373

Blogging

for

Education:

Unleashing the

Potential

of the

Humble

Blog

A

Case

Study

into

the

Application

of Blog

as Part of

a Project

Portfolio

Pearl

Wong

Pei

Jun

(Multimedia

University,

Malaysia)

Abstract

The dynamism of information technology and of recent developments in the field of

technology has impacted the world of education in more ways than one. Weblogs or blogs, as

they are commonly known, have now become an increasingly popular form of

communication for teenagers and young adults, making it a potentially useful medium for the

teaching of the English Language.

This research report is aimed at demonstrating how blogs can be used in the classroom to

practice language skills and also build learner confidence and independence. It includes a

discussion into some of the key considerations of using blogs in the classroom and also some

of the activities that may be used to encourage learners to not only work independently but

collaboratively.

Introduction Although the history of computer assisted language learning, or commonly known as CALL

can be traced back to the 1950s, it has only been in the 1980s that this field of language

learning has, as summarized by Dudeney and Hockly (2007, p.7

computer programmes to the use of the Internet and web-

demonstrated by CALL applications of today, the role of the computer has progressed far

(Warschauer & Healey, 1998) of the 1960s and 1970s,

Warschauer,

1996).

doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.3n.2p.1

1

374

This paper, prioritizing the role of CALL in the world of education aims to achieve three

things. First, it is aimed at discussing the related literature associated with the development of

CALL, including the motivating factors and the benefits of CALL to the language classroom.

In the second part of this report, I will look at how weblogs can be used to complement the

teaching of Business English at college level and evaluate its effectiveness in teaching the

module. The penultimate part of this research report is aimed at discussing the future

implications of using weblogs to teach language.

The different faces of CALL

Computer assisted language learning has a rich history although it is a relatively new

development in English Language Teaching. Spawned from the emergence of computers and

guided by the ever-developing world of information technology, CALL has had its fair share

of supporters and detractors. However, its undeniable potential in the educational world has

clearly motivated a growing body of research in this field. Aptly defined by Levy (1997, p.1)

ons of the computer in language learning and

time (Levy 1997, p.1).

The differ

different corresponding theories of learning of a specific period of time. For example,

1998, p.3) and prioritizes the role of the computer as a tutor. Developed mainly for

-

However, Behaviourist CALL was undermined when as postulated by Warschauer (1997),

language practitioners and researchers started to reject the behaviourist theory both on the

puting

world, mainly the introduction of the micro-computer also lent to the emergence of

learning a

this particular phase, the computer still retained the role of a tutor, but also took on an 2

375

additional role of assisting and directing learning. Communicative CALL also prioritized the

they are learning through authentic situations, very different from Behaviourist CALL which

stressed on (Warschauer & Healey, 1998).

Like Behaviourist CALL, Communicative CALL soon began to become unpopular when

there was a shift from the cognitive theories to a more socio-cognitive view of language

learning. Parallel to this development, CALL practitioners soon began exploring computer

applications that allowed integrated skills practice and authentic language use (Warschauer &

Healey, 1998), hence the emergence of the third phase of computer assisted language

learning, Integrative CALL. As part of Integrative CALL, the Internet, due to its diverse and

wide potential has also resulted in two other subsets of CALL, which are MOOs (multi-user

object oriented domains) and CMC (computer-mediated communication).

As indicated by the growing advances in CALL, it is evident that computers are slowly being

assimilated into the classroom and applied in different ways. As such, as stated by Pennington

reverse, educators should fully utilize the technology that is around

them in order to enhance the teaching-learning process.

attitudes towards CALL and the emergence of blogs as a powerful tool of

language teaching

The exponential developments in computer technology has resulted in two main groups of

computer users, digital natives, mainly the younger generation who grew up using technology

and are therefore accustomed to it, and the older generation, who are considered as digital

immigrants, as they are still actively learning the skills of using technology. Due to this

divide, as further impressed upon by Dudeney and Hockly (2007), teachers, who are in a

sense considered digital immigrants may have negative attitudes towards using computer

technology. This, as further suggested by Dudeney and Hockly (2007), may be attributed to

several key factors including the lack of confidence in using the technology, the lack of

facilities, the lack of training and also the lack of control of the school situation. Some

teachers also, as clarified by Windeatt, Hardisty and Eastment (2000, p.7) fear that the

-

students. 3

376

Therefore, in order to fully realize the potential of computer and information technology in

the language classroom, teachers need not only to equip themselves with sufficient skills to

Minaya-Rowe, 2006). As further emphasized by Jones (2001), teachers also need to become

more committed to using CALL in the classroom and to explore ways to integrate technology

-Rowe,. 2006)

Computers, as summarized by Hanson-Smith (2001) benefit language teaching and learning

as it can not only be used for linguistic analysis and skills acquisition but also as a research

tool and a method of increasing motivation and providing opportunities for authentic

language use. The Internet, considered as being a more advanced app

(1993, p.4

Internet in

g,

rules that state that weblogs should only be owned solely by individuals. Therefore, weblogs

can be utilized as collaborative projects for students in the language classroom.

As blogs can be accessed with an internet connection, it is, as postulated by Davi, Frydenberg

class, but also outside the classroom, encouraging continuous language practice. Like the

Internet, blogs also provide learners with an authentic audience as it opens the classroom to

the wider world and can involve learners in real-life language use.

The Blog Project

Learner profile

The blog project was implemented with 70 first semester students of the Diploma in Business

Administration at Sunway College, Johor Bahru. These learners consisted mainly of post-

secondary school leavers from the ages 17 to 20. All the learners were Malaysians. As such, it

can be assumed that English is a second language for all the participants in this blog project. 4

377

Their levels of language proficiency however differed. As the learners from Group A were

enrolled into the diploma programme with only a pass in English Language at secondary

school level, they were thus regarded as the less proficient group. However, as they were also

undergoing the English Enrichment programme concurrently with the Business English

module, it was anticipated that they would be able to cope with the content and requirements

of this blog project.

The second group of learners were slightly more proficient as they were enrolled into the

course with either a credit or distinction in English at secondary school level. However, as

demonstrated from random interviews with learners from both groups at the beginning of the

module, learners from both groups were equally exposed and familiar with web-based

publishing and basic IT skills.

Description of the Blog Project

Both blogs were developed over a course of 14 weeks with a range of different tasks being

assigned throughout the course.

The t blog

to the tasks. Besides that, additional notes to the different grammatical items learnt during the

course were also uploaded on the blog. The trainer also posted additional links and useful

The l blog

Learners from both groups were required to start, develop and maintain blogs as part of their

final coursework assessment for their Business English 1 module. The blogs were developed

and maintained d

-

groups were kept small (only 4 or 5 members per group). Learners were also given the

freedom to choose their group members.

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378

To ensure that the blogs were regularly updated over the course of 14 weeks, tasks were given

complemented what was learnt in the course book either by functioning as enrichment

activities, or supplementary acti

each topic. As the blog project was considered as a two-pronged approach to constructivism,

from informat

Yawkey & Minaya-

Rowe 2006, p.304)

Some of the activities included as part of the blog project were:

1. The development of a group profile for the blog

2. The development of a company profile based on online research

3. The design and recording of a video commercial for Cadbury

4. The writing of a comparison essay of Malaysian and Singaporean consumer habits

5. The development of a comparison chart between benefits to franchisors and

franchisees.

6. The presentation of slides based on online research into international business styles

7. The development of an assignment outline

8. The presentation of slides for their assignment

9. The writing of a business plan

10. The writing of a business report

11. The writing of a business memo

12. The preparation of a mind-map based on an online journal articles

13. The reflection on a commercial by Honda.

Blog entries were checked and evaluated weekly by the trainer with feedback posted in the

Group B.

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379

Research instrument

In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the blog in encouraging language learning, I surveyed

interviews were conducted in the first week of the blog project to identify the skills and prior

knowledge of learners with regards to this particular application. The results from these

random interviews were later used as a basis to set tasks and to determine the level of

guidance given to the learners during the duration of the blog project.

Two other questionnaires, serving as quantitative methods of data collection were distributed

in the 7th week and last week of the 14-week course. The questionnaires distributed covered

affecting the implementation of group project blogs in the classroom. For the first

questionnaire administered in the seventh week of the course, three areas were prioritized; the

the implementation of the blog project in class. Learners were also allowed to give additional

comments at the end of the questionnaire.

The second questionnaire, administered in the last week of the course focused on similar key

practical considerations of blogging for education and also problems with blogging. Both

questionnaires were distributed to all the learners involved in the blog project and its aim was

to determine if there were any noticeable changes in terms of attitudes and problems faced

when completing the blog project.

Findings

Several key observations were made with regards to the key areas investigated in the two

questionnaires.

previous experience

Both questionnaires and also the oral interview at the beginning of the course revealed that

most of the learners are familiar and have read or followed blogs of their peers or family

members. However, only about half of the learners actually own personal blogs, and it can be

assumed from this observation that although the learners were familiar with blogging, they

were not necessarily well-versed with blog applications. This corroborated with the 7

380

questionnaire findings that revealed that only about a third of the learners responded

positively to being able to use the different blog applications successfully.

With regards to whether the learners have used blogs for educational purposes, only about

two-fifths of the learners responded positively. About half of the learners noted that this was

their first time using a blog as a language learning activity and project.

attitudes towards blogging

All the learners responded positively to the idea of blogging being an effective means of

learning a language. They attributed this largely to the fact that through blogging, they were

given an opportunity to express their thoughts more freely. Almost all the learners also agreed

that through blogging, they were motivated to practice more language. This co-related to the

results of the questionnaire that showed that nearly three-quarters of the learners felt that

blogging made language learning more personalized to them.

Almost all the learners shared the opinion that blogging encouraged team work and peer

support; and agreed that blogging made them more participative in class work and also

homework. A majority of the learners also preferred to have blogging as part of their course

work rather than have a typical written assignment.

Implementation of blogs in the classroom problems and considerations

Most of the learners admitted that they did face difficulties with the blog project and required

more guidance from the teacher. As demonstrated in the differences between the quality of

blogs between the learners from Group A and Group B of the same course, it is observed that

some of the groups were less skillful in using the different blog applications. As a result, their

blogs only had the minimal applications offered by the blog host, www.blogger.com. As

some of the learners were also unfamiliar with blogging, it was noted that they found the blog

project to be time-consuming.

In terms of problems related to blogging, learners faced the most problems in uploading

materials to their blog. Some of the reasons noted for this included the slow speed of

connection both at home and at college and also difficulty in formatting their text. For

example, some of the learners could not upload their presentation slides as they did not know

how to convert the slides into picture files (.jpeg). Others had problems recording their 8

381

advertisements or scanning their work as they did not have an available scanner at home or at

college.

Learners also commented about the mode of feedback on their blog task. Many agreed that

they needed more feedback especially from their peers. They also requested that the lecturer

Other issues that were brought up included the level of restriction in terms of content, and

also the informal language by some of their peers. Some of the learners also suggested sample

tasks to be included into future blog projects including the preparation of comparison charts,

mind-maps, web quests and also more online-based research.

Conclusion

As emphasized by Stanley (2005, p.5), weblogs have the ability

language skills. This has clearly been demonstrated in my blog project with college-level

students in the Diploma for Business Administration course. However, it is also necessary for

the trainer or the teacher to first provide sufficient guidance on how to use the different blog

applications, as indicated in the findings of the questionnaire.

As further emphasized by Jones (2001, p.361), using CALL, or in the case of my research,

-

blogs may be consider

emphasized at the beginning of a blog project, learners may instead become more reliant and

dependent on the teacher (Jones, 2001). Therefore, in order to ensure that blogging for

education may be advantageous to the language classroom, the teacher needs to act as a

facilitator who is able to not only provide guidance and training to the learners, but also to be

able to troubleshoot problem areas and find solutions to this.

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References Campbell, A.P. (2003). Weblogs for Use with ESL Classes. The Internet TESL Journal, 9(2). Davi, A., Frydenberg, M. & Gulati, G.J. (2007). Blogging Across the Disciplines: Integrating Technology to

Enhance Liberal Learning. In Merlot Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 3(3). Retrieved October 30, 2009 from http://jolt.merlot.org/vol3no3/frydenberg.htm

Dudeney, G. & Hockly, N. (2007). How to Teach English with Technology. England: Pearson Education Limited.

Gonzalez, V., Yawkey, T., & Minaya-Rowe, L. (2006). English as a Second Language (ESL) Teaching and Learning. Boston: Pearson Education Inc.

Hanson-Smith, E. (2001). Computer-Assisted Language Learning. In Carter, R. & Nunan, D. The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.

Harmer, J. (2001). The Practice of English Language Teacher 3rd Edition. England: Pearson Education Limited. Higgins, C. (1993). Computer-Assisted Language Learning : Current Programs and Projects. CALL Digest.

Retrieved July 31, 2009 from http://www.cal.org/resources/digests/higgins01.html Jones, J. (2001) oting Learner Autonomy. In CALL EJ-Online 3(1)

.Retrieved July 31, 2009 from http://www.tell.is.ritsumei.ac.jp/callejonline/journal/3-1/jones.html Levy, M. (1997). Computer-Assisted Language Learning: Context and Conceptualization. Oxford : Clarendon

Press. Pennington, M.C. (2001). Innovations and Synergy in IT and English Language Teaching. In Morrison, B,

Gardner, D. Keokbe, K. & Spratt, M. (eds) ELT Perspectives on IT & Multimedia, pp 1-40. English Language Centre, Hong Kong Polytechnic University.

Stanley, G. (2005). Blogging for ELT. Retrieved April 30, 2009 from http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/resources/blogging.html

Warschauer M. (1996). Computer Assisted Language Learning: an Introduction. In Fotos S. (ed.) Multimedia language teaching (pp. 3-20). Tokyo: Logos International.

Warschauer, M. & Healey, D. (1998). Computers and Language Learning: An Overview, Language Teaching, Retrieved April 30, 2009 from http://www.gse.uci.edu/faculty/markm/call.html

Williams, J.B. & Jacobs, J. (2004). Exploring the Use of Blogs as Learning Spaces in the Higher Education Sector. In Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 20(2). Retrieved October 30, 2009 from http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet20/williams.html

Windeatt, S., Hardisty, D., & Eastment, D. (2000). The Internet. Oxford : Oxford University Press.

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A

Study

of an

English

for

Academic

Purposes

Course Mohammad Zohrabi

(The

University of

Tabriz, Iran)

Parilah M. Shah

(Universiti

Kebangsaan

Malaysia, Malaysia)

Melor M. Yunus

(Universiti

Kebangsaan

Malaysia, Malaysia)

Abstract

English for General Purposes (EGP) is a foundation course which should be taken by all the

undergraduate students at the University of Tabriz, Iran. However, the EGP course cannot

of

the study indicate that it not only has lost its credibility but also has failed to achieve its goals.

This study strives to investigate the different dimensions of this course in order to come up

with some solutions to its betterment. The participants consist of current and ex-students,

language and subject instructors. The result of the study indicates that there are many factors

which are involved in decreasing the quality of the EGP course. The goals of the EGP course

need to be determined and redefined. It is hoped that this research could shed some fresh light

on the betterment and modification of this course.

Introduction

Any educational program needs to be studied from time to time in order to ensure that it is

functioning as effectively as possible (Parilah & Zohrabi, 2008). To this end, program

evaluation attempts to evaluate every aspect of an instructional program or course of study in

order to find out its virtues and weaknesses. By identifying the weaknesses of a course, the

researchers try to find some solutions in order to compensate for them (Lynch, 2003). Then,

they endeavor to modify the course through recommending some new methods and materials.

However, there are times that require a course of study to be changed totally. Therefore, in

order to materialize a comprehensive study of a course, it is necessary to gather as much

information as possible. Meanwhile, in order to verify the data, the information about the

doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.3n.2p.11

11

384

course should be obtained through different methods and different sources. In this way the

validity and reliability of data can be enhanced substantially (Brown, 2001).

Therefore, the purpose of the present study is to investigate the perceptions of the students

and instructors toward the English for General Purposes (EGP) course. The reason that the

present researchers intended to study this course relates to the problem which have decreased

and objectives. The students have lost confidence in this course and only take it as an

obligatory course to gain credit rather than to enrich their general English. Most of the

instructors either have a vague idea or totally are unaware of the objectives of this course. The

main problem is that the undergraduate students take the EGP course, study it and ultimately

obtain a pass mark. Yet, they have many deficiencies in reading, writing, listening and

speaking. An obvious example of the problem of the students is that they cannot study their

ESP (English for Specific Purposes) courses 1 and 2 as efficiently as possible. That is, the

EGP course does not prepare the students to perform effectively in their ESP courses.

In the following sections, the curriculum constructs which were selected for investigation will

be presented and explained. Then, the methodology which was used to collect and analyze

data will be elaborated on. After that the result of the study will be put forward and discussed.

Curriculum constructs

In order to implement our program evaluation more coherently, the present researchers

selected 12 curriculum constructs: objectives, attitudes, time, students and instructors, needs

analysis, classroom activities, materials, study skills, language skills, vocabulary, grammar

and assessment (Zohrabi, 2008). These 12 constructs helped the researchers to investigate

every aspect of the EGP course as completely as possible. Clearly, every program of study

consists of many factors which influence it in one way or another. Without identifying these

constructs, it would have been quite arduous to study the EGP course. These 12 constructs

helped the present researchers to investigate all the elements involved in this program one by

one and step by step.

12

385

Figure 1: EGP course and its elements

It is safe to say that the present study can be likened to a medical diagnosis. That is, in order

to diagnose an illness, a physician first takes history of a patient (asks several questions from

the patient about his/her illness). Then, the physician strives to diagnose the illness through

various procedures: blood or urine test, x-ray, CAT scan, MRI and other imaging

examinations. Finally, the physician comes up with some cure through prescribing some

medications, surgery, diet, exercise and so on. Similarly, the first step of the present study

involved in this course. Finally, the third step was to put all the data together after thorough

investigation in order to come up with some solutions. In this way, the researchers could

recommend some solutions in order to modify the EGP course and compensate for its

deficiencies.

Program evaluation

It can be proposed that evaluation is a process in which great amounts of data are gathered

through various procedures from different sources. Then, this information is interpreted to

make some important decisions based on the research results. These decisions might require a

change and effect a drastic alteration in the outline and process of a language program

instruction. All these efforts are made to the betterment of a course of study and bringing

Time

Students &Instructors

Needs Analysis

ClassroomActivities

Assessment

Grammar

Vocabulary

Language Skills

Materials

Objective Attitudes

Study Skills

EGP

13

386

about some

should be an integral part of the working of the curriculum to ensure that what is done is

pose of

evaluation is to collect information systematically in order to indicate the worth or merit of a

he process of

gathering information. It is studying the shortcomings of a course of study in order to see

whether the objectives have been achieved, so that to make some decisions according to that

esulting from evaluation assist us in

deciding whether a course needs to be modified or altered in anyway so that objectives may

-way process in

which only the learners are judged by outsider researchers. It is, however, a multi-way

process in which the learners, the learning process, the teachers, and the whole teaching-

learning process are scrutinized.

Program or course study can be approached from different perspectives. In order to

investigate a program, the researcher should determine the means or tools of gathering data.

For instance, data can be obtained through questionnaires, interviews, classroom observations

and so on (Lynch, 1996). Meanwhile, the researcher should identify the informants in order to

obtain reliable information. Therefore, the researcher can gain the necessary information from

learners, teachers, course designers, program staff and so on.

The following program evaluation model has been proposal by Alderson (1996, p. 274). In

this outline he mentions some actual ways of implementing the evaluation process. He has

categorized the stages as follows:

1- Planning Purpose: Why?

2- Implementing Audience: Who for?

3- Interpreting The researcher: Who?

4- Reporting Content: What?

5- Using Method: How?

6- Evaluating Timing: When?

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387

The following figure illustrates in detail the process of conducting the present study:

Figure 2: The overall frame of the study

Design and methodology

The design of this study is a mixed method design. The reason that the mixed method design

was opted for this study is that it uses both quantitative and qualitative data. Meanwhile, by

using both quantitative and qualitative data, we can triangulate our data and hence boost the

validity and reliability of the research (Creswell, 2003). Therefore, in order to conduct

research on the EGP course, both quantitative (closed-ended questionnaire) and qualitative

(interviews and classroom observations) data were gathered.

Objectives (why) An Evaluation of the English for Academic Purposes (EAP) course

Area (what) Objectives, attitudes, time, students and instructors, needs analysis, classroom activities, materials, study skills, language skills, vocabulary, grammar and assessment

Sample (who) Students and instructors

Procedures (which) Questionnaires, interviews and classroom observations

Analysis (how) Descriptive interpretations and descriptive statistics

Results (what next) Modification of the EGP course

15

388

A rather similar questionnaire was given directly to the current students (n=360), ex-students

(n=360) and language instructors (n=16). The questionnaire items consisted of 76 closed-

ended questions for which respondents had to choose the appropriate option based on their

perceptions. The format of the items was Likert-type form: strongly disagree, disagree,

unsure, agree and strongly agree. Meanwhile, the questionnaire had one open-ended item to

which the participants had to provide their own answers. It should be mentioned that since the

questionnaire items were in the field of ELT (English Language Teaching), they were not

given to subject instructors to be filled out.

In order to validate the data, from the 16 language instructors 12 experienced instructors were

chosen to be interviewed. Also, 12 subject instructors who taught the ESP courses 1 and 2 at

their respective departments were chosen to be interviewed. These 12 subject instructors were

selected based on their experience and from each of the 12 faculties of the University of

Tabriz one instructor was chosen. Meanwhile, 36 current EGP students were selected to

participate in the interview. These current students were selected based on their University

Entrance Exam results: one below average, one average and one above average. That is, from

each of the 12 faculties, three current students were selected. Additionally, from each of the

12 faculties of the University of Tabriz, three ex-students were chosen. These students who

totally comprised 36 students were selected based on their EGP scores: one below average,

one average and one above average.

Furthermore, in order to obtain first-hand experience of the EGP classes, the researchers

observed 12 classes at each of the faculties of the University of Tabriz. These classes

belonged to the language instructors who were interviewed. Each of these 12 classes was

observed for several times (4, 5 or 6 times) in order to obtain the intended data. Totally, two

methods were used in order to gather the classroom data. First, a checklist form was prepared

by the researchers and the important points were included. Therefore, during the classroom

observations the lack or existence of these important points was ticked. Second, in addition to

the checklist form, the researchers tried to write down the important classroom activities and

occurrences. The following figure indicates the process of data collection:

16

389

Figure 3: Data collection procedure

Later, the closed-ended questionnaire data which were in numerical form were analyzed

through frequency counts and percentages. Meanwhile, the last item of the questionnaire

which was open-ended and in text form, the recorded interview data which had been

transcribed, and the classroom observation notes were analyzed in descriptive and

interpretative form.

Findings

In order to ease the process of analysis, the data were analyzed in terms of the 12 evaluation

constructs. This section presents the findings of the study:

1- Objectives

Apparently, the result of the study indicates that most of the instructors and students do not

clearly know the objectives of the EGP course. Seemingly, there is a huge gap between the

students

discussion in the classroom. However, because of the time limitation most of the instructors

merely focus on reading skill. The English Department at the University of Tabriz does not

not identified the objectives of the EGP course.

Data Collection

Modes of Triangulation

Quantitative Data Qualitative Data

Questionnaires: 360 Current EGP Students 360 Ex-EGP Students 16 Language Instructors

Classroom Observations:

(Nonparticipant) 12 Classes

Interviews: 36 Current Students 36 Ex-EGP Students 12 Language Instructors 12 Subject Instructors

17

390

2- Attitudes

ts

hold a low attitude toward it. The students do not find the EGP course interesting and useful

for their future studies or workplace needs. Meanwhile, the instructors do not take this course

seriously too.

3- Time

Evidently, three hours in a week during one semester is not enough to master general English.

Since the time allocated to the EGP course is short, the instructors cannot dedicate equal time

for each skill and consequently concentrate on reading skill which ultimately bores the

students. Meanwhile, because of the shortness of time, the instructors cannot carry out

different tasks and only do their textbook exercises.

4- Students and instructors

Since a placement test is not given to the students at the beginning of the semester, the EGP

classes consist of heterogeneous number of students. The mixed-ability classes, consequently,

create problems not only for the students but also for the instructors. It seems that most of the

EGP classes are instructor-centered rather than being learning-centered. The instructors

dominate the EGP classes and mostly use traditional methods of language teaching.

5- Needs analysis

Seemingly, needs analysis has never been carried out at the University of Tabriz in order to

needs and what the EGP course offers.

6- Classroom activities

The result of the study indicates that the teaching methods used in the EGP classes are not

appropriate. Most of the instructors try to do their textbook exercises instead of performing

different tasks. There is no revision of the previous materials. There is a lack of group or pair

work. The activities that are performed do not promote creative responses.

7- Materials

Clearly, the amount of materials used in the EGP classes is not enough. The activities of the

textbooks do not encourage the students to have communicative practice and free use of the 18

391

language. The EGP classes are not equipped with audio-visual aids. Sometimes, the textbooks

8- Study skills

Most of the students emphasize that the study skills are not taught to them. The EGP course

does not bring about independent and autonomous language learners. There are no self-access

learning centers either at each of the 12 faculties or at the university. Since the study skills are

not taught, the students lack enough self-confidence to study independently and fulfill their

course requirements.

9- Language skills

Apparently, the only skill which is practiced in the EGP classes is the reading skill. The

writing, speaking and listening skills have been forgotten and ignored totally. Most of the

instructors speak the Persian language instead of English in the EGP classes. Meanwhile,

most of the students either lack the ability or have low self-confidence to speak English.

10- Vocabulary

Most of the students have shortage of vocabulary in the general English. The new vocabulary

items are not presented in a purposeful way or in appropriate context. The new vocabulary

items are not practiced or repeated in subsequent lessons or units.

11- Grammar

represent the realistic use of the language. There is no correspondence between language

forms and the real use of language.

12- Assessment

Most of the students emphasized that they were not aware of how their instructors were going

to grade them. The students were worried about their final exams. Most of the instructors did

not give mid-semester exam. The ex-students maintained that their EGP scores were given

based on only their final exam results. The instructors usually do not explain their assessment

criteria at the beginning of the semester to the students. The exam questions usually consist of

discrete point items. The students are barely asked to provide their own answers either in

written or spoken form. 19

392

Discussion

In this section it is attempted to present and discuss the findings of the study in terms of the

12 evaluation constructs.

1- Objectives

The ministry of Education should prepare a comprehensive syllabus for the EGP course and

determine its objectives. The instructors and students need to be aware of the goals of this

course.

2- Attitudes

course. This can be done through making the course more interesting to the students. The

instructors should try to enrich and reward the positive points about the EGP course and

eliminate the negative cones.

3- Time

It goes without saying that the time allocated to the EGP course should be increased. The

undergraduate students need more exposure to the EGP course in order to learn it effectively.

4- Students and instructors

In order to maintain a balance among the different students with different proficiency levels,

it is better to give a placement test and place the students based on their levels in appropriate

classes.

5- Needs analysis

It seems necessary that the University of Tabriz curriculum developers carry out a needs

6- Classroom activities

Classroom activities should be organized around task-based activities and promote

communicative skills and strategies as well as free use of language. Classroom activities

should be diverse and varied in order to motivate the students and prevent boredom.

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7- Materials

The materials used for the EGP course should be interesting, suitable and based on different

student tastes. It is better for each branch of science (humanities, engineering, medicine,

science and literature) a different textbook to be used.

8- Study skills

It is believed that the University of Tabriz needs to offer an independent course under the

study skills in order to prepare the students for their academic courses.

9- Language skills

The instructors should have enough time in order to practice all the four language skills. All

the skills are related to each other in one way or another.

10- Vocabulary

The newly presented vocabulary items should be repeated in different contexts and

subsequent units in order to be retained.

11- Grammar

The students need both grammatical explanations and ample exercises. The purpose of the

grammar exercises should promote free use of language.

12- Assessment

The assessment criteria should be explained to the students at the beginning of the course.

activities when assigning their final

grades. Meanwhile, the instructors should include mid-semester exam in order to prepare the

students for the final exam.

Conclusion and implications

Program evaluation endeavors to find out the weaknesses of a course of study. However, it is

the officials and administrators who should want to implement the results. Without inducing

any changes in the course, the study would be a waste of time, energy and resources.

Therefore, the researchers, teachers, students and administrators need to try to apply and

implement the results of the study for the betterment of their courses. Certainly, the present

study has wide implications for researchers interested in the fields of EGP, ESP and EAP. 21

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Also, this study can be significant to teachers, postgraduate students, course designers and

program staff.

References Alderson, J.C. (1996). Guidelines for the evaluation of language education. In J. C. Alderson & A. Beretta

(Eds.). Evaluating second language education (pp. 274-304). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Brown, J. D. (2001). Using surveys in language programs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Second ed.

Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Jordan, R. R. (1997). English for academic purposes: a guide and resource book for teachers. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press. Lynch, B. K. (1996). Language program evaluation: Theory and practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press. Lynch, B. K. (2003). Language assessment and program evaluation. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Murphy, D. F. (1985). Evaluation in language teaching: assessment, accountability and awareness. In J.C.

Alderson (Ed.). Evaluation (pp. 1-17). Oxford: Pergamon. Nunan, D. (1999). Research methods in language learning. Eighth printing. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press. Parilah M. Shah & Zohrabi, M. (2008). The process of implementing program evaluation. Proceedings of

International Conference on the Education of Learner Diversity: Managing Diversity in Educational and Community Settings. 377-388. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 26-27 August 2008.

Zohrabi, M. (2008). Researching into curriculum components. Journal of Pan-pacific Association of Applied Linguistics, 12(2): 49-69.

Zohrabi, M. (2009). An evaluation of English language curriculum components. In N. Othman and S. Govindasamy (Eds.). English and Asia (pp. 117-132). Malaysia: IIUM Press.

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Language

Needs

of

ICT

Students

in

Malaysian Polytechnics Shahiza

Ahmad Zainuddin

(La Trobe

University, Australia

&

Ungku

Omar

Polytechnic,

Ipoh, Malaysia) Abstract

This study investigates and come out with suggestions to engage the needs of the students,

lecturers and industrial trainers. The findings promote better understanding of all the

stakeholders thus are used to come out with suggestions to enhance the ESP programme

practised at polytechnics. The main research questions are: What are the language needs of

ICT students and How to meet the needs of all the stakeholders. A case study is conducted

and aimed to identify the language needs of students who are in the Information Technology

Diploma programme. A mixed method research is opted to analyze the data. Mixed method

research describes and explains the second language needs of the respondents. Qualitative and

quantitative data is collected in phases and involved three types of respondents: diploma in

ICT students, language and content lecturers and industrial trainers. The findings of this study

may add knowledge in developing human capital in Malaysia especially in relation to English

competency in ICT discipline.

Background of research

This study investigates the language needs of the students, and their lecturers and trainers.

