3. To provide a wide variety of programme alternatives for offenders, including those who do not require institutional confinement;
4. To provide institutional environments that minimise the corrosive effects of confinement;
5. To increase the knowledge of correctional technology through systematic evaluation and research."
(Federal Bureau of Prisons Breaking With The Past: The Changing View of Correctional Facilities).
(iv) The New York State Department of Correctional Services, which is
responsible for running the State's prisons, has stated:
"The departmental mission
To provide for public protection by administering a network of correctional facilities that:
1. retain inmates in safe custody until released by law;
2. offer inmates an opportunity to improve their employment potential and their ability to function in a non-criminal fashion;
3. offer staff a variety of opportunities for career enrichment and advancement; and
4. offer stable and humane "community" environments in which all participants, staff and inmates, can perform their required tasks with a sense of satisfaction." (New York State Department of Correctional Services, Master Plan 1980-1985, p.17).
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(b) Canada
The Correctional Service of Canada which is responsible not only for prisoners
but also for probation and after-care, has produced a statement of its mission:
"the custody, control, correctional training, and rehabilitation of persons
committed to the penitentiary."
(Correctional Service of Canada, Penitentiary Regulations).
"The primary purposes of the correctional component of the Canadian
criminal justice system are to contribute to the achievement of a safe and
just society and to promote responsible citizenship by:
1. providing appropriate measures of security, direction and control for
the accused or the convicted offender;
2. encouraging the offender's participation, whether in the community or
in a correctional institution, in programmes provided and designed to
aid his/her successful integration into the community;
3. co-operating with persons and agencies within and outside the criminal
justice system to prevent crime and offer services to all persons
involved in the criminal justice process."
(Adult Corrections in Canada, Manual of Standards in Prisons).
(c) Sweden
The aims of the Swedish organisation responsible for prisoners and probation
(the National Prison and Probation Administration) have been incorporated in
legislation:
"Correctional treatment in an institution shall be so designed as to
promote the adjustment of the inmate in society and to counteract the
detrimental effects of deprivation of liberties. In so far as this can be
achieved without detriment to the need to protect the public, treatment
should be directed from the outset towards measures which prepare the
inmate for conditions outside the institution. Preparation should be begun
in good time for release or the transfer of the inmate to treatment on
parole." (Section 4 of the 1976 Act on Correctional Treatment in
Institutions).
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In these various statements of aims there is a blur between the overall
objectives of the system and their translation into work targets. I am not
arguing for a sterile academic separation of these elements. What is important
is that any statement of work targets be accompanied by, or incorporated into, a
statement of general purpose, so that there is a guiding idea linking the
various practical directions towards which the work flows. Every organisation
needs a sense of direction; the concept of mission provides precisely that.
The various examples quoted above rightly incorporate general aims and more
specific functional targets. They demonstrate that the point of articulating
general aims is to help in developing a coherent set of practical objectives,
that may be understood at all levels of the organisation. It is obvious from
the statements that different countries still have problems in articulating
clear and concise aims.
These examples also show a marked contrast between the North American and the
Swedish approaches. The North American statements tend to be more explicit than
the Swedish. The Swedish system does not appear to have any more detailed
internal formulation of tasks relating to aims. It is relatively small and
appears to have a general belief system reflecting that of Swedish society.
This may in part explain why there is no need to be more explicit about the
tasks of the prison system.
II It is possible to go back to a stage when there appeared to be fairly general
agreement about aims in the English system. Hence the tasks were not in need of
further description, because all levels of staff seemed to be aware of why they IIwere in the Prison Service and how they ought to operate. Since then the system
has become more complex and is now a large bureaucracy. People would still like
11 to believe that there is a general community of feeling and service identity as
well as identity of aims. The hankering by some for a return to the Prison
Commission is evidence of the perceived need for a sense of identity, which the MR Commission reflected. Regrettably that sense no longer exists and those days
will not return by wishful thinking. The organisation has to take account of
the confusion of the previous generation.
For ethical and practical reasons there is a need to go further down the path of
defining the aims of the prison system and of translating them into tasks. No
longer can the operation of individual establishments be left entirely to the
discretion of individuals, no matter how well informed and professional they be.
This is as true of prison Governors as it is of prison officers or specialists.
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I have introduced the examples to show the need for a combination of general
aims and specific targets, which are conceptually linked, and which all can
recognise and support.
Having alluded to the importance of this link, I shall draw from the examples
certain underlying assumptions, which are important as instruments for
translating the aims of the system into more practical objectives. These are
basic principles which transcend the immediate context. I shall deal with them
in the following order: individualism, relationship and activity.
(a) Individualism
I assume that in any organisation it is the people within it who matter. It
follows for the prison system that both staff and inmates need to be treated as
individuals. If the organisation is to be run for individuals there must be
concerted planning involving
(0 individual staff members at all levels and
(ii) individual prisoners.
From what I noticed abroad it was the concentration on the individual staff
member and on the individual prisoner which distinguished those better
organisations from those which did not appear to be functioning as well. This
was the fundamental proposition underlying much of their organisation; it seemed
closely related to morale as well as to effectiveness.
Individualism is in line with the recommendations of the Control Review
Committee Report for individual planning for long-term prisoners; it used to be
enshrined in the belief system of the prison service and, despite considerable
problems of overcrowding, the present service should return to the principle and
extend it to all those in its care, whether young offenders or adults, male or
female, sentenced or unconvicted.
An individualistic approach has equally important implications for staff.
Mr Justice May referred to the need for individualism and the establishment of
P7 within the prison department recognised the importance of this principle.
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Individualism implies personal recognition and accountability. Assignment on an
individual basis both for staff and for prisoners, according to expertise,
talents or needs, brings human resources to the forefront puts them to the
best use. That in turn implies options for staff and prisoners in terms of
work, activity and facilities. In some of the places I visited it was the
facilities for staff which immediately caught the eye. Perhaps it is not
without significance that it was also those places where staff were apparently
able to operate with the highest degree of professionalism and where as a
consequence the atmosphere was good and purposeful.
(h) Relationship
It directly flows from the concept of individualism that the crucial
relationship is that which exists between the staff member and the prisoner.
Indeed, I would echo the statement of the Control Review Committee:
"nothing else that we can say will be as important as the general proposition that relations between staff and prisoners are at the heart of the whole prison system and that control and security flow from getting that relationship right." (Control Review Committee Report, para. 16).
From what I saw there can be no doubt of the validity of that statement.
The emphasis on personal relationships was evident in the institutions visited,
not only in the internal relationships between staff and prisoners, but also in
the relationship between the prison and the outside world. Again where this was
most noticeable, it was notable how this eased tension and reduced stress. It
manifested itself most commonly as an ease of communications between all
parties: staff, inmates, lawyers, business folk, professionals of all sorts
and, of course, personal and family visitors.
Freedom of communication is of such importance that it could almost be
annunciated as a principle in its own right. It is, however, an illustration of
an approach which views relationships as of utmost importance whether within the II
prison or between inmates and the outside world. Breaking down of physical
barriers is another manifestation of the importance attached to relationships
and individualism. This can be seen dramatically in many of the places I
visited, particularly in their relaxed visiting accommodation, the frequency of
visits, and arrangements made for contacting families and lawyers by telephone.
(This includes the facility in many North American prisons for the prisoner to
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reverse the charges from internal "call boxes" available from 7 o'clock in the
morning till after 10 o'clock at night).
It can also be seen in fundamental design elements, such as small units.
The Federal Bureau "operates a policy of decentralized and dedicated management teams within each of the separate housing units in its institutions. The teams are staffed with motivated and well trained people who have an ability to mix and communicate with the aim of breaking down psychological barriers and becoming familiar with inmates worries and problems at the lowest levels."
This is facilitated by architecteral design which encourages staff and prisoners
to intermingle and reduces physical barriers.
"The design of an institution should encourage informal contact between inmates and staff, organised around small management teams and plant to enable staff to oversee and control in an unobstrusive manner and without confrontations." (Home Office Prison Department, New Directions in Prison Design, p.79).
Design features can, of course, enhance the possibility of this taking place but
ultimately it depends on the quality of staff and the attitude of all within the
institution.
(c) Activity
Perhaps the most striking feature of those prisons visited was the attitude of
towards activity held by management and staff. Coming from a system where so
many prisoners are idle in their cells, I was impressed by the uniformity of
assumption that any prisoner who is left in his cell (other than when placed
there for due process) is a threat to security or control. This assumption has
led to the practice of giving prisoners the opportunity to be unlocked from
first thing in the morning to last thing at night: unlocking from 6.30 am until
11.0 pm was not uncommon.
On innumberable many occasions, it was brought home to me that an idle prisoner
is a dangerous prisoner. Apart from the assumption that activity was
fundamental in achieving and maintaining control and security, activity was also
seen as of
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value in itself, because it enhances both the life of the prisoners and the work
of the staff. It should be said that it was seen by some as valuable because of
its punitive connotations, i.e. society outside would not wish a man to be
imprisoneeand then to sit idly doing nothing; rather he should be involved in
some activity rather than "having an easy time of it". The soft option in North
America was the person sitting in his cell doing nothing and much of the
pressure to keep people active results from these assumptions. The punitive
approach to activity holds true for sentenced prisoners; it does not apply to
those on remand, for whom activity is seen rather as access to the means of
dealing with the court process and keeping in touch with the family and the
local community prior to conviction or acquittal.
The emphasis on activity goes hand in hand with the norm of unlocked cells
throughout the system. Even where prisoners do not work, they are at least in
association, although in some situations this time is not filled with purposeful
activity. This characterizes the remand situation more than it does the pattern
for sentenced prisoners; for them a high degree of involvement in activities
throughout the day was observed and is generally seen as essential, tf the life
of the prison is to continue both normally and properly.
Individualism, relationship and activity come together in the widely shared
concept of dynamic security. This approach to safety for the public (preventing
prison escapes) and safety for the prison (internal control) recognizes that
both are only really possible through the relationship between staff and
inmates. Dynamic security is knowing what is going on in a prison
establishment, in addition to providing a safe and secure background against
which the whole range of activity making up the life of a prison takes place.
Although it is not a common concept in this country, in North America it assumes
an overriding importance in terms of justifying all the above three principles.
"How can I achieve security in this prison without having the right
relationships, dealing with the individual and having all my prisoners active?"
It is this approach which has also led to a different emphasis on physical
security and mechanistic functions. I am not overlooking the obvious import of
the armed perimeter, whether in the form of guard towers or armed perimeter
vehicles in North America. The systems which I observed may not all have solved
their security problem. However, New York State claimed that, as a result of
their concentration on these principles, particularly activity, escapes and
assaults on staff had been dramatically reduced.
"Escapes and assaults on staff are down. The number of escapes is down a third and New York State now has the lowest escape rate of any state in the country." (Deputy Commissioner, New York State).
The emphasis on dynamic security, by involving all grades of staff in shared
responsibility, also enhances the job content and frees many correctional
officers from being nothing but guards. This approach limits the exclusive
guarding function and provides multiple outlets for staff to concentrate on a
wider range of security and interpersonal issues than in those places, which
also exist in the United States, where the concentration is on physical
supervision and mechanical security.
"With the recent financial cutbacks we try to work within the allocated dollars. The responsibility is on us to manage. Therefore we have decided to look at the way programmes are manned. We can then decide whether we have to suffer a steno or a teacher vacancy. The unions were not happy but they accepted it in the last two weeks. We pulled posts and reduced security. We kept programmes going because that is better security." (an official at Watertown, New York)
III Implications
It is clear from the above examples that different countries have different aims
for their prison system. The English system must find the right statement of
its aims, just as other systems have worked toward an appropriate formulation
for themselves.
What is clear from these examples is that an abstract statement is far from
being enough; the more abstract it sounds the more difficult is it to translate
into practice. This does not mean there is no place for idealism; but as well
as idealism it is necessary to translate the idea into practical directives.
Much that I have seen abroad demonstrates attempts to do that and in some
instances superbly well.
The English service has abstract formulations; the treatment model is an
example. (Perhaps this is one reason why no matter how widespread the concept
of treatment was, it was never consistently put into practice). At the ground
floor there was a great deal of ambivalence about what it meant in practice and
much of today's disillusionment has spread from an inability to translate that
model into an effective working system. Hence springs much modern sceptism as
to whether anything will work. My travels have demonstrated that it will.
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The treatment model is an example of how an objective that is not demonstrably
attainable is bound to fall into disrespect. There were no adequate measures of
performance; the only measure available was recidivism. That . was not a
reasonable measure of the effectiveness of treatment, since it is impossible to
assess the influence of the many other factors impinging on prisoners' lives
when they leave the prison system. In many ways such a measure was set up to
fail the test. The disillusionment that followed has done grave harm to the
morale of staff and to the effectiveness of the present system. It has led
people to see treatment as totally irrelevant, whereas in certain cases this is
far from being so. There is no evidence to show that treatment reduces
recidivism but there are indications that, without any attempt at treatment,
containment may lead to deterioration.
"Yet it would seem that to throw out the whole idea of good intentions, because most of the time they do not reach the lofty heights they were supposed to achieve, may be to throw out many other values that often accompanied them: human values, the wish, at least, to treat people humanely."
(Graeme Newman "Reaffirming Rehabilitation" in Cullen and Gilbert, page 262).
One senior official in America told me that although they no longer believe in
the treatment model per se, they found that the values which went with it were
still a very effective way of running a prison and motivating staff, with the
minimum of major incidents and control problems. By contrast they had found
that in adhering exclusively to the pure treatment model, initial high idealism
had turned to cynicism; this resulted from a sense of failure, when staff did
not achieve what had set out to do.
The recurring message was that sights should be set realistically on targets
which were measurable and attainable. They should bear a relationship to
existing circumstances and not merely to future aspirational aims.
The danger is that disillusionment with the treatment model, or any other model
which fails to address the need for practical targets, will lead to the opposite
extreme. This might take a variety of forms. On the one hand there might
develop the tendency towards purely negative, though practical, goals; this
might be exemplified by the Florence Nightingale principle, not to do the
patients any harm.
Alternatively there is a danger, in the absence of clearly stated, attainable
goals, of focussing exclusively on the readily articulated goal, security, which
can easily be measured by an absolute criterion of success: absence of escapes.
The goal is demonstrably attainable, though not without difficulty; and for
staff who do a difficult job with very little satisfaction it is not surprising
that they readily seize on the attainment of a secure prison, as at least one
way of demonstrating that they have had a successful day's work. Indeed, this
is the first of the four functions articulated by the Prison Department and
close attention has to be given to its proper performance. In the absence of
other measurable goals, there has been a tendency to stop there. Over the years
this has led to an imbalance in the way in which the functions of the English
prison service have been approached.
Morgan and King have pointed out that, whereas training and task definition for
the custodial function are clear to staff, this is not true for the functions
relating to treatment of prisoners:
"For prison staff, especially uniformed officers, working under a philosophy of treatment and training constitutes a real dilemma. On the one hand they know that their function is essentially custodial. They have to maintain a constant vigilance to ensure the security of the establishment, and to maintain good order and discipline with it. In these activities their role is clear and their training unambiguous. Above all it is perfectly apparent to themselves and everyone else whether they are discharging these activities successfully or otherwise. On the other hand they have been persuaded by the press, the public, prison reformers and prison administrators to concern themselves with the training of prisoners. But here their roles are imprecisely specified - often no more than a vague injunction to be concerned with 'the whole man' - and their own training is short and ambiguous because nobody knows quite what they are being trained for." (Rod Morgan and Roy King, The Future of the Prison System, pp. 17-18).
That imbalance is not peculiar to the English system. Indeed from my
observations other systems have gone through a similar process of veering
between different extremes in their search for the right balance.
The English prison system now needs to expand its goals realistically to
incorporate other principles beyond security. These are directly linked with
the four functions already mentioned and are, in fact, implicit in much that has
gone on within the prison system and evolved in many different localities.
There are individuals and particular establishments working to practical goals,
but there is a great need now to formalize them, so that they may be recognised
as a set of coherent goals for the whole system, rather than as the objectives
of certain individuals and establishments within the system as a
26
whole. Historically, as I have argued, the Mountbatten and Radzinowitz Reports
and critical incidents within the prison system of England and Wales have led to
a concentration on security. Without security the justification for the prison
system ceases. However, if security becomes the sole aim the quality of the
system will be measured by "negative" indicators, such as escapes or incidents.
The prison system should not be reduced to such terms but measured to reflect
the totality of aims.
It is time for some clear thinking about what these aimsare. It is important to
decide what role among the various aims of a complex system the aim of
rehabilitation should play and how that aim may be put into practice. Other
positive, more tangible aims must be balanced with rehabilitation.
It is necessary to decide the extent to which punishment is an aim of the prison
system. If incarcerationis in itself sufficient to meet the aim of punishment,
then it should be spelt out clearly that the conditions of incarceration are not
intended as a means of fulfilling that aim.
The distinction was clearly recognised by Alexander Patterson when he stated
that people were sent to prison as punishment not for punishment. Lord
Wilberforce in R v Honey has recently restated this issue with his assertion
that under English law: "a convicted prisoner, in spite of his imprisonment,
retains all civil rights which are not taken away expressly or by necessary
implication." (See: Raymond v Honey [1982] 1 All ER 756).
I woüld agree that imprisonment itself is the punishment. This should be
clearly stated. The people in the system need to know what is expected of
them and the public outside have a right to know that the staff are carrying
out their wishes and not exceeding or failing to meet them.
There has to be an overall accountability of the prison service to the public
and Parliamentinthe saine way that individual governors and staff feel themselves
accountable for the tasks which are now asked of them, however ill-defined they
are. The exercise of clear definition is a healthy one, because it forces
people to face the basic questions about why they are employed and what they
should be doing.
27
It seems that the treatment ideal may sink into oblivion and disuse; but this
will leave a vacuum alongside which the pre-existing other aims of punishment,
retribution, etc. will continue to survive. Either these remaining aims will
tend to become the exclusive aims of the prison system or replacements for or
supplements to rehabilitation must be found. A more narrowly defined aim in
line with the 'duty of care' concept of the Control Review Committee Report is
one possibility. But that too needs to be spelt out. What I would say,
however, is that the aims of the prison system cannot be allowed to ebb and flow
in an unpredictable way and some clear statement is called for, if the vacuum
which I have already described is not to become the aim of the system. 'No
message' is in fact a very clear message.
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B. COMMUNICATING THE MESSAGE
I. The Situation Here
Earlier in the evolution of the prison system the aims of the service were
stated in a language carrying a strong ethical message. There was a real or
perceived sharing of moral values which finds an interesting parallel in modern
Sweden. I shall return to that analogy later when I discuss other examples.
The English prison system is now at a stage of development where that sense of
community has gone. As a result there has been a loss of identity which is
widely felt among all staff. There have been recent moves to articulate a set
of practical definitions of the functions of the system. The service has veered
away from the moral message to a concentration on the technical problems of
making things work.
I shall now look at examples from other systems which have passed through very
similar phases and have developed somewhat different approaches and conclusions.
In the light of other countries' experience we need to tread carefully so that
we do not jettison much of importance which has tacitly held the system together
over the years.
II. Comparisons
It is apparent that in some other systems the conviction has developed that you
need both simple messages and an elaboration of practical details. You need
them both to succeed. We can see this in the mission statements, which do not
exist in isolation, but have alongside of them quite extensive directives about
how to translate those ideals and aspirations into a set of workable targets.
We can see characteristics of systems that have developed that understanding:
the organisational structure reflects the prevailing philosophy. A combination
of aspirational objectives and functional directives are communicated through
clear lines of responsibility. The definition of the functions rests on the
objectives. The organisation passes the message down through the various layers
so that the functions describe what will be performed at all levels; therefore
the message is addressed to staff at every level in the organisation. The
structure is reinforced by lines both from the top and the bottom which
emphasize that message. It can be seen in examples of staff training systems
and effective communication systems within the organisation.
29
This is not merely a sterile academic exercise. In other countries it is seen
as one of the fundamental requirements for effective management and successful
delivery of services. In recent years people have begun to understand the
importance of management principles for running large organisations, whether
Uusinesses or large bureaucracies. There is some measure of agreement in the
public and private sectors about certain fundamental principles for how to run
large enterprises; the prison system is one such. The baseline of their thought
has been more clearly articulated in the private sector; unambiguously, it is
motivating personnel within the organisation. "Almost everyone agrees people
are our most important asset!" (Rene MacFerson, former chairman of Dana, a
major American corporation).
"IBM's philosophy is largely contained in three simple beliefs. I want to begin
with what I think is the most important: our respect for the individual."
(Thomas J Watson Junior of IBM). (Selection of quotes from Peters and Waterman,
In Sear;ch of Excellence).
People who have studied the way successful large organisations work have noted
that these ideas translate themselves into a combination of achievable targets
and a simple statement of objectives which creates the conviction that the task
is inherently worthwhile.
In all my visits I observed a remarkable degree of agreement among all members
of the organisation at different levels about the recurring message. The
American federal system is particularly noteworthy in this respect. Whether
talking to Norman Carlson, the Director, or to the newly joined correctional
officer at one of the facilities visited, I heard the same message with the same
degree of conviction. People knew what they were about and were convinced that
this was the best way to do it. I shall quote a conversation with one
correctional officer from New York State to illustrate how he was aware both of
the overall aim and the specific task of his own institution, Watertown.
"I have a job as correctional officer in New York State. I am proud to have this job in corrections. Our job is care, custody and control. .... Times have changed all the way round. With programmes inmates are not idle; idle prisoners are trouble. Programmes provide incentives for them to better themselves. With programmes it does the same for us and programmes provide additional jobs for staff; it is a sales point."
30
1 1
1
This officer was aware, not only of the general message, but also of the
specific one as how to operate in Watertown. His conviction that programmes
were a way forward in carrying out the basic aims of care, custody and control
is summed up in his powerful imagery of the change in recent years. "There was
a wall ten years ago. No longer."
He was using the imagery of the prison perimeter to refer to the elimination of
barriers of communication not only between staff and prisoners but also within
the administration.
III. Implications
From the foregoing examples I have drawn out the lesson that organisations are
only as good as the individuals in them. They need motivating. They also need
practical task definitions; but that is not what motivates them. It is a sense
of purpose that lies behind task definition that moves people, as does the way
in which the message is personally communicated.
People in organisations need to feel that there is someone who knows what it is
all about, cares and is running the show. Beyond that they need to be convinced
that it has a value, that it is worth being a part of the organisation. Its
value is defined not only by those who are part of it, but those outside. The
English prison system needs a more articulate formulation of aims and functions
and part of that work is underway. It is an exercise which must be carried
forward inside and outside the prison system. My experience abroad indicates
that once the aims of the system have been clearly defined, the important next
step is for management to take on the message and understand its importance for
the work of operatives and managers alike.
Illustrations can be found in many different fields but perhaps that of staff
training is worth quoting. Communicating the message means establishing and
keeping open lines to all members of the organisation. The content of staff
training programmes must reflect this overall purpose and the importance placed
by management on getting the message across. If it is not done at that stage,
then it is difficult to see how it can be done successfully at any other.
In the United States federal system for example, the Staff Training Academy at
Glynco in Georgia presents a series of programmes for training correctional
officers in correctional techniques. The course specifically concerned with
custody, security and control begins not with security techniques but with
training in prison system objectives. It covers the three primary I
I
32
responsibilities that all correctional workers share, namely security,
programmes and job speciality. Thus a course designed to deal specifically with
security matters starts out by stressing the inter-relationship of the various
functions, of which security is but one.
The orientation towards managing people is even more clearly visible in the
lesson entitled "Inmates are People Too!" This course leads the officer through
a number of key concepts about the relationship between people working and
living in the institution. (For further details the outlines of these lectures
are provided in Appendix B, Items 5 and 6.)
A similar approach isevident in New York State where, on a visit to Clinton, I
found that the annual training programme requirements for staff showed a 50%
split between time spent on personal relationships and that on legal mandates,
weapons, use of force etc. The minimum number of hours spent by staff each year
was 32. (NB this falls below the ACA standard of 40 hours per year.) This
approach is found not merely in the federal system, where there has been some 15
years of continual development of these ideas, but also in New York State. A
prison system operating against a background of violent crime, prison
disturbances and pressures of numbers. Even there, following the Attica
disturbance in 1973 and the guard strike in 1979, there has been a tremendous
impetus toward "a programme push" and relationship training for staff has been
set in motion.
New York State is a particularly important point of reference, because they are
going through problems of overcrowding and of financial crisis which are
somewhat analagous to our own. Many of their prisons are under the most
appalling pressures. Yet they recognise that to surmount these problems they
have to implement measures now, in order to take control of a system which for
many years has been in crisis. They have recognised that crisis management is
no way to solve the problem in the long term. Following some particularly acute
upheavals and crises the New York State Correctional Services, under their
Commissioner Thomas A Coughlin, produced a master plan for correctional services
which clearly spells out the way ahead.
The message about the aims of the prison system needs incorporating from the
start, commencing with basic training; it must be reinforced at regional level
and in training at establishment level. The connection must be demonstrated
between basic aims and day to day work and task definitions for the individual.
1
This can only be achieved through training, retraining and refresher courses.
The message must be incorporated in the training manual at Wakefield and in the
Prison Officers Handbook. In the preface to the handbook the aims of the prison
system could be helpfully and more clearly elucidated.
I conclude that it is necessary to define the overall aims of the prison system.
The Prison Department must translate the overall aims into clear directives for
those working in the system. It must produce its own master plan interpreting
the aims into practical tasks. It will then be for the Inspectorate to assess
the performance of those tasks in the light of the overall aims.
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33 I
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CHAPTER 2: TASKS
A. DEFINITION: what must be done to achieve the aims
I. The Situation Here
This chapter will discuss the primary tasks which are of interest to those
managing the system. It deals with what is in the first instance an internal
exercise, although ultimately one of interest and concern to those responsible
for external monitoring, such as the Inspectorate.
Tasks do not arise in isolation; as I have previously discussed, they must be
related to the overall aims and aspirations of the prison system. The
relationship between the defined tasks and the aims of the system must be clear.
Once that is established it is possible to define clearly what the functions and
the tasks are.
In case this sounds very abstract, let me take an actual example. If
rehabilitation is one major aim of the prison system, then the functions of the
prison service must be defined to make it abundantly clear how to put
rehabilitation into practice at ground floor level. Similarly, if punishment is
another major aim of the prison system, then definition of the functions must
include practical directives as to how best this is to be achieved, making it
clear that the conditions of incarceration themselves are not intended as a
means of fulfilling the aim of punishment.
With this approach in mind the Prison Department's statement of functions should
be further elaborated and reworked. The link must be drawn between the aims of
the prison system and the functional definitions.
II: Comparisons
It is interesting that functions which in this country have tended to be defined
as discrete and separate areas are defined in other systems in ways which
emphasise their inter-relationship rather than their discrete quality. So one
may find that security, control and what has been called 'programmes' are
treated as interdependent, both in terms of the definitions of functions and in
terms of practical implications. Particular definitions may vary somewhat, but
there are easily recognisable common strands; the manifestations may differ from
one context to another, but some of the ideas and their applications are
similar.
One of the ideas I have seen at work in other countries is dynamic security,
velichlinksall the flrictions of security, control and programmes and is readily
recognised as a synthesis of these functional elements.
"In order to stop security predominating over programmes, then programmes and security have to be closely intertwined. Programmes are security. If we don't keep inmates busy, they'll keep us busy." (Norman Carlson, Director, Federal Bureau of Prisons).
Dynamic security has implications for reducing control.problems. The Vantour
Report, addressed the level of violent incidents in Canadian prisons, and its
relationship to the traditional approach to security:
"Notwithstanding our desire to minimize the incidence of violence, we must state emphatically that more security - more fences, doors and gun cages - is not the answer. Short of total lock-up, inmates will come in conflict with one another. Furthermore, a more repressive system will simply produce more inner-directed violence (suicides) and system-directed violence - collectively in the form of riots and individually in the form of assaults on staff." (Report of the Study Group on Murders and Assaults in the Ontario Region, p.1, hereafter called the Vantour Report).
I have seen many approaches to security and establishments have not always
succeeded in putting the idea into practice. When relationship and
individualism come together in planned activity, whether in a high or low
security setting, the result is a relaxed and better ordered prison. Staff and
prisoners seem to feel it was a better and safer place to live and work. In my
experience the worst establishments visited were those which failed to recognize
and put into practice these basic principles.
The three principles of individualism, relationship and activity serve to bridge
the gap between the system's aims and the tasks to be performed. Owing to the
limits of this report, it is impossible to analyse in detail the many examples,
contained in a wealth of documents assembled from the systems visited, of how
the overall aims are translated down to the level of work targets for discrete
parts of the system. I provide one example of this process of reduction down to
the level of the living unit (see Manual on Unit Management, Raybrook p.2 ff in
Appendix B item 7).
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III. Implications
Dynamic security is not unfamiliar to those working in dispérsal prisons in this
country. Some establishments in the English system actively embody it, though
not expressly defined in the terms: "dynamic security". Nevertheless, many
people working in and outside the prison system recognize that good
relationships and activity are an essential part of running a successful prison,
particularly the most secure establishments. This is but one example of the way
in which good ideas exist in the present system, but need to be more clearly
stated and drawn together as a coherent and understandable package.
In presenting the package it is necessary to underline the interdependence of
the different functional elements, because that is the best way to ensure a
balance. Getting the right balance of aims is the pre-requisite for getting the
right balance of tasks. If the system recognises that it is involved in such a
balancing exercise, then it can organise itself to assess how it is managing to
do that and, equally, from beyond the system, assessments can be made about its
performance.
The functions of secure containment, court services, provision of a full life
and maintenance of community links, have already been spelt out for the English
system in Circular Instruction 55/84. They imply a duty of care which concerns
the prisoner here and now, rather than the ideal of changing his behaviour in
the long run.
There is an implied underlying ethos; it needs to be spelt out much more
clearly, because without it it is impossible to know whether there is a priority
among the functions stated and how they are to be successfully integrated. In
many places the functions of court service and containment have taken the
ascendance, the former as a response to external demands because their
translation in practical terms is more readily achievable than the functions of
providing a fuller life and maintaining community links. One of the purposes on
this report is to suggest ways of redressing the balance.
The danger is that the former two functions can be performed at a mechanistic
level, though not without detriment to those concerned; but it is hard to see
how the latter two can be reduced in this way to a mechanistic level and sound
management will be needed to ensure that the right balance is actually achieved
and maintained.
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1
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B. IMPLEMENTATION: How to perform the defined tasks
I. The Situation Here
There is a consistent move now taking place towards greater management
accountability. This inevitably involves the necessity to look in greater
detail at tasks and functions. The move has recently led to an emphasis on
financial accountability. There is a danger that the focus will be concentrated
on accounting for resources in the narrow sense. Financial accountability
should serve functional accountability. That will result in true efficiency:
the highest achievement of prison service aims with the minimum of resources.
There are signs that functional accountability is beginning to take hold;
regions have been involved in operational assessment for a number of years.
They are now refining checklists for assessing how establishments operate and
are beginning to ask for functional definitions at different operational levels
with a specific time limit. Thus the Regional Management Committee for the
South West Region has recently made the following statement (7 June 1985):
"Objectives are to be established subject to annual review which the Regional Director will approve. This will form a sort of contract with the establishment. Objectives in this context must include long-term measures and will need to incorporate some performance standards for regime matters.
These objectives should lead to a list of operations which are agreed as making up the regime of the establishment. The target for this to be completed could be by the end of October. .... Governors should reduce the operations list to tasks in order to identify individual pieces of work for staff".
This development, which is taking the process of work definition down to grass
roots level from the circular instruction, is a constructive move. Unless my
earlier points about more clearly defining the aims and getting the balance
right are borne in mind, there is a danger that each region will set its own
norms.
At the end of the day if management is going to be in control and know what is
going on, it will be necessary, even at the basic level of costings, for each
region and each establishment to be measuring the same data. Real levels of
performance achieved could then be compared. It is at present possible for
similar establishments in separate regions to proceed on different lines in
interpreting what should be a common policy and for them to be monitored
according to carious or inconsistent criteria.
37
I
38
This does not mean however that the system should be a slave to uniformity; a
certain degree of variation is necessary, desirable and healthy. Nevertheless
each establishment must face in the same direction and striee towards the same
overall and clearly defined aims. What is needed is a uniform system, but not
necessarily a uniform management style.
The end product of the move underway now will be a series of checklists
developed at ground floor level. These will state tasks which can be measured
both quantitatively and qualitatively. Theoretically the underlying concept is
sound; nevertheless there is the danger of it becoming a dull, repetitive,
mechanistic operation and of the exercise becoming an end in itself. If this
happens there will be no benefit to any of those living within the institution.
There is a danger that this process could merely produce more paperwork a risk I
deal with later.
I must also mention the caveat that what sounds very neat and logical in theory,
can prove more complicated in practice, as anyone who has worked in an .
establishment knows. Life is rarely as simple as theory implies. This is true
of the prison system, where random external demands continually impinge. The
two most obvious demands upon the prison system, over which it exercises no
control, are court requirements in relation to the judicial process of deciding
innocence or guilt and the results of the sentencing process which determines
the number of prisoners and the length of time they will spend in prison.
It will never be possible to develop a tight control mechanism either in terms
of financial management or service provision, because of these wide
fluctuations. Nevetheless this is no excuse for sitting back and letting
nothing happen. The sooner the task can be spelled out as I have earlier urged
the more rational will be the system's response to these outside influences,
which affect the prison system far more adversely than necessary.
IL Comparisons
The principles of individualism, relationship and activity occupy a half-way
house between aspirational aims and operational tasks. The most useful way of
looking at the examples from other countries is to view practical detail in the
light of these current themes thus providing a valuable guide as to how to
approach the job of translating aims into practical work tasks. I found a
planned network of activity which embraced the principles of individualism and
relationship. These principles were reflected in a number of key areas of
management practice.
(à) Planning for the individual
The network of activities was characterised almost everywhere I went by
individual planning, in some areas carried out to an extremely high level of
sophistication; indeed it might be described as almost over meticulous. For
example, the Swedish system shows an interesting approach to consulting the
inmate as a consumer and tailoring activities, whilst he is in prison or outside
on parole, very much to his individual needs.
This goes hand in hand with the idea of the prison system as being in loco
parentis, while the prisoner is in its charge, which leads to an almost
paternalistic way of dealing with prisoners, reminiscent of an earlier era in
the English system. The analogy does not fit our present day thinking; but it
is cannot be emphasised strongly enough that treating the prisoner as an
individual has tremendous pay-offs, not only for the prisoner, but also for the
atmosphere within the etablishment and for the individual satisfaction of
members of staff involved in the process.
An example worth quoting is the case of one of the very few lifers in the
Swedish system. He was in a security establishment, but,having been treated for
drug abuse, he was no longer able to be treated with the appropriate drugs
within the prison; these drugs however could be obtained outside and after a
great deal of deliberation it was agreed that he would attend the local hospital
without escort, in order to have the necessary drugs administered. He was
placed on trust and would be out of the establishment for anything up to an hour
before having to report back. This difficult decision involved balancing public
safety, security, control and treatment considerations. The problem was
considered carefully with input from a large number of staff. Ultimately the
decision rested on their knowledge of the prisoner as an individual. Enough of
the staff knew him well enough to make the decision despite the risk involved.
Planning for the individual has implications for and should influence the long-
term planning of the organisation and not the other way around, as tends to
happen now. Prisoners are often fitted into the straitjacket of the existing
regime. By aggregating the plans for individuals one can establish the need for
the long-term provision of facilities. The projection will need periodic
revision in the light of new information, but it represents a rational way of
planning.
39
Equally staff can be similarly restricted and close attention must be paid to
the role and individual needs of the people who work in prisons. Once it is
decided to plan on an individual basis, it is a great advantage to have the use
of modern technology to back-up the strategy with current information. I shall
look at this in greater detail in the next chapter.
Ultimately the reorientation of approach suggested here leads to the provision
of options which have been developed on past experience of individual need. The
process begins by approaching the prisoner as an individual and discovering what
his needs are; as he progresses through the system it is necessary to monitor
and to obtain feed-back from him as to ways in which the plan should be amended,
so as to take into account the progress or setbacks encountered. This means a
continuing involvement of individual staff, not only in the development of the
original plan, but also in the process of adjustment to the variety of responses
received.
If individual planning is to be truly flexible, there must be a degree of
flexibility within the overall system of classification. Robert Smith, in his
recent, unpublished, review of categorisation procedures, has pointed out a
traditional tension between attempts to classify prisoners for security risk
purposes and the pressure of available accommodation. There is a danger that an
individual will be put into an accommodation slot with certain security
implications, and will carry that classification throughout his career, without
the necessary attention to changes in his response, which could lead to
downgrading and move to another establishment.
At the other extreme, however, there is a danger highlighted by Professor Carson
in the Report of the Advisory Committee to the Solicitor General of Canada on
the Management of Correctional Institutions. Although impressed by the attempts
to structure decision-making with regard to the transfer of inmates, he wondered
whether the policy (known as "cascading") of a regular review of individuals for
transfer to lower security levels had not contributed to the excessive movement
which has characterised the Canadian service in recent years.
His Committee agreed that offenders should be afforded some increased freedom
and a normalising of their environment prior to release. In this respect, he
commented that the service's policy of cascading was essentially sound and
intended to be cost-effective. However he questioned 'whether offenders should
be relocated if this entailed an interruption of vocational, educational
training or other self-development programmes. He observed that transfers which
interrupt programme plans occurred, in Canada, much too frequently. He was
40
concerned to hear that many individuals may well be cascaded prematurely to
accommodate inflow, which often resulted in a failure of the inmates to adapt.
This in turn led to a subsequent return to higher levels of security. Any
viable system needs to build into itself the capacity for planned change.
The ability to Plan on an individual basis may be severely compromised by the
pressure on numbers. I have seen in the New York State system that there is a
gap between the aims, as expressed by the Commissioner and his staff, and what
it is possible to achieve in some very old, decrepit and overcrowded facilities.
Nevertheless, in New York State, despite all the difficulties, the fact that
these aims have been clearly spelt out and are now universally recognised has
made a significant difference. New York State has had its problems, including
crises like the Attica and Sing Sing (Ossinning) riots and the guard strike of
1979. Yet, as a result of these moves, New York State now claims to be the only
state which has avoided the litigation which is endemic in every other state.
There was a time when there was a vast amount of litigation, but the system
is perceived at the moment as making strides in the right direction and in
certain facilities succeeding against almost all the odds.
Despite the pressures of space and old and inappropriate buildings, the morale
of staff and industrial relations have improved significantly because of this
new approach.
(h) The manageable group.
As I became aware of how other systems have incorporated the idea of
individualism and relationship into practical organisation I recognised that
these ideas have important implications for physical design and the grouping of
people. The best examples were where there was an integrated approach to all
tasks.
I shall choose some examples to highlight the best features. Let us, by way of
illustration, look at the example of the federal institution at Ray Brook in New
York State. Ray Brook is a medium security establishment designed to hold 480
prisoners but at the present moment with a population of 800, because of the
pressure of places in the federal system. It is organised around units of a
hundred and fifty, split into two groups of 75. This is a manageable size of
unit.
141
There are organisational and architectural features which obviously come
together ip the design of this new establishment. For example, the physical
features are designed to enhance the ability of staff and prisoners to relate
within the group; supervision for staff is based on the group notion and is
comparatively easily attained, as compared with the design of so many our own
prisons.
Ray Brook is has only been open for four years. It was originally the winter
olympic village near Lake Placid and was designed initially so that athletes
could be protected from terrorist attack. It was also designed in the knowledge
that the Federal Bureau of Prisons would be taking it over to use as a medium
security establishment. The newness of the design obviously has advantages; the
architecture was clearly planned to promote the unit living approach.
There are of course other examples in the federal system of older buildings that
have been adapted in line with this philosophy and one such visited was the
penitentiary at Leavenworth. It is the major maximum security establishment
after Marion (which replaced Alcatraz). In spite of the architectural
difficulties of breaking down huge old "ranges", the architects and works staff
had done a good job in dividing the wings into discrete and manageable units. A
further example is Lewisburg, another old penitentiary.
There has been discussion about new designs in this country since the original
Control Review Committee visit to America in January 1984. In 1985 the Home
Office Working Party on New Generation Prisons, published its report, drawing
out basic principles of modern american prison architecture. The report points
out that whilst architecture can help in supervision and grouping, at the end of
the day of far greater importance is the personal contribution made by staff.
It discusses examples of "manageable units" and provides diagrams of dayroom
layout.
A day room, as an integral part of the overall design features, makes it easier
to have informal and structured interaction between staff and prisoners,provides
an escape from being "ranged up" all day in over-crowded cells and in some
degree mitigates the worst problems of overcrowding. The day room was found
across North America and in Sweden. Some of the plant features of older prisons
actually present barriers to this process but they are not insuperable, as is
evidenced abroad and by some of the older prisons in this country.
I am convinced that even within our existing building it is possible to adopt
the manageable group approach, or what the North Amercans call the living unit .
Underlying it all is the concept of "dynamic security", to which I have already
referred. Because it is part of the manageable group approach it is worth
discussing in some detail here how it can be implemented.
What does dynamic security mean in practice for staff? It means that every
single member whd goes through the gate sees himself/herself as having a
responsibility for security and control; this appears to reduce the number of
staff who have to be employed in mechanical tasks in relation to security and to
reduce the polarising effect between staff and inmate of having staff who
primarily guard. It also reduces the polarising effect between staff who see
themselves as totally involved in guarding and staff who see themselves as
involved in other more generalised tasks with the prisoner. Individual members
of staff may have areas of expertise but they do not operate exclusively in that
area and all staff can be called upon in time of incident to help resolve it.
It depends on considerable knowledge on the part of staff about each individual
inmate, so that early warnings can be given as to when trouble is imminent or an
individual is likely to be involved in it.
The Regional Director for the North Central Region in the American federal
system extolled the virtues of the living unit and described how it is
impossible to get along without it today. One of the reasons, as he explained,
was that "everyone in the unit team can do the job." It may be that the unit
manager himself will take the keys when necessary, but on certain occasions the
case manager, who is under him, could also do the same. When necessary other
support staff (here we would see them as specialists) also act as guards.
"Everyone is a correctional officer - you get back to where inmates are. Everyone acts together."
In a well integrated team like this, the barriers are broken down between the
different types of staff, reducing staffing distinctions. There is no longer
the breakdown between line staff and experts and specialists; all are
professionals. A large degree of reorientation in management and training is
required. As the Director of the Federal Bureau told me:
"Staff training has done more to help the Federal Bureau than any other factor. Everyone is trained together; all staff have the same curriculum - psychologists, correctional officers, etc. This has helped us instil the notion of one service. All staff wear the same uniform. Not we/they. We/we together. The total mission, not just the custodial mission."
4 3
Of course individual staff have particular areas of expertise, because of their
individual talents and inclinations. The advantage of the living unit idea is
that it allows these individual areas of expertise to be developed and
integrated into the armoury of the combined team under the group manager.
The living unit can be a flexible vehicle for allowing much more variety, not
only in placing prisoners in separate locations, but also in providing an
individual approach to his needs, whether they be security, control or social.
The visible and impressive effect of this was the sense of personal identity and
job satisfaction which staff exhibited; they were tremendously proud of the
service which they represented. They projected themselves as deeply involved
professionals making a worthwhile contribution to one of society's biggest
problems. Their contribution was individually recognised both within the unit,
which was small enough for their contribution to be conspicuous, and also within
the larger framework, where it was obvious that they mattered.
Other people have noticed the value of this system and the Deputy Commissioner
of the New York system told me
"We would like to emulate the federal system whereby all correctional staff are trained together. We very much admire this approach; the split can be ameliorated."
When talking to a senior representative of the Correctional Service of Canada I
heard a similar point made. I was told that this approach had been promulgated
in a number of Canadian establishments, but that a high security prison,
Drummond Institution, had been specifically organised so as to examine the
fullest potential of training and using staff in this way.
(c) USing time.
It would be easy to write-off the examples I have taken from other systems as
irrelevant luxuries, given the pressures of numbers and resources which the
English system faces. Therefore, I would emphasise that places like Raybrook
are dealing with almost twice their intended capacity and that New York State
exhibits all the problems of the English system, and more besides.
The approach described has been developed abroad as a means of deploying limited
resources as efficiently as possible to cope with all number of pressures
44
internally and externally. Central to this approach is a clear outlining of
tasks for the prison service and for individual establishments to promote both
financial and policy accountability; it leads to the more economic use of
resources, because priorities have been worked out in the first place as to the
aims and the main thrust of the system.
It is only when the service has decided what to do with the prisoners in its
care that it can translate that decision into a more meaningful use of its
resources. When I talked to people in North America and Sweden, they were not
blind to the economic consequences of what they were doing, nor were they
describing it simply in terms of moral imperative. In practice their approaches
varied considerably. It has to be said that direct line accountability was far
more highly structured in North America than in Sweden. I can contrast the
experience of Sweden because there does appear to be greater luxury in the
provision made for prisoners than in any of the other countries visited.
The base-line of my argument is summed up by the Director of the Federal Bureau
of Prisons who sees programmes and security as closely intertwined. He told me:
"Programmes are security. If we don't keep inmates busy, they will keep us busy".
He was using the word "programme" in precisely the same way as I would wish to
define activity, that is the planned use of time. The two ideas which I have
discussed earlier, that is individualism and relationships, are predicated on
the concept of activity. It is nonsense to talk of individual planning if you
are planning a vacuum. From a humane and security point of view it is no longer
satisfactory to justify keeping people locked in their cells throughout the
course of the day without recourse to activity. This a blot on the penal
landscape. Those with a local or dispersal background are particularly aware of
just how corrosive and counterproductive that can become.
Activity means different things for different types of prisoners. Remand
prisoners and sentenced prisoners present different problems and needs. It is
not sensible to involve remand prisoners in activities which are only meaningful
when the individual is going to be in the establishment for a long predictable
time without interruption. There must be different strategies for activity
which address the short-term, even urgent, interests of the remand prisoner, as
well as the longer term needs of the sentenced prisoner. Staff must plan
activity so as to reflect these differences and to create opportunities for
positive involvement.
115
A feature of the successfully run system in my experience is the clear line of
accountability and management structure which translates the overall aims down
through the organisation to specific tasks and job descriptions for staff
involved in day to day contact with the prisoner.
If the prison service manages its human resources properly, then it can overcome
the limitations imposed upon it by antiquated plant and move forward in this
direction towards more activity planned on an individual basis and, in the long
run, around smaller groupings of staff and prisoners.
The point was perhaps best exemplified at Clinton, a very old prison and one
which in many ways falls short of the ideals about which I have been writing.
The Deputy Warden mentioned the greater emphasis on programmes over the last 13
years.
"This dates back to Attica. Programmes since then have expanded considerably. They have improved security and control - there is now less confrontation. The aim is to keep him occupied. The biggest problem_is to make programmes meaningful so that the prisoner can get some sense of satisfaction from them. To keep him well motivated in an old place like this is very difficult but necessary."
When I asked how many sentenced prisoners were transformed into model citizens, the answer was:
"Very few. Many occupy their time privately - oh yes - it does prepare them for production lines on the streets, but my first concern is safety in this facility and programmes promote the safety of staff and prisoners."
This approach was pragmatic. The Warden saw this as the way to keep the prison
functioning in the best interests of staff and prisoners rather than as a means
of achieving a vague rehabilitative goal.
III Implications
The recent move in this country towards functional as well as financial
accountability provides an opportunity to incorporate the fundamental principles
which I have seen at work elsewhere. This is still in its early days and part
of my report involves making recommendations in this area.
I reiterate that in developing this approach it is necessary to link it directly
to the declared aims of the system which provide a moral impetus and a way for
staff to identify more readily with the complex task they face. Defining
functions so as to hold people accountable is not just a dull paper exercise; it
146
is not simply a matter of telling and informing staff and extracting
information, but also of involving staff, improving morale and enhancing a sense
of purpose. The three principles which I have already described become the link
between the overall aims of the prison system and a set of practical tasks for
service delivery. Defining the functions cannot be viewed as if simply in a
vacuum, because this would reduce them to sterile mechanistic devices. Prisons
have to deal with people and the service needs to know how to integrate the
above principles in order to make them understandable to all those who live and
work within the walls as well as to the society which the system serves.
147
CHAPTER 3 : MEASURING
Any successful organisation must have the ability to know what is happening in
it. The key is not to know every detail, but to have information about the way
in which the work being achieved is commensurate with the overall aims of the
organisation. How well is the organisation doing what it sets out to do?
Information is therefore critical to running any organisation properly. But
what is even more critical is understanding which information is necessary for
running the organisation well and which is not.
My visits reveal that one can go too far down the road of producing management
information, much of it thought to be relevant, but in fact not so. This is
counter-productive to overall achievement. People start working at producing
information rather than doing the work of the prison. Those who ask for
information and those who collect it must both understand the value of producing
that information. If it is not readily identifiable as helping at the pit-face,
why is the organisation intent on collecting it? If that question has to be
asked, and cannot be answered satisfactorily, then a gap develops between those
seeking information and those involved in collecting it. Even though there is a
value to the information, if that value is not understood clearly, our
experience abroad shows that the production of information is seen as being
counter-productive and intruding on the work. It is therefore not done well or
even adequately. Creating the right information system is also a means of and
an exercise in motivating and sending the right messages.
In this chapter I shall first discuss setting up an information system, which is
the prerequisite for measuring work achievement. In the second part of the
chapter I shall discuss using information in order to measure work achievement.
A. CREATING AN INFORMATION SYSTEM
I. The Situation Here
Recent developments in the Prison Department show that it has understood that
good management rests on the provision of relevant information. There has been
a dearth of systematic information which could be collated in any meaningful
way. Therefore it was not possible to know what was happening either in the
system as a whole, or in different establishments, other than by impressionistic
and incomplete sets of information required from time to time, as public
interest or the need to know dictated.
Even for financial purposes data had been collected in a rough and ready fashion
and the relative cost of different activities was not known to any degree of
accuracy. Nevertheless there are certain financial requirements which entail
answering questions about costing; in the absence of other questions, these have
ténded to form the basis of whatever information system was thought to be
necessary.
The Prison Department's recent search for performance indicators is evidence of
a move in a different direction. This is a critical moment in the evolution of
the English prison system. The right information system is a condition sine qua
non of achieving the work and aims of the organisation. When we look at
examples from other countries we will see that the nature of the information
collected steers the organisation, willy nilly, in a certain direction. An
information system is not just a mechanical appendage. It affects the very
heart of the organisation itself. It is not just a temporary loan; it is a
legacy for the future.
There is considerable work afoot at headquarters, in regions, and in
establishments to produce requests for information about a set of performance
indicators. This development seems to have emerged from the already existing
information system with its orientation towards financial matters. That system
has been augmented in the light of the statement of functions in Circular
Instruction 55/84.
It began as a top down exercise and undoubtedly the information will be useful
to top management, especially because it will fill gaps in the previously sparse
data. The component which now needs stressing is the involvement of the
information providers in the discussion of what is useful information. I
understand that this process is now underway. But from what I have seen from
abroad, it cannot be stated strongly enough how crucial this process is to the
ultimate successful collection and positive use of the information.
4 9
IL Comparisons
(a) Information routinely recorded within the system.
One of the most noticeable features to emerge from my visits to North America
and Sweden is the variety of information systems. I am of course talking about
considerable differences of scale. The whole population of Sweden is under 8
million, whereas that of America is over 235 million and that of Canada 24.6
million. In Sweden there are a total of roughly 5,400 people incarcerated; in
Canada the figure is 27,000 (in the Correctional Service of Canada 12,000). In
the United States of America there are 35,000 prisoners in the Federal Bureau of
Prisons (average daily population). In New York State alone on June 21st of
this year there were 35,308 prisoners.
The intimacy of the Swedish system is accompanied by a homogeneity of people and
belief systems, relative to the diversity seen in North America. In these
circumstances it is not surprising that Sweden has developed different
organisational structures and systems to deal with what in quality and quantity
are different types of problems. One characteristic is the relative paucity of
printed information in Sweden, whereas in North America the relative •
sophistication of information collecting machinery and its output varies
tremendously. For example, the Correctional Service of Canada has a most
impressive accumulation of printed information; however, it was described by
more than one person as paper overload.
From what I saw of the U.S. federal system, it is a much leaner organisation,
having already emerged from the stage in which Canada now finds itself. In
Canada even the Director admits that the system was swamped with reams of paper,
which at the end of the day had very little impact on improving schemes at the
ground floor level. He told me that they had made a conscious effort to reduce
the amount of paper to that necessary to produce results at the sharp end. This
is nowhere more clearly stated than in a report submitted to the Advisory
Committee to the Solicitor General of Canada on the Management of Correctional
Institutions entitled "Wardens Workload Study" (hereafter called Carson Report).
In the summary of conclusions in item 5, under the heading "Time Wasters", it
states:-
50
"Wardens identified four principal time wasters; that is, activities they are asked to perform or participate in because of the way the service is managed, but which can consume Wardens' management time and detract from their perceived priorities." The first of these four was: "The volume of paper." The other being: The number of requests and/or demands coming from RHQ with too short a turn around time; The volume of procedures and directives; The number of audits and investigations.
The report also pointed out that in certain establishments the achievement on
paper was greater than the achievement in the field, a fact borne out by my
observation.
Producing information has to be linked to the work that people are doing from
day to day. In a system such as the unit management system in the Federal
Bureau of Corrections the information required by management is already
available from staff working the system. In order to carry out their tasks as
case and unit managers to ensure that inmates are active, not idle, staff need
to know where the inmate is and when he is out of the cell. This is a basic
part of their management system. Information in relation to these factors is
easy to provide, because it is already integrated into staff work and because a
secretary is provided to each unit to help relay such information.
The information requested must be information actually used in the work
described as necessary to perform the overall aims. A well managed system
recognises that it takes time and resources to record and relay this kind of
information and takes care of the mechanical side of things by providing
administrative and technical back-up. The staff do not resent producing the
information because it is already assisting them with their job and in addition
they do not become involved with the mechanics and feel that they are being
drawn away from the substantive work at hand.
(h) Technological advances.
If the prison service wants to save time and money in the long run there are a
number of technological aids which will streamline the process and I understand
that considerable work has already gone on in this area. It is important when
considering the application of new technology to the prison system to recognize
the need to reappraise and improve management; otherwise the introduction of
computers will enshrine bad practices.
Technology is a tool and not an end in itself. It must be the servant and not
the master. Using up-to-date mechanical aids can provide several advantages to
51
the well run organisation. Et speeds things up; it streamlines the system; it
allows rapid communication and response of complicated messages; and it can cut
costs.
For example, as I sat in a Warden's office he was able to turn to his computer
screen (VDU) and call up information on a particular prisoner and give me a
print-out immediately of all the facts relevant to that prisoner's existence in
the system. The Warden informed me that he could do that for any prisoner
within the entire federal system. I noticed that the information included not
only the workshop in which the prisoner was employed but also the two days in
the last year when he had been unemployed.
It follows that within a short space of time it was possible to obtain aggregate
statistics, either at the institutional level, or throughout the system, about
the overall activities which are proceeding in any given establishment. Without
technological aids this would be a time consuming and laborious process.
At a remand centre in Vancouver I saw the tremendous advantage to management
that a computer gave, when placed in reception; when a new prisoner came in on
remand, all his details were immediately entered and the following allocation of
this particular prisoner to a location on a wing made it possible for the wing
staff to know immediately not only that the prisoner was in the prison, but also
where he was to be located. This contrasts with the traditional waiting around
in reception to have details taken and to be allocated an empty cell.
The streamlining effect of instituting a system which covered all five regions
of the federal system in the United States was apparent even to the casual
observer; comparable data were emerging and inevitably comparisons could be, and
were, made. A degree of uniformity has evolved as part of the process of
standardising the information system. This allows effective comparison t.) be
made between institution and institution, region and region. Without going as
far as total standardisation, some measure of comparability among diverse
institutions is obviously helpful and necessary for effective management and to
ensure that the overall aims of the system are being achieved in its disparate
parts.
At Watertown the streamlining of the system, using computer technology, was
demonstrated by the Warden who knew precisely where every inmate was. When he
talked about the activity of inmates, he was able to print out on the screen in
his office the groupings of inmates across the prison and hence was able to see
at a glance how well every inmate and every member of
52
staff was deployed that day. He described how useful it was to have this
capability. Without going out of his office, and without having to telephone
another member of staff, he could immediately see what the state of the prison
was that day in specified areas. He also mentioned that from time to time
headquarters would take a print-out in order to check for themselves the state
of activity, as compared with other establishments.
One of the most impressive features was the instant two-way communication which
was possible between staff members within the institution and with all other
institutions, regions and headquarters. The "electronic message" facility
enables a message to be instantaneously sent to one or any number of recipients
with the possibility of an immediate response where this is necessary. This is
possible not only on the screen, but also in print. Information can be
requested, it can be received and can be put to use rapidly; this almost creates
an "electronic dialogue". In reality it means that certain operational
decisions can be made rapidly with the maximum amount of available information
provided almost instantaneously. It is this directness of contact which, it
seemed to me, led to a feeling that operatives were far more involved in
management than in a system where communications can sometimes take days, if not
months!
Finally an important feature of the technically advanced information system is
its ability to cut costs. It was brought home to me clearly by the Warden of
Watertown Correctional Facility in New York, who indicated that the computers
enabled him to monitor more information with the same number of staff. He went
on to say that "we can know day by day how much the establishment is costing".
Not only can the computer give immediate access to necessary information in
terms of day-to-day running but also it can actually cut the cost of providing
the necessary information. A well chosen system will reduce the manpower needed
for mechanical tasks.
A senior official from the correctional programmes branch of the Federal Bureau
of Prisons headquarters in Washington spoke eloquently about the use of the
computer particularly as a communications tool.
53
"You can send memos to any establishment you wish. We used to use the teletype system - but this is much less expensive and we have instant communication and great width of distribution. Only yesterday we had 1,311 people communicating with us by this means."
As I said at the outset, modern technology is not a panacea for the ills of the
system; but it is undeniable that it can make a significant contribution.
However, one advantage of using modern technology is that, to be used properly,
it forces management into a clear definition of what it is they expect to
achieve. This is in line with my recommendations in this report about clear
definition of aims and tasks. Such a system should help the service to go
considerably further in the direction which I am indicating.
III. Implications
(a) Consultation and co-operation
I have seen that it takes time and clear thinking to make a decision about the
right information system; it is easy to have too much information and it is easy
to have the wrong information. The process has to be thoroughly worked out
first. I suggest that it can only be worked out in detail by consultation about
what information is useful to management and those on the ground floor. If that
process of consultation is properly achieved, then not only will it ensure co-
operation at ground level, but it will also ensure the collection of usable
information.
There is a value to this comparative analysis. I have seen examples of where
the wrong steps were taken and where this led not only to a costly review of the
systems needed, but also to alienation and frustration at different levels of
the organisation. This frustration has led to a blockage of communications,
which has.not assisted the overall control of the system. Indeed the
frustration was seen as contributing to the unrest which manifested itself in
certain Canadian establishments, (see Carson Report).
The provision of an information system is not an alternative to good management;
it should flow from it and in that situation it is necessary to listen fully to
those people at ground level who will be responsible for its implementation.
Otherwise, in the absence of good will which can so easily arise from non-
consultation, the information will only be sparsely, inadequately and
inaccurately provided. Those providing the information need to believe in its
worth if it is to be useful.
54
Because the setting-up of the information system must be viewed as a necessary
adjunct to the work, and not as the work itself, it isimportant to considarthe
appropriate level of administrative support, when setting up information
systems. Experience shows that if the administrative support is note inbuilt,
the system will not be nearly as effective as it should be. Where the support
is built-in, considerable gains are made and the system is recognised as
effective at all levels. The need for administrative backup is demonstrated by
discussions which are now going on and typified by a note from one Regional
Director to headquarters.
"This situation results in senior regional staff being unable to operate effectively through lack of senior administrative support. There is therefore a need to develop and extend the work of the present Management Services Section to give more comprehensive support to senior management".
Support both in region and institutions will need to be provided at more junior
levels.
(h) Technological developments
Even relatively simple mechanical aids would be a considerable advance for
improving information flow. It will be a long time before the English system
reaches the level of technological development shown, for example, by the
Federal Bureau of Correction in the United States. Nevertheless this is surely
the direction in which it must go and the size of the task should not prevent it
from taking the first steps immediately. Since a major part of the Prison
Department budget is spent on staffing, it is important to use staff to their
full potential and not to devote their energies to tasks which can more easily
be performed by using mechanical aids.
B. USING THE INFORMATION
I. The Situation Here
The first stages of developing and operating an information system have recently
begun. No-one at the present moment in England has extensive experience of
using the information which is currently provided. Neither is it clear that
that information is in line with the overall needs of the Prsion Service and the
aims of the system. Nonetheless, it is a welcome start.
55
IL Comparisons
An information system, set up properly, can be used to find out:
(i) whether the organisation is achieving its aims;
(ii) the extent to which it is not; and
(iii) how to improve the achievement of those aims.
If the system is integrated into the work of the prison system in such a way as
to generate knowledge about the specific tasks defined to achieve the system's
aims, it may be used as a tool to enhance work at all levels. It may function:
(a) as a means of reinforcing the philosopy;
(h) as a means of raising morale by demonstrating positive achievement;
(c) as a means of internal assessment; and
(d) as a basis for external assessment.
Observation of how information systems are used in the countries visited
demonstrates that at its best an information system can achieve just this; but
there are conspicuous dangers and these were repeatedly driven home to me by
headquarters, regions and the field. I shall now discuss approaches to the use
of information systems, demonstrating diversity of practice and underlying
shared management philosophies.
(a) Two-way flow
In several of the places visited I found in operation the conviction that
information must flow not only down from the top but also up from the ground
floor. Some of the organisations welcomed feedback and were continually
responding to that feedback so as to modify their plans to take account of it.
A much quoted example of this process is the Federal Bureau of Prisons' use of a
project group to look at and advise on certain major aspects of policy. The
'long-range plan' produced by the Federal Bureau is an example of policy
originating at the top, based on information about the system and adapted and
refined in the light of reactions in the field.
"The Bureau's five year long-range plan has been revised by a Wardens' Planning Committee appointed by the executive staff [the equivalent of the English Prisons' Board]. As in the development of the preceding plan, input was solicited from each chief executive officer and institution department head. The input provided by the field has resulted in the
56
change, deletion, or addition of many goals. This year the then Task force altered the format of the plan to reflect the Bureau's emphasis on such functions as sanitation/appearance, security, inmate services, inmate activities, staff services, population management, and management."
The result of this process of consultation ratified by their prisons board, is
not simply a general statement of 'mission' but also much more detailed
practical guidelines for future use. These address particular functional areas.
There follows an example in the area of activities/programmes.
"1. Provide support for continued employment and training of inmates in Unicor [prison industries].
2. Develop more active work programme for inmates placed but not permanently assigned and functioning in our open population.
3. Increase overall participation in education and vocational training by 10%."
The mechanism for consultation is taken down step by step to the grassroots of
the. organisation; it devolves through a series of more and more explicit plans
at different levels until it arrives at the final stage.
"The example Department Plan includes the "nuts and bolts" objectives that must be accomplished for the institutional plan to be realised. The Department Plan should be related to the goals in the institutional plan which in turn are related to the Bureau's overall goals." (Federal Bureau of Prisons, Department Plan).
(b) What the bottom wants too
I have seen that if the plan for collecting information does not include what
the people in the field want too, then not only is less useful information
collected but, because it is used solely by the top, it produces an overburden
for those beneath. They then may begin to resist producing the very information
which is thought to be useful. The US Federal System and the Correctional
Service of Canada have become aware that they have fallen into this error
(recognised sooner by the former than by the latter). Both systems are now in
the process of redressing the balance. The federal system is much further down
the line.
Professor Carson, when reporting on this phenomenon, found that
Mdardens have an excessive number of demands made on their time, both from the internal management needs of the institutions and from the external directions they receive from national headquarters through the regional office.
57
I
This demand has resulted in the wardens' two principal concerns. The first is that, given the number of directives, there can be conflicting objectives between the operational requirements of the institutions and the functional objectives which have an impact on institûtional management. The second is that much of the wardens' time and work can be filled too easily by responding to demands from regional headquarters - to the detriment of the leadership they provide and their visibility within the institution."
II
1
Where this happened Professor Carson reported that it seriously affected staff
morale.
(c) Information system can be used well or badly
It is a truism that the effective use of an information system depends on
management skill. Nevertheless this cannot be stressed too highly and from what
I have seen it is a common error to see an information system as existing in a
vacuum or to allow it to become an end in itself, rather than to recognize it as
a means of supporting the people who actually carry out the work.
It follows that an orientation towards the use of negative information is
counter-productive, because it sends the message that the system is only
interested in logging failure and identifying when goals have not been achieved.
It will respond only when it knows that something has gone wrong, rather than
responding also to indications that the organisation is doing successfully and
well. The essence of management skill is responding at least as often to
positive signals as to negative ones; otherwise the system reinforces the
negative factors upon which it is concentrating. Print-out needs to include as
much positive as negative achievement. If a system achieves the right balance
of aims and the information system reflects that balance, the danger of an
overemphasis on negative measures will be avoided.
(d) Personal management style
This principle must be carried further; not only must the system identify those
establishments which are operating well, it must also identify those individuals
within the organisation who are operating in an effective manner. The
information system can become a mechanism for identifying success, on which any
reward system is predicated.
Staff have an interest in the information system because it is on the basis of
that system that their contribution is recognised. Canada recognises the
58
importance of rewards for its staff and has published an attractive pamphlet
called "The Awards and Honours Programme - a Guide":
"The contribution of CSC staff is essential to the functioning of the total . criminal justice system and deserves recognition. While virtue is its own reward, we at the Correctional Service of Canada believe that it deserves a more tangible form of recognition. From the time of the laurel wreath awarded by the ancient Greeks, society has recognised that in every field of endeavour some people are outstanding in their particular work, and some people are outstanding simply as people. When we salute outstanding people, we do much more than honour and reward them; we also help set standards of achievement for all to emulate."
The use of information for an award system is part of an approach which focusses
on people and not bureaucratic methods. This has been recognised by the Vantour
Report. One of the points that Vantour makes is that, if prison management
moves too far down the bureaucratic road, it may be forced to focus on
satisfying the needs and requirements of external systems, pre-empting the
emphasis on its own people.
Professor Carson highlights this issue in a similar way:
"Correction is a human enterprise
With 10,569 employees and about 12,000 inmates in custody, there are close to 23,000 human beings in daily direct involvement with the organisation. Untold thousands of third parties (spouses, families, volunteers and victims) have an additional stake in the business.
The Service's policies and operations must, first and foremost, acknowledge and analyse their impact on the human elements of the system. All the possible interfaces must be considered; staff/staff; staff/inmates; inmates/inmates; inmates/staff/community." (Carson Report).
(e) Consultation on problem points
Part of the consultative approach to problem-solving is exemplified by the
Federal Bureau of. Prisons' use of a specific task force of staff to solve
particular problems. The Director of the Federal Bureau of Prisons told me that
when planning was superimposed from above it only had marginal impact. He went
on to say:
"Paper, plans, had no substance in improving schemes. They were counter-productive. We developed plans in central office. They submitted plans. There was no pay-off and there were no changes. Then I reconsidered matters and appointed a task force. I chose five wardens, one from each of the regions, [there are five regions within the Federal Bureau of Prisons]
59
to work with my own planning staff and to submit plans from the ground floor. The plans produced have great credibility. Most planning is top down - but they'll only really respond if they do it themselves."
This approach was enthusiastically endorsed by the Regional Director of the
North Central Regional office in Kansas City. He informed me that he used the
concept of task force for solving specific problems. He set up a task force for
specific purposes and its life was only as long as it was needed to resolve the
problem at hand. He went on to say:
"We have a lot of task forces. There is a warden for chairman and the proposals come to the executive staff for a decision. When this is done at Federal Bureau level, then I let the wardens get on with it, because I sit with the executive staff committee [the equivalent of our prisons board] when I can make my independent comments."
The task force is a technique which is not peculiar to prison management but is
part of the mainstream of business practice.
"We have come to believe that the key success factor in business is simply getting one's arms around almost any practical problem and knocking it off - now."
While extolling the virtues of the ad hoc task force, Peters and Waterman are
aware that it has not always been wisely used.
"Like any other tool adopted within a bureaucratic context, it eventually became an end in itself. Paper pushing and co-ordination took the place of task-directed activity. Stodgy, formal, paperbound, rule-driven institutions layered the task force on a maze that lay beneath.... Task forces became nothing more than co-ordinating committees - with a different name. Like other management tools adopted in the wrong context, the task force made things worse, not better. That's the bad news. The good news is that in organisations in which the context is right ... the task force becomes a remarkably problem-solving tool." (Peters and Waterman, In Search of Excellence, p.129).
(f) Using information to get an overview
The purpose of collecting information is to assess the whole system.
Information can pinpoint bad spots, but if action is based on a crisis response
to such signals, the approach becomes fragmented and the overall perspective is
lost. The purpose of information is to allow one to stand back and to assess
the overall health of the organisation. Experience of the past few years shows
that the prison service has responded too hastily to crises. Crisis management
6 0
has almost become the order of the day. There is a need to move away from
crisis management and establish a calm routine, keeping the ultimate aims in
sight.
The above discussion highlights the fact that the developmen: and application of
a useful information system depends on sound management, and that in turn such a
system is indispensable to good management.
III. Implications
Everything that I have said in this chapter, and indeed everything that I have
seen, reinforces the need for a relevant, highly selective and properly
structured information system. The general agreement is that is a sine qua non
for a modern and effective system. With that I would fully concur.
It has to be readily admitted that one of the present weaknesses of the English
service is that it is not fully aware of what is happening overall. Hence, it
needs to know what is happening within the system and to have an accurate
measurement of that position. There has to be functional and financial
planning. Functional planning with useful information will improve planning for
resource allocation. The service needs information to tell it whether what it
is doing is in line with its aims and whether the resources are being used in
the right way. Since it does not have infinite resources, it needs the
information to plan how best to use the existing reources to promote its aims.
In other words information provides the basis for accountability for the way
resources, both human and material, are based. In addition information is a
basis for creating incentives. It can be used as a tool for motivating people.
This latter point is delicately important. It is not an instrument for the
heavy-handed; I have seen examples where it has achieved the reverse effect.
The examples I have seen demonstrate both visible advantages (which are really
impressive) and conspicuous dangers. One such danger is overcentralisation at
the expense of local autonomy. The danger lies in using this particular tool
(management information) to the exclusion of all else and using it as an
intrusive technique which becomes an end in itself.
"The comprehensive rules and regulations and the need for accountability have also placed excessive demands on the institutional administrator's
61
time - providing ever increasing details on day-to-day operations in the interest of accountability - to the point where he no longer has the capacity to 'administer' ...
The màst obvious impact has been the decline of local autonomy. It is the feeling of both staff and inmates that institutions are being run by regional and national headquarters; that both staff and local management are over-regulated and have, in effect, become powerless. In fact, centralisation in itself leads to the feeling among staff that local management either is powerless or does not care about them." (Vantour Report, p.32).
The obvious implication is that a balance must be achieved, as the English
system continues to develop and use an information system. Let there be no
doubt, an information system is necessary to run the system efficiently and
effectively.
The current information system has been developed with a focus on its use at the
centre of the system. This is essential for longer-range planning; indeed it is
impossible to imagine an effective system which does not call upon information
to be managed centrally so as to create the capability for short-term
adjustment, budgeting and resource allocation, and to provide general
statistical information about what is going on. If the system is to be managed,
(and indeed this was one of the main conclusions of the Control Review Committee
Report) information flowing to the centre is an essential pre-requisite. In
addition, the uses at the ground level are equally vital, because the bottom
line is how effectively prisons are run, not how effectively information is
gathered.
There needs to be a balance between the need for information at headquarters and
regional level and the need for information for practical operations at the
sharp end. The information system must be developed in such a way that it does
not lose sight of the fact that this is the chief way in which headquarters
relates to people in the field. My experience is that if this process becomes
too mechanistic, it will alienate the very people upon whom the centre relies,
not only to provide the information necessary, but also to carry out the
satisfactory and safe running of our establishments.
