IJALEL, Vol.1 No.5 (2012) [Special Issue]

International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature ISSN 2200-3592 (Print)

ISSN 2200-3452 (Online)

International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature

All papers on which this is printed in this book meet the minimum requirements of "National Library of Australia and EBSCOhost". All papers published in this book are accessible online. Editors-in-Chief: Prof. Dr. Dan J. Tannacito, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, USA Prof. Dr. Jayakaran Mukundan, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia Dr. Tan Bee Tin, The University of Auckland, New Zealand Managing Editor: Seyed Ali Rezvani Kalajahi Website: www.ijalel.org E-mail: [email protected] ISBN: 978 -600-5361-84-1 ISSN 2200-3592 (Print) ISSN 2200-3452 (Online) Graphic Designer: Ali Asghar Yousefi Azerfam Publisher Information (Online) EBSCO Publishing Australia Office Level 1, 51 Stephenson Street Richmond, VIC 3121 Australia Phone: +61 (0)3 9276 1777 Publisher Information (Print) Digital Print Australia 135 Gilles Street, Adelaide South Australia 5000 Australia Phone: +61 (0)8 8232 3404 Website: www.digitalprintaustralia.com Hoormazd Press Inc. also provides hardcopies of IJALEL.

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Editors-in-Chief Professor Dr. Dan J. Tannacito, Composition & TESOL Indiana University of Pennsylvania, USA

Professor Dr. Jayakaran Mukundan, ELT University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Dr. Tan Bee Tin, Applied Language Studies and Linguistics The University of Auckland, New Zealand

Managing Editor Seyed Ali Rezvani Kalajahi Senior Associate Editors

Professor Dr. Hossein Farhadi, Assessment University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA

Associate Professor Dr. Jesús García Laborda, Linguistics Universidad de Alcala, Madrid, Spain

Professor Dr. Ali Miremadi, Language, Linguistics California State University, USA

Professor Dr. Eugenio Cianflone, TEFL University of Messina, Italy

Professor Dr. Kazem Lotfipour-Saedi Ottawa University, Canada

Associate Professor Dr. Ali S. M. Al-Issa, Applied Linguistics Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

Professor Dr. Mohammad Ziahosseini, Linguistics Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran, Iran

Associate Professor Dr. Mojgan Rashtchi, Applied Linguistics IAU North Tehran Branch, Iran

Professor Dr. Farzad Sharifian, Applied Linguistics Monash University, Australia

Associate Professor Dr. Reza Pishghadam, TEFL Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran

Associate Professor Dr. Parviz Maftoon, TEFL IAU, Science & Research Branch, Tehran, Iran

Associate Professor Dr. Wan Roselezam Wan Yahya, Literature University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Professor Dr. Juliane House, Applied Linguistics University of Hamburg, Germany

Associate Professor Dr. Alireza Jalilifar , Applied Linguistics Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Iran

Associate Professor Dr. Biljana Cubrovic, Linguistics University of Belgrade, Serbia

Assistant Professor Dr. leyli Jamali IAU Tabriz, Iran

Associate Professor Dr. Fatemeh Azizmohammadi, Literature IAU Arak, Iran

Associate Professor Dr. Christina Alm-Arvius, Linguistics Stockholm University, Sweden

Associate Professor Dr. Moussa Ahmadfian, Literature Arak University, Arak, Iran

Associate Professor Dr. Zia Tajeddin, Applied Linguistics Allameh Tabataba'i University,Tehran, Iran

Associate Professor Dr. Ahmad M. Al-Hassan, Applied Linguistics Petra University, Amman, Jordan

Professor Dr. Biook Behnam, ELT IAU Tabriz, Iran

Professor Dr. Meixia Li, Linguistics Beijing International Studies University, China

Professor Dr. Kourosh Lachini, Applied Linguistics University of Qatar, Qatar

Professor Dr. Ruzy Suliza Hashim, Literature Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia

Professor Dr. Cem Alptekin, Applied Linguistics Bogaziçi University, Turkey

Professor. Dr. Sebnem Toplu, Literature and Linguistics EGE University, Turkey

Associate Professor Dr. A. Majid Hayati, Linguistics Shahid Chamran University, Iran

Professor Dr. Ruth Roux, Applied Linguistics El Colegio de Tamaulipas & Universidad Autonoma de Tamaulipas, Mexico

Associate Professor Dr. Huai-zhou Mao, Applied Linguistics Xin Jiang Normal University, China

Associate Editors Associate Professor Dr. Minoo Alemi, Applied Linguistics Sharif University of Technology, Iran

Dr. Servet Celik , Literacy, Culture, and Language Education Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey

Dr. John Dolan, Literature Najran University, Saudi Arabia

Assistant Professor Dr. Mohd Nazim, ELT Najran University, Saudi Arabia

Assistant Professor Dr. Marisa Luisa Carrió Pastor, Linguistics Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain

Assistant Professor Dr. Ahmed Gumaa Siddiek, ELT Shaqra University. KSA

Assistant Professor Dr. Ramesh K. Mishra, Linguistics University of Allahabad, India

Assistant Professor Dr. Javad Gholami, TESOL Urmia University, Iran

Assistant Professor Dr. Saeed Yazdani, Literature IAU Bushehr, Iran

Dr. Vahid Nimehchisalem, TESL University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Assistant Professor Dr. Reza Kafipour, ELT Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran

Assistant Professor Dr. Nasrin Hadidi Tamjid, Applied Linguistics IAU, Tabriz, Iran

Assistant Professor Dr. Sasan Baleghizadeh, TEFL Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran

Assistant Professor Dr. Nooreen Noordin, TESL University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Assistant Professor Dr. Touran Ahour, TEFL IAU Tabriz, Iran

Assistant Professor Dr. Hossein Pirnajmuddin, Literature University of Isfahan, Iran

Assistant Professor Dr. Javanshir Shibliyev, Linguistics Eastern Mediterranean University, Cyprus

Assistant Professor Dr. Roselan Baki, TESL University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Assistant Professor Dr. Masoud Zoghi, TESL IAU Ahar, Iran

Assistant Professor Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Applied Linguistics Qassim University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Assistant Professor Dr. Natasha Pourdana, TEFL IAU Karaj, Iran

Dr. Usaporn Sucaromana, TEFL Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand

IJALEL Editorial Team

Assistant Professor Dr. Arshya Keyvanfar, TEFL IAU North Tehran Branch, Iran

Assistant Professor Dr. Nader Assadi Aidinlou, Applied Linguistics IAU Ahar, Iran

Dr. Tanja Angelovska, Applied Linguistics Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany

Dr. Catherine Buon, Applied Linguistics American University of Armenia, Armenia

Dr. Ferit Kılıçkaya, ELT Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey

Assistant Professor Dr. Karim Sadeghi, TEFL Urmia University, Iran

Dr. Christopher Conlan, Applied Linguistics Curtin University, Australia

Assistant Professor Dr. Franklin Thambi Jose, Applied Linguistics Eritrea Institute of Technology, Eritrea

Assistant Professor Dr. Ibrahim Abdel- Latif Shalabi, Literature Isra University Amman, Jordan

Assistant Professor Dr. Yousef Tahaineh, Applied Linguistics Al-Balqa Applied University, Amman -Jordan

Distinguished Advisors Professor Dr. Brian Tomlinson, Material Development Leeds Metropolitan University, UK

Professor Dr. Alan Maley, Creative Writing Leeds Metropolitan University, UK

Professor Dr. Dan Douglas, Applied Linguistics Iowa State University, USA

Professor Dr. Jalal Sokhanvar , English Literature Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran

Professor Dr. Hossein Nassaji, Applied Linguistics University of Victoria, Canada

Professor Dr. Roger Nunn, Communication, The Petroleum Institute, Abu Dhabi, UAE

Advisors Dr. Ian Bruce, Discourse Analysis and Genre Studies The university of Waikato, New Zealand

Dr. Mohammad Reza Mehdizadeh IUST, Iran

Dr. Steve Neufeld, ELT Middle East Technical University, Cyprus

Dr. Hassan Fartousi, English Studies University of Malaya, Malaysia

Dr. Shadi Khojasteh rad, Applied Linguistics University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Dr. Majid Hamdani, Educational Technology University Technology of Malaysia, Malaysia

Dr. Atieh Rafati, ELT & literature Eastern Mediterranean University, Cyprus

Dr. Kristina Smith, ELT Pearson Education , Turkey

Dr. Saeed Kalajahi, Literature IAU Tabriz, Iran

Dr. Oytun Sözüdoğru, ELT University of York, UK

Dr. Mohamdreza Jafary, TESL University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Reviewers Associate Professor Dr. Esmaeel Abdollahzadeh, TEFL University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran

Dr. Helena I. R. Agustien, Applied Linguistics Semarang State University, Indonesia

Assistant Professor Dr. Omid Akbari, TESL Imam Reza International University, Iran

Assistant Professor Dr. Ali H. Al-Bulushi, Applied Linguistics Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

Assistant Professor Dr. Hassan Soleimani, Applied Linguistics Payame Noor University, Tehran, Iran

Assistant Professor Dr. Azadeh Nemati, ELT IAU, Jahrom, Iran

Dr. Ruzbeh Babaee, English Literature University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Dr. Yasemin Aksoyalp, ELT Adam Mickiewicz University, Poland

Dr. Shannon Kelly Hillman, Applied Linguistics University of Hawaii, Hawaii

Dr. Marilyn Lewis, Language Teaching DALSL, The University of Auckland, New Zealand

Dr. İsmail Zeki Dikici, ELT Muğla University, Turkey

Dr. Ebrahim Samani, TESL University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Dr. Mahdi Alizadeh Ziaei, Literature The university of Edinburgh, UK

Dr. Melchor Tatlonghari, TESOL The University of Santo Tomas , Manila, The Philippines

Dr. Siamak Mazloomi, ELT IAU Islamshahr, Tehran, Iran

Dr. Bakhtiar Naghdipour, ELT Eastern Mediterranean University, Cyprus

Dr. Sepideh Mirzaei Fard, ELT National University of Malaysia, Malaysia

Dr. Bora DEMİR, ELT Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey

Dr. Hossein Saadabadi, TESL University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Dr. Kenan DİKİLİTAŞ, ELT Gediz University, Turkey

Dr. Haleh Zargarzadeh, Literature Urmia University, Iran

Dr. Mohammad Javad Riasati, TESL IAU Shiraz, Iran

Dr. Orkun Janbay, ELT Izmir University, Turkey

Dr. Yassamin Pouriran, TESL IAU Tabriz, Iran

Dr. Taher Bahrani, Applied Linguistics IAU Mahshahr, Iran

Dr. Tin T. Dang, Applied Linguistics Vietnam National University, Vietnam

Dr. Sardar M. Anwaruddin, TESOL University of Toronto, Canada

Dr. Erdem AKBAS, ELT University of York, UK

Dr. Inayatullah Kakepoto, ELT Quaid-e-University of EST(Sindh), Pakistan

Dr. Saeed Rezaei, TEFL Allameh Tabataba’i University Tehran, Iran

Dr. Gandhimathi Subramaniam, Language & Literature Anna University Coimbatore, India

Dr. Jerome C. Bush, English Education Yeditepe University, Turkey

Dr. Efstathios (Stathis) Selimis , Linguistics Center for the Greek Language, Thessaloniki, Greece

Dr. Diego Pascual y Cabo, Linguistics University of Florida, USA

Dr. Chili Jason LI, Applied Linguistics University of Liverpool, UK

Dr. Karim Hajhashemi, Applied Linguistics James Cook University, Australia

Dr. Emilia Di Martino, ELT Università Suor Orsola Benincasa, Napoli, Italia

Editorial Assistants Dr. Ali Asghar Yousefi Azarfam, TESL, IAU Tabriz, Iran

Dr. Reza Vaseghi, TESL, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia Founding Editor

Seyed Ali Rezvani Kalajahi

Table of Contents Vol. 1 No. 5; September 2012 [Special Issue on General Linguistics]

A Critical Discourse Analysis of the Images of Iranians in Western Movies: The Case of Iranium

Mohammad Reza Amirian Ali Rahimi Gholamreza Sami 1

The New Development of the Study of Discourse Anaphora ------Review of Discourse Anaphora: A Cognitive-

Functional Approach

Meixia Li 14

Revitalization of Emergentism in SLA: A Panacea!

Nima Shakouri Masouleh 19

Insights From Verbal Protocols: A Case Study

Margaret Kumar 25

On Laotsu’s “Ming and Yan” and the Language in English

Xin Xiong 35

The Picture of Modern Workplace Environment and Oral Communication Skills of Engineering Students of

Pakistan

Inayatullah Kakepoto Hadina Habil Noor Abidah Mohd Omar Yusuf Boon S M Zafar Iqbal 42

Language Countertrading In Courtroom Exchanges in Nigeria: A Discursive Study

Tunde Opeibi 49

Early Lexicon of the Yoruba Child

Bolanle Elizabeth Arokoyo 64

From Polarity to Plurality in Translation Scholarship

Abdolla Karimzadeh Ebrahim Samani 76

Native Breath: Incorporating Linguistically Relevant Pedagogy in the Classroom through Reified Literature

Desiree de Chachula 84

The Evolution of Pakistani English (PakE) as a Legitimate Variety of English

Humaira Irfan Khan 90

Perceptual Convergence as an Index of the Intelligibility and Acceptability of Three Nigerian English Accents

Fatimayin Foluke 100

Null Arguments in the Yoruba Child’s Early Speech

Bolanle Elizabeth Arokoyo

116

Comparison of Gratitude across Context Variations: A Generic Analysis of Dissertation Acknowledgements

Written by Taiwanese Authors in EFL and ESL Contexts

Wenhsien Yang 130

A Sociolinguistic Study of Fagunwa/Soyinka’s The Forest of a Thousand Daemons

Idowu Odebode 147

Theory Construction in Second Language Acquisition In Favor of the Rationalism

Mehdi Shokouhi 157

A Study of Directive Speech Acts Used by Iranian Nursery School Children: The Impact of Context on Children’s

Linguistic Choices

Shohreh Shahpouri Arani 163

Perspectives on Oral Communication Skills for Engineers in Engineering Profession of Pakistan

Inayatullah Kakepoto Noor Abidah Mohd Omar Yusuf Boon S M Zafar Iqbal 176

Using Bilingual Parallel Corpora in Translation Memory Systems

Hossein Keshtkar Tayebeh Mosavi Miangah 184

Language As A Tool For National Integration: The Case Of English Language In Nigeria

Hanna Onyi Yusuf 194

Globalization And English Language Education In Nigeria

Hanna Onyi Yusuf 202

Second Language Acquisition at the Phonetic-Phonological Interface: A proposal

Ashima Aggarwal 208

Engaging with Old Testament Stories: A Multimodal Social Semiotic Approach to Children Bible Illustrations

Abuya Eromosele John Akinkurolere Susan Olajoke 219

Evaluation of English Language Teaching Departments of Turkish and Iranian Universities in Terms of Politeness

Strategies with Reference to Request

Maryam Rafieyan 226

Some Major Steps to Translation and Translator

Mohammad Reza Hojat Shamam 242

The Role of Meaning in Translation of Different Subjects

Mohammad Reza Hojat Shamami 247

Book Review: Litosseliti, L. (2010). Research Methods In Linguistics. Continuum International Publishing Group

Ltd. 228pp. ISBN 978-0-8264-8993-7 (paperback)

Mohammad Javad Riasati Forough Rahimi 251


ISSN 2200-3592 (Print), ISSN 2200-3452 (Online) Vol. 1 No. 5; September 2012 [Special Issue on General Linguistics]

Page | 1 This paper is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.

A Critical Discourse Analysis of the Images of Iranians in Western Movies: The Case of Iranium

Mohammad Reza Amirian, M.A. in TEFL (Corresponding author) Department of English Faculty of Literature & Foreign Languages

University of Kashan, Iran Postal Code: 81997-67951, Isfahan, Iran

Tel: 0098-311-2278352 E-mail: [email protected]

Ali Rahimi, Ph.D. in Applied Linguistics Department of English Faculty of Literature & Foreign Languages

University of Kashan, Iran Postal Code: 87317-51167, Kashan, Iran

Tel: 0098-361-5552930 E-mail: [email protected]

Gholamreza Sami, Ph.D. (Sussex) Professor of Comparative Literature

Department of English Faculty of Literature & Foreign Languages University of Kashan, Iran

Postal Code: 87317-51167, Kashan, Iran Tel: 0098-21-22615284 E-mail: [email protected]

Received: 20-05- 2012 Accepted: 21-06- 2012 Published: 03-09- 2012 doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.1 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.1 Abstract The significant role of the media, in general, and the movies, in particular, in disseminating information and creating images of the real life by use of the language as a powerful social tool is totally irrefutable. Although critical analysis of the movie discourse is a fashionable trend among the critical discourse analysts, there is a paucity of research on movie discourse in Iran. Besides, the increasing number of the anti-Iranian movies produced in the last decade and the growing tendency among the English students to watch American movies, have established the need for conducting a research to investigate the images of Iranians represented in the Western movies. Thus, in this article an anti-Iranian movie called Iranium, allegedly labeled as documentary, has been critically analyzed using Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). For this purpose, Van Dijk’s framework (2004) has been utilized to uncover the ideological manipulations and misrepresentations of this movie. The analysis revealed that the dichotomy of in-group favoritism vs. out-group derogation is a very effective discursive strategy at the disposal of the movie makers who have used language as a weapon to attack Iran by representing a distorted and unrealistic image of the Iranians’ history, culture and ideologies. The findings of the present study imply that adopting a critical discourse analysis perspective in the EFL classes is a necessity which needs the development of the required materials, by the curriculum developers, that raise the students’ critical awareness as well as their language skills and proficiency. Keywords: Critical Discourse Analysis, Discursive Structures, Derogation, Euphemization, Hegemony, Ideology, Manipulation, Power




1. Introduction 1.1 Statement of the Problem Media today has become an integral part of life in modern societies. Development of new technologies, computer and entertainment industries including the film industry has encouraged “a titanic struggle among some of the largest corporations in the world for control of a consolidated information industry” (Hamelink, 1997). Hollywood which is often used as a metonymy for American cinema is the birthplace of some of the biggest film production who have been in charge of the production of the most famous blockbusters of all times. This symbol of movie industry has had a profound impact on the modern societies since the early 20th century. As a matter of fact, “not only does Hollywood have a negative impact on society, but it is also becoming an obsession with people living normal lives all around the world” (Miller, 2007). This obsession has become even epidemic in some Western societies. People, especially the adolescents, follow the celebrities lead on TV shows and movies and try to look like them both physically and morally. The ideal body image presented by the motion pictures is skinniness and it is no longer appropriate to have curves or extra weight. More important, Hollywood films and music videos promote sex which damages the moral values and leads the very young astray. The above-mentioned negative effects are only a handful of what is really happening in the real world due to the dominance of the cinema and the movie productions among the adolescents. The situation is different for Iranians. First, there is a great tendency, nowadays, among English students as well as their teachers to increase their exposure to the foreign language by watching movies, sitcoms, TV series, talk shows and documentaries. Students try to watch as many movies as possible in order to boost their listening ability and, at the same time, enjoy the contents of the films, most of which are not suitable for their age. Second, the media representation of Iranians in the West is totally distorted and stereotypic. After the Iranian revolution of 1979 followed by the break-down of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the end of the Cold War, Muslims including Iranians suddenly emerged as the arch-enemy of the West, especially the Americans. As a matter of fact, American leaders felt the need to have a new enemy in order to justify their hegemony over the world. They portrayed Iranians to the Western people, who at that time could hardly find Iran or any other Middle Eastern country on the map, as terrorists and barbaric, cruel savages with no civilization. This situation was aggravated after the declaration of ‘war on terror’ by George W. Bush administration after the 9/11 attacks on the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center complex in New York City. America started a war against Afghanistan and Iraq, two neighboring countries of Iran and the so-called ‘axis of evil’, to allegedly shut down al-Qaeda and other terrorist organizations. These military attacks were accompanied by a full media support and a full-fledged attack on Islamic countries especially the Islamic Republic of Iran. Therefore, it seems necessary for the Iranian language learners to develop a critical approach toward movies and exercise caution in selecting them. They need to learn how to increase their grasp of reality and face the distortions and fabrications and this would not be possible, unless they are introduced to the techniques and procedures of manipulation and misrepresentation. As a result, this study can guide both English teachers and students in their selection of the movies and shed some light on the hidden discursive structures and ideologies embedded in their discourse. 1.2 Significance of the Study The findings of the present study in the area of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), including the disclosure of the ideological implications of the discourse of certain movies, can be presented to the field of applied linguistics including pedagogy, and specifically curriculum and materials development to develop materials that raise the students’ critical awareness as well as their self actualization and creativity. First, in the realm of pedagogy and curriculum development, teachers need to reconsider their techniques and procedures of selecting and using the mass media, especially movies, to equip their students with the basic skills of critical thinking. Second, the educational system needs to be completely reformed in the “preponderance of language usage and the somewhat invisibility of language use” (Rahimi & Sahragard, 2006, p.4). In other words, the semantic, pragmatic and functional aspects of language are rarely taught to the students and the result is “a multitude of students with good theoretical knowledge about language but a few of them apparently have a good comprehension of semantics and the hidden messages in the language” (ibid.). 1.2 Objectives of the Study Considering the paucity of research on movie discourse in Iran and the increasing amount of the anti-Iranian movies in the last decade, this article aims at investigating the images of Iranians represented in a Western movie.




The researchers seek to uncover the discursive structures embedded in the discourse of this movie and reveal the ideological manipulations and power relations invisible to the naked eyes. CDA techniques, proposed by Van Dijk’s (2004) framework, have been utilized to scrutinize the language of the movie which represents a distorted and stereotypic image of Iranians to the world. Within this framework, the study focuses on investigating how us and them as social groups are represented in the euphemization and derogation procedures in the discourse of the Western movies. The primary objective is therefore to familiarize the audience with the techniques and procedures used by the producers of such movies to manipulate and misrepresent the truth; so that the listener/reader would be competent enough to detect the biased and exploitative language and develop a critical approach toward the movies. 1.3 Research Questions According to the above-mentioned objectives, the focus of this study can be summarized in the following research questions:

1. What CDA techniques, discursive structures and strategies have been utilized by the producers of this movie to construct and disseminate the idea of Iranophobia?

2. What are the discursive manifestations of the ideologies and how are they achieved in the selected movie?

1.4 Approaches to Media Discourse Many studies have been inspired due to the unquestionable power of the media throughout the world, most of which are critical in different disciplines: linguistics, semiotics, pragmatics, and discourse studies. Their approaches have been mostly content analytical which have revealed stereotypical, discriminatory, racist or sexist images in texts, photos and illustrations. The preliminary studies of media language focused mostly on easily observable surface structures, such as the prejudiced use of words in the description of ‘us’ and ‘them’ (and our/their actions and characteristics), especially in representing the communists along the sociopolitical lines. A series of studies on “Bad News” by the Media Group of Glasgow University, established the critical tone on the characteristics of TV reporting, such as the coverage of various issues (e.g. industrial strikes.) It was the systematic analysis of these events that helped the critical assessment of the subtle bias of the official media in favor of managers, nationalists or racists, for instance by comparing the people who were interviewed, their locations, the methods of interviewing and its camera angles. Cultural Studies paradigm was the framework that was used by a number of media studies (e.g. Hall, et al., 1980). A combination of European neo-Marxist work and British socio-cultural approaches and film analysis (Fairclough, 1995) was the basis for these studies. Within a broad cultural approach to the media text analysis was combined with analyses of images. There is a broad perspective of culture as the dialectic between social consciousness and social being within which critical analysis of media discourse is dealt with as a practice, interwoven with other practices such as social practices, and the experiences of people in their social conditions. Social practices are then examined, among many other dimensions, to analyze the ways they propagate both culture and ideology. In the U.S. a different story emerged; Discourse structures were not the centre of attention for critical media studies. Herman and Chomsky (1988), in their ‘propaganda model’ attacked the U.S. media for their scheming with official U.S. foreign policy, and from time to time refer to the use of biased and persuasive words (such as euphemisms for the brutality of the U.S. troops), but what they do not propose is a comprehensive analysis of media discourse. Furthermore, linguistics, semiotics or discourse analysis has not inspired many critical studies of the media and analysis focuses mostly on the impressionistic readings of the news. “Although in recent years there has been a growing influence of the British Cultural Studies paradigm, this has so far led to few detailed and empirical studies of media discourse” (Van Dijk, 2003:8). Some critical studies have focused on the representation of ‘race’ and ‘gender’ in the media (e.g. Dines & Humez, 1995; Van Zoonen, 1994 in Van Dijk, 1997). There has also been a growing critical literature on popular culture and the media, for example about soap operas (Liebes & Katz, 1990). The study of media discourse was influenced by semiotics which had already found its way into media studies, and thus affected the study of media images, both in the U.S. and in the U.K., by bringing about some basic structuralist notions. However, instead of being critical in nature much of its work is descriptive. (e.g. Hodge & Kress, 1979; Kress & Van Leeuwen, 1996). However, right now there is an ever growing integration of these semiotic studies and work in Critical Discourse Analysis. Van Leeuwen (1998, 2005) has done many studies that bridge the gap between semiotics and CDA. According to (Van Dijk, 2003) “media studies, together with




feminist studies, for many years have provided the richest ground for critical studies of discourse, but few of these studies have been based on a systematic theory of the structures of media genres” (p.9). However, in the past few years media studies and other social sciences as well as linguistics, semiotics and discourse analysis are being intertwined, and “a more detailed and explicit attention for the subtleties of ‘texts’ themselves has been the result” (Van Dijk, 2003:10). Besides, the majority of the studies on the nature of the media in Iran are focused entirely on newspapers, news talks and political debates and there is not much of a research on the case of the movies using CDA framework. Hence this article examines one of the productions of the movie industry which is related to the Iranian people, their history, culture, religion and modern life. 2. Methodology In this article the social function of language as a powerful social practice in a specific discourse, such as media discourse, generally, and the movie discourse, particularly, has been examined. There is a great tendency, nowadays, to represent a distorted and stereotypical image of Muslims, particularly Iranians as terrorists and barbarians who want to destroy and raze to the ground the democracy and freedom of the Western world, especially, those of the American society. Therefore, by analyzing the movie, the researchers try to show how media work and how politicians and policy makers of the Western society influence the world of the media and vice versa. As a matter of fact, there is a mutual relationship between the politicians and the politics of media and how they affect each other. In order to investigate the representation of the images of Iranians in the Western movies, Van Dijk’s framework as a major critical discourse analyst has been utilized. 2.1 Design The researchers chose this movie because it was amenable to the intended CDA framework and epitomized various religious, nationalistic and political viewpoints. The language used in the movie was both politically and religiously charged and it was full of derogation and euphemization strategies or negative other-representation as well as positive self-representation. In other words, it was replete with ideologically manipulative and evaluative vocabulary. The script of the movie was analyzed within the framework proposed by (Van Dijk, 2004). The dichotomous categorization of euphemization and derogation in his framework which reflects the basic strategy of ‘negative other-representation’ and ‘positive self-representation’ (in-group vs. out-group, us / them) has been adopted for the analysis of the data. 2.2 Analytical Framework The framework utilized in this article is that of Van Dijk’s (2004) who elaborates on 27 ideological strategies, the most prominent of which is the dichotomy of ‘euphemization’ and ‘derogation’. This classification is very helpful in implementing the strategy of ‘positive self-representation’ and ‘negative other-representation’. The first one which is an ideological function is used to depict oneself superior than others; while the latter is used to represent others as inferior. Positive self-representation or in-group favoritism is a semantic macro-strategy used for the purpose of ‘face keeping’ or ‘impression management’ (Van Dijk, 2004). Negative other representation is another macro-strategy which is used to categorize people into ‘in-groups and out-groups’. According to Van Dijk (2004) “the division between good and bad out-groups, is not value-free, but imbued with ideologically based applications of norms and values. These are discursive ways to enhance or mitigate our/their bad things, and hence to mark discourse ideologically. Euphemization which is a rhetorical device helps to create positive self-representation and prevents any kind of negative impression formation against the dominant powers. This ideological function as a semantic move is in fact in concordance with another discursive structure called self-glorification mentioned in Van Dijk’s framework. On the contrary, derogation as a discursive device is totally in line with another semantic device suggested by Van Dijk called ‘victimization of others’. As the name suggests others’ deficiencies or even ordinary characteristics are enlarged and brought to the surface. It should also be noted that the macro-strategy of positive self-representation and negative other-representation is made possible through other discursive strategies such as actor description, authority, burden, categorization, comparison, consensus, counterfactuals, disclaimers, derogation, euphemization, evidentiality, falsification, instantiation/example, generalization, hyperbole, implication, irony, lexicalization, metaphor, self-glorification, norm expression, number game, polarization, populism, presupposition, vagueness, and victimization. (For a fuller description of the terms see Van Dijk, 2004.)




3. Data Analysis: Iranium Iranium is a so-called documentary that takes aim at the Iranian Revolution, its ideology and the people behind it. This new Clarion Fund film is the last production of a series of anti-Muslim, anti-Iranian movies produced by Israeli filmmakers. In 2006, Clarion released Obsession: Radical Islam’s War Against the West. In 2008, Clarion released another so-called documentary, The Third Jihad: Radical Islam’s Vision for America. And its newest film, Iranium, premiered February 8, 2011. This documentary or as Ordibehesht (2011) calls it “a malicious and contemptible absurdity paraded as documentary”, bolstered by slick graphics and archival footage, lays out cases for attacking Iran and an official U.S. policy of regime change. From the interviewees to the movie's producers and writer/director, Alex Traiman, “all of the participants espouse hard-line, hawkish views on Iran” (Clifton & Gharib, 2011). Apart from judging the validity and the credibility of the statements made in the film, Iranium leaves out a lot of important history that would help Western viewers understand U.S. relations with Iran. There is nothing about the CIA coup of the 1950s, America’s support for the long-time oppressor of Iran, Mohammad Reza Shah, or “Western support for Iraq’s use of weapons of mass destruction against Iran during the Iran-Iraq War” (Mundy, 2011). What is noticeable throughout the movie is the continuous alarming tone of the interviewees and their partisan outlook, accompanied with countless stock video clips of missile launches, bomb explosions and the wounded and “a soundtrack of suspenseful music that might be used to score a thriller” (Clifton & Gharib, 2011). A central interviewee -- one who passes along a list of largely unsubstantiated links between Iran and al-Qaeda (the alliance of two adversaries with totally different ideologies) as facts -- is Clare Lopez, who is also named to Clarion's advisory board. 3.1 Plot Summary This ostensible documentary opens with a history lesson that begins in 1978 with the first signs of the widespread unrest that would eventually topple the Shah. Iran’s despotic dictator is presented as “a long-time ally of the United States,” as the film’s narrator, Iranian actress Shohreh Aghdashloo, explains. Then comes the Islamic Revolution, and the film “places the blame squarely on the fecklessness of President Jimmy Carter” (Clifton & Gharib, 2011). “The fact that Jimmy Carter did not support the Shah in his time of difficulties actually signaled to the Iranian people that the Shah’s rule was over,” says Harold Rhode, a former Pentagon analyst “involved in Douglas Feith and his Office of Special Plans’ activities building a public case for war with Iraq” (ibid.). Rhode’s comment hints at themes that keep reemerging throughout the documentary: The belief that in order to overcome the Middle Eastern people one should exert power and strength and that, “while Carter and Obama have been weak on Iran, Reagan’s supposed strength was respected in the region” say Clifton and Gharib (2011). After a long buildup describing Iran’s desire to spread the Islamic Revolution abroad (such as through its alliance with Venezuela’s Hugo Chavez), and its so-called brutality to annihilate its opponents and terrorize its enemies, the film describes the Iranian nuclear program. Iran’s public avowals of the program’s peaceful aims are dismissed, and the next section -- titled "Pushing the Button" -- explains how the world will not be able to deter Iran from using a weapon. “Americans and Europeans are really uncomfortable with the idea of holy war and mass murder for religious reasons,” Cliff May says in the film. “Because they can’t imagine that for themselves, they also can’t imagine that others behave that way. But this is a failure of imagination.” It ends with the narrator saying: “Now is the time for action. Americans, Iranians and members of the free world now have a choice; to stand idly by or stand up and take part in Iran’s new revolution.”According to Clifton and Gharib (2011) “Iranium fits nicely into Clarion’s oeuvre” and like the producers’ previous movies, it portrays a clash of civilizations, and propagates the warmongering ideology of American neo-conservatives. It terrifies the viewers of the Muslims’ endorsement of martyrdom, and portrays their so-called irrational hatred toward Israel as key to understanding the anger and frustration voiced by Muslim countries against the United States and states that the only way to stop the Muslims, especially Iranians, is to wage a war against them. The extract selected for the analysis is the third chapter of the film, 30 Years of Terror, where the interviewees make some unsubstantiated claims about Iran’s support for terrorism and try to persuade the viewers that all the terrorist attacks around the world are traced back to Iran. 3.1.1 Thirty Years of Terror Narrator: For over 30 years, the regime has used International terror in its struggle to spread Khomeini’s revolution. Kenneth Timmerman: When you look at the Iranian government terrorist, what you understand is that from the very beginning of this regime in January of 1979, they considered terrorism as a tool of policy. Eliot Engel: We know that Iran is the leading sponsor of terrorism around the world.




Walid Phares: The Iranian regime has an endless number of proxy organizations, beginning with the big ones such as Hezbollah. Kenneth Timmerman: Iran set up Hezbollah early in time to have a cut out. Somebody who could independently carry out terrorist attacks with no fingerprints back to Tehran. Narrator: Founded in the early 80s in Lebanon under the guidance of Ayatollah Khomeini, Hezbollah wasted little time before striking American installations. [Showing pictures of the American Embassy bombing captioned as:] Beirut, Lebanon April 1983 ABS News Reporter: The day after this attack on the embassy here in Beirut, the death toll has continued to climb. It is believed that before the counting is over more than 60 people will be found to have died, at least 16 of them Americans. Narrator: Hezbollah’s next attack would prove even more deadly. Attacking multi-national peace keeping forces stationed in Beirut following Lebanese civil war. [The movie shows a procession of hurrying fire engines and ambulances with their wailing sirens captioned as:] Beirut, Lebanon October 1983 Arnold Resincoff: The dead point this had been the largest non-nuclear explosion ever recorded. We were for four days trying to find people who were buried and then we continued to work just to find pieces of bodies to put them together. Every piece of body we wanted to bury and not just leave the bodies under the rubble. Kenneth Timmerman: Their intention in attacking us in Beirut was to drive the United States out of Lebanon and ultimately out of the Middle East. ABC News reporter: Despite repeated proclamations that terrorists won’t affect U.S. foreign policy Muslim forces in Lebanon achieved their goal when Reagan withdraws all 1400 marines to the safety of offshore ships. Kenneth Timmerman: When we put our troops out, we essentially sent the message that Iranians you win! We will respond to terrorism by retreating. It was a terrible message to send and we’ve been paying the price for that ever since. You’ve got a whole series of hostage takings in the 1980s. Clare Lopez: You had attacks in the early 1990s, 1992 Buenos Aires against the Israeli embassy, 1994 against the Jewish cultural center in Buenos Aires. 1996 against Khobar Towers, 1998 Iran was involved with Al-Qaeda and Hezbollah in the East Africa Embassy bombings of Nairobi and Dar es Salaam. In the year 2000 Iran was involved with Hezbollah and Al-Qaeda again against the USS Cole. You’ve got the attacks against Riyadh and so forth. We know from the 9/11 commission report that Iran provided substantial material support to the hijackers who would launch the 9/11 attacks in the United States. Dore Gold: There is clearly a direct connection between the Iranian petroleum and gas industry and its support for global terrorism. Walid Phares: They sent that money to Hamas in Gaza and they sent that money to Nasrollah in Lebanon. Hezbollah in Lebanon used to receive 300 million dollars a year. After 2006 according to open sources they have been receiving close to one billion dollars a year. Kenneth Timmerman: They work with just about every Islamist terrorist group in the world. [Showing continuous images of explosions] Narrator: More recently, Iran has supported militant actions against U.S. troops fighting in the region. Frances Townsend: Iran has not been really very subtle about confronting us in Iraq. Gen. David Petraeus: It is increasingly apparent to both Coalition and Iraqi leaders that Iran through the use of Quds Force seeks to turn the Iraqi special groups into a Hezbollah like force to serve its interests and fight a proxy war against the Iraqi state and Coalition Forces in Iraq. Fox News Reporter: Highly sophisticated weapons known as Explosively Formed Penetrators or EFPs can be directly tied to Tehran. Lt.Gen. Thomas Mcinerney: They are responsible for at least the death of 500 Americans and now they are




moving them over to Afghanistan. CNN Reporter: Iran has gone beyond giving weapons to the Taliban. The Iranians are helping train the Taliban fighters in the use of small arms and they are doing some of that training inside Iran. Senator Jon Kyl: When they provide training and equipment to people fighting us in Iraq and Afghanistan; you would have to say that they are at war with us. Dore Gold: Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, was the one who sparked the current wave of global Islamic terrorism through the Islamic Revolution of 1979. Hasan Nasrollah: We yell the rallying cry we learned from Imam Khomeini Louder... Higher... Stronger... Death to America! [People chanting the same slogan, repeatedly.] 3.2 CDA of the Movie This film advertised as documentary, is based on the incomprehensible and in large part baseless and unproven assertions of the interviewees. A true documentary aims at informing and enlightenment, while this movie aims at obfuscation and misleading. “It seems that those who attempt such propaganda films must be truly aiming at the demented”, who don’t have any access to the world of information, “or those who through the indolence of their minds readily accept falsehoods for truth” (Ordibehesht, 2011). Hearing an Iranian actress, Shohreh Aghdashloo, conscientiously reading out loud 60 minutes of accusations and fabrications against her homeland, written and supported by a group of hardliners, including some other Iranians and Arabs, who are urging the public that Iran must be bombed points to the fact that “the U.S. empire now banks on a pedigree of comprador intellectuals, homeless minds and guns for hire” (Dabashi, 2006). In the beginning of this chapter, the narrator generalizes her claim that “for over 30 years, the regime has used International terror”, which is an instance of derogation. Timmerman says, “when you look at the Iranian government terrorist, what you understand is that from the very beginning of this regime in January of 1979, they considered terrorism as a tool of policy” which is an instance of presupposition, derogation, victimization, and polarization. He presupposes that the ‘Iranian government terrorist’ is so widespread that the viewer knows about it and disparages the Iranian foreign policy by accusing the ‘regime’ of utilizing ‘terrorism’ as a tool. He also generalizes his point from the ‘very beginning’ of the revolution to this date. Eliot Engel who is supposedly a democratic congressman states that, “we know that Iran is the leading sponsor of terrorism around the world.” He doesn’t state how he has obtained such information and this is just of a sample of the bulk of unverified assertions of the interviewees. Walid Phares, an Arab author says, “the Iranian regime has an endless number of proxy organizations, beginning with the big ones such as Hezbollah” which is an instance of hyperbole. Using the word ‘endless’ aggrandizes the situation and warns the viewer of the following threats. Another ideological ploy used in the statement is presupposition, in which the speaker presupposes that the viewer already knows that Hezbollah is connected to Iran. Timmerman describes Hezbollah as a ‘cut out’ who “could independently carry out terrorist attacks with no fingerprints back to Tehran.” Here the speaker intends to manipulate the viewer by using the strategies of implication and vagueness. It implies that both Hezbollah and Iran are responsible for all the terrorist attacks and it is not also clear what attacks can really be traced back to Tehran. The narrator then accuses Hezbollah of two ‘deadly’ terrorist attacks during the Lebanese Civil War: “Hezbollah wasted little time before striking American installations”; “Hezbollah’s next attack would prove even more deadly. Attacking multi-national peace keeping forces stationed in Beirut.” What is apparently evident in the above-mentioned statements is the unverified assertions made about Hezbollah, which is an instance of falsification. To the present day, the accusations against Hezbollah about its alleged attacks to the U.S. Embassy and Barracks in Beirut have not been proved. The other point is that, an attack on the military soldiers during a war is never called a terrorist attack, especially the invading forces that have occupied one’s land. The term ‘peace keeping forces’ used to describe American invading forces stationed in Beirut is an instance of euphemization and positive self-representation or in-group favoritism and calling Hezbollah and Iranians as terrorists is an instance of negative other-representation or out-group derogation. The other interviewee says, “the dead point this had been the largest non-nuclear explosion ever recorded” which is another instance of hyperbole and falsification. One of the largest non-nuclear explosions in the history of mankind ever to occur was in 1917 up in Halifax, Nova Scotia. “The Mont-Blanc was a big ship carrying a lot of extremely dangerous cargo -- almost 3,000 tons of munitions bound for the war that was then tearing Europe apart. Approximately 2,000 people died from the explosion and another 9,000 were injured” (Christian, 2008). The Lebanese explosions are not comparable in any degree to the largest non-nuclear explosions recorded in the history. [For a




full list of the explosions see Christian (2008)]. In the following statements, ABC News reporter states that, “despite repeated proclamations that terrorists won’t affect U.S. foreign policy Muslim forces in Lebanon achieved their goal when Reagan withdraws all 1400 marines to the safety of offshore ships.” Here, the speaker implicitly compares Muslim forces to terrorists, which is an instance of implication and comparison. Timmerman continues: “You’ve got a whole series of hostage takings in the 1980s” which is again an instance of vagueness and generalization. Clare Lopez completes the string of unfounded and unsubstantiated allegations and says: You had attacks in the early 1990s, 1992 Buenos Aires against the Israeli embassy, 1994 against the Jewish cultural center in Buenos Aires. 1996 against Khobar Towers, 1998 Iran was involved with Al-Qaeda and Hezbollah in the East Africa Embassy bombings of Nairobi and Dar es Salaam. In the year 2000 Iran was involved with Hezbollah and Al-Qaeda again against the USS Cole. You’ve got the attacks against Riyadh and so forth. We know from the 9/11 commission report that Iran provided substantial material support to the hijackers who would launch the 9/11 attacks in the United States. To respond to all these false and groundless accusations and reveal the absurdity of the arguments is totally beyond the scope of this article but for more information and an in-depth analysis and response to the arraignments and incriminating remarks made in the film see Porter (2008a, 2008b, 2009). What is really facetious about the remarks is that the speaker blatantly connects Iran to Taliban and subsequently to the 9/11 attacks. The 9/11 Commission report states that: “Iran has implemented several widely publicized efforts to shut down al-Qaeda cells operating within its country” (“9-11 Commission Report,” 2004) and there is not any indication of Iran’s support for the hijackers. Besides, Iranians have never accepted Taliban as a legitimate Islamist group and have always supported the anti-Taliban movement in Afghanistan, e.g., Ahmad Shah Massoud who led resistance against the Taliban regime between 1996 and 2001. After the Taliban took power in 1996, Iran's supreme leader denounced the group as an ‘affront’ to Islam (“Policy of Iran's Supreme Leader,” 2012), and “the killing of eleven Iranian diplomats and truck drivers in 1998 almost triggered a military conflict” (Bruno & Beehner, 2009). The last but not least, is that in all the above-stated claims Clare Lopez has utilized the semantic strategy of evidentiality. The speaker has supposedly provided some evidence to persuade the viewer that Iranians are monstrous creatures responsible for all the terrorist attacks occurred during the last decades. The interviewees continue their opprobrious verbiage and Dore Gold says: “There is clearly a direct connection between the Iranian petroleum and gas industry and its support for global terrorism.” Here the speaker disguises his claim as a proven fact and does not provide anything to support his argument which is an instance of vagueness. Another interviewee, based on the Gold’s claim, states, “they sent that money to Hamas in Gaza and they sent that money to Nasrollah in Lebanon. Hezbollah in Lebanon used to receive 300 million dollars a year. After 2006 according to open sources they have been receiving close to one billion dollars a year.” These sentences can be regarded as exemplars of falsification and number game. The speaker has used such big numbers to indicate objectivity that Iran is spending a lot of money on terrorism and increase the credibility of his statement. In the same vein, Timmerman gives it his best shot and says: “they work with just about every Islamist terrorist group in the world” which is an instance of generalization, victimization and derogation. ‘Terrorist’ is used in conjunction with the word Islam to strengthen the producers’ objective which appears to be to naturalize the ideology of the link between Islam and terrorism. This is no doubt a very direct instance of negative other-representation. After presenting a sketchy and distorted historical account, the interviewees talk about the present confrontations of U.S. with Iran in Iraq and Afghanistan. The film shows Gen. David Petraeus, the commander of Multi-National Forces in Iraq, briefing reporters on the issue of Iran’s involvement in attacks against the invading forces in Iraq. He says: “It is increasingly apparent to both Coalition and Iraqi leaders that Iran through the use of Quds Force seeks to turn the Iraqi special groups into a Hezbollah like force to serve its interests and fight a proxy war against the Iraqi state and Coalition Forces in Iraq.” Showing the General’s speech in the film is an instance of the semantic strategy of authority, which the producers have used to legitimize their allegations and accusations against Iran. The General’s speech itself is again an instance of falsification and victimization. He does not provide any proof to support his claims and by the use of intensifiers ‘it is increasingly apparent’ tries to prove his assertion, a direct instance of lexicalization. Then the film shows Fox News report about EFPs or (Explosively Formed Penetrators) which is claimed that these weapons “can be directly tied to Tehran”, again an absurd and groundless allegation and one more instance of evidentiality and falsification. EFPs were first developed during the World War II and they are regarded as improvised explosive devices which can be easily built everywhere with a simple knowledge of weaponry (“Explosively formed penetrators,” 2012).




Another instance of authority, falsification, generalization and number game is Lt.Gen. Thomas Mcinerney’s claim that Iranians are “responsible for at least the death of 500 Americans and now they are moving them over to Afghanistan.” Quoting a General who is supposedly an expert in the field and knows about the casualties of the war, with the provided numbers, will not let the viewer doubt the credibility and validity of the statements. Using the word ‘at least’ to imply the high rate of the casualties is an instance of lexicalization. And finally their last orchestrated effort in this chapter to denigrate and disparage the image of Iranians is to relate all the atrocities and abominations of Talibans to Iranians. CNN Reporter says: “Iran has gone beyond giving weapons to the Taliban. The Iranians are helping train the Taliban fighters in the use of small arms and they are doing some of that training inside Iran.” As discussed earlier in the text, connecting Taliban to Iran is an outrageous verbiage and utterly nonsensical; and can be regarded as another instance of victimization and falsification. As some of the American experts have repeatedly stated “the weapons could have been smuggled into Afghanistan via various third-party channels” or “arms factories in Pakistan's North West Frontier Province” that make copies of the Iranian weapons could have sent the weapons to Talibans (Slavin, 2005). Dore Gold, the Israeli hard-liner, finishes this chapter by identifying the Grand Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini as the “one who sparked the current wave of global Islamic terrorism” throughout the world; which is an instance of actor description, derogation, generalization and victimization. Again the derogatory words ‘spark’ and ‘terrorism’ are all instruments of negative other representation. The CDA of this film has provided some ideologically significant points regarding “the effectiveness of language in distorting realities, vilifying certain people and mentalities” (Rahimi & Sahragard, 2007:102). The surprising number of derogatory and pejorative terms used is expressive of the producer’s indignation and disgust with Muslims, especially Iranians. A disproportionately high number of derogatory words, in a short extract of the movie, have been employed to humiliate, criticize and stigmatize the Iranians. The repercussions of mounting a smear campaign of fear-mongering and disinformation against a nation and its people are dreadful and it poses “a mortal threat to the lives and the well-being of millions of innocent Iranians who seem to have now become the targets of yet another war of aggression that appears to be in the making” (Ordibehesht, 2011). Table I CDA of Movie

Selected Terms Discursive Strategy Pressumed Effect/Connotation

Euph. Derog.

distaste ä AVERSION & DISLIKE

defiant ä REBELLIOUS & REFRACTORY

regime ä TOTALITARIANISM

(leading) sponsor of terror

ä PROMOTER OF TERRORISM

violator ä DISOBEDIENCE & CONTRAVENTION

extreme doctrine ä FANATIC & HARDLINER

hostage ä WAR PRISONERS

International terror

ä PANIC & FOREBODING

struggle

ä AGGRESSIVE & BELLIGERENT FIGHTING




Iranian government terrorist

ä SAVAGERY & FEROCITY

Fingerprint

ä OUTRAGEOUS & SCANDALOUS BEHAVIOUR

strike ä INVASION & AMBUSH

deadly ä LETHAL & FATAL ACTIVITIES

terrible message ä HORRENDOUS & APPALLING

pay the price ä REVENGE & RETALIATION

proxy war ä ABUSE & DECEPTION

destruction ä DEVASTATION & DEMOLITION

nuclear weapon ä APOCALYPTIC REPERCUSSIONS

peace keeping forces ä AMIABLE & GENIAL SOLDIERS unthinkable

consequences ä APOCALYSE & ARMAGEDDON

endless ä EVERLASTING & PERMANENT

fighters ä FORTHCOMING WAR

explosion ä DESTRUCTION

Muslim Forces ä TERRORISTS

hijackers ä CRIMINALS

train ä ANIMALS

spark ä PROVOCATION & ANTAGONIZING

wave ä EPIDEMIC

Note. Euph.=Euphemization, Derog.=Derogation So based on the presumed effect of the words on the audience and their connotations, presented in the table, it is revealed that the speakers throughout the movie have used every possible derogatory word to hijack the truth and vilify the Iranians.




4. Discussion Response to the first research question: Using the CDA framework (Van Dijk, 2004), in analyzing the movie revealed an extensive use of the semantic discursive strategies of positive self-representation and negative other-representation by the movie producers which was made possible through other discursive strategies such as actor description, derogation, euphemization, and evidentiality. Negative other-representation as a semantic macro-strategy which is usually complimentary to positive self-presentation has been used to enlarge the Iranians’ deficiencies or even ordinary characteristics (them). Throughout the movie, the speakers have repeatedly used derogatory terms and phrases which are usually accompanied with other semantic strategies like lexicalization, hyperbole, irony and polarization. In the Iranium the Iranians are bombarded with a wave of malicious remarks and contemptuous assertions. Using a derogatory term such as ‘defiant president’, in the beginning of the film, to describe the Iranian president who is the representative of a nation establishes the tone of the film which soon proves to be belligerent and aggressive. The speakers have used the same trend of negative other-representation through the use of ideologically laden derogatory terms such as Iranian regime, sponsor of terror, violator of human rights, extreme doctrine, hostage, International terror, struggle, Iranian government terrorist, strike, deadly, terrible message, pay the price, Death to America, destruction of nations, suffer unthinkable consequences, leading sponsor of terrorism, endless number of proxy organizations, hijackers, train, fighters, spark, wave of global Islamic terrorism to construct and disseminate the idea of Iranophobia. The mechanisms of manipulation in the discourse of this movie have been proved to be dramatically manifested in the derogatory and ideologically laden terms. Response to the second research question: Ideology is simply a “system of ideas, beliefs, values, attitudes, and categories by reference to which a person, a group or society perceives, comprehends and interprets the world” (Oktar, 2001: 313-14). In this sense, ideologies define a person’s position in the society and their perspective toward the world. According to Van Dijk (1995b) an ideology is a self-serving schema or a frame for the representation of us and them as social groups, and reflects the fundamental, social, economic, political and cultural interests or conflicts between us and them. Van Dijk (1995a) believes that a theory of ideology should be multidisciplinary and his approach to ideology relates cognition, society and discourse together. Ideologies play an undeniable role in the symbolic field of thought and belief, i.e. cognition, and they are usually associated with group interests, conflicts or struggles. The primary functions of ideologies in a society such as manipulation and concealment are mostly discursive social practices; therefore, language plays a significant role in the expression and the reproduction of ideologies. Owing to the fact that language performs within the social systems and institutions, it tends to reflect and construct ideology. (Van Dijk, 1995b). Therefore, to understand what ideologies are and how they work, it is necessary to “investigate their discursive manifestations for the fact that discursive practices are embedded in social structures, which are mostly constructed, validated, naturalized, evaluated and legitimized in and through language, i.e. discourse” (Rahimi & Sahragard, 2006:129). Within the framework of this article, (Van Dijk, 2004), the in-group favoritism vs. out-group derogation was investigated in the selected movie to demystify the relations between discourse and ideology as represented in the euphemization and derogation procedures in the discourse of the movie. The viewers make general inferences based on such discourse and construct mental models of Iranians as Muslims and terrorists. Then they generalize these inferences with their own basic opinions about the related ideological groups. Therefore this article has made an attempt to investigate the significant role of the media in reproduction and dissemination of ideologies among people with a focus on the anti-Iranian sentiment in Western movies. 5. Conclusion The findings revealed that the producers of the Iranium, made an extensive use of the perplexing power of the semantic components of the language in their arguments to support or reject an ideology. It was also proved that the production of an argument, according to Rahimi and Sahragard (2006), is truly affected by the positive and negative meanings of the words and their impact on the audience. The breakthrough made in this research substantiated the claim that Critical Discourse Analysis is the proper way of detecting the hidden ideologies of discourse and revealing the discursive structures and manipulative language of the speakers/writers. The dichotomy of in-group vs. out-group, based on the Van Djik’s framework (2004), proved to be a very effective discursive strategy at the disposal of the movie makers. It also showed that language can be used as a weapon to attack a nation and represent a distorted and unrealistic image of their history, culture and ideologies. The huge




power of the words in appealing to emotions, manipulating one’s thought and behavior and misrepresenting the realities has manifested itself in the CDA conducted on the discourse of the selected movie. The manipulation of the audience into believing the speakers’ ideologies and distortions of the facts have been masterfully attained in this movie and it was revealed that the main purpose of the movie makers had been the naturalization of such ideological attitudes into the subliminal knowledge of the viewers. The findings of this study, thus, add to the bulk of research done in the field of CDA and suggest the pervasiveness of these strategies in the discourse of the media. References Bruno, G. & Beehner, L. (2009). Iran and the future of Afghanistan. Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved from http://www.cfr.org/iran/iran-future-afghanistan/p13578. Campbell, J. (1997). Portrayals of Iranians in U.S. motion pictures. In Y. R. Kamalipour (Ed.), The U.S. Media and the Middle East: Image and Perception (pp. 176-186). Westport, CT: Praeger. Christian, M. (2008). KABOOM! - world's biggest non-nuclear explosions. Retrieved from http://www.darkroastedblend.com/2008/11/ kaboom-worlds-biggest-non-nuclear.html. Clifton, E. & Gharib, A. (2011). Iranium or: how I learned to stop worrying and love the ‘military option’. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/tehranbureau/iranium.html. Commission Report/ 9-11. (2004). National commission on terrorist attacks upon the united states. Retrieved from http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/index.html. Dabashi, H. (2006). Native informers and the making of the American empire. Al-Ahram Weekly. Retrieved from http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2006/797/special.html. Dines, G. & Humez, J. M. M. (eds). (1995). Gender, race, and class in media. A text-reader. London, CA: Sage Publications. Ebert, R. (1991). Not without my daughter. Retrieved from http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/19910111/REVIEWS/101110303/103. Explosively Formed Penetrator. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explosively_formed_penetrator. Fairclough, N. (1995). Media discourse. London: Edward Arnold. Fairclough, N. L., and Wodak, R. (1997). Critical discourse analysis. In T. A. van Dijk (Ed.), Discourse Studies. A multidisciplinary introduction. Vol. 2. Discourse as Social Interaction. (pp. 258-284). London: Sage Publications. Hall, S., Hobson, D., Lowe, A., & Willis, P. (eds). (1980). Culture, media, language. London: Hutchinson. Hamelink, C. J. (1997). New information and communication technologies. Social Development and Cultural Change, 86, Retrieved from http://dare.uva.nl/document/14111. Herman, E. S., & Chomsky, N. (1988). Manufacturing consent: the political economy of the mass media: Random House. Kaplan, R. B. (1990). Concluding essay: on applied linguistics and discourse analysis. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 11(1), 199-204. Kress, G., & Hodge, B. (1979). Language as ideology. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Kress, G., & Van Leeuwen, T. (1996). Reading images: the grammar of visual design: London, Routledge. Liebes, T. & Katz, E. (1990). The export of meaning: cross–cultural readings of “Dallas”. New York: Oxford University Press. Miller, B. (2007). Does Hollywood have a negative impact on the world? Retrieved from http://www.helium.com/items/432855-does-hollywood-have-a-negative-impact-on-the-world. Mundy, J. (2011). The issues behind the controversy. Retrieved from http://www2.canada.com/ottawacitizen/story.html?id=cdd5ff44-ef78-4f8c-bf54-77c907b80ca8. Oktar, L. (2001). The ideological organization of representational processes in the presentation of us and them. Discourse & Society. Vol 12(3): 313-346.




Ordibehesht, S. (2011). Iranium: A malicious and contemptible absurdity paraded as documentary. Unpublished manuscript. Retrieved from https://www.facebook.com/notes/sassan-ordibehesht/iranium-a-malicious-and-contemptible-absurdity-paraded-as-documentary/ 162627503786568. Policy of Iran's Supreme Leader in Past 22 Years. (2012). Farsnews.com. Retrieved from http://www.farsnews.com/newstext.php?nn=13901118000986. Porter, G. (2008a). Bush’s Iran/Argentine terror frame-up. The Nation.com. Retrieved from http://www.thenation.com/article/bushs-iranargentina-terror-frame. Porter, G. (2008b). Documents linking Iran to nuclear weapons push may have been fabricated. The RawStory.com. Retrieved from http://www.rawstory.com/news/2008/IAEA_suspects_fraud_in_evidence_for_1109.html. Porter, G. (2009). Investigating Khobar Towers: how a Saudi deception protected Bin Laden. Dissident Voice.org. Retrieved from http://dissidentvoice.org/2009/06/investigating-khobar-towers-how-a-saudi-deception-protected-bin-laden. Rahimi, A., & Sahragard, R. (2006). A critical discourse analysis of euphemization and derogation in e-mails on the late Pope. The linguistics journal, 1(2). Rahimi, A., & Sahragard, R. (2007). Critical discourse analysis. Tehran: Jungle Publications. Religion, 1638-Present. (n.d.) Retrieved from http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h3817.html. Slavin, B. (2005). Iran helped overthrow Taliban, candidate says. USAtoday.com. Retrieved from http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2005-06-09-iran-taliban_x.htm. Van Dijk, T.A. (1995a). Discourse analysis as ideology analysis. Language and Peace, 17, 33. Van Dijk, T.A. (1995b). Ideological discourse analysis. New Courant, 4(1), 135-161. Van Dijk, T.A. (1997). The study of discourse. Discourse as structure and process, 1, 1-34. Van Dijk, T.A. (2003). 18 critical discourse analysis. The Handbook of Discourse Analysis, 18, 352. Van Dijk, T.A. (2004). From text grammar to critical discourse analysis. Retrieved from http://www.discourses.org/download/articles. Van Leeuwen, T. (1998). It was just like magic--a multimodal analysis of children's writing. Linguistics and Education, 10(3), 273-305. Van Leeuwen, T. (2005). Introducing social semiotics. London: Routledge. Van Zoonen, L. (1994). Feminist media studies. London: Sage Publications.




The New Development of the Study of Discourse Anaphora ------Review of Discourse Anaphora: A Cognitive-Functional

Approach Meixia Li (Corresponding author)

School of English Language, Literature and Culture, Beijing International Studies University No. 1 Nanli, Dingfuzhuang, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100024, China

Tel: 86-10-6574-2856 E-mail: [email protected]

Received: 05-05- 2012 Accepted: 07-07- 2012 Published: 03-09- 2012 doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.14 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.14 The research is financed by Funding Project for Academic Human Resources Development in Institutions of Higher Learning Under the Jurisdiction of Beijing Municipality No. PHR201006131 & Research Planning Fund Project of China Ministry of Education, the Humanities and the Social Sciences No. 12YJA740039 1. Introduction The English word anaphora is derived from the Greek word ἀναφορά, meaning carrying back. For a long time anaphora has been the object of research in a wide range of disciplines, such as rhetoric, philosophy, theoretical linguistics and so on. A great number of remarkable achievements have been made in these fields. In the 1970’s there was a “discourse turn” in the domain of the humanities and the social sciences, which marked the birth and flourishing of such cross-disciplines as psycholinguistics, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, corpus linguistics, discourse studies and so on, and which also paved the way for the turn of the study of anaphora from focusing on intrasentential anaphora to intersentential anaphora. Intrasentential anaphora refers to the relationship between a pronoun and its antecedent being contained within one sentence, while intersentential anaphora can also be called discourse anaphora, which refers to “the relationship between a pronoun and its antecedent earlier in the discourse” (Clark & Parikh, 2006, p. 1). From the late 20th century on, discourse anaphora has become one of the hot topics in several fields such as psychology, cognitive science, artificial intelligence, etc. Many fruitful research results (i.e. Huang, 2002; Clark & Parikh, 2006, etc.) have been obtained. Ming-Ming Pu’s monograph Discourse Anaphora: A Cognitive-Functional Approach, published by LINCOM GmbH in Muenchen, Germany in 2011 is another important work of the study of discourse anaphora. In this book, the author first proposes a cognitive-functional model to account for how the construction of mental structures determines the use and resolution of discourse anaphora. Afterwards he does a comparative quantitative study of both English and Chinese empirical and text data, which demonstrates that on the one hand the occurrence and distribution of discourse anaphora is more universal in nature than language-specific, and on the other hand that the proposed model is adequate, feasible and workable. This book suits such readers as university teachers, graduate students and researchers who are interested in the study of anaphora, cross-linguistic studies, discourse analysis, and language teaching and learning. In the following I shall review each chapter and then offer my evaluation. 2. Chapter overview This monograph contains 7 chapters. In the introductory chapter, the author first situates discourse anaphora in a new perspective. Discourse anaphora is not held as a static product or entity linked to its linguistic antecedent in a text but as a manifestation of cognitive processes of memory and attention, and of building discourse coherence and maintaining local and global topics, along with the tacit cooperation between speakers and hearers. Against this background this chapter aims to construct a cognitive-functional model to account for the use and resolution of discourse anaphora. Then, the scope of the book, the categorization of anaphora and the overview of the book are given sequentially. This introduction sets the anchoring point, establishing the structure of the book and providing readers with contextual information so that they have the necessary knowledge about the present research topic.




Drawing on prior research in diverse yet related fields such as psychology, neuroscience and linguistics, the second chapter discusses the role that memory and attention mechanisms play in information processing, followed by exploration of how memory and attention mechanisms constrain language production and comprehension in general, and reference tracking in discourse in particular. After the theoretical discussion, the author states that discourse processing is a collaborative process, in which the speaker makes an effort to facilitate the hearer’s access to the referent with ease so that the hearer can build his /her mental representation of discourse congruent with his/her own by the usage of anaphora. This chapter serves as the theoretical foundation for the following study. The third chapter presents a cognitive-functional model of discourse anaphora. It first argues that discourse anaphora is a hearer-oriented process, during which the speaker constantly assesses the activation status of referents in the hearer’s mind and chooses specific anaphora to code the referents accordingly. Then, the author discusses how the two important factors -- topicality and thematic coherence -- modulate the activation level and attention activity of the referent during discourse processing, making the referent more or less accessible at the moment of utterance. Next, the author proposes a cognitive-functional model which explicates the relationship among cognitive activities, mental structure building, and discourse anaphora. Finally, the author holds a discussion of some of the most important functional and cognitive theories on anaphora, such as the Activation Model, the Referential Distance Model, Centering Theory, Accessibility Theory, and the Attention Model, critically pointing out the strengths and weaknesses of each, and stating that his proposed model differs significantly from others. By presenting two experimental studies, Chapter Four is devoted to the validity of the proposed cognitive-functional model of discourse anaphora. Specifically speaking, the experiments are intended to realize three goals. The first goal is to examine whether the speaker’s anaphoric choice in discourse production would be directly influenced by a disruption in cognitive activities. The second goal is to investigate whether the speaker’s anaphoric choice would be affected by units of memory representations corresponding to text structures of episodes or paragraphs in oral and written discourse. The third goal is to find out what interrupts thematic coherence in the flow of information and whether different choices of anaphors are the result of major and minor thematic discontinuities in discourse. The two experiments are employed to fulfill the three goals. The first experiment examines the connection between cognitive mechanisms and discourse anaphora, specifically, the effect of major disruptions in the flow of information on the use of anaphora. The second experiment focuses on the effect of minor thematic discontinuities in the cognitive accessibility of referents and hence the use of anaphora. In the two experiments, the stimulus material is from a children’s picture storybook entitled “Here Comes Alex Pumpernickel”, which contains altogether eight episodes, three of which were adapted for the experiment. The participants are native speakers of both English and Chinese. They all completed the experiment in their own native language. In the first experiment there are forty participants, twenty native speakers of Canadian English and twenty native speakers of Mandarin Chinese. Ten of the Chinese speakers and thirteen of the English speakers are female. They are all graduate students at the university of Alberta, Canada. In this experiment the twenty-four pictures chosen from the three episodes of the above-mentioned storybook were made into a black and white video program, which could be viewed as a cartoon picture sequence from a computer screen. There are four experimental conditions: Chinese Even, Chinese Odd, English Even, and English Odd. The participants were randomly assigned to each of the conditions in equal numbers, namely ten participants for each condition. The tasks for each participant include both on-line and recall; and participants were asked to produce oral and written narratives, which were tape-recorded and later on transcribed by the experimenter. Then a detailed analysis of the data is carried out and the results confirm the Working Hypothesis 1 the author proposed at the beginning and prove the feasibility of the author’s CF (cognitive-functional) model. In the second experiment there are also forty participants, twenty of whom are native speakers of (Mandarin) Chinese from Huazhong University of Finance and Economics, China, and another twenty of whom are native speakers of (American) English from Northern State University, USA. All of the participants are undergraduates and half of them are female. They are required to do two tasks: spoken and written, each of which is done individually. In the spoken task participants were asked to thumb through the picture book and simultaneously produce a spoken narrative, which were tape-recorded and later on transcribed. After the spoken description, participants were asked to write down the entire story they had just narrated, and the written data was collected immediately. Afterwards the author analyzed the data in terms of the purpose of the experiment, giving strong support to her proposal and her CF model. All in all,




the two experiments further indicate that discourse anaphora is governed by cognitive mechanisms of memory and attention, with the modulation of thematic coherence and topicality. Chapter Five investigates whether the proposed model can account for discourse anaphora in naturally occurring, character-rich and plot-complex written narrative texts, and whether the major anaphoric patterns obtained from the two experiments can be found in complex written narrative texts. The study lends further support to the statement made in Chapter Three, that is, the cognitive constraints of memory and attention underlying reference tracking can also apply to naturally occurring and structurally complex written narratives, and the analyses of both contemporary English and Chinese short stories demonstrate that similar distributional patterns of anaphora are used between literary writers of the short stories and student writers in the experimental studies. Based on the evidence from the experimental studies and text analysis, Chapter Six argues that the use of zero anaphora, rather than being constrained by language-specific characteristics, is also governed by the same cognitive-functional principle underlying anaphora tracking. With respect to the fact that zero anaphora occurs about twice as frequently in Chinese as it does in English discourse, the author states that the difference is mainly due to the definition and classification of “clause”, and the determining factor that influences the use of zero anaphora in Chinese and English discourse is the sustained attentional effort on a referent that is maintained in a micro-unit of maximum thematic coherence. This chapter also deals with three types of maximum thematic continuity: topic continuity, action/event continuity, and condensed continuity, which, the author argues, are responsible not only for the occurrence and distribution of zero anaphora but also for the asymmetry between zero subject and zero object in both languages. In this chapter, Topic Chain, “in which the topic is almost invariably coded by zero subject, although zero objects occur occasionally” (Ming-Ming Pu, 2011, p. 161), and which is the characteristic feature of Chinese, is also taken up and a quite different conclusion is drawn. The author finds that topic chain can also be used in English discourse. The chapter further explores thematic discontinuity that inhibits the use of zero anaphora. In the end, a fill-in-the-blanks study was used “to test the psychological reality of thematic continuity and discontinuity in discourse processing, and to determine whether such continuity and discontinuity govern the use of covert versus overt referential forms” (Ming-Ming Pu, 2011, p. 207). The study reveals that native speakers of both English and Chinese follow the same general rules of anaphor use put forward by the author’s CF model, and their choice of anaphora is in most cases consistent with what the authors of narratives do. The last chapter sums up the major findings of the study in detail, and presents the necessity for further studies. 3. Evaluation The study of anaphora can be classified into two sorts: one is the study of intrasentential anaphora (specifically, binding relations); the other is the study of intersentential anaphora (or discourse anaphora). “The former attracted attention in the 1960s and is one of the central topics in generative syntax and semantics, but also in current typological studies. The latter has been studied extensively since the early 1990s within computational linguistics, discourse representation theory, and functional approaches such as centering theory”(Reuland et al., 2011). It is obvious that Ming-Ming Pu’s research belongs to the latter. The book written by Ming-Ming Pu makes an important and innovative contribution to the study of anaphora, specifically discourse anaphora. Traditionally anaphora is defined as involving a “linguistic element which refers back to another linguistic element (⇒antecedent) in the coreferential relationship, i.e. the reference of an anaphora can only be ascertained by interpreting its antecedent” (Bussmann, 2000, p. 23), yet in this book, anaphora is regarded as “a process where references are managed in a developing discourse to maintain discourse topics and achieve coherence” (Ming-Ming Pu, 2011, p. 4). This definition has three merits. First, by using such expressions as “a process” and “a developing discourse”, this definition emphasizes the dynamics of references; second, by the usage of the word “manage”, this definition stresses the role of man’s cognition or cognitive mechanism in the management of reference; third, “to maintain discourse topics and achieve coherence” clearly demonstrates the function of anaphora in a developing discourse. Thus it can be stated that anaphora is inextricably intertwined with cognition, function and dynamics, which not only enlarges the scope of anaphora, but also presents us a complete fresh perspective towards anaphora. Then, rather than assuming that the processing of discourse anaphora is a static, textual, individual, linear, and isolated process, this study holds that it is a cognitive, interactional, hierarchical and contextual process. The proposal of this idea is an integration of the previous approaches and the author’s own reconstruction. Actually




in the domain of discourse anaphora four main theoretical models have already existed. They are: (1) the topic continuity model, (2) the hierarchical model, (3) the cognitive model, (4) a neo-Gricean pragmatic analysis of discourse anaphora (Huang, 2000). It can be easily seen that in addition to drawing on her predecessors, Ming-Ming Pu also contributed to the existing body of knowledge of discourse anaphora. Her effort is to delineate the universality of the principles governing the use and interpretation of anaphora. Apart from that, rather than fixing her attention on anaphora and text information, the author establishes the relationship among the cognitive mechanism of memory and attention, and discourse coherence and anaphora, which unveils the true reason that leads to the use and resolution of discourse anaphora, that is, the use and resolution of anaphora is not a linguistic matter, rather it is a manifestation of the interaction between cognition and function. It can be further inferred that cognitive mechanism of memory and attention is primary and the linguistic element of anaphora is secondary. Additionally, rather than simply generalizing the research on the use of anaphora, this study makes a deep investigation into what exactly contributes to the easy accessibility of referents. According to the experiment, this study finds that the two factors ------ topicality and thematic coherence in discourse processing determine the degree of accessibility of referents. And, rather than merely relying upon qualitative English data, the author adopts both English and Chinese empirical and text data and analyzes them quantitatively and qualitatively. Here, what deserves attention is that the author does not just focus on the linguistic analysis of both English and Chinese narratives; on the contrary, by analyzing the spoken and written data obtained from two experiments and the major patterns of anaphora and their significance, the author intends to test her CF model and the particular hypotheses derived from it. The design of the experiments is rational. The selection of the material, the method and the procedure fit in with the purpose of the study. So the results of the study are credible. Finally this study sheds new light on the issue of topic chain, with which zero anaphora is closely connected. It has been traditionally assumed that topic chain is a device unique to Chinese, because it is universally held that Chinese is a topic-oriented language. By contrast, the present study argues that topic chain can often be employed in English discourse when topicality and coherence are guaranteed, and so the phenomenon of topic chain is more language-general. This argument may subvert our long-held, deep-rooted thinking that topic chain is only found in Chinese. All in all, this study offers us an extensive overview of the previous theories of the study of anaphora, as well as a well-established theoretical framework for the interpretation of discourse anaphora. It also presents some new thought-provoking ideas concerned with the processing of discourse anaphora and opens up more possibilities for further research. In spite of the above-mentioned strengths, in this monograph, there are a few points which need reconsidering. It is usually the case that in a research a literature review should appear early, because “A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current knowledge including substantive findings as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic”(Wikipedia). Nevertheless, in this book, the author does not present a literature review first; instead，in Chapter Three, she first puts forward her model and then gives a critical assessment of the previous theories of the study of anaphora, which serves as a literature review. But in the reviewer’s opinion, this critical literature review should be placed in an independent chapter and be presented earlier. A literature review can facilitate readers’ mastery of the developing context of discourse anaphora and meanwhile discovery of the contribution made by the author. And above all, this organization (i.e. a literature review is followed by the author’s theoretical model and the experiment) might be more coherent internally and externally, and to a certain extent might increase the readability of the book. Another point is concerned with the number of participants in the experiments, which include 20 native speakers of English and 20 native speakers of Chinese. The samples are comparatively small, which, to a certain extent, might influence the credibility of the research result. The last point is about the data for the text analysis in Chapter Five. This chapter presents the following criteria for choosing stories: length, point of view, role of character, and referential environment. Yet, another feature, generic structure, should be included as one of the criteria. “Genre represents the system of staged goal-oriented social processes through which social subjects in a given culture live their lives.” (Christie & Martin, 1997, p. 13) So, what generic structure expresses is the fundamental nature of a genre (i.e. narrative). Anyhow, even though it has a few minor weaknesses, this book is definitely well-written and is highly recommended.