The findings will then be used to produce suggestions to enhance the ESP programme

practised at polytechnics. Language is no longer seen only as a means of communication but

it has been accepted as a factor to develop a country. It has now become a central to culture

and nation building. Malaysia as a multi-cultural country is aware of the influence of

language in a society. The status of the Malay Language as the national language needs to be

uphold, having English Language as the second language and on top of that, without

neglecting the importance of other languages. After the independence in 1957, education in

Malaysia has gone through many dramatic changes and one of them was to upgrade the

standard of the Malay Language as the national language. The national language is used as a

mean to unite all the races in Malaysia. Tunku Abdul Rahman, the first Prime Minister of

Malaysia claimed that if the National Language is not introduced, the country will be devoid

23

doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.3n.2p.23

396

of a unified character and personality (Abdullah, 2005). The national language took over the

role of the English Language in all formal situations. In 1956, the Razak Education Report

proposed that Malay Language became the official language used as the language of

instructions in teaching and learning for all subjects except English. Based on the history, the

education in Malaysia had gone through many challenges in the process of changing the

medium of instruction from English to the Malay Language.

However, even though the Malay Language is widely used as a language for all formal

correspondence in Malaysia, it is still lacking of terminology for science and technology. In

the new world of globalisation and modernisation, Malaysian government cannot avoid from

taking drastic actions which may be seen as retreating to the past. Language is again seen as a

factor that influences a success of a nation. English has become the second most important

language (Asmah, 1992) even though it is the only non-native language taught in all schools.

In the mid-1990s, the government urged the tertiary institutions to use English in teaching

technical courses and at the same time, senior government ministers including the ex-prime

minister, Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamed have become convinced that the standard of English

Language in Malaysia has deteriorated and may jeopardize the nation. Despite the

dissatisfaction voiced out by many, in 2003, the government had introduced the teaching of

Science and Mathematics in junior primary and secondary classes via English medium

(Ridge, 2004). It was convinced that by integrating the language and content would increase

will be able to accept challenges of globalisation and Information and Communication

Technology. Since the shift in the language used was implemented in junior and secondary

classes, the higher institutions need to take the next step to continue with the change in the

language policy. This includes polytechnics and community colleges.

Purpose of study

The aim of the study is to investigate the language needs of students who are doing Diploma

in Information Technology at Ungku Omar Polytechnic. This case study will be conducted

using mixed methods. The description of the general situation will be gathered from the

questionnaires and the in-depth situation will be done through interviews and observations.

The respondents will be asked to answer a set of questionnaire to know their perceptions on

language needs. Employers, English and IT lecturers were given structured interview

24

397

be used by The Polytechnic and College Community Division, Malaysia and future

researches to revise the Technical English syllabus and suggest materials suitable to the field

concerned.

Statement of problem

For these past years, there have been concerns that the higher institutions do not produce

graduates who meet the needs and expectations of employers. The researcher will further

discuss the concerns regarding language on employability, literacy and English programme in

Malaysian Polytechnics.

Language and employability

The employers or industries have frequently voiced out their disappointment on the quality of

graduates who do not meet the job market requirements (Industry Dialogue, 2008). It was

mentioned that the graduates were lacking of hands-on knowledge and relevant skills and the

ion skills

in English and their inability to be articulate a line of thought regardless of language are

among the factors mentioned by the industries (Industry Dialogue, 2008). Thus, causes

difficulties for the graduates to find a job after they have completed their studies. It becomes

a nation worry when the mission to produce human capital which is IT literate, independent,

highly motivated and competitive (Education Ministry, 2000) seems not been accomplished

when the ex-Human Resource Minister, Datuk Dr. Fong Chan Onn revealed the feedback

from employers that a number of unemployed graduates lack of communication skills, unable

to use computers and lack of team spirit (Cruez, 2003). Due to these, Malaysia spends

millions of ringgit to retrain unemployed graduates and teach them skills such as

communication, English language and creative thinking. It is hoped this initiative will help

the unemployed graduates to be able to fully adapt their generic skills thus creating wider

opportunities to secure jobs.

affect their ability to secure jobs (Lee, 2004; Nurahimah, 2002). According to Tan (1999),

based on the needs analysis conducted, there was about 60 percent of students in Malaysian

Polytechnics with low proficiency in English and he added that there would be a need for

reasonable level of English for career advancement. It was reported that only 600 from the

total of 13000 graduates who registered with Human Resource Ministry for jobs in service 25

398

and marketing sectors in the first 10 months of the year 2002 were employed, while the rest

were rejected due to their poor command of English and lack of communication skills

(Fairuz, 2003). The decline in the standard of English is not only felt in the academic circle

but also in diplomatic services (Asmah, 1992). In another survey conducted by Nurahimah

and Rosmawati (2002), it was found that employers perceived the graduates were not

prepared with written and oral communication skills in English.

Language and information technology literacy

The issue of not having Malaysians who are proficient in English language is widely

discussed by all. Realizing this, the Malaysian government has taken serious measures in

order to overcome this problem. One of the steps is to enhance the importance of English.

English is the language of science and technology, therefore, Mathematics and Science

subjects are best taught in that language (New Sunday Times, 21 December 2008). A

previous study conducted by Hamidah (2001) showed a significant relationship between

English language proficiency and Information Technology (IT) literacy. IT literacy is affected

by the level of proficiency in English, the language of technology. Garcia-Vazquez, Garcia-

Vazquez, Vazquez, Lopez, and Ward (1997) found out that there is a significant

connection found between proficiency in English and standardized achievement scores.

The shift in the language policy may have caused uproar among many especially the linguists

and nationalists. Reverting back to English is seen as depriving the status of the national

language and the other languages in Malaysia. The fiery protest from education and cultural

groups like Dong Jiao Zong show that the shift of using English is seen as a threat to the

children instead of an alternative to improve their English language competency (Chin, 2008).

However, despite all the controversies, the Malaysian government has signed multi-million-

dollar, six-year contracts with overseas universities to train teachers for teaching English as a

foreign language throughout Malaysia. It seems that the government has allotted RM100

million for this training project and including tuition expenses for the hundreds of students

who are to be trained (Ridge, 2004).

ICT in Malaysia

Information Communication Technology is seen as the field where English is used as medium

of instruction and the graduates of polytechnics should prepare themselves to be semi-

26

399

professional group who might need English for their career advancement. ICT in Malaysia

has been identified as one of the factors that contribute in achieving the mission proposed in

Malaysia Education Development 2001-2010. ICT development is seen as the important

driver for positioning Malaysia as competitive knowledge based economy, global ICT and

multimedia hub (MOSTI, 2007). One of the challenges for the nation is to develop an

economy system which is based on knowledge or K-economy. K-workers or knowledged

workers are the people who create information and knowledge and integrate it into business

(Turban et al., 2001). In traditional discipline, knowledge grows at much less rapid pace; on

the other hand, the body of knowledge associated with information technology is expanding

at a very rapid pace (Westfall, 1997). Anderson and Bikson (1998), believed that generic

rather than application-specific, knowledge and skills should be the focus of computer

literacy. Generic skills refer to the general education literature such as learning-to-learn,

analysis and problem solving, innovation and communication. Therefore, graduates who are

proficient in English, which is also the language used in the ICT era, have the advantage to

utilise their generic skills. They will be able to learn on their own and explore the world of IT

and become future workforce who is K-worker, IT literate, independent, with high motivation

and competitive in line with the mission proposed by the Higher Education Ministry.

English language programme in Malaysian polytechnics

The tertiary institutions including polytechnics have taken the next step and starting this year,

English is used as a medium of instruction in teaching technical subjects. The Department of

Polytechnic and Community College Education (DPCC), Ministry of Higher Education,

Malaysia is aware of the needs to improve the ongoing language programmes and supports

progressing in polytechnics and community colleges. Among the support programmes was to

prepare the subject lecturers with English courses before implementing the language shift.

The three-phase language programmes enhanced the skills and abilities of the lecturers in

using English in class. English lecturers were trained and they became the facilitators in this

programme. In addition to that, DPCC gives opportunities for the industries to contribute by

organizing industry dialogues annually, since 2006. The main objectives of these dialogues

are to foster closer ties with the industry and to have first-hand feedback on current trends

pertaining to the human capital needs of the industry and nation. DPCC is aware the

importance of engaging the needs of the industries and how the polytechnics and community

colleges can fulfil those needs for the national as well as the international market.

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400

All these years, English has been taught and specifically designed to cater for the needs of the

students. Polytechnics in Malaysia offer technical and commercial courses for certificate and

diploma students. These courses cater for the post secondary students. Information

Communication Technology course is among the technical and commerce courses offered at

polytechnics. The ICT students may be good academically but with average proficiency in

English. Since proficiency in English is not an entry requirement, many students doing

certificate and diploma courses lack adequate foundation in the language. The graduates of

polytechnics should be able to be skilful technical assistants in various engineering fields and

prepare to start work in an organization which English is the main or very important medium

of communication.

English and to enable them to function effectively at the workplace. Besides that, the

graduates should be able to practise independent learning and self-monitoring as well as to

develop appropriate study skills. The objectives mentioned in the syllabus include the

graduates being able to communicate effectively with Malaysians and non-Malaysians

(English Syllabus, 2002). Before 1991, there was no official standardized English Language

Syllabus for all polytechnics. The lecturers had to work out their own scheme delivering the

course. However, in October 1991, a workshop on ESP was held to review the existing

English Language Programme and provide guideline with specific reference to ESP.

Industrial visits and gradual exposure to ESP brought awareness amongst the English

lecturers of the needs to have an English language programme tailored to the needs of the

students and at t

employers. Therefore, English in polytechnics is taught as English for Technical Purposes for

all engineering courses, English for Commercial Purposes for all commerce courses and

English for Secretarial Science for all secretarial science students.

The researcher is interested to investigate the language needs of the ICT students who are

doing English for Technical Purposes. Currently, the ICT students are learning English for

Considering the nature of ICT and the importance of English in learning IT, it shows that the

researcher to

conduct this study. On top of that, because of the language shift, English is not only being

taught as a subject but it is now used in teaching content in other core subjects. 28

401

Conceptual framework

This case study is conducted based on the needs analysis model by Jordan (1997). According

to Jordan (1997), the first process in devising syllabus, courses, materials and kinds of

analyses the needs from the perspective of student, employer or sponsor, course designer and

teacher in order to achieve the target situation. There are many approaches in needs analysis

which include the target-situation analysis, present-situation analysis, learning-centred

approaches, deficiency analysis, strategy analysis, means analysis and language audits.

Objectives

This study attempts to investigate the needs of the students, lecturers and industries and give

suggestions to bridge the gap by meeting their needs.

Research questions

The main research questions are: what are the language needs of IT students and how to meet

the needs of all the stakeholders.

1)

i) What are the language needs the students require in learning English at

Polytechnic?

ii) What are the language needs the students require at the training place?

iii)

2) How does English help students in learning IT at polytechnic and in future?

i) How does the current English syllabus used suitable for the needs of IT

students?

ii) How does English help students in learning IT?

3) How does English important for the students?

i) What are the language skills needed at the workplace?

ii) What are future expectations for graduates in IT?

Methodology

This study aims to investigate the language needs of students who are in Information

Technology Diploma programme. In order to find the language needs, both quantitative and

qualitative data are used. Mixed method is opted for this study. A mixed model method 29

402

involves mixing components of qualitative and quantitative research (Johnson & Christensen,

2008). The researcher feels that opting for a mixed method research will be able to describe

and explain the second language needs of the respondents. The data gathered from the

questionnaires will be analyzed quantitatively and it will be able to provide general picture of

the research problem. The interviews and observations will be able to refine and extend the

general pictures, qualitatively.

This study will be conducted in a few phases and it involves three groups of respondents:

students, lecturers and trainers. The data from the students will be gathered by using

questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. Quantitative paradigm is useful to describe the

students perceptions regarding their language needs and IT literacy level. Therefore, for this

study, the questionnaire will be distributed to the students and analyzed quantitatively. The

findings will then be shared with the respondents and retrospective interviews will be

conducted in groups. The qualitative data gathers from the retrospective interviews will help

the researcher to gain insights based on the data gathered from the questionnaires.

The next phase will be classroom observations. The rationale of conducting classroom

observations is to observe the language use in classrooms. The researcher plans to use

audiotapes and field notes throughout the sessions. The reflective field notes taken from the

classroom observations will be used during the interviews with the content and language

lecturers.

Semi-structured interview is another method used in this study. It is conducted to find out the

Interview is an important method to check and verify the impression gained from

observations (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2000). The researcher will conduct face-to-face interviews

with content and English lecturers. Besides that, she will set appointment and conduct face-

to-face interviews with the trainers. The trainers will be those who involved in giving the IT

students industrial training. The researcher attempts to figure out the language needs and use

olytechnics. It is

hoped that the data gained from the interviews will further explain the language needs in

learning and working.

30

403

The researcher decides to use official documents such as the syllabus, modules, teaching

plans, lecture notes and students

better and the information retrieves may be helpful to support the primary data gathered.

The data will be analyzed and the findings will be triangulated and used to answer the

research questions proposed. The researcher believes that using mixed method will be able to

give a stronger evidence for a conclusion through convergence and corroboration of findings

(Johnson & Christensen, 2004).

Data Analysis

This study aims to investigate the language needs of ICT students and a thorough analyse of

the situation is important for this study. It requires the general description and further insights

of the situation. Therefore, the researcher decides to conduct a case study and using mixed

method design to gather and analyze data. The case study aims to identify the language needs

of students who are in the Information Technology Diploma programme. A case study is one

which investigates individual, group, community or multiple cases to answer specific research

questions (Gillham, 2001) and it can be either quantitative or qualitative or even a

combination of both (Burns, 2000).

The researcher is interested to describe the language needs as perceived by the students of

Information Technology and later, explore the needs of the lecturers and industrial trainers.

To answer the research questions proposed, the study will be conducted in several phases. For

this study, both quantitative and qualitative data are integrated in order to produce greater

findings. Therefore, a mixed method design is opted. The five broad rationales for a mixed

research study are triangulation, complementarity, development, initiation and expansion

(Johnson & Christensen, 2008). Mixed methods research has two functions which include

time orientation and paradigm emphasis (Johnson & Christensen, 2008). For this study, the

data will be collected in different stages and sequential and both quantitative and qualitative

data have approximately equal emphasis. Figure 1 shows general phases involved in this

study. The rationale of choosing mixed method design for this study is to seek elaboration

and clarification of the results of both quantitative and qualitative data. It is hoped that both

data would be able to complement and give meaning to the research questions proposed. To

get the perceived language needs of the students, a quantitative data will be collected and to

31

404

get in-depth feedback from the lecturers and industrial trainers, qualitative date will be

conducted.

Planning mixed method procedures

Qualitative and quantitative data will be collected in phases. Data that is collected in phases,

either qualitative or the quantitative data can come first (Creswell, 2009). This study will

involve three categories of respondents: diploma in ICT students, language and content

lecturers and industrial trainers. Data will be collected through distribution of questionnaires,

interviews and observations. Data from the questionnaire will be analyzed quantitatively.

Interviews and observations will provide qualitative data which helps to give further insights

of the study.

Figure 1: Phases proposed for this study

Sample

This study requires purposive sampling which involves ICT students, language and content

lecturers and industrial trainers. In purposive sampling, the researcher identifies the

characteristics of the population of interest and locates individual with those characteristics

(Johnson & Christensen, 2008).

ICT students

The sample is chosen based on two criteria: experience in learning English in polytechnic and

have undergone industrial training. The respondents should have undergone English for

Technical Purposes when they were in semester 1, 2 and 3. The researcher is interested to

investigate the perceived needs of the ICT students who have taken English courses in

Students (Questionnaires)

Content and Language Lecturers

Industrial Trainers

Semi-structured Interviews

Classroom Observations

Semi-structured Interviews

Group (Retrospective Interviews)

Share feedback with 20% of the participants

32

405

polytechnic. Their experience in learning English in polytechnic and during their industrial

training will help the researcher to get a description what their language needs for academic

and occupational purposes. The ICT students will involve in doing the questionnaires and

20% of the population will be selected to participate in group interviews. The researcher will

select the respondents based on their training places. The researcher is interested to consider

the size of the company and the importance of English used. Further explanation of the

findings from the questionnaire will enrich the data needed for this study. The semi-

structured interviews will be conducted in a group of five students and approximately four

groups will be formed. The interview will be based on the findings of the questionnaire and

some additional questions which may help the researcher to get in depth understanding of the

situation.

Lecturers

The lecturers are chosen based on their experience in teaching polytechnic students. The

researcher is interested to explore the perceptions of the content and language lecturers

-structured

interviews with five content lecturers and five English lecturers. The respondents will be

chosen after the researcher observes their teaching and learning in class. The main objective

of conducting the classroom observations is to look at the language use in class. Five content

and five English lecturers will be selected after the researcher has observed the lecturers and

students language use in class. The selection is based on these criteria: the language use

during the teaching and learning and materials in class. The five content lecturers will be

chosen from the total number of lecturers teaching semester five diploma in ICT students.

The English lecturers will be selected by referring to their experience in teaching English for

Technical Purposes 4 (A4003); the English syllabus used in teaching and learning of semester

5 technical students.

Semi-structured interview sessions will be conducted with the content and English lecturers.

The session will be a face-to-face interview. The researcher will discuss and arrange for a

meeting place for the interviews. The questions will be based on the observations done before

and additional questions will be asked. The questions will help the researcher to get a better

understanding of the scenario. Semi-structured interviews will be recorded via mp3 and notes

will be taken during the sessions.

33

406

Industrial trainers

The third group of respondents will be the industrial trainers. The researcher is interested to

find out the needs and expectations of the trainers. Their needs and expectations of the use of

English in the workplace are important in this study. A semi-structured interview with ten

trainers will be conducted. The researcher will meet the gatekeeper who is the Industrial

training officer and choose ten respondents for this study. The selection will be made by

determining the types of companies the respondents are attached with. It was hypothesized

that the types of the companies influence the needs and expectations of the employers. After

identifying the respondents, the researcher will set up appointment and conduct face-to-face

interviews. Semi-structured interviews will be recorded via mp3 and notes will be taken

during the sessions.

Methods of data collection

Questionnaire

The questionnaire is developed based on a study on language and ICT literacy skills by

Hamidah (2001) and Juriah et al. (1997), English and ICT syllabus used in polytechnics and

Information Technology Checklist questions from CAUDIT (The Council of Australian

University Directors of Information Technology) IT Literacy Policy. Questionnaire is a self-

report data-collection instrument and researchers use them to obtain information about the

thoughts and perceptions of research participants (Johnson & Christensen, 2008). The

findings of the questi

perceptions on the language needs and perceived level of IT literacy. The questionnaire is

divided into four sections: demography, section A, section B and section C. The demography

section asks the respondents on their perceived language proficiency and training experience.

earning IT and for

training place.

Responses will be gathered from participants who are learning English in polytechnic and

have undergone their 6 months Industrial Training Programmes. Participants will be asked to

express their language needs pertaining to learning IT and training place. The data from the

questionnaire will be analysed by using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Science) and

descriptive statistics will provide the general description of the perceived needs of the

students. Descriptive statistics provide images and/or summaries that can help the reader 34

407

understand the nature of the variables and relationships (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998). The

questionnaire will be analyzed by using descriptive statistics and determine the measures of

central tendency, measures of variability and measures of relative standing.

The questionnaire provides statements and rating scale for the participants to choose. Rating

scales which are fewer than four points are not as reliable as rating scales with more points

and rating scales with more than eleven points can be confusing (Johnson & Christensen,

2008; Burns, 2000). Therefore, a six-point rating scale is provided for more choices for the

participants and to avoid them to lean one way or another as mentioned in Johnson &

Christensen (2008). All the statements are in plain and simple English and the researcher

believes the participants should be able to understand them.

A pilot test will be conducted to determine the reliability of the questionnaire. It is important

for researcher to do a pilot test to make sure whether it operates properly (Johnson &

Christensen, 2008). A pilot test will significantly improve the quality of the data obtained

(Seliger & Shohamy, 1990). In order to find out the internal consistency reliability index,

,

2000) and provides a versatility of testing items in range of responses (Johnson &

Christensen, 2008). The pilot test will be conducted on several students similar to the actual

participants of the study.

The researcher will ask the content experts to ensure the content validity. The experts will

help to evaluate the statements asked in the questionnaire. Content validation is usually

carried out by experts in the area and they will review the content domain, such as the course

syllabus, the text and notes used (Johnson & Christensen, 2008).

Interviews

For this study, the researcher plans to conduct two types of interviews; retrospective and

semi-structured. Interviewing is an important way for a researcher to check the accuracy of-to

verify or refute- the impressions he or she has gained through observation (Fraenkel &

Wallen, 2000). Interviews allow opportunity for researcher to prompt or probe the

participants when necessary (Johnson & Christensen, 2008).

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408

Retrospective interviews can be structured, semi-structured, or informal (Fraenkel & Wallen,

2000). The researcher aims to find out further clarification and explanation on the language

needs of the ICT students. This type of interview will be conducted in a group of five

students. The students will have participated in the earlier stage of the data collection; which

is the questionnaire administration. They will have to answer the questionnaires and 20% of

them will be chosen to participate in interviews. These students will be divided into 4 groups

and they will be interviewed in groups. The researcher will show the findings of the

questionnaire and the interview will be based on their perceptions of the findings. The

participants for the interview will be chosen based on their previous training places. This

information will be given by the Industrial Training Officer who keeps the record of the

students and their industrial training sessions.

Semi-structured interviews will be conducted to the content and language lecturers and

industrial trainers. The data gathered from the interviews is pertinent to give rich data of the

needs of lecturers and trainers. This method of data collection will help the researcher to

allow participants provide historical information on their fields (Creswell, 2009). Concerning

these, researcher plans to conduct face-to-face interviews with five content lecturers, five

English lecturers and ten industrial trainers. Their responses on the language needs of the ICT

students in learning and for the training place are important to answer the research questions

proposed earlier.

Both types of interviews will be conducted by the researcher. All the sessions will be audio

taped and the researcher will take down notes during the sessions. Since it is a semi-

structured interview, the researcher will prepare some questions before conducting the

interviews. The questions will be written and responses from the participants will be noted.

The data from the interviews will be transcribed and the notes will help to give better

clarification whenever necessary. The researcher will read through the transcribed interviews

and try to obtain general sense and give overall meaning. The next step will be to begin

detailed analysis with a coding process. The analysis will be adapted from Creswell (2009)

as in Figure 2.

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409

Figure 2: Data analysis in qualitative research (Creswell, 2009)

Observations

Observations were conducted to look at the language use in class. Both content and language

lecturers were approached and asked permission for the researcher to sit in classes and

observe the language use. Observation is defined as the watching of behavioural patterns of

people in certain situations to obtain information about the phenomenon of interest (Johnson

& Christensen, 2008). During the observations, the researcher audiotaped and used field

notes. Field notes are notes written down by the observer during and after making

observations (Johnson & Christensen, 2008). The researcher prepared a table divided into

several categories. She only focused on the English language use in class. The categories

were: introduction, presentation, practice, conclusion and others. The others involved the

notes and teaching materials use. The field notes from the observations were organized and

used during the semi-structured interview sessions. The researcher used the findings from the

observations and asked for further clarification from the participants.

Interpreting the Meaning of Themes/Descriptions

Interrelating Themes/Description

Themes

Coding the Data (hand or computer)

Reading through All Data

Organizing and Preparing Data for Analysis

Validating the Accuracy of the Information

Description

Raw Data (transcripts, field notes etc.)

37

410

Significance of the study

The findings of this study may add knowledge in developing human capital in Malaysia

especially in relation to English competency in ICT discipline. It is hoped to investigate the

language needs from the perceptions of the students, lecturers and future employers and come

out with suggestions to engage the needs of all the stakeholders.

High quality human capital is no longer a luxury but a necessity (Abdullah Ahmad Badawi,

2006). The ex-Prime Minister emphasized on the importance of producing high quality

human capital. He mentioned the importance of education and continuous training to ensure

the relevancy of human capital. The findings of the research may contribute in preparing the

Diploma in Information Technology students to become the ideal human capital for the

nation. The graduates who are able to compete, advance and with high moral values. It has

been mentioned as part of strengthening the institutions is to produce confident students with

a sense of balance and proportion and the Ministry of Higher Learning attempts to introduce a

holistic programme that will include all disciplines and focus on communication and

entrepreneurial skills. In addition to that, the findings may give benefits to the lecturers and

future employers.

The findings of this study will provide information on how to improve the English for

Specific Purposes programmes by engaging the needs and expectations of the students,

lecturers and future employers. The ICT students as adult learners should be aware of their

needs and expectations in order to decide their future. The learners should monitor, assess and

reflect on their own language learning. This is important and can be rewarding for the

students and the teachers (Fortanet-Gomez & Raisanen, 2008). Self-assessment may be able

to increase motivation and commitment for the students. The lecturers and future employers

need to be aware of the needs and expectations of each other for the benefit of the students.

The integration between the content and language lecturers could clarify the idea that both

lecturers are not expected to be an expert in both areas. According to Fadhil (2001), teachers

tend to make mistakes by trying to be experts in both the language and content area. The

collaboration between both experts may be able to enhance the quality of courses offered at

the ICT department relating to ICT literacy and the ESP programmes conducted in

polytechnics. By discovering the needs and expectations of the stakeholders, the English and

ICT courses at polytechnics could be reliable for many years to come. Therefore, the mission 38

411

of the ministry to produce graduates who are knowledgeable, skillful and competent

communicatively will be achieved. As for the future employers, the study will expose them to

the actual situation happening in the polytechnics. They will be aware of the efforts and

interventions done in order to produce graduates who meet their expectations.

Conclusion

needs Malaysians who are knowledgeable and skilful in the field of science and technology.

In order to be competent in these areas, Malaysians need the language. Realizing the standard

of English is deteriorating up to the extend that it may jeopardize the development of the

nation, Malaysian government has taken several aggressive actions to overcome this issue.

One of them is to shift the language policy in teaching Mathematics and Science. The

implementation of Malay as the national language after independence may have caused some

Malaysians especially those from the rural area, not grasping more than one language. They

become monolingual instead of bilingual. Lack of competency in English hinders the future

Tertiary education will remain dependent on English and students who are not proficient in

the language will feel deprive of not being able to make use of reading materials in English

(Abdullah, 2005). The industries are keen on accepting future employees who are competent

in using English language. It is not adequate to only have good grades without mastering the

generic skills and communication skill is indeed one of the generic skills listed. By being

sensitive to the needs of the students, the lecturers and future employers, it is hoped that the

future graduates will be compatible and fit in, in order to achieve the target situation. The

dominance of English as the language of science and technology may have affected the

importance of the national language in Malaysia. Malaysians may need to put aside their

pride and patriotism of upholding the status of the national language but maybe by giving in,

the Malaysians are gaining more. After all, at the end of the road, they are for the benefits of

the nation.

39

412

References Abdullah Ahmad Badawi. (2006). Building a civilisation to elevate the nation's dignity. Unpublished Speech

motion of the Ninth Malaysia Plan 2006-2010. Dewan Rakyat. Abdullah Hassan. (2005). Language Planning in Malaysia: The First Hundred Years. English Today,21(4), 3-12. Ain Nadzimah Abdullah, Heng, C. S., & Eng, W. B. (2008). Towards Integrating Workplace Language Needs

and Curricular Provisions at Tertiaty Institutions. TIC Proceedings. Anderson, R. H., & Bikson, T. R. (1998). Focus on Generic Skills For Information Technology Literacy. Arman Ahmad. (2009, 11 April 2009). Staggering 40 percent of Private Sector Workers are Foreigners. News

Straits Times, Arulampalam, J. (2009, 8 March 2009). Helping Fresh Grads in the Next Big Job. News Sunday Times, Asmah Hj Omar. (1992). The Linguistic Scenery in Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Baskaran, L. M. (2002). Whose English? Whose/What Standard? The Role of English in Malaysia. Paper

presented at the International Conference IPBA. Burns, R. B. (2000). Introduction to Research Methods: Longman. Chambers, A., & Davies, G. (Eds.). (2001). ICT and Language Learning: A European Perspective: Swets &

Zeitlinger Publishers. Chin, K. L. (2008, 21 December 2008). It's Not Exact Science in Choosing English. New Sunday Times, Creswell, J. W. (2002). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and

Qualitative Research: Pearson Education, Inc. Cruez, A. F. (2003, 20 August 2003). Jobless Graduates Lack Critical Skills. News Straits Times, p. 9. Education Ministry (2000) Education for all. EPRD, Education Ministry, Malaysia. Fadhil H.A.Y. Mansor. (2001). A Case of an Extra-Sensitive Perception of ESP. GEMA Online Journal of

Language Studies, 1(1). Fortanet-Gomez, I., & Raisanen, C. A. (Eds.). (2008). ESP in European Higher Education: Integrating

Language and Content (Vol. 4): John Benjamins Publishing Company. Fraenkel, J. R., & Wallen, N. E. (2000). How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education: McGraw-Hill

Higher Education. Garcia-Vazquez, E., Vazquez, L. A., Lopez, I. C., & Ward, W. (1997). Languange proficiency and academic

success: Relationships between proficiency in two languages and achievement among Mexican American Students. Bilingual Research Journal(Fall).

Gillham, B. (2001). Case study research method. London: Continuum. Hamidah Yamat@Ahmad, Melor Mohd Yunus, Norzaini Azman, & Juriah Long. (2001). Kecekapan berbahasa

dikalangan pelajar IPT dalam penyediaan tenaga pekerja. Industry Dialogue. (2008). Industry-Education Collaboration for Sustainable Workforce Development-Meeting

the Challenges. Johnson, B., & Christensen, L. (2004). Educational Research:Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Approaches

(second ed.): Pearson Education, Inc. Johnson, R. B., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004). Mixed Methods Research: A Research Paradigm Whose Time

Has Come. Educational Researcher, 33(7), 14-26. Jordan, R. R. (1997). English for Academic Purposes: A guide and resource book for teachers: Cambridge

University Press. Juriah Long, R.M Fauzi, Warnoh Katiman, Zarin Ismail, Khalid Abdullah, Mohamed, P., et al. (1997).

Pendidikan Bahasa Melayu di Institut Pendidikan Swasta: Satu Analisis Keperluan: National University of Malaysia.

Lee, C. S. (2004). Economic Growth & Employment Generation: Employers' Perspective. Nurahimah Mohd Yusoff, & Rosmawati Mahat. (2002). Employers' perceptions of the quality of the Malaysian

business graduates. Jurnal Penyelidikan Pendidikan. Ridge, B. (2004). Bahasa Malaysia and Recent Malaysian English Language Policies. Current Issues in

Language Planning, 5(4), 407-423. Seliger, H. W., & Shohamy, E. (1990). Second Language Research Method: Oxford University Press. Strategic ICT Roadmap for Malaysia. (2007). MOSTI. Tan, S. C. (1999). ESP. Ungku Omar Polytechnic. Tashakkori, A., & Teddlie, C. (1998). Mixed Methodology:Combining Qualitative and Quantitative

Approaches: Sage Publications. Turban, E., Rainer, R. K., & Potter, R. (2001). Introduction to Information Technology. New York: Von

Hoffmann Press Inc Westfall, R. D. (1997). Evaluation and Assimilation Skills as Key Knowledge Aspects of Information

Technology Literacy.