I have been looking at the provision of information as a means of measuring for
internal purposes. It is also, however, the basis for external measurement.
The information system used for internal evaluation compares what is happening
62
with what the internal aims of the system are. That information may form the
basis for comparing how the prison system functions with the aims of the system,
as seen from the outside; these aims may be linked to the internal aims, but are
not necessarily identical. Similarly, the levels of performance thought to be
desirable on an internal basis may be different from those thought to be
desirable on an external basis.
There is a distinction between that information which is necessary for
successful management of the organisation and that information which is
necessary for external monitoring by an organisation such as the Inspectorate.
The examples which I have seen, particularly in North America, are of an
information system for use not only by internal management, but also as the
first step in evaluation by an organisation external to the prison system. I
can instance accreditation, auditing, ombudsman, watchdog role, and, in New York
State, the independent Commission of Corrections, which monitors the Department
of Correction.
It is recognised in the English system that:
"the criteria for a well-run prison will involve the development of acceptable standards of regime management and operations .... The clues (in no special order) include those already mentioned and the type and quality of work available to prisoners, the amount of time they spend locked-up in their cells, the visiting arrangements, the amount of formal and informal autonomy the prisoners may exercise, the availability and take-up of educational opportunities, staff/inmate ratios, the tasks and deployment of the prison staff, their attitudes to their work, their techniques of inmate management, the nature and quality of staff/inmate relationships, and the practice and attitude of the staff in enforcing the disciplinary code and in reporting infraction." (Joy Mott, Home Office Research Study No.84 Adult Prisons and Prisoners in England and Wales 1970- 1982, p.57)..
Mott envisaged this as a research task, in addition to the task of an internal
monitoring system, but it can equally be argued that it could form the basis for
an examination - such as the Inspectorate was set up to accomplish.
In the following chapters I am going to develop the logic of this approach,
first of all by discussing standards and benchmarks for the performance of tasks
and secondly by providing practical suggestions for a way forward.
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CHAPTER 4: MONITORING
A. SETTING STANDARDS
I. The Situation Here
The previous chapter was concerned with measuring; I dealt with that in term of
self-assessment, or self-auditing, by the system. This chapter is concerned
with monitoring; by this I mean assessment by an external agency. In the
English context this means the Inspectorate.
Monitoring which is other than self-assessment is the natural task for the
Inspectorate. In the middle of the nineteenth century the inspectors had a
central role in the prison system. Now after a considerable gap the
Inspectorate seems a natural vehicle for external evaluation. The May Report
stated:
u we have no doubt both that the prison service would benefit from and that public sentiment requires that as many aspects of government, which includes the prison service, should be opened up to as wide an audience as possible. We therefore think that there should be a system of inspection of the prison service which, although not 'independent' of the Home Office , should nevertheless be distanced from it as far as may be practicable."
Following the May Report the terms of reference of the Inspectorate are:
"to inspect and report to the Secretary of State on prison service establishments in England and Wales and, in particular, on:
a. conditions in those establishments;
b. the treatment of prisoners and other inmates and the facilities available to them;
c. such other matters as the Secretary of State may direct."
(Home Secretary, 30 April 1980)
The Inspectorate must carry out its role as watchdog for society. It has a duty
to ensure that in its practical workings the prison system does not lose sight
64
of the fundamental aims which Parliament, the prison service and the general
public articulate. In order to carry out this role the Inspectorate needs
clearly defined yardsticks against which to measure the health of the
organisation and its constituent parts.
I would argue that the Inspectorate must follow a logical progression parallel
to that suggested in previous chapters: from articulation of aims to definition
of criteria and development of practical benchmarks by which to assess whether
society has the prison system it wants.
This is a task which cannot easily be taken on by the prison system itself.
Those who manage the system are subject to the constraints and pressures of any
operational concern. It is for the Inspectorate to follow the logic of this
progression in order to provide external assessment.
Organisationally the duties of external and internal evaluation are separate but
in terms of the content of the work there is a considerable overlap; without
• his, external monitoring would be impossible.
At the level of general aims there may be considerable agreement between
internal prison management and the Inspectorate. Indeed, in an ideal society
these views would be identical. However, under the pressure of operations they
may come to diverge. Each organisation has a different set of duties to perform
and it is important that this is recognised and that each pursues its own ends
with integrity.
As a practical matter the Inspectorate will always depend upon a considerable
amount of internal information as the basis for its own investigations. A sound
management information system is as important for the efficient workings of an
Inspectorate as it is for the prison system. On this base, the Inspectorate can
build its further enquiry, focusing on the complex and diverse problems it
encounters at-particular establishments and throughout the system. Alongside
this ground-clearing operation, the Inspectorate's central task is to measure
standards of performance.
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1
1
1 1
1
1 1
II. Comparisons
My visits abroad showed an impressive level of delivery of planned activities.
Why was this so? In previous chapters I have pointed out many features which
brought this about. Nevertheless the background contributing factor in North
American systems was a range of clearly articulated standards. These provided a
thrust toward better delivery of planned activities.
These standards are neither absolute nor enshrined in tablets of stone. The
approach to their establishment and implementation is characterized by
pragmatism and compromise. The standards differ between systems as to their
origins, legal status, their priority weighting, their timetable for
implementation, their application and their specificity. They are put into
practice by a process of consultation and negotiation. It is apparent that many
are not yet achieved. Some are translated into practice via interim targets:
they are approached along a scale of measures over a protracted period of time.
As a result of discussion and feedback they undergo review and modification.
A variety of organisations have tackled the dual task of monitoring the prison
system and developing standards.
In the Canadian system, for example, the independent monitoring organisation,
the Criminal Justice Association, sees its role as follows:
"To improve and evaluate correctional systems; to stimulate public awareness about corrections programmes; and to foster Canada's leadership and expertise among the international corrections community."
In order to fulfil this role it has found it necessary, not only to articulate
the aims of the prison system, but also to develop standards in order to judge
how that aim is being put into practice.
In the United States, the Task Force on Corrections was set up outside the
prison system as part of the National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice
Standards and Goals. It recognised the long tradition of guiding principles and
aspirational aims in the American prison system dating back to the mid-19th
century. It justified its own task of defining standards and goals in relation
to those aspirational aims in the following way:
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"Principles and recommendations are neither self-fulfilling nor self-interpreting. Standards and goals may be much more precise, while retaining sufficient flexibility to allow agencies some freedom. When clearly formulated and precisely stated in measurable terms, they can serve as the basis for objective evaluation of programmes as well as development of statutes and regulations relating to correctional services. ...standards and goals must be realistic and achievable, but that certainly does not mean that they need to be modest".
These organisations have taken up the task of developing standards and
monitoring their implementation.
Not all the standards developed in other countries have come from external
agencies. Some, like the standards for the province of British Columbia
(Canada), have been produced within the system.
Before I turn to a more detailed examination of the standards developed and
their implementation, I digress to consider briefly the contrasting approach of
Sweden. The Swedish prison system is relatively small, with 5,000 prisoners
overall. Here there appears to be, even in a modern complex society, a
generally accepted view of what the prison service is all about, founded as it
is upon the general mores of the country as a whole. This gives the Swedish
system a small "family" feeling about it and explains why they have not felt it
necessary to codify standards. In some ways the relatively small Scottish
prison system is not unlike the Swedish. Even though the values expressed are
quite considerably different, within the country itself they do not diverge
widely. There is a homogeneity in both which is immediately recognisable.
Observers of the English scene might well have noticed a similarity between the
present Swedish service and that of the English about 30 years ago. But the
English service has grown so enormously that a consensus about its aims no
longer exists; another kind of organisational response is necessary to give
identity and a sense of purpose once.again.
Other systems which have reached a size and complexity comparable to the English
have recognised the need to develop standards: to put on paper the values that
at one time did not need spelling out in print. Once a generally accepted
system of beliefs is eroded, it is not satisfactory to leave the interpretation
of what is appropriate to indivduals.
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Historically, throughout the North American continent the response to the vacuum
caused by the demise of shared norms, has been the development of codes of
standards. Additional impetus in this direction came from various crises in the
system, notably the prison riots of the late 60s and 70s and the ensuing lack of
general confidence. The noticeable increase in litigation added fuel to the
movement, so that at the federal, state and local levels there was a visible
trend towards the careful and specific codification of practical standards to
ensure the basic aims of the systems. They were involved in translating
existing elements of the constitution into everyday practical reality within
their prisons. This process did not go quite so far in Canada, because of its
different constitutional background and legal system; nevertheless, because it
is adjacent to the United States of America, many of the ideas about standards
were freely adopted.
In North America, these codes are characterised by a focus on practical detail
which is not the case at the inter-governmental level, either within Europe or
in the United Nations.
The United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners,
(Resolution 663 July 1957,) remains at the level of general principle, as do the
European Standard Minimum Rules (Council of Europe Committee Members' Resolution
73(5)).
Many of the standard minimum rules suffer from the same defect as Prison Rules
1. For example:
"The regime of the institution should seek to minimise any differences between prison life and life at liberty which tend to lessen the responsibility of the prisoners or the respect due to their dignity as human beings." (Rule 58 of the Council of Europe Standard Minimum Rules).
This is important, but unfortunately lofty and vague. However, Rule 58 becomes
somewhat more focussed:
"As soon as posalhle after admission and after a study of the personality of each prisoner with a sentence of suitable length, a programme of treatment shall be prepared for him in the llght of the knowledge obtained about his individual needs, his capacities and dispositions." (paragraph 70).
68
This is the broad brush of individualized treatment. Paragraph 71 relates to
activities.
Prisoners shall be given opportunity to participate in activities of the institution likely to develop their sense of responsibility and to stimulate interest in their own treatment.
"2. Efforts should be made to develop methods of co-operation and participation of the prisoners in their treatment. To this end prisoners shall be encouraged to assume responsibilities in certain sectors of the institution's activities."
Whilst enumerating the general principles of individualism, activity and
relationship, this statement, by itself, will not help the individual staff
member to understand how, at ground level, this is to be achieved. Nor would it
help the Inspectorate to judge, in any meaningful or measurable way, whether
those principles have actually been put into practice in any of the institutions
they visited.
Experience in the United States and Canada has taken the formulation of
standards further. American codes at the federal, state and local level address
themselves to the nitty gritty of the daily running of an establishment and what -
it means to translate higher aspirations into practice.
An example from the Federal Standards for Prisons and Jails follows:
"Recreation and inmate activities
Standards in this section do not apply to (remand) facilities.
1601. Written policy and procedure provide for a comprehensive recreational programme away from the inmate's cell or room that includes leisure time activities. Time required to be spent in the cell or room is kept to a minimum.
1602. The recreation programme includes both cultural and athletic activities. The programme provides the opportunity for at least one hour of physical exercise per day from the inmate's cell or room in an area which is designated for recreation and frequent opportunities to exercise outdoors, weather permitting.
1603. The facility employs a full-time, qualified recreation director who supervises all recreation programmes. In smaller facilities a part-time staff member or trained volunteer may perform this function.
1604. Sufficient facilities and equipment suitable for the planned recreation activities are maintained in good condition and are available to the inmate population.
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1605. There is a systematic approach to determine the personnel requirements for the recreational programme to ensure inmates' access to staff and services.
1606. Written policy and procedure permit inmates to participate in [outside] community activities, provided the inmates' [security] status _allows them to leave the facility."
The American Correctional Association has produced guidelines on inmates access
to the telephones. These are used as a benchmark in the accreditation of
American and Canadian prisons. This particular guideline covers two foolscap
sheets and goes into great practical detail as to the circumstances in which
inmates can contact outsiders via the public telephone. The document makes a
distinction between the policy and procedures for implementing the policy.
These procedures are quite detailed. As an example of policy:
"a. to provide inmates with reasonable and equitable access to telephones;
b. inmate telephone calls shall not be monitored except where there is sufficient probable cause and information to believe the telephone privilege is being abused in a manner that is a violation of law or detrimental to the security of the institution, employees or other inmates;
c. telephone calls to attorneys or other legal representatives shall be permitted to any inmate on request, as soon as reasonably possible. After verification of the identity of the attorney or legal representative, such communications shall be private;
d. inmates shall be allowed incoming emergency telephone calls. If an inmate receives an incoming call of an emergency nature the telephone number and name of the calling party will be obtained and the inmate shall be permitted to call pertaining to the emergency;
e. all inmate telephone calls shall be collect calls made at the expense of the inmate or the person who calls. All inmate telephone calls to be charged to the institution shall be authorised in advance by the assistant warden (programmes)."
The procedures relating to this policy statement are as follows:
"Access and use of telephone equipment
i. Model A
a. If and when proper security telephone equipment is procured and telephones are in areas accessible to inmates, telephone calls shall be unlimited for all inmates except those in disciplinary detention.
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b. Security telephone equipment is construed to mean telephones on which only outgoing, collect calls can be made.
c. Equitable access to telephones by all inmates shall be the responsibility of the peer group in each living quarter. Service
-shall be suspended in any living quarter where the supervisor presents reasonable evidence that equitability is not provided."
The document then goes on to talk of the monitoring of inmate telephone calls
and recording of inmate telephone calls in the same kind of detail. Examples of
this sort can be found at almost every level of prison administration; a similar
set of standards for telephone communication can be found in the New York City
Minimum Standards with the same level of specificity:
"Sentenced prisoners shall be permitted to make a minimum of two telephone calls each week. These calls shall be provided to indigent sentenced prisoners at Department expense if made within New York City. Long distance calls shall be made collect or at the expense of the sentenced prisoner.
By September 1, 1978 telephone calls may be at least 6 minutes in duration." (Sections 11.4 and 11.5 of the Minimum Standards for New York City Correctional Facilities).
The importance of this standard lies not only in its attention to detail but
also in its provision of a time schedule and a deadline by which time standards
must be implemented. Liowever, this specificity is not found across the entire
area of activities. The British Columbia standards illustate this point:
"PREAMBLE:
The f-)1lowing set of standards addresses itself to the issues of inmate work, education and recreation. Two statements from the Branch's Goals, Strategies and Beliefs form the essential philosophical basis of the following standards. Belief 8 reads, "offenders should not receive greater opportunities or rights than those generally available to other members of society." Activitiy 4, under Strategy of "Imprisonment", requires the Branch to "provide programs and activities in which the inmate is encouraged to exercise personal decision-making in areas of work, recreation, spiritual development, education and life skills."
1. The Corrections Branch shall provide sufficient institutional work program opportunities for all sentenced inmates.
[subject to resource availability] [secure and open settings]
Discussion:
An inmate work program may include industrial, agricultural, maintenance and service jobs, and shall ensure full-time employment for all eligible sentenced inmates. Sufficient jobs should be provided to ensure that no idleness is created through lack of programs.
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A traditional concern around the employment of inmates is that of the value of the work provided. These standards assume that work should be constructive and of real value, comparable to work that is both necessary and available outside of the institution.
In order to approximate a non-institutional working environment, no more inmates than necessary should be assigned to a given work area. Job opportunities available in the institution should provide opportunities to learn job skills and develop acceptable non-institutional work habits.
3. The officer in charge of a correctional centre shall structure the inmate working day to approximate the working day in the community.
[effective immediately] [secure and open settings]
Discussion:
The intent of the standard is to familiarize inmates with work habit expectations in the community. To the extent possible, scheduling of counts and other institutional activities should not interfere with the working day of inmates."
(Province of British Columbia, Corrections Branch, Ministry of Attorney General, Manual of Standards).
It is noticeable that the attention to specific practical detail is limited to
matters such as telephone and other communications, which lend themselves to
quantification. These standards are readily reducible to the level of provision
of equipment and to nature and duration of access. For other elements of
"programmes" this degree of specificity is absent. Equal attention is needed
for the entire area.
If an examination of the quality of life is to be properly conducted, other less
tangible elements need to be assessed. Quantification may be more difficult but
nevertheless an attempt must be made to develop criteria in this area. It is
noticeable in those places visited in North America that time and thought is now
being _focussed in that direction. The American Correctional Association is ridw
producing standards on the quality of life. There have been establishments
which have met a baseline of quantifiable standards where quality of life has
fallen far short of what independent assessors and prison officials would think
desirable.
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III. Implications
In the English system the Prison Rules, Standing Orders and Circular
Instructions provide a background to criteria for measurement. The Inspectorate
has a role to play in using these as a starting point for developing a coherent
and comprehensive set of criteria for assessing the prison system.
I have seen from examples of other countries with large scale prison systems
that even the clearly articulated aims of the system need careful
interpretation. The North American continent has tackled this task by
developing codes of standards. The development came from outside and within the
system and is characterised by continual consultation.
For example, the Manual of Standards for Prisons published by the Canadian
Criminal Justice Association states:
"Consultation has been a factor during production of the Manuals of Standards. Three sets of drafts were circulated across the nation in order to receive responses from individuals and organisations. The comments were reviewed and incorporated into the manuals when accepted. The Standards are based on the collective experience and input of a large number of individuals and organisations in Canada. The development of these manuals represent a consensus-building exercise, but it is difficult to achieve universal accord with all standards. The goal, however, is to encourage ongoing evolution of correctional practices." (Preface).
The CJA, like our Inspectorate, is an organisation independent of the
Correctional Service of Canada. While it obviously carried the ultimate
responsibility for standards, it was keenly aware of the need to involve
administrators and officials at all levels. It takes great care to make certain
that standards are updated and the process of consultation is continuing.
In the current annual report of the Chief Inspector of Prisons (1984) the
Inspectorate recognises the need for a similar development in this country.
"What is needed is a set of standards to which inspectors can make reference"
(Chapter 13, p.17). The Inspectorate has stated its eventual aim: "to establish
benchmarks which will enable inspectors to assess establishments more
objectively and with greater consistency". I recommend that in doing so it
takes into account the process of consultation noted in North America. It will
undoubtedly take some time before the task is completed; standards in different
714
North American systems appear to have taken between two and four years to
produce in their present detail. I recognise the importance of moving in this
direction. I also feel the need to address some immediate practical tasks
within this report.
I shall turn my attention to the development of practical benchmarks which could
be of use in helping the Inspectorate with the immediate job of evaluating
activity delivery. I shall draw my examples from the area of planned
activities.
B. USING BENCH MARKS
I. The Situation Here
The mechanism for inspecting establishments exists. The Inspectorate has
already devised informally a set of benchmarks to facilitate monitoring, but it
would be the first to admit that these must be developed and refined. It is
important to link the process of refinement to the development of performance
indicators already being introduced by the Prison Department as a basis of the
management information system.
However benchmarks are different from performance indicators. What management
wants in order to judge how it is carrying out its objectives is linked to but
not identical to how the Inspectorate judges whether the prison system is doing
what it should. Bearing in mind this distinction, it would be unrealistic not
to recognise the reliance of any monitoring system on internally produced
statistics.
Whatever the body undertaking the role of monitoring, it is unlikely to have
sufficient resources to produce all of the information it needs. It is arguable
that that would not be a good use of its time and resources. Healthy monitoring
is based on internal information, checked and verified through additional incidental
data collection, such as may be carried out on unannounced visits etc. This
presupposes access to all levels of the establishment. The Inspectorate is well
fitted to this task; it is the only independent body which has such powers.
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Benchmarks must be demonstrably practical. Setting up a benchmark, for which
there is no immediate application, because no relevant information exists, is
plainly nonsense. While not losing sight of the ultimate aima against which the II
syst-em is being assessed, the inspecting organisation must build from available
IIinformation. It may augment the data, within the limits of its resources. On
the basis of all the information it must set up targets which are not divorced
from reality and which can be achieved, given the will to do so.
IL Comparisons
The devising of benchmarks is therefore inextricably linked to their application
11 and I have seen that the most effective examples show a combination of realism
about what is happening at the moment and practical awareness of how to get from
II
that position to the next stage. Implementation should be built into the notion
of benchmark.
The Manual of Standards produced by Correctional Service of Canada, Inspector
General's Branch, provides a good example in the area of activities of how a
practical set of benchmarks can be developed to translate the principles of
indiiidualism, activity and relationship into practice. The section on
"Offender Programmes Case Management" lists the following questions:
"1. Is there a needs analysis profile and individual prisoner plan for each inmate?
2. What does the needs analysis profile and the individual prisoner plan Cor inmates include? What resources does it integrate and how successfully? (eg work/school, leisure activities, transactional analysis programme, group sessions, visits to case officers and various specialists).
3. Who participates?
4. If not all participate, why not?
5. Is there an institutional policy and procedure whereby inmates can initiate progress review? Is it used?
6. By whom and how often are the needs analysis profile/individual prisoner plans monitored and reviewed? (every four months)?
7. Problems in achieving objectives identified in these plans?
8. Are activity records used to record/monitor inmates progress and performance?
9. Is it difficult to schedule case management activities reviews and case conferences? Why? What is done to resolve the difficulties?
76 1
10. What is the purpose of reviews and who chairs them? Needs analysis profile, individual prisoner plan, quarterly progress report, confidential information report?"
This approach is impressive in its attention to practical detail. It is also
clearly oriented towards the individual offender. Unlike management data which
may tend to be oèdented towards the organisation (cg how many programmes exist
for training, for education, for work etc?), this checklist asks about the
service provided to each individual inmate. The inmate is the unit of
measurement. Similarly the checklist is oriented to the individual staff
member. The staff member is also the unit on which the data are collected.
If the management information system only counts what the system provides, then
those inspecting will have considerable difficulty in uncovering information
about what each individual receives. They will need to augment the internal
data by sampling and survey. Ultimately the ideal would be to generate response
from within the system to this need. Internal data should reflect the
orientation to the individual inmate and staff member. It is not enough simply
to count activities. It is participation in the activities that matters. The
sooner a systematic way of providing this information is developed, with the aid
of technological advances, the better the internal and external assessment. It
will then be possible to know what is going on in establishments and whether
they are delivering the services provided.
It was noticeable from my observations abroad that the existence of clearly
defined benchmarks led to an increase in staff morale. Clear signals were given
about important areas. Staff were able to measure their own accomplishment
against the yardsticks offered. In response to the process of inspection the
different systems have moved towards greater self-assessment; this self-
regulation mechanism reinforced those areas of performance which were most
important in achieving success and running a healthy establishment. The process
of self-assessment pre-empts much of the work of inspection.
One of the successful establishments visited in New York State was Watertown.
This establishment was aware of the criteria set by the Inspectorate and was
involved in continuous self-assessment of the factors to be evaluated.
From the examples abroad it is apparent that there is a world of difference
between setting benchmarks and the ability of individual establishments to meet
77
them. In spite of what I have said, the mere creation of benchmarks does not
in my experience guarantee compliance. In the USA, where the courts have been
very active in enforcing standards, that has not guaranteed implementation.
Even When it has, the nature of the regime can still leave much to be desired,
because of the concentration on the physical rather than the less quantifiable
aspects of prison life. In one prison I saw on a previous visit, which had
replaced another closed down by court order, there was general agreement among
the inmates and staff that, despite the better physical conditions and the
provision of a law library etc, the atmosphere in the older prison was better.
They regretted the change.
No system has found a foolproof way of ensuring that the agreed benchmarks are
met. Nevertheless, my experience has shown that external and internal
initiatives firmly based on clear goal definition and consultation throughout
the organisation are more likely to lead to a better delivery of services.
III. Implications
From the foregoing it should be clear that the task of devising benchmarks is
closely linked to their use. There is a need for benchmarks which can be
applied to what is going on now in prison establishments. Their use will
involve reliance on internal information, supplemented through information
collected externally.
Inspectors may use benchmarks in different establishments, to document
(a) existing levels of service delivery within an establishment;
(h) comparative levels of service delivery across establishments.
They .may then relate these to the level at which the benchmark is set. For
example, the Inspectorate can use management information to find out how much
time out of the cell the prisoner spends on average per day and can supplement
this by information collected by direct observation during the inspection. The
inspectors can compare the average time out of cell at one establishment, with
the average time out of cell» at another. They can then relate both these
statistics to the Inspectorate's independent benchmark for time out of cell.
78
This exercise' allows the Inspectorate to:
(a) develop a profile of the individual establishment based on key factors
covered by benchmarks;
(h) pres-ent an overview of the range and diversity among establishments;
and
(c) rate the establishment in relation to benchmarks.
The purpose of the exercise is to inform the public and the prison system and to
make recommendations for change. The profile in (a) allows the Inspectorate to
make recommendations based on information about the existing situation. The
overview in (h) allows the Inspectorate to assess what might be appropriate
interim targets based on achievements in similar types of establishments. The
rating in (c) allows the Inspectorate to make recommendations for longer-term
change to achieve the levels set by the benchmarks.
There will inevitably be a great disparity of service delivery across the
establishments inspected. The Inspectorate's reports have in the past noted the
high level attained in some establishments (notably the training establishments)
with respect to activities and the "paucity of regime" in others (notably the
local establishments).
The following extracts from the inspection reports on different kinds of
establishments serve to illustrate the variety of "regimes" across the whole
range of prison establishments.
"There was a generous provision of resources and facilities which allowed for a regime sufficiently comprehensive to cater for the needs of a varied and sometimes difficult inmate population. One outstanding feature of this regime was the fact that it did not rely on segregation as a means of controlling difficult and disruptive inmates. Another laudible feature was the considerable commitment to community service work outside the establishment". (Inspection Report on HM Youth Custody Centre, Glen Parva, February 1985, paragraph 1.05).
"As to the quality of life for adult prisoners, with very few work opportunities, a limited education programme and little recreational association, it can only be described as barren. A vicious circle of deprivation is in danger of developing; because men cannot be got into the
79
industrial workshops, there is the possibility that the industries will be permanently withdrawn. We regard this state of affairs, in which the regime for convicted prisoners cannot by any stretch of the imagination be said to meet the requirements of Prison Rule 1, as quite unacceptable." (Inspection Report on UM Prison Manchester, October 1981, paragraph 1.07).
"-The regime of Wymott is broadly based, and is built upon substantial contributions from many sections of the establishment. The largest contribution comes from the prisons industries, which with the farms and gardens can provide employment for almost 600 inmates, but in addition the remedial education is much appreciated by prisoners, the PE department is an active one, the chaplaincy is well involved, the probation staff have a real influence upon the youth force of the establishment and there is a substantial involvement in community service. The resulting regime is relaxed and constructive and produces a pleasant and friendly atmosphere." (Inspection Report on HM Prison Wymott, July 1981, paragraph 7.01).
"We quickly became aware of the shortcomings of the regime at Birmingham. There were very few opportunities for employment, education, or cultural or recreational activities, even though some resources were available. Both convicted and unconvicted prisonerà experienced an extremely barren regime in cramped and uncomfortable conditions. As we record below, many of the individual aspects of the regime fell far short of what is required, but taken together the shortcomings mean that the establishment is able to exercise no positive or constructive influence upon the inmates".
"The barrenness of the prison regime is not the fault of local management, but is brought about by the shortage of staff resulting from the increasing cost of court commitments. The more we visit local prisons, the greater becomes our concern at the way in which the demands of the courts not only prevent the development of existing regimes but actually strangle them, until establishments are reduced to being human warehouses and nothing more." (Inspection Report on HM Prison Birmingham, November 1981, paragraphs 7.01 and 1.04).
"The regime is well balanced and constructive, with useful contributions from the education department, the physical education department and the prison's industries. There is great emphasis on maintaining as close a contact as possible with the outside community, with men going outside the prison on educational parole, job familiarisation and resettlement; this is entirely right in a prison of this kind, and although there is always the risk that such opportunities will be abused, that risk is worth the taking in view of the advantages to be gained. There is a very wide range of leisure activities, organised for the most part by the prisoners themselves with staff support; the Leyhill council, an elected body of prisoners, co- ordinates these activities and considers how the general purposes fund should be spent." (Inspection Report on HM Prison Leyhill, May 1981, paragraph 1.04).
This evidence indicates that the Inspectorate recommendations for change will
have different implications for different types of establishments, in particular
for the local versus training prisons. Part of the work of the Inspectorate is
to take this into account, while maintaining a clear view of the ultimate
objective: to ensure that the whole system meets its aims. The Inspectorate
must address the need for interim as well as long-term targets.
Rn
From the evidence, it can be seen that it is difficult to quantify the
differences between establishments. Precise benchmarks are needed, so that the
Inspectorate and the prison service will have a better knowledge about those
establishments which are performing well and those which are not, arid the
reasons why.
The Inspectorate is involved in highlighting the imbalances, not only between
different establishments, but also between different types of estblishments. My
survey of inspection reports leads to the recurrent theme of lack of resources
and facilities in local prisons, compared with the medium term training prisons.
In developing and using benchmarks, the Inspectorate is looking not only at
facilities but their use. This combination determines the conditions of life
which the individual staff member and inmate will experience. When an imbalance
occurs between facilities and use, the Inspectorate has a duty to bring this to
the attention of the public and of the prison department, as an example of the
ineffective use of public money and resources.
The Inspectorate has recently stated (in the Annual Report for 1984, Chapter 3)
that the basis of its assessment is "the balance achieved between three distinct
criteria: humanity, propriety and value for money." In a time of scarce
resources it is as important for the Inspectorate to discover those areas in
which there is an overprovision of facilities as those in which there is sparse
provision and the need cannot be met. There are instances of both which have
come to light in our deliberations. A reallocation of resources is obviously a
matter of importance in the interests of equity.
The use of benchmarks should generate efforts of compliance from within the
system. A greater consensus must be developed as to ultimate aims and how to
achieve them. This would produce a more professional basis on which staff in
the prison system and in the Inspectorate might operate.
It is important to foster this progression by feedback from those who monitor so
that a continual flow of information is available to staff at all levels,
reinforcing the external as well as the internal targets.
Because I am conscious of the risk of sounding abstract or theoretical I want to
end this report by providing some practical suggestions. They may serve to
point the way forward for the Inspectorate in the task of monitoring according
to set criteria and for the prison department in encouraging establishments to
achieve their stated tasks.
81
PROPOSED APPROACH
CHAPTER 5: BASIS FOR ACTION
CHAPTER I
IIIn the preceding chapters my method has been to consider experience and practice
in this country and in the five systems I visited abroad, focussing upon the
major functional area: the planning of activity. I have drawn out from my
observations and discussion of the varying approaches the essential elements for
a good prison system.
Throughout the report I have emphasised the principles of individualism and
relationship as fundamental to the development of a coherent approach to planned
activity. The two principles link the logical stages of the approach which I
propose: from aims, through tasks, to measures and benchmarks.
Before proposing the the next practical steps, I shall now retrace the steps in
my argument.
There must be a clear statement of aims. These should motivate all staff withinII
the prison service. Part of that exercise involves making a moral statement;
but the statement cannot end there, exclusively at the level of abstract ideals.
It must include attainable objectives. It must be possible for people at the
ground floor level to see how these aims can be achieved.
Communicating the message about the aims of the organisation is an exercise in
managing people. It is important to communicate the message clearly to all
members of the service and to all those concerned, either as groups or as
individuals, with the prison system.
CHAPTER II
The aims must be translated into a clear set of tasks which are defined in
concrete terms. Their definition must be sufficiently precise and practical to
allow individuals to put them into practice. In defining its tasks the
service must recognise that the people within it are its primary and most
important resource. It is necessary to concentrate on them as individuals.
This implies planning around the individual. That in turn implies organising in
manageable groups. 11 82
II
Since individuals are the service's primary asset, the most important task is to
get their relationships right. If that task is achieved, the barriers are
broken down between functional areas and between individuals (eg staff involved
exclusively on security duties, in the control room, as contrasted with staff
assuming a variety of other functions and more closely linked with the
prisoner). The relationships among the people within the service cut across the
functional areas which define its work; all the different relationships
involving staff and prisoners link security, control and planned activity.
In the past there has been an imbalance between the areas of security, control
and activity. It is of fundamental importance for that imbalance to be
redressed. There has to be a greater emphasis on planned activity. If activity
is planned around the individual, and relies on, and promotes the relationships
between individuals, it enhances the security and safety of the establishment.
To follow this approach the service must see its people as individually
responsible and accountable and must respond to them in that way. Clear lines
of organisational responsibility must be established, so that at every level -
on the wing, at each establishment, at regional level and at headquarters -
there is someone accountable for planned activity.
CHAPTER III
The good prison system needs relevant and selective management information. It
must have comparable data across individual establishments in order to know what
is going on and whether the work performed is in line with the system's aims.
At the same time the data must be perceived as being useful not only to those at
the top of the organisation but also to those at the ground floor level. It is
important to be selective about information as there is an equal danger of
having too much as too little.
CHAPTER IV
Relevant information is the basis for effective monitoring, either internally or
externally. The Inspectorate needs the same basic data for each establishment,
so that its reports can assess the individual prison and compare it with similar
types of establishments. External monitoring also involves evaluating the
extent to which the work achieved across the prison system is in line with the
aims.
83
IIThe Inspectorate needs to refine a series of checklists so that it can assess in
a quantifiable and systematic way performance in planned activity and other
11 functional areas. It will then be possible to compare establishments visited on
a more objective basis so that similar establishments' performance can be rated
and_sequential visits to the same establishment can measure any improvement or deterioration of planned activity and other areas.
Ultimately the Inspectorate must develop benchmarks against which to measure the
work carried out and judge how well the prison system is achieving what it
should be doing. Experience abroad indicates that a series of interim
performance levels might be formulated by consultation with the Prison
Department and others concerned. A model for this approach would be the task
force set up by the US federal system or the consultative process by which the
Inspectorate of British Columbia developed their system of standards.
I have argued that the prison system is a highly complex organisation and that
the different populations and problems which it must address are not readily
approached by a single model. I suggest an approach which focuses on
individualism, relationship and activity, based on experience and practice in
this country and elsewhere.
IIApplying these principles involves getting the balance right between a number of
elements which in the past have been perceived as conflicting. For example, it
11 forces the prison service and those who evaluate it to address the demands and
problems raised by different types of prisoners. The sentenced prisoner has
different needs and poses different problems from the remand prisoner.
II Provision has varied tremendously, in particular between the training and the
Local. prison. In the latter, where both types of prisoner co-exist, priority
has been given to court related demands. In the absence of a clear sense of 11 purpose the response reflected the most conspicuous external demand. Na one has
ii focused sufficiently clearly upon the implications of dealing with such I/ different prisoners within one establishment or one system. It is necessary to
get the balance right between the sentenced and the remand prisoner.
II
Similarly it is necessary to get the balance right between security and
activity, which must be viewed as interdependent rather than opposing functions; 11 between positive and negative indicators of performance, reflecting management's
interest in productive achievement as well as avoidance of crises; between II functional and financial accountability, emphasising the importance of achieving
aims as well as accounting for resources; between mechanical definitions and
84
a
1
1
1 1
statements of mission; between paperwork and practical performance; between
immediate targets and longer term objectives; between what the top wants and
what the bottom needs; between internal and external accountability, to ensure
that we have the prison system we want.
NEXT STEPS
What are the next steps suggested by this approach? First of all a decision
needs to be made on a clear formulation of aims. There are tasks here both for
the Prison Department and for the Inspectorate. It will require careful
consultation. I suggest that a task force be set up to begin this process
immediately and to produce a set of clear and comprehensive aims.
This follows directly from Chapter I where I have spelt out at length the need
for aspirational and achievable aims and the importance of communicating them
clearly so that those working in the prison system have a sense of purpose and
an understanding of what is expected of them in concrete terms.
Once this first step has been taken, the initiative already established in
Circular Instruction 55/84, "Prison Board Statement of the Functions of Prison
Department Establishments", can be elaborated so that the tasks defined for the
prison service reflect the aims. In Chapter II I have explained how the process
of defining tasks might be accomplished and how the three principles -
individualism, relationship and activity - are the cornerstone on which this
work must be built. That chapter suggests a number of practical strategies for
integrating these three principles. Overall this means that each unit in the
organisation, whether it be a wing of a prison, or a division of headquarters,
should be aware of these central themes. That will only be achieved by training
and constant reinforcement of a simple statement of aims and their translation
into practical tasks. In the individual establishment this also means building
the notion of a manageable unit into the structure of the prison, both its
physical plant and its organisation. That means breaking down larger wings and
providing communal space for activity, both for remand and for sentenced
prisoners.
Intimately related to this second step is the refinement of a relevant and
selective management information system. This is a further task for the Prison
Department in developing its recent initiative. I have pointed out in
Chapter III the risk of an excess of information. That is the lesson I learned
85
86 I
from Canada and the USA. It is no good adding layer upon layer of information
already being requested of the system. That alienates staff, who are already
hard-pressed by the demands made upon them. I have noted the importance of
carrying staff with management and of ensuring their commitment. I have
stressed that what matters in the organisation is relationships, between
individuals at the ground floor level, as well as throughout the system.
There is already a great deal of information collected in an uncoordinated way
in the prison system. An important task is to coordinate and rationalise the
existing information. Et must be drawn together, put in order and pared down.
It must be useful to the top and to the ground floor. It must be arranged in a
systematic and coherent way which makes it readily usable and easily adaptable
for new technology. (Indeed, putting the information in good order is a
prerequisite for the application of new technology. Otherwise the computer
serves merely to perpetuate a poor system.)
Therefore as a further practical step I suggest an examination of what
information exists at present, in order to rationalise and coordinate it -in the
context of the approach I propose in this report. The information must be
looked at in this new conceptual framework. It is a large task and entails a
big leap. In the past the way in which the information was looked at was
circumscribed by the notion of "regime". There was a lack of systematic
approach reflected in the way in which information has been handled; that in
turn is symptomatic of the way in which the work has been viewed.
At the same time there is a task for the Inspectorate in deciding what
information is relevant and useful in measuring how the system fulfils the
defined aims. Part of that task involves drawing together and ordering the
existing requirements, statutory and other, in the area of planned activity.
Eventually the same exercise might be undertaken for all the functional areas.
On this basis a set of benchmarks could be developed similar to the standards
seen in other systems, to be applied by the Inspectorate in individual
establishments and across the system.
All of this is predicated on an acceptance of activity as the core of what goes
on in prisons. Activity means what each individual, whether staff or prisoner,
is doing; what use is being made of time. That implies a basic orientiation
towards those who work and live in prisons.
Eventually I envisage a system based on the individual staff member and
prisoner. I recognize that in the current situation this is not immediately
achievable; but it is important to make a start in that direction by
streamlining and ordering existing practice. It will then be possible to decide
what information is relevant and what additional data based on the individual _ should be collected. Then at least the first steps will have been taken in the
right direction.
87
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American Correctional Association, Conditions of Confinement; Facility Performance Inventory "Quality of Life Criteria", 1985
Corrections Today, 1985
Design Guide for Secure Adult Correctional Facilities, 1983
Guidelines for the Development of Policies and Procedures, May 1981
National Correctional Policies - A History and Process
On the line, Vol 8, No 4, July 1985
Ratified Correctional Public Policies, 1985
Standards for Adult Correctional Institutions, 2nd edition, Jan 1981
Standards for Adult Local Detention Facilities, 2nd edition, April 1981
American Medical Association, Standards for Health Services in Prisons, July 1979
W Araujo, A Cohn, Observing and Understanding Inmate Behaviour, National Institute of Corrections, US Dept of Justice, Jan 1983
Clement Bartollas, Correctional Treatment: Theory and Practice, Prentice-Hall, 1985
Camille G Camp, George M Camp, Private Sector Involvement in Prison Services and Operations, National Institute of Corrections, US Dept of Justice, Feb 1984
Hugh L Carey, Thomas A Coughlin III, Master Plan: Correctional Services 1980-85, New York State Department of Correctional Services, Jan 1981
Norman Carlson, "Corrections in the United States Today: A Balance has been struck", in American Criminal Law Review Vol 13, No 4, Spring 1976
The Development of the Federal Prison System, Federal Prison System, 1980
"The Federal Prison System: Forty-five Years of Change",in Federal Probation, June 1975
Andrew Coyle, A Comparative Examination of the Prison Services in North America, 1985
96
Cullen and Gilbert, Re-Affirming Rehabilitation, Anderson Publishing Co, 1982
Federal Bureau of Prisons, Automated Information Plan - System Plan, Jan 1985
Breaking with the past: Changing view of Correctional Facilities
Change Notices, to April 8 1985
Education for Tomorrow, 1979
Facilities 1982, 1982
Facilities 1984, 1984
Federal Prison System 50th Anniversary, The First Fifty Years 1930-1980, Feb 1980
Inmate Programs Reporting System, Sept 1981
Inmate Programs Reporting System Training and Reference Manual
Key Indicators and Inspection Questions, 1984-85
Leavenworth: Inmate Discipline
Leavenworth: Unit Management Manual
Management Audit Correctional Programs Branch, N Central Region
Office Staff N Central Region
Organisational Directory
Population and Other Statistics
Program Statement: Inspections, 1983
Statistical Report, Fiscal Years 1981-3, 1983
Synopsis of Academy Program Staff Training Academy at Glynco
Unit Management Manual, Standards and Direction for Unit Management, 1984
Federal Correctional Institution Raybrook, Admission and Orientation Handbook.
Federal Law Enforcement Training Center, Introduction to Correctional Techniques Glynco Georgia,
Federal Prison Industries Inc, Annual Report 1984, 50th Anniversary 1934-1984
Unicor Reports, 1985
Malcolm M Feeley, Lloyd E Ohlin, Criminal Justice and Corrections, National Governors' Association Center for Policy Research, Washington DC, 1982
Robert C Grieser, Neal Miller, Gail S Funke Guidelines for Prison Industries, National Institute of Corrections, Jan 1984
97
Gloria A Grizzfe, Ann D Witte, Efficiency in Corrections Agencies: Performance of Prisons
Wade Houk, Key Indicators, Federal Bureau of Prisons, 1985
D C Jarvis, Institutional Treatment of the Offender, McGraw-Hill, 1978
Paul W Keve, Corrections, John Wiley and Sons, 1981
Lawrence T Kurlander, The Disturbance at Ossining Correctional Facility Jan 8-11 1983, Report to Governor Cuomo, Sept 1983
Robert B Levinson, Donald A Deppe, "Optional Programming: A Model Structure for the Federal Correctional Institution at Butner", in Federal Probation June 1976
Robert B Levinson, Roy E Gerard, "Functional Units: A Different Correctional Approach", in Federal Probation, Dec 1973
Douglas Lipton, Robert Martinson and Judith Wilks "The Effective of Correctional Treatment: A Survey of Treatment Evaluation Studies. N.Y. Prager Publications 1975
Craig T Love, Gilbert L Ingram, "Prison Disturbances: Suggestions for Future Solutions", in New England Journal on Prison Law, Vol 8 No 2
Mark L McConkie, Management by Objectives, US Dept of Justice, July 1975
Robert Martinson "What Works? - Questions and Answers about Prison Reform" - Public Interest (Spring 1974 ppr. 22-54)
ed Norval Morris, Michael Toury, James B Jacobs, "The Prisoners' Rights Movement and Its Impacts 1960-80", in Crime and Justice, An Annual Review of Research, Vol II 1980
Jack Murray, Unit Management, Raybrook Conference Manual, Federal Bureau of Prisons, 1985
National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals, Task Force on Corrections, Standards
National Institute of Corrections, Designs for Contemporary Correctional Facilities, 1985
Interpersonal Communications in the Correctional Setting, Participant's Manual, May 1983
New Generation Jails, 1984
Offender Needs Assessment: Models and Approaches, 1984 •
Private Sector Involvement in Prison Services and Operations, 1984
National Institute of Justice, Measuring Prison Results, Ways to Monitor and Evaluate Corrections Performance, June 1981
National Sheriff's Association, The National Sheriff, Feb-March 1984
W Ray Nelson, "Isolation of Staff from Inmates: A Correctional Policy Issue for the 1980s", in Corrections Today, April 1984
98
New York City Department of Corrections, Minimum Standards and Consent Decrees
New York City Board of Correction, Minimum Standards for New York City Correctional Facilities, 1978
New York State Commission of Correction, Minimum Standards and Regulations for Management of County Jails and Penitentiaries
New York State, Department of Correctional Services, Clinton Dannemara
Commissioner's Task Force on Visiting
Directive - Reporting Unusual Incidents
Inmate Job Assignments
Internal Controls Self Assessment - Checklist, March 1985
Organisation Chart
Program Services Manual, Jan 1983
Report of Operations and Development 1987-84
Security Staffing Details, 1985
Sullivan Correctional Facility, Security Detail
System Description Manual, Feb 1985
Watertown
Oregan State Correctional Institution, Information for New Inmates
Herbert C Quay, Administrator's and User's Manual for the Behavioral Classification System for Adult Offenders, National Institute of Justice, US Department of Justice, August 1983
Managing Adult Inmates, National Institute of Corrections, Washington DC, 1984
Technical Manual for the Behavioral Classification Systems for Adult Offenders, National Institute of Corrections, US Department of Justice, 1983
Jack Reynolds, Management Oriented Corrections Evaluation Guidelines, Center for Human Studies, US Department of Justice, 1976
William T Russell, "Communications: The First Step", in Correctional Training, Winter 1983
Miles B Santamour, Bernadette West, Kevin Mays, Retardation and Criminal Justice, A Training Manual for Criminal Justice Personnel, President's Committee on Mental Retardation, Sept 1979
Richard Smith, Categorisation Procedures, US & Canadian Procedures for Security Categorisation of Sentenced Prisoners
99
W Alan Smith, C E Fenton, Unit Management in a Penitentiary, National Information Center
State of Illinois, Governor's Task Force on Prison Crowding: Recommendations, September 1983
State of Wisconsin, Medium Range Plan, Division of Corrections, June 1982
US Department of Justice, Federal Standards for Prisons and Jails, 1980
Long Range Plan, to 1985
David A Ward, Kenneth F Schoen, Confinement in Maximum Custody, Lexington Books, Lexington Mass, 1981
Watertown Correctional Facility, Inmate Orientation Handbook, N Y State, Department of Correctional Services, to 1985
Personnel Manual, New York State, Department of Correctional Services to 1985
Policy and Procedure Manual, July 1983
Judith Wilks, Robert Martinson, "Is the Treatment of Criminal Offenders Really Necessary?" in Federal Probation, March 1976
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GENERAL
Bundesgesetzblatt, Strafvollzugsgesetz, Federal Republic of Germany, 1976
Council of Europe, Prison Information Bulletin, No 2, Dec« 1983
Council. of Europe, Committee of Ministers, Standard Minimum Rules for the treatment of Prisoners, 1975
Mary Ellen Marsden, Thomas Orsagh, Prison Effectiveness Measurement, Performance of Prisons
Minister of Justice, New Zealand, Report of the Penal Policy Review Committee, 1981
Ministry of Justice, The Hague, The Price of Prisons Compared, 1984
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners, 1958
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Appendix B Item 1
A BAINTON, AIMS AND TASKS OF PRISON DEPARTMENT ESTABLISHMENTS, 1971
The role of the Prison Service is, first, under the law, to hold those committed to custody (whether on remand, committed for trail, convicted and awaiting sentence or lawfully detained by court order or executive action) and to provide conditions for their detention which are currently acceptable to society. Second, in dealing with convicted offenders, there is an obligation on the Service to do all that may be possible within the currency of the sentence to encourage and assist them to lead a law abiding life on discharge.
2. The Aims of those responsible for custodial care are to ensure that:
(a) the treatment of the inmate is such as to promote and preserve his self-respect;
(h) the harmful effects of removal from normal life are minimised;
(c) the organisation of the institution is such that inmates are encouraged to learn from staff and each other how to adjust in an acceptable way to the demands and pressures of society at large; and
(d) the inmates are prepared for and assisted on discharge.
3. In achieving these aims each institution has the following Tasks:-
(i) to hold each inmate in those conditions of security and supervision which are appropriate to his security category, the nature of his offence, his personality and the stage reached in his sentence;
(ii) to produce inmates at courts at due times and to service the courts;
(iii) to ensure that all inmates are able to exercise their rights and enjoy the privileges appropriate to their location and legal status;
(iv) to ensure that all inmates are protected from their own hostility and that of others, and that others are protected from them;
(v) to ensure that the treatment of inmates makes the most effective use of the accommodation provided and that the scales of food and clothing are used to the greatest advantage;
(vi) to ensure that there is available the means of relieving pain and suffering; a .system of medical care for the diagnosis and treatment of both physical and mental disorders; and specialist knowledge and expertise as required either from within the Service or by reference to the National Health Service facilities;
(vii) to provide for the religious needs of inmates of all denominations;
(viii) to ensure that inmates are, as far as the provision of work allows, suitably employed; and that the organisation of work in the institution fulfils the requirements set by Regional Office and Headquarters;
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(ix) in co-operation with the Probation and After-Care Service to provide support for welfare work in prisons and to ensure that inmates have ready access to social work resources both during sentence and in respect of their needs after their discharge;
(x) to provide, within the scale approved by HQ and as far as local resources allow, a system of education appropriate to the needs of the individual inmate;
(xi) to provide as far as resources allow a full and varied programme of leisure activities;
(xii) to ensure through the organisation of the institution and through staff training that staff understand the nature of the opportunities, demands and conflicts which may arise in institutions so that they are enabled to use them positively in the treatment and control of inmates and at the same time to tolerate the hostility within the situation;
(xiii) to ensure that the management and organisation of establishments is such as to:-
(a) encourage and develop free and open communication between inmates and staff;
(h) enable staff to appreciate the value of maintaining communication between the inmate, his family and outside situations;
(c) provide opportunities for staff to contribute to the assessment of inmates;
(d) establish procedures for the maintenance of documentation and for the making of decisions which affect the inmate's treatment and his progress towards release; and
(e) to ensure that Health and Safety requirements are observed.
(xiv) to organise and maintain any specific treatment and training tasks approved by headquarters; and
(xv) to promote good relationships with people in the neighbourhood to maintain the trust which the public at large should feel in any public institution.
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Appendix B Item 2
Home Office Prison Department, Circular Instruction 55/84, Annex A
PRISONS BOARD STATEMENT OF THE TASK OF THE PRISON SERVICE
The task of the Prison Service is to use with maximum efficiency the resources of staff, money, building and plant made available to it by Parliament in order to fulfil in accordance with the relevant provisions of the law, the following functions:
(i) to keep in custody untried or unsentenced prisoners, and to present them to court for trial or sentence;
(ii) to keep in custody, with such degree of security as is appropriate, having regard to the nature of the individual prisoner and his offence, sentenced prisoners for the duration of their sentence or for such shorter time as the Secretary of State may determine in cases where he has discretion;
(iii) to provide for prisoners as full a life as is consistent with the facts of custody, in particular making available the physical necessities of life; care for physical and mental health; advice and help with personal problems; work, education, training, physical exercise and recreation; and opportunity to practise their religion; and
(iv) to enable prisoners to retain links with the community and where possible assist them to prepare for their return to it.
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Appendix B Item 3
Home Office Prison Department, Circular Instruction 55/84, Annex B
PRISONS BOARD STATEMENT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF PRISON DEPARTMENT ESTABLISHMENTS
CUSTODY OF UNSENTENCED PRISONERS
1. To receive and keep in custody prisoners awaiting trial or sentence, civil prisoners and any other persons lawfully committed to their custody.
2. To release such prisoners from custody on the directions of the court or other lawful authority or when the conditions of bail have been met.
THE COURT COMMITMENT
3. To ensure that prisoners are produced at court as required.
4. To provide the requisite reports and documentation.
5. To provide staff required at the Crown Court and Court of Appeal (Criminal Division) and keep prisoners there in custody.
CUSTODY OF SENTENCED PRISONERS
6. To receive sentenced prisoners and keep them in custody.
T. To calculate and implement release dates.
8. To assess prisoners for the purpose of determining or recommending (a) an appropriate level of security and (b) an appropriate allocation.
9. To keep each prisoner's security category and allocation under regular review. In the case of life sentence prisoners, to maintain regular formal Review Board procedures.
10. To give effect to the provisions relating to parole and release on life licence.
SECURITY, SAFETY AND CONTROL
11. To maintain a level of security appropriate to the prisoners who are or may be held at the establishment.
12. To maintain good order in the interests of the operation of the prison, and take such steps as are necessary for the safety of its staff and inmates.
SERVICES AND FACILITIES FOR PRISONERS
13. To provide in accordance with the statutory provisions and Departmental instructions: (a) accommodation, (b) meals, (c) facilities for personal hygiene and sanitation, (d) clothing, (e) opportunities for exercise and (f) access to privileges.
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14. To provide a service for the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of physical and mental disorders and the promotion of health.
15. To provide help and advice with personal problems.
16. To enable prisoners to practise their religion.
17. To provide, with a view to occupying prisoners as fully as possible throughout the whole week, a balanced and integrated regime, which may include work, education, physical education, access to libraries and individual and collective leisure activities.
18. To enable prisoners to spend the maximum possible time out of their cells.
COMMUNITY LINKS AND PREPARATION FOR RELEASE
19. To enable prisoners to maintain contact with the outside world, and in particular to communicate with their families, friends and legal representatives.
O. To operate the home leave scheme.
21. To assist prisoners to prepare for release, which may include (a) providing such opportunities as are practicable for them to go out into the community on temporary release, (b) providing pre-release courses, and (c) putting prisoners in touch with the probation service and other external agencies.
22. To make arrangements as required for prisoners' after-care.
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Appendix B Item 4
Report of the Control Review Committee, 1984
Functions and objectives
106. The sheer breadth and complexity of the subject may, as we have suggested, be one reason that has impeded the development of clear goals being set for prisons. Another reason has certainly been the long debate in the prison world about the very purposes of imprisonment which, it is said, must be brought to some conclusion before up-to-date requirements for the work of prisons can be drawn up.
107. Questioning the very foundations of the system seems to us to be healthy and necessary in the special circumstances of the penal world. Practitioners in a prison system need to be more rigorous than most in clearing their minds about the rationale of their work. The system is littered with fragments of discarded theories, but few people would now be able to accept the simple moral imperative of Prison Rule 1* as a complete and unqualified statement of their aims. The older work-dominated view of imprisonment is even more remote. But without some central statement of objectives a policy towards imprisonment is made, by default, in 122 places on the ground every day, and debate of the basic issues has come to seem "a preparation for something that never happens". In order to give some focus to a discussion that we see as healthy, and in order to allow management aims to be projected, we think that it should now be possible to state basic objectives that would command consensus support and we have tried our hands at an illustration of the kind of formula we have in mind.
108. It seems to us that the basic function of the prison system is to keep in custody untried or unsentenced prisoners and to present them to court for trial or sentence; to detain sentenced prisoners as required by law, and to do so (in the interests of management, staff and prisoners themselves) in an orderly fashion. We believe too that it is a fundamental principle that while retribution, deterrence and the protection of the public are all valid grounds for imprisonment, it is imprisonment itself that is the punishment inflicted by law and no further avoidable hardship should be imposed on a prisoner except by way of formal disciplinary action. With that in mind we believe the aim should be to make the most efficient use of the resources available to discharge the stated functions and to pursue the following objectives:
i. to ensure that prisoners' lawful rights are respected; .
ii. to provide, subject to the demands of security, safety and the running of the establishment with necessary order, that the life of a prison should be as close as possible to normal life;
iii. to ensure that the conditions of detention of prisoners are those appropriate, in terms of security, to the nature of the individual prisoner and his offence;
*Rule 1 of the Prison Rules 1964 (1964 SI No 388) states: "The purpose of the training and treatment of convicted prisoners shall be to encourage and assist them to lead a good and useful life".
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iv. to exercise a duty of care for those in custody, in particular by providing the physical necessities of life (including exercise, and access to open air), adequate care for physical and mental health, and opportunities for the exercise of religious, mental and other faculties;
v. to give prisoners the opportunity to participate in a programme of constructive activities to occupy at least the working day; such programmes to consist of activities such as: education, vocational or other training, work, counselling, physical education and recreation;
vi. to enable prisoners to retain links with the community and to assist them in their preparations for return to it.
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LESSON TITLE : Custody, Security and Control Segment 1
LESSON OBJECTIVES : Upon completion of this class, each student will be able to:
1
Appendix B Item 5
FEDERAL BUREAU OF PRISONS, STAFF TRAINING ACADEMY, 1984
LESSON PLAN
INTRODUCTION TO CORRECTIONAL TECHNIQUES
1. List the three primary responsibilities that all correctional workers share:
A. Security B. Programs C. Job Speciality
2. List the three primary reasons/rationale for establishing good custodial practices and procedures:
A. Protection of Society B. Protection of Inmate C. Protection of the inmate from his own
impulses and poor judgement.
3. List three important procedures to follow when handling keys:
A. Upon receipt of keys verify the correct number of keys.
B. Carry keys so they are not visible to inmates.
C. Never lay keys down.
4. List two procedures to follow if a key is lost, misplaced or broken:
A. Report lost, misplaced or broken keys immediately to the shift Lieutenant.
B. Do not leave the broken portion of a key unattended in a lock.
5. List the two categories of tool classification and define each category; and list at least three items in each category:
A. Hazardous - Class A - Definition: Tools most likely to be used in escapes and/or assaults.
(1) Hacksaw Blades (2) Files (3) Crowbars (4) Jacks
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B Non-Hazardous - Class B - Definition: Tools not likely to be used in an escape; used to manufacture or serve as weapons; or are not hazardous to institutional safety or personal safety.
(1) Screwdrivers (2) Hammers (3) Measuring Tapes
6. List the three types of counts made in the Federal Prison System and give a definition of each:
A. Formal Count: A formal or official count is taken at specific times each day. All movement ceases. The count is called in to the Control Center and a signed count slip will be turned in to the Control Center.
B. Census Count: A frequent but irregular check made by the officer to verify that all inmates under their charge are present. They are made during the hours of darkness and between formal counts.
C. Emergency Counts: An official count taken at other than one of the times specified for a regular official count.
7. Define the purpose of counts and be able to list three of the seven rules that apply to counting inmates:
A. Purpose of Counts - Definition: To insure around the clock accountability of all inmates.
B. Basic Counting Principles:
(1) Counts in a dormitory or open type unit must be performed by two staff members.
(2) There should be no movement of inmates. (3) The staff member must see living,
breathing flesh so as not to count a dummy.
(4) The staff member must use a flashlight when counting during hours of darkness.
(5) Staff members counting should remain in area until count has been varified.
(6) While counting staff members should allow nothing short of an emergency to distract them.
(7) Inmates are never allowed to count.
8. Define the purpose of security inspections; and list three of the seven security devices requiring inspection once each shift:
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A. Purpose of Security Inspections: Security inspections are necessary to control the introduction of contraband, to insure the safety and security of the institution, and to prevent escapes.
B. Devices to be inspected each shift:
(1) All detention bars (2) Window sashes (3) Locks (4) Lock boxes (5) Security grills (6) Exits (7) Entrances
9. List and define the three methods of inspection:
IIA. Visual - Definition: An inspection for bent or spread bars, broken welds, cracked or cut bars, any sign of steel filings. Any other evidence of tampering or weakness such as fresh paint or discolored areas will be noted and investigated.
B. Tapping - Definition: Tapping calls for the II use of a rubber or plastic mallet to tap security bars and sashes to set up sound waves which by their deviation from normal would indicate tampering or weakness.
C. Metal Instrument - Definition: A thin metal instrument such as a putty knife can be passed along sashes or bars to locate cuts of depressions which might indicate tampering. The instrument can also be used as a probe between walls and fixtures.
1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
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Appendix B Item 6
FEDERAL BUREAU OF PRISONS, STAFF TRAINING ACADEMY, 1984
LESSON PLAN
INTRODUCTION TO CORRECTIONAL TECHNIQUES
LESSON TITLE : Inmates Are People too!
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES : At the end of this book of instruction the student will be able to:
1. Describe accurately the main differences between staff and inmates' social and ideological worlds.
A. A basic conflict exists between staff and inmates with stereotypes attributed to each group by the members of the other group.
B. The inmate society is governed by a code into which inmates are pressured: - do your own time - do not cater to officers - be loyal to one another - do not inform on other inmates
- - every man has his price - staff are generally corrupt - do not give anyone a break - nobody will give you a break - trust no one
C. Historically, staff and inmates have tended to alienate themselves from each other by maintaining excessive social distance and communicating minimally.
2. Verbally explain how effective communication facilitates the running of an institution.
A. Communication humanizes the very structured prison environment.
B. By reassuring inmates that "they are people too" we help to preserve their self-esteem.
C. Communicating means controlling inmates without being authoritative.
3. Define the term DEHUMANIZATION:
The process through which an inmate loses his sense of individuality, and begins to see himself as insignificant, unrecognized, and ignored.
4. Define the term INSTITUTIONALIZATION:
The process that occurs during an inmate's incarceration when he accepts institutional routines and regulations to such an extent that he is no longer capable of making independent decisions and controlling his life.
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5. List at least three programs created in the attempt to reduce dehumanization:
A. improved communication skills B. reduced regimentation • C. smaller institutions D. improvements within the facilities E. functional unit management F. furlough policies G. community based programs H. more reasonable rules
6. List at least three techniques for limiting the possibility of dehumanization:
A. treat people with basic respect B. be professional C. individualize D. be consistent E. never lie to or about an inmate.
7. Describe an employee's responsibility for using effective communication skills:
Every employee is expected, as much as possible, to develop a positive, facilitative relationship with inmates.
8. State why work supervisors are normally the most impactful employees in bringing about positive changes in inmates:
A. close daily contact with inmates B. talk the same language as inmates C. frequently have common interests D. work setting provides a common meeting
ground
Appendix B Item 7
Unit Management, Federal Institution Raybrook, 1.984.
5003. MAJOR OBJECTIVES OF UNIT MANAGEMENT
1. To divide large numbers of inmates into well-defined groups, whose members are encouraged to develop a common identity and close association with each other and with unit staff.
2. To increase the frequency of contacts and the quality of relationships between staff and inmates by placing decision-making personnel in proximity to those inmates who are being controlled.
3. To provide observation of inmates, thereby enabling early detection of problems before they reach critical proportions.
4. To improve inmate accountability and control by holding inmates accountable for their own self-control and actions.
5. To provide differential program strategies/interventions for each inmate depending upon his/her needs, ability, and ambitions.
6. To place special emphasis upon each of the following (in particular):
* Institution adjustment * Work skill acquisition and performance * Interpersonal communications * Positive self-esteem * Self-motivation * Problem solving techniques * Realistic goal setting * Education and training * Other life-skill acquisitions
5004. CENTRAL OFFICE ROLE
Unit Management is a function of the Correctional Programs Branch for the Federal Bureau of Prisons. Close coordination is necessary to assure that Unit Management is clearly understood. The following responsibilities are designated to this Branch:
1. Coordinating appropriate unit management training for all unit staff.
2. Coordinating research and evaluation efforts of unit management.
3 Developing policy for unit management throughout the Federal Bureau of Prisons.
4. Monitoring the development and implementation of unit management throughout the Federal Bureau of Prisons via close contact with Regional Administrators, comparative data collection, and periodic visits to the field.
5. Assisting Regional Office Administrators with Regional training projects, staff assistance visits, and problem areas.
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6. Budget/Financial planning responsibilities for unit management.
7. Technical Assistance to State and Local Correctional Departments.
8. Establishing Agency Standards for unit mangement with the Federal Bureau of Prisons.
5005. REGIONAL- OFFICES
Regional Directors are responsible for interpreting and monitoring Unit Management progress and compliance efforts with respect to "agency standards". Appropriate Regional Administrators are responsible for:
1. Conducting management assistance audits and visiting each institution's unit management operations within the region. Copies of all official Program Reviews and audits are to be forwarded to the Correctional Programs Branch in the Central Office within 30 working days of completion (Signed by the Regional Director).
2. Ensuring that all research and evaluation efforts and coordinated with the Research Section in the Central Office. Copies of research and evaluation reports are to be forwarded to the Correctional Programs Branch in the Central Office within 15 working days of completion.
3. Assisting with Unit Manager Training Programs for newly appointed Unit Managers.
4. Providing input in the development of policy regarding unit management.
5. Assuring that Agency data collection efforts are maintained in a timely manner.
6. Maintaining close working relatioships with Correctional Services and other Regional Disciplines.
7. Overseeing the development of Unit Management in all new facilities within the Region.
8. Budget/Financial responsibilities for unit management.
9. Technical Assistance to State and Local Correctional Agencies.
Regional and Central Office Personnel are to meet periodically to review the direction of Unit Management throughout the Federal Bureau of Prisons.
5006. INSTITUTION ADMINISTRATION
Unit Management should result in the delegation of much decision-making authority to Unit Managers which was previously centralized, or which was the responsibility of other departments to Unit Managers. This delegation of authority and unit-delegated autonomy have proven to be absolutely essential to the success of unit management.
5007. WARDENS & CAMP SUPERINTENDENTS
The Unit approach to correctional management does not alter the fact that the Chief Executive Officer of the institution retains final authority and responsibility for all matters occurring within the institution. However, for Unit Management to be fully effective, the Chief Executive Officer must ensure there is an appropriate delegation of authority to the Unit Managers.
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5008. ASSOCIATE WARDENS
Chief Executive Officers will usually delegate supervisory and monitoring responsibilities for unit management to one of the Associate Wardens. Agency standards encourage that the same Associate Warden maintain supervisory responsibility over unit management as well as correctional services (custodial).
The Association Warden shall monitor unit operations to insure consistency in addition to the quality of programes, etc. The Association Warden is to ascertain that the authority and responsibility delegated to the units is effectively managed.
Guidelines, dissemination of policy, and parameters within which the units are to work shall be set forth as part of the leadership responsibilities of the Associate Warden. He/she must assure that the philosophy and policy of the Federal Bureau of Prisons is adhered to, as well as contributing to the total mission of the institution accomplished. These two should not be considered mutually exclusive.
5009. CASE MANAGEMENT SPECIALIST
The Case Management Specialist is a resource person for the administration and staff in case management related areas. As a resource person for the Associate Warden (Programs) the Case Management Specialist assures quality control in Case • Management by reviewing study cases, transfer requests, and all official correspondence emanating from the units for the Chief Executive Officer's signature.
As a resource person to the unit, the Case Management Specialist has no direct supervisory responsibility for unit staff although he/she shall have input on all case manager performance appraisals insofar as technical skills and proficiency are concerns. Case management specialists shall be a part of the case manager promotion and selection processes.
5010. CAPTAIN
Unit managers and Chief Correctional Supervisors (Captains) are expected to maintain a cooperative working relationship, especially since they have overlapping areas of responsibility.
The Captain is the department head whose primary respr,nsibility is the security of the institution. With the unit approach to correctional management, however, some of this responsibility can be properly delegated to unit managers and their staff. This can only be done with prior approval from the administration, which shoùld be in writing and clearly understood by all concerned staff.
When there is a question regarding security matters which affects the unit, and the unit manager and the Captain cannot agree upon a course of action, the Associate Warden will have final authority. Whenever possible, decisions concerning emergency matters regarding a unit should be made jointly by the unit manager and captain. Combining the technical expertise of the captain with the unit manager's first-hand knowledge of his/her unit will enhance the quality of decision-making.
5011. LIEUTENANT
Correctional supervisors (Lieutenants) have delegated authority for institution .security matters in the absence of the captain. These individuals serve as advisors, consultants, and monitors for unit managers in matters pertaining to unit security.
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5012. UNIT MANAGER
The unit manager is the administrator and supervisor of a multi-disciplinary team of staff members who are assigned to work in the unit. As a department head, the unit manager will participate on institution committees, promotion boards, servce as institution duty officer, and perform other related aaministrative functions.
The unit manager has responsibility for all matters pertaining to the unit. Unless otherwise indicated by the Associate Warden, this responsibility will include case management, security, correctional programs, safety, sanitation, and financial management (i.e., when applicable). The unit manager serves as an ongoing advisor to the administration in matters pertaining to inmate management and programs.
In matters of security, the Captain and Unit Manager should consult, and use, each other's expertise to attain adequate security measures. Likewise, there are other department heads whose expertise can be used to develop and maintain other programs and procedures. A cooperative relationship among unit managers and other department heads is essential to insure an effective unit operation overall.
5013. CASE MANAGER
The case manager is directly responsible to the unit manager and has major responsibility for case management matters within the unit. The case manager will assist in other unit operations as directed by the unit manager.
Supervision, training, and technical assistance for the unit case manager is the responsibility of the unit manager (see case management specialist, Section 5009). These responsibilities cannot be delegated to others except when the case management specialist or senior case manager is used by the unit manager to assist with the training and technical development of the case manager. The degree of case management technical assistance required by each unit may be related to the level of case management expertise the unit manager and case manager possess.
5014. COUNSELLOR
The correctional counsellor's primary responsibility is the counselling of inmates. This may include formal, unplanned counselling and formal group and/or individual counselling. Other duties will be designated by the unit manager. However, it is expected that counselling and direct availability to unit inmates will consume the vast majority of each correctional counsellor's time.
The correctional counsellor's work shall be scheduled by the unit manager and counsellors are not to be removed from their work assignments by other institution staff without prior consultation and permission from the unit manager. In the unit manager's absence, this permission must be obtained from the Associate Warden with functional responsibility over unit management. Emergency situations such as escapes, riots, and evacuation are exceptions to the above.
5015. UNIT SECRETARY
The unit secretary should be permanently assigned to the unit. The duties are mainly those of a clerical/secretarial nature. Unit managers may elect to broaden the secretary's duties to include participation in unit team meetings or
118
unit disciplinary committee meetings or other unit activities when these duties are within the scope of the position description and do not conflict with his/her primimary clerical/secretarial responsibilities.
5016. UNIT CORRECTIONAL OFFICER
Unit officers should be regularly assigned to a given unit for not less than nine months, even though he/she may be rotated in the unit (between shifts). Correctional officers will assume primary responsibility for unit security and sanitation as well as other duties which are essential to carrying out rules and regulations applicable to that unit. Beyond this, correctional officers will communicate freely with other unit staff and may be called upon to perform additional duties as long as they do not interfere with those which have been determined to be primary; i.e., custody, security and control. Unit managers shall ensure maximum input is received from correctional officers who are assigned to the unit.
5017. EDUCATION ADVISOR
The education advisor is the unit team's consultant in all education/vocational training matters. This person is ordinarily permanently assigned to one or more unit teams, and is to ensure that all inmates are properly tested and informed of available education opportunities. The education advisor is also responsible for monitoring and evaluating the progress of unit inmates involved in education programs, and is to provide counselling in education matters on an as needed basis.
5018. UNIT PSYCHOLOGIST
This person is responsible for the performance of diagnostic, therapeutic, research, educational, and evaluative functions relating to psychological services. The psychologist plans, organizes, participates, and provides professional expertise for unit counselling programs. This function includes the assessment of inmate needs and the design of corresponding programs to meet specific needs.
All unit psychologists should work under the "technical" supervision of the chief psychologist even though their general day-to-day supervision may be provided by the unit manager insofar as unit-related issues are concerned. This is especially true for psychologists who are assigned to one of the Bureau's drug abuse units (Refer to Drug Abuse Unit Section 5041). The amount of supervision provided to the psychologist (by the unit manager) is wholly dependent upon whether the psychologist is assigned to the unit on a full-time basis.
119
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
John Howard Society A-4 Temporary Absence Program M-2 Induction Program Community Awareness Drug Study Group Jaycees Salavation Army Visits & Correspondence Alienated Youth Canada Manpower Bridge Club
- Gavel Club Zzoommm Group Creative Job Search Inside-Out Society of B.C. Matsqui Sumas Abbotsford Community Services Inmate Family Group Open House Social Group Transcental Meditation Leadership Group December Group Band Optimum Club Link-Up Program Quo Vadis Society of B.C.