References Bussmann, Hadumod. (2000). Routledge dictionary of language and linguistics. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Christie, F. & Martin, J. R. (1997). Genre and institutions: Social processes in the workplace and school. London: Cassell. Clark, Robin & Parikh, Prashant. (2007). Game theory and discourse anaphora. Journal of Logic, Language and Information. 16 (3): 265-282. Kluwer Academic Publishers Hingham, MA, USA. Huang, Yan. (2000). Discourse anaphora: Four theoretical Models. Journal of Pragmatics. (32):151-176. Reuland, Eric, Everaert, Martin, & Volkova, Anna, (2011), Anaphora. [Online] Available: http://oxfordbibliographiesonline.com/view/document/obo-9780199772810/obo-9780199772810-0050.xml Wikipedia. [Online] Available: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature_review Notes This review appeared originally in the LINGUIST List at http://linguistlist.org/issues/15/15-839.html.




Revitalization of Emergentism in SLA: A Panacea! Nima Shakouri Masouleh (PhD candidate in TEFL)

Islamic Azad University-Science and Research Branch, Tehran, Iran E-mail: [email protected]

Received: 28-06- 2012 Accepted: 11-07- 2012 Published: 03-09- 2012 doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.19 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.19 Abstract Emergentists claim learning takes place by extracting regularities from the input. By the same token, Ellis (1998) disputed the view held by generative linguistics that such a complex phenomenon as language can only be learnt if it is assumed that humans are endowed genetically with a language specific learning device. Emergentists, as O’Grady (2003) reports, claim simple learning mechanisms are sufficient to bring about the emergence of complex language representations. Nevertheless, this perspective toward learning has so far failed to take into account how language competence could emerge (O’Grady, 2003). The following paper is an attempt to elucidate the theoretical assumptions behind emergentism. Key words: emergentism, reductionism, unpredictability 1. Introduction There is less of consensus as to exactly what emergentism itself claims about the working of language (O’Grady, 2008). As Stephan (1997) observes, an immense variety of emergentist doctrines can be identified, and the resulting theories have many faces. To better appreciate the notion of emergentism, let me first, briefly draw a distinction between property theory and transition theory. Psycholinguistically, the property theory is concerned with such a question as what is the nature of a given faculty?, while in the transition theory, we tend to answer how do we acquire that faculty? Emergentism is clearer on the transition theory than the property theory. In effect, to an emergentist, language is acquired through associative learning (Gregg, 2003). Thus, claiming that emergentism by nature is non-linguistic rather than linguistic is undisputable. By the same token, O’Grady (2003) argues a substantial portion of emergentist work seems to involve a commitment to the following thesis: the phenomena of language are best explained by reference to more basic non-linguistic (i.e., “non-grammatical”) factors and their interaction (p. 274). As said earlier, learning in this view occurs on the basis of associative process, rather than the construction of abstract rules (Mitchel & Myles, 2004). According to Mitchel and Myles (2004), “the human mind is predisposed to look for associations between elements and create neural links between them” (p. 127). As they hold, “these links become stronger as these associations keep recurring, and they also become part of larger networks as connections between elements become more numerous” (p. 127). In a nutshell, emergentism is a leading theory of language acquisition that declares language ability is the product of interactions between language environment and one’s learning capabilities. 2. Literature Review Emergentism is the name that has recently been given to a general approach to cognition that stresses the interaction between organism and environment and that denies the existence of predetermined, domain specific faculties or capacities (Gregg, 2003). It seems emergentists give an equal value to both organism and environment in the process of learning. Not like behaviorists, in an extreme form, who ignore the role of organism and cognitivists, in contrast, who give the primary role to the organism in the process of language acquisition. Emergentism offers itself as an alternative to modular, special nativist theories of the mind, including Universal Grammar (Ghaemi & Faraji, 2011). Along the same line, O’Grady (2010) argues that emergenist approaches to language necessarily stand in opposition to theories of the language faculty that posit an innate universal Grammar. In short, emergentism is in contrast with Chomskyan approaches which see language as a separate faculty from other cognitive functions. In effect, emergentists assume that generic associative learning mechanisms underpin all aspects of language acquisition (Ellis, 2003). Put another way, emergentism is radically different from both generativist and interactionist epistemologies. Norris and Ortega (2003) hold:




on the one hand, it is incompatible with generative SLA because it denies symbolism, modularity, and innatism, and it removes linguistics from the center of the research domain, replacing it with cognitive architecture. On the other hand, in spite of the shared interest in functionalist explanations and cognitive constructs, emergentist theory resonates little with interactionist SLA. The highly specialized neurobiological treatment of cognitive processes, the lack of a traditional dichotomy between representation and access, and the absence of interest in non-cognitive variables (social, affective, educational, etc.) all differentiate emergentist from interactionist perspectives. (p. 724)

2.1 Theoretical background The roots of emergentism can be traced back to the work of John Stuart Mill (1930) who took an anti-reductionist perspective toward a system. To him, a system can have properties that amount to more than the sum of its parts. By the same token, Van Lier (2004) holds ‘non-reductive’ means that the lower-level categories cannot explain the higher-level ones; they are radically different, although the higher level is based on and built up from the lower level element. John Stuart Mill was among the first who makes a distinction between mechanical causes and chemical causes. In chemical processes the mixture of several elements not only leads to the products which are not the sum of the mentioned elements, but also looks something completely different (Jalilzadeh, 2011). It can be claimed the chemical combination of two substances produces a third substance with properties different from those of either of the two substances separately, or both of them taken together (O’Grady, 2010). Roughly speaking, it is a family of views each holding that there are “new levels” of concrete particulars that emerge when we combine more simple components. That is, emergentism holds that there are “wholes” in the world that have properties/causal powers or “natures” that are not possessed by the parts that give rise to them. 2.2 Principles underlying emergentism The technical meaning of the word emergentism can be traced to such features as novelty, reducibility, and unpredictability (Stephan, 2006). The basic idea of emergentism according to Stephan (2006) is: as systems become increasingly complex during evolution, some of which may exhibit novel properties that are neither predictable nor explainable. Thus, as Stephan (2006) maintains complex wholes can come to have properties that are not reducible to the properties and relations of their constituents. Meanwhile, the concept of emergentism in linguistics also holds that language is a machine built out of old parts (Bates & MacWhinney, 1988, cited in O’Grady, 2010). Along the same line, O’Grady (2010) asserts that there is no general agreement concerning just what those parts might be, ranging from features of physiology and perception, to processing and working memory, to pragmatics and social interaction, to properties of the input and of the learning mechanisms. Emergentists claim learning takes place by extracting regularities from the input. In fact, having sufficient and effective input is a demand for learning to emerge. By the same token, Bot, Lowie and Verspoor (2000) also assert emergentism depends to a great degree on input. They say only when children have become very familiar with a few similar constructions will they generalize from these to new ones (p. 38). Elsewhere, O’Grady (2008) assert although linguistic emergentism denies the existence of certain types of grammatical principles, it does not deny the existence of grammatical properties (p. 448). According to him, the properties of grammatical phenomena arise from the interaction of factors that are not linguistic (O’Grady, 2007). Along the same line, this view is completely against the Universal Grammar view, which stresses on the importance of grammatical principles; the followers of this view believe that the properties of grammatical phenomena arise from the interaction of grammatical principles. In other words, the relationship between grammatical principles and properties are in cause and effect nature, not an emergent. According to O’Grady (2007), such anti-UG attempt known as emergentism tries to solve the question of language acquisition. Hence, emergentism is a cognitive approach that puts an emphasis on the interaction between organism and the environment and rejects the notion of having pre-determined capacities (Ziglari, 2008). 2.3 Types of emergentism To better appreciate the notion of emergentism, let’s refer to a distinction between two perspectives concerning emergentism proposed by Gregg, 2005 – a nativist perspective and an empericist perspective. Although both groups stand against pure nativism or what Fodor (1984) named as ‘mad dog nativism’ (p. 153), their theoretical perspective are somewhat different. As a pioneer in nativist empiricism, O’Grady believes in nativism but without universal grammar (Jalilzadeh, 2011). On a word, children are born with LAD which does not include any principles. In fact, the entire grammar is the outcome of interaction of acquisition device and experience. And as to




O’Grady (2003), “…, no grammatical knowledge is inborn” (p. 44). Empiricist emergentists–notably Nick Ellis– study language acquisition in the form of neural networks. Empericist emergentism, in contrast with nativist emergentism, is related to connectionism: an approach to the study of the mind that seeks to model learning and cognition in terms of networks of (assumedly) neuron-like units. In this view, that is empiricist emergentism, language is neither a genetic endowment nor a collection of static rules and forms to be acquired. In fact, language is the result of communicative processes (Jalilzadeh, 2011, p. 153), and as Ellis (1998) argues, language representations emerge from interactions at all levels from brain to society. Thus, according to empiricist emergentists, the meticulous description of language systematicities provided by Chomsky, though precious, is not sufficient because they do not explain how learners achieve the state of knowledge that can be described in this way (Ellis, 2005). To date, emergentist work within linguistics has focused most strongly on the question of how language is acquired. Jalilzadeh(2011) in a comparison between empiricist emergentism and nativist emergentism concludes that the former claims language learning is not fundamentally different from any other type of learning and can be learned by the same the same mechanisms used for other kinds of learning in interaction with the environment in general, while the other view, nativist emergentism, argues that language learning differs from the ways connectionist views offer. Nativist emergentists believe in an inborn acquisition device dedicated to language, but they do not agree the grammatical character of this inborn device. Another classification of emergentism that will help us to better understand the theoretical thoughts behind is Stephan’s (2003): weak, synchronic and diachronic emergentism. Weak emergentism, according to Stephan (1999) has the following characteristics: (1) physical monism (i.e., all entities in the world are composed of physical elements); (2) systemic properties. (i.e. a property of a system is systemic if none of the components of the system has it; and (3) synchronic determinism (i.e., the properties of a system are nomologically dependent on its microstructure). In fact, weak emergentism is perfectly compatible with reductive physicalism (Eronen, 2004). As to Stephan (1999), reductive physicalism need not deny the existence of systemic properties, and physical monism and synchronic determinism should be accepted by all naturalistically oriented philosophers. Synchronic emergentism is weak emergentism supplemented with irreducibility (Stephan, 1999, p. 68). According to Stephan (1999), the notion of irreducibility can be divided into two parts: (a) if they are not behaviorally analyzable, or (b) if the behavior of the components over which they supervene is irreducible. In both cases the systemic properties cannot be deduced from the behavior and properties that the components show in isolation or in simpler systems (p. 43). Diachronic emergentism is also weak emergentism supplemented with the characteristics novelty and unpredictability (Stephan 1999, p. 69). According to Eronen (2004), in the history of emergentism, this form is more prevailing than synchronic emergentism, but for philosophy of mind it is of little interest (p. 40). Diachronic emergentism is mainly interested in the predictability of novel properties. For such a theory, those properties are emergent that could not have been predicted in principle before their first instantiation (Stephan, 2002). To sum up, the difference between weak and diachronic emergence is the unpredictability of properties. The difference between diachronic and synchronic emergence is the irreducibility of properties. Moreover, if one property or entity has not existed before and suddenly comes into existence, it means that the property or entity is diachronically new. Synchronic novelty is time independent (Scholz, 2004, p. 2). These two kinds of irreducibility produce either downward causation or epiphenomenalism. Downward causation can be defined as a converse of the reductionist principle: the behavior of the parts (down) is determined by the behavior of the whole (up), so determination moves downward instead of upward. The difference is that determination is not complete. This makes it possible to formulate a clear systemic stance, without lapsing into either the extremes of reductionism or of holism (Campbell, 1990). Epiphenomenalism is the view that mental events are caused by physical events in the brain, but have no effects upon any physical events. Behavior is caused by muscles that contract upon receiving neural impulses, and neural impulses are generated by input from other neurons or from sense organs (Robinson, 2003). To have a broad look at the notion of emergentism, one can also investigate the strategies that emergentists employ. Along the same line, O’Grady, Lee, and Kwak (009) hold, depending on the dominant strategies that emergentist approach adopts, they can be divided into two types: input-based as advocated by Nick Ellis and processor-based supported by O’Grady (1999). The former, focuses on the effect of frequency of certain items in the input and acquisition, while the latter, processor-based emergentism, focuses on the cognitive processing of language, offering a solution to the poverty of the stimulus problem different from the UG approach. O’Grady prefers processor to input. The defining property of his processor is its commitment to reducing the burden on the




working memory. Yang (2009) in an interview with O’Grady reports that he further claims processor is efficiency-driven. Meanwhile, the processor adopts particular strategies, such as backtrapping—going back and changing the interpretation of a previously interpreted element. Along the same line, these processors are innate. O’Grady claims when he says that the ‘processor’ or ‘working memory’ is innate, he is actually talking about very general operations and propensities—not about anything specially linguistic or grammatical (p. 423). 2.4 Connectionism Connectionism as a model of emergentism is defined as a theory in cognitive science that assumes that the individual components of human cognition are highly interactive and that knowledge of events, concepts and language is represented diffusely in the cognitive system (Richards & Schmidt, 2002, p. 108). According to Mitchel and Myles (2007), “language in this view is seen as a set of probabilistic patterns that become strengthened in the brain of the learner through repeated activation” (p. 127). The basic assumptions of the connectionist theory, according to Richards and Schmidt (2002), are as follows:

1. Information processing takes place through the interactions of a large number of simple units, organized into networks and operating in parallel. 2. Learning takes place through the strengthening and weakening of the interconnections in a particular network in response to examples encountered in the input. 3. The result of learning is often a network of simple units that acts as though it “knows” abstract rules, although the rules themselves exist only in the form of association strengths distributed across the entire network. (p. 108)

Ahlsén (2006, as cited in Ghaemi & Faraji, 2011, p. 45) called connectionism as associationism. By the same token Ghaemi & Faraji report that he asserts higher functions are dependent on the connections between different centers in the cortex; furthermore, linguistic ability is seen as the relationship between images and words. Ahlsen (2006) also believed that aphasia results from broken connections between the centers that are needed for linguistic function. Connectionism is an approach in cognitive science that employs neural networks. This neural network, or connectionist system, is composed of a set of nodes or units, so-called activation vectors. Units in a net are usually segregated into three classes: input units, which receive information to be processed, output units where the results of the processing are found, and units in between called hidden units. According to Ghaemi and Faraji (2011), “The effectiveness of this learning process has been increased by a feedback mechanism known as back propagation which provides the program with a kind of memory. Ghaemi and Faraji (2011) also hold by dint of many repeated presentations of the input, some connections within the network become strengthened while others become weakened. In this way, the network can gradually be trained to produce to correct responses through a process of error reduction (Field, 2004, cited in Ghaemi & Faraji, 2011, p. 46). Connectionist learning For learning to occur, these units (i.e., input, hidden, and output) must be activated and the activation must be propagated. Furthermore, based on the experience gained what is connected must be modified in order to be learned. To connectionists, learning is adjusting the strength of connection so that a given input results in a desired output. They emphasized learning occurs when an organism discovers a difference between the state of the world and the organism's representation of the world. In effect, all that is needed for learning is having two nodes simultaneously activated. The less the difference between input and output, the stronger and the faster learning will be. For example, first, the child might say 'goed' for 'went', but he works out the rule system and begin to produce both regular and irregular verb formed correctly. How does this happen? To connectionists (although not that much simple that I put), the brain creates networks which connect words or phrases to other words or phrases which occur at the same time. This connection will be strengthened if learners are repeatedly exposed to linguistic stimuli in specific context. For example, when one says 'I go' and 'she goes', the latter is thought to be established through high-frequency exposure, the word 'she' triggers 'goes' because the learner has heard these forms in combinations many times. Connectionism forms an important nonlinguistic approach to studying language acquisition that has important ties with psychology and general learning (Patten & Benati, 2010, p. 75) In a nutshell, Patten and Benati (2010) hold:

Connectionism is an exemplar-based approach, meaning that learning occurs due to the examples we are exposed to in the input. From these numerous examples, patterns and




regularities emerge to form what looks on the surface to be knowledge—or in the case of language, rules. (p. 76)

To better appreciate the concept of exemplar-based approach, take the following example. If the speaker of English hears the sound /flaur/ (maybe flower and flour) as an isolated word, the first word that pops into the speaker’s mind is the word ‘flower’. Why does flower come to mind first? The connectionist would say that ‘flower’ is much more frequent than ‘flour’. Thus, frequency of exemplar in the input plays a major role in learning (strength building) under connectionism. Grammar, also, in language, under a connectionist account, does not form a mental representation with abstract concepts as it would for the syntactician. Instead, grammar is the result of constructions being learned (Patten & Benati, 2010). Accordingly:

Constructions are units of form-meaning mappings and can be simple such as “Great!” or longer such as “How’s it goin’?” These units exist as chunks that the speaker draws upon without creating sentences. However, smaller constructions can be combined to make sentences such that something like “I wanna” can combine with another set of units to form “I wanna go with you.” (Patten & Benati, 2010, p.76)

Within SLA, connectionists have also challenged the notion of an innate knowledge source that is language specific (e.g., Universal Grammar). Gasser (1990) claims, “Universal Grammar (UG) is not compatible with the connectionist framework” (p. 188). The principles and parameters of the UG of Government and Binding (GB) theory, for example, are stated in terms of variables. In connectionism (or emergentism), the properties of language are best understood in terms of the interaction of more basic, nonlinguistic forces. 3. Conclusion Many philosophers associate emergentism with a philosophical doctrine which had its heydays in 1920s: positivistic reductionism. Nevertheless, few are interested in emergentism as it is inspired by positivistic reductionism, and as Brown (2007) declares emergentism “oddly hearkens back to the spirit of behavioral approaches” (p. 32). Furthermore, it is guessed the probable collapse of emergentism may be once due to such philosophy behind. Above all, emergentism is an approach to describe and predict the complexity in the study of language learning. Importantly, emergentism attempts to minimize hypothetical universals so that the full diversity of languages and cultures can be understood rather than being obscured by exogenous constructs (Mellow, 2010). Thus, the root of it can be linked to Jean Piaget whose theory of development emphasized the interaction between experience and general cognitive mechanisms (O’Grady, 2008). Furthermore, emergentism in favor of simplicity in theory construction takes Occam's Razor principle. Occam's Razor requires that theorists use the most economical system of constructs to explain phenomena. Accordingly, much contemporary emergentist research remains committed to the idea that language acquisition can be reduced to the use of simple learning mechanisms to extract statistical regularities present in ordinary linguistic input. Ellis (1999) cited in Jordon (2004) that emergentists believe that the complexity of language emerges from relatively simple developmental processes being exposed to a massive and complex environment. The Competition Model is a good example of an emergentist approach, rejecting, as it does, the nativist UG account of language, and the nativist assumption that human beings are born with linguistic knowledge and a special language learning mechanism. In the same line, emergentism claims that complex systems exhibit ‘higher-level’ properties that are neither explainable, nor predictable from ‘lower-level’ physical properties, while they nevertheless have causal and hence explanatory efficacy (Jordon, 2004, p. 246). Roughly speaking, as O’Grady (2008) holds, there is currently no comprehensive emergentist theory of language or its acquisition, but there is a well-defined emergentist program for the investigation of those phenomena. That program is based on the simple thesis that the core properties of language are best understood with reference to more fundamental non-linguistic (i.e., ‘non-grammatical’) factors and their interaction. The viability of this idea can and must be measured against its success in confronting the classic problems of linguistic analysis—figuring out how language works and how it is acquired. References Bot, K. d., Lowie, W., & Verspoor, M. (2000). Second language acquisition. London: Routledge. Brown, H. D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching (5th ed.). White Plains, NY: Longman Campbell D. T. (1990). Levels of organization, downward causation, and the selection-theory approach to evolutionary epistemology. In E. Tobach & G. Greenberg (Eds), Scientific methodology in the study of mind: evolutionary epistemology (pp. 1-17). New York: Erlbaum.




Ellis, N. C. (1998). Emergentism, connectionism, and language learning. Language Learning, 48, 631-646. Ellis, N. C. ( 2005). Constructions, chunking, and connectionism: The emergence of second language structure. In C. J. Doughty & M. H. Long, The handbook of second language acquisition. London: Blackwell Publishing. Fodor, J. A. (1984). Observation reconsidered. Philosophy of Science, 51, 23–43. Gasser, M. (1990). Connectionism and universals of second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 12 (2), 179-199. doi:10.1017/S0272263100009074 Ghaemi, F., & Faraji, L. F. (2011). Connectionist models: Implications in second Language acquisition. BRAIN. Broad Research in Artificial Intelligence Neuroscience, 2 (3), 45-51. Gregg, K. R. (1996). The logical and developmental problems of second language acquisition. In T. K. Bhatia & W. C. Ritchie (Eds.), Hand book of second language acquisition (pp. 50-75).London: Academic Press, Inc. Gregg, K. R. (2003). The state of emergentism in second language acquisition. Second Language Research, 19 (2), 95-128. Jalilzadeh, K. (2011). Emergentism in first language acquisition. European Journal of Scientific Research. 57(1), 152-155. Jordon, G. (2004). Theory construction in second language acquisition. Amsterdam: John Benjamin Publishing Company Mellow, J. D. (2010). Fostering diversity and minimizing universals: Toward a non-colonialist approach to the acquisition of Algonquian languages. Native Studies Review, 19(1), 67-100. Mill, J.S. (1930). A system of logic ratiocinative and inductive. London: Longman. Mitchell, R., & Myles, F. (2004). Second language learning theories (2nd). London: Hodder Arnold. Norris, J. & Ortega, L. (2003). Defining and measuring SLA. In C. J. Doughty & M. H. Long (Eds), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 717-761). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. O’Grady, W. (2007). Does emergentism have a chance? Paper presented to the 32nd Boston University conference on language development, Boston, MA, USA. O’Grady, W. (2008). The emergentist program. Lingua, 118(20), 447-464. O’Grady, W. (2010). Emergentism. In P. Hogan (Ed.), The Cambridge encyclopedia of the language science (pp. 274-276). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. O’Grady, W., Lee, M., & Kwak, H. Y. (2009). Emergentism and second language acquisition. In W. C. Ritchie & T. K. Bhatia (Eds), The new handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 69-87). London: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Patten, B. V., & Benati, A. G. (2010). Key terms in second language acquisition. London: Continuum Richards, J. C., & Schmidt, R. (2002). Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics (3rd Ed.) London: Longman. Robinson, W. S (2003). Epiphenomenalism. In L. Nadel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science, Volume 2, (pp. 8–14). London: Nature Publishing Group. Scholz, J. (2004). Emergence in cognitive science: Clark’s four proposals to the emergentists. Osnabrück: Publications of the Institute of Cognitive Science Stephan, A. (1999) Emergenz: von der unvorhersagbarkeit zur selbstorganisation. Dresden, München: Dresden University Press. Stephan, A. (2002). Emergentism, irreducibility, and downward causation. Grazer Philosophische Studien, 65, 77-93. Stephan, A. (2006). The dual role of 'emergence' in the philosophy of mind and in cognitive science. Synthese, 15, 485-498. Van Lier, L. (2004). The ecology and semiotics of language learning: A sociocultural perspective. Massachusetts: Luwer Academic Publishers. Yang, M. (2009). Interview with William O’Grady on emergentism. Modern Foreign Languages Quarterly, 32 (4), 421-428. Ziglari, L. (2008). Affordance and second language acquisition. European Journal of scientific Research, 23(3), 373-379.




Insights From Verbal Protocols: A Case Study Margaret Kumar (Corresponding author)

Student Learning and Development Higher Education Development Centre

University of Otago Dunedin 9054, New Zealand

Tel: 021 02287850 E-mail: [email protected]

Received: 26-06- 2012 Accepted: 13-07- 2012 Published: 03-09- 2012 doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.25 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.25 Abstract This study explores a postgraduate student writer’s responses and reactions through verbal protocols as she attends to teacher feedback. Teacher feedback has been heralded as an important element in process writing. Numerous studies have been carried out on various aspects of teacher feedback such as on the effectiveness of feedback, students’ preferences for teacher feedback and students’ perceptions of feedback. However, there is still a gap in the literature in determining how students respond as they engage with teacher feedback. This paper reports on one postgraduate student’s responses on and her reactions to teacher feedback. Concurrent verbal protocols used in complement with written drafts and teacher commentaries were the main sources of data for this study. The analyses reveal that attending to feedback is a recursive process that fosters self-reflection which, in turn promotes planning for revision. Keywords: Verbal protocols, Teacher written feedback; Recursion; Reflection; Planning 1. Introduction The importance of feedback in writing process has been widely researched and is considered to be an important component in English as a second language (ESL) writing environment especially for the development of second language writing skills (Hyland & Hyland, 2006; Kroll, 2001). Bloxham and Boyd (2007) regard feedback as “the most important aspect of the assessment process in raising achievement” (p.20). Thus, in institutions of higher learning, providing written feedback is an essential element in the feedback process (Nicol, 2010). As second language (L2) writers find writing in an L2 a challenge (Zacharias, 2007), written feedback is essential and is a means by which writers can evaluate their own progression in writing towards achieving their goals. The crucial role of feedback is further reiterated by Murphy and Roopchand (2003) who claim that feedback engage students in challenging tasks. Besides helping writers to repair the errors, feedback also helps them to write (Flower & Hayes, 1981). This enables them to understand their progress (Ryan, 1997) thus, facilitating the learning progress (Hyland, 1990). 2. Related Literature Issues pertaining to students’ writing occupy the centrality of L2 writing pedagogies and research underscore the importance of feedback for students in their learning process (Rowntree, 1977; Sadler, 1989). In the last decade, studies on feedback research have progressed rapidly (Ellis, Sheen, Murakami & Takashima, 2008; Ferris, 2003; Hyland & Hyland, 2006; Stern & Solomon, 2006). Feedback studies have focused, for example, on types of feedback comments, direct or indirect feedback and students’ preferences for feedback. -However, though some of these studies have looked at how feedback is perceived by students by looking at their cognitive processes (Cohen, 1987; Cohen & Cavalcanti, 1990; Hyland, 1998, 2000, 2003), there is scarce research on the actual thought processes of student writers’ engagement with teacher feedback and its use in their revision. Providing students timely and detailed written feedback comments on their strengths and weaknesses and suggestions on improving their writing will help students (Nicol, 2010). Students’ writing improved significantly when they are provided feedback to respond to (Vardi, 2012). As students are seen as active agents in their own learning (Hyland & Hyland, 2006), students’ engagement with written feedback as they interact with and reflect and find solutions for their writing is important. The present study examines a writer’s thought




processes obtained through concurrent verbal protocols as she engages with teacher written feedback that aids her to “monitor, evaluate and regulate” (Nicol, 2010, p.504) her own learning. -Previous studies generally focused on feedback in relation to the holistic improvement of students’ writing quality. This study however, is unique because it investigates the whole process of generating and receiving feedback, from its inception to its implementation in revisions in students’ L2 by recording their thought processes. It utilizes the think-aloud protocols, written teacher feedback comments and written drafts to ascertain how a writer responds to teacher feedback and investigates a writer’s thought processes as she attends to teacher feedback. 2.1 Models of writing Since the 1970’s writing research has shifted from focusing on written products to thinking processes of writers which has led to the development of models of composing process. The theoretical underpinning of the cognitive process models is that writing is recursive. Cognitive process theories aim to provide an understanding of how writing is learned and developed. They examine the relationship between how writers think and the activities in which they engage throughout the process of writing. -This shift in writing paradigm saw the emergence of theoretical models of writing such as those of Hayes and Flower (1980), Bereiter and Scardamalia (1987) and Hayes (1996) that give insights into writers’ cognitive processes of revision in the process of writing. These models of writing suggest the recursive nature of writing process (Hayes, 1996) that pushes writers through various stages of writing to realize their intended goals. -However, these models do not give clear insights about the role of teacher’s written feedback as input in the recursion process of writing that leads to reflection and planning. In studies examining the thought processes of writers as they engaged with feedback (Kumar & Kumar, 2009; Kumar, Kumar & Feryok, 2009), it was established that attending to feedback is a recursive process where the writers moved forth and back in no set order between feedback and their written texts before making decisions and finding solutions for the problems highlighted in teacher feedback. Though these studies gave a glimpse into the recursiveness that took place while engaging with teacher’s written comments, insights into the relationship between other cognitive processes such as reflection and planning that evolved as writers engaged in the process of attending to teacher’s written feedback were not reported. In addition, literature on writers’ engaging with feedback recursively is scarce. 2.2 Reflection Reflection is a cognitive activity in problem-solving where students deliberate, infer, make choices, and make decisions about alternatives and executing them (Hayes, 1996; Van Manen, 1991). Writers need to pause and reflect on feedback to enable them to move forward. Reflection is a necessary component in improving writing as it provides writers the opportunities to link what they had written and understand what is needed to meet the demands outlined by teacher’s comments. Writers thus become aware of what they initially produced and the course of action they need to take (van den Boom, Paas & van Merrienboer, 2007) by reflecting to progress in their writing. Thus, when reflecting on teacher comments, writers weigh, make connections between feedback and their writing, and evaluate feedback given on their drafts before coming to a decision regarding their writing. Feedback provides the channel for reflection (Valli, 1990) and prompts writers to reflect on strategies that they could adopt and interpret to meet the requirements of teacher comments (Laurillard, 1993). By reflecting, “the processes of learning are made visible to the students and they themselves take responsibility for their own improvement” (Granville & Dison, 2009, p.60). Though there is a substantial amount of literature on reflection in various fields, literature in relation to teacher written feedback, however, is scarce. This study, thus aims to provide a glimpse of the cognitive process of reflection that developed as a writer engaged with written teacher feedback. 2.3 Planning The process approach is a recursive procedure which encompasses a series of discreet stages of writing, which writers employ through a variety of cognitive processes, such as planning, retrieving ideas from memory, making inferences, creating and developing concepts (Hayes & Flower, 1980). Planning refers to the mental activity that writers engage in making decisions and judgments to achieve their writing goals (Stosky, 1990). The process approach to teaching writing allows for intervention at any stage of the writing process. The process of planning, then, allows for the unfolding of writing by way of preparing action plans for writing (Hayes & Gradwohl-Nash, 1996). Teacher feedback taking on the role of intervention plays an important role as it has the potential to further develop writers’ skills and orchestrate the text generated to meet the demands of teacher feedback.




Cognitive models of writing such as those mentioned above emphasize the role of planning in the writing process. These models suggest that planning is an activity that not only takes place at the onset of writing, but is a recursive process that occurs at any stage of the writing process. Though studies on planning have established that writers plan to generate ideas before translating them into words on paper, there is, however little literature on writers’ thought processes on planning as they attend to teacher written feedback. Since planning begins with reading feedback (van den Boom, Paas, & van Merrienboer, 2007), this study aims to highlight a writer’s thought process on planning, a component of the writing process which occurred as a result of teacher feedback. 2.4 The Think-Aloud Method In order to gain insights into the thought processes, a method known as the think-aloud method was used in this study. Concurrent verbal protocols, a branch of the think-aloud method, have been advocated as a technique of collecting information by tapping directly into learners’ thoughts (Wigglesworth, 2005), giving direct access to the mental processes of writers (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1986). Since data is collected while a task is being performed, participants verbalize spontaneously without altering their cognitive processes which closely matches the flow of their cognitive processes (Green, 1995). As concurrent verbal reports are seen as trustworthy evidence of events perceived or noticed (Schmidt, 2001), data obtained would be an actual reflection of writers’ mental processes. Though it has been argued that not all writers’ thoughts will be verbalized and that verbalizing may lead to increased attention and deeper processing (Jourdenais, 2001), verbal protocols have been regularly used by researchers to get insights of writers’ thought processes simply because there is no other way of doing so (Ericsson & Simon, 1993). Studies have revealed that participants using the concurrent method reflect information processes from the short term memory (Kussela & Paul, 2000), thus reflecting what they are actively engaged in doing at the time of the think-aloud. -Researchers (Bowles, 2008; Bowles & Leow, 2005; Cohen & Cavalcanti, 1990; Hayes & Flower, 1980; Sachs & Polio, 2007) in the past have used verbal protocols to give insights into the writing processes of planning, translating, and reviewing. However though this technique allowed researchers to capture writers’ thought processes as they composed (Hayes & Flower, 1980), the recursive processes that writers engage in or the thought processes of writers as they attended to teacher feedback and their responses to feedback such as self-reflection and planning is virtually non-existent. To gain insights on the sequence of thoughts of writers, examining the thought processes of writers as they deal with feedback given on their writing could provide insights into how and possibly even why student writers approach feedback. The present study examines the actual thought processes of a student writer as she attends to written teacher feedback and revises by means of concurrent verbal protocols to obtain “observable, externalized data from unobservable, internalized processes to draw conclusions from the processes” (Wigglesorth, 2005, p. 101). -However, a serious criticism leveled at concurrent verbal protocol is the issue of reactivity. Reactivity refers to the disruption that may occur in writers’ cognitive process (Janssen, van Waes & van den Bergh, 1996; Jourdenais, 2001; Russo, Johnson, & Stephens, 1989, Smargorinsky, 2001) when they are faced with the dual task of writing and verbalizing their thoughts at the same time. Previous studies on cognition (Bowles, 2008; Bowles & Leow, 2005; Leow & Morgan, 2004; Sachs & Polio, 2007; Sanz, Lin, Lado, Bowden & Stafford, 2009) suggest that reactivity can be viewed as potentially problematic as it might alter the process and thus compromise direct access to writers’ cognitive processes. However, despite the criticism, there is little evidence to prove that writers’ internal processes are altered in any way (Ericsson & Simon, 1993; Smagorinsky, 1989). Feedback in the past has generally focused on teachers, particularly the strategies they use in giving feedback, their perceptions of students’ needs and the impact of their feedback on students’ writing (Ferris, 2007; Hyland & Hyland, 2001; Stern & Solomon, 2006). They generally focused on feedback in relation to the holistic improvement of students’ writing quality by providing a glimpse of the cognitive processes used when writers attend to the various stages of writing such as consideration of an audience, contextual factors, the recursive nature of planning, generation of ideas and revision. There is a paucity of literature on what ESL students do when they engage with teacher feedback and how they respond to teacher feedback. This study however, is unique because it investigates the whole process of generating and receiving feedback, from its inception to its implementation in revisions in a student’s L2 by recording her thought processes. It utilizes the think-aloud protocols, written teacher feedback comments and written drafts to ascertain how a writer responds to teacher feedback and investigate a writer’s thought processes as she attends to teacher feedback. 2.5 Research questions There has been little research on L2 students’ thought processes as they attend to feedback: their reactions to teacher feedback, their understanding of and response to teacher feedback and their use of teacher feedback in




subsequent revision. This study thus, attempts to investigate this area of inquiry into teacher feedback. It is concerned with how teacher feedback fits into the process of developing writing skills by examining how an ESL writer responds to teacher written feedback and utilizes it in her writing and seeks to answer the following research questions:

1. What thought processes does a student writer go through while attending to written teacher feedback? 2. How does a student writer respond to teacher feedback?

3. The study 3.1 Setting The case study reported here is part of a larger study involving eight ESL postgraduate students enrolled in a Master of Arts program doing a course in Research and Practice in Composition at a Malaysian public university. Ethical procedures were followed and the participants’ consent was obtained prior to research. Data obtained from the participants was in the form of concurrent verbal protocols, written essays and teacher written comments. 3.2 Participant The participant in this study was Sham (pseudonym), a 24 year old who uses English as a second language. She is currently in her second year in the Master of Arts program majoring in English for Specific Purposes and is fluent in English. She was selected for the study from a pool of twenty-seven other volunteers because of her proficiency in the English language where she attained a Band Five (proficient) in the Malaysian University English and the rich verbalizations that she was able to provide during the training sessions. 3.3 Training sessions Prior to the study, the researcher held two think-aloud training sessions to enable the participants to familiarize themselves of thinking aloud while attending to another task simultaneously. This provided the opportunity for the participants to be comfortable with the idea of thinking aloud which is a departure from their usual way of attending to teacher feedback and at the same time gave the participants a chance to practice thinking aloud while completing sample tasks. The training sessions were also expected to dispel any concerns that the participants may have of attending to the dual task of verbalizing and executing a task concurrently. The participants were selected based on the rich verbalizations they were able to produce while attending to written feedback. 3.4 Data collection A lecturer teaching the writing class assisted in the collection of the data. The participants who were selected for the actual study were required to write an argumentative academic writing as part of the course requirement on the following writing prompt which was taken from Raimes (1987): Success in education is influenced more by the student’s life and training as a child than by the quality and effectiveness of the educational programme. The participants were given the opportunity to write at their own convenience and no time limit was placed on their writing. On completion of their initial drafts, their writings were handed in to the lecturer who then gave written feedback on their drafts. The drafts with the lecturer’s feedback were sealed in an envelope and given to the writers. They were required to record their verbalizations about their feelings, reactions, what they planned to do and whatever thoughts that came to their minds as they attended to the written feedback on their writing. Their recorded verbalizations, original drafts and revised drafts were handed to their lecturer and collected by the researcher for analysis. 3.5 Data analysis Written texts were used in combination with the verbal protocols and teacher written comments to ascertain if revision was evident in the participant’s revised text. Verbal data was coded and analyzed through constant comparison (Glasser & Strauss, 1967) until its completion (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2007; Merriam, 2001). A set of codes (Appendix A) based on the writer’s thought processes were developed by the researcher and an independent coder. Data was then coded iteratively with the independent coder. No significant differences occurred during the coding procedures. 4. Results and discussion In this section, Sham’s responses and reactions as she attended to the feedback comments on her initial draft are discussed. Sham attended to teacher feedback recursively. As evidenced by Sham’s verbal protocols, this process of recursively attending to teacher feedback led her to reflect on the feedback comments on her text. Her




reflection on teacher feedback in turn extended her the opportunity to plan for her revisions globally based on the feedback given to her. Sham had a total of twenty-six points of feedback ranging from content, organization and language. Sham attended to all of the twenty six feedback commentaries that were given on her draft. It was evident in her revised draft that Sham took all the feedback comments that were given to her into consideration and incorporated these in her revision. 4.1 Thought processes Sham’s verbal protocols indicate that she accepted all the feedback comments that she attended to without any reservations. The following extract is an extended example of Sham engaging with one point of feedback which shows the various and strategies she made use of in addressing teacher feedback. For instance, when Sham attended to the following teacher feedback (TFB): These are indeed valid points. However, I wonder if you could revise this paper to be an argumentative academic paper. You have to structure your argument, take a stand and then tell me what your points are to support your claims take a stand and tell me what your points are (L1), Sham employs various strategies such as reading feedback, rereading feedback, and referring to feedback; and engages in various responses such as giving reasons, indicating her understanding, and accepting feedback. And finally, when she accepts the feedback, she reflects on the feedback and comes up with an action plan to address the feedback comments that were incorporated in her revised draft. Sham’s attendance to teacher feedback gave rise to three insights. Firstly, she recursively attended to teacher feedback. Secondly, attending to feedback gave Sham the opportunity to reflect and thirdly, engaging with teacher feedback led to planning. 4.2 Recursion The first insight of this study is that the writer was recursive throughout her attendance to feedback. Sham in this study moved back and forth repeatedly and cyclically between feedback comments and her written text in no set order. The extracts (Appendix B) show that Sham moved repeatedly between one point of feedback comment and her essay trying to understand the objective of the feedback. In the course of attending to feedback Sham showed her understanding of the feedback and her acceptance of it to be included in her revision which finally led her to self-reflect and plan for her revision (see sections on self-reflection and planning). Perhaps these acts of recursiveness are closely related to the manner and content of the teacher feedback itself (Hyland & Hyland, 2001; Baker & Bricker, 2010). The complexity of teacher feedback instead of a directive possibly provided the need for Sham to revisit the feedback several times before making a choice. These recursive movements seem to be consistent with the theoretical models of writing mentioned earlier that emphasize and give insights into a writer’s cognitive processes of revision in the process of writing. These models of writing suggest the recursive nature of the writing process (Hayes, 1996) that pushes writers through the various stages of writing to realize their intended goals. However, these models do not give clear insights about the role of teacher feedback as input in the recursion process of writing. These recursive movements that Sham engaged gave her the opportunity to understand and accept teacher feedback and move on with her next course of actions. Recursion, thus, pushed Sham through the various cognitive processes to achieve her writing goals that are evident in her revised draft. Just like writing which is a recursive process, attending to feedback is also a recursive process, a process in which writers constantly evaluate their ideas and their drafts with respect to teacher feedback. By recursively engaging with feedback, Sham showed her understanding of the purpose of the feedback she received (Bailey & Vardi, 1999) and accepted teacher feedback. Many studies have highlighted the importance of the recursive feature that occurs with planning, composing, translating and reviewing (Faigley & Witte, 1981; Hayes & Flower, 1980). During the recursive stages, Sham revised her existing text and re-envisioned her thoughts and ideas in the process of attending to teacher feedback. Recursively attending to feedback encouraged Sham to reflect and plan her writing which is discussed in the following sections. 4.3 Reflection A second insight of this study is that engagement with feedback and thinking aloud led Sham to reflect on teacher feedback. The following extract is one extended instance of Sham adopting various strategies in trying to make sense of teacher feedback. She reads aloud (RFB) part of one point of teacher feedback first: These are indeed valid points. However I wonder if you could revise this paper to be an argumentative academic paper Sham responses positively by accepting feedback (ATFB) in this manner: Yap surely I will. I will try my best




(L3). She then continues to read the next part of the feedback (RFB): This means that you have to structure your argument, take a stand and then tell me what your points are to support your claims (L4) and accepts it (ATFB) when she says, ok, I can do that (L5). She then rereads part of the same feedback (RRFB): structure your argument (L6) perhaps to get a better understanding (U) of it, evident as she voices aloud her insight into the comment in this manner: structure, first, second, third, ok I get it (L7). Sham then rereads (RRFB); structure argument (L8). Her review of teacher feedback comment prompted her to reflect (REF) on the approach she needs to take to address feedback comment in this way: ok, how am I going to structure my arguments (L9). Sham’s reflection on teacher comment in turn led to her understanding (U) and acceptance of teacher feedback (ATFB) which is apparent in the following think-aloud: ok, I will have to provide an argument (L10) and, this in turn prompted her to generate plans (PL) for her rewrite which is discussed in the section on planning. By reflecting on feedback, Sham was able to identify the differences that appeared between her text and teacher comments and was able to make the connection and find solution for the problem. This process of looking back and forward within phases of feedback and reflection enabled Sham to become strategic and plan on her next course of action to meet the requirements of teacher feedback. Reflection enabled Sham to understand teacher comments and was able to integrate her plans in her revised draft. Reflecting on teacher feedback made Sham become aware of her writing problems and enabled her to proceed with her revision. This was clearly seen as Sham reflected and responded to teacher feedback which is reflected in the changes that are apparent in her revision. Thus, attending to teacher feedback and thinking-aloud, as a form of output, appears to have generated the reflective function that Swain (1995) has identified. In the context of this study, teacher feedback is not just a pedagogical tool that a teacher uses to teach writing but requires students to be actively engaged with feedback to make the connections between the feedback and their objectives of writing (Granville & Dison, 2009). In this instance, teacher feedback acted as an intervention platform which gave Sham the space and opportunity to reflect on teacher feedback and at the same time generate new ideas and approaches that she could adopt in her revision. This study aimed to provide a window on the cognitive process of reflection that emerged as a writer engaged with teacher feedback that encouraged and enhanced the writer to think and plan for revision. A vital element that emerged in the process of reflection is planning that was an ongoing process in the process of attending to feedback and writing. 4.4 Planning A third insight of this study is that the writer planned as a result of attending to teacher feedback on her initial drafts. Sham’s think-aloud protocols show evidence that she planned as she recursively moved back and forth from teacher feedback and her written texts to achieve her goals as suggested by teacher feedback. She accepted and planned (PL) her strategies for revision based on teacher feedback mentioned above to meet the suggestions made on her writing which is illustrated in the following extract: so basically the argument for this piece of writing is the question itself and my four points. That means I talk about factors influencing a child in his growing up process. That can be my stand (L11). Sham revisits the feedback (RRFB) in the following lines: Take a stand and tell me what your points are to support your stand (L12) and comes up with further plans (PL) for revision evident in the following extract: one stand and supporting points so I choose only one. Both life and training as a child or quality and effectiveness of the education programme. I am not going to deal with two ideas but one and my points to support the argument. I am going to choose student’s life and training as a child in which I can actually talk more about what I feel and also support it with the proper evidence (L13). Planning resulting from engagement with teacher feedback did improve Sham’s revised essay. A marked difference occurred as a result of engaging recursively with teacher feedback, reflecting and planning. In her first draft Sham did not express her stand explicitly nor did she say what she was going to talk about. The following is an extract of her original draft where she began her essay by relating her own experiences, writing in this manner: I went through a tough time to be what I am right now. ...the success that we gain through education will not only benefit us in our career but is actually the main tool which will shape our entire life. However, in Sham’s revised essay, there are indications that she took teacher feedback on board and actually implemented what she planned, as evident in the following extract of her revised essay. In this paper I will provide an argument that success in education is influenced more by the student’s life and training as a child by the quality and effectiveness of the educational programme. The four main points to support this stand are: student’s life and training … parents’ roles in a child’s education … the importance of culture and society … student’s self-awareness in acquiring knowledge. The extract illustrates the outcome of Sham’s engagement with




teacher feedback where she makes a general statement and then indicates that there are four points to support it, just as the teacher feedback suggested she do. There are two major benefits of planning in writing (Hayes & Gradwohl-Nash, 1996). First, planning provides goals and means to complete the writing task. Secondly, planning provides writers with choices in problem solving strategies as it gives them access to various resources in the planning environment like it did for Sham. Studies comparing experienced and novice writers have shown that more planning leads to more and better writing. The amount of time writers spend planning and the kinds of decisions they make during planning attests to the quality of writing (Perl, 1981). Perhaps as Sham is an experienced writer, and had no time constraints on the task given to her, she took her time to plan her revisions as she attended to teacher feedback, a fact that is reflected in her revision. 5. Conclusion The role of teacher written feedback is of paramount importance if one aims to help writers develop their potential as writers. It is feedback that provides a sense of direction and tells the writers of the writing goals that are achievable. This study affirms the importance of providing written feedback that encourages recursion leading to revisions. As feedback is essential for the development of second language writing skills (Hyland & Hyland, 2006), teacher feedback in this case study played a positive intervention role in assisting Sham to bridge the disparities that were present in her writing. It helped her to understand and ‘view’ how well she wrote and how she might further develop her writing (Ryan, 1997) when she revised her first draft. Recursive movements between teacher feedback and her text helped Sham to identify and evaluate the issues highlighted in teacher feedback which ultimately culminated in the writer making major changes to her revised drafts. By moving recursively between her text and her feedback, she had the opportunity to evaluate her initial drafts in light of teacher feedback, and revisit her written text in an effort to further enhance her writing, striking a balance between what she intend to say as a writer and what is understood by readers, as indicated by teacher feedback. In line with Hyland and Hyland’s (2006) observation that students should be actively engaged in the feedback process, Sham took an active role to make sense of teacher feedback. She pursued teacher feedback with further thinking and rethinking, reading and rereading which not only led to her noticing the disparities between teacher feedback and her texts but also to addressing these disparities by reflecting on teacher feedback and making plans which eventually led her to substantively revise her initial drafts by incorporating teacher feedback comments. Though this study is an exploratory case study of the thought processes of one writer, it however offers some insights into the thought processes of a writer as she attended to teacher feedback while thinking-aloud concurrently and suggests two pedagogical implications. First, recursiveness could be taught or modeled by a teacher to student writers as a method of engagement with teacher feedback to promote thinking to further develop their writing skills. This could be way of making students become aware of what is expected of them when they are given feedback. Second, the role of think-aloud as a technique to enhance thinking about feedback that is given on students’ writing. The very act of thinking about feedback itself could promote development among writers (Swain, 2006). However, further studies covering a range of factors such involving participants across different levels and courses, nationalities and disciplines would need to be carried out. References Bailey, J., & Vardi, I. (1999). Iterative feedback: Impacts on student writing. Paper presented at the HERDSA Annual International Conference, 12-15 July, Melbourne. Baker, W., & Hansen Bricker, R. (2010). The effects of direct and indirect speech acts on native English and ESL speakers’ perception of teacher written feedback. System, 38(1), 75-84. doi: 10.1016/j.system.2009.12.007 Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (1987). The psychology of written composition. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Bloxham, S., & Boyd, P. (2007). Developing effective assessment in higher education: A practical guide. Cambridge: Open University Press. Bowles, M. (2008). Task type and reactivity of verbal reports in SLA: A first look at an L2 task other than reading. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 30(4), 359-379.




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CODES MEANINGS EXAMPLES TFB Teacher feedback You have written clearly and concisely RFB Reads feedback (exact words State your stand in the first paragraph.

Provide a link to your paragraphs. RRFB Rereads or reviews parts/whole

of feedback Stand in paragraph? Links to paragraph. (repetition of part of the think-aloud coded as RFB above)

U Understands feedback positively ok, I get it ATFB Accepts/acknowledges teacher

feedback I agree with that/ I can do that

REF Reflects/seeks solutions How am I going to provide evidence? PL Plans for revision This is how I am going to structure my …




Appendix B Extracts of think-aloud protocols on one point of feedback L1 These are indeed valid points. However, I wonder if you could revisit this paper to be an argumentative

academic paper. You have to structure your argument, a stand and then tell me what your points are to support your claims take a stand and tell me what your points are (TFB)

L2 These are indeed valid points. However, I wonder if you could revise this paper to be an argumentative academic paper (RFB)

L3 yap surely I will. I will try my best (ATFB) L4 This means that you have to structure your argument, take a stand and then tell me what your points

are to support your claims (RFB) L5 ok, I can do that (ATFB) L6 structure your argument (RRFB) L7 structure, first, second, third, ok I get it (U) L8 structure your argument (RRFB) L9 ok, how am I going to structure my argument (REF)) L10 ok, I will have to provide and argument (U, ATFB) L11 so basically the argument for this piece of writing is the question itself and my four points, ok, that means

I talk about factors influencing a child in his growing up process. That can be my stand (PL) L12 Take a stand and then tell me what your points are to support your stand (RRFB) L13 one stand and supporting points so I choose only one. Both life and training as a child or quality and

effectiveness of the education programme. I am not going to deal with two ideas but one and my points to support the argument. I am going choose student’s life and training as a child in which I can actually talk more about what I feel and also support it with the proper evidence (PL)




On Laotsu’s “Ming and Yan” and the Language in English Xin Xiong

Foreign Studies College of Hunan University of Arts & Science Changde City, Hunan Province, China 415000

E-mail: [email protected]

Received: 28-06- 2012 Accepted: 13-07- 2012 Published: 03-09- 2012 doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.35 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.35 Abstract Just like we couldn’t figure out the order of egg and chicken philosophically, the sequence of the thinking and language also can’t be distinguished. They are in the state of mutual interdependence. It can be affirmed that without thinking, there would exist no language, and vice versa. Thinking is the nature of language, while the language is the expression of thinking. The way of thinking in Laotsu’s “Ming and Yan” is dialectical thinking, and its language expression is implicit and euphemistic, while in Western Language it is logical thinking with the brief and clear expression. If we only pay attention to the expression of language, not to its essential thinking, it’s really difficult to find where the true content of the expression. This thesis will try to discuss the innerlink of Laotsu’s dialectical thinking “Ming and Yan” and western logical language. Keywords: Laotsu’s “Ming and Yan”, western language, language expression, mode of thinking 1. Introduction Language is a self-sufficient and organized creative symbol system (Ding, 2009), it’s an important way to express man’s feelings, hopes and to exchange man’s ideas, and it’s the most initial tool in the communication and interaction between human beings. Also it is a major tool of thinking and the culture carrier. No matter the language is as tools of thinking or ways to exchange ideas, its significance lies in the meaning expression. Under different thinking modes, man’s emphasis and focus on the expression of ideas are different, so dose its direction. Therefore, their language forms would also present the differences. If language, as the culture carrier, cannot be expressed, the culture inheritance would not be possible. Then all that our great ancestors left for us should be a mystery nowadays. We don’t know where we came from, what we have experienced, and how we survived from the civilization. We still have many mysteries to discover today. Besides, language is also a kind of action (J.L. Austin). All words are said to state an action. And the action is controlled by thinking, which is the reaction of brain to the objective reality, and the indirect presentation of nature (He, 2008). The relationship between thought and language is an everlasting topic in the field of linguistics. In China, the philosophy of language focuses on the discussion on language and its meaning, and whether language can express man’s thoughts well and how to express. In western countries, the researches are mainly about the philosophy of analysis. English philosopher Bertrand Russell, Austria oriented philosopher Wittgenstein and other philosophers all made researches on some related fields. 2. The Relationship between Thinking and Language Language and thinking are closely connected to each other. ‘Language is the outer casing of thinking’（ Marx ）and thought is realized and expressed by language. They are dialectically united with each other. Thinking relies on language expression. Without language, thinking could not fix its shape, restrict its style and prove its existence. At the same time, thinking controls our language. Without thinking, language cannot achieve its functionality and its richness 2.1 Thinking is the Essence of Language and the Language is the Presentation of Thinking Just like language is the most important communication tool in man’s intercourse with others, thinking is its basis. Generally speaking, thinking is expressed via the use of language. People often express their feelings from inner heart through communication with others. The feelings are those thoughts that have already took the shape and existed in their inner world. Animals have thinking but they don’t have language for language is unique to human beings. Therefore their thought can only be expressed via their body actions. Thinking is the core thing of




language, while language is the presentation of thinking. Thinking helps to reorganize the language which is going to be expressed. At the same time itself is been reflected. Now we can compare two essays, one is just write down according to the topics and the other is the one revised from the former. The result is what we thought about the topic has been expressed in both essays, while the language form in the later reflects more efforts of thinking. Thinking and language are both vacant for some time at the early stage of each other’s emergence from their developing course respectively. When they are crossed, their connection then is hard to despair, just like two twisted strings. If you want to separate them from each other, it takes great time and energy. Since we have got used to the language with thinking now, to separate thinking with language means to isolate us from the society. It would be a disaster to human beings. 2.2 Thinking and Language Depends on and Promote Each Other Though there existed the time when both thinking and language are vacant in each other’s formation course, nowadays language would not obtain its development without thinking while thinking would not get continued without language. They cannot be separated, they are dialectically united. Language cannot leave thinking and vice versa. They depend on each other and promote each other to achieve the mutual benefit to the most in the common development. In the course of the culture delivering, thinking form gets its continuity by language expression while language gets its improvement by its reorganization with thinking. They rely on and help each other with the development. If there was no language, many thousands of master pieces would not be headed down to us, and it would be a great loss to the richness of our traditional culture. Likewise, if there was no thinking, the language couldn’t be fixed and then those marvelous pieces would not be created, let alone to be headed down to enrich our culture inheritances. With language and thinking, during thousands of years’ time, there emerged uncountable literal men in the history of China. 3. The Mode of Thinking and Language Expressions of Laotsu’s “Ming and Yan” Tao is the core concept of Laotsu’s Tao Te Ching, and his whole philosophical system begins with his preset Tao (Liu, 2008). Tao is the body which formed the world, and it is also the primitive power which created the universe (Yang, 2009). From the whole book of Tao Te Ching, we can find that, Laotsu’s attitudes toward nature or society, politics or life and others all alight with his dialectical thinking (Liu, 2008). Laotsu’s language is reserved and euphemistic which leaves great space for others to think. ‘The way that can be told of is not an unvarying way; The names of the things that can be named are not unvarying names (Waley, 1998).’ Thousands of years’ time, many brilliant scholars devote their lifetime to the study of what is the exact meaning it expresses. Just like what we have been told that there are a thousand hamlets in a thousand persons’ minds, opinions on this subject are widely divided. Everyone has his or her own unique ideas. The Way（it refers to Tao） can be entitled and described, if it is the way of eternally unchanging nature which is objectively universal existed, then the way been described is no longer what it used to be. Because there already emerged much unavoidable deviation in the comprehension of the Way (it refers to Tao), from the objectively and naturally existed way to the described, well-recognized and subjectively reflected way. Just like man’s knowledge is subjectively limited to the relative truth or nearly absolute truth, while the absolute truth is objective, permanent and constant, therefore they can never master the absolute truth overall and to the end. The world can be named, but the universe named by language is no longer objective and natural any more. It has already emerged much deviation in the comprehension (Huang, 1998). The kernel of Laotsu’s Tao Te Ching and its dialectical thinking mainly reflects on the point below. 3.1 Unity Laotsu’s dialectical mode of thinking doesn’t regard the man and the nature, and their internal relations as dead and irrelevant, but a united while contrary integrate organism instead. It doesn’t judge people alone, nor the nature, but regard the thought that “man is an integral part of nature” as the basis of thinking which embodies Laotsu’s natural, spontaneous and nonaction value orientation. ‘Tao never does; Yet through it all things are done’, this kind of dynamic movement shows the non-action of Tao. The heaven has its ways; likewise, man also has its ways. Man’s ways cannot interfere the ways of the heaven. The ways of heaven is the rules for the heaven and the whole world, and the basis for the ways of human beings as well（Guo, 2010）. Laotsu always considered that the relationships between the heaven and human beings are syncretic, and this ‘syncretism’ is to accord man’s ways with the ways of heaven (Cai & Liu, 2005). Tao is not a specific object that to be realized, ‘for the Way is a thing Impalpable, Incommensurable (Waley, 1998)’ and its essence is being spontaneously natural. Like the ‘Tao’, the sage’s non-action activity is without




contention. ‘He does not contend, and for that very reason no one under heaven can contend with him. (Waley, 1998)’ ‘Tao never does; Yet through it all things are done’, therefore the sage under the regulations of Tao can obtain everything with their nonaction activities, while some others can obtain nothing with their intentionally activities. ‘Heaven is eternal, the Earth everlasting. How come they to be so? Is it because they do not foster their own lives; That is why they live so long. (Waley, 1998)’ Likewise, the sages don’t care much about their own gaining, so they get everything. Regulated by Tao, with the nonaction in their minds, the sages also can be good leaders, for in Laotsu’s mind good leaders should behave in a gentle or soft manner instead of a forceful or hard one (Wen & Kevin P, 2008). Man should be modest and awe to the nature. Any ego inflation and self-expanding will disturb us from hearing the sounds of nature modestly and peacefully and we should be obedient to the change of nature （Guo, 2010）. Tao obeys the nature of the whole world, and ‘the ways of Tao are conditioned by the Self-so’ which means Tao doesn’t violate the nature, but adhere to various presentation of the nature (Wang, 2010). Laotsu settled the inner tensions of the relationship between heaven and human beings with the natural and nonaction thinking which is the basic ways human beings should truly take after and where the true meaning of ‘man is an integral part of the nature’ lies (Guo, 2010). 3.2 Perception Perception is to choose, not to be given. Everyone has Perception. Perception is a kind of ability, the ability to comprehend the whole world. Each person’s perception has its dominance and recessiveness, the point is how to comprehend, without the limitation of time and place. What’s more, perception can be developed, with the help of experience accumulation or the right chance. From the point of view of the Taoists, Perception is called ‘inner comprehension ’ that proposes the ‘vision of the Mystery’ (Waley, 1998) which means standing highly to overview the whole world, and it opposes to comprehend by observing and experiencing the outer world, it excludes any perceptual experience, language conceptions and any lust and distracting thoughts, and it requires the heart to keep peace and quiet to get to the condition ‘only he that rids himself forever of desire can see the Secret Essences’ (Lian, 2006). With the thought that man should ‘Without leaving his door, He knows everything under heaven. Without looking out his window, He knows all the ways of heaven.’ and‘Push far enough towards the void,hold fast enough to quietness,’ Laotsu proposed to comprehend from the inner world, to find the true meanings of the outer world. Perception stresses on the expression of the meaning. And for this reason, the obscurity of the language comes into being. It doesn’t confine to the sentence structure, as long as the sentence can convey what we want to express. Chinese sentences express their meanings by the natural relationships between the semantemes with the help of the context and the logical relations the words or the phrases have, not with the help of the language form. At the same time, the listener or the reader make the judgments according to their comprehensions. Generally speaking, there would not have problems in the communications, but if the conversation object is used to another kind of thinking mode, there would need another explanation. Just like what is said, do as the Romans do. But whether one side or both sides change the thinking mode, it depends on the actual situation. 3.3Obscurity Obscurity is the common feature of the ancient thinking mode of Chinese, and it is one of the essential characteristics of the natural language (Yang, 2009). It not only comes from the language itself, but also lies in the mutual actions on the language user and the language reflections. By obscurity, man knows the thinking object vaguely and has a general idea of its overall feature (Lian, 2002). The greatest feature of the Chinese is the parataxis on the choice of words to form sentences and texts, and it is this light type of parataxis determined the obscurity of Chinese. Parataxis refers to the realization of the connection of the words or phrases without help of the language form but their logic meaning and it focus on the significance of the continuous coherence. Try to compare these two sentences: “ta zai biye zhihou jiu qu meiguo shenzao, xuedaole xuduo xianjinde guanli jingyan, zuotian cai zuofeiji huilai.” and “Yesterday she flew from the USA where she had learned lots experience of advanced managements after she finished her school.” We can see that the Chinese sentence is organized by the logical relations of the words or phrases, while the English one is arranged according to the language forms.




Laotsu gave many statements to the naming of Tao, but he also said that ‘the names that can be told are not unvarying names’ and ‘Tao is eternal, but has no fame (name)’. What’s more, the names that Laotsu gave to Tao were all out of his comprehensions toward Tao. We can feel Tao everywhere while we cannot find it anywhere, ‘Because the eye gazes but can catch no glimpse of it… Because the ear listens but cannot hear it… Because the hand feels for it but cannot find it (Waley, 1998).’ Crossed with such an uncertain and abstract concept, the common ways to analysis cannot help, therefore the obscure thinking becomes the indispensible choice in analyzing and discussion. In Tao the only motion is returning; The only useful quality, weakness. For through all creatures under heaven are the products of Being which itself is the product of Not-Being (Waley, 1998). ‘Returning ’ as the cause and power that change the motion of all the creatures under heaven is the core thought of Laotsu’s natural, non-action and dialectical thinking, which is the overall regulations that objectively beyond the reach of human power (Cai & Liu, 2005). ‘Weakness’, the only useful quality, contains the great attack power and reserves the full vigor and vitality of all the creatures under heaven, and it spreads and stretches out Laotsu’s natural and nonaction thinking. Everything has its two sides, and both sides existed for each other. ‘The world and all its creatures arise from what is there and what is there arise from what is not there’, they are dynamically balanced (Sherman, 2005). Things always reverse themselves after reaching an extreme, and their positive and negative sides contrary to and united with each other to-and-for to the infinite. 4. The Mode of Thinking and Language Expressions of Western Language Compared to the oriental culture affected thinking, western thinking, from the whole part, tends to be the logical thinking, for the reason that it is influenced by the culture of Greece, the culture of Jews and the modern industrialism. Because of the logic in their thinking, westerners achieved many monumental successes. As for the logic, it means the thinking subjects think and act according to certain rules, and the experience from comprehension are made logical to take as the rules for us to think and act. Logical thinking stresses on the clearness of its expression, and it can use the already existed thinking rules and given thinking mode to analogize, one for two, two for four and four for eight, etc. to-and-for to get the new logic. 4.1 Precision Precision is one of the characteristics of the modern western thinking. Modern western experimental science lays emphasis on the classification, analysis and anatomy of materials, and it attaches importance to the quantitative analysis and precise calculation, which make the western thinking have the feature of precision. Precise thinking is built on the basis of two-value logic, using the precise concept and proposition ‘one or the other’ to think. Precise thinking requires all the concepts and propositions to be judged ‘one or the other’ or ‘true or false’. Moreover, precise thinking doesn’t allow the existence of the third value or more, and its fundamental principles are law of identity, law of contradiction and law of excluded middle （Lian, 2002）. In mathematics, we can usually see some assessing theories, which will tell you some clear information about in what condition we can get the results wanted. For example, what kind of triangles can be called regular triangles? How to assess that the given triangles are similar triangles? In chemistry, the precision on the experiment material’s amount is also an everlasting topic in the field of chemistry. When having a chemistry experiment, the amount of chemistry material determines whether the experiment is a success. As for English, its precision always reflects on the words chosen. In order to achieve satisfying result in conversation, how to choose the right words is an important part. Although sometimes the given words are interlinked with each other in their general meanings, only one can be chosen, because different language contexts require us to choose the fittest words with regard to their meanings and their part of speech as well. For example, the word ‘record’ in the sentence ‘Jack broke the record of the marathon last year.’ and the sentence ‘Jack recorded the data of the marathon last year.’ In both sentences, the word ‘record’ means “记录” in Chinese, however, the former is a noun while the latter is a verb, and they are pronounced in different ways. Therefore the grammar relations to other elements also changed to give us another image. With the development of the society, Chinese thinking also absorbs the precision of western thinking on its way of modernism while at the same time it maintains the ancient obscurity in its thinking which can be found nearly everywhere. Precise thinking, for its precision, is headed down from generations to generations. 4.2 Rationality Everything has its objective reasons of being existed, however, people’s understanding towards these things emerges the difference in the definition that whether this kind of thinking mode is perceptual or rational. The westerners, influenced by the ancient Greek culture, are used to think rationally. It doesn’t mean they don’t have




rational thinking. They also have perceptual knowledge about the real life sometimes, they only inclines to be more rational. For the rationality in their thinking, westerners tend to pursue the meaning and weight the value while the oriental tend to seek for the fame and consider the benefit when doing things. Along with the development of the society, man’s way of thinking is also changing, and there emerges more and more blending between the western and the oriental thinking. Human beings are no longer confined to think with the thinking mode that the society gives them anymore. They can choose to accept new thoughts and new concepts of things gradually. There is an example often used to compare the different commercial concepts between the westerners and the Orientals. Two old women, one the Chinese and one the American, both go to the heaven. At the heaven, the old Chinese woman said, ‘Thanks to the Heaven and Earth, I have saved enough money to buy a house finally. And my sons can live in the new house now.’ while the old American lady said that ‘God blessed me! I have lived in the comfortable house all my life, and now I have paid all my loans.’ Both women had the opportunity to decide whether to buy the house by saving money first for the uncertainty of the society, however, one saved money to buy a house for her sons and the other borrowed money to buy a house for her or her family and lived in it happily. The two women have absolutely different ideas about consuming. Why? It is still the effects of the different mode of thinking. Influenced by different culture, the two women’s starting points of considering things are generally different. 4.3 Analyticity The tradition of analytic thinking in western philosophy can be dated back to ancient Greek. In the dialogue of Socrates and Plato and the discussion and analysis of Aristotle, they both involve the philosophical analyticity for some degree. The philosophy of analyticity embodies the seeking and pumping of meanings. (Yang G.R, 2009). English, as one kind of the western language, lay emphasis on the entire analysis of the relations between words and sentences. What is called meaningful means valuable, the meaningless valueless. Therefore the analysis of the sentence structure becomes an indispensable part in the learning of English. Only if you get clear understanding of the sentence structure, can you carry on the analysis and know which style the sentence belongs. Whether it is an attributive sentence, an adverbial sentence or just a common statement; whether it is a complex sentence, a compound sentence or an easily tell simple sentence; whether it exists the ambiguity. To settle these questions, we usually use the tree structure to represent the constituents of a grammatical unit to help us analyze. For example, ‘they need more well-trained teachers than last year.’ Through the analysis with the tree structure, we can tell this sentence is a simple sentence with ambiguity. And the ambiguity lies in the place whether ‘more’ modifies ‘well-trained’ or ‘well-trained teachers’. Since there are differences in the emphasis on the thinking object according to each person’s special mode of thinking, the sentence above can be comprehended as two sentences. They are ‘They need teachers who are more well-trained than last year.’ or ‘they need more teachers who are well-trained than last year.’ Therefore we can know the general sentence meaning clearly by analyzing the relations between words and phrases. 5. Innerlink of Laotsu’s “Ming and Yan” and Western Language Laotsu’s “Name and Yan”, from his preset ‘Tao’, regard the ‘comprehension of Tao’ as the core of his whole demonstration, while western language, for its exploration towards the unknown world, take the ‘seeking of knowledge’ as its goal to find a new world. The ways of heaven, the ways of human beings, the ways of being leaders, they are theoretically the same and stress on obtaining everything with natural and nonaction activities. ‘When the man of highest capacities hears Tao, He does his best to put it into practice. When the man of middling capacity hears Tao, He is in two minds about it. When the man of low capacity hears Tao, He laughs loudly about it. (Waley, 1998)’ It shows that man’s comprehension towards the thousands creatures and things are different since man’s ability is high or low relatively. And we can also find another example in the world of western language. About the 16th century, man’s conception towards the relationship between the sun and the earth in the whole solar system is universally divided. At that time, most people are told that the earth is the center of the solar system, smaller amount of people are in two minds about it, while the smallest amount of people insist on that the sun is the




center of the solar system. Since there were not much convincible evidences to prove its validity, it took great effort of its followings to get it universally accepted with the help of the precise apparatus. Laotsu’s “Ming and Yan” lays its emphasis on comprehending the world dialectically and holds the idea that everything has its meaning to be existed. While western language pays attention to realize the world logically and makes every effort to find the exact meaning of the existence of things are. Laotsu regard the relationship between the heaven and human beings as dialectically united. ‘Man is an integral part of nature’ and ‘the ways of Tao（are conditioned）by its Self-so’ (Waley, 1998). Man, as an integral part of nature, obeys the nature. However, in western philosophy, it uses the relationship between the subject and object to describe the relationship between the heaven and human beings, that is to say the heaven and human beings are separated from each other. Moreover, it stresses too much importance on the initiatives of human beings without regards to the condition of nature. Now they are suffering from the counterattack of nature, since they made great changes to their surroundings and they used quite many irreproducible natural resources, the oil or the coal, to help with their economic development without long-term views towards the future. Though Laotsu’s “Ming and Yan” and western language come from different language systems, the mode of thinking they have both played important roles in the development of the society. They have influenced the whole society for centuries respectively. They set examples and leave great space for others to think, thus inspiring many brilliant persons such as Ludwig Wittgenstein, Bertrand Russell who studies the philosophy of western language, and Wang Zhongjiang who studies the philosophy of Laotsu’s “Ming and Yan”, all achieved great success in their fields. What’s more, in Laotsu’s Tao Te Ching and Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics both display a deep practical concern for human well-being as that is exemplified in the figure of the good person and the goodness of the person’s action, though there are obvious and fundamental differences in their intellectual world-views (Sherman, 2005). They both were doubted by before, but they didn’t vanish from history for their values cannot be neglected. Just like what we usually say ‘truth fears no flames of slander or injustice.’ Laotsu’s “Ming and Yan” and western language, both testified by time, are enjoying their own special prosperity now. 6. Conclusion Both the western and the oriental have their special mode of thinking, but it doesn’t mean they don’t have blending. The modes of thinking are almost the same, just like the reflections of each culture on its individuals, their behaviors and abilities are similar to great extend (Ding, 2009). The difference of thinking comes from the tradition and accumulation of different knowledge system (Ding, 2009), and it reflects on the focus of thinking. Oriental thinking, for its discrimination, emphasizes on the dialectical thinking; while western, for its analyticity, stresses on the logical thinking. All the modes of thinking has its characteristics, the key point is how to use it properly to get the use of thinking mode do as the Romans do. With the progressing the whole world and the developing of the society, intercourse between the western and the oriental are more and more frequent. Both sides set to think deeply on each other’s mode of thinking to achieve the most satisfying effects from the dialogues between two sides. As language learner and studier, the ability to transform the multiple language thinking is required. And the ability can be improved with the help of the analysis on the relationships between the thinking and the language. And in this way, we can grasp the essence of the language and achieve the ability of our language learning to a new height. References Cai Zhensheng, L. (2005). Natural Inactional Dialectical Ideology. Lanzhou Academic Journal. Ding, J. (2009). Grammar, Thinking and Recognition. Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. Guo, S. (2010). Reverence and Wisdom: Tao Te Ching’s Inspires. Philosophical Researches. Huang, Y. (1998). Facsimile of Laotsu—Tao Te Ching’s Modern Annotation, Modern Translation and Modern Explanation [M]. Fuzhou(China): Haizhou Culture Press. He, B. (2008). The Development of Western Linguistic Philosophy. Journal of Zhongzhou University. Lian, S. (2002). On the Chinese and western Thinking Modes. Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. Lian, S. (2006). On the Chinese and western Thinking Modes: Wuxing and Rationality. Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. Liu, R. (2010). Laotsu’s Ideological Contradiction [EB/OL]. (2008-10-13). http://www.guoxue.com.