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The

Role

of

Social Factors

Predispositions

towards

Autonomous

Language

Learning Sara

Kashefian Naeeini, Abdolmehdi

Riazi, and

Hadi

Salehi

(Shiraz

University,

Iran)

Abstract

In order to meet the demands of the changing world, students should become endowed with

the ability to learn perpetually and regard learning as a life-long enterprise. This study

investigated those learn

and some social factors such as gender, academic achievement, marital status and age were

taken into consideration. All BA and MA students majoring in English Literature at the

department of Foreign Languages of Shiraz University of Iran were involved. The data were

collected through a questionnaire the items of which were obtained from two questionnaires

by Cotterall (1995) and Cotterall (1999) which were incorporated into a five-point Likert-type

rating scale. Factor analysis of responses of students revealed the existence of five underlying

factors for learner autonomy which were learner independence, dependence on the teacher,

learner confidence, attitudes towards language learning and self-assessment. Based on t-test

for independent samples and Analysis of Variance it came to light that age and gender did not

self-assessment. Moreover, good academic achievement positively influenced their

predispositions towards autonomous language learning.

Introduction

should strive to foster autonomy in order to make growing progress. Kenny (1993) affirms

upon which education can focus without harmful interference, or conditioning effects. What

education is about is empowerment and w

This study aimed to compare different views about autonomy and empowerment, to discuss

some of the aspects of learner autonomy and to shed light on the Autonomous Learning

Modules (ALMS) and those aspects revealed by the ALMS.

doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.3n.2p.41

41

414

The study intended to find answers to the following questions:

1) Does the age of students play any role in their readiness for autonomy and the

underlying factors of autonomy?

2) Are married students different from single students in their readiness for

autonomy and the underlying factors of autonomy?

3) Are male and female students different in their readiness for learner autonomy

and the underlying factors of autonomy?

4) ic achievement influence their

readiness for autonomy and the underlying factors?

Autonomy and empowerment

One of the goals of education is empowerment and one of the upshots of autonomous

language learning is empowering students with the ability to learn for life. As Simon (1987)

declared, empowerment is enabling those who have been silenced to speak. Likewise, he

maintained that empowerment is the opportunity and means to effectively participate and

share authority.

Fitzgerald, Morrall and Morrison (1996) also indicated that to facilitate personal development

learners have to take a pro-active role in the learning process. Rubin (1975) confirmed that

many language teachers fail to attend to the learning process and provided that they pay more

attention, they may be able to supply the students with some techniques which can enable

them to learn on their own.

The Autonomous Learning Modules (ALMS)

The ALMS of the Helsinki University Language Center underscores autonomous approaches

to language learning. As Sirvio (1998) declared, the ALMS were based on a task-based

learning model, where student-

the key elements. The ALMS was first implemented in the learning of English as a second

language at the university level.

As Karlsson, Kjisik, and Norlund (1996) confirmed, in the project students were perceived as

thinking human beings with different needs, skills and motivations. Students were given more

control over what, when, how and where they learned. The changes in attitude were in a 42

415

positive direction. There was a general improvement in motivation and students discovered

that learning could be fun and useful. They had a realization that they were empowered for

life and that they themselves had control over what and whether they learned. There was also

a growth in their awareness that affected other domains in their life. The success or failure of

an individual student or teacher working in an autonomous setting rests largely on their

attitudes.

Ten aspects of autonomy revealed by the ALMS

In 1997, Karlsson, Kjisik and Nordlund (1996) offered ten aspects of autonomy which were

determined via the Autonomous Learning Modules Project of the Helsinki University

Language center.

1. Autonomy is a capacity that has to be learned.

2. The road to autonomy is a process.

3. The state of autonomy is essentially unstable.

4. Autonomy involves a change in the power relationships.

5. Autonomy requires supportive structures, both internal and external.

6. Autonomy requires a conscious awareness of the learning process.

7. Autonomy has both individual and social aspects.

8. Autonomy is not limited to the classroom.

9. Autonomy has to be adapted to different cultural contexts.

10. Autonomy is closely related to social identity.

Some of the dimensions of learner autonomy

Self-direction

Lee (1998) implemented a self-directed learning program for tertiary students in Hong Kong

and found that self- autonomy.

She contended that her self-directed learning program was more successful with those

students who demonstrated some degree of autonomy in learning. She reported that learner

autonomy and self-directed learning were increasingly associated with social and

collaborative learning.

-directed learning program showed that the more enthusiastic students enjoyed self-

directed learning and wanted to continue independent learning after the course. Kohonen 43

416

(1999) affirmed that in terms of the conception of man, learners needed to be considered as

self-directed, intentional persons who could develop their competencies in three interrelated

areas of knowledge, skills and awareness.

Learner control

One of the characteristics of autonomous learners is that they are more inclined to exercise

more control with regard to their learning. Dickinson (1993) asserted that when learners

were in control of their learning, they were exercising autonomy and one aspect of the control

was in the area of assessment. Warshauer, Turbee and Roberts (1996) argued that a main goal

of modern approaches to language teaching is to enhance student autonomy and learner

control over the learning process. Fayard (1999) stated that control reduced learner passivity,

increased receptivity to language and boosted the self-confidence of learners.

Learner control is an important issue in language learning. Successful language learners can

perceive themselves in control of their learning (Dickinson, 1995). In his article, Nishkura

(1997) mentioned control and responsibility, intrinsic motivation and self-generated behavior

as some of the main characteristics of successful language learners. Nishikura claimed that

h learning interaction

takes place.

The present study

All male and female B.A. and M.A. students majoring in English Literature in the

Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics of Shiraz University were involved in the

present study. Participants were from two levels of education referred to here as

undergraduate (B.A. students) and graduate (M.A. students). On the whole, 168 students (53

males and 115 females) participated in the study. They differed with regard to their age and

marital status. Tables 1 and 2 present the composition of students from different age groups

and different marital status.

Table 1: Composition of students considering age Age Group Frequency Percent 18-21 86 51.2 22-25 65 38.7 26 and over 17 10.1

44

417

Table2: Composition of students regarding marital status Marital Status Frequency Percent Single 131 78 Married 35 20.8 Unanswered 2 1.19

Table 3: Composition of participants regarding sex Sex Frequency Percent Male 53 31.5 Female 115 68

Table 4: Composition of students regarding GPA GPA Frequency Percent 17-20 (A) 79 47 14-16.99 (B) 76 45.2 12-13.99 ( C ) 11 6.5 Unanswered 2 1.19 *In Iranian universities students are evaluated according to a scale which runs from 0 to 20.

An academic average of 17 to 20 which is considered as an A average, while an average between 14-16.99 is evaluated as B and one in the range of 12 to 13-99 out of 20 is deemed as C.

The necessary data were collected via a questionnaire the items of which were taken from two

other questionnaires by Cotterall (1995) and Cotterall (1999) with some adaptations. The

questionnaire was in the form of a five-point Likert-type rating scale.

The questionnaire was administered to all B.A. and M.A. students majoring in English

Literature in the Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics in Shiraz University.

About 182 students received the questionnaire and they were provided enough time to

complete it. From 182 questionnaires administered to the students, 168 (92.3%) were returned

to the researcher.

Factor Analysis was also performed which served not only to confirm the validity of the

questionnaire but also to find the underlying factors of autonomy. Based on factor analysis,

five underlying factors were extracted. These factors were learner independence, dependence

on the teacher, learner confidence, attitudes towards language learning and self-assessment.

45

418

Results

When the means of students of different age groups were compared and the one-way

ANOVA was applied, it was found that the differences in means were not statistically

significant for any of the factors of learner independence, dependence on teachers, learner

confidence, attitudes towards language learning and self-assessment (See Appendix A for

means and standard deviations of students and the one way ANOVA for the five factors by

age).

In order to obtain a measure of autonomy for students of each age group, a one-way ANOVA

was run and the means of students of different age groups were compared. Although students

of the age group 18-21 had the highest mean (129.81), the differences were not statistically

significant.

Table 5: Means and standard deviations of students of different age groups considering

learner autonomy Age Mean SD 18-21 129.81 12.63 22-25 126.53 12.29 26 and over 126.23 18.57 Total 128.18 13.23

Table 6: One-way ANOVA for learner autonomy by age Source of Variance df Sum of Squares Mean Square F P Between Group 2 469.04 234.52 1.34 .2634 Within Group 165 28770.23 174.36 Total 167 29239.27

Those students who were single received higher means in all factors except attitudes towards

language learning for which married students obtained higher means. The differences in

means were significant regarding self-assessment at the .03 level. In light of learner

independence, dependence on the teacher, learner confidence and attitudes towards language

learning the differences were not significant. It can be argued that the concept of self is not

probably as much important to a married person as it is to a single one. Single students

usually have more time to ponder over and to assess their learning experiences.

46

419

Table 7: Comparison of participants with different marital status considering the 5

factors Factors Mean Mean

(Sing.) (Mar.) SD SD (Sing.) (Mar.)

t-value df 2-Tail Sig

Learner Independence

41.77 39.40 8.61 7.49 1.61 164 .131

Dependence on Teacher

26.28 25.97 3.19 3.98 .46 164 .650

Learner Confidence 28.13 27.49 4.40 4.36 .77 164 .442 Attitudes towards Language Learning

14.25 15.09 3.42 3.47 1.27 164 .211

Self-assessment 18.58 17.51 2.28 2.58 2.23 164 .030

The t-test showed that those students who were single obtained higher means in learner

autonomy (129) in comparison with that of the married ones. Nevertheless, the difference was

not significant.

Table 8: Comparison of married and single students considering learner autonomy Marital Status Mean SD df t-value Level of Sig Single 129 13.28

164 1.42

.16 Married 125.45 13.12

The means of males and females were compared using t-test for independent samples and it

was found that females obtained slightly higher means regarding the factors of learner

independence, dependence on teachers, learner confidence, and self-assessment and males

received a higher mean with regard to attitudes towards language learning. However, the

differences did not turn out to be significant as presented in the table.

Table 9: Comparison of means of males and females considering the 5 factors Factors Mean

(Male) Mean (Female)

SD (Male)

SD (Female)

t-value df 2-Tail Sig

Learner Independence

40.81 41.46 8.81 8.19 .45 166 .651

Dependence on Teacher

25.68 26.41 2.87 3.45 1.45 166 .149

Learner Confidence

27 28.44 4.76 4.10 1.91 166 .060

Attitudes towards Language Learning

14.72 14.25 2.87 3.21 .76 166 .448

Self-assessment 18.23 18.42 2.87 2.10 .43 166 .665

47

420

The means of males and females as indexes of autonomy were compared. Although females

had a higher mean (128.99), the difference was not statistically significant. The results are

shown in the following table.

Table 10: Comparison of males and females considering learner autonomy Sex Mean SD df t-value Level of Sig Male 126.43 15.64

166 1.06

.29 Female 128.99 11.94

In order to obtain a general index of learner autonomy of students with different GPAs, a one-

way ANOVA was carried out and the comparison of means showed that the differences in

means were statistically significant at .0051 level and the students whose averages were in

the range 17-20 had the highest mean.

Table 11: The Means and SDs of students with different gpas considering learner

autonomy GPA (Out of 20) Mean SD 17-20 (A) 131.41 10.56 14-16.99 (B) 125.48 14.66 12-13.99 (C) 122.25 14.07 Total 128.18 13.23

Table 12: One-way ANOVA for Learner Autonomy by GPA

Source of Variance

df Sum of Squares

Mean Square F P

Between Group 2 1798.94 899.47 5.46 .0051 Within Group 164 27004.45 164.66 Total 166 28803.40 The results of the Scheffe Test are depicted here. It was found that the means of the first

group (students with an average range of A) and those of the third group (students with an

average C) were significantly different at .05 level.

Table 13: The Results of the Scheffe Test for learner autonomy by GPA Mean Group 1 2 3 131.41 1 * 125.48 2 122.25 3

Summary and conclusion

The present study intended to compare different views about autonomy and empowerment,

to discuss some of the aspects of learner autonomy and to shed light on the Autonomous

48

421

Learning Modules (ALMS) and those aspects revealed by the ALMS. It mainly aimed at

examining the role of age, marital status, gend

predispositions towards autonomy. Factor analysis of responses was run and five underlying

factors were identified. These underlying dimensions were learner independence, dependence

on the teacher, learner confidence, attitudes towards language learning and self-assessment.

Though index of autonomy proved to be highest for students who were in the age range of

18.64 and lowest for students in the age range of 26 and over, the differences were not

statistically significant. It can be concluded that the age of students does not influence their

predispositions towards autonomy. Single students obtained a higher score in self-assessment;

however, the differences did not turn out to be significant considering learner autonomy.

autonomy in that those students with an average of A demonstrated a great deal of autonomy

while those students who had an average of C showed the lowest index of autonomy. Though

index of autonomy was higher for females, the differences were not statistically significant.

large, it can be noted that autonomy is a desired capacity which should be inculcated in the

minds of all learners.

References Cotterall, S. (1995b). Readiness for autonomy: Investigating learner beliefs. System, 23(2), 196-205. Cotterall, S. (1999). Key variables in language learning: What do learners believe about them? System, 27(1),

493-513. Dickinson, L. (1993). Talking shop: Aspects of autonomous learning, ELT Journal, 47(4), 330-336. Dickinson, L. (1995). Autonomy and motivation: A literature review. System, 23(2),165-174. Fitzgerald, S., Morrall, A., & Morrison, B. (1996). Catering for individual learning styles. Experience of

orienting students in an Asian self-access center. Paper presented at the conference of Autonomy 2000, Bangkok, Thailand.

Karlsson, L., Kjisik, F., & Nordlund, J. (1996). The Autonomous Learning Project. Finland, Helsinki: The Helsinki University Language Center.

Karlsson, L., Kjisik, F., & Nordlund, J. (1996). From Here to Autonomy. Yliopistopaino: Helsinki

Kenny, B. (1993). For more autonomy. System,21(4), 431-442. Kohonen, V. (1999). Authentic assessment as an integration of language learning, teaching, evaluation and the

The University of Tampere, Tampere, Finland. Lee, I. (1998). Supporting greater autonomy in language learning. ELT Journal, 52(4), 282-283. Nishikura, H. (1997). Learner Control (EMC 730). Arizona, Tempere: Arizona State University.

TESOL Quarterly, 9(1), 41-51. Simon, R.I. (1987). Empowerment as a pedagogy of possibility. Language Arts, 64(40), 370-

383. Sirvio, P. (1998, June). New learning environments: After language Lab -multimedia, after multimedia -

Paper presented at the conference of From Bayeux to Multimedia, L University of Art and Design, Helsinki, Finland.

Warshauer, M., Turbee, L., & Roberts, B. (1996). Computer Learning networks and student empowerment. System, 24(1),1-14.

49

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Appendix A: Means and standard deviations of students of different age groups considering learner

independence

One-way ANOVA for factor 1 by age

Means and standard deviations of students of different

age groups considering dependence on the teacher Age Mean SD 18-21 26.03 3.28 22-25 26.44 3.27 26 and over 25.94 3.69 Total 26.18 3.28

One-way ANOVA for factor 2 by age Source of Variance

df Sum of Squares Mean Square F P<

Between Group 2 7.38 3.69 0.33 .71 Within Group 165 1795.89 10.88

Total 167 1803.27

Means and standard deviations of students of different age groups considering their learner confidence

Age Mean SD 18-21 28.73 4.31 22-25 27.30 3.89

26 and over 26.82 5.68 Total 27.98 4.35

Age Mean SD 18-21 42.29 8.87 22-25 40.20 7.11 26 and over 40.05 9.96 Total 41.25 8.37

Source of Variance

df Sum of Squares

Mean Square F P<

Between Group 2 188.92 94.46 1 .35 Within Group 165 11521.07 69.82 Total 167 11709.99

50

423

One-way ANOVA for factor 3 by age Source of Variance

df Sum of Squares Mean Square F P<

Between Group 2 100.81 50.40 2 .7098 Within Group 165 30.96 18.60

Total 167 31.69

Means and standard deviations of students of different age groups considering attitudes towards language learning

One-way ANOVA for factor 4 by age Source of Variance

df Sum of Squares Mean Square F P<

Between Group 2 26.96 13.48 1 .1481 Within Group 165 1937.31 11.74

Total 167 19.64

One-way ANOVA for factor 5 by age Source of Variance

df Sum of Squares Mean Square F P<

Between Group 2 14.36 7.17 1 .2873 Within Group 165 920.21 5.57 Total 167 934.57

Age Mean SD 18-21 14.11 3.33 22-25 14.49 3.26

26 and over 15.47 4.41 Total 14.39 3.42

51

424

Comparing Local

and

International

Language Learning

Strategies

Margreat Aloysious

Anthony

and Sree

Nithya

Ganesen

(HELP University

College, Malaysia)

Abstract

language learning are influenced by

previous language learning experiences as well as cultural background. This study examined

the English Language Learning Strategies between local and international Chinese students

students who share the same cultural background but have been exposed to different learning

experiences. Given the significant number of local and international Chinese students

enrolled in educational institutions, there is a need to understand the differences and

similarities in the learning strategies of these two groups. The sample for the study comprised

of 60 local and 50 international Chinese students currently enrolled at a local private college.

The Oxford Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) was administered as a measure

of learning strategy preferences. The study reveals that language learning experiences as well

as socioeconomic status impact the learning strategy adopted by both local and international

Chinese students. The findings of this study point to the need to address the needs of these

students in order to enhance their English language learning experience in Malaysia.

Introduction

major goals of higher education. Knowles (1975) stated that teachers have to help learners

develop the attitude and concept that learning is a lifetime process, and learners need to be

equipped with the skills of self-directed lifelong learning. In order to achieve the skills of

self-directed lifelong learning, one has to be equipped with the language learning strategy as

it is part of lifelong learning. In order to further understand the language learning strategy,

Oxford (1990) had referred it to the specific actions, behaviors, steps or techniques that

students use to improve their progress in apprehending, internalizing and using the second

language.

doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.3n.2p.52

52

425

Bremmer (1999) and Oxford (1989) reported that second language proficiency/achievement

is related to language learning strategies. Meanwhile, Chamot and Kupper (1989) reported

that all language learners use types of language learning strategies to a certain level, but there

are differences in the frequency and choice of use among different learners. Also, Oxford;

(1990) reported that it appears that successful language learners have the ability to orchestrate

and combine particular types of language learning strategies in effective ways according to

learning strategies in order to help the instructors to better understand the learner strategies

used and to promote learner autonomy.

Based on the belief that research is not a process of providing something, but rather a process

of discovering and learning (Sherman & Webb, 1988; Erickson, 1990), the aim of the

research is to address the following questions:

1. Is there a significant difference in the learning strategy between the local and

international Chinese students?

2. Does socioeconomic status impact the learning adopted by local and international

Chinese students?

3. Does the language learning experience impact the learning adopted by local and

international Chinese students?

Literature review

Language learning strategies are any set of actions, plans, tactics, thoughts or behaviors that

the learners employ to facilitate the comprehension, storage, retrieval, and use of information

goal-oriented. According to Tarone (1983), this goal is realized by developing linguistic and

sociolinguistic competence in the target language. To achieve this end, as Nibset and

Shucksmith (1986) state, successful language learners develop a range of strategies from

which they are able to select appropriately and adapt flexibly to meet the needs of a specific

context.

Although difficulties remain even at the basic level of terminology, awareness has been

slowly growing of the importance of the strategies used by learners in the language learning

process. Teachers use the same teaching methodology for all students in a class. But it is up to

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426

the teacher says and not learn from it. Actually, students need to work on their learning

strategies in order to

proverbial horse led to water but which must do the drinking itself, even with the best

teachers and methods, students are the only ones who can actually do the learning. This

growing awareness has resulted in more recent years in what Skehan (1989, p.285) calls an

"explosion of activity" in the field of language learning strategy research.

One of the earliest researchers in this field, Rubin (1975, p.43) provided a very broad

definition of learning strategies as "the techniques or devices which a learner may use to

acquire knowledge". In 1981, she identified two kinds of learning strategies: those which

contribute directly to learning, and those which contribute indirectly to learning. The direct

learning strategies she divided into six types (clarification/verification, monitoring,

memorization, guessing/inductive inferencing, deductive reasoning and practice), and the

indirect learning strategies she divided into two types (creating opportunities for practice and

production tricks).

From a strategic point of view, individual learners are seen as capable of making deliberate

efforts to use learning strategies in order to promote their own learning (Rubin, 1987).

Gardner and MacIntyre (1993) proposed a model of language learning whereby language

learning strategies interact in a complicated way with other individual factors such as

intelligence, aptitude, attitudes, motivation and anxiety. Other possible learner variables

which have the potential to affect the choice of language learning strategies might include

personality, learning style, beliefs and personal circumstances. The other factors which are

often thought to have a strong influence on the way individual learners go about their

learning, and which will be examined further in the course of the present study, are the

socioeconomic status and the language learning experiences of the students.

Methodology

This study took place in a private institution. The sample was chosen using a purposive

sampling with a focus on the Chinese students. This is because the Chinese students are

among the students with the highest enrolment both as international students in Malaysia as

well as highest enrolment in private institutions (www.mohe.gov.my). Among the Chinese

students, there are the locals and the international Chinese students. Locals are the Malaysian 54

427

Chinese students and international being the Chinese students from China. The reason behind

studying two groups is because both the local and international Chinese students share the

same cultural background but are exposed to different learning experiences. Due to the

different learning experiences, it is believed that these two groups would have different

language learning strategies and different learning attitudes.

Two sections of questionnaire were used. First being the Strategy Inventory for Language

Learning (SILL, Version 7.0, Oxford, 1990) was used to determine language learning

strategies between the local and international students. SILL consists of 50 close-ended

questions with a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 to 5. SILL includes direct and indirect

strategy categories. The direct categories entail memory strategies, cognitive strategies and

compensation strategies. These strategies are directly applied to learning or use the language

through the process of storing, retrieving and manipulating. Cognitive and memory strategies

include ways to deal with information to enhance learning; compensation strategies help

learners find ways to make up for inadequacies in their knowledge when they use the

language. On the other hand, indirect strategies entail meta-cognitive strategies, affective

strategies and social strategies. They do not involve the target language directly, but are also

crucial in the language learning process because they facilitate the language learning and as a

result, can enhance the learning. Meta-cognitive strategies refer to executive skills regarding

planning, monitoring and evaluating learning; social/affective strategies involve skills in

nto

six parts, covering six different language learning strategies:

a. memory (remembering more effectively)

b.

c. compensation (compensating for missing knowledge)

d. meta-cognitive (organizing and evaluating o

e.

f. social (learning with others)

Second, the background information section was used to determine the socioeconomic and

learning experiences of the students. The background information section was designed as to

obtain answers for research questions two and three.

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A quantitative approach was used in this research. The quantitative approach was done by

data. The research began by identifying the samples, followed by students answering the

questionnaire, analyzing the data by using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

(SPSS) and finally the findings.

Findings

The data were analyzed using the SPSS. The analysis is presented with the three research

questions as its basis. The data were collected from the SILL and background information

Is there a significant difference in the learning

strategy between the

version of the analysis from the SPSS.

Table 1: Mean difference in the language learning strategies between the local and

international students Learning strategies Local (Malaysia) International (China) Difference (Mean)

Part A: Memory strategies

3.10 4.97 1.87

Part B: Cognitive strategies

3.46 3.61 0.15

Part C: Compensation strategies

3.66 3.56 0.10

Part D: Metacognitive strategies

3.42 3.82 0.34

Part E: Affective strategies

3.10 3.35 0.34

Part F: Social learning strategies

3.03 2.98 0.05

Table 1 shows that there is a difference in Part B to Part F but there is only significant

difference in Part A where the memory strategy is a difference in mean which is more than

1.00. This supports what Politzer (1983) says that Asian students preferred strategies, such as

memorization. In this research, results show that both the local and international students

generally use all the strategies from medium to high frequency (High-3.5-5.0, Medium-2.5-

3.4, and Low-1.0-2.4). The frequency used for memory strategy also falls in the medium to

high category which supports Politzer (1983). Yet, this research shows that though both the

local and international students preferred memory strategy, the international students use the

memory strategy more frequently than the local students.

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429

Besides that, there is also a low frequency difference for Part F which is social learning

strategy. Generally, students had used this strategy in the lowest frequency (2.98 & 3.03) with

a mean difference of 0.05 which is below 0.10. This supports what Politzer & McGroaty

(1985) says that Asian students were less likely to engage in certain communication-type

strategies than other students. This further explains that though Chinese students use the

learning strategies from medium to high frequency, they use the social learning strategy less

frequently compared to the other strategies. However, when compared between these two

groups, the local students had used the social learning strategy more frequently than the

international students. This supports Wharton (2000) who stated that language learning

strategy use of university students in Singapore indicated a high mean and ranking of social

strategy use. In this research, the case of Malaysian students is the same as the Singaporean

students who used the social strategy more frequently.

nomic status of a student is defined by their

groups. Most of the

students having 63% professional parents and 37% non-professionals and international

students having 79% professional parents and 21% non-professional parents. It can be

assumked that having professional parents can provide students with a better socioeconomic

status that, in turn, can impact the learning adopted by local and international Chinese

students. This in a way encourages the students both local and international to use the

language learning strategies more frequently.

perience impact the learning

spent in school, languages spoken at home and their interest in English language were

focused on. Figures 1 to 6 show the areas mentioned above and further answer research

question 3.

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430

Figure 1: Hours spent studying English per week in school by the local students

Figure 2: Hours spent studying English per week in school by the international students Figures 1 and 2 show the hours spent studying English in school by both the local and

international students. Each category of hours indicates time spent in a week by the students.

Figure 1 explains about the hours spent by the local students which show that most of the

students spent about 3 to 6 hours per week in school studying English. Meanwhile in Figure

2, most of the international students had spent about 7 to 10 hours per week in school for

studying English. Though the percentage of the international students is less than the local

students, the international students had used the other two categories; 3 to 6 hours and more

than 11 hours, more frequently then the local students. Generally, it explains that the

international students had used more hours per week in school for studying English.

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431

Figure 3: Languages spoken at home by the local students

Figure 4: Languages spoken at home by the international students

Figures 3 and 4 show the languages students speak at home. All students poke either English

or Chinese languages. Figure 3 shows that 86.7% of local students speak English at home and

only about 13.3% of them speak Chinese at home. This means that most of the local students

speak English at home. Meanwhile, Figure 4 shows that 96% of the international students

speak Chinese at home and only 4% of them speak English at home. This means that most of

the international students speak Chinese at home.

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432

Figure 5

Figure 6: Inter

Figures 5 and 6

local and international answered that they were interested in the English language. The local

students answ

international students were interested in the English language.

Generally, the international students used the language learning strategies more frequently

than the local students in the memory strategy, cognitive strategy, meta-cognitive strategy and

affective strategy. This could be due to the hours spent by the international students in school

frequency in the learning strategy also does not have much difference in mean except for the

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433

memory strategy. Moreover, the local students had a higher frequency in both the

compensation strategy and social strategy. This could be due to the local students using the

English language at home and this shows their interest in the language. This further explains

that spending more time for studying English in school alone does not help a student to

improve in all the six strategies but practicing the language at home, would actually

encourage the students to improve in the communication as what the local students had

achieved in the compensation and social strategies.

Discussion

The findings show that both the international and local students use the strategies from

medium to high frequency (lowest=2.98 & highest=4.97) which explains that they are

moderate to high users of the language learning strategy. However, the international students

used the memory strategy with a significantly higher difference than the local students.

Meanwhile, though the social learning strategy was among the less frequently used strategy,

the local students used the social learning strategy higher than the international students. It is

also against some findings which say that Asian students were less likely to engage in certain

communication-type strategies than other students (Politzer & McGroaty, 1985).

Conclusion

It is clear that every student has a different learning strategy. Language instructors should

have different learning experiences. This will help the instructors and institutes to offer the

teaching and learning results. They should also offer various opportunities for students to

utilize strategies in their language learning. Instructors should not only focus on the strategies

use less frequently or not at all.

By doing so, the students will adopt other strategies which they do not use or use less

frequently and form a friendly studying environment with other students from different

nationalities. In other words, the international students would also get a chance to adapt to the

Malaysian way of teaching and learning.

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References Bremmer, S. (1999). Language learning strategies and language proficiency: Investigating the relationship in

Hong Kong. Canadian Modern Language Review, 55 (4): 490-514. Chamot, A.U., & Kupper. L. (1989). Learning strategies in foreign language instruction. Foreign Language

Annals, 22, 13-24. ontributions to second-language learning.Part II: Affective

variables. Language Teaching 26:1-11. Cambridge: CUP. Horwitz, E.K. (1987). Surveying student beliefs about language teaming. In A.L. Wenden & J. Robin (Eds.),

Learner strategies in language learning (pp. 119-132). London: Prentice Hall. Knowles, M. S. (1975). Self-directed learning. New York: Association Press. Nibset, J., and Shucksmith, J. (1986). Learning strategies. Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Nyikos, M., & Oxford, R.L. (1993). A factor analytic study of language learning strategy use: Interpretations

from information-processing theory and social psychology. Modern Language Journal, 7, 11-22. Oxford, R.L. (1989). Use of language learning strategies: A synthesis of studies with implications for strategy

training. System, 17, 235-247. Oxford, R L (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New York: Newbury

House. Learning strategies in second language acquisition.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. rategies in language acquisition. New York: Cambridge

University Press. Politzer, R. (1983). An exploratory study of self-reported language learning behaviors and their relation to

achievement. "Studies in Second Language Acquisition," 6, pp54-68. Politzer, R., & McGroarty, M. (1985). An exploratory study of learning behaviors and their relationship to gains

in linguistic and communicative competence. TESOL Quarterly Profesor Badaruddin Mohamed, USM, Institut Penyelidikan Pendidikan Tinggi Negara (IPPTN), Oktober 2009, Kajian Pelajar Antarabangsa di Malaysia (jadual 1.2, pg 6) 19, 103--124.

Rubin, J. (1987). Learner strategies: Theoretical assumptions: Research history and typology. In A. Wenden and J. Rubin (Eds.), Learner strategies and language learning (pp. 15-29). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Rubin, J. (1975). What the "good language learner" can teach us. TESOL Quarterly, 9, 41-51. Sherman, R.R., and Webb, R.B. (1990). Qualitative research in education: A focus, In R.R. Sherman and R.B.

Webb (eds.) Qualitative research in education: Focus and methods, pp. 2-21. Philadelphia: The Falmer Press.

Skehan, P. (1989). "Individual differences in second language learning." London: Edward Arnold. and G. Kasper (Eds.),

Strategies in interlanguage communication (pp. 61-74). London: Longman. Wharton, G. (2000). Language learning strategy use of bilingual foreign language learners in Singapore.

Language Learning, 50(2), 203-244.