TOTAL - 28 Program
VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Cooking Course Electrician Course Graphics Art Barbershop General Shop Related Training (Vocational) Welding (Metal Training) Auto Body Repair Carpentry Drafting Search & Rescue
Appendix B Item 8
Solicitor General of Canada, Programmes in Federal Corrections, 1976 ,
MASTER LISTS OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS
Master List 1 (a)
PACIFIC REGION: TITLE AND NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Alcoholics Seven Step Society Ontology Couples Group Psychiatric Services Psychological Services Transactional Analysis Group Therapy X-Kalay Foundation Group Therapy Marriage Counselling Phase Group II Contact Communication Group Native Alcoholics Anonymous Social Work Program Acute Psychiatric Program Heroin Addict Re-Direction Program Insight Directed Sex Reorientation Program Existential Therapy
Extended Care Program Lifeline Behaviour Modification Sex Reorientation Program Psychiatric Therapy Behaviour Modification Counselling Services Forensic Services
TOTAL _ 25 Programs
ACADEMIC DEVELOPMENT
University Course Graduate Art Class Music Group Correspondence Learning Literacy for Adults Computer Course Psychology Course Lecture Series in Individual Courses
TOTAL - 10 Programs
120
Master List 1(a)
PACIFIC REGION: TITLE AND NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS
VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (Contd)
INDUSTRIAL DÈVELOPMENT
Stock Car Group Harrison Lake Group Winslow Creek Camp Canvas Shop Upholstery Shop Machine Shop Paint Finish Shop Wood Products Shop Tryke Project Drill Project Adventure Playground Silk Screening Textile Manufacturing Nelof Study Improvement Group Industrial Arts Program Toba Inlet Forestry Program Camp Bernard Project Beecher Bay Project Industrial Cabinet Shop
TOTAL - 21 Programs
ENTERTAINMENT
Movie Group Recreation Program
TOTAL - 2 Programs
COMMUNICATION AND MANAGEMENT
Living Unit Program Classification Services Inmate Committee Video West Tarpaper The Shrink
TOTAL - 6 Programs
Occupational Therapy Mason & Plastering Course Hairstyling
TOTAL - 15 Programs
CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
Indian, Metis Education & Cultural Group Arts & Crafts Francophone Group Indian Education Group Native Hobby Craft
TOTAL - 7 Programs
SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT
Christian Group Religious Services (Protestant - Catholic)
Choir Jehovah Witness Divine Light Mission Phase Group 1 Native Hour Ukrainian Church Service Bible Study
TOTAL - 9 Programs
OCCUPATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Food Services Clerical Services Painting Plumbing Laundry Stores Cleaners Garbage Detail Grounds Runner Slash Crew General Construction Hospital Boiler Room Maintenance Engineers Dental Laboratory
121
Master List 1(a)
PACIFIC REGION: TITLE AND NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS
OCCUPATION DEVELOPMENT (Contd) -
Institutional Services Recreation Gang Mail Carrier Canteen
TOTAL - 20 Programs
OTHERS
Transactional Analysis Experimental Pilot Project
Zzoommm Pilot Project & Evaluation Project
Exceptional Children's Program Research Program
TOTAL - 4 Programs
122
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT .
Alcoholics Anonymous Psychological Services Psychiatric Services Add Can Group Seven Step Society Hopewell Group Native Counselling Services Henwood Better Life Group Discussion Group Drug Group Native Alcoholism Council Therapeutic Group Native Alcoholism Council Group X-Kalay Foundation
TOTAL - 14 Programs
ACADEMIC DEVELOPMENT
TOTAL - 12 programs
INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT
Industrial Cabinet Shop Metal Shop Furniture Finishing Upholstery Graphic Arts Tailor Shop Canvas Shop Paint Shop Machine Shop Welding Neegan Project Carpentry Shop
TOTAL - 12 Programs TOTAL - 18 Programs
Master List 1(b)
PRAIRIE REGION: TITLE AND NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS
Visits and Correspondence Salvation Army John Howard Society Temporary Absence Life Skills New Experience Group Contact Group Gavel Group John Howard Society Volunteer Visitor Program
Teens & Twenties Youth Group Visitation Group Re-entry Club Chess Club Drama Club Bridge Club Native Women's Referral Service Information Unlimited Toastmasters Bridge Club with Parapalegics Lifers Group Canada Manpower Counselling Group . United Church Halfway House Group Citizen Discussion Group Inmate Socials Frank Discussion
VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Plumbing Barber and hairstyling Electrician Carpentry (frame house construction) Auto Body Electronics Driver Training Creative Job Search Related Training Division Canada Manpower Outreach Project Bricklaying Stationary Engineer (Theory) Boiler Oxy Acetylene Welding (Theory) Welding Auto Mechanics (Theory) and repair Forestry Architecture Drafting Mechanical Drafting Treeplanting and piling
Basic Literacy for Adults Upgrading (grades 5-10) Secondary School (11-12) Business Administration University and High School Correspendence Courses Music Instruction TOTAL - 25 programs University Non-Credit & Certificate Programs Graduat Equivalency Diploma Creative Writing Education Development Lab Photography Element de language anglaise
123
ENTERTAINMENT
Films Quet Games Library Band Participation Film Discussion Group
TOTAL - 5 Programs
COMMUNICATIONS AND MANAGEMENT
Inmate Committee Classification Inside News Inmate Sports Committee Welfare Committee Norkel Newspaper Inmate Orientation Inmate Newspaper Legal Aid Communicator Inmate Toastmasters Magazine Inside-Outside Inmate Newspaper Terminator Inmate Newspaper Living Unit Program
TOTAL - 13 Programs
Master List 1(b)
PRAIRIE REGION: TITLE AND NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS
CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
School Program Hobbycraft, Arts & Crafts Vanier Group Native Brotherhood Society Music, Photography & Drama Groups Indian Liaison Officer West Flat Art Club Cree Class Theatrical Work Shop Pent House Players Pow Wow Sketch Class Winnipeg Art Gallery Discussion Group
Music Appreciation
TOTAL - 14 Programs
SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT
Religious Services Volunteer Groups - First Baptist Emmanuel Koinpnia Glee Club Cursillo Christopher Leadership Courses Scripture Study Group Religious Films Bible Class Protective Custody Group Hebrew Class Chapel Choir Salvation Army Jehovah Witness Native Bible Study Prayer Group Bible Correspondence Courses Indian Alliance Bible Class
TOTAL - 19 Programs
124
Master List 1(b)
PRAIRIE REGION: TITLE AND NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS
OCCUPATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
1
Stationary Engineer Barber Laundry Clerical Services Kitchen Carpenters Painters Ornamental Grounds Electricians Plumbers Janitorial (cleaners) Automotive Maintenance Sheet Metal Works Heavy Equipment Operator Steers Piggery Slaughter House & Poultry Gardening & Vegetable Storage Dairy Operation Operation, care & maintenance of Farm Machinery Incinerator (garbage detail)
TOTAL - 21 Programs
OTHERS
125
Master List 1(c)
ONTARIO REGION: TITLE AND NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Temporary Absence Program Group Meeting (Montgomery Centre) Pre-Release Programs Alcoholics Anonymous Classification Services Circle Group Drop-In Centre Drug Group Psychiatric Services Psychological Services Awareness Group Discussion Group Group Therapy Elizabeth Fry Society Out-Patient Service Special Treatment Program Alcoholism & Drug Addiction program
TOTAL - 17 Programs
ACADEMIC DEVELOPMENT
Georgian Loyalist and St Lawrence College Courses
Business Administration Business School Training Polytechnical University Courses Correspondence Courses Social Studies Group Academic Upgrading Loyalist College Extension Program English as a Second Language (EASL)
TOTAL - 10 Programs
INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT
INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT
Carpentry Shop Paint Shop Upholstery Welding Sheet Metal Tailor Shop Gym Shop Print Shop Cabinet Making Shop Sewing Room
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Umpring Program Discussion Group Les Ateliers Dominique, Project 2407
Ten Plus Effective Speaking Group Allied Indian Metis Society (AIMS) Chess Club Betterment of Us (BUS) Visits & Correspondence Bridge Club Springboard Program Upstart Program Music Groups Quarter Century Club Women's Centre Salvation Army (Motel) Street Haven Elizabeth Fry Society (Guests) John Howard Society Visiting Program
John Howard Society Discussion Group Life Skills Program Sociotherapist Service Service Club Involvement Jaycees Creative Development
TOTAL - 25 Programs
VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Accident Prevention Forestry Tehcniques Stationary Engineering Projectionist Course St. John's Ambulance Course Barbershop & Hairstyling Office Machine Repair Carpentry Shop Motor Vehicle Mechanics Plumber Shop Metal Work Shop & Welding Electronics Shop Related Training (Vocational) Sign Painting Machine Shop Auto Body Shop Construction Occupational Therapy Wood Working
126
COMMUNICATION AND MANAGEMENT
Citizen Advisory Committee Inmate Committee Avator (Newspaper) Allied Group Induction Program Inmate Newspaper Inter-Agency Committee Tightwire House meetings Changing Time Orientation Program The Outlook Living Unit Program Admissions Committee
TOTAL - 14 Programs
Master List 1(c) '
ONTARIO REGION: TITLE AND NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS
INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT (Contd)
Canvas Shop Mail Bag Repair & Production Shoe Repair Fruit Picking Community Works Program
TOTAL - 15 Programs
ENTERTAINMENT
Music program Library Services Films Concerts Music Group (Charitable) Bridge & Card Tournament Leather Works Copper Works Petitpoint Carving
TOTAL - 10 Programs
VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (Contd)
Beauty Parlour Audio-Visual Training Aids Pre-Employment (Wood) Pre-Employment (Metal)
TOTAL - 23 Programs
CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
Native Brotherhood French Group Hobbycraft Arts & Crafts Ceramics Class Music Instruction & Apreciation Black Culture Group Native Sisterhood
TOTAL - 7 Programs
SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT
Chaplaincy Program Mormon Group Jehovah Witness Bible Study Group Frankl Group Rover Group Hebrew Group Salvation Army Scripture Group Prayer Group Cursillo Religious Services
TOTAL - 12 Programs
OCCUPATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Farm Services Regional Warehouse and Stores Institutional Maintenance Services Carpenters Masons Painters Sheet Metal - General Labour Power Plant Electricians
127
Master List 1(c)
ONTARIO REGION TITLE AND NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS .
OCCUPATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (Contd)
Plumbers Ornamental Grounds Kitchen Institutional Cleaners Hospital Forestry Gangs Institutional Laundry Room
TOTAL - 17 Programs
OTHERS
128
Master List 1(d)
QUEBEC REGION: TITLE AND NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Alcoholics Anonymous Groups Sex Education Course Classification Services Group Therapy Cine-criminologie Cine-participation Encounter Group Yoga Group Meditation Group Toastmaster Group Group of Inmates with Life Sentences Solitaire Group Inter-personal Group Dynamics Therapy Group on the Various Stages of AA Office for the Prevention & Treatment of Alcohol & Other Addiction (OPTAT)
TOTAL - 15 Programs
ACADEMIC DEVELOPMENT
Academic Correspondence Course Technical Correspondence Course Elementary Courses Secondary Courses First Year CEGEP Introduction to Psychology Photography Course University Courses Commercial Correspondence Courses English Courses Humanities Correspondence Courses Remedial Literature Couse Course - Job Finding Technique Creative Writing Umpiring Clinics
TOTAL - 16 Programs
INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT
Sheet Metal Work Machinist Welding Cabinet Making Painting (Wood & Metal) Tailors
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Bridge Club Chess Club Contact Group Visits & Correspondence Volunteer Visitors Temporary Absences Group Discussions Oasis Eureka Illot Meetings on Sports Evening Social Gathering Pre-parole Maison St-Laurent, St Hubert, St Edouard
Salvation Army Freedom Group Societe d'Orientation et de Rehabilitation Sociale (SORS)
Community Visits John Howard Society Visits - Contacts Foyer Notre-Dame St Lawrence Residence Christian Action Group St Hubert (CCC) Greater Wisdom Group St Edouard Residence Challenge Group Contacts River South Group
TOTAL - 27 Programs
VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Bricklaying & Masonry Woodworking Carpentry Men's Hairstyling Auto Body Repair Electricity Electronics Date Processing Auto Mechanics Plumbing & Heating Welding Related Training (Vocational) Sheet Metal Work Horticulture Visits to Industry Course in Farm Machinery Stationary Engineering
129
Master List 1(d)
QUEBEC REGION: TITLE AND NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS
INDUSTàIAL DEVELOPMENT (Cont'd)
Shoe ghop Canvas Work Repair of Metal Objects Packing Upholstery Metal Tubing Bookbinding Tile Work Warehouse Work Brush and Broom Workshop Preparation for Working World
TOTAL - 17 Programs
ENTERTAINMENT
Vacations Films and Programs Cine Club Library Variety Shows Music Record Library Music Class
TOTAL - 7 Programs
COMMUNICATIONS AND MANAGEMENT
Laval Free Press Inmate Committee Living Unit Program La Lueur Halfway House Committee Institution Radio Station Association Recreative et Culturelle
D'Aide aux Detenus (ARCAD) Legal Aid Conwansville Newspaper Le Resident Le Noëud Pilot Project NPS/CPS
TOTAL - 12 Programs
VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (Cont'd)
Painting Pre-Employment (Metal) Pre-Employment (Wood) Pasteurization
TOTAL - 20 Programs
CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
Art Class Library Dance Class Art History Painting Lessons Guitar Lessons Festival 74 Wood Carving Ceramics Handicraft Course Literature Course Educational Lectures
TOTAL - 12 Programs
SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT
Choir Audio-Visual Presentation Religious Services Prayer Meetings Shalom Group Comprehension Group Catechism Lessons Spiritual Dynamic Discussion Group
TOTAL - 8 Programs
OCCUPATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
On-the-job Training (Services) Linen Services Cleaning Services Ground Crews Clerks Maintenance Crews Kitchen Garage Electricians
" 130
Mantmr Lint 1(d)
QUEBEC REGION: TITLE AND NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS
OCCUPATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (Contd)
Plumbers Masonry Carpenters Sheet Metal Welding Painters
TOTAL - 14 Programs
OTHERS
131
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Family Visits Encounter Simsoc Jaycees Leadership in Action Life Skills Youth Speak Visits & Correspondence Temporary Absence Prescription Programming M - 2 Drama Club Salmonier Correctional Camp AA Reception Therapeutic Community Cine-Club Con-Action
TOTAL - 17 Programs
VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Barber & Hairstyling Small Engine Welding Auto Body Oil Burner Plumbers Bricklaying Automobile Repair Carpentry General Shop Forestry Technician Related Training (Vocational)
TOTAL - 11 Programs
ENTERTAINMENT
Chess Club Films Variety Shows Bingo Library
Black Inmate Association Arts & Crafts Ceramic Hobbycraft (Painting) Native Brotherhood
TOTAL - 5 Programs TOTAT - 5 Programs
Master List 1(e)
ATLANTIC REGION: TITLE AND NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
klcoholics Anonymous Group Therapy Behaviour Therapy Phychiatric Services Psychological Services Classification Services Family Visits Encounter Group Concern Greatful Group
TOTAL - 9 Programs
ACADEMIC DEVELOPMENT
University Courses Correspondence Courses Adult upgrading Basic Literacy for Adults Agricultural Field Trips Graduate Equivalency Diploma Tests Basic Training and Skills Development
TOTAL - 7 Programs
INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT
Shoe Shop Upholstery Tailor Shop Machine Shop Canvas Shop Woodworking Metal Fabrication Paint Finishing
TOTAL - 8 Programs
CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
13 2
Master List 1(e)
ATLANTIC REGION: TITLE AND NATURE OF INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS
COMMUNICATIONS AND MANAGEMENT SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT .
Inmate Jehovah Witness Echo Religious Study Group Living Unit Program Religious Services (Protestant Communicator and RC Citizens Advisory Committee Castalia (Yoga)
TOTAL - 5 Programs TOTAL - 4 Programs
OCCUPATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Mason Sheet Metal Dome Cleaners Clerical Work Carpenter Paint Shop Food Services Electrical Boiler Room Forestry Program Farm Training Dairy Herdsman Piggery Herdsman & Abatoir Horticulturist Small Engine Repair Poultry Keeper Mechanics & Welding Pasteurization Plant Operation Cattle Showing Laundry Institutional Services Garage Plumbers Ornamental Labour Gangs Service Plant Hospital Project Golf Course Project
TOTAL - 28 Programs
OTHERS
133
C.
D.
E.
A.
A
Appendix C
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This report could not have been written without the help and co-operation of a
large number of individuals and organisations in Canada, the United t;tates of
America and Sweden, ai] or whom, without exception, went out or their way to help
me understand how their own Service worked and the nature of their own individual
ontribution.
I spoke with many Headquarters, Regions and Establishments, too numerous to name.
I thank them all for their help, interest and friendship and Cor ensuring, often at
great personal inconvenience, that I was taken, sometimes vast distance, to keep
to an over tight schedule.
In this country thanks are due to many colleagues in the Prison Service and
Inspectorate: to my wife Sally and our children for coping with my extended
absences from home, and to Silvia Casale whose advice and practical assistance
in helping me collate and complete this report was invaluable.
ORGANISATIONS AND ESTABLISHMENTS VISITED
United States of America
Federal Bureau of Prisons
National Institute of Corrections, Washington
FM(, ral Bureau of PriL;ons, 'IS Department of justice, Washington
North Central Regional Office, Federal Bureau of' Pri:-,ons, Kansas City, Missol
United States Penitentiary, Leavenworth, Kansas
Federal Correctional Institution, Raybrook, New York State
B. âmerican Correctional Association, Rockville, Marylano
New York State, Department of Correctional Services
Department of Correctional Services, HQ, Albany,New York State
Watertown Correctional Facility, Dry Hill, Watertown
Clinton Correctional Facility, Dannemora, New York State
Albany State Jail and Penitentiary
Oregon State Correctional Institution, Salem, Oregon
Canada
Correctional Service of Canada
Correctional Service of Canada, Headquarters, Ottawa
Kingston Penitentiary, Ontario
Regional Headquarters, Ontario Region, Kingston, Ontario
Regional Headquarters, Pacific Region, Abbotsford, British Columbia
Mission Institute, British Columbia
R. Metrowest Detention Centre, Ontario Correctional Service
135
C. Province of British Columbia, Corrections Branch
Regional Office, Vancouver Region
Inspection and Standards Division
Vancouver Detention Centre
D. Canadian Criminal Justice Association Congress, Vancouver
Sweden
Kriminalvardsanstalten, National Prison and Probation Administration, Norrhoping
Kriminalvardsanstalten Mariefred, Closed National Prison
Kriminalvardsanstalten Osteraker, Closed National Prison
Taby Correctional Institution
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
accreditation evaluative process to which U.S and Canadian prison establishments may voluntarily submit; The Commission on Accreditation for Corrections assesses establishments against the ACA code of standards and certifies establishments which meet the approved levels
activity the planned use of prison time
benchmark a level of performance measurement
correctional facility prison establishment (U.S.A)
dynamic security the approach to safety for the public (preventing escapes) and safety for the prison (internal control) which recognizes that both are only really possible through the relationship between staff and inmates. Dynamic security is knowing what is going on in an establishment in addition to providing a safe and secure background against which the whole range of activity making up the life of a prison takes place
efficiency maximum achievement of aims with the minimum of resources .
executive staff committee equivalent in U.S. of English Prisons Board
kriminalvardsanstalt prison establishment (Sweden)
performance indicator measure of work carried out
relationship effective interaction between individuals (all the combinations of people within the organisation)
138
GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS
ACA American Correctional Association
CI - Circular Instruction (Prison Department)
CJA Criminal Justice Association (Canada)
COAFC Commission on Accreditation for Corrections (USA)
CRC Control Review Committee
CSC Correctional Service of Canada
DRSMU Director of Regimes and Services Management Unit
ESMRs European Standard Minimum Rules
NIC National Institute of Corrections (U.S. Department of Justice)
NIJ National Institute of Justice (U.S. Department of Justice)
RPU Home Office Research and Planning Unit
UNICOR U.S. federal prison industries
140
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EDUCATION FOR WHAT?
Curriculum, Pedagogy and Program Objectives
Stephen Duguid 2nd International Conference on Prison Education
Wadham College, Oxford
September 1989
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The marriage of education with incarceration is fraught with both conflict
and potential. Education perceived as a liberating, empowering force for
individual growth and change inevitably clashes with the more restrictive and
dependency-producing nature of the prison while at the same time giving life
and substance to the prison's mandate to assist with rehabilitation and re-
integration. At the extreme poles of the spectrum we may advocate education
as a right due to all citizens and thus an end in itself or, conversely, education as
an integral part of prison management, administration and mission. Norman
Jepson posed the choic e as follows:
Is the purpose of Education Services' entry (to the prison) simply to
provide a programme akin to that outside the prison -- part of the
normalization of prison -or is it also to cater specifically for the needs
of the prisoner per se and/or to reflect the concern about the future
behaviour of the criminal.
Whichever choice or direction one takes has implications for curriculum and
for program structure. I propose that a case can be made for an approach to
prison education which respects the essence of education being the process of
discovering, acquiring and developing individual skills, abilities and
perspectives while at the same time recognizing that in prison this involves an
appreciation of the special needs of prisoner-students, the special context of the
school-in-prison and the special social/behavioural expectations which society
may impose.
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PART I. The Corrections Problem: Crime and Recidivism
We start on common ground with some basic facts and statistics, a shared
context and a set of problems that are global in their extent. With the continued
spread of modernity and its accompanying urbanization, value relativity,
economic disparities and social dislocations, criminal activity remains a
powerful and possibly growing individual and corporate response to reality .
Crime rates vary with demography and the state of economy and the range of
criminal activities alters with the seasons and the evolution of culture, but on the
whole it is an increasing realiry in our lives, growing in complexity, in violence
and in extent.
We dont apprehend a very large percentage of the people who commit
crimes. but OUT prisons are nonetheless full, and that's a second area of common
ground. We worlc in over-crowded conditions and our students have to live in
those same conditions. As citizens and as taxpayers we are also aware of the
tremendous costs associated with imprisonment: £13,100/year in the United
Kingdom to keep a person in prison. 1 and $34,300 per year in Canada. 2
Finally, we know that for many of our students the gate to the outside is really
just a revolving door. A 1987 study by the U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics
found that 69% of the 11,300 parolees in 22 states were re-arrested for more
than 36,000 new felonies or serious misdemeanors within six years. 3 Other
studies cite very similar rates, with a 50% rate of return being the usual
minimum for any group of parolees.
NAC.R.0 Briefing, The Cost of Penal Measures, May 1988. 2 Canadian Social Trends. Summer 1987. 3 Reported in the Stage, Columbia, South Carolina, 25 May 1987.
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We also know that once arrested and imprisoned, the odds increase
dramatically that re- aimst and re-imprisonment will occur. On the one hand
our police arrest only the small percentage of criminals dumb or unlucky
enough to gct caught and our courts convict and sentence a higher percentage of
those unable to acquire skilled lawyers. The time spent in prison can be
decisive in terrns of character and attitude. On the one hand, a prison stay can
result more in skills acquisition than in lessons learned, the parolee leaving a
potentially more embittered and highly skilled criminal than when he entered.
On the other hand, the prison is structured to create dependency, to 'infantalize'
or take away decision-making and thus to release into society individuals unable
to cope with what for most are the normal pressures of everyday life,
This is the 'Corrections Problem' and at the same time ic is our collective
problem as citizens. How we wish this to relate to our vocation as 'educators',
however, is quite another matter. For good or ill, education, both academic and
vocational, has in the past been linked to the corrections agenda and measured,
evaluated and judged according to their criteria.
PART JL Education, Treatment and Trades Training
There are no simple solutions to the problems of crime, recidivism and
rehabilitation and we should know because we've tried them all at one time or
another. Education, Treatment and Trades Training have all had their day in
the sun and have all come up wanting. Vv'ithin the context of looking at our
objectives it will be useful to see where we have been.
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In the 18th century, an age of enlightenment and belief in progress and
virtue, education was the key to employing reason in order to realize our truely
'good' and beneficent natures. Building on these ideas, 19th century Victorian
moralists could assert confidently that: "...pauperism and crime prevail in
proportion to the absence of education amongst the labouring classes"I When
faced with rising crime rates and improved public education, the argument
turned to advocating specific kinds of education, asserting even that education
without strong moral content will in fact cause crime. In our time the
experience of 20th century civilized totalitarianism has driven home the lesson
that , to quote Christopher Lucas, "However much logic and commonsense
insist on a connection between knowledge and morality, or learning and
character, experience suggests that the tie...may be tenuous at best..There are no
guarantees that precepts will inform action, that sensibility confers civility, or
that wisdom issues from erudition." 2 In prison education there have always
been high hopes that education will bring about decisive changes in attitude,
values, literacy or vocation, but little evidence that education narrowly
conceived can achieve these ends.
Treatment has had an even more disillusioning history, perhaps because
its claims were so much more extravagant. "Reformation through
indiVidualized treatment " and "...treatment services which are • ..directly aimed
at altering the criminals' personalities" was the goal as Donald Cressey
described it in 1960. 3 Professionals were hired by prison systems to diagnose
each inmate's needs, prescribe the treatment and see that it was provided. By
1 Edgerton Ryerson, cited by Harvey Graff in Literacy and Criminality. 2 Christopher Lucas, Liberal Learning and the Humanities, Journal of General Education, v.36:1, 1984 3 Donald Cressey, Limitations on Organization of Treatment in the Modern Prison, Theoretical Studies in
Social Organization of the Prison, Social Science Research Council, 1960.
4
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6
1978, Robert Ross in his review of correctional programs could say, with some
acerbity, that the treatment cra had done little more than "...modify our
language, aid in the documentation of the failure of corrections, engender major
role conflict for criminal justice personnel, and increase the cost of preparing
the offender to recidivate to his correctional home» More recently Ian
Dunbar pointed out in his review of programs in the English prison system that
by relying solely on recidivism reduction as a measure of success, "the
treatment model is an example of how an objective that is not demonstrably
attainable is bound to fall into disrespect." 2 It vvas simply impossible to prove a
linlcage between treatment and post-release behaviour.
The issue of vocational or trades training would seem to be more
straight-forward. Responding to the social science analysis of crime prevalent
in the last twenty years, the criminal is perceived as being victimized by
poverty, racism, and poor education, all this leading to unemployment or
under-employment and hence to crime. 3 Imprisonment becomes an opportunity
to teach a trade and give the individual a new lease on life. Unfortunately,
research indicates that only about 20% ever use their prison training in
subsequent employment. 4
Robert Ross, Behavioral Approaches to Treatment in Corrections: Requiem for a Panacea", Canadian Journal of Criminology, v.20:2, 1978. See also his text, Effective Correctional Treatment, Toronto, Butterworths, 1980. Ian Dunbar, A Sense of Direction, Prison Deparunent, Home Office, 1985 As Jean Harris says in her observations of her fellow prisoners, "Every woman here who did whatever she did,
had a reason for doing it. Sometimes it was irrationid and unplanned, sometimes it was premeditated Whichever was the case, I believe...she was strongly influenced, directly or indirectly, by economic considerations. She may have been hungry or frantic or angry or frustrated or just plain greedy, but money touched the offense in some way. The fact that prisons are, and always have been, filled with the poor instead of the rich is not simply a great cosmic coincidence. Stranger in Two Worlds (New York: Macmillan) 1986.
Earl Schaeffer, A Follow-Up Study of Vocational Education Graduates from the Ohio Central School System during 1979, Proceedings, 39th International Correctional Education Association conference, 1984; Morgan Lewis, Prison Education and Rehabilitation: Illusion or Reality?,
2
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Even more disturbing are reports that employment acquisition is not the
real problem anyway, but rather employment retention and even the will to be
employed at all is the central issue. After reviewing major research studies in
Minnesota, Oklahoma, Michigan and from the National Council on Crime and
Delinquency Research Center, Dennis Anderson notes the following general
conclusions:
1. Attitudes toward the work situation are more important than skills.
2. Training programs in the period prior to release are ineffective.
3. Employment status has little relationship to post-release success.
4. Employers identified absenteeism, alcohol and drugs as the major problems
of ex-offenders as employees - absenteeism being #1. 1
In a similar study, Robert Homant found that in a group of 145 randomly
selected juveniles, 96% were employed at least once within the first year after
release, but at any one time the group had an unemployment rate of 55%. A
third lost their jobs due to "unfavourable dismissals", but the majority left
because they could not get along with boss or co-workers or could not conform
to the work schedule. 2 This may indicate a need for more emphasis on 'life
skills', workshops on 'anger management' and counselling sessions on tolerance,
but it could also be indicative of a deeper 'dispositional' or attitudinal problem
Institute for Research on Human Resources, Pennsylvania State University, 1973: Otto Feinstein, A Humanities-Based Curriculum for Working Adults, Wayne State University, 1979
Dennis Anderson, The relationship between correctional education and parole success, Journal of Offender Counselling, v.5:3-4, 1981. lames Reinhardt comments that. "1 am impressed by the poor employment histories of a very large proportion of prison inmates, but no so much u by the amount of useful craftsmanship these men have thrown away or turned to ignoble ends. Metal fabricators, welders, tailors, cooks, shoe- makers, farmers, repairmen and carpenters abound in prison." Prison Education As An Aid to Therapy, International Journal of Offender Therapy, v.12:3, 1968, p.113.
Robert Homant, Employment of Ex•Offenders: The Role of Prisonization and Self Esteem, Journal of Offender Counselling, Services and Rehabilitation, v.8:3, 1984. See also, Michelle Sviridoff and James Thompson, Links between employment and crime: A qualitative study of Rikers Island releasees, Crime and Delinquency, v.29:2,1983.
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8
which transcends the issue of skill acquisition, is immune to treatment and is too
complex for basic education.
All the usual solutions, tricks and prescriptions, then, have failed to
address the problem in any systematic way. The men, women and young people
we face in our prison classrooms have proven too complex or their problems
too manifest for the usual approaches. Formal education, standard therapy and
counselline, and skills acquisition have been well-received, but have not been
the hoped for decisive intervention in the lives of the individuals caught up in
crime. If, and it is still an open question, we wish to be concerned with
outcomes beyond credits earned, adjustments made or trades mastered, then we
must examine more deeply the nature of our problem, and that examination
starts with our students.
Prisoners are individuals first and foremost, complex in their own right,
a mixture of attitudes, desires, attributes, dispositions, values, skills and powers.
Secondarily, prisoners are part of an authoritarian system or structure which
shapes, represses, punishes and rewards according to its own sense of mission
and purpose and its own bureaucratic imperatives. Thirdly, prisoners are part
of a unique social group, disproportionately coming from racial minorities,
poor and working class backgrounds, with truncated formal education and all
too often chaotic domestic histories. Finally, prisoners are actors, individuals
who in taking action in the world have done something which involved stepping
outside the accepted mies, perhaps even declaring war on society.'
I This was Jean-Jacques Rousseau's notion of the criminal, someone who had 'declared war on society', in the Social Contract.
1
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91
PART III. An Agenda for Prison Education
We have a complex task as prison educators. By combining these two
words we imply more, I would suggest, than merely educators who happen to
teach in prison. The combination is recognition that there is something unique I
about this kind of education, unique in the same sense that 'adult' education is
different from 'primary' or 'post-secondary' education. Our task is to
recognize and identify the particular objectives of prison education and while
pursuing them make very sure they are compatible with the generic values and I
objectives of education per se.
This is far too complex a pictures to investigate fully in one session, bull
would like to suggest some of the educational objectives we might want to
consider in thinking about our students, their backgrounds, needs, deficiencies'
qualities and prospects. These objectives will affect our choice of pedagogy and
curriculum, our selection of staff and our method of program e ■, uluation. Thil
should as well, I will argue, be central to any good education program whethe
in prison, community centre or university.
Such a list of objectives is highly dependent on the assumptions and even*
ideology of the speculator. For me they include the following (1) the role off
choice and decision-making; (2) the issue of self-esteem and confidence; (3)
cognitive abilities and skills; and finally (4) the importance of social
engagement.
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(1) Decision-Making
Behind the education, treatment and vocational models lay a set of more
or less 'grand theories' about why the students/subjects were in jail, assumptions
which we may presume were somewhat in error given the failure of the models .
The search for origins is probably a sterile quest, the thread of causation being
too deeply embedded in individual pasts. John Wideman in his autobiographical
Brothers and Keepers, put it this way after giving up on trying to figure out
why his brother turned out to be a murderer:
l'(_-)u never know exactly when something begins. The more you delve
and backtrack and think, the more it becomes clear that nothing has a
discrete, independent history; people and events take shape not in
order:2.. chronological sequence but in relation to other forces and
events , tangled skeins of necessity and interdependence and chance that
after all could have produced only one result: what is. The
intertwining strands of DNA that determined a creature's genetic
predispositions might serve as a model for this complexity , but the
double helix, bristling with myriad possibilities, is not mysterious
enough. The usual notion of time, of one thing happening first and
opening the way for another and another, becomes useless pretty
quickly when I try to isolate the shape of your life from the rest of us,
when I try to retrace your steps and discover precisely where and
when you started to go bad.
If we cannot figure out where it all began to wrong for our students, we can at
least speculate a little more intelligently in the area of 'process'; how they lived
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their lives and what kinds of factors -- both internal and external -- reinf .1/4:el
ii their apparent predisposition to engage in persistent criminal activity or even t
commit, their one grand criminal act which led to incarceration.
As we in the West move ever forward into a more entreprcnurial
political culture we move steadily away from the 'victimization' approach to tle
criminal. 'Choice', 'will', 'decision-making' are all more popular expl anations
of how humans move through society than they were a few years ago. A hull
while ago the President of the United States asserted that the poor and homeless
in his country may have chosen that life (one hesitates to say lifestyle) and the'
silent assent spoke volumes about the popular mood.
In the world of thinking about crime and criminals the most convincinl
proponent of a decision-making approach is Robert Ross;
1 suggest that, like most people, the offender has some role in
determining his own destiny. His environment may drastically restrict I
the number of choices he has but, with rare exception, it does not le
prohibit him from choosing not to engage in criminal behavior. We t suggest that most offenders are responsible for their behavior and char
they choose to commit criminal acts."
This perspective can have a povverful impact on how we approach education in
prison. For instance, it contains a central focus on individual responsibility Or
actions which in turn involves a notion of citizenship. Prisoners in North
1 Robert Ross, Time To Think, p.157.
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1 2
America are, for instance, well versed in claiming their rights as citizens, but
have, I would argue, a weakly developed concept of the responsibility that must
go hand-in-hand with rights . This might have implications for curriculum and
for pedagogy as well as for the way in which we administer our schools in
prisons. If, as Ross argues, we are to focus on the realm of choice, then as
educators we have a clear mandate to strive for making those choices informed
choices. Thus within this paradigm or approach to understanding the criminal,
education has a major role. Finally, we must recognize along with Ross that to
argue for choice is not to argue for free will, that in fact the biographies of the
individuals we work with have severely constrained the range of choices open to
them in any given situation. After giving our students the intellectual skills and
abilities to make different choices. the task remains -- and it is our task as well -
to help them broaden that range of possible choice.
Finally, before leaving this issue I must raise a cautionary note. The act
of choosing may not be as powerful a guide to action as Ross and others
perceive it to be. In examining our own histories and dwelling on a shameful
or guilty moment, we may agree with Iris Murdoch that:
...human wickedness is sometimes the product of a sort of conscious
leeringly evil intent...But more usually it is the product of a ,serni-
deliberate inattention, a sort of swooning relationship to tinze...We
ignore what we are doing until it is too late to alter it. We nevul allow
ourselves quite to focus upon moments of decision; and these are often
in fact hard to find even if we are searching for them. We allow the
vague pleasure-seeking annoyance-avoiding tide of our being to hurry
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us onward until the moment when we announce that we can do no
other. 1
Now, wc all know the truth of this slippery slope. For most of us, however,
these are occasional lapses, momentary wanderings from an otherwise more
conscious and deliberative approach to life. It may be that such inattention to
self-awareness becomes a norrn for some of our students, resulting in that
annoying shrug of the shoulders when asked to explain the cause for an ill-
advised action. The predicaments our students find themselves in are often
calamitous or even hopeless, leading them to fatalistic conclusions about their
ability to steer a different course. A focus on the role of choice and decision-
making, may go some way toward righting the balance.
(2) Self-Este2rn
Many prison programs, including education programs, start from the
assumption that prisoners lack self-esteem, a condition stemming from their
failure as criminals, and perhaps from a series of failures in school, family and
employment. Jean Harris, the boarding school headmistress imprisoned for
shooting lier fickle lover, singled out the absence of self-love in the women she
lived among as "...probably their outstanding quality and their first tragedy."2
There is, of course, the opposite situation of the criminal/prisoner quite satisfied
with his or her role and filled with self-esteem in contemplation of' the status a
I Iris Murdoch, The Black Prince, p.189. 2 Jean Harris. Stranger in Two Worlds, (New York: Macmillan), 1986. $ he cites a classroom experience
in which the students read lbsen's A Doll's House: "...no amount of explaining would convince them that Nora wasn't some kind of a nut to walk away from all that good stuff her husband had provided for her. So what if he called her 'My little sparrow' and treated her like a brainless child, and put his Oven interests first? He didn't get drunk, or womanize, or smack her across the room. No one in her right mind would walk away from all that. 'He could call me any fuckin thing he want to as long as he payin the bills. —
p.230
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prison sentence may impart. Jean Genet's autobiographical wanderings in the
French underworld is full of such cases, such as the young boy who described
with "haughty elegance" his 15 year sentence which was, as Genet says,
"...enabling him to be what everything within him was tending toward: a tough
among other toughs."'
Whether absent or misplaced, self-image, self-esteem and self-love are
important arcas to address in working with prisoners. They are elusive notions
and while influenced of course by one's position in the world, they are in reality
entirely subjective. This was brought home to me in a letter from one of my
ex-prisoner students. A brilliant poet and writer, a gifted Jailhouse lawyer' and
natural teacher/counsellor, Frank left prison with high hopes despite a lifetime
having bee.n spent in a series of incarcerations. He was working as a day
labourer on construction sites and wrote me the following:
...I've been out some 21 months but l've been on welfare for most of it,
and though presently working, I'm not utilizing directly the equipment
you gave me....I don't know if I am beast or fowl, success or failure.
Did the university experience bring a change in attitude? New
confidence? I can't tell. Certainly it gave me the inner knowledge that
I can do some things w. ell, and no faking it -- for instance, I could be a
teacher, and a goddam good one, and maybe I will some da-v."
I Jean Genet, Miracle of the Rose, p. 193. "And though he must have known , for fifteen years and afterward, those islets of regret for what you call a wasted youth, this in no way negates his at.:t ut his
desire. On the contrary. His longing to be a big shot was great enough for him to sacrifice his youth and life for it."
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Self-esteem is an inner quality, held solely by the self and only superficially
dependent on the material circumstances of one's life. As educators we need to
remember this lest we fall into the trap of thinking we must transform all
aspects of our students' lives in order to have an impact on their notions of who
they are.
(3) 'Thinking: Cognitive Abilities
Problem-solving, linking cause with effect, malcing analogies between two
or more objects or events, considering future consequences in making
judgments, appreciating the complex nature of phenomena, being reflective
rather than impulsive and being able to employ empathy in social situations are
all examples of cognitive abilities. Many prisoners have weaknesses or
deficiencies in some or all of these areas and it is argued by a growing body of
researchers that this may have a crucial impact on the possibilities for
rehabilitation or change. The Correctional Service of Canada has shown
considerable interest in this topic, adopting in the past year a national program
in cognitive skills training which is focussed on "...modifying the impulsive,
egocentric, illogical, and rigid thinking of the offenders and on teaching them to
stop and think before acting, to consider the consequences of their behaviour, to
conceptualize alternative ways of responding to interpersonal problems and to
conSider the impact of their behaviour on other people. "
1 Robert Ross and Elizabeth Fabiano, Correctional Service of Canada. Cognitive Skills Program, 1937. The component parts of the program include: Structured Learning Therapy (to teach social skilLs); lateral thinking (to teach creative problem-solving); critical thinking; values education; assertiveness training; negotiation skills training; interpersonal cognitive problem-solving; role pjaying; modelling ; and soc i al perspective taking.
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Of all the skills and abilities associated with this area of cognitive
development, the issue of empathy, of being able to put oneself in another's
position, is the most difficult and in many ways the most important. Addressing
the problems raised earlier around the job retention issue and the importance of
making informed choices hinges on the development of empathy. Putting
oneself in the place of another and using that perspective to evaluate actions is a
very sophisticated skill and no one has described it more acutely than Adam
Smith more than 200 years ago in his Theory of Moral Sentiments. His
words bear repeating:
"As we have no immediate experience of what other men feel, we can
form no idea of the manner in which they are affected ., but by
conceiving what we ourselves should feel in the like situation. Though
our brother is upon the rack, as long as we ourselves are at our ease,
our senses will never inform us of what he suffers. They never did, and
never can, carry us beyond our own person, and it is by the imagination
only that we can form any conception of what are his sensations.
Neither can that faculty help us to this any other way, than by
representing to us what would be our own, if we were in his case. It is
the impressions of our own senses only, not those of his, which our
imaginations copy. By the imagination we place ourselves in his
situation, we conceive ourselves enduring all the same torments, we
enter as it were into his body, and become in some rrzeasure the same
person with him, and thence form some idea of his sensations, and even
feel something which, though weaker in degree, is not altogether unlike
them. His agonies, when they are thus brought home to ourselves, when
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we have thus adopted and made them our own, begin at last to affect us,
and we then tremble and shudder at the thought of what he feels." I
Not only do enhanced sensibilities in the area of empathy allow for greater
understanding and appreciation of fellow humans (or fellow species), these
sensibilities may also act as an essential check or brake on behaviour. Since our
students so often engage in behaviours which involve potential harm to others,
development of empathy should be a major educational objective.
(4) Social Engagement
Criminals are outlaws in the sense that they spend a significant portion of
their social lives outside the world of formally sanctioned structures. They may
lead a double life, but more commonly they exist outside or on the fringe,
underground or incarcerated. For the prisoner, the isolation or 'apartness' is
even more extreme, his stake in the values and systems of the society even more
tenuous. In an ironic sense, they are freer than the rest of us in that we are
imprisoned in a web of responsibilities, commitments, beliefs and sentiments
which serve to constrain us, to limit the range of possible behaviours. 2
Research into successful 'exiting' from criminal careers indicates clearly that
the "...establishment of a bond to the conventional world" is a key factor. 3 Such
bonds include friends, lOved ones and employment and can be decisive in
enabling the ex-offender to break with past associates and past patterns.
1 Cited in David Marshall, The Surprising Effects of Sympathy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), p,4
2 Elliott Leyton, Hunting Humans: The Rise of the Modern Multiple Murderer, (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart. 1986)
3 Thomas Meisenhelder, An Exploratory study of Exiting from Criminal Careers, Criminology, v.15:3, 1977.
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The most powerful explanation I have seen of the central role of social
engagement by the ex-offender is the following excerpt frotn a newspaper
interview with John McVicar:
...the part of me that now I value most - my identity - is
irreconcilable with being the type of criminal that I was. The change
was largely the unintended consequence of following a degree course; I
didn't plan it and it certainly wasn't anything like what we normally
associate with a conversion. I decided to tak,e a degree because it seemed
to me about the best of my options to offset the corrosive effects of long-
term imprisonment . What wrought my change was not any effort to
reform but the process of implementing my decision. Similarly, I
cannot claim any moral victory if I never return to crime, since
nowadays it is not so much that I find crime repugnant as that I am more
interested in other things.)
It is in this realm of engagement or re-engagement with society, with the
gathering of commitments and allegiances which imply, perhaps even
necessitate, a new kind of life and a new set of behaviours that education can
make its most powerful impact in the prison. As educators we represent a
World apart from the justice system, the criminal subculture and the world or
corrections. In many cases we actually represent other institutions or other
kinds of jurisdictions. We can offer the prisoner-student an alternative identity
complete with career goals, potential social networks, new languages and
rituals, and new values.
I Times Higher Education Supplement, 22 September 1978.
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We can assist this process immeasurably by bringing as much of the
school, college of university into the prison as we can, including standards.
curriculum and systems of governance. Indeed such an importation of school
into prison should perhaps be a prerequisite of prison education programming.
CONCLUSION
In each of the four areas touched upon, education can and should make a
major contribution, but not through twisting itself into a pretzel by trying to
become correctional, or rehabilitative, or obsessed with behavioural outcomes.
The contribution comes instead by insisting on quality, by being sensitive to
context, by accepting a link with individual development and by a focus on
empowerment and engagement.
One of our instructors in the Simon Fraser University program has
summarized the choices as follows:
The goal of the university program is education. However the
meaning of the educational process within a prison is highly complex.
It haS implications for the personal development of prisoners, as is the
• case on a regular campus with students who become engaged with
education, but in the case of prisoners the result can be quite dramatic
lifestylelsocial class changes compared to earlier experience. Thus we
arrive at another implicit program goal: major life changes in students.
lt is because such life changes are so important that some of us would
like to address them in a direct manner, in effect making such change .
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the primary goal of the program, with education a secondary goal. This
conceptual reversal, however, cannot work in practice - education is
seductive, socialization therapy is not.
W ithin the parameters of these two goals there are two potential
errors: the error of academic degeneration and the error of academic
insularity. The goals of the program could be thwarted by sacrificing
academic quality, such that the prisoners dismiss the program as another
social therapy exercise, or the program and faculty could remain aloof
from the social reality of prison and prisoner and fail to provide
sufficient support for the development of a cohesive, identifiable
scholastic community of prisoners.]
I Wayne Knights, The Scholarly Community within Federal P risons in the Pacific Region, unpub. mss.
Curriculum Issues for the Incarcerated
Handicapped Learner
BY
Carolyn R. Eggleston, Ph.D.
State University of New York
New Paltz, New York
U.S.A.
Second International Conference
on Prison Education
Wadham College, Oxford University
September, 1989
Curriculum Issues for the Incarcerated Handicapped Learner
Carolyn R. Eggleston, Ph.D.
International Prison Education Conference
Experienced advocates of the interests of
institutionalized (i.e., delinquent) children
are relatively unwelcome in a law and order
society. Pleading the cause of the sixteen year
old murderer, purse snatcher, multiple burglar,
or just plain 'incorrigible' is a lonely pasttime
not particularly conducive to increased popularity.
Presently, the rush to pour public resources into
quality treatment for institutionalized children
has been more like a saunter, and in some
instances, a dead stop. A few states have shifted
into reverse (Kennan & Hammond, 1979, p. 373).
The purpose of this paper is to investigate curricular
issues and options for the educationally handicapped offender.
Progress in curriculum development for this group has been slow
and sporatic. The paper will trace the historical development
of educational programs for the handicapped offender and suggest
some alternatives for modern service delivery.
2
The educationally handicapped offender is an inmate of a
juvenile or adult prison system who experiences particular
learning problems, is identified as mentally or physically
impaired, has serious emotional problems, has disordered speech,
or other problems which inhibit his/her ability to learn.
Hallahan and Kaufman (1986), in referring to public school
educationally handicapped students, advocate specially designed
programming in order to meet their particular learning needs
(P. 5).
British authors Ford, Mongon, and Whelan (1982) suggested
that many of the problems in educating the emotionally disturbed
and maladjusted lie in the programs and not with the students.
They proposed that the bias against these students and the need
for society to control the unacceptable populations has more to
do with the profession than students. The effort to control and
reform deviant groups through education led to the development of
programs for the educationally handicapped (pp. 12-14). Becker
(1973) reinforced this perspective when he stated that society
decides what is deviant, "[T]he deviant is one to whom that label
has successfully been applied: deviant behavior is behavior that
people so label" (in Kittrie, p. 1).
Whether it is accepted that educationally handicapped
students exist because they are truly present in the society or
have been "created" largely by social control and bias, most
3
experts agree that percentages of educationally handicapping
conditions among the incarcerated are higher than in the general
population. Estimates of this number range from 0% to 100% of
the population. Rutherford, Nelson, and Wolford (1985), in a
nationwide American study found that approximately 28% of the
juvenile population was educationally handicapped (p. 62). They
further found that the estimated percentage of educationally
handicapped offenders in adult corrections was 10% (p. 63). The
study discovered a wide discrepancy between service delivery in
juvenile facilities compared to adult corrections. In another
national study in the United States, Eggleston (1984) found that
between 35% and 42% of the juvenile and adult correctional
population was considered educationally handicapped (p. 13). In
both the Rutherford and Eggleston studies service delivery levels
did not positively reflect the percentages in the population.
Keilitz (1984) claimed that educational services to the
handicapped in correctional facilities is significantly
deficient. He stated, "The education of handicapped juvenile
offenders is an issue that lies on the boundary between special
education, regular education, and juvenile justice and often is
neglected by professionals in all three fields" (p. 2).
Correctional/special education has been slow in developing,
falling behind even the development of "regular" correctional
education.
4
This has been true historically. Prison development in the
United States began with the opening of the Walnut Street Jail in
Philadelphia (Wallack, 1939, p. 9). It is credited with being
the first genuine American prison. The Jail was established in
1773 and became a state prison in 1790.
Correctional education programs began in the early
penitentiaries, initially as "Sabbath Schools." Sabbath schools
were started by community churchmen to teach inmates to read the
Bible in order to develop a religious conscience and become
penitent. The emphasis was on literacy and basic skill
development to achieve these ends. Criminal justice historian
Roberts (1973) cited the year 1801 as the beginning of
correctional education in New York State (p. 4). Although still
considered in the context of Sabbath schools, early correctional
education was elementary in nature and was taught to "meritorious
inmates" by inmate instructors during the winter season. Some
prisons provided Bibles for inmate reading, but in most
institutions reading of any kind was considered a special earned
reward. -
Some Sabbath schools offered instruction on weekends,
evenings, and in the winter. They were structured in this
fashion to avoid interruption of institutional work schedules.
Education was initiated in an effort to "save" or "redeem"
inmates. Generally it took the form of one chaplain working with
5
particularly interested inmates.
Education concentrated on reading the Bible on the
assumption that being able to read it would help inmates see the
error of their ways and teach them to lead lawful Christian lives
(Magill, 1810, p. 60). In this way, prison chaplains believed
they truly fulfilled the stated purpose of the penitentiary, a
place where a person could go to think about what he had done and
be repentant. This idea did not endure, and penitentiary quickly
became a warehouse where problems were kept away from public view
(Roberts, 1971, p. 6). There is no evidence to suggest that
attention was given to the low level inmate or one with
particular learning problems.
Zebulon Brockway, when he opened Elmira Reformatory in 1876
initiated the first genuine correctional/special education
program in an American prison. Brockway's great talent as a
corrections manager was his ability to attract innovative
professionals to Elmira Reformatory interested in experimenting
with eduàation and training. In 1883, Elmira Reformatory began a
series of special experiments which addressed the particular
problems of the low level inmate. In truth, these experiments
were initiated because of frustration over management problems,
but the programs addressed a number of issues relevant to
educationally handicapped offenders. The curriculum content drew
on public school efforts and mainstream special education
6
programs, particularly the work of Edouard Seguin (Talbot, 1964,
pp. 34-35, 64).
The first Elmira experiment focused on a group of "dullards"
at the facility, and taught industrial arts activities (State of
New York, 1884, Senate Document #15, pp. 55-56). The program was
designed as a reform tool, using education as the vehicle.
Education was defined as more than rote memorization, "by
education is here meant, not so much the acquisition of
knowledge, as the disciplining of the mind to a healthy activity"
(p. 56). This experiment, and its success, set the tone for more
programs of its type.
Other programs through the 1880s concentrated on special
diets, including increased green vegtables, and milk, and less
meat protein; massage; multimodal instruction; physical training;
specially fitting clothing; and steam baths (State of New York,
1887, Senate Doc. #18, pp. 60-65; Winter, 1891, p. 134; Brockway,
1912/1968, pp. 243-246). Significant success was noted during
these experiments, with inmate students showing weight gain,
growth, reduction in medical problems, and improvement in
academic abilities. The programs were discontinued when Brockway
came under fire for management irregularites and was forced to
resign. The experiments were not continued after his tenure.
7
One of the most interesting facets of the Elmira Reformatory
program was the development of comprehensive curricula for the
high level, average, and low level student. The curriculum was
extensive in scope, and had many similarities with public school
curriculum of the same era. Although the Elmira Reformatory
educational program early established itself as being different
from public school counterparts, it was similar in several
significant ways. Brockway made use of local public school and
college professionals when the program was developed. The higher
level student at Elmira Reformatory studied ethics, political
economy, and psychology, much as a public school high school
student (State of New York, 1899, Assembly Doc. #8, pp. 56-58).
Academic efforts for the low level student centered on basic
skill development, using multimodal instruction, clay modeling,
and real life example (Brockway, 1912/1968,
pp. 243-246). After the Elmira experiments were discontinued,
there was little effort in American correctional/special
education. Except for a brief period in the 1930s, the field
went unrecognized.
The modern emphasis on correctional/special education in the
United States is due in large part to the Federal legislation
passed in 1975, P.L. 94-142, and increased correctional education
programs. This legislation, which includes the incarcerated as
one of the groups identified for attention, addressed the serious
lack of services available for the population. For the first
8
time, a critical investigation of service levels was initiated.
A serious look at appropriate education for the incarcerated
handicapped was again undertaken.
Curricular issues for the incarcerated handicapped are made
even more complex due to the population and the setting.
Curriculum must be developed that is relevant to the older
adolescent and adult student who has not experienced success
through the regular channels of education. Reworking the same
public school curriculum is not appropriate. In addition to this
constraint, the institutional placement makes the problems more
difficult. People are not incarcerated because they cannot read,
and reading may not be the most important concern in their lives.
The educationally handicapped offender, often with social
perception deficits, may lack the skills to manage his/her way
successfully through the institution, and is prone to
victimization and aggression. These factors, although they
cannot be used as an excuse to prevent educational attempts, must
be considered by the teacher when developing and implementing
curriculum for the educationally handicapped.
Curriculum, as described by Thomas, Sands, and Brubaker
(1968), includes "all of the learning goals, experiences,
teaching materials, and evaluation techniques which educators
plan and/or use (p. 6). This is a useful description, and
reminds the educator that curriculum is relevant to all
9
educational endeavors. It includes much more than materials
selection. Curriculum content for the educationally handicapped
offender should parallel the content of the "regular"
correctional student to the extent possible. The purpose of the
curriculum is to enhance learning, and if the student can learn
using the class curriculum, every effort should be made to make
the educationally handicapped student part of the regular
program. The best curriculum for the educationally handicapped
is closest to the regular as possible. For those students who
cannot manage their ways, through the regular course curriculum,
specific considerations should be addressed.
Sugai (1985) in the Correctional/Special Education Training
Project, distinqushed between curriculum and instruction (p. 13).
He considered strategies and techniques to be instruction, and
curriculum as that which is taught to students. Sugai emphasized
assessment of current skill levels and background to determine
exactly where the instructional program should start (p. 14). He
also considered the curriculum to be centered on being functional
and useful to the student (pp. 19-22). This functional
curriculum should also be adapted to the deficits of the
individual student.
Fredericks and Evans (1987) also stressed a functional
curriculum for correctional/special education students. They
suggested that a functional curriculum is also useful for the
10
incarcerated student who is not educationally handicapped
(p. 189). Fredericks and Evans do not suggest that the
functional curriculum replace all academic subject areas,
however, particularly because this may lead to conflicts with
graduation requirements. The focus, they suggested, should be on
three areas of functional instruction: independent living
skills, social skills, and vocational skills (p. 193).
An exciting new curriculum dealing with the social skills
area has been developed by Goldstein (1988). The program was
developed from his earlier work on skill training called
Structured Learning. The Prepare Curriculum establishes a series
of competencies which can be used to teach a number of prosocial
behaviors. For example, Goldstein defined the area of problem
solving ability as "a stepwise sequence of problem definition,
identification of alternative solutions, choice of one solution
as probably optimal, implementation of this chosen resolution,
and evaluation of the solution's effectiveness" (p. 11). The
Prepare Curriculum uses such steps to teach prosocial behaviors
like anger control, moral reasoning, and empathy.
These examples of correctional/special education curricula
are a few illustrations of curriculum material available to the
teacher of the incarcerated handicapped. Most rely heavily on
the mainstream special education literature and curricula. This
reliance is perhaps understandable, as training of special
11
education teachers centers on public school education.
Unquestionably functional skills such as filling out job
application forms, anger control, and getting along with ones'
co-workers are important for the educationally handicapped, as
they are for all older learners. Educationally handicapped
students often possess a number of deficits, and are attending
what may be their final formal educational involvement. The
teacher may experience a great deal of frustration simply trying
to select from the world of deficits and needs.
There is a problem, however, in focusing too rigidly on the
functional skills, and on the deficits the students exhibit. The
incarcerated handicapped student is an older student,
particularly in adult facilities, and has had life experiences
beyond his/her public school counterpart. The experiences may
not be ones that professionals find acceptable, but they
contribute to what the student brings to the classroom
environment. These experiences must be considered. At the very
least the student should have a part in planning the educational
process. • It is amazing what some students already know--
perhaps learned from illegal activity, but often relevant to
academic skill instruction.
Of particular concern is the core of the functional
curriculum, in which practical skills are stressed. This
prevents the educationally handicapped student from getting an
12
introduction to any form of liberal arts. The low level student
cannot be given Shakespeare to read, but adapting programs by
reading to the students, or selecting issues for discussion can
be implemented. A curriculum like the one Duguid (1987)
developed for humanities instruction is an excellent place to
begin. His Readings in Critical Thought and Cultural Literacy is
a humanities core curriculum designed to teach knowledge,
judgement, and choice to the incarcerated through a study of the
Great Works. The reading level is often too high for the
educationally handicapped student, but the content is relevant,
and can be adapted by the teacher. The topics are of interest to
all student levels. Duguid uses the core curriculum to
facilitate discussion about moral and ethical issues, and
provides an environment in which students can evaluate their own
attitudes and values. Utilizing the great literature exposes
the student to the best that has been written, and allows the
teacher to avoid preaching or moralizing about what is "right"
and "wrong." In this way attitude change can be encouraged as
needed without defensiveness by the student. Humanities
instruction in correctional facilities, where available at all,
has centered on the postsecondary student. Humanities
instruction with students considered educationally handicapped
may be difficult to implement and even more difficult to "sell"
to administrators, but it is a vital portion of the curriculum
and long ignored.
13
References
Becker, K. (1973). in Kittrie, N. The Right to be different: deviance and enforced therapy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins.
Brockway, Z. (1968). Fifty years in prison service: an autobiography. Montclair, NJ: Patterson Smith. (original work published in 1912).
Duguid, S. (1987). Readings in critical thought and cultural literacy. Ottawa: Correctional services of Canada, reprinted by the Institute for the Humanities, Simon Fraiser Univ.
Eggleston, C. (1984). "Results of a national correctional/special education survey." Arlington, VA: Correctional/Special Education Training Project.
Ford, J., Mongon, D., & Whelan, M. (1982). Special education ane. social control: invisible disasters. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Goldstein, A. (1988). The Prepare curriculum. Champaign, IL: Research Press.
Hallahan, D. & Kauffman, J. (1986). Exceptional children. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Third Ed.
Keenan, P. & Hammond, C. (1979). "The Institutionalized child's claim to special education: a federal codification of the right to treatment." Univ. of Detroit Journal of Urban Law. 56/2, 337-404.
Keilitz, I. (1984). "The Handicapped youthful offender: prevalence and current practices." Arlington, VA: Correctional/Special Education Training Project.
Magill, S. (1810). Remarks on prisons. Glasgow:Hedderwick.
Nelson, C., Rutherford, R., & Wolford, B. (1987). Special education in the criminal justice system. Columbus, OH: Merrill.
Roberts, A. (ED) (1973). Readings in prison education. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
Roberts, A. (1971). Sourcebook on prison education: past, present, & future. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
14
Rutherford, R., Nelson, C., & Wolford, B. (1985). "Special education in the most restrictive environment: correctional/special education." Journal of Special Education, 19/1, 59-71.
State of NY. (1884). Senate Document #15. Annual Report of the board of managers for NY state reformatory. Albany: Weed, Parsons. Jan. 11, 1884. Vol. 2.
State of NY. (1887). Senate Document #18. Tenth annual report of the board of managers of the NY state reformatory at Elmira for the year ending Sept. 30, 1886. Albany: Argus Co. Jan. 12, 1887, vol. 2.
State of NY. (1899). Assembly Doc. #8. Twenty-third yearbook of the NY state reformatory at Elmira for the fiscal year ending Sept. 30, 1898. Albany: Wynkoop, Hallenbeck, Crawford. Jan. 11, 1899. Vol. 2.
Sugai, G. (1985). "Curriculum for exceptional individuals." Teacher training module, C/SET Project.
Talbot, M. (1964). Edouard Seguin: a study of an educational approach to the treatment of mentally defective children. NY: Teachers College, Columbia.
Thomas, R, Sands, L. & Brubaker, D. (1968). Strategies for curriculum change: cases from 13 nations. Scranton, PA: International Textbook.
Wallack, W. (ED). (1939). Correctional education today. NY: American Prison Association.
Winter, A. (1891). The New York state reformatory at Elmira. London: Swan, Sonnesschein, & Co.
Prison Education in Hong Kong
A Brief Historical Perspective
by
T.G. Garner, C.B.E., F.B.I.M.*
Introduction
Shortly after a British Naval Party under the command of
Captain Charles Elliot took formal possession of Hong Kong Island (then
known as Victoria) one of the first two buildings to be constructed of
durable material was a prison, which at the time became known as Victoria
Gaol.
The first person appointed to be in charge of the gaol also
held the post of Chief Magistrate1
. In 1857 the post of Governor of
the gaol was created. This was followed in 1863 with a change of title
to Superintendent. I presume at the time someone realised that the
creation of the post of Governor of Hong Kong would obviously give rise
to some derogatory comment if the same title was used for the head of a
gaol. As it was, the first person to hold the position of Superintendent,
a Francis Douglas, apparently initiated some reforms in the gaol which
later was often referred to as the "Douglas Hotel". In 1906 the title
was again changed to Superintendent of Prison. The post of Commissioner
of Prisons was created in 1938. The most recent change occurred in 1882
when this title was changed to Commissioner of Correctional Services.
Until 1922 funding for the Police and the Prison appeared under the same
heading in the annual estimates. The separation of these two services
occurred presumably in the same year.
* Commissioner of Correctional Services, Hong Kong, 1972 to 1985 having joined the Service in 1947. Presently a Consultant in Correctional Administration, he is also the Founder/Editor of "The 1(5F", a newsletter for Commonwealth Correctional Administrators.
Having bored you with all that trivia I would like to go on to
2 -
say that in my view education in prisons is essential, more essential
perhaps than soMe prison administrators tend to realise. The same can
be said for some governments and their respective legislators along with
others who have the responsibility to see that a prison service has the
necessary resources to do the job expected of it. I refer of course to
the carrying out in penal institutions of programmes based on humanitarian
principles and justice, sadly even today such is not the case in all
countries around the world.
Conversely I am also aware that there are a number of countries
which, although they have the will, simply cannot afford the financial
commitment to do all that their prison administrators and others would
like to do. This places serious obstacles in the way of those who strive
to achieve improved standards and programmes with virtually nothing in
the way of funds to assist them.
There are occasions when some prison administrators find it
embarrassing to attend international conferences or engage in meaningful
discussion on prison matters without the thought of being at the very
least a poor cousin. They are at a distinct disadvantage during discussions
with their counterparts from countries which have the required funding,at
least—in part if not in full, to carry out what to them amounts to advanced
programming. Having once been in this position I speak from experience,
fortunately I was able at a later stage to obtain the necessary support to
do something about it.
Having had this experience I cannot help but be sympathetic to
those who find themselves in a similar predicament. Apart from deserving
a fair measure of understanding, they should always find encouragement for
their endeavours. We should try when possible to offer some form of
assistance. I hope, therefore, that all present here can at some stage
spare a thought to ways and means of helping those who through no fault
of their own do not have the resources available. I am not referring to
funding but to ideas and practical suggestions for ways in which a
programme of education can be initiated or improved at minimum cost.
In a book "Prisoners are People" 2 written by Kenyon J. Scudder
the founder of the first minimum security prison in the United States, reference
is made to the need to provide regular courses of instruction in prisons
from the first grade through to high school. He based this need on the
fact that some nine per cent of men in prison at the time, had never
learned to read or write and most of the others had dropped out of school
early. Today we could say, so what, it is an old story. Old indeed and
precisely my point for he was referring in his book to the years 1940/41
a time almost 50 years ago. Sadly the academic standards of men and women
on admission to prison today is not much better. The book I referred to
shortly after it was published, was made into a film. The actor Chester
Morris played the part of Kenyon Scudder and it was for this film that the
very familiar tune "Unchained Melody" was composed.
Education in prisons should have a much wider meaning than the
accepted norm. Once you have taken care of the requirement for safe
custody (which in any case only affects a small minority), I consider it
to be the foundation for a good correctional service. It provides the
basis for attracting men and women of the right calibre with good
qualifications and a good standard of academic achievement.
Education should encompass not only the classical teacher/student
classroom setting but also extend from recognizable norms of acceptable
behaviour through to personal hygiene and the rights of others. Vocational
and industrial training or re—training must be included along with attainment
Such a wide definition embracing so many factors requires
a deep sense of commitment on the part of all members of the staff.
This sense of commitment should be clearly demonstrated particularly by
front line staff including of course teachers and instructors.
3 I believe that this view is shared by Dr. Lucien Morin who
delivered a paper on An Educational Prison "Model" a Canadiàn Perspective
in July 1984 at Wiston House. I contend that a good prison programme,
irrespective of what it is called, must enable each and every prisoner,
irrespective of his offence, to be able to serve his sentence without
interference of any kind from fellow prisoners. This is no different to
what we expect from others as we get on with our daily lives.
I suspect that it is possible that Dr. Morin and I may disagree
on the extent to which discipline within a prison community must be
maintained, and how it should be applied.
The Hong Kong Situation
In Hong Kong the concept of education for adult prisoners is
relatively new. To be practical I should mention that the concept of
rehabilitation of offenders, or as I put it the correctional approach is
even more recent. A rather strange situation considering that a number
of countries have now adopted the "Just Deserts" model.
However, I am inclined to believe that the previous correctional
approach in some of the countries which have adopted the "Just Deserts"
model was never really implemented for a change of name alone (for instance,
Prison or Penitentiary Service to Correctional Service) does not bring about
a change in thinking or programmes, thus no practical benefits were realised.
To highlight the change which occurred in Hong Kong I should
mention that it was achieved against much opposition. It took time,
many years in fact to convince the Government, legislators and the media
that it was a progressive step designed to bring about improvements in
the service. This was of importance particularly in the area of staff
recruitment, finally it was accomplished in 1982. Although it still has
its skeptics, nevertheless, it now receives wide support. Another
important change it brought, was that it became easier to justify applications
for funds to improve such programmes as education and vocational training.
Now to get back to my comment regarding the concept of prison
education for adult prisoners in Hong Kong being relatively recent.
The Prisons Ordinance of 1899 and the regulations which stemmed
from it made only a passing reference to what is termed "books of
instruction"; t'nis was in relation to the library and library books and
only applied to male juvenile offenders under the age of 16. In those
days such offenders, although not many, were housed in the same institution
as adults. The regulations did provide a reference to juveniles being kept
apart from anyone over 16 years of age but I doubt that this was ever fully
realised.
The Ordinance . also contained a reference to employment and
instruction in a trade which could be useful on release. There was however
another rule, this stated that every juvenile offender sentenced to hard
labour would be made to work at such industrial labour as the Superintendent
with the agreement of the medical officer may direct. A contradiction of
aims to say the least.
These rules and subsequent amendments were replaced in May of
1925. The new rules included a provision for schoolmasters, whom it was
-6
I
stated should attend at such times as the Superintendent may direct.
The revised section for juvenile offenders contained much the same
provisions as the previous rules in respect of age and book of instruction.
In the late 1930's a juvenile remand home under the control of
the Police opened. This was intended to function in a dual role combining
the functions of a Remand Home and an Approved School. Although well
intentioned it did not prove successful and it was subsequently handed
over to the Prison Service in 1941.
After liberation the Juvenile Remand Home was found to be
completely gutted and as it was never suitable as a place of detention
for very young offenders it was decided not to rebuild it. Boys of
reformatory age were housed in a separate block in a prison as a temporary
measure. In December 1946 some former food storage huts were acquired
and boys aged 3 to 16 (raised to 17 the following year) were moved into
what was then referred to as a Reformatory. (A point of interest is that
this particular institution was housed in buildings which prior to World
War II had been constructed as temporary godowns. Temporary or not the
same buildings stand today and are used as a minimum security institution
for prisoners serving very short sentences all of whom may be employed
outside of the institution on working parties carrying out a variety of
tasks: They also house a section for geriatrics. In effect it is the
closest we have in Hong Kong to an "Open Institution".)
In February of 1953 the boys in the Reformatory were transferred
to a new Boys' Home under the control of a Social Welfare Officer in
cooperation with The Salvation Army. The buildings which formerly housed
the Reformatory were then converted for use as a Training Centre for young
male offenders 14 to 20 years of age.
Although the setting up of the Reformatory in 1946 heralded
the first educational programme for offenders, it was not until the
introduction of the training centres prograMme for young male offenders
in 1953 that planned education programmes in the true sense of the word
began.
In 1954 the Prisons Ordinance of 1899 was replaced and new
prison rules were implemented. These eliminated many of the archaic rules
which had been carried out up until that time.
By 1958 a total of nine schoolmasters were employed in the
service. All except one were employed in training centres for young
offenders. The exception being the first schoolmaster to be appointed to
start a programme of adult education which was at that time limited to
first offenders in the maximum security prison. (It was then, the only
maximum security facility in Hong Kong.) This appointment involving as
it did only one teacher marked the beginning of programmes of education
for adult offenders. I am aware that at the time the Commissioner who
was formerly a housemaster in the Prison Service in England and Wales found
it very heavy going to try to speed up the progress of adult education.
An example of this occurred in the following year (1959) when an application
for two additional posts of schoolmaster was refused.
In 1963 the adult education programme which was still only
available at one institution was reviewed, a new syllabus drawn up and
two improvised classrooms were brought into use. From that year onwards
there was a gradual expansion of adult education programmes to other
institutions mainly carried out by teachers from the Education Department
taking evening classes. By 1970 the total number of full time teachers
had grown to over 20. In that year the syllabus included Chinese at 2
levels, English at 3 levels, Arithmetic at 2 levels, tuition on the use
■•••• 8
I
of an abacus, and elementary book-keeping. It was the first year that
students studied for academic qualifications. In this case a total of
3 for '0' or 'A' Levels.
Broadly speaking however, teaching materials,,textbooks,
classrooms, desks, chairs and the other necessities essential to any good
programme were in very short supply and usually came second hand from
outside schools as and when they procured new supplies and furniture.
Anyone present here today will be aware of at least one problem that this
brings, that is the task of seating adult students at desks built for a
more junior age group.
It was not until February 1974 that the Prison Rules were amended
enabling the time spent by a prisoner in educaitonal classes to be counted
as time engaged in useful work. In late 1974 education programmes for all
classes of convicted persons detained within the confines of penal
institutions were reviewed. Young offenders on admission sat attainment
tests and based on results were classified accordingly. There were three
grades: Advanced, Intermediate and Elementary. Self-study courses were
also introduced for adults and by 1976 a total of 42 teachers were involved
in education programmes full time.
1979 saw the first year of the Telecommunication Technician
Course which was a great success and a milestone in the history of the service.
19 young male offenders who took the course sat for the City and Guild of
London Institute first year examination. This consisted of three subjects:
practical mathematics, engineering science, and telecommunications practice.
The results were most encouraging, 18 out of the 19 candidates passed and
a total of 25 distinctions, 16 credits, and 7 passes were achieved. You
might ask why am I highlighting this, the number of candidates was only 19?
9
The answer is very simple, all examinations were in English which is
not the mother tongue of the candidates, some of whom virtually had to
learn the English language from scratch in order to sit for the examinations,
the others required at the very least intensive coaching.
I am sure that by now you will have noticed I keep on referring
to young male offenders. This is because young female offenders were
virtually unheard of. Delinquent girls were committed to the care of The
Salvation Army which maintained a special institution for them. The
institution was supported by a Government subvention and coordination was
effected through the Social Welfare Office. Young female offenders did
not appear on the criminal justice scene at least for major crimes until
the late 1960's. Even then they were considered too few in number to
justify the cost of a separate institution. When a new facility for women
was opened in 1969 the opportunity was taken to make available separate
facilities for them, this included a classroom. At the time the institution
was opened, there were only 4 female inmates. By 1971 the figure had only
climbed to 7. Consequently the first completely independent training
centre for young female offenders did not open until 1980; at the time it
opened some 57 trainees moved in.