Reflection of the Different English and Chinese Thinking Modes on the Linguistic Expression [2011-02-17]. http://www.lunwenfb.com. S.J., T. (2005). “Being Natural,” the Good Human Being, and the Goodness of Acting Naturally in the Laozi and the Nicomachean Ethics[J]. Dao: A Journal of Comparative Philosophy. Waley, A. (1998). Tao Te Ching[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Wen, L., & Kepvin, P.H. (2008). A Study on the Application of Laozi's Thoughts on Educational Leadership and Management[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review. Wang, Zh. (2010). Dao and the Spontaneousness of Things: A Study on the Meaning of Laozi’s “Dao Emulates What Is Spontaneously So". Philosophical Researches. Yang, G. (2009) .Analytic Philosophy and Chinese Philosophy. History of Chinese Philosophy. Yang, W. (2009). Fuzziness of the version of Lao Tsu and "blank-retaining" approach in translation. Journal of Central South University. Zhou, Y. (2006). The Essence and Presentation of Language. Shandong Social Science. Xin Xiong was born in Changde, Hunan Province, China in 1973. D.A degree in English language and literature will be received from Shanghai International Studies University, China in 2013. He is currently an associate professor in Foreign Studies College, HUAS. Changde, Hunan Province, China. His research interests include linguistic philosophy, English language and literature & translation. He is a member of the China Society for Futures Studies. Cell-phone:13973618628




The Picture of Modern Workplace Environment and Oral Communication Skills of Engineering Students of Pakistan

Inayatullah Kakepoto (Corresponding Author) Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Faculty of Education, Johor Bahru, Johor, 81310 Malaysia

Quaid-e-Awam University of Engineering Science & Technology Nawabshah, 67480 (Sind) Pakistan E-mail: [email protected]

Hadina Habil, PhD

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Language Academy, Johor Bahru, Johor, 81310 Malaysia

Noor Abidah Mohd Omar, PhD Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Language Academy, Johor Bahru, Johor, 81310 Malaysia

Yusuf Boon, PhD

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Faculty of Education, Johor Bahru, Johor, 81310 Malaysia

S M Zafar Iqbal Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Johor Bahru, Johor, 81310 Malaysia

Received: 09-06- 2012 Accepted: 17-07- 2012 Published: 03-09- 2012 doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.42 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.42 Abstract

Communication plays paramount role for engineers at workplace in this modern age of globalization and industrialization. The purpose of this study was to determine importance of oral communication and oral presentation for engineers at workplace and barriers that hindered effective oral presentation performance of engineering students for workplace environment. Thirty engineers and seven engineering students participated in this study. Purposive sampling method was used for data collection purpose. Data were analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. The results of the study indicated that oral communication and oral presentation plays important role for engineers at workplace and barriers for instance lack of confidence, lack of knowledge, lack of environment and lack of English language hindered effective oral presentation performance of engineering students. However, the results of this study are consistent with literature review findings on importance of oral communication and oral presentation for engineers at workplace and barriers that hamper effective oral presentation performance of engineering students. Keywords: Modern workplace environment, oral communication skills, oral presentation barriers 1. Background Non technical skills such as communication, oral communication and presentation skills play paramount role for engineers to perform workplace jobs effectively in this modern age of globalization. Globalization is not a passing phenomenon but it will stay longer in coming days and will demand more skilled workforce in terms of technical and non technical skills in order to perform workplace jobs efficiently in this new millennium of organizations. Engineering graduates equipped with effective oral communication and presentation skills promote business of organizations and satisfy customer needs at a large measure. Thus, they contribute to promote business of organizations and it impacts largely on health of organizations. Employers demand from engineering graduates to play their due role to increase workplace productivity, unfortunately their dream still has not changed into reality. This is because modern engineering graduates lack in non technical skills and employer surveys clearly state that modern engineering graduates are not ready for workplace jobs. “Engineering students prepared for 2020 and beyond must write and communicate well” (Committee on the




Engineer of 2020, 2005: 166), because good engineering require good communication (National Academy of Engineering, 2004) skills of engineering graduates such as oral communication and presentation skills. Research reveals that administrators and academicians recognize communication skills as significant skills for graduates (Gray, 2010) in order to be fit in this competitive work environment of organizations and thereby excel in job promotion ladder. In addition, industry recognizes importance of communication for engineering graduates (Korte et al., 2008). No doubt engineering graduates equipped with effective oral communication and presentation skills increase workplace productivity of organizations and employers look for graduates equipped with effective oral communication and presentation skills to hire them for workplace jobs. Thus, during the process of selection and recruitment they focus oral communication and oral presentation skills of engineering graduates. In certain instances they demand from engineering graduates to perform 5 minutes oral presentations. Sutton (2002) noted that effective communication play the role of differentiator to hire graduates for workplace jobs. Oral presentation skills have been recognized significant skills (Aly & Islam, 2005) for engineering graduates at workplace. This is because engineers have to perform oral presentations to keep abreast upper management of organization well informed about work progress and problems that confront organizations and decrease workplace productivity. Oral presentation skills are considered one of the best career enhancers (Polack-Wahl, 2000). Modern engineering graduates have to work in national and international organizations all over the world; therefore they have to communicate with people from public and private organizations and many other multiple stakeholders. Thus, these increased communications demand effective oral communication and presentation skills of engineering graduates to promote business of organizations at national and international level. Employers emphasize graduate oral presentation skills (Aly & Islam, 2005) and there is a strong perception at workplace that engineering graduates equipped with effective oral presentation skills promote business of organizations and bring various financial benefits for organizations. Gustafson et al. (1993) surveyed employers, students and alumni to obtain information regarding importance of communication skills. The results of this survey indicated that effective communication skills are required skills for graduates to obtain a job and thereby excel in job career. Employers never comprise on effective oral communication and presentation skills of engineering graduates, because engineering graduates equipped with poor oral communication and presentation skills harm interests of organizations in particular and business community in general. Thus, they never take this risk and look for graduates equipped with effective oral communication and presentations skills to hunt them for workplace jobs. A study was conducted on importance of oral presentation for engineers at workplace. The results of this study indicated that 78% working engineers were required to demonstrate oral presentations on regular basis at workplace (Keane, 1999). Freihat Saleh et al. (2012) conducted a study on “The Picture of Workplace Oral Communication Skills for ESP Jordanian Business Graduate Employees”. The results of this study revealed that 84% respondents stated that oral communication often occurs at workplace. Gray (2009) investigated importance of oral communication skills for accountancy graduates. Results of this study indicated that 91% graduates considered oral communication skills as ‘very important’ skills in accountancy profession. In addition, Crosling & Ward (2002) conducted a survey on workplace communication skills for business graduates in Monash University. The findings of the survey indicated that 84% employer respondents without specifying forms of oral communication indicated that oral communication usually occurs at workplace. Moreover, Arn et al. (2010) surveyed employers on workplace communication skills. The results of this survey indicated although electronic communications were important work skills but oral communication skills were deemed more important that employees should possess for workplace jobs. Van Horn (1995) surveyed employees in New Jersey United States. The results of this survey reported that oral communication is important but it is an area in which graduates severely lack. Thus, these studies on workplace communication indicate that oral communication plays paramount role for engineers at workplace. This is because oral communication and oral presentation is an important aspect of modern workplace communication and these skills assist engineering graduates to perform workplace jobs effectively according to employer and customer satisfaction. Reinsch and Shelby (1997) surveyed 394 business students to know challenging task for them. The results of this survey indicated that 75% business students found oral communication as most challenging task for them. This means that oral communication and oral presentation are never without problems for engineering graduates. Oral presentation is an organized way of communication that contains specific task of communication. It assists engineers to promote business of organizations and it is main objective of every employer. In fact, all major engineering organizations have established marketing departments and have appointed engineering graduates to




visit industry sites and motivate procurement managers and employers to buy company products. Thus, engineering organizations hire engineering graduates equipped with effective oral communication and presentation skills. Anderson & Bolt (2008) noted that modern graduates lack in presentation skills, although it is an important aspect of modern workplace. This paper focuses importance of oral communication and oral presentation for engineers at workplace and barriers that hinder effective oral presentation performance of engineering students of Pakistan. An abundance of literature is available on workplace communication and oral presentation barriers but it is scarce and fragmented. In addition, it does not present any clear picture of barriers that hinder effective oral presentation performance of engineering students. The findings of this study would contribute to existing body of communication literature on workplace oral communication and oral presentation barriers that obstruct effective oral presentation performance of engineering students. 2. Research Methodology The research approach adopted for this study was mixed methods research based on questionnaire survey and semi structured interviews conducted with engineering students. Thirty engineers from workplace and 7 engineering students from engineering universities of Pakistan participated in this study. Purposive sampling method was used since respondents were selected on specific criteria of engineers with minimum 5 years work experience and only final year engineering students. The rationale for selection of engineers with 5 years work experience was based on the understanding that these engineers would be better able to provide appropriate feedback regarding the importance of oral communication and oral presentation for engineers at workplace. On the other hand, final year engineering students were selected on the understanding that they would be better able to provide feedback relating to barriers that hinder their effective oral presentation performance. Purposive sampling is a non probabilistic sampling method that is used for specific purpose (Singleton & Straits, 2005). The questionnaire used for this study contained two parts. First part included demographic information asking about gender, qualification, age, field of discipline, nature of job and work experience. Second part of this questionnaire contained statements relating to importance of oral communication and oral presentation for engineers at workplace. A 5 point likert scale ranging 1 to 5 where “1” indicates “strongly disagree” to “5” for “strongly agree” was used. 3. Data Analysis Data were analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. Quantitative data were analyzed by using Statistical package for Social Sciences (SPSS) to draw percentages for agreement and disagreement level of respondents for the variables included in the questionnaire. In addition, qualitative data in terms of semi structured interviews were analyzed through three techniques data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing and verification as suggested by Miles & Huberman (1994). 3.1 Quantitative Findings The research findings provided valuable insights on importance of oral communication and oral presentation for engineers at workplace. For this dimension 5 % engineers strongly disagreed, 6 % disagreed, 11 % responded neutral, 39% agreed, and 39 % strongly agreed that oral communication and oral presentation plays paramount role for engineers at workplace.

Figure 1: Importance of oral communication and oral presentation for engineers at workplace




3.2 Qualitative Findings On qualitative part researchers interviewed seven engineering students to obtain in depth views on barriers that hinder their effective oral presentation performance. Some key qualitative findings are discussed as: A comment by engineering student 1 was: “Well biggest problem I have that I am not very used to…oral presentation side. I have never done such kind of presentation before huge audience, so there is the biggest problem I am having lack of confidence whenever I come before huge audience my legs start shivering …that is my biggest problem lack of confidence”. This engineering student indicated that he is not habitual for taking part in oral presentations. This is because he has never performed such kind of presentation prior to this presentation. This shows that it was first presentation of this engineering student during his four year engineering degree program. This finding is very interesting for the researcher because during four year engineering degree program this engineering student did never perform any oral presentation. This means communication teachers do not provide oral presentation opportunities to all students of the class and only few students participate in oral presentations. It is envisaged that communication teachers provide few oral presentations to selected engineering students during semester in order to cover the syllabus designed for the subject. It further indicates that oral presentation is not the part of engineering communication curriculum taught to engineering students. This respondent further indicated that he faces lack of confidence and due to this barrier his legs start shivering when he appears before audience. Thus, lack of confidence is the biggest problem of this engineering student that hampers his effective oral presentation performance. A comment by engineering student 2 was: “There are two reasons for that one is lack of knowledge and other is lack of confidence but main one is lack of knowledge”. This respondent indicated that there are two barriers that hinder his effective oral presentation performance for instance lack of knowledge and lack of confidence. However, main barrier of this engineering student is lack of knowledge that hinders his effective oral presentation performance. A comment by engineering student 3 was: “…we need environment, we should have knowledge…so we should have knowledge… environment must be there”. This respondent indicated that there are 2 barriers that hinder his effective oral presentation performance. They are poor environment and lack of knowledge. This finding is very interesting for the researcher that this engineering student complained about poor environment of his class or institution. This indicates that language or communication teachers do not promote oral presentation activities in the class. Thus, poor environment or poor knowledge are barriers that hinder effective oral presentation performance of this engineering student. A comment by engineering student 4 was: “I have lot of things for explanation but cannot, because I have no potential in front of audience”. This respondent indicated that he has lot of things to say but he cannot say due to various barriers. This is a very interesting finding for the researcher. This is because a final year engineering student who is ready to join the workplace cannot explain only barriers that hinder his effective oral presentation performance. It is envisaged that this engineering student will face same barriers at workplace which is neither in the better interest of this student nor his organization. This shows that engineering universities of Pakistan do not properly train engineering students in non technical skills such as oral communication and oral presentation skills and main focus is merely on technical skills. Thus, employers usually complain that modern engineering graduates are not ready for workplace jobs. This indicates a gap between required skills and acquired skills of engineering students from engineering universities of Pakistan. This tends that this student has been neglected by teachers to take part in classroom oral presentations. Thus, language or communication teachers should provide oral presentation opportunities to all engineering students in order to assist them to overcome barriers that hinder their effective oral presentation performance prior to joining the workplace. A comment by engineering student 5 was:




“Oral presentation yes my English language talking…and some little bit lack of confidence and some little bit we can say lack of knowledge…some hesitation we can say…we have to confuse that some students have questions in their mind …we are also confuse chances of confusing so reason”. This respondent indicated that English language, lack of confidence, lack of knowledge, hesitation, and confusion are barriers that hinder his effective oral presentation performance. This indicates that this engineering student has been provided few oral presentations during his stay at the university. Thus, it is envisaged that these barriers will influence his job employment and job performance following graduation at workplace. A comment by engineering student 6 was: “Basically oral presentation barriers are talking power, our English our way of speaking how to present, these are very basic barriers…” This respondent stated that poor oral communication skill and English language are barriers that hinder his effective oral presentation performance. A comment by engineering student 7 was: “…feel low knowledge when I count low knowledge is a barrier for me … I cannot present well …when I do not have knowledge, I feel some stress upon me…” This engineering student indicated that poor knowledge, poor oral communication skill, and stress are barriers that hinder his effective oral presentation performance. This indicates that due poor practice of oral presentations engineering students face various barriers that hinder their effective oral presentation performance. In sum engineering students face various barriers that hinder their effective oral presentation performance. It is never in the better interest of engineering students since modern workplace environment has become very competitive to obtain a job. This shows skills gap between the acquired skills and the required skills of engineering students. 4. Discussion The results of this study reported that oral communication and oral presentation plays paramount role for engineers at workplace. Van Horn (1995) surveyed employees in New Jersey United States. The results of this survey reported that oral communication is important at workplace but it is an area in which graduates severely lack. Freihat Saleh et al. (2012) conducted a study on “The Picture of Workplace Oral Communication Skills for ESP Jordanian Business Graduate Employees”. The results of this study revealed that 84% respondents agreed that oral communication is an important aspect of modern workplace. The results of this study further indicated that barriers such as lack of confidence, lack of knowledge, lack of environment, and lack of English language hinder effective oral presentation performance of engineering students. A study was conducted by Razdun Noor et al. (2011) on “Technical oral presentations in English: Qualitative analysis of Malaysian engineering undergraduates’ sources of anxiety”. The results of this study indicated that English language was a barrier for engineering students to perform effective oral presentations. Lack of confidence decreases academic performance of students (Fook et al., 2011; Aryana, 2010; Harris, 2009). Oral presentation is a problem for students when it is presented in English language (Zareva’s, 2011). It is envisaged that oral presentation barriers of engineering students tend to be due to poor oral communication skill trainings provided to engineering students during study time. Thus, engineering students are not satisfied from classroom environment. This indicates that communication or language teachers fail to provide ample opportunities of oral presentations to engineering students to assist them to overcome barriers that hinder their effective oral presentation performance. In addition, findings of this study indicate skills gap between the acquired skills and required skills of engineering graduates. Oral communication and oral presentation plays paramount role for engineers to perform workplace jobs effectively at workplace, on the other hand, engineering students of Pakistan severely lack in these skills. As a result, these barriers will affect their job performance of these engineering students which will lead poor productivity of organizations. In view of this, it is suggested that industry and engineering universities of Pakistan should establish strong collaboration in order to prepare better human capital not only for local but global organizations which is prime demand of this modern age. It is envisaged that this collaboration will assist to overcome increasing unemployment in engineering profession of Pakistan.




5. Conclusion This study investigated importance of oral communication and oral presentation for engineers at workplace and barriers that hindered effective oral presentation performance of engineering students. The results of this study indicated that oral communication and oral presentation plays paramount role for engineers at workplace and barriers such as lack of confidence, lack of knowledge, lack of environment, and lack of English language hindered effective oral presentation performance of engineering students. Truly speaking, these barriers are mainly due to poor oral communication and oral presentation skill trainings provided to engineering students. Thus, engineering universities of Pakistan should focus non technical skills such as oral communication and oral presentation skills of engineering students to prepare them better human capital for the workplace. If necessary they should add more communication courses in engineering curriculum that focus oral communication and oral presentation skills of engineering students. Thus, it is in the better interest of engineering universities of Pakistan because industry is the biggest employer of engineering students. 6. Further Study This study found that oral communication and oral presentation play paramount role for engineers at workplace and barriers hinder effective oral presentation performance of final year engineering students. The following research should be considered for further study to prepare better engineers equipped with technical and non technical skills for modern workplace. 1. This survey focused engineers on importance of oral communication and oral presentation for engineers at workplace. Their insight might add a dimension that can be used to design communication skills curriculum for engineering students. 2. This survey focused oral presentation barriers of final year engineering students. Their insight might add a dimension that can be used to prepare future engineers skilled in terms of non technical skills for local as well as global organizations. 3. Research engineering education to discover which oral communication skills are important for engineering graduates to perform workplace jobs effectively in this competitive work environment of organizations. Results may benefit adaptation to the changing oral communication skill needs of engineering graduates and the development of oral communication skills of engineering students prior to joining the workplace. 4. Research engineering curriculum and degree of oral communication skills incorporated into engineering curriculum for modern engineering students. Results may indicate that language or communication teachers focus oral communication and presentation skills of engineering students prior to joining the workplace.

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Language Countertrading In Courtroom Exchanges in Nigeria:

A Discursive Study Tunde Opeibi (PhD) University of Lagos

Nigeria E-mail: [email protected]

Received: 30-05- 2012 Accepted: 19-07- 2012 Published: 03-09- 2012 doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.49 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.49 Abstract The view of discourse as serving transactional and interactional purposes cascades into practical realities in courtroom exchanges. As an institutional setting, the law courts exemplify a typical social domain where language provides the basis for conveying information; promoting meaningful and goal-directive social and interactional exchanges. Whether in civil or criminal litigations, the proceedings rely on linguistic facilities for accomplishing communicative actions. Language thus remains the sole ‘legal tender’ and the major instrument for prosecuting the cases and resolving conflicts brought before the courts. This paper is motivated by the increasing but interesting challenges lay participants face in the courtrooms as they are confronted with language use that is different from their day-to-day experiences. The study discusses these peculiar communicative interactions in a law court in Lagos, Nigeria against the backdrop of very little efforts in courtroom discourse in non-native English speaking contexts. Specifically, this paper focuses mainly on an aspect of courtroom discourse (i.e. examination-in-chief), a procedural questioning session which provides the basis for presenting the plaintiff’s arguments and information through the plaintiff’s counsel. The data used in this work were drawn from a civil suit filed in a Lagos High Court by a complainant in connection with a dispute on a property in central Lagos. Using insights from discourse analysis and theoretical construct based on Genre Analysis (e.g. Hasan’s Generic Structure Potential) as well as other relevant constructs, the study analyses discourse features and strategies deployed by active participants in the proceedings. The study finds that legal proceedings contextualized within a given L2 sociolinguistic and lingual-legal jurisdiction helps to project some of the peculiar features of a non-native English in legal domains. Apart from identifying some peculiar discourse patterns that are institutional-based, courtroom proceedings in this legal culture demonstrates discourse strategies that conflate with similar features in other jurisdictions. That only supports the belief of a common source for most legal systems with colonial experiences as well as the universal applicability of judicial decisions. The complex natures of legal texts that are highlighted merely corroborate previous works in this area. The study concludes by demonstrating how language is used to perform actions that are goal-directive in this domain using the Speech Act model. Keywords: Legal discourse, courtroom, discourse strategies, examination-in-chief, genre analysis, speech act, L2 context 1. Introduction One of the functions of language as a social activity is that it lends itself as an instrument of resolving conflict that may arise from day to day human interactions. The legal system provides one of the contexts through which this function is carried out. This it does effectively through the law courts. Both the instruments of law and the procedures for enforcement are done through the use of language. The courtroom is an institutional ‘market place’ where arguments, information, ideas, questioning, ‘pleadings’ are traded among the participants via the language choice which remains the only socially and culturally as well as institutionally acceptable instrument of exchanges.




Legal institutions all over the world play a very important role in social reengineering and social restructuring. Apart from their constitutional roles of interpreting the laws of the land and adjudicating in issues and cases that may arise from the application of these laws, the most socially-relevant function that directly affect the lives of the average citizens is conflict resolution. It aims at ensuring peaceful co-existence through conformity to the laws and respect for the rights of others by every citizen. It is this regulatory and conflict resolution functions of the law courts that form the fulcrum of the proceedings being examined in this study. This paper is particularly interested in the linguistic transactions that characterize this particular sub-genre of legal discourse. Most previous research efforts in this country have merely looked at the features of language of law (e.g. Adetugbo 1990). In other parts of the world, few others (e.g. Harris 1988) have examined the ideological aspect of courtroom discourse (Emerson 1969, Carlen 1976). Sandra Harris (1988) discusses some problems and issues arising from examining court discourse as a genre. She describes linguistic interaction in a British ‘fines’ court (a division of Magistrate Court). Still others have attempted to define its functional, social and formal properties in different ways (see Atkinson and Drew 1979, O'Barr 1982; Harris 1980, 1981, 1984a, 1984b; Goodrich 1987 among others). Obviously, to the best of my knowledge, very little has been done on courtroom procedures in Superior Courts especially in a non-native English environment. While we acknowledge the efforts and contributions of these previous studies especially in native English communities, most of the works done in this dealing with environment are carried out on a limited scope the description of the language of law. Many fail to pay close attention to discourse features and strategies that underlie communicative interactions in superior courts, where there is strict adherence to the rules of evidence. The present study thus aimed at examining the language of legal discourse vis-à-vis the interactive textual and contextual variables that impinge on the meanings being exchanged which are geared towards conflict resolution through the legal proceeding. In essence, we wish to analyse some of the linguistic and. discourse features unique to the linguistic interactions in this genre of legal discourse; examining the different strategies that the text depends on as discourse and how these assist in accomplishing the goals of the discourse and the legal institution in general. Both linguistic and discourse approaches will be relied on in the course of investigating the text which will be examined in terms of discourse features and strategies, generic properties, features of context among others. 1.1 Language and the Law A quantum of literature exists on the relationship between language and law. From the early evolution of human society,a body of regulations couched in expressions that are meaningful to members of the community and could regulate their actions provides the template for the efforts to achieve cohesion, stability, law and order that will prevent man from going into self-inflicted extinction. Straddle across three key and interrelated disciplines, scholars in philosophy, linguistics and law have been fascinated by the interconnectedness between language and law. Language is crucial to the process of law making, and the process of interpreting the law. It is also the only instrument the courts use in arriving at its various decisions on legal suits brought before the legal institutions. Thriving on the strength of long history and contributions from some of the most respected legal cultures in the world, legal language enjoys some stability and peculiarity. Apart from some ‘rituals’ that are associated with this universe of discourse, the linguistic and extra linguistic features of courtroom discourse distinguish it from language use in other domains. Experts such as Peter Tiersma (2008), have observed that legal language exhibits features that distinctly draws some attention to it. He observes that

Legal languages are inevitably products of the history of the nation or state in which they are used, as well as the peculiar developments of the legal system in question. In terms of features, they tend to be characterized by minor differences in spelling, pronunciation, and orthography; long and complex sentences, often containing conjoined phrases or lists, as well as passive and nominal constructions; and a large and distinct lexicon. The profession has developed distinct traditions on how its language should be interpreted. In terms of style, the language of the law is often archaic, formal, impersonal, and wordy or redundant. And it can be relatively precise, or quite general or vague, depending on the strategic objectives of the drafter (7)




Some of the peculiar phonological, morphological and syntactic features identified by Tiersma are also found in Nigerian legal language. For example, the syntactic complexity, high number of conjoined phrases and lists of synonyms and near-synonyms have been accounted for and discussed elsewhere (see Opeibi, 2008). Legal experts have often defended the need for wordiness and lexical density in most legal documents arising from the need for precision in meaning and to anticipate possible contingency and stave off any form of confusion that may arise for lack of specificity in legal expressions. It is noteworthy that legal communication from this background largely influences instruments of exchanges in the courtroom. It is also formal, institutionalized, ritualistic, precise and largely bdifferent from casual conversations or language use in other domains Several literatures also exist on language use in the courtroom. Atkinson and Drew, 1979, Cotterill, 2003, Ehrlich, 2001 among other scholars have discussed features of language use and discursive practices of legal experts in the courtroom. Most often the more powerful participants, i.e. lawyers, judges and jury use language to control the legal process, exhibit verbal domination during questioning and may manipulate discourse in order to elicit/extract information from the witnesses (see Gibbons, 2003; Opeibi, 2004). Questioning, a key procedure in the discourse analysed in the study has, arguably, remained the flagship of courtroom discourse. In terms of features and goals, it demonstrates the power of language to influence and control linguistic interactions. Gibbons, 2008:115), observes that courtroom questioning for instance differs markedly, in that lawyers usually have a particular version of events in mind that they are attempting to confirm with the witness. Usually witnesses are compelled to answer, and do not have the right to ask questions. Therefore courtroom questions differ from everyday questions in both their social and their information characteristics (115) 1.2 The Context of the Present Study The study focuses on the language of courtroom procedures in a Nigerian Superior Court - The Federal High Court, Lagos. It should be stated here that English has remained the official language of legal system and legal documents especially in the Superior Courts (which include the Supreme Court, Courts of Appeal, High Courts). At the lower courts, for instance the Magistrate and Customary Courts, indigenous languages are sometimes employed depending on the nature "of the legal suits that are entertained and the level of education of the litigants who may be barely literate in English. Since the study focuses on the communicative interactions at the High Court, English was the language of communication as recorded in our database. It is significant to point out that the study brings into sharper focus the central role of language in conflict resolution through the law courts. Besides, it throws more light on the peculiarity of language use in a highly conventionalized settings, and illustrates how utterances in law courts constitute communicative acts. The study therefore shows features that set apart legal discourse from language use in other social domains. The data for the study was collected in 1995 at Court 19, Federal High Court Lagos during proceedings in a Suit LD/3725/93 instituted by Mrs. PS Nwachukwu and Mrs. Shonekan (Plaintiffs) against Pamlex International Limited represented by Chief Owolade - the Managing Director (defendant). Justice (Mrs.) Akinsanya was the presiding judge, while Mr. Uche Uwechia and Miss B. Dakwak appeared for the plaintiffs, Mr. Fola Balogun was counsel to the defendant. 1.3 The Facts of the Case The plaintiffs are the owners of the demised premises (15 Jibowu Street, Yaba) which was let out to the defendant in 1987 by virtue of a lease agreement dated December 6th 1989. Prior to this time, the defendant entered into an unsigned lease agreement with the plaintiffs' mother (now deceased) who was formally the landlord. The lease was for a period of five years. One month before the expiration of the lease agreement the defendant sought to exercise an option to renew which was inserted into the lease agreement and which said option was of a perpetual nature The plaintiffs resisted the purported exercise of the said option and requested after series of abortive negotiations that the defendant yield up possession of the demised premises. Following refusal of the defendant to either settle amicably with the plaintiffs or vacate the premises, the plaintiff instituted an action on November 11, 1993 for an order of possession and for ‘mesne’ profit.




After the preliminary filing of notice, the present proceeding, our object of inquiry, is known in legal parlance as Examination-in-Chief. It is the evidence of a witness obtained by oral examination. In this procedure, the witness (plaintiff or defendant) is led in evidence by a counsel representing the party for whom he or she is testifying by his/her Vice Voce presents to the court the facts as pleaded in the process. It can be a statement of claims or a statement of defence. In the context of the present study, the witness (representing the plaintiffs) was led in evidence by her leading counsel to present a statement of claims. It is interesting to point out that during the examination-in-chief the witness is only allowed to give evidence or testified on facts pleaded in the pleadings. No extraneous facts or averments are allowed. It is against the backdrop of the need to resolve the conflicts between the two parties that necessitated the proceeding as the study will reveal later. Some of the symbols used in the study include: PW - Plaintiff’s Witness PC - Plaintiff’s Counsel DC - Defendant’s Counsel Court- Presiding Judge 1.4 Methodology The corpus used in this present investigation was collected through the participant-observer method. The case was monitored through visits to the High Courts in Lagos. The actual interactions between the counsel to the plaintiff, the counsel to the defendant as well the role of the judges were closely monitored in order to unveil and understand the discourse strategies adopted during court proceedings in Nigeria. We were able to also take notes during the proceedings which were later properly transcribed as actual data. In order to provide further information on how language use impact selected key participants, unscheduled interviews were done within and outside the courtroom premises. 2. Courtroom Text as Discourse It is a fact that institutional discourses have enjoyed some relatively adequate attention in discourse literature over the years. Sacks (1984), for instance, makes a distinction between institutional talk and informal talk or “ordinary conversation.” Generally speaking most discourses in institutionalized domains are functional, structured, rule-governed, formulaic, goal-oriented and ideologically-based which set the apart from informal talk. In furthering the discussions on institutional communication, Drew and Heritage (1992 ) argue that “talk in interaction is the principal means through which lay persons pursue various goals and the central medium through which the daily activities of many professionals and organizational representatives are conducted.” Pilnick(1997:111) asserts that the institutionality of an interaction is directly related to the participants’ institutional or professional identities. Drew and Heritage argue further that “the institutionality of an interaction is not determined by its setting. Rather interaction is institutional in so far as participants’ institutional or professional identities are sometimes made relevant to the work activities in which they are engaged. The domain of courtroom normally presents an organized, rule-governed setting where linguistic negotiations that take place and the decisions that are arrived at usually affect the lives of the participants. Expectedly, extensive verbal interactions usually characterize normal legal procedures because courtroom presents a communication context where interesting social and ideological issues arise and people have very much at stake (Harris 1988). Additionally, the linguistic exchanges that characterize a typical interactive sessions in law courts reveal a situation where language provides the basis for meaningful goal-directive social interaction and for achieving communicative actions. Harris (op.cit.) identifies some common features of courtroom discourse. These are: one, language use in courtroom discourse is constitutive yet at the same time it is embedded in a pragmatic environment. Its experimental context is related to the immediate surroundings; two, court cases, if they are regarded as the basic unit of interaction in court, are typically complex and also lengthy. They often involve written language as well as spoken; and




three, courts typically involve conflict and confrontation, and Ghee’s cooperative principle is often breached. It is pertinent to point out also that as it is obtained in Western Countries, court discourse is associated with formal institutional settings, which include specifically designated buildings and very often highly conventionalized modes of dress and behavior. Further, discourse roles are highly institutionalized and generally rule-governed. Linguistic interactions are based on unequal encounters because real power is vested in certain individuals who represent the force of law For instance, only certain participants may ask questions during particular legal procedures and the order of turns is usually fixed in the type of litigation under consideration. Interestingly, this discourse is carried on through series of interrogation which the plaintiffs counsel uses to elicit information from the witness and present facts that will enable the court arrive at a decision in resolving the dispute. Of course, linguistic and discourse features and strategies deployed by participants for the exchange of 'meanings exhibit unique characteristics. Although the scope of this paper may not permit a lengthy and complex analysis, an attempt is made to use selected extracts from the data to explicate the concern of the paper and project how language could be seen as a resource organized for the accomplishment of communicative goals in that context. 3. Describing the Courtroom Interactions: Aspects of Generic Structure Potential As different social contexts provide some resources that impact on language use, the processes through which such communicative enterprises evolve and actuate have also attracted the attention of scholars. These processes are believed to be central to discourse goals. The concept of ‘genre’ as a discursive process has been applied to describe interactions that occur between participants in a social setting. Following the steps of J.L. Austin(1962), who earlier suggested that we do a lot of things with language, Knapp and Watkins( 2005 ) state that genre primarily deals with language processes involved in doing things with language. Norman Fairclough (2001) also describes genre as “a socially ratified way of using language in connection with a particular social activity.” Other scholars such as Eggins and Slade, Martin and Rose have also provided some insightful descriptions of genre. For Eggins and Slade (1997), genre is an institutionalized language activity which has evolved over time to have particular text structure” while Marin and Rose(2008 ) highlight both the functional and interactive features by arguing that genre

“…is a staged, goal oriented social process. Social because we participate in genres with other people; goal oriented because we use genres to get things done; staged because it usually takes a few steps to reach our goals”.

Swales description of genre provides some very useful insight as it supports the approach in Hasan (1984 & 1985) used in this study. He asserts that genre is

…a class of communicative events, the members of which share some sets of communicative purposes. These purposes are recognized by the expert members of the parent discourse community, thereby constitute the rationale for the genre. These rationales shape the schematic structure of the discourse and influence and constrain choice of content and style.

Some aspects of Bhatia’s (2004 :23) summary of the common threads in genre studies further provides some useful insights into the structural and functional as well as institutional features of courtroom interactions. According to this scholar, (i) genres are recognizable communicative events typified by a set of communicative purposes mutually understood by members of a given discourse or professional community; (ii) genres are highly structured and conventionalized constructs, with constraints on allowable contributions….; and genres are reflections of disciplinary and organizational cultures. Hence, they focus on social actions embedded within institutional practices (cited in Adam 2011). It may thus be argued that given the importance of courtroom interactions in any jurisdiction, the legal-based generic description of proceedings in the court will naturally follow the processes identified by the institution, structured and rule-governed communicative interactions directed towards achieving specific goals. It is no wonder that Swales(op cit) submits that “genres are communicative vehicles for the achievement of goals”. One other useful observation is the relationship between genre theory and exchange structures in dialogic interactions. Most discussions on the theory emphasize the centrality of the analytical tools that yield themselves readily to the process of identifying and describing structured exchanges in the given communicative events.




Using the approach espoused in Hasan 1984, 1985, we attempt to describe the courtroom interaction by highlighting the processes, the features, as well as the discourse goals. The GSP (Generic Structure Potential) is a model for describing attributes and labeling elements in the linguistic interactions of any given social activity, (see Hasan 1984, 1985). The generic structure of any text refers to separate events or interactional elements within a discourse that distinguish that particular text from another of its kind. For instance, the text under consideration - examination-in-chief, is a genre in courtroom discourse and it exhibits specific linguistic interactions that set it apart from other texts (e.g. cross-examination). Hassan proposes 'that such a model will provide specification of the range of lexico-grammatical patterns which are capable of realizing specific semantic properties. Harris (1988) adopted this approach in her description of the series of transactions (semantic units of structure) in the Arrears and Maintenance Court (in Britain). Her linear model of the basic structural components is used in this paper with slight modifications. One major difference is that the kind of litigations entertained in the lower court are quite different from what obtains in the courts of higher jurisdictions where the rule of evidence is strictly applied. Of course, in Arrears and Maintenance Court the procedure is summary as shown in her study (Harris 1988) and, thus there is no strict adherence to the rules of evidence. Consequently, the generic structure of the court from where our database is taken exhibits slight divergence from that of lower courts. Generally speaking, the court is characterized by ordered series of interactions and they are often in fixed order. Following Harris proposal, a linear model of the basic structural components of this court (its GSP) can be described as follows:

A^I^S^SI^ P^ IG^ O^ C^ A - Announcement

I - Introduction S - Summoning SI - Swearing In P - Preliminary

IG - Information Gathering O - Ordering C - Closing

The linguistic transaction in this legal procedure opens with the first stage -Announcement, The court registrar announces the particulars of the suit to be entertained by reading out the Suit No. [“suit number LD/3725/93”] and the names of the plaintiffs and defendant.

Between: Mrs. P.S. Nwachukwul Mrs. Shonekan AND Pamlex International Limited Chief Owolade (Managing Director)

Each litigant rises and takes a bow to register his/her presence in the courtroom. This stage thus involves identification of the suit and the litigants. The registrar then hands over the case file to the presiding judge. The next stage which also involves verbalization is described as Introduction. Here, counsels to the two parties introduce themselves. Because it is the plaintiff’s case, their counsels introduce themselves first followed by the defendant's counsel. Two lawyers represent the plaintiffs while only one stands for the defendant. The Summoning in this court, unlike in lower courts involves the witness (who is already in the courtroom) being called into the witness box where she is sworn in by the registrar. The Swearing in transaction is done by the registrar who presents a bible to the witness (now in the box) and directs as follows –“place your right hand on the book and say after me ...” the swearing-in is thus always enacted by means of imperative forms (e.g. ‘... say

Defendant

Plaintiffs




after me’ “I xxxxx do solemnly swear that the evidence I shall give in this court shall be the truth only and but the whole truth”). It may be necessary to state that where the Preliminary Transaction which deals-with the confirmation of certain specified information i.e. the identity of the counsels and the 'facts' of the case comes after the oath taking stage in some courts, it takes place before the witness is sworn-in in this court. The next phase is the Information Gathering transaction which is initiated by the plaintiffs’ counsel through a series of interrogating exchanges seeks to elicit information from the witness. The information so elicited represents statement of claims necessary for the prosecution of the case. The transactions at this stage also involve the presiding judge who from time to time interrupts the exchanges, either to accept any documents as exhibits or to seek the opinion of the defendant's counsel concerning any aspect of the facts being pleaded. We may cite the following examples from our corpus. (1) Court: Any Objection? The defendant's letter dated 8th March is admitted as exhibit B The information gathering procedure is usually long and complex comprising series of turns in a specified order whereby the plaintiff and her counsel present their evidence, with the witness (plaintiff) pleading the case assisted by her counsel. For example, (2) PC: Do you know the defendant (3) PW: Yes I do. He is representing Pamlex International PC: You said, Pamlex International Limited is your tenant, can you state how the relationship came about? (4) PW: The property was my late father’s and he willed it to my mum which also devolved to my sister and I after her death. Jide Taiwo contacted us of their interest in the property.... It is pertinent to point out here that this is the most important stage in this genre of legal discourse..The prosecuting (plaintiffs) counsel argue the case indirectly through the witness by leading her in oral examination to provide detailed information and facts that will lead to the resolution of the dispute. In this court, and in the context of this discourse only the plaintiff lawyer and his witness are active participants in the lengthy linguistic transactions. (Although both the judge and defendant counsel are involved). The exchange of information is well-structured and ordered. It may be argued that while the information being presented to the court can be regarded as new, it is shared between the plaintiff and her counsel. The Ordering transaction stage occurs when a date is set for further hearing with a formal pronouncement of adjournment. (5) Court: It is not proper and neat. I advise the counsel to follow the proper procedure. (Judge turns to the witness in the box). Please go and sit down. The case in adjourned to the 2nd of November for the cross-examination of the plaintiff's witness. Obviously, this utterance also signals the Closing of the transactions. The response of the counsels further confirms this observation. (6) PC & DC: As the court pleases. Hereafter, the lawyers then rise one after the other, take a bow and leave the courtroom. Some observations about the generic properties of this courtroom discourse reveal that the structural components identified in the series of transactions are obligatory. Although not all are of the equal length and complexity, there is usually extensive verbalisation of the transactions that puts language constantly in the process of accomplishing the communicative goals in that context. Therefore, one can formalise the basic structural components of the legal proceedings of the High Court (in a non-native English-speaking environment) as follows: GSP = A^I^S^SI^ P^ IG^ O^ C 4. Discourse Strategies in the Exchanges Scholars have argued that an understanding of any piece(s) of language as discourse should be a combination of text and context (Geis 1982, Cook 1992, Halliday 1985, Hasan 1985 etc). Beyond the discursive elements that are uniquely peculiar to the context of the courtroom discourse, strategies deployed to craft and communicate the elements also pivotally constitute some interesting sub-discursive




structures that enable participants present and share information. The following components provide the counter-balancing effect of the meanings that are exchanged. (a) the structure of the message (b) the addresser-addressee structure; and (c) the cohesive structure 4.1 Discourse Exchanges: The Structure of the Message The legal procedure under study shows an interactive process where there is the exchange of information between the participants especially the litigants and counsels on one hand and the presiding judge on the other. Using Halliday’s (1994) Theme and Rheme structure, the analysis reveals how messages are distributed within and across the texts. The functions that language is meant to perform in this context are realised through the means of theme and information focus. Our corpus shows that apart from very few declarative and imperative sentences, the information gathering process and presentation of facts are done through the means of interrogations. The preponderance of interrogative sentences is a reflection of the nature of that legal process. Some of the extracts below show how the theme and rheme structure combine together to structure the clauses as meaningful pieces of discourse and project the message. (7) PW: The property was my late father’s ... Jide Taiwo contacted us of their interest in the property (8) PC: I seek to tender the document (9) Court: The response of Jide Taiwo dated 23rd February is admitted and marked exhibit C. The nominal groups - The property, Jide Taiwo, I, The response of Jide Taiwo dated 23rd February in each of the pieces above constitute the theme while the remaining part make up the rheme. Both the two parts function to express the structure and the function of the message. The two major types of interrogative forms (the polar and the wh-question) that are employed in the text have different functional interpretations. They function to confirm or refute information, and elicit or seek particular piece(s) of information. The extracts below are illustrative. (10) PC: Did your agent respond-to the letter? PW: Yes, Please (11) PC: Who drafted the unexecuted agreement...? PW: Pamlex Limited The extracts, obviously, demonstrate the process of exchange of information through interrogation. In extract (10), the operator (Did) in the polar question functions as the ‘unmarked’ theme of the clause. In extract, (11) the element that function as Theme is the one that requests the information (i.e. the wh-element) which expresses the nature of the missing piece of information. A syntactic analysis of the structure of the message shows that the discourse is characterized by simple clause structures as shown in the deployment of simple declaratives and interrogatives. Although complex sentences are sometimes used when the witness tries to give details of such information being supplied, we observe that such sentences are made up of simple clauses. For example: (12) PW: The property was my late father's and he willed it to my mum which also devolved to my sister and I after her death. Jide Taiwo contacted us of their interest in the property. The admixture of simple, compound and complex sentences in a single piece reflects the nature of the interaction as being spontaneous and unscripted- The messages are not lost however. The facts are still presented in a simple manner. Being an unscripted text, we observe some features of spoken text which include: the use of speech fillers and uncompleted statements which are very common in spoken discourse. Although they do not appear in the transcription there are only few instances of their use in the exchange. This goes to confirm the suspicion that the witness must have been briefed before the court appearance. Unnecessary repetition of structure and phrases also characterise the discourse.




Generally speaking, the text can be described as an admixture of long and short sentences. There is the predominance of short sentences which is a reflection of the nature of the discourse - a question and answer text. The use of long sentences in the discourse is occasioned perhaps by the need to give detailed information concerning some of the issues that led to the dispute between the two litigants. A closer look at the exchange between the plaintiffs’ counsel and the witness also shows a lot of cooperation at work. The responses of the witness to the counsel's queries show that: (i) she’s listening; (ii) she's in agreement with the comment; and (iii) she supports the subject matter. The smoothness of the transactions further confirms the belief that it must have been rehearsed before the actual public demonstration in the courtroom. The few occurrences of speech fillers as well confirm this position. The only example came from the defence counsel who was not privy to the rehearsal Instances of incomplete statements as discourse feature can be cited in the text. For example (13) Court: It is the plaintiff's case. The objection is overruled Mr. Balogun are you satisfied? (14) DC: My Lord... (15) Court: Are you satisfied? (b) Addresser(s) - Addressees Structure It is very interesting to observe that the participant context in the study shows that there are layers of addressers and addressees which also interweave. At one level, there is the plaintiffs’ counsel and the witness or the presiding judge. The presiding judge also sometimes assume the role of the addressee, while at another time it is the defence counsel that addresses both the plaintiffs’ counsel or the presiding judge. Most significantly is the fact that the discourse structure predominantly exhibits the dialogic mode which makes the interactions sometimes dramatic and at other times confrontational as the discourse progresses. The discourse structure can also be described as majorly bidirectional communication, with the plaintiffs’ counsel and the witness engaging in what we can call reciprocal discourse. However other participants (the presiding judge and the defence counsel) contribute to the exchanges, when there is the need to accept any document as exhibit or raise objections on any aspect of the proceeding respectively. The addresser - addressee structure is realised further in the text through the use of the pronominal system and mood system. Both the use of declarative and interrogative sentences help to explicate how interpersonal structures operate in the text. The Pronominal System reveals the predominance of the second person pronoun, you, and first person singular, / and plural, we. The collective pronouns us and we are also used. The kind of interpersonal communication between the witness and her counsel is revealed through the use of the second person pronoun. On several occasions in the text, the counsel refers to the witness as you to sustain the tempo of the dialogue. E.g. (16) PC: Do you know the defendant? (17) PW: Yes I do. (18) PC: You said Pamlex International is your tenant, can you state how the relationship came about? (19) PC: Mrs. Shonekan, can you tell us what happened afterward The personal pronoun ‘I’, is used in three different dimensions. First, to refer to the witness, at other times it refers to the counsel to the plaintiff, and third, to the defence counsel respectively as shown below. (20) PW: Yes I do. (21) PC: My Lord I seek to tender the copy of the defendant's letter (22) DC: My Lord I just wanted to tender some documents with the consent of the PC. The collective first person pronoun, we and us specifically refer to the plaintiffs (represented by the witness). Both the witness and her sister (non-contextual participant-‘exophoric referent’) are made to identify with the common action through the use of the proforms, we and us as shown in the piece below.




(23) PW: We never got original letters because when we went back to Jide Taiwo to collect the document, the documents dealing with such property was not in the file. We search and search nobody could tell us where they are: At a particular point in the transaction the pronoun, us, is used to refer to all the participants especially the presiding judge, the defence counsel and the public. (24) PC: Mrs. Shonekan can you tell us what happened afterwards. In terms of the mood system, the indicative is most predominant. Here, both the declarative and interrogative are employed. When facts are presented and information is transmitted, the declarative sentences play the role. Interrogatives are used to elicit the information and facts from the witness. The counsel is the inquirer, while the witness in the informant. In fact the whole discourse is all about question and answer. (c) Cohesive Structure The internal organisation of the linguistic system in this piece of discourse influences the participants' ability to understand the text as a well organised communicative event. The participants within the context of discourse are thus able to benefit from the process of language use. In the context of this text, features of cohesion include the use of references, ellipses, conjunctions, and substitution. The choice of these internal resources within the language system, applied in a logical manner to project the content of the message makes the linguistic interaction and the exchanges more meaningful. For instance; the use of proforms such as you, your, we, us significantly establish the semantic relations between one part of the discourse and the other. (25) DC: He said there was an agreement dated 1989. I expected them to tender a document of this agreement. Court: It is the plaintiff's case. The objection is overruled. Mr. Balogun are you satisfied DC: My Lord... Court: Are you satisfied? DC: My Lord what we are saying is that the terms are already in the document, we do not dispute it. In the pieces above, the exchanges become more meaningful with the anaphoras He referring to the plaintiff’s counsel, I to the defence counsel, them to the plaintiffs’ counsel and the witness, you to the defence counsel, we, to the defence counsel and the defendant, and it, to the agreement in question. Across the text, there are many instances of chain references made to the participants or things in the discourse. They reveal the identity of the participants (the litigants) and the object of litigation. They effectively establish a semantic relation between the pieces of information in the text. Sometimes we are given the identity of participants outside the context through the second witness. Mrs. Nwachukwu, the witness' sister, and their deceased mother are exophorically referred to in the discourse through the use of the referential items - us, and her. (26) PW: The property was my late father's and he willed it to my mum which also devolved to my sister and I after her death. Jide Taiwo contacted us of their interest in the property.... Ellipses and substitution are employed in the text to enhance effective communication and economy. Being a spoken discourse, elliptical statements, also a form of anaphora, serve as a cohesive agent to further strengthen the semantic structure of the text. Apart from being used to achieve economy, one could see the establishment of a personal conversational tone between the addresser and addressee so that familiarity and rapport are created through the use of ellipses. As Cook (1992: 172) observes, ... lack of ellipsis implies formality, social distance or a lack of shared knowledge. The extracts below show how the devices operate in the text. (27) PC: Do you have the original copies of the document? PW: No. [we do not have the original copies of the document] (28) PC: Can you tell the Court the person who drafted the two agreements. Who drafted them?




PW: Pamlex Limited, [drafted the agreements] The elliptical expressions in these extracts enhance communication as needless repetitions are avoided. They also reveal that the participants operate in context where the speaker expects the listener(s) to 'fill in' the gaps from their shared knowledge. The deletion of some linguistic elements makes the text effective and direct. Another important feature of the discourse is the step-by-step information management and presentation of facts through interrogations. It begins with problem identification followed by explication and ending with request for resolution. E.g. (29) PC: Mrs. Shonekan what do you want the court to do for you? PW: My Lord we want the Court to help us take possession of the said premises... Lexical Cohesion is achieved in the text through the repetition of some items Reference is made to 'documents' as otters, receipts, agreements. At other times, the documents or letters are referred to as premises, inheritance, while the litigation (suit) itself is frequently substituted with case. The Use of Repetition It is common to find frequent repetition of letter, document, rent, defendant, My Lord, property, facts, agreement among others. These items either share common semantic elements or are mere variation of the other. Thus they share the same semantic field. They not only highlight the features of the discourse, they reflect the nature of the linguistic exchanges as those embedded in the context of legal institution. The Use of Conjunction Clauses and sentences in the text are also 'hanged together' logically through the use of various connectives. The use of the additive connector, and, is" predominant in this piece of structured spoken discourse. Examples include (30) PW: Jide Taiwo had and kept all original copies. (31) Court: The response of Jide Taiwo dated 23rd February is admitted and marked exhibit C. The Connective of summation, then, provides the link between what has happened between the plaintiffs and the defendant in the extract below. (32) PW: Yes, the rent became due and overdue. After series of correspondence between ourselves and Chief Owolade, he said he did not recognise as owners of the property. We referred him to our father's will. We then ask for the rent that was overdue. The adversative conjunction, but, in the text below indicates the beginning of the sour relationship and conflict of interest between the litigants. (33) PC: What do you mean? PW: Because we had written letters to them but said he did not recognise us as the rightful owners. The exchange of information and process of fact-finding which the discourse set out to achieve is further facilitated through the use of these and other cohesive markers. The Causal - conditional connector, because, and the connective of inference, if, also establish semantic connection among pieces of information and messages in the text. The causal-conditional connector indicates the reason for the plaintiff’s action to seek legal redress. If. as a connector (in extract 34, below) indicates an inference from what is implicit in the preceding clause and helps to establish the authenticity of the facts being presented by the witness. (34) PC: Did your agent respond to the letter? PW: Yes, please. PC: If you see a copy of the letter would you recognise it? PW: Yes Therefore it can be argued that these cohesive features are interwoven into the structure of the discourse, helping to explicate the meanings of the messages by establishing effective semantic relationship among the structural elements in the text. 5. Lexico-Semantic Features




One other interesting aspect of the courtroom exchanges is the choice of some of the words used in the discourse. Although many of them appear familiar , they assume different or special meanings in this context. They are employed to convey special meaning and are meant to be understood by the legal professionals in that context. Examples include Plead the case, statement of claim, demise premises, will, devolved, Unexecuted agreement, terms of agreement parties, documents, facts, order, etc. - . Many of these words or phrases although are used in everyday language, they express different meaning in the text. Their meanings are only derivable in the context of the discourse. Unlike formal legal documents or complex legal procedures, special registers and technical words, Latinate or archaic words are not common in the text. This could be as a result of the nature of the legal procedure which is still at the preliminary stage. Nevertheless, there are a few words or phrases that easily characterise the discourse as a typical legal procedure. Examples include: My Lord, plaintiff, defendant, exhibit, facts pleaded, court, evidence, statement of claim, defence counsel, cross-examination, tender, plaintiff's witness, proper procedure, case, adjourned, chambers, waiver of notice, etc. The formality of the language is also noted and sometimes its extraordinary precision. This may partly be to avoid misinterpretation or misrepresentation. At other times, we observe deliberate use of words and expressions with flexible meanings. For example: due process, consent, sake of convenience, proper and neat, take possession, overruled, strange practice, etc. As Mellinkoff (1963) rightly observes, the discourse also exhibits the use of argot, a specialized vocabulary common in any field, or language of communication within a group whether or not deliberately designed to exclude the stranger. The interactions between the plaintiffs’ counsel, the defendant's counsel and the presiding judge towards the end of the procedure aptly illustrate this position. The choice, of language used is intended to speak primarily to one another. At this stage some technical terms are introduced which make them to operate outside the linguistic frequencies of participants that are not professional lawyers, (see pp 8-10: appendix). Generally speaking, apart from the few instances where fairly complex legal terms are introduced, the language of the discourse is fairly simple and meaning intended does not necessarily pose any difficulty to the addressees. 5.1 Nigerianisms The case has been made in sociolinguistic literature that there exist some varieties of English that reflect the socio-cultural and sociolinguistic features of their second language contexts. Examples include Indian English, Malaysian English, Nigerian English among several others( see Kachru, 1985; Dadzie & Awonusi, 2004). By ‘Nigerianisms’, we refer to such expressions in English as Second language in Nigeria that are intelligible and socially-acceptable in the context of usage but slightly different from English expressions in native speakers’ environments. As the language of legal communication in Nigeria, this courtroom proceeding also exhibits some instances where some expressions used during the exchanges exhibit the features of Nigerian English expressions. These include (a) Omission of article as in PW: “Jide Taiwo had and kept all ( ) original and sent copies to us. (b) Reduplication phenomenon In an attempt to stress a particular point Nigerian users of English tend to repeat the lexical item. PW: We never got original letters because when use went back to Jide Taiwo to collect the document, the documents, dealing with such property was not in the file. We search and search nobody could tell us where they are. Wrong Use/Placement of Pronoun PW: Yes, we went to him and told him that since my mother is dead and the property has been passed to myself and my sister we should discuss... PW: Yes, the rent became due and overdue. After series of correspondence between ourselves and Chief Owolade.




These among others are some of the features' that characterise non-native Englishes especially in West Africa. This is to further confirm sociolinguists’ assertion that the speakers of a second language can not be totally divorced from the influence of his or her native language. 6. Contextual Configuration of the Text As stated earlier, Halliday and Hassan's (1985) .concept of contextual configuration (field, tenor and mode) is used to reveal the interactions of the contextual variables that play significant roles in the projection of the message and explication of the meaning of the text. a. In terms of field, the text describes a field of activity which is the legal evidence of the plaintiffs witness

obtained through interrogation by her counsel. It could be described as a verbal regulation of social interaction through the sanctions of legal systems - a preliminary stage in the resolution of the conflict of interest between the plaintiff witnesses (Mrs. ShoneKan) -and the defendant (Chief Owolade - Pamlex International Limited). The text is ideologically-motivated, semi-technical, and a sub-genre of courtroom or legal discourse.

b. The tenor of the discourse reveals that the participants can be described as multi-party active participants: the plaintiff witness, her counsel the defendant and his counsel, and the presiding judge. The plaintiffs counsel acts as the major questioner while the witness acts as respondent.

The participant's roles are primary, and all the participants are operating within ideological framework in conflict. The presiding judge exercises control over the discourse. The role relationship is highly institutionalized and rule - governed exhibiting features of unequal encounters.

c. In terms of mode of discourse, the text is primarily spoken with features of spontaneity. Some parts of the discourse are written or documented for further references in the course of the proceedings. The text gives status (as social act) to the verbal interaction. The act of questioning initiated by the plaintiffs counsel or the presiding judge is partly formulaic and partly spontaneous. Some of the questions are read out from a written text, while the responses of the witness are often spontaneous. The text also highlights the feature of performatives, because it constitutes or realises the act in question, that is, obtaining evidence of oral examination. Additionally, the text is a public act; a dialogue and a whole relevant activity in legal province.

It is grammatically simple and lexically sparse; expository and contains very few technical terminologies. These contextual variables have clearly shown the importance of extralinguistic features to the identification of a piece of language use situated within a particular environment of discourse. They constitute part of the strategies that help to decode the meaning and function of the legal texts. The contextual configuration serves to interpret the social context of the text, the environment in which meanings are exchanged. 7. Aspects of Speech Act in the Proceedings Linguistic exchanges in any context always result in fulfilling the goals of communication. As Schiffrin (1988) observes, discourse, apart from having structure and conveying meaning, it results in action. Austin’s (1962) Speech Act theory discusses how language performs action. And highly conventionalized settings like the law courts often provide the easier cases where language is used to perform actions( see Opeibi, 2003) We are able to identify some illocutionary force in some of the utterances. The speech acts that are embedded in the text further highlight how meaning is constructed and achieved in the course of the legal proceeding. Some utterances, apart from being propositional, they also carry conventional communicative force that simultaneously achieve the intended action. The ‘saying’ of those utterances is taken as the ‘doing’. Examples include: (30) Court: The copy of the letter is admitted as an exhibit and marked exhibit A. (31) Court: It was duly pleaded. I overrule the objection... (32) Court: ... The case is adjourned to the 2nd of November for the cross-examination-of the plaintiff's witness The performative verbs; admitted, marked, overrule, and adjourned in these utterances carry the illocutionary force and the acts are immediately accomplished. It is pertinent to observe that as expected like in most discourse embedded in institutionalized setting, speech acts often originate from powerful participant towards the less powerful. In the context of this discourse the presiding judge (court) issues most of the performative utterances. Additionally, features of speech acts are realised also through the question and answer procedure. Thus, the text highlights the feature of performatives, because it constitutes or realises the act in question that is, obtaining evidence by oral examination.




8. Conclusion This study has shown that the courtroom as an institutionalized communicative context is a typical ‘market place of ideas’ where transactions and exchanges are done through the use of well-structured and conventionalized mode of discourse. It has also demonstrated how the various linguistic and extra linguistic variables interact to produce meaning and perform actions in this courtroom in Nigeria. The study has further shown that conflict resolution through the instrumentality of the law courts is facilitated by linguistic resources that are carefully and deliberately manipulated and deployed. Interestingly, the courtroom talk may not necessarily represent a real exchange of information between the major participants (the plaintiff’s lawyer and the witness) but a display of information/presentation of facts, for the judge, that has to solve a dispute based on the facts as presented during the oral examination. The question/answer sequence has revealed possible communicative functions that interrogation can perform in legal discourse, e.g. elicitation of information,-complaining, ascribing blame, refutation of information, etc. The structural components, linguistic and discourse features that characterize the text as a sub-genre in legal discourse have been projected through the analysis of the text. In conclusion, the study has also shown evidence of peculiar non-native variety of English, and examples of how some utterances do not only make prepositional statements but also contain illocutionary force. References Adam, Q. (2011). A Discourse Analysis of Power Relations in Doctor-Patient Interactions in Lagos. PhD Seminar Paper: University of Lagos. Adetugbo, A. (1990). Language and the Law in Nigeria. Ogun Journal of Arts, Faculty of Arts, Ogun State University, Nigeria. Austin, J. L. (1962). How To Do Things with Words. London: Oxford University Press. Awonusi, V. O. (1996). Politics and Politicians for Sale: An Examination of Advertising English in Nigeria’s Political Transition Programme. Studia Anglica Posnaniensia (XXX), 108-129. Atkinson, J. M. & Drew, F. (1979). Order in Court, London: Edward Arnold. Bhatia, V. (2004). Worlds of Written Discourse: A Genre-Based View, London: Continuum. Brown, G. & Yule, G. (1983). Discourse Analysis, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Carlen, P. (1976). Magistrates’ Justice, London: Martin Robertson. Cook, G. (1992). The Discourse of Advertising, London: Routledge. Dadzie, A.B.K & Awonusi, S. (2009). Nigerian English: Influences and Characteristics, Lagos: Sam Iroanusi Publications. Drew, P. & Heritage, J. (1992). Analysing Talk at Work: An Introduction. Talk at Work: Interaction in Institutional Settings, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Eggins, S. & Slade, D. (1997). Analysing Casual Conversation, London and Washington: Cassell Emerson, R. M. (1969). Judging Delinquents, Chicago: Aldine. Geis, M. L. (1982). The Language of Television Advertising, New York: Academic Press. Goodrich, P. (1987). Legal Discourse, London: Macmillan. Halliday, M. A. K. (1985). An Introductory to Functional Grammar, London: Edward Arnold. Halliday, M. A. K. & Hassan, R. (1985). Language, Context and Text: Aspect of Language in a Social Semiotic Perspective, London: Oxford University Press. Harris, S. (1980). Language Interaction in Magistrates’ Courts, Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of Nottingham. Harris, S. (1981). The Function of Directives in Court Discourse. Nottingham Linguistic Circular. (10), 109 - 31. Harris, S. (1984a). Questions as a Mode of Control in Magistrates’ Courts’, International Journal of the Sociology of Language, (49), 5-28.




Harris, S. (1988). Court Discourse as a Genre. In R. Fawcett & D. Young (eds), New Development in Systemic Linguistics, (2), 94-112. London: Printer Publishers. Hassan, R. (1985). The Nursery Tale as a Genre, Nottingham Linguistic Circular, (13), 71-102. Kachru, B.B. (1985). Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: The English Language in the Outer Circle. In R. Quirk & W. Widdowson (eds), English in the World, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Knapp, P. & Watkins, M. (2005). Genre, Text, Grammar: Technologies for Teaching and Assessing Writing. Sydney: University of New South Wales. Martin, J. & David, R. (2008). Genre Relations, London: Equinox. McCarthy, M. (1991). Discourse for Language Teachers, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Mead, R. (1965). Courtroom Discourse, English Language Research Monograph (9), University of Birmingham. Mellinkoff, D. (1963). The Language of the Law, Boston: Little, Brown and Company. O’Barr, W. (1982). Linguistic Evidence: Language, Power and Strategy in the Courtroom, London: Academic Press. Opeibi, O.B (2008). Between Obscurity and Clarity in Nigerian Legal Discourse: Aspects of Language Use in Selected Written Texts. In Wagner, Anne and Sophie Cacciaguidi- Fahy(eds). Obscurity and Clarity inthe Law: Prospects and Challenges Hampshire, UK: Ashgate, 221-233. ------------------(2003). The Acts of a Speech Act: An Examination of a Courtroom Discourse. Lagos Note and Records, A Journal of the Faculty of Arts, University of Lagos, (IX), 172-195. -----------------(1995). Investigating Language, Meaning and Context in Legal Discourse: An Analysis of Selected Texts from Court Proceedings, Unpublished M.A. Thesis, University of Lagos. Pilnick, A. (1997). “Pharmacy Counselling”: A Study of the Pharmacist/Patient Encounter Using Conversational Analysis. PhD Thesis, University of Nottingham. Sacks, H (1984). Notes on Methodology. In J.M. Atkinson & J. Heritage (eds). Structures of Social Action: Studies in Conversational Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tiersma, P. (2008). Language and Law. In J. Gibbons & M. Teresa Turell, Dimensions in Forensic Linguistics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing, 7-25. Schiffrin, D. (1988). Discourse Markers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sinclair, J. M. & Coulthard, M. (1975). Towards an Analysis of Discourse. London: Oxford University Press. Woodbury, H. (1984). Strategic Questions in Court, Semiotica. 48(3-4), 197-228.

Tunde Opeibi, PhD teaches at the University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria. His research interests are in Discourse Analysis, Civic Engagement and Governance, Legal Discourse, Language and Law, Applied Linguistics and Sociolinguistics.




Early Lexicon of the Yoruba Child Bolanle Elizabeth Arokoyo

Department of Linguistics and Nigerian Languages, University of Ilorin P. M.B. 1515, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria

Tel: +2348033780568 E-mail: [email protected]

Received: 05-07- 2012 Accepted: 19-07- 2012 Published: 03-09- 2012 doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.64 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.64 Abstract This paper examines the lexicon of the Yoruba child at the initial stage. We examined the composition of the early lexicon of the Yoruba child and how they are acquired. The research is couched in the Minimalist Programme which believes that language acquisition is a matter of learning vocabulary and determining lexical idiosyncrasies. A quantitative analysis of the data is carried out. The database consisted of longitudinal studies of three children, Damilare, Temiloluwa and Tola, between the ages of fifteen (15) and thirty-six (36) months. We found that there were few lexical items which were gradually built up by the children. We also discovered that the first sets of words to be acquired are verbal items, followed by nominal items. The presence of transitive and intransitive verbs is noted in the utterances of the children and we conclude that the children make use of verbs related to actions and events that they or those around them are involved in. Keywords: lexicon, minimalist programme, lexical items, verbal items, nominal items, verbs, mental dictionary, transitive, intransitive 1. Introduction After discovering the meaning of certain words, the child has to determine the complex ways in which words are combined to form sentences; he has to determine the frame in which the words in the language occur. Hróarsdóttir (2003:116) says that evidence from human language studies shows that children learn very complex phenomena in a relatively short period of time during their first language acquisition. The aim of this paper is to examine the composition of early lexicon of the Yoruba child. What composes the early lexicon of the Yoruba child and how are they acquired? According to Clark (2000:181) children naturally obtain a “communicative competence,” intrinsically understand the rules of grammar, and gain knowledge of the rules of using language. Clark also believes that linguistic structure comes through the child’s own cognitive and social activity. The lexicon is the human mental dictionary or list of words and their properties and one of the most important tasks that the children acquiring language face is the development of this lexicon. Lexicon development comes at the early stage of language development right from the pre-grammatical stage. The lexicon is a part of the language faculty. It is the human mental dictionary or list of words and their properties. It is a set of grammatical objects formed by a subset of features out of the total set of features that are universally possible (Martinez-Ferreiro and Mata-Vigara 2007). Every piece of information about a word is stored in the lexicon. It contains the meaning of the word, the category, the pronunciation, exceptional information like morphological irregularities and the theta grid- the argument structure. Lofti (1999:10) sees the lexicon as a network of concepts and categories with some phonetic labels and formal features that characterize grammatical limitations on their use. The lexicon feeds the computational component. Developing the lexicon is an important step in language acquisition. The composition of children’s early lexicon has been the object of much investigation. The need to know whether verbs or nouns come first in the child’s early lexicon form the focus of most of these studies. At the initial stage, the lexicon is very few in number but gradually it is built up. The acquisition of lexical items helps to build the lexicon of the children. According to Stoll, Bickel, Lieven, Banjade, Bhatta, Gaenszle, Paudyal, Pettigrew, Rai, and Rai (2009), children’s early vocabularies display a large variety of parts of speech, and a




large range of functions with which various parts of speech are used (Bloom, Tinker, & Margulis, 1994; Gopnik, 1988; Nelson, 1973; Tomasello & Todd, 1983). This paper examines the order that the Yoruba child follows in the acquisition of lexical items. 2. Methodology We examined the corpus of children’s early speech. The data consist of a set of spontaneous longitudinal speech of children produced during interactions with parents, siblings, caregivers and other family members. The data is collected from three children, Damilare, Temiloluwa, and Tola who were recorded at home from 18 months to 36 months. Damilare is the first child of educated middle class parents. The parents live and work in Ilorin, the Capital City of Kwara State, Nigeria. The data presented for him covers a period of fifteen (15) to thirty-six (36) months. The data were collected by the mother (the researcher) on a daily basis. Damilare’s data consist of questions, responses and utterances between him and the parents and other members of the family. It also included his utterances while playing alone. We could safely say that the exercise made it possible to know at each point he has acquired anything linguistically significant. The best form of longitudinal data collection should be between a child and any of the parents or someone who lives with the family. This enables close interaction with the child which aids easy data collection. This also removes most possible constraints that may arise. Temiloluwa and Tola are a set of female twins of educated middle class parents. The parents live and work in Ilorin. They have two older siblings, a brother and a sister. The data presented for them in this study cover from fifteen (15) months to thirty-six (36) months. The data were collected by their father daily at home and in other possible situations. The data consist of utterances, responses, questions between the two of them, with their parents and siblings and other members of the family. A quantitative and qualitative analysis of the data was carried out. The quantitative analysis uses simple mathematical calculations with the aid of tables and charts. The tables show the percentage of observed phenomena. The charts consist of bar charts drawn from the tables. The bar charts are used to show comparison between different items at a particular point in time. 3. The Lexicon and Minimalist Programme The Minimalist Programme is the model on which this paper rests. The model of grammar used in accounting for child language acquisition must be one which allows for generalization and predictions within a comprehensive and unified theory of language (Kessler 1971:3). The programme adopts minimalism or simplicity to achieve descriptive adequacy and explanatory adequacy. Language acquisition within the Minimalist Programme is seen as a matter of learning vocabulary, we all speak the same language differing only in vocabularies (Cook, 1996). According to Chomsky (1995:131) there is only one human language, apart from the lexicon, and language acquisition is in essence a matter of determining lexical idiosyncrasies. The programme, according to Longa and Lorenzo (2008:541) ‘redefined the meta-theoretical role of the theory of acquisition within generative grammar’. Radford (2000:1) states that “the revised model of Minimalism presented in Chomsky (1998, 1999) raises interesting questions about the nature of language acquisition.” Chomsky (1999:7) says that the Language Faculty specifies a universal set of features; these features the child acquiring language has to learn. The major task, therefore, facing the child acquiring the syntax of his language is assembling features into lexical items. Language Faculty is a set of procedures or programme which all human beings possess. It is required for the acquisition of the grammar of languages (Radford 2004). Radford (2000) examines child language from the minimalist perspective. He sees the child language as being perfect. Radford believes that innate architectural principles determine the nature of children’s initial grammars. He argues that a perfect grammar would project a given formal feature only when necessary. He concludes that even though adult languages are imperfect systems, the acquisition process itself is perfect as it maximizes perfection. He also states that the initial grammars developed by children are perfect (Radford 2000:13). The minimalist hypothesis, according to Uziel-Karl (2001), is that UG provides children with full knowledge of phrase structure right from the start, but at each point in the process of acquisition, they construct the smallest convergent trees that their grammar requires, based on the evidence at their disposal. Wilson, Fox and Pascoe (2008:2) believe that in the Minimalist model, the lexicon plays a greater role in the grammar than in earlier models of generative grammar, according to Amfani (2006:162) analysis begins in the lexicon in the Minimalist Programme. The reason is that in the Minimalist approach words emerge fully derived with their inflectional features, verbs and nouns are taken from the lexicon fully inflected. Since the lexicon is made up of lexical items,




we will examine the acquisition of verbal items, transitive and intransitive verbs and nominal items will be examined in the following subsections. 3.1 Acquisition of Verbal Items The verb constitutes a universal and very important lexical category (Robins 1966, Hopper & Thompson 1984, Langacker 1987, Uziel-Karl 2001). Awobuluyi (1979:114) says that verbs play a central role in sentences and that they are almost always present in sentences. Verbs could be regarded as the most important part of the sentence; they are a necessary component of all sentences. A verb is defined by the semantic roles that it “takes”, i.e. its case frame. This means that the lexical entry of a verb directly determines its syntactic behaviour (Lin, 2004:15). The verb is the backbone of the sentence. Verbs name events or states with participants, making them the organizational core of the sentence, so their meaning is key to sentence meaning (Levin 2007:1). Verbs also describe relationships and organize sentences with argument structure (Scherf, 2005). Verbs could be classified into one-place predicates, two-place predicates or three-place predicates, on the basis of the number of arguments they take (Haegeman 1994:41). These are traditionally referred to as intransitive, transitive and ditransitive verbs, respectively. A verb is either transitive or not depending on the type of action or state it expresses from its meaning. Verbs are majorly classified according to the types of complements they select. Verbs especially play a very important role in language structure, in linguistics form-function relations, and in processes of language acquisition and language development (Uziel-Karl 2001). The child that is acquiring Yoruba will have to learn the syntactic category of words in the language and also more importantly learn the sub-categorization of verbs in the language. We assume that the first sets of lexical items the child acquires are verbal items. To test these claims we examined the early verbs of Damilare and Temiloluwa from the one word stage to the early multi-word stage when they have started to merge items. The boundary for this stage is set at twenty-four (24) months i.e. two years. By this time, the naturalistic speech of the children has turned complex. The children moved from the one stage to the early word combination stage in the course of the taking the samples. For example:

1. a. sùn Damilare 18 months

sleep ‘I want to sleep.’

b. tọ̀̀ Damilare 18 months

urinate ‘I want to urinate.’

c. jẹ isu Damilare 18 months

eat yam ‘I want to eat yam.’

d. wẹ̀ Temiloluwa 18 months

bathe ‘I want to bathe.’

e. subú Temiloluwa 18 months

fall down ‘I fell down.’

f. jòkó Tola 18 months

sit down ‘Sit down.’

g. wò ó Temiloluwa 18 months

look it ‘look at it.’




h. fún mi Temiloluwa 18 months give me ‘Give it to me.’