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Mother

Tongue

in

the

EFL

Classroom Amirabbas Ghorbani

(Islamic

Azad University, Qazvin Branch,

Iran)

Abstract

nd/foreign language classroom has

been debated in language teaching theory and practice for many decades. Most language

teaching methods advocate the use of the target language (TL) in the classroom. However,

recent research has elevated the role of L1 in the classroom. This paper illustrates traces of the

mother tongue in past and present debates to provide an overall picture of the changes and

help researchers identify the gaps in this area.

Introduction

Tracing back the use of L1 in language classroom will take us to the history of language

teaching when the early approaches emphasized on reading texts and translating them to

learning, linguistic and other language related educational fields which have affected the

strategies employed in the language classroom to maximize the outcomes. Anecdotal

evidence suggests an increasing trend towards banning the use of L1 in the classroom;

however several studies in the last decade have indicated a shift in approach. This paper aims

to highlight the main areas of the present and past debates concerning the use of L1 in the

classroom and provide an overall picture of the changes through out the time. Identifying the

movements affecting this issue will enable the researchers to find the gaps in their specialized

area of interest.

The story of L1 in the classroom

L1 or mother tongue in the classroom has been studied from different perspectives. Here we

will review the debates concerning this issue in two main periods 1) the age of methods 2)

the era beyond methods.

doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.3n.2p.63

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The position of L1 among language teaching methods

L1 has always been considered as one of the language classroom factors which must be taken

care of carefully. Some approaches have focused on the use of L1 as the main device for

learning a new language (Grammar Translation Method/GTM), and some have prevented the

use of L1 in the process of language teaching (Direct Method/DM). Larsen-Freeman (2003)

has summarized th as you can see in table 1. Larsen-

Freeman has divided the changes in three main eras. The first one starts with GTM in the

1950s and ends with the audio-lingual approach in the 1960s when scholars challenge the

habit formation views of behaviorist psychology. The second period which is called a period

of methodological diversity is characterized by the emergence of innovative methods

challenging the past views and practices during 1970s and 1980s.The notion of

communicative competence introduced in late 1980s started the third period and the new

place to place. The innovations still continued but they mainly focused on the process of

learning. The following table summarizes the position of L1 among the language teaching

methods.

As the table indicates, the use of L1 has altered in the course of methodological changes

although it has always been there except for DM and Audio-Lingual method. A closer look at

the uses of L1 in Larsen-Freeman methodology framework shows that after audio-ligualism

the role of L1 has been defined in the framework of its function in the process of teaching and

learning in each method. Here we are going to take a closer look. The silent way which comes

directly after the prohibition era of direct method and audio-lingualism still stands on the

position of banning the use of mother tongue specially for teaching the meaning of the new

words which can be interpreted as the traces of Direct approaches to teaching (the main

reason for using TL in the direct method is that the meaning of the new words must be

learned directly), however it assigns the role of a facilitator for classroom instruction and

defines L1 as a device for teaching pronunciation.

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Table 1: The position of L1 among language teaching methods Method Teaching strategies The use of L1

Grammar translation (GTM)

Exercise mental muscles by having the students translate from target language texts to native language

The meaning of the target language is made clear by translating language that is used in the class is mostly the students' native language. (p.18)

Direct Method (DM)

Associate meaning with the target language directly by using spoken language in situations with no native language translation.

The students' native language should not be used in the classroom. (p.30)

Audio-Lingual (AL)

Overcome native language habits and form new TL habits by conducting oral drills and pattern practice.

Native language interferes with learning the new language so the target language must be used. (p. 47)

Silent Way (SW)

Develop inner criteria for correctness by becoming aware of how the TL works.

Meaning is made clear by perception not translation however native language can be used to give instruction and teach pronunciation it is also used in some feedback sessions. (p.67)

Suggestopedia (S)

Overcome psychological barriers by musical accompaniment, playful practice, and the arts.

Native-language translation is used to make the meaning of the dialogue clear. The teacher also uses the native language in class when necessary. As the course proceeds, the teacher uses the native language less and less. (p.83)

Community Language Learning (CLL)

Learn nondefensively as whole persons, following developmental stages.

Students' security is initially enhanced by using their native language. The purpose of L1 is to provide a bridge from the familiar to the unfamiliar. Directions in class and sessions during which students express their feelings and are understood are conducted in the native language. (pp. 101-102)

Total physical Response (TPR)

Listen, associate meaning with TL directly, make meaning clear through visual and actions

This method is usually introduced initially in the students' native language. After the lesson introduction, rarely would the native language be used. Meaning is made clear through body movements. (p.115)

Communicative language teaching (CLT)

Interact with others in the target language; negotiate meaning with TL directly by using information gaps, role play and games.

Judicious use of the students' native language is permitted in communicative language teaching. (p.132)

great changes in psychology and linguistic, challenges fundamental roots of Direct method as

the first reaction against L1 in the classroom .

Paying more attention to the psy

into a primary position and the role of L1 is enhanced to help overcome psychological

barriers as one of the main concerns. Creating a sense of security and bridging from familiar

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to unfamiliar are the responsibilities of L1 in the classroom. In community language learning

method this role has been heightened to a point that some sessions of the class can be devoted

to learners to express their feelings in their native language.

After reaching this elevated position, the second shift towards limiting the use of L1 occurs

in TPR. This method suggests getting meaning directly through target language and action;

however L1 is considered as a tool for introducing the method.

Putting communication at the heart of language learning process makes the use of target

language in the classroom as the main source of input in communicative approach. The notion

became lear -Freeman 2003, p.23).However by the

emergence of audio-ligualism the class activities moved towards controlled structural drills

which were more mechanical than communicative in nature. The need for a move to a more

communic

-communication

-Murcia & McIntosh Eds. 1979) Early 1970s witnessed the

moves towards a communicative approach through other innovative methods of the time as a

response to Audio-Lingualism. As it was described earlier each method assigned a particular

the

communicative approach with the previous methods reveals a difference in the terms of

application. By this I mean that in the past methods L1 has a particularly defined role in the

classroom for example, translating dialogues (sugestopedia), expressing feeling and

enhancing security (CLL) and introducing the method (TPR) .The question here is that why

the role of L1 in the classroom has not been clearly defined in CLT?

Answering the above mentioned question takes a broader look at the change of the field from

a linguistic-centered approach to a communicative approach in the late 1970s and early 1980s

which is the last decade of the age of methods (1960s-1980s). The changes in this period

seem to be much smoother than the early rigid methodological reactions and sharp

fundamental changes which we observed moving from GTM to Audio Lingual Method. This

79, cited in Celce-Murcia

- perhaps an indication of methodological 66

439

maturity -that the reaction to one domestic approach has not resulted in another method

equally arbitrary and inflexible. Thus far, the suggestions for change have been gentle, and

methodology of her time is in the direction of 1) relaxation of some of the more extreme

restrictions of the audio-lingual method and 2) development of techniques requiring a more

considerably r

explanation and instructions, the writer believes that the so called methodological maturity

and relaxation of the restrictions resulted in undefined role of L1 in communicative approach.

It seems that this is the responsibility of the teacher to decide when and how use the L1, based

on the context of teaching and students need. The evidences of this fact are revealed later in

the post method era and it will be fully discussed. Besides, the focus of attention in this period

is mainly on communicating in target language rather than banning the use of L1 in the

classroom.

Communication is the center of three other methods discussed here namely, content-based,

task based and participatory

indeed, any other language items. Instead, they give priority to process over predetermined

linguistic conte -

target language. Most of the principles of TBLT seem to be the natural development of the

communicative method, so there is no change in approach towards the use of L1 in the

classroom.

Most recent researchers and historians of the methodologies of language teaching, emphasize

on the prohibition of the use of L1 in the 20th century, significantly after the reform

movement and the emergence of DM. However depending on how strong views they have

toward the issue, they mention some drawbacks and benefits of the use of L1 in the classroom

ecide. Addressing the CLT era, Howatt

and Widdowson (2004) assert that:

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440

tongue ] has hardly changed for a hundred years: try to avoid switching between languages, but obviously you will have to translate if you want to make sure that the learners understand what they are doing. Very reasonable and seemingly straight forward but in fact its not really a straight forward issue at all. It is a psychological complex problem and language teachers could

They also mention the renewed current interest in bilingualism which looks at the issue

mainly from a sociological perspective and they believe that this trend is changing in the

recent years.

(borrowed from Marckward, 1972)

What was described previously covers a century from 1885 to 1985. Here we are going to

investigate the trends from the mid-1980s when we can hear the first signs of change from the

the search for the ideal method which was the main concern of the 1970s is questioned by a

We needed, instead to get

on with the business of unifying our approach to language teaching and of designing effective

Renandya Eds., 2002, p.11) The nature of method is static but approach is much more

dynamic and changes along the time. It grows as you grow older. This is what Newton (as

cited in Celce-

Regarding the notion of maturity, Kumaravadivelu (1992) grounds his argument for the need

many unpredictable needs, wants, and situations; we can only help them develop a capacity to

generate varied and situation-specific ideas within a general framework that makes sense in

classroom factor. Maybe in his view it was a micro strategy for the classroom. Later we will

take a closer look at his works to see how this maturity grows in the course of time. Another

attempt for giving a dynamic framework within which a language teacher can follow his

responsibilities was prepared by Douglas Brown (1997). He introduced 12 principles which

th

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441

ef

prediction are based and can act as a facilitator, although he highlighted the interfering effect

of L1 on L2 afterwards.

L1 in post method pedagogy

Tracing the early attempts toward the post method pedagogy, Kumaravadivelu (2005) focuses

-L2

connection, concerning the use or nonuse of the first language in learning the second

187) namely interlingual and cross lingual dimensions .These attempts which

tried to skip from the constraints of the methods put L1 in the position of a main criterion for

the new model of pedagogy.

Reviewing all his works and studies up to 2005 Kumaravadivelu devotes much more value to

the L1 in the classroom. Analyzing different dimensions and definitions of input and intake,

guage knowledge and meta-

bring with them not only their L1 knowledge/ability but also their own perception and

expectations about languag

empirical studies of Cook (1992) and Gass (1997) (cited in Kumaravadivelu, 2005) he states

that L2 learners use their L1 effectively while processing L2, and the knowledge of L1 is

not only to think about language as a system but also to make comparisons between their L1

English only movement and emergent bilingualism

Besides the effect of reform movement on the use of L1 in language classroom and all

methodological struggles, the 1980s witnessed profound educational debates in the united

p. 7).However the recent reports on the minority education in the U.S showed an increase in

the number of two-

students and provide content area instruction and language development in two 69

442

languag -way

education changes between 1991 and 1994.Pointing out the goals of this program as

improving bilingual proficiency she says:

Emerging results of studies of two-way immersion programs point to their effectiveness in educating nonnative- English-speaking students, their promise of expanding our nation's language resources by conserving the native language (L1) skills of minority students and developing second language (L2) skills in English-speaking students, and their hope of improving relation-ships between majority and minority groups by enhancing crosscultural understanding and appreciation (p. 1).

The most recent research and reviews show a shift towards the bilingualism as the norm of

the education in the U.S. Garcia (2009) argues that this trend will be beneficial for 1) the

children themselves 2) teachers and teaching 3) educational policy makers 4) parents and

communities 5) the field of language education and TESOL 6) societies at large. she believes

education-teaching of English to speakers of other languages(TESOL), bilingual

education(BE), the teaching of the heritage language (HL) when available, and the teaching

of another foreign language (FL).Teaching would then be centered on the student, and not on st century

the United States have never been greater, despite

its insistence on being a monolingual state, the United States has perhaps the worlds most

(p. 325).

This historical account mainly concerns with minority education and bilingualism in the U.S.

educational system which is beyond the scope of the present article, but it seems that the vast

monolingual approach to the teaching of English in a larger global sense. The notion of

-Kangas(1988) points to the fact that reaching to

higher levels of education and better jobs is determined by knowing a particular language

which finally leads to unequal social and economical situations (p. 9).

Kachru (1994) refers to a similar monolingual approach in SLA research as the dominant

paradigm which must be reevaluated from bi/multilingual perspectives. To do so, he

empirical reasons to challenge the monolingual principle and articulate a set of bilingual 70

443

s, 2009, p.317). Challenging this principle Macedo (2000)

theory of Linguistic imperialism within which the researchers worry about L1 language and

culture and they explore the effect of L1 in the process of learning L2.

L1 within linguistic imperialism

-

monolingual approach in ELT.

1) English is best taught monolingually. (The monolingual fallacy)

2) The ideal teacher of English is a native speaker. (The native speaker fallacy)

3) The earlier English is taught, the better the results. (The early start fallacy)

4) The more English is taught the better the results. (The maximum exposure fallacy)

5) If other languages are used much, the standards of English will drop. (The subtraction

fallacy)(p. 185)

He reviews the linguistic dogmas of the past which resulted in these fallacies and argues that

there are scientific evidences that reject them all. He calls researchers like Skutnabb-Kangas

and Toukomaa (1976, cited in Philipson, 1992), Cummins (1979, 1984, cited in Philipson,

1992) to provide the support against the fallacies. The researches mentioned here are mostly

in the area of bilingualism and minority education and support the relationship between

cognitive development in L1 and effective L2 learning.

Spada and Lightbown 1999 also conducted a study on 11-12 years old French students

learning English as a second language in Quebec. The study revealed the influence of L1 on

grammaticality and their assumptions about how to create their own questions appear to have

been con-strained by an i71

444

(2000) criticizes their work in terms of methodology and claims that the results concerning

the effect of L1 is what we knew from the past research, he admits accepting the results.

Regarding EFL settings, Philipson (1992) argues that the monolingual approach to language

teaching is impractical since most teachers are nonnative (p. 192).

World Englishes and Nonnative teachers

World Englishes generally is defined as new forms of English emerging in non-English

speaking countries. I

English to reflect his or her own sociolinguistic reality rather than that of a usually distant

native speaker (Jenkins, 2006, p. 173). In the recent years, accepting non standard versions of

increasing interest in the issue of NNS as language teachers (See Medgyes, 1994; Tang, 1997;

Cook, 1999; Braine, 1999; Brutt-Griffler & Samimy, 1999). The main argument for

supporting this trend is the common knowledge of the first language that the teacher shares

with learners. Cook (19

-competent language teacher is argued

to be the advantage of nonnative teachers. Researchers working on this area are concerned

about the appropriateness of the teacher education programs for nonnative teachers and call

- nonnative dichotomy as the main criterion (Brutt-

Griffler & Samimy, 1999, pp. 419-428).

Code-switching in the classroom

Code-switching has been a topic of research for linguists, educationalists, language

researchers and psychologist and even the brain specialists who work on the different

functions of human brain. Within the language classroom the issue of code-switching is

viewed from an educational point of view and it is directly linked to the use of mother tongue

in the classroom when the learners share the same L1. Edmonson (2004) makes a distinction

between code-switching as a general term and code-switching in the classroom and calls the

latter a special case of the earlier (pp. 155-159).

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By growing the notion of communication in the language teaching profession, there has been

a shift towards group activities rather than individual practices. Long and Porter (1985)

review the five pedagogical arguments for the use of group work in the classroom: a)

instruction

improvement, besides the previous research arguments they also provide a psycholinguistic

rational to the benefits of group work in the classroom (pp. 207-225).

From a practical perspective, the first concern of the teachers who use group activities in their

classes is the shift from TL to L1.They always complain that their students resort in their L1

and in large classes it is really difficult to maintain TL use through out the class time.

According to Martin-Jones (1995) the early research studied code-switching from an

educational point of view whereas the more recent research has focused on applying

discourse analysis, pragmatics and ethnography principles.(Edmonson, 2004;Macaro, 2001;

Cook, 2002). Two main functions have been reported for code switching a) discourse related

functions b) participant related functions (Auer 1985, 1998 in Liebscher and Dailey-O'Cain,

2005, p. 235). Analyzing code switching in a German content-based classroom Liebscher and

Dailey-

was previously argued to be just participant related can also be discourse related which was

identified as the function of non institutional code switching of bilinguals before. In other

words, their research revealed that code switching in the classroom has the elements of code

switching in out of the classroom environment. Hancock (1997) explored different layers of

code-switching and claimed that:

For the teacher who is worried about the quality of the language practice that learners get in group work, it is important not to assume that all L1 use is "bad" and all L2 use is "good." On the one hand, some L1 interjections are a natural by-product of charge in the interaction, and that charge could all too easily be defused by an inflexible insistence on the L2. On the other hand, some L2 contributions are simply recited, in some cases without comprehension, and thus lack any charge. It seems likely that the design and setup of the task will affect the quality of language practice in group work. (p. 233)

-switching in the classroom and their

decision making in this process.

teachers who worry about the over use of L1 in group work activities, the results of this study

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quant

His study also suggested that code-

Conclusion

ems to be elevating as fast as it is

moving to the heart of the main professional debates. The present article aimed at illustrating

a chronology of the use of L1 from the age of methods to beyond methods, to draw a feasible,

framework for the researchers and professionals and provide food for thought to explore the

gaps in different areas of the current debates. Thus it seems natural to be difficult to come to a

conclusion for an on going process. Hence following the stages of the history of L1 use, we

can identify sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic reasons for the use of mother tongue in the

classroom which are mostly grounded on theory and perception rather than sound empirical

classroom research. This topic calls for more detailed classroom research on the specified

areas.

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References Braine, G. (Ed.). (1999). Non-native educators in English language teaching. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Brown, D.H. (1997). - better Diagnosis,

Treatment, and Assessment. In Ricards J. C. & Renandya, W. A. (Eds.).Methodology in Language Teaching. pp. 11-18.

Brutt-Griffler, J., & Samimy, K, (1999). Revisiting the colonial in the postcolonial: Critical praxis for nonnative-English-speaking teachers in a TESOL program. TESOL Quarterly, 33, 413-431.

Celce-Murcia, M. & McIntosh (Eds.), (1979). Teaching English as a second or foreign language. Rowley, Mass: Newbury House.

Christian, D. 1996.Two-Way Immersion Education: Students Learning through Two Languages. The Modern Language Journal, 80 (1), 66-76.

Cook, V. (1999). Going beyond the Native Speaker in Language Teaching.TESOL Quarterly, 33 (2), 185-209. Cook, V. 2002. Portraits of the L2 User. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Cummins, J. (2009). Multilingualism in the English-language Classroom: Pedagogical Considerations. TESOL

Quarterly. 43 (2), 317-321. Edmonson, W. 2004. Code-switching and word switching in foreign language classroom discourse. In J. House

& J. Rehbein (eds.), Multilingual Communication. Amsterdam : John Benjamin Publishing Co, 155-178.

Gallegoes, B. (Ed.). (1994). English: Our official language. The reference shelf, 66 (2), 7. TESOL Quarterly, 43 (2), 322-326.

Hancock, M. (1997). Behind Classroom Code Switching: Layering and Language Choice in L2 Learner Interaction .TESOL Quarterly, 31 (2), 217-235.

Howatt, A. P. R. (1984). A History of English Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Howatt, A. P. R., Widdowson, H. G. (2004). A History of English Language Teaching (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford

University Press. Jenkins, J. (2006). Current Perspectives on TeachingWorld Englishes and English as a Lingua Franca. TESOL

Quarterly, 40 (1), 157-181. Kachru, Y. (1994). Monolingual Bias in SLA Research. TESOL Quarterly, 28 (4), 795-800. Kumaravadivelu, B. (1992). Macrostrategies for the Second/Foreign Language Teacher. Modern Language

Journal, 76 (1), 41-49. Kumaravadivelu, B. (2005). Understanding Language Teaching: From Method to Postmethod. New Jersey:

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc. Larson-Freeman, D. (2003). Techniques and Principals in Language Teaching (2nd ed.). Oxfrd: Oxford

University Press. Larson-Freeman, D. (2000). Techniques and principles in language teaching (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford

University Press. Liebscher,G and Dailey-O'Cain, J. 2(2005). Learner Code-Switching in the Content-Based Foreign Language

Classroom. The Modern Language Journal, 89 (2), 234-247. Long, M. H. and Porter, P. A.(1985). Group Work, Interlanguage Talk, and Second Language Acquisition.

TESOL Quarterly, 19 (2) , 207-228. Macaro, E. (2001). Analyzing Student Teachers' Code switching in Foreign Language Classrooms: Theories and

Decision Making .The Modern Language Journal, 85 (4), 531-548. Macedo, D. (2000). The Colonialism of the English Only Movement. Educational Researcher, 29 (3), 15-24. Medgyes, P. (1994). The non-native teacher. London: Macmillan. Martin-Jones, M. (1995).Code switching in the classroom: Two decades o research. In Milory, L. & Muysken,

P. (Eds.). One Speaker, Two Languages. Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives on Code-Switching.(pp.125-178). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Phillipson, R. H. L. (1992). Linguistic imperialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sheen, R. (2000). A Response to Spada and Lightbown: "Instruction, First Language Influence, and

Developmental Readiness in Second Language Acquisition".The Modern Language Joural, 84 (1),102-106.

Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (1988). Multilingualism and the education of minority children. In T. Skutnabb-Kangas &J. Cummins (Eds.), Minority education: From shame to struggle (pp. 9-44). Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.

Spada, N. & Lightbown, M.(1999). Instruction, First Language Influence, and Developmental Readiness in Second Language Acquisition. The Modern Language Journal, 83 (1), 1-22 .

Stern, H.H. (1992). Issues and options in language teaching. New York: Oxford University Press. Stern, H. H. (1985). Review of methods that work: A smorgasbord of ideas for language teachers. Studies in

second language acquisition, 7, 249-251. Tang, C. (1997). On the power and status of non-native ESL teachers. TESOL Quarterly, 31 (3), 377-580.

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Efficacy

of P

Communication

Skills Zaharatul

Akmar

Ahmad

Zainuddin

and Suzanah

Selamat

(Universiti Teknologi

MARA, Shah Alam, Malaysia)

Abstract

Every year polytechnics in Malaysia produce thousands of graduates in vocational areas,

however, these graduates have to strive in a competitive job market against graduates from

other tertiary institutions. This study aims to investigate polytechnic students efficacy on

their communication skills. These skills are crucial in determining their chances for

employment and would also enable them to perform effectively at workplace. Final semester

students from Politeknik Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah (n=120) were asked to assess

their own communication skills ability using the Communication Skills self-assessment

questionnaire. Findings indicate that polytechnic students are quite confident in their ability to

communicate effectively at workplace and job interviews. However, interviews with potential

employers indicate differently. Implications of the study include a call for the evaluation of

the English proficiency courses currently being implemented in Malaysian polytechnics.

Introduction

Communication is the transfer of information from one person to another. It is an important

and basic skill that polytechnic students have to build in order to make them marketable once

they complete their studies. Having good communication skills will help the students to

secure a job, build a good relationship with people they come in contact with in their working

lives and it is also vital to their career development. Therefore, students need to be taught

how to communicate effectively in a work environment especially, related to their areas. They

need to convey good communication skills that are also related to their technical knowledge.

Therefore, these students will be able to excel in their studies and future career. Mehta &

Mehta (2007) argue that to be successful in any field one needs to know and understand how

to communicate effectively. According to them, professionals who have a strong hold on

communication skills are considered assets for any business organization. In the

Globalization era, good communication skills are keys to career success.

doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.3n.2p.76

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However, a great deal of communication is of the non-verbal form as opposed to the oral and

written forms. This type of communication includes facial expressions, eye contact, tone of

voice, body posture and motions, and positioning within groups.

A study by Porter (2000) reports that employers argue that college students conducting job

search processes do not possess the skills they seek including oral communication skills.

Employers believe that students lack the basic skills of speaking and listening (Porter, 2000).

It seems that there is a clear mismatch between the communication skills that employers seek

and the communication skills that students offer. Hence, this study is carried out to determine

whether engineering students in Malaysian polytechnics possess interpersonal communication

skills in order to function effectively at the work place.

Role and importance of English language for polytechnic students

The Malaysian education system aims to produce students who have excellent

communication skills, and are competent in languages, especially English. Although the

national language is Bahasa Melayu, English is established as its second language and is

regarded highly as it is the language of trade and used in most business dealings. In Malaysia,

all students are required to learn English in primary and secondary schools. Hence, Malaysian

students would have received 11 years of formal learning of the language. Students are

expected to be competent in the language once they finish their formal schooling as most

institutions of higher learning use English as their language of instruction. This competency

should give them an edge in a competitive job market.

Polytechnic education in Malaysia was introduced in 1969 with the vision to produce semi-

professionals in technical, commerce and hospitality areas

growing industries. This system allows an alternative route for the students who face

difficulty in pursuing the normal school streams. With the increase of multinational

companies setting their practices in Malaysia, polytechnics are required to produce graduates

who are able to communicate effectively in English. Therefore, all polytechnic students are

required to undergo six semesters of English programmes as well as one semester of practical

training at the selected company to gain exposure in the working environment. Other than

these programmes, the students are also required to take a soft skills class in their third

semester before they undergo their practical training. With the amount of formal learning of 77

450

the English language and the soft skills class that students have taken, it is expected that these

students would be able to express themselves effectively once they have graduated. These

programmes are supposed to help them secure employment easily. However, in reality,

graduates are finding it difficult to communicate during job interviews and when they are

lucky enough to secure a job they are unable to advance themselves due to a lack of

communication skills.

Need for communication skills for engineering professionals

Engineering students require communication skills to enhance their technological knowledge

and thereby excel in their career (Srigayathridevi & Thamaraiselvi, 2006). According to

Mehta & Mehta (2007), graduate engineers do not have good communication skills and fail

miserably to fulfill the basic requirements of organizations. This is true of polytechnic

their concerns that these graduates have great difficulties in communicating effectively at

work despite having excellent technical knowledge in their areas. This problem is especially

evident in students taking engineering courses in Malaysian polytechnics.

Scholars have tried to describe the necessary components of engineering education in

colleges to include not just technical knowledge but also take into consideration skills that

these graduates would be required to use at their workplace. Mehta & Mehta (2007) point out

that engineering professionals need communication skills for the following reasons: (pp. 3-4)

1. To express and share their experience, knowledge, ideas and thoughts in an effective

manner for the common benefit of the society.

2. To aspire to a bright academic career growth.

3. To secure a higher level of position in the related jobs.

4. To attain timely promotion and other benefits at their work place.

5. To lead the team from the front.

6. To develop a very healthy working environment and interpersonal communication

skills.

7. To harness understanding and create harmony.

8. To pursue advanced or higher level of studies.

9. To work in a globalized and multilingual culture.

10. To sharpen presentation, writing, negotiation, intrapersonal skills etc.

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Meanwhile, Rugarcia, Felder, Woods and Stice (2000) argue that the profile of engineering

education should be categorised into three components: (1) their knowledge - the facts they

know and concepts they understand; (2) the skills - they use in managing and applying their

knowledge, such as computation, experimentation, analysis, synthesis/design, evaluation,

communication, leadership, and teamwork; (3) the attitudes that dictate the goals toward

which their skills and knowledge will be directed - personal values, concerns, preferences and

biases (p. 20).

A study by Seat (1999) highlights the fact that engineering students need to learn teaming and

interacting skills as part of their education. This includes soft skills and group interaction to

be discussed frequently in classrooms in terms of learning styles, improved learning in

groups, socialization for working with others, and interpersonal skills.

Research objectives and questions

The study aims to investigate

communication skills at the workplace and their level of awareness in terms of workplace

etiquette, paralanguage and conversation skills.

The study aims to answer these questions:

a.

skills at the workplace?

b. What is the level of stu

and conversation skills?

Methodology

Instrument

A questionnaire adapted from the Interpersonal Communication Skills Inventory (Learning

on Interpersonal

Communication Skills. The questionnaire is designed to help the students to evaluate their

interpersonal communication skills and style while at the same time provide helpful tips in

becoming a good communicator and team player.

The questionnaire comprises of 23 questions divided into 3 components: workplace etiquette,

paralanguage and conversation skills. Krizan, Logan & Merrier (2007) argued that these

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i. Workplace etiquette

Work et

to work dealings such as how you come across as an individual, how you relate to

others both within your own organisation and externally and how you make use of

the tools with wh

eiquette is not fixed or rigid, people who are new in an office or workplace may find

it difficult to understand. Other than this, different workplaces differ when it comes

to what is considered acceptable behaviour and conduct and the formality of

etiquette also varies between companies.

ii. Paralanguage

).

Paralanguage is important in communication because without it, it is difficult for

words to convey their intended meaning.

iii. Conversation skills

highlight the importance of conversation as a

valuable business tool since it is essential for good customer service and forms the

foundation for workplace interactions among employees.

Each question was followed by three answers, one of which was the best answer. The best

answer was awarded three points while other answers were given one point.

and views regarding polytechnic students

performance at the workplace, data from Industrial Dialogue 2008 were also referred to in

this study. Industry Dialogue 2008 was organized by the Department of Polytechnic and

Community College Education (DPCCE), Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE). The

objectives of this dialogue were to promote and strengthen industry-education collaboration

community colleges can fulfil those needs for the national as well as the international market.

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Participants

The questionnaires were distributed to final semester students undergoing Diploma in

Engineering at Politeknik Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah. Out of 120 questionnaires

distributed, only 90 were completed and analysed.

Results and analysis

Data from the questionnaire were analysed using the SPSS version 17.0. Based on the

descriptive analyses the following results were found:

attitudes regarding interpersonal communication skills at the workplace:

No. Items %

i. equalize participation in the conversation with others. 46 ii. introduce themselves with a smile and offer a handshake. 69

iii. warm-up new conversations with small talks. 53 iv. 61 v. frequently use courtesy words and phrases. 72

vi. do not say anything if a colleague has put on weight. 28 vii. smile at appropriate times while conversing. 64

viii. make eye contact while conversing. 52 ix. nod head at appropriate times while conversing. 56 x. stand two to three feet away from the person while conversing . 44

xi. sit while talking to a person who is sitting. 67 xii. lean slightly forward and face body towards speaker while listening to them. 53

xiii. cross legs facing speaker. 32 xiv. smile and use humor at appropriates times. 66 xv. wrap-up with a closing statement to end the conversation 47

xvi. listen for meaning and ask questions while listening to speakers. 57 xvii. relate to a person's feelings and show sensitivity to his or her misfortune when someone

talks about an unfortunate or sad experience. 52

xviii. talk about and focus on positive (good) aspects when discussing a topic. 76 xix. lead-in with a positive comment first when they have a negative opinion or comment. 63 xx. take note where to improve when they receive unfavorable feedback. 79

xxi. focus on a person's observable work or behavior and offer suggestions when giving a negative feedback.

40

xxii. talk with a person alone in a private place when giving a negative feedback. 70 xxiii. listen first, ask questions for clarification, then disagree non-judgmentally when they

disagree with a person 60

Overall, the results show that, participants have achieved high scores on their knowledge

regarding interpersonal communication at the workplace. Items regarding giving and

receiving feedback have high scores , i.e. frequently use courtesy words and phrases (72%),

talk about and focus on positive (good) aspects when discussing a topic (76%), take note 81

454

where to improve when they receive unfavorable feedback (79%) and talk with a person

alone in a private place when giving a negative feedback (70%).

On the other hand, not say anything if a colleague has put on weight (28%) and crossing legs

facing speaker (32%) have the lowest scores. Perhaps, this is due to cultural differences and

permissible act in the west but not in the east.

etiquette.