By 1983 the Education Section of the department had an
establishment of 48 staff with an Education Officer as the administrative
head of the section. With the continued cooperation of the Adult Education
Section of the Education Department, ties to which had grown closer over
the years, 23 part-time teaching staff were available to teach in the
evening remedial education classes. By that time all convicted men and
women in the custody of the department had access to appropriate education
facilities during their period of incarceration of whatever length. To put
it in a nutshell, compulsory education programmes were provided for young
- 10 - 1
1
1 1
1
1
offenders from 14 to 21 years of age in all training centres, while
education on a voluntary basis, was provided for all adult prisoners and
a small number of young offenders re-classified as adult offenders.
The basic subjects for young offenders included: English,
Chinese, Mathematics and Social Studies. In addition, special subjects
such as Technical Drawing, Engineering Science, Computer Studies, Book-
keeping and Typewriting were also offered in various institutions catering
for the different kinds of inmates with different interests and aptitudes.
The education system for young offenders was geared in the main to follow
as closely as possible that which took place in normal schools. Education
Television Programmes were used extensively. Extra-curricular activities
in the form of hobby classes were available, these were designed to
cultivate interests and encourage cooperation between inmates.
As previously mentioned. subsequent to the change in the title
of the department which occurred in 1982, it became much easier to obtain
funds to improve programmes such as education and vocational training.
Accordingly we found ourselves able to progress at a more rapid pace than
was possible prior to that year.
By 1988 the Education Section of the department had a total of
II74 staff including teaching staff at various levels. However, also included
were the technical instructors involved in teaching the various trades
within the vocational training field for young offenders. The latter,
some of whom had been carrying out this task for years, were not previously II
included in statistics covering education. One reason for this was the
exclusion of uniformed prison officers who also possessed a teaching
qualification and who were utilised from time to time for the purpose of
teaching.
1
- 11 -
Subjects available to young offenders incluFled: Chinese,
English, Mathematics, Social Studies, Moral and Civic Education.
Commercial and technical courses leading to public examinations in
Telecommunications Technicians, Food and Beverage Service, Book-keeping,
Accounting and Typing.
As I mentioned at the First International Conference on Prison
Education in 1984, vocational training courses are run in conjunction
with education programmes. Subjects covering include air-conditioning, book-
binding, brick-laying, carpentry, cookery, electrical installation,
hair-dressing, pipe-fitting, plumbing, paint spraying, panel beating,
plastering, pottery, printing, metalwork, radio and television maintenance
and repair, telecommunications and tiling.
In 1985 the first students sat for the examination leading to
the Hong Kong Cerzificate of Education. In 1988, 19 students sat for
the examination and achieved a pass rate of 80%. It is expected that
24 students will sit for the examination in 1989.
Presently education programmes available to adult offenders
consist of: remedial education classes, self study courses and
correspondence courses. 61 remedial educational classes with an enrolment
of just over 1000 students were available in 12 institutions during the
evenings in 1988. Subjects taught included Chinese, English, Mathematics,
History, and Social Studies. Correspondence and special courses are
available mainly to cater for the requirements of those who are interested
in studying at a higher level than that which is provided for in the
remedial education classes. At the end of last year (1988) a total of
219 students were enrolled in correspondence courses. 31 students were
enrolled in technical courses by arrangement with the East Asia Open
University which is located in the Portugese territory og Macau, some 30
miles from Hong Kong. Self study courses are available to those who prefer
- 12 -
Since public examinations were introduced in 1979 a total
of 1129 students have taken part, sitting for 1580 papers. They have
achieved 466 distinctions, 188 credits and 755 passes. Overall pass
rate equals 89.18%.
At the end of 1988 a total of 9243 convicted persons were in
the custody of the Correctional Services Department excluding a further
794 persons who were being held on remand. A little over 3000 inmates
in a number of different categories were enrolled in the various education
programmes. 11
I believe that at a gathering such as this it is not appropriate
for me to measure success or failure if indeed that is possible in prison
education, at least in the way I view it. So having delivered the facts
I leave it to you to pass judgement.
Footnotes:
(1) Historical facts have been extracted from official public records.
(2) Prisoners are People by Kenyon J. Scudder. Published by Doubleday, I/
Inc., Garden City, N.Y. 1952.
(3) An Educational Prison "Model" A Canadian Perspective by Dr. Lucien 11 Morin, International Seminar on "Strategies for Education within Prison Regimes", Wiston House, Steying, Sussex, U.K. 3rd - 5th July 19811 The Open University/Home Office Prison Department.
by R.D. Germscheid, Ph.D.
Manager, Industries and Education, Alberta Solicitor General
Correctional Services Division Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT FOR SHORT-TERM
SENTENCED OFFENDERS: SOME PROPOSITIONS
Presented at the Second International Conference on Prison
Education OXFORD, U.K.
September, 1989
ABSTRACT: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
FOR SHORT-TERM SENTENCED OFFENDERS
There is a large body of evidence in the educational, sociological and
anthropoligical literature which suggests that much human behavior is
learned. If the traits normally assigned to criminal behavior are not
the result of psycho-sociopathic or neuropathic sysfunction, it seems
reasonable to conclude that new behaviors can be learned; and, if they
can be learned, they can be taught.
Many correctional systems in Canada have opted to place the
"correctional" emphasis on containment, institutional work assignments
and community service on the basis that the length of inmate's sentences
precludes expenditures of scarce resources. While inmate warehousing
may be convenient and cost-effective in the short run, it will surely
have some long-term costs.
The highly differentiated, compartmentalized types of programs in
prisons have not had the desired affect on offenders. While there is no
questions on the quality of, and the need for, academic, personal
development, vocational and similar courses in prisons, more of the same
is not apt to have the desired affect either.
More attention must be given to providing conceptual linkages among the
skills required for reading, computing, behaving, working and living.
a On the basis of the observations made above the following propositions are presented as a basis for further analysis and research.
It
Proposition One. Offender resistance to change will vary with previous ° admissions and the strength of identification with a group subculture.
Proposition Two. Offender resistance to change will vary with the sexl of the offender.
Proposition Three. Offender change will be most apt to occur in those" programs in which the offender is given an active role in thelm instructional process.
Proposition Four. Offender change will be most apparent in those programs where short, purposeful modular curricula are featured.
Proposition Five. Offender enrollment in literacy programs will vary with the degree to which those programs meet personal needs to know. It
Proposition Six. The effectiveness of programs in reducing crime rates among ex-offenders will vary with the strength of the association of those programs with industry demands for skilled labor.
Proposition Seven. The effectiveness of programs in reducing crime rates among ex-offenders will vary with the degree to which thos programs reflect relative and regional social patterns.
Proposition Eight. The effectiveness of programs in reducing crime rates among ex-offenders will vary inversely with the degree to which individual programs are differentiated.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1
The Long-Term Server (LTS) 2
The Short-Term Server (STS) 3
THE OFFENDER IN ALBERTA 5
Offender Resistance to Change 5
Proposition One 7
Proposition Two 7
Offender Age and Sentence 7
Proposition Three 8
Proposition Four 9
Offender Education Levels 9
Proposition Five 10
Offender Employment and Skill Levels 11
Proposition Six 12
Offender Residence 12
Proposition Seven 13
SUMMARY 13
THE TRADITIONAL MODEL 14
Proposition Eight 15
THE CASE FOR EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM INTEGRATION 15
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT FOR SHORT- TERM SENTENCED OFFENDERS
INTRODUCTION
Many citizens, when asked to describe the typical criminal, would
respond with terms such as power seeker, self centered, sociopathic,
psychopathic, easily angered, thrill seeker, poorly educated and the
like. Ask those same people to describe the typical, law abiding labor
leader, and many of the same terms would be used. When pressed to explain
the similarities in characteristics between the criminal and the
non-offender, respondents would be apt to explain that the offender merely
got caught or that it is a question of the degree to which those
characteristics are apparent.
To be sure, there are psychopaths and sociopaths within the
offender population. Certainly, there are many inmates who manifest
antisocial and asocial behavior; who lack empathy, affect, responsibility,
ability to love and loyalty; who are pretentious; and, who exert brutal
power and force over their fellow human beings. But, these behaviors are
not necessarily psychotic as most offenders are capable of making logical
and rational decisions even under the most stressful of situations. It
would seem to follow that in the absence of some psycho-sociopathic or
neuropathic disorder, behavior change should be possible through
disciplines other than psychology, psychiatry or medicine.
There is a large body of evidence in the educational,
sociological and anthropological literature which suggests that much human
behavior is learned. If the traits described above are interpreted as
coping behaviors it seems reasonable to conclude that new coping behaviors
can be learned; and, if new behaviors can be learned, they can be taught.
■■■ 1
••■ 2
I/ The vast majority of the studies reported in the correctional
education literature focus on programs for the offender who is servit
three, five, ten or more years. The vast majority of these reports,
unfortunately, are descriptive in nature and the conclusions at which mallt i
of these authors arrive depends to a great extent on hunch or far- ,
rather than sound scientific reasoning and analysis. Even so, so-
tantalizing pieces of information have been brought to the surface and t Ir . . . . . .
Buttram (1977) found that significant differences exist betwle
post-secondary students and no-program samples of prisoners where
employment and social adjustment measures were juxtaposed against arrII t
11 and parole violation rates. Another finding was that no inmate in eit er
the control or the experimental group pursued further education af
release. It is important to note that these data were gathered durin a
period of high unemployment in the United States. Post-secondary stude s
11 Alston (1981) and Duguid (1982), among others, noted correlationE
between educational deficiencies and recidivous behavior. There IIE
agreement between these writers that the humanities and the social
sciences help offenders face important ethical, social and politi 1 II
issues. And, to this list Alston has added vocational education. 9e
argues • hat educational deficits, combined with unacceptable cultu
IFreligious and moral attitudes constitute the single major cause
criminal behavior.
More recently, a study conducted by Holloway and Make (1911
reported the existence of a linear relationship between the level (
11
The Long-Term Server(LTS)
following reports are characteristic.
were more likely to find employment and less likely to reoffend.
education gained while the offender was in custody and the liklihood of
that person gaining work and remaining employed after release. Their
reintegration criteria included one year with no return to prison, freedom
from arrest and .the length of time the offender maintained full-time
employment.
These and other studies demonstrate that something may be
happening to offenders while in custody, and that education appears to be
one of the change agents. However, it may be somewhat premature to assume
that education, per se, has been the sole change agent. Even if it
assumed that the educational process is a major contributor to
rehabilitation we are not yet in a position to state that education is
occurring solely within the environment normally designated as school.
The Short-Term Server (STS)
Extended periods of time spent in custody makes the offender
available for the longer developmental types of program. If the results
of programs for the longer serving inmate are sparse and equivocal the
problems are significantly magnified for the short termer. The LTS and
the STS have many traits in common: age, education, employment history and
attitudes for instance; and, in terms of the Alberta prisoner profile,
they are inextricably mixed; economically, socially, behaviorally and
legally. Further, the LTS and STS have similar prior arrest and admission
histories. Where the LTS and the STS characteristics diverge is in the
lengths of their sentences (LTS sentence = 3.4 years; STS sentence = 0.4E
years).
When the sentence of the STS is attenuated further through earnec
remission, temporary absence and other correctional system policies, thE
actual time a provincial offender may spend in custody could be as littlE
3
••• 4
as one month. The literature is silent on programs for this category
offender but it is in this context that most provincial prison programs
must function. 11 Many correctional systems have opted to place the emphasis n
containment, institutional work assignments and community servi .
Proponents of warehousing frequently cite Enochsson (1980) or ot '-
writers who observe that no program can be said to work all or most of te
time; therefore, limited resources should be conserved. However, th -It
does not countenance warehousing, nor should it discourage planners from
leseeking ways in which programs may contribute to institutional stabil .
and reductions in crime rates. Duguid (1983:53) placed the issue into
perspective in his assertion that; 11
1 11
Even so, there is a significant vocal public which includes
many legal, law enforcement and corrections personnel, who perceive an l
kind of programming, other than hard labor, the paddle and other form
of debasement, as the correct way of treating criminals. Enochsso
(1980:5) argued that those publics had not seen any "real" effect"•
resulting from prison programming in terms of diminished crime rates!'
The conflict among correctional workers in Alberta, according to Nixo11
and Bumbarger (1983:129) is minimal. In fact, there is a fairly high
degree of consensus among Alberta correctional workers that programs ar11
necessary and useful, regardless of the length of inmate sentences.
We are too sensitive, and indeed too moral a society to be content with the simple utilitarianism of incapacitation or punishment as the sole end of (the correctional) vocation.
1
1
Correctional planners must be concerned with issues beyond
keeping the prisoner busy. There must be an effort made to provide
programs which benefit both the inmate and the institution in which that
person resides. Institutional tranquility and offender rehabilitation
need not be inimicable goals.
THE OFFENDER IN ALBERTA
Alberta Correctional Services is comprised of thirteen adult
centres of which four are classified as remand and nine as serving
centres. Although five of the nine serving centres hold minimum, medium
and maximum security classified inmates, four have been designated as
minimum security facilities. The offender population levels in the
province range from approximately 2,100 to 2,800 with a mean of 2,300.
The following data were derived through an analysis of a random
sample of approximately 20% of the inmate population in custody during
the week of June, 1987. Each computer file was examined for data
relating to specific variables which were considered important for
designing educational programs within the context of the prison
environment. This profile was verified through a random sampling of 20
inmates which data were compared to the original sample on
March 9, 1989.
Offender Resistance To Chancre
The number of previous admissions to prison and the number and
type of violations on which the offender was convicted are used as a
measure of that individual's possible resistance to behavior change.
18.1 9.7 Totals
4.5 2.4 0.1 0.7 3.2
McKenzie and Goodstein (1985:398) identified two types of prisoners: thell
traditional lifer who has had little or no previous history of criminal
behavior; and, the repeat offender who has had a less than stable life 11
style and a history of experience with the criminal justice system.
There is sufficient evidence in the literature to support the I/
contention that cognitive and social bonds among members of a sub-group
become increasingly strong over time. On this basis, one would expect
that those prisoners with long histories of offences (Table 1),
II
TABLE I PROVINCIAL OFFENDER
PREVIOUS ADMISSIONS AND PRESENT CASE VIOLATIONS
Population Previous X X Present Case Violations Segment Admissions Crim. Narcot. Prov. Total
Code Chg. Stat. Viol.
Non-Native Male 5.6 3.1 0.1 0.7 3.9 Female 1.7 0.9 0.1 0.4 1.4
Native Male 6.6 3.0 0.1 0.7 3.8 Female 4.2 2.7 0.1 0.9 3.7
0.4 2.7 12.8
11 particularly those associated with chemical and alcohol use, would b
more resistant to change than the first time offender. This type o
II
association would be likely intensified and be even more resistant to
change where the identification was with a drug or similar sub-cultur11
2.4
-6- 6-
In terms of the criteria established above it is likely that
the most resistance to change would be observed, in descending order,
with male natives, male non-natives, native females and non-native
females as there is a rough linear relationship between previous
admissions and the total number of present case violations.
Orsagh and Marsden (1985:271), arguing in support of Rational
Choice Theory, state that ". . . behavior is motivated by a desire to
maximize well-being." Vroom's (1964) Expectancy Theory would suggest
that a person's desire to act in a certain way is a function of that
individual's goals and his perception of the relative worth of his
efforts as a path to the attainment of those goals. More simply stated,
if an offender desires inmate or other sub-group acceptance,
institutional rewards and/or programs which do not enhance peer
acceptance will not be important.
Proposition One. Offenders' resistance to change will vary with previous admissions and the strength of identification with a group subculture.
Proposition Two. Offenders' resistance to change will vary with the sex of the offender.
Offender Age And Sentence
The age of the offender and the length of time that person will
be in custody are important variables in prison programming. Age is
important as a guide to the ways in which instruction and guidance may
be approached; whereas, sentence length will provide a rough measure of
how long one has to do whatever one plans to do. Table II provides
information relating to mean age and sentence.
The mean age of offenders engaged in educational activities is
nearly 29 and the average sentence is approximately six months. As will
be shown later, these people may have been out of a formal educational
environment for as long as seventeen years. -7-
Population Segment Mean Age Mean Sentence
Totals 114.9 1.92
TABLE II PROVINCIAL OFFENDER
MEAN AGE AND SENTENCE 1
Non-native Male 29.0 0.59 Female 27.4 0.48
Native Male 29.2 0.53 Female 29.5 0.32
28.7 0.48
Many offenders would have been accustomed to making some Il
relatively independent decisions, regardless of the_quality of thos
decisions, for 40% to 60% of their lifetime. Independence, combine
with criminal history, social affiliation and, perhaps, a basic contemp 1
or ignorance of the law and other social norms, suggests that
traditional approaches to instruction may not be effective in promotint
behavior change. It is not likely that the mature adult, offender or
not, will accept a passive role in the instructional process. Program"
should challenge the client-offender, but challenge should be tempere
in the -knowledge that many of the exercises, mental and physical, whic
are needed to meet those challenges may not have been employed for man
11 years.
Proposition Three. Offender change will be most apt to occur those programs in which the offender is given an active role in the instructional process.
-8- 11
9
Most provincial offenders (70% or better) will have drawn from
four to seven month sentences with an average of six months. When this
sentence pattern is juxtaposed with earned remission, temporary absence,
illness, transfers and the like, the actual time in which instructional
personnel must reach the individual may be as little as one month. If
the inmate is to be affected in any meaningful way there is no time to
spend on sophisticated developmental, generalized activity. Programs
must be short, purposeful and devoid of non-related material.
Proposition Four. Offender change will be most apparent in those programs where short, purposeful modular curricula are featured.
Offender Education Levels
Education, formal or informal, is the basis on which our
industrial society is built; and, without education the individual may
be locked into making a living at the lower end of the earning scale or
seek alternative ways of enhancing income. Few occupations in Canada
TABLE III PROVINCIAL OFFENDER
REPORTED EDUCATION LEVELS
Population Reported Education Level% Segment 1-6 7-9 10-12 Post-Sec
Non-Native Male 5.5 30.7 63.5 0.4 Female 0 43.5 56.5 0
Native Male 7.4 50.0 42.6 0 Female 4.3 52.2 43.5 0
Totals
7
17.2 176.4
4.3 44.1
206.1 0.4
51.5 0.1
are open people who possess less than a grade nine education and nearly
50% of provincial offenders fall into this category (Table III). In
fact, the ratio could be much higher.
In a recent study of low literacy prisoners and mainstream
adults, Fagan (1988:4) found that prisoners, while they had spent anII
average of 11 years in school, had a mean reading achievement level of
grade 4.7., a difference of more than five grade levels. If these 1
differences are distributed among the population described in Table III
it would imply that the vast majority of the provincial inmate -
population would be below the functional literacy level of grade nine. II
Education programs in Alberta correctional centres are based on
voluntary participation. As Fagan has stated ". . . adults who cover up 11
their low literacy skills are not in a position to benefit from literacy
upgrading." Nor are they likely to volunteer unless there is some
compelling reason to do so.
With nearly 57% of the native inmate population reporting all
grade nine or less education, Fagan's findings aside, there is a need to
II design computational and reading skills within the context of the native
experience and their need as adults. The same observation can be madeII
in respect to the non-native offender population, particularly for
women. The more generalized curricula of our high schools an
post-secondary institutions may not meet the needs of this select
segment .of mainstream society. The needs of women are somewha
different from men; the needs of native women may not be the same as
II those of non-native women; and native males may not necessarily share
the same deficits as other men.
Proposition Five. Offenders' enrollment in literacy programs wil: vary with the degree to which those programs meet personal needs tc know.
- 10 -
Offender Employment and Skill Levels
At the time of admission to prison three quarters of the
provincial inmate population were unemployed and nearly 90% of them had
no identifiable, marketable occupational skill. Times of economic
depression are a difficult time for the unskilled; therefore,
TABLE IV PROVINCIAL OFFENDER
EMPLOYMENT STATUS AND SKILL LEVELS
Population Employed Unemployed Unskilled Skilled (%) (%) (%) (%)
Non-Native Male Female
41.2 22.7
58.8 82.6
77.3 78.6 17.3 21.4
Native Male Female
Totals
7
26.1 73.9 90.4 9.6
4.5 95.5 100.0 0
94.5 305.5 351.6 48.3
23.6 76.4 87.9 12.1
it is not surprising that unemployment levels are associated with low
skill level. Ninety percent of non-natives and 95% of natives, where
an occupation was reported, would be defined as unskilled.
Flanagan (1988:5) argues that ". . . work is . . . the most
important determinant of a successful adjustment to life." Assuming
that there is a connection between economic deprivation and the
willingness of some elements of society to engage in criminal activity
(Flanagan, 1982, 1985; Enochsson, 1980; Orsaugh and Marsden, 1985) it
would follow that vocational and industrial training should contribute
- 11 -
11 to the economic independence of many offenders, and thus, decrease the
incidence of reoffending.
Proposition Six. The effectiveness of programs in reducing crime rates among ex-of fenders will vary with the strength of the association of those programs with industry demands for skilled labor.
Offender Residence 11
The distinction between urban and rural residence is largely
arbitrary. Those centres which feature a diverse economic base are
IIdefined as rural; whereas, those population areas which rely primarily
on retail trade for employment are defined as rural. On this basis it
was determined that nearly half of the inmate population in provincial 11
correctional centres had lived in rural locations prior to detention
(Table V). Nearly two-thirds of native offenders claim a rural
address; whereas, only one-third of non-natives make the same
declaration.
TABLE V PROVINCIAL OFFENDER
RESIDENCE DISTRIBUTIONS
1
1 1
Population Urban Rural (%) (%)
Out-of-Province (%)
Non-Native Male 63.7 33.2 3.1 Female 66.7 33.3 0
Native Male 36.8 57.0 6.1 Female 42.9 57.1 0
Totals 210.1 180.6 9.2
52.5 45.2 2.3
- 12 -
The vast majority of offenders will likely return to, or close
to, their previous residence soon after release. At home they find
familiar surroundings, friends, relatives and social networks and, if
unemployment is a likelihood, a return to unacceptable social behavior
may be expected. While a program in welding may be useful in
developing important psycho-motor skills it has no direct utility for
the person who has no access to the technology or employment in a
related area after release. The notion that academic upgrading, life
skills and other programs are important to any one person, or a group
of people, must be considered in the context of that individual's
background.
Proposition Seven. The effectiveness of programs in reducing crime rates among ex-offenders will vary with the degree to which those programs reflect relative and regional social patterns.
SUMMARY
The majority of offenders held in Alberta prisons are not
psychotic; therefore, the majority of them are educable,
notwithstanding that many inmates have had a history of instability.
The majority of inmates held in correctional centres in Alberta are not
new to the criminal justice system, nor are they a young population.
The typical provincial Short-Term-Server will likely possess less than
a functional grade nine level education, will have been unemployed
prior to admission to prison and will have no marketable skill.
Finally, there is an almost even split between rural and urban
residents in the offender population.
- 13 -
1 THE TRADITIONAL MODEL
Traditional models for the education of prison inmates have
not been effective in ameliorating crime rates. College and other
post-secondary programs have not been particularly successful in
changing inmate behavior beyond the course syllabus. Inmates have
learned skills: they have learned to read and to calculate and they
interpersonal skills; yet, return to prison in undiminishing numbers.
The primary purpose of educational programs in prisons is to
IIprovide offenders with the opportunity to develop skills which assist
them in remaining in the community after release. While academic, II
personal development, vocational and industrial training programs are
important facets of education they are not, in isolation, sufficiently 11
complete to affect the majority of offenders.
Traditionally, educational programs have been designed to II
provide learners with specific types of skills (reading, computational,
vocational and developmental) and as these disciplines have become more
complex there has been a corresponding decline in addressing concepts
not directly related to them. When program differentiation is extended «.
11 to include inmate placement, psychology, case management, and the
various forms of parole and probation as well as education, it should
11 come as no surprise that most prisoners are apparently unaffected by
correctional education programs. As differentiation has proceeded it
11 has become increasingly difficult for learners to make conceptual
linkages among reading, behaving, working, and living. We have been -
II applying topical remedies without dealing with the complex underlying
causes of the problem or we have been dealing with the problem at an
inappropriate time in the offender's sentence.
- 14 -
have been given the opportunity to acquire important vocational and
11
Proposition Eight. The effectiveness of programs in reducing crime rates among ex-offenders will vary inversely with the degree to which individual programs are differentiated.
Educational and other correctional programs have the potential
to profoundly affect the human potential of offenders; socially,
academically and vocationally. But, this will require a strong and
sustained commitment from correctional planners to ensure that
offenders are affected, in the broadest sense, through a program which
develops the entire rather than a selected, range of abilities.
Programmers must examine their plans in the context of the needs of the
inmate, the community, and the correctional facility.
THE CASE FOR EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM INTEGRATION
If educational and other programs in correctional centers are
to be effective in providing offenders with.the skills and desire to
engage in legal, productive activity after release, prison programs
must reflect the needs of the offender and the community in the context
of the institution in which he or she is held. Each facility has a
range of job assignments for inmates where they are able to learn
important marketable skills through on-the-job training, but who may
lack important educational and social foundations. Academic and
vocational education, personal development and job placement, if
properly managed and coordinated, have the potential to provide
foundations for offenders who desire an altered lifestyle. This will
not occur solely through highly differentiated educational programs,
nor will it happen by assuming that psychology, medicine or case
management counselling techniques hold the key to success. While these
- 15 -
1 11 programs are important in dealing with specific needs they do not
remedy the underlying causes of much chronic criminal behavior:
inappropriate coping skills and poorly developed decision making II
skills.
Historically,
self-help, psychological and other correctional programs have
maintained a rather autonomous, arm's length relationship with each
other. In some cases, protection of the integrity of the program,
apprenticeship for instance, has overridden the obvious merits of the
contributions of other programs to human development.
Although inmate labor is useful and necessary to institutional
operations this is is not the reason offenders are incarcerated. II
Though educational programs must maintain a reasonable fidelity to
11 their institution's goals and curriculum, this is not their purpose in
a correctional center setting. One or two programs and/or coursesa
cannot be or do everything to offenders; yet each has an important
role to play.
Synergy, the notion that the simultaneous efforts of each
program will have a greater affect on the inmate than the individual"
affect of any program, is a concept which has been largely ignored by
many prison education planners.
secondary, post-secondary, chaplaincy, II
I
- 16 -
REFERENCES
Alston, J.G. "Preparation for Life After Incarceration." 1981 American Association of Community and Junior
College. Washington, DC.
Buttram, J.L., Dusewicz, R.A., "Effectiveness of Educational 1977 Programs in State Correctional Institutions: A
Follow-Up Study of Ex-Offenders." Research for Better Schools. Office of Planning and Evaluation. Philadelphia, PA.
Enochsson, K., "Correctional Programs: A Review of the 1980 Value of Education and Training in Penal
Institutions." Journal of Offender Counselling, Services and Rehabilitation. Vol. 5(1), Fall.
Duguid, S., "Rehabilitation Through Education: A. Canadian 1982 Model." Hawthorne Press
Fagan, W.T., "Low Literate Prisoners and Mainstream Society 1987 Adults' Attributional Characteristics."
Unpublished Article. University of Alberta, Department of Elementary Education. Edmonton, AB.
"Reading Competencies: The Performance of Low-Literate Adults." Unpublished Article. University of Alberta, Department of Elementary Education. Edmonton, AB.
1988
Flanagan, T.J. "Correctional Policy and the Long-Term 1982 Prisoner." Criime and Delinquency. January.
Holloway, J., and Make, P., "Post Secondary Correctional 1986 Correctional Education: An Evaluation of
Parolee Performance." Wilmington College, OH.
Levy, G.W., Abram, R.A., DaLow, D., "Vocational Preparation 1975 in U.S. Correctional Institutions: A 1974 Survey."
U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower Administration. Washington, DC.
- 17 -
McClain, T.W., and Caples, R., "The Impact of Vocational 1978 Education on Ex-Offenders in Massachusetts."
Institute for Governmental Studies, University of Massachusetts, Boston, MA.
McKenzie, D.L., and Goodstein, L., "Long-Term Incarceration 1985 Impacts and Characteristics of Long-Term
Offenders: An Empirical Analysis." Criminal Justice and Behavior. Vol. 12(4). December.
Nixon, J., and Bumbarger,D.S., "Education Programs in 1983
Correctional Centers." Journal of Correctional Education. vol. 34(4). December.
Orsagh, T., and Marsden, J.E., "What Works When: Rational-1985 Choice Theory and Offender Rehabilitation."
Journal of Criminal Justice. Vol. 13.
Rice, A., Etheridge, R.M., Poe, J.R., and Hughes, J.H. 1979 "Vocational Education in Correctional
Institutions." U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education. Washington, DC.
Vraom, V. Work and Motivation. John Wiley, N.Y. 1964
EDUCATIONAL STRATEGIES IN GROUP WORK WITH RECIDIVISTS
PhDr Pavel Hartl, Charles University, Prague, Czechoslovakia.
ABSTRACT
The contribution describes our experience over ten-years-
running counselling for groups of 12 - 14 male prisoners aged 21
to 50 years. The criteria for selection of the prisoners for the
project were as follows: only those who were recidivists and were
supoosed to leave the prison in 3 - 12 months were enrolled into
a grou. Whenever someone left, another prisoner was accepted. The
enrollement was compulsory for those selected.
The educational aims were designed to improve the life and
social skills of' the participants, with the halo of discussions
on life-stories, role-playing, art-therapy and relaxation techniques
etc.
Educational sessions of the author's lasted for 90 minutes,
once a week, in a circle setting. Every meeting hnd a stable
structure - starting with relaxation, going on with discussions
and a number of group techniques, ending with diary-writing. . For
experimental reasons, there was a co-leader at several periods of
time.
Evaluation of the progress in educational work was as follows:
the participants' own affirmations, analysis of all written
materials /participants' diaries, recording of group sessions/,
sociometric technicues, attitudes scaling, questionnaires for
staff, observations of the leader and his co-worker and staff.
The research effort was centred on finding.the best setting
of the group regarding the age e the participants, their educatio-
nal and social levnl, type -o' offence. The influence of the leader 's
personality on the group activity W96 proved, as there were 4
parallel groups led by four dil'erent sonoillists le ps7c::-L1.2.trist,
an educational psychologist, an educationalist and a non-professio-
nnl/.
EDuuATIONAL STRATEGIES IN- GROLTP WORK WITH' RECIDIVISTS
My speech here is a result of long-term work with male groups
of young offenders and adult recidivists, but also with alcohol
addicts and female prostitutes. In all cases the people mentioned
above were placed in institutions, le. home for delinauent boys,
prison, hospital department for treating alcoholism and venerolo-
gical diseases respectively.
A number of research projects took place, lasting from 3
months in the case of women, 3 - 6 months for alcoholics, 1 ver
projects with young offenders, and up to 3 years projects with
adult l'ecidivists, where p-cg-Trms were adjusted periodically.
The following text will mainly concern the last period of
my practise in this field, that is the results of ten-years work
with male adult recidivists.
Historical Outline
If we had a brief look at the historical development of
Czech oenology, et the beginning there was a belief that mere
punishment and imprisonment /ie. isolation from society/ reforms
a person;. if it is possible at all and criminality is not a
question of heredity, given biologically.
Then, after the first war, a more human theory came that
it is possible to reform a single imprisoned person by a single,
understanding jailer/Warder. In the fifties, the change of the
social order brought, among other things, changes of attitudes
2 1 towards the implementation of punishment. The ideas of Makarenko II
were taken as a basis. Makarenko regarded an interaction between
Ian educator and a person being educated as a pair influence. Eut
he also created the so called "pedagogy of parallel influence", II that is, an educator influences individuals not directly, but
Ithrough a group. In fact it means being non-directive towards an
individual, but directive towards a group. The combination of
a directive and non-directive approach is very «basic for Makarenko -IF system. It is mediated by the regime, which in Makarenko's sense
means not a mere daily programme, but a series of tasks. II
From 911 of his idees, in our practice only two damands II remained: herd, exhausting labour, and total discipline and
IIobedience. "Collective punishments" were often used, je. for an
individual's transgression of prison - orders, the whole group was
punished. II Continuously, it was becoming more and more clear that this
Ilprison system was not bringing successful results. In the sixties
I was pursuing a catamnestic observation of about a thousand youn -
offenders that had come.through homes for delinquent boys - where
this collective education was taking place - and the result II
discovered was that only one out of ten boys did not have any
eurther Sentence.
Influenced by the development of world penology and psycho-
therapy, results of which reached our country in the 60s, we trie
to bring new ide a.s into Prisons, homes for young offenders and
91 5 0 into preventive, as well es post-penitentiary work "in the
straet".
Research Proect
A number of research projects started in Czechoslovakia, and
one of them was also the project of counselling groups of 12 to 14
male recidivists /aged 21 to 50/.
The research was realized in the Prague Penological Institute
during the late 60s and 70s. The institute was placed in a two-floor
building inside the prison area; on the ground floor there were the
prisoners' dormitories and social rooms, on the first floor office
rooms, and rooms for staff. The prisoners belonged to the "second
corrective category". /Into the first category, light cases were
usually enrolled. The second category included so called recidivists,
that was criminals that were imprisoned for the second, or more
times for the same crime. To categorize a prisoner as a recidivist
was a judge's resnonsibility. There is also the third categzory,
where prisoners are enrolled for persistent criminality, brutal
and multiple murder etc./ During the day, prisoners worked in
eactories.
Criteria for selection of prisoners. for the counselling
cfrouns were as follows: thev were recidivists from the second
-corrective category, were supposed to leave the prison in 3 - 12
months;-- the enrollement of a "new" Prisoner took Place whenever
an "old" prisoner was released. The selection was done by the
governor of the whole prison.
There were 50 places in the Institute, in 4 dormitories, and
all th ,. Prisoners present were Pnrolled into one of the four
counse, lling rouos /tht di. nit corresoond with the distribution
to the dormitories/. It was considered as an advantag.e that every-
body too'.f: part in the educational sessions, not a sinle prisoner
4
IIstood aside, all of them were in the hands of "the crazy research-
ers".
Basic Princi2les
It was in fact forced psychotherapy, and I believe that
with people like prisoners, alcoholics, drug addicts, etc. the
enforcement is not a barrier for good results. 1 had come to this
conclusion many years before, at the beginning of my educationnl II
work with young offenders. One of the most successful groups of
IImine was formed lik= this: 7 ask=d all the =ducators, teachers and
felr=m=n to write down names of boys they had the biggest troubles
II with. Eight boys, whose names were stated most frequently, formed
II= gr"uo. Th=n 7 asked the di-ector to st=t= a rul= thnt the bovs
enrol'.d hnd to take part in the ZrOUD sessions regularly twice a
week for two hours each time, during their leisure time.
ihe first two questions in the first meeting were: "Whose's
this idiotic i''..=a?" and "or how long do we have to take part in
these stupid sessions instead of football and TV?"
lhe answeres were: "Mine." and "Until Ohristmas; after New
Year it's going to be voluntary." It was the end of September.
A -eter three months of sessions, when the time came for making
dacisions . whether to go on or not, only one out of the eight
rejected any further participation. /His problem was alcohol.
A few months later, when he was walking along a road in a drunken
state, he was knocked down by a car and died in hospital./
---le 4 r d.cis 4 on to remain in the 5,--oup was f 2/' from b=inc
the result of my professional skills. The reason w2s thnt the,
were the strongest personalities of all - they were the stronF:est
in their resistence and aggression, but also in their will and
willingness to co-operate when they had once decided to.
On the other hand, the least successful results were achieved
with a group formed of those boys with whom I was close and had
warm emotional contact. We all know that it is most unfavourable
to have a group of youngsters of about the same age and the same
sex for corrective work. I thought this arrangement would help.
Eut I was wrong. This selection strengthened their mutual jealousy
and competitiveness and increased their ags,ressiveness and
prevented co-operation.
It was only later that I realized that the age range such as
from 12 - 19/19 would be a more natural setting and would enable'
me to create variable relations of: fighting, but nlso protecting;
hating, but also liking etc. An 1-year-boy would not improve his
self-confidence by beating a 12-year, but by protecting him.
Similar poor results can be seen in individuel treatment in
corrective, probational or social work, where a delincuent might
try to look nice, to gratify an educator, to satisfy him/her,
but it is only true when the two people are in personal contact.
When the person leaves, everything goes back to the old way of
behaviou14 . It is not exceptional that the person soon flies into
an aggreSsive attack.
I can remember another case from the beginning of my
orofnssional career. With the help of hypnosis I managed to
suppress • rat aggressiveness of a very raging delinquent boy,
bnlieving it wnuld allow me to start corrective work with him.
But in a few weeks his aggression gave way - with multiple force -
during a massive rebellion in the Home. He was the most furious
destroyer.
6 1
1,
1
Zo come back to our recidivists - the enrollement into the
corrective groups was accidental, the group leader could not choos
the nerticipents, and regard was paid to having prisoners of a wid
age-variety in each group. Later, it was also found out that it
is fevoureble to have a range of IQ, education and kind of criminal-
ity in the group.
During the whole research period, there was not a single case
Iof a prisoner who remained in onposition towards the sessions and
wanted to leave the institute. It is true that the dormitories
were nt es crowded as in the other parts of the prison area and
the Ruards perheps not so strict, but the differences were not
really significant. Exceptionally, there was a wish to be transfer-
Ird into another educational group, but I will come back to that
later.
Each of the four corrective groups or recidivists was so
celled open, es the settin2 of the members was changeable. Some- IItinic2.m two or three members of a zroup changed within a few weeks,
sometimes there was no change for weeks. But the work of the group II
was not disturbed by this. On the contrary, every new member is
II. "terre incoznite" and meant a chance for the others to learn from
his case how to improve their own insight into psychology, become
IImore sensitive in human relations and understand his own problems
better.
TImP schdule of sessions
"rlh. four rous were ("i' ->-=nt in their time szItting. In
two P.,,, puns the-e -;as not '.., st-itm- : timm structure, in one dim.ries II
were written durin›.7 the lqst te n minutes of eqch session. In mv
own P:roup, there -!ere three rel-ar, stable time arrangements: II
1
1
1
7 •■■
710rC easily
The first ten minutes were devoted to autorelaxation after Schultz,
last ten minutes to diary-writing and immediately after the end of
each session, books were lent, brought on request from the municipal
library.
So, each of m7 sessions regularly started with autorelaxation.
The sessions commenced shortly after the prisoners' returning from
work, and that is why its aim was to re-orintate their mirds
from working and prison- reality. Autorelaxation was realized while
sitting on chairs and it was regularly practised by about half of
the group membe-s. Those who did not want to exercise were sitting
Autorelamation was included into the sessions for my good
_experience with it among yourc offenders. Boys used to Practise
it lying on the clubroom carpet and enjoyed it so much that they
often remained lying for a -eew more minutes and had to be brought
back into reality. There we ,-.9 Probably two reasons l'or this: the
young are more suggestible than adults; and they are
1
1 1 1 1
dependent on everything that dissolves anxiety end inner tension
/nicotine, alcohol, drugs/.
Corrective group sessions in the Penolo.zical Institute were
always : held in an - apart from chairs - empty room, in a circular
setting, including the theraoist, or, if need be, other people
/trainees, students, guests etc./.
The educational aims were designed to improve the life and
social skillq of the Participants, with the help of discussions
of 1-2n-qt0 .'“n, "'".1 =-01c7/i.O.L-7 , art-thPraPy and rlaxation technices
bibliopedagogy, imago-therapy etc.
In accordance with other authors' exPerience, the group was
going through four stages of development.
1 1
1 -8-.
1 The first stage
The prisoners blame the police, the judges, their spouses or
IIother institutions or individuals for their sentence and imprison-
ment. Their statements are usually full of strong affections and
II it is no good trying to oppose them. To listen does not necessarily
mean to agree and, after all, these are the most freauent topics I
of their everyday conversation.
This stage lasts fairly shortly, usually two, three sessions. I
Studies realized repeatedly in a later, fourth stage, revealed.
that liking for talks on criminal topics was shifted to the last, Il
12th place among items such as TV watching, radio listening, I magazines and books reading, sports and games, chess playing etc.
Participation in the croup sessions was usually on the second or II
third place. .
The first stage terminates with a realization that courts are I
imperfect, the police do not always act properly, imprisonment
itself cannot reform anybody, and human society is not fair. Which I
is a typicn1 example of the pattern "I'm OK - You're not OK" from
the Transactional Analysis after Thomas Harris. But is a prisoner
in a position allowing him to change things, to become a herald of II
new morals and better society?
The second stage
It is chnracterized by constant efforts of the prisoners to
make the therapist give them advice on how to behave in their
future life, so as not to get back to prison. But our exPerience I
says thçlt the group leader must not accept this, must not provide
Iany piece of advice, must not become an "adviser", talking about
good human properties that should be achieved. This is his/her
1 1
9 ■•••
i l
•
only task in this stage. He/she must keep returning the questions
and make the group look for the answers and ways actively. It is
one of the most difficult stages for the leader. It is so tempting
to act as an omnipotent adviser - as an "agony aunt".
The thi ,"r' stacc.
The prisoners start Producing pseudo-Problems. While the
f'irst and the second stages might last f'rom 2 - 4 sessions only,
the third one tends to be rather long and there is a risk that the
group will remain here for ever. The Produced Pseudo-problems
represent escapes of various kinds. The prisoners see their
salvation in: workirg somewhere else, having better accommodation,
finding a "good girl", saving money in the bank, starting with 2
nice hobby etc.
The fourth stage
It is based on a sincere effort to open up about everybody's
problems, about the roots, reasons and forms of their previous
social conflicts, about their character and properties. The fact
itself that they are able to talk about such things, has an
important, ebreactive role. Nevertheless, the main tesk is to
come to see deep personality features that are the roots of the
prisoner's conflicts, anti-social behaviour, to discover the
central point of his difficulties and to fight step by step for
the desired chance, to increase demands of him on social behaviour,
control end subdue emotions, try to solve or'oblems in productive
ways, learn to react to frustration adequately.
7 h=, ra tools hiping tq ar, hivz
such as diary-writing /detsil and sincere entries are recuired,
without en:, ro1=-nls7in snsivs 4 hg of
- 1 0 -
each behaviour inefficiency/, active participation in the
sessions, and a number of others.
There is also a useful technique of graphic biography. In
principle it is based on the fact that the best part of human
perception and most contacts with the surrounding world goes
through one's sight. The life story is not only verbalized, but
it is demonstnated with the help of concrete, material aids, !and the -nesult of the effort is visible in the end. And the technicue ›
11 makes it possible to examine the past history of an individual
deeolv. 11
This gMOUD d ,evelopment is different with youngsters, where
II the whole P-nocesq can be undel-gone within several sessions. 2eve-
lopment of spontaneity is opoosite with youngsters and adults. As 11
for the Young offenders, they stnrt with very lively chatting nt
the beginning, interrupting and accusing each other. It is only I
after 9 number of sessions thnt they learn how to control them-
selves, respect the others' °Pinion and accept criticism. "Tith 11
adult recidivists, it takes longer beore they stnrt tnlking,
become spontaneous and.befol"e behaviou- called "acting-out " occurs.
A very specific development of sessions I experienced while
working with "women of easy mornls" - they produced very lively
discussions full of emotion, tears and lnughter, but their 11
attitudes and behaviour remained practically unchanged.
As I have mentioned above, there was diary-writing at the I end of each group session. The prisoners reported about their
II feelings, experiences, opinions, night drenms, and expressed
thei ," satisfaction with the session on a 5-point scale. T1-1
II diaries also made personal contact with the therapist possible.
- 1 1 -
1 Diaries were also used for the technique called VIN /Very Importan11 -
News of the Lay/. The technique was developed in 1975 and used in
following up a flow of information in the psychotherapy community I
at the Drug-Addicts and Alcoholics Treatment Department of the
Psychiatric Clinic; the daily report of every community member
had to include just the one very important item of information,
11 its source and part of the programme from which it derived. The
teGhniaue was then used successfully at several other occassions. 11
A prisoner's report might have looked like this:
"My girl's still waiting for me. From her letter. Clubroom." or: 1
"D.ter Z. believes he will not rturn to orison. Hates his mother
being unhappy. Peter. Group session." or:
""Tho does not like himself, cannot like the others. The leader.
Group session." . The course of each session was registered by a girl-secretary II
She usually managed to put down about 60 of what WaS said. When
using a tape recorder, some 80 c. was covered, in the combination 11
of both ways it was about 90 %. The information registered always
reflected selective perception of the girls. One was completely II
deaf to statements accusing prisoners' wives, another one to
strong expressions, another still to all statements of a prisoner
whom she found most unpleasant. The prisoners got used to the
recording very soon« and starting from the second or third session II
they did not notice it. II
The grnup session records were at the disposal of the other
IIgroups' leaders. And so all were able to see not only the progress
and failures of one 's own group, but what was going on in the .
IIother groups as well..Of course, the leaders had their own regular
sessions or meetings where they discussed their work.
II
- 1 2 -
Group Leaders
There were two male leaders - a psychiatrist and an educa-
tional psychologist, and two female leaders - an educationalist
and a non-professional. During various periods, students from the
last study year were hired as co-therapists. In accordance with
literature sources, this always proved to be useful, especially
if the student was of the opposite sex to the group leader. An
exception to this rule was a group of female prostitutes again,
where the sessions were the most successful when led by three male
professionals.
In the Penological Institute, meetings of the leaders and
co-therapists and the head of the Institute, together with various
technicues used for many studies /VIN, diary analysis,• sociome trio
technicues, scant-1,7, attitudes measurements, cuestionnaires complet-
ed by orison staff etc./ revealed that personalities and styles of
work of each of the group leaders were reflected in orientation
and results of each group.
The non-professional female therapist focussed her work on
emotional support and cultural activities; her group kept prepar-
•ing Programmes at the occasions of Christmas end other common
meetings of the four groups. The prisoners liked attending the
sessions, but they did not feel anything was charu. ing with them.
The female educationalist focussed on pedaogical aims:
education, smooth running of the sessions, with a tendency to
reward every single performance or a group member. The prisoners
were not ver7 keen to attend the sessions, but they appreciated
the new pieces of information they learned there and found them
useful.
- 13 -
The male educational psychologist's work was typical of a 11
wide range of employed techniques and focussed especially on those
who needed emotional support. In this group, prisoners'attitudes II
towards the sessions varied a lot, from enthusiasm to indolence,
IIand also their views of personal changes varied, from feeling of '
0.reet Proaress to those of deep scepticism and frustration. . -- _ .
The male psychistriqt's sessions were the most stormy. He 11
IIused a combination of doctor's directiveness and dominance after
Pavlov, and psychoanalytic approaches trying to uncover sub-
conscious depths of each prisoner. The Prison staff often e
comoleined about their noisy end azgressive behaviour after eech
session. The .erieoners themselvec hete ,' the sessions and in sever II
cases the aversion between a prisoner and the psychiatrist was so
strone: thet either one or the other asieed for the oris crier 's trsn ,
Ilsfer to another group. Althowfn this was a..ainst e. iven princinles,
it was necessary to agree with sri exception several times.
Conclusions
, This contribution can be concluded by the following findings:
11 - it is well possible to realize the above described work with
'recidivists inside a prison; regardless the fact that it is com- I
pu.lsory , .
- it is without zreater problems to have an "open 5zroun", it cari •
even be regarded as advantageous;
11 _ for the selection of group meTT'bers it is elweys Profitable to
choose individuals of various eEes /the range in our case wes 11
from 21 to 50/, various levels of achieved education snd intellect,
as well as of various sorts of crime committed;
- three-month period for attending the sessions proved to be
insufficient /in that case sessions twice a week could halp/; a
Period from 1/2 to 1 year seems to be long enough;
- it is most beneficial when there is a pair of therapists/group
leaders, preferably a woman and a man;
- the group leader's profession is certainly important, but not
as much as his/her personality, gifts and experience;
- a combination of educational sessions and vocational training
directed to a professional qualification or re-cualification
seems to be the most promisinz for a Prisoner's future behaviour.
Those who were so luck7 to te2k- na-t in both vocational and
counselling courses had the most positive and active attitudes
towards group sessions.
Deputy Director General
AsbjOrn Langàs
Central Prison and
Probation Administration
Ministry of Justice
Norway
THE SHARING OF RESPONSIBILITY BETWEEN
AUTHORITIES, EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS AND
VOLUNTARY ORGANISATIONS IN THE REHABILITATION
OF PRISONERS - THE "IMPORT MODEL"
The treatment of inmates in prisons is to
underline the fact that the prisoner is still
a member of society, and is not to be
excluded from it.
Therefore, it must be emphasized that any
person sentenced to imprisonment shall not
lose his right to receive the help, service
and support from society.
All citizens have an equal right to education,
work, health-services and culture. This is
one of the ideas that govern the implementa-
tion of the policy for which the Norwegian
1
Storting drew up the guidelines in the 70s.
By saying so, the Government has taken on
responsibility for groups which for various
reasons are unable to take part in ordinary
activities and services.
Prison inmates are one such group. It is
generally difficult for them to get out to
participate in the services offered to the
public. At the same time-they are perhaps in
greater need of positive and construtive
impulses than others. In conjunction with
other measures a positive cultural programme
may reduce the damaging effects which
isolation in prison can inflict on a human
being. In this context the challenge lies in
bringing professional and cultural activities
into the institutions with subsequent
follow-up after release.
According to the Norwegian Prison Act it is
the duty of the Prison Service: "To ensure
that the deprivation of liberty is implemented
in such a way as to promote their ability and
chances of socially adopting to a subsequent
2
life of freedom and to ensure that the
harmful effects of imprisonment are reduced as
far as possible".
By Norwegian standards - and this probably
also applies to other countries affiliated to
the Council of Europe - there is good
correspondence between the general legislature
and the Prison Act in terms of the
rehabilitation of inmates. But the problems
surface when we look at the practical
implementation of a binding cooperation
between the Prison Service and the relevant
authorities for the individual inmate.
Problems which arise from insufficient
information and communication, general
attitudes towards offenders, small budget
allocations, etc.
Characteristic features of the development in
this field which have taken place in the 70s
and 80s are due to the fact that the Prison
Service has not developed its own educational
system, but has imported the general school
system (the import model). The responsibility
3
I
1
1 1
1
4
for both the subject matter and economy of
prison education lies with the school
authorities under the local and county
governments. An agreement between the
Ministry of Church and Education and the local
counties was put into force from 1989. The
agreement draws up the guidelines and the
terms for providing a full subsidy for all
expenses in connection with educational
programmes. The import model has successfully
been applied to the educational sector and has
also been sanctioned in principle by the
Parliament for the health services, the labour
market services and the cultural and
recreational services.
As educational programmes in prisons are
considered a national responsibility in
economical terms, the local governments will
have no excuse for not establishing
educational programmes in prisons. The
individal penal institution is responsible for
classroom facilities. Due to this financial
agreement, the Prison Service today is able to
offer programmes at 26 of our 42 penal
establishments, mainly on lower and upper
secondary level. Additional courses in
various subjects are also available and some
prisoners are studying on university level.
From April 1987 the prison health services are
integrated into the ordinary health services,
which are administered by the local
municipalities and counties. This is
according to the intentions of the import
model. When the new organization of prison
health services is fully operational, our aim
is to develop it to include measures to
promote health, prevent disease or injury,
including individual an environment-oriented
measures etc.
Furthermore, the import model has been the
basic philosophy for developing library
facilities for inmates. Agreements have been
made upon cooperation with local public
5
libraries in 9 of our largest prisons. The
Ministry of Justice has been working very
closely together with the Directorate for
Public and School Libraries in this matter.
Additionally, agreements have been made
upon regular services from the local public
library in 4 prisons. The librarians pay
regular visits to the prisons and render the
services needed in supplying books and
magazines. All expences are subsidized by the
Ministry of Culture and Science.
Sport activities among inmates
With a view to a more deliberate effort to use
physical training as an integral part of
rehabilitation, the prison authorities has
employed 6 sport consultants who are
responsible for preparing and implementing
activities for inmates. In addition their
task is also to train prison officers to
coach inmates in physical activities. Under
expert guidance from the
6
sport consultants, prison officers will
represent a greater resource in this work
than previously.
The Prison Officers Training School has
increased efforts to strenghten the basic
education in physical activities for prison
officer trainees. The subject has recently
been revised in order to give the officers the
skills needed for coaching physical activities
among inmates in our prisons.
The contact with voluntary organizations and
sports associations will be maintained through
regular matches and competitions between
prisons teams and local teams. Some inmates
are granted leave for participating in
competitions.
In 1983 the Central Prison Administration
launched a project with a physical activity-
programme for chemical abusers in prison.
7
1
8
The purpose of the project is to strenghten
inmates' physical capacity and to create a basis
for an active and positive use of their
leisure time during the stay in prison as well
as after discharge. Since 1983 the project
has increased its capacity and today approxi-
mately 300 inmates a year are offered this
training programme.
The training programme consists of 4 weeks of
intensive training both inside and outside the
prison. The peak of the programme is a stay
for a week outside the institution. This week is
used for all sorts of sport activities, and in
addition there may also be a hike in the
mountains for 2-3 days. After returning to the
prison, the training continues for 4 weeks in
cooperation with prison officers. Afterwards,
the inmates are offered training programmes until
they are released.
The efforts to maintain and develop physical
acitivity in our prisons are considered
important to the rehabilitation of prisoners,
and supports the intentions related to
resolution no. 3 adopted by the 5th Conference
of European Ministers responsible for sport in
1986.
I will be showing a videoprogramme on the
above-mentioned project shortly after my
presentation.
In order to establish a binding cooperation
for the individual rehabilitation of inmates,
the Norwegian Government appointed, in 1977,
an interministerial council (Council for
Prison and Probation Administration). The
Council was commissioned to ensure that
inmates were offered the same programme within
the educational sector, the health sector, the
labour market sector, and the cultural and
recreational sector as the services offered to
other citizens in the country. The work of the
Council has, without doubt, been of great
importance to the extended cooperation between
these sectors and the prison authorities. It
meant positive development to the terms of
9
1 1
1
1 0 I
imprisonment as well. An essential reason for
this is that the councillors are senior
officials in prominent positions in their
respective ministries who display a particular
interest in the less privileged groups in our
society. By virtue of their positions the
councillors are also able to influence
authorities at local and county government
level within their fields of responsibility
and expertise.
Let me point out the importance and
recognition of the involvement of local
communities and volunteers in the prison work
by quoting from the draft conclusions of the
Ninth Conference of Directors of Prison
Administrations in April 1989 (Council of
Europe): "Volunteer and community involvement
is an essential element of a modern prison
*system because only by involving the community
can prison treatment prepare prisoners for
their return to the community and the
community come to accept that prisoners are
its responsibility." (11.2.) Also in the draft
conclusions the import model
is referred to as one of the means to achieve
a better community and volunteer involvement.
What characteristics do inmates in the penal
institutions display?
- Many of them lack qualifications due to poor
performance in school
- Approx. 30% display reading and writing
problems (dyslexia).
- Many inmates have little or no work
ecperience.
- Many of them have no permanent residence
and no job at the time of their release from
prison.
- Many prisoners have little or no experience
of cultural or recreatinonal activities.
- Few inmates have been members of
organisations, clubs, or teams.
1 1
- Poor health status among inmates is above
average compared to the rest of the
population.
- A majority of the prison population
have drug- and alcohol problems.
- Some inmates are zeropositive, j. e.
infected by the HIV-virus).
Bearing in mind the disadvantaged clientele
which we find in prisons we shall now look
more closely at the authorities, educational
institutions and voluntary organisations
involved in the rehabilitation work for
inmates and the scope of this work.
Estimates show that the penal system receives
annual funds totalling approx. NOK 73 million
or US$ 10,7 million from various ministries
other than the Minisry of Justice itself.
Additionally there are services rendered by
various authorities, such as unpaid social and
cultural services, use of equipment and
facilities etc.
12
For 1989 a breakdown of the financial
contributions to prisons looks as
follows:
1. FROM THE MINISTRY OF CHURCH AND EDUCATION
At present teaching and training during the
day is offered to 20% or 450 inmates. Well
over 100 teachers are employed by the
general educational authority and teach
daily in the prisons.
The cost to the educational
authority is NOK 34,2 mill.
2. FROM THE MINISTRY OF HEALTH AND SOCIAL
AFFAIRS
Prison health service NOK 33,8 mill.
3. FROM THE MINISTRY OF CULTURAL AND
SCIENTIFIC AFFAIRS
Norwegian Directorate for
Public and School Libraries NOK 2,6 mill.
Prison library service
13
4. FROM THE MINISTRY OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT AND
14
LABOUR
Directorate of Labour
18 officers have been ear-
marked for work with the
Rehabilitation of
offenders NOK 1,8 mill.
We also receive contributions from:
5. THE MINISTRY OF DEFENCE
Free use of premises, equipment and
facilities from army camps.
6. THE NORWEGIAN RED CROSS
310 prison visitors visit inmates in 22
prisons. Free use of instructors,
equipment and facilities.
15
7. THE NORWEGIAN COLLEGE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
AND SPORT (NIH)
For years prison authorities have worked
closely with the Norwegian College of
Physical Education and Sport (NIH). As of
today there are two prisons which accept
students from NIH who practise teaching
there. This arrangement should be further
expanded.
All the measures which have been outlined
above are part of our efforts to share the
responsibility to combat crime with different
authorities - a fight which the police, the
Public Prosecution Authority, the courts of
law and the Prison Service are unable to
conduct alone. Crime and criminal behaviour
is a social problem - a problem which concerns
- us all.
16
THE SHARING OF RESPONSIBILITY BETWEEN
AUTHORITIES. EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS AND
VOLUNTARY ORGANISATION IN THE REHABILITATION
OF PRISONERS - THE "IMPORT MODEL". SUMMARY
A distinctive feature in the development of
shared responsibility for public services to
inmates, is that the prison administration has
not established its own services in all areas,
but has imported the different services into
the prison.
The import model has succesfully been applied
to the educational sector, and the responsi-
bility for both the subject matter and the
economy lies with the local school authori-
ties. The national government, through the
Ministry of Church and Education, provides a
full subsidy for all expenses in connection
with . prison educational programmes.
A further development of the import model has
been achieved through the 1980s within several
17
sectors of the prisons. The objective is to
ensure that inmates receive the same
services as other citizens within the health
sector, the labour marked sector and the
cultural and recreational sector. Our work is
still concentrated on expanding binding
cooperation between the various authorities.
These concepts are in line with the
guidelines adopted by the United Nations in
its standardised minimum rules for the
treatment of prisoners. The European
Committee on Crime Problems (Council of
Europe) has taken interest in the ideas of the
import model.
In the draft conclusions of the Ninth
Conference of Directors of Prison
Administrations (Council of Europe, April
1989), sPecial attention was drawn to the
import model and the importance of volunteer
and community involvement in prison systems.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE OHIO INMATE INTAKE POPULATION AND THE IMPLICATIONS
FOR CORRECTIONAL EDUCATION PROGRAMMING
A PAPER PRESENTED AT THE SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
PRISON EDUCATION, 1989 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY MILTON KEYNES, UK. •
I BY
JOHN F. LITTLEFIELD, Ph.D., CHIEF
DIVISION OF MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS OHIO DEPARTMENT OF REHABILITATION AND CORRECTION
COLUMBUS, OHIO, USA.
SEPTEMBER, 1989
ABSTRACT
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE OHIO INMATE INTAKE POPULATION AND
THE IMPLICATIONS FOR CORRECTIONAL EDUCATION PROGRAMMING
The paper looks at a sample of 1722 inmates received by the
Ohio Department of Rehabilitation and Correction in September
and October of 1985. The sample consisted of 166 females and
1556 males sent by the courts to begin serving various terms
of incarceration within the state prison system. The author
presents preliminary data on the characteristics of this
sample. Included in the presentation are the race, age,
claimed educational level, estimated time to serve, and tested
educational level which are described in the analysis. Based
on the description of the characteristics of this group, the
author makes a number of recommendations for the Ohio Central
School District, the education authority of the Ohio
Department of Rehabilitation and Correction. The author
concludes that the pnimary goal of the education programs is
to provide opportunities for the inmates to increase their
preparedness academically and vocationally for the transition
from the institution to the community.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE OHIO INMATE INTAKE POPULATION AND
THE IMPLICATIONS FOR CORRECTIONAL EDUCATION PROGRAMMING
INTRODUCTION
The prison systems in the United States consist of both state
and federal jurisdictions. In recent U.S. history, the level
of the prison population has reached epidemic proportions. A
recent publication by the Bureau of Justice Statistics of the
U.S. Department of Justice reported that the number of persons
under correctional supervision, in 1986, exceeded 3.2 million
or approximately 1.8% of the U.S. adult population. Of this
number, 272,736 were confined in jails and another 545,133
were in state or federal prisons (U.S. Department of Justice,
1989). The general characteristics of the incarcerated
population include significant alcohol and substance abuse,
above-average unemployment and under-employment, as well as a
general lack of basic educational skills such as functional
literacy and computational skills. Therefore, developing
educational programs for this population provides an enormous
task for the correctional education profession.
The State of Ohio has experienced similar difficulties,
although on a smaller scale. Ohio can generally be considered
representative of the larger United States. Ohio has both
rural and urban populations as well as a mix of both
industrial and agricultural enterprises. The Ohio Department
1
of Rehabilitation and Correction (DR&C), paralleling the
nation's experience, has experienced a tremendous growth in
the incarcerated population in the last decade. In 1979, the
total inmate population was 13,360. By the beginning of 1989,
the inmate population had increased to 25,857 and the
Department was experiencing record numbers of new commitments
being received at the three reception centers as reflected
by the latest intake count. Similarly, in almost every other
state prison system and the Federal Bureau of Prisons, the
adult incarcerated population has soared in the past decade.
The total U.S. prison population in 1976 was 314,457 as
compared to the 1986 census of prison population which totaled
545,133 (U.S. Dept. of Justice 1986, 1989). The combination
of the increase in the years of average prison sentences and
the increase in the rate of incarceration have exacerbated the
problem of overcrowding in our nation's prisons.
The questions most frequently asked of this population in
terms of educational need revolve around the areas of
educational and employment skills. The general consensus has
been that the majority of the incarcerated population have not
received a high school diploma or equivalency and that a
significant proportion are functionally illiterate. In
addition, this population suffers from extensive unemployment
and under-employment compared to the general population. The
purpose of this paper, then, is to analyze the characteristics
of the Ohio inmate intake population in an attempt to draw
conclusions and implications for the planning of
appropriate correctional education programs. Most literature
2
on adult correctional education include estimates of
educational and achievement levels of this special population.
In a national survey of correctional education programs in
1979, Raymond Bell and his colleagues estimated that over 50%
of the inmate population is illiterate and that over 90%
lacked a high school diploma. These figures were based on
previous estimates of the educational achievement of the
incarcerated learner (Bell, et al., 1979). One of the
objectives of this paper is to provide specific data regarding
these characteristics as well as other information germaine to
the problems of program development in the Ohio adult
correctional education system.
The Ohio Central School District was established as part of
the DR&C in 1974. A special school district charter was
granted by the Ohio Department of Education. Each of the
institutions served as branch campuses of the school district.
Currently, the Department of Rehabilitation and Correction
operates 21 correctional facilities. In response to the
expansion of the number of facilities, as well as to the
number of inmates within the system, the DR&C Bureau of
Education and Training has developed into regions which
administer the educational programs within the prisons. Over
4500 students are enrolled in academic programs and 850
enrolled in vocational programs in the 21 prison facilities
(See Appendix A). Current student enrollment represents about
20% of the total Ohio inmate population.
3
The Ohio Central School District has also increased the level
of funding for the operation of the academic, voçational,
pre-release, and library programs. A greater number of
teachers and related staff have been employed to provide
educational services. In addition, increased funding has been
received through the Ohio State Department of Education to
assist in the development and provision of educational
services (See Appendix 8).
OBJECTIVES
In the analysis, the following objectives will be addressed;
o To provide demographic characteristics of both the male and female inmates at the initial reception in the Ohio prison system.
o To provide general information concerning the type of felony, and other criminological information of this population.
o To present the available educational information on this population.
o Make recommendations concerning the design of correctional education programs for future Ohio Central School District programs.
PROCEDURES
The data for this report were gathered on all individuals who
entered the Ohio adult prison system in September and October
of 1985. This includes all new admissions that were received
froM the 88 counties in Ohio, all parole supervision violators
and shock probation violators who were returned for not
conforming to their respective parole and probation
guidelines, and those convicted of new felony offenses while
under parole supervision. A total of 1,722 individuals were
received in the three DR&C reception centers. The intake of
4
prisoners consisted of 166 females and 1,556 males.
Information was collected on these individuals and placed in
their respective inmate master files. The inmate master files
will be transferred with the inmate during his/her
incarceration. The data for this analysis was collected at
both the reception centers during the intake process, and at
the institutions. This aspect of the study is the first phase
of a longitudinal study of this group of individuals.
Currently, data are being collected on the institutional
aspects of the group's behavior; and the final phase of
the study will collect data on the group's post release
behavior.
FINDINGS
In 1985, the Ohio Department of Rehabilitation and Correction
received approximately 9,100 inmates into the three reception
centers. Currently, the average number received on an annual
basis exceeds 11,000. Therefore, the number of inmates
included in this sample is approximately 18.9% of the total
number received for the year 1985.
As mentioned above, a total of 1,722 individuals were included
in the study. One hundred sixty-six females were received in
the Months of September and October of 1985; and one thousand
five hundred fifty-six males were received. The reception
sample of 1977, with 9.6% females and 90.4% males approximated
the annual percentage of females and males received by DR&C in
1985. Racially, the male intake consisted of nearly 40%
black, less than 2% Hispanic, and the balance of 58% white.
5
The females, however, were over 55% black, less than 1%
Hispanic, and 43.4% white.
Table 1. Racial Breakdown of 1985 Intake Sample
Race 4 of Females % of Males
Black 55.42 92 39.72 618
White 43.37 72 58.48 910
Hispanic .60 1 1.74 27 Native American .60 1 .06 1
Totals 100.00 166 100.00 1556
Data were also gathered on the employment status at the time
of arrest for the offense. Over 32.5% were unemployed at the
time of arrest, while only 21.78% reported being employed
full-time at the time of the offense. The data concerning the
employment status of the offenders (as well as a number of
other variables) were self-reported. This information was not
verified either during the data gathering process, nor after
the reception process was complete. Although the
information is assumed to be reliable, it has not been
verified. The self-reported data includes: Employment Status,
Marital Status, and Claimed Educational Level which will be
• presented below.
6
Employment Status
% of % of Females N Males
Table 3. Marital Status of 1985 Intake Sample
Marital % of % of Status Females N Males
Single 50.0 83 50.2 781 Married 13.9 23 23.7 368 Divorced 15.7 26 8.2 127 Widowed 4.2 7 .2 4 Separated 6.6 11 3.1 48 Common Law 2.4 4 14.3 22 No Response 7.2 12 .3 5
Totals 100.0 166 100.0 1556
Table 2. Employment Status of 1985 Intake Sample
Employed Full Time 13.26 23 22.69 353 Employed Part Time 3.01 5 1.87 29 Unemployed 47.59 79 30.91 481 Disabled 0.00 0 .96 15 Student 0.00 0 .90 14 Housewife .60 1 0.00 0 No Response 34.94 58 42.67 664
Totals 100.00 166 100.00 1556
The marital status of the inmates was also recorded during the
initial intake process. For both males and females,
approximately 50% reported being single, while only 16% of the
females reported being married or in common law relationships.
The males, however, reported that 38% were either married or
in common law relationships.
The age at the time of arrest is interesting to note for each
of the sub-samples of the population. Nearly half of the
7
Totals 100.0 166 100.0 1556
females were 29 years or under at the time of the arrest and
for the males 62.6% were 29 years or under at the time of
arrest. Over 88% of this sample were under the age of 40.
Table 4. Age at the Time of Arrest - 1985 Intake Sample
Age at the Time of Arrest
% of % of Females N Males N
Under 20 20 - 24 years 25 - 29 years 30 - 34 years 35 - 39 years 40 - 44 years 45 years & older
5.4 9 9.3 145
19.3 32 28.6 445
23.5 39 24.7 384
24.7 41 17.2 268
16.9 28 8.6 134
8.4 14 5.7 89
1.8 3 5.9 91
Another area of concern for the correctional education
administrator is whether or not the inmate has a history of
drug and/or alcohol abuse, or a history of mental illness.
Table S. summarizes the information collected during the
reception process as well as information gathered from
Pre-Sentence Investigations (PSI).
8
Females (N=166) Alcohol Abuse 22.3 Drug Abuse 44.0 Mental Illness 20.5
37 73 34
78 44 80
51 49 52
47.0 26.5 48.2
30.7 29.5 31.3
Table 5. Presence of the History of Alcohol Abuse, Drug Abuse, or Mental Illness in the 1985 Intake Sample
No Missing
% N % N % N
Yes
Males (N=1556) Alcohol Abuse 42.4 660 57.4 893 .2 3 Drug Abuse 38.9 605 60.9 948 .2 3 Mental Illness 13.7 213 85.7 1334 .6 9
As part of the initial reception process, inmates are
classified into security levels. The DR&C currently uses four
security classification levels: maximum, close, medium,
and minimum security. The classifications are based on the
severity of the crime, years to be served, whether violence
has been part of the current crime, evidence of escapes or
escape attempts, and previous criminal history. Initial
security designations will assist
reception coordinators in determining which institutions
inmates should be sent to. The data, as presented in Table 6,
show that a majority of the females and over 33% of the males
are 'initially classified as minimum security. In addition,
over 85% of the females and 77% of the males are classified as
medium security or less.
9
Table 6. Initial Security Classification - 1985 Intake Sample
Initial Security lc of % of Classification Females N Males
Maximum Security 0.0 0 0.4 7
Close Security 0.6 1 15.0 233 Medium Security 24.7 41 43.2 672
Minimum Security 63.3 105 34.1 530
Missing Data 11.4 19 7.3 114
Totals 100.0 166 100.0 1556
The data collection process also included a recording of the
estimated length of incarceration for individual inmates.
Calculations were based on the date of admission into the
prison system and the date of the inmates' first parole
hearing or the end of the definite sentence release date. The
difference between the two were calculated and recorded. Ohio
has both determinate and indeterminate sentencing. The type
of sentences are dependent upon the severity of the crime and
the level of the felony. Generally, the lower levels of
felonies are determinate sentences; as the felony level
increases, a greater proportion of the sentences are
indeterminate. The significance of the data on the estimated
time of release is that the inmate will be aware of his/her
first parole or release date. Inmate decisions regarding
whether or not to participate in correctional education
programs may be influenced by their perception regarding the
length of time of their incarceration. It is believed that
the inmate would then consciously or unconsciously determine
if he/she would have "enough time" to get involved in academic
or vocational programs within the institution. The estimated
10
Totals 100.0 166 100.0 1556
time of release may also influence educational counselors
regarding the placement of the inmates into academic and
vocational programs.
As summarized in Table 7, the majority of the sample have an
estimated time of release of 2 years or less. A significant
percentage of the inmates are estimated to spend less than a
year in the prison system. It should also be noted that 12%
of the sample group had estimated release dates of 5 years or
more. This group may tend to increase proportionately in the
population as the "short timers" matriculate through the
prison system and return to the community.
Table 7. Estimated Time of Release for the 1985 Intake Sample
Estimated Release Time % Females N % Males N
1 year or less 53.6 89 44.9 761 1.1 - 2 years 26.5 44 21.9 341 2.1 - 3 years 6.6 11 10.4 162 3.1 - 4 years 7.3 12 7.8 121 4.1 - 5 years 3.0 5 3.0 48 5.1 yrs or more 3.0 5 12.0 186
Another area of self-reported data involves the claimed
educational level. Inmates are requested to give the last
grade level of school attended and to state whether or not
they have earned a high school diploma or a high school
equivalency certificate (GED). Over 42% of the
females and 60% of the males in the sample reported they did
not complete high school. The claimed educational level is
11
88 138 246 377 372 209 126
5.7 8.8
15.8 24.3 23.9 13.4 8.1
0.0 - 2.0 2.1 - 4.0 4.1 - 6.0 6.1 - 8.0 8.1 - 10.0 10.1 or above Missing Data
Totals 100.0 1556
summarized in Table 8.