In order to find the percentage of verbal items for each of the children, we counted the number of all the lexical items and then find the percentage of verbal items from the sum total of all lexical items i.e. the number of verbal items divided by the total number of lexical items multiplied by hundred as indicated below.

2. Verbal Items 100 Total Number of Lexical Items 1 To find the percentage of other lexical items, we counted the number of other lexical items and then find their percentage from the sum total of all lexical items i.e. the number of other lexical items divided by the total number of lexical items multiplied by hundred.

3. Other Lexical Items 100 Total Number of Lexical Items 1

We did not just subtract the percentage of verbal items from other lexical items or vice versa because we needed to be sure that every lexical item is accounted for. The tables below show the distribution of verbal items vis-à-vis other lexical items in the early utterances of Damilare, Temiloluwa and Tola respectively. Table 1. Distribution of Verbal Items in the Early Utterances of Damilare

Age Verbal Items Other Lexical Items No. of Lexical Items 16 53% 47% 83 17 54% 46% 103 18 46.7% 53.3% 75 19 44.4% 55.6% 117 20 43.1% 56.9% 225 21 40.1% 59.9% 218 22 41.3% 58.7% 300 23 47.7% 52.3% 388 Table 2. Distribution of Verbal Items in the Early Utterances of Temiloluwa Age Verbal Items Other Lexical Items No. of Lexical Items 16 47.8% 52.2% 47 17 30.7% 69.2% 52 18 30.67% 69.3% 75 19 31.0% 69% 29 20 30% 70% 60 21 28.6% 71.4% 84 22 21.4% 78.6% 56 23 27.6% 71.5% 123 Table 3. Distribution of Verbal Items in the Early Utterances of Tola Age Verbal Items Other Lexical Items No. of Lexical Items 16 42.1% 57.9% 38 17 39.9% 61.1% 36 18 44.4% 55.6% 36 19 33.3% 66.7% 24 20 35.3% 64.7% 51 21 28.6% 71.4% 56 22 33.3% 66.7% 54 23 28.4% 71.6% 67




From the tables above, verbal items in the speech of Damilare was 53% at sixteen (16) months and reduced to 41.3% at twenty-three (23) months. In the speech of Temiloluwa, 47.8% of verbal items were recorded at sixteen (16) months and reduces to 27.6% at twenty-three (23) months. For Tola, her verbal items were 42.1% at sixteen (16) months and 28.4% at twenty-three (23) months. From the tables above, we see that verbs constitute the first set of lexical items to be acquired. We could also deduce that the use of verbal items is high in their utterances. The reason for this is not far-fetched. The child at this stage just wants to make his needs known. This is achieved by simply using the verb which to a large extent serves his or her purpose. The examples that follow present some verbs in the utterances of the children.

4. jẹ to eat

gbà to take

nà to beat him

pọ̀n to back (baby)

sí to open

gbé to carry

sùn to sleep

tọ̀̀ to urinate

wẹ̀ to bathe

wá to come

yọ to remove

mu to drink

yà to excrete

jòkó to sit

dìde to stand

jó to dance

fọ́ to break

3.2 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs in the Early Sentences of the Yoruba Child Yoruba verbs can be broadly divided into transitive and intransitive verbs. Transitive verbs require two arguments; the subject and the object of the verb while intransitive verb has only one argument, the subject. Some previous studies claim that intransitive verbs are easier to produce thereby easily acquired because they do not require direct object argument (Valian 1991) while some believe that the transitive verb is easier to produce than intransitive verbs (Tomasello and Brooks 1998).

Choi (1999) discovers that Korean children use more of transitive verbs at the early stage while Fukuda (2005) finds that Japanese children’s early verbs are more of intransitive verbs. Fukuda and Choi (2006) in their own investigation conclude that both Korean and Japanese children produce more intransitive verbs. They suggest that children use more intransitives because it encodes a single participant and are cognitively less complex than events with two or more participants. This section seeks to know the order of acquisition of transitive and intransitive verbs and whether one is more basic than the other. Table (4) below shows the distribution of the first set of twenty verbs in the early speech of Damilare, Temiloluwa and Tola.




Table 4: First Set of Verbs in the Early Speech of Damilare, Temiloluwa and Tola

Lexeme Gloss jẹ to eat gbà to take nà to beat him pọ̀n to back (baby) sí to open gbé to carry sùn to sleep tọ̀̀ to urinate wẹ̀ to bathe wá to come yọ to remove mu to drink yà to excrete jòkó to sit dìde to stand jó to dance fọ́ to break

The verbs in bold are transitive verbs while the italicised verbs are intransitive verbs. We can see that the first three verbs are transitive verbs. However, there are eleven intransitive verbs as against nine transitive verbs in that distribution. Table 5 shows in percentage, the distribution of order of acquisition of transitive and intransitive verbs by the three children. Table 5. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs in the Early Sentences of the Yoruba Child

Child Age (in months) % of Transitive Verbs % of Intransitive Verbs Damilare 17 57.7% 38.5% 18 66.6% 27.8% 19 65.3% 26.4% 20 67.3% 29.7% 21 50% 33.7% 22 57.1% 42.9% 23 58.6% 41.4% Temiloluwa 17 33.3% 52.8% 18 59.1% 31.8% 19 87.5% 25% 20 78.6% 28.6% 21 78.6% 21.4% 22 81.8% 18.2% 23 72% 28%




Tola 17 50% 33.3% 18 50% 34% 19 62.5% 37.5% 20 60% 40% 21 85.7% 14.3% 22 75% 25% 23 70% 30% The results as shown in the table show a higher percentage of usage of transitive verbs than intransitive verbs. At seventeen (17) months, Damilare records 57.7% transitive verbs against 38.5% intransitive verbs while Tola records 50% transitive verbs and 33.3% intransitive verbs. Temiloluwa, however records 33.3% transitive verbs and 52.8% intransitive verbs. This is the only time that intransitive verbs are higher than transitive verbs in her utterances. At twenty-three (23) months, Damilare has 58.6% transitive verbs and 41.4% intransitive verbs; Temilouwa has 72% transitive verbs and 28% intransitive verbs while Tola records 70% transitive and 30% intransitive verbs respectively. This is further illustrated in figure 1 below.

Figure 1. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs in the Early Sentences of Temiloluwa

From the distribution above, we could see that there is a good representation of the two types of verbs at all stages of acquisition. We cannot therefore categorically say that transitive verbs are acquired before intransitive verbs or vice versa. We can say that these early verbs are those related to actions and events that the children or those around them are involved in. 3.3 Acquisition of Nominal Items The other major lexical items used by the child are the nominal items. Bamgbose (1967:8) defines a noun as ‘a word which can occur independently or with qualifiers in the nominal group’ while Stockwell (1977:48) defines it ‘as symbols for entities, abstract or concrete, countable or uncountable (mass), animate or inanimate, human or non-human, etc. Nouns are classified into the classes of animate, inanimate, concrete, abstract, countable and uncountable nouns. Cross-linguistic studies have expressed the importance of nominal items in the early speech of children. The examples below show nominal items in Damilare’s utterances.

5. Damilare at fourteen months Aye ‘Taiye’ mẹ ‘goat’




hẹhẹ ‘goat’ ìta ‘outside’ mẹmẹ ‘water’ nana ‘Anna’ mẹ ‘goat’ jẹjẹ ‘food’ kẹkẹ ‘bicycle’

6. a. mọ́mì bọọl 18 months

mummy ball ‘Mummy give me the ball.’

b. mọ́mì bag 20months

mummy bag ‘Mummy see your bag.’

c. màmá asọ 20 months

mummy clothe ‘Mummy wear my clothe for me.’

d. Bàbá mọ́tò 21 months

Daddy car ‘Daddy has gone to the car.’

e. Ifeoma yoyoyo fridge 21 months

Ifeoma yoghurt fridge ‘Ifeoma put the yoghurt in the fridge.’

In order to find the percentage of nominal items for each of the children, we counted the number of all the lexical items and then find the percentage of nominal items from the sum total of all lexical items i.e. the number of nominal items divided by the total number of lexical items multiplied by hundred.

7. Nominal Items 100 Total Number of Lexical Items 1

We did same for other lexical items. Tables 6, 7, and 8 present a paradigm of the acquisition of nominal lexical items vis-à-vis other lexical items by the three children. Table 6. Distribution of Nominal Items in the Early Utterances of Damilare Age Nominal Items Other Lexical Items No. of Lexical Items 16 45.8% 54.2% 83 17 45.4% 54.6% 103 18 45.3% 53.3% 75 19 35.04% 64.9% 117 20 41.3% 58.7% 225 21 46.7% 53.3% 212 22 49.3% 50.7% 300 23 50.8% 49.2% 388 Table 7. Distribution of Nominal Items in the Early Utterances of Temiloluwa Age Nominal Items Other Lexical Items No. of Lexical Items 16 34.04% 75.6% 47 17 46.2% 53.8% 52 18 34.6% 65.3% 75 19 48.3% 51.6% 29 20 46.7% 53.3% 60




21 42.9% 57.7% 84 22 41.1% 48.9% 56 23 41.5% 48.5% 123 Table 8. Distribution of Nominal Items in the Early Utterances of Tola Age Nominal Items Other Lexical Items No. of Lexical Items 16 36.8% 63.2% 38 17 27.8% 72.2% 36 18 44.4% 55.6% 36 19 33.3% 66.7% 24 20 47.1% 52.9% 51 21 39.3% 60.7% 56 22 22.2% 77.8% 54 23 34.3% 65.7% 67

From these tables, we discover that nominal items, apart from verbs, also constitute one of the first sets of items acquired by the Yoruba child. We could also see that they constitute a high percentage of the children’s utterances. Nominal items range from 45.8% to 50.8% in the speech of Damilare while in Temiloluwa’s speech, 34.04% of nominal items were recorded at sixteen (16) months and 41.5% at twenty-three (23) months. For Tola, 36.8% nominal items were recorded at sixteen (16) months and 34.3% at twenty-three months. We could safely deduce that at the early stage, that they make use of verbal items more than nominal items. In order to find the percentage of verbs for each of the children, we counted the number of all the lexical items and then find the percentage of verbs from the sum total of all lexical items i.e. the number of verbs divided by the total number of lexical items multiplied by hundred. 8. Verbs 100 Total Number of Lexical Items 1 To find the percentage of nouns for each of the children, we counted the number of all the lexical items and then find the percentage of nouns from the sum total of all lexical items i.e. the number of nouns divided by the total number of lexical items multiplied by hundred. 9. Nouns 100 Total Number of Lexical Items 1 We did not just subtract the percentage of verbs from nouns or nouns from verbs because there are some other lexical items that make up the utterances of the children. Table 9 below shows the occurrence of nouns and verbs in the utterances of the children. Table 9. Distribution of Nouns and Verbs in the Early Utterances of Damilare, Temiloluwa and Tola Child Damilare Temiloluwa Tola Age Nouns Verbs Nouns Verbs Nouns Verbs (in months) 16 45.8% 53% 34.04% 47.8% 36.8% 42.1% 17 45.4% 54% 46.2% 30.7% 27.8% 39.9% 18 45.3% 46.7% 34.6% 30.67% 44.4% 44.4% 19 35.04% 44.4% 48.3% 31.0% 33.3% 33.3% 20 41.3% 43.1% 46.7% 30.0% 47.1% 35.3% 21 48.6% 41.3% 42.9% 28.6% 39.3% 28.6% 22 49.3% 41.3% 41.1% 21.4% 22.2% 33.3% 23 50.8% 47.7% 41.5% 27.6% 34.3% 28.4%

Looking at the distribution at 16 months of the children, verbs have higher percentages than nouns. For example, Damilare records 53% of verbs against 45.8% nouns. Temiloluwa records 47.8% verbs against 34.04% nouns, while the percentage of Tola’s verbs is 42.1%, her nouns stood at 36.8%. This simply shows that verbs are used more than nouns by the Yoruba child at this stage. However, with further development, nouns overtake verbs.




Figure 2 displays the distribution of Nouns and Verbs in the speech of Damilare:

Figure 2: Distribution of Nouns and Verbs in the Early Utterances of Damilare By 21 months, Damilare’s nouns stand at 48.6% as against 41.3% of verbs. By 23 months, Damilare’s nouns have moved to 50.8% while his verbs stand 47.7%. At the same age (23 months), Temiloluwa’s nouns stand at 41.5% and the verb at 27.6%, while the percentage of Tola’s nouns is 34.3%, her verbs stand at 28.4%. The reason for this change is because at this stage, which is from the two-word stage to the multi-word stage, the sentence of the Yoruba child just like that of the adult has only one verb while there may be more than a noun in an utterance, depending on the realization of arguments. 4. Conclusion We found that there were few lexical items which were gradually built up by the children. We discovered that the first sets of words to be acquired are verbal items, followed by nominal items. The statistical representations above show the growth and decline of some features. For example, figure 2 above shows a higher usage of verbs between sixteen (16) months and twenty (20) months while from twenty-one (21) months upwards, the usage of nouns is higher. It shows that the children keep processing the input data available to them in order for them to arrive at adult linguistic competence. The presence of transitive and intransitive verbs is noted in the utterances of the children and we conclude that the children make use of verbs related to actions and events that they or those around them are involved in. We also discovered that as the children grow there is a decrease in the number of utterances without verbs. This shows that their language is developing normally. Arokoyo (2010:173) relying on cross-sectional data concludes that Yoruba children from thirty-six (36) to sixty (60) months have acquired a lot of language skills and can use language very productively Every lexical category is represented fairly in their speech. In fact at this stage, they have a proficiency that is close to that of the adult. Taking a careful look at the data, it was discovered that from the very few words that the children acquired at the initial state when they could not even pronounce the words properly and do not even know the meaning of most of the words, they grow to have very good knowledge of the words in their language. With the development of the lexicon of the children there is an increase in their proficiency and by implication their linguistic competence. They moved from different stages of language acquisition until they acquire adult linguistic competence.




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From Polarity to Plurality in Translation Scholarship Abdolla Karimzadeh

University of Bergamo, Italy E-mail: [email protected]

Ebrahim Samani (Corresponding author)

Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia E-mail: [email protected]

Received: 07-07- 2012 Accepted: 23-07- 2012 Published: 03-09- 2012 doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.76 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.76 Abstract Review of the literature in translation studies shows that translation scholarship can be discussed in 3 Macro-levels including 1) Corpus-based studies, 2) Protocol-based studies, and 3) Systems- based studies. Researchers in the corpus-based studies test the hypothesis about the universals of translation. They also try to identify translation norms and regular linguistic patterns. This scholarship aims at showing that the language of translation is different from that of non-translation. The other purpose is to identify the techniques and strategies adopted by the translators. In protocol –based studies, the researchers study the mental activities and the individual behaviors of the translators while translating. They aim to describe the behavior of professional translators (versus translator trainees) during the process of translation in a bid to identify how they chunk the source text (unit of translation) and to describe how the translation trainees develop their translation competence. These studies are longitudinal for the reason that they aim to investigate the change of intended behaviors in the subjects of the study. Like corpus-based studies, they are experimental and data for analysis are collected by various methods including the translators’ verbal report, keystroke logging, eye tracking, and so on. Recently, in a method called “triangulation”, they combine the above-mentioned methods of data collection to test their hypotheses on a stronger experimental basis. To collect the data, they also employ the methods used in neurology (for example the technology of Electroencephalogram) in order to obtain information on the physiological processes in the brains of the translators while translating. And finally in the systems-based studies, the researchers analyze more extended systems of production, distribution, and consumption of translations and their impacts on the target culture in a specific socio-cultural context. Differentiating these levels does not mean that there is a fragmentation in translation scholarship. Rather translation scholarship despite having pluralistic frameworks is focused on a single object of study. In other words, differentiating these levels is related to the method of research rather than the object of the research. This paper makes an attempt to shed light on the mentioned levels and then to introduce some new areas which have not been discussed widely. It also tries to introduce a systematic framework for historical research of translation based on Pym’s theory of humanizing translation studies and finally to discuss the metaphorical concept of unity in diversity from the vantage point of translation studies. Keywords: corpus- based studies; protocol-based studies; system-based studies; experimental studies; historical research of translation; dehumanized translation scholarship; humanized translation scholarship 1. Introduction Translation studies in the history of literature and philosophy has merely been limited to criticizing translations of the literary and philosophical texts or holy scriptures (especially the Bible). In fact, the earliest approach toward translation scholarship is based on hermeneutics in which translation is a sample of major problems including interpretation and understanding of texts (Palumbo, 2009, pp.5-10). This new approach to translation scholarship which has been revived after the introduction of poststructuralisim and deconstructionism has recently focused its attention tosuch issues asintertexuality and uncontrollable linguistic polysemy and aims at finding that how translation can be loyal to source language writers despite asymmetricality of languages.




This concern was raised in the first quarter of the 19th century when Schleiermacher, a German philosopher, discussed whether writers should be loyal to readers or writers (Palumbo, 2009, pp. 5-10). After introduction of his complete framework toward translation scholarship, James Holmes criticized all earlier translation scholarships due to being biased and designed a descriptive method in translation scholarship that according to him, studied all translation phenomena without any bias. However new theorists have been criticized as being a new form of prescriptivism (Pym, 2009). An overview on the history of the translation leads us to the conclusion that translation scholarship has never been free from the pestilence of polarity. Once source-orientedness was a dominant discourse and now extremist target-orientednessis, whatVenuti describes as“cultural narcissism” and Pym as “extremist nationalism” (Pym, 2009). In the source-oriented theories of translation such dichotomies as free/literal translation, overt/covert translation (House,1997), semantic/communicative translation (Newmark,1981), documentary/instrumental translation (Nord,1991), foreignizing/domestifying translation (Venuti,1995), and acceptable/adequate translation(Toury,1980) were overriding, while in the target-oriented theories of translation, such binaries have been downplayed and faithfulness(relationship between source and target text)and have been replaced by loyalty(relationship between people involved in translation)(Nord,1997,p.152),in other words, the relation between texts has been replaced by the relation between the people, the same thing that Pym(2008) calls from dehumanizing to humanizing translation history. In the current paper, an attempt has been made to discuss the frequently-used frameworks in translation scholarship after the Second World War in the aftermath of a discursive turn in translation scholarship and the rise of a new field called “translation studies”. Then a new discursive turn which has recently been proposed by Pym will be discussed and that is “Humanizing vs. Dehumanizing translation scholarship”. Following on, some new research areas will be Discussed which are the first of their kinds in the field of translation Studies and which can open a new horizon for would-be researchers. The importance of the present paper lies in the fact that it sheds light on the latest developments in this area of inquiry and introduces potential research areas and common research methods in translation studies. The novel research methods introduced in this paper can contribute to orientating the would-be researchers towards more dynamic research areas in translation studies as well as deepening the theoretical knowledge of the practitioners of translation about their profession. The rationale behind the current paper is to acquaint those interested in translation studies with already existing as well as potential research methods in this field. 2. Levels of translation scholarship Review of the literature in translation studies shows that translation scholarship can be discussed in 3 Macro-levels such that almost all of the research approaches can be fit in the heart of one of the three-levels. These levels include: 1) corpus-based studies (product-oriented studies in Holmes’ wording), 2) protocol- based studies (process- oriented studies in Holmes’ wording), 3) systems-based studies (function-oriented in Holmes’ wording) (Palumbo, 2009). Following will be a detailed discussion on these three levels. 2.1 Corpus-based scholarship Corpora are either a collection of written authentic texts or a transcription of recorded speech which is collected with systematic methods to be used for computational processing. These corpora are mostly used in linguistics. Earlier corpus-based scholarship dates back to 1960s. But corpus-based linguistics developed in 1980s and 1990s. During these two decades, the linguists like John Sinclair, took advantages of increasing capacity of computer memories to collect a large collection of authentic texts. Nowadays, computer-readable corpora are available in many of languages and they are used for research and lexicography (Baker, 1995). Corpora have different types. Public corpora include different types of text and do not belong to any particular area. Specialized corpora include certain types of texts or are related to specific areas. Learner corpora contain texts produced by learners. Monitoring corpora are used to follow the language changes over time and historical corpora are related to different historical periods. All of these corpora can include texts related to several languages. Multilingual corpora can be used, in addition to the field of translation studies, in the study of language and cultural differences, and for practical purposes (mainly in pedagogy and lexicography) (Baker 1995). In the field of Applied translation studies, corpora play a role in translator training and in the development of computer assisted translation and machine translation systems. More precisely, these corpora are a treasure of




earlier translations and thus may be a complementary to dictionaries or text archives that are written in the target language (“parallel texts" as it was called earlier). Translators use these corpora to ensure reliable applications in different conditions; when translating into the second language, in translating specialized texts that the translator does not specialize in, and when the translator is concerned about interference of source language. Corpus based translation scholarship became important in 1980s but possibility its application in translation scholarship became clear in 1980s and certain research programs were defined for this. Subsequently, researchers began to collect various types of multilingual corpora (comparable and parallel). In this decade, for the first time, corpora were used to describe translation characteristics (versus original text) (Baker, 1995). In these corpora, researchers examine so many hypotheses known as “universals of translation” including tendency to explicitation, tendency to simplification, tendency to strange collocations, tendency to unique linguistic elements, tendency to normalization, etc. they use case studies to test their hypotheses to confirm presence or lack of universals of translation. For example, the hypothesis that tendency to explicitation is the inherent characteristic of translated text has been confirmed by using corpora. With these studies, they identify translation norms followed explicitly by the community of translators. The reason for these studies is to show that language of translation is different from that of non- translation. The other objective is to recognize regular patterns of language in a bid to determine techniques and strategies used by translators(Baker, 1996). 2.2 Protocol -based scholarship Protocol- based scholarship is defined as those scholarships which examine organizational, mental, and cognitive processes of translation as a mental activity (cognitive psychology) and individual behavior of translators (behavioral psychology) in the process of translating. They aim to describe the behavior of professional translators (versus translator trainees) during the process of translating to identify how they chunk the source text (unit of translation) and to describe how the translation trainees develop their translation competence. These studies are longitudinal for the reason that they aim to investigate the change of intended behaviors in the subjects of the study (Tirkkonen-Condit &Jaaskelainen, 1991). In these studies, experimental data are used to examine behavioral changes. The mentioned data are obtained from the following sources: 2.2.1 Verbal report These reports are of three kinds: the introspective, concurrent and retrospective. In introspective reports, participants analyze themselves during the test of intellectual process. Retrospective reports are those reports prepared about the thinking process after a task has been finished. Concurrent reports are those that are being prepared while the task is in the progress. When preparing this report, subjects are notasked to bring up certain information, but they have to express everything that they are thinking about. There are different opinions about the validity of various verbal reports. However, the concurrent reports have mostly attracted the attention of translation scholars (JääsKeläinen&Tirkkonen-Condit, 1991). 2.2.2 Think-aloud protocol (TAP) Think-aloud Protocol (TAP) is another version of the verbal report. Translators are asked to report everything striking to their minds and all the acts that they do while translating. Translator's remarks are recorded as audio or video files and then are transcribed on a paper. The resulted text is called Think-aloud protocol (TAP). For the study of such topics as problem solving strategies, (Krings, 1986;Lorscher, 1991) use of referential elements, (Livbjerg& Mees2003) and differences between novice and professional translators (JääsKeläinen&Tirkkonen-Condit, 1991) Researchers have used Think-aloud protocols (TAP). Recent researchers have reviewed Think-aloud protocols and other methods of verbal report because the validity of these methods, rather than be proven, has been taken for granted (Bernardini, 2001). There are doubts about the application of TAPs for professional translators, because they have automatized some skills. Therefore, they may set aside their short-term memories, thus, do not report information about their mental operations. Researchers have expressed other concerns including the potential impact of the think-aloud on the process being studied, lack of a clear definition of the subject of study in many protocol-based studies and lack of a definition of the concept of the “problem” (Tirkkonen-Condit &Jaaskelainen, 2000). With the help of TAP and other similar methods, some aspects of the translation process are now clear. For example, it is clear that text processing is not linear, but recursive (Baker, 1995). Also, it is proven that the translator's behavior, in parallel with "regularity" and "atomization” of translation, changes and that the emotional state of translator and his/her involvement with the work of translation has an impact on his/her performance (Baker,1995).Regarding differences between professional and novice translators, it has been found that professional translators are more aware of the issues




like the function of translation and the expectations of the target addressees (Tirkkonen-Condit &Jääskeläinen, 2000). 2.2.3 Key stroke logging This method is used to examine the relationship between the process of writing and translation quality. This approach has been referred with this name because the numbers of strokes that the translator enters on the computer keyboard during translating are recorded. In order to collect such data, they make use of specialized softwares such as Translog(Jakobson, 1999). This software can record all the strokes that a translator hits on keyboard and is repeatable and provides the possibility of viewing the typing process, whether in time or at run time. The raw data for this software are the final printing of translation and a full report of the typing process. This report details the data related to the duration, number of pauses, deletes or adds corrections and re corrections of each stroke. Researchers can use the data collected to find out whether best translations are the result of a smooth process (the process with minimal editing, adding and deleting), or an uneven process (i.e., with continuous editing). Repeatability of this software enables preparation of a retrospective report of the translation process. Watching replays of the production of his/her text, s/he can evaluate his/her work. For example, s/he can explain the reason for correction of a word, sentence, or complete deletion of some structures of the target text. Key stroke logging, as one of the methods of data collection during the translation process, is much easier than verbal reports and requires less time. 2.2.4 Eye tracking This method is used to identify the focus of a translator. Translational behavior of a translator is tracked with special tools; behaviors such as 1) how to search a word in the dictionary or the Internet, 2) how to segment texts and find translation unit and others. With the use of this method, researchers confirm several hypotheses about the differences between professional and beginner translators. For example, they have showed that the focus of professional translators is wider than that of novice translators, because they choose longer chunks as translation units, whereas the novice translators translate word by word and they choose short translation units. In other words, the more a translator is professional, his/her chunking and textual segments will be longer and as a result, his/her focus will be beyond the word level. (Tirkkonen-Condit &Jääskeläinen,1993). 2.2.5 Triangulation Researchers using an approach called "triangulation", combine different methods of data collection to assess hypotheses about the cognitive processes involved in translation, based on strong empirical evidence. In this approach, they combine the qualitative data obtained from verbal report and TAP with quantitative data obtained from the observation. Therefore, triangulation approach is based on different methods of collecting, elicitation, and interpretation of data. To define this method the following metaphor is used. “To determine one’s position when navigating in the unknown waters, several different points should be considered” and, therefore, to discover the nature of the translation process, several tools of data collection should be used simultaneously (ALves, 2003). This is done to ensure validity of data obtained from observation. Moreover besides verbal report, other methods of data collection in triangulation approach include: eye tracking and key stroke logging. Recently, these data are collected through using neuroscientific methods (for example, electroencephalogram technology) to collect information regarding physiological processes of nerves, which occur in translator’s brain when translating (Palumbo, 2009). James Holmes (1972) introduced this branch of research for the first time into the field of translation studies(Homes, 1988). 2.3. Systems- based studies These studies date back to 1970s when a discursive turn took place in translation studies. (Snell-Honby, 2006). In that decade, translation scholarship shifted its orientation from dominant approaches in linguistics to historical and socio-cultural approaches. These approaches pay much attention to the role played by the target text, considering it a determinant factor in decision makings on translation. These studies posit that literary systems generally and translation system specifically are shaped under specific historical and socio-cultural contexts.So, translation scholarship, instead of exploring texts and text analysis, should focus on more extended systems of production, distribution and consumption of texts as cultural commodities and deal with new issues such as the role played by translations in the formation of literary systems, power struggles and status of translations as rewritings of the originals by using the tools of cultural history and cultural studies. During these years, overemphasizing on this approach has led to the dominance of issues related to culture, ideology, and ethics. This




shows that translation scholarship has shifted from source-orientedness to target-orientedness. The researchers in the non-literary areas also propose theories prioritizing the socio-cultural factors governing on the target culture. Some of the theories frequently recited in systems-based studies include Even Zohar’s polysystem theory, Vermeer’s theory, Vermeer’s Skopos theory,Apia’s ethnographic translation andHaroldo de Campos’scannibalist theory of translation. 3. From dehumanizing translation studies to Humanizing translation studies Anthony Pym (2008) believes that in systems- based translation, social role of translators has been forgotten and now is the time to lead translation from dehumanization to humanism. According to Pym, up until recently, translation has been the object of study and translators themselves as subjects and producers of translation have never been studied. As Pierre Bourdieu as cited in Pym (2008) points out, sometimes it is necessary to focus on subjective instead of objective or vice versa, in other words, it is necessary to put ourselves (translators or researchers) as the object and focus of study. According to Pym, moral mission of translation studies is to improve relations between cultures and translation studies should consider all active people in all spheres of human interaction so one of the missions of Translation Studies should be narration of relationships between culture and international relations. He challenges Toury’s systems-based translation studies on the grounds that they are dehumanized and neo-formalist and invites researchers to help move translation scholarship from static to dynamic, fromuni- polar to multi-polar orientation, and from monovocality tomultivocality (Pym, 2008). In this section of the paper, attempt will be made to introduce steps taken to move from dehumanized translation scholarship. 3.1 Humanizing translation scholarship Based on humanism theory, Pym (2008) offers a systematic theoretical framework for research on translation. He believes that Historiography of translation has solely been limited to listing the names of translators and translations and sometimes to historical and geographical references. So, he accuses it of being impressionistic with no scientific basis and framework. In his pathology of scholarship on translation history, Pym has identified at least 7 pestilences including 1) Piling a list of archaeological data, 2) Not relying on historical documented evidences, 3) haphazard periodizations, 4) overemphasizing on the target culture, 5) seeing translation merely as an impassive thing, not a potential force to change the history, 6) not accepting the interculturality of the translators, 7) using unfalsifiable hypotheses. (Pym, 1992) Taking these pestilences into account, he introduces two general principles to the researches on the history of translation: Principle one: Move from texts to translators, Principle two: concentrate on the interculturality of the translators. According to the first principle, research should be focused on translations rather than translators. Benefits are that several works can be done simultaneously: a) Discovery of obscure translators, b) Analysis of multi- discursiveness of translators, c) Analyzing the discursive turns of the translators, d) Analyzing the social networks of translators. In order to shed light on Pym’s principles on history of translation scholarship, the above mentioned issues will be explained briefly with examples from Iranian history: 3.1.1 Discovery of obscure translators In Iran's cultural history, there are translators who have become famous not for being translator but for being a politician, political activist, writer, philosopher, etc. According to Pym (2008), a number of archives need to be prepared for their biography. Then not only history but also implicitly the reasons for the marginalization of many translators as important cultural figures will be revealed. For example, compiling biographies of people such as "Haidar Khan the Translator", "IrajEskandari", "Ahmad Mahmoud", “EbrahimYounesi", "Behazin", "Abdul HosseinNushin", "Ahmad Mahmoud", and dozens of translators and writers whom there have not been any mention of in literature can help to humanizing translation scholarship in Iran’s translation history. These people all were political activists and have spent their lives fighting politically, in prison and in exile. But were not they translators? This is what Pym states. Pym notes that humanizing scholarship must pay attention to the cultural and ideological positions of translators, their political party affiliation, and totheir record of political and cultural activities, then they can be directed to text research (first principle), because in his opinion, translators as cultural agentsare not passive objects, but have the potentiality to change the history (Pym 2008). Behazin is popularly known as the father of translation in Iran and has translated great works like "King Lear", "Hamlet," "Macbeth" by Shakespeare, "Faust" by Goethe, , but was affiliated to the communist Party, with Marxist tendencies, was one of the founders of the Iranian Writers Association, was a political activist and had spent




years in exile and in prison1 . Or Haidar Khan the Translator was one of the activists in the Constitutional Movement of Iran who had fled to Iran because of the Caucasus Muslims torture by tsarist Russia agents. He had a good mastery on Farsi, Turkish, Georgian, Armenian and Russian, and had translated “the Gospel of Barnabas" into Farsi, he was also a fellow combatant to SattarKhan(the leading figure of the Constitutional Revolution), and he was present in all the constitutional combats. He was involved as an engineer in Shah Abdul Azim railway construction project. He had masterminded the assassination of Mohammad Ali Shah (the king of Iran), and SeyyedAbdollahBehbahani(leading cleric of the Constitutional revolution)was murderedby his followers (Bamdadi, 1984). 3.1.2 Analyzing the multi-discursiveness of the translators Pym (2008) in his history of translation scholarship theory states that translators simply do not translate, but show interest in other discourses alongside the translation discourse and each of these discourses have to be discussed by translation scholars. Here, we cite "EbrahimYounesi" as an example who translated 80 novels from English to Persian. But translation is only one of the discourses in his life. He was the first governor of Kurdistan in Iran after the Islamic Revolution. He was of the surviving officers of the Communist Party who after the coup was sentenced to death, but because he had lost his leg in army, was commuted to life imprisonment. "Big dreams" of Charles Dickens, "the storm" of Shakespeare, "a pair of blue eyes" of Thomas Hardy, are among his translations("Bibliography of Ebrahim Yunesi," 2011,June 2). 3.1.3 Analyzing the discursive turns of the translators Pym (2008) states that scholars on the history of translation should examine cause and effect and analyze why a certain translator constantly shifts from one discourse to other discourses, what relationship exists between these discourses? For example, "Abdul HosseinNushin”, who is popularly known as "father of modern Iranian theater", has translated and directed many of the world's leading plays. In Moscow, he compiled a glossary for research on Shahnameh. He has written many works and launched theater halls ofFerdowsi and Farhang. But his theaters were soon closed. Why? Because, he was also one of the founders of the Communist Party and the closure of theaters was because of the mission that the Party had given to him (Agheli, 2001). 3.1.4 Analyzing social networks of the translators Translators do not work in vacuum and isolation. Translation is an industry in which a large network of production, distribution, and consumption are working and interacting. These networks have a relationship with individual translators. From book publishers to book sellers, the government entities that issue the license, book buyers, sponsors and patronage, book fairs and festivals awarding the best written works and translation and so on. Pym believes that scholarship on history of translation should examine the relationships of the translators to these networks. Why certain translators choose one publisher out of dozens of publishers to work with? What is that publisher’s ideological position? Why a specific translator won an award in certain award-winning book festival? What was the cause of eliminating other translators? And these whys should be ever present for scholars of translation history. Pym also points out that the scholars on translation history should record all events associated with translation on each moment and update archives because these archives will be historical documents for our future generation. (Pym 2008). 3.2 New research in Humanizing translation scholarship As mentioned, in humanizing translation studies, object of study has changed and now translation scholars are looking for new objects. In the current paper due to space restrictions, there is no possibility of introducing all projects, so only few projects will be briefly introduced. Sample 1 Wilder (2004) in her research on "Subtitle” which is one kind of multi-media translation investigated a hundred of cinema customers who loved subtitled movies. She wanted to examine what type of people and with what incentives usually go to watch subtitled movies and what the satisfaction level of people from subtitles is. The researcher asked people who had just bought tickets to watch the newly released movies with subtitles in two Summer Film Festivals in Vienna, and collect her data using surveys and questionnaires. The value of this research is that it is first of its kind on translation studies that is about "audience studies”. This is a new experience in humanizing translation which examines humans instead of texts. Its findings can be added to other research areas including marketing, media and advertising, public opinion and demography and this will help to 1http://www.bbc.co.uk/persian/arts/2010/01/100110_u04_brothers_memoirs.sml




promote research studies to the level of interdisciplinary and will expand Translation Studies. Even geographical limits of these studies can be expanded and examined more in local, regional, and international levels and their results can be compared. Due to being costly and time consuming, this type of research needs to have teams from different disciplines that can consequently help to promote translation studies. Sample 2 In our studies, financial factors have been overlooked, so Marxist theories can be highlighted (Marxists say that the economy is crucial) (Pym, 2008). It seems that Iran's translation policy is positive towards the translation of native works into other languages (ICTS, 2005). Iranian officials consider it as a way to spread culture beyond its borders. A wide range of patriots through the translations can maintain their contact with their homeland. Academic circles consider translation as a window to new literary discourses (Payandeh, 2009). Publishers consider translations as a tool for tabbing the market, that is, the various stakeholders somehow have a benefit and a symbiosis relationship establishes between them and the economic benefits become much more highlighted: Publishers seeking to capture new markets, the government seeking to raise funds from Iranian patriots abroad, and academics seeking new employment opportunities. With this arrangement, range of social groups can be made wider and we can get one step closer to humanizing translation scholarship. Even an economic cause and effect relationship can be explained between various groups of interest; who will win more or who will win less? Why? Regarding economy and translation, Wolf (2006) a German researcher studied "the relationship between cultural capital and economic capital of the translators and publishers” and her question was why female translators' fees are lower? In the end, it was found that for women, cultural capital is more important than economic capital. Sample 3 Pollabauer (2006), an Austrian researcher, selected asylum-seekers in the court hearing as the object of his study. He has examined oral translation from perspective of power relationship. It was found that the oral translators cooperated more with officers in charge of interview rather than political refugees. In other words, oral translators were associates to officers and power relations bring about unilateral faithfulness of translators to officers. These samples were a handful of studies that show how translation scholarship can be led from text study to human study and can expand the limit of translation scholarship and save translation studies from the deadlock in terms of the object of study. 4. Conclusion The findings of this research lead us to the conclusion that during the history, translation scholarship has undergone multiple discursive turns. These turns have brought about new layering. This layering does not denote existing of fragmentation in translation scholarship. Rather, despite having multiple approaches, translation scholarship is focused on a single object of study. In other words, the issue of translation is the focal point of all these approaches. One can say that the differentiation of the mentioned levels is relating to the method of research rather than the object of research. Here the metaphor of “unity in diversity” strikes to the mind. This is the very concept of pluralism in translation studies. Pluralism not only does not signify fragmentation in translation studies, but suggests its dynamism and flexibility and can immunize this field against pestilences of polarities and contribute to the widening of translation-related studies. This paper was an attempt to provide an outline of the research methodologies in translatology. Relying on these methodologies; the would-be researchers can single a framework out for their studies. Obviously as for humanizing approach to translation scholarship, further studies are required to find new areas of inquiry. It is suggested that the would-be researchers repeat the same approach in different socio-cultural contexts to produce a sizeable body of knowledge about translation studies. References Agheli, B. (2001). Political and military figures in contemporary Iranina history ( ed.): Goftar Publications. Alves, F. (Ed.). (2003). Triangulating Translation. Perspectives in Process Oriented Research. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. Baker, M. (1995). Corpora in Translation Studies: An overview and some suggestions for future research. Target, 7(2), 223-243. Baker, M. (1996). Corpus-based Translation Studies: The challenges that lie ahead. In H. Somers (Ed.),




Terminology, LSP and Translation Studies in Language Engineering in Honour of Juan C.Sager (pp. 175-186). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. Bamdadi, M. (1984). The history of Iranian men (Vol. First): Zavvar Publications. Bernardini, S. (2001). Think-Aloud Protocols in Translation Research: Achievements, limits, future prospects. Target, 13(2), 241-263. Bibliography of Ebrahim Yunesi (2011,June 2). Hamshahri, p. 19, Homes, J. S. (1988). Translated Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies. Amsterdam: Rodopi. Hous, J. (1977). Translation Quality Assessment: A Model Revisited. Tübingen: Narr. ICTS (2005). Official Website of the Iranian Center for Translation Studies. Jaaskelainen, R., & Tirkkonen-Condit, S. (1991). Automatized Processes in Professional Vs. Non-Professional Translation: A think-aloud protocol study In S. Tirkkonen-Condit (Ed.), Empirical Research in Translation and Intercultural Studies (pp. 89-109). Tubingen: Narr. Jakobsen, A. L. (1999). Logging target text production with Translog. In G. Hansen (Ed.), Probing the process in translation:Methods and Results.Copenhagen Studies in Language 24 (pp. 9-20). Copenhagen: Samfundslitterature. Krings, H. P. (1986). Was in den KÖpfen von Übersetzernvorgeht. EineEmpirischeUntersuchung der Struktur des ÜbersetzungsprozesscsanfortgeschrittenenFranzÖsischlernern. Tübingen: Narr. Livbjerg, I., & Mees, I. M. (2003). 'Patterns of dictionary use in non-domain-specific translation'. In F. Alves (Ed.), Triangulating Translation. Perspectives in Process Oriented Research. (pp. 123-136). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. LÖrscher, W. (1991). Translation Performance, Translation Process and Translation Strategies. A Psycholinguistic Investigation. Tübingen: Narr. Newmark, P. (1981). Approaches to Translation Oxford: Pergamon. Nord, C. (1991). Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology, and Didactic Application of a Model of Translation-oriented Text Analysis Amsterdam: Rodopi. Nord, C. (1997). Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained Manchester: St Jerome. Palumbo, J. (2009). Key Terms in Translation Studies. New York and London: Continuum. Payandeh, H. (2009). "An Interview with Dr. Hossein Payandeh". In M. Akbari (Ed.), Ketabe-Mahe-Adabiyat (pp. 10-11). Pollabauer, S. (2006). "Translation culture in interpreted asylum hearings". In Pym, Anthony, Miriam, Shlesinger & Z. Jettmarova (Eds.), Sociocultural Aspects of Translating and Interpreting (pp. 151-162). Pym, A. (1992). Shortcomings in the History of Translation. Babel, 38(4), 221-235. Pym, A. (2008). Humanizing Translation History. Hermes, 42, 23-48. Snell-Honby, M. (2006). The turns of Translation Studies. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. Tirkkonen-Condit, S., & Jaaskelainen, R. (Eds.). (2000). Tapping and Mapping the Processes of Translating and Interpreting:Outlooks on Empirical Research Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. Toury, G. (1980). In Search of a Theory of Translation. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute for Poetics and Semiotics, Tel Aviv University. Venuti, L. ([1995] 2008). The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. London/New York: Routledge. Wilder, B. (2004). A Survey among Audiences of Subtitled Films in Viennese Cinemas. Meta, 49(1), 98-101.




Native Breath: Incorporating Linguistically Relevant Pedagogy in the Classroom through Reified Literature

Desiree de Chachula (Corresponding author) The Steinhardt School of Culture, Education and Human Development, New York University

239 Greene Street, New York, NY 10003 E-mail: [email protected]

Received: 08-07- 2012 Accepted: 25-07- 2012 Published: 03-09- 2012 doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.84 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.84 Abstract The native breath of linguistic minority students, including speakers of vernaculars and dialects, has traditionally been stifled in classroom ecologies that perpetuate the hegemony of English. A model of linguistically relevant pedagogy is articulated that empowers students both native and nonnative to the Standard to develop cultural competence and critical consciousness towards language. This potentially results in improved native breath valuation and paving the road for improved academic outcomes and facility in learning the societal Standard language as well as gaining tools required in the global age. Drawing from the LIAD (Nero, 2005) and Dialect Awareness (Adger, Wolfram & Christian, 2006) pedagogical frameworks, this paper proposes ways in which educators can support linguistically relevant pedagogy through the teaching of "canonized" fiction. Keywords: bilingualism, culture, literacy

The language I have learn’ed these forty years, my native English I must forgo;

and now my tongues use is to me no more Than an unstringed viol or a harp,

Or like a cunning instrument cased up, Or, being open, put into his hands

That knows no touch to tune the harmony: Within my mouth you have engao’ld my tongue

Doubly portcullis’d with my teeth and lips; And dull unfeeling barren ignorance

Is made my gaoler to attend on me I am too old to fawn upon a nurse, Too far in years to be a pupil now:

What is thy sentence then but speechless death, Which robs my tongue from breathing native breath

-Mowbray, Richard II, Act 1 scene 3 (Shakespeare, W. 1595) 1. Introduction Being banished from England for life by King Richard and being sent to a land where his native language of English is ineffectual, the Duke of Norfolk laments a fate worse than death, a "speechless death" or a life that leaves his native tongue impotent. This speechless death is a reality for many English language learners and dialect speakers who are unable utilize their native language in schools. Students whose first language is not Standard English contend with the suffocation of "native breath" that Shakespeare describes in some classroom ecologies. Native breath constitutes an individual’s natural and most expressive language and is where their




voice and identity are grounded. The modern classroom is a medley of learners from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Yet, only Standard American English (SAE), the high-status language in the US is often legitimized leaving students' rich cultural and linguistic capital unmined resulting in native breath suffocation very much like King Richard. Much has been articulated concerning aligning school culture with students' lived lives (Canagarajah, 2005) and Culturally Relevant Pedagogy (CRP) has made strides in this pursuit (Ladson-Billings, 1995). Yet, linguistically relevant pedagogy has been collapsed into culturally relevant pedagogy and inadequately developed. While it is true that language and culture are inextricable, a pedagogical language focus highlights and reveals the legitimacy of learners' home languages and demystifies the goal and purpose of Academic American English. Moreover, linguistically relevant pedagogy empowers students to string their instruments and harmonize SAE with their native breath. Linguistically Relevant Pedagogy (LRP) holds at its core the same goals as CRP: “(a) Students must experience academic success; (b) students must develop or maintain cultural competence; and (c) students must develop a critical consciousness through which they challenge the status quo of the current social order” (p. 160, Ladson-Billings, 1995). Academic success in the fulfillment of these goals is not bartered for native breath but rather native breath serves as a vehicle for academic success. Essential to LRP is overtly examining and uncovering the power relations involved in stratifying language status. This is accomplished in LRP by focusing attention on language use in society and linguistic structural features. The tenets of LRP are informed by the field of World Englishes and hold that (a) everyone speaks a dialect of English and the "standard" changes over time (language change theory) (Brutt-Griffler, 2002) (b) dialects are fully developed language systems (Labov, 1973) (c) languages and dialects are in themselves equal but issues of power suppress or encourage language use in specific contexts (Gee, 1995; Leung, Harris & Rampton, 1997; Blackledge, 2003). LRP is applicable to the wide spectrum of Standard American Academic English learners from English as Additional Language students to Vernacular English Speakers and Generation 1.5 speakers. Dominant language speakers also benefit from LRP as it encourages metalinguistic awareness and the cultural competence that is necessary for negotiation of our global village (Suarez-Orozco, 2003). In his lectures at MOMA on Reconsiderations in a Postmodern, Digital Era, Howard Gardner posits that the mastery and cultivation of sophisticated interpersonal competencies manifested in the ability to interact constructively with those of different cultural and linguistic backgrounds will be the “will be the cornerstone of educational systems in the most successful democracies of the twenty-first century” (2008). Additionally he predicts that societies that “enforce a regime of compulsive monoculturism and compulsive monolingualism” and do not foster hybrid or blended identities manifested in multilingual and transcultural sensibilities will falter under globalization. As it is estimated by the U.S. Census Bureau that 50% of learners will possess a native breath that is not Standard English by 2050, LRP is, and will become, of increasing relevance having both local and global implications. The use of Linguistically Relevant Pedagogy in the classroom has the potential to improve academic outcomes for all students, particularly those that the achievement gap has marginalized by critically and linguistically unpacking and demystifying the use and purpose of the standard language. Validating a student’s native breath and unmasking language attitudes empowers students to use their linguistic repertoires in strategic way. This paper will suggest the utility of LRP through the domains of academic success, cultural competence and critical consciousness and then provide a suggestion for pedagogical implementation of LRP using canonized literature. 2. Academic Success Students' positioning and perception of their native breath valuation in the classroom is a critical determinant of academic success in the dominant target language. Identity construction is an empirically demonstrated factor for academic success (Nasir & Saxe, 2003). Citing Gardener (1985a), Baker (1925) states, "language attitude is a precursor and determinant of language proficiency and use" (p. 41). Negative native breath attitudes are persuasive in schools, as dialects are often considered incomplete and "lazy" acquisition of the dominant language (Adger, Wolfram & Christian, 2004) and multilingualism is perceived as a threat to the hegemonic ethos of monolingualism. When the uniform dominant language is insisted upon in classrooms, teachers are "helping reproduce monolinguistic ideologies and linguistic hierarchies" (Canarajah, 2006, p. 587). Smitherman (2003) echoes this sentiment: "The classroom, then is a major player in shaping language attitudes, and those classrooms that are particularly crucial for formation of ideas about language are those on the K-12 level" (Smitherman, 2003, p. 34). The classroom is the most immediate place that language attitudes play out and are promulgated and thus have the potential to perpetuate or change student beliefs. It is there that students solidify their estimation and valuation of their linguistic capital and resulting identity. These factors however are amenable to classroom culture and climate; LRP has the ability to shift “outside” power relations and create




ecology in the classroom that breeds positive native breath positioning. Positive language estimation of students' native breath has been widely reported to facilitate the ease and acquisition of the dominant language by favorably impacting identity formation (Michael- Luna, 2008), self-efficacy (Alverman, 2001), self-confidence (Wolfram & Shilling-Estes, 1998) and motivation (Shannon, 1995). Additionally, attending to language structures themselves promotes language acquisition as students acquire syntactic and lexical metalinguistic skills through contrastive analysis. Serious attention to language attitudes should include examinations of features of vernacular and standard dialect. Adger, Wolfram and Christian (2007) contend that thoughtful instruction of Standard English is the reconciliation of the polemic SE debate:

Given societies attitudes, Standard English must be regarded as a necessary tool for success in school and in the workplace and that schools should be held responsible for providing students with that tool. Because attitudes are extremely difficult to change, schools should provide high-quality instruction in Standard English, rather than waiting for social attitudes to be altered. Parents from vernacular-speaking communities typically expect that schools will teach Standard English because they are likely to hold some of the entrenched and unjustified language prejudices found in the society at large. They recognize the instrumental value of Standard English to equip their children with the tools they need for economic success. (p. 99)

LRP nurtures academic success as it promotes the teaching of the "standard" while validating students' linguistic resources and maintaining their cultural capital in a wider educational climate that uses tests to perpetuate the defacto status of English as king. This monolithic ethos, that is disabling the viability of American students international competiveness is tempered via LRP and potentially provides a digital -age- ready global citizen that that is interculturally competent and capable of navigating hybrid identities and linguistic discourses. 3. Cultural Competence LRP proposes an additive way for student to make meaning of their world and others as well as their relationships with others. Fostering LRP provides students with increased capital to compete in the global economy while attending to their sociocultural needs and countering the English hegemony. Bilingual and ESL programs have tended to be reductive (Krashen, 1996), sending the message that the culture that is situated within a language must also be snuffed out. As America in covertly an assimilationist culture, the main unifier and uniformer is language or English. However, as language is identity, a reductive approach to language in the classroom often results in an attrition and marginalization of a student’s cultural capital. Colonialism unfortunately has often left this as its legacy. LRP counters this and along with validating students' native breath, also validates their native breadth or the deep and encompassing symbol system -- the rituals, beliefs, values that the signs represent. This native breadth represents students' collective and immediate cultural history and practices beyond language. Cultural competence then allows awareness, insight, and sensitivity into fellow interlocutors' symbol and sign systems, providing deeper understanding of their own. This competence then becomes not only the understanding of practices but also the language that is used to directly represent them. Hence the utility and manner of language for expressiveness becomes integral to LRP. The notion of "speech communities" and the appropriateness of choosing the best-fit “language” to match the circumstance are critical to the theory. Speech communities are discrete groups of people that use language in distinct ways to suit the expressions of the native breadth of a community. Speech communities are variable within languages and dialects and often include changes in lexicon and at times intonation and syntax. Is this skill to navigate between speech communities that demonstrate the great value in mastering the language of as many communities as one is able. The native breath is as important as the standard as each allows access to the different communities. Canagarajah terms the piloting between languages as a shuttle between speech communities underscoring Siegel's (2006, p. 40) notion that the vernacular should be a bridge to the standard and not an obstacle. Shuttling, then, and the notion that students are masters of multiple communities gives students access to greater means of expressiveness. For that reason there is "no reason to stigmatize mixing and switching; in fact, these can be exploited for effective language teaching as translation between languages and varieties" (Kachru, p. 31) and demonstrates a sophisticated mastery of linguistic systems. 4. Critical Consciousness Unfortunately, like dialects and vernaculars, code mixing and switching is stigmatized and perceived to be




indicative of an incomplete development of linguistic systems. These incorrect popular perceptions contribute to the deficit approach that plagues linguistic minority students and the pervasive attitudes that another language or dialect is a liability rather than benefit. The societal and cognitive advantages of multilingualism have been well documented and will not be further elaborated here (for a full discussion see: Brutt-Griffler, 2007). One of the best ways to counteract these misinformed entrenched fallacies is to uncover and confront them. Raising student’s critical consciousness to contemplate language status, prestige and attitudes empowers and positions students to be authors of their own pronouncements. Delpit (1995) echoes this advocating for an open dialogue concerning power dynamics in the classroom for in doing so she holds students become aware of and hence active and agents in their power positioning. Rather than become passive receptors of the legacy of antiquated and misappropriated language beliefs, LRP empowers students to question the status quo. As language and power are conjoined and entrenched with one another, LRP provides an ideal context for discussions, as it is diaphanous in questioning the notion of a Standard English. Gee (1990) explains this relationship as "any view of literacy is inherently political and in the sense of involving relationships of power around people" (p. 31). Exposing that Standard English is married to a written stable form and mainly designed for institutional purposes (education, administration, business etc.) begins to uncover its utility and dominance. Widdowson furthers this by stating that “its spoken version is secondary, and typically used by those who control these institutions" (1994, p. 380). As language status can be defined as the relative perception of a language to access the intellectual, economic and mobility capital of a speech community, critical consciousness is raised by the understanding and questioning of why and how power is held and perpetuated by the dominant language speakers. Exploring with students and unveiling issues of language and power provides emancipatory potential (Morgan, 1997) and develops students' critical consciousness. LRP provides a grass roots approach to question and change language attitudes in the classroom and attempts to change "the belief in the inferiority of vernaculars is a major reason for the current educational practice of keeping them out of the classroom, and this practice helps to perpetuate the belief that these vernaculars are inferior" (Siegel, 2006, p. 43). Students become unshackled by the fetters of linguicism and they are allowed the freedom to construct and rebuild truth-based representations of language and empowering their native breath valuation. Though wider language attitudes are resistant to change, local microsystems are much more amenable. A classroom culture is predominately created by the teacher, and the teacher can promulgate destructive language attitudes or move to eradicate them. Adger, Wolfram & Christian (2006) account in regards to language dynamics in schools that: "The language context outside of school does not override the language context inside school…if tension between standard and vernacular speakers are high, the vernacular-speaking students have reason to resist the standard variety. If relationships between groups are harmonious and if the vernacular dialect and the associated culture are not devalued in the school and classroom, students may not experience a disjunction in schools in terms of language." (p. 99) It is within a teacher 's power to compose harmony and collaboratively construct with students the value and linguistic capital of learners in their classrooms. It is this difference as opposed to the deficit position that is the cornerstone of LRP. The remainder of this paper will argue that much of English literature, particularly American literature, is dialect or vernacular literature (Ahmad, 2007) and therefore presents a unique opportunity to engage in incorporating LRP into existing curriculum. 5. In Practice In terms of valuing linguistic diversity in multilingual education, a common contention of educators is that "it is difficult to know what this means in concrete terms and in every day classroom practice"(Sawyer, 2008, p. 94). Teachers are uniformly well intended in instructing students SAE and have an increasing understanding of implementing cultural competence and sensitivity in the classroom. However, instructing to linguistic diversity is more novel and hence unclear. Ways to achieve LRP in the classroom though using existing curricula will be presented in the remainder of this paper. In the introduction to the anthology Rotten Fiction, a literary anthology of what has often been perceived as "bad" English, Ahmad (2007) reports that over half of the Man Booker Prize Winners over the last twelve years are in a nonstandard English. In fact, as she chronicles those who have written in vernacular, the list is a litany of literary giants: Mark Twain, Alice Walker, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Chaucer, Dante, Shakespeare, Robert Burns, Paul Laurence Dunbar, George Bernard Shaw, Rudyard Kipling, James Joyce, Gertrude Stein, Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, James Baldwin. With such a list of formidable and diverse authors, "vernacular literature" must be qualified. Ahmad defines it as "composing in linguistic codes that are primarily spoken rather than written,




and also ones that have generally been perceived as having a lower status than Standard English" (p.16). Clearly, vernacular literature is prevalent and currently widely used in classrooms. However, there may be teachable opportunities missed beyond the artistry and narrative of such pieces. Ahmad states that vernacular literature is "anti-institutional by nature" and "challenge the hierarchy implied by 'dialect' versus 'language' or 'standard' versus 'nonstandard,' insisting that the codes they practice be recognized for their strength, coherence and communicative capacity" (p. 17). From a literary standpoint, vernacular writing is completely validated in the artistic community. Yet, there exists a gaping discrepancy between when and where vernacular is legitimized. In the classroom, when spoken by students, vernacular is often corrected with the intention to transform it to the Standard rather than using the vernacular as a scaffold to building the Standard and teaching students how to shuttle between the two. LRP has the power to uncover and rectify these discrepancies within the classroom community. The teaching of vernacular "canonized" literature is a particularly powerful implementation of LRP as students can meaningfully explore language and subsequent power issues through attending to linguistic forms and patterns in addition to the themes they often espouse. Nero (2005) articulates one such pedagogical framework, the Language, Identity, Awareness and Development (LAID) that provides a detailed blue print of how educators can, "go beyond language as a form, by raising students' investment in, and use and knowledge of language as it correlates with their identities/ affiliations" (p. 203) Two of her pillars of note include, making language itself a central focus of study and raising awareness of language through intensive reflection and exploration. Similarly, Adger and colleagues (2007) propose general principles for promoting bidialectalism and bilingualism. Among these principles are that an instructional program for teaching standard English must proceed from explicit curricular goals, it should include information on dialect diversity and should reveal systemic differences between standard and vernacular forms (pp. 105-106). A misconception of teaching vernacular literature to foster LRP is that it is only relevant to secondary education as most "literature" is taught during these years. However, there exists a breath of vernacular literature in the primary grades in both picture and trade books. For example, House on Mango Street by Pam Munoz and Honey I Love by Eloise Greenfield present salient opportunities to explore language structures and dynamics. These works are appropriate for younger learners and their linguistic features are fodder for rich discussion and explication. 6. Conclusion The poet and activist Gloria Anzaldua chronicles the continuum of languages that Chicanos speak: 1. Standard English; 2. Working class and slang English; 3. Standard Spanish; 4. Standard Mexican Spanish; 5. North Mexican Spanish Dialect; 6. Chicano Spanish; 7. Tex- Mex, and 8. Pachuco. It is no wonder that she writes or her "serpents tongue" or her forked duality of language and expression spanning the bridge between Standard English and Standard Spanish. This metaphor is particularly apt in depicting the ideal outcome for linguistic minority students. The serpent is characteristically able to easily maneuver from one environment to the next. Their forked tongue serves their purpose to perceive, understand and explore their environment. Similarly, students should be able to navigate (slither compared to shuttle) through speech communities using their linguistic repertoires to engage fully with their ecologies. LRP advocates for the development of sophisticated linguistic serpents and eschews the perpetuation of powerless linguistic servants. References Adger, C. T., Wolfram, W., & Christian, D. (2007). Dialects in schools and communities. (2nd ed.). Mahwah,NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Ahmad, D. (2007). (Ed.). Rotten English: A literary anthology. New York & London: W.W. Norton. Baker, C. (1992). Attitudes and language. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Blackledge, A. (2003). Imagining a monocultural community: Racialization of cultural practice in educational discourse. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, 2(4), 331-347. Brutt-Griffler, J. (2002). World English: A study of its development. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters Press. Brutt-Griffler, J. (2007). Bilingualism and Elearning. In R. Andrews & C. Haythornthwaite (Eds.), Handbook of




Elearning Research, pp. 349-370. London: Sage. Canagarajah, S. (2005). Critical Pedagogy in L2 Learning and Teaching. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning (pp. 931-949). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. García, O. & Menken, K. (2006). The English of Latinos from a plurilingual transcultural angle: Implications for assessment and schools. In S. Nero (Ed.), Dialects, Englishes, creoles, and education (pp. 167-184). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Gee, J. P. (2000). Discourse and sociocultural studies in reading. In M.L. Kamil, P.B. Mosenthal, P.D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Ed.), Handbook of reading research (pp. 195-207). Manweh, NJ: Erlbaum. Kachru, Y. (2006). World Englishes and language education. In S. J. Nero (Ed.),Dialects, Englishes, Creoles and Education (pp. 19- 37). London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Krashen, S. (1996). Under Attack: The Case Against Bilingual Education. Burlingame CA: Language Education Associates. Labov, W. (1972). Sociolinguistic Patterns. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). But that's just good teaching! The case for culturally relevant pedagogy. Theory into Practice, 34(3), 159-165. Ladson-Billings, G (1995). Toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy. American Education Research Journal, 35, 465-491. Leung, C., Harris, R. & Rampton, B. (1997). The idealised native-speaker, reified ethnicities and classroom realities. TESOL Quarterly, 31(3): 543–60.Michael-Luna, S. (2008). Todos somos Blancos/We are all white: Constructing racial identities through texts. Journal of Language, Identity & Education, 7(3), 272-293. Morgan, B. (1997). Identity and intonation: Linking dynamic processes in an ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 31(3), 431-450. Nasir, N. S., & Saxe, G. B. (2003). Ethnic and academic identities: A cultural practice perspective on emerging tensions and their management in the lives of minority students. Educational Researcher, 32(5), 14. Nero, S. J. (2005). Language, identities, and ESL pedagogy. Language and Education, 9(3), 194-211. Shakespeare, W. (2003). Richard II. London: Nick Hern Books. Shannon, S. M. (1995). The hegemony of English: A case study of one bilingual classroom as a site of resistance. Linguistics and Education, 7(3), 175-200. Siegel, J. (2006). Keeping creoles and dialects out of the classroom: Is it justified? In S. J. Nero (Ed.), Dialects, Englishes, Creoles and Education (pp. 19- 37). London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Suárez-Orozco, M. (2000). Everything you ever wanted to know about assimilation but were afraid to ask. Daedalus-Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 129(4), 1-30. U.S. Census Bureau. (2008). U.S. Interim Projections by Age, Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin: 2000–2050 [Data file]. Retrieved from: http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/usinterimproj/ Wolfram, W., & Schilling-Estes, N. (1998). Tri-ethnic dialect situations. American English,181–182.




The Evolution of Pakistani English (PakE) as a Legitimate Variety of English

Humaira Irfan Khan (corresponding author) School of Education, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom

E-mail: [email protected] Received: 12-06- 2012 Accepted: 26-07- 2012 Published: 03-09- 2012 doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.90 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.90 Abstract The paper explores the evolution of Pakistani English (PakE) as a legitimate variety of English by largely discussing the works of Ali (1993), Baumgardner (1987; 1993; 1998), Kachru (1982; 1983; 1992; 1996), Mahboob (2004; 2009), Rahman (1990; 1991), and Sidwa (1988; 1993) on Pakistani English. The paper examines the indigenisation of Pakistani English through its various linguistic features, such as, syntax, morphology, lexis, and phonology to ascertain that it has its own perceptible norms and standards which make it a recognised South Asian variety of English. Finally, the paper discusses Pakistani English’s use for creative writing in Pakistan. Keywords: Pakistani English (PakE), Indigenisation, Syntax, Lexis, Morphology, Phonology 1. World Englishes Baumgardner (1993, p.50) states, “World Englishes form a unique and variegated sociolinguistic mosaic, and each variety, whether already standard or in the process of standardising, is an integral part of this unprecedented international phenomenon”. Kachru (1996) provided an influential model of the World Englishes. The model comprises three concentric circles of English usage: inner circle, outer circle, and expanding circle. Each circle represents different types of spread, patterns of acquisition, and functions of English in diverse cultural contexts. Bruthiaux (2003, p.172) views, “Kachru’s model continues to provide useful shorthand for classifying contexts of English worldwide”. The varieties of inner circle have been described and codified whereas the outer and expanding circles’ varieties are in the process of standardisation (Jenkins, 2007). The outer circle consists of those countries where English has official or historical importance. This means most of the Common Wealth Nations (the former British Empire), including populous countries such as India, Pakistan and Nigeria, and others under the American sphere of influence, such as, Philippines. Jenkins (2003, p.16) asserts,“varieties of English spoken in the outer circle are often described as norm-developing as they are currently developing their own standards”. Jenkins (2009, p.202) believes that World Englishes are not interlanguages but are the legitimate varieties of English with their own norms of use like “standard” British and American English. The accents, not only have “correctness” and “pleasantness” variables, but also have now “acceptability for international communication”. These varieties deviate from native British or American Englishes and have often been treated as heavily influenced by co-existing indigenous languages (Mesthrie, 2006). World Englishes may vary according to the culture or nation in which they are spoken and resultant convergences with that nation’s native language (Phillipson, 2008). Thus, in a global context, the role of English language is being transformed. It results in uses and forms that diverge from a single standard (Crystal, 2003). The communicators have multiple Englishes for rhetorical purposes within and across cultural discourse practices (Weaver, 1996). There is not one English but a plethora of World Englishes through which people can communicate (Canagarajah, 2006). 2. Pakistani English (PakE) Pakistani English is a non-native variety of English which uses all words available in Standard British English (StBrE) in a relational pattern (Taalat, 2002). Taalat’s (1993) study of lexical variation in PakE looks at the semantic shift in certain lexical items as a shift from their original Standard British English usage to a so-called Urduised meaning. Similarly, Baumgardner’s (1987; 1993; 1998) discussion of PakE is based on the comparison of PakE with exonormative models of English. His discussion of the acceptability of various syntactic, lexical, and morphological innovations in PakE is the only large-scale study of its kind. But the scope of his study did not extend to the investigation of sociolinguistic variation in PakE. Mahboob (2004) presents an overview of syntax,




morphology, lexis, and phonology of Pakistani English (PakE). Rahman’s work contributed to corpus planning in Pakistan (Mansoor, 2005). Pakistani English (Pak E) is a distinguished variety and would soon replace Standard English. According to Kachru (1985), a non-native variety passes through three stages, in the first phase, the very existence of local variety is not recognised, in the second, it is considered sub-standard and in the third, it is slowly accepted as the norm. Pakistani English is passing through the third phase (Mansoor, 2002). It is important to note that Pakistanis are using three varieties of English which are acrolect (spoken by elite class), mesolect (used by middle class) and basilect (market English used by uneducated class) (Mansoor, 2002). Significantly, Baumgardner (1987, p.242) points out a passage from “The Pakistan Times” which is perfectly transparent to the culturally aware Pakistani readership while it would not be to an American reader:

“The Secretary, Finance, Punjab, has issued a circular letter under which peons, chowkidars, baildars, watermen, malis, behitis, sweepers and other work-charged employees have been granted a special benefit. But it is very strange that the Secretary, Finance, has extended this gracious concession to three departments only. Why a step-motherly treatment is being meted out to the poor peons, naib qasids, chowkidars and malis of the Education Department?”