The results show that participants have a mixed level of awareness of workplace etiquette.

This could be

because polytechnics students are given training on how to attend and perform at an interview

as part of their course requirements.

However, participants were not aware that they should say anything if a colleague has put on

weight (28%). This is probably due to the fact that discussions r

Figure 1: Etiquette

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Figure 2 summarises the result of the st

Figure 2: Paralanguage

Figure 2: Level of awareness towards paralanguage

Overall, the participants scored moderately on their knowledge of paralanguage at work

place. Items wi

ropriate.

conversation skills.

Figure 3: Conversation Skills

Figure 3: Level of awareness towards conversation skills

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456

In general the participants are quite knowledgeable on how to handle conversations. Items

wrapping- ). This seems to indicate

that the participants do not know how to end a conversation appropriately. They also do not

negative feedback.

Conclusion and recommendations

From the results above, the students seem to be quite knowledgeable on interpersonal

communication skills and know how to communicate appropriately at the workplace except

for a few situations, i.e. items vi, xiii and xxi. The participants should learn more on the

appropriate etiquette and body language of western culture which is different compared to the

Malaysian culture. Future graduates need to be exposed to other cultures so that they would

be able to socialise and communicate effectively at the workplace.

Even though polytechnic students are briefed on how to attend job interviews, employers

comment that the students do not know how to apply this knowledge during actual interviews.

This also happens when they communicate with their superiors and colleagues. It is

concluded that there is a mismatch of the efficacy of communication skills between

polytechnic students and potential employers. Hence, some changes in the way that

engineering students in polytechnics are trained should be reviewed.

ation skills can be developed by rigorous training programmes and a lot of

science subjects into engineering syllabus which will promote both oral and written

communication skills. This is also supported by Woods et al., (2000) who suggest that the

development of any skill is best facilitated by giving students practice and not by simply

talking about or demonstrating what to do.

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Hence, Malaysian polytechnics should conduct a review of their English language teaching

practices as well as syllabus. It is suggested that the English language classes should

incorporate the following changes:

i. more real life communication practices

ii. more emphasis on English for Occupational Purposes (EOP)

iii. assessment for English language must reflect the above policy

It is also suggested that the co-curriculum activities of polytechnic students should be

that polytechnic students will also gain greater experience and personal development while

achieving technical knowledge at the institutions.

Results of this study show that polytechnic students are aware of the importance of

interpersonal communication skills for their future career. However, they do not seem to take

any initiative to improve their knowledge in this area. This is probably due to the fact that

This is supported

by a study carried out by Ambigapathy & Aniswal (2005) which state that in general,

to Ambigapathy & Aniswal (2005) university students remain passive learners, accepting

what is given without any question. Opportunity for students to interact, debate and discuss is

further reduced with the increasing number of students in each class. These learning activities

are essential to develop communicative, collaborative and critical thinking skills.

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References Ambigapathy, P. & Aniswal, A.G. (2005). University curriculum: An evaluation on preparing graduates for

employment. National Higher Education Research Institute, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia. Interpersonal Communication Skills Inventory (Learning Dynamics, 2002)

http:www.nal.usda.gov/wicworks/Sharing_Center/CT/csmodule/Inventory.pdf. Krizan, A. C., Logan, J. & Merrier, P. (2007). Bussiness Communication. South Western Pub. Mehta, D. & Mehta, N. K. (2007). Communication skill for Engineering profesionals. Adit Journal., 4, 1, pg. 89-

95. Porter, R. (2000). Levels of effectiveness of communication skills used by college students during the job search

process. (Unpublished Masters of Arts in Education Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University).

Rugarcia, A.,. Felder, R. M., Woods, D.R. & Stice, J. E. (2000). The future of Engineering education I. A vision for a new century. Chemical Engineering. Education, 34(1), 16 25 .

Seat, E. & Lord, S. M. (1999). Enabling effective Engineering teams: A program for teaching interaction skills. Journal of Engineering Education, 1, 1, pg. 1-6 .

Singh, A. (2003), Business Communication, Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Srigayathridevi, K. & Thamaraiselvi, R. (2006). Communication skills among the final year Engineering

students in an autonomous Engineering college in Coimbatore, India: An Evaluation. The Journal of Nepalese Business Studies, 3. 1. Pg. 114-119.

The Department of Polytechnics and Community College Education, M. O. (2008). Industrial Dialogue 2008. Woods, D. R. Felder, R. M., Rugarcia, A. & Stice, J. E.(2000). The future of Engineering education III.

Developing critical skills. Chemical EngineeringEducation, 34(2), 108 117 .

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Teaching

Experience

and

Need

for

Instructional

skills Hoda

Rezaeian and

Narges Nazari

(Universiti

Putra Malaysia, Malaysia)

Abstract

The relationship between working experience and need for instructional skills is of

major importance for the teaching and learning process. It seems teachers need to

develop their teaching methods inside the class in order to activate students to learn

more effectively. The researchers decided to find out if there is any relationship

between working experience and need for instructional skills. The data was obtained

from more than 31 randomly chosen lecturers through questionnaire from the Faculty

of Educational Studies at University Putra Malaysia. From the results, it was

concluded that there is no relationship between years of working experience and need

for instructional skills.

Introduction

Every lecturer has his own way of teaching. They all teach but how successful they are and

how they can be more successful in conducting the class is to a great extent the central reason

for this research to find out if there is actually any relationship between need for professional

development with regards to instructional skills and year of teaching experience. It seems that

the teachers need to develop their teaching methods inside the class in order to engage

students to a better learning to learn more effectively and successfully. The researcher begins

this research since there is a constructed feeling that there is a need for professional growth,

instructional skills and teaching skills for teachers regardless of the years of working

experience. Researchers, in general, know a little about the evolution of teaching skills. When

the lecturers feel the necessity for instructional skills, they try to manage the professional

growth and frequently, the professional growth of the lecturers are through workshops

and training programs organized by the deans of faculties.Cognitive research has shown

that a significant number of individuals have learning styles best served by pedagogical

techniques other than lecturing. Therefore, a thoughtful and scholarly approach to skillful

doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.3n.2p.87

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teaching requires that faculty members become more knowledgeable about the many ways

strategies promoting active learning have been successfully used across the disciplines. On

the other hand, it seems that each faculty member should engage in self-reflection, exploring

his or her personal willingness to experiment alternative approaches for instruction.

Commonly, lecturers serve as students need diagnosticians, lessons and learning strategies

planners, learning facilitators, and learner performance assessors. Increasingly, lecturers

participate in university-based governance and decision making (Bauch & Goldring, 1998;

Wall &Rinehart, 1998). They also help determine how to allocate human and fiscal resources

to meet student needs and assist in the development of curriculum content and activities

(Fitzharris,1999; Trzcinka, 1998). It goes without saying that when they think about updating

their instructional skills, they can have better demonstration styles for teaching. Lecturers

need some competencies which they must acquire including maintaining language skills,

building awareness of the target culture education, using technology, teaching students with

special needs, practice of research methodology, assessing students, practice of teaching

methodology, improving the classroom management skills, using cooperative learning,

planning lessons and units and so on. The researcher plans to investigate if experienced

lecturers feel the necessity and need to attain teaching skills.

Definition of key term

Professional development

Professional development refers to skills and knowledge attained for both personal

development and career advancement. Professional development encompasses all types of

facilitated learning opportunities, ranging from college degrees to formal coursework,

conferences and informal learning opportunities found in practice. It has been described as

intensive and collaborative, ideally incorporating an evaluative stage. There are a variety of

approaches to professional development, including consultation, coaching, communities of

practice, lesson study, mentoring, reflective supervision and technical assistance.

A wide variety of people, such as teachers, health care professionals, lawyers, accountants

and engineers engage in professional development. Individuals may participate in

professional development for the lifelong learning, sense of moral obligation, maintaining and

improving professional competence, enhancing career progression, keeping abreast of new

technology and practice, or to comply with professional regulatory organizations. 88

461

Professional development may include formal types of vocational education, typically post-

secondary or poly-technical training leading to qualification or credential required to obtain

or retain employment. Professional development may also come in the form of pre-service or

in-service professional development programs which may be formal, or informal, group or

individualized. Individuals may pursue professional development independently, or programs

may be offered by the departments.

Background

It will be wise to notice that just a few graduates have the expertise for their jobs. It can be

proven by taking a sneak peek into the market. Often lecturers believe that their working

experience is sufficient to teach, train students, run the class, be effective, be encouraging, be

productive and fruitful, i.e. they are skillful and experienced enough to teach effectively and

appropriately and they do not need any development in their jobs. It is clear that, the teachers

contribute directly to the growth of students. Teachers are the trainers. Therefore, they should

develop their skills and refresh themselves with regards to their knowledge and try to impart

their educational and instructional skills. If a teacher is not well trained, how is s/he to train

well?

Professional development is a broad term, encompassing a range of people, interests and

approaches. Those who engage in professional development share a common purpose of

enhancing their ability to do their work. At the heart of professional development is the

.

Statement of the problem

People are different and so are faculty members. Some faculty members have more effective

instructional skills over others. It seems that faculty members with more working experience

do not feel the necessity of professional development.

Teachers and lecturers may be having many years of teaching experience but instructional

skills may not have improved or developed parallel to that of teaching years. Teachers need to

update their knowledge to become more effective trainers in the course of training trainees.

In reference to discussions the researchers have had with selected university students, there

was mention of . The researchers decided to have 89

462

a closer look at this problem and investigate whether there is any tangible and significant

relationship between years of teaching experience and need for instructional skills.

Research question

This study answers the following question:

Is there any significant relationship between the working experience of faculty members and

the need for professional development with regard to instructional skills?

Hypothesis

It is hypothesized that there is no significant relationship between the working experience of

faculty members and need for professional development regarding instructional skills.

Objectives of this study

The objective of this study is to investigate the extent to which faculty members with more

experience feel the need to improve their current instructional skills. Each faculty member

explores his or her personal willingness to experiment with alternative instructional skills in

relation to his or her work experience.

Significance of the study

understanding of the specific field. The develop a

major content area. They must update their knowledge and their teaching methods in order to

be more successful in imparting their knowledge to the students.

The effects of these instructional skills create a culture characterized by professional

collaboration and professional learning. The principals of the university can set up some

the classes and in this way they will be better in their fields.

Limitation of the study

The researchers could not do this research in all faculties due to insufficient time. On the

other hand, some lecturers actually did not cooperate much as they were too busy to spare

time to study the questionnaire and answer and were not willing to help the researchers.

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Review of literature

Instructional skills include: maintaining language skills, building awareness of the target

culture or multicultural education, using cooperative learning, improving classroom

management skills, planning lessons and units, using technology, teaching students with

special needs, theoretical issues of teaching methodology, practice of teaching methodology,

practice of research methodology and assessing the students.

At the heart of all these is the matter of interaction, with good instructional leaders realizing

In the 1980s, researchers began to focus on teacher behavior, learning-to-teach studies

behavior.

Therefore, a thoughtful and scholarly approach to skillful teaching requires that faculties

become more knowledgeable about the many ways strategies promoting active learning have

been successfully used across the disciplines. Further, each faculty member should engage in

self-reflection, exploring his or her personal willingness to experiment with alternative

approaches to instruction.

Generally, teachers agree that their preparation has been inadequate and that the current

system of in-services is inadequate as well. Education reform is putting unprecedented

pressure on teachers hoping to improve

professional development practices are badly out of sync with the reform agenda is spurring

widespread interest in rethinking teachers, on-the-job learning(Bradley,1996,p.8).

It is not far beyond believing that the lecturers and teachers or everyone whose job is related

to teaching must update his or her own information and instructional skills since science is

growing rapidly and, on the other hand, new methods of teaching are happening to be.

Student t technology in teaching

are now becoming a necessity.

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-Manley,

Sachse, and Olson (1996), the more staff development teachers received, the more likely they

were to feel that fellow staff members could deliver high quality curriculum. Some teachers

are experienced instructionally but they feel isolated and segregated. They have the feeling

that they do not have any development in their jobs as teachers. They feel bored and

abolished persons. In particular, there are variables pertaining to joint, collaborative work

between teachers which are positively related to feelings of confidence in the abilities of

fellow staff members.

In general, as Azin-Manley. mentioned in his study, teachers who have the opportunity to

observe and work with one another generally find their colleagues to be knowledgeable and

capable (pp.69-70).

Albert Shanker, the late president of the American Federation of Teachers (AFT), called for

look to the union and expect it to pay as much attention to their professional needs as to the

bread-and-butter is in Ponessa, 1996, p.16). Many teachers are observed to be

skillful and experienced, but they also feel the need to attend some courses and workshops to

gain more knowledge of instruction and learn how to be more effective and active teachers.

In a research by Kinser, Elliot, Foster, Convington, King and Liou (1998) which was carried

out among teachers with different teaching experiences; vocational teachers (12.5years

working experiences), academic teachers (17years) and others (14years), it was found that

teachers wanted to learn more teaching strategies and discipline specific updates from

colleagues who have experience with the strategies in the classroom. This study supports the

notion that teachers want to learn more about teaching strategies and instructional skills and

discipline specific updates and need time to work with colleagues since they are believed to

be able to learn from each other.

Teachers reflect because they want to improve their teaching skills. A number of researchers

state the importance of reflective practice. As a result of engaging in a reflective process,

individuals acquire knowledge and understanding (Clarke& Kelly, 1996; Schön, 1983), learn

from their experiences (Kolb, 1984; Schön, 1983), apply knowledge as a result of engaging in

a reflective process, individuals acquire knowledge and understanding (Clarke& Kelly, 1996; 92

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Schön, 1983), to practice while being coached by professionals in the discipline (Schön,

1996), and explore assumptions they bring to the workplace (Brookfield, 1995). As reflective

practitioners, teachers gain a deeper understanding of their teaching approaches and

effectiveness as teachers.

In different studies where novice teachers and professional teachers are compared, it is

obvious that novice teachers do not have much experiences, but they really want to be

expert teachers are those whose teaching experiences have developed throughout years of

teaching and practice. However, it is not easy to identify expert teachers since expertise is not

all about years of teaching experience or does not depend on duration of practice at schools or

institutes but also on the process of learning from experience. If a teacher is not learning from

and skillful teacher. As John Dewey (1933) pointed out, experience could be educative or

miseducative . There is no guarantee that a teacher who teaches from day to day in a similar

way, without reflection, improves professionally and will become skillful.

The teachers mostly enjoy being free to implement the changes that they want. Doing so, they

will be involved in changes that will have impact on classrooms as well as their own.

The early years of teaching is

been done before and what will come after. No longer student-

classroom. Novice teachers are on their own, facing the same responsibilities, difficulties,

functions, roles, leadership, control and power as their experienced colleagues.

There are evidences that engaging in professional development activities is related to quality

of students learning. The more a teacher is skillful in terms of instruction, the higher the

chances are for the students to learn. While years of teaching experience is correlated to better

student learning, it cannot be said that the more experienced a teacher is the better s/he will be

in teaching. Looking back, one could be sure that we all have memories of terrible teaching

we have endured from very experienced teachers. Conversely, many of us would have

participated in highly engaging and valuable learning led by inexperienced but highly

committed teachers which proves that being good at instructional skills is not related to years

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of teaching experience and novice teachers can be more successful that a highly experienced

one at times.

Layfield and Dobbins (2002) and Washburn, King, Gartan and Harbstreit (2001) reported that

experienced teachers need in-service preparation in using computers and other multi-media

equipment. Additionally, Dormody and Torres (2002), who examined teachers with 10 years

of teaching experience or less, reported that the competency needing the most in-service

preparation for both beginning and tenured teachers was using computer technology in the

classroom. Edwards and Briers (1999) and Peiter, Terry and Cartmell (2003), who

specifically studied newer teachers, also believed preparation was needed in computer-

assisted instruction and implementing other new technologies. Joerger (2002), assessment

of two consecutive years of agricultural education graduates listed teaching about

technological advancements in agriculture as an important in-service need, and Kotrlik,

Redmann, Harrison, and Handley (2000) reported about agriculture teacher inadequacies in

general and software specific knowledge and skills. In addition to integrating agricultural

technology, researchers have reported other technical agriculture competencies needed by

agriculture teachers, such as teaching agricultural mechanics, soil science (Baker & Malle,

1995), and biotechnology (Washburn, King, Gartan and Harbstreit, 2001).Developing an

effective public relations program was a highly rated in-service need of both beginning and

experienced teachers, according to Garton and Chung (1996) and Layfield and

Dobbins(2002).

Understanding student evaluation is another documented teacher preparation need (Layfield

& Dobbins, 2002; Roberts & Dyer, 2002). In fact, South Carolina beginning teachers needed

in-service help with developing performance-based assessments of their students (Layfield

&Dobbins, 2002), and Roberts and Dyer (2002) reported that competency in all types of

student evaluation was an imperative skill for future teachers.

Methodology

Sample

Data were obtained from more than 31 lecturers from various programs in the Faculty of

Educational Studies (FPP) in University Putra Malaysia and they were chosen randomly. The

lecturers were from different majors: counselling, TESL, curriculum, sport science, ICT in

education, HRD, agricultural education, educational psychology and exercise science. 94

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Instrument, Data Analysis and Procedure

The questionnaires were distributed at the Faculty of Educational Studies (FPP) in University

Putra Malaysia. The questionnaires were given to the lecturers and all were collected within 1

week. For this research, Likert scale was used in questionnaires and for the analysis of data

the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software was employed (ONE-WAY

ANOVA).

Findings

To find out the results, the researchers added up 11 items of each questionnaire and calculated

the mean. The one way ANOVA and the test of homogeneity of variance was calculated as

well. Levene statistic revealed that assumption of homogeneity of variance was met so one

way ANOVA was appropriate for analysing this data. What the researchers came up with are

as follows:

Table 1: Test of homogeneity of variances (instructional skills)

Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig.

.191 4 26 .941

F (4, 26) = 0.612, p= 0.658

It was supposed that probability equals with 0.05.

Table 2: ANOVA (instructional skills)

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 225.700 4 56.425 .612 .658 Within Groups 2396.300 26 92.165

Total 2622.000 30

The analyses proved that the instructional skills had the normal distribution. The mean

showed to be 4 and SD was 9.35. Skewness and Kurtosis were 0.23 and 0.797 respectively.

Therefore, it can be concluded that the assumption normality of distribution has been met and

Scatter Plot shows that the two variables do not have any relationship with each other.

According to table 2, sig-t is 0.658 which is more than 0.05 and therefore can be concluded

that the null hypothesis is rejected.

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As mentioned earlier, there is no significant relationship between working experience and

need for instructional skills.

Figure 1: Experience and mean of instructional skills

Figure 2: Instructional skills and experience

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Figure 3: Frequency of samples

Figure 4: Histogram

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Conclusion

It is concluded that there is no relationship between working experiences and need for

instructional skills. Therefore, being a novice, mid-experienced or experienced teacher is not

do not have any effect (but may be related to) on need for instructional skills. Sometimes if a

teacher teaches and the students do not comprehend it is not that the students are dumb. It is

just that the teacher cannot convey what s/he has in mind to the students which might be due

to not having enough instructional skills. Unfortunately, there are few training programmes

for the teachers; moreover, there have not been many researches to see what knowledge and

skills the teachers need to successfully teach the students and help them to learn effectively

and guide them to the path they are supposedly willing to be on. Teachers are trainers. They

have trainees. Trainees are flexible and will learn what they are told. It would be much better

if our trainers are well trained before so that they can train well. If teachers (trainers) are not

well trained, how are they going to be able to train in an acceptable and agreeable way?!

Teachers are directly linked to the improvement of education which seeks change in roles and

responsibilities and most importantly, skills. Therefore, it seems that all the teachers are to be

challenged to obtain instructional skills without considering their working experience in terms

of years. It is correct that experienced teachers and lecturers probably have enough

experience in teaching, but on the other hand they need to gain instructional skills since they

might be weak in some aspects of instructional skills. It would be of no harm if faculties

evaluate the lecturers to see if they are qualified enough regarding instructional skills and to

hold some in-service programs and courses for the lecturers regarding the weaknesses, the

lecturers needs

learning and development and a commitment to help students develop their learning in order

to be professionals in their future jobs. This personal commitment can be looked into and

given direction and resources through engaging in a range of professional development

activities to improve. Professional development is more than just attending a workshop. It is

quality of learning that students demonstrate in the assessment tasks, working with colleagues

on developing curriculum, attending teaching conferences, investigating and publishing

aspects of your teaching experiences and participating and contributing to peer review on

various dimensions of teaching practices. 98

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Implication

It seems a wise act if deans of faculties try to plan workshops or insist on having some classes

for the faculty members to attend and improve their knowledge of how to instruct the class so

that the students can benefit the most and really understand the depth of the specific subject

the teachers is teaching. If this can be fulfilled, then students will have better opportunities to

have the expertise in what they are learning which later on lead to action in real world.

Holding some classes for instructional skills improvement will have benefits such as:

Working closely with peers and colleagues to improve their knowledge from each

Different instructional strategies and techniques will be practiced and mastered

A positive learning environment with no stress and tension will be recognized

Later, teachers can teach and inform their students expectations and intentions by

using learning objectives

Teachers will be aware of students needs in learning

Teachers can be able to instruct the class more professionally

Teachers will be more aware of the limitations

processes

Teachers will be receiving feedback from other colleagues and can try to improve

themselves

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References Azin-Manley, M., Sachse, T. & Olson, C. (1996, October). Staff development needs assessment survey.

Cheyenne, WY: Wyoming State Department of Education Baker, M., & Malle, S. (1995). A comparison of undergraduate major and technical knowledge of post-

baccalaureate teacher candidates. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, 2(3), 51-58. Bauch, P. A., & Goldring, E. B. (1998). Parent-teacher participation in the context of school governance.

Peabody Journal of Education, 73, 15-35. Blase, J. & Blase J. (1998). Instructional leadership: How really good principals promote teaching and

learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Bradley, A. (1996, April 17). The missing link. Education Week, 7-13. Brookfield , S. D. (1995). Becoming a critically reflective teacher. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Clarke, B., James, C., & Kelly, J. (1996). Reflective practice reviewing the issues and refocusing the debate.

International Journal of Nursing Studies, 33(2), 171-180. Dewey, J. (1933). Democracy and education. New York: Free Press. Dormody, T. J., & Torres, R. M. (2002). A follow-up study of agricultural education program graduates on

teaching competencies. Journal of Agricultural Education, 43(4), 33-45. Edwards, M. C., & Briers, G. E. (1999). Assessing the in-service needs of entry phase agriculture teachers in

Texas: A discrepancy model versus direct assessment. Journal of Agricultural Education, 40(3), 40-49. Fitzharris, L. (1999). Curriculum development. Journal of Staff Development , 20, 30-31 Garton, B. L., & Chung, N. (1996). The in-service needs of beginning teachers of agriculture as perceived by

beginning teachers, teacher educators, and state supervisors. Journal of Agricultural Education, 37(3), 52-58.

Joerger, R. M. (2002). A comparison of the in-service education needs of two cohorts of beginning Minnesota agricultural education teachers. Journal of Agricultural Education, 43(3), 11-24.

Kisner ,Mary J .;Elliott ,Franklin E .; Foster, Pamela M.; Convington, Myrna A.; King, Marsha G.;Liou,Kun-I Tony,(1998). Professional Development Needs Assessment Survey Of In-service Clients Of the Center for Vocational Professional Personnel Development at the Pennsylvania State University., Press in the Pennsylvania State University.

Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Kotrlik, J. W., Redmann, D. H., Harrison, B. C., & Handley, C. S. (2000). Information technology related professional development needs of Louisiana agriscience teachers. Journal of Agricultural Education, 41(1), 18-29.

Layfield, K. D., & Dobbins, T. R.(2002). In-service needs and perceived competencies of South Carolina agricultural educators. Journal of Agricultural Education, 43(4), 46-55.

Mundt, J. P., & Connors, J. J. (1999). Problems and challenges associated with the first years of teaching agriculture: A framework for preservice and in-service education. Journal of Agricultural Education, 40(1), 38-48.

Peiter, R. L., Terry, R., Jr., & Cartmell, D. D. II. (2003). Mentoring first year agricultural education teachers. Journal of Southern Agricultural Education Research, 53(1), 171-181.

Ponessa, J. (1996, April17). Union Dues. Education Week, 15-17. Roberts, T. G., & Dyer, J. E. (2002). Characteristics of effective agriculture teachers. Proceedings of the 29th

National Agricultural Research Conference. Retrieved July 16, 2004, from: http://aaaeonline.ifas.ufl.edu/NAERC/2002/ naercfiles/NAERC/Characteristics%20Robe rts-Dyer.pdf

Schön, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. NewYork: Basic Books. Schön, D. A. (1996). Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design for teaching and learning in

professions. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

education. Advances in Special Education, 11, 127-146. Wall, R., & Rinehart, J. R. (1998). School-based decision making and the empowerment of secondary school

teachers. Journal of School Leadership, 8, 49-64. Washburn, S. G., King, B. O., Garton, B. L., & Harbstreit, S. R. (2001). A comparison of the professional

development needs of Kansas and Missouri Teachers of Agriculture. Proceedings of the 28th Annual National Agricultural Education Research Conference. 396-409.

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Teacher's Professional

Development from

Vygotskian

Optique Karim

Shabani

(Allameh Mohaddes

Nouri

University,

Iran)

Abstract

Vygotsky's concept of ZPD (Zone of Proximal Development) has been recently applied to the

context of language teacher education by a number of researchers (e.g. Ohta, 2005; Singh &

Richards, 2006; Nassaji & Cumming, 2000). Besides Vygotsky's notion of ZPD, this paper

relies on two associated theories from outside the TESOL discipline namely; Valsiner's

provide a broad picture of the most influential variables facilitating or constraining teacher's

professional development or, as specifically defined here, his ZPD progression. Several

excerpts in the form of teacher comments taken from different qualitative studies in the

related literature are given to lay evidence for the effect, if any, of the raised variables.

Finally, the paper concludes with some practical tips for the pre/in-service language teachers

as to how to keep their evolving ZPD dynamic in their long-life language teaching

profession.

Introduction

As its point of departure, this paper assumes the concept of professional development in

language teachers to be a function of progression in their ZPD (zone of proximal

development). We examine how Vygotsky's (1978) seminal notion of Zone of proximal

Development, originally developed to account for the learning potential of the child,

Valsiner's (1997) Zone theory and Blanton et al's (2005) Illusionary Zone theory as pioneers

of a neo-Vygotskyan approach can be applied to the concept of teacher professional

development. We also make a specific attempt to see how a number of assets at the teacher's

disposal namely diary writing, peer and mentor collaboration, action research, practicum and

TESOL discourse can serve as scaffolders to affect the progression of ZPD in language

teachers. To date, except for a few studies that were outside the ELT domain the aforesaid

theories have never been collectively employed to explain the process of language teacher

professional development. Hence, an exigent need to undertake the present study. To set the

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ground for our main discussion, a brief sketch of the existing theories to describe teacher's

professional development or expertise is presented.

Influential theories to describe professional development or expertise

The concept of expertise has always been a thorny issue to explain for decades. The

following are the most dominant approaches to expound on the nature of expertise.

Information processing model

In this view, expertise is conceived as learning some psychomotor skills which are fraught

with errors at the novice stage and become subconscious, automatic, fluent, and effortless

when the person gets to the advanced stage as a result of practice. Within this framework,

learning is seen as the movement from controlled to automatic processing via practice. This

continuing movement from controlled to automatic processing results in a constant

restructuring (McLaughlin, 1987). This model of expertise appears simplistic since it can

only explain the psychomotor skills and stops short of accounting for the quality of more

demanding cognitive skills (Berliner, 2004; Tsui, 2003).

Heuristic model

The pioneering work to introduce the heuristic model is presented by Dreyfus and Dreyfus

(1986) who have developed a five-stage model of teacher development from novice to expert.

Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1986) propose that intuition, tacit knowledge and 'knowing how' lie at

the heart of human expertise and argued against conscious operation or 'knowing that' in

performing expert activities. This tacit knowledge is based on personal hunches and intuitions

rather than a set of rules about how to operate new activities. Their proposed theory consists

of five stages from novice to expert to explain the skills of acquisition, which is briefly

summarized below:

Stage 1: Novice The novice's actions are guided by rules and a set of objective facts and features related to the skills. There is little consideration for the context of the actions. Stage 2: Advanced Beginner After getting some experiences in applying the rules in real situations, they begin to recognize situational elements that they need to consider from their actions. Stage 3: Competent Competent performers are able to cope with an overwhelming amount of information and assess the situations and distinguish important from unimportant information. They are also emotionally involved with the outcome which can rarely been observed in novices and advanced beginners.

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Stage 4: Proficient This stage is marked by the emergence of intuitions or know-how (procedural knowledge). Proficient performers are able to act without conscious deliberation since they can recall similar situations in the past and the course of actions taken that were proved effective. Stage 5: Expert Expert's performance is marked by effortlessness and fluidity guided by intuition. Skills become part of experts. There is no need for conscious decision making or problem solving unless a novel situation is encountered.

(Adapted from Tsui, 2003, pp. 10-11)

From this perspective, the novice teacher will turn into an expert practitioner when his

'knowing that' about language teaching develops into a 'knowing how'. His declarative

knowledge acts as a springboard to acquire the procedural knowledge which is characterized

by an effortless and automatic operation (Tsui, 2003).

A model of cognitive psychology

Glaser (1996) has developed a modern three-stage cognitive theory that sketches an 'abstract'

conception of expertise. Inspired by Vygotskyan thinking, Glaser gives prominence to the

importance of social learning, communities of practice and critical role of more significant

others in shaping expertise (Berliner, 2002). Glaser (1996) sees the emergence of expertise as

'a change in agency over time'. The three phases of development by Glaser are as follows:

a. Externally supported phase: involves environmental structuring for initial acquisition of the skills

needed by the novice teacher, musician or athlete. The young performer is influenced by the dedication, interest and the support of coaches, parents, practitioners in the field and others who are significant in their lives.

b. Transitional phase: is characterized by a decrease in the scaffolding used for and by the novice performer, accompanied by a concomitant increase in apprenticeship Self-regulation techniques are learned and high standards for performance begin to be set.

c. Self-regulatory phase: in this phase a developing expert controls much more of their own learning environment. The emerging expert receives the feedback they need and also chooses the level of challenge for their own development.

(Berliner, 2004, p. 478)

Expertise in this model is construed as a long-life progression. This idea had been previously

developed by Bereiter and Scardamalia (1993) who defined the notion of expertise as an

investment, progressive problem solving and willingness to tackle challenging problems that

increase expertise. Beriter and Scardamalia (1993) argue that true expertise is not a static

feature, to be achieved once and then abandoned, but a continual process over time. For

expertise to get developed, routine teaching practices are not enough and teachers must

continually reinvest time and energy, meet new challenges and shift their focus to new

aspects of environment like the content, delivery of the content and the social and personal

aspects of their students sequentially as they develop. Only in this way can novice teachers 103

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turn into expert teachers. Otherwise, they would remain as experienced non-experts despite

benefiting from many years of practical experience. Beriter and Scardamalia (1993) go as far

as to claim that the critical difference does not lie in the efficiency in problem solving, but

rather, in the kinds of problems the experts and non-experts solve. They contend that experts

tackle problems that 'enhance' their expertise by working 'at the edge of their competence',

whereas non-experts tend to engage in problems for which they don't have to extend

themselves. The experienced non-experts try to base their approach to the new task or

problem on a narrow vision and constantly try to minimize rather than maximize their

opportunities for growth. Non-experts tend to reduce their activities to some routine practices

but the experts always 'problematize' their routine behaviors (Beriter & Scardamalia, ibid).