Table 8. Claimed Educational Level - 1985 Intake Sample
Claimed Educational Level
Is of % of Females N Males
6th Grade or Less 1.2 2 2.0 31
7th to 12th Grade 41.0 68 57.3 891
High School/GED 15.1 25 29.6 461 Beyond High School 9.6 16 10.3 160 Missing Data 33.1 55 .8 13
Totals 100.0 166 100.0 1556
During the reception process the inmates are administered the
Test of Adult Basic Education to determine the approximate
level of educational achievement. The Test of Adult Basic
Education measures achievement in the areas of reading,
grammar, spelling, and math. The composite grade level scores
of the Test of Adult Basic Education were used in the
following table. The test results of the female sample of the
1985 Intake Study were not available or were not recorded at
the time of the initial data collection and, therefore, only
male data are reported in Table 9.
Table 9. Tested Educational Level of the 1985 Intake Sample
Tested Grade Level % of Males N of Males
12
SUMMARY
From the above data, the general characteristics of the male
and female offenders upon entry to the correctional system are
similar to a certain degree. Offenders are disproportionately
black. Over 41.2% of the offender population is black versus
9.97% of the overall Ohio population (U.S. Census 1980). A
significant number of offenders were unemployed at the time of
arrest. Over 32.5% reported that they were unemployed at the
time of arrest, and only 21.8% of the offender population
reported being employed full-time at the time of arrest. The
majority of the intake sample is under the age of 30 and
nearly 90% of this population is under the age of 40. A
significant portion of the offender population at initial
reception has acknowledged the influence of alcohol and drug
abuse, as well as a high proportion of this group have
experienced some mental illness. Another interesting aspect
of this analysis is that the over three-quarters of this
population is classified as medium and minimum security, and
the vast majority are expected to serve less that 2 years of
prison time.
Over time there will probably be a gradual concentration of
long-term offenders in the close and maximum security
institutions. As the short term offenders are received and
processed through the system, the rate of turnover in the
medium and minimum security institutions will increase.
Meanwhile, the higher security institutions will probably
13
I
• 14
stagnate relative ta the turnover rate in the lower security
institutions because of the concentration of long.term
offenders in the higher security institutions.
CONCLUSION
The challenge, then, is ta determine the best educational
programs appropriate to the population and the resources
available. Currently, the DR&C offers a variety of programs
including Adult Basic Education, High School Equivalency
Preparation (GED), vocational, and pre-release programs. In
addition, post-secondary institutions offer both academic and
technical programs at the Associate and Bachelor's degree
level. The Adult Basic Education Programs concentrate on
basic literacy and computational skills. Adult Basic
Education (ABE) is mandatory for those inmates which test
below the 6th grade level on the Test of Adult Basic
Education. Inmates are required to participate in the ABE
program for at least 90 days or 1 quarter. Attendance beyond
the initial 90 days is voluntary. GED classes prepare
students for Test of General Educational Development; when the
GED is passed, the student is awarded a high school
equivalency certificate. This certificate is widely
recognized in lieu of a high school diploma for bath
employment and college entrance requirements.
One of the advantages of the Adult Basic Education program is
that students are able ta enter the program on a "open entry,
open exit" basis. This allows for the students to come into
the program throughout the time of incarceration. When
transfers to other institutions occur; inmates are able to
continue their education without a tremendous disruption.
The vocational education programs on the other hand are based
on the high school standards developed for the public school
systems in the State of Ohio. Generally, these programs
require 720 hours of both classroom instruction and lab
participation. Within the prison system, this takes
approximately 6 to 8 months to acquire. With the rapid
turnover of a significant number of inmates in the system, the
opportunity to participate in the vocational education
programs is effectively denied to a large proportion of the
population. With the ti. me required for initial processing,
adaptation to the "home" institution and the future of
possible transfer to another institutidn, the chance for
enough time to complete a vocational program is greatly
diminished.
The same holds true for post-secondary educational
opportunities. The initial quarter/semester of education may
be a possibility, but the chance to complete an associates'
degree is prohibitive, unless the inmate is doing a
significant amount of time. The colleges and universities
which offer post-secondary educational programs in the prisons
are locked into their respective quarter and semester
calendars. The academic terms for the prisons replicate the
calendars of the sponsoring post-secondary institution.
Administratively, it is justifiable to operate in this manner;
but, given the situation of the incarcerated student it may
15
not be the optimum method to provide post-secondary
educational opportunities.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendations are based on an analysis of the
intake population sample of the months of September and
October of 1985. The 1722 inmates selected are considered to
be representative of the general population of inmates
received by the DR&C. These recommendations are made in the
hope that the educational programs will become more attuned to
the characteristic needs of the inmates received in Ohio.
Adult Basic Education
o Continue to provide mandatory education programs for those
inmates testing below the 6th grade level. The mission of
the education department should be to deliver literacy
programs to those who are most lacking in basic skills.
The ABE programs should also continue the "open entry,
open exit" method of enrollment and continuing efforts
should be made to assist students in their transition from
one institution to another within the system.
GED
o The preparation for the GED should be continued and most
likely be enhanced with the future acquisition of computer
assisted instructional programs. In fact, the CAI program
will improve the delivery mechanism of bath the Adult
Basic Education as well as the preparation for the high
school equivalency tests.
16
Vocational Education
o The opportunity for vocational training is limited due to
the structure and time requirements of these programs.
The Department should endeavor to work with the State
Department of Education to restructure the program
requirements into shorter time segments. One program that
has received some success has been used in the Kentucky,
Michigan, and New Mexico prison systems (Norton,
Kiplinger, and Littlefield, 1986). The specific vocational
course remains basically intact. The training is divided
into specific skill areas or modules. Specific skill
areas can then be mastered by the student in about a month
to 6 weeks. Once the student completes the first training
module, then he/she is eligible for a certificate for that
module. If the student is able to continue the training,
then he/she may enroll in the next module. The student
continues to gain skills in each module that he/she has
time to complete. Once the student completes all of the
basic training modules then a certificate outlining all
the modules of the total vocational program is granted.
If the student is unable to complete all of the modules,
at least he/she has documentation of training in one or
several modules. For example, in an automotive mechanics
program, the modules may consist of subtopics: Engine
Tune-ups, Brakes, Transmissions, Carburetors, Automotive
Electronics, etc. Each of these modules would be broken
down into four to six week segments and each could be
17
mastered in a relatively short time period. This would
allow a greater number of inmates to have the opportunity
to gain some much needed vocational skills prior to
returning to the community.
Post-SecondarY Education
o The efficient transfer of information and documents
among the participating post-secondary institutions is
essential. The DR&C has made strides to assist in this
process by convening the Ohio Penal Education Consortium
(OPEC). The members of this group consist of
representatives from each of the post-secondary schools
offering college-level programs in Ohio prisons. In
addition, these representatives of the DR&C are also
voting members of OPEC. The primary objective of the
consortium is to increase the communication among the
member colleges and the Department, and to attempt to
solve mutual problems. One consistent problem is the
transfer of academic credit as well as tuition grant
information. Each educational institution processes
information differently and attempts at cooperation have
not yet developed into an efficient system of
information transfer.
Other Recommendations
The Department of Rehabilitation and Correction should
continue to support both the substance abuse program and the
pre-release programs. With the significant percentage of
offenders who have substance abuse problems, the need for
18
these programs is evident and should be continued as a high
priority of the Social Services section of the Department.
The development and enhancement of the Pre-Release programs
should continue. This program provides an inmate with the
opportunity to improve his employment and transition skills
prior to release to community. The Pre-Release Program
concentrates on job readiness, job seeking, and job retention
skills. Given the high unemployment of the intake population,
these employment, as well as the transition skills are needed
to increase the basic chance of obtaining employment once the
inmate is released to community.
Finally, the concept of integrating the total academic,
vocational, and work experiences while incarcerated into as
meaningful a continuum should be the highest priority of the
Bureau of Education and Training. The Training, Industry and
Education (T.I.E.) conept as presented by the Ohio Plan by the
Department of Rehabilitation and Correction needs to be
fulfilled. An on-going process of honing and developing
linkages within the correctional system among academic and
vocational education and related job assignments within the
incarceration experience would give greater meaning to the
inmates prison time and enhance the chances of success after
relèase. The develOpment of an academic and vocational
transcript with an associated job portfolio will assist the
ex-offender in the transition from the institution to the
community and, hopefully, to become a tax payer rather than a
tax burden.
19
ABE 1309 29%
GED 559 12% MABE
398 9%
PSE-T 298 6%
Business 108 13%
Culinary 93 11%
Textiles 43 5%
Automotive 124 15%
Tech/Manuf 87 10%
Welding 56 7% Barber
29 3%
PSE-A 2027 44% Construction
310 36%
SO OM 11111 UM 1111111 MI MI ale MI Mg UM Mt 11110 11111
Ohio Central School District Educational Program Enrollment
Total Enrollment = 5431 students
Academic Programs Vocational Programs (4581 students) (850 students)
Source: DR&C Education Bureau 4/89
POPULATION STUDENT AREA BREAKDOWN BY INSTITUTION
Humber Enrolled 650
500 I-
C C D F a C a C P C I C I R I
C
H L C C F I
L 4 1.1 0 A C C C I I I
Institution
0 0 0 P R 8 CR itCCC I WR I I I
A
460
400
360
300
260
200
160
100
50
0
AcadsmIc Vocational
Source: Training, Industry & Education Date: April 14, 1989
10113 all MI ale 1111111
um tali aub am am um mu is 11111 11111 allb ISM OM OM UM
Ali- Del:ailment f Rehabilitati.m and Corrti,,
01 1 i, Central Sou , ,1 District advational il I ijt1i Awar.-1,1
July 1, 1187 - Juo , Ij88
AC1 CC1 DIII vF LEL1 Li[ LOCI MAC1 MCI ur! qhW OSk WI kCl 3GC.1 el T(:tal
High School Equivalency 2 5 55 0 11 54 4? III 7', hf. d4 ,8 11r.: 41 33 4 118 11;92
ICED)
ABE Certificates 6 12 11 10 117 U 411 57 ,i0 .1.) 51 52 .,
i. 14 •17 .1 574
' High School Diploma d d q 11 d 0 0 d 11 0 15 d d 0 31
u /
Vocational d 62 1 5 8J 3Z 56 0 47 I :II :12 0 i; ::1 III 57 .3
Collile: Tech. 1 Yr. 0 15 1 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 14 d 0 0 0 0 11
AA 2 yrs. 0 I d 3 16 10 41., 0 6 5 2'.; 14 0 1 3 4 0 213
ES 1 yrs. 0 û d d 10 2 0 0 d d 0 1 0 L 0 0 15
Apprenticeships J J d 0 0 4 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 1
Total 35 1 15 81 42 340 163 250 134 138 1411 241 326 43 51 14 -.1 184 2517
ACI
CC'
DCI
BCE
LeCT
LCI
NCI
LoCI
OCT
ORW
Ohio Dept. of Rehabilitation & Correction Ohio Central School District
Cumulative Enrollment By Institution
July 1, 1987 - June 30, 1988
High
MIE School Special Vocational College College College
Institution FT FT Programs Ed. In-House Corr. Tech. Total
288 0 0 8 87 17 0 400
371 0 0 141 570 NG 225 1.156
429 0 0 21 203 0 0 653
173 0 0 16 186 21 0 426
509 172 172 256 125 0 0 1534
593 0 25 225 810 27 0 1680
MCI 370 0 0 52 40 18 0 480
423 0 0 160 32 38 132 785
496 0 0 135 328 99 89 1147
477 0 0 56 353 25 0 911
601 0 11 168 172 38 35 1058
OSR 395 165 76 239 313 0 0 1218
PC1
RCI 777 0 0 40 508 56 . 42 1423
SOU 513 0 0 86 380 41 0 1020
SC1 547 0 316 183 520 111 132 1809
Totals 71 -18 33 1 633 1819 5139 158 65 16189
186 0 0 0 182 121 0 489
Ili Me MIMI MO IMO IS Mlle I. VIP 1111111 ale fie 1111111 IMP ill ill OM
Ohio Department oe Rehabilitation and Correction Ohio Central School District Average Quarterly Enrollment Julv 1, 1987 - June 30, 1988
Hieh Suecial Colleee Colleee College Institution ABE School Programs Vocational In-House Tech. Lor i' . Total
Ad I 76 0 6.5 69 0 0 131.5
CCI 148.5 0 59.75 105.25 53.3 27.25 394.23
DCI 111.73 0 7.5 76 0 0 193.25
11CP 30 0 11.5 0 48 4.75 114.25
LECI 210.25 79.75 24.5 96.75 297.75 0 0 709
LCI 148.75 6 72 202.5 0 6.75 436
LCCI 195.3 0 53 190.5 40.5 76.3 556
MACI 107.75 0 15 22.23 0 6.75 131.75
>ICI 187 0 104.3 51.3 72.5 . 49 464.5
OCI 172 0 32 136.6 0 13.6 334.2
OR W 242.73 0 14.5 63.75 95.73 34.5 25.73 479
OSR 162.5 69.25 17.73 111.25 170.73 0 0 5 1.5
PCI 6.6.3 0 0 0 27.3 0 0 93.6
RCI 193 0 0 17.5 134.5 10.5 17 372.5
SOC 170 0 0 37.3 219.25 0 20.25 447
SCI 120 0 79 43.75 130 33 27.73 435.5
TOTALS 2362.03 149 141.75 736.25 1928.9 292.5 275.33 5883.8
and— .
3 4.1:::..):; Ii.:•,....:::. ;1
-....,::A ..-,ha9,,,..r : :::?.,:,..... F.: -.:•,-;:r»...,r. i'...:).117..:):; 2'....:',...1. 4,:;.3e 3::',4.'d'.....',.. i'.4.: .;:,;•; 3:::.:.: —.. .!
3:7.:A Cn... ? „...... :. :3:aff D.E....el:p;3'.1.'.14.:;(': 3Y; 1 ". iiG.F."..A...) 1:. i',.4:;.,.':: ::. j...1 . r.!.̀.111
.ipi•:::...,». i''',.:; , '; :',.):) 3;',...)1) i:1 1 ..;':',...::: ' le
I II
5:Ze.C'..a: `.1:: ,...4.:: i'..... ,.) 1.:C.,.1.'; , '; ) 111
';.;c:i.zi•;:•.a .. Up».. -, F.1:•••'.'.r.q. i' ...17:;.:).`: *.s.••: '1' ii,1 ,2.!.5:;?•,...M 3: ''." ';',....':1'. , iïl'...::::.; ...;
.....,.;:ar7
11 ',F..; - ..: '.. r•r:7 ".:1;:•:•7::2i.: ,. -..i. 3:: .̀1,18 ,z..,)1) 3 .,";.3!:j.li:. 31.15:.*;.; 3'.:.4":',..M !II' :;!.';'111
';• -...,::r,eir 7...; -....É 7:74.f.r.: i • •''. i'.:;.' i'fl.....'i•";‘'. i'.•: : .. 1 i.......,1,:::..11
, :; 10 7 .... •.- — :•
...31 .1.:'_ -.• --;.•—cazi;r. i'..:.1.0 .e;:,:`,.: :::;.?,,,,, . ',.; 11•'..i,"-;:'...)..• :1";.».:....:, i.:.:.;"....;
I
••••
•••• dr•••■•1
•:•••••I i i
1• •••••
St
M Vocational
L.1 Grant Totale
MI Academic
111111 JTPA
Library
UM ISO MI 1111111 1111 al. INC 1111111 IIIIII III OM IN III 111•1
3000
2600
2000
1600
1000
600
0
Dept. of Rehabilitation & Correction Ohio Central School District Educational Funding - Grants
Thousands
1984 1986 1986 1987 1988
Source: Bureau of Education
REFERENCES
Bell, R.; Collard, E.; Laffey, T.; Lutz, J. G.; Miller, P. V.; Simon, C.; Stakelon, A.; and Wilson, N. J. Correctional Education Programs for Inmates: National Evaluation Program Phase I Report. Bethlehem, PA: School of Education, Lehigh University, 1979. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 175 982).
Norton, Lee; Kiplinger, Janet; Littlefield, John F., Improving Vocational Education Opportunities for Female Offenders, Columbus, Ohio: The National Center for Research in Vocational Education, 1987.
U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1980 Census of the Population - General Population Characteristics, Volume 1. Washington, D. C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1983.
U.S. Department of Justice., Prisoners in State and Federal Institutions on December 31, 1983. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, June, 1986.
U.S. Department of Justice., Correctional Populations in the United States, 1986. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, February, 1989.
SECOND ITEMINATICUL CONFERENCE ON PRISON EDUCATION, 1989
TEE RCM ap CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT LN' PRISON EDUCATION:
TEE TAIZANIA EXIMMarE
(Presented by JUMANNE "RADJI MAMMA — COMMISSIONER CP TAEZelIA PRISONS)
INTRODUCTION: •
This . ba,pEsfrtries to give in brief the role played by curriculum
development'in enhancirE education in prisons: Tanzania has been taken
as the country of reference and that particular attention has been placed
to the Tanzania Prisons.'
In trying to elaborate the extent to which a good desiGmed curricula
can helm to enhance learning in any institution, the experience of Tanzania
as the basis of comparison taking into consideration that curriculum itself
is governed by educational airn and objectives which in most cases are
pronounced by the . governments or political parties in different countries.-
The Damer bas been divided into three main parts. Part one of this
paper forms the introductory part under which apart from introducing the
general issues discussed in this paper, brief examination of educational
history and development in Tanzania before and after indemendence will
be highlighted: The second part has been dedicated to education in
Tanzania Prisons whereby the last part will appraise the role ever played
by curriculum used to consolidate education in Tanzania Prisons.
Before the Germans and the British as colonial administrators came
to Tanzania, formal education was non existent in the country. With the
coming of those colonial masters is when the first schools were built
and formal education in'z'oduced in the country. Few :Primary Schools
and later some Secondary Schools were built to ovide clerks, teachers,
junior administrative cadres and the messengers to serve the running of
administration in the country.
As days went on education started to get tempo in different parts
of the country and that parents started to think of taking their children
to schools thoue the majority of them could not afford the fees charged
at that time given that incomes of the majority was still very low.
As the result in many places very few got education. Nith thatwe
find that it was the coming of Germans and later the British as
administrators which mnrked the introduction of formal education in
. Tanzaniawhich by thenwas known as Tanganyika.
1
2 —
Af. ter attainment of her indemendence in December 1961, Tanzania
contirrend to offer education quite similar and. within the trend. left
by the former colonial Plasters. Given the fadt that malzi scb.00l ae
children could not go to sc.b.00l due to the above given reasons, the
de.cision was reached. to see how education could have been for the
majority instead of the minority as Irac the original case.
In 1967 Tanzanis. released the Policy paper on education krioirn as
Education for Self Reliar_ce. Mie air. of the Education for Self Reliance
was to make sure that education .'r.iven in the country is received. by
the majorii-t.y. Despite making sure that the majority .get education.,
F.aucation for Self -..teliance also gave the general aims of educa.tion in
Tar-zan4.1.2... It -ls the release of L:aucation for Self Reliance as policy
paper which r.-arked the turnir--r point of education in Tanzania..
■That is -Education for Self Reliance?
The pro and Post inde -cendence tv - -a e of education zuve wrong notion
to the 1-.-Linds of the reci -oients. Education was re.garded. as training for
the skills reouired to earn hict salaries in the modern sector of the
econory. Given the needs of the country, the above notion was therefore
rejected by givincr a clear direction on wl-la.t type of ed_ucation was to be
pursued in Tar_ze..nia. Education for Self Reliance was a policy pa-Per
issued to carter for what t7y-oe of education was reauired in Tanzania.
The definition for Education for Self Reliezme was given by Te.:walimu.
1.7yerere to be lfae 'type of education which need to encourage develo -oment .
and inculcate to each reciPie,nt, an e:nquiry mind, an ability to learn
from what others do e and reject or ads.. -ot it to his crun neec3_s, the tyne
which G.-ives the recipient basic confidence in his own. Position as an
equal member of the society, to value others as well as beirc, valued
by them for what he does and. not for what he obtaizis. irarrowly defined.,
Edu.cation. for Self Relia-nce is education which is relevant, applicable,
inculcatLig critical thii±ing and co—operation.
3 ■•••
1
1
I I Relevant education is the one whose content and methods are connected
with the needs and aspirations of the country, and that it àhould be
education for understanding and aavancing the country by relatinE nresent
and future needs, one which can helm to tn-msmit from one Eeneration to
the nezt the accumulated wisdom and knaaledge by PrenarirT2 the people for
their active role in the maintanance and develonment of the country -
these are essential since no society is states but are all in state of fluz.
Atmlicable education means education:Inch offers and rende-s the
learned knowledEe and skills to be applicable in the real country situation.
This is simply an application of learned knauleam and skills through action.
The education which helps to inculcate the critical thinking to the
learners is the type which cultivates an ability to discover, to create
and to ezPress. In so doing, itwill hein to dovelon critical and
dependable minds. Critical thinking menas nothing short of ability to
Probe into issues, relate and have solutions -.workable solutions for
tlat matte -r•.
:Lastly is that the relevant, atplicable ana critical education will
be meaningless if the learner will be uncome-ative. In order to
the three cualities of Education for SeLf Reliance as defined above,
education must instil a sense of co-operative endouver. This simpb-
means individuals self azcellencewità co-oreration. It is with co-creration
when the learned knouledge can be applied for the benefit of the majority.
Adult Education in Tanzania:-
Education for Self Reliance was Pronounced ,s an official Policy
na2er on educational issues in Tanzania since 1967. In order to effect
the Education for Self Reliance as a policy, there was need to make sure
every citizen had the rirT;lt to receive education for the benefit of the
whole society.' This could have been a tidious task if there couldn't
have been demarcation between education to whom.
Ilearly in every society there is a clear demarcation between formal
and non-formal education. It is eouallv easy to conduct formal education
since this is more structured as compared to non-formal education.
27on-formal education starts at home ana continues throush the adulthood.
Sens 4 r- the danger that there were adults who couldn't read and w7-ite,
the country launched Adult Education to care both for those :rno didn't
go to school and those who did. Adult Education was therefore . launched
to mplement ti , e Policies advocated:by Education for Self Reliance as a
nolicy parer.
-4- 1 It is wrong to think that Adult Education was simmly launched to
ensIxe that the illiterate citizens could know haw to read and write.
Adult education actually goes beyond simply learuing to read and write.
It was explained that adult education means learning about anything at
all which can helm us to understand oui' enviroment we live in, and a
manner in which that can be done in order to effect changes in oui' day
to day life. It is simply to learn by doing and to lern what one wants
to learn. It means all educational activities mlanned for adults outside .
the formal school system.
A-cart from learning how to read and write, the other important branch
of adult education is vocational training. It is within vocational training
framework -where the recipients can actually engage in learning by doing.
Statistics show that 54 -; of all Tanzanians above the school age can read and write. Desmite such achievement through adult education cammaigns,
yet we can not afford to underate the share of vocational training in
Tanzanian development. Through vocational training, we have managed to
produce good craftsmen, artisans, and the like. Given our low level of
technological develomment, yet we can still never underestimate the share
of vocational training in enhancing small holder farmers, cattle keeping
and other non—formal activities which forms the backbone of our mrimary econorTf.
It is concluded that when one talks of Education in Tanzania l one do talk of Education for Self 2eliance. At the same time when one talks of non—formal educational in Tanzania, this refers to nothing short of
Adult Education with its sub—branches which are consolidated to take care
of differenct needs of the society given the bachounds of learners. Any Educational activities in Tanzania can only -be evaluated within the
above framework since Education for Self 2eliance remains the only official policy maper givir.P• direction of all educatonal aci-Av4ties in the country.
5
02. 1=01702,211107
As pointed in the introductory part of this maper, much emphasis
has been ulaced on education in Tanzania. Since education is an instrument
of social change, every society strives to make sure that education rbceived
is the one which is beneficial to the needs of that society.
Tanzania as a ievelouing country did proncqmee Education for Self
Reliance as a directional uolioy rauer regarding educational matters in
Itnzania. At the same time we find that avery society lias fmt its needs
and problems. The needs and urdblems of any society are created by
advances or lack of advances in science and technolou,r, commerce, industry,
law and order, molitics, diulomacy, economics, defence, medicine, human
relations, etc. To deal with such -zoblems and necds, there are institutions
within the society itself suecifically designed to deal with such areas.
Prisons is one of the institutions designed to deal with certain needs of
the society.
By law, Tansania Prisons is a correctional institution charged with
the task of rehabilitation of convicted of-'enders in Tanzania. In order
to make sure that the above task is urouerly uerformed, activities taking
place ins ide and within the prisons are linked with the actual life in
the society. With that tssk, the Purpose of education in Tanzania Prisons
is to preuare the inmates for real life in the society when they finished
their sentences. In short, we say that education in Tanzania Prisons is
part of the whole educational system in the Tanzania since the inmates are
prepared to 3o back and serve the same society after completir their
sentences and that's why we say that the principal task of Tanzania Prisons
is the rehabilitation of convicted off enders in the society.
Since edueation in Tanzania Prisons is part and marcel of the
educational systems within the country, the azamination of educational
dbjectivies and aims have remained within the Education for Self Reliance
framework. To effect that, we are trying our level -best to make sure that
edueation 3iven to the inmates do aim at eauiping them with the knowledge,
skills and attitudes for tackling the society Problem upon their return
back to their free life takir into consideration that imprisonment means
restricted life.
flat T7Pe of laducation Taldng Place in Tanzania Prisons?
Disciplinewise ; education offered in Tanzania Prisons is just
similar with education offered in other institutions such as vocational
training schools, folk develoPment colleges and other trade schools.
By basing our education on learning by doing, we do find that ours
is nonformal based education.
Given the advantages of nonr.formal education and taking into
consideration the differing backgrounds of the inmates, non,formal
education has been found to bemry advantageous in the Prisons situation.
The advantages of non—formai education is that learners can learn «what
they want in ordor to solve szecific problems or set scecific knowledge
required.
liducation in Tanzania Prisons is divided in-tot-0 main parts.
Part one demis with the education for Prison staff while the other part
deals -Jitn education for prisoners. Cne can not talk of education for
learners without giving account to education for their tutors. Similarly,
in Tanzania we do talk of education for Prisoners as related to education
for Prison staff since the later are the tutors of the former.
Giving the level of develoPment in Tanzania to the moment, we
haven't embarked on formai education to the jhunate.s. Formal education
is still given only to the prison staff encept to youn,.: offenders who
undergo formal rrimary school education -which is uniform all over the
country. Ue have got a special Prison for young offenders where they
don't min- ;iitn other Prisoners encePt themselves. It is within the
said Prison where we have a primary school for young off enders.
The Prison staff do get their formal education outside the prisons
demendin7 on the discipline concerned. From this stand:mint we have
got sualified lawyers, doctors, economists ; accountants, a=iculturalists,
engineors, social workers, administrators, teachers, etc. Coupled -with
formai edueation received outside the Prisons, we do have our awn few
vocational training schools apart from prison administrative colleges
known as staff colleges. From the above we find that the basis of
education for trisoners is education for staff given the country's
educational policies. Together with the above, we have got one secondary
school where our Prison staff who haven't undergone secondai - education
are taken for their formal secondary school education.
Apart from the prison staff, on the other hand ue have got Prisoner's.
It has been mointed out earlier that education provided to the Prisoners
must helm and pretare them towards life in the society when they
commlete their sentences.
The question than -nises that what is the best tyme of education
to the inmates? Tao will determine the best education to the inmates?
Such auestions and the like are not easy to tackle. Zowever, we do agree
that since the general educational framework has already been given by
the Education for Self Reliance policy paper then cornes the auestion of
how the implementation of Education for Self Reliance can be done within
the prisons contamt.
It is true that the available facilities in the country do not
allau the introduction of formal education system within the Tanzania
Prisons coutemt. Beariuz in minci such limitations, we came to conclude
that it is vocational education system which can help to serve the purPose.
Ibwever, those who ao enter the Prisons illiterate rare er:rolled in special'
classes to enable them learn how to read and write.
In determining what tyPe of vocational training is suitable to
which inmate, the educational background. and . the emPerionce of the prisoner
is used in the determination of their classificatior. Peasants will be
taken to trison farms where they are tau;jht modern ways of asricultural
Production. The pastoralists are taken to the Prison ranches where
they learn modern ways of cattle rearire'; Artisans and craftsmen are
Posted to various prison buildingbrigades where thg7 continue to sharPen
their Iniauledge. The Prisons itself have Tot a vocational training
colleze where masonry, mlubbing, carPentry, electrical installation and
Painting are taoh±t among other disciplines. Those who mass through
our vocational training college finally do sit for national traie test
enuminations and if successful are awarded trade test ce-tificatas
recognised all over the country.
Tanza ..rla prisons do run and operate a nuMber of small scale industries.
Our common induztries include metal works, soap making, shoe makinz,
handcrafts, salt Processing, lime mining and wood work to include
car;entry and :- ener-al furniture making. The above small scale industries
do provide ve-fly adeauate training grounds on the trades concerned for
those who do not qualify to be taken either in the Prison farms, building
brigades and the colleges.
8 ed.
Since most training is matched with pradtice, it has been very
easy for the inmates to learn the actual aspects of their training.
IL prisoner posted in the furniture factory is taught first in theory
haw to maim different furnitares and later given wood to make certain
furnitures - first under sumervision and later justby assignment umon
successful demonstration of ones camability..
Our education in prisons is mostly gauzed in vocational training
since this is the best way o 1iin law, medium amd h-là technology.
Vocational training is given mucà wei2at uità the view of improving oui'
developi= technology since technology àas got a determining influence
on the economic and social advancement of the country. The choice of
vmcational training as the basis of education in Tanzania Prisons kas
been necessitated by the fact that thour4, still economically poor, Tanzania
is reputably rich both in material and iman resources: Vocational
training àhould àelm the nation to ta m tàe available human and mraterial
resources. Our choice for ymcational training has Proved to be very
mractical and amplicable.
03. (.7.77_2..ICT=:. D 717-1LT-1-11. C CI:DAME- -7)11C.4.1.11-707. «77 '-').._1:301.73 • -
In the above chamters ue have discussed the tyme of education pursued
in Tanzania as a practical example. In this charter we new shift our
attention to the type of curriculum, which is euitable to consolidate
such education.
The immortarce of discussing suitable curriculum arises from the
fact that it is the curricula which àhould smell out -what should be taught
and haw. A. well mlanned curricula starts with the smelling out of the
educational aims to which it is designed to carter for. In Tanzania the
Question of educational aim has already been solved by the release of
Education for Self Reliance as a policy paper. It should be remembered
t:Jat Education for Self Reliance was a call to the nation to re-appraise
the country curricula and relate it to the needs of the country.
In the ideal situation any curricual àhould be either society, learner
of subect centred. To our case, we do strike the balance between the
three becau2e art from the society needs, there is also individual
needs which mijht not necessarily conform with the society needs.
Tanzania is still a moor nation. Poor societies like ours can not af'ord
to exclude their immediate needs while planning their educational curr iculum
so that the benefits of education i.e. the knowled:e, skills and attitudes
acaudred in the Prisons should be ploughed back into the society.
The selection of relevant, um-to-date, significant contents and
indication in broad outline the kind of learning ammeriences that are
considered apPropriate for learning the content is the initial stages of
well planned curricula. Initial stage is follaned by evaluation of the
learned material. .-Por vocation training we have 701; immediate and long
term evaluation. Immediate evaluation and long term evaluation helms
the trainers to kna:7 eractly:zhat stems should be taken to enhance
learning exPerienoss. Immediate evaluation take place in the prisons
itself when the learner is still in the prisons control. 0, -r, ampe-nience
has shown that a good curricula should emphasise on the lealming by
doing esPecially on vOcational type of education. Immediate evaluation
has indicated a very significant trend.
The long term °vs.:bat -ion where wo can assess the impact of the
learned material to the develomment of the society has not been easy
to our case. -Je have no mandate by law to make follow-ups on whether
our ex-mrisoners do enage themselves 17itn some activities learned in
the prisons or not 0 alven though unofficial sources indicates that others
continue while the rest do not. There are some notable reasons why
othersdo continue to practice what they learned_inlorisons'while others
do no -t. Backgrounds of prisoners is a leading factor to tais issue.
Some prisoners do have various professional backzrounds. These would
prefer to rejoin their former professions rather than embarking on new
Projects. 7inancial constraint is another headache facinE many am-Prisoners
who might like to practice what tLey learned in prisons. Ihis is'bedaiàse
establishment'of new projects do require funds which molly can not afford.
It is hereby concluded t:Lat curriculum develonment for education
in Prisons in developing countries should take into account technological
develoPment in the càuntry conCerned, educational background of the
prisone-cs and available facilities among other things. In order for such
curriculum to be meaningful, there should be parallel plans to carter for
staff tring to match with -the intended education for the Prisoners. Uliile
it is generally accepted that it as not easy to d3si -12 a curricula which can
carter for the inRivirlual needs as well as the society needs, our experience
in Tanzania'as shawn that the society should first sive guidelines umon
which cur-icula for education in -prisons should 'ce based.
5.+c
SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON PRISON EDUCATION
WADHAM COLLEGE, OXFORD
25-28 SEPTEMBER 1989
EDUCATION IN NORTHERN IRELAND PRISONS
The Northern Ireland Prison Service was set up as a direct
result of the Government of Ireland Act 1921, which brought
about the partition of Ireland and the establishment of 2
separate Parliaments.
The Northern Ireland Prison Service is therefore a direct
descendant of the Irish Prison Service, under the British Crown
which up to the 18th Century operated on the twin E principle,
namely EXILE or EXECUTION. In these more enlightened days the
penal policy pursued in Northern Ireland follows, or dare I say
in areas leads the current practice in England and Wales.
There are, however, several significant differences which I
should mention:-
(i) There are no Community Homes or Detention Centres
in Northern Ireland. There are, however, Training
Schools and Intermediate Treatment Centres.
(ii) There is no parole system in Northern Ireland
similar to that operated by the Home Office. Yet
from 15 January 1976 remission under Prison Rules
was increased from 1/3 to 1/2 sentence for those
serving sentences less than 12 months and this was
•1 à
1
1 1
1 1 1
-2-
extended in March 1976 to those serving
determinate sentences of 12 months or more
However the remission advantage that prisoners
enjoy in Northern Ireland is due to cease later
this year, as a result of Government policy to
harmonise remission rates throughout the
United Kingdom.
1 (iii) Although the administrative category of "Special
Category" prisoner was abolished in respect of
offences committed after 1 March 1976 there are 65 II
such prisoners as well as several hundred
paramilitary types in HM Prison, Maze, and these
present unique problems administratively and
educationally.
(iv) Despite the continuing civil unrest there is
provision for special home leave for certain
groups of prisoners at Christmas and in the
summer. This is rarely abused. In fact all 143
long-term and life sentence prisoners
(approximately 10% of the sentenced population)
who recently availed of summer leave returned on
time.
a Only the third of these differences gives rise to
very serious problems and these will be referred II
to later.
1
1
-3-
*Those granted remission are liable, if convicted
of an imprisonable offence during the remitted
period, to be returned to prison for all or part
of the balance of their sentence.
Broadly speaking, the educational policy pursued in Northern
Ireland follows current practice in England and Wales. The
Northern Ireland approach is outlined in paragraph (b) of The
Aim and Objectives of the Northern Ireland Prison Service
(Transparency 1).
In legislative terms there is, perhaps, more emphasis on the
notion of Further Education. This is reflected in The Prison
Rules, Northern Ireland which in turn relates to The European
Rules. Both, as far as we are concerned, tend to reinforce the
concept of Further Education, Recurrent Education, Lifelong
Learning, education permanente if you like, or Adult and
Continuing Education as it is more commonly referred to
nowadays. The relevant extracts are shown in transparencies 2
and 3.
TRANSPARENCY 2 - Education, Rule 47, Prison Rules,
Northern Ireland 1982.
TRANSPARENCY 3 - Education, Paragraph 78, Council of Europe,
Standard minimum For The Treatment of
Prisoners.
-4-
11 In other words, in keeping with our legal obligation, we
endeavour to provide a range of adult and continuing education 11 opportunities for people in custody to a standard to that which me
is available in society generally. Il
II PRISON POPULATION
One of the most encouraging trends over the past decade has
been the steady fall in the prison population which has
decreased by almost 30%, je just over 1,000. This is outlined 11 in Transparency 4.
TRANSPARENCY 5 - Compares the Prison Population by Sentence in
Northern Ireland, Scotland and England and Wales. Although
short sentence prisoners form the bulk of receptions into
prison, they stay in prison for such short periods that most ofil the inmates at any one time are in custody for lengthy
sentences. At the end of March 1988 only 5% of prisoners in
custody at that date had sentences of 3 months or less; 30% hadll determinate sentences of 4 years or over, and one-quarter were serving life sentences or were detained at the pleasure of the 11 Secretary of State. This is considerably higher than the
corresponding proportion for England and Wales which is about
6% and is largely attributable to the high incidence of 1/ terrorist-related crime in Northern Ireland.
-5-
TRANSPARENCY 6 - PARAMILITARY AFFILIATION, SENTENCED
POPULATION AT 27 APRIL 1989
The important point to note in this transparency is the number
of paramilitary aligned groups, and the fact that only 42% of
the total prison population are serving sentences not connected
with the communal strife.
TRANSPARENCY 7 - THE MAZE PRISON, PARAMILITARY AFFILIATION AT
27 APRIL 1989
This is, arguably, the most widely known penal establishment in
Christendom, and I thought that delegates would be particularly
interested to see the composition of this unique prison
population. Presents serious problems of control, and control
measures present problems for educators.
TRANSPARENCY 8 - POPULATION BY ESTABLISHMENT
Our present population of around 1,800 is housed in 6
institutions shown in transparency 8.
HQ is situated in Belfast as is Belfast Prison, which is
analogous to a local prison in England and Wales.
Maze Prison - approximately 17 miles from HQ, was formerly
known as Long Kesh.
-6-
Maahaberry (Male) Prison - new purpose built establishment,
operational since 1987 - is 23 miles from HQ.
Maahaberry (Female) Prison - part of the Maghaberry Complex - I/
is a separate establishment for female prisoners.
Magilligan Prison - contains short-term and medium security
risk prisoners - is situated 75 miles from HQ.
Hydebank Young Offenders Centre - is 7 miles from HQ and houses II
• • - -
TRANSPARENCY 9 - STRUCTURE OF THE EDUCATION AND TRAINING
SERVICE
Education Services were re-organised and re-structed in the mid II
1970s to cater for the dramatic growth in the prison population II
which mushroomed from 600 in 1969 to 2,600 in the early 1970s.
In 1974 Mr A Baxendale, Chief Education Officer (Home Office) 11
and senior members of his staff visited Northern Ireland and
recommended how thls and the subsequent expansion and
development might proceed. The links which were established at"
that time, I am pleased to say, have continued and the exchange
of visits, interests and ideas are an ongoing feature of the
relationship which we enjoy with our Home Office counterparts.
This also applies in the case of our colleagues in Scotland andll
in the Republic of Ireland.
young male prisoners in the 17-21 age bracket.
I should also like to acknowledge the help and support receivedll
frnm I-11P Onen University, particularly from the Director and
-7-
STRUCTURE
Headquarters Chief Education and Training Officer
1
Deputy Chief Education and Training Officer
Establishments Education Officers
Senior Teachers Chief Instructors (VT)
Officer Librarians Teachers VT Instructors
Under the stewardship of the Chief Education and Training
Officer the Education, Vocational Training and Library
functions are carried out by the Deputy Chief Education and
Training Officer supported with HQ administrative staff. At
institution level the Education Officer and Chief Instructor
(V) are appointed as head of department and head of section
respectively, directly responsible to the Governor and HQ
staff, the Education Officer being responsible to HQ for the
Administration of Vocational Training.
ORGANISATION
There is an education service in every prison and young
offenders centre in Northern Ireland. It is provided by the
-8-
Northern Ireland Office and operates as a branch of the Civil
Service. In every establishment it is managed by an Education
Officer, a trained, qualified and experienced teacher, who is
accountable to the Governor for its day-to-day operation and to
the Chief Education and Training Officer, Prison Education
Branch, for the professional content of the task. The
Education Officer's main function is to interview prisoners in
order to ascertain their educational needs and to organise
programmes, classes and courses to meet these needs.
The Chief Education and Training Officer and support staff
located in Dundonald House, Prison Department Headquarters,
provide the Branches links with the Local Education and Library
Boards, the Departments of Education and Economic Development,
the Northern Ireland Council for Continuing Education, and
voluntary and other educational agencies in the UK and abroad.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The aims of education for adults in custody are much the same
as those for adults in general, ie to enable the individual to
reach his or her potential and to play a constructive part in
society. For people in prison, education has an even more
vital role to play. Apart from the most basic purpose of
equipping people to compete more effectively for employment on
release it can also be a powerful agent in acquiring
flexibility of mind which enables individuals to cope with a
rapidly changing society. Education helps to reduce certain
-9-
inadequacies which may have contributed to an inmate's
anti-social behaviour but there is not evidence that education,
in itself, will prevent further criminal behaviour. Adult
education now tends to be seen in the context of continuing
education and this includes academic, vocational and
recreational subjects. Any activity or interest which provides
fresh stimulation to an individual and helps to maintain his or
her ability at peak capacity adds meaning to life and is of
particular value in a prison. The philosophy of prison
education, in Northern Ireland like adult education in the
wider community, is regarded as contributing to the growth and
development of the prisoner as a human being. Above all prison
education helps the prisoner through his sentence. It absorbs
time in a most constructive manner.
The prison education service, therefore offers continuing
education on a voluntary basis to all adults in HM Prisons and
HM Young Offender Centres. As far as possible, the service is
orientated towards the needs of the individual rather than the
requirements of the institution and indeed the aim is to keep
in step with developments in education generally. At the
present time the range of subjects taught runs from basic to
Open University level. Students are also prepared for
examinations set by national bodies such as the Royal Society
of Arts and the City and Guilds of London Institute. Cultural
Studies courses designed to cultivate and increase mutual
sensitivity and tolerance of the historical, cultural and
religious differences in Northern Ireland are also available.
Curriculum development is ongoing in relation to distance
learning and the new GCSE courses, and aspects of the education
Provision for Young Offenders are recognised as part of the
-1 0--
BROAD OBJECTIVES
The broad objectives are to:-
1. support the prison authorities in their efforts to
provide humane and positive custody of offenders;
provide education, vocational training and library
services for people in custody to a standard
comparable to that which is available in society
generally;
The specific objectives reflecting different needs, abilities
and aspirations, as well as the unique nature of the prisoner
population, lie in the following areas:-
a. Basic Education - To help inmates who are handicapped in
their reading, writing and numerical abilities to perform
more competently in these skills;
b. Maintenance Education - To help keep in touch with their
studies or training those inmates who at the time they were
sentenced were engaged either in full-time education or
training or in regular part-time education as part of their
employment;
c. Continuing Education - To encourage inmates with the
aptitude, intelligence and motivation to follow academic
-11-
courses of study ranging from post-basic to post-primary
degree level;
d. Vocational Training - To assist inmates to compete on
release more effectively for employment either as employees
or self-employed; to prepare trainees through courses in
basic skills to cope in their personal and domestic lives
and give more general preparation for work; to encourage
suitable trainees to enter for tests and examinations
offered by City and Guilds of London Institute and other
national bodies.
e. Social and Life Skills Education - To help inmates to
identify, consider and understand some of the common
problems and requirements of everyday life and work in
contemporary society;
f. Personal Education - To help each inmate with advice and
guidance about the opportunities available in society for
education - training - employment - leisure;
g. Cultural Studies - To encourage inmates to participate in
cultural study courses designed to foster and sustain
mutual tolerance and sensitivity of the historical,
cultural and religious differences in Northern Ireland.
While education cannot solve the conflict (the cause of
many people being in prison) it clearly has a crucial role
. to play in helping people understand its nature and
origins, and to consider the possibilities before them;
-12-
h. Library Education - To encourage every inmate to make the
fullest use of the library service.
TEACHING STAFF
A total of 139 staff are in service; 6 Education Officers,
14 full-time and 73 part-time teachers, 5 full-time and
4 part-time Library Officers, 3 Chief Instructors,
29 Vocational Training Instructors and 5 clerical grades. In
addition there are 23 visiting Open University tutors.
Unlike the position in Great Britain, trained educational staff
are recruited by the Northern Ireland Office and employed as
Civil Servants rather than as teachers in the service of the
local authority. This gives rise to a number of interesting
complications - some advantageous to the staff and some not.
For example, teachers do not enjoy the long vacations but this
is recognised in the salary scales which are enhanced by 20% to
compensate for the loss of holidays. There is limited
opportunity for promotion within the service but posts of
Senior Teacher and Education Officer are filled from the rank
of teacher wherever possible. As far as teaching hours are
concerned we work the normal 10 sessions but one or more may be
devoted to educational guidance and counselling of inmates or
supervision of part-time teachers in the evening.
-13-
Neither the LEA not the Department of Education inspectors have
any responsibility for the work in our prisons. Nonetheless
consultations take place on a regular basis with LEA advisors
and our service is represented on the province-wide panel of
staff development tutors. Similarly, members of the
Inspectorate, Department of Education, have been invited both
to act as liaison officers at the various establishments and to
conduct in-depth surveys of prison education services, and
teaching staff are welcomed at summer courses for teachers in
mainstream further education. This cordial relationship has
been most valuable in the field of vocational training where
the HMI for craft studies served as the external assessor for
City and Guilds Skills Testing Certificates which we offer in
several of the prisons.
PROGRAMMES And Learning Outcomes
During the academic year 1987/88 approximately 58% (1,050
average) of inmates were enrolled in classes and courses
offering the following range of subjects:-
English Language German Cookery
English Literature French Economics
Mathematics Irish Religious Education
Art Spanish Non-Verbal
Handicrafts Sociology Communication
Geography Technical Drawing Pre-release Courses
-14-
History Biology Braille Transcription
Music Open University Studies Life and Social Skills
Photography Yoga Pottery
Woodwork Horticulture Industrial Cleaning
Catering Carpentry and Joinery Painting and
Welding Plastering Decorating
Bricklaying Mechanical Engineering Motor Vehicle
Hairdressing Basic Education Maintenance
Typing Family and Community Motor Vehicle Body
Computing Studies Repair/Spray Painting
Statistics First Aid
Although programmes vary from prison to prison, basic education
is the core element of the day provision and accounts for 35% of
all student class hours recorded. The more able students
engaged in basic education are encouraged to sit City and Guilds
of London Institute Communication Skills and Numeracy
examinations. The pass rate for the last academic year was
high; of 143 entries 120 passes were achieved. Computer
awareness and computer literacy classes attract substantial
enrolments in the Young Offenders Centre, Hydebank, Belfast,
Maze and Magilligan prisons. Software packages are available
and are increasingly being used as a valuable classroom aid
particularly in the teaching of basic skills.
The majority of the classes in the area of post-basic and higher
education are geared to public examinations at General
Certificate of Secondary Education and beyond. Most of the
-15-
prisoners involved in education tend to engage in academic
studies but naturally not all wish to take examinations.
Nonetheless, last year, for example, there were 142 GCSE and 'A'
Level entries in a wide range of subjects and an 85% pass rate
was recorded overall.
Seventy-eight inmates are presently enrolled for Open University
courses including 60 at Maze (approximately one in 9 of the
population). Last year 69 took examinations and 65 were
successful, including 10 with distinction. Three students were
awarded BA degrees and 2 others BA Honours. Of our sentenced
population one in 20 is doing OU - an extraordinarily high ratio
for any prison system in the world.
A number of former prisoners are continuing their studies at
universities here and in Great Britain.
Social and practical subjects such as Handicraft, Photography,
First Aid, Dressmaking, Sign Language, Yoga, Weight-lifting,
Cooking, Guitar playing comprise the majority of the
recreational classes that we offer in each establishment (except
Maze Prison) as part of the evening programme. In the main
these are non-examination activities although Sign Language,
Weight-lifting and First Aid are formal courses which culminate
in examinations. Again successful entrants were awarded by the
relevant examining body.
Inmates engaged in vocational training which I refer to later,
were equally successful, with over 100 obtaining City and Guilds
Skills Testing Certificates.
-16-
To summarise, last year, a total of 519 inmates were presented
for examinations set by external bodies and 477 passed, a good
proportion with either a credit or a distinction.
While the success of a habilitative or a rehabilitation
programme cannot be gauged by GCSE or other results I am
persuaded that any measure which tends to improve the
self-esteem, particularly of an inadequate individual, at least
prepares the ground for more socially responsible behaviour.
VOCATIONAL TRAINING
Vocational Training consists of carefully organised programmes
of instruction by expert craftsmen instructors. The aim is to
equip unskilled people of all ages held in custody with a sound
working knowledge of a useful and profitable skill in
preparation for their release and resettlement in society. It
provides a serious of courses dovetailing practice and theory,
ranging in length from 2% months to 12 months and all meeting
the recommendations of the recognised training organisations
and/or the City and Guilds of London Institute.
The valuable practical experience gained is backed up by schemes
of part-time study, which gives the added bonus of getting a
worthwhile understanding of the principles and techniques
involved in a chosen skill.
-17-
In addition, there is an interesting programme of general
studies geared towards developing the trainee's ability to
absorb, interpret and transmit information, in speech as well as
writing, and to aid general education and personal development.
Vocational training is part of the process of preparing those on
the inside for their return to the outside, with improved job
prospects. Those chosen for a course work together in classes
of 8 to 12 places, depending on the location and type of course.
AIMS
To teach an acceptable degree of skill in the use of tools,
equipment and materials so as to increase job prospects on
release.
To give basic knowledge of the tools and equipment used in
industry.
To instruct in safe working practices, to comply with safety and
health regulations.
To provide opportunities for trainees to obtain examination
qualifications or City and Guilds Skills Testing Certificates.
SELECTION PROCEDURE
As part of their initial assessment prisoners are given details
of courses available. Vacancies are advertised and prisoners
make application for the courses of their choice.
Establishment Skill Training
Places
-18-
Preference is given to those nearing the end of their sentence.
Prospective trainees are interviewed by the Chief Instructor,
Course Instructor and Education Officer Representative, and
trainability tests may be administered to test the candidate's
suitability for particular courses.
Names of recommended candidates are submitted to the Labour
Allocation Boards which allocate all prisoners to work and
training.
At the Young Offenders Centre, trainees are allocated to
suitable training after a period of assessment. The preferences
of trainees, past work records and future prospects are taken
into consideration.
DETAILS AND LOCATION OF COURSES
HM Prison, Belfast Catering 6
Industrial Cleaning 6
Horticulture 12
Motor Vehicle Body Repair 12
and Spray Painting
Welding 12
Catering 8
Computers 10
HM Prison, Maze
Establishment Skill Training
Places
-19-
DETAILS AND LOCATION OF COURSES
HM Prison, Magilligan Bricklaying 1 and 2 24
Plastering 12
Painting and Decorating 12
Carpentry and Joinery 12
Computers 10
YOC, Hydebank Joinery 10
Motor Vehicle Maintenance 10
Bricklaying 10
Plastering 10
Industrial Cleaning 6
Catering C & G Specific 6
Skills Testing Scheme
Painting and Decorating 10
Horticulture 10
Hairdressing 8
HM Prison, Maghaberry Braille Transcription 8
Carpentry and Joinery 10
Painting and Decorating 10
Bricklaying 8
Establishment Skill Training
-20-
DETAILS AND LOCATION OF COURSES
Places
Motor Vehicle Maintenance 10
Computers 10
Catering 6
*Mechanical Engineering 10
*Fabrication Engineering 10
*Furniture Craft 10
*Enterprise Training 10
* Due to commence December 1989 318
All courses are recognised by City and Guilds of London
Institute for Award of Skills Testing Certificates.
PRISON LIBRARIES
Because of our unusual circumstances it is not always possible
to bring inmates to the libraries. At Maze and Magilligan the
provision is made through the operation of a mobile library
service. This means that the officer librarian and his or her
deputies are kept very busy
-21-
and in fact there is a prison library van which clocks up an
appreciable mileage in HM Prison, Maze. Due to the nature of
our prison population, the demand for non-fiction is very much
higher than would be the case in ordinary circumstances.
Nonetheless the library services forms an important part of the
overall regime and generally they are well used. On a sample
day 78% of the total population had 4,800 books on loan. The
inter-library loan scheme of which prisons are a part makes a
valuable contribution to the quality of the service and last
year 1,077 special requests were processed. The prison
libraries carry a total stock of around 35,000 books, all
supplied by our local Education and Library Boards, whose
professional expertise and practical support I would like to
acknowledge.
PROBLEMS
Lest I paint too rosy a picture I should mention that the
existence of the "Special Category" of prisoner and the high
proportion of long-term and life sentence prisoners with
paramilitary affiliation has presented everyone - Government,
Governors and Education Staff with the most appalling
difficulties. The different campaigns have been well
chronicled and I do not propose to deal with them other than to
say in some cases it resulted in boycotts of education, dual
provision and limited contact between the Education Officer and
individual students. In Maze it led to a clampdown on class
based tuition and a proliferation of distance learning
-22-
schemes. However the situation seems more stable nowadays and
I am pleased to say that education developments continue apace
particularly in relation to the provision of Open Learning
Centres, pre-release courses, Information Technology and the
National Council for Vocational Qualifications.
This concludes our rapid survey of education services in
Northern Ireland Penal Establishments but I should be happy to
answer questions as time permits.
J McF STRAIN Chief Education & Training Officer
22 September 1989
\
MANDATORY PROGRAMS IN PRISONS - LET'S EXPAND THE CONCEPT
Sylvia G. McCollum Education Administrator Federal Bureau of Prisons
INTRODUCTION
The idea that prisoners must work has'been widely
accepted for long time in the United States, and probably
throughout the world. Why? - because work is not really
regarded as a joyful experience. In fact, having to work,
particularly at the kind of work traditionally available in
prisons, could come under the heading of punishment. Good '
behavior has also beèn required of prisoners, although it is
probably safe to observe that it has seldom, if ever, been
regarded as a "mandatory program". It was just required, and
specific unpleasant sanctions were the penalty for non-
compliance. And, intertestingly enough, eating has generally
been viewed as mandatory - or at least eating enough to
survive. The early suffragettes were not the only prisoners
in history to suffer forced feedings in order to satisfy the
requirements of correctional administrators.
At-the same time that the mandatory concept was limited to
1
these few requirements -few in number but none the
less important - prisoners were offered inducements for
selected behaviors and accomplishments. "Good time", or time
off sentence served, was available in some jurisdictions for
pai:ticular kinds of work and for the maintenance of good
conduct over specified periods of time. Furloughs home were
also possible, as was the upgrading of living conditions, and
even paid vacations from prison industry or other work
assignments, as rewards for meeting various behavior
standards.
MANDATORY LITERACY IN THE UNITED STATES
Chief Justice Burger's Speech
The application of the mandatory concept continued to be very
limited for what now seems an inordinately long time. The
assumption that correctional aministrators had exhausted the
acceptable limits of required performance from prisoners
went unquestioned for a long time, at least in the United
States. And then a window of opportunity opened in the U.S.
Federal Prison System. Warren E. Burger, then Chief Justice
of -the United States, who frequently admonished all involved
2 «lb
in the criminal justice system to do better, spoke to the
graduating class of the George Washington University School
of Law, located strategically for purposes of the speech, in
Washington D.C., the nation's capitol. He stressed that
soCiety lacks direction about what to do with criminals. He
eloquently referred to "an intractable problem that has
plagued the human race for thousands of years." He repeated
his disappointment that not much new was taking place and
restated his earlier and long-held position that we have a
moral obligation, stronger than any legal one, to try to find
a better way to manage prison programs. While he realized --
that his personal vision of rehabilitation of prisoners had
to be revised, somewhat, he still felt that much more could
be done. He proposed two specific actions which he thought
were feasible, given the tight budget constraints ana the
mood of the general public and its elected representatives:
1. the careful screening, training and better pay for correctional workers, and
2. the encouragement or requirement for all prisoners to become literate and acquire a marketable skill
The Federal Prison System Reacts
At least one person heard that speech and took it seriously.
The speech was made on May 24, 1981 and on May 29, just five
Jim
1
days later, Norman A Carlson, then Director of the Federal
Bureau of Prisons, appointed a task force on education and
training to advise him of the policy implications of Chief
Justice Burger's speech.
The writer was one of the five task force's members, chaired
by Joseph Bogan who, at that time, was the Warden of the
federal prison in Butner, North Carolina. The group's report
was issued on November 12, 1981, and is known throughout the
U.S.federal correctional community as "The Hogan Report."
- The report made at least three recommendations with respect
to staff training and eight regarding inmate education and
training. One of the education recommendations read
simply:
"Develop a comprehensive ABE policy which will require
enrollment in, while simultaneously encouraging
meaningful participation."
The Bureau of Prison's mandatory literacy program,
established in May, 1982, flowed from these fifteen words.
There was a good deal of anxiety over the impact of a
mandatory education program. Would forcing inmates to do
something they really did not want to do create more problems
thàn it would solve? What would the staff think? Would
4
there be passive, and perhaps active, reisitance by both
staff and inmates? These and aother questions surrounded the
task force's initial discussions. Partially to allay some of
these concerns, the task force distributed a questionnaire
to assess staff reactions and opinions on issues under
review. The questionnaire asked- should we have mandatory
education programs? 84% of the staff surveyed answered
"yes", in so far as literacy programs were concerned. The
support dropped to 74% for mandatory high school equivalency
(GED), to 73% for mandatory counseling and to 60% for
mandatory prison industry employment. A second question
asked what action should be taken against an inmate who
refused a mandatory program. A large minority of staff --
around 45%, were against any sanctions, but a majority
favored disciPlinary action and that position was formalized
into the final policy which emerged.
The fist mandatory literacy standard was a sixth grade
achievement level as measured by the Stanford Achievement
Test. Any federal prisoner, with minor exemptions, who tested
below that standard was required to enroll in a literacy
program for 90 days. Inmates could opt out after 90 days,
but --and this was the winning provision--they could not be
prSmoted above the entry level labor grade either in prison
5
industries or in institutional work assignment if tbey didn't
meet the sixth grade standard.
The tie between pay level and education was clear and
was easily recognised as a reflection of the real world. We
wei-e all pleasantly surprised at the ease wiith which the
mandatory ABE program was implimented and within a few years
the minimum standard was raised to the 8th grade in
recognition of community literacy standards. And sure
enough, before too long, some states began to experiment with
and adopt mandatory literacy standards for state prisoners.
MANDATORY HIGH SCHOOL EQUIVALENCY - GED
The success of the mandatory literacy program led directly to
enlarging the mandatory concept to include the coMpletion of
high school, or its equivalent, in order to qualify for the
top inmate jobs in federal correctional institutions. In
September 1987, the executive staff of the Federal Prison
System authorized a one-year pilot effort in ten institutions
in the bureau's southeast region to test the establishment of
the GED standard for top labor grade jobs. The pilot began on
January 1, 1988, and ended successfully on December 31 of
that year. The new requirement will become nationwide in the
Spi.ing or Summer of this year.
WHAT WERE THE SUCCESSFUL INGREDIENTS?
The mandatoy literacy program in the federal prison system in
the United States included the following significant
elements:
1. All inmates, with minor exceptions, who tested below the
required grade level on a standarized test had to enroll in a
literacy program for a minimun of 90 days. ( the 90 days is
really the only mandatory feature of the program )
2. Inmates could opt out of the program after the the
required time period without incurring any sanctions, except
that they could not be promoted above the entry level pay
grade for any industrial or institution job.
The relative success of the mandatory programs has led many
federal correctional administrators to begin to examine the
outer limits of mandatory programming -- or at least the next
steps. Current discussions suggest that if a required program
is coupled with substantial incentives and/or specific,
significant entitlements, it will work. The model of having
to meet some requirement in order to get something you want,
is so deeply embedded in our culture that it has an almost
immediate and uncontested acceptance, provided, of course,
7 4•11
that the quid pro quo is perceived to be desirable,
reasonable and fair.
If this perception is correct, the possibilities for
mandatory programming are extensive. What is it that inmates
want that are in the power of correctional administrators to
give, and what can we reasonably ask from inmates in
exchange? Should we require quality occupational training
before we assign any inmate to a paid institution or prison
industry job? Should certain privileges, such as preferred
housing or priority access to high demand - recreation
opportunities, be contingent on enrollment and completion of
parenting programs, Alcoholics Anonymous, or other programs
designed to strenthen inmate coping skills? Should release
through a half-way house be available only to those who
complete a rigorous pre-release program? You can see how
challenging the options are, and how creative we can be in
our attempt to plumb the potential of tying what the inmates
want to what society wants, at least as interpreted by the
correctional administrators, checked as always, in the United
States at least, by judicial review and congressional or
state legislation. When you begin to think of the
possibilities involved in this concept they are very exciting
and may offer the criminal justice system some new options.
8
THE CASE FOR MANDATORY PROGRAMS
Many thoughtful correctional administrators and others in
related fields of work do not subscribe to the extension of
mandatory requirements to inmates beyond work and acceptable
behaviour, and maybe not even that. They argue that coercion
doesn't buy permanent change; that inmates can run games to
obtain what we have to offer without any real committment to
the required performance; that mandatory programs are
invasive and violate individual freedom; that correctional
administrators do not have the right to do more than confine
prisoners in a humane fashion during their adjudicated
sentences.
This approach neglects the realities that an inmate will have
to deal with after release. There is very little in
organized society which doesn't have a prerequisite in front
of it. If you want to drive a car, you must apply for a
license and pass a test. If you want to rent an apartment,
you generally have to sign a lease and make an advance
deposit. If you want to work in certain occupations you have
to demonstrate some education achievement or competence
level, and even then you may have to pass some additional
exàminations. You can't even get married in some
9
jurisdictions unless you meet some specific requirements-pass
a health test and get a license. The theme-if you want
something from us you have to meet prescribed standards runs
through much of organized society's activities. And this is
esentially what is envisioned in mandatory prison programs
which make certain activities or privileges contingent on
meeting specified standards. Aren't we creating a make
believe world in prison when we say to inmates, you don't
have to do anything special to qualify for oportunity systems
- meagre though they may be- while you are in prison? But
watch out when you are released, eveything out there has
catch to it. What we really are talking about is the
establishment of program standards and prerequsites for
various entitlements -- just like in real life.
We think the 1990's will see a growth of the program
standard concept in prisons, both in the United States and
elsewhere, because, very simply, it makes sense.
10-
RECOMMENDED READING
US Bureau of Prisons, Task Force on Education, Training and Selection. November 12, 1981. Final Report.
McCollum, Sylvia G., 1990. Mandatory Literacy For Prisons. 1990. The Yearbook of Correctional Education.
1
1
1 1
1 1 1
Ancter Control Training with Young Offenders
C. McDougall, D.Phil. Principal Psychologist H.M.P. Wakefield
Anger control courses have been run by prison officers in a Youth
Custody Centre, using programmes designed by psychologists and
based on the anger control techniques of Novaco. Novaco's anger
control training includes self-monitoring of anger using diaries,
an educational component about why people get angry, the teaching
of calming self-statements, and relaxation training as a means of
11 coping with physical tension. Officer-run courses have been
evaluated, and found to reduce the incidence of institutional
disciplinary reports. Research carried out contrasting staff
selected 'angry' and 'non-angry' offenders, showed that, on
self-report questionnaires, 'angry' subjects did not produce
significantly high anger scores but did have high 'aggression'
scores. This has led to the development of courses which
particularly focus on controlling aggression. Experience of
training officers and monitoring officer-run anger and aggression
control courses indicates that these can be run effectively by
non-psychologists.
1 1
1
S-R Scores Before and After Courses
Attack Aggression t = 3.02, p <.02* Anger t = 3.33, p <.009** Arousal t = 0.87, NS.
Frustration Aggression t = 1.80, p <.05* Anger t = 2.72, p <.02* Arousal t = 1.04, NS.
• significant **very significant
Ancier Research
We are constantly trying to improve anger control courses and have
noticed differences in young offenders' anger and their responses
to different aspects of courses.
A research study was carried out comparing 20 "angry" offenders and
20 "non-angry" offenders, as identified by prison officer staff,
over a wide range of psychometric and behaviour measures.
Results suggested that "angry" young offenders have the following
characteristics:
Aggressive (Special Hospitals Assessment of Personality and Socialisation - S.H.A.P.S.)
High Governor's Reports
Impulsive (S.H.A.P.S.)
High Rehearsal (Emotional Control Questionnaire - E.C.Q.)
Low Aggression Control (E.C.Q.).
They were however NOT anxious NOR were they angry. In this study
Young offenders who came to the notice of staff as having an anger
problem were therefore more aggressive than angry and this may be
attributed to a cultural influence on their behaviour.
_ , /1-..,.' .
, •
-- : • ;:-.. .-. Results also explain why, in the
practical experience of running courses, it was necessary to
convince young offenders of the need to control their anger using
the negative consequences technique, as there was a need to control
II aggression rather than anger.
These findings have implications for anger control courses in
institutions which include self-instructions for control of anger
and relaxation instructions to cope with physiological arousal
associated with anger. Since the majority of our subjects are
neither particularly angry nor anxious, it seems that the anger
control course content could be adapted with courses concentrating
mainly on the negative consequences aspect of the course.
There will still be a need for full anger courses for those who do
have reactive anger or anxiety associated with their anger, cg
those who commit violence in a state of panic, however a selective
approach could be employed with full courses reserved for these
people and a much shortened course available for the majority of
aggressive referrals. Such a shortened course is currently being
evaluated.
Implementation of the new course would have the advantage of
courses being targeted to the problem behaviour, in addition to
allowing more subjects to be included on shortened courses. It
would also allow for more officers to be involved, as the training
for tutors could be simplified. It might then be possible for
courses to be run in institutions where there was no psychology
<
I.
1.
f
A detailed anger control programme for the full course is available
and a shortened course programme will be designed following
evaluation.
References:
Blackburn, R. (1982). The special hospitals assessment of personality and socialisation (SHAPS) and the personality deviation questionnaire (PDQ). Unpublished manuscript, Park Lane Hospital.
Blackburn and Lee-Evans (1985). Reactions of primary and secondary psychopaths to anger-evoking situations. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 24, 93-100.
Novaco, R.W. (1975). Anger control: the development and evaluation of an experimental treatment. Lexington, D.C.: Heath Sand Co.
Roger, D. and Nesshoever, W. (1987). The construction and preliminary validation of a scale for measuring emotional control. Personality and Individual Differences, 8, 4, 527-534.
15
PROJECT FRIENDS
The Development of A Program of Independent Study for
Special Confinement Prisoners
Helen Eano Pecht Miller Maryland State Department of Education Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.A May 1989
ABSTRACT
Project FRIENDS was developed by the Correctional Education Office of the
Maryland State Department of Education to provide individualized educational
services for special confinement prisoners who could not attend institutional
schools. Project materials were designed which could be used by students who
never saw their teachers face-to-face. Units of instruction consisting of
from six to twelve modules were developed by consultants employed with funds
from a federal grant. Maryland correctional education teachers with talents
in curriculum design also participated in module development. The curricular
framework for the units was the Maryland Adult Performance Program (MAPP), a
functional life skills curriculum utilized statewide in Maryland's adult
education centers, as well as in the state prison education programs. This
curriculum provided continuity of programming when special confinement
students returned to regular prison education classrooms, or to adult
education centers upon release from prison.
The needs of special confinement students, acquisition of resources, and
curricular base are described in the article. The credentials of the
consultants, and the process by which the instructional materials were
developed and piloted are discussed.
Educational Needs of the Special Confinement Population
During 1985, correctional facilities . operated by the state of Maryland
housed approximately twelve thousand prisoners, ninety percent of whom did not
possess high school diplomas. The educational deficits of the special
confinement population appeared to be even greater then those of the general
population. These prisoners, however, because of their restricted housing
status did not have access to the school programs operated at each of
Maryland's major correctional institutions and pre-release units.
Because of limited fiscal resources available for educational staff and
instructional materials, there had been little systematic educational
involvement with prisoners housed in restricted access areas, especially in
disciplinary segregation, but also in protective custody and medical units.
No education was provided to prisoners on admission or transfer status, and
only a small percentage of students working outside of pre-release units were
able to access educational services. State funds were not available to
provide sufficient instructional staff to offer the direct one-on-one
instruction needed for the majority of prisoners housed in restricted
areas---many of whom were restricted from assembling in a room together, even
within the confines of the security tier. Staff time could not be made
available on short notice for those prisoners on reception or transit status.
Twenty percent of the prisoners in Maryland Division of Correction
facilities were housed in areas inaccessible to general education programs, or
had a status that made it impossible for them to attend these programs.
1
a
I
1
Eight and a half percent of the total incarcerated population was on
disciplinary segregation, over two percent were in protective custody,
six-tenths of a percent were in medical units and eight and a half percent
were on reception status or were awaiting transfer to another facility.
The average last grade completed in school for members of the Maryland
incarcerated population was the ninth. The average grade level achievement on
reading and mathematics on intake achievement tests was even loWer, between
the sixth and the seventh grades. The average age was twenty-six years.
Fewer than eighty percent of the pre-release population had held a job prior
to incarceration; most of those jobs lasted less than a year and paid the
minimum wage or less. The statistics for the members of the special
confinement population who were on restricted status were even worse. This
population had tremendous educational needs, abundant time with little
positive stimulus to fill it, and little or no educational services. What
could be done?
National Institute of Corrections Grants Program for Special Confinement Offenders
During 1985, the Maryland director of Correctional Education received a
request for proposals from the National Institute of Corrections, (NIC) an
institute of the United States Department of Justice. A number of thirty
thousand dollar grants had been made available, on a competitive basis, for
the provision of educational services to special confinement offenders. This
new funding source presented an opportunity for addressing the problem.
There was concern at the time that the newly passed Gram-Rudman Act would
result in the withdrawal of NIC support for correctional education. It was
2
determined, however, that the grant program, if implemented, would be of
sufficient value to Maryland Correctional Education programs to risk staff
time for grant development in the hope that NIC monies for support of
correctional education would be sustained.
The grant application was prepared and submitted to the NIC during
January 1986. Little response was provided by the NIC for the next six
months. Correctional education staff members went about their other duties.
Suddenly, in June of 1986, the FRIENDS project director received a surprise
telephone call from the NIC announcing that the grant had been approved, and
funds would be forthcoming.
Why Independent Study Packets Instead of a "High-Tech" Approach?
When the grant application was prepared, decisions were made regarding
the instructional approach to be used in the provision of services to special
confinement offenders. Responses to the problem in those few correctional
systems which had addressed the needs of this underserved group of offenders
included the use of equipment such as computers in the cells or videotaped
presentations. Such "high tech" approaches were considered by Maryland
correctional education staff members, but were rejected for two reasons.
The first reason was related to cost. Only a small percentage of the
approximately twenty-four-hundred special confinement prisoners in the system
could be served with expensive technology from a program funded at thirty
thousand dollars. The second, and even more compelling, reason was that many
3
I
1
of most needy special confinement prisoners, those with mental health problems
and/or impulsive, aggressive behavior, could not be trusted with expensive
"high tech" equipment, for reasons of institutional security and economics.
They could,however, be trusted with an independent study module--- a packet of
paper which could easily be replaced if torn up, or thrown away.The decision
was made therefore, to use the grant monies to pay consultants to develop
independent study modules, to purchase supplementary materials which could
used in the modules, and to cover the cost of printing and binding the
materials.
The name Project FRIENDS was chosen as an acronym for Functional
Road-MAPP for Individualized Educational Needs Delivery System. The acronym,
however, was deliberately contrived, as the project was conceived to bring
friendship and support to prisoners, many of whom were living in bleak,
non-sustaining conditions.