Thus, keeping in view, Baumgardner’s example, we can unhesitatingly agree with Pennycook (1994) that English because of interaction with regional languages has undergone transformation, therefore, the global dominance of English is not imperialism but a product of the local hegemonies of English. Talaat (2002, p.14) views that English and Urdu are used “simultaneously or alternatively through code switching and code mixing which have become the norms”. It is indeed a fashion to initiate a conversation in Urdu with English accent and then switch over to English and again to Urdu (Khalique, 2006). For example, an announcer on FM radio said, “Hamaray (our) listeners ka favourite singer Ahmed Jehanzaib ha”. Many TV Channels use code switching, for instance, “Style Duniya” (world of fashion), “Bhangra Music”, “Aaj TV” etc. According to McKenzie (2008, p.277), English influences a society through the “continuing influx and nativization of English loanwords into the native tongue”. Thus, like other post colonial countries, English in Pakistan interacts with regional languages and is localised in pronunciation, lexicon, and syntax (Rahman, 1990). 3. History of Pakistani English (PakE) in South Asia It is necessary to understand that Pakistani English has its roots laid deep in pre-partition British India. According to Ali (1993, p.3), English and the languages of South Asia have developed in different directions, “the Germanic group under the influence of Roman Christianity being drawn to Latin and Greek; the Indo-Iranian, bearing affinities to Sassanian-Pahlavi and Sumerian on the one hand, and Persian and Arabic under Islamic influences on the other”. Ali (1993) believes that the British arrived in India under a charter from Queen Elizabeth in the seventeenth century but it was not until the middle of the eighteenth century that they could strengthen their position in India. After the decline of Mughal power that set in after the disorientation caused by Aurangzeb’s orthodoxy and his short-sighted policies towards the Marathas and the Sikhs, and the dividing up of the empire among his sons on his death like any private property, a power vacuum was created. This gave the British the opportunity of increasing their power, so that after winning the battle of Baksar in 1764, and manoeuvring the grant of the Diwani of Bengal from Shah Alam in 1765, they gained virtual India by 1818. Spear (1965, p.124) comments that Macaulay in 1835 with typical English imperialist and self-complacent arrogance declared, “we have a great moral duty to perform in India”. The great objectives were to create a class of people “Indian in colour and blood but English in taste and character, in morals and in intellect” and to promote “English literature and science through the medium of the English language” (p.127). As a result, Ali (1993, p.7) remarks, “the government started setting up schools and colleges to convert Indians, the South Asians of today, into brown Englishmen by imparting Western knowledge in the English language to them, a tradition their surrogates have followed to this day”. Ali further reflects over the situation, “we studied English, science, and literature, read H.G. Wells, James Joyce, and D.H. Lawrence, Greek Drama, Restoration Comedy, Dr Johnson, the Romantics, and the Decadents. We were declared successful and were ready to recruit others to the cause of Britain’s “moral duty” to India by teaching them to become good, bad or indifferent brown Englishmen” (p.9). English in British India spread because of social and economic mobility associated with it. People learned English either by direct contact or through formal schooling. The input that learners received in South Asia was non-native and local because there were not enough native English speaking teachers to meet the demand and most English teachers were Indians. There was relatively little contact with the native varieties of English in India, and after independence this contact was further reduced. These factors have contributed to institutionalisation and evolution of South Asian English as a native variety (Mahboob, 2004). The local needs and uses of English, and the limited




contact with the native speakers of English have resulted in what has been called “nativization” of English in the Indian sub-continent (Baumgardner, 1993). English language continued to flourish politically and socially in British era and after independence in 1947 retained its official position because it had penetrated into the socio-political fabric of the country (Ali, 1993). Sidwa (1993, p.213) states, “although the Raj has since been banished, and the Empire repossessed, the status of English remains largely unaltered. It is a phenomenon, and the single most important factor contributing to the phenomenon is the emergence of English as a World Language”. She further states:

“English, besides having its own genius, is useful by today’s standards in terms of commerce, communication, and technology. And this useful language, rich also in literature, is no longer the monopoly of the British. We, the excolonized, have subjugated the language, beaten it on its head and made it ours! Let the English chafe and fret and fume. The fact remains that in adapting English to our use, in hammering it sometimes on its head, and in sometimes twisting its tail, we have given it a new shape, substance, and dimension” (Sidwa, 1993, p.213).

Richard Reeves (1984) in his travelogue “Passage to Peshawar” described Pakistan from a linguistic point of view as the “Second English Empire” which means that English is very much alive in Pakistan. Pakistani English is a member of the linguistic sub-family of South Asian English which also includes Bangladeshi, Indian, Nepali, and Sri Lankan English (Kachru, 1982). Powell (1998) discusses that English has qualified official status in former British colonies, such as, Bangladesh (recognised for legal and educational purposes), India (associate official status), Keyna (second official language, formerly official), and Sri Lanka (widely used in government and formerly official). English is used in educational, economic, and political contexts. The work on South Asian Englishes suggests that there is a need to differentiate these varieties from each other. These sub-varieties are defined in terms of local languages. Thus, Pakistani English and Indian English have unique features and differences based on the vernaculars in each country. PakE is heterogeneous because of the socio-economic, educational background, and first languages spoken by Pakistanis. Earlier works such as Jones (1971); Bell (1973); Smith-Pearse (1975); Shah (1978) and Rafi (1987) treat the distinctive features of Pakistani English as errors. Shah (1978, p. 459) gives the following example in his Chapter “How to Avoid Common Errors”: Incorrect: Keep this on the table. (Baumgardner, 1993, p. xiv) Correct: Put this on the table. The grammar books advise against these errors but these are re-inforced through electronic and printed media, local text books, study guides, and dictionaries. Baumgardner (1989) have described this situation as “pedagogic schizoglossia”. For example, the Textbook of English for Class X (1992, p. 26), used both in Balochistan and Punjab contains the following sentence: “everyday newspapers carry stories of fraud, theft, dacoity (armed robbery), child-lifting, abduction, and murder”. The Textbook of English for Class IX (1991) for the province of the Punjab contains the following paragraph:

“In the rural areas of the Punjab, the farmers work in their fields the whole day. In the evening, they get together in the Chopal where they discuss their problems, seek advice, and settle some of their disputes without going to the courts. Usually they sit talking happily together for the pleasure of being together. Sometimes younger people sing Mayha or the ever popular Heer” (p.120).

A Chopal is an Urdu word for village pavillion (Qureshi, 1989, p.259); Mahya (Bokhari, 1989, p. 1387) are Punjabi folk songs, and Heer is an epic poem by eighteenth century Punjabi poet Waris Shah (Baumgardner, 1993, p. xv). According to Baumgardner (1993, p. xvi), the idea of Pakistani English as a distinct variety was first mooted in the early writings of Indian linguist Braj B. Kachru, and in later work Kachru (1982; 1983) cites examples of Pakistani English as part of his argument for a South Asian English. There is a literature on English in Pakistan as it is used in socio-cultural domains, including, research on (1) language pedagogy-Moss (1964), Dil (1966), Iqbal (1987), Raof (1988), Saleemi (1985), Baumgardner and Kennedy (1991), Khattak (1991), Sawar (1991); (2) language planning- Haque (1987), and (3) literary creativity-Rafat (1969), Hashmi (1986), and Rahman (1990;1991). However, there has been little work on the linguistic aspect of English in Pakistan, and the topic has only recently begun to attract the attention of scholars. 4. The indigenisation of English in Pakistan According to Baumgardner (1993, p.41), linguistic changes are taking place in the English language not only in Pakistan but also throughout South Asia. It is seen that since independence and partition of sub-continent,




English has remained “a potent force in the multilingual and multicultural make up of present-day South Asia and continues to adapt itself to its new environment”. Baumgardner (1993, p. 42) further asserts Pakistani English has borrowed freely from the indigenous domains of food, clothing, government administration, politics, education, art, and music. He believes that in order to comprehend fully Pakistani English, one must be familiar with Urdu words e.g., “atta” (flour), “maund” (a unit of measurement), to cite only a few which occur frequently (see Table 1). Mahboob (2009, p.175) believes that English far being a colonising language reflects Islamic values and embodies South Asian sensitivities. He believes that the relationship between PakE and Islamic and cultural values can be examined through the content and linguistic analyses of the topics on Prophet Mohammed (PBUH), Islam and Hajj in textbooks printed in English. The chairman of the Punjab Textbook Board openly states: “The board...takes care, through these books to inoculate in the students a love of the Islamic values” (Punjab Text Book Board, 1997). It is examined that Arabic lexis has permeated Pakistani English, e.g., “Assalam-o-Alaikum”, and words of praise and appreciation, such as, “Maasha-Allah” and “Alhumd-o-Lillah”, “jehad” (holy war), “masjid” (mosque), “shaheed” (martyr), “shariat” (Islamic law), and “zakat” (Islamic tithe) (Baumgardner, 1993, p.43;Mahboob, 2009, p.182). In addition to lexical and semantic shifts, the pragmatics of PakE reflects Muslim cultural practices. For example, “Insha-Allah” (God willing) is sometimes used as means of polite refusal or a “non-committing promise” (Mahboob, 2009, p.183). Baumgardner et al (1993) sub-categorise Islamic borrowings into 44 groups, e.g. administrative posts (amir, nazim, etc.), concepts (hadith, zina, etc.), education (iqra, maqtab, etc.), and marriage (halala, nikah, etc.). Finally, Islamisation of English is identifiable in the discourse structures of writings, for example, the prefaces of textbooks begin with “bismi-llāhi r-raḥmāni r-raḥīm” in Arabic (Mahboob, 2009, p.184). Another area in which Pakistani English has forged its own identity is that of word-formation, for example, an advertisement in Pakistan Times declares “Good News for Woolies! No more stretching and de-shaping of your woollen clothes” (Baumgardner, 1993, p.43). In PakE some productive suffixes are “er”, “ee”, “ism” etc. (see Table 1). English derivational suffixes also freely combine with Urdu bases. A few examples are, “bradarism”, “shariatisation”, “maundage”, “lathi-charged”, “rickshaw-wallahs” etc. (Baumgardner, 1993, p.45). Conversion or the shift of a word from one part of speech to another is also a major source of new words in Pakistani English e.g. “move-over” (verb- plus-particle -to-noun- conversion) (see Table 1). Another pertinent characteristic of Pakistani English is the use of vocabulary which no longer exists in Standard British English. A few examples can be cited, “moot” (meeting), “thrice” (three times), “druggist” (a narcotics dealer) etc. (see Table 1). Table 1. Features of PakE (Baumgardner, 1993, p.41-50)

Borrowing Grammar Word-Formation Conversion Use of obsolete words

Baradari (clan) Kabbadi (sport) Kachchi abadi (shanty town) Mela (a fair) Wadera (Sindhi landlord)

Goondas Jirgas (tribal council) Kachchi abadis Challan (urdu noun used as verb)

De-notify De-seat History-sheeter Affectees White-elephantism pointation

To aircraft To airline Charge sheeted Move-over

Conveyance Botheration Tantamount Patchwork

4.1 Reporting in Pakistani English According to Kennedy (1993, p.69), language can be emotive, informative or occupational depending on the context of the situation. The term which has been applied to a variety of language distinguished according to its use is “register” (Halliday et al, 1964). The variety may be identified by its grammar, but is most explicitly “defined and recognised by topic and context-specific lexis” (Coultthard, 1977, cited in Kennedy, 1993, p.70). This lexical aspect of register drew Kennedy’s attention to examine newspapers’ articles which particularly dealt with crime. She (1993) described a crime-reporting register, found in crime reports published in English language dailies in




Pakistan: Dawn, Karachi; Morning News, Karachi; The Muslim, Islamabad; The Nation, Lahore; and The Pakistan Times, Lahore (see Table 2). Table 2. Reporting in PakE (Kennedy, 1993, p.70)

I II III IV

Accomplice Molester Assassin Looter Pickpocket collaborator

Bandit Cheat Co-accused Gun runner Hooligan vagabond

Auto-rickshaw-lifter Looter Gay girl Lady drug trafficker Kid smuggler Flesh trader

Dacoit Badmash Goonda rassagir

4.2 Syntax of Pakistani English (PakE) Syntactically, PakE differs from British English (BrE) at both the sentential and clausal level. At the sentence level, a number of word-order changes can be observed. At the clausal level, comprehension rules of PakE are found to deviate from BrE. In addition, the use of certain tenses is also different. Rahman (1990) provides some examples of progressive and perfective aspects of PakE which explicitly show the deviation from BrStE. 1. I am doing it all the time. (Rahman, 1990, p.43) 2. I have seen him yesterday. (Rahman, 1990, p.54) Baumgardner (1990, p.47) provides the examples of proposed phrasal compounds as the equivalent of postponed attributive relative clauses: 3. detrimental to health medicines “medicines which are detrimental to the health”. 4. public dealing office “an office which deals with the public”. Regarding complementation, Baumgardner (1993, p. 258-259) shows the StBrE and PakE variants. For example, the adjectives in PakE are frequently followed by a to-infinitive instead of a preposition and participle clause as in BrE. As with adjective complementation, PakE differs from StBrE in noun complementation. Thus, a preposition plus -ing participle in StBrE may become to-infinitive in PakE. PakE speakers may substitute the StBrE main verb plus to-infinitive with a main verb plus that-clause. 5. He is interested in learning Urdu. (StBrE) They were not at all interested in democracy—and were only interested to grab power at any cost. (PakE) 6. Pakistan has no influence in controlling-------(BrStE) Pakistan has no influence to control affairs inside Afghanistan. (PakE) 7. He wants to go. (StBrE) I want that I should get leave. (PakE) 4.3 Morphology of Pakistani English (PakE) The most commonly cited features of PakE morphology are differences in the use of articles and prepositions and the omission of certain auxiliary verbs. Rahman (1990, p.57) reports that in casual speech, some Pakistani speakers may not utilise “do” support. For example, 8. How you got here? How did you get here? Similarly, the article system of PakE is different from BrStE. An article may exist where it would not be in StBrE. A definite article may be absent where it would be present in BrStE. An indefinite article may be omitted. Rahman (1990, p.42) provides the following examples: 9. The English is a good place.




10. He said that Education Ministry is reorganizing English syllabus. 11. My father is lecturer. Regarding prepositions, PakE has different distribution of prepositions Rahman (1990, p.51) cites three forms of deviations: PakE may omit prepositions where BrE has them; it may add prepositions where BrE does not have them and it may use a different preposition. Following are a few examples: 12. To dispense---- 13. To combat against poverty 14. What is the time in your watch? Saleemi (1985) and Mahboob (2004) believe that it is pertinent to examine the nature of differences between the native and non-native grammars of English. Most of the differences appear to be peripheral to the core syntax of the language. 4.4 Phonological features of PakE At present, there are no detailed studies of the phonology of PakE. Mahboob & Ahmar (2004, p.1006) attempt to present a preliminary description of PakE phonology based on data collected in Karachi in 2002. Their research is based on six educated Pakistanis between the ages of 22 and 37. Language samples were elicited using the Sheffield word-list and then the “North Wind” reading passage (see Tables 3, 4, & 5). Table 3. Phonology of PakE (Mahboob & Ahmar, 2004, p. 1007)

Lexical item PakE RP (based on Oxford Dictionary)

Monothongs Diphthongs

KIT ɪ ɪ PRICE ai ai HAPPY ɪ ɪ CHOICE ɔɪ ɔɪ THOUGHT ɔ: ɔ: MOUTH aʊ aʊ NORTH ɔ: ɔ: PALM ɑ: ɔ:

Table 4. Phonology of PakE (Mahboob & Ahmar, 2004, p.1008

Lexical item PakE RP

HorsES ɪ ə

LettER ʌ ə

CommA ʌ ə

NURSE ʌ ɜ:

LOT ɔ: ɔ




Table 5. Phonology of PakE (Mahboob & Ahmar, 2004, p.1009)

Lexical item PakE RP

Monothongs

FOOT ʊ ~ u: ʊ BATH ɑ:~ æ ɑ: CLOTH ɔ ~ ɔ:~ O: ɔ

Diphthongs

FACE e:~ eɪ eɪ GOAT o: ~ ʊə ~ ʊ ʊə NEAR ɪə ~ eə ɪə

4.4.1 Vowels of PakE Mahboob & Ahmar (2004), in their study divided the vowels into two main groups. The first group contains invariant vowel realisations. These vowels were spoken without variation by the Pakistani speakers, and some of them are similar to RP (Received Pronunciation). On the other hand, the second group consists of vowels that varied in their realisation as spoken by different speakers. 4.4.2 Consonants of PakE Mahboob & Ahmer (2004) state that PakE, based on the language samples collected, may be labelled a rhotic variety of English. Most of the speakers pronounce [r] in all contexts, the examples are “force” [fɔ:rs] and “warm” [wɑ:rm]. But the postvocalic [r] is produced variably, for example, the same speaker was observed to pronounce it in “start” and “letter” but drops it in “force”. Rahman (1990) believes that the degree of rhoticity in PakE varies based on sociolinguistic factors. Rahman’s work was based on only 10 Pakistanis in United Kingdom. His work has been criticised for a number of reasons. PakE uses retroflex stops. This use of retroflex stops instead of RP alveolar stops is listed an example of “series substitution” by Kachru (1992, p.62) and is a feature of South Asian English. Examples in PakE are “dress”’ [dres] and “strut” [ɪstrʌt]. Pakistani speakers use dental stops instead of the RP dental fricatives and examples are [t] and [d] in “north” [nɔ:rt] and “then” [den] (Kachru, 1992, p.62; Mahboob & Ahmar, 2004, p.1011). Mahboob & Ahmar (2004, p.1011) also assert that Urdu does not have a phonemic distinction between /v/ and /w/. Rahman (1990, p.33) also discusses this feature in reference to Pushto speakers. They do not articulate /v/ for example in ‘love’ [luo]. Mahboob & Ahmar (2004, p.1012) attempt to explain some phonological features but state that the exact distribution of these features and the contexts in which they operate need to be scrutinised. PakE has tendency to use spelling as a guide to pronunciation, for example, “immediately” [ɪmmɪdʒɜtlɪ]. They observed /ə/ only in connected speech and explained this non-reduction of unstressed vowels in terms of spelling pronunciation of PakE. Another feature is epenthesis which was observed in a consonant cluster where the first consonant was a voiceless sibilant and the second consonant was a stop, for example, “stronger” [ɪstrɔ:ŋgʌr] and “start” [ɪstɑ:rt]. Rahman (1990, p.31) observed that Punjabi speakers break the consonant cluster by inserting a short vowel /ə/ between the sibilant and the stop. He gives the examples of “speak” [səpi:k] and “stall” [sətɑ:l]. On the other hand, he asserts that Pushto speakers do not have any problems with this consonant cluster because Pushto permits these clusters. Finally, Pakistani speakers do not aspirate stops in word initial position when they occur before a vowel, thus the word “kit” was realised as [kɪt]. Kachru (1983) states that it is the non-segmental features of South Asian English (SAsE) such as stress and rhythm, rather than segmental features that mark its uniqueness. Pickering and Wiltshire (2000), in their research, looked at SAsE spoken by native speakers of Hindi/Urdu, Bengali and Tamil and found that there was no significant difference in the lexical stress pattern in the English spoken by speakers of these three languages. SAsE, including PakE, is described as a syllable-timed variety (Nelson, 1982; Kachru, 1983). Syllables in PakE occur at regular intervals. This is different from RP which is stress-timed with variation in the length of syllables. Quite interestingly, Pickering and Wiltshire (2000, p.177) label South-Asian English as a “pitch-accent” language and




found that accented syllables were marked by a lower frequency as compared to unaccented syllables in speakers of Indian English, including those of Hindi/Urdu. 5. Use of Pakistani English in creative writing It is noted that Pakistani English is being used in the creative writing of renowned Pakistani writers. Sidwa (1993, p.214) explains that she uses PakE but very carefully because, “the Pakistanized turn of phrase or choice of native word that might add originality and freshness to the writing for someone who is acquainted with this part of the world can give headache to someone who is not”. She expresses her view that certain Pakistani words have a tonal quality that communicates their meaning even in English. Words like “badmash”, “hulla-goolla”, “goonda” if used in the proper context convey their meaning without recourse to translation, e.g. “we exposed ourselves so that only they could see us----But what a hulla-goolla! The woman screamed and cursed” (Sidwa, 1988, p. 123). She writes “the door snaps shut and Imam Din stands on the kitchen steps looking bomb-bellied and magnificently goondaish-the grandfather of all the goondas milling about us –with his shaven head, hennaed beard and grimy lungi” (Sidwa, 1988, p.180). Or an example from “The Bride”, “when the Superintendent of Jails asks a prisoner “I understand you wished to see me. Well, what is it you badmash?” (Sidwa, 1983, p.86). 6. Conclusion The paper discusses Pakistani English (PakE) as a distinct variety but at the same time explores that it is one of the less well-researched varieties of English. Chiefly the research on PakE focuses on its comparison with Standard British English. However, it is clear that English in Pakistan is evolving its own identity. This identity is projected and perpetuated by the powerful English-using elite in Pakistan as well as through the pervasive English mass media. It is also reinforced through instructional materials used in Pakistani schools. As Baumgardner, (1993, 1998) explained Urdu borrowings as well as indigenous lexical and grammatical usages have found their way into locally-produced English textbooks. Thus, the paper can be concluded with the suggestion that the concept of Pakistani English should be widely introduced in order to take appropriate steps for its development and acceptance at an international scenario. Moreover, the future research on Pakistani English needs to analyse and investigate Pakistani English’s distinguished features rather than merely comparing it with American and British English. Acknowledgement: I am grateful to Professor Vivienne Baumfield and Dr. Esther Daborn for guiding me to write this paper. I also would like to thank the University of Education, Lahore, Pakistan for providing funds to undertake research at the University of Glasgow, UK. References Ali, A. (1993). English in South Asia: A historical perspective. In R. J. Baumgardner (Ed.), The English Language in Pakistan. Karachi: Oxford University Press. Baumgardner, R.J. (1987). Utilising Pakistani English newspaper to teach grammar. World Englishes, 6(3), 241-52. Baumgardner, R.J. (1993). The English Language in Pakistan. Karachi: Oxford University Press. Baumgardner, R.J. (1993a). The indigenization of English in Pakistan. In R.J. Baumgardner (Ed.), The English Language in Pakistan. Karachi: Oxford University Press. Baumgardner, R.J. (1993b). Utilising English newspaper to teach grammar. In R.J. Baumgardner (Ed.), The English language in Pakistan. Karachi: Oxford University Press. Baumgardner, R.J. and Kennedy, A.E.H. (1993c). The use of local contexts in the design of EST materials. In R.J. Baumgardner (Ed.), The English Language in Pakistan. Karachi: Oxford University Press. Baumgardner, R. J. (1998). Word-formation in Pakistani English. English World-Wide, 19(2), 205-246. Bell, R. T. (1973). The English of an Indian immigrant: An essay in error analysis. ITL: Review of Applied Linguistics, 12, 11-61. Bokhari, T. (1989). Punjabi-Urdu Loghat. Lahore: Urdu Science Board. Bruthiaux, P. (2003). Squaring the circles: Issues in modelling English worldwide. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 13(2), 159-178.




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Perceptual Convergence as an Index of the Intelligibility and Acceptability of Three Nigerian English Accents

Fatimayin Foluke (Ph.D) National Open University Of Nigeria, Lagos. Nigeria

Tel: 234 803 377 3268 E-mail: [email protected].

Received: 27-05- 2012 Accepted: 26-07- 2012 Published: 03-09- 2012 doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.100 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.100 Abstract This study investigated perceptual convergence as a measure of the intelligibility and acceptability of three Nigerian English (NE) accents with a view to arriving at a possible norm of usage for teaching and communication purposes. The subjects were one hundred and eighty Nigerians of varied socio-economic, educational and ethno-linguistic backgrounds drawn from various offices, institutions in Kaduna, Enugu, Ibadan. Two researcher-designed instruments were used. First is the Oral Reading Test for Accent identification made up of phonological difficulties usually exhibited by NE language users. Next is a questionnaire in the form of an intelligibility and acceptability rating scale. Based on the findings, the educated NE accent was the most intelligible and acceptable, followed by the mother-tongue based NE accent and the Regional NE accents. It was recommended among others that language policy makers confront the problem of the NE corpus to be used in teaching and the Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council be commissioned to produce texts on the phonology and phonetics of the Educated NE accent. Keywords: Perceptual convergence, index, Nigerian English, Accents, Intelligibility, Acceptability 1. Introduction The language situation in Nigeria is a result of languages in contact. This paved the way for the evolution of bilingualism / multilingualism.. However, languages can hardly come in contact without cultures coming together. The coming together of different cultures and languages aided the evolution of Nigerian English (NE). The evolution of NE emphasizes the fact that the appropriate use of the English language (EL) in Nigeria must reflect the society as well as serve her citizens and not overwhelm them. Jowitt (1991) observed that sympathetic ‘sorry’ is the conventional translation of a one word lexeme in the mother tongues (MTs). For example, Hausa, ‘sannu,’ Igbo ‘ndo’, Yoruba: ‘pele’, Tiv: ‘nsugh’, Edo: ‘koyo’, etc. These are local words for ‘sorry’ in EL. This and others are peculiarly Nigerian and cannot be said to break general rules. They are rather justified on semantic grounds showing an adaptation of the vocabulary of the EL to fill a semantic gap that exists because of the difference between British and Nigerian cultures/languages. This too could be justifiable for NE accents. That is, accents to be used by Nigerians should be Nigerian so as to fill the phonological gaps that exist because of differences between British and Nigerian phonological set ups and articulatory settings. Another problem which NE would hopefully be a cure for is in language teaching and testing. The continued dominance of the EL and the ambiguous language policy are mostly at the root of the teaching and learning problems. This is compounded by the projection of standard British English (SBE) as being superior to all varieties of English in Nigeria. According to Odumuh cited in Ohia (1997), one of the problems of teaching English in Nigeria is in the confusion as to what to accept as permissible regional varieties and what to reject as ‘sub-standard’. An acceptable Nigerian variety of the EL would be of help in finding a lasting solution to the above problem. This is necessary at this point because the issue of the increasing functions of the EL as the language of instruction, commerce, law, etc., without a change in status as second language (L2) has a direct relationship with students’ poor performance in public examinations. The immediate concern should be to develop a norm that would be generally acceptable as standard Nigerian spoken English. This may upon approval be taken as a basis for assessing language competence in the educational system as well as for communication purposes. Efforts should be geared towards integrating the EL and the indigenous languages for effective communication and as a solution




to the country’s language problems. This is really necessary as attempts at promoting the indigenous languages through the language in education policy (National Policy on Education, revised draft 2007) have not been fruitful. The most likely option now as a forward is an acceptable variety of NE. This is premised on the fact that since the local languages are not used in schools as stipulated in the policy, using and adopting a homegrown Nigerian variety of the EL is likely to be more intelligible and acceptable to users and may be a means of achieving objectives of teaching/learning. 1.1 Background literature on Nigerian English (NE) The emergence of NE is no longer in doubt. Odumuh (1984) asserted that NE has emerged and stabilized. It is a term used in reference to the variety of English used in Nigeria which is neither pidgin nor Standard British. It is English with a distinctive Nigerian flavour, resulting from contact between the EL and Nigerian languages. It is an indigenized variety of English as an international language. Therefore the evolution of NE can be associated with the strive to achieve a linguistic identity. The development of NE followed the global patterns described as the result of contact between languages and cultures. Describing the development and inevitability of NE, Soyinka (1993), submitted that English was forced to play “unaccustomed roles” which turned it into ‘a new medium of communication in a new organic series of mores, social goals, relationships, all of which go into the creation of a new culture’ and by extension a new variety of the language i.e. NE. While it is true that NE has emerged and has distinct linguistic features, it is also true that it has not fully developed into a standard comparable to other world standard Englishes. This is because there are still some fundamental issues to be resolved. But out of the varieties that exist, a norm can be identified as being intelligible and acceptable by all for the linguistic purpose of the Nigerian nation. This will in turn enable the Nigerian variety assume the role of a national language as well as contribute to the varieties of World Standard Englishes (WSE: Kachru, 1992). World Englishes refers to the emergence of indigenized varieties of the English language. It consists of varieties of English used in diverse sociolinguistic contexts globally. It is an outcome of how sociolinguistic histories, other cultures and languages influence the use of English in different climes where it was transported. Crystal (2007) asserts that establishing the total number of Englishes around the world is difficult as new varieties of English are constantly being developed and discovered. The English language has enjoyed tremendous linguistic patronage in the last 300 years. This according to Kachru (1992) is because of its range and depth. Factors that aided the global spread of English are economic, political, scientific and technological. While economic considerations aided its spread across the globe, political considerations helped in stabilizing such influences. Official policies also helped. These are the introduction of the American Peace Corps program, and the posting of American and British military personnel to different parts of the world. These helped in the spread of the English language. In addition, the official language policy which promoted the B.B.C. and V.O.A. as means of information dissemination and sometimes propaganda aided the spread. Political associations like the E.U., the Commonwealth have helped stabilize the use of English. The advancement of science and technology has also helped. This is because scientific breakthroughs recorded in the West as well as numerous technological feats have been documented in the language. Therefore a world that is becoming dependent on technology has come to rely on the use of the English language (Awonusi, 2004). An inevitable consequence of this global spread is that the language will become open to the winds of linguistic change in totally unpredictable ways. This has already happened as evidenced in the emergence of new varieties of English in the different territories where the language has taken root. These new Englishes are somewhat like dialects we all recognize within our own country except that they are on an international scale applying to whole countries or regions. They are the inevitable consequence of the spread of the English language on a global scale. Speaking on new, national and international Englishes in an attempt to portray the rapid growth of the English Language, Kachru (1992) divided its speakers into three. The ‘inner circle’ is made up of native English speaking countries such as the U.K., U.S.A., Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. The ‘outer circle’ consists of countries in the African territories, the Indian sub-continent, and the Pacific. These are countries like Nigeria, Ghana, Kenya, India, Pakistan; Singapore, etc. English here co-exists with many indigenous languages and functions as L2. In these countries, there exist several nativized varieties of the English language. The ‘expanding circle’ of Kachru’s division is made up of countries in the far East (China, Indonesia, Japan, Taiwan, etc), Middle East (Israel, Egypt, S. Arabia), and Zimbabwe where English is a foreign language. (See fig. 1).




Countries using English

as Further Tongue (e.g.

countries of the arabophone,

Francophone and lusophone

world such as Tunisia, Togo,

Mexico, etc.

FIG.1. Lawal’s (2006) Slightly Modified Version of Kachru’s (1992) Trichotomy Showing L1, L2 And Fl Users Of English Kachru’s inner circle is of native English speaking countries. These are ‘norm providing, his ‘outer-circle’ consist of ESL countries and are ‘norm-developing, while his ‘expanding-circle’ comprises EFL countries. These are ‘norm-dependent’ in the sense that the criteria for judging usage are imported from U.K and U.S.A. NE has many varieties. Empirical work in the area of the phonology of NE can be examined in two parts. The first relates to research on varieties differentiation. Brosnaham (1958) suggested a typology of four varieties based on educational attainment. Banjo (1979) identified four varieties based on linguistic deviations from the standard. Another typology is the regional parameter separating Hausa English (northern) from Igbo English (eastern) from Yoruba English (western). The second part of the empirical research on the phonology of NE relates to tests of intelligibility and acceptability. These include Tiffen’s (1974) study, Ekong (1980), Jibril (1986). The findings suggest that while social acceptability is subject to the democratic process, international intelligibility is more elite inclined (Banjo, 1979). However, Adetugbo (1987) argued that international intelligibility is an unnecessary luxury. To him, there is no reason for this especially as Americans, Australians, Scots have their own varieties of the EL and nobody bothers about international intelligibility especially as these are mutually intelligible regional varieties. In support of the above, it is the opinion of this writer that language should serve users by enabling them use it to express their own identity as well as relate with others around them. It should also be a reflection of their total culture. Based on this, what is needed is national intelligibility and acceptability as a first step in the right direction for Nigerian spoken English. 1.1.1 Statement of the Problem After almost two centuries of its advent in the country, EL usage is characterized by some Nigerians using SBE, others, educated Nigerian spoken English and for a large majority, MT interference is common. This is a result of the English language being badly taught. In addition, the influence of the native languages has made performance in the EL peculiar. The focus of this study is on the intelligibility and acceptability of NE accents in relation to the perception and metaperception of the users with a view to identifying the convergence of agreement. The convergence can serve as a pointer towards the norm and also determine the reference point for standardization. It therefore used the degree of convergence among the users’ perception, other accents users’ perception and users’ metaperception to measure the intelligibility and acceptability of NE accents. Self perception is how the user of an accent perceives the accent, other users’ perception is how other users perceive an accent not their own, and metaperception is the perception of the user of an accent about how other users perceive her/his accent. The convergence point is the point of overlap among the three perceptual types relative to each of the three NE accents.

Countries using English as Mother Tongue (e.g.

England, USA and Australia

Countries using English as Other Tongue (i.e. the Anglophone world e.g. Nigeria, Ghana, the Philippines)




1.1.2 Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study is to find out whether perceptual convergence can be used as a measure of the intelligibility and acceptability of three NE accents. 1.1.3 Research Questions The following questions were addressed in the study:

1. What is the users’ self perception, other users’ perception and user’s metaperception of the intelligibility of each of NE accent 1 (i.e. ENEA), NE accent 2 (RNEA), NE accent 3 (MTBNEA).

2. What is the users’ self perception, other users’ perception and user’s metaperception of the acceptability of each of NE accent 1 (i.e. ENEA), NE accent 2 (RNEA), NE accent 3 (MTBNEA)?

1.1.4 Research Hypotheses The following hypotheses were formulated as a guide to the study.

Ho1: There is no significant difference in the users’ perception, other accents users’ perception and the users’ metaperception of the intelligibility of Accent 1 (i.e. ENEA)

Ho2: There is no significant difference in the users’ perception, other accents users’ perception and the users’ metaperception of the intelligibility of the Accent 2(i.e. RNEA)

Ho3: There is no significant difference in the user’ perception, other accents users’ perception and the users’ metaperception of the intelligibility of accent 3 (MTBNEA)

Ho4: There is no significant difference in the user’ perception, other accents users’ perception and the users’ metaperception of the acceptability of accent 1 (ENEA)

Ho5: There is no significant difference in the user’ perception, other accents users’ perception and the users’ metaperception of the acceptability of accent 2 (RNEA)

Ho6: There is no significant difference in the user’ perception, other accents users’ perception and the users’ metaperception of the acceptability of accent 3(MTBNA)

1.1.5 Conceptual Framework This study is conceptualized around some sociolinguistic, psycholinguistic and linguistic issues and concepts. The theory of languages in contact is of importance to these concepts and issues, that is the evolution of a new speech form from the communion of two or more languages. Closely related to the contact theory is the concept of varieties. The varieties of English are a result of languages in contact. They can also be regarded as the production of psycholinguistic interaction between two or more linguistic systems, those of the mother tongues (MTs) and the second language (L2). Also important is the social contact arising from the interaction between members of these groups which results in cultural and linguistic diffusion producing different varieties. These varieties are of interest in this study. Crucial to the understanding of these varieties and the present study is the term accent. The Nigerian user of the English language learns it as a second language long after his first language mainly through formal instruction in school. In addition, the phonological and articulatory settings of the first and second languages are different. These

!!!

Fig 2.Adapted from Lawal (2000). Assessing Acceptability/Intelligibility of NE Accents.

SELF-

PERCEPTION

OTHERS’

PERCEPTION

METAPERCEPTION




result in NE accents different from the SBE accents. How intelligible and acceptable these NE accents would be to Nigerian EL users is of interest to this study. Since NE is a product of this complex sociolinguistic environment, it is obvious that its growth, understanding and acceptability will depend on the perception of those in the society. Perception and metaperception are very crucial to language understanding especially in L2 situation. This is because all language understanding begins with perception. Jowitt (1991) posits that in language understanding, perception precedes production and cognition precedes perception. Related to this is the need to know how others perceive us. Knowing how others perceive us is an important aspect of one’s social life. It will enable individuals to understand their language use as well as that of others. It follows then that users’ self perception of their own accent, other accents users’ perception and user’s metaperception would be an indicator of which accent is generally intelligible and acceptable. This is illustrated in figure 2. 2. Methodology

This is a descriptive survey type. The population for this study comprised all Nigerian users of the EL. The target populations are Nigerians with varying levels of formal education: graduates, Nigerian Certificate in Education holder (NCE), undergraduates, primary school graduates, newscasters, professionals etc. The country was divided into three language regions i.e. North (Kaduna, Hausa dominated), East (Enugu, Igbo dominated), West (Ibadan, Yoruba dominated), using stratified sampling. Incidental sampling was used to get the organizations and establishments where the samples were reached. Random sampling was carried out to get the required number of 60 respondents per region. The distribution of the sample is represented in the table.

Table1. Sampling Grid

Regions Total

Accent North West East Total

1 20 20 20 60

2 20 20 20 60

3 20 20 20 60

Total 60 60 60 180

Two researcher-designed instruments were used. First is the Oral Reading Test for Accent Identification. Here, an admixture of NE users read a short passage and sentences. These not only have areas of phonological difficulties usually exhibited by NE language users but all the sound segments of the language. A table of specification of items on the test was used to streamline respondents into the appropriate accents used by them. Next, the intelligibility and acceptability rating scale in form of a questionnaire with speech recording of the accents used by three speakers, one from each of the identified language regions was used to obtain respondents’ views. The questionnaire was drawn in such a way that respondents were also judges of how intelligible and acceptable the accents they listened to were. The reliability index of the instruments was determined through test-retest technique three weeks after the first administration. Using Pearson Product Moment Correlation Statistics, a reliability coefficient of 0.72 was obtained. The writer personally monitored the speech recordings, listened to respondent read and administered the questionnaire. Data was analyzed using mean, and Standard Deviation (SD) to answer the research questions, while the six hypotheses were analyzed with the statistical tool of Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). 2.1 Analysis of Results The analysis of data collected and the results of the investigation carried out are reported. The analysis is based on the research questions and hypotheses stated in the write up. The mean, SD, and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) results are presented in tables followed by a summary of the findings. Research Question 1: What was users’ self-perception, other users’ perception and user’s metaperception of the intelligibility of each of the three NE accents?




Table 2. Mean and SD results of user’s self perception, other users’ perception and user’s metaperception of the intelligibility of each of the three NE accents.

ENEA (Accent1

RNEA (Accent2)

MTbNEA (Accent3)

User’s self perception

Mean 2.54 2.46 2.71

SD .986 .943 1.02

Other accent users’ perception

Mean 2.67 2.60 2.63

SD .947 .999 .870

User’s metaperception

Mean 2.70 2.54 2.46

SD .975 .859 .888

Table 2 indicates that Accent 3 was the most intelligible, followed by accent 1. Accent 2 was the least intelligible. This is based on respective user’s self perception. The table also indicates that Accent 1 was the most intelligible, Accent 2 was intelligible and Accent 3 was the least intelligible according to respective users’ metaperception of the accents. Research Question 2: What was the user’s self-perception, other users’ perception and user’s metaperception of the acceptability of each of the three NE accents?

Table 3. Mean and SD results of users’self-preception , other users’ perception and user’s metaperception of the acceptability of each of the three NE accents

ENEA (Accent1

RNEA (Accent2)

MTbNEA (Accent3)

Users’self-perception Mean 2.84 2.68 2.48

SD

.917 1.02 .944

Other Users’ perception

Mean 2.76 2.72 2.73

SD

.935 .937 .905

User’s metaperception

Mean 2.68 2.58 2.44

SD

.970 1.01 .933

Table 3 shows that Accent 1 was the most acceptable, Accent 2 was acceptable and Accent 3 was the least acceptable according to users’ self-perception of the acceptability of the accents. The table also indicates that Accent 1 was the most acceptable and Accent 2 was the least acceptable according to other users’ perception. Overall, the table shows that Accent 1 was the most acceptable while accent 3 was the least acceptable according to users’ meatperception. 2.1.1 Hypotheses Testing Hypotheses 1: There is no significant difference in users’ self–perception, other accents users’ perception and users’ metapercerption of the of the intelligibility of the intelligibility of Accent1. Table 4. ANOVA result of each users’ self-perception, other accents users’ perception and users’




metaperception of the intelligibility of Accent1

Sum of square

Df Mean square

F Sig Decision

Between groups Within groups Total

19.83 389.30 409.13

2 177 119

9.91 3.33

2.98

.050

Significant

Duncan post hoc Test Result.

Intelligibility of Accent Subset for alpha = .05

Users’self perception Other accent User’s perception User’s metaperception Significance

N 49 58 73

I 5.12 5.29 5.42 .369

*a a b

* Means of the same letter are not significantly different Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference in users’ metaperception of the intelligibility of Accent 2. Table 5. ANOVA result of each users’ self-perception, other accents users’ perception and users’ metaperception of the intelligibility of Accent 2

Sum of squares

Df

Means square

F

Decision


.624 216.576 217.200

2 177 119

.312 1.851

.168

Not Significant

Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference in users’self-perception, other Accents users’ perception and users’ metaperception of the intelligibility of Accent3. Table 6. ANOVA result of each users’ self-perception, other accents users’ perception and users’ metaperception of the intelligibility of Accent3

Sum of square

df Mean square

F Sig Decision


.624 397.64 437.13

2 177

19.74 3.40 119

5.81

.004

Significant





Intelligibility of Accents Subset for alpha = .05

Users’self perception Other accent User’s perception User’s metaperception Significance

N 58 73 49

I 5.18 5.46 5.79 .35

a b c

* Means of the same letter are not significantly different Hypothesis 4: There is no significant difference in users’self-perception, other Accents users’ perception and users’ metaperception of the intelligibility of Accent1. Table 7. ANOVA result of each user’s self-perception, other accents users’ perception and users’ metaperception of the intelligibility of Accent1.


Sum of square 12.23 280.76 292.99

Df 2 177 119

Mean square 6.12 240

F 2.55

Sig 0.43

Decision Significant


Subset for alpha = .05

Acceptability of accent 1 Users’ self perception Other accent user’ Perception. Users’ metaperception Sig

N 73 58 49

I 4.90 5.18 5.50 .055

b a a

* Means of the same letter are not significantly different. Hypothesis 5: There is no significant difference in users’self-perception, other Accents users’ perception and users’ metaperception of the intelligibility of Accent2.




Table 8. ANOVA result of each user’s self-perception, other accents users’ perception, users’ metaperception of the intelligibility of Accent2.

Sum of square

df Mean square

F Sig Decision


20.22 397.64 437.13

2 17 7

10.11 3.40 119

4.36 .015 Significant




N 58 49 73

I 5.2105 5.3824 .055

a b c

Hypothesis 6: There is no significant difference in users’self-perception, other accents users’ perception and users’ metaperception of the intelligibility of Accent3. Table 9. ANOVA result of each users’ self-perception, other accents users’ perception, users’ metaperception of the intelligibility of Accent3

Sum of square

Df Mean square

F Sig Decision


8.88 321.72 330.59

2 177

4.44 2.75 119

1.6 1

.003 Significant




N 73 58 49

I 5.21 5.29 5.35 .66

a a b

* Means of the same letter are not significantly different




2.2 Summary of Findings The following is a summary of major findings.

S/N INDEX OF MEASURE MOST INTELLIGIBLE LEAST INTELLIGIBLE 1 Users’ Self-perception of accents Accent 3 (MTBNEA) Accent 2 (RNEA)

2 Other User’s Perception of accents Accent 1 (ENEA) Accent2 9RNEA0

3 User’s Metaperception of accents Accent 1 (ENEA) Accent 3 (MTBNEA)

MOST ACCEPTABLE LEAST ACCEPTABLE 1 Users’ Self-perception of accents Accent 1 (ENEA) Accent 3 (MTBNEA)

2 Other Use’s Perception of accents Accent 1 (ENEA) Accent 2 (RNEA)

3 User’s Metaperception of accents Accent 1 (ENEA) Accent 3 MTBNEA)

There was no significant difference in users’ self-perception, other accents users’ perception, and users’ metaperception of the intelligibility of Accent 1. Based on the results, two of the perceptual forms (other accent users’ perception and user’s metaperception) showed that Accent 1 was the most acceptable, while all three perceptual forms indicated that Accent 1 was the most intelligible. 2.2.1 Conclusions and Recommendations The following conclusions and recommendations are based on the summary of finding with close reference to research questions and hypotheses already stated. 2.2.2 Conclusions Based on the results and findings, the following conclusions can be reached. Educated NE accent was the most intelligible and acceptable, followed by the MTbNE accent and the RNE Accent. The least intelligible and acceptable accent was the Regional NE accent. This presents an interesting angle: could it be that NE users favour narrow linguistic ethnicism over broad linguistic regionalism and what are the reasons for this? There was no significant difference on the intelligibility of the Regional NE accent among the three perceptual forms. There is a near perfect convergence on accent 2 (regional NE accent) as the least intelligible. There was also significant difference on the acceptability of each of the three NE accents. In addition, the degree of perceptual convergence for both intelligibility and acceptability among the three perceptual forms learned towards the Educated NE accent making it the most generally intelligible and acceptable among Nigerian users of the English language. Again, this might be because the Educated NE is closest to Standard British English. 2.2.3 Recommendations Based on the findings, it is recommended that language policy makers realistically confront the problem of the NE corpus to be used in teaching and other educational purposes. The Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council and other allied bodies could be commissioned to produce texts on the phonology and phonetics of the educated NE accent found to be most intelligible and acceptable. This would help the process of standardization and codification. In addition, textbook writers should take note of codified variations and write textbooks based on ENE which is closest to Sandard English for the use in educational institutions. Teacher educators should be trained in the rudiments of the Educated NE accent. This would enable students learn the correct and acceptable NE accent.




References Awonusi, V.O (2004). The English language in global context. In A.B.K Dadzie, and S. Awonusi. (eds). Nigerian English, influences and characteristics. Pp. 33-45. Lagos: Concept Pub. Adetugbo, Abiodun. (1987). Nigerian English phonology: Is there any standard? Lagos Review of English Studies IX, 64 -84. Adetugbo, Abiodun. (1987). Nigerian English and Communicative Competence. In E. Ubahakwe (ed) Varieties and Functions of English in Nigeria. pp. 167-183. Ibadan: African University Press. Babatunde, Shola T. (2002a). World Englishes and the Paradox of English Language Teaching in Nigeria. In S.T. Babatunde and D.S. Adeyanju (eds) Language, Meaning and society in honour of E.E. Adegbija at 50. pp. 69-95. Ilorin: Haytee press. Babatunde, Shola T. (2002b). The State of English language in Nigeria. In R.A. Lawal, I. Isiugo Abanihe, 1.N.Ohia (eds) Perspectives in Applied Linguistics in Language and Literature. pp. 129-140.Ibadan: Stirling – Horden. Bamgbose, Ayo. (1995). English in the Nigerian Environment. In A. Bamgbose, A. Banjo, A. Thomas (eds) New Englishes : A West African perspective. pp. 9-26. Ibadan: Mosoro. Banjo, Ayo. (1979). Beyond Intelligibility: A presidential address. In E. Ubahakwe, E (ed) Varieties and Functions of English in Nigeria. pp. 7-13. Ibadan: African University press. Banjo, Ayo. (1995). On Codifying Nigerian English: Research So Far. In A. Bamgbose, A. Banjo, A. Thomas (eds) New Englishes: AWest African Perspective. pp. 203-231.Ibadan: Mosoro. Brosnahan, Leonard F. (1958). English in Southern Nigeria. English Studies 39 (3), pp. 97-110. Crystal, D. (2007). English as a Global Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ekong, P.A. (1980). Investigating into the Intelligibility of a Possible Standard Model for Nigerian Spoken English. In S.O. Umoh. (ed) Jounal of language Arts and Communication. 1(1), pp. 1 – 11. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004, revised 2007). National Policy on Education. Lagos: NERDC Press. Jowitt, David. (1991). Nigeria English Usage: an introduction. Lagos: Longman. Jibril, Munzali. (1986). Sociolinguistic Variation in Nigerian English. English Worldwide 7, pp. 47-75. Kachru, Braj. (1992).World Englishes: Approaches, issues and resources: Language Teaching 25 (1). Cambridge University Press. pp.1-14. Kachru, B.B., Kachru, Y. and Nelson, C. (2009). The Handbook of World Englishes. Wiley-Blackwell Lawal, Adebayo. (2000). Perceptual Convergence as a measure of Acceptability and Intelligibility of Nigerian Englishes. Unpublished paper, Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin. Odumuh, Adama. (1984). Some Methodological Considerations in the Identification and Description of Nigerian English. In R. Freeman & M. Jubril (eds). Papers of Nigerian English Studies Association / British Council Conference, Bayero University Kano, 25 – 31. Odumuh, Adama. (1987). Nigerian English: Selected essays. Pp. iv, 67.Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University Press. Ohia Isaac N. (1997). The Lexicon of Standard Nigerian English As An Acceptability Paradigm Among the Educated Elite. An Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis. University of Ibadan. Soyinka, Wole. (1993). Art, Dialogue and Outrage. Ibadan: New Horn Press. Tiffen, Brian. (1974). The Intelligibility of Nigerian English. Unpublished Ph.D.Thesis. University of London, London. Ubahakwe, Ebo. (1979) (ed). Varieties and Functions of English in Nigeria. Ibadan: Ibadan University Press.




APPENDIX I UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN

DEPARTMENT OF ART AND SOCIAL SCIENCES EDUCATION INTELLIGIBILITY AND ACCEPTABILITY RATING SCALE.

(QUESTIONNAIRE) Dear Respondent, This questionnaire is designed to obtain valid information on which of the three accents of Nigerian English will be most intelligible and acceptance to users. I wish to assure you that all information supplied is for academic purposes and would have significant effect on the outcome of this study.

Thanks Yours faithfully,

F.F. O. Fatimayin (Mrs.)

INSTRUCTION: Please indicate your response by putting a tick (ü) in the appropriate space provided.

1. PART A: PERSONAL / DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION. I. State of Origin.----------------------------------------------------------

II. Place of work.----------------------------------------------------------- III. Status / Rank / Designation.------------------------------------------- IV. Sex : Male ( ) Female ( ) V. Age Range :

a. below 30 ( ) b. 30 - 40 ( ) c. 41 - 50 ( ) d. above 50 ( )

VI. What is your mother tongue? ------------------------------------------------ VII. Which region does your mother tongue belong? ------------------------- (a) North ( ) (b) East ( ) (c) West ( ) VIII. What other Nigerian language(s) are you proficient in? a ----------------------- b ----------------------- c ----------------------- IX. What is your level of Education? a Tertiary (Higher degree) b Tertiary (First degree) c Tertiary (NCE , diploma) d Secondary

e Primary




X Occupation. Please tick the most specific. a. Lecturer / Teacher ( ) b. Professional ( doctor, lawyer, clergyman) ( ) c. Professional writer ( ) d. Journalist ( newspapers / magazine) ( ) e. Broadcaster (radio / TV) ( ) f. Politician ( ) g. Civil servant ( ) h. Others ( Specify) ( )

PART B Dear Respondent, Please listen attentively to the recorded accents (three of them) that would be played to your hearing. Then answer the questions below by ticking ( ü) 1. Rate each accent on the basis of its intelligibility (i.e. how easily you can understand the message of the speaker).

ACCENT V

ER

Y

INT

ELL

IGIB

LE

4

INT

ELL

IGIB

LE

3

FAIR

LY

INT

ELL

IGIB

LE

2

MIN

IMA

LL

Y

INT

ELL

IGIB

LE

1

NO

T

INT

ELL

IGIB

LE

AT

ALL

0

1

2

3

2. Rate each accent on the basis of its acceptability (i.e. the extent to which you like or prefer the accent).

ACCENT

VER

Y

AC

CE

TABL

E

4 A

CC

EPTAB

LE

3

FAIR

LY

AC

CEPTA

BL

E

2

MIN

IMA

LLY

A

CC

EPTAB

LE

1

NO

T A

CC

EPTAB

LE

A

T AL

L

0

1

2

3

3. Rate each accent on the basis of how easily understandable the accent is.

ACCENT

VER

Y

INT

ELLI

GIBL

E

4 IN

TEL

LIG

IBLE

3

FAIR

LY

INT

ELLI

GIBL

E

2

MIN

IMA

LLY

INT

ELLI

GIBL

E

1

NO

T IN

TEL

LIG

IBLE

A

T AL

L

0

1

2

3




4.Rate each accent on the basis of how easily acceptable the accent is (i.e. how readily you feel they will accept it).

ACCENT

VER

Y

AC

CE

TABL

E

4

AC

CEPTA

BL

E

3

FAIR

LY

AC

CEPTA

BL

E

2

MIN

IMA

LLY

AC

CEPTA

BL

E

1

NO

T A

CC

EPTAB

LE

AT A

LL

0

1

2

3

5a. Which of the accent do you prefer most? Accent A ( ) Accent B ( ) Accent C ( ) 5b Why? ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 6a Which of the accents do you most easily understand? Accent A ( ) Accent B ( ) Accent C ( ) 6b. Why? ------------------------------------------------------------------- 7. How would you rate your accent of English?

Very Intelligible Intelligible Fairly Intelligible Minimally Intelligible

Not Intelligible at all

8. How do you feel other accent users rate your accent of English?



9. How acceptable do you think your accent is?



10. How acceptable do you think your accent is to other Nigerian users of English?



APPENDIX II ORAL READING TESTS FOR ACCENT IDENTIFICATION Section A Jimoh: Welcome to my farm, Madam. Agric Officer: Good morning, it’s a pleasure to be here. How is the planting going? Jimoh: Madam, we’ve been waiting for you. Agric Officer: You’ve been waiting for me? It’s only half past seven. Jimoh: That’s true but we’ve been careful not to plant without your instruction.




Agric Officer: Now, I’m here so let’s go straight to business Jimoh: That’ll be very good Madam. Agric Officer: But where are all your assistants? Jimoh: They have all resigned. Agric Officer: They have? Section B On her wedding day, the groom’s people announced their coming only with the aggressive blare of car horns. We were not very impressed by the show. Although we could not see over the hedge, we could tell from the sound that it was a small procession of eight cars. In addition, there was neither video coverage nor cameraman to air it on television. At the end of it all, the occasion was below standard and not pleasurable and one of the worst I have witnessed.

Section C {SENTENCES}

a. Attention please! Passengers for flight 557 should assemble at gate 3. b. At the end of the story, they all shouted with joy. c. The headmaster ordered the boy to go home for six days. d. They are as thick as thieves. e. They could find only a kite near the cushion chair on which the judge sat. f. Watching church programmes on television gives me great pleasure and comfort. g. The seats in the zinc structure are for sitting on. h. He must endure your fury. i. There were lots of red lorries, yellow lorries, lilac lorries being loaded on the road with tubers of

yams. j. The nation is taking measures to provide plenty of permanent jobs for her graduates as well as make

them computer literate. k. The man wearing a purplish pint cape appeared twice on television.

Section D INTONATION I am going home What is your name? Prices have fallen sharply. Are you going home? I don’t like long journeys, do you? Will Busayo accept the gift? James isn’t too young to enter University, but Angela is. You may be right. Would you rather take beans or rice? When the truth is known my stand would be clear. Section E STRESS (DI & POLY SYLLABUS) The car behind stopped at the corner. A man of words and not of deeds Take the beggar away to the foreman He likes to work everyday I have just signed a contract with the Record company. Di syllabic Poly-syllabic window personification Annoy aristocracy Behind photographic Alone separate

Machine objectivity




Null Arguments in the Yoruba Child’s Early Speech Bolanle Elizabeth Arokoyo, PhD

Department of Linguistics and Nigerian Languages, University of Ilorin P. M.B. 1515, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria

Tel: +2348033780568 E-mail: [email protected] Received: 07-05- 2012 Accepted: 27-07- 2012 Published: 03-09- 2012 doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.116 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.116 Abstract This paper studied null arguments in the early speech of the Yoruba child. We examined whether null subjects are more prominent than null objects and whether the usage of null subjects decreases with language development in the early utterance of the Yoruba child. We also examined the relationship between argument ellipses and finiteness. Minimalist Programme was adopted as the theoretical framework because of its provision for minimality in the processes of language acquisition. The database was made up of longitudinal naturalistic speech output of three Yoruba-speaking children between 15and 36 months of age. We discovered the preponderance of null argument-NPs at the initial stage; subjects-NPs were easily omitted while object-NPs were hardly omitted; the three Yoruba-speaking children began to make use of overt argument-NPs from fifteen months and gradually, null argument-NPs gave way. We found no direct relationship between the acquisition of finiteness and the end of null arguments. Keywords: arguments, null, object, subject, finiteness, ellipses 1. Introduction This paper presents findings on acquisition of null arguments in the early speech of the Yoruba child. Finite clauses in Yoruba with the exception of imperative clauses require overt subjects. There are however a number of languages that do not require overt subjects in finite clauses; those languages are called pro-drop languages. A very good example of such languages is Italian. It has however been observed that a well-known characteristic of early grammars is null arguments; that is the omission of subjects and objects. Several studies have discovered that children acquiring non-pro-drop languages allow non-overt subjects in finite clauses and that they also elide objects (Hyams 1986, Sano and Hyams 1994, Radford, 2000, Lorusso, Caprin and Guasti 2004, Cabré Sans and Gavvaro, 2006, Grüter, 2006, 2007). Aronoff (2003) says that null subjects appear to be a universal phenomenon in language acquisition. Hyams (1986) investigates the acquisition of null and overt subjects in English and Italian. The work is an innatist approach following the principles and parameters account of language acquisition. She argues that subjects of the matrix clause in English must be overtly expressed, while in Italian, it may be null. Hyams (1986) observes that children acquiring both English and Italian do omit the matrix subjects of their sentences. She also argues that the proposed pro-drop parameter could account for the ellipsis of pronominal subjects in child language. She proposes that the initial setting of the Null Subject Parameter allows matrix null subjects. She proposes that early subject drop results from a mis-setting of the Null Subject Parameter. Sano and Hyams (1994) assume a relationship between pro-drop in child language and the use of root infinitive structures and the development of inflection by children. They propose that early null subjects should be identified as PRO (null NP that appears in caseless positions). They believe that the presence of root infinitives in early child language leads to pro-drop. The PRO analysis, according to Rohrbacher and Vainikka (1994), maintains that subjectless non-finite matrix clauses are full-fledged Complemetizer Phrases (CPs) which lack AgrS-features. As a consequence, the verb does not have to move to Subject-Agreement Phrase (AgrSP) at Logical Form (LF) and Spec of Subject-Agreement Phrase (AgrSP-Spec) remains ungoverned, thus constituting a possible site for PRO. Lee (2000:101) states that ‘if children’s main clauses can be non-tensed, the subject position of theses clauses will be ungoverned, and PRO will be licensed, hence the possibility of null subjects in root clauses’.




Null arguments according to Radford (2000:8) “are null nouns which are given a null spell-out by virtue of representing given information”. He examines the transcripts of Allison at 22 months. He states that Allison produces a large number of sentences with missing arguments. He finds that 76% of the verbs she produced had a null subject while 51% of the transitive verbs she produced had a null object. He opines that those sentences involve ‘syntactically projected null arguments’ which are directly theta-marked by the verb. He gives the structure for baby eat as follows: 1. [vP [N Baby] [[V ø] [VP[[V eat] [N Ø ]]]] He assumes that null arguments are null nouns which are given null spell-out by virtue of representing given information. He states that the overt nouns and the null nouns that Allison uses is ф-incomplete and lacks person and case properties. He concludes that the merger of a verb with a null ф-incomplete noun involves θ-marking relation between V and N which by implication means there is no case or agreement. Cabré Sans and Gavarró (2006) also study the acquisition of subjects in Catalan, a null subject language. They used the longitudinal data of three Catalan-speaking children, Pep, Gisela and Júlia, with age ranging from 18 to 32months and the speech of the adults interacting with them. They observe that there is no period in which subjects are banned from the speech of children. They state that the early emergence of subjects witnesses not only the availability of mechanisms of the computational system, but also sensitivity to the pragmatic interface which dictates use of overt subjects. Uziel-Karl and Berman (2000) examine the learning of word-order constraints under conditions of object ellipsis. The paper sees acquisition as a stepwise process. The data for the research is a longitudinal corpus collected from four children between the ages of 17 and 28 months and also supplemented by other data. The authors propose different explanations of argument ellipsis at different ages. The authors believe that both grammatical and discourse factors would account for the null arguments in the Hebrew child language. They discuss three factors that influence argument ellipsis. These factors are: permissibility, recoverability and syntactic function. They conclude that pragmatic factors will account for the ellipsis of subject for the younger children while subject ellipsis of the older children is conditioned by morpho-syntactic rules of the language. Allen (2000) examines the factors that contribute to the inclusion or omission of arguments in the longitudinal speech of four Inuktitut children aged between 24 to 42 months. Allen shows that young children are sensitive to the dynamics of information flow (Bavin 2000). She believes that null arguments in child language cannot be accounted for only by grammar-based theories. She argues for an integrated approach of theories of grammar and of discourse pragmatics. In agreement with Uziel-Karl and Berman (2000) and Allen (2000), we also believe that an integrated approach to the study of language acquisition could help to bring out other factors that are involved in language acquisition. Sano and Hyams (1994) propose that the acquisition of finiteness will mean the end of the null subject period for the English-speaking child. Lee (2000) studies the development of Chinese. He states that finiteness has no effect on the occurrence of empty elements. According to Huang (1982) as quoted from Lee (2000:110), if a sentence takes aspect marking or contains a modal, then it should be considered finite. Rohrbacher and Vainikka (1994:13) who examine German verb syntax under age 2, state that similar results are reported for older children acquiring German, Flemish, Dutch, and English in Poeppel and Wexler (1993), Krämer (1993), Haegeman (1994) and Sano and Hyams (1994). As stated earlier, Yoruba does not attest tense morphology, there is no built-in distinction between past and present (Rowland, 1969). We use the presence of modal in a sentence to indicate that a child has acquired finiteness. As Lee (2000) assumes, we also assume that finiteness has no effect on null arguments. Stromqvist and Ragnarsdottir (2000) investigate the use of subject arguments and distribution of spatial arguments by a child acquiring Swedish in the age range 22-24 and 24-26 months respectively. They also study a child acquiring Icelandic at 24-26 months. Stromqvist and Ragnarsdottir (2000) believe that both input and pragmatic factors influence the distribution of arguments in the early stages of acquisition. Unlike Uziel-Karl and Berman (2000), they do not believe in a processing explanation for subject ellipsis. They argue that there are constraints that govern the ellipsis of these arguments. They also state that these constraints are mastered gradually. They conclude that input factors and pragmatic play important role in explaining the structure of the earliest phases of the acquisition of verb arguments. With empirical evidence from the Yoruba child, we make the following predictions: a. The Yoruba child acquires null arguments during early language development.




b. Null subjects are more prominent than null objects in the early utterance of the Yoruba child. c. The rate of usage of null subjects decreases with language development and a co-relational increase in overt subjects in the child Yoruba. d. Argument ellipses are not dependent on finiteness. 2. Methodology Damilare is the first child of educated middle class parents. The parents live and work in Ilorin, the Capital City of Kwara State, Nigeria. The data presented for him covers a period of 15 to 36 months. The data were collected by the mother (the researcher) on a daily basis. Damilare’s data consist of questions, responses and utterances between him and the parents and other members of the family. It also included his utterances while playing alone. We could safely say that the exercise made it possible to know at each point he has acquired anything linguistically significant. The best form of longitudinal data collection should be between a child and any of the parents or someone who lives with the family. This enables close interaction with the child which aids easy data collection. This also removes most possible constraints that may arise. Temiloluwa and Tola are a set of female twins of educated middle class parents. The parents live and work in Ilorin. They have two older siblings, a brother and a sister. The data presented for them in this study cover from 15 months to 36 months. The data were collected by their father daily at home and in other possible situations. The data consist of utterances, responses, questions between the two of them, with their parents and siblings and other members of the family. The data were transcribed immediately after recording into a notebook. Thereafter, the data is typed and stored in the computer for further analysis. All the utterances of the three children were coded for their lexical composition. We took into consideration the bottom-up fashion of building up structure by the children. We carry out a quantitative and qualitative analysis of data. The quantitative analysis uses simple mathematical calculations with the aid of tables and charts. The tables show the percentage of observed phenomena. The bar charts, drawn from the tables are used to show comparison between different items at a particular point in time. The qualitative analysis relies on explanations and tree diagrams. 3. Theoretical Framework The syntactic analysis is carried out using the Minimalist Programme (MP). The idea behind minimalism is that grammars should be as simple as possible. Chomsky is of the opinion that linguistic theory should provide grammars which make use of the minimal theoretical apparatus required to provide a descriptively adequate characterization of linguistic phenomenon. This is a clear departure from the earlier phases of generative grammar with its phrase structure rules and transformational rules. The essential spirit of minimalism is to reduce the theoretical apparatus which we use to describe syntactic structure to a minimum (Radford, 2004:73). The Minimalist Programme, according to Carnie (2002:315), ‘is motivated not only by the search for explanatory adequacy, but also for a certain level of formal simplicity and elegance’. The desire to minimize the acquisition burden placed on the child and thereby maximizes the learnability of natural language grammars led to the beginning of the program (Radford, 1997:7). Language acquisition within the Minimalist Programme is seen as a matter of learning vocabulary, we all speak the same language differing only in vocabularies (Cook, 1996). The program focuses on the process of building up syntactic structures. According to Longa and Lorenzo (2008:541) MP ‘redefined the meta-theoretical role of the theory of acquisition within generative grammar’. The use of two-word utterance by children is believed to be the beginning of grammar. The programme focuses on the process of building up syntactic structures. A phrase is formed by merging two words. Chomsky (1995:396) says it is “an operation that forms larger units out of those already constructed”. Chomsky (1999:2) further describes merge as “the indispensable operation of a recursive system”; he further states that this operation “comes free”. It is always a binary relation; it combines two partial trees to form something new. Merge operation is formulated as: Merge (a, ß):= [λ α β] (where λ is the label of the resulting tree) (Lechner, 2006:4) Merge does not impose any restrictions on the output order of the combining elements. According to Lechner (2006), it doesn’t matter whether read is merged with the book resulting in[read read the book] or [read the book read]. This fact makes it easy to account for early development of language by children. As there are points when there seems to be no restriction in the way they merge elements in their utterances. Following Chomsky




(2004), merge can apply in two types of configurations leading to two types of operations. These are the external or root merge and the internal merge. The external merge is the classic merge operations that lead to structure building and extension while the internal merge refers to Move. Children’s language at the early stage involve external merge. 4. The Yoruba child acquires null arguments during early language development. Across languages, children miss out arguments at the initial stage of acquiring their language. The argument that is missed could be the subject, direct object or indirect object. It is assumed that missing subjects are more readily licensed than missing objects (Hyams 1983, 1986; Wang, Lillo-Martin, Best & Levitt 1992, Hyams & Wexler 1993, Uziel-Karl 2001). In Yoruba, argument positions must be filled. This means that a transitive verb for example, must have two arguments, the subject which is the external argument and the direct object; the internal argument. These are canonical argument positions. These are however missing in the early speech of the Yoruba child. Table 1 provides information about null arguments in the longitudinal speech of Damilare, Temiloluwa and Tola. Table 1. Null NPs in the Yoruba Child: Longitudinal Data from Three Children

Child Age % of Null Subjects % of Null Objects Damilare 17 93% 38.5% 18 94.4% 0% 19 94.3% 1.9% 20 87.1% 0% 21 23.9% 0% 22 34.5% 0% 23 31.7% 0% Temiloluwa 17 36.1% 11.2% 18 13.6% 0% 19 12.5% 0% 20 7.14% 0% 21 0% 0% 22 0% 0% 23 0% 0% Tola 17 66.7% 33.5% 18 25% 33.3% 19 22% 0% 20 20% 0% 21 14.8% 0% 22 0% 0% 23 0% 05% The findings in Table 1 show the preponderance of null subjects at the early stage of the children’s language acquisition, ranging from 93% to 36%. The incidence of null objects as indicated in the data and represented in the table does not show any regular pattern. The children show a minimal percentage of object drop as seen in figure 1 below:




Figure 1. Null NPs in the Utterances of Damilare

In order to have a clear understanding of the phenomenon, we present the following data from Damilare, Temiloluwa and Tola. 2. a. sùn Damilare 18 months

Sleep ‘I want to sleep.’

b. jẹ isu Damilare 18 months


c. fún mi Temiloluwa 18 months

give me ‘Give it to me.’

d. wẹ̀ Temiloluwa 18 months

bathe ‘I want to bathe.’

e. wò ó Temiloluwa 18 months

look it ‘look at it.’

f. jòkó Tola 18 months

Sit down ‘sit down.’

From the examples above, we see that the children have a high percentage of subject elision. Radford (2000) assumes that children freely allow arguments and predicates to be null if they are given information. Given information is information that is assumed to be shared by the speaker and the listener and does not need to be repeated. He claims that in a perfect language, lexical items could have a null Phonetic Form spell-out (PF-Spell-out) if their content can be pragmatically determined. Ellipsis of phrases, the gapping of heads and the zeroing of arguments are instances of null PF-spell-out in adult language. The children’s use of null arguments characterizes a case of null PF spell-out. They take the missing subjects as given information. When we consider




the following example from Damilare 3. sí i mọ́to Damilare 18 months

open it car ‘open the car.’

It seems that he takes the subject daddy as given. The discourse involved him and his father. He gave the car key to him and asked him to open the door of the car. There are also instances where the predicate is taken as given. Those are instances when there are Noun-Noun collocations. The following examples are taking from Damilare’ transcripts:

4. a. mọ ́mì bọọl 18 months mummy ball ‘Mummy give me the ball.’

b. màmá asọ 20 months

mummy clothe ‘Mummy wear my clothe for me.’

c. bàbá mọ́tò 21 months

Daddy car ‘Daddy has gone to the car.’

d. ifeoma yoyoyo fridge 21 months

Ifeoma youghourt frideg ‘Ifeoma put the yoghurt in the fridge.’

When Damilare at 18 months says mọ́mì bọọl ‘mummy ball’, he treats the verbs fún ‘give’ as given and not needing any spell-out, hence the null appearance. According to Radford (2000), what Allison, his subject has failed to learn is that English imposes syntactic constraints on zeroing. This is also true of Yoruba. There are syntactic constraints that make it impossible to have a sentence without a subject or a sentence without a predicate. We assume that because the subject is higher up in the hierarchy which makes it more prominent than others, the child assumes it is a given information shared by him and the listener and so it is elided (left out) but it is there underlyingly. This makes it covert argument rather than null. It is therefore not absent, only not realized phonetically; it is a null PF-spell out. 5. Null Subjects are more Prominent than Null Objects in the Early Utterance of the Yoruba Child. The subject and object positions are canonical argument positions that must be filled in Yoruba language. As observed above, children miss out arguments at the initial state in the course of acquiring the argument structure of their language. We however discover that there are more null subjects than null objects in the speech of the Yoruba child. Table 2 answers the question of whether null subjects are more prominent than null objects in the early speech of the Yoruba child. Table 2. Null Subjects are more Prominent than Null Objects in the Yoruba Child: Longitudinal Data from Three Children

Child Age of Null Subjects % of Null Objects Damilare 17 93% 38.5% 18 94.4% 0% 19 94.3% 1.9% 20 87.1% 0% 21 23.9% 0% 22 34.5% 0% 23 31.7% 0% Temiloluwa 17 36.1% 11.2% 18 13.6% 0% 19 12.5% 0%




20 7.14% 0% 21 0% 0% 22 0% 0% 23 0% 0% Tola 17 66.7% 33.5% 18 25% 33.3% 19 22% 0% 20 20% 0% 21 14.8% 0% 22 0% 0% 23 0% 05% Taking a look at the speech of the three children, we discover that Damilare at 17 months records 93% of null subjects while null objects was 38.5%. Temiloluwa at 17months records 36.1% of null subjects and 11.2% of null objects while Tola’s null subjects at 17 months are 66.7%, her null objects stood at 33.5%. From the foregoing, we can say that null subjects are more prominent than null objects in the early speech of Yoruba children. Figure 2 below further illustrates this fact.