This model is against Dreyfus and Dreyfus's (1986) model since it treats expertise as a

'process' rather than a state. Dreyfus and Dreyfus'

elaborate on how the novice actually acquires the expertise, nor can it distinguish between

experts and experienced non-experts. Beriter and Scardamalia give examples of drivers who

are not judged as good drivers despite having many years of driving experience and fluent

writers who are still bad writers despite going through all the five stages of skill development

from conscious rule learning to automatic operation. Drawing on Ericsson and Smith (1991),

one's number of years of experience can not be taken as an accurate measure of one's level of

expertise. It is this line of presenting the concept of learning that the present paper intends to

follow in order to examine how the teacher's ZPD is triggered and kept dynamic such that it

will finally change the novice teacher into an expert practitioner. Or, as in Rogers' words,

The only man who is educated is the man who has learned how to adapt and change; the

man who has realized that no knowledge is secure; that only the process of seeking

knowledge gives a basis for security (Rogers, 1969, p.104).

In order to paint a clear picture of ZPD progression, clarification of some basic assumptions

underlying the concept is quite necessary. First, a brief review of Vygotsky's ZPD along with

the associated theories is presented. Then, an attempt is made to see how these theories can

explain the process of teacher development.

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Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development

As one of the most influential concepts ever coded to account for the quality of first as well

as second language development, ZPD originally developed by Vygotsky has gained footing

in L1 and L2 researches (Ohta, 2005; Goos, 2005a). Vygotsky defined the ZPD as

The distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable others. (Vygotsky, 1978, p.85)

ZPD is conceived as a multistage progression and continuum rather than a single point in

time. It is realized through a collaborative, intersubjective, and asymmetric interaction

between the child (a novice) and a more significant or knowledgeable other that can be a

parent, a teacher or peer (Vygotsky, 1978).This progression occurs between two points,

namely the child's current developmental level as the starting point and its next level of

development as the endpoint. This movement from an ability to accomplish a task with the

help of an interactive collaborator to a higher ability or state to accomplish the same task

independently is called 'learning' in Vygotskyan terms (Vygotsky, 1934). Others have

referred to these two points as 'independent performance' and 'assisted performance'

respectively (Goos, 2005b). The following figure depicts these two points clearly:

Figure 1: ZPD representing a continuum (Bodrova & Leong, 1995)

The bottom line here is that "what the child is able to do with some collaboration or

assistance today he will be able to do independently tomorrow" (Vygotsky, 1934, p. 211).

This shift from an interpsychological, other-regulated acting to an intrapsychological self-

regulated state in an interactive and supportive microgenesis occurs spirally (Hickman,

1986). After moving from his present ability to his next (potential) ability with some

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assistance, the child will define a new potential ability by drawing on his genetic capacity and

changes his previous potential ability as the springboard to reach a new potential ability. This

cycle is repeated over and over again when the child learns different kinds of tasks, skills and

behavior. Thus, child's ability to perform more difficult tasks is gained as a result of several

'internalization' processes (Vygotsky, 1934) at different times progressively as is shown in

figure 2 overleaf:

Figure 2: ZPD in progress (Bodrova & Leong, ibid)

The application of ZPD to SL learning assumes that new language knowledge is jointly

constructed though collaborative activity between the supportive teacher and the learner who

acts as an active agent to construct his own knowledge of language when appropriate

assistance consistent with his current ZPD is given.

ZPD progression is triggered by 'scaffolding' which is defined as any kind of teaching and

instructional mediation that proves conducive to learning. Scaffolding takes such different

forms as cuing, feedback and encouragement that can help learners develop cognitively.

Scaffolding can be offered cognitively, emotionally (affectively) (Rosenshine & Meister,

1922) and even 'technologically' (Yelland & Master, 2005). The latter is provided through

computer and related software as mediators for learning since they can provide the

appropriate context for successful learning (Yelland & Master, ibid). Lantolf (2004) contends

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that scaffolding can 'open the learner's zone of proximal development' through self, peer,

social and artifact mediation.

In his theory, Vygotsky has repeatedly mentioned that any kind of help presented to the

learner must be consistent with his current level of development, otherwise learning would

not occur. However, the gap between the learner's present and potential ability or ZPD, is not

the only factor influencing future development. Other factors like contextual constraints may

also play a part to influence the learning process. To crystallize this issue, the model

developed by Valsiner (1997) seems more illustrative.

Valsiner's Zone Theory

Having been preoccupied with developmental psychology, Valsiner (1997) extended

Vygotsky's concept of ZPD and added two other zones which he called the Zone of Free

Movement (ZFM) and the Zone of Promoted Action (ZPA). ZFM is the kind of action set by

the adult that the child/learner is allowed to undertake and the level of cognitive thinking he

is exposed to (Valsiner, 1997). Goos (2005a) defines ZFM as a zone structuring:

- an individual's access to different areas of the environment;

- the availability of the different objects within an accessible area; and

- the ways the individual is permitted or enabled to act within accessible areas.

ZPA is a set of actions the teacher promotes in the student as a result of his scaffolding

(Warren, Cooper & Lamb, 2006). Goos (2005a) defines ZPA as a zone reflecting the person's

promotions made in a related environment influenced by the activities, objects or areas in the

milieu. The critical point here is that due to the constraints available and some unpredictable

problems arising during the implementation phase of the learning tasks, the teacher's or even

the student's intended and ideal level of learning will never be attained. This is what Blanton

et al. (2005) have called Illusionary Zone (IZ). The IZ of promoted action is not allowed to be

actualized due to the restraining factors existing in the ZFM. The interrelationship between

ZPD, ZFM, ZPA and IZ is shown in figure 3 below.

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Figure 3: Overlapping of ZPD, ZPA, ZFM and IZ (Blanton et al., 2005)

The aforesaid discussion inspires us to see how Vygotsky's ZPD, Valsiner's Zone Theory and

Blanton et al's Illusionary Zone can be applied to the context of teacher professional

development.

ZPD in language teachers

The teacher's zone of proximal development is thought as a learning space between his

present level of teaching knowledge consisting of content (theoretical) and pedagogical

knowledge and skills and his next (potential) level of knowledge to be attained with the

support of others (Blanton et al., 2005). This definition provides us with the possibility not to

restrict ourselves to regard teacher educator as the only source of scaffolding and think of

some other sources like the teacher's colleagues, researchers in the field (TESOL

community), student achievement data, narratives, observation, action research, pre-service

and in-service LTE course-room, etc. as other possible sources of scaffolding that can change

the teacher's ZPD.

ZPA in language teachers

The teacher's ZPA is the actual set of promotions made in the practicing teacher in the form

of a received teaching strategy or technique, a well-informed teaching approach, or any

practical tip to cope with the on-the-spot language teaching or classroom management

problems (Goos, 2005a). The pre-service teacher educator, professional development (in-

ZPD

ZFM

ZPA IZ

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service) activities and colleagues in the school and university setting can help build ZPA for

language teachers (Goos, 2005).

ZFM in language teachers

The wide range of contextual or environmental constraints that impose restrictions on the

teacher's freedom of action and decision making builds his ZFM that includes the students'

behavior, motivation, perceived abilities, curriculum and assessment requirements, syllabus

standards, availability of teaching resources and technology and a host of other factors

affecting the teaching and learning process in a specific context (Goos, 2005). The ethical

and academic standards governing the classroom behavior set by the local institution or even

the country's ministry of education can shape a certain ZFM for the teacher. The ZFM

determines which teaching actions are possible (Goos, 2005, p.4). The rules imposed on a

teacher's ZFM limit his rights and freedom to select one or the other teaching method/strategy

which may or may not even sound ethical (Pennycook, 1997). The ZFM includes such

elements as:

1. The students, whose abilities and behavior may constrain teaching actions; 2. The curriculum embodied in the school work program and supported by prescribed textbooks,

which influences choice of topics and teaching methods; 3. Resources, in the form of audiovisual aids, materials for practical classes, reference books, or

4. Time constraints, in particular, th

time period (whether this be the lesson or the school year); and 5. The relationship between student teacher and supervising teacher, and the extent to which their

beliefs about teaching and learning coincide. (Goos, 2005: my italics)

IZ in language teachers

The final zone that merits attention is the Illusionary Zone which is defined as

a zone of permissibility that the teacher appears to establish through behaviors and

promoted but in fact was not allowed. (Blanton et al., 2005 quoted in Warren et al., 2006)

One main instigator to trigger IZ is the mismatch between the teacher's ideal goals and the

goals imposed on him by the local institution (Warren, et al., 2006). In order for professional

development to get actualized, the assisted performance or promotion (ZPA) must be

rendered within the scope and framework of the existing norms of the context and the

teacher's ZFM. In other words, to gain an ideal level of learning, the ZPA offered by the

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colleagues, researchers and in-service teacher educators must be within the teacher's ZFM

and also in line with his ZPD. As long as the required promoted actions (ZPA) do exceed the

existing (ZFM), the IZ continues to appear as the optimal and intact distance to tap.

The starting point for teacher learning is the teacher's willingness and motivation to keep his

ZPD in motion so as to move from the current ZPD to a more advanced ZPD in his teaching

profession. If the prospective novice teacher is determined to improve his act of teaching, he

must engage in that shifting process and continuously define new ZPDs. Otherwise, he would

remain as an experienced non-expert teacher with a stagnant ZPD (Beriter & Scardamalia,

1993).

Presumed factors affecting teachers' ZPD

To enhance ZPD progression, teachers need to continually define new goals or IZs

throughout their teaching life. Their prior experienced passive learning and blind dependence

on other teachers usually hinder the teachers from theorizing their 'own' pedagogical

knowledge and from moving up through their ZPD. To do so and avoid a dormant teaching

life, teachers need to make a change in their career and go through 'professionalism', and

determine their own tasks in the classroom and the ways to develop, negotiate, use and

control one's knowledge (Helsby & McCulloch, 1996). Drawing on Nielsen et al. (2007), the

influential factors contributing to the professional change come from two main sources either

from 'within' such as a teacher's knowledge, belief, and self-efficiency, or from 'outside' the

teacher such as the school, community, etc. The following is a set of influential factors both

internal and external, that are presumed to have direct effect on the teachers' zone of proximal

development and professionalism:

a. Collaborative peers and mentors

b. Contextual constraints

c. LTE Course room and TESOL discourse

d. Mediatory artifacts and technology

e. Action research and student achievement data

f. Diary writing

a. Collaborative peers and mentors: The idea that teachers do benefit from the

encouragement and support of their collaborative colleagues and coaches is widely accepted.

As Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk-Hoy and Hoy (1998) hold, the increased collaboration with

either supportive colleagues or literacy coaches can support teachers when they seem to lose 110

483

their self-confidence due to a lack of experience and self-efficacy. Nielsen et al. (in press)

suggest that one way to bring about professional growth is to attend the classes conducted by

'exemplary teachers' and 'coaches' and observe their teaching methods, strategies and

techniques. The following comment written by one of the teacher learners in Nielsen et al's

qualitative study illustrates the importance of instructional role models since they can provide

opportunities for the novice teachers to study different instructional methods in multiple

contexts:

the way that they used it was different, so I could pick up pieces of that to incorporate into my classroom. (Nielsen et al., in press, p. 5)

As this excerpt displays, observing an exemplary teacher's models of teaching can be

enlightening. Other studies indicate that this way of teacher learning i.e. observation will be

more fruitful when the exemplary teachers and coaches teach in the teacher's own classes so

that s/he can observe how the model teachers can cope with their 'context-dependent'

teaching problems (Nielsen et al., ibid). The collaborative guidance provided by the peers or

mentors for the teachers could also be provided on-line via internet. Teachers could engage in

journal writing to share their practical problems with more experienced teachers on line at

any time and get immediate feedback.

b. Contextual constraints: Teacher's freedom of action and decision making are always

constrained by contextual factors. Some of the decisions made in the class by the teacher are

affected by the outside forces which originate in social, economic, political or educational

policies. In other words, the microcontext of the classroom is, to some extent, shaped by the

larger sociopolitical macrocontext (Singh & Richards, 2006). One factor to narrow teachers'

IZ and restrict his personal choices, goal setting and activities is compliance with the norms

prescribed and imposed by the local school or institution the teachers work in. This can be

understood from the words of a teacher in Neilsen et al's study claiming

It was almost negative. We were told at our first meeting, You will be doing Writer's Workshop this year. It was just like orders from the high holies or something like that. (Nielsen et al., in press, p. 10)

The local school may, sometimes, exert its pressure on the teacher's freedom to select his

method of evaluation. Brouwer and Korthagen (2005) give the example of a context in

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which the teachers have to provide quantitative outcome measures for their students' learning

in order to meet parents' as well as institute's expectations. The following comments by two

teachers in their study prove good evidence

This school is crazy with grades. This system of 'progress cards' is meant to prevent parents from complaining about grades when it's too late. The school obliges me to produce grades for selection purposes. I do so, but not wholeheartedly, because I think dropouts aren't stupid. They just get too little attention in school. (Brouwer & Korthagen, 2005, p. 209)

c. LTE course room and TESOL discourse: The current ideas as to the value of course room

during practica and internships do not advocate the traditional notion of teacher training

based on 'transmissional' ideology because it is believed that teaching is not a blend of

discrete behaviors that can be distanced from the contexts in which they occur and a ready-

made package or raw material to be transferred to the novice teachers (Singh &Richards,

2006). Rather, the teachers' content and pedagogical knowledge, his own previous

experiences of language learning, cognitive and thinking skills and beliefs are taken as

reliable resources to draw on for constructing personal theories of language teaching

(Freeman, 2001). Teacher's professional knowledge is not static, but continually reshaped by

the contextual conditions of the classrooms and schools in which the teachers are working

(Freeman, 2001).Singh and Richards (2006) adopt a critical sociocultural perspective to look

at the nature of teacher learning in the LTE (language teacher education) course-room. They

believe that learning is shaped within institutional, historical and cultural contexts and the

course room is conceived as a 'community of practice' for the teacher learners who must feel

accountable for constructing their own theory of pedagogy. In the course room, teachers are

encouraged to engage in 'personal theorizing' based on their own experiences, beliefs and

understanding of the language. The course room is looked at as a site for developing

'professional', 'transformative' teachers who will turn into critical reflective practitioners and

autonomous agents (Singh & Richards, 2006). Transformative teachers move from the role of

being consumers of outside expert knowledge towards taking an active role as curriculum

developers and researchers of their work (Singh & Richards, ibid).

As a valuable site for 'collaborative learning', the course room can provide the chance for the

apprentices (teacher learners) and teacher educators to engage in collaborative dialogue to

solve practical teaching problems so as to come up with new forms of knowledge. As an

example, the teacher educator can bring a videoed lesson to the class and ask the student

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teachers to think of the ways to teach a tricky language point or grammatical structure in the

class. They raise their own underlying ideas and understanding of the raised problem and

finally agree upon a reliable pedagogical principle that sounds most effective (Singh &

Richards, 2006). An associated advantage of the course room is to get teachers more

acquainted with the dominant TESOL discourse. Singh and Richards expound on the benefits

of LTE course room in which the teacher learner can acquire a special 'discourse' that

consists of

- The dominant discourse of TESOL (e.g. learner-centeredness, learner autonomy, authenticity,

genuine language, accountable learning, and some version of communicative methodology and the four skills;

- Ways of acting and interacting (e.g. how to be a teacher learner on an MA course in the US, UK, Australia or elsewhere);

- Acquiring the appropriate cultural practices in the course room (e.g. how to write a term paper in the appropriate style, how to pose questions and respect different points of view) and

- Enacting the identity of a teacher learner

(Singh & Richards 2006, p.156)

d. Mediatory artifacts and technology: The next triggering factor to influence teacher

learning is the 'mediatory artifacts' which include technology, handouts, worksheets, video,

physical classroom layout, etc. (Singh & Richards, 2006). Technology has proved to serve as

a reliable source of electronic scaffolding and, thus, a positive change in teacher's

professional development. Internet, computer and associated software known as

technological artifacts can mediate teacher's learning (Lantolf, 2004). CMC (computer

mediated communication) as a source of mediation for learning is based on the idea of 'tool

mediation' that stems from Vygotsky's work, embracing both 'symbolic' and 'physical'

mediation (Lantolf, ibid). The hardware aspect of CMC including chat rooms, computers,

websites, blogs, vlogs, etc. can help establish an indirect or mediated relationship between the

teachers and the world (Yelland & Master, 2005).

As for teacher learning and development, the internet and services offered can create a space

for the teachers to share their teaching methods, techniques, instructional experiences and

strategies with other colleagues and mentors on line and receive beneficial feedback on the

quality of their evolving personal beliefs, assumptions, and knowledge about their learning

and teaching at different phases of their teaching practice, that is, at the beginning, during and

at the end of their instructional courses (Kumaravadivelu, 2001). Similarly, Web can offer a

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vast and continually growing library to the teacher in order to keep abreast of the recent

know-how in TESOL (Nielsen et al., in press).

Angeli and Valanides (2004) tested the effect of providing electronic scaffolding in the form

of Filamentality i.e. "a fill-in-the-blank interactive Web site that assists [teacher] learners in

defining a topic, and guides them through searching the Web and collecting appropriate Web

sites" (2004, p.32) on teachers' PTE (Perceived Task Effort) when they manage to create

instructional activities for their classes. They found that knowing how to surf the Web in

order to find useful sites for a typical topic for the class would lower the teacher's cognitive

load and increase his level of confidence. However, the lack or paucity of technology may

impede a successful teaching and this would result in a poor learning on the part of students.

Teacher's smooth activities in the class depends on the degree to which the technological

logistics like internet, laboratory, video, video projector, computer, CDs, etc. are available.

e. Action research and student achievement data: To keep abreast of state-of-the-art teaching,

action research can provide the ground for the teacher learner to test different teaching

methods and activities in the class and get feedback from the students so as to revise and

develop his underlying understanding of language teaching and learning processes. As an

exercise of reflective teaching and a point of departure from acting as a consumer of an

outside expert, action research provides an inside-out approach to professional development

placing the teacher at the heart of teaching inquiry (Nunan, 2001). Oxford (2001) considers

action research as a tool to elicit information about the students' language and cultural

background, motivation, gender, age, preferences, learning strategies and styles so that

teachers can provide strategy instruction that the concerned students need. Through action

research, the teacher can test different theories of language teaching in his class to see if they

work and finally get feedbacks from the students. Action research can provide a tool for the

teacher to make a link between his theoretical and practical knowledge advocating a more

active role for the teacher and, hence, a step towards teacher autonomy (Kumaravadivelu,

2001). Kumaravadivelu (2001) regards 'action research' as an effective way to develop

teacher's professionalism and as a site for self-exploration and self-improvement. He presents

the following suggested ways to embark on action research:

- using questionnaire, surveys and interviews to collect data about learning strategies,

styles, attitudes, etc. 114

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- identifying research questions

- exploring the learners' sociocultural and linguistic knowledge to exploit for learning

- engaging in self-evaluating

As a reliable method to receive feedback from the students, questionnaire can provide the

teacher with immediate, first-hand information about the quality of his teaching and the need

to change or improve his teaching style and behavior. The following excerpt from Brouwer

and Korthagen (2005) is quite revealing:

What I am consistent about, though, is having pupils fill in a questionnaire once a year, where they can indicate how they feel about my lessons. From these questionnaires, I try to draw my

learn about the conclusions and I try to use them to improve my teaching. (Brouwer & Korthagen, 2005, p. 209)

f. Diary writing: Diary as a tool at the teacher's disposal is the "first person account of one's

own language learning or teaching experience writing candid entries in a personal journal for

later review and analysis" (Bailey, 1990, p.215). In diary writing, the teacher provides a

genuine picture of his teaching practice either during or after the teaching session. To learn

from diaries, teachers must feel free to reflect, experiment, criticize, doubt, express

frustration, and raise questions in the journal (Bailey, ibid). Then, he should embark on post-

activity reflection and ask the following questions to analyze his diaries:

1. What did I intend? 2. How did I come to be this way? 3. How might I teach differently? 4. What and how shall I now teach? (Bartlett, 1990)

It is also recommended that the practicing teacher read other teachers' diaries and, then,

compare his own teaching experiences and instructional models with those of other teachers

(Nielsen et al., in press). A crucial benefit of diary writing is to raise teacher's awareness

about the quality and validity of his teaching practice. The following comment by a teacher in

Telatnik's research corroborates this hypothesis:

After having analyzed myself daily I tended to see other people's analysis of my teaching more objectively. Having learned to be honest and objective in my own recording, I found is easier to

ith Observer X, who criticized my authorization, teacher-dominated approach, I began to become less defensive. My resentment passed when I accepted the fact that I did run a teacher-dominated classroom and that was exactly what I wanted. I no longer secretly raged through our discussions. I even managed to

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glean from our sessions a few techniques on encouraging student participation. (Telatnik, 1978, pp7-8)

In sum, the real expert teacher is the one who reflects on his teaching. This idea echoes

Berliner's stance towards the concept of expertise claiming that experience will only

contribute to expertise if practitioners are capable of learning from it and to learn from

experience requires that practitioners constantly reflect on their practices (Berliner, 2004).

Discussion and conclusion

Throughout the article, an attempt was made to provide some insights into the concept of

professional development. A sociocultural view of learning was taken as the ideal approach

were provided to shed some light on the most significant variables in terms of affordances or

development or ZPD progression gets actualized as a result of multiple interactions among

several factors. The point of departure for the teacher to engage in learning and professional

change is his willingness and strong desire to get away from his current ZAD and to head

towards ZPD. The retrogressive teachers are usually satisfied with their routine skills and

teaching abilities and never risk improving their potentialities. For them, the ZPD is static

and never changes from time to time. Such teachers are the ones who will turn into

experienced non-expert teachers after having some years of teaching experience. They will

condescend to getting used to the same routine practices. Quite contrarily, the progressive

teachers benefit from a volatile and dynamic ZPD. They are always engaged in defining new

ZPDs and are strongly motivated to bring about changes in their teaching practices. When

teachers move from their ZAD to their ZPD, they go through a cognitive change, experience

internalization and develop mentally. A number of influential factors have been taken on

board in this article as the main motivators of ZPD progression.

The scaffolding offered by the supportive and collaborative colleagues in terms of

instructional models, teaching tips and affective support acts as a strong motivator for

teacher's ZPD progression. However, the assistance provided should fall within the teacher's

ZPD and ZFM, that is, the teacher learner must be cognitively mature to grasp and, then,

implement the suggested teaching strategy. Moreover, the conditions available such as the 116

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students' willingness to embrace the new teaching strategy, the degree of freedom allowed by

the institution to welcome innovative strategies and the required textbook or materials (ZFM)

must be compatible with the teacher's ZPD and ZPA if ideal progression is supposed to

occur. The significance of scaffolding as a direct source of ZPD growth is quite apparent in

the LTE course room and peer collaboration but its emotional aspect and the way it is offered

needs further investigation.

One central issue brought to light in this study concerns the role of social interaction as a

basis to foster the development of ZPD. Only when the 'social' aspects of teacher learning are

taken on board to account for professional development can one claim about the applicability

offered some socially-

which include the LTE course room, mediatory artifacts, on-line journal writing, and

collaboration peers or mentors, all of which resting on the concept of inter-psychological

mediation. From among the main factors discussed in this study as the main determinants of

teacher's professional development, the 'contextual constraints' are the only one that would

inhibit teacher's progress to reach the zenith of his career while the others offer the required

bedrock for his professional development. The main distinguishing feature between the

expert and experienced non-expert teacher springs from the fact that the former continually

struggles to get rid of the surrounding contextual forces and tries to make his voice heard in

his teaching context. He does not take the external pressures and constraints for granted. The

expert teacher's thinking rests on the belief that professional development is never-ending and

lifelong. This statement is commensurate with Roger's concept of 'experiential learning' that

he defines as a continuing openness to experience and a preparedness to become involved in

the process of change (Rogers, 1969).

This never-ending character of ZPD posits that teachers should never stop constructing new

ZPDs. They are continually engaged in defining new ZPDs throughout their teaching life

mostly in the form of new professional activities, goals and promotions. Therefore,

teachers' ZPD undergoing continuous transformations will gradually move the teacher up

closer to her professional ideal (Glaser, 1996). However, the progression of teacher's ZPD

is contingent upon multiple factors, for example the teacher's own capability and

intelligence (ZPD) to internalize the assistance (ZPA), his personal beliefs and teaching

philosophy (ZPD) to match or mismatch those of the mentors (ZPA), the students 117

490

motivation and desire to welcome new activities (ZFM), the curriculum and assessment

requirements (ZFM), and the availability of logistical support or technology (ZFM) in the

related teaching context.

In short, the pre/in-service teachers who aspire to experience professional development could

benefit from a range of options such as diary writing, electronic dialogue journal, action

research, observation, collaborative peers and mentors, LTE course room, TESOL discourse,

conferences and workshops, and technological scaffolding so as to bring about a life-long

professional change in their ZPD.

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Innovations

in

Equipping

EYL

Teachers for Future

Challenges:

UUM

TEYL

Perspective Hamida

Bee

Bi

Abdul

Karim

and Fahainis Mohd. Yusof

(Universiti

Utara

Malaysia, Sintok, Kedah, Malaysia)

Abstract

This paper seeks to highlight perceptions of students undergoing the Teaching of English to

Young Learners (TEYL) programme jointly run by UUM and KPM since 2004. It focuses on

their level of satisfaction from both academic and non-academic aspects, particularly on the

effectiveness of teaching methods employed by both local and international lecturers; use of

up-to-dat -hand

experience of language teaching/learning situations both in local and overseas contexts.

Students were also requested to highlight problems and constraints they encountered

throughout the 4-

satisfaction. An interesting finding was the emphasis they placed on the need for and

relevance of first-hand learning experience in real life classroom scenario.

Introduction

In the last few decades, Malaysia has stepped up its efforts in ensuring a high proficiency

level in English among the students. This is in line with its rapid involvement in international

business and trade. To achieve these visions, the Ministry of Education of Malaysia (MOEM)

has also engaged in training future teachers of the nation as English teachers via several joint

or twinning programmes with other institutions of higher learning e.g. the Malaysia United

Kingdom B. Ed. Twinning Project (1992 2002) and the Bachelor of Education in Teaching

English (TESL/TEYL) from 2002 2012. Basically, these joint or twinning programmes

teachers for Malaysian school

Background of the study

On 16 June 2004, an educational collaborative agreement was signed between Universiti

Utara Malaysia (UUM) and the MOEM whereby both parties have agreed to jointly run a

doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.3n.2p.121

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coherent four-year pre-service teaching degree for the training of English language teachers

-

upgrade Malaysian education in general, and ultimately improve the standard of English

among all teachers in Malaysian schools. Hence, the project embarks on the mission of

ensuring that quality education is made available to all Malaysians, both in the primary and

secondary schools. The importance of English as a second language in the nation is also

recognized via this project, whereby the main mission is to train teachers who are proficient

UUM was one of the local institutions of higher learning selected to participate in this newly-

developed linking programme with MOEM. This degree programme was to be jointly

developed, taught and monitored both by UUM and the then Maktab Perguruan Persekutuan

Pulau Pinang (MPPPP), now known as Institut Pendidikan Guru Kampus Pulau Pinang (IPG).

The running of the programme was in accordance with the agreed standards between both

parties, whereby the degree will be conferred to successful candidates at the end of the

programme by UUM. The programme structure to be adhered closely by both parties was

known as the 1 + 2 + 1 Model, preceded by a 2-year Foundation Course to be administered at

UUM in Year

2 and Year 3, and finally back to IPG in Year 4. However, students will have to attend the

convocation for conferment of their degrees in UUM.

Statement of the problem

The first cohort of students under the link programme between UUM and MOEM, known as

the Bachelor of Education in Teaching English to Young Learners (B.Ed. TEYL (Hons,), was

registered officially as UUM students in the academic year 2002/2003. This was followed by

four more cohorts, the last of which enrolled into UUM for the 2008/2009 academic session.

Currently, the first cohort of students is awaiting their posting from the Division of Teacher

Education, MOEM after completing their four-year programme at the end of the 2007/2008

academic session.

The likelihood of students facing problems may exist since this programme is run on a 1 + 2

+ 1 Model. As such, the TEYL students are faced with two different sets of learning

environment, teaching personnel and teaching-learning facilities. There may also be 122

495

limitations and shortcomings in the administration of the programme by the two separate

institutions (academically and non-academically), which may eventually pose as a hindrance

However, to date, no studies have been conducted to determine the success (or failure) of the

B.Ed. TEYL programme. On a more specific note, no studies have been conducted to look

into issues or problems faced by students, be it during their stay in UUM or IPG. Therefore,

there is a dire need for such a study such as this, mainly to probe into issues/problems faced

by the TEYL students so that remedial steps can be taken to improve the programme for the

benefit of the junior cohorts and future joint programmes.

Objectives of the study

The general objecti

Ed.TEYL programme, a link programme between UUM and MOEM. The specific objectives

of this study are:

1. To establish whether the students are satisfied with the B. Ed. TEYL programme.

2. To a

perspective.

3. To highlight the problems/constraints encountered by the students and suggest

ways to overcome them.

4. To recommend appropriate steps to improve existing and future joint programmes.

Research questions

Based on the objectives of the study, the following are the research questions:

Are the students satisfied with the B. Ed. TEYL programme?

1. Are the students satisfied with the academic aspects of the programme?

2. What are the problems encountered by the students during of the programme?

3. What are the suggestions needed to improve the joint programme?

Significance of the study

programme, which is a joint project between UUM and MOEM. Since this is the first time the

programme is offered, the information gathered from this study will serve as invaluable input 123

496

to the two institutions running it, i.e. UUM and IPG. The findings of this study will guide the

authorities and administrators concerned on which areas/services to improve or modify to

ensure the smooth running of the programme in the semesters to come, e.g. the bus service,

teaching-learning facilities, counselling services, hostel facilities etc.

The study will also serve as a review to all the lecturers teaching the courses offered in the

programme, especially with regards to the aims, topics and sub-topics, teaching-learning

methods/approaches employed, teaching learning materials used in the classrooms, the

assignments and evaluation conducted etc. All the information gathered will assist them in

improving the administration of the courses, particularly those concerning academic matters.

The findings of this study will also hopefully benefit the students, particularly the junior

cohorts. Awareness of existing problems and what should be done to improve the services

and facilities provided on the part of the authorities and lecturers concerned will benefit the

students both directly and indirectly.