The Relationship of Project FRIENDS to Project MAPP, the Functional Life Skills Curriculum
During 1985, the year the Project FRIENDS grant application was
generated, Correctional Education adopted the Maryland Adult Performance
Program (MAPP) as the approved curriculum for academic programs. During 1984
and 1985, Project MAPP activities had been initiated in the public adult
education centers throughout Maryland. MAPP was a competency-based adult
education program designed to emphasize the integration of basic skill
learning and life skill learning to educate adults to perform effectively in 11
modern American society. The basic skills identified were reading, listening,
4 . ,
speaking, writing and computation. The life skills were consumer economics,
community resources, health, occupational knowledge, and government and law.
The Correctional Education staff members developing the FRIENDS grant
decided to use the newly initiated MAPP curriculum as the framework for
Project FRIENDS. The functional skills would be more useful to these adults
than a traditional academic curriculum. In addition, linking with the
state-wide adult education curriculum which was being initiated in public
adult education centers and prison classrooms would provide continuity of
programming for students as they moved from special confinement to prison
classrooms to adult education centers in the free world.
The major problem encountered in using the newly initiated MAPP
curriculum as a framework was that it was being built on an evolving
structure. Project MAPP was itself being piloted, the instructional manual
was under revision, and the assessment and management systems were still under
development. However, the basic outline of units and sub-topics to be covered
under each of the life skills had been organized. These life skills with the
accompanying to units and sub-topics provided the structure for the
development of the FRIENDS independent study units. Basic skills, where
necessary, were incorporated within the units.
The Process of Developing the Independent Study Packets
When the grant application process was completed, and the monies at last
committed, it was necessary to identify and employ consultants. With two
5
I I 1 I 1 I I I I 1 I I I I I I
I 1
bureaucracies---the Maryland State government and the United States federal
government---to satisfy, simply initiating the recruiting process in
accordance with all the guidelines was a painstaking process. Eventually
however, four consultants were selected. One consultant was an adult educator
who was also project director of the instructional component of Project MAPP.
Her involvement was of immense help in keeping Project FRIENDS consistent with
the evolving Project MAPP. A second adult educator, one involved in the pilot
of the MAPP project, also was selected as a consultant. The third and fourth
consultants were, respectively, a public school teacher with extensive
experience in curriculum development, and a professor in special education
from one of the local universities.
Decisions were made as to which units in the functional skills curriculum
would be prioritized, what range of instructional levels were appropriate to
specific units, the format of the independent study units, and the modules
within the units. These decisions were modified in the course of unit
development and preliminary piloting of the materials, but provided a
framework for initiation of the materials development.
The goal was to develop materials with such clear instructions that
students would be able to use them independently of teacher presence or
direction. It also was determined that modules within units could be
completed independently. Because of the range of levels within certain units,
students in many cases would not complete total units. Unit pre-tests would
determine students' placement within modules. Some students would begin at
the lowest level, working module by module, and would complete only those
modules within their current level of comprehension, then switching to the
lower levels of a new unit.
6 s
Other more advanced students would begin with the hibher level modules
within a unit, having demonstrated a grasp of the lower level materials. The
unit on the clock provided a good example of this type of pattern, beginning
with modules focusing on rudimentary time telling exercises, and progressing
to modules in which the time zones of the world were demonstrated. Other
units, such as those relating to seeking and maintaining employment, or the
use of leisure time, were more likely to be completed in total by individual
students, because the information presented was more varied than progressive
in nature.
It was determined that each unit would contain management information for
the teachers, including the achievement level of each module in the unit. It
also determined that each module would contain a form for the student so that
the student could record his or her own progress. Unit and module pre-tests
and post-tests were included as well as unit and module overviews for the
student, a glossary of vocabulary words, necessary for understanding the
material, and answer keys. No firm determination was made on whether the
answer keys would be issued to the students, allowing flexibility among
teachers, and even among differing students. Some students might demonstrate
the ability to use the answer key in a positive fashion and others might use
it to cheat, denying themselves the opportunity to benefit from the
experience.
Developing each unit proved to be an incredibly time-consuming
task---approximately forty hours for each unit, after initial materials had
been gathered; and not including the time for final formatting and insertation
of management system elements. For this reason, certain teachers who had
7
1
1
been piloting Project MAPP in the Maryland correctional education system were provided release time and were trained by the consultants to assist in the
development of independent study materials.
The Preliminary Pilot of the Materials
A preliminary pilot of the materials in rough form was run using
classroom teachers and their students. Some of the students were in
classrooms and some were on restricted housing status. In either case,
piloting teachers were asked to have students complete the units
independently, without teacher assistance. Both teachers and students were
given evaluation forms to complete.
The preliminary pilot proved to be a worthwhile exercise. In nearly all
cases, more instructions, and more clearly written instructions with lower
comprehension levels were needed. In a few worst case scenarios, units which
developers believed would be appropriate for students functioning on the fifth 11 to seventh grade achievement levels were pronounced too difficult by inmate
instructional aides with high school diplomas and a year or two of college!
Even acknowledging these problems, however, the teachers and students piloting II
the materials expressed positive feelings about the usefulness of the concept
and the materials themselves, once needed adjustments could be made.
The two adult educators, who were the consultants with the most time to
offer the project, both of whom had an excellent grasp of the adult learning
patterns, undertook the task of modifying the existing units, and using the
experience of the preliminary pilot in the development of additional
materials. They also formatted all of the units identically and provided
8
1
uniform management materials for each. All was in readiness for the formal
pilot of the FRIENDS materials.
The Project FRIENDS Formal Pilot with Special Confinement Prisoners
Three teachers who were offering educational services to protective
custody prisoners in small group settings were selected to pilot Project
FRIENDS. They were provided time from their regular duties to organize the
use of Project FRIENDS materials with students on disciplinary segregation and
mental health units.
The pilot teachers received training from the two consultants who were
adult educators and the FRIENDS project director. Some of the questions to be
explored in the pilot included the following:
(a) What information would be utilized to identify
students instructional level and the topics within
that level on which they would work?
(b) How would materials be delivered to and received
from the students?
(c) How many modules would be sent at one time?
(d) How much teacher time and/or inmate instructional
aide time per student was needed to implement the
program?
(e) To what degree could students successfully complete
these materials independently?
9
1
1 1 1 a
Two of the pilot teachers saw their students face-to-face. One of the
pilot teachers never saw any of her students; the segregation unit was, in
fact, moved to a different prison unit within the compound during the course
of the pilot. All of her materials were delivered and returned by
correctional officers.
Two of the three pilot teachers---including the one who neyer saw her
students--- used inmate instructional aides extensively. The third pilot
teacher operated without the assistance of an aide or aides. All three of the II
pilot teachers were reluctant to allow their students to have answer keys.
One of the three pilot teachers was convinced by the project director to
experiment with this approach late in the pilot.
Some answers to the questions explored in the pilot included the
following:
(a) Students' approximate instructional levels were
most frequently identified through records of intake
achievement testing, found in the institutional records,
or scores and data in the correctional education school
records, if the students had been in school. Students'
interests were determined by an interest survey which was
part of the Project MAPP materials package.
(b) Materials were delivered to and received from the students
using correctional officers, the teachers or aides, or the
institutional mail system.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
10
(c) The number of modules to be sent to a student at one time
was determined by two factors: the student's learning rate,
and the frequency by which materials could be exchanged in
the particular setting.
(d) Teacher and/or inmate instructional aide time utilized
varied widely according to the personal styles of the
teacher and aide, and whether or not students were
given the answer keys and allowed to check their own
answers. Grading students' work was by far the most
time intensive aspect of the process.
(e) Students from the fourth or fifth to seventh-grade
levels were most suited to gain maximum benefit from
independent use of the materials. Students below that
level needed some additional explanation and support.
Students at the more advanced level were able to benefit
from the materials, but were often capable of working
independently on more advanced published materials.
Although the entire process of development for Project FRIENDS was
originally projected for one year, because of bureaucratic delays and the
time-intensive nature of deNielopment of instructionally sound materials
appropriate to the use for which they were intended, it was over two years
before the formal pilot could be performed. Following the formal pilot,
updating and reformatting of the materials continued.
11
Applications of Project FRIENDS
During the summer of 1989, materials were to be printed or duplicated,
and circulated in looseleaf binders to correctional facilities throughout
Maryland, where they could be duplicated for student use. Teachers who would
facilitate the program at each institution would be trained. Students would
be given the materials to keep upon final completion and evaluation, so they
could have them for personal reference.
A new institution had been opened in Maryland since the initiation of
Project FRIENDS. This institution, dubbed the "Super-Max", had a total
population of two hundred-eighty-eight special confinement inmates who
remained alone in their cells and never mixed with each other or with members
of the staff. Project FRIENDS was to be the main educational program at the
institution beginning in July 1989 when formal school services were to be
initiated.
Adult education teachers in the "free world" were excited about the
possibilities Project FRIENDS could afford them---packets could be mailed to
students who were unable to come to class because of disability, child care
responsibilities, or lack of transportation. Regular classroom teachers in
correctional education and/or adult education programs found the materials to
be useful tools in the regular classroom.
Most importantly, special confinement prisoners in Maryland, especially
those in restricted housing status who spent long hours and days alone in
bleak surroundings with little to occupy their time, would have the
opportunity for mental stimulation, and would be able to develop skills which
12
would be useful in the outside world. Prisoners in pre-release units would
advance their knowledge of valuable life skills in the evenings when they came
in from their work assignments. Prisoners on reception or transfer status
would be able to make positive use of what would otherwise be empty time.
The development of Project FRIENDS was a longer and more tedious process
than was envisioned at its inception. Yet, with a relatively small investment
of money, materials and processes were generated which, if implemented over a
sustained period of time, would result in the provision of valuable
educational services to literally thousands of prisoners---including the most
needy segments of Maryland's incarcerated population.
13
APPENDIX
Contributors to Project FRIENDS
Consultants:
Janet Niblock Francis Brecker
Anne Steinberger Ann Bain
Correctional teachers who developed materials:
Frances and Charles Kauffman Karyn Lindsay
Russell Fisher
Vicki Shirk
Tina Cameron
Pilot teachers:
Beatrice Gallop James Powell
Edna White
Pilot instructional aides:
William Sargent Eugene Taylor
Inmate Advisory Council-Maryland Correctional Institution-Jessup
Assistance with grant application:
Kitty Thompson Steven Swisher
John Linton
Assistance with selection of consultants:
Margaret Wicks
Project director:
Helen Eano Pecht Miller
14
Prison Education and Training Branch
NORTHERN IRELAND OFFICE
ADULT BASIC EDUCATION
• IN PRISON ESTABLISHMENTS
IN NORTHERN IRELAND
A report by a Working Party of the
Northern Ireland Office
FOREWORD BY J McF STRAIN, CHIEF EDUCATION AND TRAINING OFFICER
I have much pleasure in writing the foreword to this Report on Adult Basic Education in Prison
Establishments in Northern Ireland. While endorsed by the Prison Education and Training Branch of
the Northern Ireland Office, it remains the work of a group of practising teachers working in our
prisons, some full-time, some part-time, all with considerable experience of Northern Ireland prisons
and prisoners, and most ably led by the Chairman, who is currently a senior teacher at HM Young
Offenders Centre, Hydebank Wood, Belfast.
Prison education dates back at least to 1823 when legislation was introduced making basic education its first priority. Developments have continued apace since then but the first priority as we see it
I . remains unchanged. More publicity may on occasions go to the many prisoners in Northern Ireland who obtain Open University degrees, but the considerable value of education at more basic lévels
needs to be recognised as vitally important in the prison system. What hope is there of coping in an
increasingly complex society if basic skills in reading, writing and communicating are missing or at a
very low level?
111 The Report is one of a number of steps being taken to keep prison education in the vanguard of
educational progress. The Working Party have eloquently advocated a series of measures to that end
and I would like to thank them for their thorough review of the situation and for the thoughtful and
lucid Report which they have produced.
I hope that the Report will be widely read and considered by all concerned and that it will serve both to encourage what is already being done in terms of good policy and practice and to stimulate fresh thinking and development.
J McF STRAIN 10 May 1988
Mr J McF Strain Chief Education and Training Officer Prison Education and Training Branch Northern Ireland Office Dundonald House Belfast BT4 3SU
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT HM YOUNG OFFENDERS' CENTRE HYDEBANK WOOD HOSPITAL ROAD BELFAST BT8 8NA
7 September 1987
Dear Mr Strain
I am pleased to present, herewith, the Report of the Working Party established in May, 1986, to consider Adult Basic Education in Prison Establishments in Northern Ireland.
We were in complete agreement with the view that a reappraisal of our educational system was at least due, if not overdue, and we felt privileged to have been invited to carry out this responsible task.
It was not our concern in making our recommendations to be destructively critical of any, or all, of our establishments, but rather to take an overview of our adult basic education provision, to examine closely our current practice, and to make worthwhile suggestions for possible improvement. We were pleased to note, and, indeed, to acknowledge and commend the volume of good work that has been done and is currently being done in all our institutions. By way of exemplification, mention might be made of the following:
(1) We were the first adult educational providers in the province to enter candidates for the City and Guilds of London Institute examinations in Literacy and Numeracy;
(2) Our validation, as part of a joint project, of booklets commissioned by the Adult Literacy Liaison Group;
(3) The Computer Literacy programmes devised by, and operating in., several of our institutions;
(4) The successful peripatetic approaches which have been adopted and developed in HMP Belfast, HMP Maze and HMYOC Hyde bank Wood;
(5) The Vocational Training Related basic education programmes in practice in several of our establishments;
(6) The Social Education Cultural Studies course currently being designed by education staff in HMP Maze (Compound);
(7) • HMP Magilligan's "Guide to Basic English";
(8) The Educational Prognosis Scheme used to identify the Basic Educational needs of remand prisoners in HMP Belfast;
(9) The Inmate-Produced Booklets used as resource reading material .in HMYOC Hydebank
Wood;
(10) The Special Curriculum Development programme of HMP Maze (Cellular):
and (11) The Community Education Learning Packages, and the current initiative focusing on
various aspects of modern society especially in the fields of Literacy and Numeracy - at present being adopted and adapted in all our institutions.
The production of this Report has proved to be a salutary and stimulating experience for all of us, and,
as practising teachers, we are grateful for the opportunity to express our ideas and our findings in constructive and practical terms. The element of participant observation played a major part in our
deliberations, and enabled us to consider, to examine critically, and to present our various views forcibly
and objectively, without any aggrieved sense or feelings of rancour. Indeed, although our discussions
were, at times, intense and highly-charged, we maintained a great degree of h,armony and consensus
throughout.
We are most grateful to our colleagues in Scotland, England, Wales and the Irish Republic for their co-
operation in forwarding written submissions regarding the educational provision in their various penal
establishments. We also appreciated the interest, courtesy and co-operative response to our enquiries
shown by other various individuals and agencies involved in the general field of Adult Basic Education.
The information and resource material received proved most interésting, helpful and reassuring, and
enabled us to clarify our own ideas, to see our concerns in proper perspective, and to focus on our aims, objectives, and general strategies with greater accuracy. A detailed list of all our contributors is set out
in Appendix A.
We also wish to place on record our thanks to yourself and your headquarters staff at the Northern
Ireland Office for the general encouragement, assistance and hospitality extended to us, and for the
provision of excellent accommodation for all our meetings. In particular, we are most grateful to Mr Arthur Heaney for his invaluable and efficient secretarial services at our early sessions.
Our thanks are also due to Miss Joan McCauley of Hlti Young Offenders' Centre, Hydebank Wood, Belfast, for typing this Report with her usual competence and efficency.
Yours sincerely
ROBERT W STREIGHT Chairman
Paras
1-2
3-5
6
7
8-9
10-20
21
22
23-26
27
28-30
31
32-33
34-35
36
37
38
Chapter I
Chapter II
Chapter III
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS
Definitions
Aims and Objectives
Definition difficulties
Adult Basic Education
Adult Basic Education in the Custodial Setting
Individual factors
•• The Provision and the .Providers
Pedagogy and Philosophy of Adult Education
Current Guidelines
Needs of Individual Students
Components of an Adult Basic Education Programme
Provision available
Computers in Adult Basic Education
Low-attainment students
Adult Literacy
• Resource material
Day-time Part-time Teachers
Literacy/Numeracy Seminars/Workshops
The Education Officer's Teaching Role
Ratings, Reports and Records
Current Assessment and Class Allocation Criteria
Test Battery Survey of 1981
Current Test Battery
Tests and Testees
Rejection Reaction
Professional Judgements
39-41
42
43-44
45-46
47
48-49
The Value of Statistics 50-51
One Light in the Tunnel 52
The Alternative to Formal Testing 53
The In-depth Structured Interview 54
Class Allocation 55
Informal Tests or Checklists 56
Registers of Attendance 57
Profiles and Checklists 58-59
Staff Meetings 60
Guidelines — Present and Future 61
Respondents and Supporters 62
Appendix A List of Respondents
Appendix B Suggested Informal Tests/Checklists
Appendix C Profile Progress Records/Checklists
Appendix D Suggested Committal Interview Record
Appendix E Additional Optional Proformae
Appendix F Bibliography
INTRODUCTION
It was decided at the monthly meeting of Education Management held on 30 April 1986 in Dundonald
House, Belfast, to appoint a Working Party to consider Adult Basic Education provision in prison establishments in Northern Ireland.
The Working Party would be comprised of serving teachers (full-time and part-time) from each of the penal establishments in the Province - with the exception of HMP Maghaberry.
HMP Maghaberry came into operation on 18 March 1986 and to date (Sept 1987) has a population of only 30+ inmates. As there is no full-time teacher nor any part-time day-time specialist teacher as yet, the current Adult Basic Education programme is provided solely by the Education Officer. However, the Education Officer of HMP Maghaberry agreed to forward written and/or oral submission(s) to the Working Party if/when required, and thus to make her views known with regard to the Working Party's brief.
The Working Party's terms of reference were:
i. to define adult basic education in the custodial setting;
ii. to survey current arrangements in all establishments, including assessment, allocation criteria, curriculum and level of provision;
iii. to compare this with present practice in adult education; and
iv. as a result of its findings, to make recommendations on the most appropriate arrangements (with regard to (ii) above) which would rationalise our provision in individual establishments and throughout the Prison Service, ensure efficient and effective use of all resources, and keep us abreast of developments in the field of adult basic education.
The members of the Working Party were:
Chairman: Mr R W Streight - HM YOC, Hydebank Wood, Belfast Mrs V Newell - HMP Belfast Mr T O'Reilly - HMP Magilligan Mrs H Sloan - HMP Maze (Cellular) Mr M D Scott - HMP Belfast Mr J A Turley - HMP Maze (Compound)
The Working Party met on 12 separate occasions, and received written submissions from Prisons, Detention Centres, and Youth Custody Centres in Scotland, England and Wales, as well as information from a range of individuals and agencies with particular knowledge of, or interest in Adult Basic Education, and also a comprehensive report on basic education provision in prisons and places of detention in the Irish Republic.
September 1987
36
34
SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS
Paragraph
1. The term "Remedial" as applied to Education should be discarded. 1
2. Each establishment should produce (and reg-ularly update) a "prospectus" booklet outlining the educational provision available. 27
3. Adult Basic Education provision should have 3 interactive and flexibile core units, viz: Communication; Mathematics; Social/Occupational Skills. 23
4. All formal testing should be abolished, and should be replaced by structured interviews for all inmates shortly after their committal. 47
5. There should be two teachers in each establishment responsible for conducting structured interviews, and the teachers concerned should be specificially trained in this respect. 54
6. A battery of informal tests/checklists should be compiled for use by class tutors. 56
7. All inmates of low educational attainment should be guaranteed day-time educational provision if they so wish it. All such students enrolled in day-time classes should receive a minimum of 4 hours of education per week. 31
8. There should be at least one teacher in each establishment specially trained/qualified to teach Adult Literacy. 32
9. Adult Literacy provision should be two-tiered — on a one-to-one basis, and/or then progression to enrolment in a class. 33
10. The size of an Adult Literacy class should not normally exceed 6 students. 33
11. Accurate attendance records should be maintained, and absentees or "drop-outs" should be followed up. 57
12. Records in the form of individual Profiles should be kept on a monthly basis. These Profiles should be forwarded to other establishments when prisoners are transferred, and there should be whatever inter-establishment "follow-up" considered necessary or desirable. 58
13. Progress checklists for each student should be maintained. 59
14. Day-time part-time teachers should be accorded equality of status with full-time teachers, with regard to responsibilities, privileges, attendance at courses etc.
15. An inter-establishment (as well as an intra-establishment) bank of materials and resources should be maintained, and there should be greater inter-establishment liaison.
38
61
Paragraph
16. An on-going representative group should be set up with the task of producing, revising, improving and advising upon useful written, graphic and other such resource material, including Computer-Assisted Learning programmes.
A catalogue of this material should be produced and circulated to all establishments. (The material could either be kept in some central repository, or be reproduced for all establishments.)
17. Regular Literacy/Numeracy Seminars/Workshops should be held at 6-monthly intervals. These should be organised by "internal" tutors, although from time to time specialist educationalists from Scotland, England, Wales and the
Irish Republic should be invited to act as guest tutors. 37
18. Monthly staff-meetings for both full-time and part-time (day-time) teachers should be held in each establishment to discuss/report on educational matters. 60
19. Day-time part-time teachers should be paid for attendance at staff-meetings
and Seminar/Workshop sessions. 36
20. With regard to ensuring "efficient and effective use of all resources", and in the
interest of constant awareness of involvement in current classroom practice, as well as the fostering of good prison staff/teaching staff/inmate relation-ships, all Education Officers should participate in a minimum measure of
teaching per week.
21. The current "Guidelines" (regarding educational provision in Northern Ireland penal establishments) should be revised or modified so as to incorporate the recommendations contained in this Report and
all teachers (full-time and part-time) should be issued with copies of the new guidelines.
22. All the individuals who sent us submissions should be provided with copies of the Working Party's Report. 62
35
CHAPTER I
DEFINITIONS
1. The Working Party agreed at the outset to discard the term "Remedial" as applied to Prison Education. It has a malaise penumbra and carries with it the same kind of stigma as such terms as "backward", or "retarded", or "educationally sub-normal" which were used in educational circles in former times. Classes of low educational attainment students will henceforth be referred to as "Basic" education classes — irrespective of the level of attainment prevailing.
2. i. As committed teachers in penal establishments we agree that we have a three-fold aim, viz:
a. to provide an adult, further and continuing education service which is voluntary in its approach, liberal and flexible in curriculum, and student-centred in methodology;
b. to maximise the efficient use of learning resources — not the least of which is the human one — to enable as many inmates as possible to take advantage of our provision according to their individual educational needs; and
c. to counteract previous negative, unsuccessful, unproductive and hence unpleasant formal education experiences as well as the consequences of institutional confinement, thereby creating avenues for personal growth and development.
ii. In attempting to achieve these goals we feel that our principal objectives must be:
a. to interview inmates and by mutual consent to identify their individual needs, to present them with facilities, to maintain educational profiles and to counsel them where appropriate;
b. to encourage both among prison staff and inmates a positive attitude towards education, training, learning and the use of non-work time;
c. to provide for inmates an appropriate programme of classes, courses and activities to bring about levels of attainment commensurate with ability;
d. to improve the quality of life and personal relationships within the prison establish-
ment — and all that this entails;
e. to develop, and attempt to maximise the potential of each individual inmate; and
f. to aid resettlement on release by providing inmates with suitable skills, by developing attitudes and by establishing links with supporting external agencies wherever possible.
3. We were anxious to avoid unnecessary meaningless jargon in compiling this Report and to express clearly and unequivocally what is meant by "Adult Basic Education", working from the premise that a definition is a proposed treaty governing the use of terms. However, after considerable research and deliberation we concluded that there is, and indeed, can be, no perfect or ideal definition.
4. Each of us held an intrinsic notion of what Adult Basic Education means, but to collate all these notions into an agreed form of words that would withstand careful critical scrutiny proved extremely difficult.
5. i. We looked at submissions from our colleagues in Prison Education in the rest of the United Kingdom, as well as a report on the Irish Republic's education provision in penal establishments, and noted them with interest. Most chose to ignore the need for a written definition, or simply stated that they hadn't one. External agencies in Northern Ireland also acknowledged the difficulty of articulating an acceptable definition.
ii. The Northern Ireland Council for Continuing Education in their 1985 Report on Adult Basic
Education in Northern Ireland, wrote at length about this very difficulty, noting that both the Adult Literacy and Basic Skills Unit (for England and Wales) and the Scottish Adult Basic
Education Unit had avoided any attempt at a tight definition, and whereas the Council did
produce a form of words to serve the situation, we felt that it was not a definition we could fully
accept.
6. i. We (with the exeption of one member) are of the opinion that Adult Basic Education is any
programme that attempts to raise the consciousness of individuals who experience communica-
tion and/or numeracy difficulties and possible resultant inadequacies with social skills, and who,
in. extreme cases, may suffer social deprivation or alienation. Such individuals may wish simply
to cope more effectively with their environment and in their relationships with others.
ii. We are, of course, aware that interpretation plays a major part in the acceptance of any
definition, that any ideal definition is impossible, and that indeed no definition can be rigidly
exclusive. Nevertheless, within the context of our stated aims and objectives, we finally agreed
on the .following definition for Adult Basic Education in the Custodial Setting:
7. i. Adult Basic Education in the Custodial Setting, is any programme constructed to meet the identified needs of inmates who lack the basic educational and/or social skills necessary to cope effectively with everyday life.
ii. Such programmes should comply with Rule 47 (iii) of Prison Rules (Northern Ireland) 1982.
8. We fully acknowledge that an inmate's need for basic education has to be gauged or assessed on an individual or personal basis.
9. We are also of the opinion that lack of basic educational skills is often a causal factor in an individual's being in custody.
CHAPTER II
THE PROVISION AND THE PROVIDERS
10. The Working Party felt that greater consideration should be g -iven to the whole philosophy and pedagogy of teaching in the penal establishment and that all teachers (both full-time and part-time) should be made fully aware of what is involved. We wish to stress that even for an experienced teacher of long standing the transition from teaching in schools to teaching in prison establishments is not an
easy one.
11. We feel that hitherto there has been insufficient emphasis placed on this change and that there
should be a more detailed induction period of training for all new teachers. We believe that it has to be
stressed that there are a number of differences between the adult learner and the child learner that
are particularly relevant when one considers our target population. For example, we need to accept
that adults are not old children. Hence the former school teacher must modify his/her thinking and
modus operandi accordingly and should accept and apply the usual principles and practices current in Adult Education. We agree that this may seem a strange philosopy to adopt particularly with Young
Offenders. Nevertheless, it is one that ought to be followed.
12. Admittedly the Young Offender is a peculiar amalgam of adult learner and child learner with an
odd mixture of concepts, ideas, values, attitudes, skills and weaknesses. But in chronological and legal
terms, at the age of 18 years he is an adult and should be treated as such.
13. With regard, then, to Adult Education Code of Practice, in our establishments we suggest that
the following set of principles should be followed:
Informality should be the keynote
i. Forms of addressing the teacher such as "Sir" or "Miss" should be discouraged. We are not
necessarily advocating that Young Offenders should address the teacher by Christian name — "Mr X" or "Miss Y" would be acceptable.
ii. The learners should be spoken of as "students" rather than "pupils".
iii. The class room or study area should not be arranged in the traditional way with desks set out
in neat rows. Instead, the desks (if required) and chairs might be arranged in a semi-circle. An
even better arrangement would be to organise the accommodation in the form of a seminar room,
with the students and teacher grouped around tables in the centre of the room.
iv. A student should be permitted to leave the room if the need arises, without undue reference to
the teacher or distracting the attention of the other students.
v. The adult class room should be comfortable and as attractive as possible and tea-breaks and
permission to smoke should be as appropriate as they would in the adult's normal place of work.
14. We acknowledge that the adult learner has several advantages over the child learner. Even if he
lacks "formal" education, he has been educated by living and this very lack may have resulted in the
cultivation of shrewdness, the ability to think and a high level of common sense.
15. We also agree that the adult learner has infinitely more knowledge of the world than even the most advantaged child. He does not have to learn what words mean before he learns to read; he already knows what numbers are for - he must learn only how to use them.
16. Also, as our system of educational provision is not an imposed one, he has an urgent reason for wanting to learn; he is a uoluntary, purposeful consumer of new information and skills. If the class is not providing what he wants, he will decide to "vote with his feet" and drop out of the class.
17. We also accept that the big disadvantage of being an adult learner is one that he creates for himself: anxiety and a feeling of inferiority, or uncertainty about his ability to succeed in a classroom situation from which he has been absent for a considerable time and in which, perhaps, he often experienced failure, frustration, lack of understanding and unhappiness.
18. We believe that the teacher of Adult Basic Education in penal establishments requires to:
L determine each student's learning disabilities or weaknesses;
ii. understand the reasons for them;
iii. empathise with the student's desire to succeed in spite of his disabilities; and
iv. plan a programme to help the student achieve the goals he has set for himself.
19. Amongst other things the teacher should create the proper climate for learning. His/her basic rules should be:
a. Don't frustrate the student's good intentions or get in the way of his learning;
b. Do present the right material at the right time in the right quantity so that motivation and satisfaction are not thwarted;
c. Do help the student to learn! Simplify difficult tasks and present them in ways that will make them easier for the student to tackle;
d. Do help the student to remember. Show him how to reinforce his learning and give him appropriate exercises or assignments; and
e. Do help the student to assess his progress. Evaluate all his efforts, help him to learn from his mistakes and show him where and how he can improve his work.
20. We accept that the teacher in the penal establishment will have to win the respect of his/her students. No longer can helshe rely on age as a claim to authority. He/she is superior to the students only in the sense that he/she knows more about certain subject matter - and the students may be (and undoubtedly, will be) more expert than the teacher in many other subjects!
21, The Working Party considered at some length our current "Guidelines on Remedial/Basic Education". We felt that this was a very commendable document but that it now needs to be modified, to some extent simplified and to be generally updated.
22. We are of the opinion that because the needs of the individual students are individual needs and cannot be categorised as a general need, any educational course or programme of learning must have considerable flexibility and must make provision for individuality and for personal choice - as far as is practicable.
23. We suggest that an Adult Basic Education programme should consist of 3 Core Units or components, namely:
a. "Communication";
b. "Mathematics";
c. "Occupational/Social Skills"
A possible "breakdown" or analysis of each of the suggested Core Units is shown below. In considering this we emphasise that the flexibility, individuality and personal choice factors mentioned in para 22 above should be borne in mind.
24. CORE UNITS OR COMPONENTS (referred to in para 23)
(1) Communication
Reading
Written Expression
The Alphabet and Alphabetical Order
Spelling
Handwriting
Word Games
Listening
Form Filling
Types of Letterwriting
Story Telling
Crossword Puzzles
Simple Punctuation
Structured Seminars
"Telephone" Conversations
Use of Reference Books
Tape Recordings
Book Reviews
Extracting/Giving Information
Job Cards
(2) Mathematics
The Four Rules
Number Games & Puzzles
Applications of the Four Rules
Fractions
Percentages
Metrication
Time
Estimation
Measurement
Shapes and Sizes
City & Guilds "Numeracy" (level I) - "C redit" Standard
Mathematics to RSA (Stage I)/CCE/ Pre-"0" level standard
(3) Social/Occupational Skills
Participant Profiling (Personal)
Running a Meeting
Interviews
Budgeting
Social Situation Problems
Leisure Organisation
Simple Educational Technology
Simple Political Science
Trades Union Organisation
Getting Married
Traffic Education
Renting Accommodation
Buying A House
Banking and Credit Cards
Vocational Training Related Problems
Making a Speech
(1) Communication
(2) Mathematics
(3) Social/Occupational Skills
English to City & Guilds "Communication Skills" (level I) — "Credit" Standard
English to RSA/CCE/Pre-"0" level standard
Hire Purchase
Borrowing Money
Using a Library
25. The above list is neither comprehensive nor exhaustive, and the units may be either inter-active or treated in isolation, and may embrace all curricular subjects. Full use should be made of all available media and resources, and further studies to a higher level should be encouraged.
26. We agree with Mary Kett of the Southern Irish Prison Education Service that a common misconception "amongst new adult numeracy tutors" (and, we would add, amongst non-practising educators generally) is that students will be mainly interested in working on topics that fit into the general category of "social mathematics"; examples would include topics like "Travel", "Bills", "Pay Cheques", "Budgeting", etc. The experience of teachers working on Basic Mathematics with prisoners shows that this is not necessarily the case! In other words tutors should concentrate on the fundamentals of number work before dealing with topics in the social mathematics category. Again, common sense, or life experience agrees. If on é wishes, for example, to find out what train one has to catch, one may well read the railway timetable, but one invariably also asks a porter, or ticket-collector, or such like official. One would seldom rely solely on one's own ability to understand timetables!
27. We are of the opinion that each establishment should produce (and regularly update) a "prospectus" booklet outlining the educational provision available. This booklet, should, if possible, be complemented by a short video-tape which would show the various classes/activities ("academic" and "leisure") in action — although the Working Party acknowledges that the production and/or showing of such a video-tape may not be feasible .in all establishments. But certainly all inmates, as part of their induction process shortly after arrival in the institution, should be issued with a copy of the booklet, and, where applicable, should be given an opportunity to view the video-tape.
28. We felt that attention should also be given to Computer Assisted or Computer Managed Learning with regard to Adult Basic Education and in arriving at the conclusion that computers can make a considerable impact on learning with students of all levels of ability and attainment, we relied not only on our own experiences but also on the results of research carried out in the United States of America.
29. We are of the opinion that a computerised basic skills learning system is unique because it seeks to develop learning ability through a modular network of computer-assisted lessons, drills, tests, printed materials and videotaped presentations. These strategies are directed at helping adults whose competency in basic reading, mathematics and language skills is at a very low level.
30. From experience we have also found that with adult students the "novelty factor" of computers is important — they did not show any inherent or in-built opposition to using computers, having had no sense of failure with them during their formal education years. However, despite the ever-growing quantity and range of soft-ware available, we feel that some in-service training needs to be given to teachers who wish to utilise computers in their teaching.
31. The Working Party considers that all inmates of low attainment level should be guaranteed day-time educational provision if they so wish it and that such students enrolled in classes should receive a minimum of 4 hours (je 2 sessions) of education per week.
32. We are firmly of the opinion that there should be at least one teacher in each establishment specifically trained/qualified to teach Adult Literacy, and, in fact, we noted that in five of our six establishments this is the case. We suggest that this good practice should be encouraged and developed to the extent that every teacher involved in the basic education programme should be suitably trained in the distinctive approaches to teaching of adults.
33. It is our opinion that Adult Literacy classes cannot always be organised on a logistical basis. It is obvious that Adult Literacy classes must be numerically small. Indeed, we recommend that Adult Literacy should be two-tiered — on a one-to-one basis and/or then progression to enrolment in a class, with the proviso that any such class should not have more than 6 students at any one time.
34. Until recently there has been a shortage of good, up-to-date and suitable "home-produced" material, but this situation is improving. It is suggested that there should be an inter-establishment, as well as an intra-establishment, bank of materials and resources and that there should be greater inter-establishment liaison and hence co-operation with regard to interchange of ideas, schemes and materials.
35. i. We further suggest that an ongoing representative group should be set up with responsibility for producing, revising, improving, and advising upon useful printed, graphic, and other such resource material — including computer software in the form of tapes and/or discs, and relevant notes and/or print-outs. (Several members of the present Working Party would be willing to act initially as a nucleus of this support group.)
ii. A catalogue of all this support material should be published, regularly updated, and circulated to each establishment. The original material could either be kept in some central repository and copied whenever required, or could be reproduced for all establishments.
iii. It is further suggested that in the interest of economy of time, effort and materials. , there should be an area set aside as a resource centre in each establishment. Ideally, this "area" would be a specially-designated room, but a section of the library, or a specific corner of an office, or part of a store, or even two drawers of a filing-cabinet would serve perfectly well.
iv. We have found from experience that some worthwhile material in the form of illustrated booklets can be produced by inmates, and we received some excellent samples of such booklets from Mountjoy Prison, Dublin.
v. Indeed, the production of "in-house" booklets has been in operation in HM YOC, Hydebank Wood, for some time now. Initially the idea is launched by informing the inmates that there is always a great shortage of simplified books for young children. Some samples are handed out by the teacher, and then the inmates are asked if they could try to produce similar books. It is explained that the illustrations must be very simple, the stories must be short, and the language must consist of fairly "easy" words. Hence, any stigma, sense of inadequacy, or lack of confidence is dispelled, and the students invariably set to quite willingly.
vi. We are convinced that this system of producing "in-house" material has several commendable features. To name but a few, it means that the inmatés' written and art work becomes purposeful in real terms; it builds self-confidence; the results are cost-effective; and it means that the mature adult illiterate or semi-literate students do not have to resort to "Dick-and-Dora" type books, or publications with over-simplistic or puerile story-lines, out-of-date illustrations, and unreal or immature vocabulary.
vii. The Working Party was also highly impressed by the excellent range of graded, interesting and imaginative "Open Learning Packs" produced by teachers for internal use at HMP
Birmingham. We are of the opinion that similar publications from the support group mentioned in paragraph 35(i) above could prove very worthwhile.
viii. We also highly commend the book "Resources", published in 1986 by the Adult Literacy and Basic Skills Unit. This is described as "a guide to materials in adult literacy and basic skills", and we suggest that it is a very useful reference book for any teacher involved in Adult Basic Education.
36. The Working Party feels that day-time part-time teachers should be accorded equality of status with full-time teachers, with regard to responsibilities, privileges, entitlement to attend coures etc. It would appear that very often the contribution and worth of these part-time teachers is underrated, and yet very often they are the very hub or back-bone of an establishment's educational set-up. We believe that our part-time teachers bring a high degree of commitment, expertise, work preparation, and loyalty to their respective establishments. We therefore feel that this interest could be more fully utilised in areas such as guidance and counselling, curriculum development, and staff training committees. Furthermore, their attendance at in-service or external courses/conferences/seminars should attract the same payments and allowances as those of their full-time colleagues.
37. i. We are of the opinion that one of the most important areas of our work in penal establishments is dealing with Adult Literacy/Numeracy. We feel that not only the students who have literacy and/or numeracy problems, but also the teachers of such students could benefit from réassurance and support from colleagues. Hence it is suggested that regular Literacy/Numeracy workshops or seminars should be held at 6-monthly intervals. Quite apart from the benefits to be gained at these sessions, such as advice, expertise, guidance and the experience of specialists engaged in this type of work, there are worthwhile "spin-offs" such as the interchange of useful practical ideas of others, and the comforting realisation that one is not working in isolation.
ii. These Workshop/Seminars could well be organised by experienced trained experts within our own service, although we see obvious advantages in inviting from time to time, specialist educationalists from other parts of the United Kingdom and the Irish Republic to participate as guest tutors.
38. i. From experience, we appreciate that in any teaching situation, the successful outcome of our efforts is dependent upon the establishment of sound interpersonal relationships, good teacher-student rapport, and the selective deployment of teacher-power. This is particularly true within the ambience of the penal institution where, to a certain extent, we have Society in microcosm.
ii. In the custodial setting we have a heterogeneous group of people constituting an artificial community, often with heightened tensions, low tolerance levels, and hypercritical attitudes prevailing. Strongly-held divergent views, inflamed passions, petty jealousies, and unrealistic values are rife and often come to the surface, and, in consequence, problems are sometimes unwittingly exaggerated and relationships can be strained. All this can lead to unwarranted critical approaches and unnecessary frustrations, and a hotch-potch of emotions can come into play.
iii. Frequently there are situationaUbehavioural problems that only manifest themselves within the confines of the classroom, and, indeed, sometimes completely unexpected and unsuspected personality traits (both good and bad) materialise. The prison establishment teacher, daily in situ, is cognisant of, and has to contend with, these various and often-trying situations, and whereas we realise that in fact each of our present Education Officers has a guidance and counselling role, and that, indeed, some of them already have teaching commitments, nonetheless, all would have a greater appreciation of some of the afore-mentioned situations if they could ideally have teaching commitments on a scheduled regular basis.
iv. Hence, we recommend that all Education Officers should if possible participate in, at least one session of the weekly téaching programme! VI;re firmly believe that many advantages woufd accrue from such a policy. Amongst other things, it would mean that:
a. the Education Officer would be more aware of current classroom practice, and the various difficulties regularly encountered by teachers;
b. the Education Officer would get to know the students as individuals rather than as names with numbers;
c. it could help to dispel much of the (perhaps unwarranted) suspicion with which inmates view administrators. The presence of "normal" sympathetic significant others is not only accepted but welcomed by the student personnel — hence the success that is usually generated by team-teaching or shared-class teaching;
d. the inmates would get to know the Education Officer as a "real" willing-to-help individual, rather than as someone whose sole responsibility is administration.
e. prison staff attitudes (both sympathetic and sometimes faintly but overtly hostile) could be changed for the better;
f. relationships between prison staff and teaching staff would improve;
relationships between teaching staff and inmates would improve; and
h. drawing on the Education Officer's skills, knowledge, experience and expertise would be one way of ensuring "efficient and effective use of all resources" available within the Education Department of each institution.
g.
CHAPTER III
RATINGS, REPORTS AND RECORDS
39. The Working Party spent some considerable time and effort in surveying the system of educational assessment and class allocation criteria currently in operation not only in each of our establishments but also in prison establishments in the rest of the United Kingdom and in the Irish Republic. We also investigated current thinking on this, and the present practice of adult education "on the outside".
40. We concluded that these elements are both out-dated and out-of-step with current thinking in the general field of adult basic education. We feel that they are, if anything, at variance with our main
aims and objectives, are unsuited to our student population, open to mismanagement, generally misunderstood, and counter-productive.
41. The system currently in practice in most of our establishments entails inmates being subjected to formal testing — using the following battery of tests:
Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices (to measure intelligence and obtain an IQ score);
ii. Vernon's Graded Arithmetic — Mathematics Test (to ascertain "Arithmetic/Mathematics Age"); and
iii. The Daniels and Diack Test of Graded Reading Experience (to discover "Reading Age").
42. A 1981 survey of "the test battery used in Northern Ireland penal establishments for educational assessmene', by the then Deputy Chief Education Officer, revealed that the above 3 tests, plus the Otis-Lennon Mental Ability Test, and Schonell's Word Recognition and Spelling tests, had been in operation in our penal institutions since 1963, and the Department of Education for Northern Ireland view at the time of the survey was that the Raven's test combined with the Mill Hill Vocabulary Scale might yield a better indication of level of ability.
43. We dispute these claims, and, in fact, we question both the value and the efficacy of these tests for a variety of reasons. For example, we maintain that:
a. the person administering these tests ought to be specially-trained;
b. leading educational psychologists question the accuracy of "intelligence tests", and contend that not only do a vast array of extraneous factors affect the final score, but that the score in itself is not to be taken as a definitive value, and that such things as standard deviation, date and timing of the test, testing conditions etc must be taken into account. (Many expert education-alists now take the view that there is considerable uncertainty as to the nature of "intelligence" and that the only real thing intelligence tests measure is the ability to do intelligence tests!):
c. the Mathematics test was designed for children as the cover page clearly shows, and even if this is removed, three pages of questions can be rather daunting and unnerving for anyone with limited ability. To present such an inmate with this test is psychologically unsound; and
d. the Daniels and Diack test is out-of-date! In this test, the person being tested is presented with a set of 50 incomplete sentences. At the end of each sentence within brackets are 4 words one of which would complete the sentence correctly, and the testee has to underline the correct word in each case. But many of the sentences are unsatisfactory:
i. Sentence No 2 states: If you write with a pen, you also need (crayon, money, help, ink). But nowadays most inmates use a ball-pen — where the writing-fluid (or, ink) is an integral part of the pen. Hence, if the inmate writes with a pen, he doesn't need ink!
ii. Similarly sentence No 28 states: A place where talking films are shown is called a (theatre, cinema, gallery, house). The term "talking films" is no longer in use in common parlance, to say the least about this sentence!
iii. Both above anachronistic sentences indicate the test's unsuitability, and there are other aspects of this test that leave much to be desired. For example, sentence No 32 states: A prisoner usually longs for his (sentence, toleration, serenade, freedom). The correct word is supposed to be " freedom", but many inmates on remand long for their sentences! So should the word "sentence" be accepted as an alternative correct answer?
iv. Unlimited time is allowed for this test, but adults will invariably wish to finish as early as possible, so, bearing in mind that the inmate is anxious to complete the test quickly, and that he may well be nervous — conscious of the fact that he is participating in a test, he may well inadvertently underline "lather" rather than "leather" for sentence No 14 which states: Shoes are usually made of (leather, lather, laces, soles). Or, similarly with sentence No 9 — Books are made of (patent, paper, pamper, pepper), he could easily underline "pamper" rather than "paper".
v. Random selection of answers (je guesswork) can easily result in unrealistic and incorrect results, but in any case, the rubric that accompanies the test clearly states that "Reading Ages above 10.0 years are unreliable and misleading"!
44. We are of the opinion that the following extract from a recent publication produced by a Department of Education for Northern Ireland/North Eastern Education and Library Board study group considering a structured approach to educational provision for less able 4th and 5th year pupils, and quoted in a booklet entitled "Educational Assessment, Guidance and Counselling" by the current Education Officer of HM YOC, Hydebank Wood, Belfast, is worth considering.
Even limited experience in working with young offenders teaches those who come in contact with them that they have undoubted strengths and weaknesses. We include among their strengths:
A sense of humour
A sense of loyalty to their peer group
A degree of sensitivity to the physically helndicapped or elderly
The derivation of a deal of pleasure from even a modicum of success
An ability to beat the system" in the most imaginative of ways
We also recognise that they have educational, social and environnzental weaknesses and we include among these weaknesses:
Repeated failure in formal education caused by limited ability
An inability to form worthwhile relation,ships Limited first hand" experience
Low motivation and "stickability" Poor personal organisation
Being easily confused
We have therefore perceived the following to be their educational and training needs:
To be treated with dignity and respect
To be valued as people with emotions
To be treated fairly and in an adult and friendly manner
To be properly assessed
To be challenged according to their ability
To be provided with an interesting and uaried curriculum
To be given short term objectives
To be given responsibility
To be made aware of the parameters which constitute acceptable classroom behaviour.
45. We believe, that "reading between the lines", it can be deduced that not only do inmates have a
fair measure of shrewdness, as well as the ability "to beat the system" but that they will freely and
deliberately exercise this ability so that the accuracy of test results cannot be strictly relied on as far
as these young offenders are concerned. And in our experience, adult prisioners also from time to time have manipulated results - through deliberately-controlled test performance - to suit their own particular ends.
46. Furthermore, we feel that with inmates of the adult prisons the above-mentioned tests are totally inappropriate and unnecessary. If a man cannot read, or write, or spell very well, or, if he lacks ability in Arithmetic, and is ready/willing to admit his weakness, he doesn't need a formal test to confirm it.
For such an inmate, whose school-life was not a particularly very successful or happy one, to be confronted with a series of tests - possibly administered in a traditional classroom setting - is, to say the least, a harrowing and possibly discouraging experience.
47. Mary Kett of the Southern Irish Prison Education Service puts the whole thing into proper perspective when she states quite succinctly: ". . . however basic the level, teaching materials are
generally adult in both content and style. In this context, formal testing procedures (le Reading tests)
are seen as inappropriate, not only because they do not provide an accurate picture of a student's ability, but because they are demeaning"! We heartily endorse this view, and we strongly recOmmend that all formal testing as initial assessment procedure should be discontinued, and should be replaced by in-depth structured interviews for all inmates - shortly after their committal to the institution.
48. i. In one submission to the Working Party, an Education Officer stated that he was required to provide statistical evidence to the prison authorities in order to justify a prisoner's being kept off work during the day! While we appreciate the Education Officer's position in such a situation, we are totally opposed to this policy.
ii. Here in Northern Ireland the "Statutory Rules of Northern Ireland 1982 No 170: The Prison Rules 1982" paragraph 47(2) states: 'Prisoners whom the Governor considers able and willing to profit from further education and
prisoners who because of illiteracy require (sic] remedial education may have provided for them special classes or facilities for private study: these classes or facilities may, if the Governor approves, be provided within the hours normally allotted to work". We quite accept this but contend that it does not mean that statistical evidence has to be produced to convince the Governor!
If an inmate reports to the prison hospital and a doctor states that the inmate is ill and requires treatment, this professional judgement is accepted without eluestion. The doctor does not have to produce figures to show the inmate's temperature, pulse-rate, blood-sugar level etc, to back up his judgement.
49. In the same way, we consider that if an experienced teacher diagnoses that an inmate is in need of, or would benefit from, basic education at whatever level, he has made a professional judgement which should be accepted as such! (And it should be borne in mind that selection of teachers for prison education is such that they are all experienced, and not just newly-trained inexperienced graduates.)
50. Furthermore, we maintain that any set of statistical evidence resulting from formal testing would be, in reality, meaningless not only to the afore-mentioned "prison authorities", but to government officials, politicians, or, indeed, to anyone outside (and even to many within) educational circles. What, for example, does it mean to say that inmate "A" has a Reading Age of 10.8, and that inmate "B" has a Reading Age of 8.4? The only obvious inference that can be made is that both are weak readers, and that inmate "B" is worse than inmate "A". But given the above statistics would the "prison authorities" be able to tell: •
a. if either inmate could read the main headline or the sports page of a popular daily newspaper;
b. the size of vocabulary each of the inmates has;
c. whether either (or both) could read a letter from home;
d. whether either (or both) could write a letter home or fill in a simple application form correctly; or
e. if one of the inmates had a Mathematical Age of 10.4 whether he would be able to calculate his weekly wages, or work out his winnings if he gambled on a horse raCe?
51. We contend that there can be no justification for formal testing on the grounds of a need for a set of figures. In fact, we decided that we should eschew statistics as far as possible, by virture of the fact that they are usually quite meaningless, and that, indeed, they are often used as a drunk man uses a lampost - more for support than enlightenment!
52. i. We noted with interest that in one of our establishments - HMP Maghaberry - no formal testing procedure takes place. According to the Education Officer, who is the sole provider of basic education in that particular institution, the regular method of assessment is by in-depth committal interviews and "in-class observation".
ii. Nevertheless, the system seems to work well. The entire inmate population, albeit numerically small, is highly-motivated, and all inmates participate in at least one element of the programme provided.
53. i. Several establishments in other parts of the United Kingdom - HMP Dungavel, to name but one - have abandoned formal testing procedures as a means of assessment. And we found that formal testing does not take place in Adult Literacy circles, nor in adult Basic Education Centres "on the outside". Instead, use is made of structured interviews and/or the guidelines of the Adult Literacy and Basic Skills Unit's booklet, "How's it Going?" - described as an alternative to testing
students in adult literacy.
ii. We concur with the view expressed recently by Frank Smith at Reading University that testing only serves as proof for failures and is not a procedure for providing positive feedback.
54. i. With regard to the structured interviews mentioned in paragraph 47 above, we suggest that there should be two teachers (not necessarily both full-time) in each establishment responsible for conducting these interviews.
ii. All inmates should be interviewed within 2 weeks of their arrival in the institution. We suggest that the format and general arrangement should be as follows:
a. Ideally, the interviews should be held in a room specially designated for this purpose, and
suitably furnished (le with comfortable chairs and a table, rather than classroom desks). Certainly the surroundings should be as attractive and comfortable as possible, and the
atmosphere should be relaxed and informal.
b. The first part of the interview could well be a group session (number of committals permitting) with the aim of making inmates more fully aware of the educational provision
available. (They would already have received copies of the "prospectus" booklet mentioned in paragraph 27 above.) At this stage the video-tape (see paragraph 27) could be shown.
c. The second part of the interview should be on an individual basis. The interviewer should stress the confidentiality of the proceedings; should invite the inmate to specify the class or classes in which he wishes to be enrolled; should explain the correct procedure for terminating enrolment; and should emphasise the need for a firm commitment from each inmate with regard to attendance. During the course of the interview, the interviewer will have gained some insight into the inmate's educational background, experience, ability and
interest, and so, through guidance and counselling will be able to influence the inmate's choice of class or classes. Where an inmate is deemed to be in need of teaching on a one-to-one basis, he should then be further counselled by the Adult Literacy specialist teacher.
55. After the structured interview, with the approval of the institution's Labour Allocation Board - acting on the advice of the Education Officer or his deputy - the potential student should be allocated to the appropriate class/classes (or to a one-to-one arrangement) - or his name should be placed on a waiting list if the agreed suitable class is numerically full. The inmate should then be interviewed again by the Education O fficer (or deputy) and informed of the situation regarding his studies.
56. We appreciate that some teachers may wish, or feel a need for, some kind of grading system within a class. Careful monitoring of work and behaviour may make this unnecessary, but certainly we acknowledge that some form of tangible proof of progress is desirable - not only for the teacher, but also for the reassurance, satisfaction, and encouragement of the student. Therefore, we suggest that a battery of informal class tests or checklists should be compiled by the class teachers in each establishment. Samples of such tests/checklists are shown in Appendix B.
57. i. The Working Party suggests that all teachers must maintain proper attendance registers or roll-books, and that these must be accurate records, showing not only the attendance at each session, but should also include relevant details with regard to class personnel (prison numbers, work allocation, release dates, etc), as well as the theme or content of each lesson. Not only is this the standard practice employed by most teachers as a professional discipline, but, as is pointed out in our current "Guidelines", it can also serve as protection of the teacher in case of subsequent enquiry or detailed inspection. Hence, to do otherwise would be both unprofessional and foolish!
ii. Furthermore, not only do such records provide essential information for the Education Officer, but they also prove most useful for temporary teachers when the normal class teachers are absent through illness or on annual leave.
iii. We also suggest that erratic attenders, regular absentees and apparent "drop-outs" should be contacted to ascertain the underlying reason for their absenteeism. O ften for a very trivial — although, for the student, significant — reason, he has become disenchanted with the class, but shyness, self-consciousness, or lack of confidence has prevented him from confiding in the teacher, and he has simply stayed away.
58. We believe that class teachers should keep up-to-date monthly records with regard to courses followed (and possible outcome), standards, attitudes; behaviour and general progress, on an individual Profile basis. The content of the Profile should be agreed between the student and the tutor. When the Profiles have been completed they should be collated by the Education Officer, and in each case, the Profile should either accompany an inmate, or be forwarded to his next institution, on transfer. We suggest that it is the responsibility of the Education Officer to ensure that he receives the necessary Profiles when inmates are transferred to his establishement. A sample Profile record form is shown in Appendix C.
59. We feel that class teachers should closely monitor progress, and should maintain regular progress checklists for each student. Resultant information should be added to the student's monthly Profile record. A sample progress checklist is shown in Appendix C.
60. It is suggested that staff meetings for the specific purpose of discussing and/or reporting on educational matters (problems, progress, difficult or unusual students, resource materials, requisitions etc) should be held in each establishment on a monthly basis. All day-time teachers (full-time and part-time) should attend these staff meetings.
61. i. We critically examined the current "Guidelines" (relating to educational provision in Northern Ireland penal establishments) and whereas we contend that they contain some very useful and very relevant material, we feel that they are now somewhat out-of-date. We also were rather disconcerted to discover that a number of teachers had never seen them, nor were even aware of their existence.
ii. We suggest that the Guidelines should now be revised or modified so as to incorporate the recommendations contained in this Report, and that all teachers (full-time and part-time) should be issued with copies.
62. i. The Working Party also suggests that all the individuals who sent us submissions, or expressed an interest, or supplied us with information or responses to our enquiries should be provided with copies of this Report. We are grateful to all of these individuals for their invaluable assistance.
ii. Similarly we should like to place on record our gratitude to all those who supported us in various ways — not the least of these supporters being our respective Education Officers. Their co-operation and encouragement was much appreciated.
APPENDIX A
PENAL ESTABLISHMENTS, AGENCIES, AND INDIVIDUALS WHO FORWARDED SUBMISSIONS AND/OR PROVIDED INFORMATION OR RELEVANT MATERIAL TO THE WORKING PARTY
HM Prison Aberdeen
HM Prison Barlinnie
HM Prison Birmingham
HM Detention Centre Blantyre House Goudhurst Cranbrook Kent
HM Prison Bristol
HM Prison Brixton
HM YCC and Prison Bullwood Hall
HM YCC Campsfield House
HM Prison Cornton Vale
HM Prison Dartmoor
HM Prison Dumfries
HM Prison Dungavel
HM Prison and YCC Exeter
HM Prison Gartree
HM YOC Glen Parva
HM Prison Gloucester
HM Prison Inverness
HM Prison Leicester
HM Prison Lincoln
HM Prison Longport
HM Prison Low Moss
HM Prison Maghaberry
HM Prison Magilligan
HM Prison Medomsley (Extract from Inspectors' Report)
HM Prison Northeye
HM YCC Onley
HM Prison Perth
HM Prison Peterhead
HM Prison Rochester
HM Prison Shotts
HM Prison and YCC Styal Wilmslow Cheshire
HM Prison Swansea
HM YCC Swinfen Hall Lichfield Staffordshire
HM YCC Werrington
HM Detention Centre Whatton, Nottingham
HM Prison Winchester (Extract from Inspectors' Report)
Adult Literacy Liaison Group
Ballymoney Technical College
Coleraine Technical College
Fermanagh College of Further Education
Institute of Continuing Education, University of Ulster
Lisburn College of Further Education
Lurgan Technical College
Newcastle College of Further Education
North Down College of Further Education
Northern Ireland Adult Education Association
NIACRO
North-West College of Further Education
Rupert Stanley College of Further Education
St Louise's Comprehensive College
Ulster People's College
Workers' Educational Association
Miss Mary Kett (Prison Education Organiser in the Irish Republic)
Mr Denis Wolinski (Adult Literacy Organiser, Newcastle FE College)
APPENDIX B
1. INFORMAL ADULT READING TEST
This test, to be used on a one-to-one basis, has been designed to highlight difficulties
in Reading, not to find Reading Ages.
DOWN WOMEN TOILETS PUSH POLICE ON OFF
OUT STOP MEN DANGER UP PULL IT
HE OF A I WAS THE IN
THAT IS AND TO ALL ARE HIS
SO AS FOR NOT THEY AT HAD
ON WE BE HAVE ONE WITH BUT
HIM SAID YOU
Stop Police. There is danger. Slow down and stop the car.
There hs been an accident. It is by the school.
A car has hit a lorry. The men and women cannot get out. We will have to lift up the lorry. We must
pull the car and push them apart. A doctor looks to see who is hurt. The ambulance will soon be here.
The firemen are on their way. I can hear them. The ambulance has come. It has been very quick. The
firemen are here as well. They have been quick too.
They get the men and women out of the car. One man has a broken leg. He is carried to the
ambulance. The driver will open the back doors for the people to get in. They are very glad to sit down
on the seats. When the doors are closed the ambulance will be driven to the hospital. All the traffic
stops to let the ambulance go by. It travels at a fast speed along the roads and streets. The driver is
very careful. It is not long before he has to reduce speed as he gets near the hospital.
The ambulance is backed up to the entrance to the Casualty Department. Inside, the nurses are ready
and waiting for the patients. Immediately the doors are opened the injured man is carried in on a
stretcher. The other people are able to walk in without help. The doctor will look at these people to see
if they need treatment. They are very lucky, they are suffering only from cuts and shock. When they
have had a rest they will be allowed to go. By now their friends are arriving to take them home by car
and taxi.
The injured man will have to be detained. He has a complicated fracture and will be put to bed in a
ward and made comfortable. When he has been examined by a specialist he will be prepared for an
operation and taken to the theatre on the fifth floor. He will be given an anaesthetic and his leg will be
straightened before it is put in plaster. If the operation is successful, he will have to remain in hospital
for several more days until the surgeon decides that it is convenient for him to go home and
re-cuperate.
2. WORD RECOGNITION TEST
(Using the Dolch Basic Sight Vocabulary)
These 100 words make up, on average, one half of all reading:
a and he
I in is
it of that
the to was
all as at
be but are
for had have
his him not
on one said
so they we
with you about
an back been
before big by .
call came can
come could did
do down first
from get go
has her here
if into just
like little look
made make • more
•me much must
my no new
now off old
• only or our
other out over
right see she
some their them
then there this
two up want
well went were
what when where
which will who
your
The one hundred next most used words:
after again always
am another any
away ask bad
because best bird
black blue boy
bring day dog
don't eat every
far fast father
fell find five
fly four found
gave girl give
going good got
green hand have
head help home
house how jump
keep know last
left let live
long man many
may men mother
Mr. never next
once open own
play put ran
read red room
round run sat
saw say school
should sing sit
soon stop take
tell than these
thing think three
time too tree
under us very
walk white why
wish work would
year
3. READING TEST — LEVEL 1
Anyone for the Moon?
People will soon be able to pay to travel in space. It could happen eight years from now.
It will be a "Space Shuttle" which is a cross between a rocket and a plane.
The first people to use it will be scientists. It will ferry them to "Skylab" — their work-room in space.
There they will be able to watch the Earth, and to carry out tests.
The Shuttle made its first test-flight this year, butonly to the edge of space.
It was carried very high into the sky by jet-plane. Then it was released, and it glided down to a safe
landing.
Two spacemen were in the Shuttle. They said the flight went very well.
Some people have already booked a flight on the craft, even though they cannot go on board until 1995.
One day we may be able to go to the Moon for our holidays, and even further into space.
QUESTION FOR READING TEST - LEVEL 1
J. Who will first use the Space Shuttle?
Answer: Scientists.
2. How far did the Space Shuttle go?
Answer: To the edge of space.
3. Why will the scientists be able to observe the Earth?
Answer: Because they will be looking down on the Earth from their workshop in. space.
4. What is the earliest date you can board the craft for a fl ight?
Answer: 1995.
5. How much would you be prepared to pay for such a flight?
(This answer will depend on., amongst other things, the student's interest in Space travel.)
4. READING TEST — LEVEL 2
INSTRUCTIONS FOR PAPERING WALLS
1. Cut the rolls of paper into lengths the height of the wall, matching the pattern carefully.
2. Use a plumb-line to ensure the paper is hung vertically. Window-frames and door-frame do not always give a true vertical line.
3. Lay the cut sheets, pattern side down, on the pasting table. Paste each sheet in three strips, the central one first.
4. Carry the looped-over sheet to the wall, using a step-ladder to reach the ceiling comfortably.
5. Position the paper slightly overlapping the ceiling, against the marked vertical line. Run the hanging brush down the centre of the paper to smooth out any bubbles.
6. Peel the paper back slightly, and cut off any surplus, so that it fits neatly into place.
7. Place the next sheet of paper loosely on the wall, as close to the first sheet as possible. Slide it into position, so that it fits and matches exactly. Smooth and trim in the same way as for the first sheet.
The following checklist may be used when assessing higher order reading skills:
HIGHER ORDER READING SKILLS CHECKLIST
SKILLS COMMENTS
Gets main idea
Recalls supporting details
Makes inferences
Draws critical conclusions
Skims for information
Notes sequences
Uses context
Surveys new material
Appreciates mood
1
APPENDIX C
L PROGRESS RECORD CHECKLIST - ENGLISH LANGUAGE
INMATE: No.: ESTABLISHMENT
Type of Work Practice Confident
Date Date Date Date Date
Written Work Persortal experience
Descriptive
Imaginative
Short story
Discussion
Magazine article .
Letter Writing (Informal):
To a friend
Replying to an informal invitation
Letter of thanks
Letter of sympathy
(Formal):
Replying to a formal invitation
(Business):
Ordering goo. ds
Reserving a room
Complaint
Application for a job
Letter to a newspaper
Report writing Work situation
Understanding A newspaper article
Comparing two or more accounts of the same incident
1
Reading between the lines
Distinguishing between fact and opinion
Making a value judgement
Appreciation of language
Making notes
W riting a summary
Form filling
Short form (name, address, d. of b.)
Bank depositlwithdrawal
Job application
Driving licence
Vehicle re-licensing
Study skills
Survey of a book: contents, . index, author
Using a dictionary
Using a thesaurus
Using an encyclopedia
Using general reference books
Using a library catalogue
Reading through a piece of own writing and identifying errors
1 COMMENTS:
Signed:
APPENDIX C
2. INDIVIDUAL PROFILE RECORD
NAME OF ESTABLISHMENT
Inmate: No: HouselWing:
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
The student is able to:
(a) produce straightforward written work that is legible, relatively free of spelling errors, and clearly punctuated. )
(b) present straightforward written work, clearly structured and in an appropriate format. ( )
(c) write appropriate formal and informal letters, exhibiting a knowledge of the necessary conventions. )
(d) produce information on a subject in note-form. )
(e) write straightforward essays and reports, presenting and supporting a point of view. )
(f) understand and complete forms in everyday use. )
ORAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS
The student is able to:
(a) give a short talk or report.
(b) prepare for, and take a constructive part in, various types of interview.
(c) make, and accept and understand, simulated telephone calls, giving instructions.
(d) give involved directions/instructions to others, and learn from the practical examples and explanations of others.
( )
( )
( )
( )
NUMERACY
The student is able to:
(a) use and understand the 4 Basic Concepts, and apply them to Length, Weight, Capacity, Money, Time, Speed, Area and Volume, Fractions, Decimals and Percentages. )
(b) understand Metrication, and successfully manipulate Conversion Tables. )
(c) interpret and produce everyday explanatory diagrams. )
(d) understand and use timetables. )
(e) interpret basic graphs and tables. )
(f) carry out everyday rmancial transactions. )
COMPUTER STUDIES
The student is able to:
(a)• recognize and use the keyboard. )
(b) respond correctly to programme prompts. )
(c) use the keyboard to gain access to data. )
(d) run and save simple programmes. )
(e) de-bug simple programmes. )
(D understand and construct algorithms. )
(g) construct simple error-free programmes. )
STUDY SKILLS
The student is able to:
(a) use a dictionary both to check spelling and to find the meanings of words. )
(b) use encyclopedias and other reference books. )
(c) discover the general meaning of a piece of writing by skimming, and the exact meaning by careful reading.
)
(d) record in note form essential details of both oral and written material. )
(e) use the range of facilities offered by the Library. )
(f) plan his own study programme. )
COMMENTS BY TUTOR/TUTORS:
COMMENT BY STUDENT:
Signed: (Education Officer) Date:
Inmate: No.: Establishment:
3. PROGRESS RECORD
STUDENT S ATTITUDE:
(a) to work in class:
(b) to attendance at class:
(c) to teacher:
(d) to working with others individually:
( e) to working: with others in a group:
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS:
Signed: (Teacher) Date:
APPENDIX D
SUGGESTED COMMITTAL INTERVIEW RECORD
NAME OF ESTABLISHMENT:
Inmate's Surname Christian Names
Date of birth No Sentence
Date of committal HouselWing EDR
PREVIOUS SENTENCES:
1. From To Work Allocation
2. From To Work Allocation
3. From To Work Allocation
4. From To Work Allocation
EARLY HISTORY :
Primary School (no of years)
Secondary School (no of years)
Tertiary Education
Educational Qualifications
Training School: Yes E No [] (Period)
Special Care Institution: Yes E] No El (Period)
Employment 1. 2. 3.
4. 5. 6.
InterestsIHobbies:
Special Skills:
ClubslYouth Organisations:
Declared Weaknesses:
GENERAL ASSESSMENT:
Reading (GoodlAveragelWeak)
Spelling (GoodlAveragelWeek)
Speech (Goodl AveragelWeak)
Numeracy (GoodlAueragelWeak)
Personality (Strong1PleasantINervouslImrnaturelWeak)
CLASSES APPLIED FOR: 111 (a) Day-time:
11 (b) Evening:
111 11/
1. I certify that I have discussed with my possible enrolment in the above classes.
2. I understand that if it is not possible at present to enrol me in any of the classes I have asked for, my name will be placed on a vvaiting-list, and that I will be allocated to a class as soon as possible and practicable.
3. I also understand that if I am enrolled in a class, I will be expected to attend on each occasion the class is held, and that to cancel my enrolment I must obtain the approval of the class teacher and 111 the Education Officer.
Signed: Witnessed: •
Date: Date: 1
Interviewer's Comments: 111
Signed Date 111
APPENDIX E
I . Attainmentl Ability Checklist
Naine: No.: Establishment:
Communication
Talking and Listening: The student can:
make sensible replies when spoken to. ( hold conversations and take messages. (
follow and give simple descriptions and explanations. ( )
communicate effectively with a range of people in a variety of situations.
present a logical and effective argument, and analyse the arguments of others. (
Reading: The student can:
read words and short phrases. (
read straightforward messages. ( follow straightforward instructions and explanations.
understand a variety of forms of written material.
select and judge written material to support an argument. (
Writing: The student can:
engage in neat, legible cursive writing. ( )
write words and short phrases. (
write straightforward messages. (
write straightforward instructions and explanations.( )
write reports describing work done.( write a critical analysis, using a variety of sources. (
Alphabetical Order: The student can:
arrange letters in alphabetical order.(
arrange in alphabetical order words beginning with the same letter.
arrange in alphabetical order words beginning with different letters.
arrange in alphabetical order words starting with the same two letters.
arrange in alphabetical order words starting with the same three letters. (
use correctly the index in a book. (
use a dictionary adequately. (
use a telephone directory. (
use an encyclopedia. (
Grammar: The student can:
understand sentence construction.(
understand the difference between a phrase and a sentence. (
use conjuntions to join sentences. (
)
)
tell the difference between the different parts of speech.( ) Il use 'a" and "an" correctly. ( ) understand subjectlobject. ( ) understand tenses. ( ' ) 1
Punctuation: The student can: 1 use capital letters properly. ( ) end sentences with .1?I ! ( )
I use commas correctly. ( ) use inverted commas. ( ) abbreviate correctly. ( )
11 understand the use of dashes and brackets. ( ) paragraph letters and essays. ( ) punctuate poetry. ( ) I use the apostrophe correctly. ( )
. .
Vocabulary: The student can: 1
distinguish between "to", 'two", and 'too": "their" and "there"; 'your" and 'you're"; 'were", 'wear" and "where"; "whose" and 'who's". ( ) I
understand common prefixes and their effect on the meaning of words.( ) use common homophones correctly. ( ) - I understand synonyms and antonyms. ( ) understand meaning and derivations of words. ( ) avoid the use of 'over-worked" words. ( ) I apply common rules of spelling.( ) avoid the use of tautology, verbosity and slang. ( ) 1
Letter writing: The student can:
understand different types of letters — personallbusirwsslinvitations. ( ) I write with help a simple letter.( ) lay out a letter successfully. ( ) I tell when to use "Yours sincerely," and 'Yours faithfully,". ( ) compose an adequate letter of application for a job. ( )
I
Comments:
Signed: Date:
Student: No.: Establishment:
2. MATHEMATICS ATTAINMENT CHECKLIST .
Tutor: Date:
THE ABOVE STUDENT CAN DEAL SUCCESSFULLY WITH THE FOLLOWING:
1. The 4 Rules:
(a) Whole Numbers (b) Fractions (c) Mixed Numbers (d) Decimals (e) Percentages
2. Percentages:
(a) Fractions as percentages, and vice-versa (b) Calculation of given percentages (c) Expressing one quantity as a percentage of another (d) Calculating Discount (e) As applied to Simple Interest
3. Usage and Conversion of units:
(a) Changing between Imperial units (b) Changing between Metric units (c) Changing Metric to Imperial, and vice-versa (d) Converting Currency, Temperature, Weight, etc, with suitable scale (e) Making reasonable estimation of sizes in various units
4. Sets and Series:
(a) Sort in ascending and descending order (b) Calculate missing numbers (c) Simple averages (d) Mean, Mode and Median (e) Weighted and moving averages
5. Formulae
(a) Use appropriate formulae in various types of calculations (b) Know and explain various formulae
COMMENTS:
Signed: Date:
APPENDIX F
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The Working Party consulted a number of publications and papers including:
Adult Basic Education in Northern Ireland (NICCE Report 1985)
Adults Learning by Jennifer Rogers (Open University Press 1971)
Assessment and Testing in the Secondary School (Schools Council Examinations Bullentin 32: 1975)
Basic Education in Prisons and Places of Detention in the Republic of Ireland by Miss Mary Kett (1986)
Clickin:g into Place (Hereford and Worcester LEA 1985)
Developments in Adult Literacy and Basic Skills (ALBSU 1984)
Education in Prisons by Mrs A J Clark (ALBSU Newsletter 1986)
Guidelines for Good Adult Literacy Work (NALA 1985)
Guidelines on RemediallAdult Basic Education (NIO 1982)
How's it Going? (ALBSU 1980)
Resources (ALBSU 1986)
Survey of the Test Battery used in Penal Establishments for Educational Assessment (N10 1981)
Teaching Prisoners to Read by Florence Edwards (1969)
The Case for Adult Basic Education (ACACE Report 1979)
Teaching the Disadvantaged Adult by Curtis Ulmer (Georgia 1969)
The Right to Learn (UNESCO Report 1985)
Training in Adult and Continuing Education by A Rogers (1980)
Various ALBSU Newsletters (1986)
WEA Syllabus for Adult Basic Education (1984)
INSTITUTIONAL NEEDS THE CURRICULUM
SOCIETAL NEEDS
/1\ TEAéHER'S NEEDS
STAFF DEVELOPMENT IN PRISON EDUCATION DEPARTMENTS
WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF STAFF DEVELOPMENT?