Figure 2. Null NPs in the Utterances of Damilare

We can see from the chart above that null subjects are more prominent in the speech of Damilare than null objects and also that null subjects decrease with age just as null objects. 6. The rate of usage of null subjects decreases with language development and a co-relational increase in overt subjects in the child Yoruba. At the initial stage, there is a high level of null subjects. With time, the amount of overt subjects will increase with a co relational decrease in null subjects. Table 3 shows that null subjects gradually give way to overt subjects while a graphic representation of this information is given in Figure 3 below. Table 3. Distribution of Null and Overt Subject NPs in the Early Sentences of the Yoruba Child: Longitudinal Data from Three Children

Child Age % of Null Subjects % of Overt Subjects Damilare 17 93% 7% 18 94.4% 5.6% 19 94.3% 5.7%




20 87.1% 12.9% 21 23.9% 76.1% 22 34.5% 65.5% 23 31.7% 68.3% Temiloluwa 17 36.1% 63.9% 18 13.6% 86.4% 19 12.5% 87.5% 20 7.14% 92.9% 21 0% 100% 22 0% 100% 23 0% 100% Tola 17 66.7% 33.3% 18 25% 75% 19 22% 78% 20 20% 80% 21 14.8% 85.2% 22 0% 100% 23 0% 100%

Figure 3. Distribution of Null and Overt Subject in the Early Utterances of Tola

Table 3 and Figure 3 show a gradual decrease in null subjects and a gradual increase in overt subjects. For example, at 17 months, Tola records 66.7% null subjects and 33.3% of overt subject while at 21months, null subjects have dropped to 14.8%and overt subjects increased to 85.2% and by 23 months there is no record of null subject as it has dropped to 0% and overt subjects have taken over with 100%. Looking figure 3 above, we see that Tola’s null subjects begin at 66.7% and gradually move to 0% while her overt subjects begin at 33.3% and move to the highest level of 100%. The line shows an increase and a decrease in null and overt subjects respectively. From this analysis, it is very clear that as the language of the Yoruba child develops, null




subjects give way for overt subjects. At the initial stage, the one word stage, the child uses only verbal items which are regarded as action words and nominal items. By the time the child moves to the two-word stage, the vocabulary has been expanded widely. At that stage, he begins to combine words. Other lexical items have also entered the lexicon. There is however the preponderance of missing arguments, especially subjects in their speech. This gives credence to the earlier claim made that missing subjects are more readily licensed than missing objects. Examples (5), (6) and (7) illustrate these in the speech of the three longitudinal children at eighteen months. 5. a. jẹ isu

eat yam ‘I want to eat yam.’ Damilare

b. kpa á

kill it ‘I killed it.’ Damilare

6. a. fẹ tọ want urinate ‘Want to urinate’ Temiloluwa

b. gbe ẹsẹ

carry leg ‘carry your leg’ Temiloluwa

7. a gbé e

carry it ‘I carried it.’ Tola

b. sùn

sleep ‘I want to sleep.’ Tola

The speech of the children represents a simple case of merging especially for transitive verbs as intransitive verbs would occur without any complement. The diagrams in (8) and (9) below illustrate this.

8. VP

DP VI

Ø V DP

jẹ isu eat yam “ate yam”

9. VP

DP VI

Ø V




sùn Sleep

Diagram (8) represents the structure of a transitive verb while (9) represents the structure of an intransitive verb. We could safely say that at this stage, the speech of the child is yet to project to a full clause as all tense and agreement are absent. Deprez and Pierce (1993) claim that the grammar of children differs from that of the adult not because they lack functional categories or movement but because they allow the subject NP to remain in the VP. Works on missing arguments in the generative framework have characterised argument ellipsis using different parameters. (Hyams 1983, 1986, 1992, 1994) sees missing subjects in terms of the pro-drop parameter. Radford (2000) sees null arguments as null nouns which are given a null spell-out by virtue of representing given information. The Prominence theory also assumes that it is easier for the subject to be missing because it is the external argument which is higher up on the scale and therefore more prominent than other arguments We assume in this study that null arguments in the early speech of the Yoruba child arise due to different reasons. We are constrained to examine only the generative syntactic reasons. We believe that missing arguments are syntactically active and represented even though they are phonetically null; silent and invisible (cf. Balogh and Grodzinky, 2000). This means that they are implicit arguments; inherent and unspoken. Following Radford (2000), most often, null arguments in the speech of the Yoruba child are given null spell-out because the child feels it is given information. The problem however is that given information needs to be shared by the speaker and the listener, this fact the child does not seem to know at this stage, hence missing arguments. 7. Argument ellipses are not dependent on finiteness. On the relationship between Finiteness and Null Arguments, we predict that there is no direct relationship between the acquisition of finiteness and the end of null arguments. There is ample cross-linguistic evidence to show that early child grammars are devoid of TENSE (Brown 1973, Hyams 1986, Aldridge 1989 and Radford 1991). We discovered from the data of the children that subjects of finite sentences are hardly omitted. This is shown in Table 4. Table 4. Overt Subjects and Finiteness

Damilare 21- 23 months Finite Clauses Non-Finite Clauses Overt subject 96.3% 59.2% Null subject 3.75% 40.8% Temiloluwa 17-21 months Overt subject 100% 66.7% Null subject 0% 33.3% Tola 17-21 months Overt subject 100% 50% Null subject 0% 50%

From the table above and as stated earlier, we deduce that most utterances with modals which we classify as finite always have overt subjects. This does not necessarily mean that the acquisition of finiteness signifies the end of null arguments as most non-finite clauses in the child’s utterances come with null subjects. From the one-word stage to the two-word stage, the children are yet to acquire finiteness. 10. a. gbé e Damilare 18 months

carry it ‘Mummy carry me.’

b. màmá sùn Damilare 18 months

mummy sleep ‘Mummy is sleeping.’




c. mummy nà á Damilare 18 months mummy beat it ‘Mummy beat me.’

d. fún mi Temiloluwa 18 months

give me ‘Give it to me.’

e. je isu Tola 18 months


Assuming that modals are base-generated in T in adult Yoruba, we believe that once the children have acquired modals, they have started the process of acquisition of finiteness in the language. By eighteen months, Temiloluwa and Tola have started to acquire finiteness as evidenced with the use of tí ‘have’, ń ‘PROG’ in their speech. Finiteness also began to appear in Damilare’s speech at twenty months. We have the following examples from the children: 11. a. Ó ti yà igbẹ ́ Temiloluwa 18 months

She has poupou ‘She has poupoued.’

b. Temi ti n bọ Temiloluwa 18 months

Temi be PROG come ‘Temi is coming.’

c. ẹsẹ̀̀ ti n dùn mi Tola 18 months

leg be PROG pain me ‘My leg is beginning to pain me.’

d. Temi ti sùn Tola 19 months

Temi has sleep ‘Temi has slept.’

e. daddy ti lọ Damilare 20 months

daddy has go ‘Daddy has gone.’

f. bàbá ti dé Damilare 22 months

daddy has come ‘Daddy has come.’

It should be noted that Yoruba does not really mark finiteness overtly. This means that along with this overt marking with aspectuals, other utterances with no overt marking are also finite. The following examples are taken from Temiloluwa at 21 months: 12. a. ó gbà lọ́wọ ́ mi

she take from hand my ‘She took it from me.’

b. ó gbé omi sáré

He carry water run ‘He carried the water and ran.’

c. mo fẹ́́ lọ sùn

I want go sleep ‘I want to go and sleep.’




Over time, the usage of finite sentences becomes very frequent. We note that most of the finite utterances of the children have subjects. The finite utterances in Damilare’s speech that lacks subjects are used like imperatives. For example: 13. a. ti tán Damilare 21 months

has finish ‘It has finished.’

b. ti tó Damilare 23 months

has enough ‘It is enough.’

The absence of tense allows null subjects but does not disallow overt subject. This means that the beginning of the acquisition of finiteness does not signify the end of null subjects. The reason for this is that at the same time the children use overt subjects with finite sentences, they also use null subjects with non-tensed sentences. This stage signifies a reduction and eventual take-over of overt subjects from null subjects. At this point, it is clear that the children have acquired finiteness. At this stage in the syntax of the children, the subject that hitherto had remained in spec-VP before the acquisition of finiteness has now moved to spec-TP as illustrated below. 14. TP

DP TI

Ó T VP

ti D VI

t V DP yà igbẹ́ She has cut poupou

‘She has poupoued.’ We can see from the diagram above that the subject ó ‘she’ originated from the spec-VP which is a position of merger and where it is theta-marked and moves to spec-TP where it can have its case checked. It is a case of internal movement, a situation where a constituent moves because it has to move. We also assume that at this stage, the case feature that was uninterpretable has become interpretable to the children. By the time the Yoruba child is three years old, null arguments have given way to overt arguments in his utterances. The implication of this is that, all the children’s sentences are finite. This is in consonance with previous findings that children have acquired finiteness from age two (Aldrige 1989, Radford 1990, 1991). We believe that language acquisition involves incremental feature-building which has a direct relationship with cognitive maturation. By comparing the children at different ages, we can see that as they mature cognitively, they are able to make use of more complex features. This also gives credence to the fact that with age and further cognitive development, null arguments disappear in the utterance of the Yoruba child while overt arguments take over. 8. Conclusion Four research questions were asked under this sub-heading. It is a known fact across languages; children miss out arguments at the initial stage of acquiring their language. We discover a preponderance of null subjects at the early stage of the Yoruba children’s acquisition of argument structure. The children’s use of null arguments characterizes a case of null PF-spell-out. They take the missing subjects as given information. We also discovered that null subjects are more prominent in the speech of the children than null objects and also that they decrease with age. As the amount of overt subjects increase there is a co relational decrease in null subjects in the utterances of Yoruba children. We conclude following Radford (2000), that most often, null arguments in the speech of the Yoruba child are




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Comparison of Gratitude across Context Variations: A Generic Analysis of Dissertation Acknowledgements Written by Taiwanese

Authors in EFL and ESL Contexts Wenhsien Yang

Department of Applied English, National Kaohsiung University of Hospitality and Tourism 1, Shung-ho Rd., Hsiao-kang, Kaohsiung 812, Taiwan

Tel: 886-7-8060505 E-mail: [email protected] Received: 18-07- 2012 Accepted: 01-08- 2012 Published: 03-09- 2012 doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.130 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.130 Abstract Research on generic structures of acknowledgements in dissertations has gradually drawn attention in various contexts. However, there is relatively scant research on the ways in which acknowledgements are written by authors with mutually similar cultural backgrounds but in two different academic environments and language contexts. To fill this gap, this study compared 60 PhD dissertation acknowledgements written by Taiwanese postgraduates in Taiwan, an EFL context, with another 60 written by Taiwanese scholars who obtained their doctorates in the United States, an ESL context. The focus was on the generic structures and linguistic features of the writing styles of the two groups. The study aimed to investigate whether divergences existed in the two different academic and language settings, but with the writers sharing the same cultural and language background. If such divergences did exist, the likely causes would be explored. The results revealed that firstly, the participants in both contexts generally followed a three-tier structure when writing their dissertation acknowledgements, namely, reflecting, thanking, and announcing moves. However, academic conventions, institutional preferences and the language context, together with socio-cultural factors, affected their construction of moves/steps and their choice of linguistic elements. It was found that the rhetorical language in both corpora was relatively direct, emotional and precise. Keywords: genre analysis, dissertation acknowledgements, generic structure, speech acts, rhetorical choices, contextual influences, keyword analysis 1. Introduction Expressing gratitude in academia is a frequent practice and thus acknowledgements are commonly seen in different types of academic texts, especially in theses and dissertations (DA) (Note 1). DA offer authors a place to construct their personal identity and professional engagement, and to display disciplinary connections with those whom they wish to publicly recognise (Hyland, 2004b). Hence, for dissertation authors, DA are not merely a list of those individuals acknowledged2 for their assistance during a long and demanding research process, but they also provide a means to “balance debts and responsibilities as well as to display their immersion in scholarly networks, their active disciplinary membership, and their observance of the valued academic norms of modesty, gratitude and appropriate self-effacement” (Hyland & Tse, 2004: 273). In writing DA, authors try to identify themselves with the appreciated parties, and they seek appropriate formal ways to recognise mutual interactions. Yet, researching DA is generally regarded as relatively marginal and peripheral to the central task of studying English for academic purposes (EAP) (Hyland, 2004b) compared to other sections of research journal articles or dissertations such as the introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion and conclusion. For researchers and postgraduate students, DA are not merely a list of those acknowledged (Note 2) for their assistance, but they also encourage authors “to express their interpersonal network explicitly and honestly in the academic community“ (Cheng, 2012: 8). Unfortunately, many writers may have problems expressing gratitude adequately while composing this academic genre (Hyland, 2004). In particular, DA are not only rhetorically sophisticated and formatively complex but also have socio-pragmatic connections. A number of issues are involved in DA, such as how writers in various cultures and social contexts perceive and express their gratitude,




how socio-cultural and disciplinary preferences affect the presentation of those who are thanked, or how academic conventions and the use of English as an L1 or a foreign or second language in different social contexts influence the thanking strategies adopted and the linguistic choices made. That is, DA involve not only linguistic realisations but also social and cultural pragmatism (Cheng, 2012). Previous investigations of DA have mainly focused on the expressions of gratitude and their generic structure used by a single ethnic group in one social context (Hyland, 2004b; Hyland & Tse, 2004; Zhao & Jiang, 2010), or the comparisons of DA written by native speakers of English (NS) and non-native speakers of English (NNS) in two different social contexts (Cheng, 2012; Lasaky, 2011). Research comparing DA written only by NNS writers who share the same culture but study in two different socio-cultural and language contexts (i.e., EFL, where English is used as a foreign language like Taiwan and China versus ESL, where English is used as a second language like Hong Kong) is still relatively understudied. Furthermore, none of the existing research on DA has analysed the keywords used in composing DA, whose ‘aboutness’ and ‘keyness’ are considered to help researchers identify the significant differences of DA from other genres and determine the key features of this genre and its style (Archer, 2009; Baker, 2009; Scott & Tribble, 2006). Therefore, this study aims to compare and contrast DA written by Taiwanese students in Taiwan (TW) and in the United States (US) in terms of their generic structure, linguistic features, the people who are thanked, strategies of expressing gratitude, keyword use, the possible causes of divergences if any, and implications for instructing writing DA. It is hoped that this examination can bridge the research and pedagogical gap in studying the reciprocal relationship between texts and contexts. 2. Background to the study Genres consist of a series of goal-oriented communicative events formed out of schematic structures, and those who take part in these events share the same communicative purposes (Swales, 1990). A genre is highly structured and conventionalised, and has specific constraints such as lexis and moves exploited by the members in a community to achieve communicative purposes (Bhatia, 1993). Besides, genres tend to be connected with the organisation of culture and social purposes around language (Bhatia, 1993: Swales, 1990). Analysing a genre can help ESP practitioners and writers identify how texts are structured and distinguished in social and cultural contexts in order to realise their communication purposes (Hyland, 2004a). In addition, genre analysis also offers “explicit and systematic explanations of the ways language functions in social contexts” (Hyland, 2004a: 18), which helps writers acquire the specialist culture (Bhatia, 1997). Hyland (2007) advocates analysing genres from a broader (i.e., contextual) focus, while Paltridge (2001) suggests a narrower (i.e., linguistic) approach. Both Paltridge (2001) and Hyland (2007) recommend providing learners with the knowledge and skills necessary to communicate in particular situations, thus allowing them to gain access to socially powerful forms of language. When conducting genre analysis on academic texts, researchers can adopt one of two main approaches, namely generic moves at a macro-level or linguistic features at a micro-level. A large number of studies have relied on macro-level analysis to investigate moves/steps in academic texts such as research/conference paper titles, (Afful & Mwinlaaru, 2010a; Haggan, 2004), abstracts (Hyland, 2000; Lorés, 2004; Martin, 2003; Salager-Meyer, 1990; Samaraj, 2005), introductions (Bhatia, 1993; Dudley-Evans & Henderson, 1990; Holmes, 1997; Samaraj, 2002; Swales, 1981, 1990), results (Atai & Falah, 2005; Brett, 1994; Thompson, 1993; Williams, 1999), discussions (Atai & Falah, 2005; Holmes, 1997, Hopkins & Dudley-Evans, 1988; Nodoushan & Khakbaz, 2011), and conclusions (Bunton, 2002; Yang & Allison, 2003). Most of the above studies on academic genres either adopted or adapted Swales’ (1990) CARS model (creating a research space while writing introductions in research articles) to explore the issues of generic structures in academic texts. Both generic moves and linguistic features have recently received equal attention from genre researchers in their analysis of acknowledgements in academic settings. Giannoni (2002) was the first genre analyst to systematically examine the features and structure of research journal article acknowledgements. He analysed 100 acknowledgements in English and Italian scholarly journal articles from a genre-analytic perspective, paying attention to the issues of generic complexity and staging, personal involvement and peer-reference, authorial responsibility and pragmatic appropriateness. His research concluded that generic structures of acknowledgements in journal articles not only reflect the differences of the various disciplines, but are also affected by the patterns of national disciplinary communities. However, it was Hyland’s (2003, 2004b) and Hyland and Tse’s (2004) studies that precisely established the three-tier structure of acknowledgements in dissertations, which has become a reference model for later similar research. Hyland collected 240 MA and PhD dissertations written by Hong Kong Chinese-speaking postgraduates (HKC) from six academic disciplines in




order to analyse how the acknowledgements (DA) were structured to express gratitude. The results of that study demonstrated that DA not only “play an important role in promoting a competent, even rhetorically skilled, scholarly identity“ of the acknowledgers, but also reveal the social and cultural characteristics of DA in situated settings (Hyland, 2003: 266). One obligatory move, namely, the Thanking Move, together with two optional moves and several sub-divided steps, were identified in DA as outlined In Table 1 (Hyland, 2004b). Table 1. Moves/steps of DA

Moves/steps Description

1. Reflecting Move Introspective comment on the writer’s research experience

2. Thanking Move Mapping credit to individuals and institutions

2.1 Presenting participants Introducing those to be thanked

2.2 Thanking for academic assistance

Thanks for intellectual support, ideas, analyses, and feedback, etc.

2.3 Thanking for resources Thanks for data access, clerical, technical, and financial support

2.4 Thanking for moral support Thanks for encouragement, friendship, sympathy, patience, etc.

3. Announcing Move Public statement of responsibility and inspiration

3.1 Accepting responsibility An assertion of authorial responsibility for flaws and errors

3.2 Dedicating the thesis A formal dedication of the thesis to one or more individuals

Examples of these moves and steps selected from the two corpora in this study are: Move 1 This dissertation is a record of my formative years at NTU, and is the outcome of a dream fulfilled

by an ambitious but unfledged dreamer. Move 2 Step 2.1

I ought to thank a lot of people for the coming into existence of this dissertation.

Step 2.2 To Dr. C and Dr. C, my advisors, for their wisdom, guidance, intellectual challenge, encouragement, and patience throughout my life.

Step 2.3 Most importantly, I thank him for his financial support to me during these years so I can take care of my PhD study and my family at the same time.

Step 2.4 I am greatly indebted to my parents for their selfless love and full support for my study, my career and family life.

Move 3 Step 3.1

Of course, any mistakes that remain are my own.

Step 3.2 Finally, this dissertation is dedicated to those who support my study with generous help, encouragement and enlightenment.

Hyland and Tse (2004) further examined the linguistic features used to realise the thanking move. The results reveal that nomination patterns (e.g., My sincere thanks to Prof. W. or My deepest gratitude goes to Dr. Y.) are the commonest expressions used to convey gratitude. The acknowledgers tend to use adjectives and adverbs to intensify their gratitude, and most of the authors are comfortable using the first person pronoun I as the authorial subject (e.g. I am deeply grateful for their understanding and patience during the past seven years.). These three studies opened a window for subsequent research to scrutinise DA in more detail. Some researchers have made comparisons of DA written in different contexts, some have searched for new moves/steps, while others have integrated discussions of the influences of culture and society on DA language use. For instance, Zhao and Jiang (2010) followed Hyland’s (2004b) and Hyland and Tse’s (2004) models to explore China Chinese-speaking postgraduates’ (CNC) DA by collecting 20 MA and 20 PhD dissertations from language-related disciplines such as applied linguistics, English language and literature. They compared the similarities and differences in the DA of HKC and CNC in terms of their generic structure, gratitude expressions




and the modifiers used in the thanking acts. Their conclusion was that even though the participants in both cases were Chinese speakers, and generally their DA followed Hyland’s three-tier structure, some major differences still exist. These include “the absence of reflecting and announcing moves, especially step 3.2 of the latter [and] the excessive use of bare mention form and modifiers in thanking acts” (e.g. Dr. R. deserves to have many words of gratitude from me). Modifiers such as sincere, special, heartfelt, or hearty) (Zhao & Jiang, 2010: 108) are used in the CNC’ DA due to the cultural and academic differences in the two contexts. Yang (2011) further compared DA written by CNC, HKC and Taiwanese Chinese-speakers (TWC), and found that the authors in the three contexts generally followed the same three-tier structure in writing DA. However, contextual factors such as academic, socio-cultural or geographical differences in the three settings also affected their construction of moves and choices of linguistic elements. For example, it was found that the rhetorical language was relatively direct, emotional, and definite in the DA written by Taiwanese. Moreover, a new step called Making a Confession (e.g., Meanwhile, I want to give the most heartbreaking apology to my husband and kids for the family time sacrificed by my study), which was not reported in the other two settings, was identified in the TWC’ DA. In addition to the settings of Chinese culture, a number of DA studies have been conducted in Muslim settings such as Arabs. In these studies, in addition to analysing the generic structures and linguistic features of DA, much emphasis is placed on how social and cultural factors affect the formation of moves/steps and identities. For example, Al-Ali (2006, 2010) investigated 100 Arab PhD students’ DA in several Middle Eastern countries, and found that his participants frequently used performative verbs (e.g., thank, appreciate, or acknowledge) to convey their gratitude. Most importantly, a new step was identified, namely Thanking Allah (God). Al-Ali claimed that due to religious beliefs and the local academic and social conventions, the Arab acknowledgers tended to use specific contextualised components to realise their thanking acts. Thus, they were scrupulous about their rhetorical choices, naming practices and organisation conventions in their DA. Al-Ali’s research indicates that DA do not just list the assistance received from the acknowledgees, but also reveal how writers perceive different selves in their interaction with their peers according to culture-specific preferred conventions. In other words, genres are dynamic and can be shaped and appropriated to accommodate newly accepted practices and to generate new constructions (Al-Ali, 2010; Bhatia, 2004). In Cameroon, Nkemleke (2006) applied sociolinguistic and cultural-based approaches, and the co-operation principle (Grice, 1975), to investigate 200 DA collected between 1990 and 1999. The results reveal that Cameroonian writers tend to use nativised deferential strategies and nominal phrases to display good manners to supervisors and seniors under the influence of the cultural belief that one’s success or achievements come from the collective efforts of an extended community. Thus, he ascertained that culture plays a crucial role in shaping non-native English texts such as DA and “understanding texts produced in a specific non-English culture setting may therefore involve a proper appreciation of the expectations of the people there” (ibid. pp. 181). In contrast, Afful and Mwinlaaru (2010b) did a case study on the DA of one MA student from Ghana, in which they discovered that the writer systematically applied various lexical, grammatical and discoursal elements while constructing his identities and relationships with the acknowledgees, and only Thanking and Reflecting Moves were identified in the data. Depending on the status of different parties, the writer exercised a hybrid discourse in his DA. Hence, Afful and Mwinlaaru claimed that hybridism was a key feature of that particular DA. Their finding that writers use different linguistic items to express their gratitude in thanking acts has been confirmed in other studies (Hyland & Tse, 2004; Zhao & Jiang, 2010). However, the use of a single DA to come to the conclusion that there are only two moves in Ghanaian DA is rather sweeping, since this one example could reflect no more than the personal preferences of the single informant. The most recent research on DA has been by Lasaky (2011), Cheng and Kuo (2011) and Cheng (2012). Lasaky also relied on Hyland’s (2004b) framework to compare DA in PhD dissertations written by native English speakers (NS) and non-native English-speaking Iranian students (NNS) majoring in applied linguistics. His results show that generally both of the groups followed Hyland’s scheme and there was no statistical difference between the two in terms of constructing DA. Imitation or verbatim copying may be one reason why DA are seldom formally taught (Hyland, 2003; Scrivener, 2009). Similarly, Lasaky also identified the step of Thanking Allah (God) in the NNS group as the previous studies found in a similar context, that is, the Muslim students in Al-Ali’s studies (2006, 2010). However, in contrast to Hyland’s corpus, an extra separate dedication page was found in both groups’ dissertations, and further, the DA of the NNS group lacked a Reflecting Move or Accepting Responsibility Step, both of which appeared in the DA of the NS group. Lasaky explained that this was for cultural reasons, that is, Iranian students usually perceive writing a dissertation as their own duty, while




accountability is not given importance in their culture. In Taiwan, Cheng and Kuo (2011) studied 20 master’s DA, and found that Taiwanese writers tend to express their thanks explicitly, using overt thanking words. Also, advisors were always appreciated first, using more complex strategies compared to those used for the other acknowledgees. Furthermore, Cheng (2012) in another contrastive study concluded that subtle differences exist between Taiwanese students’ and native English speakers’ DA due to the embedded socio-pragmatic perceptions of writing this genre. In contrast to the above studies, Scrivener (2009) used a diachronic approach to investigating 219 DA written by history PhD students at one university between 1930 and 2005. Firstly, she noticed that, in her corpus, libraries, librarians, and archivists were the second most commonly acknowledged group, after the thesis committee. This may be because history students rely on libraries and archives more than students from other disciplines. Secondly, it was found that formality in language has decreased over the past 70 years; therefore, the exclusive use of the first person pronoun I as the authorial subject increased dramatically from 42.9% in the 1930s to 100% in 2005, while the use of the third person and passive voice decreased from 57.1% in the 1930s to 0.0% in 2005. Students are now also more willing to acknowledge the moral support received from fellow students, academic colleagues, friends and family members, and they expect to gain professional attention by associating with and expressing gratitude to superiors. She concluded that this change reflects history PhD students’ current life in that they are not ‘lone scholars’ as they once were. Rather than depending on cultural influences to explain the differences, Scrivener portrayed the evolution of DA and then inferred details of the writers’ lives from the perspective of the societal changes reflected in their academic writing. In other words, a DA is not merely a form, but mirrors a life and a way of living through interaction and communication (Bazerman, 1997). In sum, most of the research discussed above followed Hyland’s (2003, 2004b) scheme of the three-tier structure to study the generic moves and linguistic features of DA used to realise thanking acts. Socio-cultural factors, which were not included in Hyland’s studies, have received much attention from genre researchers in their analysis of this particular genre. Thus, new steps such as Thanking Allah (God) were found to occur in Arab cultures, and in Taiwan, a newly identified step is Making a Confession (e.g., Meanwhile, I want to give the most heartbreaking apology to my husband and kids for the family time scarified by my study or My only apology goes to my two little ones, Albert and Victoria). This tendency corresponds to the claims that firstly, genres are not fixed, but are dynamic and open-ended; thus, lexical and generic elements along with cultural preferences will shape a new generic frame (Bhatia, 2004; Frow, 2006). Secondly, merely focusing on identifying moves is no longer sufficient; the roles of writers and the expectations of their communities must also be considered (Flowerdew & Dudley-Evans, 2002: 465). The majority of the studies discussed above either investigated DA in a single context, or compared and contrasted acknowledgements across different settings of the same culture, or compared those written by NNS and NS. Most confirmed that socio-cultural factors affect how a DA is structured, and that linguistic elements are applied to realise the thanking acts. However, a comparison of DA written by writers sharing the same culture but influenced by different contextual factors such as English status and academic conventions has not as yet been carried out. Besides, no existing study explicitly addresses the issue of the keywords used in writing DA and their keyness and aboutness for this genre. In order to fill this gap, the present exploratory study investigates doctoral DA written by Taiwanese authors in Taiwanese universities (TWU-TWC) and in American universities (USU-TWC). It examines whether the academic environments and English context (i.e., EFL vs. ESL) are also factors affecting generic structures and language choice in writing a DA, or whether cultural background prevails over these two factors to decide move construction and linguistic preferences as well as keyword use. Furthermore, to obtain a holistic view of how cultural factors affect DA in various academic environments and English contexts within the same culture, the results of Hyland (2003, 2004b) and Hyland and Tse’s (2004) studies in Hong Kong (an ESL context), as well as those of Zhao and Jiang’s (2010) study in China (an EFL context) are also duly compared and contrasted with the findings of the Taiwanese writers in this study. 3. Corpora and Procedures In Taiwanese universities, dissertations written in English are generally only required in English-related disciplines; thus, the 60 DA collected for this study all came from English linguistics (LIN), English language education (ELT) and English literature (LIT) departments, and were selected from a search of the database of the National Library Digital Theses and Dissertations in Taiwan. To make a compatible comparison, DA written by TWC in American universities were selected from the same three disciplines, using the ProQuest Digital Dissertations database. To ensure that the dissertations were written by Taiwanese, four criteria were applied as




gatekeepers to confirm the authors’ nationality: setting the keywords to limit the topics to those related to Taiwan only, checking the author’s name spelling system (Note 3), reading the author’s curriculum vitae, and screening based on the content of the abstracts and acknowledgements. Twenty PhD DA were selected from each discipline. Thus, in total, 60 DA written by TWU-TWC and another 60 by USU-TWC were collected as the two corpora for this study. The USU corpus consisted of 23,676 words, while the TWU corpus consisted of 23,274 words, with an average text length of 394.6 words and 387.9 words, respectively. This was similar to the length of the texts in Hyland’s study (i.e., 385.9) but was shorter than those in Zhao and Jiang’s (i.e., 437.9) by around 50 words. The samples were analysed from two perspectives, generic structure and linguistic features. Firstly, the generic structure of the 120 texts was examined manually according to Hyland’s (2004b) scheme. This examination was performed by the researcher and one NNS colleague. To ensure that there was a consensus of categorisation of moves and steps, two randomly-selected texts from each major from the TWU and the USU corpora (giving a total of 12 texts) were examined and compared, and inter-coder reliability of 86% was achieved. Secondly, the choices of sentence patterns, modifiers, hedges, acknowledgees and keywords used in the thanking acts, and the use of authorial subjects, were studied. WordSmith Tools v 5.0 (Scott, 2008) was used to conduct the corpus analysis. In addition, a t-test was used to determine if any statistically significant differences existed between the two corpora. 4.1 Results and Discussion 4.1 Generic structure Table 2. Relative frequency of steps in each text by discipline and context

US-based Taiwan-based ELT LIN LIT All ELT LIN LIT All Total 1. Reflecting 0.2 0.2 0.15 0.18 0.25 0.25 0.1 0.2 0.19 2. Thanking Step 2.1 1.1 0.55 0.55 0.73 1 1.55 0.85 1.13 0.93 Step 2.2 4.2 4.4 4.2 4.26 3.95 4.85 3.6 4.13 4.19 Step 2.3 1.4 1.8 1.6 1.6 2.3 1.6 1.3 1.73 1.66 Step 2.4 4.1 2.6 3.15 3.28 4 4.75 3.35 4.03 3.65 3. Announcing Step 3.1 0 0 0.05 0.01 0 0.1 0.1 0.06 0.03 Step 3.2 0.4 0.5 0.45 0.45 0.65 0.25 0.25 0.38 0.41 Average per text

11.4 10.05 10.15 10.53 12.15 13.35 9.55 11.65 11.09

Note: ELT: English language teaching, LIN.: Linguistics, LIT.: Literature. T-test: All US vs. All TW, p=0.4700 Table 3. Percentages of acknowledgement with each step by discipline and context

US-based Taiwan-based ELT LIN LIT All ELT LIN LIT All Total 1. Reflecting 25 20 15 20 10 20 10 13 17 2. Thanking Step 2.1 55 60 55 57 95 65 55 71 64 Step 2.2 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Step 2.3 80 95 60 78 90 65 55 70 74 Step 2.4 100 90 90 93 100 100 90 96 95 3. Announcing Step 3.1 0 0 0 2 0 10 10 6 4 Step 3.2 35 40 35 37 65 25 25 38 38 Note: ELT: English language teaching, LIN.: Linguistics, LIT.: Literature. T-test: All US vs. All TW, p=0.4805




Tables 2 and 3 show the relative frequency of steps and the percentages of each step by discipline and context. As can be seen, the Taiwanese authors in both contexts took nearly identical numbers of steps in their DA, that is 10.53 (US) vs. 11.09 (TW), and a t-test found no statistically significant difference (p=0.4700) between the number of steps taken by the two groups. There were also no significant differences found between the two groups for the distribution of the average number of sentences per text (18.65 US: 17.55 TW), the average number of words per sentence (21.19: 22.38), and the average number of words per text (394.6: 387.9). These correspondences between the two groups may indicate that, in general, Taiwanese writers studying in Taiwan and in the US followed a similar pattern of composing acknowledgements, and that the different academic environments or English contexts (i.e., ESL vs. EFL) did not obviously affect the content length or number of structural steps taken in their DA. It is likely that their experiences of learning English in Taiwan can account for this situation. Taiwanese English learners are always given strict guidelines concerning word length which they are required to meet in order to fully display their English writing ability in school tests, official university entrance examinations, or English proficiency tests. These experiences may have imperceptibly disciplined and influenced these students, particularly since they are PhD students, who would be even more willing to strictly follow any rules for composing essays in order to obtain higher grades. Such an ingrained habit cannot be altered immediately, even when studying abroad. Despite the similarities between the DA of the TWU and USU students, and the fact that both groups largely followed Hyland’s three-tier structure, a number of differences still exist between the two groups. First, the percentage of the occurrence of the Reflecting move in the US-based group is nearly twice as high as that in the TW-based group. The Taiwan-based PhD candidates tended to directly express their gratitude. It can be assumed that those who studied abroad may have confronted more hardships during their study and thus required more assistance than those who were studying in their home country. It seems natural that the US-based group would be inclined to be more introspective about their research life. Second, while the use of step 3.1 (claiming responsibility for shortcomings) was relatively low for both groups, the TWU-TWC used it three times more than the USU-TWC. Hyland (2004b) argues that in claiming responsibility for shortcomings in dissertations, writers use a two-pronged strategy: on the one hand, they absolve their advisors and collaborators from any deficiencies, and on the other hand they claim ownership of the dissertation. The reason for the low percentages of the usage of this step could be that the buoyant statements of gratitude in Move 2 might be seen by examiners to have “undermined the student’s claim to have independently created an original contribution” (Hyland, 2004b: 321). As to the difference between the two groups, the possible explanations could be that firstly, writers in Taiwan may have modelled their writing on other Taiwanese DA, or secondly, perhaps they believed that it is polite to maintain their advisor’s authority and academic professionalism, that is, to keep face in the case of any faults being identified later. Saving face for superiors is an important cultural value in Confucian societies such as Taiwan. Perhaps those students studying in the US were aware that it is not such an important issue in American culture, and so they did not feel it was quite so necessary to claim responsibility for the shortcomings of their research and thus save face for their supervisors. This may explain the US-based students’ less frequent use of this particular step. Furthermore, different academic conventions between the two contexts could also result in different orders of steps. In the Taiwan-based group, the dedication step 3.2 always appeared in the main acknowledgements page and strictly followed Hyland’s (2004b) generic order; however, many of the US students listed their dedications on a separate page, the dedication page, placed before the acknowledgements page. Moreover, 5% of the original selected dissertations in the US-based group which were discarded from the corpus did not include any acknowledgements at all. Also, in the Taiwan-based group, a new step, Making a confession, was identified (Yang, 2011) (e.g., ‘Meanwhile, I want to give the most heartbreaking apology to my husband and kids for the family time sacrificed by my study’, and ‘My only apology goes to my two little ones, Albert and Victoria’). However, this step was not found in the US-based corpus. Apparently, the first two divergences result from the different academic conventions in the two contexts, as writers in certain American universities followed their house styles of writing acknowledgements and dedicating dissertations. However, the third difference could be due to both academic conventions and cultural factors. For the US-based group, ‘acknowledgements’ may have been taken to mean purely a statement of expressing thanks, making a personal confession inappropriate; yet, for the Taiwan-based writers, these extra remarks can be thought of as an implicit way of showing appreciation for others’ assistance, tolerance or sacrifice. Rather than expressing gratitude boldly, some writers prefer to adopt a veiled way of expressing thanks to their family members.




Table 4. Relative frequency of steps in each text by discipline with reference to Hyland’s corpus

US-based PhD

TW-based PhD

Present average

Hyland’s

1. Reflecting 0.18 0.2 0.19 0.4 2. Thanking Step 2.1 0.73 1.13 0.93 0.5 Step 2.2 4.26 4.13 4.19 2.1 Step 2.3 1.6 1.73 1.66 1.5 Step 2.4 3.28 4.03 3.65 1.6 3. Announcing Step 3.1 0.01 0.06 0.03 0.1 Step 3.2 0.45 0.38 0.41 0.1 Average 10.53 11.65 11.09 6.3

Note: differences in summed totals due to rounding; Zhao & Jiang’s study did not offer this information; Hyland’s (2004b) data came from the average of MA and PhD in applied linguistics disciplines. T-test: US vs. TW, p=0.4700; Present corpora vs. Hyland’s, p=0.2214 Table 5. Percentage of PhD DA moves and steps with reference to Hyland’s and Zhao and Jiang’s results

Present corpora Hyland’s Zhao & Jiang’s 1. Reflecting 17 24 40 2. Thanking Step 2.1 64 43 75 Step 2.2 100 100 100 Step 2.3 74 100 90 Step 2.4 95 84 95 3. Announcing Step 3.1 4 13 35 Step 3.2 38 11 10 Note: Hyland’s (2004b) data came from the average of MA and PhD in applied linguistics disciplines. T-test: Present corpora vs. Hyland’s, p=0.4543; Present corpora vs. Zhao & Jiang’s, p=0.3514 When the present two corpora were compared with those of Hyland (2004b) and Zhao and Jiang (2010), as shown in Tables 4 and 5, there were no significant statistical differences between any of the four datasets, that is the two Taiwanese groups, the HKC and the CNC. This implies that the writers in the four contexts largely followed similar generic patterns while writing their DA. However, the Taiwanese authors still had the highest percentage use of step 3.2 while having the lowest percentages for Move 1, and steps 2.3 and 3.1. In Zhao and Jiang’s (2010) study, they reported that the CNC students “feel far less easy to dedicate their work” (p. 99), believing that it was not a great achievement, or worthy of dedication to anyone. Thus, they asserted that CNC exercised the modesty maxim of the politeness principle (Grice, 1975), and this tendency could possibly explain why CNC had the highest percentage occurrence of step 3.1, perhaps feeling a greater obligation to save face for their supervisors. In contrast, the Taiwanese authors valued their work more and thus dedicated it to others, including their research participants, advisors, family members, God, and even their pets. These disparities further suggest that firstly, TWC prefer to express thanks more openly in their DA than do their HKC and CNC counterparts, implying that TWC are more direct in both their writing style and perhaps also in their personality. Secondly, the low percentage of use of step 2.3 implies that the Taiwanese PhD candidates were provided with fewer institutional resources while studying for their doctorates either in Taiwan or in the US when compared to their HKC or CNC counterparts. To conclude this section, Hyland’s generic model describing DA was adopted by all of the Chinese-speaking PhD postgraduates across the different contexts. Academic conventions in different institutions and cultural factors in different settings can also affect how generic structure is shaped to fit contexts. Nevertheless, the English context (i.e., EFL vs. ESL) does not influence the construction of generic structure to an obvious extent in this study.




4.2 Acknowledgees Table 6. Percentages (%) of gratitude expressions toward different acknowledgees compared to Zhao & Jiang

AD OT CM CO FM IN FD PT PA RL WR PhD Zhao& Jiang

100 90 / 100 90 25 / / / / /

TW-based 98 91 95 60 90 21 65 3 28 8 6 US-based 82 72 82 43 78 35 63 0 52 8 2 Total Present

90

82

89

52

84

28

64

2

40

8

4

Note: (1) AD: Advisors, OT: Other teachers, CM: Committee, CO: Academic Colleagues, FM: Family, IN: Institutions, FD: Friends, PT: Pets, PA: Participants, RL: Religions, WR: Writers; (2) Hyland’s (2003) results are calculated differently and so are not listed for comparison. Table 6 shows the percentages of expressions of gratitude toward the different people acknowledged, compared to those reported by Zhao and Jiang (2010) (Note 4). One major difference is that not all the writers (Note 5) thanked their advisors in the present two corpora, in contrast to Hyland’s (2004b: 307) finding that supervisors appeared in all DA. Surprisingly, the US-based group acknowledged their advisors ten times more frequently than did the TW-based group. One possible reason for this might be that, while the writers based in the US expressed their thanks to many people, probably including their advisors, in their DA, they did not clearly specify their relationship with those acknowledged by stating their title or position. This made classification awkward, so finally all of these cases were categorised as ‘other teachers’ to avoid ambiguity. This US-based peculiarity also indicates that in US academia it is more commonplace or acceptable to name superiors without stating their titles or positions than it is in the Taiwanese context. However, the possibility of intentional avoidance cannot be rejected, either. Both possibilities are believed to be very uncommon, but these writers’ choices disregarded the principle concerning who should be thanked the most, and the first, in their DA. Another apparent divergence between the two corpora was the percentage of those thanking their research participants. The US-based group acknowledged their participants almost twice as frequently as did their Taiwan-based counterparts. In the Taiwan-based group, most acknowledgements of participants were found in the DA from the ELT department (13 out of 20 ELT DA, 3 out of 20 LIN DA, and 1 out of 20 LIT DA); however, in the US-based corpus 16 out of 20 linguistics DA thanked their participants, followed by ELT (14 out of 20) and LIT (2 out of 20). The greater propensity of the US-based group to thank their participants suggests that the US-based Taiwanese PhD students studying linguistics preferred empirical to theoretical research, which could be interpreted to mean that a genre such as DA will be affected by preferred practices in different academic communities. In addition, the results also suggest that the Taiwanese writers in both settings expressed their gratitude to a broader range of people when compared with the Chinese students in Zhao and Jiang’s (2010) study. Other than those most commonly acknowledged (e.g., advisors, committee members, other teachers, colleagues, institutions or parents), appreciation was also shown to religious figures (e.g., God), non-human companions such as pets, and the authors of literary works (Yang, 2011). English literature majors’ dissertations usually depend greatly on literary works, and this heavy reliance leads to a perception that it is essential to express thanks to the authors of those works. The fact that differences in disciplines affect who should be thanked in DA has also been confirmed in Scrivener’s (2009) study of history PhD students’ DA. Another significant difference was that Zhao and Jiang reported 48% more thanking of colleagues and classmates than was found in the present study. One possible explanation for this difference is that this study separated colleagues/classmates/friends into academic colleagues and non-academic friends, while Zhao and Jiang combined them into one single category. 4.3 Gratitude expressions According to Hyland and Tse’s (2004) analysis, the patterns used to express gratitude in thanking acts in DA, that is, Move 2 and its four steps, could be mainly classified into five types: nominalisation (e.g., My sincere thanks goes to…), performative verb (e.g., I thank…), adjective (e.g., I am grateful to…), passive voice (e.g., Appreciation is given to…) and bare mention (e.g., X was very helpful in…). Yet another common expression (i.e.,




To X, you + non-thanking verbs… e.g., To Alex, you accompanied me through this sweet and bitter journey) identified in the present corpora was categorised as ‘bare mention’ as it can be regarded as being similar to the pattern ‘To X who was helpful in V-ing…’. Table 7. Patterns expressing gratitude in PhD DA between the Taiwan-based and US-based groups

Patterns Occurrence frequency (%)

Taiwan-based US-based

ELT LIN LIT ELT LIN LIT Bare mention 6.1 11.5 17.0 12.6 5.7 23.9 Performative-verb 47.1 50.0 43.9 52.3 58.8 44.3 Adjective 22.0 19.4 17.8 15.8 17.7 19.3 Nominalisation 21.5 16.3 19.5 17.4 14.2 10.9 Passive 3.0 2.6 1.6 1.5 3.4 1.0 Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 Note: Differences in summed totals due to rounding; ELT: English language teaching, LIN.: Linguistics, LIT.: Literature Table 8. Patterns expressing gratitude across different corpora

Patterns Occurrence frequency (%) US-based

PhD TW-based PhD

TW Average

Hyland & Tse Zhao & Jiang PhD

Bare mention 14.4 10.8 12.6 6.8 44.4 Performative-verb 51.6 47.4 49.5 33.2 26.3 Adjective 17.6 20.0 18.8 15.4 15.1 Nominalisation 14.2 19.0 16.6 33.6 12.7 Passive 1.9 2.5 2.2 11.0 2.5 Total 100 100 100 100 100 Note: Hyland and Tse’s (2004) is the average of MA and PhD DA; differences in summed totals due to rounding. T-test: US vs. TW, p=0.5000; average vs. Hyland & Tse’s, p=0.4976; average vs. Zhao & Jiang’s, p=0.4905 Tables 7 and 8 compare the different corpora by discipline and setting. Although there was no statistically significant difference between the two groups, some agreement and dissimilarities are still worth noting. For instance, the TWC in both contexts generally used the five patterns in similar rank order except for ‘bare mention’ and ‘nominalisation’. In addition, both groups used ‘performative verb’ patterns most often (up to 50% on average), a finding similar to that of Cheng and Kuo (2011), whereas only 2.2% used the ‘passive’ pattern in the present study. Using the ‘performative verb’ pattern always requires the subject I, suggesting a very direct authorial voice, which is “particularly marked in the science and engineering texts,” that is, the hard sciences (Hyland & Tse, 2004: 266). However, all the disciplines represented in our two corpora belong to ‘the soft sciences’. The excessive use of this pattern may result from Taiwanese EFL learners’ experiences of learning English, in which they are often reminded of the importance of using and identifying verbs when approaching English texts. In an EFL context such as Taiwan, English is more likely to be taught by separating the language into several segments such as words, phrases, clauses or sentences, and thus learners learn to differentiate them and memorize rules for combining them grammatically. Studying in the US apparently cannot sway the deeply rooted habit of relying on previous English learning experiences when writing their DA. Another explanation may be cultural. If overtly using ‘bare mention’ implies that the CNC were more reserved when expressing their feelings and emotions, as Zhao and Jiang (2010) suggest, then Taiwanese may be much less reserved, wherever they study. Nkemleke’s (2006) study may also support such an inference, as only one percent of the thanking expressions used the ‘performative verb’ pattern in that study’s sample DA. This may result from a cultural expectation that great homage should be paid to acknowledgees, especially to supervisors, suggesting that they are “all-knowing” or “all-wise”. If choice of thanking expression is affected by culture, then it is not difficult to understand why only 2.2% of the expressions of gratitude used the passive voice in all of the TWC’ DA. Another possible reason for this low usage can be that “Chinese is a language without voice category




since its passive voice is mainly expressed in a covert way rather than a marked way…That may cause the students to feel uneasy in employing the passive form in English acknowledgements” (Zhao & Jiang, 2010: 105). In short, personal experiences of learning English, and contextual factors affect the choice of expression, but academic conventions and the English context evidently do not exercise much influence on this particular aspect of language use. Still, these factors should be further explored from a deeper qualitative perspective. 4.4 Modifiers in thanking acts Most of the modifiers used to intensify emotions in thanking acts are subjective language such as emotional, commentary and axiological adjectives or adverbs, and are mainly found in steps 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4. However, the degree of intensification also changes in accordance with the status of the acknowledgees. When the Taiwan-based group thanked their advisors, they frequently used honorific and exaggerated words, especially superlatives, in expressions such as best, deepest, foremost, earnest, sincerest, warmest, everlasting or eternal in order to show respect for those who are symbols of absolute authority, power, and seniority in the academic hierarchy. This exaggerated use is very common in Chinese and Arab cultures (Lee, 2002; Al-Ali, 2010). However, this tendency was not as apparent in the writing of the US-based group. Superlatives were used less frequently and were applied equally to different acknowledgees such as advisors, participants, friends and family members. The use of subjunctives is also an exaggerated form of expressing gratitude, especially to advisors and family members. Table 9. Frequencies of subjunctives used in the PhD dissertation acknowledgements

Patterns TW-based US-based …would not have…if… 15 37 …would never…if… 34 18 …would be im/possible…if… Total

8/22 79

5/36 96

Table 9 shows the frequency of use of the subjunctive in the two corpora. The Taiwanese authors in the US used noticeably more subjunctives than their Taiwan-based counterparts. Though the US-based group did not use many superlatives to modify their thanks to their advisors, they did use more conditionals. Hence, the two groups may have followed different academic conventions or DA samples to achieve the same purpose. For other teachers and committee members, words such as resourceful, thoughtful, grateful, exceptional, or special were widely used in the Taiwan-based corpus, while sincere, special or no modifiers were used by the US-based group. These adjectives (esp. –ful) are not so often used in colloquial language and thus make the acknowledgements more formal (Hyland & Tse, 2004). When thanking their families, the writers in the Taiwan-based group chose less formal words such as dear, deep, or especially, while the US-based group preferred to use stronger words such as deepest, endless, tremendous, or extreme. This suggests that the family’s support for those studying abroad may be relatively more important, thus affecting their choice of modifiers. Yet, in both corpora, very few modifiers were used to express gratitude to friends, and the pattern ‘performative verb’ (e.g. I thank all the friends…or I would like to thank my friends…) was thus repeatedly used to convey a very direct and less formal tone. The variation in these linguistic choices, depending on the relationship and geographical locations of the acknowledger and acknowledgees, also illustrates the fact that acknowledgement is a complexly interwoven form of discourse, and the hybridism of the tone could be a feature of DA (Afful & Mwinlaaru, 2010b). Many ‘performative verb’ patterns in thanking acts also include hedging modals or mental state verbs (e.g., wish, would like, should, shall, must, have to, or want to) to express the writer’s strong intentions. This use is found in 35.6% of the present corpus, compared with 69.7% in Zhao and Jiang’s study, and 52% in that of Hyland and Tse (see Table 10). The other two studies both explained that these words were used not to mean extrinsic obligation to obey but because of the intrinsic necessity to convey irresistible strong needs to thank those who had offered assistance (Hyland & Tse, 2004: p.269). Nevertheless, TWC used the least performative verbs, regardless of where the author was studying. This may indicate that rather than maintaining a definite demarcation between acknowledger and acknowledgees, TWC writers might blur the differentiation of seniority and authority. Probably, the value-laden beliefs (as expressed in the Chinese proverbs Like teachers, like friends or Once taught, forever parented) affected the TWC more than they did the HKC and CNC. Relationships with advisors, in Chinese culture, can be both teacher-student relationships as well as parent-child-like relationships.




Table 10. Percentages (%) of modals and state verbs

Hyland & Tse’s Zhao & Jiang’s TW-based PhD US-based PhD TW average 52 69.7 34 37.1 35.6 Note: Hyland & Tse’s and Zhao & Jiang’s included both MA and PhD acknowledgements. 4.5 Choice of authorial subject Table 11. Subject types in postgraduate dissertation acknowledgements (%)

I/my None non-author the author Hyland & Tse 74.7 11.9 13.3 0.0 Zhao & Jiang 56.6 16.6 26.8 0.0 TW-based 68.2 14.0 17.8 0.0 US-based 75.2 11.1 13.7 0.0 Present average 71.7 12.5 15.8 0.0 Note: T-test: TW vs. US, p=0.5000; Present study vs. Hyland & Tse, p=0.4995; Present study vs. Zhao & Jiang, p=0.5000 As shown in Table 11, the choice of authorial subject of the DA in the present two corpora was generally in accordance with that in Hyland and Tse’s (2004) and Zhao and Jiang’s (2010) studies, and thus was not found to be significantly different according to a t-test. In contrast to their preferred use of impersonality in writing dissertations, the writers in the four settings were comfortable with using first person pronouns to emphasise “their commitment to their words, set up relationship with their readers, and establish their personal sincerity in thanking various people” (Hyland & Tse, 2004: 271). Nevertheless, this tendency was opposite to the findings of Giannoni (2002), who reported a preponderance of the I-avoidance strategy in writing journal article acknowledgements, but corroborates Scrivener’s (2009) results showing an increase in exclusive use of I from 24.9% in the 1930s to 100% in 2005. Differing from Giannoni’s finding, however, all of our data suggest that, for our Taiwanese subjects, writing a DA can be less formal, and more personal and emotional. According to the data, 7% more of the Taiwanese authors in the US tended to be more confident with using I/My than those in Taiwan, while the HKC had the highest percentages for this usage. Based on Scrivener (2009), it can be inferred that the more Anglo-Americanised a context is, the more comfortable the authors are with using I/My in their DA. A direct voice of claiming authorship seems to be more acceptable in power-distributed and self-orientated communities such as many Western societies than in power-concentrated and group-oriented communities such as some Asian settings where thrift, ordered relationships, politeness, obedience and respect for superiors are valued (Dimmock & Walker, 2000a, b; Hofstede, 1991, Lu, Rose & Blodgett, 1999; Yang, 2003). Thus, presumably the cultural setting will affect authors’ choice regarding authorial subject. 4.6 Keywords in writing acknowledgements across the two different settings As discussed previously, how to write an appropriate DA has been less addressed by researchers and less taught than other sections of academic papers; thus, most writers model their writing on existing examples. However, this paper argues that if writers can be taught the keywords (Note 6) and genre knowledge of language and context, then they would probably be able (or willing) to compose their own personalized and candid acknowledgements with choices and constraints provided, rather than copying a sample verbatim. Hence, two keyword lists (Note 7) were generated in this study (see the excerpt in Appendix 1). Table 12. Keywords in the two sources

Keywords TW-based US-based Total distinct words (DW) 3,430 3,846 Overused keywords 358 334 Underused keywords 41 44 Total keywords (KW) 399 378 DW/per 100 words 14.73 16.24 KW/per 100 DW 10.43 8.68 Note: The keywords were generated with reference to BNC; KW/per 100 DW refers to overused keywords in every 100 distinct words only.




The statistics of keywords from the two corpora are summarized in Table 12. Both the Appendix and the Table provide clear evidence of diverse preferences of the lexical choices in the two groups. For instance, Table 12 suggests that, though the number of distinct words used by the Taiwan-based group is smaller than that of their counterparts in the US, there are more keywords in their DA. This means that they tended to use less commonly used words, while their US-based counterparts were more likely to use more common words, as evidenced by the smaller number of keywords identified in their corpus. In other words, the US-based group seemingly had a greater choice of lexis at their disposal, mostly common words, whereas the Taiwan-based authors used relatively fewer unique words but preferred to use more obscure academic words. It can be inferred that in an EFL context, high level English users may intentionally use difficult words to display their superior English proficiency. In an ESL setting, however, it could be assumed that the students have begun to adopt a more natural and native form of expression in their writing. Similarly, the Appendix also confirms that I/My were frequently used in both corpora, which also explains the high percentage of those using ‘performative verbs’ and the first personal pronoun as the subject of thanking acts. Moreover, thanks for moral support appears more frequently than thanks for academic assistance because words such as ‘encouragement’ and ‘support’ have higher keyness than those such as ‘comments’ and ‘suggestions’. In addition, from the high-ranking use of Dr., it can be seen that the title Dr. is more commonly used than Professor. These keywords reveal the fact that appreciation for who (e.g. nouns), what (e.g. nouns), and how (e.g. verbs, adjectives, and adverbs) is generally expressed in DA. Therefore, in a pedagogical application such as EAP, teachers can use these keywords to explicitly instruct writers when and how words can be used in this genre and then to write an appropriate DA. In other words, keyword lists can systematically and informatively scaffold EAP learners to construct the main moves/steps of a DA. Table 13. Different adjectives used to modify thanks in the two DA keyword lists

Adjectives TW-based US-based -ed 15 16 -ing 10 9 -ful 5 6 -able 2 4 -tive 2 3 Besides, in Hyland and Tse’s (2004) analysis, the adjectives used to express gratitude typically ended in –ful. This form is more formal than colloquial usage, as is appropriate for DA. The keywords ending with –ful in the present corpora also have much higher keyness, similar to Hyland and Tse’s (2004) findings. Yet, as Table 13 shows in the two keyword lists, the adjectives ending in –ful only ranked third in terms of frequency but had higher keyness, after the first-ranking –ed and the second-ranking –ing, that is, participles. Participles used as adjectives are relatively common in everyday use, and thus their use in acknowledgments suggests that DA written by TWC have a less formal tone. This diversity may come from different academic conventions or contextualised factors such as experiences of learning English, as mentioned in the preceding discussion. 5. Conclusions With reference to Hyland’s (2003, 2004b), Hyland and Tse’s (2004), and Zhao and Jiang’s (2010) studies on DA written by Chinese speakers in Hong Kong and mainland China, the present research investigated 120 PhD DA in English-related disciplines written by Taiwanese Chinese-speaking writers in Taiwan and the US, compared the generic structure and linguistic features in these two settings, and examined the keyword use in this genre. The results reveal that subtle differences clearly exist in constructing moves/steps and choosing linguistic elements, though all the authors shared very similar (Chinese) cultures. Academic conventions, experiences of learning English, contextualised values, individual dispositions, personal relationships with acknowledgees, the English context, individual writing styles or even the geographical locations of acknowledgees could all account for the diversity found. Thus, the findings of this paper support what the previously-cited research argues, which is that genre could be complexly interwoven, dynamic, changeable, able to be manipulated, socio-pragmatic and then situated to fit a specific setting with its preferred choices or conventions. Furthermore, in terms of pedagogy, this research suggests that EAP teachers can explicitly instruct students how to write purposeful and interactional




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Journal of English Studies, 5(3), 111-132. Paltridge, B. (2001). Genre and the Language Learning Classroom. Ann Arbour, MI: University of Michigan Press. Salager-Meyer, F. (1990). Discoursal flaws in medical English abstracts: A genre analysis per research- and text-type. Text, 10, 365-384. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/text.1.1990.10.4.365 Samaraj, B. (2002). Introductions in research articles: Variations across disciplines. English for Specific Purposes, 21, 1-17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0889-4906(00)00023-5 Samaraj, B. (2005). An exploration of genre set: Research article abstracts and introductions in two disciplines. English for Specific Purposes, 24, 141-156. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2002.10.001 Scott, M. (2008). WordSmith Tools (Version 5.0) [Computer Software]. Liverpool, UK: Lexical Analysis Software. Scott, M. & Tribble, C. (2006). Textual patterns: Keywords and corpus analysis in language education. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Scrivener, L. (2009). An exploratory analysis of history students’ dissertation acknowledgements. Journal of Academic Librarianship, 35(3), 241-251. Swales, J. M. (1981). Aspects of article introductions (Aston ESP Rep. No. 1). Birmingham: Aston University. Swales, J. M. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Swales, J. M. (2009). Worlds of genre-metaphors of genre. In C. Bazerman, A. Bonini & D. Figueiredo (Eds.), Genre in a changing world (pp. 3-16). West Lafayette, IN: Parlour. Thompson, D. K. (1993). Arguing for experimental “facts” in science. Written Communication, 10, 106-128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0741088393010001004 Williams, I. (1999) Results sections of medical research articles: Analysis of rhetorical categories for pedagogical purposes. English for Specific Purposes, 18, 347-366. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0889-4906(98)00003-9 Yang, R., & Alison, D. (2003). RAs in applied linguistics: Moving from results to conclusions. English for Specific Purposes, 22(4), 365-384. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0889-4906(02)00026-1 Yang. W. H. (2003). An interpretative analysis of teachers’ perceptions of educational change in Taiwan. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Exeter, Exeter, England, UK. Yang, W. H. (2011). One culture, diverse gratitude: A genre analysis of dissertation acknowledgements. [Paper submitted to a journal under being reviewed]. Unpublished paper. Zhao, M., & Jiang, Y. (2010). Dissertation Acknowledgements: Generic Structure and Linguistic Features. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 33(1), 94-109. Notes Note 1. In this study, the term dissertations is used to refer to PhD dissertations/theses in different contexts. Note 2. To be concise, acknowledgees is used to refer to the people who are thanked, and acknowledgers are those who express gratitude. Note 3. Mostly Taiwan uses the Wade-Giles Romanisation system to transcribe Chinese proper nouns, which is noticeably different from the (Hanyu pinyin) system used in mainland China. Note 4. Hyland (2003) offered similar information but used different calculation methods; therefore, the data cannot be compared here. Note 5. The exceptions come from a PhD candidate in the Taiwan-based group and 10 writers in the US-based group. Note 6. Keywords are the words with unusually high frequency in a genre text. These words are significant in telling the ‘keyness’ and ‘aboutness’ of the genre text and thus precisely reflect what the text is about (Scott & Tribble, 2006). Note 7. In this study, the DA keyword lists were generated using WordSmith by separately using the two sets of 60 texts as the study corpus, and BNC as the reference corpus.




Appendix 1 Excerpt of top 30 keywords in different corpora with reference to BNC

Corpus: TWU-TWC USU-TWC Both TWC 1 MY MY MY 2 DISSERTATION DISSERTATION DISSERTATION 3 DR DR DR 4 ME ME ME 5 PROF THANK THANK 6 THANK I I 7 GRATITUDE GRATITUDE GRATITUDE 8 I ENCOURAGEMENT PHD 9 PHD PHD ENCOURAGEMENT 10 PROFESSOR SUPPORT PROFESSOR 11 THANKS GRATEFUL THANKS 12 ADVISOR AM PROF 13 STUDY THANKS GRATEFUL 14 ENCOURAGEMENT EXPRESS SUPPORT 15 AM STUDY AM 16 GRATEFUL AND STUDY 17 UNIVERSITY PROFESSOR ADVISOR 18 DOCTORAL APPRECIATION DOCTORAL 19 SUPPORT DOCTORAL EXPRESS 20 INDEBTED ADVISOR AND 21 SUGGESTIONS INSIGHTFUL APPRECIATION 22 INSIGHTFUL TAIWAN INSIGHTFUL 23 EXPRESS SINCERE TAIWAN 24 ALSO GRADUATE ALSO 25 ACADEMIC RESEARCH UNIVERSITY 26 COMMENTS GUIDANCE SUGGESTIONS 27 APPRECIATION WRITING WRITING 28 TAIWAN FRIENDS GUIDANCE 29 AND ALSO COMMENTS 30 THEIR PATIENCE INDEBTED




A Sociolinguistic Study of Fagunwa/Soyinka’s The Forest of a Thousand Daemons

Idowu Odebode (Ph.D) Department of English, College of Humanities

Redeemer’s University, P.M.B. 3005, Redemption Post Office, Ogun State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected]

Received: 18-07- 2012 Accepted: 02-08- 2012 Published: 03-09- 2012 doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.147 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.147 Abstract This study takes a sociolinguistic approach to the study of The Forest of a Thousand Daemons, a translation of the Yoruba text, Ogboju Ode Ninu Igbo Irunmale (1938) which was authored by Daniel Olorunfemi Fagunwa, the greatest Yoruba novelist and translated by Wole Soyinka, a literary icon cum Nobel laureate. The work is premised on the fact that many literary and linguistic attempts at Fagunwa’s work have failed to benchmark the text with the speech act theory and the VARIES model simultaneously as we have done in this study. Fifteen excerpts from the text served as our data. Each datum is subjected to content and quantitative analyses based on relevant sociolinguistic variables of vocation (occupation), sex, age, religion, geography (ethnicity), age, education and socio-economic status. The data were further dissected according to the speech act theory by Austin (1962) in a bid to ascertain the validity of their illocutionary force. The study indicates that social institutions affect language (choice and use) a great deal and language, in turn, performs different illocutionary acts among various heterogeneous social groups in a speech community like the Yoruba, which is replicated in the text. Keywords: daemons, speech acts, Soyinka, VARIES model, Yoruba 1. Introduction The Forest of a Thousand Daemons is a translation of Ogboju Ode Ninu Igbo Irunmale, a Yoruba novel written by Daniel Olorunfemi Fagunwa, one of the greatest Yoruba novelists. Though he authored other books, his Ogboju Ode Ninu Igbo Irunmale, (1938) “was the first full-length novel published in the Yoruba language” (Encyclopedia Britannica online, 2012). The novel exhibits the rich aura of African culture from the Yoruba oral narrative perspective. In the characteristic manner of a hunter reminiscing on his past expeditions and exploit, Fagunwa has been able to deploy variegated nuances of his Yoruba African language and culture which Wole Soyinka, a nobel laureate and master translator, has therefore popularized in English such that the novel could enjoy a wider readership and criticism. But as rich as the text is, researchers have failed to benchmark it with the speech act theory and the VARIES model simultaneously. The present study is therefore designed to fill this gap. This is with the aim of bringing out the thematic cum cultural resourcefulness of the work and the different speech acts which the text exhibits contextually. 2. A Synopsis of the Text The plot is about the saga of a hunter named Akara-ogun (Compound-of-Spells). The hunter enthuses, “I am indeed Akara-ogun, Compound-of-Spells; even as my name is, so am I. I am no morsel for the sorcerer..”(p71). The story commences with Akara-ogun in the house of the writer (p.8) whom he visits in order to get his story documented. The hunter does this in the characteristic manner of the illiterate traditional Yoruba men who always seek for the services of a public letter-writer. The hunter first intimates the reader/listener with his pedigree. His background story reveals that he was born to a polygamous home. His father was a hunter and his mother, a witch. He also had three step-mothers and nine siblings (p. 9). Unfortunately, his mother killed all the family members except the narrator and his father, who eventually died shortly after the mysterious death of the woman. From this point, the hunter digresses into a long narration of his epical journeys. These are divided into three: his first trip to “Igbo Irunmale” (the forest of a thousand demons), his second expedition to the forest and his tour to Mount Langbodo with six other brave hunters.




The first trip was momentary because of the hunter narrator’s inexperience. He was scared by the marketing ghommids who planned to kill him because he was relaxing on top of a “tree” which happened to be their leader. Therefore, Akara-ogun invoked his egbe (a catapulting spell) which eventually hurled him home. Getting home, he was ashamed of himself. He therefore commanded egbe to take him back to the forest. Thus began his second trip. The second trip to Irunmale Forest was not only comical, but also fascinating. The hunter was forewarned of an ill-luck by his soothsaying kolanuts, a owl which cried round him and his left toe (mother’s toe) which he stubbed against a stone. Despite these ominous signs (of impending danger), the hunter went ahead. Not quite long, the misfortune started unfolding. He had encounter with different forest spirits like the wall-nut troll, the wailing gnome, the dwarf gnome whose deer he shot and chased to the creature’s cave and, moreover, Agbako (Misfortune). The latter encounter took him to a torture chamber underground. And it took the assistance of Iranlowo (Helpmate) for him to escape. He eventually fell in love with the lady (Helpmate). However, he became famous and rich at the end of this trip. Therefore, some of his people became jealous of him, particularly, the chiefs. They then connived together and convinced the king to send Akara-Ogun on a state quest to Mount Langbodo, a dodgy town located at the end of the evil forest (i.e. Irunmale forest). Akara-Ogun puts it succinctly:

I had heard many tales of Mount Langbodo but had never yet encountered anyone who had made the journey and returned to tell the tale. Before anyone came into that city he would first have to brave the length of the Forest of Irunmale, and that is only the beginning of the journey… because the dwellers of Langbodo hear, in most distinct notes, the crowing of cocks from the heavenly vault. (p. 72)

This consequently brings to the fore the quest motif in the novel. It should be noted that the hunter had boasted initially to go to wherever he would be sent by the king. So, he demanded for the assistance of six other brave warriors to accompany him. Thereafter, the search began for Kako (a lion club wielder), Imodoye (wise man), Olohun-Iyo (Praise singer), Efoye (the man with feathers), Elegbede-Ode (the half human, half baboon man) and Aramanda Okunrin (miracle man). Each of the six hunters had a special natural trait that proved useful each time they needed to. Thus began the third trip to the forest. The third expedition took him and his colleagues through the Forest of Irunmale. They encountered different tribulations and trials. They passed through animal city and the city of birds where they were scanned and incarcerated awhile for having killed birds without any justified cause in the past. They also encountered Agbako (Misfortune) who was eventually killed by the joint efforts of Kako (a lion club wielder) and Aramanda (miracle man). Along the line, some of the hunters wanted to go back. But oftentimes, they called on Iranlowo (Helpmate) who always came to their rescue. Eventually they got to Langbodo and they were taught seven different didactic lessons for seven days by Iragbeje (swamp accommodates seven) in his house which had seven wings. Unfortunately, not all the hunters could return home as they were drifted by different vicissitudes of life in the jungle. But Akara-Ogun was among the lucky ones who arrived safely. The plot therefore is a replica of life journey and social development in which human sojourners are trying to attain a level of perfection (hence the seven, seven numbers). Every man has his or her Langbodo to climb for the common good of his society. To achieve this, however, good leadership quality as well as courage with mentoring is needed. This is demonstrated Akara-Ogun who determined doggedly to serve his fatherland while simultaneously mentoring his followers. 3. Theoretical Frameworks Two theoretical schools of thought come to play as we consider the present study. These are: the VARIES model and the speech act theory. The former is an offshoot of sociolinguistcs. It therefore studies the interaction between society and language, using a set of acronyms. It aims to establish language as a phenomenon upon which social institutions are grounded. As observed by Lehman (1976, p. 275), the goal of any users of the VARIES model, i.e. sociolinguists is “to determine how social institutions affect language and how the varied users of language affect social groups.” The import of this quote is that language and society are closely




interwoven and a separation of one from the other would prove absurd. Corroborating this idea, Hudson (1980) posits that the dual function of speech is to communicate and identify social groups. He concludes that any linguistic study that fails to recognize the socio-cultural group that produces it is vague. He submits, “to study speech without reference to the society which uses it is to exclude the possibility of finding social explanations for the structures that are used.” (p. 275). Trudgill (1983) approaches this issue from social stratification’s perspective when he opines that differentiation in human societies is reflected in their languages. Since different social groups use different linguistic varieties, sociolinguists, “as experienced members of a speech community…have learnt to classify speakers accordingly” (p. 34). The stance of these scholars is what later metamorphosed into the VARIES model, a set of acronyms that classifies language in use in society into: Vocational language, Age related jargons, Regional (and, or Religious) language, Informality/Formality, Educational Jargons and Sex language. Adeyanju (2002) summarizes the idea by positing as follows: The society is stratified into various segments along the variables of sex, age, region, Education, socio-economic status, occupation etc, sociolinguists are interested in Investigating and describing features of verbal interaction peculiar to each social class.

(p. 528).

Since one of the two functions of language is to communicate (Hudson, ibid.), Austin (1962) believes that words are not just uttered anyhow, people do things with words. Thus in his posthumous publication, How to do things with words (1962), Austin develops the speech act theory. He first distinguishes between constative utterances and performative utterances. The former are mere utterances used to make statements (He is going), describe (the typist is a fair lady) or illustrate (lion belongs to the cat family) and they have the quality of being true or false. But the latter (i.e. performative utterances) are used to perform actions (I pronounce you husband and wife; I hereby name this ship Queen Elizabeth) and they do not possess any truth values. If a cleric or a court registrar says to a man and a lady, ‘I pronounce you husband and wife,’ he is not describing what he is doing, nor stating that he is doing it, but actually performing the action of joining the couple. From that moment, the marriage is contracted. By uttering such a sentence(s) in the appropriate circumstances is not to describe what one is doing, but rather, a performance of the real action (of doing it). Such utterances, according to Austin, are called performatives or performative utterances. Furthermore, Austin believes that before a performative utterance can hold and be regarded as being valid, certain conditions (which are called the felicity conditions) must be met. Bloomer, Griffths and Merrison (2005, p.86) summarize the conditions as: “the act must be recognized by convention, the person performing the act must have the authority to do so, the occasion of the utterance must be right in certain cases and the act has to be executed correctly and completely.” From the foregoing, we have discussed the theory of speech acts on the basis of the distinction between saying something and doing something. But Austin soon came to realize that this is an untenable distinction. In his further development of the theory of speech acts, Austin drew a three-fold distinction among locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary acts. According to him, a locutionary act is an act of saying something, the production of meaningful utterance. Austin (1962) views a locutionary act as: “The utterance of certain noises, the utterance of certain words in a construction and the utterance of them with a certain “meaning” in the favourite philosophical sense of that word, i.e. with a certain sense and a certain reference.” (p. 94) An illocutionary act is an act performed in saying something i.e. making a statement or promise, issuing a command or request and asking a question. Thus the illocutionary act of the utterance “where are you coming from?” is questioning. A perlocutionary act is the effect of an utterance on the hearer/audience/reader. It is an act performed by means of saying something i.e. getting someone to believe that something is so, moving someone to anger, consoling someone in distress. It should be noted that Austin’s pupil, Searle (1969, 1979a), popularizes speech acts by drawing a distinction between the speaker’s (utterance) meaning and sentence meaning. He believes that figurative terms or tropes (irony, metaphor, hints, euphemisms) are indirect speech acts. Therefore, when the three syntactic forms (declarative, interrogative, imperative) and pragmatic function(s) coincide, the effect is called a direct speech act. For example:

(a) The kingdom of man is here. (Declarative form functioning as an assertion)




(b) Are you sure it is here? (Interrogative form functioning as a question) (c) Get out of here. (Imperative form functioning as an order.)