Finally, the data gathered in this study will serve as a useful guide to the authorities

concerned, particularly the BPG, in its future dealings or when considering new joint or

twinning programmes with other institutions of higher learning.

Limitations of the study

perspectives. Due to similar constraints, this study concentrated only on one out of so many

other joint programmes that MOEM has engaged in with other institutions throughout the

nation.

Only B. Ed. TEYL programme students from Cohorts 1, 2 and 3 were used as the population

in this study because the other two cohorts have not pursued their studies in UUM at the time

this study was conducted. Hence, they were not able to express their views regarding issues

related to UUM.

Literature review

This section reviews the empirical research literature relating to the students' satisfaction with

their programme. The first part provides definitions of key terms. The remaining parts

provide a brief overview of the theoretical underpinnings of each research area mentioned 124

497

above and reviews the empirical studies that have been undertaken to date in each area. The

probe into students' satisfaction with their course of study is an important research area within

educational evaluation. With the growing concern for accountability in educational outcomes,

the need for meaningful and stable measures has grown in importance.

Definition of key terms

Satisfaction

It is defined as being a consequence of the expectations and experiences of the subject

and/or course (Banwet & Datta, 2003).

Joint programmes

They refer to the engagement of two institutions in training future English teachers of the

nation, with the mission of preparing effective, quality English language teachers for

Malaysian schools (Teacher Education Division, 2004).

Introduction

Students' opinions about all aspects of academic life are now sought by educational

institutions worldwide, generally, in the form of a satisfaction feedback questionnaire. It is

this student satisfaction survey, within the context of Educational Studies, College of Arts

and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia that this paper addresses.

In relation to the international context, for instance, in the United Kingdom (UK), Higher

-

Students are the direct recipients of the service provided, i.e. a three year degree

programme, made up of a number of modules at each level. As if to confirm this status of

introduced a National Student Survey. This survey is aimed at final year students to seek

their views on a number of aspects of teaching, assessment and support provided by their

university and its courses (HEFCE, 2003). The results will ultimately be used by

Government and Funding Bodies to produce league tables of university performance. The

position of a university in any league table will impact ultimately on its image. Image has a

strong impact on the retention of current students and the attraction of potential students

(James, Baldwin & McInnis, 1999). 125

498

Indeed, recruitment and retention of students has been moved to the top of most universities'

agendas by HEFCE due to their desire to increase the UK student population in line with the

Government targets. Poor retention rates may have adverse funding consequences for

institutions (Rowley, 2003a). This paper takes the view that student satisfaction, retention

and recruitment are closely linked. Thus student satisfaction has become an extremely

important issue for universities and their management. The aim is to try to maximize student

satisfaction, minimize dissatisfaction and therefore retain students and to improve the

A number of previous research studies (Galloway, 1998; Banwet & Datta, 2003) into

student perceptions of quality/satisfaction have utilised the SERVQUAL framework

(Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1988). However, SERVQUAL has been much criticized

over the years (Buttle, 1996; Asubonteng, McCleary & Swan, 1996; Pariseau & Mc Daniel,

1997; Idridge & Rowley, 1998). Taking these criticisms into consideration, the

questionnaire used in the satisfaction survey asked only for perceptions of performance of a

range of service aspects (as well as importance), but did not aim to collect data associated

with expectations. Indeed, the survey questionnaire was designed around the concept of the

service-product bundle. This concept is discussed in the next section.

Teacher education philosophy and its implications for the roles of teachers

Based on the spirit of the National Education Philosophy, the Teacher Education Philosophy

will determine the course of direction and source of inspiration for teachers to follow as well

as to excel in the teaching profession. It states:

Teachers with noble characters, progressive and scientific outlook would be prepared to uphold

development and to safeguard a united, democratic, progressive and disciplined society (Teacher Education Division, 2003).

Objectives of teacher education

With regard to the Teacher Education Philosophy stated above, the main objective of

teacher education is to train and produce teachers with good personal, professional, social

and moral qualities. Teachers are to acquire knowledge, teaching skills and practice moral

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values that conform to the teaching profession as well as to fulfil the aims and aspirations of

the Education Vision programmes for the 21st century.

Issues impacting on student satisfaction

Price, Matzdorf, Smith and Agahi (2003) reported on the impact of facilities on

two years in order to determine students' reasons for selecting a particular university. The

average results for the two years were fairly similar the top eight reasons being; it offers

the right courses, the availability of computers, the high quality of library facilities, good

self-study, the quality of public transport in the town/city and a friendly attitude towards

students. Clearly, students' perceptions of a university's facilities are one of the main

influences on their decision to enrol into a particular programme offered by the institution.

Coles (2002) found that student satisfaction decreases when class sizes were larger in earlier

cohorts, and also when students are taking compulsory core modules rather than optional

experienced by customers forms part of their overall impression of the whole service

provided, (Dale, 2003) and by implication, their impression of the organisation itself.

As Deming (1982) commented, most people will form their opinions based on the people

that they see, and they are either dissatisfied or delighted, or at some other point on the

continuum in between. In order to deliver high quality services to students, universities must

manage every aspect of the student's interaction with all of their service offerings and in

particular those involving people or customers. Services are delivered to people by people,

and the moments of truth can make or break a university's image (Banwet & Datta, 2003).

In order to deliver total student satisfaction, all employees of a university should adhere to

the principles of quality customer service, whether they be front-line contact staff involved

in teaching or administration, or non-contact staff in management or administrative roles

(Gold, 2001; Low, 2000).

Banwet and Datta (2003) believed that satisfied customers are loyal. Parallel to that,

satisfied students were likely to attend another lecture delivered by the same lecturer or opt

for another module or course taught by her/him. In their survey of 168 students who 127

500

attended four lectures delivered by the same lecturer, covering perceived service quality,

importance and post-visit intentions, they found that students placed more importance on the

outcome of the lecture (knowledge and skills gained, availability of class notes and reading

materials coverage and depth of the lecture and teacher's feedback on assessed work) than

any other dimension. This supports the findings of Schneider and Bowen (1995) who

deduced that the quality of the core service influences the overall quality of the service

perception. For universities, the core service delivery method employed by lecturers is still

the lecture method. Overall, Banwet and Datta (2003) found that students' intentions to re-

attend or recommend lectures was dependent on their perceptions of quality and the

satisfaction they got from attending previous lectures. This is supported by the research of

Hill, Lomas and MacGregor (2003) who utilised focus groups to determine what quality

education meant to students. The most important theme was the quality of the lecturer

including classroom delivery, feedback to students during the session and on assignments,

and the relationship with students in the classroom.

Research by Tam (2002) to measure the impact of Higher Education (HE) on student's

academic, social and personal growth at a Hong Kong university found that as a result of

their university experience, students had changed intellectually, socially, emotionally and

culturally. This growth was evidenced as students progressed from one year to another as

their university career developed. Is this also the case with student's perceptions of service

quality and satisfaction? A number of researchers have suggested that this might indeed be

such a stance is difficult. This study aims to determine if there are differences in those

aspects of academic and non- academic in both institutions that students consider important,

as well as their satisfaction levels, associated with their year/level of study, i.e. first, second

and third cohorts.

In a recent survey conducted with 310 all male Saudi Arabian students attending the King

uality.

However, physical environment, layout, lighting, classrooms, appearance of buildings and

grounds and the overall cleanliness also significantly contributed to students' concepts of

service quality.

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Why collect student feedback?

Rowley (2003b) identified four main reasons for collecting student feedback:

to provide auditable evidence that students have had the opportunity to pass

comments on their courses and that such information is used to bring about

improvements;

to encourage student reflection on their learning;

to allow institutions to benchmark and to provide indicators that will contribute to

the reputation of the university in the marketplace; and

to provide students with an opportunity to express their level of satisfaction with

their academic experience.

The last bullet point is the rationale behind the survey undertaken for the particular research

project described in this paper.

The service-product bundle

and services

as the product offering (Sasser, 1995). The service-product bundle refers to the inseparable

offering of many goods and service including what the Educational Studies, College of Arts

and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia has to offer its students. This bundle consists of

three elements:

1. the physical or facilitating goods;

2. the sensual service provided the explicit service; and

3. the psychological service the implicit service.

For a university, the facilitating goods include the lectures and tutorials, presentation slides,

supplementary handout documents/materials and the recommended module texts. It also

includes the physical facilities such as the lecture theatres and tutorial rooms and their

residential colleges and hostels as well as ancillary services such as co-curricular,

counselling, support and mentoring system.

The explicit service includes the knowledge levels of staff, staff teaching ability, the

consistency of teaching quality irrespective of personnel, ease of making appointments with

staff, the level of difficulty of the subject content and the workload.

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The implicit service includes the treatment of students by staff, including friendliness and

approachability, concern shown if the student has a problem, respect for stud

and opinions, availability of staff, capability and competence of staff. It also includes the

ability of the university's environment to make the student feel comfortable, the sense of

competence, confidence and professionalism conveyed by the ambience in lectures and

tutorials, feelings that the student's best interest is being served and a feeling that rewards

are consistent with the effort put into course works/examinations. All of the above are based

on students' perceptions of the various parts of the service and the data is usually collected

via some form of feedback questionnaire.

Methods

A survey method was adopted in this study. It was an adaptation of Entwistle, Mc Cune &

The Experiences of Teaching and Learning Questionnaire (ETLQ). The

survey comprised 6 items on demographic details, 29 items on academic aspects and 13 items

on non-academic aspects for both institutions in which the Likert scale inventory was used.

The concept of the service-product bundle was adapted to design the survey questionnaire.

For the purpose of this paper, only findings from the academic aspects are focused. The

achieved. However, some minor amendments were made to a few items in the questionnaire.

A total of 150 students were involved as the sample of this study were 74 pre-service teachers

from Cohort 1, 72 teachers from Cohort 2 and 75 from Cohort 3 of the B.Ed. TEYL

programme they were in their 8th semester, 6th and 4th semesters at time of data collection.

The data analysis was carried out using quantitative method and presented in terms of

percentages. The written responses obtained from the open-ended questions, served the

purpose of triangulating the reliability of the data.

Findings and discussions

RQ 1: Student Satisfaction of the B. Ed. TEYL programme

A total of 95 percent of the respondents were satisfied with the programme because the aims

of the courses are achievable. This indicates that students feel this programme had updated

their knowledge and exposed them to innovations in the KBSR English syllabus.

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Table 1: Student satisfaction of the programme Academic UUM IPGM

1. Generally satisfied with the programme 95% 94%

RQ 2: Satisfaction with the academic aspects of the programme

a) A majority of respondents agreed that the courses are helpful in assisting them to teach

English to young learners successfully. The programme succeeded in helping teachers in their

career as well as enabled them to grasp innovation in the curriculum.

Table 2: Student satisfaction of academic aspects Academic UUM IPGM

8. The course handouts/materials given were very helpful

89.2% 85.2%

9. The learning experiences encouraged me to rethink my understanding of the courses

91.9% 90.5%

16. The instructor share their knowledge and experience about the content of the courses and innovations with students

86.5% 86.5%

b) A majority felt that the courses motivate them to engage in their professions. The exposure

and familiarity of the KBSR English syllabus in the courses were indeed a help to them in

classroom teaching.

Table 3: Student satisfaction of KBSR syllabus Academic UUM IPGM

24. We are encouraged to think critically and creatively in the courses

90.5% 93.2%

25. The current topics help me to make connections to my existing knowledge and experiences

91.9% 91.9%

26. We are encouraged to think about how best to tackle the set work

87.9% 87.9%

c) However, about 30 percent of the respondents showed their dissatisfaction with the

arrangement/organization of topics and subtopics of the courses. Here, the respondents

seemed to expect more well-organized and logical flow of topics and sub-topics of each

course.

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Table 4: Student dissatisfaction of the organization of topics Academic UUM IPGM

2. The topics of the courses are arranged in a logical/ sensible

way 29.7% 20.3%

3. The subtopics of the course units are well-organised

25.7% 21.6%

RQ 3: Problems/constraints encountered by the students during the course of the programme

This part of the survey required students to express their views and opinions through their

written responses. Amongst the problems or issues highlighted by the respondents were:

Top on the list was the duration of the programme which according to the respondents was

too long. This is because before undergoing the 4-year first degree programme, they had to do

a 2-year foundation English programme. The respondents also expressed their dissatisfaction

with the lack of teaching and learning facilities. A majority of the respondents also expressed

The next issue raised was the claim that there were too many assignments for many of the

that there was no feedback given on the assignments by some lecturers. Finally, some of the

students were not satisfied with the structure of the joint programme, which was basically the

1+2+1. This structure requires them to study in the IPGM in Year 1 and, whilst in Year 2 and

3 they have to attend classes and stay in UUM.

The students proposed several interesting suggestions to improve or make the programme

more interesting and practical in future. It should be mentioned at this point that some of their

suggestions have actually been taken up and carried out while students were both in UUM

and IPGM.

One of them is task-based learning or school-based learning activities conducted during visits

to selected primary schools throughout Malaysia, both in urban as well as rural areas. These

activities are usually one-day events conducted towards the end of the semester or during the

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semester break. Here, students carry out activities and games which they have learned from

the courses they had taken in the programme, e.g. ELT Methodology, ELT Curriculum

Studies, Teaching Reading and Writing and Teaching Aural-Oral Skills.

During their visits to schools, students would facilitate Year 1 to Year 6 primary school

pupils with various activities such as language games, songs, role-plays, simulations, journal

benefit both the school pupils and the B.

Ed. TEYL students. The former would get to use English in real-life situations, while the

latter would be exposed to natural authentic contexts something like micro-teaching

situations - with real students. Among the objectives of these task-based activities are to

create opportunities to link theory into practice, expose them to real classroom contexts, and

experience both rural and urban environments which pose as useful pre-posting orientation

for the students.

The second of such activities suggested by students and carried out with the help of

-

activities was the educational trip to Perth, Australia. Twenty-three Cohorts 3 and 4 students

went on the trip and visited the Edith Cowan University (ECU) and Hollywood Primary

School. Amongst the benefits of the trip were the first-hand experience students got of

western learning culture and foreign classroom contexts. Besides, the students also became

to them. In fact, some of them highlighted several interesting possible research areas or topics

in their reports. Among them are Sociolinguistics Knowledge (Australian accent), Literacy

Development, Communicative Language Teaching, English as an International Language

(EIL), Culture and Policy, and Speaking and Listening.

Finally, the students suggested some possible activities as a follow-up to the Australian trip.

Among them are opening up opportunities for them to continue their studies at the ECU or

other Australian universities, organizing exchange programmes for Malaysian TEYL

students to study in Australia (a cross-cultural TEYL programme), and engaging in teaching

practicum exchange programme in collaboration with foreign universities.

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Conclusions

In conclusion, despite the limited scope of the study, the results as well as the entire process

reported in this paper seem to indicate that the main objective of the study was successfully

achieved; and that the majority of the students were satisfied with the aims of the courses

offered by both institutions. On the other hand, students were dissatisfied with the

organisation/arrangement of the topics and sub-topics of the courses. Given that

organisation/arrangement of the topics and subtopics is vital for the programme, it can be said

that lecturers take their time to put more emphasis on theoretical aspects rather than practical

aspects in the courses. Finally, the limited use of teaching modes by lecturers from both

institutions is yet another factor against this dissatisfaction

Recommendations

The present study has raised a number of recommendations that may merit further attention,

four of which will be listed here:

1. Joint Programmes should have clear and well-stated aims and objectives in line with

the Malaysian Qualifications Framework (MQF) requirement.

2. The structure of the joint programmes should be more systematically organized.

3. Joint programmes should offer more courses using methodological syllabuses, (more

4. Lecturers should expose students to more school-based experience and provide them

with authentic classroom materials (video, journal articles etc)

Implications

The study seems to suggest several positive implications for the programme. Firstly, is that

the aims of the programme are achievable in both institutions because they were clearly

stated. Next, the course contents should be presented in a logical and well-sequenced manner.

As students take their learning seriously and pay attention to the organisation of the content of

the courses offered, they prefer the rather than the teaching. Furthermore,

lecturers should be more innovative and creative in their teaching.

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Tell

Me

More:

Issues

and

Challenges Harwati

Hashim

(Politeknik Merlimau Melaka, Malaysia)

Melor MD

Yunus

(Universiti

Kebangsaan

Malaysia, Malaysia)

Abstract

Integration of technology into language education has become an everyday occurrence.

Educational multimedia courseware as resource materials to enhance the teaching and

learning of English language was produced extensively. Regardless of the cost, computers

and courseware are becoming important tools for learning in institutions. Therefore, a

considerable pressure is being put on the ESL teachers to make use of the courseware marvels

in their lesson since the cost of the courseware is rather expensive. This paper aims to

investigate the issues and challenges faced by the ESL lecturers on the use of a courseware

named TELL ME MORE in a polytechnic in Melaka. Data was collected via semi-structured

interviews with four ESL lecturers at the polytechnic. Findings show that the courseware is a

useful tool for language learning. However, there are certain challenges that the ESL

lecturers had to face such as time and lack of facilities.

Introduction

In the past, the cost of computers and courseware greatly restricted the use of computers in

education. However, at present, integration of technology into language education has

become an everyday occurrence. Educational multimedia courseware as resource materials to

enhance the teaching and learning of English language was produced extensively. Regardless

of the cost, computers and courseware are becoming important tools for learning in

institutions. Therefore, a considerable pressure is being put on the ESL teachers to make use

of the courseware marvels in their lesson since the cost of the courseware is rather expensive.

It is undeniable that the utilization of ICT in education has both advantages and constraints.

With the use of the courseware in the English language classroom and with the integration of

ICT in the teaching of the subject, it is important to ensure that the courseware really supports

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doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.3n.2p.136

509

ning as a learning tool; and whether the use of courseware is beneficial for a

long term investment for the institution. ESL teachers cannot simply assume that the

techniques, approaches and strategies that worked well in the traditional learning environment

of the classroom can simply be successfully used in the environment of the ICT. In order to

ensure the use of the courseware is successful, it is essential to identify the advantages as well

as the challenges faced by ESL teachers beforehand. Therefore, this paper aims to investigate

the issues and challenges faced by the ESL lecturers in the use of a courseware named TELL

ME MORE in a polytechnic in Melaka.

Literature review

Over the decades, new technologies, including the introduction of information and

communication technologies (ICT) and the extensive use of courseware in schools have

revolutionised the education system. The demand for virtual learning and the use of ICT are

increasing. Notably, new technologies are seen to be the key factor in helping to meet this

demand. The revolution of information and communication technology (ICT) recently has

made many people interested in integrating the use of computers. This includes teachers and

educators from various disciplines.

There are many researchers who have carried out studies to evaluate the benefits of using ICT

in education. Based on the British Educational Communications and Technology

Agency (BECTA) (2005) ICT promotes greater collaboration among students and encourages

communication and the sharing of knowledge. ICT gives rapid and accurate feedbacks to

students and this contributes towards positive motivation. ICT tools have now removed the

time and space limitation found in traditional teaching. Classroom dialogue can now extend

beyond the time and space constraints of class time (Frayer 1997, as cited in Samuel &

Zaitun, 2006).

Many teachers and educators feel that the use of technology changes the dynamics of their

classrooms. Numerous studies have been done to determine whether or not this is actually

true. A comparative study in Malaysia between CALL and traditional teaching method

conducted by Rohaya, Ashinida Afendi, Hamat & Mohd. Shabri (2004) shows that CALL

. There are a number of researches that have been

conducted related to learning using courseware. Sander, Kerlen, Steinke, and Huk (2003),

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however, suggested that more research activities should be done to prove the impact of

educational courseware on teaching and learning.

As far as language teaching is concerned, the role of the teachers will depend on the purposes

of the relative importance of the individual aspects. For example, giving a high priority to an

area like pronunciation, which requires intensive practice and precise feedback, will

automatically heighten the role of the teacher as coach, although with the ability of audio

technologies, the role can be delegated to ICT (Kenning, 2007). Therefore, it is hard to say

that equipments are

and quality of the teaching presence vary considerably across CALL software, and, as with a

real teacher, the teaching presence can come in different forms (Hubbard, 2006).

Chong, Chee Keong, Sharaf Horani, and Daniel (2005) conducted a study on 111 respondents

to investigate the use of ICT in Mathematics teaching and found that teachers are not fully

utilizing the ICT facilities in their teaching. Six major barriers were identified: lack of time in

the school schedule for projects involving ICT, insufficient teacher training opportunities for

ICT projects, inadequate technical support for these projects, lack of knowledge about ways

to integrate ICT to enhance the curriculum, difficulty in integrating and using different ICT

tools in a single lesson and unavailability of resources at home for the students to access the

necessary educational materials. Melor (2007) conducted a study on English teachers in

technical schools in Penins

attitude to the use of ICT in teaching is positive. The analysis also provides evidence that the

teachers perceive that using ICT has many benefits to language teaching and learning.

competency especially in some specific areas of ICT and also some other related factors such

as lack of access, unavailability of the computers and lack of time.

Methodology

This study employed a qualitative design using semi-structured interview to obtain the ESL

ish

language. Four female ESL lecturers with a minimum of one year experience to a maximum

of six years experience of teaching in a polytechnic in Melaka participated in the semi-

structured interview. All of them possess a degree in teaching English as second language 138

511

(TESL) from various local universities. The names of the ESL lecturers mentioned in the

discussion are pseudonym.

Findings

This section presents findings based on the interview sessions with four ESL lecturers who

are teaching semester one students. The aim is to look into their perceptions on the use of the

TELL ME MORE courseware in a polytechnic in Melaka. The findings are discussed

according to issues and challenges.

Issues on the use of TELL ME MORE courseware for the learning of English language

The ESL lecturers were asked on their opinion regarding the practice provided in TELL ME

MORE. There were two different views given by the lecturers. ESL lecturer B believed that

the students get enough practice in TELL ME MORE because there are a lot of activities

provided. She said,

practices, pronunciation, crossword puzzles and many more. (ESL lecturer B)

The ESL lecturers were also asked on their opinion about the level of difficulty of the

courseware for their students. All lecturers commented that the courseware is at the

problem regarding the level of difficulty because the courseware provides different levels of

difficulty for different levels of proficiency. Below are their responses;

The beginner can choose the beginner level, the intermediate can choose the intermediate level and same goes to the advance where they can choose the advanced level. (ESL lecturer A) Basically in the courseware, there are certain proficiency levels which are beginner, intermediate and advance so the students can choose which level that is appropriate with their level of proficiency. (ESL lecturer B)

choose which one is the most suitable for them. (ESL lecturer C)

ferent levels which are beginner, intermediate and advance. So weak students can choose beginner, moderate students can choose intermediate and the good students can choose advance level. Yes, it is at the appropriate level of difficulty for my students. (ESL lecturer D)

All four ESL lecturers were asked on the possibility of their students remembering what they

have learnt using TELL ME MORE. According to ESL lecturer A, she believed that students

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are able to remember what they have learnt in the courseware because the activities are fun

provided in the courseware are quite fun and it is suitable for their culture and background

knowledge. The researcher then probed

about culture and background knowledge. She explained,

What I meant by their culture is that all activities in the courseware are daily activities which they do every day and the activities are not too culturally based where most of the videos used are displaying modern living. As far as their background knowledge is concerned, all activities are familiar to them and they have learnt it in their modules especially on the communication activities.

The ESL lect

learnt in TELL ME MORE outside of the classroom were also obtained. Basically, ESL

lecturer C believed that her students might have practiced what they have learnt in the

cours

When asked about their perception on TELL ME

MORE. They mentioned that their students like to use the courseware due to different

ading,

definitely like to use it because they find it interesting and it is a new way of learning. (ESL lecturer B).

the activities. Furthermore, sometimes they need something different rather than just sit and listen to their lecturer. (ESL lecturer C)

Challenges on the use of TELL ME MORE courseware for the learning of English language

Apart from the benefits , the ESL lecturers had mentioned, there were also certain challenges

that they had faced in using the courseware in English language learning. ESL lecturer D felt

that the students still needed guidance from their ESL lecturer especially in certain activities.

Her concern was regarding the pronunciation activities which definitely need a lecturer to

actually help them in pronouncing words correctly as they might be unable to get the correct

pronunciation produced by the computer. This was probably due to the use of the British

accent where students are not familiar with the pronunciation by native speakers. So,

students might have problems in understanding the accent. She clarified,

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513

be explained by

lecturer especially the pronunciation activities because they need their lecturer to actually pronounce the word as they cannot get the pronunciation produced by the computer. (ESL lecturer D)

Regarding the practices provided in the courseware, some of the ESL lecturers believed that

students did not get enough practice in the courseware due to the time constraint. This was

probably due to the limited contact hours of the English modules where they only have two

hours a week. One of them claimed,

two hours, we have to deduct few minutes for the students to arrive at the lab, minus few minutes to switch on the computer and not forgotten few minutes that we have to spare to switch off the computer. So, overall we have only about 40 minutes to conduct the lesson. (ESL lecturer A)

With regard to the possibility that students could remember what they have learnt using

TELL ME MORE, even though some positive responses were given, there were also some

opposite views given by other ESL lecturers. ESL lecturer B and ESL lecturer C had a

different view regarding this matter. They believed that students might be able to remember

the communication activities but not the grammar part. ESL lecturer C commented,

especially the communication part. However, I doubt the students can remember the grammar part as the explanations are very simple. I guess low proficiency students might have problem in remembering the grammar part. (ESL lecturer C)

The ESL lecturers also mentioned that some of the main challenges in using the courseware

were time constraint, syllabus and facilities. ESL lecturer A mentioned that because of

have the opportunity to use the courseware provided in the language laboratory, due to

licensing where it is impossible for the students to have the courseware on their own at home.

provided.

lecturer D). This was probably because the contact hours for the English language lesson are

too short.

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514

ESL lecturer C mentioned about the syllabus which was part of the reason why the students

own syllabus because not all d

that they must teach according to the syllabus and they have to complete the syllabus. She

because

Besides that, one of the lecturers mentioned about the lack of facilities such as computers, and

that the language laboratory was not conducive. It was also found that lecturers are not fond

laboratory) is not really conduc

The ESL lecturers were asked on their opinion about the quality of the computers in the

language laboratory. Based on their responses, it can be concluded that the computers in the

language laboratory were not acceptable where quality was concerned. Basically, the ESL

lecturers mentioned about the lack of facilities and technical problems. ESL lecturer A

mentioned that the computers were not of quality as the audio system did not function well.

She also believed that they need more computers in order to fully utilize the courseware. She

said,

We need more computers in the future in order to implement or to use the courseware

es, students are more than 42.

Another challenge highlighted by the ESL lecturers was regarding the technical aspects

which were the server and the networking. The ESL lecturers responded,

lecturer B)

Well, sometimes we do have problem with server. So it is very unpredictable. (ESL lecturer C)

That is our main problem. There are times where the computers cannot be used because of the server or something else. (ESL lecturer D)

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515

Discussion

Issues on the use of TELL ME MORE courseware for the learning of English language

From the interview with the ESL lecturers, it was found that the English language lecturer

believed that the students got enough practice in TELL ME MORE because there were a lot

of activities provided such as communication practices, pronunciation and crossword puzzle.

problem regarding the level of difficulty because the courseware provides all levels of

This would probably make the students be more

their level of proficiency and motivation in learning the language. According to Chapelle,

Jamieson & Preiss (2005) criteria for CALL evaluation, learners fit will also determine their

use of ICT whether the material is appropriate to their level and also whether they are

anticipated in the learning activities

The results of the interview with the English language lecturers also showed that students

were able to remember what they had learnt in the courseware because the activities were fun

and suitable for their culture and background knowledge. This finding is in line with finding

by Chapelle, Jamieson & Preiss(2005) where the responses in the weekly questionnaires

revealed that most of the students could remember some of the content of the Longman

English Online (LEO) CALL materials. The use of the courseware was also found to bring

positive impacts to the teaching and learning of the language. The findings indicated that the

students liked the courseware and it gave positive impact to the students. It is supported by

Lee (2000) who suggests that if CALL technologies are integrated appropriately, they can

support experiential learning and practice in a variety of modes, provide effective feedback to

learners, enable pair and group work, promote exploratory and global learning, enhance

student achievement, provide access to authentic materials, facilitate greater interaction,

individualize instruction, allow independence from a single source of information, and

motivate learners.

Challenges on the use of TELL ME MORE courseware for the learning of English language

Regarding the challenges, the findings revealed that students still need guidance from their

ESL lecturers particularly the pronunciation activities which definitely need a lecturer to

actually help them in pronouncing words correctly as they might unable to get the correct

pronunciation produced by the computer. This was probably due to the use of the British

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516

accent where students were not familiar with the pronunciation by the native speakers. So,

students might have problems in understanding the accent. The students still need someone

to guide them. Both the degree and quality of the teaching presence vary considerably across

CALL software, and, as with a live teacher, the teaching presence can come in different forms

(Hubbard, 2006).

The findings also showed that students did not get enough practice in the courseware.

Reasons given were due to time constraint. This was probably due to the limited contact

hours of the English modules where they only have two hours a week. This findings support

findings by Nor Ashikin (2009) who found that one of the teacher-related challenges was

time constraint. It is also supported by Januddin (I997) and Norin (2004) who found that

time-constraint is one of the major barriers. Apart from that, the findings also revealed that

students might not be able to remember the content of the courseware particularly of

grammar.

There were also other several challenges that were pointed out by the ESL lecturers which

were time, interface and quality of computers provided. In terms of time, there were three

problems that had been identified which were syllabus, facilities and time constraint. It was

also found that because of limited time, students could only do a few exercises. This was

probably because students only had the opportunity to use the courseware provided in the

language laboratory, due to licensing where it was impossible for the students to have the

courseware at home. The findings also revealed that the syllabus was one of the challenges as

well. This was because the ESL lecturers must also teach according to the syllabus and they

had to complete the syllabus. Besides that, one of the lecturers mentioned about the lack of

facilities such as computers, and that the language laboratory was not conducive. It was also

found that lecturers were not fond of using the language laboratory due to its condition.

Apart from that, the quality of the computers in the language laboratory was also one of the

happy with the quality of the computers in the language laboratory. Basically, two main

problems had been identified which were lack of facilities and technical problems such as

networking and server. The ESL lecturers also believed that they need more computers in

order to fully utilize the courseware. This finding complements the finding of a study

conducted by Chua (2009) which reported that teachers claimed they face challenges in using 144

517

ICT especially due to insufficient facilities. Melor (2007) reported the same finding which

most of the teachers identified problems with the quantity or the organization of computers.

This is also consistent with the findings of Pelgrum (2001, as cited in Melor, 2007) and Guha

(2000, as cited in Melor 2007) where insufficient numbers of computers was cited as a major

obstacle to the integration of ICT into teaching and learning. Another problem highlighted by

the lecturers was regarding the technical aspects which were the server and the networking.

Conclusion

The findings of the semi-structured interviews have assisted the researchers to understand the

issues and challenges faced by the ESL lecturers in the polytechnic in utilizing the TELL ME

MORE courseware in language learning. In this study, it was found that the use of the

courseware is a useful tool for language learning and it could help students in increasing their

proficiency and motivation. However, it should be noted that there are challenges faced by

the English language lecturers such as time and lack of facilities that need to be taken into

consideration in order to make the use of the courseware effective and successful. English

language lecturers should familiarize themselves first with what the courseware has to offer.