SD must not be confused with personal development or the means by which keys to promotional doors are opened. SD is essentially about improving the quality of curriculum we offer to our students by improving the ability of the teachers to develop his or her skills in managing and delivering the curriculum.
SD is about improving the interaction between the learner and the teacher. It should be focused firmly upon the needs of the student.
HOW IS THE STAFF DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME RELATED TO THE CURRICULUM?
Education Officers should be constantly reviewing their educational programmes. Programmes should not be left at a fixed point. They should be regularly examined, assessed and developed. Curriculum Development should be a dynamic process bringing to the curriculum:-
* New initiatives i.e. NVQ; BTEC; Core Curriculum
* Changing student needs i.e. ABE; Exam led Courses
* Educational constancies i.e. Equal Opportunities; Counselling
SD will only be effective if it is related to the needs of the curriculum and system already planned to ensure efficient and effective development. It will be effective only if it considers the interaction between the dimensions influencing the curriculum. Curriculum is influenced, especially in Prisons, by factors over which it has little or no control.
(OVERHEAD)
FACTORS INFLUENCING CURRICULUM
STUDENT NEEDS
-2
1
- The Curriculum needs therefore, a clear statement of policy which
is reviewed on a constant basis taking into account the needs of the factors with which it interacts.
CURRICULUM POLICY
Education Officers should have a clearly understood and published statement of curriculum policy. The policy should be systematically reviewed. In light of the responsibilities LEAs now have to formulate and implement a strategy for FE within the Authority, Prison Education Departments should submit their strategic plans for both Curriculum and Staff Deveopment as part of the Colleges' planning, or if not linked to a College, as part of the LEAs special area of responsibility.
The Curriculum policy statement should encapsulate the planned developments for the short, medium and long terms. It should be prepared in consultation with the staff, both full and part time, instructors, the Head of Inmate Activities, the Race Relations Officer, the College and the Governor. The statement, as well as considering the educational aims and objectives, should take into account:-
(OVERHEAD with A)
* Student expectations
* Student ability
* Student needs
These three not necessarily being compatible recognition should be given to the importance of counselling and guidance as an integral part of the programme.
Staff and the institutional situation will play a major role in preparation of the policy. Consequently, the effects of other issues such as:-
(OVERHEAD with A)
* Accessibility of education
• Resources
* Staff expectations, both teaching and non-teaching
• Length and type of sentence
* National and local curriculum developments
must be taken into account. The list is not exhaustive. Each institution will need to consider its own specialties and peculiarities.
•••• 3 ■■•■
IDENTIFICATION OF NEED
CURRICULUM POLICY _
ANALYSIS OF NEED
I CATEGORISING NEED
STAFF DEVELOPMEN ! T 1 POLICY
The completed Curriculum statement is only partially prepared at this stage. The obvious will appear. Very few institutions will find that they have the staff resources or staff expertise and skills to fulfill the needs of the curriculum programme. Consequently, the Staff Development Policy and programme should reflect the needs of the curriculum which in turn, reflects the needs of the students.
THE DETERMINATION OF STAFF DEVELOPMENT REQUIREMENTS
The LEA will have identified and analysed the local needs; the DES will have published the National priorities, the Education Department, preferably in conjunction with the College, needs to determine the Institutions Staff Development Policy in light of the curriculum statement.
(OVERHEAD)
THE DETERMINATION OF STAFF DEVELOPMENT REQUIREMENTS
STAFF DEVELOPMENT REQUIREMENTS/PRIORITIES
4
CATEGORISING NE -WS
Needs derived from the perceived requirements of individual staff will relate to the extent of professional skills and knowledge, personal development and career enhancement and advancement.
Professional development will include such areas as:-
(OVERHEAD)
* General teaching skills
* Knowledge of curriculum change
* Subject updating
* Administrative skills
* Management skills
Alongside such professional needs however, often goes the necessity to modify attitudes rlwards curriculum changes and towards the different types of students and their styles of inter-personal behaviour.
These needs help set an agenda for personal development. The Department's Staff Development Programmes will be more effective if they can be seen to relate to the individual's aspirations and potential for progression and career advancement.
To ensure staff development is fully effective in optimising the delivery of the curriculum, it is essential that staff feel, and indeed have, a true sense of ownership of the process. Staff need to see the interactive process within the programme, these being the facts which determine the situation from which the programme is developed and within the constraints of which the programme must be evaluated. Staff Development must be staff led. They should take part in the cycle of eudcation which leads to a continuous programme of Staff Development.
CURRICULUM OBJECTIVES
ORGANISATIONAL OBJECTIVES
DEPARTMENTAL OBJECTIVES
(OVERHEAD)
A STAFF DEVELOPMENT EVALUATION CYCLE
EVALUATION OF DATA
MONITORING
STAFF DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
REVIEW/ DECISIONS/ CHANGE
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
A STAFF DEVELOPMENT EVALUATION CYCLE
The monitoring and evaluation of staff development can be seen as part of a four stage cycle. Having set the aims and objectives of the staff development/INSET programme it becomes necessary to monitor activities and performance. The data gathered is used to evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of the programme, leading to a review of the programme. The results of this review will inform, together with newly collected data from needs analysis exercises, a revision of the programme aims and objectives.
This cycle is a continuous process. In practice, however, objectives, data collection and presentation and reviews often have to be undertaken at fixed times during the annual staff development programme; at any rate, a systematic approach which follows a planned timetable should be adopted.
In the model shown, information required at each stage relates to information gathered at the previous stage. It follows that decisions about what should be evaluated and reviewed are crucial and must be made before decisions about what is to be monitored are made and which indicators are to be selected.
The process of Staff Development must have clearly defined aims and objectives. These should be available for staff to use in their participation of the educational and development process.
6
Enable staff to meet the needs of the Education Department College
Encourage staff to be equipped to respond to changing educational needs of the students
Provide an opportunity for staff to pursue a subject interest
. (OVERHEAD)
AIMS OF STAFF DEVELOPMENT
The aims of staff development should be to:-
(i) Provide an opportunity for staff to contribute to different areas of activity to enable individual job growth and satisfaction
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v) Enable staff to develop educational responses (e.g. course and curriculum development) in their area of expertise
(vi) To afford scope for advancement within or outside the Department
(vii) To maintain and improve teaching skills and methods.
(OVERHEAD)
These aims can be achieved by a mix of the following, that mix being determined by the needs of individuals and groups:-
(a) an identifiable staff development responsibility being exercised by the Education Officer
(h) involving staff in the process of staff development and in the allocation of departmental responsibilities
(c) advising staff on training opportunities which would contribute to their advancement
(d) developing in-service training where appropriate
(e) encouraging staff to attend courses, read for research degrees, publish articles, papers or books
(f) conscious recognition of the need to encourage staff's strengths and build upon them
(g) placements
(h) development of administrative responsibilities
7
The policy Cannot be implemented without a commitment of resources. The resources will be both internally devolved from PD funds or LEATGs funded and should be run in conjunction with other Education Departments or linked Colleges and LEA provision.
For example:-
(a) Heads of Faculties' time in developing the programme
(h) use of a "Professional Tutor" in the College
(h) resources for visiting teachers and covering staff
(d) provision of appropriate seminars and workshops
(e) organisation of timetable to enable placements
(f) some modest provision for sabbatical leave
(g) a commitment by colleagues to helping others in their development
SUMMARY
The vital ingredient which should determine any Staff Development programme is that special and often unobserved interaction between the students and the teacher.
All the suggestions made in this Paper are simply a recognition of the very real forces which act upon the development of teachers and students in Penal establishments.
SD must be both a formalised and an intimate operation. It should be done with sensitivity, understanding and with the special dimensions of prior education being firmly in mind. It is about prisoners enhancing their self-esteem and life chances through an efficient and sensitive educational programme.
PR/JAC/ 15.9.89.
Gender Studies and the Criminal Justice System
Implications for Prison Education
Jacqueline Ross University of Wisconsin Centers
150 E. Gilman Street Madison, Wisconsin 53708-8680
USA
*
CF
Jacqueline Ross
Gender Studies and the Criminal Justice System
Implications for Prison Education
I
Over ten years ago, as a teacher of women's studies, I became
interested in working with women offenders. A major purpose of
women's studies or gender studies, as many of you know, is to
examine the roots of the problems women and men face in society and
to create an awareness among the students which will enable them to
change themselves and the world in which they live in positive
ways. Since these problems had, I suspected, significantly
affected the lives of offenders, I became convinced, somewhat
prematurely and naively, that what they needed was feminist
education. I developed a program -- the Postsecondary Re-Entry
Education Program (PREP) -- at a women's institution aimed at
providing, along with college degrees, the knowledge to help them
build new lives. (PREP as it exists today serves both incarcerated
men and women -- over 200 a year).
My enthusiasm was dampened to some degree when we offered our first
women's studies class to a less than enthusiastic group of women
(Ross and Holbrook). Most of them at the outset were hostile to
the material, resentful of the teacher, and suspicious of each
other. Writing about the experience a few years later, I noted
1
II
1
2
that by the end of the semester the attitudes of some of the
students, at least, had changed markedly and, even more important,
had seemed to have a ripple effect -- that is, the feminist
attitudes of students who had been in the class were beginning to
influence students new to the program. Most notable were the links
they began to make between sexist myths and attitudes and the
problems that got them into prison.
Encouraged by this response, however tentative, I set out to look
for further evidence of the relevance of women's studies to
criminality, beginning with a focus on recent studies on women and
crime.
The growing concern with women and crime, reflected in a
proliferation of writings in the past ten to twenty years, has
expanded to feminist analyses of women and the criminal justice
system, and, most recently, of gender and the criminal justice
system, including, to some extent, gender and crime: The research
indicates correlations between female criminality and the social
status of women in general and women offenders in particular. In
addition, scholars have raised insightful questions concerning
gender as a factor in the etiology of crime, both female and male:
Very little, however, has been written in the literature on prison
education relevant to gender studies or feminist education in
prison. Although a few feminist pioneers have writter thought-
3
provoking accounts of their teaching experiences with offenders,
their enthusiasm has not apparently spread to the mainstream of
prison education.
That gender studies have not become part of the mainstream of
prison education is not, however, unusual for several reasons. On
traditional college campuses, the concept of integrating women's
studies into the curriculum, while gaining acceptance, remains
controversial. Similarly, as feminist criminologists are quick to
point out, most of their male colleagues mistakenly assume that
gender issues refer only to women. Since men make up the vast
majority of inmates in the penal system, it is not surprising that
male criminologists have tended to set aside feminist research in
their field as relevant to only a small percentage of the offender
population. In addition, while professionals in such fields as
criminal justice, sociology, women's studies, and correctional
education may publish on some aspect of the subject of feminism and
criminality, each group seems largely unaware of what the others
are doing. In other words, there is no clear articulation in the
research between gender studies and the problems created by gender-
related issues in the criminal justice system. Moreover, while
there have been scattered attempts to introduce these studies in
educational programs for offenders, there has been no systematic
attempt to provide such offerings or to ascertain the value of
gender studies for these groups.
4
The significance of gender and the criminal justice system has
implications for all of us which deserve further attention. It is
my purpose here to consider the working hypothesis that issues
relating to gender have influenced the behavior of incarcerated
women and men and will continue to affect them and, ultimately,
society in a negative way in the future if they are not educated to
deal with the implications of traditional gender concepts in their
lives. This paper is intended to be suggestive rather than
conclusive, exploring how as well as if integrating gender studies
into the curriculum could serve to further the goals of prison
education.
III
In order to put this hypothesis into perspective, I would like to
review briefly some of the more recent literature on women and
crime and on gender and crime. While offenders share many of the
same problems as other students, particularly those from minority
and other disadvantaged groups, they are also distinguished in ways
that are not entirely clear, by the circumstances that led them to
commit crimes. Added to these are the problems that they will
encounter upon release as a result of incarceration.
Because gender and the criminal justice system has only recently
become a subject of serious inquiry, feminist criminologists have
not presented conclusive findings; rather, in arguing the
centrality of gender in their field, they have raised a number of
5
intriguing questions. The most obvious, described as the gender-
ratio problem (Daly and Chesney-Lind 514), relate to the
disproportionate ratio of women to men in prisons. While women
outnumber men in the population as a whole, women have
traditionally made up a very small percentage of the prison
population. Why are there so few women criminals? Do theories
explaining men's crimes apply to women?
Very little was written about female criminality until the late
1960's when the idea began to emerge that most of the accepted
theories of crime were based on studies of men and were unlikely to
be applicable to women (Daly and Chesney-Lind 506-7). In addition,
those earlier theories which did focus on women, linking
criminality to biological causes and sexual deviance, came under
serious scrutiny (Daly and Chesney-Lind 508). In the 1970's
environment of the developing women's movement, these critiques
gained momentum and were expanded to encompass new theories about
women's criminal activity, which it appeared had, during the same
period, seemed to grow. The most sensational and controversial
theory, proposed in writings of the 1970's, notably by two
criminologists, Frieda Adler and Rita Simon, linked the upsurge in
female crime with the women's movement. According to them,
"women's lib," while aiding the struggle for social and economic
equality, had also resulted in encouraging increasing numbers of
"liberated" women to participate in major crimes. It is safe to
say that virtually every work dealing with the female offender
written since 1975 has responded to Adler and Simon, usually to
6
disagree with both the substance of the liberation theory and with
the supporting research; in addition, feminist criminologists have,
for the past fifteen years, tried to set the record straight about
the characteristics of female offenders and their crimes. These
criminologists have pointed out that, far from being liberated,
female offenders are generally poor and/or minority women with
traditional attitudes toward gender roles in society. Despite or
partly, at least, because of these attitudes, these offenders were
seen as particularly disadvantaged by feminist scholars who looked
to social and economic forces as the primary agents of female
crime.
What we can glean from these feminist studies, dating mainly from
1975-1985, is a great deal of factual data and other information
that can help provide a corrective to the mainstream of criminal
justice theory. Unfortunately, as the most recent feminist
critiques have pointed out, much of the work on the female offender
written in that decade tended to be atheoretical (Chesney-Lind
1986:84; Daly and Chesney-Lind 1988:512). As a result, the complex
implications of gender issues in criminology have tended to be
overlooked. Except for the field of victimology, where gender
issues have been acknowledged to some degree, the work of feminist
criminologists has been generally assumed to have relevance for
female offenders only, who make up a small portion of the criminal
population. Hence, feminist scholarship has made little impact on
the larger field of criminology.
7
Challenging these assumptions are Meda Chesney-Lind, Kathleen Daly,
and others in the field from the United States and abroad who
believe that feminist theories and research should be "far more
than a focus on women or sexism in extant theories. They offer an
opportunity to study still-unexplored features of men's crime"
(507). Frances Heidenson, a British criminologist, argues that
"the deeper understanding which studying women and crime brings to
criminology ought to result in a paradigm shift. Gender, and hence
the explanations of gender-related patterns, should become central"
(24). Beginning with the gender-ratio problem, these feminist
scholars have raised a number of thought provoking questions. On
the most basic level we ought to know more about the relationship
between the women's sex roles, their status in society, and female
crime. In addition, the effect of gender on men's as well as
women's criminality needs exploration.
Despite the many recent studies which attempted to address these
and other questions, relatively little is known of the relationship
between gender and crime.. Yet, a number of researchers have begun
to present evidence that calls for further examination of this
relationship. One such study of high-school-aged males and females
found that "positive attitudes toward feminism tend to inhibit
rather than promote delinquency involvement" (James and Thornton
240). Other studies have considered the importance of masculinity
in male crime (Heidensohn 24-25). And the importance of gender in
victimology is relevant to both male and female offenders.
8
IV
Thus far, I have described the perspectives of feminists who argue
that gender studies should play an integral part in mainstream
criminological theory, research, and policy. Of what importance
are such studies or, indeed, the work of feminist criminologists to
those involved in education programs for offenders.
Leaders in prison education stress the importance of literacy,
vocational education, and, in some instances, the acquisition of
positive moral values -- all of which I agree should be major
components of any prison program that hopes to serve a
rehabilitative purpose. As educators, we are aware of the
importance of addressing our inmate students' basic skill
deficiencies and lack of marketable skills in order to provide them
with the practical knowledge they will enable them to make a lawful
living upon release. But, if part of our job as educators is to
help our students address the problems that lead to their
lawlessness, then we ought to pay serious attention to studies of
the relationship of gender issues and criminality. There is little
evidence, however, of such concern.
The situation in the prison establishment appears to closely
parallel that of criminology. That is, prison programs have been
affected by the women's movement in beneficial but limited ways.
Dramatic changes relating to gender issues have been reflected in
some women's prisons by the introduction of feminist treatment and
9
non-traditional occupation programs and in the growing sensitivity
to parity issues on the part of administrators. Clearly, for
incarcerated women in such progressive institutions, opportunities
have expanded. Unfortunately, however, like criminologists, few
prison educators have seen the broader implications of gender
issues and integrated relevant study into their curricula.
V
There are a number of reasons why gender studies or women's studies
have not found yet found their place in the prison education
curriculum. Without recounting all the possibilities, it is safe
to suggest that it is primarily because such studies have been seen
as relevant to women only and, to restate the obvious, there are
far more men in the system. I would also surmise that, with their
limited financial resources and understandable lack of knowledge of
the relevance of feminist education to the goals of rehabilitation,
prison administrators and educators would be loathe to limit their
practical vocational offerings for what might be perceived as
"fluff." In that attitude they are not alone. In two of the few
articles on teaching such courses to women's offenders, university
women's studies faculty, describe their experiences as irrelevant
and unsuccessful, suggesting that the courses were frivolous and
useless. 2 While other feminist teachers report quite different,
more positive experiences, the fact remains that apparently very
few women's studies faculty have reached out to the offender
community. 3 Unfortunately, as Chesney-Lind points out, many in the
10
women's movement -- and I would add to this the women's studies
movement in the universities -- have focused in recent years on the
female victim as distinct from the female offender, despite the
fact that the two are related (1986: 97).
In trying to learn about the extent to which, if at all, women's
studies has been offered in prison environments, I conducted an
extensive search for literature on the subject and uncovered a
handful of articles. On the assumption that such courses would
most likely be sponsored through universities (and because my
research had turned up few other examples of feminist education
behind bars), I surveyed hundreds of prison college programs and
university women's studies programs. Before summarizing my
findings, I'd like to expand briefly on my own experience in this
regard.
As I indicated at the beginning of this paper, it took a while for
the students in the first women's studies course offered
by PREP to overcome their hostility and become receptive to the
subject matter. Since then, we have offered other courses with
feminist content at both the women's and men's institutions to
increasingly more responsive student bodies. Most recently -- in
fact, this past summer, seven years later -- I again taught a
women's studies course to women in prison, and the situation was
very different from my initial experience. The women students were
absorbed in the material and fascinated by the guest lecturers in a
way I've never seen in my years of teaching both on regular
11
university campuses as well as in the prison program. And the guest
lecturers, faculty from around the state, were impressed by the
enthusiasm and intellectual vigor apparent in the discussions.
Many of the articles I've read and survey replies I've received
echo my experience. Those who taught some form of gender or
women's studies to offenders in the early 1980's report dismay over
their students'-- particularly, the women students' -- initial
negative response to feminist ideas. Looking back on their
experiences in the prison classroom, however, some of the teachers
recognized the women's reactions to oblique feminist content -- in
literature, for example -- indicated that they were feminists
without knowing it. In addition, as Chesney-Lind recently
suggested, in response to my survey question regarding the
attitudes of the women offenders toward feminism in a class she
taught, it was not only the students who were naive in the early
1980's; many teachers teaching in correctional environments were
unclear about what they were trying to accomplish in their courses.
More recent accounts of teaching courses with feminist content have
elicited much more positive responses from both the women and the
teachers. One recent article, for example, which describes how
teaching women's literature to adolescent female offenders had
effected positive change in their self-concepts and perceptions of
themselves as women, concludes that such material should be an
"integral component" of curricula for adolescent girls (Miller and
Carrington (6). Student responses to courses corroborate those of
1
1
12
their teachers and indicate significant changes in attitudes toward
feminism. One of the women in my class wrote, for instance, that
she had previously associated the woman's movement with negative
images of man-hating; at the saine time, her belief that a "woman is
nothing without a man" continually caused problems in her life."
Now, she says, her eyes have been open to "wanting to know what is
to be a woman -- that there is another reality to life, one where I
don't have to feel threatened to express my own ideas, needs, and
wants."
Another women wrote: "When I think of how my family raised me, to
be submissive and in a sense a sex object for the man of my choice,
I get very disgusted." While not entirely relinquishing
traditional attitudes, they are beginning to question them as they
see connections between feminist perspectives on women and gender
issues and the problems they've encountered in their own lives. In
addition, the suspicion that attended many of the feminist classes
of the early 1980's has been replaced by a supportive atmosphere;
the group appears to be unified by a sense of themselves as women
together. A Black woman, who had initially been ambivalent about
the course, wrote on her evaluation that "It was interesting,
informative, and very satisfying to know that there are other women
whose beliefs are similar to my own." Midway through the summer,
the women petitioned for a course during the regular semester, an
action demonstrating a sense of cohesiveness and empowerment
contradictory to the image of passivity often used to characterize
them.
It is unfortunate that at this time it appears that courses with
gender or women's studies content have become less prevalent than
ever in women's institutions. On the other hand, such courses,
while still rare, are beginning to be offered to incarcerated
males. 4 Most exciting and promising have been the experiences
described by Holly Devor who, through Simon Fraser University in
Canada, has offered women's studies courses to male inmates. In a
particularly intriguing account of a class for sex offenders, she
recounts their initial "confusion and dismay about the changing
roles of women and the demands that those changes placed on men.
They seemed disgruntled by those changes and expressed some
hostility towards feminists whom they identified as the force
behind changing gender roles and their own unhappy circumstances as
convicted sex offenders" (133). As the class progressed, their
attitudes gradually changed as she dealt with such challenging
topics as sexual harassment, wife abuse, and rape, courageously
confronting their sexism. By the end of the semester, the students
were asserting that if they'd had the course earlier, they wouldn't
have ended up as they did.
Devor's assessment of her course is modest; she views it as a
"first step out of their ignorance." Yet her experience appears to
corroborate the feminist criminologists' views on the importance of
gender to criminality. Moreover, her conclusion that the
13
14
information, insights, and empathy gained through women's studies
should help their rehabilitation deserves to be taken seriously and
pursued by all educators who work with male offenders.
In fact, offenders of both sexes are unlikely to be rehabilitated
by educational programs which ignore basic gender issues. As for
the women, Chesney-Lind has pointed out that those she interviewed
in a 1982 study were nothing like the "liberated crooks" described
by some criminologists; she suggests that "the search for the
'right' man and the desire to establish an 'appropriate' dependency
relationship with him is a greater source of female criminality
than the desire for independence" (1983: 59-60). Corroborating
this view were the women in my class last summer; typical was this
comment on the course: "I became much more aware of how my crime
related so heavily to the fact that I was very submissive and
didn't have a good understanding of the world around me." Women
offenders who are passive and maintain traditionally "feminine"
illusions about their lives -- for, example, expecting Prince
Charming to come along and support them -- are not likely to be
interested in learning skills for nontraditional jobs. Rather than
become independent, they are likely to continue to return to the
same kind of abusive relationships that got them into trouble in
the first place. Feminist education can help to break this
destructive cycle, as many in the women's studies class suggested.
As one woman wrote, women's studies "has brought to me an
understanding about the relationships between men and women, and
that women do not have to remain in submissive, abusive or
15
subservient roles in these relationships." Another representative
response was that women's studies "has given me insight and
knowledge into how our roles and positions came to be, why they
continue to exist, and what I can do to change them." In answer to
a question on their evaluation forms, all but one of the students
stated that the class should be required.
And what of the men? The questions raised by feminist
criminologists regarding the correlations between gender issues and
male criminality strongly suggest the importance of dealing with
such issues in education programs. Moreover, the accounts by
feminist teachers such as Holly Devor of their experiences in
prison classrooms strongly suggest that gender issues are of
particular significance to all offenders, women and men. And
several male responders to my questionnaire stressed the important
of feminist education for male offenders. Said one, "I think every
student should learn about this Egender/women's studies], get clear
about ethical and political ideals, and argue about public policy."
An administrator wrote: "We feel there is a continuing need for
these courses in our curriculum and we shall continue to offer
them." Finally, the positive responses to women's studies courses
by inmate students of both sexes point to the relevance of the
subject matter to their lives.
A final point needs to be made about teaching gender and women's
studies to the incarcerated, and that concerns the value to the
teachers themselves. While almost all of them report personal
16
feelings of trepidation and even hostility among other reactions in
front of their classes, particularly when facing male offenders,
they also felt that they had learned a great deal from the
experience -- about themselves, their subject matter, and their
students. With very few exceptions, teachers who have had this
experience are convinced that feminist education made a significant
difference in the lives of their students and believe strongly that
its inclusion in correctional education curricula should be
widespread.
VI
What I have tried to demonstrate here is that by bringing together
the findings of feminist criminologists who write about offenders,
and feminist educators who have taught offenders, we can find
compelling evidence of the importance of gender issues not only in
explaining criminal behavior but in helping to remedy it. The
study of such issues is of great importance to women offenders.
However, it is clear that such study should not be relegated to
women's sphere alone. As Daly and Chesney-Lind point out, "Of
whatever age, race, or class and of whatever nation, men are more
likely to be involved in crime, and in its most serious forms. . .
A large price is paid for structures of male domination and for the
very qualities that drive men to be successful, to control others,
and to wield uncompromising power. . . .[Gender differences]
17
challenge us to see that in the lives of women, men have a great
deal more to learn" (527). Their argument here is directed at
criminologists, but the point can be made in regard to educators
and to offenders themselves.
Gender studies, I maintain, should become integrated into the
philosophy and practice of all educational programs for offenders,
both women and men. Faculty from women's studies programs should
forge linkages with the criminal justice establishment in order to
cooperate in bringing this about. However, such studies should not
be considered impractical or the province of the university alone;
experiments should be undertaken incorporating such education into
vocational and literacy curricula. Courses and workshops for
prison staff should also contain such material. Moreover, further
educational research, informed by feminist criminological theory,
should be undertaken to assess these efforts. Through these
combined initiatives, we can begin to attack the gender-based
causes of lawbreaking in our society and to help the lawbreakers
discover the knowledge they need to lead productive and satisfying
lives.
18
For an excellent critical survey of this scholarship, see Meda Chesney-Lind's 1986 article, "Women and Crime: The Female Offender." The best, most recent, discussions of gender and crime include "Feminism and Criminology," by Chesney-Lind and Kathleen Daly; "Introduction: Gender, Crime, and Justice," by Pat Carlen and Anne Worrall; "Women and Crime: Questions for Criminology," by Frances Heidensohn; and Female Crime by Ngaire Naffine.
2See "I Have Lived with All the Women I Ever Want to Here: Teaching Women's Studies in a Women's Prison" by Martha Vicunus and Cynthia Kinnard and "A Jury of Our Peers: Teaching and Learning in the Indiana Women's Prison" by Susan Gubar and Anne Hedin. For a critique of these views, see "The Taycheedah Experience: Teaching Women's Studies in a Women's Prison" by Jacqueline Ross and Jane Holbrook.
3Sandra J. Holstein's unpublished paper, "Maximum Risk in Maximum Security," an enthusiastic account of the use of feminist pedagogy in Sing Sing prison, was written almost ten years ago, making it the earliest known (to me) record of such education in a correctional setting. In the paper, Ms. Holstein describes teaching three classes -- one all female, another all male, and the third evenly divided between the sexes -- and concluded that these experiences, while different, were valuable to her and the students.
4Most of the responses to my questionnaire described, in positive terms, courses and/or workshops with feminist content for male offenders.
19
Selected List of Works Consulted
Adler, Freda, Sisters in Crime: The Rise of the New Female
Criminal. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975.
Carlen, Pat and Anne Worrall, eds. Gender, Crime, and Justice.
Philadelphia: Open University Press, 1987.
Chapman, Jane Roberts. Economic Realities and the Female
Offender. Lexington: Lexington Books, 1980.
Chesney-Lind, Meda. "Women and Crime: The Female Offender."
Signs 12 (1986): 78-96.
"Women Under Lock and Key: A View from the Inside." The
Prison Journal 63 (1983): 47-65.
Daly, Kathleen and Chesney-Lind, Meda. "Feminism and
Criminology." Justice Quarterly 5 (1988): 497-537.
Devor, Holly. "Teaching Women's Studies to Convicted Sex
Offenders." Yearbook of Correctional Education (1989): 129-
154.
"Teaching Women's Studies to Male Inmates." Women's
Studies International Forum 11 (1988): 235-244.
Gubar, Susan and Hedin, Anne. "A Jury of Our Peers: Teaching and
Learning in the Indiana Women's Prison." College English
(1981): 779-789.
Heidensohn, Frances M. "Women and Crime: Questions for
Criminology." Gender, Crime, and Justice. Ed. Pat Carlen
and Anne Worrall.
Women and Crime: The Life of the Female Offender. New
York: New York University Press, 1085. .
20
Holstein, Sandra J. "Maximum Risk in Maximum Security." [c.
1980].
James, J. and Thornton, W. "Women's Liberation and the Female
Delinquent." Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency
17 (1980): 131.
Miller, Darcy and Carrington, Ruth. "Teaching Women's Literature
to Adolescent Female Offenders." The Journal of
Correctional Education March 1989: 6-9.
Naffine, Ngaire. Female Crime. North Sydney: Allen and Unwin,
1987.
Price, Barbara Raffel and Sokoloff, Natalie, eds. The Criminal
Justice System and Women. New York: Clark Boardman, 1982.
Ross, Jacqueline and Holbrook, Jane. "The Taycheedah Experience:
Teaching Women's Studies in a Women's Prison." Journal of
Thought. 20 (1985): 97-105.
Shakur, Assata and Chesimard, Joanne. "Women in Prison: How We
Are." The Black Scholar 9 (1978): 50-57.
Simon, Rita. Women and Crime. Lexington: Lexington Books, 1975.
Vicinus, Martha and Kinnard, Cynthia. "I Have Live with All the
Women I Ever Want to Here: Teaching Women's Studies in a
Women's Prison. Unlocking Shackled Minds: A Handbook for
the College Classroom. Ed. Frank Cioffi. Bloomington: The
Poynter Center, Indiana University, 1980.
Descriptive Study of Teaching Practices and Efficacy of Correctional Education
Robert A. Sedlak University of Wisconsin-Stout Menomonie, Wisconsin 54751
USA
Stan A. Karcz Karcz, McGing and Associates
P.O. Box 75502 St. Paul, Minnesota 55175
USA
Descriptive Study of Teaching Practices and Efficacy of Correctional Education
Within the last dozen years research has emerged that begins to identify those practices of teachers that facilitate learning. Concepts such as engaged time, allocated time, and academic learning time, efficacy and interactive teaching are now repeatedly discussed in special education literature. The studies that have been conducted on the topic generally involved elementary school teachers and a smaller number included secondary school teachers. Some were subject specific while others were generic. The research from these studies started filtering into the special education literature about six years ago and there has been an increasing volume of work done with exceptional learners and special education teachers since that time.
To our knowledge there has not been any effort made to examine the practices in correctional facilities against these new concepts. We know from the extant literature that the teaching environment within correctional facilities is qualitatively different from what one encounters in a typical school program. Adolescent-aged students turn over within these facilities every two to three months. The "class" of students that a teacher faces each day is likely to be slightly dif ferent as a result of new arrivals and departures. In an adult facility there is likely to be more stability.
There are only a few training programs in the country that prepare teachers to teach in correctional facilities and, by the nature of the clients and students being served, the composition of teachers may be somewhat atypical of teachers in other settings. This type of rationale then served as the backdrop for the present study.
In simple terms the study sought to elicit responses from teachers in correctional facilities on the topics of:
I. how they teach, 2. what they believe about teaching, and 3. what factors besides teaching they feel affect learning.
Before describing the study and some of the results, it is important to reiterate that these findings are preliminary and that additional data is arriving daily. It should also be mentioned that these data are all based upon a self-report methodology and are, therefore, subject to built-in biases. We did undertake this study as a starting point to learn more about the correctional educator and we anticipate that as we examine this data more closely we will undertake additional studies using dif ferent methodologies and viewing the questions posed from dif ferent perspectives.
Methodology
This particular research used a survey of correctional educators as the vehicle for data collection. A 1988 membership list of the Correctional Education Association served as the subject pool. Each entry was numbered and a 20% random sample was drawn. The random number generator in SPSSX selected the cases for the sample. In as much as the investigators knew that the membership was composed of nonteachers, the cover letter and survey instrument asked nonteachers to answer only the first six questions and return the survey.
Each mailed entry contained a survey and a self-addressed postage paid business envelope. Names and addresses had been directly typed onto the mailed entries. Surveys were mailed the week of March 1, 1988, and the results of these findings include responses received by May 30, 1988.
-1-
Instrumentation The survey instrument was composed of a cover letter on University letterhead explaining the purpose of the research and 112 statements or questions.
The first nine questions dealt with demographic information. Questions 10 thru 74 dealt with teaching practices; 75 thru 81 awareness issues; 82 thru 106 beliefs about teaching; 107 thru 109 educational standards; and 110 thru 112 educational philosophy. All responses were forced choice except for questions 110 thru 112 on philosophy.
Respondents A total of 320 surveys were mailed and 157 responses were received, representing a return rate to date of 49%. Seventy-seven responses were received from nonteaching members who completed only the short form of the survey. Eighteen surveys were returned due to change in address. The sample of responders who were teachers consisted of 62 surveys or 39% of the response sample. The following demographics of this sample are summarized below.
o The age range for these respondents was from 26 to 65 with both a mean and a median of 44. By sex there were 27 males and 32 females.
o Only two people had degrees less than a bachelor's degree. Twenty held bachelor's degrees. Thirty-nine held master's degrees or master's plus, and one held a doctorate.
o The number of years in their current positions ranged from 1 to 20 years, with a mean of 7.19, a median of 5.5, and a mode of 5.
o The most frequently cited description of their facility was an adult institution (N=39; 63%); the next largest was a juvenile institution (n=8; 13%) and then adult jail (n=5; 11%). Only one was in a juvenile detention facility.
o The size of the facilities included the entire range from less than 50 to over 499. The most frequent citation was between 100 and 149 or over 499.
o In regard to the average number of students (n=11 in each case) taught on an average day, there was a mean of 32.4 and a median of 26. The range was from 4 to 130. The maximum number served in any time period of the day ranged from 2 to 30 with a mean of 15.26 and a median of 15.
o Responses were received from educators in 29 different states.
Analysis
The data were summarized using mean ratings of the questionnaire item and then using a z-score transformation of the score. The means show the average rating for each item but do not account for the variability in the rating. For example a rating of 1 and a rating of 5 computes to a mean of 3 in the same way as a mean of 5 could be gained by two ratings of 3. In contrast the z-score transformation of the data takes into account the standard deviation. The formula used for the z-score transformation was mean divided by standard deviation. This new statistic is sensitive to the variability and occasionally represents the data in a fashion different from that shown by the mean scores alone. The z-score transformation also allows you to compare the ratings across the items using a common point of reference.
Results and Discussion
Figure 1 depicts the mean ratings for the clusters of statements that dealt with teaching practices. The three categories that gainered the lowest mean ratings were:
o Teaching of Regulations o Allocation of Time o Learner Sensitivity
Regulations Figure 2 depicts the individual ratings of statements in this category. Six of the seven statements were relatively low and only the first on "communicates clearly what behavior will be tolerated and what will not" has a significantly high rating. While each of the other six questions dealt with methods of the teaching of regulations these were considerably lower than the first. There are several possible interpretations we could make regarding these ratings and each of these should be considered a conjecture.
I. The actual teaching of regulations may not be taking place. 2. The low rated items deal with before-the-fact circumstances while the highly
rated item deals with behavior at the point of its occurrence. There may be considerably less being done to prevent regulation violations and more being done based upon consequences.
3. A variety of ways of teaching regulations are not attempted.
Allocated Time The second cluster of items with low ratings dealt with allocated time. The item ratings in Figure 3 show a graphic picture of how allocated time is used. Items 29 thru 33 deal with behaviors that relate to teaching practices. They represent the small things that take place in a lesson and actually talk about the behavior of the teacher. Items 25 thru 28 are more global in the manner in which they are phrased. It may be that the strategies suggested in 29 thru 33 are not practiced often by the teachers and that other strategies are used.
Learner Sensitivity Figure 4 shows the item means for this category. It may be that all the items in this class are not adequately described under this title. Item 20, for example, involves communication with others in the institution. It appears that educational objectives are only perceived as being relevant in the classroom and that little communication takes place with noneducational staff.
Item 73 may relate more to the fact that the institutional environment is such that these types of enrichments are beyond the scope of an educational program.
Both items 71 and 72 are rated highly and demonstrate a recognized need on the part of the teachers to individualize instruction.
Philosophical Implications
Fifty-two percent of the respondents answered the three open ended questions at the end of the survey. A wide variety of responses resulted. The variability in the responses may be due in part to the lack of an operational definition for "educational philosophy" in the first two questions. In general the provided responses addressed curriculum objectives more than they addressed issues of expected student outcomes, issues of truth and value, learning theory and how thinking activities are or should be structured and processed.
-3-
The responses reflected a mental set of "immediacy" and of measurable concrete activities but did not address in general well rounded philosophies. The preeminence of the GED as an outcome objective is probably one of the most common responses. That achievement in and of itself is viewed by the respondents as the critical element in education. Numerous objectives related to providing adult education experiences, academics, life skills, pre-employment training and programs to motivate the inmate were included.
The responses provided indicated that the underlying rationale for how inmates learn (change) was not adequately addressed. The values that emerged from these responses suggest that correctional educators believe a general education program to pass the G.E.D. is important and that pre-employment is important. It would appear that the educational programs delivered within the institutions are more a result of institutional need and of the perceived importance of G.E.D. and pre-employment training than the result of a clearly defined, well articulated educational philosophy.
Some of the stated strategies for attaining educational objectives were to:
* provide positive experience to inmates for purposes of raising self esteem * assist inmates to become responsible for their own actions * assist inmates to understand that education provides them with more choice
making opportunities in their lives * provide multiple grade level increases during an academic year * utilize an individualized competency based instruction format for delivering
educational services
It is interesting to note that none of the stated educational strategies referred to specific educational strategies such as engaged time, allocated time, academic learning time, or mastering learning principles. This might suggest that more need for such information is needed than suggested in the preceding discussions on these topics.
In our view this narrow focus does not adequately address the skills needed by inmates to begin to be integrated into society. We do acknowledge that while the "GED outcome" was the most common thread in the responses, there was sufficient variance to permit us to hypothesize that there is hope that a great deal more can occur and the teachers are willing to do more if given some encouragement or leadership.
Summary
Based upon the objectives and the open ended responses the following statements can be supported.
1. Security issues are preeminent in the minds of correction educators and supercede educational issues and priorities.
2. Current focus of philosophy and success of educational programs is narrowly def ined by successfully passing the GED.
3. Educators appear to know what the curriculum should contain and how it should be delivered but the environmental forces and structure work against them.
4. The results indicate a need for educational leadership for corrections education and a strong spokesperson to champion the cause. The teachers have the skills and knowledge but they are bound to the security faction to maximize educational potential.
1888L -4-
A B C D F G H i
Z Score Transformations and MEAN Ratings for Clusters of Statements on Teaching Practices
Descriptive=5 6.79
A—Teaching Set-up and Organization B—Teaching Regulations C—Maintaining Order D—Allocation of Time E=Engaged Time F—Lesson Presentation - Introduction Phase G—Lesson Presentation - Demonstration Phase H=Lesson Presentation - Extended Practice Phase and Evaluation I=Learner Sensitivity
4.69
4.68 11 Ratings
• V.
Z Score Transformations and MEAN Ratings for Clusters of Statements on
Organized and Institutional Awareness Descriptive=5
5 r
4
3
2
0
J-Organizational Awareness K-Institutional Awareness
6.34
1 4 1 4 • 4
1
•
4 • 4 I> A
e >4.4 •44,.
•-
3.44 3.67 3.65
3.24 2.98
Ratings 7
6
5
2
1
15* 16 17 18 19 20 21
II17. Incorporates reasonable suggestions from students regarding the content of regulations for acceptable school behavior.
15. Communicates clearly what behavior will be tolerated and what will not.
II16. Works with institutional staff to determine their expectations for student behavioral standards. (Conditions for lock up, etc.)
1
1
Z Score Transformations and MEAN Ratings for Statements on Teaching of Regulations
Desc rip tive=5
Correspond to Numbered Statement in Questionaire
18. States regulations, posts regulations, and provides discussion of regulations at the time of their introduction.
II19. Presents examples of regulation compliance and of regulation noncompliance.
20. Requires students to read or explain regulations and procedures.
II21. Monitors regulation compliance and provides specific feedback during class.
Descriptive=5 5 r
4.45 Ratings
4
" 7
>>:
26* 27 28 29 30 31 33
VC7N
Z Score Transformations and MEAN Ratings for Statements on Allocation of Time
Correspond to Numbered Statement in Questionaire
26. Maximizes time in instruction by continually scheduling students in direct instruction (e.g., interacts with 70% or more of the students per hour).
27. Minimizes time in non-instructional activities (e.g., spends 80% or more of class time in instructional activities).
28. Maintains classroom activities and selects materials that are related to identified student outcome behaviors.
29. Coordinates transportation activities between residential facility and the education building to minimize time lost in transitioning from building to building.
30. Keeps transition time between lessons short (e.g., no more than 3 minutes between change of students and activity; no more than 30 seconds when a change of activity only).
31. Establishes procedures for lessons that signal a clear beginning and end.
32. Gains all students' attention at the beginning of the lesson and maintains student attention during lesson at 90% level.
33. Prepares students for transitions among classes in advance by stating
behavioral expectations and informing that lesson is drawing to a close.
6.22
4.5
1
5.40
4.1 b• 1
1 3.38 '.99 ' .99
3.50 3.35 P .84 3.08 b• 1
•• •• • 1 •
>el wyl .. _ •• .55 • ■ '• ■ ■
il -
>*4 . ■ >e4 • ■ W.2
•• • 4
> ' > 4 • 4 . • • • •1 •• I ■ • ■ •• • • *. M4W 4 .4 › 4 I . 4 % 4
3.46 3.11
1.84
IN Ratings
Descriptive=5 7r
6 I-
5 I-
4 P • 743.67
66* 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74
Z Score Transformations and MEAN Ratings for Statements on Learner Sensitivity
Correspond to Numbered Statement in Questionaire .
66. Stays abreast of the current literature about the educational needs of the numerous special populations served.
67. Is aware of nondiscriminatory educational diagnostic assessments instruments and procedures.
68. Uses appropriate nondiscriminatory educational diagnostic information, if available, from Chapter 1 services, from special education services, from intake services, and from self administered instruments.
69. Regularly relates to residential staff personnel about mutual expectations for addressing the educational needs of the students served.
70. Regularly relates to noneducational staff (other than residential saff) at the institution about mutual expectation for addressing the educational needs of the students served.
71. Reasonably individualizes instruction for every student in class.
72. Provides learning activities that result in a high success rate (80% or more at the time).
73. Provides quality growth experiences (such as guest speakers, plays, authorized absence field trips when appropriate to museums, etc.) whenever possible and feasible.
74. Assists the student to communicate in a manner that permits the student to
stand up for his/her rights without violating the rights of others (i.e. to be assertive).
Ratings
3.78
3.28
2.88 ' 1
'
'
75*‘ 76
1
4 4 1
• 4 4 4 4 1 4 4 4
• • 1
4.12
77 78
Z Score Transformations and MEAN Ratings for Statements on Organizational Awareness
Descriptive ,---5 5 r
4.71
4
3
2
Correspond to Numbered Statement in Questionaire
75. Adheres to the national Correctional Education Association's current draft of correctional education standards.
76. Understands and complies with the federal and state education agency
laws, regulations and guidelines as they apply to the correctional setting.
77. Understands and complies with the State Corrections Agency administrative
regulations and the national American Correctional Association's (ACA) standards as they affect his/her correctional education program.
78. Understands how to communicate within the corrections organizational
system to affectuate positive educational program results for
his/her students.
Descriptive=5 5r
4
3
2
0
4.69
3.88 3.79
- -
:
q.
:
:
79* 80 81
• Ratings
Sd
1 1
1 •1 1
1 1 1
Z Score Transformations and MEAN Ratings for Statements on Institutional Awareness
Correspond to Numbered Statement in Questionaire
79. Is aware of the various priorities of security, health and sanitation, program services, purchasing and business personnel at the institution as these priorities relate to education.
80. Understands public school educational requirements (outside of the correctional institution) necessary for a student's graduation from elementary school and high school.
81. Understands public school educational requirements (outside of the correctional institution) for facilitating a student's: admission to an advanced institution for learning; for admission into a vocational education program; for admission into a vocational rehabilitation program; and for entrance into the work force.
1 1
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
Teaching Sel-up and Organization Not
Descriptive ....Descriptive
NM NM MI UM MI Ili SIN On I» MI BO INN MIR MI MI
Nol Descriptive ....Descriptive
Demographic Information
I. Please specify your age
2. My sex is: a. male b. female
3. Highest degree
4. Years in current position
S. 1 primarily work in a: (select one)
a. juvenile institution
b. juvenile detention facility c. juvenile education program (other titan in a detention facility or institution)
d. adult Institution
C. adult jail f. adult education program (other than in a jail or institution)
g. other. Please specify
6. The number of inmates, jailers or detainees who arc students at my institution/facility
today is: a. Less than 50 g. 300 to 349
- b. 50 to 99 h. 350 to 399 c. 100 lo 149 i. 400 to 449 d. 150 to 199 j. 450 to 499 c. 200 to 249 k. More than 499 f. 250 to 299
If you do not etch. please do not complete the rest of this questionnaire. Return it in the
enclosed business reply envelope.
Please (Ill in the blank for the following items.
7. How many students do you teach on an average each day7
I. What is the maximum number of studcnts you teach at any given period of the day?
9. What state is your educational program located in?
Plane respond to each item In (arma of 11.1 gxtent. j n bleb li. describei voit NO!:
(I) Not at all descriptive
(2) Descriptive to a small extent
(3) Descriptive to a moderate extent
It Arranges physical space and instructional materials to facilitate cosy access to high-use materials.
12 Establishes and implements minimally disruptive traffic patterns and guoccdurcs in ihe teaching environment.
13 Establishes and implements procedures for nonacademic class business (cg., lock ups. tardiness, material use, movement in and out of room, distributing materials, talk among students, bathroom breaks).
14 Establishes and implements procedures for academic business (e.g., sealwoik procedures , obtaining help. volunteer behavior during sinalt gloms. learning centers, computer use).
Teaching Regulations
15 Communicates clearly what behavior will be tolerated and what will not.
16 Works institutional staff to determine their expectations for student behavioral standards. (conditions for lock up etc.)
17. Incorporates reasonable suggestions from students regarding the
content of regulations for acceptable school behavior.
States regulations , posts regulations, and provides discussion of regulations at the time of their introduction.
19. Presents examples and of regulation compliance and regulation noncompliance.
20. Requires students to read or explain regulations and procedures.
21 Monitors regulation compliance and provides specific feedback during class.
Afaintnining Order
22. Positions self in the room to provide high degree of visibility (e.g., can make eye contact with all students).
23. Detects disruptive behavior early and follows standard procedure in responding to disruptive behr.vior.
24 Reinforces appropria tc performance through specif ic praise statements (c g, states specific behaviors).
25 Includes students in the management of their own behavior. (4) Descriptive to a large e s tent
(5) Descriptive to an extremely large e>.tent
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 ) 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
1 23 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
10. Arranges physical space to minimize possible security conflicts 1 2 3 4 S
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
Not Descriptive ....Dcscriptivc
1 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
Not Icriptivc
Allocaicd Tinte
26. Maximizcs timc in instruction by continually schcduling studcnts
in direct instruction (c.a., inicracts with 70% or litote of thc
studcnts per hour).
27. Minimizcs time in non-instructional aclivitics (cg., spcnds 80%
or more of class time in instructional activitics).
28. Maintains classroom activilics and sciccts materials that arc
related to jdcntificd studcnt outcomc bchaviors.
29. Coordinatcs transportation activitics between residential facility
and thc education building to minimize time lost in
transisioning front building to building.
30. Kceps transition timc bctween lessons short (c.g., no more than
3 minutes between change of studcnts and activity; no morc
than 30 scconds whcn a change of activity only).
• 31. Establishcs proccdurcs for Icssons that signal a cicar beginning
and end.
32. Gains all studcnts' attention at thc bcginning of the Icsson and maintains studcnt attention during Icsson at 90% levc1.
33. Prcparcs students for transitions among classes in advancc by stating
behavioral cxpectations and informing that lesson is drawing to a close.
Engaged Tinte
34. Maintains students' attention during indcpendcnt work at 80% Icycls
or higher.
35. Circulatcs among studcnts working indcpendcntly between lessons to assist studcnts and to monitor progrcss.
36. Maintains indcpcndent work accuracy al 201 Icycl or higher.
37. Tells fatiOnalc for indepcndcnt work and communicates the importance
of the assignment.
38. Providcs active forms of indepcndent work practice glearlv rclalcd 1.0
'cadmic gull
39. Sets assignment standards (ncatness, accuracy, duc dates).
40. Uses tutoring (c.g., pccrs, voluntccrs, aides) and other specialized instructional tcchnology to increase academic performance.
41. Establishcs proccdurcs for carly finishcrs, studcnis who are
stalled, and thosc sccking hclp.
Desctiptivc
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 5
42. Schedules timc to rcvicw indepcndcnt work and ig guitgle written deuriotivg fecrlback to the students.
43. Rcquircs that students correct work and make up missed or unf inished work.
44. Givcs informative feedback to students in making written or verbal corrections.
Lesson Presentation - Introduction Phase
45. Providcs scnsitivity to students' readincss for learning.
46. Addrcsscs rcsidcntial experience concerns that relate to readincss for lcarning.
47. Rcvicws prior lcarning by rcquiring student recitation or practice of prcvious day's skills.
48. Rcasonably involvcs students in the selcction of appropriatc classroom activitics.
49. States the objcetivc of the lesson and communicates to students what thcy will be cxocctcd to do to dcmonstrate mastcry of the new skill.
50 Providcs an ovcrvicw of the Icsson.
5I. Rclatcs ncw concepts to old by stating how a new skill is like or differcnt front thosc the studcnt alrcady knows.
52 Aciivatcs the studcnt's prior expericnces to aid comprehcnsion and undcrstanding.
53 Convcys purposcfulncss for lcarning by stating the rationale.
Dentons I ration Phate
54. Dcmonstratcs by use of examples, new behaviors and procedures for studcnts
55. Rcquircs studcnts to practice new behaviors and procedures based on imitation of the tcachcr's demonstration.
56. Prcscnts many cxamplcs and nonexamplcs of new concepts or gcncralization and cxplains why they arc examplcs or nonexamplcs.
57. Dclivcrs soccific etics. p& l prompts prior to the initiation of studcnt rcsponsc, to maintain accuracy above 80%.
58. Asks frcquent questions to test understanding and provides opportunitics for acadcmic practicc.
I 2 3 4 5
wig um sup tim I» MU luir Om Me am MI OM Mt Ms Ms
Not lb:scripts Descs Sot ive
Not Descriptive ....Descriptive
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
79. is awarc of 111C VariOUS prioritics of security, health and sanitation, program 1 2 3 4 5 services, purchasing and business personnel at the institution as these prioritics relate to cducation.
80. Undcrsiands public school educational rcquiremcnts (outside or the corrcctional institutional) necessary for a studcnt's graduation from cicrncntary school and high school.
81. Undcrstands public school cducational requirements (outside of the correctional institution) for facilitating a student's: admission to an advanced institution of learning; (or admission into a vocational education program; for admission into a vocational rehabilitation program; and for cntrancc into the work force.
1 2 3 4 $
I 2 3 4 5
Please indicate Ilse degree to which you agree or dls•gree with each statement below by circling the appropriate numeral to the right of each utilement.
llebels About Teachnig Disagree...Agrcc
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
1
2 345
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
OM WM WM Mg OM glib UM UM 111111111k MS URI IllIle MI MIMI MU 1111111 OM MI
Extended Practsre Phase and Evaluation
59. Repeals practicc opportunitics until students arc not making wars.
60. Uses error correction proccdurcs (c.g., prompts or modcls) rather than tell answcr or call on anothcr studcnt.
61. follows gft oft corrcct rcsnonscs v_dift ontinacnt and nccifiç praise.
62. Maintains a brisk pacc during thc lcsson.
63. Providcs frequcnt tcsts to dcicrminc studcnis' mastcry of academic objcctivcs.
64. Rctcaches or makcs instructional dccisions on the basis of students' performance on tests.
65. Maintains continuous records and/or graphs of studcrit progress.
Learner Sensitivity
Organizational Awareness
75 Adheres in the national Correctional Education Association's current draft of corrcctional education standards.
76. Undcrstands and complies with the fcdcral and statc cducation agency laws, rcgulations and guidclincs as thcy apply to the
corrcctional sciting.
77. Undcrstands and complies with the Siatc Corrections Agency administrative rcgulations and the national Amcrican Correctional Association's (ACA) standards as thcy affect his/hcr correctional
cducation program.
78. Undcrstands how to communicate within the corrections organizational system to affCCIUMC positive educational program rcsults for his/hcr studcnts.
insitlittiolleti Awareness
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
66. Stays abrcast of the currcnt litcraturc about the educational nccds of the 1 2 3 4 5 numerous spccial populations scrvcd.
67. h aware gt nondiscriminatory çducationat diagnostic asscssmcnts 1 2 3 4 5 Lulu/mum and. oroccdurel.
68. Uses appropriate nondiscriminatory educational diagnostic information, I 2 3 4 5 if available, from Chapter I services, from spccial education services, from intake services, and f rom self administered instrumcnts
69. Regularly relates to residential staff personnel about mutual cxpcct- ations for addrcssing the cducational nceds of the students scrvcd.
70. Rcgularly relates to noncducational staff (other than rcsidcntial staff) at the institution about mutual cxpectation for addrcssing the educational nccds of the students scrved.
71. Rcasonably individualizes instruction for evcry studcnt in class.
72. Provides learning activitics that rcsult in a high succcss (80% or more of the time).
73. Provides gualitv growth çxpericnccs (such as guest speakers, plays, authorizcd absence ficld trips whcn appropriatc to muscums, etc.) whenever possible and Cessible.
74. Assists the student to communicatc in a manncr that permits thc studcnt I 2 3 4 5 saflsi. ftft Loi bisitici rights without violating the. right8 la Others
(i.e. to bc asscrtivc).
82. Whcn a studcnt docs bettcr than usual, many timcs it is because I exerted 1 2 3 4 5 a little extra effort.
83. Thc hours in my class have littic influence on studcnts compared to the 1 2 3 4 5 influence of thcir pecrs.
84. The amount that a student can learn is primarily related to family 1 2 3 4 5 background.
85. If a teachcr Iras adcquate skills and motivation, s/he can get through 1 2 3 4 5
to the most dif ficult studcnts.
86 1 havc cnough training to dcal with almost any lcarning problcm. I 2 3 4 5
95. A Icacher is vcry limited in what s/he can achicvc bccausc
studcnt's past cxpericnccs havc a grcat influencc on thc student's achievcmcni.
I 2 3 4 5
The influcnccs of a studcni's prior cxpericnccs can bc ovcrcomc by I 2 3 4 5
good tcaching.
If one of my studcnts couldn't do an assignincrit. I would bc able to 1 2 3 4 5
assess whciltcr the assignntcni was at a rcasonablc Icycl of difficulty.
Evcn a teachcr with good tcaching abilitics may not rcach many students I 2 3 4 5
who arc incarcerated.
I'lcase intlicalc which of thcsc statcmcnts is more correct by circling the alternative to the right of
the statcmcnt.
Primary Source of Education Standards
107. My corrcctional cducation program at this institution is part of a statcwidc Ycs No
approvcd curriculum.
108. My corrcctional cducation program at this institution is part of a (non-DOC) Ycs No
public school district approvcd curriculum.
109. Each tcaclicr is primarily rcsponsiblc for determining the curriculum at Ycs No
his/her institution.
Philosophy
110. If you arc not too tircd, School Rationalc—Plcase attach a copy of it or in 50 words or less
a bricf statcmcnt of your school's educational philosophy.
Ill. If your philosophy diffcrs in one somc way from the school's, please dcscribc how.
104
105
106
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1
2345
112. Plcase idcntify and describe vour program in 50 words or less.
Thank you.
Disagrcc...Agrcc
87. My tcachcr training program and/or caperictece has givcn me thc
ncccssary skills to bc an cffectivc tcachcr.
88. Many tcachcrs arc stymicd in thcir attcmpts to hclp students by
their lack of support from the institution.
89. Somc students nccd to be placcd in slowcr groups so thcy arc not
subjcctcd to unrealistic expcctations.
90. Individual differcnccs among Icachcrs account for Clic widc variations
in student achicvcmcnt.
91. When a studcnt is having difficulty with an assignmcnt, I am usually
able to adjust il to his/hcr Icycl.
92. If one of nty ncw studcnts docs not want to do an assignmcnt, thcrc is littic that I can do to incrcasc his/hcr attcntion until s/hc is rcady.
93. Whcn a studcnt docs bctler in class than s/lic normally docs, it is usually laccause I found a bcticr way of tcaching.
94. Whcn I really try, I can gct through to most difficult studcnts.
96. Tcachers arc not a very powerful influence on studcnt achicvcmcnt
whcn all factors arc considered.
97. If studcnts arc particularly disruptive onc day. I ask mysclf what I havc bccn doing diffcrcntly.
98. Whcn thc performance of nty studcnts improvcs, it is usually becausc
I found more cffcctivc (caching approaches.
99. If my supervisor suggested that I changc somc of my class curriculum . I would feel confident that I could crcatc and implcincnt the
new curriculum.
100. Studcnt confcrenccs can hclp a tcachcr judge how much to cxpect from a studcnt by giving thc tcachcr an idca of the studcnts' values toward cducation, socicly, gcuing a job, and staying out of trouble
Disagice . Agicc
2 3 4 5
I 2 3 .1 5
I 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
I
2345
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
1
23 45
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
I 2 3 4 5
101. If a studcnt did not rcmcmbcr information I gave in a prcvious lcsson, I would know how to incrcase his/hcr rctcntion in thc ncxt lcsson.
102. If a studcnt in my class bccomcs disruptive, I fcel assurcd that I can redirect and control him/hcr quickly.
103. Institutional rcgulations and policics hindcr my doing the job I was hircd to do.
tit 110111i 1111111 Sib MI lee MI MN 1.1111\ MO OBI IIat MI MI Mil
PROGRAM STRATEGIES FOR COMMUNITY RE-INTEGRATION
OF PRISONERS
Paper for presentation at the Second International*
Conference on Prison Education, September 25-28, 1989.
Dr. R.A. Semmens Senior Lecturer, Institute of Educ. University of Melbourne
April, 1989
Program Strategies for Community Re-integration of Prisoners.
Abstract
Two major types of community re-integration program
are identified - skill development and community
linkage programs. Some of the latter type involve
prisoners in decision-making processes relating to
their program and possibly prison management
structures aimed at linking training programs to
further education and work after release. The
paper outlines how the principles of this type of
approach could be implemented in two stages at a
new security prison for males in Victoria,
Australia.
-1-
STRATEGIES FOR COMMUNITY RE-INTEGRATION
PROGRAM STRATEGIES FOR COMMUNITY RE-INTEGRATION OF PRISONERS
INTRODUCTION
The literature on correctional training programs tends to recognise
the importance of community re-integration of offenders, although
there are two clearly different strategies for achieving that end.
One type of training program seeks to achieve community re-integration
through individual skill development and/or counselling, whereas the
other type of training program emphasises development of community
links that will endure beyond the period of detention. A small number
of community linkage programs is organised so that participants become
involved in changing community attitudes and practices at the same
time as they are adjusting to the requirements and responsibilities of
community living. Examples of each of these types of program are
detailed below, and the benefits of the more far-reaching community
linkage programs are clarified.
INDIVIDUAL SKILL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS
The underlying assumption of skill development programs appears to be
that the development of skills will prepare participants for the world
of work upon release. Some contact with community agencies in the
-2-
vicinity of the correctional facility may be arranged although
there is rarely any planned intention that such contact form the
basis of permanent community links. Such programs are
practically oriented and there is no statement of theory.
Sometimes, however, there is no statement either about what jobs
the program designers expect that participants will be able to do
upon release.
Other evaluation criticisms of this type of program are in the
area of prison administration or transition arrangements from
prison to community, but these rarely include relevance of prison
training to community work opportunities.
In an extensive survey of vocational training programs in the
U.S., Day and McCane (1983) traced the development of prison
systems from an era of retribution to an era of reform and then
an era of rehabilitation. They claim that rehabilitation is naw
being superseded by an era of re-integration and that work
training fits into this new era. Work training is usually
institution-based but its administration may take three forms -
sole control by the custodial staff; involvement of community
members in curriculum design and instruction; or, the use of
inmates for institutional maintenance and industries.
Day and McCane report that changes have taken place in
correctional systems to facilitate vocational training. The
major changes are:
-3-
1. using instructors from local educational institutions and
possibly enrolling prisoners at those institutions and allowing
some prisoners early release to complete courses;
2. involvement of the private sector in providing realistic work
opportunities within prisons;
3. the school district concept which provides for instructional
services under collaborative agreements between correctional
institutions and state education agencies or local education
agencies. This arrangement has the advantage of linking
prisoners with community-accepted credentials;
4. co-operative community programs which allow for members of a
local community to take special courses in a prison e.g.
emergency medical technician, or for prisoners to assist in the
operation of a local community facility e.g. fire station.
Day and McCane believe that these administrative and program
innovations give rise to optimism for the future in corrections,
but they regret that 'rigorously designed research of program
effectiveness is conspicuously absent'.
Another extensive piece of evaluative research was carried out in
the U.S. by Rice(1980), who analysed the characteristics of
successful vocational education programs in adult
State-administered prisons and the outcomes of these programs.
Program success was determined by analysis of existing
-4-
quantitative data at the institutional level on post-release
employment, performance evaluation, and recidivism. A
quasi-case-study approach was used in nine prisons across the
United States. Successful programs were found to be
characterised by the ways they overcame typical problems in
vocational training programs. These major characteristics
according to Rice, are similar to those outlined by Day and
McCane (1982) and include: efficient co-ordination with
community training facilities, and evaluation for relevance to
post-release employment opportunities.
In the light of these types of research reports of vocational
training programs, Braithwaite's (1980) review of education and
work programs in Australian prisons is pertinent. Braithwaite
states that the proportion of overseas findings which show that
vocational programs do reduce recidivism is sufficient to
encourage further development of such programs 'as one of the few
types of intervention which can have an impact on crime'.
According to Braithwaite, one of the most important aspects of
vocational programs is success in gaining employment, in the area
of training, upon release. Braithwaite concludes that on the
recidivism criterion, vocational programs are more likely to be
successful. Braithwaite also believes that educational provision
would be improved if there could be greater co-operation between
education and work program administration and if education were
valued by prison administrators. Other 'improvements' could
include the involvement of prisoners and ex-prisoners in teaching
courses and the availability of study release for selected
-5-
prisoners. Braithwaite's observations about prison
administrators and the need for community-based education
programs, are reflected in the work of Brennan and Brennan (1984)
and in reports from other countries (S.U.R.C., 1973; Buttram and
Dusewicz, 1977; Keesling, 1979; Ball, 1982) and suggest a tension
between custodial requirements and community re-integration
goals. This problem needs to be addressed in the re-development
of prison training and work programs currently being carried out
in Victoria (Australia).
Other, more extensive community linkage programs need to be taken
into account when developing new programs in correctional
education because they attempt to develop training programs with
a basis in theory and aimed at overcoming institutional and
community impediments to community re-integration.
COMMUNITY LINKAGE PROGRAMS
This type of community re-integration program differs from the
individual skill and counselling programs in that linkage
programs rely more heavily on co-operative involvement of
participants in the integration process. Project Newgate
(Seashore et al, 1976) and the Lorton Project (Taylor, 1974) are
early examples of this approach.
More recently in Therapeutic Communities in Corrections, Grant
(1980) has argued a case for participatory training as a primary
strategy for community linkage. He asserts that democratisation
is a necessary but not sufficient condition for increasing access
-6-
of all citizens to the power systems of their society.
Participation in decision-making also requires an informed
constituency. Applying this argument to work in mental health
and correctional institutions, Grant observes that:
The merging of learning with participation in program development is a way to build an informed constituency for participation in the present and for determining alternative futures. It is also therapeutic.
Grant believes this occurs because the merging of training with
participation in program development is really a living-learning,
problem-centred method of training that starts where the learner
is and can extend his or her horizons of knowledge.
Grant's 'project learning model' is based on two principles:
1. that knowledge is acquired through using knowledge;
2. that learning is facilitated by maximising learners'
participation in developing their own learning programs and in
providing knawledge to themselves and others.
In another book, edited by Riessman and Popper (1968) and
entitled Up From Poverty, Grant details how the 'project learning
model' was applied to a correctional program. Grant reports that
eighteen felony offenders were paroled from a California State
Prison to work in training and job development programs for the
poor.
After three years one was back in prison, four had returned to
the kind of semi-skilled jobs they held before incarceration, one
-7-
had entered tertiary education, and the remaining twelve had
continued in training, job and program development work, reaching
positions of middle management responsibility.
The project was undertaken as a demonstration of the potential
within the offender population for contributing to the solution
of crime and delinquency problems. This project was called the
New Careers Develoliment Project. Almost all of these 'new
careerists' had long histories of known delinquency, and half
were in prison on charges of armed robbery.
The project required that the men read at least at eighth grade
level and score at least average (90 or above) on the
prison-administered group intelligence test. The group
participated in a training program lasting four months. Grant
expected that behaviour would change although he was not
primarily concerned with changing behaviour. Rather, he focussed
on developing knowledge around social problems and the operation
of organizations, skills in working with groups, in collecting,
summarising and interpreting data and in writing.
The training principles emphasised maximum participation of the
men in developing and carrying out the training program, emphasis
on task and problem-solving rather than on personal and
interpersonal concerns, and provision for self-direction and
self-discovery.
Grant postulates a principle of 'contagion' to at least partly
explain the success of the project. He defines 'contagion' as
-8-
the transmission of a set of beliefs and commitments. Grant
identifies five conditions necessary for the 'contagion
phenomenon' to appear. These are:
providing participatory roles; making room for autonomy of action; decision and choice; building a group culture around a cause to which one can be committed; offering a meaningful future; and allawing natural leaders to emerge.
Grant's evidence of 'contagion' is that the first phase of the
Californian project and the staff's activities in it created a
climate and set a process in motion that allawed it to be carried
on by the trainees and transmitted to other trainees who in turn
transmitted it to others. After their release the trainees had
an increasing impact on both people and programs.
The group became committed to a cause that was apart from the
maintenance of the group itself. The cause was the demonstration
of the manpower potential of all those classed as 'outs' and the
building of bridges for the 'outs' into the established culture.
Grant concludes by challenging professional approaches to
behaviour change on either an individual or group level, because
most programs designed to do something about social problems
focus on the individual and ignore the social context. Such
programs also tend to impose solutions from the top, despite
evidence that this does not work very well. Grant concedes that
reluctance to involve clients in change programs may quickly
alter the character of the program, the professional role, and
even challenge the professional control. However, Grant argues
that if professionals can live with such changes they will find
-9-
that they have a tremendous source of strength and manpower
available to reach more people more effectively. Influence will
extend from one program to another and behaviour change will
merge with organization change.
These claims are exemplified in another project developed by
Grant (1982) at the Berkshire House of Corrections. Firstly, a
governance board was established with elected representatives of
each group concerned. The board proceeded by establishing
educational and management aims, devising means and developing
strategies for overcoming obstacles to achievement of aims. This
co-operative approach to learning also involved local community,
education and welfare agencies, some of which became sources of
post-release employment. Grant summarises the overall effect in
the following way:
The officers found more dignity and responsibility in their roles, the inmates took control of their lives and the jail took on a new image in the community.
While Grant's work emphasises the importance of the context for
learning in facilitating community integration, the work of
Hirschi (1969) and of Elliot et al (1979) explains haw community
integration is maintained thrOugh involvement in conventional
activities, such as meaningful work, and through attachment to
other people. According to Elliott et al, the more the
individual has invested in conventional activities and
attachments the less likely he/she is to jeopardise those
interests through breaking the law. Ties to people and activities
become attenuated through repeated experience of failure in those
areas.
-10-
Success in gaining a credential that has currency in the
community, both in terms of employment and promotion
opportunities, will possibly develop confidence in social
relationships as well. However, training program development
needs to include applications of understandings and competencies
in the broader social context.
RELEVANCE OF OVERSEAS RESEARCH TO AUSTRALIAN SITUATION
The community linkage program data, outlined above, indicates
that while training in work skills is important, the way in which
these skills are taught can make a difference to the thoroughness
of preparation for community living. This observation is also
made by Semmens (1986) upon evaluation of training programs at
the Malmsbury youth training centre for 17-21 year old male
offenders in Victoria. Despite the quality of the education and
work programs at MaLmsbury, those youths who had longer previous
experience of institutions and less experience of education and
work were more likely to re-offend. Conversely, those least
likely to re-offend had less institutional experience and higher
levels of schooling. Significantly, the most successful youths
also understood more of the decision-making processes, the
cultural life and more positive ways of interacting with other
people in our society. Thus it is suggested that those inmates
who have not completed their compulsory schooling years and/or
who have a previous history of institutionalisation are most in
need of a radically different training program, if they are to be
successfully re-integrated into the life of the community.
Grant's concepts and practice may be radical but probably quite
realistic given the situation of large numbers of prisoners.
-11-
STEPS TOWARDS A PARTICIPATORY MODEL IN VICTORIA
A recent'report (Semmens 1988) to the State Training Board and
the Office of Corrections in Victoria made the following
recommendations:
1. that prison industries be selected in areas which reflect labour
market expansion so that access to available post-release
employment is increased;
2. that prison industries be co-ordinated with vocational training
programs so that industrial experience can become accredited as
part of vocational training programs;
3. that prison vocational training provision be structured so that
prisoners may enter short courses, preparatory courses,
apprenticeship and other accredited courses according to their
level of skill and experience in a particular industry or career
path;
4. that correctional administration be re-structured so that
continuity of education and vocational training programs is
possible upon transfer from one prison to another and from prison
to community-based supervision;
5. that access to up-dating of qualifications and work experience
for industrial supervisors and study leave be a right for prison
officers, in order to improve career prospects, strengthen
-12-
morale, and develop greater support for prisoner access to
vocational training;
6. that a participatory model for prison management be introduced
initially in a new prison where existing practices and proCedures
do not have to be phased out.