In the examples above, the sentence structures and illocutionary functions overlap; hence, they are categorized as direct speech acts. Conversely, in indirect speech acts, the utterance meaning subsumes the sentence meaning but extends beyond it (Searle 1979a). Osisanwo (2003, p. 65) lends credence to the above with the following indirect speech act examples:

I hereby request of you that you pay your debt. (Declarative used for a command/request.) Do you have to stand on my head? (Interrogative used for a command.) You are blocking my view. (Declarative used for a command.)

From the foregoing, we may deduce that while Austin takes a conventional approach to the speech act theory, Searle popularizes it by his introduction of the direct and indirect speech acts dichotomy which is a subtle means of integrating grammar into the theory. 4. Literature Review Balogun (2002), in a related study on African literature, discovers that “African literature explores the realities of human condition in Africa in totality” and sensitizes the mind of people towards necessary change (p. 504). Citing the women’s trek in God’s Bits of Woods, the researcher believes that the action is an historic method of causing psychological embarrassment to a constituted authority. The trek, as a revolution, therefore calls for an inevitable change. Similarly, he opines that in Xala, Ousmane is able to blend variety of contents which are largely ritualistic and archetypal; such as marriage, sex relationships and religion. He concludes that art and society are closely intertwined to the extent that a work of art can be manipulated to fight oppressive socio-political ideologies like capitalism and fascism on one hand. On the other, literary works can be used to correct social ills and teach moral lessons. The work is similar to the present study which takes a sociolinguistic approach to study Fagunwa/Soyinka’s The Forest of a Thousand Daemons, another African novel which uses didactic method to correct social ills. But while our study is linguistic in approach, Balogun’s is purely literary. Alabi (2007) invokes the use of imprecations among a Yoruba speech community known as Ijesa. She argues that Ijesa’s imprecations are constructed in sentences as opposed to the European’s imprecations which are formulated in words and phrases. She finds out that curses have both economic and social implications for the users. Economically, they serve as instruments of money retrieval from debtors. Socially, they are used to curse individual’s bad luck, correct and control children, warn against bad habits. Furthermore, imprecations are used to banter at home and in social gatherings. She submits therefore that “Ijesa curses are idiosyncratic, harmless and beautiful and means to blessing” (Alabi 2007, p. 185). The work is similar to ours in theoretical framework because it uses sociolinguistic approach to study a group among the Yoruba. In contrast, while Alabi’s work is generic, the present study is textual in that it takes sociolinguistic approach to study a specific literary text authored by Yoruba men. Yunus (2007) takes a linguistic approach to study the global religious crises. He discovers that the crises being witnessed by the different religious sects in the world are traceable to communication problems and the ‘images’ which the adherents of the religions hold. He accentuates that man-God image which “is characteristically ‘unnegotiated’ and so undemocratic” (p. 260) is a major challenge that triggers and fans the embers of misunderstanding among the heterogeneous group of believers. He however points out that the man-others part of religious discourse consists of the moral codes which the two principal religious groups in Nigeria (Islam and Christianity) profess and preach. The study advocates for religious tolerance among Nigerian faithful while simultaneously cautioning them to avoid the “temptation to be sacrilegious towards others’ cherished religious concepts (or images)” (p. 261). The study is similar to the present because Fagunwa/Soyinka advocates for religious harmony in our primary text. However, there are certain variations in the two studies. First, while Yunus (2007) uses the organic theory of knowledge/image (which is psychological) as his theoretical framework, the present study adopts the speech




act theory (which is philosophical) and the VARIES model (sociological) as its theoretical approaches. Finally, while Yunus uses stickers, wall inscriptions and posters, religious creeds, the Quran as well as The Holy Bible as his corpus, the present study dwells largely on a literary text by Fagunwa/Soyinka. Behnam and Rassekh-Alqol (2012) investigate the sociolinguistic parameters and the use of metathesis in Azeri language. Metathesis according to the researchers is “the process whereby in certain languages, under certain conditions, sounds appear to switch positions with one another.”(p. 57). Their study affirms that there is a symbiotic relationship between society and language and that a significant relationship exists between extralinguistic variables and the use of metathesis as a linguistic phonological process. Furthermore, the study indicates that the social plus high (+high) rarely use metathesis as against the minus high (-high) who are fond of its usage. The study is related to the present in theoretical framework because it takes a sociolinguistic approach to study the Azeri language. It differs from our study however because the present study is considering sociolingustics in a novel based on the Yoruba linguistic community. Odebode (2012) takes a socio-pragmatic look at characters’ anthroponyms in Wole Soyinka’s The Strong Breed. He focuses on the VARIES model largely among the theoretical frameworks used in benchmarking the study. He finds out that names are meaning potentials in the universe of Soyinka’s text and that naming transcends the illocutionary act of labeling to bring into play the social indices of occupation, age, geography, ethnicity and religion. The study is related to the present in two perspectives. First, the studies are similar in theoretical frameworks, having integrated the VARIES model into the theoretical framework(s) deployed. Coupled with this is the fact that the two studies have a lot to do with the African author, Wole Soyinka. However, while the former study deals with a play, the present studies a prose fiction. 5. Data Analysis 5.1 Religious Language 5.1.1 Text 1 “Let the masquerader worship the mask for as long as he pleases, he must return to render account to you; let the follower of Sango serve and serve Sango, he must render account to you; let the devotee of Oya bow to Oya, he must return in the end to you and render accounts. The Moslems worship you as Anabi, the Christians offer you every minute of their existence. I implore you rescue me, I cannot alone save myself, God almighty, save me from my plight!” (P.42) Text 1 showcases the language of religion as used in the text, by indicating the three principal religions in Nigeria. These are: the traditional religion (represented by the following deities: masquerade, Sango, thunder god and Oya, the river goddess), Islam (represented by Anabi, the Moslem’s Holy Prophet) and Christianity. It should be noted that although the authors grew up in Christian homes, they did not lose touch with their Yoruba traditional religion. This background could have probably informed the allusion to these religious groups in the text. As a corollary, this merger attests to the popular Yoruba saying “Awa o s’oro ile wa, esin kan ko pe k’awa ma s’oro, awa o s’oro ile wa” (we will do our traditional ritual, no religion can hinder us from performing our home’s ritual). The text also harmonizes the three religions by indicating that their adherents are calling on the same God, to whom they are accountable. Contextually, Akara-ogun has been captured by the fin-bodied man who is torturing him because he shot his antelope. After his magical power has failed to free him from the man, the hunter resorts into prayer. He speaks: “I began to understand where I had erred. I realized that I indulged in magical arts but had failed to reckon with god.” (p. 41). The illocutionary act of the utterance therefore, is praying. 5.2 Language and Occupation 5.2.1 Text 2 “But no, I did hunt again, for it is in the profession to which a man is trained that he must serve; the goods which he truly understands are what a trader sells, and it was not fitting that I should leave my profession at the prime of day and turn to masonry or wood-carving (p. 36) 5.2.2 Text 3 “Fourth was Olohun-iyo, the Voice of Flavours, he was the most handsome of all men on earth, the finest singer and the best drummer.” (p.79)




5.2.3 Text 4 “…he simply grabbed his club, stuck his matchet in its sheath and walked on briskly as when the office clerk hurries to his place of business” (p. 76). 5.2.4 Text 5 “Even if you are educated, even when you become a doctor twelve times over, a lawyer sixteen times over; when you become thirteen types of Bishop and wear twenty clerical stoles at once, never condemn your father.”(p. 105) Texts 2 to 5 present the occupational variable. In Text 2, Akara-ogun refers to his hunting profession as well as trading, brick-laying (masonry) and wood-carving. He further emphasizes on singing and drumming in Text 3. It should be noted that these are the dominant professions in the ancient Yoruba land. The Yoruba believe in dignity of labor and commitment to one’s profession. Similarly, they appreciate mentoring and praise a child who takes after his father’s profession. This is attested to by the hunter-narrator that “By the time I was ten I had begun to accompany my father on his hunts and at fifteen I possessed my own gun.” (p.14). The hunter therefore uses the professions to emphasize on faithfulness and commitment to one’s vocation. That is why he does not want to leave hunting for another job in Text 2. Meanwhile, Olohun-iyo (Praise-singer) is brought in as one of the six hunters who accompany Akara-ogun to Mount Langbodo. His profession is significant because the Yoruba believe that orin ni siwaju ote (songs precede intrigues). It is a common knowledge that hunters dance and make sacrifice to the Ogun (god of iron) before embarking on any expedition. This is why most of Soyinka’s plays (Kongi’s Harvest (1967), Death and the King’s Horseman (1975), King Baabu (2002)) have Praise-Singer(s) in their cast lists. Unlike the primitive jobs in the preceding examples, Texts 4 and 5 present the white collar jobs (clerical officer, medicine, law and clergy). The authors use this to draw a parallel between the old and modern professions. However, the narrator recognizes the tendency for pride in young men. That is why he quickly warns them not to condemn their fathers regardless of their fortunes in the white collar jobs. Based on the above, we may submit that the principal illocutionary act of the texts is warning with a blend of comparing and describing. 5.3 Language and Ethnicity 5.3.1 Text 6 “…And I request you to adjust your agbada, toss its sleeve properly over your shoulder, prepare yourselves for dancing…I can dance and you can drum; this is the meeting of two grubs.” (p.8) 5.3.2 Text 7 “The arm of the human kind accompanies the pounded yam when you dine, their fleshly breasts provides the meat for your eba.” (p. 16) 5.3.3 Text 8 “When our masquerade dances well, our heads swell and do a spin. Forgive my forwardness, it is the proverb which speaks.” (p.7) Texts 6 to 8 indicate the ethnicity variable as far as language use is concerned. Certain words are fore-grounded in the texts. These are agbada, pounded yam and eba. Agbada is a flowing gown worn by the adult Yoruba particularly on special occasions like wedding, naming and funeral ceremonies. That is why Akara-ogun uses a performative clause (I request you…) in Text 6 to prepare the mindset of his audience for his proverbial dance. Pounded yam and eba are reputable delicacies which are not far-fetched during such occasions. Meanwhile, the Yoruba cherish pounded yam so much that they have different poems for it. One of these is “Iyan l’onje, oka loogun, airi rara lan je’ko, k’enu ma di’le ni ti guguru” (Pounded yam is food, yam cassava is medicine, it is when we cannot get anything that we take pap, pop-corn is meant for keeping one’s mouth busy). From the panegyric, we may deduce that only pounded yam is recognized as authentic food among the Yoruba. Both pounded yam and eba (a delicacy made from processed cassava) are taken with stew and meats. This is why the forest’s head in Text 7 is being eulogized for being powerful to the extent of using human flesh as meat on iyan (pounded yam) and eba. However, Text 8 presents a local proverb by the hunter-narrator. The hunter’s apology, after saying the proverb, is significant to the present study. He does so because it is a taboo for a young person to give a proverb in the presence of the old or wise men. Giving of proverbs is therefore a marker of social class. However, three




illocutionary acts can be gleaned from the texts: requesting (Text 6), eulogizing (Text 7) and apologizing (Text 8). 5.4 Language and gender 5.4.1 Text 9 “May God in his infinite mercy not leave you men to encounter such a woman” (P. 47) By locution, this is a statement made by a man (i.e. the narrator). The illocutionary act of the statement is praying. The motivation of the prayer is a social belief that most African women are treacherous and incorrigible. This is epitomized in the ghommids’ king’s wife who conspires with the king’s enemies to get rid of her husband (see pages 46-47). 5.4.2 Text 10 “What can the matter be, my husband? What trouble have I stirred awake? What offence have I committed to warrant this? In what manner have you been aggrieved? Did you discover me with another man? Have I ever spoken in an unseemingly manner to you? Have I neglected to show my love sufficiently? Were you told I brawl in public? Am I vain? Or is it that I am unclean in my habits? Are my manners careless or disrespectful towards you?” (p.76) The above illustrates an illocutionary act of questioning. It is a direct speech act because syntactically, we have a case of interrogative mood(s) performing the speech act of questioning. The questions are presented in persuasive language (which is characteristic) of a woman entreating her husband, Kako, not to leave her. It should be noted that Akara-ogun has gone to the forest home of the Kakos to invite him for the expedition to Mount Langbodo. But Kako does not want to take his wife along because she is a ghommid. Kako in response makes reference to a Biblical allusion that there is a time for everything under the sun (see Ecclesiastes 3, verse 1-7). Kako concludes by advising the woman that “if you find another husband, wed him; but do not count on Kako anymore. (p. 76). When the former would not give up, Kako eventually kills her saying “Before God adjuges me guilty I shall pass sentence on your guilt” (p. 77). Thus the theme of wickedness with treachery is stressed in the text. The text indicates the persuasive language of women as opposed to the aggressive and sharp tongue of men. It further establishes the primitive African patriarchal system that views a woman as an ordinary property which can be dispensed with at any time. 5.5 Language and Social Class 5.5.1 Text 11 “I went and when I was close to him and saw that he was a king, I prostrated myself full-length on the ground, poured earth on my head, and saluted him ‘Kabiyesi’” (p.44) 5.5.2 Text 12 “I had no sooner come within sight of him than he called out, his cheeks burstling with pleasure, ‘Akara-ogun’, and I in turn replied, Kabiyesi, it is indeed I. May God give you a long life.’ Then he sang out to me the second time, ‘Akara-ogun’, and I answered him, Live long, live honoured; we are all children under your fold.’” (p.71) In Texts 11 and 12, Akara-ogun is reporting his encounter with the ghommids’ king in Irunmale Forest (p. 44) and the Mount Langbodo king (p. 71). The speech act of the statements is therefore reporting. Furthermore, the texts depict deference or respect which operates in a situation of social distance like the official high and low relationship(s). This is what Odebunmi (2002, p. 181) refers to as face act. It should be noted that socially, among the Yoruba, it is a taboo for the elder to bow before the younger person irrespective of the situation or circumstance. It is also uncooperative for the –high to address the +high by the latter’s first name. Rather, title must be used. Ervin-Tripp (1972) also lends credence to this by observing that address system (names in use like first name or title plus first name) can reveal status marked situations, rank and identity. This is why Akara-ogun (-high) prostrates before the kings in texts 11 and 12, while using the title Kabiyesi (meaning he whose authority cannot be questioned, the ultimate) for the kings. In contrast, the kings (+high) address the hunter by his first name which is a matter of politeness. Being polite therefore consists of a deliberate attempt to save face for another. Odebunmi (2002, p. 181) defines face as “the emotional and social feeling of self which an individual has and expects others to recognize.” He recognizes two types of face acts. First is respect or deference which operates in a situation of social distance like the official high and low relationship as explicated in texts 11 and 12. The second type of face according to Odebunmi (2002) is friendliness or solidarity which exists between people of horizontal relationship. This is the case in Text 13 below.




5.5.3 Text 13 “I am happy to see you all, friends sitting here-young and old, male and female. Were it not for the great affection you bear my friend, I would not find you here. When I came here yesterday, I did not meet anyone of you, there was only this friend of mine, he bade me welcome, took good care of me, and behaved towards me with the nature of courtesy itself. My prayer therefore is may God let this kind of conduct remain among us black races forever” (p.35) The underlying speech acts in the extract above are eulogizing/appreciating, reporting and praying. First, Akara-ogun appreciates his audience (sentences 1 and 2). Subsequently, he gives a brief report of what happened to him in the same setting the previous day (sentence 3). Finally, he offers a word of prayer for his black race (sentence 4). It cannot be overemphasized that the social relationship existing between the participants in this context is horizontal i.e. equal status. Therefore, the address system does not give room for protocol or official form of interaction. 5.6 Language and Age 5.6.1 Text 14 “I wish to tell you, child, it is your character at home which follows you outside; you who fail to give honor to your father can do no honor to the race of black people, and what then is the meaning of your existence?” (p.105) The presupposition of the statement above is that the speaker (Iragbeje) is an adult. The seven brave hunters have gone to his house at Mount Langbodo to spend seven days in order to receive seven different didactic teachings. One of the moral lessons is being taught in this context where a child is enjoined to honor his parents. The Yoruba believe that ile ni a ti n ko eso r’ode (charity begins at home). That is why children are being warned to take care of their character at home. As a corollary, the Yoruba also believe that enu agba ni obi n gbo si (kolanut stays long in the mouth of the elderly ones), socially, it is an adult who possesses such audacity and word-power to instruct the young ones. The last clause in the excerpt poses a rhetorical question to the listeners based on the moral lesson invoked in the context. Thus the text demonstrates the patriarchal system of authority in Africa where the father gives unquestionable instructions to his many wives and children (notice the preponderance of the second person plural pronoun “you, you”). He also possesses the power to question them at will. Therefore, the illocutionary act of the excerpt is instructing with questioning. 5.6.2 Text 15 “When we entered the city we knew nothing of this and had we not all stoned birds in our childhood and killed them without a purpose at some times in our lives?” (p.86) Unlike the situation in Text 14, we have a preponderance of the first person plural pronoun (we) in this text. Although, the language is still that of an adult speaker, it reports a collective action and indicates a mature presenter and adult listeners. Contextually, the narrator is emphasizing that they are no longer children because aimless bird hunting characterizes the African child, particularly among the Yoruba. And having passed through that stage, they are found guilty in the city of birds where they are being entrapped. This is in consonance with a Yoruba proverb that agba wa bura bi ewe ko ba se e ri (the elderly one, come and swear if you have never been childish). The first sentence thus reports their perceived innocence while the last is a rhetorical question convicting them of the offence. The underlying speech acts from the text are reporting and questioning. 6. Summary of Analysis The following statistical breakdown can be gleaned from the analysis so far: Religious language attracts one text (1) with one corresponding illocutionary act (of praying). Under occupational variable, we deployed four texts (2,3,4,5) which eventually culminated into one major illocutionary act of warning (with a blend of comparing and describing). The Regional (Ethnicity) variable attracts three texts (6, 7, 8). These equally attract three illocutionary acts of requesting, eulogizing and apologizing respectively. The (language and) gender variable features two texts (9 and 10) and two illocutionary acts (praying and questioning). Furthermore, the variable of language and social class has three texts (11, 12 and 13) .The speech act function of Text 11 and 12 is reporting. Conversely, Text 13 is a complex excerpt that produces three illocutionary acts of eulogizing, reporting and praying. Finally, the age related variable (with language) attracts two texts (14 and 15). Text 14 has the illocutionary acts of instructing and questioning while Text 15 has reporting and questioning as its speech acts. The illocutionary acts deployed can therefore be statistically represented in a table (Table 1) and a line graph (Fig. 1) as follows:




Table 1. A table indicating the frequency and percentage distribution of illocutionary acts studied

Illocutionary Act Frequency Percentage

Praying 3 20

Warning 1 6.67

Requesting 1 6.67

Eulogizing 2 13.32

Apologizing 1 6.67

Questioning 3 20

Reporting 3 20

Instructing 1 6.67

Total 15 100

From Table 1, three columns are marked out. The first column indicates the illocutionary acts distributed; the second indicates the frequency of the illocutionary acts while the last gives the percentage of the frequency. Fig. 1. A graphical representation of frequency and percentage of illocutionary distribution It should be noted, that in summary, eight illocutionary acts are deployed. Among these, praying, questioning and reporting occur three times each, hence a frequency of 3 and 20% respectively. There are two cases of eulogizing. This translates to a frequency of 2 and 13.32%. Finally, the illocutionary acts of warning, requesting, apologizing and instructing have 1 frequency each and 6.67% respectively. Fig. 1 gives a graphical illustration of this distribution. 7. Conclusion This study has considered a sociolinguistic study of Fagunwa/Soyinka’s The Forest of a Thousand Daemons from the speech act theory’s and the VARIES model’s perspectives. Fifteen excerpts from the text served as our data. The study indicates that there is a kind of symbiotic relationship between social institutions and language. The former affect language (choice and use) a great deal while the latter, in turn, performs different illocutionary acts among the various heterogeneous social groups in a speech community. Language therefore becomes the DNA of a society through which we can determine vocation, age, sex, religion, politics and other socio-cultural variables both textually and extra-textually.




References Adeyanju, D. (2002). Sociolinguistics: An introductory insight. In Babatunde, S.T. and Adeyanju, D.S. (eds). Language, meaning and society. Ilorin:Haytee Press and Publishing Co. Nig. Ltd. pp. 527-539. Alabi, V. A. (2007). Imprecations in Ijesaland: Blessing in disguise? In Adeyanju, D. ed. Sociolinguistics in the Nigerian context. Ile-Ife: Obafemi Awolowo University Press Ltd. Pp. 177-186. Austin, J. L. (1962). How to do things with words. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Balogun, P. O. (2002). The sociology of African literature: A critical evaluation of Sembene Ousmane’s God’s bits of wood and Xala. In Babatunde, S. T. and Adeyanju, D. S. (eds) Language, meaning and society. Ilorin:Haytee Press and Publishing Co. Nig. Ltd. pp. 504-526. Behnam, B. & Rassekh-Alqol (2012). A sociolinguistic analysis of metathesis in Aseri language. International journal of applied linguistics and literature 1(2), 56-64 Bloomer, A., Griffths, P. & Merrison, A.J. (2005). Introducing language in use: A coursebook. London and New York: Routledge Coupland, N. & Jaworsky, A. eds. (1977). Sociolinguistics: A reader and course book. New York: Palgrave. Encyclopedia Britannica online (2012). D. O. Fagunwa In http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/200205/DO-Fagunwa. Accessed July 28, 2012. Fagunwa, D. O. (1938). Ogboju ode ninu igbo irunmale. Great Britain: Thomas Nelson. Fagunwa, D. O. & Soyinka, W. (1982). The forest of a thousand daemons. Hong Kong: Thomas Nelson. Hudson, R. A. (1980). Sociolinguistics. Cambridge University Press. Lehmann, P. L. (1976). Descriptive linguistics: An introduction. 2nd edition. New York: Random House. Odebode, I. O. (2012). A socio-pragmatic study of characters’ names in Wole Soyinka’s The strong breed. International journal of applied linguistics and literature 1(2), 127-137. Osisanwo, W. (2003). Introduction to discourse analysis and pragmatics. Lagos: Femolus – fetop Publishers. Searle J.R. (1969). Speech acts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Searle J.R.1979a. ‘Metaphor’. In A. Ortony (ed.) Metaphor and thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 92-123. (Reprinted in Searle, 1979b: 76-116). Soyinka, W. (1967). Kongi’s harvest. London: Methuhen. Soyinka, W. (1975). Death and the king’s horseman. London: Methuhen. Soyinka, W. (2002). King Baabu. London: Methuhen Publishing Limited. Trudgill, P. (1983). Sociolinguistics: An introduction to language and society. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books Limited. Yunus, M. A. (2007). A discourse analysis of the global religious crises. In Adeyanju, D. ed. Sociolinguistics in the Nigerian context. Ile-Ife: Obafemi Awolowo University Press Ltd. Pp. 234-261.




Theory Construction in Second Language Acquisition

In Favor of the Rationalism Mehdi Shokouhi (Ph.D. Candidate of TEFL)

Department of English, Science and Research Branch Islamic Azad University, Mazandaran, Iran E-mail: [email protected]

Received: 17-07- 2012 Accepted: 03-08- 2012 Published: 03-09- 2012 doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.157 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.157 Abstract One of the most controversial issues in second language acquisition (SLA) seems to be the issue of theory construction. There are mainly two opposing views considering the SLA theory construction namely the Rationalist view and the Relativist view. The former tries to reasons that there should be a few theories of SLA at work while the latter favors as many theories as possible. However, the present paper tries to take a supportive stance with regard to the rationalism reasoning that the rationalist view seems to be more fruitful, practical, and above all beneficial considering theory construction in SLA. Keywords: Rationalism, Relativism, SLA, Theory construction 1. The heart of the debate Where did the story of the debate between SLA scholars considering theory building begin? The debate started with the publication of a special issue of Applied Linguistics in 1993 titled “Theory Construction in SLA,” which contains papers from a 1991 conference at Michigan State University titled “Theory Construction and Methodology in Second Language Research”. It seems that some of the American scholars were either not interested or not ready for that very conference in 1991 due to the fact that after the publication of the articles in 1993 special issue of applied linguistics, rebellious voices of protest from different major universities in general and other scholars in particular were heard. Thanks to the respect which all of these scholars found it hard to extend to each other, the participants of the debate of SLA theory construction can be easily recognized and divided into two main parts. One side of this debate, which is in line with Rationalism is supported by Berretta (1991, 1993); Berretta and Crookes (1993); Crookes (1992); Long (1993); Schumann (1993); Gregg (1993); (2000) and more recently Gregg (2002, 2003, and 2005), and also Long (2003). The other side of this debate, i.e. Relativists, although few in number, is supported by Lantolf (1996); Block (1996), and more recently Lantolf (2005). It seems that currently the other members of each alliance either lost or change interest in that the debate is continued between Kevin Gregg from the rationalist perspective and James Lantolf from the relativist perspective. To start, it has to be specified that the major focus of this article is an illustration of how scholars in the rationalist perspective view theory construction in SLA. But having a look on the criteria that a good theory of SLA should enjoy in general seems quite essential in helping us to decide which of the previously mentioned perspectives on theory construction in SLA make more sense. As a result, first a short recount of the general criteria of a good SLA theory is provided and then the significant elements of an SLA theory form a rationalist perspective are brought into consideration. Additionally, each of the scholars in rationalist perspective and their concerns are presented. And finally, I try to end up with a rationalist conclusion considering the issue of theory construction in SLA. 2. A good SLA theory: Elements and Concerns According to Long (1990), “Theories of SLA are attempts to explain well-attested empirical findings about relationships between process and product in interlanguage development and universals, and variance in learners




and learning environment” (p.649). Additionally, Jordan (2004) lists 5 criteria for evaluating SLA theories: 1. Theories should be coherent, cohesive, expressed in the clearest possible terms and consistent that is there

should be no internal contradiction 2. Theories should be capable of being challenged by empirical observations referring to the issue that the

more a theory is open to tested, the stronger it is. 3. The wider the scope of a theory, the better 4. Theories with undemanding procedure and the fewer number of basic entities seem to be more preferable

due to the issue of economy. More importantly, McLaughlin (1987) sees one important task for theory builders in SLA as being to try to fit the different “bits” together. McLaughlin also suggests that an SLA theory should meet various types of requirements such as Ø A theory should correspond to external reality. In effect this means that a theory must have empirical

elements. Ø The concepts employed in a theory must be described so that anyone will interpret it in the same way. Ø Terms used in the theory may be drawn from everyday language or the theorist may invent his own terms.

If the terms are drawn from everyday language, then all ambiguity must be removed. If the term is a neologism, it can be precisely defined but risks being misunderstood, an example is intake. Operational definitions are very helpful.

Ø A theory must have explanatory power; good theories go beyond the facts and can be generalized. Since the major focus of this paper is on a rational view of theory construction in SLA, one can make use of the following proposed by Jordan (2004) as guidelines to construct a rational theory of SLA:

1. An external world exists independently of our perceptions of it. It is possible to study different phenomena in this world, to make meaningful statements about them, and to improve our knowledge of them.

2. Research is inseparable from theory. We cannot just observe the world: all observation involves theorizing. That is, there is no way we can talk about something sensed and not interpreted. This is a rejection of the behaviorists and logical positivist position, but does not exclude all empiricists.

3. Theories attempt to explain phenomena. Observational data are used to support and test those theories. 4. Research is fundamentally concerned with problem-solving. Research in SLA should be seen as

attempted explanations. Data collection, taxonomies, “rich descriptions” of events, etc., must be in the service of an explanatory theory.

5. We cannot formalize “the scientific method”. Science is not only experimentation in a laboratory, it is not only physics, and, in any case, it is not necessary for a theory of SLA to be “scientific” in any narrow sense. There is no strict demarcation line between “science” and “non-science”.

6. There is no need for paradigmatic theories. As many theories as possible should be encouraged. It has to be highlighted that the opposition between the rationalist and the postmodernist perspective views on theory construction is conspicuously palpable in that the latter, i.e. the postmodernist view attempting to provide a cover-all theory.

3. The rationalist and SLA theory construction Before discussing the rationalist’s scholars in particular, it seems useful to shed light on the general distinction between the rationalist and the relativist. Put simply, the rationalist view of SLA theory construction is against the notion of theory proliferation but at the same not after only a unified theory of SLA. The major claim of the rationalists is that the number of SLA theories should be decreased form many to a few in that the SLA theories have to be complementary rather than to be oppositional. The relativists, however, holds a contradictory stands in that they believe we can have as many as theories as possible. Beretta (1991), who can be considered as the pioneering feature of the debate on SLA theory construction, framed a discussion of theory construction by addressing issues such as whether or not a diversity of theories and criteria in SLA represents a problem. In other words, he directly picked up the question that “should this diversity be reduced to one or a few theories? Considering different approaches to theory building, Beretta clearly concludes in favor of few, rather than many theories, highlighting the former as the result of “rationality” and the latter, the outcome of “relativism” (p. 495). Beretta provides an acceptable analogy and reasoning in that he believes comparing SLA to the already-successful sciences; i.e., the so-called hard sciences (p. 497), these fields do not, unlike SLA, have




“multiple rival theories” (p. 497). Therefore, it is not beneficial for SLA to have many theories, either. Moreover, Beretta (1991) adds that “most anarchic criterion of all” is that of “no criterion” which he calls “extreme relativism”. Two years later, Beretta (1993), once again, negotiates his uneasiness and concern considering the proliferation of rival theories in SLA. Beretta (1993) argues complementary theories, that is, theories operating in different domains and each providing answers to different parts of the SLA puzzle are no problem since they are theoretically coherent; but oppositional theories are a problem, since they offer theoretically incompatible, mutually exclusive explanations of the same facts. Hereby, one can clearly conclude that Beretta supports theory building only from a rationalist paradigm, and certainly not from a relativist one. It has to be mentioned that Alan Beretta, from Michigan State University, is not alone in this regard. He receives support from University of Hawaii by Graham Crookes. After the publication of Beretta’s (1991) article, his idea was supported by Crooks (1992) in an article titled “Theory format and SLA Theory” in which Crookes shows his agreement with Berretta implicitly in his adherence to a rationalist notion of science as the gold standard in considering theory construction. Finally, Beretta and Crookes’ coalescence reaches its ultimate phase by their publication of an article in 1993 under the rubric of Cognitive and social determinants of discovery in SLA. Beretta and Crookes (1993) dismiss the argument that social conditions can cause the content of theories; they argue that “social conditions are not only not sufficient but are not necessary at all for scientific discovery” (p. 253). Moreover, they pointed out that assessment criteria by themselves assume ready-made theories; but the important issue to any active researchers is how to get to next step. Importantly, it has to be underlined that by important issue, they mean the greatest interest lies in the process of science. In sum, Beretta and Crookes (1993) consider two approaches to SLA as a process: First, a mechanism based on personal motives which has much the same effects as if the enterprise were rational, and second, reasoning strategies to generate new hypothesis. Based on Darden (1991), Beretta and Crookes proposed seven strategies for producing a new idea or a theory:

1. Using analogy 2. Invoking a theory type 3. Using interrelations 4. Moving to another level of organization 5. Introduce and manipulate a symbolic representation 6. Introduce a simplifying assumption, and then investigating 7. Beginning with a vague idea and successively refining it.

The next person who shows interest in joining the rationalist party is Michael Long, who was both a participant of the Michigan’s 1991 conference and a publisher in the 1993’s volume of applied linguistics. Having expressed his uneasiness considering the theory proliferation in SLA, Long (1993) estimates that there are between 40 and 60 theories of SLA, and he goes on to give an outline of the diversity. Moreover, Long (1993) suggests that theories can be assessed in absolute and relative terms. He believes that

In absolute terms, theories may be judged inadequate because they are too powerful, ad hoc, untestable, say nothing about relevant phenomena, and so on. In relative terms, they may be less adequate than rival theories of the same phenomena because they consistently make less accurate predictions, account for fewer data, require more mechanisms to handle the same data. (p. 231)

The already covered quotation by Long shows that if he does not agree with theories in absolute status, he would not feel to be in the same boat with the relativist theories whatsoever. Additionally, Long (1993) clarifies his position as a rationalist and further expresses his dissatisfaction with the relativists view so boldly and assertively. Long (1993) states that

Relativists argue that no field could ever be ready, and are against it in principle either as impossible or as undesirable on cognitive ground which is a self-defeating attitude. In fact, it is not clear to me why relativists would bother to do research at all. (p. 230)

Finally, it has to be mentioned that, Long like Beretta and Crookes favors the notion of complementary rather than opposing rival SLA theories. Such an attitude is quite overt in his 1990’ article titled The least a second




language acquisition theory needs to explain. John Schumann, another participant of the Michigan’s 1991 conference and also a publisher in applied linguistics 1993’s volume, puts forward his support considering the rationalist view of SLA theory in a both sophisticated and interesting way. Schumann (1993) puts forward the notion of falsification as a significant element in SLA theory construction. According to Schumann, the notion of falsification asserts that a hypothesis cannot be tested in isolation, because all hypotheses are embedded in networks of auxiliary assumptions, and when a particular hypothesis is tested and the predicted result fails to occur, one cannot know whether the hypothesis is wrong or whether there is an error somewhere in the network of associated assumptions. Such assumptions can be either conceptual notions or methodological issues and the researcher may not even be aware that he/she maintains them. For instance, we can consider the critical or the sensitive period as a sort of hypothesis which is to a large extent depends on the auxiliary factors such as socio-psychological factors, input factors, and neurological factors thus leading to difference results. According to falsification premise and more specifically Schumann (1993), these differences in result do not mean that the critical or sensitive hypothesis is wrong; but rather the differences result from many other auxiliary factors. In sum, Schumann clearly expresses that it is so hard, if not impossible, to achieve a state of falsification and at the same he warns us that scholars should not aim at producing rival and oppositional theories due to the fact that one specific theory fails to fulfill what it predicts; rather we should be aware that such a failure in prediction is as a result of our not being aware of other auxiliary factors. Thus, new findings should not be considered as opposition to the original proposal of an issue but rather should function as complementary. The messages that Schumann tries to get across are rationally redolent enough to be associated with the rationalist view of SLA theory construction in that it explicitly recognizes the theory proliferation in SLA is due to the researchers’ acceptance of failure in what a theory accounts for as a result of the erroneous theoretical basis. Thus; an acceptance of the influence of the auxiliary factors as the reason that why in some cases a theory of SLA results in failure can be considered a legitimate and rightful rationale to consider the new achievement as complementary rather oppositional or contradictory since they are all result from one theory. The last but not the least feature is Kevin Gregg. Among the coalition of the rationalists, Kevin Gregg’s desire to heat up the controversy between the rationalist and the relativist seems to be unquenchable. In a series of article, Gregg (1993, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2005) has tried to reprimand the relativist position with a barrage of irate tirade. To do him a justice, one can reasons that he absolutely got some points and concerns to negotiate. His relativist opponent, James Lantolf who has always sent Gregg messages from the flower garden i.e. Lantolf (1996, 2005) seems to be the other side of this debate. In his original proposal, Gregg (1993) argues that research in SLA considering the theory building should be committed to explanation rather than to the kind of aimless empiricist data –gathering collection. He further argues that theory proliferation is as a result of not being committed to explanation. Drawing on Long (1993), who has put forward that there are 40 to 60 SLA theories, Gregg argues that

Most of the 40 or 60 theories that putatively are SLA theories are not in fact really theories, but rather either descriptive, non-explanatory frameworks for L2 research on the one hand, or else metaphors for organizing one’s thought on the other. (p. 289)

Additionally, Gregg (2000) finds the relativist stance wide open to be criticized and their characters to be assassinated. Gregg criticizes Lantolf for not having a clear understanding of relativism and mistaking pluralism instead. The second issue for which Gregg finds it a matter of scrutiny is Lantolf’s notion of absolutism. Gregg argues that for one thing, no SLA researcher anywhere argues in favor of the domination of SLA by only one single theory. He also adds that even Eubank and Gregg’s notorious comment that UG theory is the only rich and well-developed theory of linguistic competence around is not a claim that this is a welcome state of affairs. But Lantolf, like many other postmodernists, mistakenly believes that absolutism and foundationalism enjoy hegemony in science generally, and sees relativism as a bulwark against such hegemony. In a comparison of Long and Lantolf, Gregg (2000) vividly expresses that

What does Lantolf offer us in preference to Long’s picture of productive scientists doing useful work? In effect, a kaffeeklatsch of solipsists who do nothing but chat, without actually doing




anything. Where a rationalist like Long envisions SLA research as goal-oriented, empirical work, a postmodernist like Lantolf is satisfied with an endless conversation. (p. 396)

He also adds that It is easy enough to see how this image of SLA research might appeal to those who are not really concerned with finding out the facts about SLA, or who might find themselves embarrassed by actual empirical findings. And it is hard to imagine what a research programme of Lantolfian postmodernist SLA researchers would look like. (p. 396)

Finally, Gregg (2003) gives the postmodernism and the relativist a curt in that he says he does not propose to spend much time on relativist views of theory, SLA or otherwise, as there seems to be very little reason to take them seriously since there are no scientists who take a relativist position and more importantly, it is inherently self-contradictory to conduct empirical research in order to reach conclusions which could not persuade, or even be comprehensible to, anyone outside the researcher’s culture/paradigm/mindset. 4. A Rationalist Conclusion Having a closer look on the entire previously mentioned rationalists like Beretta, Crookes, Long, Schumann and Gregg, we see that all of them are after the issue that coming to a consensus is quite beneficial to the field of SLA. And indeed it is beneficial. As Long (1993) puts it the existence of a dominant theory or paradigm is necessary if the field is ever to attain the state of grace known as, using Kuhn’s term, normal science. In this case, research becomes cumulative, details can be attended to, and application of theory can be harvested. More importantly, the theory tells the researchers the relevant data to collect and the process is theory-governed, organized, and cooperative effort. Additionally, as Gregg (2005) highlights it

‘The more, the merrier’ is an irresponsible and self-defeating attitude for an empirical discipline to take towards theory construction. Life is too short, SLA researchers too few, and the claims of rationality too strong, for us to welcome every half-baked self-styled ‘theory’ simply because it ‘challenges the paradigm’. The study of second language acquisition is an empirical scientific discipline, and one of the characteristics of science is that, in the long run at least, it progresses. An attitude of ‘the more, the merrier’ is one good way of stalling the progress. (p. 124)

Finally, the present paper underlines that the argument put forward by the relativist view of objectifying knowledge in general and the postmodernist view of SLA theory construction in particular is somehow much ado about nothing due to the fact that their claim is self-defeating and contradictory. If knowledge is out there and impossible to be objectified and SLA is one sort of that knowledge, as long (1993) puts it, why the relativists and the post modernists bother to do research whatsoever. References Beretta, A. (1991). Theory construction in SLA: Complementarity and opposition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 13, 493-511. doi:10.1017/S0272263100010305 Beretta, A. (1993). Perpective on theory construction in SLA: An introduction. Applied Linguistics, 14(3), 221-224.doi:10.1093/applin/14.3.221 Beretta, A., & Crookes, G. (1993). Cognitive and social determinants of discovery in SLA. Applied Linguistics, 14(3), 250-275.doi:10.1093 /applin/14.3.250 Block, D. (1996). Not so fast: Some thoughts on theory culling, relativism, accepted findings and the heart and soul of SLA. Applied Linguistics, 17(1), 63-83.doi:10.1093/applin/17.1.63 Gregg, K. R. (1993). Taking explanation seriously; or, Let a couple of flowers bloom. Applied Linguistics, 14(3), 276-294.doi:10.1093/applin/14.3.276 Gregg, K. R. (2000). A theory for every occasion: Postmodernism and SLA. Second Language Research, 16, 383-399. Gregg, K. R. (2002). A garden ripe for weeding: a reply to Lantolf. Second Language Research, 18(1), 79-81.doi:10.1191/0267658302sr199xx




Gregg, K. R. (2003). SLA Theory: Construction and assessment. In C. J. Doughty & M. H. Long (Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 831-865). Oxford: Blackwell.doi:10.1002/9780470756492. ch23 Gregg, K. R. (2005). A response to Jordan’s (2004) ‘Explanatory Adequacy and Theories of Second Language Acquisition’. Applied Linguistics, 26(1), 121-124.doi:10.1093/applin/amh047 Jordan, G. (2004). Theory construction in second language acquisition. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Lantolf, J.P. (1996). SLA building: Letting all the flowers bloom. Language Learning, 46(4), 713-749.doi:10.1111/j.1467-1770.1996.tb01357.x Lantolf, J. P. (2005). Sociocultural and second language learning research: An exegesis. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 335-354). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum. Long, M. H. (1990). The least a second language acquisition theory needs to explain. TESOL Quarterly, 24(4), 649-666.doi:10.2307/3587113 Long, M. H. (1993). Assessment strategies for SLA theories. Applied Linguistics, 14(3), 225-49.doi:10.1093/applin/14.3.225 Long, M. H., & Doughty, C. J. (2003). SLA and cognitive science. In C. J. Doughty & M. H. Long (Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 866-869). Oxford: Blackwell. doi:10.1002/9780470756492.ch24 McLaughlin, B. (1987). Theories of second language learning. London: Arnold. Schumann, J. H. (1993). Some problems with falsification: An illustration from SLA research. Applied Linguistics, 14(3), 295-306. doi:10.1093/applin/1 4.3.295




A Study of Directive Speech Acts Used by Iranian Nursery School Children: The Impact of Context on Children’s Linguistic Choices

Shohreh Shahpouri Arani, M.A. in TEFL

Young Researchers Club, Khorasgan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Khorasgan, Iran E-mail: [email protected]

Received: 22-07- 2012 Accepted: 15-08- 2012 Published: 03-09- 2012 doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.163 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.163 Abstract This paper aims at finding out the forms and functions of directive speech acts uttered by Persian-speaking children. The writer’s goal is to discover the distinct strategies applied by speakers of nursery school age children regarding three parameters: the choice of form, the negotiation of communicative goals within conversation, and the protection of face. The data collected for this purpose are based on actual school conversational situations that were audio recorded in four nursery schools during classroom work and playtime activities. Children, who are the subjects of this study, are of both sexes and various social backgrounds. The results revealed that (1) the investigation of children’s directive speech acts confirm the fact that they are aware of social parameters of talk (Andersen- Slosberg,1990; Ervin, Tripp et al., 1990); (2) they use linguistic forms that are different from what is used by adults as politeness marker, such as, polite 2nd plural subject-agreement on the verb, “please” and “thank you” words; (3) They use declaratives with illocutionary force in order to mark distance (Georgalidou, 2001). Keywords: Iranian children’s speech; Directive speech act; Politeness, Conversational analysis; Persian 1. Introduction In this article, the directive speeches used by nursery school children and their linguistic choices are investigated. According to Searle (1975 a: 335; Searle, 1976), directives are utterances addressed to an interlocutor in order to “make him/her do something”. However, Ervin- Tripp (1990:308) declared that directive illocutionary force also exist in any move “which could be interpreted either by the speaker or hearer as an attempt to affect the behavior of an interlocutor”. As a result of this declaration, Searle’s definition has been changed to include acts other than requests, orders and commands. In the revised definition, Ervin- Tripp’s (1990: 308) prohibitions, invitations, offers, claims, intention statements and permissions, summons and treats (Wootton, 1981; Georgalidou, 2001) and also speech acts used to create a frame during symbolic play (Sawyer, 1993) can also be defined as control acts (Ervin- Tripp et al., 1990: 308), since using them forces the hearer to follow the speaker in achieving his/her intended goals. The present paper will inquire the interaction between sociocultural parameters, namely, the age of the speakers and their choice of form for the control acts, i.e., the speech acts with directive illocutionary force within the conversational context. The goal of examining directive speech acts in this study was to find their illocutionary force (Searle, 1969), their relation to the Gricean maxims (Grice, 1975; Searle, 1975b) and their relevance to the speaker’s intention in communication and to show how the hearer perceive it (Sperber and Wilson, 1995). Besides, directive speech has also been examined to show its relevance or its impact on the acquisition of communicative competence. All these show that speech acts, especially those of directive illocutionary force are eminent in children’s everyday conversation of all ages and choice of forms act as marker which reflects developmental stages of language acquisition in children ( Ervin-Tripp et al., 1990). Also, research has shown that children are able to use stylistic variation from their early ages (Ochs and Schieffelin, 1979; Schieffelin and Ochs, 1986; Ochs, 1988). The forms of speech acts chosen by the children , like that of adults, does not correspond exactly, word by word, with their intended function, since some issues such as cost and consideration of face are used to express politeness. The organization of peer groups can also affect these choices. Children are under the impression of social norms of adult’s societies. Their relationship




shows their effort to consider equality/ impression and they’re more intended to preserve their own face than that of their interlocutor (Mitchell-Kernan and Kernan, 1997). In short, studies have shown that nursery school children usually do not use the conventional politeness markers except in situations where their interlocutor has more right and the strategic use of politeness markers lead them to reach their goal (Ervin-Tripp et al., 1990). Moreover, when the hearer has a close relationship with children, like their parents and caretakers, they use less “polite” control acts. All of these imply the aim of this study which is to investigate children’s strategies in using directive illocutionary force in their conversations in both formal and informal situations in the nursery school environment. 2. Directive speech and linguistic manifestations of politeness A universal parameter of linguistic communication is politeness. Goffman (1967) named it protection of face1

since it affects linguistic choices (Brown and Levinson, 1987). Brown and Levinson suggested a model for it and there were high discussion on this concept during the last few decades. Their model shows that linguistic choices have two functions: to show that the speaker intends to maintain closeness with his/her interlocutor or he/she intends to retain the distance. According to Brown and Levinson (1987), in the first one, the speaker use positive politeness strategies and in the second one, negative. Comparative studies reveal that speakers with different backgrounds protect face in distinct ways. So, the concept of universal linguistic politeness is aberrant (Tennen, 1984; Blum-Kulka, 1992; Bayraktaroglu and Sifianou, 2001). In addition, it seems that Iran is a society mostly inclined to positive politeness strategies. The uses of imperative forms, as well as direct control acts are quite common in Iran. Moreover, Iranians do not speak so formal with their acquaintances since they believe this rude and a hostile behavior. In child’s discourse in nursery school, the relative distance that is characteristic of teacher/ student relationship does not exist. Students use various devices and strategies to identify distance based on their age and the speech events which form the context of interaction. For example, students in nursery school classrooms utter declaratives like “Auntie, Arsham hit me in the back”. It contains two directive functions: (a) it refers to a forbidden action, and (b) it is being addressed to the teacher who is responsible for keeping of rules at class (Sinclair and Coulthard, 1975). The communicative aim of the speaker is to inform the teacher of the breaking of a rule as well as direct her/ him toward punishing the aggressor. This kind of declarative, which is common in Iran nursery schools, functions as a direct command, the addressee will act in a special way in response to it. In using this kind of speech act, children describe the source of trouble in a way that force the teacher to do something and initiates the next action. Unlike this, a kind of imposition is evident when they address other children, even when declaratives are used. All of the above show that choice of form is a complicated issue. This implies that a combination of micro, such as the above, and macro pragmatic, i.e. “in the context of society”2

(Mey, 2001:135) approaches should be applied. 3. Linguistic choices in Iranian directives Linguistically, directive speech act can be realized by means of imperatives, interrogatives, and declaratives. Iranian chooses imperatives more since they want to imply their closeness and independence of interlocutors. They use imperative verbs or when this verb is not available, use subjunctives to function as imperative. Consequently, for the formation of first and third person of the affirmative, and also all negative imperatives, subjunctive is used. In the context of group play activities that have illocutionary force of command, indicatives can also be used in directives. Like English, Iranians use modals (can, could, would, may, etc) in the formation of requests. In some occasions that a close relationship exists between the interlocutors, modals may be omitted but when distance among interlocutors is maximum, or in cases of formality, they are used. Directives are recognized to be used with the verb (I want) or (I need), in present, past and the conditional. But the use of present one (I want) is very uncommon in informal situations. There exist some declaratives which refer to a source of trouble or describe regulations, consequences, intentions or commitments, etc., which are systematically used as hints and function as control acts. There are some conventional politeness forms that are recognized as markers of distance and formality, such as second plural subject-agreement on the verb, ‘please’ and ‘excuse’ words, as well as expressions that are used as redressive action strategies (i.e. ‘if it is easy for you’ , ‘ if you would be so kind’). It is expected that Iranian children at least use the second plural subject-agreement on the verb, ‘please’ and ‘excuse’ word, and interrogatives introduced with ‘can’, when addressing their teachers and non-familiar adults. Although this is not




the case in everyday linguistic behavior, especially in children around the age of five, adults assess children contribution as ‘impolite’ when they fail to use these markers. Whether this is the case in context of Iran, is the subject matter of the subsequent discussion. 4. Methodology 4.1 Participants The participants of this study (children) were of both sexes, between 4-6 years old and various social classes but their ethnic backgrounds were the same. The average age of both boys and girls was five. The nursery schools chosen for the aim of this study were located in different parts of the city Isfahan. One was in Hezar Jerib St., with students mostly of upper middle class background. Other in Emam Khomeini St., with mixed middle/lower class students and one in Bozorgmehr St., with mixed middle/upper class students and one in Zeinabiyeh St., in an exclusively working class (lower class) neighborhood. 4.2 Material The data of this study is consisted of 16 hours of actual conversational exchanges, audio recorded in four nursery school classes during class and play time activities. 4.3 Procedure The researchers attended the classes and audio recorded the conversations and then transcribed them in order to find the speech acts with directive illocutionary force to be studied both in the context of the ongoing activity and the conversations they had occurred in. The analysis aims at discussing the different functions served by the forms chosen by children within the organization of their conversations. 5. Aim of the study The aim of the paper is to analyze all directive contributions of children of this age regarding the system of preferences that seems to be operating in their choice of linguistic form. For this aim, the nursery school provides an excellent environment for the collection of natural data. Since the class is mostly controlled by teacher, the class activities and contributions addressed to the teacher create a quite formal context of speech. On the other hand, during playtime children are left in groups (of about 4-5) and negotiate the course of action without any help on the part of teacher and he/she is addressed only when problem arise. Although nursery school teachers become familiar with the children but in school system, the hierarchy relations predominate. Therefore, directives addressed to adults reveal a relative distance that makes them different from corresponding contributions addressed to children. The linguistic markers of this difference will be discussed in the incoming sections. 6. Research questions Research Questions:

1- Is the form and function of children’s directive speech acts similar to that of adults? 2- Do children use the same politeness markers in their directive speech as adults?

7. Data Analysis 7.1 Imperatives Imperatives are one of the linguistic forms which are used by children most of the time, at least within familiar contexts. Studies done by Anderson-Sloberg (1990) have shown that children direct many orders to other children, quite a lot to their mothers, but less to their father and adult interlocutors. Although Mitchell-Kernan and Kernan (1977) argued that talk among children is perceived as quite face-threatening and competitive, Sachs and Devin (1975:9) proved that the nature of the ongoing activity is also a determining factor for the social meaning of children’s linguistic choices. This study is directly related to linguistic choices and as Ervin-Tripp (1977:184) claims, imperatives can be an acceptable form for control acts, for either obtaining “face goods”, or for action that has to be taken at a fast pace. 7.1.1 Imperatives addressed to the teacher The most important thing regarding children’s conversations directed toward teacher in nursery school is the use of word “Auntie” which shows the close and intimate relationship that exists between children and their teacher. In most orders, directed to the teacher, the teacher is asked to hand the child things (“Auntie, give me my doll.”) or to do things that children cannot do (“Auntie, come and open the locker. I want to put it in.”), or even do




things that children must do themselves (“Auntie, take my bag and put it there”). What is noticeable is that children never use second person plural agreement on the verb while older children in primary school use the plural form. The reason, considering the close relationship between children and the teacher, is that the teacher never corrects the students toward the use of polite plural forms. So, this seems to be acceptable for both of them. In this context (teacher and students).

خالھ تو برو، خودش باید بخونھ. -1Auntie, leave him alone, he must read it by himself.

خالھ بھ من دوتا عدس بده برا چشمھاش، دوتا ھم ماش. - ٢Auntie, give me two lentils for its eyes and two vetches.

خالھ کیفمو بردار بگذار اونجا. - ٣Auntie, take my bag and put it there.

خالھ بیا در کمد را باز کن میخوام اینو بگذارم توش. - ۴Auntie, come and open the locker. I want to put it in.

خالھ بازش کن برام. - ۵Auntie, open it for me.

خالھ نارنگیمو بده. - ۶Auntie, give me my tangerine.

خالھ عروسک منو بده. - ٧Auntie, give me my doll.

خالھ شش تا دیگھ ماش بده. - ٨Auntie, give me six more vetches.

خالھ صفحھ بعد را بگو. - ٩Auntie, read the next page.

خالھ جامدادی منو بنداز. -١٠Auntie, throw my pencil case.

خالھ آب بده. -١١Auntie, give me some water.

یگانھ چی باید بگی؟ -١٢Yeganeh, what should you say?

لطفا آب، لطفا آب. -١٣

Water, Please. Water, please. بفرما. -١۴

Here you are. 7.1.2 Imperatives addressed to children Children frequently use imperatives when addressing other children. The intensity and quantity of imperatives addressed to other children is different from the ones addressed to the teacher. As it is obvious in the examples (sentences number 18 and number 22), repetition of the control act within the same sentence aggravates its directive force. In addition, other examples of imperatives can be noticed during cooperative play activities which help the fast pace of the ongoing action (examples 20, 21, 23). Control acts like sentences 15,16,17,19,25 and 26 are frequent in data, in which the child have a sense of authority over others and order them to do or not to do some actions. The child also feels that he/she is responsible of doing some actions like that of teacher. For example in sentence 27, he orders others to bring their dolls to put them in the shelf himself/herself.




On the whole, imperatives, as it is clear from above examples, are control acts used frequently by children in the context of control acts. Although aggravation and imposition are the prominent characteristics of their behavior, children know how to maintain cooperation even when their directives are unsuccessful. On the other hand, imperatives addressed to teachers are less imposing and once rejected, they are rarely reintroduced by children.

بچھ ھا سکوت کنین. -١۵Be quiet, kids.

برو کنار. -١۶Go out of the way.

خالھ بشین. -17Auntie, sit down.

آی برو کنار، برو کنار. -١٨Hey, get out of the way, come on.

بلندش کن. -١٩Pick it up.

اون صندلی را بیار. -٢٠Bring that chair.

آقا نکن. اینجوری خراب میشھ. -٢١Stop it. This way you will destroy it.

کنار، از جای من برو کنار. برو -٢٢Go away. That’s my seat.

مصطفی بیا اینجا تا باھم رنگ کنیم. -٢٣Mostafa, come here. Let’s color.

مصطفی، قرمزت را بردار. -٢۴Mostafa, take your red pencil.

بلندشو بندازش تو سطل. -٢۵Stand up and throw it away.

اینجا. اون بشقاب را بیار -٢۶Bring that plate here.

بچھ ھا عروسکھاتون را بدین بھ من بگذارم تو قفسھ. -٢٧Kids, give me your dolls to put them on the shelf. 7.2 Interrogative Interrogatives are other options children use for the formation of control acts. They are requests for information that speaker has not got. Children often use interrogatives in their everyday speech in order to request for information through the application of syntactic or/and pragmatic indirectness, as what can be perceived in the use of modals and hints respectively (Sifianou, 1992). As Sinclair and Van Gessel (1990) argued, if the ongoing action is conversational, questions from a great part of children’s contributions, as requests for information, clarification or confirmation. On the other hand, interrogatives are sometimes used by children as ways for seeking the information, requesting goods and services (embedded imperatives). Hints, used in the form of interrogatives, are also common in conversations with children. Schegloff (1988) discussed that in contrastive analysis, hinting interrogatives are perceived as pre-sequences, checking the necessary conditions for success of control acts. They can also be used as a means for organization of turn-taking. Examples are found in the data discussed below. 7.2.1 Interrogative addressed to the teacher There are interrogatives that serve as request for information, clarification or confirmation. Examples of this kind are sentences number 28 to 54. Other kinds of interrogatives are children’s questions aim at asking for




permission, objects or services (ex. 28 to 36). Although in these examples interrogative form is chosen, as opposed to imperatives, but there is no politeness marker (ex. 2nd person plural or ‘please’). Sentences number 48 (Auntie, would you unwrap this chocolate for me?) is typical of the conversational negotiation of such speech acts, when addressed to the teacher. The contributions have the illocutionary force of imperatives, as opposed to demands or questions, thus mitigate the imposition. There is another type of interrogative control act that is not directly related to the requested action. Questions, such as "asking for the place of an objects" (Auntie, where is my pencil case?) are usually used by children which implies his/her interest for the object in question.

خالھ اجازه ھست من بھ ستاره یک چیزی بگم؟ -٢٨Auntie, may I say something to Setareh?

خالھ من تا شب باید رنگ کنم؟ -٢٩Auntie, should I keep coloring until the nightfall?

چرا ابرت را رنگ نکردی ملیکا؟ -٣٠Why didn’t you color the cloud, Melica?

خالھ اومدی اینجا چیکار کنی؟ -٣١Why did you come here, Auntie?

خالھ نیوشا کیھ؟ -٣٢Auntie, who is Niyoosha?

خالھ برم دستم را بشورم؟ -٣٣Auntie, may I go to wash my hands?

خالھ اونھا کھ تمام نکردن ھم برن تغذیھ بگیرن؟ -٣۴Auntie, can the kids who haven’t finished yet go to take the snack?

من برم مداد رنگیھام را بیارم؟ -٣۵May I go to bring my color pencils?

خالھ کی میریم رودخونھ؟ -٣۶Auntie, when do you take us to the river?

خالھ اجازه ھست من برم آب بخورم؟ -٣٧Auntie, may I go to drink some water?

میدید؟ CDخالھ امروز -٣٨Auntie, do you give CD today?

بچھ ھا این کتاب مال کیھ کھ روش کنده شده؟ -٣٩Kids, whose book is this uncovered book?

خالھ کجا را باید رنگ کنیم؟ -۴٠Auntie, where should we color?

خالھ کدوم الک پشت را میگین؟ -۴١Auntie, which turtle do you mean?

خالھ تراشھارو میدین؟ -۴٢Auntie, can you pass the pencil sharpeners?

مداد صورتی دارین؟ -۴٣Do you have a pink pencil?

خالھ یک لپھ بھ من میدین؟ -۴۴Auntie, would you give me a split pea?

خالھ کیف منو میدی؟ -۴۵Auntie, would you give my bag?




خالھ یھ صورتی پررنگ میدی؟ -۴۶Auntie, would you give me a dark pink pencil?

خالھ عروسک منو میدین؟ -۴٧Auntie, would you give me my doll?

خالھ این شکالت را برام باز میکنی؟ -۴٨Auntie, would you unwrap this chocolate for me?

خالھ این را برام باز میکنی؟ -۴٩Auntie, would you unwrap it for me?

خالھ ظرف تغذیھ منم میدی؟ -۵٠Auntie, give my snack dish, too.

خالھ جامدادی من کجاست؟ -۵١Auntie, where is my pencil case?

خالھ تراش نارنجی من دست کیھ؟ -۵٢Auntie, who has my orange sharpener?

خالھ کیفم کجاست؟ -۵٣Auntie, where is my bag?

خالھ دستکش منو کجا گذاشتی؟ -۵۴Auntie, where did you leave my gloves? 7.2.2 Interrogative addressed to children In addition to interrogatives that serve as request for information, clarification, or confirmation, children request other children for permission or objects. The use of interrogative structures for request or objects entails a strategic use of politeness, and this kind of requests is often accepted in the context of nursery school. Children also use offers and requests for joint actions (ex. 57, 58, 59). Another interrogative is the one introduced with “where” or “whose”, requesting an object by asking its location or its owner (ex. 55, 56, 61). On the whole, interrogatives as compared to imperatives entail a greater protection of safe for both interlocutors, although both serve similar functions. In spite of that, interrogatives addressed to children also have the illocutionary force of either demands or requests. Therefore, interrogatives addressed to the teacher seem to be more appropriate form of using a control act when facing an adult compared to the ones addressed to children.

مداد صورتی داری؟ -۵۵Do you have a pink pencil?

بچھ ھا قھوه ای کو؟ -۵۶Kids, where is the brown pencil?

زردت را با من عوض میکنی؟ -۵٧Do you exchange your yellow pencil with mine?

محمد پنیر نمی خوای؟ -۵٨Mohammad, don’t you want some cheese?

ن چیھ؟ آناناسھ؟اگھ گفتی ای -۵٩Guess what it is? It’s pineapple.

محمد یکی از اون بزرگھا را میاری؟ -۶٠Mohammad, would you bring one of those large ones?

این پازل مال کیھ؟ -۶١Whose puzzle is this?




میای بریم تغذیھ ھامون را بگیریم؟ -۶٢Do you come to take our snacks?

زینب میای با ھم بازی کنیم؟ -۶٣Zeinab, would you like to come to play?

محمد رضا با من بازی می کنی؟ -۶۴Mohammad Reza, will you come to play together?

محمد رضا چرا اینقدر بلندش کردی؟ -۶۵Mohammad Reza, why did you lift it so much? 7.3 Declaratives One of the most common choices for the formation of various types of control act is declarative. As Mitchell-Kernan and Kernan, et al. (1977, 1983) argued, statements regarding the needs or wants of child is issued to caretakers and other children and are introduced with ‘I want’. Also, as Andersen-Sloberg (1990:130) stated, this type of need statements are systematically used during symbolic play, when children role-play themselves addressing their parents. Similarly, as Axia (1996) pointed out, Italian children recorded in a department store used the verb voglio (‘I want’) to request the buying of the preferred toy, and Baroni and Axia (1989) called it a choice that is considered rather rude in the context of Italian society. Youssef (1991:617) also stated that Trinidad children repaired their need statements to each other when mothers are present, but used non-mitigated statements when they were playing with other children, in the absence of adults. In addition to need statements, nursery school children use declaratives to describe problems and consequences, state rules, declare their intentions, etc., in order to have the addressee adjust his course of action to their wishes. 7.3.1 Declaratives addressed to the teacher Children, most of the times use statements that implicitly direct caretaker or other children to cooperate with them in order to describe their needs. They also use this strategy to their teacher in the context of class activities. As Ervin-Tripp (1982:236) pointed, children recognize a right on their part to receive help and their need statements have the illocutionary force of a request not that of a demand. So, once their requests are rejected by the teacher, they rarely insist them. Utterances like, “Auntie, I want the marker” is an example of this category. The teacher’s response to this request, “This marker belongs to nursery. I can’t give it to you” strongly rejects the request and the child had already accepted the rejection and quits trying. Except for need statements, children sometimes address their intentions to the teacher; describe what they are going to do. These declaratives are different from the rest in that they apparently are going to reverse power relationship and they dictate their intention, not request. Although these statements refer to the speaker in school context, the children’s behavior is controlled by the teacher. In sentence “Auntie, I wanna draw a killing shark for the kids”, it is clear that the child is not going to request something, but to inform teacher of his intention. Here, the teacher rejects the intension statement by means of the following statement: “Mohammad Reza, either sit down or get out of the class”. This order to sit down implies that this intention is rejected strongly on the part of the teacher and the student does not address the teacher anymore. In another sentence, when the child stated that “Auntie, today I want to be the leader”, the teacher rejects his intension by the statement “No, we don’t have leader today” which implies that there is no leader in the class today. Then, the child reintroduces his request, this time through this statement: “But yesterday we had one”. And again teacher rejects his intension by this sentence “Be quiet, kids.” But at last the child expresses his intension again without any attention to teacher’s rejection and the expression about necessity of having a leader by means of this utterance: “Auntie, I am the leader, today.” At this point, the child does not address the teacher anymore, but himself, as a monologue. This examples show that although the child’s control act has the illocutionary force of a demand, but different power relationship exist between the interlocutors. Except for need statement, another most common type of declaratives is the one performed by means of describing problems and rule violations. This type describes problems or breakings of rules happen by children. Children seem to implicitly ask teacher to change the non-desirable situation. Statements like: “Auntie, I can’t open it.” shows that children need some help and they indirectly invite the teacher to help. Other statements like




“Auntie, Mahdi has lined in Mrs. Rabi-ee’s book.” describes the breaking of rules by others. Utterances like “number 89 and 91” show that some children may have to be taken care of. These statements show that some forbidden action is committed in class.

خالھ ماژیک را بده. -۶۶

Auntie, give the marker. محمد رضا بشین. -۶٧

Sit down, Mohammad Reza. خالھ ماژیک را میخوام. -۶٨

Auntie, I want the marker. نکن، برو بشین. -۶٩

Stop it. Take a seat. خالھ میخوام برا بچھ ھا کوسھ ی قاتل بکشم. -٧٠

Auntie, I wanna draw a killing shark for the kids. محمد رضا یا بشین یا از کالس برو بیرون. این ماژیک مال مھد کودکھ. نمیشھ بدمش بھ تو. -٧١

Mohammad Reza, either sit down or get out of the class. This marker belongs to nursery. I can’t give it to you. خالھ امروز من نماینده. -٧٢

Auntie, today I want to be the leader. نھ، امروز نماینده نداریم. -٧٣

No, we don’t have leader today. دیروز کھ نماینده داشتیم. -٧۴

But yesterday we had one. ساکت باشین بچھ ھا. -٧۵

Be quiet, kids. خالھ من امروز نمایندم. -٧۶

Auntie, I am the leader, today. ھ بھ من لیوانم را ندادین.خال -٧٧

Auntie, you didn’t give me my glass. خالھ من قھوه ای ندارم. -٧٨

Auntie, I don’t have a brown pencil. خالھ من آب نخوردم. -٧٩

Auntie, I didn’t drink any water. خالھ تراش قرمز من نیست. -٨٠

Auntie, my red sharpener is gone. آرشام کتابمو برداشتھ.خالھ -٨١

Auntie, Arsham has taken my book. خالھ امید دوتا تراش تو کیفشھ. -٨٢

Auntie, there are two sharpeners in Omid’s bag. خالھ متین میخواد این بشقاب را بذاره پیش خودش. -٨٣

Auntie, Matin wants to take this plate near him. ا رنگ کرده.خالھ این ھمش ر -٨۴

Auntie, he has colored all of it.




خالھ آرشام تراش شما را برداشتھ. -٨۵Auntie, Arsham has taken your sharpener.

خالھ مھدی تو کتاب خانم ربیعی خط کشید. -٨۶Auntie, Mahdi has lined in Mrs. Rabi-ee’s book.

خالھ مھیار اذیتم میکنھ. -٨٧Auntie, Mahyar bothers me.

خالھ این نمیگذاره کتابش را رنگ کنم. -٨٨Auntie, she doesn’t let me color her book.

خالھ آرشام زد تو کمرم. -٨٩Auntie, Arsham hit me in the back.

خالھ مھدی علی را ھل داد. -٩٠Auntie, Mahdi pushed Ali.

خالھ علی ربیعی میزنھ تو دلم. -٩١Auntie, Ali Rabi-ee hits me in the stomach. 7.3.2 Declaratives addressed to children Declaratives addressed to children, unlike those addressed to teacher, are mainly demands. If they are rejected, it often leads to dispute. Some statements are similar to intention statements, so, dictating what the speaker wants to do. It shows that the speaker had already decided about some actions, who only makes an announcement as to what will follow (for example, “I want to make a snowman.”, “I want to color its blouse green.”). Sometimes declaratives are only statements about what children have or don’t have. Utterances like 92, 93,94,95,96 are some examples in this category. Here the massage is the ownership of objects and it seems that this type don’t leave room for negotiations. Threats are also common in children’s statements and it seems that their most important function is to prevent the addressee from doing what the speaker consider inappropriate. They consist of two parts, the description of the action which is going to be done by the addressee, and the description of the negative consequences of doing that action, for example, the utterances “Don’t do that, otherwise I won’t play with you” and “Atiyeh, if you put a bomb, I won’t be friend with you anymore.” Show that in case the hearer decides to do what the first part describes, he/she will lose the speaker’s friendship and cooperation. On the whole, interrogatives serve the same similar function whether they are addressed to teachers or to children. In spite of that, interrogatives addressed to the children can also have the illocutionary force of demand or request. So, interrogatives addressed to children are more strategic, comparing with ones addressed to teacher, which seem to be more appropriate form of using a control act when facing an adult.

بچھ ھا نگاه کنین. من پازل دارم. شما کھ ندارین. -٩٢Look at me. I have puzzle but you don’t have.

منم مثل این کتاب را دارم. -٩٣I also have a book the same as this.

من قھوه ای ندارم. -٩۴I don’t have brown pencil.

من شمشیر راستکی دارم. -٩۵I have a real sword.

من آدم آھنی دارم. -٩۶I have a steal man.

علی نکن، باھات بازی نمی کنما. -٩٧Ali, stop it. Otherwise I won’t play with you.

عطیھ اگھ بمب بگذاری باھات دوست نمیشم. -٩٨




Atiyeh, if you put a bomb, I won’t be your friend anymore. روسیم نقشھ بکشم دزدی کنم.بچھ ھا من میخوام شب ع -٩٩

Kids, I want to plan to rob at my wedding night. من میخوام آدم برفی درست کنم. - ١٠٠

I want to make a snowman. من میخوام بلوزش را سبز کنم. - ١٠١

I want to color its blouse green. 7.4 The distribution of imperative, interrogative, and declarative forms As shown in the analysis, nursery school children have the ability to realize the different status of the addressee. Among different types of control acts, they mainly use that of the declaratives. These utterances always have hints that describe needs and sources of troubles. Table 1 is based on the total number of the control acts addressed to both teacher and children found in the data. In spite of the fact that the forms does not differentiate according to their illocutionary force, the tables indicates that different linguistic structures are chosen when addressing teacher. As claimed above, children use more declarative structures to both children and teacher, with declaratives predominating in child-teacher conversations.