There are many benefits which can be gained from utilizing the courseware in language

teaching and learning. The courseware which is equipped with multimedia features provides

opportunities for students to play and participate actively in the language learning process

where this makes learning via the courseware fun, enjoyable and informative to students and

English language lecturers alike. In this study, it was found that the use of the courseware

could help students in increasing their proficiency and motivation. Probably, with the use of

the courseware, it could overcome the current problem faced by the country which is the

deterioration of the level of English language proficiency among Malaysian students. It could

also be a possible suggestion in helping the students to improve their English language level

of proficiency and to empower the teaching and learning of English language since the

teaching of Mathematics and Science (ETeMS) will revert to Bahasa Malaysia in 2012

(Malaysia Today 2009).

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berbantukan computer) dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran Bahasa Arab sebagai bahasa asing: Satu tinjauan awal. GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies, Vol. 4(1) 2004. http://www.fpbahasa.ukm.my/linguistics /Gema/GemaVol4.1.2004No1.pdf [18 August 2008].

British Educational Communications and Technology Agency. (2005). The Becta Review: Evidence on the progress of ICT in education. www.becta.org.uk/research/display.cfm?section=1 [23 September 2008].

Carmen et al. (2003). Use of ICTs and the Perception of E-Learning among University Students: A Differential Perspective according to Gender and Degree Year Group. Interactive Educational Multimedia, No 7 (October 2003) pp 13- 28.

Chapelle, C., Jamieson, J. & Preiss, S. (2005). Call evaluation by developers, a teacher, and students. https://calico.org/a-133-CALL%20Evaluation%20 by%20Developers % 20 a% 20Teacher %20and%20Students.html [10 January 2009].

Chong, Chee Keong, Sharaf Horani & Daniel, J. (2005). The study on the use of ict in mathematics teaching. Malaysian Online Journal of Instructional Technology (MOJIT) Vol. 2 No.3 pp 43-51 http://pppjj.usm.my/mojit/article/pdf/Dec05/06-A_Study_on_the_Use_of_ICT_in_Mathematics_Teaching-final.pdf

Chua Pei Lin. (2009). The use of ICT in learning English as a second language among the urban school students in Kuala Terengganu.

González-Lloret, M. (2003). Designing task-based call to promote interaction : en busca de esmeraldas. Language Learning and Technology. January 2003, Volume 7, Number 1, pp. 86-104. http://llt.msu.edu/vol7num1/Gonzalez/ [20 December 2008].

Hubbard, P. (2006). Evaluating CALL software. Chapter 13 from L. Ducate & N. Arnold (eds) (2006). Calling on CALL : From Theory and Research to New Directions in Foreign Teaching. San Marcos : CALICO. Pre-publication copy.

Janudin Awang. (1997). Kekerapan penggunaan teknologi pendidikan oleh tenaga pengajar di sekolah menengah dalam kem angkatan tentera. Bangi.

Kenning, M. (2007). ICT and language learning : from print to mobile phone. New York : Palgrave Macmillan Lee, K. W. (2000). English teachers' barriers to the use of computer-assisted language learning. The Internet TESL Journal. http://iteslj.org/Articles/Lee-CALLbarriers.html. [3 January 2008]. Malaysia Today. (2009). Teaching of Sciences and Mathematics back to Bahasa Melayu. http://mt.

m2day.org/2008/content/view/24075/84/ [2 November 2009] Melor Md Yunus. (2007). Factors affecting the use of information communication technologies in teaching

English as a second language in Malaysia. PhD Dissertation, Faculty of Social Sciences and Law, UK: University of Bristol.

Melor Md Yunus. (2007). European Association for Computer Assisted Language Learning. ReCALL 19(1): 79-95.

TESL te Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia : Bangi.

Norin Mustaffa. (2004). Kemahiran, masalah dan tahap penggunaan computer di kalangan guru-guru sekolah bestari negeri Perak. PhD Thesis. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia : Bangi.

Samuel, R.J. & Zaitun Abu Bakar. (2006). The utilization and integration of ICT tools in promoting English language teaching and learning: Reflections from English option teachers in Kuala Langat District, Malaysia. http://ijedict.dec.uwi.edu/viewarticle.php?id=161&layout=html [ 12 August 2008 ].

Sander, U., Kerlen, G., Steinke, M., & Huk, T. (2003). Evaluation of two CD-ROMs from a series on cell Biology. Cell Biology Education, 2.

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147

Assessing the Global Community Angela Khristin Brown

doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.3n.2p.147

The purpose of this essay is to define the global economy, determine its value on the world, and

to construct a viable plan that works.

A community is a group of people who express the same interest on what their education goals

are and show interest in pursuing their dreams. An academic community is formed from different

cultures who desire the same interest in obtaining a skill to pursue a desired profession. A global

community lives in an organizational climate which is structured to meet an educational need.

Cultural adversity is a group of people, who express diverse backgrounds, is unbiased in

expressing their values in obtaining an educational goal.

A community is a culturally adverse in developing organizational structure. Standards are needed

to measuring the type of skills desired for the industry. The structure of their educational climate

is diverse with culture, because, the environment they live in is different and requires diversity to

define a class structure.

One determines a cultural perspective as an individual whose values are different from other

groups. We live in an integrated society. Technological advances have improved industry

standards. Everyone plays an intricate role in the world economy. Skills are distributed and

competed within the universe. The resources are a viable source in the world economy. Every

culture manages a universal demand of resource of distribution necessary to sustain an equitable

living.

148

An academic community may meet the same interest in learning a skill. The skill may be a

learned experience in a workforce environment. The academic community may use its resources

to meet an industry standard. The community may be trained a specific skill required in a

specific occupation. The acquired skill may prepare people for the workforce to obtain a job for

mobility or advancement in a particular field.

A global community differs in economic resources. There resources require different skills to

meet the type of economic development. The global workforce has a diverse market in

determining the skills needed within their community. The technological industry is diverse in

outsourcing the economic need.

The role of an education institution is to make this a competitive market. There is a need to

outsource our competition. Education standards are compared within the global community.

There is a need to excel in math, reading and writing. It is necessary to learn math that is relative

in real life applications. A student, who asks will I need this skill in real life, inquires the need to

associate a skill to real life application. It is imperative to require reading comprehension skills

beyond basic understanding; but to have imprecated understanding by using real life application

skills. The workplace requires the eviction to understand formulas, statistics and instruction in a

coherent manner. It is important to train students on how to communicate and write in clear and

cohesively. A person who can speak and write in a manner everyone can understand. Without

good communication skills, you will not understand directions well or know how to meet

expectations.

With the advances in technology, it should be a requirement in the learning environment.

Students excel in using the mechanics of technology. Computer technology is being outsourced

149

with its employment of its need. A computer may be used in the classroom to instruct

individually as an important resource. A student can use a computer to work math applications,

to be tested on reading comprehension, to take notes on power point slides, to give a speech on

power point slides or conduct research for an online assignment. A computer may be used for

individual instruction to write a paper in class assignments doing statistics or graphics or train in

development of math, reading or writing skills.

With the advances of technology, students can use a computer to solve empirical questions in

science. A computer can be used to discover anecdotes to mathematical formulas in real life

applications. Students can determine theories to unquestionable problems about the universe.

Students can develop knowledge within the technological advances in medicine. Students can

develop knowledge through devising skills in mechanical technology in the classroom.

With a world rubric to devising the technical skills, the world can create an equitable community

on the global scale. If we all contribute to the world economy, it would be a better place. The

world economy would be more unified in contributing to the global environment. We could find

solutions to preserving world resources. We could become a world economy who cares for its

global environment. We can determine where we stand in the universe. We could plan on ways

to outsource our primitive organizational climate towards making advances that make this world

a more sustainable environment to live.

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Defining English Language Proficiency for Malaysian Tertiary Education: Past, Present and Future Efforts

Chan Swee Heng

Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication 46400 Serdang Universiti Putra Malaysia

Selangor, Malaysia Email: shchan@upm.edu.my

doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.3n.2p.150

Abstract Any attempt to define English language proficiency can never be divorced from the theories that describe the nature of language, language acquisition and human cognition. By virtue of such theories being socially constructed, the descriptions are necessarily value-laden. Thus, a definition of language proficiency can only, at best, be described as developmental, following changes that are linguistic, pragmatic, cultural and political. In defining English proficiency for tertiary education, the context is naturally also linked to the focus on university education. The argument has been that an ‘acceptable’ level of language competence of a university applicant is anything but constant. Tremendous social changes have seen traditional values of elitism in university education giving way to the ‘massification’ of education. As Kaplan and Baldauf (1997:257) affirms, “The principal problem in tertiary education is not declining literacy standards but rather it is about meeting changed societal, cultural and informational requirements and circumstances”. In the light of these changes, this paper attempts to trace influencing factors that help define an ‘acceptable’ level of English proficiency for Malaysian tertiary education. The paper examines past and present efforts of establishing an English language policy and assessment practice for tertiary education, and concludes with some views on future development that could evolve from the current indicative pursuits of establishing language learning and ability. Keywords: English language proficiency, Malaysian tertiary education, language policies, language learning 1. Defining English language proficiency In defining the construct of language proficiency, a number of questions invariably come to mind: 1) What does it mean to be proficient in the language? 2) How is proficiency defined in the context of socio-political changes? And finally 3) How is proficiency defined by institutional needs? In the early learning of the English language in Malaysia, there appears to be an ‘assumed” proficiency for tertiary use. Under the British, Malaya did not have a clear or uniform language policy. In these early days, the emergent system could be traced to the Education Code of 1899 which spelt out the nature of learning in school to be one that:

151

… emphasize(s) the importance of teaching English by making English Vocabulary and Composition one of the 'elementary subjects' with reading, writing and arithmetic, and strengthening it further by making 'English grammar and construction' a class subject to be taken with it.

(Gaudart 1987)

Asmah (2003:102) in her review of early education in Malaya, states that “A certificate from the English school promised jobs in the government and in the private sector, and most of all it opened the path to higher education.”(my italics). In contrast, the vernacular schools only “produced literate farmers, carpenters and small time shopkeepers”. The outstanding practice of a quadrilingual educational system (English, Malay, Chinese and Tamil) led to a British legacy in education that perpetuated unequal opportunities and access to English proficiency. Those enrolled in English medium schools naturally had better chances at acquiring a better level of English proficiency compared to those in vernacular schools. It also moulded “a cosmopolitan, modernizing group drawn in varying proportions from the three traditional communities whose common bond was English....” (Asmah 2003: 102) or proficiency in English. The dynamics of non-Anglo Englishes (as discussed in Seiderhofer 2003), set into motion by forces that were social, political ad economic, created a profile of a proficient pre-independent Malayan with regard to English language use. He generally had the opportunity of an English education and on average could be described as having achieved a high level of competence in the English language especially if he were to enter tertiary education. It could thus be said that a successful English medium student was expected to have the ‘assumed’ proficiency necessary to follow tertiary education which used English as the medium of instruction. Along with the socio, political, and economic dynamics that affected the educational developments, there existed also specific linguistic developments that impacted the language teaching syllabus. These were manifest in new theories of language ability. Early linguists in the west became more concerned about promoting literature and culture, and grammar as ingredients that would help the students to gain respectability and mileage in universities. The concern with literature and culture, and grammar filtered into the teaching of the English language in Malaya. There were also other parallel developments that lead to the revamp of the English language curriculum and pedagogical approaches. In the early 1950s, learning theories were strongly influenced by behaviourists and the accompanying structural approaches. To be proficient in English, in other words, is to know the structures of the language well and this translated into a heavy emphasis on the learning of grammar used in contrived situations. Years later, the structural-situational syllabus of English was replaced by the Communicative Syllabus that emphasized the teaching of language functions and forms, with a de-emphasis of the teaching of grammar. Debates continued among the linguists on the competence/performance distinction leading to more theories and frameworks that attempted to explain the construct of language proficiency (among them are Oller’s grammar expectancy (1973), Canale and Swain’s (1980) competence framework and Bachman and Palmer’s competency model (1996)). 2. Pre- and post-independence definition of a proficient Malaysian in English As a result of the various forces influencing education, it was unsurprising that English medium schools were generally accused of promoting the acquisition of foreign, Western

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values through language use. The processes had defined a pre-independence proficient Malayan speaker of English steeped in such values. A typical first generation of Malayans educated in the English medium school graduated with a certificate that described the graduate as having ability in dictation, composition skills and literature. It implied that he or she was exposed to English culture, read English literature and used English for most cognitive processing and problem-solving. The graduate must have a credit pass in English for the awarding of the certificate and it was this Malayan who would then enter tertiary education, usually abroad. In addition, the value of being proficient in English was specifically seen in the training of the upper-class Malay children in English as they were seen to be the future leaders of the people. For this intention, a special English medium school was set up, the Malay College (Wong and Ee 1975). Drastic changes related to the defining of English proficiency came about with the post independence movement. The prelude to change was the Razak Report of 1956 which formally defined English as the ‘second most important language’. It firmly laid the foundation for a national integrated educational policy. The report recommended that the existing types of primary schools (missionary schools, vernacular schools, religious schools, etc.) that had sprung up under the British rule be integrated into a national system, thus paving the way for a common curriculum and a common language for instruction. This signaled formally the detachment of the esteemed status given to English. The May 13, 1969 racial riots played a major role in hastening the completion of the change in the language of instruction which had ripple effects on the learning English language right up to the tertiary level. The policy change was completed in 1977, spanning a period of thirteen years. This period of change witnessed English to be entrenched only as a core subject with a status like any other content subjects such as History, Geography and Science. By 1983, the change had filtered to the tertiary institutions where Malay is used as the medium of instruction. Parallel developments in policy enactment also resulted in changes in the status of the English language in formal education. In 1988, a pragmatic move that followed the change of the MOI (medium of instruction) policy was the reversal of the requirement of a credit pass in English for university entry. In 1995, it became official that English was not a compulsory subject to pass in order to obtain the Secondary School Leaving Certificate (Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia) after 11 years of school education. While there was an official demise on the use of English as MOI, English, however, remained very much a language widely used for interaction especially in the urban areas. The policy spawned a language situation where there were communities which became monolingual as a result of the National Language Policy, and in other communities, the bilingual or trilingual orientation became dominant. The multilingual continued to enjoy a language advantage especially when he or she continued into tertiary education where much of the reference materials remained in English. The system of the past in fact has helped defined the competent English language user of today. He or she is likely to come from a background where English is widely used for a diverse range of purposes and could come from a community which had a reasonably high or middle class socio-economic status. 3. English language proficiency at the Malaysian tertiary level Undoubtedly, the university plays a significant role in promoting educational or language policies. While there was no one overt national policy that promotes proficiency in English in the university then, it was observed that it was the norm in universities to include the learning of English as part of the tertiary experience. However, the degree of emphasis differed from university to university though it was common for universities to give the proficiency courses a status similar to other content courses. Failure in the English courses could lead to a failure

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in graduation. In this sense, a minimum level of English proficiency is expected of the undergraduate before he leaves for the workplace. Some universities see English courses as a burden to the normal curriculum and place them as courses that were considered as ‘outside the curriculum’ courses. While it was compulsory to pass them, they do not add to the total credits of a programme. Malaysian universities, on the whole, were found to conduct many remedial courses for the improvement of the English language as students who entered tertiary education began to show a significant lack of English proficiency especially after the implementation of the National Language Policy. This situation became a cause for concern. Many reports were written to address the problems, among which, was the perennial problem of staffing to teach the courses. Unlike schools, universities, however, were able to define their own parameters with regard to the learning of English. Course offerings for English could differ from university to university and so were attempts to define language ability. In some universities, such as Universiti Putra Malaysia, a placement test was used in the early years to put students in the appropriate level. The early English courses in the 70s adopted a structural approach with some emphasis given to the other language skills which included dictation. An example of a fundamental course is shown below:

BB 051 Fundamental in English Usage (2 credit hours)

Understanding and mastering the fundamentals of English; Revision of the normal verb and its five forms, the use of the five forms including infinitives, gerunds, and participles; regular and irregular verbs, knowing and using all the irregular verbs, their forms, and meaning; The verb ‘be’, auxiliary verbs; All the basic tenses; The verb ‘be’, auxiliary Verbs; All the basic tenses; The active and passive aspects of the basic tenses; The affirmative, negative and interrogative, The personal pronouns; The countable and uncountable nouns, The article; Simple and short comprehension passages for oral and written work (criteria for choice of passages will be of relevance to the science and interest); Vocabulary extension via vocabulary substitution; Study of words and phrases in context – importance of context in determining meaning; The use of the dictionary; Basic English sentence structures; Pattern practice; Rapid reading and comprehension; Dictation; Listening comprehension; Writing of simple paragraphs. (The course will comprise 2 contact hours and 1 hour in the Lab). For several years, three basic levels of general English were offered in UPM (English Skills 1, 2, and 3). BBI 200 English Skills Level I 02 BBI 201 English Skills Level II 02 BBI 202 English Skills Level III 02 BBI 203 Academic Writing Skills 02 BBI 252 Written Communication in Business 02

From the courses offered, it was clear that English proficiency was defined mainly in terms of using English for general purposes. A placement test was used to evaluate entry proficiency level and if the student was placed at the lowest level, he had to complete three courses before he was deemed adequately ‘proficient’ in the language. For those who were more proficient, there was the option of pursuing a course in academic English, while business students had to take Written Communication in Business as part of their programme.

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The courses offered became the de facto language policy at the tertiary institution. It was a period largely characterized by ‘experimentation’ influenced mainly by external aid and collaborative programmes under the auspices of the ODA or CHICHE programmes- both of which are British funded. In the 80s when students’ proficiency was perceived to suffer a decline, some universities began to increase their contact hours (e.g. three hours of lecture/tutorial and one hour of lab session). Self–access lab materials complemented the lecture hours to help improve the students’ proficiency. In UPM, the general English syllabi were revamped to give more focus on ESP in the early 90s. Hence, courses called English for Academic Purposes were introduced. Recognition was given to reading at the first level while the second focused on reading and speaking and the third on reading and writing. After the first level, students were streamed according to three strands:

a) Tropical Agricultural Science : This catered to students from the Faculties of Agriculture, Forestry, Fisheries and Marine Science, and Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science

b) Science and Technology : This catered to students from the Faculties of Food Science

and Biotechnology, Biomedical Science, Science and Environmental Studies, Engineering, and Design and Architecture

c) Social Science and Humanities : This catered to students to students from the Faculties

of Economics and Management, Educational Studies, Human Ecology, and Modern Language Studies

One main complaint of the language practitioners at the tertiary institutions was the lack of a clear statement of a university language policy that could help define the construct of language proficiency. Even within the same university, policies could differ about the level of proficiency for the students. For example, a survey conducted on the status of the English Language proficiency courses in UPM in the 80s revealed a lack of conformity in the English language requirement in the students’ curriculum. Some faculties allocated only two credits for it but still insisted on students completing the full three basic proficiency courses. This showed concern for the improvement of the language proficiency though the policy did not translate into a concrete common working plan among faculties. Meanwhile, schools continued to show dismal national examination statistics for English language attainment leading to the media reporting grave concern expressed by the former Prime Minister, Tun Dr Mohd Mahathir. The private sector also attested that many local graduates had failed to secure jobs because of their lack of competence in the English language, evident particularly during the interviews. Lee (2004) reported that there were some 44,000 unemployed graduates in 2002 and Gopinathan (2003) added:

One of the difficulties faced by these unemployed graduates was their low proficiency in the English language. This lament became a motivating push for the revival of English seen necessary “for its utilitarian value, for employment and for guaranteeing access to the science and technology of the West…” (p.21).

4. The MUET and its implications for Tertiary Language Proficiency In line with the paradigmatic shift from a narrow focus to a wider knowledge based purpose in the use of English, a milestone language policy that affected the attainment for local tertiary students was initiated with the emergence of the Malaysian University English Test

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(MUET) in 2002 for pre-tertiary studies. The MUET was seen as providing the essential continuity in the exposure and use of English for students after leaving the general school system, that is, after obtaining the fifth form school-leaving certificate. In other words, students who aspire to further their studies in the local tertiary institutions will need to sit for the MUET before they can be accepted into the institutions. This gave the impetus for English to play a bigger role in the national education system. The MUET came into being as a result of a number of factors. The main reason was the concern expressed about the decline of the state of the English language that has serious national repercussions. This was traced in part to the inadequacy of the STPM curriculum (the preparatory years for tertiary education) where English was not taught at all. The Ministry was also especially concerned about the undue emphasis placed on the provision of remedial English at tertiary level as this seems to be incongruent with the core business of universities education. In its effort to converge diversities in the conduct of English language courses among tertiary institutions, the Ministry suggested the setting up of an inter-university/college committee to discuss the prevailing situation and to make recommendations to overcome existing shortcomings. Language policies among tertiary institutions in terms of spelling out the number, type and level of English proficiency courses undergraduates need to follow in order to graduate differed widely. It was found that compulsory credits for English courses ranged from 4 -12 and contact hours per week ranged from 3-16 accordingly. In the universities, the number of students serviced ranged from 4500 to 11000. On December 22, 1998, the Minister of Education who chaired the Higher Education Council, announced that all students who wish to apply for a place in a university, be it private or public in the year 2001, will have to sit for a special English test, the Malaysian University English Test (MUET). The 1999 MUET Syllabus and Test Specifications were prefaced as follows:

The syllabus aims to equip students with the appropriate level of proficiency in English so as to enable them to perform effectively in their academic pursuits at tertiary level. Broadly, the syllabus seeks to bridge the gap in language needs between secondary and tertiary education by enhancing communicative competence, by providing the context for language use that is related to academic experience and by developing critical thinking skills through the competent use of language skills.

However, when the policy was translated into practice, it was confined to apply only to the public universities. To date, the MUET now held thrice a year had been taken by thousands of students with the following information issued for its initial implementation. Table 1. Relative Weighting of the Four Language Skills in MUET

Paper Skill Time Weight Score

800/1 Listening 30 minutes 15% 45 800/2 Speaking 30 minutes 15% 45 800/3 Reading

Comprehension

90 minutes 40% 120

888/4 Writing 90 minutes 30% 90 Aggregated Score 300

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A six point scale used was for the interpretation of aggregated scores. Thus proficiency was reported in the following manner: Table 2. Description of MUET Aggregated Scores

AGGRE-GATED SCORE

BAND

USER COMMUNICATIVE ABILITY

COMPREHENSION

TASK PERFOR-MANCE

260-300

6

Highly Proficient User

Very fluent, accurate, highly appropriate use of language; hardly any grammatical error

Very good understanding of language and context

Very high ability to function in the language

220-259

5

Proficient User

Fluent, appropriate use of language; few grammatical errors

Good understanding of language and context

High ability to function in the language

180-219

4

SatisfactoryUser

Generally fluent, generally appropriate use of language; some grammatical errors

Satisfactory level of understanding of the language

Satisfactory ability to function in the language

140-179

3

Modest User

Fairly fluent, fairly appropriate use of language; some grammatical errors

Fair understanding of language and context

Fair ability to function in the language

100-139

2

Limited User

Not fluent; fairly appropriate use of language ; many grammatical errors

Limited understanding of language and context

Limited ability to function in the language

Below 100

1

Very Limited User

Hardly able to use the language

Very limited understanding of language and context

Very limited ability to function in the language

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Undoubtedly, the MUET has given a new benchmark for a national display of proficiency for pre-tertiary students. A sample synthesis of the scores obtained since its implementation is shown below: Table 3. MUET Results According to Bands (2002 – 2006)

Band No. of Students % 3 256845 32.76 2 247421 31.56 4 130332 16.62 1 115182 14.69 5 32741 4.18 6 1504 0.19

TOTAL 784,025 100.00 It is seen from the table that the bulk of the students obtained scores between bands 2-3 (64.32%) with 14.69 % in Band 1. Thus we have a large range of very limited users to modest users (hardly to fairly fluent).

As a result of the MUET implementation, tertiary level English proficiency programmes underwent a revamp. Many new courses in universities were designed with an ESP orientation. Academic English was emphasized accompanied by courses that provided workplace preparation.

5. The use of English for Mathematics and Science and its relation to English proficiency While the policies at the universities continued to give students the English language contact and experience, it was also evident that the concern about English proficiency needed to be also addressed at the school level where early learning is moulded. In the context of the rapid developments in science, technology and business, knowledge of which is secured predominantly through English, Malaysia embarked on varied educational strategies to meet the nation’s needs. Among them were sending students overseas, and allowing more twinning degree programmes in which the medium of instruction is in English. However, these measures had resulted in many problems, among which, were undesirable capital outflow and cultural destabilization (Kaplan and Baldauf, 1997). One other approach was to develop an effective global network of information system in English based primarily on “an English sociology of knowledge” (ibid, p. 244). This means efforts to improve English language had to be accelerated so that the tertiary student would have the necessary advantage for global operations. Accordingly, the Education Minister announced a genre specific approach in the learning of English in 2003 English for Science and Technology was introduced and it was to be taught as an additional subject alongside the existing English language subject starting from the Secondary Four level (Mazlin et al. 2011). A converging decision to strengthen the move in this direction was the successive introduction of the policy to teach mathematics and science in English. English for Science and Technology was seen as a prelude to the teaching of mathematics and science in English. English for Science and Technology helped to kick-start the orientation towards the prioritized use of English to teach mathematics and science as a long-term education plan. The implementation of the new policy of using English to teach mathematics and science was quick and decisive, reflecting the urgency of training technocrats (Chan & Tan 2006, Musa 2003). This implementation of the new policy in 2003 was simultaneously carried out at Primary one, Form one and Form four. The rational was to create the immediate environment for the use of the language at the beginning primary level

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and also to reach the older students at the secondary level at the same time. This action in fact was spelt out in definitive terms as the sixth curriculum challenge (among eight identified by Wan Zahid Noordin, 2002). It reads:

The sixth is the challenge of establishing a scientific and progressive society, a society that is innovative and forward looking, one that is not only a consumer of technology but also a contributor to the scientific and technological civilization of the future. (ibid. p.29)

In turn, the significance of the change for English in higher education was reported as: “All public universities will also have to switch to English as the medium of instruction in science and technology subjects in 2005 when the first batch of STPM students taught in English enter university”(Sunday Star, 21 July 2005: 2). In justifying his decision, the former Prime Minister said:

We do not want to be involved in an academic exercise. You know how it is; when the Government decides and writes a paper on it, people will study the paper and criticise the paper and give their own ideas and all that and we will be bogged down by academic discussions and not doing things and we want things done. So we minimise reasoning and polemics as much as possible.

Gill (2002: 110–113) Following the policy implementation, preparations at the universities to reflect the growth of the language contact was launched with timelines as follows:

Table 4. Stages of implementation of English as a medium for science and technology

education at universities Stages Progression of implementation Stage I: 2004/2005 Content for 1st year students within the stipulated ratio (30%) Stage II: 2005/2006 Content for 1st and 2nd year students within the stipulated ratio (30%–50%) Stage III: 2006/2007 Content for 1st, 2nd and 3rd year students within the stipulated ratio (50%) Stage IV 2007/2008 Content for 1st, 2nd and 3rd year students within the stipulated ratio (50%–70%) Stage V: 2008/2009 Content for 1st, 2nd and 3rd year students within the stipulated ratio (70%–100%) Stage VI: 2009/2010 100% use of English in science and maths subjects This schedule was agreed upon by all vice-chancellors and rectors of the country’s 17 public universities (Gill 2006). While efforts in improving English in tertiary institutions basically remained stable, the scene at the school level was effervescent. Debates on learning English

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through the math and science language policy were continued by many quarters that opposed the change. While proficiency in English is generally lauded, it was difficult to compromise on the approach taken for the learning of the language. In 2009, the policy of teaching math and science in English was reversed and replaced by a policy that proclaims a dual approach of “Upholding Bahasa Malaysia and Strengthening English”. A flurry of suggestions was offered on how the policy could be implemented amidst continual expression of the need for choice in developing proficiency in the English language. The rift in opinion appears hard to mend and the differences in opinions can be damaging for both the individual and the society. The controversy led one retired English language teacher to suggest that a tiered system of reporting proficiency may be the desirable outcome to satisfy the different stakeholders. She opined that perhaps a sensible approach in defining the desired level of proficiency is to offer a choice of different levels of examinations for different purposes. For example, for those who desire to pursue the learning of the language on a deeper level, they should aim for an expert level of proficiency, while an elementary level could be the benchmark for all students who do not need the language beyond basic communicative competence. This level may then be the realistic level for all to pass to indicate minimum proficiency in the language (Sunday Star, 2011). 6. Benchmarking Language Ability for the Workplace Meanwhile, the university continues to wrestle with approaches to provide students with a level of proficiency in English that is considered to be suited to industry needs. The pragmatics of getting their graduates employed after university education remains a social responsibility on the part of the university. The lack of communication skills is said to be a major factor among those who failed to secure gainful employment. The future for these people would be bleak. Expectations about English language proficiency remain high, with little indication of a radical change in future opinion. Thus it would appear that whatever the policies practiced, a ‘projected’ predetermined level of proficiency among graduates has remained constant and unwavering, especially for graduates who wish to work in multi-national companies. These companies appear to have equated work efficiency to a great extent with communication skills. Like it or not, that is the reality with regard to the definition of English language proficiency for the commercial workplace. The future of how it can be best reported is, however, left to a broad mutual understanding on the part of government, academics, students, industry and society. The different parties should collaborate to establish a workable framework or frameworks that can be used to report on the standard of achieved proficiency to satisfy expectations, bearing in mind different needs that may be domain specific. References Asmah Hj. Omar (2003). Language and language situation in South East Asia: With a focus on Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Akademi Pengajian Melayu, Universiti Malaya. Bachman, L. F. & Palmer, A.S. (1996). Language testing in practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Kaplan, R. B. and Baldauf, R.B. Jr. (1997). Language planning from practice to theory. Clevedon: Multilingual matters. Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (2003). Briefing document for the implementation on teaching and learning of science and mathematics in English. Lee, K. H. (2004). Differing perspective on integration and nation building in Malaysia. In Leo Suryadinata (ed.) Ethnic relation and nation building in Southeast Asia. 82-108. Singapore: ISEAS Publications.

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Mazlin Mazlan, Chan Swee Heng and Ain Nadzimah Abdullah. (2011). Learning English for Science and Technology: Profiling Stakeholders’ Reflections and Awareness. In Faiz Sathi Abdullah, Zalina Mohd. Kasim & Chan Mei Yuit (Eds.) Recent research topics in Malaysian English Studies. pp. 88-114. Serdang: UPM Press. Musa bin Muhamad (2003). Teaching science and mathematics in English: The way forward. Keynote address presented in the ELTC ETeMS Conference 2003:Managing Curricular Change, 2-4 December, 2003 at Pearl Point International Hotel, Kuala Lumpur. Oller, J.W. (1979). Language tests at school. London: Longman.

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