In the twelve months since the above recommendations were made
prison education and vocational training programs have come under
the control of thé State Training Board which is responsible for
technical and further education (TAPE) throughout the State via
regionalised colleges. This means that prisoners can enrol for
courses in prison, complete them during their sentence, and
continue their studies upon release. The options of part-time,
evening, and correspondence modes of study are as available to
prisoners and ex-prisoners as to any other student enrolling at a
TAPE College. Negotiation of credits from these studies towards
more academically oriented courses at universities is also
underway. Thus there has been a lot of progress tawards
achievement of the first four recommendations. Action on the
fifth and sixth recommendations is vital to the development of
more effective education and vocational training provision. A
new maximum security prison for 240 prisoners at a cost of $52 m.
will open shortly in Victoria. Future papers at C.E.A.
conferences will hopefully evaluate the progress of program and
management innovations there - especially the extent to which
prisoners can take responsibility for decisions relating to
themselves and their future.
-13-
morale, and develop greater support for primoner accens to _
vocatianal training;
6. that a participatory =del for prison management be introduced
initially in a new prison where existing practices and proCedures
do not have to be phased out.
In the twelve months since the above recommendations were made prison
education and vocational training programs have come under the control
of the State Training Board which is responsible for technical and
further education (TAPE) throughout the State via regionalised
colleges. Prisons have become campuses of their nearest TAPE College.
Each prison has an education and training committee which includes
representatives of custodial, educational, vocational and recreational
staff, but no prisoner representatives yet. However, the committee
does co-ordinate programs and ensure that prisoners can enrol for
courses in prison, complete them during their sentence, and continue
their studies upon release. The options of part-time and
correspondence modes of study are as available to prisoners and
ex-prisoners as to any other student enrolling at a TAPE College.
Negotiation of credits from these studies (and related work
experience) towards more academically oriented courses at universities
is also underway. Thus there has been a lot of progress towards
achievement of the first four recommendations. Action on the fifth
and sixth recommendations is vital to the development of more
effective education and vocational training provision.
A new maximum security prison for 240 prisoners at a cost of $52 m.
will open shortly in Victoria and this provides the opportunity to
implement all six recommendations.
Program parameters have already been established for the prison.
Implementation of a participatory learning model is not necessarily
limited by these parameters. The key to implementation of a
participatory learning model is the extent to which prison facilities
and programs are organised in the traditional (vertical) manner, or,
-14-
in a" more democratic (horizontal) manner in the style of Grant's
project learning model. Implementation of this model could be
achieved in two stages. The first stage would relate only to training
programs rather than a total management model. The second stage would
implement participatory management throughout the prison. This
'staged' approach to reform is necessary to allow prison
administrators time to gain confidence in managing a new style of
prison environment. While the 'staged' approach runs the risk of
stage two never being implemented, commitment to reform will be
maintained by staff selection and training, by the amount of care
taken in planning genuine community re-integration programs for
prisoners, and by the development of an environment in which there are
high expectations of staff and prisoners. These strategies will
increase staff competence and confidence in the emerging participatory
model. In the long run this is the only way to proceed because there
is no logical basis for imposing a participatory model and also
because this type of reform requires not only the weight of numbers
but also depth of experience.
CONCLUSION
The paper began with a review of correctional training programs and
then attempted to develop the community linkage theme of some
participatory programs of the 1970's. This theme was then cautiously
applied in two stages, to a new prison in Victoria, Australia,
recognising that there is a risk in this approach that the reform
movement will run out of energy before stage two is reached. However,
commitment to reform has to be won and re-won in the correctional
field - it can be stimulated by a new program or prison but
maintenance strategies need to be constantly reviewed.
Braithwaite, J. (1980). Queensland Press.
Prisons, Education and Work, Australia, Univ.
-16-
REFERENCES
Ball, E.R. et al (1982). Learning Disabled Juvenile
Incarceration and the Rate of Achievement of Delinquents, J. Experimental Education, 51, 2.
Brennan, M. and Brennan, R. (1984). Literacy and Learning: The Human Factor, Report to the Criminology Research Council, Canberra, Australia.
Buttram, J. and Dusewicz, R. (1977). Effectiveness of Educational Programs in State Correctional Institutions: A Follow Up Study, Philadelphia, Research for Better Schools.
Day, S.R. and McCane, M.R. (1982). Vocational Education in Corrections, Washington D.C., Office of Vocational and Adult Education.
Grant, J.D. (1980). Therapeutic Communities in Corrections, New York, Praeger.
Grant, J.D. (1982). Individual Initiative and Experiential Learning, Draft Paper Social Action Research Centre, California.
Keesling, J.W. et al (1979). Compensatory Education and Confined Youth, Systems Development Corp., Santa Monica, California.
Martinson, R. et al (1975). The Effectiveness of Correctional Treatment, New York, Praeger Publishers.
Rice, J. (1980). Assessment of Quality Vocational Education in State Prisons. Paper presented at the American Education Research Association Annual Meeting, Boston.
Reissman, F. and Popper H.I. (eds) (1968). Up from Poverty. New York, Harper and Row.
Seashore, M., Haberfield, S., Irwin, J. and Baker, K. (1976). Prison Education: Project Newgate and Other College Programs, New York, Praeger.
Semmens, R. (1986). Curriculum Aims for a Youth Training Centre. Unpublished doctoral theéis, La Trobe Univ., Melbourne.
Semmens, R. (1988) T.A.F.E. Research Proiect: Vocational Training in a Prison Environment, Office of Corrections, Victoria, Australia.
Syracuse University Research Centre (1973). School Behind Bars: A Descriptive Overview of Correctional Education in the American Prison System, New York, S.U.R.C.
Taylor, A. (1974). Beyond Rehabilitation: The Federal City College Lorton Project - A model Prison Higher Education Program, The Journal of Negro Education, 43. 2., September.
SOME ISSUES IN PRISON EDUCATION IN AUSTRALIA
Paper presented at Correctional Eduction Conference, Oxford University, September 25-29, 1989.
R.A. Semmens Senior Lecturer Institute of Education Melbourne Univesity
SOME ISSUES IN PRISON EDUCATION IN AUSTRALIA
A B S TR A C T"
This paper focuses on recent developments in prison education in
Victoria and presents some comparative data from other States
particularly on the issues surrounding vocational education. This is
largely because the author resides in Victoria but also because the
State Government's social justice policy ("a fair go for everyone")
extends to prisoner education programs. An attempt is made in this
paper to evaluate recent changes in educational provision in Victorian
prisons. Other issues canvassed in the paper include: the effects of
distance, size and aboriginality on prison program provision, the
constraints of security on education, the normalisation of
credentials, and who should be the employer of teachers in prisons.
1
SOME ISSUES IN PRISON EDUCATION IN AUSTRALIA
Preface
Australia is a federation of six States, the Northern Tèrritory, and
the Australian Capital Tèrritory. Each State has its own government
and there is also the Federal or Commonwealth Government, located in
Canberra. There is no Federal prison system so offenders against the
National Crimes Act are detained in their State of residence.
The Australian population is concentrated in the South-east of the
continent, and principally in the cities of Sydney (4 million people)
and Melbourne (3 million people). More than half of the nation's
16 million people live in New South Wales and Victoria. The rest of
the population lives mainly along the east coast to Brisbane, part of
the southern coast around Adelaide and Perth, and in Tàsmania.
Approximately two-thirds of the continent is either desert or
semi-desert and therefore sparsely populated. The small size and
dispersal of the population means that comprehensive prison education
and industry programs cannot be offered outside of the State capital
cities, except in parts of New South Wales and Victoria where rural
prisons tend to be larger than elsewhere in the country. A large
prison outside the metropolitan areas of Sydney and Melbourne would
cater for up to 250 inmates, but generally around 100 inmates. The
metropolitan prisons for males in Sydney and Melbourne hold around
1,000 inmates in different divisions or security ratings. The vast
2
size of Western Australia means that the range of training options in
some of its prisons is limited to localised opportunities such as
fishing and farming, and part-time or correspondence educational
services.
Lnprisonment rates also vary from State to State, (Australian Prison
Ttends, 1989) ranging from Victoria's 79.1 per 100,000 adults to
Western Australia's 154.5 per 100,000 adults although the Northern
Térritory has an even higher rate of 346.2 per 100,000 adults. This
is partly due to the numbers of aborigines in the north and west of
Australia but also due to the small total population in these areas.
This latter factor may also effect interpretation of the proportion of
women in prison. For example, six women in prison in the Northern
Tèrritory constitutes 1.7% of the total whereas 255 women in New South
Wales prisons constitutes 5.3 7., and 108 women in Western Australian
prisons constitutes almost 7%.
Overall, the small numbers of women generally in Australian prisons
means that they tend to be located in one or tx,io prisons close to the
centre of the capital cities. This means that some wo men are detained
a long way from their families even though their chances of
participating in a range of education or training program are
increased by their congregation in one place.
DarwirIze; Weipaie
1 1
II • E;
Cairns
Derby o • Btirketowii
LT,ownsville :
Mackay Dampier •
--'
ickhamptor • Alice Springs
ladstone
•
W . A .
opulation in dir -se ustralia "7".z,
ban
eraidtone
Perth
Bunbury
4%.
Kalgoorlie • i7
GA,
0
Albany
Port Pirie
ite Adelaidee.5j.
Ho'?
Mount Gambier;
Eucia Catis Marbou.
Sydney
:anberra,
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Introduction
A major theme running through all Sate prison administrations is that
education should have vocational relevance. Thus literacy and
numeracy programs are a major feature of educational provision.
However training in work habits has tended to take precedence over
training for particular vocations, and relevance of vocational,
education to labour market opportunities has taken a much higher
profile since the publication of Federal Minister Dawkins document
Skills for Australia (1987). The skilling and re—skilling debate,
along with the Labor Governments social justice policy, has
contributed to the prominence of vocational education as a major issue
in prison education as well as in the general community. Access to
labour market opportunities is seen as a critical factor in prisoner
rehabilitation. There is strong competition for a limited number of
jobs and the unskilled or those with redundant skills have little hope
of making an independent living.
While prison administrators have encouraged training and education for
a long time they.also make it clear that custodial requirements are
paramount. Teachers often report instances of custodial staff being
overenthusiastic in their implementation of the administration's
priorities. One example that I like is the refusal of a prison
officer to allow a copy of Dostoevsky's Crime and Punishment into the
education centre on the grounds that it was a threat to prison
security.
4
But even if we allow that some educational activities are a little
esoteric for the vocational orientation of prisons, there are other
limitations to achievement of that pragmatic aim. Firstly, there is a
preference for labour intensive rather than capital intensive
activities. This restricts the quality of training, although South
Australia may be an exception to this generalisation. Secondly,
production must not compete with union labour outside prisons so
prisoners are limited to work experiences that compete with imports,
or to activities for which there is no competition at all, such as
making registration plates for cars. The 'no competition' constraint
does little for a prisoner's employability upon release. Another
constraint is imposed by the difficulties of replacing an unprofitable
or outmoded industry with a more relevant vocational and/or
educational activity. There are costs involved in terms of finance
for refurbishment, time taken to make the changeover and how to find
alternative space and activities in the changeover period. In this
age of fluctuation and change in labour market opportunities, this
lack of flexibility within prisons reduces the strength of the
vocational orientation of prisons. Add to this the interruptions to
production caused by fluctuations in the supply of materials and the
domestic exigencies of prison life - interviews for this or that,
medical and dental appointments, security arrangements etc. - which
further reduce the capacity of prisons to replicate real work training
or conditions.
. On the one hand we are a long way from allowing trade unions to
develop in prisons and on the other we are just as far from
appreciating education for education's sake. One recent development
- however, has been the formation of an association of teachers in
5
prisons around Australia - known as the Prisoner Education National
Network (P.E.N.N.). This association discusses common issues and
should be an important pressure group for educational reforms in
prisons. Some State Governments have been more responsive than others
in making reforms that increase the access of prisoners to vocational
education and lead to a useful destination in the community. Some of
these developments are outlined in the following State by State
overview of vocational and educational provision.
Victoria
The major emphasis in Victoria's correctional education until recently
has been more on general education than vocational education. This is
at least partly due to the teachers being employed by the Schools
division of the iducation Ministry rather than by the Office of
Corrections. Additionally, the teachers were almost entirely primary
teachers with a qualification in special education. This meant that
teachers were not contracted to the Office of Corrections and could
apply for transfer or promotion to other types of special school or
mainstream primary schools. This interesting situation came about
originally because it was administratively easier to include prison
education and youth corrections' teachers from the special category of
teachers who provided remedial education to a wide range of disabled
and disadvantaged schools in institutions and the community.
This arrangement was questioned in the Education Ministry's enquiry
into educational services for disabled students in 1984, known as the
Integration Report. Consequently, education provision has recently e
been transferred to colleges of technical and further education (TAIE),
6
Prison education centres have now become campuses of their nearest
TAFE college. With this transfer Victorian prison education has moved
into line with the vocational education emphasis of other states.
Under the old system primary teachers provided basic education and
assisted with correspondence courses at senior secondary and tertiary
level.
This provision will remain under TAFE and possibly more direct
teaching will be available on a sessional basis for the more advanced
levels of education. One of the perceived advantages of the old
system, that is involvement in assessment and review of prisoner
progress, appears to be under threat as TAFE Colleges strive to
balance their budgets and reduce their involvement as far as possible,
to classroom teaching. Issues like this are monitored by the Office
of Corrections' Education Policy Committee which is broadly
representative of the various parties involved in educational
provision and has a co-ordinating role across all prisons and TAFE
College providers of education. One person on this policy committee is
the State co-ordinator of correctional education whose responsibility
extends to community-based correctional facilities as well as prisons.
Additionally, each prison has a Correctional Education and Ttaining
committee which monitors program implementation. Et is noted here
that while education and custodial staff are represented there is no
prisoner representation.
7
The main aim of these new arrangements is to enable prisoners to
retain continuity of training when transferring from one prison to
another or from prison to community. Part of the new plan involves the
inter-relationship between education programs and prison industries so
that prisoners can gain course credits for practical work experience
in prison industries. Table 1 (Articulation Model) provides a flow
chart for prisoner advancement from basic education to tertiary
credentials. Upon establishing an acceptable standard of literacy and
numeracy a prisoner will become eligible for enrolment in a
certificate of occupational studies or more advanced studies and these
studies will be linked to prison industry experience where
appropriate.
The certificate of occupational studies is generally available at TAFT
Colleges and while not offering on-the-jpb experience, is designed to
provide experience in, and knowledge of, a range of occupations so
that students can make a more informed employment choice. The
certificate comprises approximately 400 hours of core studies
(communications, technology, work education, career planning and
essential mathematics). These studies are followed by 500 hours of
stream study options in areas such as business studies, hospitality,
horticulture, automotive, metal trades and textile. The programs are
sufficiently flexible to be suitable for trade-based pre-employment,
pre-apprenticeship, pre-vocational, or as part preparation for
tertiary courses.
■IIC t I
s s Work Work
À i
A t 1
A I t 1 t 1 1 1 t
Articulation Model
Advanced Certificate
Associate Diploma
;
Associate Diploma/ Advanced Certificate
A s t e 1 1 t 1 s t
1 1 1 1 1
VCE — Year 12
A _!
Traineeships Apprenticeships
VCE — Year 11
Pre Employment Programs
Certificate in Occupational Studies
À 1 1 1 1 1 t t 1
8
It is too early to assess whether these developments contain
advantages over the previous system for prisoners. Perhaps
educational programs with a very specific focus on the labor market,
provide the most hopeful strategy for successful community re-entry
and integration of prisoners. For those educationists who see
skilling as just one aspect of the educational task, alongside
cultural, political and social competence, these recent developments
may be a continuing source of disillusionment.
New South Wales
The New South Wales prison system grades its prisons from maximum
security through to open institutions, using the classifications A,B
and C. 'C' classification has further sub-classifications which denote
increasing access to the outside community.
However, the new maximum security jail at Parklea has a strong
commitment to training as well as industry. Typically, TAPE
apprenticeship trade training courses (wood machining, sheetmetal,
welding and fitting and machining) run for thirty-six weeks. The TAPE
training is provided on one day each week and the prison industrial
supervisors provide practical supervision on the other four days while
they meet production orders from government departments and voluntary
organizations. While continuity of training is not automatic there is
some flexibility in transfer arrangements so that a prisoner may stay
longer at Parklea to complete a course module and/or complete further
theory modules at the next prison. Course work completed in prison
gains equivalent credits in TAPE courses run outside the prison (i.e.
at TAFE colleges).
9
At Bathurst, a medium security prison, there is a similar commitment
to training. Apprenticeships can be commenced in metal trades
(fitting and machining, metal fabrication, motor mechanics) and in
timber trades, (fitting and machining, metal fabrication, motor
mechanics) and in timber trades.
A complete apprenticeship takes four years but few prisoners stay at
Bathurst long enough to complete more than the first year (Stage One).
It is possible that a less secure prison will provide some continuity
of training for apprentice motor mechanics in the near future. If a
prisoner wishes to start an apprenticeship he must have at least
twelve months to serve and be in the prison by march of any given year
so that he has a chance of completing the year's work by the end of
year. There is no entry requirement of literacy or numeracy - simply
the desire to learn. There are pre-vocational programs for those who
want some introduction to training prior to commencement of the
course. When the course begins, two days per week are provided by
TAPE instructors and the other three days are spent in simulated
industrial experience under the guidance of the industrial supervisors
at the prison. Approximately forty prisoners complete Stage One each
year. Additionally, the education centre at the prison accommodates
approximately fifty full-time students in basic education through to
tertiary studies and is separate from the training and industry
program although TAPE lecturers are employed in both the educational
and vocational (trade) training programs.
10
The educational and vocational (trade) programs account for about half
of the total prison population at Bathurst. The remaining prisoners
are engaged in other activities and duties in order to earn their
weekly 'pay' which is generally more than that received by education
and vocation (trade) participants.
Education and vocation (trade) staff are concerned about this
discrepancy on the grounds of equity. There may be even more interest
in educational and vocational (trade) training if 'pay' rates were
more equal and these prisoners could send out as much money to their
families each week as other prisoners. The success of the vocational
(trade) training courses is at least partly due to the small size of
each study and practice module as this facilitates achievement.
Perhaps prisoners could also be given the option of whether they want
to stay longer in order to complete a larger number of modules or even
to complete Stage Tt. As a consequence productivity would be
increased and wastage of materials, due to untrained labour, would be
reduced.
The new conservative government in New South Wales may have its ostm
answers for this type of problem. It appears that it will economize
on staffing as well as materials - particularly in the welfare and
education areas. Prison superintendents are now responsible for
education programs in prisons, thus making the positions of regional
education co-ordinators redundant. Total custodial control of
education programs is unlikely to lead to development of new and
creative initiatives in prison education.
1 1
Western Australia
Despite the vast size of Western Australia there is an educational
service available in all but one of its fifteen prisons. Education
programs emphasise literacy and numeracy, vocational/academic
education and personal development. Advanced studies are taken by
correspondence and there are also short term trade skills courses
available in several prisons.
A major issue is the development of appropriate courses for the high
proportion of aboriginal prisoners (33% overall but 80% in the
northern half of the State). Some progress has been made in involving
aboriginal communities in program development but this issue requires
broader collaboration with other agencies working with aborigines. As
the teachers are employed by the correctional services department they
are isolated from community processes and even from other members of
their own professions.
However, in the southern part of the state there has developed an
emphasis on apprenticeships for longer term prisoners motivated to
join the work-force. There are six trades offered for apprenticeship
in Western Australia prisons - cooking, cabinet making, butchering
(theory only), metal fabrication, bootmaking, and motor mechanics. As
the trainees are not formally indentured to the W.A. prisons
department they are classified as provisional trainees. TWo months
prior to work release, each trainee is tested by a tradesman
representative of the Division of Industrial Ttaining.
12
The examiner determines the trainee's level of skill compared to an
indentured apprentice and credit is formally given. Upon release, the
trainee must gain employment as an indentured apprentice and complete
the remaining period of training as determined by the examiner.
A provisional trainee must also complete the same theoretical
component as an indentured apprentice. This is undertaken by
correspondence lessons and is usually of three years duration. Upon
successful completion of these studies the trainee qualifies for a
certificate of trade studies, which may be awarded whilst the trainee
is in prison.
Only prisoners having at least two years left to serue on their
minimum term are eligible to commence trade instruction, provided that
he/she has mastered basic literacy and numeracy skills. A period in
the prison education centre may be required of applicants who do not
have these basic skills. Applicants must then successfully complete a
two month probationary period before being accepted as a trainee.
Western Australia, as with other States, has not yet found a way to
deal with the problem of . continuity of training following transfer to
another prison. While theory studies can continue, practical trade
training is unlikely to be available except for cooking trainees, and
possibly carpenters and motor mechanics, depending on the prison to
which the prisoner is transferred.
Unfortunately there are no figures available on the number of trainees
who gain employment in their trade following release. This suggests
that continuity of training is not seen as an area of prison
department responsibility. Hopefully someone takes that
13
1
responsibility because connection to community resources, particularly
a sympathetic employer, may be critical in making the transition to a
conventional community life-style. The task of negotiating
apprenticeship credits with an employer is not simple and may require
at least the availability of a representative of the Division of
Industrial Training.
These apparent weaknesses in the W.A. system could be remedied with
additional attention to linking the stages of the prisoner's progress
through his/her sentence and community re-entry.
South Australia
Correctional Services in South Australia are graded from maximum
security to medium security and then to low security and to work
release. Typically a long term prisoner would spend nio or more years
at Yatala (maximum security), about the same time at a medium security
prison such as the new prison at Mobilong, and then transfer to Cadell
(minimum security) on the Murray River possibly finishing his time on
work release based at Northfield which is close to the city of
Adelaide. Yat'ala has a strong emphasis on prison industries such as
motor mechanics, spray painting, welding, cabinet-making, boot and
shoe making, and possibly tailoring. While education is available
there is some resistance to prisoners being involved in much more than
literacy and numeracy programs during the day. Night classes may be
available in the future. The industries provide on-the-job training
and prisoners are expected to work from 8.00 am to 4.30 pm with a 30
minute lunch-break. When the prison operates at full capacity there
are not enough jobs to go around and prisoners are interviewd for
14
work positions and may be sacked for poor performance. Good
performance is rewarded by pay scales and through improved gradings,
then transfer to a less secure prison.
The new prison at Mobilong is not so strongly oriented to security and
profit—making industry. Instead the primary emphasis is on training.
Some classrooms are located adjacent to workshops so that theory and
practice cari be easily inter—related. Each prisoner has to be
timetabled so that he gets training as well as work. The industries
available at Mobilong are: plastics, autoshop (welding, spray
painting, motor mechanics) and the bakery.
A nearby Technical and Further Education College (TAFE) co—operates in
the provision of courses in horticulture, baking, cooking (short order
certificate) computing (various levels), signwriting, panel—beating,
welding, typing, food preparation, desk—top publishing, guitar,
fabrics, health care (includes hairdressing), fitness leader, sports
trainer, and aboriginal history.
All of these courses are provided by the TAFE on two days per week and
prisoners engage in industry for two days per week. The remaining day
is for personal projects. All courses are short—term with end—product
certification. Most are at pre—vocational level because it is not
possible to provide adequate supervision for a large number of
apprenticeships. Traineeships are also available. Ttaineeships oft-
combine,\off—the—job training in non—trade areas. Currently at
Mobilong traineeships are offered in cooking and plastics, but they
may also be offered in office and clerical work and aspects of the
15
While the courses are in response to growth in labour market
opportunities, there is a problem in the lack of continuity of
training if a prisoner leaves Mobilong before completing a course. If
he is transferred back to Yatala or on to Cadell, continuity of
training is not guaranteed. By the time the prisoner reaches the work
release cottages there may well be a gap between his period of
training and the related work which he now seeks. The co-ordination
of each prisoner's program throughout the duration of his sentence is
a problem which still needs to be addressed. The lack of continuity
of training is a barrier to a sense of vocational competence.
Nevertheless facilities are first-rate and organizationally,
especially at Mobilong, there is ::.trong emphasis on community
connection: for example, the senior TAFE lecturer is on the prison
management committee. Additionally, the inter-relationship of the
various prison committees facilitates communication and retains the
prison focus on the training needs of each prisoner. The prison
complex is designed so that security requirements are not compromised
by allowing prisoners to use the classroom up until 10.30 pm.
At Cadell on the banks of the Murray river, most classes are taken at
night partly because of the work (mainly farm and citrus fruit
growing) program during the day, and partly because the classes are
shared with members of the local community and with corrections'
staff.
16
The progression from maximum to minimum security and the range of
programs for men is not available to women. This may be partly due to
the small numbers of women but the largely domestic nature of the
programs that are offered suggests something about the perspective on
the role of women in Australian society. This perspective is also
reflected in programs in other states of Australia.
At the Northfield women's prison, short courses in sewing, cooking and
horticulture are offered with a statement of completion which has no
currency in terms of employment or further training. While a twelve
week vocational akareness course is run, and this does gain credits in
the business studies course at the Adelaide TAFE, the course does not
lead on to any further training whilst in prison.
Tasmania
There are only two prisons in Tasmania,a secure prison and a prison
farm with a total prison population of less than 300. Et is therefore
difficult to generate the economies of scale necessary to offer a wide
range of training options. This is also true of the Northern
Tèrritory except that the Northern Territory covers a vastly greater
area. In the Tasmanian secure prison basic education is provided by
the education officer who also supervises correspondence courses from
a range of secondary and tertiary education institutions within
Tasmania and interstate. Apprenticeship is possible in the prison
bakery but as external studies are not possible in this area in
Tasmania, arrangements are made with a New South Wales institution for
accreditation of bakery studies.
17
Skills training is available in welding, tailoring and upholstery.
Some thought has been given to combining skills training to education
studies and labour market opportunities. Social education is also
seen as important for community re-integration and some pre-release
short courses seek to develop community survival skills such as living
on a limited budget, basic cooking, and recreational activities.
Queensland and Northern Tèrritory
At the time of writing, no information about recent development was
available. The most reliable account is ten years old (Braithwaite,
1980). At that time very little education or training was provided
and recent verbal accounts suggest that the situation has not improved
greatly. Some support is provided by T.A.F.E. but there is little
personal or financial support from the head office of the Prisons
Department. Consequently, the turnover rate of teachers is high.
Fàrther, while education and traiaing courses are available to a
limited number of prisoners in the major prison, transfer to another
jail almost certainly involves curtailment of the program due to lack
of facilities and lack of co-ordination between prisons.
Both Queensland and the Northern Territory have the natural barriers
of distance and sparse inland populations, but prison reform and
prisoner rehabilitation have never been high priority issues in
Queensland. Lack of suitable programs for aborigines is an issue
which Queensland and Northern Territory share with Western Australia.
It is not known whether the southern states would handle this issue
better if their aboriginal numbers were greater, although the Black
Rights Movement has popular support in the southern states. However,
18
the long-running Royal Commission of Inquiry into black deaths in
custody suggests that the European population of Australia needs a lot
more education about aboriginality - the issue extends far beyond the
provision of appropriate education programs in prisons.
Further Issues for Prison Education in Australia
This overview of prison education in Australia leaves some issues
untouched. For example, no State has addressed the issue of whether
it is possible to educate in a prison at all. Are the constraints of
custody too severe for formative educational programs to have any
positive impact on the future community living situations of released
prisoners?
Secondly, there is the issue of who should control prison education.
Most prison administrations seem to have always kept education within
their own structure. Does the locus of control have differential
effects on prisoner and custodial staff attitudes and performance in
relation to education?
Finally, there is the issue of full-time generalist education staff
vs. part-time specific contract staff. The trend in Australia appears
to be in the direction of minimising the number of full-time
generalists in favour of a wider range of special purpose teachers.
Will this further isolate prisoners from opportunities for personal
development afforded by continuous contact with non-custodial role
models? Es this issue merely a vestige of a bygone era of
humanitarian concern for prisoner rehabilitation?
19
Part of the resolution of all of these issues is to ensure that prison
education philosophy and practice provides exactly the same
opportunities for prisoners as those offered in mainstream schools and
colleges.
Conclusion
This paper has focussed mainly on vocational education provision in
Australian prisons. There are other important issues relating to
educational provision generally, and the interface between education
services and custodial requirements. These issues have been touched on
and parallel the difficulties experiencedt elsewhere in attempting to
open minds in a closed environment. The reference list enableq
interested readers to pursue these issues further.
20
References
Australian Institute of Criminology (1989) Australian Prison Trends,No 157 (Projected populations derived from Australian Demographic Studies, June Quarter, 1987, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Canberra).
Braithwaite, J (1980) Prisons, Education and Work, University of Queensland Press, Queensland.
Brennan, M and Brennan, R.E. (1984) Literacy and Learning: The Human Factor. Report to the Criminology Research Council of the Australian Institute of Criminology, Canberra.
Dawkins, J.S. and Holding, A.C. (1987) Skills for Australia, Australian Government Printer, Canberra.
Ekstedt, J.W. (1987) Prison Education in Western Australia: A Case Study of Policy Analysis in Sentence Administration, University of Western Australia Law Review, 17,1,69-93.
Findlay, M (1982) Prison Programs: Labour, Educational and Vocational Training. The State of the Prison: 4 Critique of Reform, Mitchell Search Ltd., Bathurst.
Harmsworth, P (1988) Corrections Education and Health Programs, Newsbreak, Melbourne, 3,5,1-3.
Isles, T. (1988) Unlocking the Mind, Aboriginal Employment and Education News, T.A.F.E. Aboriginal Education Unit, Goulburn, 17, 10-11.
Isles, T. Hancock, G and Brown C. (1984) Learning to Use Time, Education News, New South Wales, 18, 10, 12-14.
Noad, B.M. and Hancock G. (1984) Programming for Prisoners in New South Wales, Development Programs for Prisoners: Proceedings 2-5 October, Australian Institute of Criminology, Canberra.
Semmens, R.A. (1981) Unlocking Correctional Education, Occasional Paper No.8. Melbourne State College, Melbourne.
Semmens, R.A. (1986) is it Possible to Educate in a Correctional Setting, paper presented at A.N.Z. Criminology Society, second annual conference.
Semmens, R.A. (1988) Vocational Training in a Prison Environment, T.A.F.E. Research Project, Office of Corrections, Melbourne.
South Australian Department of Correctional Services (1987). Review of Prisoner Education, S.A. Government Printer.
Tasker, R.G. (Chairman) (1978) Prisoner Education in South Australia, report of an interdepartmental committee on the provision of educational programmes for inmates.
EDUCATION IN THE DUTCH PENAL INSTITUTIONS
(1) The Dutch prison system: Extent: about 50 penal institutions for adults with a total of about 6000 inmates (approximately 5750 males and 250 females) at this moment.
(about 14 million inhabitants in the Netherlands) Expansion:
1990: 7400 inmates
1991: 7600 inmates
1992: 7800 inmates
1993: 8000 inmates.
Signature: a humane and rather progressive vision on detenti- on, but less progressive than in the seventies ( e.g. more realistic goals with regard to rehabi-litation). One inmate in one cell; legal right to complain about the treatment in the institutions; possibili-ties to leave the institution etc.
The composition of the population in the institutions: a.) 78 different nationalities, 40 different languages
(1986); b.) 50% inmates of Dutch nationality and with a Dutch cultu-
ral background; 25% foreigners and 25% inmates belonging to ethnic minority groups (1988/1989).
(2) The penal institutions for adults (18 years and older): Kinds of institutions: a.) Remand houses (for people in custody) b.) Prisons for short-term offenders (less than 6 months) c.) Prisons for long-term offenders ( 6 months and more) d.) Open institutions ( for the last 5 - 6 months of a
long-term detention: working or studying outside, sleep-ing inside, at home in the weekends)
e.) Daydetention (as an experiment): see my paper.
The size of the institutions: from very small (some tens of inmates) to much bigger (the biggest institution in Rotterdam has 340 inmates).
(3) Trends: 1.) a policy of deconcentration/decentralization, i.e. the insti-
tutions will be as autonomous as possible (their own budget, their own staff management etc.); only a global framework of national penal policy remains;
2.) bigger institutions (with preference of a capacity of 240/250 inmates: 2 wings of each about 120 inmates, divided over departments of 24 inmates);
3.) severe analysis of costs and credits (what is done for what it costs?): the no nonsense-trend. The eighties are the years of making cuts.
The combination of 1. and 3. leads to contract-management etc.
(4) Regimes, daily-programs: We distinguish the living-sector, the work-sector and the social-cultural (=education)- sector. We manage the system of 1/2 days work and 1/2 days social-cultural activities. History in short: developed in the seventies from ideological points of view: to improve the relation between staff and inmates. The philosophy was to relate prison officers to the activities by accompanying them to and in the workshops and the rooms for social-cultural activities. The system however was introduced in 1982/1983 for reasons of efficiency: the job could be done with fewer prison officers than before. The 1/2 day of work is blocked, that means no interruptions. The activities in the other half day can be interrupted by visitors, lawyers, social workers, doctors, dentists etc. Most of the social- cultural activities take place in the dayti-me (morning or afternoon), only a few activities take place at night or in the weekends. The evenings and the weekends are espe-cially for recreation. The inmates receive the same renumeration now as before 1982/ 1983 (about 8 - 11 pounds a week).
- Social- cultural activities: 1.(school)education; 2.physical education and sport; 3.1ibrary; 4.creative activities; 5.cultural activities. Participation in (school)education, physical education & sport and library is a legal right in Dutch penal institutions. Of course the participation in these activities is not compulsory.
- The social-cultural team: 1.the chief of the team; 2.the teachers; 3.the physical education instructors; 4.the librarians; 5.the consultants for creative activities (which are taught by prison officers). Only in the prisons for longterm- offenders we employ artists for these activities. Prison officers are also active in sports activities for inmates and we try to relate them to simple educational activities e.g. the training for the theory-exam of the drivers license.
In the Ministry of Justice we have a full-time consultant/ advi-sor/ coordinator for the libraries, a half-time consultant/advi-sor/coordinator for creative activities and a full-time advisor/ coordinator for education (social-cultural activities).
5) (School)education: The legal right to participate in (school)education has not been quantified in the Prison Law in contrary to the participation in library-activities (once a week) and p.e.& sport (at least 2x 45 min. a week). There is howevsr a central directive for participation in (school)education of at least 2x 60 min. a week. The Dutch penal institutions have their own teachers i.e. they are employed by the Ministry of Justice. Some institutions have also teachers employed bij external institutions for adult educa-tion. All the teachers are qualified. 60 - 70 % of them are women. We request of new teachers that they are experienced in adult education. There is a national framework for the curriculums of the separate institutions. It comprises: a philosophy about education in pri-son, directives/information about contents, priorities, methods, the size of groups, etc. Contents/priorities; 1.basis education (including the theory for the drivers license) 2.vocational training (orientation and qualification) 3.further and higher education 4. distance learning. Methods and materials: as in adult education outside the prison-walls. Characteristics (as you will know): active ways of learning (lear-ning by doing); learning in small groups; use of the approach by themes; aiming on the interests/ needs/ experiences etc. of the participants; directed at the suitability in daily life; a preference for modules, etc. The size of groups: rather small (5 - 8), sometimes more (depen-ding on the subject). The participants: about 50% of the inmates participates in (school)education. In average the motivation is good. We try to tune in on the adult education outside and we strive after a mutual tuning in. Strategies: 1.the national framework; 2.meetings of our teachers (mostly regional); 3.reports developed by working groups of teachers and external experts; 4.contacts with external institutes for adult education; 5.an Educational Newsletter for our teachers.
(6) A short evaluation of (school)education in the Dutch penal institu-tions:
Negative points: The number of teachers does not meet the educational needs and interests of the inmates; Especially in smaller institutions there is the problem that each course /activity has to be given twice because of the 50/50 daily programma (half day work, half day other activities); This system does not provide enough time to be available for education: too much competition by other activities in the half day not intended for work. (School)education in stead of work is possible (Prison Law) but in reality it is rather exceptional. Vocational training is limited to only a few institutions.
Positive points: The quality of the teachers in our institutions is in average satisfying; i.e. quality in two ways (educational qualities and to know how to manage inmates). The level of tuning in on adult education outside the walls is also satisfying. The motivation and interest of inmates for (school)education are good. The cooperation of education and library in most of the penal institutions is first-rate.
The Hague, august 1989
Robert Suvaal.
THE TRAINING PROGRAMME AT THE EXPERIMENTAL DAY-DETENTION CENTRE IN RDTTERDAM (THE NETHERLANDS)
Robert Suvaal, Ministerie van Justitie, Postbus 20301 2500 EH 's-Gravenhage, The Netherlands.
Summary
In May 1989, in Rotterdam (The Netherlands), a small-scale day-detention
experiment commenced. For the purposes of this experiment, a training
programme was developed.
In this paper, the following are described:
- the nature of the experiment;
- why and how it was set up;
- the various stages in the development of the programme;
- what the programme comprises.
During the conference, preliminary results will be presented on the
experiment as a whole and the training programme in particular.
Attention is focussed on the methods used in developing the programme, and
the various factors that were taken into consideration during this process.
The groups involved are described, as are the final programme content and
the ways in which it is implemented. Emphasis is placed on the fact that
the participants are constantly involved in determining the content of the
programme, with the intention of producing a course that meets their
specific needs.
It is stated that this type of "social education" could be applied on a
much broader scale, for example during the final phase of detention in a
closed prison.
Finally, the ways in which the project is being evaluated are described.
11
The training programme at the experimental day-detention centre in
Rotterdam (The Netherlands)
Reason for the choice of this subject
I chose to discuss this particular training programme primarily due to its
educational aspects, the fact that it is being used in an experiment within
the Dutch prison system being only of secondary importance. Recently, an
international work-group, under the auspices of the Council of Europe, has
produced a report entitled "Education in Prison". In this report, soon to
be published, a chapter is devoted to "Social Education", which forms the
basis of the training programme used in the day-detention experiment in
Rotterdam. I believe that this form of education, the content and
methodology of which I shall describe in this presentation, could be
applied in many prison establishments. I am also of the opinion that social
education is extremely relevant to those in detention.
Introduction: what is the role of day-detention in the Dutch penal system?
Day-detention in The Netherlands is the subject of a recently set-up
experiment in Rotterdam, where prison inmates, in groups of twelve at a
time, spend the last six weeks of their sentence.
During weekdays they follow a training programme in a former
staff-house adjacent to a remand centre in a busy residential area of
Rotterdam. Participants in the experiment are allowed to spend the evenings
and weekends at home.
1
Day-detention should not be regarded as an exercise apart, but as the last
phase of detention; it is an extension of the sequence closed/half-
open/open detention.
The main aims of day-detention are as follows:
- to help remove the feeling of social isolation associated with
imprisonment;
- to introduce phases of detention in which inmates are
gradually given increased freedom and orientated towards re-
integration into society;
- to provide instruction and training with a view to improving
the ways in which participants function within society.
The selection criteria for participation, described below, are comparable
to those applied to candidates for open prisons. The candidates should:
- have received a prison sentence of at least eight months' duration;
- have approximately six weeks of the sentence remaining to be served;
- have a home address not more than one hour away from the remand centre
in Rotterdam (based on public transport travel times;
- be considered suitable by the committee responsible for selecting
candidates for open prisons.
In principle, both men and women may participate; however, in the early
stages only men are to be selected.
2
The rationale behind the experiment
This experiment was set up for two reasons:
firstly, due to the need to test a new system which may be regarded as
an alternative to the open prison; if the experiment is a success, day-
detention will represent a viable option for the period of transition
between detention in a closed prison and re-introduction into society;
secondly, due to an economic aspect, day-detention being considerably
cheaper than a prison system.
If this experiment is successful, similar programmes could be implemented
in other areas of the country.
The preparatory phase
Setting up the experiment was not a simple exercise. From the start, a .
number of experts stated that it was bound to fail. In addition, an
influential advisory group insisted that physical labour should comprise a
large part of the programme, this being incompatible with the set-up
proposed by the group responsible for planning the project, whose programme
had three main components: the teaching of manual and social skills, and
the provision of practical help and advice according to the individual
needs of the participants. It was not anticipated that work would play a
major role in this programme.
3
Finally, the necessary practical steps were taken:
conversion of the former staff-house for the purposes of the experiment;
selection of suitable members of staff (hereafter referred to as "the
project team");
finalization of the training programme;
selection of participants.
Setting up the training programme
As chairman of a work-group in which the project team was also represented,
I was involved in working out the final form and content of the training
programme.
The main points that were taken into consideration were:
the special nature of the period spent at the centre, i.e., a period of
six weeks during which the transition is made from detention in a closed
prison to re-introduction into society;
the fact that the participants will have spent a (fairly) long period in
a closed prison;
current opinion in The Netherlands with regard to the aims of
imprisonment, which can be summarized as follows: (a) prison regimes
should be
detention
cooperate
as humane
should be
should be
as possible; (b) damage suffered as a result of
minimized; (c) prisoners who are willing to
aided in preparing for their release from prison.
(Fairly tame in comparison with the idealistic attitude to
4
enough to accommodate groups,
on a fairly tight budget; for
rehabilitation that prevailed in the seventies!)
the main aims of day-detention (as described above);
the three main components of the programme (also described above).
Practical points that were of importance in developing the programme were:
the size of the group;
the fact that initial participation was voluntary, and that participants
could choose to return at any time to a prison environment to serve out
their sentence;
the number and qualifications of the members of staff (this will be
discussed in more detail below);
the size of the building in which
staff-house with only a few rooms large
and a large garden);
the fact that the project was to be run
the centre was to be based (a former
example, equipment would have to be chosen
few external lecturers could be invited to
extremely carefully, and very
participate.
On the basis of the above-mentioned points, the following proposals for the
programme were formulated:
it should focus on the transition from imprisonment to freedom, in which
day-detention represents a first step;
it should be designed to take into account the need of most inmates for
a well-defined structure;
its content should be subject to continual evaluation, with a balanced
consideration of the questions and aims of both the participants and the
5
project team;
it should contain a mixture of practical and theoretical items;
it should to a significant extent comprise items from which the
participants gain immediate benefit;
it should focus on a variety of main themes, each of a week's duration,
since each week a number of new participants would be entering the
programme;
certain subjects should be dealt with in groups and others in sub-
groups, with individual problems being dealt with on a one-to-one basis.
Finalization of the programme
On the basis of the above-mentioned practical and theoretical
considerations, the following programme was devised:
(1) A total of six modules, each lasting one week and with a different
central theme.
(2) These central themes are:
- further education;
- work;
- housing;
- social contacts;
- personal care and hygiene;
- leisure activities.
The choice of these themes was based on their direct relevance to the
participants and also with a view to fulfilling the aims of day-
detention.
6
(3) Each main theme is divided up into more specific topics, among which a
choice can be made by both the participants and members of the project
team. During the preparatory phase, the work-group defined a number of
subjects for each of the central themes, to be used by the project team
as a basis to work on prior to the start of the experiment.
An example is presented below.
Central theme: Work
Topics: what work represents to different individuals;
types of work;
choosing a trade/profession;
looking for work;
the job centre;
employment agencies;
starting your own business;
applying for jobs;
unemployment;
social security payments;
living on a budget;
etc.
(4) The participants, in discussion with members of the project team,
indicate for each main theme which topics they wish to see covered;
they may also suggest additional items.
Once a choice has been made, the participants are asked to explain what
they hope to learn in each case; this determines the way in which the
particular subjects are dealt with.
7
Examples of the types of question that could be asked in relation to a
certain topic are given below:
Central theme: Work
Topic: the job centre
Questions: what does it have to offer me?
what purpose does a job centre serve?
what can they do for me?
what questions should I ask?
how should I present myself?
what should I take with me?
do I have to accept any job they offer me?
what should I concentrate on during the
interview? etc.
(5) The questions posed also indicate to the project team what approach
they should take in dealing with the various topics. A question which
requires a fairly concrete answer will have to be handled in a
completely different way than one in which values and norms are
involved, or when advice regarding a particular skill is requested.
The educational methods to be used will also be decided upon in relation to
the types of question raised. The project team will to a great extent
employ adult education methods that are commonly used in The Netherlands;
i.e., interactive methods, the use of reading material that is directly
relevant to the participants, and minimizing the amount of information
8
that should be memorized.
A great deal is demanded from the project team; they are required to be
knowledgeable on an extremely wide range of subjects, at various levels,
and also to be able to choose and apply the most appropriate educational
methods. They are aided in this respect by a consultant, as discussed
below.
(6) The training programme is alternated with various physical tasks (e.g.,
gardening, or the production of a range of toys). There are two reasons
for this: (i) to accommodate to a certain extent the wishes of the
previously mentioned advisory group; and (ii) to introduce a complete
contrast to the training programme activities.
The project team
The team comprises:
the team leader (full-time)
two prison officers (full-time)
a social worker (half-time)
a consultant (half-time)
i.e., a total of 4 full-time positions.
At a very early stage it was decided, for various reasons, that individuals
familiar with working in a prison environment should be well represented
within the project team and that they, together with the social worker,
9
would be responsible for carrying out the entire programme- In order to
obtain a more objective view of the way in which the programme was
progressing, an experienced consultant was also hired for a period of at
least a year, to instruct the project team and give feedback on their
performance.
Evaluation of the project
Due to the project's experimental nature, it is being subjected to a
thorough evaluation. As is usual in such projects, participants and the
project team make their own appraisal. In addition, the experiment is being
evaluated by the Scientific Research and Documentation Centre of the Dutch
Justice Ministry,
10
CORRECTIONAL STAFF TRAINING IN THE UNITED STATES;
DELIVERY SYSTEMS FOR SPECIALISED PROFESSIONAL GROUPS
Bruce Wolford, Professor of Correctional Services, Eastern Kentucky University,
1
CORRECTIONAL STAFF TRAINING IN THE 'UNITED STATES:
DELIVERY: SYSTEMS FOR SPECIALIZED PROFESSIONAL GROUPS
Bruce Wolford
Professor of Correctional Services
Eastern Kentucky University
Overview of Correctional Training
'Funds expended for staff training constitute
the best investment in corrections."
(Breed, 1976)
Despite recognition by many leaders in the field of corrections, the importance
of professional development to the basic operation of corrections staff training has
remained a relatively low priority in many agencies. The modern era of correctional
training was ushered in with the establishment of the Law Enforcement Assistance
Administration in 1969 (Snarr & Wolford, 1985). Additional pressure to modern ize
correctional training came as a result of federal and state court interventions in cases
involving vicarious liability as a result of the failure to train staff (Falkenberg & Baird,
1987).
Currently all state juvenile and adult correctional agencies have a training
program. The size and scope of the training provided by correctional agencies varies
significantly. The most common delivery systems include some combination of
centralized training academies and individual institutional based training programs
(Wolford, 1989). Other delivery systems include contract training, university based
programs and various inter -agency collaborative efforts.
The primary focus of most training programs is on-line or entry level staff. The
majority of training resources are directed at the largest worker groups such as
correctional officers or juvenile care workers. In some jurisdictions limited resources
2
and the demands of basic training prohibit the development and /or delivery of
training for specialized correctional professionals.
Two national organizations have been formed by correctional trainers to
professionalize and focus on the need for training. They are:
American Association of Correctional Training Personnel*
Juvenile Justice Trainers Association*
The two associations hold an Annual National Correctional Trainers Conference each
October to explore issues of concern to the profession.
Training for Specialized Personnel
Educators who comprise one of the largest specialized professional groups
within corrections have been viewed as part of an institution within an institution
(Horvath, 1982). The educators were generally trained in and have embraced
professional goals that are fundamentally at odds with the emphasis upon order,
discipline, security and expedience that characterize many correctional institutions
(Horvath, 1982). In a survey of correctional educators perceptions of corrections it was
determined that a significant difference existed between the professional goals of
teachers and the perceived institutional goals for education (Wolford & Snarr, 1987).
The sense of personal and professional isolation which has been identified by
correctional educators also exists within many other specialized groups. In a recent
survey of correctional institutional wardens and superintendents it was reported that
even these veteran correctional leaders have had only limited specific training for their
positions (Wolford & Scroggy, 1988). Among the other professional groups with limited
training opportunities are psychologist, caseworkers/counselors, medical personnel,
chaplains, food service workers, recreation specialists and industry managers.
The Need for Specialized Training
There are many justifications for specialized correctional training not the least
of which is professional identity. Because of the professional isolation that many
correctional snecialist exnerience there is often a lack of identity with eorreetions as a
3
profession (Pecht, 1983). Training programs can help the corrections specialist to
connect with his/her discipline and establish and maintain a link with other
professionals with his/her training and orientation.
Like the wardens and superintendents many specialized workers have had no
specialized training to aid them in adapting their professional skills to the
correctional setting. A survey of Texas correctional educators revealed that over
seventy percent had no corrections related training prior to employment by the
Windham School System (Loeffler, et al, 1986).
The federal courts have repeatedly held the necessity for employers to
systematically document the job readiness of employment requirements (Falkenberg &
Baird, 1987). The courts' general acceptance of professional standards such as those
developed by the American Correctional Association (ACA) have further reinforced the
need for correctional training. The current ACA standards for adult and juvenile
correctional facilities call for a minimum of forty hours of annual in-service education
and an additional forty hours of pre-service education during the first year of
employment.
The Correctional Education Association has gone even further ca lling for an
additional (beyond the ACA Standards) mandatory specialized training:
Standard 012 Pre-Service Training
New correctional education staff are provided pre-service orientation
and training in the procedures and principles of providing educational
services in a correctional setting (Correctional Education Association,
1988) .
Traditional Delivery Systems
Although there are a variety of administrative organizations for the operation
of training the primary delivery system in adult corrections is built around the needs of
the correctional officer. The foundation of most correctional training programs is the
basic academy. This is generally a concentrated entry level training program that
varies in length from two to twelve weeks. The best organized of these academies are
based on a correctional officer job task analysis and include a comprehensive
4
competency based curriculum. The academies are typically either centralized or
regionalized and include trainees from a variety of facilities. In most jurisdictions the
academy is supplemented with a structured on-the-job training program and/or
institutional based training program.
Policy and practice regarding the pre-service training of specialized
professionals within corrections varies widely. In some jurisdictions all new
employees must complete basic academy. In other systems non-custodial personnel are
exempted from portions or all of the academy training. Very few systems have
specialized entry level training for non-custodial employees.
In-service training programs are similarly oriented toward the largest worker
group in the profession, the correctional officer. Many of the in-service training
progranis are based at the correctional institution and include re-training on weapons
use, life safety skills and agency policy and procedures. In-service training for
specialized correctional professionals are often fulfilled through annual meetings of
selected worker groups. These meetings are supplemented with standard retraining
programs delivered at the institution. Individual participation in non-credit and
academic credit training programs often is counted in lieu of completion of more
traditional agency-sponsored activities.
Limitations
One of the primary limitations that correctional systems faces in providing
specialized training is the size of the system. In many smaller correctional agencies the
number of correctional specialist in any given discipline may be viewed as too small to
make specialized in-house training cost effective. The ,size issue takes on even greater
importance in systems where the primary delivery of in-service training is based at the
individual correctional institution.
The size and scope of correctional agencies has increased dramatically in recent
years. In an increasing number of correctional systems the number of specialist within
a single system has grown to the level that would make in-service delivery of training
cost effective. However, the advocates of specialized training are still competing for
I I I
scarce training funds. In addition to limited funding specinlized training must be added
to the planning agenda of many training managers. Correctional specialists need to be
proactive in their efforts to obtain training opportunities. In many instances
alternative delivery systems will need to be used to provide specialist with the high
quality training they both need and deserve.
111 Alternative Delivery Systern.s
The three primary goals which have been identified for in-service training are:
I to acquire an understanding of correctional and justice system; to develop skills
111 necessary to work effectively; and to possess and maintain an attitude of
professionalism and self confidence (McKeen, 1983). There are a variety of
I mechanisms to achieve these three goals. The remaining portion of this article will
attempt to highlight some of the alternative training progranas which have been
Ill developed for correctional specialists.
Various job task analysis processes have been used to retrofit existing training
111 programs to meet the needs of specialized groups. For training to be meaningful there
I must be a clear relationship between the curriculum and the job (Falkenberg & Baird,
1987). The National Academy of Corrections recently conducted a training needs
1 assessment for chaplains. Based upon the results of this assessment a redesigned
correctional management training was developed for chaplains. The National
8 Academy of Corrections is currently using the DACUM (Developing A Curriculum)
Il process to develop worker profiles for various correctional professionals. The DACUM
process results in the development of a listing of worker task skills and traits which
I can be used in the design of training curriculum (Carter, D. 1989).
The Correctional/Special Education (C/SET) Project adopted a module based
III training approach (Posluszny, 1986). The C/SET modules were designed to provide
III correctional personnel with basic information regarding the educational and related
needs of learning han.dicapped offenders. The modules were designed to be independent
8 ready-to-train units. The module concept attempts to provide quality training
materials in a useable format. One of the problems encounter by correctional trainers
6
attempting to serve specialized worker groups is the availability of relevant training
material. Nationa' 1 efforts such as C/SET have been able to provide high quality
training materials which are useful to trainers throughout the country.
The Illinois Department of Corrections has adopted an administrative directive
system which includes a training component. Management team produced
program/facility audit reports are often dealt with as training needs assessments. A
negative audit will frequently lead to a new training program. Trainers assist in the
audit process which further strengthens the link to training. Training evaluations can
lead to issuance of administrative directives. The strong link between management
and training in the Illinois system provides information which can be invaluable in
the development of meaningful curriculum (Hanford, 1988).
Self directed independent learning and the use of study circles can be restricted
by limited access to relevant professional literature. The development of professional
staff libraries in correctional institutions is one alternative solution to this problem
(Drewett, 1985). Trainers and librarians can work together to identify relevant
Information sources which are needed to establish a professional/staff library within a
correctional institutions. By sharing the resources of both the library and training
departments it is often possible to develop a fine local collection of professional
literature. The availability of a local staff library can help to overcome some of the
professional isolation felt by many individuals who work in corrections.
The Maryland Department of Education in conjunction with John Hopkins
University developed a graduate program for correctional educators working with adult
illiterates (Gold & Steurer, 1983). Using a variety of funding sources the two
organizations were able to provide correctional educators with both relevant training
and the opportunity to earn both graduate credit and a degree. Innovative programs
such as this are especially useful when there is a need for longer term in-depth training
for a relatively large worker group within a correctional system.
A number of specialized training symposiums have been developed for
correctional professionals. One of the longer running events is the ann.ual correctional
caseworkers symposium which is supported by the Federal Bureau of Prisons, Kentucky
7
Corrections Cabinet and Eastern Kentucky University. Each year this three day
training symposium' focuses on a different topic in corrections as it relates to the duties
and responsibilities of caseworkers. Recent topics have included classification, mental
health, custody and substance abuse treatment. This training format provides relevant
Information for correctional caseworkers from throughout the eastern United States.
An annual monograph based upon selected presentations made at the symposium is
published and distributed to participants each year.
Other approaches which have been used to meet the training needs of specialized
groups include conferences and seminars sponsored by professional organizations and
the American Correctional Association correspondence course programs. The
National Academy of Corrections is currently developing a regional network for the
dissemination of training information. This network will hopefully further
cooperative efforts among states. The potential for multi-jurisdiction development of
training programs may help reduce some of the cost associated with the design and
delivery of specialized training.
The use of both interactive video and teleconferencing hold great promise for
serving specializ,ed correctional populations. The recent Public Broadcast System
teleconference which involved the Correctional Education Association and the
Correctional Industries Association is an excellent example of the use of the media to
reach large numbers of correctional professionals with relevant information.
Summary
Corrections like many other human service professions faces major challenges
in its efforts to maintain a well-trained staff. The task for correctional trainers is
compounded because the institutional setting requires that a diverse range of
professionals be employed by a single agency. To effectively operate a correctional
institution it is important that ail staff are provided the opportunity to participate in
relevant training experiences. There will never be a single solution to the diverse
training needs which exist in corrections. Effective correctional training programs
8
will need to adopt a wide range of delivery systems if there is to be a comprehensive
training effort serVing all professionals.
Cooperative efforts among agencies and jurisdictions cari help to facilitate the
development of high quality training for specialized populations. The leadership taken
by the National Academy of Corrections in its development of regionalized training
networks appears to provide the foundation for greater cociperation. Hopefully some of
the first areas of cooperative training will be focused on the needs of previously under-
served specialized correctional worker groups.
*American Association •of Correctional Training Personnel, c/o Dade. County Department of Corrections, 1500 N.W. 12th Avenue, Miami, Florida 33136.
*Juvenile Justice Trainers Association, c/o J.K. Mullen, Center for Juvenile Justice Training and Research, Room #228, Horton Hall, Shippensburg University, Shippensburg, Pennsylvania 17257.
9
References
Breed, A.F. (1976) "Mobilizing 'rraining/Education for Today's Crisis". Proceeding of the 106th Annual Congress of Corrections, pp. 250-254.
Carter, D. (1989) National Academy of Corrections Develops Dacum Competency Profile on Wardens, The Grapevine. pp. 2.
Correctional Education Association (1988) Standards for Adult and Juvenile Correctional Education Program, Laurel, Maryland, pp. 1-9.
Drewett, D. A. (1985) The Staff Library and Training: A Concept in Corrections Comes of Age, Journal of Correctional Education, 34, 3, pp. 85-88.
Falkenberg, S. & Baird, R C. (1987) 'Developing Job Validated Training Curricula in Corrections: Methods and Procedures", in Issues in Correctional Training and Casework, 3 pp. 8-13.
Gold, P.C. & Steurer, S. J. (1983) "Graduate Training of Correctional Education Staff Worlçing with Adult Illiterates: A Model Program", Journal of Correctional Education, 34, 2, pp. 52-53.
Hanford, S. J. (1988) "Corrections Training," The Journal of Correctional Training, 4, 1, pp. 20-22.
Horvath, G.J. (1982) "Issues in Correctional Education: A Conundrum of Conflict". Journal of Correctional Education. 33, 3, pp. 8-15.
Loeffler, C.A., Martin J.C., Henderson D. L. & McNesse, R (1986) "Anatomy of a Prison Educator: A Profile of Correctional Education in Windham School System, Huntsville, Texas", Journal of Correctional Education. 37, 1, pp. 24-29.
McKeen, R 13. (1983) "In Service Training and Staff Development for Correctional Educators", Journal of Correctional Education, 34, 1 pp. 12-14.
Pecht, H.E. (1983) 'The Emergent Correctional Education Profession: Special Problems Require Tested Criteria for the Selection of Effective Teachers", Journal of Correctional Education, 34, 3, pp. 85-88.
Posluszny, M. (1986) Implementing Module Based Training in Implementing Training for Correctional Educators, Wolford, B.I., Rutherford, R B. & Nelson, C. M. Richmond, Kentucky, Eastern Kentucky University, pp. 4-7.
Snarr, R. W. & Wolford, B. I. (1985) Introduction to Corrections , Dubuque, Iowa. W.C. Brown, p. 47.
Wolford, B.I. (1989) Directory of Correctional Training in North America, (in press), Richmond, Kentucky, Eastern Kentucky University.
Wolford, B. I. & Snarr RW. "What is the Goal of Correctional Education?" Journal of Correctional Education, 38, 2, pp. 60-64.
Wolford, B. I. & Scraggy, G. (1988) Correctional Wardens and Superintendents: Changing Profiles. Richmond, Kentucky, Eastern Kentucky University, pp. 1-9.
SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
PRISON EDUCATION
Wadham College
OXFORD
25th - 28th September 1989
"EDUCATION AND TREATMENT"
by
Peter Ziebart
Austria
- 2 -
As a trained judge, who has been working for more
than 12 years in the prison branch of the Federal Ministry
of Justice in Austria I want to outline above all the
present legal situation of the Austrian Correctional
System.
Up to the year 1970 the Austrian Correctional
System lacked comprehensive legislation. Only very few
articles of the old criminal code, which in its basic
principles dates back to the year 1803, referred to the
position of the prisoners and the nature of their custody
during detention. In 1954 the preliminary work for a law to
regulate the execution of sentences began. It was 1969 when
the parliament came to a decision. The correctional law
finally went into force on 1 January 1970. Compared with
other European countries it is the first legal provision
for the regulation of a correctional system.
The next step in the Major Criminal Law Reform in
the year 1974 was the new Criminal Code, which went into
force on 1 January 1975. This Act has so far proved very
satisfactory.
Both the judicial and the penal system are under
the responsibility of the Federal State. Criminal justice
is exercised by judges who are not elected but appointed.
Now to the objectives of our correctional system: The
execution of sentences of imprisonment should, above all,
assist the prisoner to an honest view of life, conforming
to the requirements of the community. The law further
states that, in order to achieve this aim, the inmates are
to be cared for in an educational manner. What is
understood by such educational care, what methods should be
applied ? Concrete answers to these questions will not be
found. Corrective and therapeutic methods can be chosen in
Dok.Nr. 7235F
3
accordance with current scientific findings. Medical
experiments are by all means forbidden.
The Austrian penal establishments include
penitentiaries as well as court prisons. In penitentiaries
sentences of more than one year are served. Court prisons
are used for the execution of shorter sentences, primarily,
however, for the holding of untried prisoners.
At this point let me deal with the question of
staff. More than 3500 people are employed in Austrian penal
institutions. Almost 3000 are uniformed officers, the
others belong to special services, e.g. doctors,
psychologists, chaplains, teachers, social workers, nurses,
etc.
You can see, that the uniformed officers carry the
main burden of the daily prison routine. They are
responsible for the safe custody of the inmates and have to
satisfy the corrective demands laid down by the law.
In Austria the general public has become aware to
a far-reaching extent that this profession covers a wide
field from the matter of security, on the one hand, to
social work on the other.
At this stage I want to draw your attention to the
important relation between prison administration and the
public.
In any developed, pluralistic, democratic society
there is a permanent discussion about the justification and
the purposes of punishment and the objectives of the
enforcement of prison sentences in their variety and
inevitable contradiction. The particular causes and
conditions of criminality in the individual case are also
tried to be discovered.
In any democratic society public relations work of
Dok.Nr. 7235F
•••• 4
the government and the public administration is a generally
acknowledged necessity in order to inform the public. There
is no successful legislation without a preceding process of
making the general public realize what the demands are. Any
society needs legal reforms at the right time and in the
right measure. Social development and alterations of the
law are interdependent as a relation of cause and effect.
Administrative reforms require common consent as well.
Major reforms must be carried by the understanding and
approval of the majority of the public. To obtain a common
consent in the public takes time, often years. Reforms
against strong opinions of the public are not promising.
These principles fully apply to prison administration.
The frequency and severity of criminality, the
means of crime prevention and prison administration, are
legitime topics of discussion by the general public.
Generally, crime is not considered so dangerous by the
individual in his neighbourhood as he thinks it is in the
case of larger, abstract units like the state or society as
a whole. There is still a mingling of reform tendencies and
a certain scepticism about the prison administration and
the offenders. Tendencies of generalization, simplification
and distortion of the reality are promoted by the lack of
real knowledge about criminality and prison administration.
In any case, however, information of the public is
necessary. An important task falls to the mass media; they
might be able to achieve some corrections of commonplace
views by reporting objectively, impartially and as
unprejudicedly as possible. Just a glance into the daily
newspapers shows how differently cases of crime can be
reported. The permanent overpresentation of acts of
violence and the commercialized aiming at unusual, dramatic
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or sentimental events can intensify existing dispositions
in the consumer of mass media. It can be presumed that the
mass media make an important contribution to form the
collective knowledge of "good and evil". As long as mass
media are interested in any prison administration only in
connection with sensational incidents like escapes,
hungerstrikes or riots, any understanding of the aims and
problems of prison administration can hardly be expected
and a negative stigmatization of prisoners will be caused.
There is only little knowledge of the real situation of
prison administration in the public; the reasons for that
must not only be seen in a lack of interest of the public
and the mass media in prison affairs but also in a
seclusion of the penal institutions from the public,
permitting only few glances into the world "behind prison
walls".
Any public relations work which informs the public
thoroughly can be of great value. Public relations work
must positively inform of the actual situation, of events
and projects. Any reform in the field of prison
administration, in particular, any new method of treatment•
aiming at the rehabilitation of offenders, seems to be
successful only when it is carried by the public. The
public must be informed that crime is not carried into
society from outside but that crime occures within society
and that, therefore, crime and any sanction as well as
prison administration are a matter of the entire society.
This finally leads us to the question, how prison
administrations can meet the objectives of imprisonment.
The effectiveness of any enforcement of sentences
that intends to meet the requirements of treatment as well
as those of the protection of society, security and order,
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depends primarily on the creation of appropriate prison
regimes.
The basic idea is rather simple. From all those in
custody, the really dangerous prisoners who require special
security measures and the mentally disabled and
psychopathic prisoners who need special medical,
psychiatric or psychological treatment are to be separated.
There is also a need for separation for juvenile
delinquents, first offenders, delinquents who committed
their offences by mere negligence and not with criminal
intent and all other offenders who may qualify for open or
semi-open institutions.
A security orientated penal institution without
treatment tasks will be organized in a way that the
institution is well protected and that, with as little
personnel as possible, as many prisoners as possible can be
housed, catered for, occupied and supervised. The typical
style of a traditional custodial institution is the big
pentagon-shaped penitentiary.
Any institution, in which treatment prevails,
requires no or relatively few security measures; of main
importance is the organisation inside the institution, the
treatment groups, the supply of treatment personell and a
sufficient flexibility to meet the different requirements
of treatment.
The type of any regime will primarily depend on
the question of how far treatment prevails and to what
extent security measures are required. The kind of regime
is, therefore, closely related to the question, which of
the various possible objectives of imprisonment
predominates.
The different regimes vary from open, semi-open
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and relaxed regimes to regular regimes, and to security and
high security regimes. Special regimes exist also for
mentally disabled and psychopathic offenders, for alcohol
and drug addicts and for dangerous recidivists. For
juvenile and young offenders as well as first offenders and
traffic offenders, special regimes are common. In several
penal systems imprisonment in stages is introduced and all
systems know pre-release regimes.
Work in penal institutions is closely linked to
the preparation of prisoners for life in society outside
prisons. The history of work in penal institutions is its
progress from an essential punitive element in penal
regimes, through a role of mere occupation, to an important
means of positive contribution to the rehabilitation of
offenders. At one time, work, in the form of "hard labour",
was seen as an effective additional punishment to the
deprivation of liberty. It had no purpose other than
deterrence. Three hundred years ago Puritans saw work as
good in
personal
itself. Lateron, work
and social virtue on
was seen
those who
as conferring
performed it.
Afterwards, work has long been accepted as beneficial and a
major element in penal regimes. Today,
a necessity, a normal condition of
activity. Outside prison, people who
enjoy the esteem which employment in
work is regarded as
life and a human
do not work do not
socially acceptable
work normally brings. Even workers on the lowest labouring
levels are respected and can be seen as "honest workmen".
Whatever the degree of social esteem may be, the implied
acknowledgement of the usefulness of the work for earning a
living for oneself or one's family is an important element
of self-respect. There ist also the socialising influence
of work, insofar as it offers social relationships outside
Dok.Nr. 7235F
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the family and the neighbourhood. These social
relationships are beneficial to the development of human
personality and essential to the quality of life. For most
people it is difficult to contemplate life without such
relationships.
In prisons too, work is an element in the make-up
of the institutional society. In a penal institution where
a variety of work opportunities are offered, it is
reasonable to assume that the kind of occupation affects
the status of the individual inmate in some way. Very often
prisoners are socially inadequate, lacking in social norms
and not used to regular work. It is therefore vital for
their rehabilitation to develop a positive attitude towards
work and its fulfilling character. It is also important for
those inmates to be trained to perform work as a habit, as
well as to appreciate the quality of work and the rewards
that flow from it in terms of pay, self-respect and status.
There are also the socialising influences of work in
association. Prisoners, like any other people, value the
part they play with their fellows in achieving the
objectives of a work task. They benefit too from the
interplay of personalities that results from working within
a team and the experience of being managed for defined
purposes. The contribution they make to the production of a
workshop, the construction of a prison building or the
cultivation of crops is measured in terms of personal
achievement, usefulness and self-respect. In all these ways
work is important for the development of social personality
and readjustment for life outside penal institutions.
The two main requirements any prison
administration has inevitably to deal with are security, on
the one hand, and treatment in order to try to enable the
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prisoner to live a socially adapted life in the future, on
the other.
It is of greatest importance, therefore, to
counteract the negative consequences of imprisonment. We
all know, regimes are often not normally such as to prepare
the prisoner for his release. A treatment, as effective as
possible, must therefore be offered. Sufficient medical
service, suitable work, vocational training, leisuretime
activities, bodily exercise, reading books and newspapers,
listening to the radio, correspondence and visits should be
ensured, although the security tasks prevail.
Prisoners are an important target group for
education on the grounds that it is often a lack of
education which leads to crime and that what they need ist
to learn a trade and to develop social competence.
What can be done through education to help that
target group to improve the present condition? The
overriding problem is how to stimulate people so that they
will want to learn. Far too little empirical research has
been undertaken into the nature of the barriers to learning
but certain facts are clear enough. The root problem is
that the prisoners are convinced that education has nothing
to offer them. In their own eyes they have failed either
because they did not go to school or because they failed to
make the grade and were then cast into outer darkness. They
do not discern any possibility of improving their job
prospects by means of education even when labelled as
"training". If they are conscious of the high private
returns that may accure from education, they may
nevertheless reject it, because their aversion is so
intense.
These are daunting barriers and it is idle to
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pretend that they can easily be scaled. More than one
country in recent years has devoted substantial funds and
effort to the war on criminality, treating education as a
major arm of attack, only to find that the results were
disappointing. The truth is that the education of the
underprivileged is a very high-cost undertaking, far more
costly than conventional adult education and probably more
costly, indeed, than the expensive sector of higher
education. This severe cost factor and long deferment of
returns may well explain why many approaches to the problem
are localized and short-term.
The scale of the problem can be minimized by
concentrating initially upon particular categories of
people. In developing countries this will almost certainly
mean the functionally illiterate; in more developed
countries it may mean the unemployed or the prisoners.
The needs of the educationally underprivileged can
be met by two complementary approaches. One is to take
facilities to the prison. The second is not to offer
programmes that are labelled educational but to offer
attractive incentives.
For most prisoners the point of entry may well be
a desire to increase their earning power for the time after
their release by upgrading their vocational skills, since
there is a glimmer of hope that once a man's interest has
been arrested by an appeal to his pocket, he may be induced
to explore wider educational horizons.
There is one aspect of the problem of dealing with
the educationally underprivileged in prisons that is
extraordinarily delicate. Outside observers have tended to
designate those underprivileged as a special social group.
If, however, the underprivileged are made to feel like some
Dok.Nr. 7235F
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subspecies or the recipients of charity, they are likely to
react by spurning assistance or by shrewdly accepting
material hand-outs but rejecting the attached educational
strings.
The problem of the educationally underprivileged
will always be with us. It is ultimately a cultural problem
that cannot be removed altogether but it can be mitigated
if we work hard on it.
It is impossible to offer ready made or
comprehensive solutions for the organisation of the various
prison regimes and the application of the many treatment
strategies. It is up to the national prison administrations
to create proper institutions by differentiation. The range
of treatment covers all measures that may help to enable
the prisoner in future to lead a socially responsible life
without committing criminal offences. The list of treatment
possibilities in Austria is large. It covers work,
vocational training, schooling, general education, medical
care, social care, social training, religious welfare,
reasonable leisure-time activities, bodily exercise, books,
newpapers and magazines, radio and television,
correspondence and visits, prison-leave and preparation for
release.
The strategies may reach from teaching, practical
education and supervision, individual conversation-therapy,
individual and group councelling, to medical and
psychiatric measures.
According to the European Prison Rules the
treatment of offenders should emphasize not their exclusion
from society but their continuing part of it.
The idea of total treatment in total therapeutic
institutions was given up in recent years. It was
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recognised that not every prisoner can become resocialised
and that it is a matter of fact that any success of
treatment depends primarily on the willingness and fitness
of the prisoner to undergo treatment and to cooperate. The
basic idea of the member states of the Council of Europe
is, therefore, no longer to impose obligatory treatment for
all offenders in penal institutions but to offer all
treatment possibilities to all those who are willing and
fit to undergo treatment and to cooperate.
1
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(HV 8875 157 1989 Papers presented at the Sec ond International Conferenc e on Prison Education of in
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