8. Conclusion In the present study, the forms and different functions of directive speech acts among Persian-speaking children of nursery school age have been investigated. Thus distinct strategies used by the speakers of nursery school age through three parameters of “choice of form”, “negotiation of communicative goals within conversation” and “protection of face” were thoroughly examined. The results of the study revealed that children appear to employ certain strategies and special forms in order to protect their relationship with their interlocutors and develop the chance of success in their communication. In the case of choosing forms within conversations, it was observed that they hardly ever use second person plural agreement on the verbs while addressing the teacher or their friends. Also, when teacher is directed children tend to employ shorter conversational episodes comparing the courses that only children involve. Regarding the fact that Iranian children are rather direct and imposing, their conversational episodes usually involve the structure of disputes. Although children use all three structures of imperatives, interrogatives and declaratives in order to do their control acts, the main illocutionary force is “demand”. When children are addressed, unlike the time when the teacher is addressed, children often employ demands. If demands are rejected by their friends it will result in dispute. On the other hand, there are times when children address their




teacher to express their intension using declarative. When the intention is refused on the part of the teacher, the child does not address teacher anymore and quits trying. Ultimately, talk among children is usually face-threatening and competitive. They direct a large number of orders to other children, but less to adult interlocutors. There is evidence that when the teacher is addressed, politeness markers are absent in children speech. They usually address their teacher for need or in a difficult situation. It is noteworthy that strategies employed by children often contain degree of indirectness, for instance declarative and interrogative. This would bring us to the fact that children realize factors, such as distance and status of addressee and use different strategies to reflect them in conversational practices. As a whole, in order to grasp the dynamics of children’s conversational discourse, the cultural elements and ethnographic factors, altogether, should be taken into account. It is obvious that the investigation of child discourse through different cultures would contribute to understanding of different stages in acquisition of communicative competence (Corsaro, 1985). Acknowledgement Particular thanks are owed to the faculty members of the department of Islamic Azad University, Khorasgan Branch, for those years of insightful teaching, availability, patience and their valuable support. The author also would like to thank nursery schools for allowing an access to the participants and also the children. I also indebted to my friends, thank you for your encouragement during the process of writing up the article. References Andersen-Slosberg, E. (1990). Speaking with Style. The Sociolinguistic Skills of Children. Routledge, London. Aronsson, Karin, Thorell, M. (1999). Family politics in children’s play directives. Journal of Pragmatics 31, 25–47. Axia, G. (1996). How to persuade mum to buy a toy. First Language 16, 301–317. Baroni, Maria Rosa, Axia, Giovanna (1989). Children’s meta-pragmatic abilities and the identification of polite and impolite requests. First Language 9, 285–297. Bates, E. (1976). Language and Context: The Development of Pragmatics. Academic Press, New York. Bayraktarog˘lu, Arin, Sifianou, Maria (Eds.), (2001). Linguistic Politeness Across Boundaries: The Case of Greece and Turkey. John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia. Blum-Kulka, Sh. (1992). The metapragmatics of politeness in Israeli society. In: Watts, R.J., Ide, S., Ehlich, K. (Eds.), Politeness in Language: Studies in its History, Theory and Practice. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin, pp. 255–280. Brown, P., &Levinson, C. S. (1987). Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Bruner, J., Carolyn, R., & Nancy, R. (1982). The beginnings of request. In: Nelson, K.E. (Ed.), Children’s Language 3. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, London, pp. 91–138. Camaioni, L. (1979). Child–adult and child–child conversations: an interactional approach. In: Ochs, E., Schieffelin, B. (Eds.), Developmental Pragmatics. Academic Press, New York/London, pp. 325–338. Corsaro,W. (1979). ‘‘We’re friends, right?’’: Children’s use of access rituals in a nursery school. Language in Society 8, 315–336. Corsaro, William, (1985). Friendship and Peer Culture in Early Years. Ablex, Norwood, NJ. Dore, J. (1979). Conversational acts and the acquisition of language. In: Ochs, E., Schieffelin, B. (Eds.), Developmental Pragmatics. Academic Press, New York/London, pp. 339–362. Ervin-Tripp, S. (1977). Wait for me, roller skate! In: Ervin-Tripp, S., Mitchell-Kernan, C. (Eds.), Child Discourse. Academic Press, New York/London, pp. 165–188. Ervin-Tripp, S. (1982). ‘‘Ask and it shall be given unto you’’: Children’s requests. In: Byrnes, H. (Ed.), Georgetown Roundtable on Language and Linguistics, vol. 35. Georgetown University, Washington, DC, pp. 235–245. Ervin-Tripp, S., Guo, J., & Lambert, M. (1990). Politeness and persuasion in children’s control acts. Journal of Pragmatics 14, 307–331.




Garvey, C. (1979). Contingent queries and their relations in discourse. In: Ochs, E., Schieffelin, B. (Eds.), Developmental Pragmatics. Academic Press, New York/London, pp. 363–372. Georgalidou, M. (2001). Pragmatic Parameters in Language Acquisition. The Directive Function. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Athens, Athens. Grice, H. P. (1975). Logic and conversation. In: Cole, P., Morgan, J.L. (Eds.), Syntax and Semantics, vol. 3, Speech Acts. Academic Press, New York, pp. 41–58. Gumperz, J. (1982). Discourse Strategies. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Hirschon, R. (2001). Freedom. Solidarity and obligation. The sociocultural context of Greek politeness. In: Bayraktarog ˘lu, A., Sifianou, M. (Eds.), Linguistic Politeness Across Boundaries: The Case of Greece and Turkey. John Hymes, D. (1972). On communicative competence. In: Pride, J.B., Holmes, J. (Eds.), Sociolinguistics. Penguin, Harmondsworth, pp. 269–285. Labov, W., & Fanshel, D. (1977). Therapeutic Discourse: Psychotherapy as Conversation. Academic Press, New York/London. Mitchell-Kernan, C., & Kernan, K. (1977). Pragmatics of directive choice among children. In: Ervin-Tripp, S., Mitchell-Kernan, C. (Eds.), Child Discourse. Academic Press, New York/London, pp. 189–210. Ochs, E., & Schieffelin, B. (Eds.), (1979). Developmental Pragmatics. Academic Press, New York/London. Ochs, E. (1988). Culture and Language Development: Language Acquisition and Language Socialization in a Samoan Village. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Sachs, Jacqueline, Devin, Judith, (1975). Young children’s use of age appropriate speech styles in social interaction and role-play. Child Language 3, 81–98. Saville-Troike, M. (1982). The Ethnography of Communication. Blackwell, Oxford. Sawyer, K. (1993). The pragmatics of play: Interactional strategies during children’s pretend play. Pragmatics 3, 259– 282. Schegloff, E. (1988). Presequences and indirection: applying speech act theory to ordinary conversation. Journal of Pragmatics 12, 55–62. Schieffelin, B., & Ochs, E. (Eds.), (1986). Language Socialization Across Cultures. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Searle, J. (1969). Speech Acts. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Searle, J. (1975a). A taxonomy of illocutionary acts. In: Gunderson, K. (Ed.), Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Language. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, pp. 354–377. Sifianou, M. (1992). Politeness Phenomena in Greek and in English. Clarendon Press, Oxford. Sinclair, J., & Coulthard, M. (1975). Towards an Analysis of Discourse: The English used by Teachers and Pupils. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Sinclair, A., & Van Gessel, R. (1990). The form and function of questions in children’s conversations. Journal of Pragmatics 14, 923–944. Sperber, D., & Wilson, D. (1995). Relevance, second ed. Blackwell, Oxford. Stubbs, M. (1983). Discourse Analysis: The Sociolinguistic Analysis of Natural Language. Blackwell, Oxford. Tannen, D. (1984). Conversational Style: Analyzing Talk among Friends. Ablex Publishing Corporation, New Jersey. Wootton, J. A. (1981). Children’s use of address terms. In: French, P., Maclure, M. (Eds.), Adult–Child Conversation. Croom Helm, London, pp. 142–158. Youssef, V. (1991). ‘‘Can I put- I want a slippers to put on’’: Young children’s development of request forms in a code switching environment. Journal of Child Language 18, 609–624. Notes Note 1. “The positive social value a person effectively claims for himself by the line others assume he has taken during a particular contact” (Goffman, 1967:5) Note 2. As Mey also claims, “the restricted co-text of the utterance is insufficient for our understanding of the words that are spoken …. We must look further than the co-text of utterance and take the whole of language scene into our view” (Mey, 2001:135).




Perspectives on Oral Communication Skills for Engineers in Engineering Profession of Pakistan

Inayatullah Kakepoto (Corresponding Author) Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Faculty of Education, Johor Bahru, Johor, 81310 Malaysia

Quaid-e-Awam University of Engineering Science & Technology Nawabshah 67480 (Sind) Pakistan E-mail: [email protected]

Noor Abidah Mohd Omar, PhD Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Language Academy, Johor Bahru, Johor, 81310 Malaysia

E-mail: [email protected] Yusuf Boon, PhD

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Faculty of Education, Johor Bahru, Johor, 81310 Malaysia E-mail: [email protected]

S M Zafar Iqbal Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Johor Bahru, Johor, 81310 Malaysia

Received: 30-07- 2012 Accepted: 15-08- 2012 Published: 03-09- 2012 doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.176 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.176 Abstract

Communication plays paramount role for engineers to perform workplace jobs effectively in this modern age of industrialization. The purpose of this research paper was to determine importance of oral communication for engineers at workplace. Thirty engineers from 2 engineering organizations participated in this study. Purposive sampling method was used for data collection since respondents were drawn on specific criteria of engineers with minimum 5 years work experience. Quantitative survey based on questionnaire survey was used for data collection purpose. Data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 15.0). The results of the study indicated that oral communication skills such as oral presentation, participation in meetings, conversation, discussion, and negotiation skill play significant role for engineers at workplace. Thus, quantitative data analysis results indicate that oral communication skills play significant role for engineers to perform workplace jobs efficiently in this competitive work environment of organizations. However, the results of this study are consistent with other literature review findings on importance of oral communication skills for engineers at workplace. Keywords: Communication skills, Oral communication skills, engineers, engineering workplace

1. Introduction Globalization has brought dramatic changes in workplace especially in engineering profession during the last three decades. Due to blessing of globalization all major engineering organizations conduct business all over the world and earn various financial benefits for industrialists. Engineering graduates should understand that globalization is not a bubble that will burst within days but it is a phenomenon that will stay longer in coming days and will demand more skilled workforce equipped with technical and non technical skills to increase workplace productivity of organizations. Additionally, due to increasing role of globalization in business arena many new fields have emerged for instance engineering education and business communication. Many researchers are busy to conduct surveys to provide appropriate feedback to engineering universities to prepare better human capital for workplace. Thus, these global changes demand from engineering graduates to acquire broad array of skills such as communication and oral communication skills to be fit in this competitive work environment of organizations. Engineering graduates have to communicate with people at workplace such as workers, customers, managers, employers and other stakeholders within and outside organizations. Communication, oral communication, soft skills, generic skills and employability skills are interchangeable




words in literature review that indicate that modern engineering graduates should be proficient in these skills if they want to be successful at workplace in order to perform workplace jobs successfully. No doubt, these skills assist engineering graduates to obtain a job and thereby excel in job promotion ladder at workplace. Moreover, industry recognizes importance of communication skills for engineers (Dannels, 2003; Korte et al., 2008) because engineers equipped with effective communication skills contribute to promote business of organizations. Communication functions as soul blood of any organization and engineering organizations heavily rely on effective communication skills of its employees. Tilli and Trevelyan (2008) noted that engineers 60% of time spend in communicating with people at workplace. Thus, these increased communications demand effective oral communication skills of engineering graduates to perform workplace jobs successfully and productively. It is a general perception at workplace that engineers equipped with effective oral communication skills augment workplace productivity of organizations. Thus, management of organizations usually gives important assignments to those engineers who tended to be equipped with effective oral communication skills. As a result, engineers equipped with effective oral communication skills are considered productive engineers for organizations from employer perspective point of view. In certain instances employers show concern that they do not find engineers to perform such roles which include collaboration and coordination with other organizations. Conversely, engineering graduates equipped with poor oral communication skills bring poor financial benefits for organizations. Thus, employers usually consider them as burden on organizations. Engineering graduates equipped with poor oral communication skills tend to fail to persuade industrialists to buy their company products. Marketing has become an important aspect of modern workplace and employers look for those engineering graduates who can play multiple roles to promote business of organizations. Technical skills were main skills to obtain and retain a job at workplace but latest developments have changed scenario of world of work (James and James, 2004). Employers consider communication and oral communication skills as significant skills for engineering graduates who are aspirant to join workplace. Clear and concise communication is fundamental for success in global business environment (Jaderstrom et al., 2008) and the ability to communicate effectively makes one graduate distinct from others. Employers look for those engineering graduates who can communicate well with multiple stakeholders on the job. Thus, communication skills have become important for engineering graduates to obtain a job in local as well as global organizations. Moreover, employers never compromise on effective communication skills (Hoggatt, 2003) of engineering graduates because their major objective is to run business of organizations productively and earn profits. James Lippe (2005) surveyed college graduates and results of this study indicated that communication skills are important skills for workplace jobs. Sutton (2002) noted that right now if you have two candidates for a job and both are technically sound but one job candidate possesses better communication skills. The candidate that possesses better communication skills will get the job against the candidate who lacks in this skill. This clearly indicates that modern engineering graduates should possess effective communication skills since they have to communicate with colleagues, supervisors, managers and other people from different organizations. Additionally, skills are essential for job success and students equipped with effective communication skills surpass others to obtain a job in the workplace (Employers Value Communication and Interpersonal Abilities, 2004). Oral communication skills at workplace include presentation skill, participation in meetings, conversation, discussion, and negotiation. Engineers perform oral presentations on regular basis to keep management of the organization well informed about progress of work projects and barriers that obstruct progress of that work. Research has found that engineers usually perform oral presentations at workplace (Hafizoah Kassim et al., 2010), therefore they should be proficient in oral presentations (Bhattacharyya et al., 2009). A study was conducted on importance of oral presentation for engineers at workplace. The results of this study revealed that 78% engineers were required to demonstrate oral presentations at workplace (Keane, 1999). Meeting is an important aspect of modern workplace and it assists employers to formulate strategies to run business of organizations smoothly and increase workplace productivity of organizations. Thus, all major organizations conduct daily meetings to discuss problems that affect workplace productivity. Bargiela et al. (1997) illustrated that meetings provide platform for promoting organizational work. Attending meetings, presenting information and promoting company’s image all are communication ways (Lehman and DuFrene, 2008), that lead towards well being of an organization. Conversation is an informal source of communication between workers, supervisors, managers and engineers at workplace. Like meetings it does not require any special setting such as conference room or seminar hall. Thus, it is a common mode of communication between employees at workplace. Communication is the means for




achieving occupational activity, enabling employees to acquire new skills which facilitate solutions of problems (Mellinger, 1992). Conversations develop better work relationship (Woodilla, 1998) among employees. On the other hand, discussion is an important aspect of workplace communication. It provides an opportunity to gain work related knowledge from senior engineers. Simultaneously, it generates an atmosphere of trust and confidence between upper and lower management that impacts on health of organizations in terms of profits. Moreover, negotiation is an important aspect of workplace communication and it involves communication with multiple people from within and outside organizations. Managers approximately spend 20% of their time negotiating and perhaps that 20% of time impact remaining 80% of their activities at workplace (Baron, 1989). Carvalho Fernando et al. (2001) conducted a study on importance of communication skills for successful negotiation in complex business environments. These researchers investigated Portuguese managers and executives from 500 largest Portuguese companies in the year 2001. Results of this study indicated that Portuguese managers and executives revealed that the ability to communicate effectively is very important in negotiations. Van Horn (1995) surveyed employees in New Jersey in the United States. Results of this survey reported that oral communication was rated by employers as vital but, it is an area in which graduates severely lack. In another study Crosling and Ward (2002) surveyed workplace communication skills for business graduates in Monash University. The findings of the survey indicated that 84% employer respondents without specifying forms of oral communication indicated that oral communication usually occurs at workplace. Later, Gray (2009) investigated importance of oral communication skills for accountancy graduates in New Zealand. The findings of this study indicated that 91% of respondents considered oral communication skills as ‘very important’ at workplace. Moreover, Arn et al. (2010) surveyed employers on workplace communication skills. The results of this survey indicated although electronic communications were important work skills but oral communication skills were deemed more important that employees should possess for workplace jobs. In a recent study Freihat Saleh et al. (2012) conducted study on “The Picture of Workplace Oral Communication Skills for ESP Jordanian Business Graduate Employees”. The results of this study indicated that 84% respondents agreed that oral communication often occurs at workplace. It is worth mentioning here although these studies were conducted in business context but they all indicate importance of oral communication for graduates at workplace. This research is significant because it reveals information regarding importance of oral communication for engineering graduates at workplace. The findings of this study would contribute to existing body of communication literature on workplace oral communication skills that would guide engineering graduates to acquire effective specific oral communication skills prior to joining workplace if they want to be part of modern workplace environment that involves communications with multiple stakeholders at national and international level. 2. Methodology The research adopted quantitative methods based on questionnaire survey. Thirty engineers from 2 engineering organizations participated in this study. Purposive sampling method was employed for data collection purpose since respondents were drawn on specific criteria of 5 years work experience. Moreover, the rationale for selection of engineers with five years work experience was based on the understanding that these engineers would be better able to provide appropriate feedback regarding the importance of oral communication skills for engineers at workplace. Purposive sampling is a non probabilistic sampling method that is used for specific purpose (Singleton & Straits, 2005). The questionnaire used for this study contained two parts. First part included demographic information asking about gender, qualification, age, field of discipline, nature of job and work experience. Twenty eight male engineers and 2 female engineers participated in this study. All 30 engineers possessed the degree bachelor of engineering (B.E.). Nine engineers ranged between the age 25-30 years, thirteen 30-35 and eight 40-45 years old. Six were mechanical engineers, 21 electrical engineers, 2 electronic engineers and 1 chemical engineer. All 30 respondents were full time engineers and twenty one possessed (5 -10) years work experience, two (10-15), one (15-20) three (20-25) and three (25 – 30) years. The second part of this questionnaire contained statements relating to importance of oral communication for engineers at workplace. A 5 point likert scale ranging 1 =strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3= neutral, 4= agree, and 5=strongly agree.




3. Data Analysis Data were analyzed quantitatively using Statistical package for Social Sciences (SPSS15.0) to draw percentages for agreement and disagreement level of respondents for the variables included in the questionnaire. 4. Findings The findings of the study have been categorized into five headings such as oral presentation, participation in meetings, conversation, discussion, and, negotiation skill for engineers at workplace. 4.1. Oral Presentation The results for oral presentation indicated that 5% engineers strongly disagreed, 6% disagreed, 11% responded neutral, 39% agreed, and 39 % strongly agreed that oral presentation plays paramount role for engineers at workplace.

Figure 1 shows that 39% engineers agreed and 39% strongly agreed that oral presentation is a required skill for engineers at workplace. 4.2 Participation in Meetings The results for participation in meetings indicated that 1% engineers strongly disagreed, 5% disagreed, 10% responded neutral, 54% agreed, and 30% strongly agreed that oral communication plays important role to participate in meetings at workplace.




Figure 2 shows that 54% engineers agreed and 30% strongly agreed that oral communication is an important factor to discuss work related matters during meetings. 4.3 Conversation The results for conversation indicated that 1% engineers strongly disagreed, 6% disagreed, 12% responded neutral, 52 % agreed, and 29 % strongly agreed that oral communication plays important for taking part in conversations at workplace.

Figure 3 shows that 52% engineers agreed and 29% strongly agreed that workplace conversations develop better work relationship among engineers at workplace. 4.4 Discussion The results for discussion indicated that 1% engineers strongly disagreed, 9% disagreed, 6% responded neutral, 50% agreed, and 34% strongly agreed that oral communication plays important role for engineers to discuss work related problems with senior engineers at workplace.

Figure 4 shows that 50% engineers agreed and 34% strongly agreed that workplace discussions promote better work environment of organizations.




4.5 Negotiation The results for negotiation indicated that 1% engineers strongly disagreed, 7% disagreed, 9% responded neutral, 51 % agreed, and 32 % strongly agreed that oral communication plays important role for taking part in workplace negotiations.

Figure 5 shows that 51% engineers agreed and 32% strongly agreed that negotiation is an important aspect of modern workplace communication. 5. Discussion The results of this study reported that oral communication skills play vital role for engineers at workplace. It assists them to perform workplace jobs effectively and efficiently according to employer satisfaction. For oral presentation 39% engineers agreed and 39% strongly agreed that oral presentation is a required skill for engineers at workplace. Engineers further identified that employers’ value oral presentation skill of engineers and they spend major part of time in oral communication activities at workplace. In addition, they identified that engineers equipped with effective oral presentation skill promote business of organizations. For meetings 54 % engineers agreed and 30% strongly agreed that oral communication is an important factor to discuss workplace matters during meetings. Engineers identified that engineers equipped with effective oral communication skill dominate whole meetings. Conversely, engineers equipped with poor oral communication skills remain silent during meeting. In addition, they further identified that due to poor oral communication skill engineers fail to present expert opinion during meetings. For conversation 52 % engineers agreed and 29% strongly agreed that workplace conversation develop better work relationship among engineers at workplace. Engineers identified that engineers equipped with effective oral communication dominate conversations and poor conversation skill of engineers develop poor image for them at workplace. For discussion 50% engineers agreed and 34% strongly agreed that workplace discussions promote better work environment of organizations. Engineers identified that oral communication is an important skill to discuss work related matters with senior engineers. In addition, they identified that engineers equipped with poor oral communication skill do not take part in discussions at workplace. Moreover, due to poor oral communication skill engineers usually fail to convince colleagues during discussions at workplace. On the other hand, for negotiation 51 % engineers agreed and 32% strongly agreed that negotiation is an important aspect of modern workplace communication. Engineers identified that engineers equipped with effective oral communication skills bring various financial benefits for organizations. They further identified that engineers equipped with poor oral communication skills damage interests of organization and due to poor oral communication skill engineers usually avoid playing the role of negotiator at workplace. The findings of this study are consistent with a study conducted by Van Horn (1995) that reported employers




rated oral communication important for workplace jobs. Crosling and Ward (2002) surveyed workplace communication skills for business graduates. The findings of the survey revealed that 84% employer respondents’ indicated that communication usually occurs at workplace. Moreover, Gray (2009) investigated importance of oral communication skills for accountancy graduates in New Zealand. Findings of this study indicated that 91% of respondents considered oral communication skills as ‘very important’ at workplace. Additionally, Freihat Saleh et al. (2012) conducted a study on “The Picture of Workplace Oral Communication Skills for ESP Jordanian Business Graduate Employees”. The results of this study indicated that 84% respondents agreed that oral communication often occurs at workplace. The results of these studies support findings of this study on importance of oral communication skills for engineers at workplace. 6. Conclusion This study investigated importance of oral communication for engineers at workplace. The results of this study indicated that oral communication skills such as oral presentation, participation in meeting, conversation, discussion, and negotiation skill play pivotal role for engineers at workplace. This is because oral communication is an important aspect of modern workplace communication and it involves communication with multiple stakeholders such as workers, customers, mangers, employers, and executives of the organization. Truly, engineering is a profession that demands technical and non technical skills of engineers to promote business of organizations at national and international level. Oral communication skills have become better predictors that assist employers to increase workplace productivity of organizations. Thus, employers demand engineering graduates equipped with effective oral communication skills to run business of organization productively. Looking at from this perspective point of view, it is suggested that engineering universities of Pakistan should focus oral communication skills of engineering students to prepare better engineers for the workplace. The ultimate goal of engineering is to train students (Denis Lemaitre et al., 2006) for workplace. Thus, it is concluded that industry and academia should arrange communication skill trainings for engineers and engineering students during study time and following graduation at workplace if they want to promote business of organizations and overcome increasing unemployment in engineering profession of Pakistan.

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Authors Inayatullah Kakepoto earned Master of Art (Sociology, English Literature) both from Shah Abdul Latif University Khairpur (Sind) Pakistan. His teaching experience is spread more than over a period of decade as Lecturer (English) at Cadet College Petaro (Pakistan Navy), and as Assistant Professor at Quaid-e-Awam University of Engineering Science and Technology Nawabshah (Sind) Pakistan. Currently the researcher is a doctoral student at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. His research interests include Workplace Communication, Soft Skills, Business Communication, and Engineering Education. Noor Abidah Mohd. Omar earned her PhD (Management and Modern Language) from Aston United Kingdom. She is currently working as Associate Professor (Language Academy) Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Her research interests include English Language Syllabus and Curriculum Design, English for Specific Purposes, English for Academic Purposes, Grammar and English language Structures.




Using Bilingual Parallel Corpora in Translation Memory Systems Hossein Keshtkar

Linguistics Department Payame Noor University of Tehran, Iran

E-mail: [email protected]

Tayebeh Mosavi Miangah Linguistics Department

Payame Noor University of Tehran, Iran E-mail: [email protected]

Received: 31-07- 2012 Accepted: 15-08- 2012 Published: 03-09- 2012 doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.184 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.184 Abstract Automatic word alignment techniques commonly used in Translation Memory systems tend basically to work at single word level where there is a one to one correspondence between words in subsequences of the two languages. This, results in not being able to fully use subsentential repetitions like clauses, phrases and expressions. In this paper, using spaces between words, a search method named "space-based reduction search" is introduced. The main goal is to maximize the use of parallel corpus resources. We want to show that this search method can significantly enhance the chance of finding matches for subsequences of input sentences; hence applicable in a Sub-Sentential Translation Memory (SSTM) system without running automatic alignment tools. Keywords: Sub-Sentential Translation Memory, Parallel corpus, Alignment 1. Introduction As it has been stated by authors and researchers in the field of Machine Translation (MT) and Computer Assisted Translation (CAT), Machine Translation output needs post- edition and is not suitable for publication and releasable purposes. Automatic MT does not allow users to take part in translation process, and after errors occurred, they have to try to fix them. Translation tools can make it possible for users to correct the errors before being transferred into the output. Therefore CAT tools especially TM systems with their interactive environment can help users and translators to a high degree. The most important of these tools are translation memory systems. "… many translators remain convinced that the output of even the best MT systems is not sufficient to facilitate the production of publication-quality texts. To increase their productivity they turn instead to translator support tools. (Macklovitch et al, 2008: 412) The very popular idea in the field of TM systems is to explore a corpus or database of past aligned translations using a software program called TM. Based on this idea, we want to answer the following questions: 1. Is it possible to prepare a parallel bilingual corpus aligned at sentence, phrase and word level with a high level of accuracy? 2. How can such corpus be used as a TM system? 3. Which abilities does this TM system have? 4. To what extent can this TM system automatically perform translation tasks? 5. How well can this TM system do its basic task that is searching and retrieving matches based on common metrics used in the evaluation of CAT tools? Therefore, we have prepared a parallel bilingual sentence aligned English- Persian corpus using a combination of manual and automatic procedures and want to use it in a TM. As the ability of sentence-level or first generation




TM systems is limited to the rare situations where there are whole sentence repetitions, I hope to find a tool to use the prepared corpus as an SSTM system which is able to retrieve from the database, translations for subsequences of the input sentences. In this paper, using spaces between words as separators, a search method which I call "space-based reduction search" is introduced. The goal is to create interactional environment and maximize the use of corpus resources. I want to know that, to what extent this search method can enhance the chance of finding matches for different subsequences of input sentences. Based on this method the main core or search engine of an SSTM in the form of a software program will be developed in order to test the ability of the search method. This method then will be tested by the software on some parts of the prepared corpus including film subtitles. Recall and Precision scores will be used for evaluation of the method to show that, it significantly enhances the chance of finding matches for subsequences of the searched sentences and is applicable in an SSTM system. 2. Definitions and some historical background The term "translation memory" has been used to refer to two concepts: 1. a database of past translations in which both source and target text have been aligned at least at paragraph or sentence level and 2. A software program for searching and retrieving parts of past translations for inserting in new translations. (Macklovitch, 2000) addresses these two definitions in more details and gives real examples. "A TM is essentially a database of previously translated pairs of equivalent source/target language segments (typically, sentences), together with software which, given a source language input to translate, will search in the database and pick out samples which closely match this input. (Whyman & Somers, 1999: 1268) "Defined most generally, a translation memory is a computerized archive of existing translations, structured in such a way as to promote translation re-use. (Macklovitch, 2000) "A translation memory system is a type of translation support tool whose purpose is to avoid the re-translation of segments of text for which a translation has previously been produced." (Simard, 2003) Academic research on the idea of translation memory started in late 70s and the first commercial products were released in late 80s. The original idea is usually attributed to Martin Kay and his 1980 paper although the TM idea is not addressed clearly. "… the translator might start by issuing a command causing the system to display anything in the store that might be relevant to… Before going on, he can examine past and future fragments of text that contain similar material” (Kay, 1997: 19) (Arthern, 1979) and (Arthern, 1981) explain what we now call a TM system more explicitly: "It must in fact be possible to produce a programme which would enable the word processor to ‘remember’ whether any part of a new text typed into it had already been translated, and to fetch this part, together with the translation which had already been translated … Any new text would be typed into a word processing station, and as it was being typed, the system would check this text against the earlier texts stored in its memory … One advantage over machine translation proper would be that all the passages so retrieved would be grammatically correct. In effect, we should be operating an electronic ‘cut and stick’ process which would, according to my calculations, save at least 15 per cent of the time which translators now employ in effectively producing translations." (Arthern, 1981: 318) This idea was used in Alps one of the first commercial systems developed in Birmingham Young University which was called 'Repetitions Processing' and was able to retrieve only exact matches. As (Melby, 1995) says, the source code of this system was then used by IBM in its well known system, Translation Manager. 3. Review of the methods directly related to SSTM systems One criterion for classification of TM systems is whether the system can perform at sentence level or sub sentence level so TM systems are often classified as sentence level or first generation systems and sub sentence level or second generation systems. The ability of the first category is limited to retrieving the whole sentences in the rare situations in which sentences are repeated, for example translation of revised documents or texts which are repetitive in nature. Because of these limitations some methods have been proposed by researchers trying to develop second generation system that is SSTM system. Although these methods have been proposed for the alignment and retrieval of multiple word subsequences which are the fundamental task of these systems, but many of these methods tend to work only at single word level where there is a one to one correspondence between the elements of the tow languages involved. Evaluations of these methods show that although they highly increase the Recall (R) but they highly decrease Precision (P) too. Single word alignment and retrieval as will be shown in 4.2 of this paper will basically lead to




low P. On the other hand clauses, phrases and especially multiple word expressions and idiomatic constructions which are called fixed expressions too, compose a large proportion of written and spoken languages as Meľčuk says: "Fixed expressions are crucial because a large part of what we say and write is made up of such expressions, rather than separate words" (Meľčuk 2001: 24). What they have in common is using probabilistic approaches for the alignment and retrieval of the subsentential strings which may be single word or multiple word subsequences of a sentence. In other words these methods use a statistical translation model under different conditions or constraints to find the most probable alignment that is finding candidate segments within the target text for the translation of a segment in the source text. Translation spotting which is as (Simard, 2003) says the byproduct of word level alignments is a term coined by (V´eronis and Langlais, 2000). It is used for the task of identifying the words in a target language translation that correspond to some given words in a source language text. Translation spotting which has been used in SMT and in SSTM is based on some probabilistic models. There are different models of translation spotting which are mentioned here very shortly as our purpose is not to explain them. Viterbi translation spotting links one source word to one target word. The Viterbi algorithm which was first described in (Viterbi 1967) is based on the maximum likelihood alignment. Post-processings are used because the answers produced by Viterbi translation spotting are not necessarily contiguous. This model tries to make the answers contiguous that is to edit them to some extent using processings like expansion and longest-sequence so that they correspond to natural word order as much as possible or zero-tolerance to discard problematic answers. Other examples are Contiguous translation spotting and Compositional translation spotting. Based on these models some variations have been proposed and some of them are widely used in SSTM and SMT for translation spotting. For example in IBM-style alignments, IBM models 1 to 5, a single target word can be connected to several source words. Alignment models proposed by Melamed (1998) and Wu (1997) allow “one-to-one” alignments. Planas (2000) proposes an approach for an SSTM which is based on sequences of syntactic chunks, as defined by Abney (1991). The contents of the TM and the new text are segmented into chunks; sequences of chunks from the new text are searched in the TM and the translation of the matched sequences will be proposed to the user as partial translations of the current input. 4. Suggested method As it was said in the previous part translation spotting models proposed are based on finding the most probable alignment and tend to work in single word level, so produce high R but low P. In addition, using constraints like contiguity and compositionality have led to better results mainly in R. But according to (Simard, 2003) "…precision is possibly more important than recall in a TM application." In SSTM systems analogous to what human translators do, that is translate a text sentence by sentence, the input source fragments are mainly sentences which are feed one by one to the systems automatically or by the user. The systems then usually divide them into sub sentences or segments. These segments do not usually correspond to the boundaries of grammatical phrases which compose the sentence. So if we suppose that thanks to some remedies made to the probabilistic alignment methods as mentioned above, the systems can recall usable matches for the segments which corresponded to grammatical phrases but what is recalled for the other segments needs much more edition. In other word although R will be high but edit distance will be high because of low P and it will take much time and effort for the user to fit recalled matches for final translation. So it seems that the overall function of an SSTM depends heavily on probabilistic alignment methods and the method of segmentation of the input sentences. As we know TM systems like MT systems perform better when they are used for domain specific texts, so if we can find a method to train the used algorithms to calculate all possible subsequences of every input sentence and search each of them in a domain specific storage of bilingual parallel aligned corpus, it is more likely to find usable matches with high P and low edit distance, without using probabilistic alignment methods. For this purpose we need a relatively large storage of domain specific parallel bilingual sentence aligned texts in which sentences have various lengths. Such storage should be enriched with subsentential strings or multiple word expressions, for example clauses, phrases, idiomatic expressions and two word constructions. There are at least two reasons why it is more likely to find usable matches with high P and low edit distance in such a situation:




1. Single word subsequences produced and searched by the algorithm will usually return no answers since we do not incorporate single words in the records in our database, so the absence of single word matches will lead to higher P. 2. Multiple word subsequences which are not grammatical or does not correspond to phrase boundaries but are produced and searched by the algorithm will return no answer as we have not incorporated such below sentence level strings. In other words what is recalled by the system will more likely to be 1. Subsequences having two word or more, 2. subsequences which usually are grammatical and more natural so that the user need do less effort in the form of editing, deleting, inserting, reordering to fit the translation. The chances are that the result will be high P and less edit distance; what SSTM system providers are trying for. If successful, this method would not necessarily need statistical calculation for probabilistic alignment methods; hence would not need running automatic alignment tools most notably Giza++. Instead we need to enrich our corpus as much as possible. Of course products of automatic alignment tools in the form of aligned subsentential strings≧ two words, controlled by qualified translators can be or must be incorporated in the corpus as an enriching ingredient. To find such an algorithm it seems to be useful to look more closely at visible aspects of segmentation and alignment in SSTM systems. Some criteria which are used in GUI of these systems for users in the form of system settings to enable them to use underlying probabilistic methods for alignment and segmentation are more visible. Examples of these visible criteria are punctuation marks, embedded formatting clues which for example mark the start and end of a paragraph, tag sets and phrase structure rules which are used in POS taggers and morphological analyzers. Using separators like punctuation marks or formatting clues used and embedded in electronic texts are relatively useful for sentence level alignment. Differences in using punctuation marks among languages, structural differences and unavoidable changes in the number and order of sentences in target language texts are among the reasons why these separators are not fully reliable. On the other hand using phrase structure rules, POS taggers, morphological analyzers for segmentation, alignment and reordering retrieved matches are highly language dependent. Automatic alignment techniques have remarkable functions mainly in two situations: First, at paragraph and sentence level and second, at single word level where there is a one to one correspondence between words in subsequences of the two languages. This, results in not being able to fully use subsentential repetitions like clauses, phrases, fixed expressions, multi word expressions and idiomatic expressions. Pressing space key and inserting one space between words in sentences in most of languages is consistent and follows a clear pattern. Based on this, I propose a method for searching source sentences in a TM database stored in advance with a relatively large amount of sentence level aligned parallel texts. Then based on this method, a framework for development of a software program for searching such corpus is introduced. This software program which I call "HKTM" Ver. 1.2 is then used as the main core or search engine of an SSTM. 4.1 Detailed introduction of the method Based on the strategy used in this method I call it "Space Based Reduction Search". This method and its related software program have been built on four maxims: 1. Maximum or optimized use of corpus resources. 2. User-machine interaction. 3. Preventing error transition into the output. 4. Controlled and accurate subsentential alignment during translation. As it will be very expensive and time consuming to develop a full SSTM, in order to evaluate the proposed search method I have prepared a rough version of the software program which will be used as the main core or search engine of the SSTM. In this evaluation, given that there is no sentence level match for the searched sentence, we want to know that to what extent this search method can enhance the chance of finding matches for subsequences of that sentence. Most of the automatic word alignment techniques for example Giza++ use co-occurrence statistics and usually align only one source word to one or more target words and so are not useful for aligning clauses, phrases and idiomatic expressions where there is not a one to one correspondence between the source and target elements.




Although through some changes and combination with other methods, for example bi-directional running of Giza++ better results have been achieved, but they have been criticized both for difficulties in compiling and running and their output especially for purposes like TM systems. So these word alignment tools although useful for many purposes, does not ensure the use of clauses, phrases and idiomatic expressions even when they exist separately (not within a sentence) in the database. Using this search method we are sure that all possible subsequence of a sentence will be searched and if there is a match it will surely be retrieved and showed to the user for edition or verification in interactive mode or inserted directly into the target text in automatic mode. So this search method maximizes the use of corpus resources. To describe "space based reduction search" we suppose that a sentence is a set. This search method uses a simple algorithm which makes it possible for the system to show all possible sub-sets of the set which are all possible subsequences of the sentence. The searched sub-sets have these two characteristics: 1. Sub-sets which have only one element. 2. Sub-sets which have at least two sequential elements (according to word order of the sentences). If we show a five word sentence in the form of a five element set as bellow: {Computers can highly assist translators.} { 1 2 3 4 5 } The sub-sets which will be searched are 15 sub-sets which cover all possible subsequences of the sentence and will be searched by the algorithm as follows: 1. {1 2 3 4 5} {Computers can highly assist translators} 2. {1 2 3 4} {Computers can highly assist} 3. {1 2 3} {Computers can highly} 4. {1 2} {Computers can} 5. {1} {Computers} 6. {2 3 4 5} {can highly assist translators} 7. {2 3 4} {can highly assist} 8. {2 3} {can highly} 9. {2} {can} 10. {3 4 5} {highly assist translators} 11. {3 4} {highly assist} 12. {3} {highly} 13. {4 5} {assist translators} 14. {4} {assist} 15. {5} {translators} Based on this search method all possible subsequences of a sentence are searched in the database and it is possible for the user to edit, reorder, delete or accept the retrieved segments and the program links or aligns finally accepted segments and stores them in the database as matching pairs. To retrieve matches below sentence level and above single word level, this search method does not depend on automatic word alignment techniques; instead it relies on the richness of the corpus. Advantages: 1. It is based on spaces between words as separator so it is consistent, simple and does not need complicated algorithms and statistical calculations. 2. It is language independent and can be used for other languages bi-directionally. 3. It maximizes the use of corpus resources which are usually prepared with great difficulties. 4. It provides an interactional environment to ensure precision and accuracy and prevent error transferring into the output. 5. It does not necessarily depend on grammatical rules and structures so there is no need to formalize the rules.




6. It does not necessarily need running automatic alignment tools. Disadvantages: 1. Because it does not use structural rules, in automatic mode, the word order in target sentences will be much like the source language word order. 2. When it finds a match for a subsequence, inserts it into the target sentence and leaves other subsequences which may be better for translation. The first problem that is the word order can either be corrected by user-program interaction which is a principle in this method or can be partially solved by incorporating sufficient phrase structure rules or word order patterns of desired target language. The second problem can be targeted by tuning the program so as to show retrieved matches for all possible subsequences, rank them if needed and allow the user to choose the best one for inserting into the target text. 4.2 Testing and Evaluation The software developed to use the proposed search method as the base of an SSTM system is now able to connect to the database, show all the possible subsequences, searching based on the method and showing the results both automatically and interactively. Given that there is no exact match for a sentence, to ensure that, this search method can significantly enhance the chance of finding matches for possible subsequences of that sentence, a test set was prepared. Since, a large proportion of the texts in the prepared corpus are film subtitles, and given that a TM system better perform in specific domains, the test set was chosen from film subtitles. One hundred sentences were chosen from film subtitles and were carefully sentence-aligned and saved as reference set. Then, sentence by sentence, the one hundred source sentences searched in the database using "Space based Reduction Search" by “HKTM” VER .1.2. Sentence level matches were excluded and the results were recorded in two situations. First situation: found matches for subsequences at single word level up to below sentence level. Second situation: found matches for subsequences above single word level (two words or more) up to below sentence level. In the first situation total number of retrieved matches for total subsequences of the one hundred sentences searched in the database was 454 among which 290 matches were usable without edition (reordering was needed). So, %63.87 percent of total retrieved matches were usable in translation. In the second situation, total retrieved matches for the possible subsequences containing two words or more in the one hundred searched sentences in the database was 108 among which 83 matches were usable without edition(reordering was needed). So, %76.85 percent of them were usable in translation. The following pictures are two screen shots of HK.TM version 1.2. The first one shows all subsequences of a searched sentence and the retrieved answers for the chosen subsequence. The second screen shot shows other details about the software.




These results show that: 1. The chance of finding matches for subsentential strings in a domain specific corpus using "Space based Reduction Search" is high, without running word alignment tools. 2. The number of retrieved matches is remarkable. 3. In the second situation that is when one word matches are excluded, higher percentage of retrieved matches are usable in translation; so that a 13 percent increase in usability is observed compared to the first situation where one word subsequences are also taken into account. Here, two common metrics are used for close evaluation of the method. As TM systems are to some extent similar to Information Retrieval (IR) systems, common metrics used for evaluation of IR systems are widely used in TM systems evaluation. Among these metrics, "Recall" and "Precision" hereafter referred to as R and P are commonly used. For example (Whyman & Somers, 1999: 1268) site the similarities and differences of IR and TM systems and use these metrics in their evaluation of TM systems. These metrics are interrelated so they affect each other. "It is noted that P and R are not independent: an improvement in one is generally at the expense of the other, that is higher precision will generally lead to less item being retrieved, hence lower recall, and vice versa." (Whyman & Somers, 1999: 1271) Every one of these metrics is calculated in the form of a fraction. "Recall is calculated as the fraction of relevant documents found among all relevant documents whereas precision is the fraction of relevant documents in the result set." (Mandl, 2008: 28) Based on these facts R and P are used for close evaluation of the proposed method. Here, R is defined as the fraction of found items among expected items (an item is each subsequence of the searched sentence with its retrieved match or matches) and P as the fraction of usable items among found items. In the first situation, to lessen the effect of single word matches in the calculation of R and P, It is expected that for each search sentence, at least two items will be found. So it is expected that 100 items be recalled or retrieved. Also, very frequent small words such as "and", "for", "is", "to" will be excluded. After searching, in 87 out of 100 searched sentences, matches having above characteristics were found. So, R is 0.87. R1 = found items ÷ expected items = 87 ÷ 100 = 0.87 And, in 66 out of 87 sentences, the found items were usable in translation of the searched sentences without edition (obviously reordering was needed). So, P is 0.75. P1 = usable items ÷ found items = 66 ÷ 87 = 0.75 In the second situation, it is expected that for each sentence at least one item for two word or above two word subsequences will be found. So it is expected that 100 matches be retrieved. After searching, in 55 out of 100 searched sentences, matches having above characteristics were found. So, R is 0.55. R2 = found items ÷ expected items = 55 ÷ 100 = 0.55




And in 49 out of the 55 sentences, found items were usable in translation of the sentences without edition (obviously reordering was needed). So P is 0.89. P2 = usable items ÷ found items = 49 ÷ 55 = 0.89 These scores also show that: 1. Searching based on "Space based Reduction Search" method in a bilingual parallel sentence aligned domain specific corpus makes it highly possible to find matches for the subsequences of searched sentences. 2. Obtained scores both for R and P in both situations are above 0.50. So this search method significantly enhances the chance of finding subsentential matches in such corpus. It is worth reminding that no automatic word alignment tool has been run. 3. In the second situation where two word and above two word subsequences were recorded, R is lower than in the first situation but the usability of recalled items in translation is very high; hence precision is higher than recall. 4.3 Results Subsequences discussed above will be referred to as translation units hereafter. When translation units composed of two words or more, are retrieved and used in translation, edit distance will be low. It can be concluded that although automatic word alignment tools for example Giza++ are helpful but it is not necessarily needed to use them in the proposed method and the SSTM system which will be built based on it. There are at least two reasons. First, compiling and running such programs, especially on large corpora like the corpus used in this research, is very time consuming and expensive. Second, these techniques mainly work at single word level and cannot considerably help in the situation where there is not one to one correspondence between the elements of the source and target strings; for example in clauses, phrases and idiomatic expressions. So, although word alignment tools increase R but at the same time they decrease or at least do not improve P. When translation units are chosen in the form of two word segments or more, items which are retrieved are not too short and P is higher than R (here, 0.89 vs. 0.55 respectively). Therefore, to achieve a high level of P, translation units are to be retrieved should not be very small; that is they should be at least two words or more. These findings are also in total accordance to the results found by (Simard and Langlais, 2001) regarding translation units and their effects on P and R. 5. Conclusion and further development Now, Machine Translation output needs post edition and is not suitable for publication and releasable purposes. Therefore CAT tools especially TM systems with their interactive environments can highly help users and translators. To summarize and conclude, I return to the paused questions in introduction part and answer them. 5.1 With regard to computer development, data storage instruments, data mining information retrieval techniques and huge resources of bilingual texts accessible via internet it is possible to prepare large scale parallel corpora. There are automatic and semi-automatic methods for mining, purification, edition and preparation of the texts and storing them in suitable database formats. There is also software program for alignment at paragraph and sentence level. The problem mainly arises in subsentential levels. Most of the software programs introduced for subsentential level alignment for example Giza++ work at single word level and in the situation where there is one to one correspondence between the elements in source and target language; so are not suitable for the alignment of clauses, phrases and idiomatic expressions. As a result of this fact and based on experiences from prepared corpus, to ensure precision and accuracy of the aligned corpus a combination of manual and automatic or semi automatic methods will be helpful for the preparation of parallel bilingual sentence aligned corpora. 5.2 TM is usually used to refer to two concepts, one as a database of bi-text of previously translated text and the other as a software program usually called a TM system with a user interface enabling translators to use inter and intra–text repetitions for the texts to be translated. TM systems, because of the nature of their segmentation and alignment techniques, mainly give relative results in two situations: first, when there is a sentence-level match, second, when a user or translator entirely does his or her translation within the interactive environment of a TM system from the beginning, and stores them. In this situation after a learning curve, the user can use the increasing inter and intra –text repetitions. So, most useful subsentential repetitions for example clauses, phrases and idiomatic expressions available in past translations are not used in TM systems. Based on this fact, the proposed search method which in fact is the basis or search engine of a TM system was introduced. Among its basic principles the two most important principles




are: first, providing high level of interaction between the translator and system to ensure precision and accuracy and preventing errors from being transferred into the output and second, maximizing the use of corpus resources prepared spending time and money. Needed functions and facilities for using the software as an SSTM system has been discussed, predicted and can easily be added to the search engine. 5.3 The software which is the core or search engine of an SSTM system is able to automatically perform the "Space based Reduction Search". This method makes it possible to search all the subsequences of the input sentences based on the second principle mentioned in 5.2 5.4 Showing all the subsequences of input sentence, searching the database in a very short time and showing the matches are done automatically by the software. It is possible for the user to take part in each phase based on the first principle mentioned in 5.2. 5.5 Results obtained and mentioned in evaluation part showed that the ability of the method for searching and finding matches is remarkable. Close examination based on recall and precision scores showed the effectiveness of this method for finding usable matches for subsequences below sentence level and above single word level in a domain specific corpus. It is important that these scores obtained without running any automatic alignment tool. It is also worth considering that precision is possibly more important than recall in a TM application. So, based on these findings and discussions it can be concluded that combining the proposed search method and the prepared corpus will produce basic requirements for the development of an SSTM. For more convenience the method can be performed on the other language domains available in the corpus. After adding other functions of an SSTM system, the overall performance of the system can be evaluated using other metrics such as edit distance. These are among future works to be done. References -Abney, S. (1991). Parsing by Chunks. In: R. C. Berwick (ed.), Principle-Based Parsing: Computation and Psycholinguistics, 257–78, Dordrecht: Kluwer. -Arthern, P. J. (1979). Machine translation and computerized terminology systems: a translator’s viewpoint. In: B.M. Snell (editor), Translating and the Computer: Proceedings of a Seminar, North-Holland, 1979, pp. 77–108. -Arthern, P. J. (1981). Aids unlimited: the scope for machine aids in a large organization. Aslib Proceedings, 33, 309–319 (1981). -Kay, M. (1997). The proper place of man and machine in language translation. In: machine translation, volume 12, Nos. 1-2, 1997, 3-23 (reprint from 1980) -Macklovitch, E. (2000) Two Types of Translation Memory. In: Translating and the Computer 22: Proceedings from the Aslib conference held on 16 & 17 November 2000, -Macklovitch, E., Lapalme G. & Gotti F. (2008). TransSearch: what are translators looking for? AMTA-2008. MT at work: Proceedings of the Eighth Conference of the Association for Machine Translation in the Americas, Waikiki, Hawai’i, 21-25 October 2008; pp.412-419. -Mandl, T. (2008). Recent Developments in the Evaluation of Information Retrieval Systems: Moving Towards Diversity and Practical Relevance. Informatica 32 (2008) 27–38. -Manning, C. D. & Schiitze H. (1999). Foundations of Statistical Natural Language Processing. The MIT Press Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England. -Melamed, I. Dan. (1998). Word-to-Word Models of Translational Equivalence. Technical Report 98-08, Dept. of Computer and Information Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA. -Melby, A. K. (1995). The Possibility of Language: A Discussion of the Nature of Language. John Benjamins, 1995, p. 225f. -Simard, M. (2003). Translation Spotting for Translation Memories. HLT-NAACL 2003 Workshop, "Building and using parallel texts: data driven machine translation and beyond", 31 May 2003, Edmonton, Canada. -Simard, M. & Langlais, P. (2001). Sub-sentential Exploitation of Translation Memories. MT Summit VIII: Machine Translation in the Information Age, Proceedings, Santiago de Compostela, Spain, 18-22 September 2001; pp.335-339.




-V´eronis, J. & Langlais, P. (2000). Evaluation of Parallel Text Alignment Systems – The ARCADE Project. In Jean V´eronis, editor, Parallel Text Processing, Text, Speech and Language Technology. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. -Viterbi, A. J. (1967). Error bounds for convolutional codes and an asymptotically optimum decoding algorithm. IEEE Transactions on Information Theory IT-13: 1260-269. -Whyman, E. K. & Somers, H. L. (1999). Evaluation Metrics for a Translation Memory System. SOFTWARE-PRACTICE AND EXPERIENCE Softw. Pract. Exper., 29(14), 1265–1284 (1999) -Wu, D. (1997). Stochastic Inversion Transduction Grammars and Bilingual Parsing of Parallel Corpora. Computational Linguistics, 23(3):377–404, September.




Language As A Tool For National Integration: The Case Of English Language In Nigeria

Dr. (Mrs) Hanna Onyi Yusuf Department of Educational Foundation and Curriculum

Faculty of Education Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria Tel: +2348033207255 E-mail: [email protected]

Received: 30-07- 2012 Accepted: 23-08- 2012 Published: 03-09- 2012 doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.194 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.194 Abstract In multilingual societies like Nigeria, language which can be used as an effective instrument for national development and the promotion of national consciousness and unity can also be used as a weapon for marginalization and or exclusion. The latter trend can destabilize a nation as it sets different linguistic groups against each other in an attempt to fashion out an identity for themselves and express their existence and or relevance to the society. This scenario can be found in Nigeria, where language has been the sole factor in group integration and atimes, disintegration. This paper addresses the language issues in Nigeria by exploring the unifying significance of the English Language in Nigeria. This unifying role and its allied issues are discussed in this paper with a view to showing that the imposition or adoption of any language apart from English as the Nation’s official language will lead to a chain of socio-political crisis that could threaten the corporate existence of Nigeria. This paper suggests that the English language should continue to play its unifying role while we continue to develop and maintain our local indigenous languages. Keyword: Language, National Integration, English Language, Nigeria 1. Introduction One of the dominant and pervasive problems Nigeria has and indeed Africa is the language issue. Language being a potent vehicle of transmitting culture, norms, values and beliefs from generation to generation remains a central factor in determining the overall status of a nation. This informs the submission of Isayev (1977:1992) that “language is a nation’s most important asset. There is no such thing as a nation without a common linguistic basis”. The dominant inference to Isayev’s observation is that for national integration, cohesion and development to thrive, there must be language capable and acceptable by all in the administration/running of a nation’s affairs. In Nigeria, like most African Countries, multilingualism is commonplace. The problem of ‘forging ahead’, a situation in which languages compete among themselves and scramble for national recognition or official status, whether indigenous or foreign, always rears its head. Only one language must be the official language (the language of administration and education at some level), the language of relevance for unifying the nation. Fortunately or unfortunately, English has emerged as that privileged language without which the unity of Nigeria as a nation is most improbable, if not out-rightly impossible. This paper attempts to highlight how the English language, among other functions in Nigeria, unites the country. Its unifying role and its allied issues are discussed with a view to showing that the imposition or adoption of any language apart from English as the nation’s official language will lead to a situation as captured by Cob (cited in Igboanusi 2002): “if you insist, the union will be dissolved. It would mean that you have kindled a fire which all the waters of the ocean cannot put out, but which seas of blood can only extinguish”. Nigeria is a multilingual country where an estimated 505 languages are spoken of which Igbo, Yoruba and Hausa are the major languages with about 18 million speakers each. The British first introduced English in Nigeria with the establishment of trading contacts on the West African coast in the sixteenth century. This resulted in a form of Nigerian Pidgin, which probably is the predecessor of present-day Nigeria English Pidgin, which is mainly used for inter-ethnic communication. English began to be formally studied in Nigeria from the middle of the nineteenth century on. It now has a geographical spread throughout the country as is used in predominantly formal contexts such as government, education, literature, business, commerce, media,




international communication and as a lingual franca in social interaction among the educated elite. It is treated as “the official language of the country” although there is no government statute or decree specifying this. 2. Definition of Language Language is a symbol system based on pure or arbitrary conventions… infinitely extendable. Extendable and modifiable according to the changing needs and conditions of the speakers (Yule, 1985). According to this definition, language is a symbol system. Every language (that exists in the written form) selects some symbols for its selected sounds. The English sound (K for example has the symbol K while the Hindi sound /K/ has the symbol đh for it. These symbols form the alphabet of the language and join in different combinations according to a well laid out system to form meaningful words. The system talked here is purely arbitrary in the sense that there is no one to one correspondence between the structure of a word and the thing it stands for. The combination p.e.n; for example stands in English, for an instrument used for writing. Why could it not be e.p.n or n.e.p.? There is nothing sacrosanct about the combination p.e.n except that it has now become a convention – a convention that cannot be easily changed. As stated here, language conventions are not easily changed yet it is not impossible to do so. Language is infinitely modifiable and extendable. Words go on changing meanings and new words continue to be added to language with the changing needs of the community using it. Shakespeare, for example, used the word stomach to mean courage. Similarly, words like laser, sputnik, astronaut etc are of quite recent origin in English language. According to Sapir (1921), language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols. There are two terms in this definition that call for discussion: human and non-instinctive. Language, as Sapir rightly said, is human. Only human’s possess language and all normal humans uniformly possess it. Animals do have a communication system but it is not a developed system. That is why language is said to be species-specific and species-uniform. Also, language does not pass from a parent to a child. In this sense, it is non-instinctive. Children have to learn language, and he or she learns the language of the society he is born into. According to Brown (1987), language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols. This definition rightly gives more prominence to the fact that language is primarily speech produced by oral-auditory symbols. A speaker produces some string of oral sounds, that get conveyed through the air to the speaker who, through his hearing organs, receives the sound waves and conveys these to the brain that interprets these symbols to arrive at a meaning. To Noam Chomsky (1957), language is a set of (finite or infinite) sentences. Each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. Chomsky meant to convey that each sentence has a structure. The human brain is competent enough to construct different sentences from out of the limited set of sounds symbols belonging to a particular language. Human brain is so productive that a child can at any time produce a sentence that has never been said or heard earlier. Richard and Platt (1992) defined language as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication, while Wilson (1986) views it from another angle. To them, language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates. Both definitions above prominently point out that language is a system. Sounds join to form words according to a system. The letters c, r, a, v, e, join to form a meaningful word crave, whereas combination like v, e, r, a, c, or ravec do not form any meaningful combinations. In the formation of words, convention makes them part of a system. Words too join to form sentences according to these systems. A sentence like: (I like oranges) is accepted but one cannot accept a string of words like (like oranges i). It is in line with this school of thought that language is believed to be a system of systems. Encyclopedia Britannica (2002) explains that language is a system of conventional spoken or written symbols by means of which humans, as members of a social group and participants in its culture communicates. Generally, therefore, language is seen as a system of communication used by humans in a specific linguistic community (society) Characteristics of Language Language has certain features. They include language as a means of communication, its arbitraries, as a system of systems, as a purely human phenomenon, as primarily vocal and as a form of social behavior etc. On the other hand, the properties of language are that language is creative, structured, meaningful, referential and interpersonal.




3. The National Language Issue The amalgamation of the northern and southern protectorates of Nigeria in 1941 by the British colonial administrators lumped together people of diverse ethnic, cultural and linguistic backgrounds into what has now become the Federal Republic of Nigeria with over four hundred mutually unintelligible linguistic groupings. According to Ayo Bamigbose, one of Nigeria’s foremost linguists, Nigeria epitomizes a barbaric scenario. In most cases, linguistic groupings correspond to ethnic groupings making Nigeria about the ethnically diverse country in Africa. Given the problem often associated with ethnic diversity, it is not surprising that adopting an indigenous Nigerian language as lingua franca become a major preoccupation among Nigerian linguists, language planners and the government in the 1970s and 80s. Since linguistic homogeneity (often) entails nationism (which accounts for why people would first give up their lives before their languages), an indigenous national language was seen as one way of ensuring the continued oneness, or national integration, of the many ethnic groupings that makes up the country. This is because each local language is intimately related to or equates an ethnic group, thus the use of a local language reinforces attachment to ethnicity thereby going against the current of national sentiment. However, the adoption of a national language for Nigeria, and indeed any multilingual society, is a volatile issue. Several proposals were considered for Nigeria. The most widely debated is the adoption of one of the three major languages (Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba) as the national language. The problem, of course, become determining the criteria for adopting one over the others. One (not too) incontrovertible criteria for this choice would be language dominance. However, Myers-Scotton, a well-known sociolinguist noted, one of the reasons for official language dilemma in Africa is that there is usually no single group with both enough numerical and political dominance over the others to make its language the natural choice. This is exactly the case in Nigeria. Thus, English was adopted. 4. English as a Unifying Tool for National Integration in Nigeria Of the entire heritage left behind in Nigeria by the British at the end of colonial administration, probably, none is more important than the English Language. It is now the language of government, business and commerce, education, the mass media, literature, and much internal as well as external communication. English language is the most important language of the world being the first language of the United Nations and arguably the only language spoken in all nations of the world. English helped in promoting, nurturing and uniting the Nigerian nation over the years and even now. English can be said to be the language of integration in Nigeria. Amidst the compounding complexity of Nigeria especially in relation to the language question, the only language that indexes the spirit of togetherness is English. More often than not, activities conducted in indigenous languages are reprobated as being ethnic or tribal, except in cultural celebrations or entertainment displays. This explains why even during the first republic and even the colonial era, when English had not attained its present level of ascendancy in national and international affairs, political parties were formed in English. However, the parties might have regional bases; the fact that they were named in English entailed their collective import. The Northern People’s Congress (NPC), the Action Group (AG), the NCNC (National Council of Nigeria Citizens, after the excision of Southern Cameroon), National Elements Progressive Union (NEPU) e.t.c were formed to integrate all Nigerian and give them a sense of belonging. This trend has necessarily survived until today with all the national political parties formed and sloganeered in English. This integration role is not limited to politics or political parties alone but virtually all strata of Nigerian life. In sports, the function of English as its language gives room for integration, as it remains the only area where the syndrome of ethnicity/tribalism has not permeated. Most Nigerians do not care weather the national team is made up of members of the same family, not to talk of an ethnic group, as long as they can deliver the goods or goals. The use of English facilitates the absence of ethnic sentiments in this regard, English is also acceptable to all – even to those who clamour against its irresistible dominance. The language is not fraught with suspicions in any formal or literate context. It is the only language that does not generate suspicions of having a skeleton in one’s cupboard or a ‘hidden agenda’ in inter-ethnic relationship or transactions. English also serves as the language of nationism, concerned with political integration and efficiency (Bamigbose, 1991:20). The language brings all the supposed ‘nations’ of Nigeria to function as one. Mention is often made of each ethnic group being a nation on its own with the Hausa nation, the Igbo nation, the Yoruba nation, the Edo nation, Jukunland, Tivland, Urhoboland, Ogoniland, Ebiraland etc. as examples. However, the cohesion of all under the subsuming Nigerian nation is possible through English. In other words, without




English, the ubiquitous violent ethnic groups like Oodua People Congress (OPC) Egbesu Boys, The Arewa Peoples Congress (APC) Ijaw Youth Solidarity (IYS), Bakassi Boys, and other militant groups would have found more justification for desiring to secede from the Nigerian federation. Ironically, it is also the language of nationalism. This is because the love for the country as a whole has to be manifested through the language intelligible to all and sundry, lest the ‘ethnic agenda’ be implicated. This reason accounts for why nationalists like Herbert Macaulay, Obafemi Awolowo, Ahmadu Bello, Nnamdi Azikiwe had to use English language as a weapon of nationalist struggle. A nationalist bases his patriotic views in English. If English is not used to express the same ideas fo which he is known as nationalist, he becomes an ethnic jingoist or a tribal apologist. It is the language of authenticity in Nigeria today. As a Language of Wider Communication (LWC), English is used for phatic communion, ceremonial purpose, and instrument for keeping records, information dissemination, self-experiment and embodiment of thought among the various linguistic groups of Nigeria. English provide the common linguistic basis that constitutes a requisite for the existence of any nation. Therefore, with English as the common tongue to all the ethnic groups, the collective sentiment of belonging together despite the individual or ethnic differences is forged. Related to the roles discussed is the fact that Nigerianism or collective identity is stamped on national institutions through the medium of English. The army, the navy, the air force and the police that all safeguard the territorial integrity of, and peaceful existence in, Nigeria are controlled with English (unadulterated or adulterated – pidgin). The National Youth Service Corps (N.Y.S.C) is aimed at bringing together Nigerian Youths with a view to reinforcing the sentiment of oneness. The constitution of Nigeria is written in English to create a level ground for all Nigerians to play, though the meta-language for the teaching of the three language and their legislative terms was being developed (at a time in the past) in the three major languages. Writing in English by Nigerian literary artists has also created a distinctive Nigerian literature marked by its own characteristics imbued with features of inter-cultural communication and cooperation. English is also the language of international relations and diplomacy – the language that mirrors Nigeria to the world. All these have the effects of reducing what Adegbite (2004) refers to as “deep-rooted mutual suspicious that result in prejudice, stereotypes and subtle linguistic hostility among various linguistic groups.” And in fact, there are obvious national symbols such as National Flag, The National Anthem, The National day/independence day, the national associations as well as several national monuments of which are designed in English and all of which ‘assert’ that English is the foundation of the magnificent structure called Nigeria. If English is removed, it is feared that the whole nation may automatically crumbles. 5. English versus Indigenous Languages: Towards A United Nigeria There have been argument and counter-arguments for and against the issue of English language as the official language/language of education in Nigeria. Fanilola, (1988) opined that, rather than solving the issue, it is becoming more problematized at the level of finding an attractive candidate to replace it by scholars as each suggestion is fraught with controversies. When Hausa, Ibo Yoruba are being stoutly resisted since 1961 when parliament debated national language question, till date (as evident in Enahoro, 2002), the minority languages have no candidate as population is a key factor in language planning. The suggestion of pidgin or the hybrid ‘Wazobia’ and such unrealistic alternatives is also riddled with more complex problems. In a situation like this, it is obvious that English becomes increasingly important. The volatile Nigerian socio-political domain requires English now, more than ever before, to avoid disintegration and threat to its corporate existence. Though, one is uncomfortable with the negative sides of English as it ‘masterminds’ the relegation of the Nigeria languages to the extent that we do not have a real language policy, instantiates the systematic loss of Nigerian cultural identity among the younger generation and ensures the consolidation of colonial legacy, yet there is no any other language that can keep Nigeria one apart from English. The ‘war against English’ in some quarters is thus a lost battle. English has already been nativised and the challenge is not standardization of Nigerian English – making simple the variety of English that is marked by local aura at all levels of linguistic analysis: phonology, morphology, syntax, lexico-semanties and pragmatics but efforts should be geared towards developing and promoting Nigerian Language (s) as national heritage. It is agreed, but English should not be de-emphasized at all for Nigerians to be able to function well, acceptably and intelligibly, in the fast constricting modern world and in fact, to survive as a nation. The utilities of English need not be undermined for promoting Nigerian unity. Although a united Nigeria rests on English, yet her survival as a nation is beyond English. Nigeria is just a ‘nation on paper’ as Professor Wole Soyinka was frank to say because of her inherent contradictions – Ours is: A nation where its public sector is grossly inept, inefficient, dogmatic, arrogant, unpatriotic, erratic, incorrigible, corrupt, abusive, lackadaisical, abrasive and irredeemably over bureaucratic (cf: Oladesu, 2002).




A nation where the law enforcement system is actively obsolete, illiterate, myopic, robotic, bigotic, anarchrontic, corrupt, suspicious, unprogressive, schizophrenic, prodigacious, psychologically inferior, unimaginative, intellectually porous, academically jealous and pessimistic. A nation where her leadership has more glorification of the old order of carnivorous feudalism, god-fatherism, mafianism, cabal tribalism, traditional rulership of royal blood hegemony and patron of serfdom. For Nigeria to survive as a real nation, the problems identified have to be properly addressed. The demand for constitutional reforms has to be met to create justice and equity in the distribution and administration of resources. The call for a national conference to determine the basis of togetherness should be heeded so that the tension that pervades Nigeria and the problems of political bickering, economic sabotage, social unrest, educational backwardness, development deficit, corruption and graft, mis-govenance, indiscipline, unemployment, poverty, injustice and other social tragedies that besiege Nigeria and threaten her unity – far beyond English but which will be expectedly addressed in English – will be tackled. 6. Importance of the English Language Language is something specific to humans, that is to say it is the basic feature that distinguishes humans from all other living beings. Language therefore remains potentially a communicative medium capable of expressing ideas and concepts as well as moods, feelings and attitudes. A set of linguists who based their assumptions of language of psychology made claims that language is nothing but habit formation. According to them, language is learnt through use of language, the better one learns. Written languages use symbols (characters) to build words. The entire set of words in the language’s vocabulary; the ways in which the words can be meaningfully combined is defined by the language’s syntax and grammar. The actual meaning of words and combinations of words is defined by the language’s semantics. The latest and the most advanced discoveries and inventions in science and technology are being made in the universities located in the United States of America where English Language is the means of scientific discourse. The historical circumstances of India (having been ruled by the British for over two centuries) have given the Indians an easy access to mastering English language and innumerable opportunities for advancement in the field of awards for creative and comparative literatures during the last few years. Sometime ago, an Indian author, Arundhati Roy, won the prestigious booker prize for her book “The God of small Things”, Her book sold volumes of copies all over the globe. Over the years, English language has become one of our principal assets in getting a global leadership for books, written by Nigerian Author and for nollywood films in English language. Several Nigerian films have got several nominations for Oscar Awards. It does not require any further argument to establish the advantage English language has brought to us at the international level. English language comes to our aid in our commercial transactions throughout the globe. English is the language of the latest business management in the world. English is a means not only for international commerce; it has become increasingly essential for inter-state commerce and communication. A language attracts people because of the wealth of literate and knowledge enshrined in it. English poses no danger to Nigerian languages. The Nigerian languages are vibrant and are developing by the contributions of great minds using them as their vehicle of expression. English is available to us as a historical heritage in addition to our own language. We must make the best use of English to develop ourselves culturally and materially so that we can compete with the best in the world of mind and matter. English language is our window to the world. English language is one tool to establish our viewpoint. We can learn from other’s experiences. We can check the theories of foreigners against our experience. We can reject the untenable and accept the tenable. We can also propagate out theories among the international audience and readers. Generally, Standard English today does not depend on accent but rather on shared educational experience, mainly of the printed language. Present-day English is an immensely varied language, having absorbed material from many other tongues. It is spoken by more than 300 million native speakers, and between 400 and 800 million foreign users. It is the official language of air transport and shipping; the leading language of science, technology, computers and commerce; and a major medium of education, publishing, and international negotiation. For this reason scholars frequently refer to its phase as World English. 7. The National Language Question Given the problems often associated with ethnic diversity, it is not surprising that adopting an indigenous Nigeria language as lingua franca became a major preoccupation among Nigerian linguist, language planners and the government in the 1970s and 80s. Since linguistic homogeneity (often) entails nationism (which accounts for why people would first give up their lives before their languages), an indigenous national language was seen as




one way of ensuring the continued oneness, or national integration, of the many ethnic groupings that make up the country. Many believe differences between indigenous languages keep the people apart, perpetuate ethnic hostilities, weaken national loyalties and increase the danger of separatists sentiments. This is because each local language is intimately related to or equates an ethnic group, thus the use of a local language reinforces attachment to ethnicity thereby going against the current of national sentiment. However, the adoption of a national language for Nigeria, and indeed any multilingual society, is a volatile issue. Several proposals were considered for Nigeria. The most widely debated is the adoption of one of the three major languages (Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba) as the national language. The problem, of course, became determining the criteria for adopting one over the others. One (not too) incontrovertible criterion for this choice would be language dominance. However, as Myers Scotton a well-known sociolinguist noted, one of the reasons for official language dilemma in Africa is that there is usually no single group with both enough numerical and political dominance over the others to make its language the natural choice. This exactly the case in Nigeria. It is then this difficulty in choosing an indigenous language as the official language that has resulted in the continued existence of English as the official language of education and administration in Nigeria long after the colonial circumstances that gave rise to it has been dismantled. English is considered acceptable to be official language by many because of its neutrality. Therefore, most people would rather we let the sleeping giant lie. In addition to its neutrality, the social and political elite who are generally highly educated in colonial language have a major stake in its propagation since its continued use allows them a major share of lucrative jobs and advances their social position and power. The same can be said of the developed nations, especially the ex-colonial masters since the continued use of the colonial language provides a good market for their products. Given all the problems associated with adopting an indigenous national language, the questions must be raised as to whether it is really worth it. Why not just continue with the language of the colonial masters as in other African Countries notably Ghana (English), Cameroon, (English and French), Angola (Portuguese), Zambia (English), Zimbabwe (English), and Mauritania (French) to mention a few. Is there more national unity in Somalia where there is one indigenous national language (Somali) in addition to Arabic? Is the continued use of colonial language really an indication of imperialism? How does an indigenous national language affect Nigeria’s relationship with the West? There are similar questions that have cropped up in the past debates on the issue. One cannot pretend to have the answers. 8. English language in the Multilingual Nigeria Context Multilingualism is a situation in which two or more languages operate within the same context (Ndimele, 2003). Factors such as political annexation marital relation, economic transaction, cultural association, educational acquisition and religious affiliation bring about multilingualism. The advent of English colonialists in the 18th Century brought about linguistic imperialism, a situation in which according to Asne as cited in Fanilola (1988:89). “The minds and lives of the speakers of a language are dominated by anther language to the point where they believe they can and should use only the foreign language when it comes to transaction dealing with the advanced aspects of life such as education, philosophy, literature, government, the administration of justice”. When Nigeria attained her political independence in 1960, this has to be sustained for her interest. This is because there was no indigenous language that could perform the function of English because of the mutual suspicion of, and ethnic consciousness among virtually all Nigerians. At the height of it all, the truth was revealed about the new state of the nation that no indigenous language is acceptable for all Nigerians. This view as captured by Nida and Wonderly (1971:65) “In Nigeria, there is simply no politically neutral language. Infact, the division into three major regions reflects the three poles: Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba. The political survival of Nigeria as a country would even be more seriously threatened that is if any of these three languages were promoted by the government as being the one national language. 9. The meditative role of English Language In the face of the multilinguistic crisis in Nigeria, English language should play the role of mediation. According to Obausi (2006), a common language is a mark of identification and a necessary powerful tool for unity for national consciousness – nationalism. We need a common language. We should allow English unite us by accepting it like the views of Adegbite (2004:25) which supports our views here that, “English should serve an expected coordinating role as a means of interethnic and international communication…” Another chief reason why English should serve as a mediator between people of different ethnic languages in Nigeria is according to Adebayo (2003) because the youths who are mostly cosmopolitan by birth, with usually mixed identity and who suffer, for no fault of theirs, from this unclear identity in quest for social mobility vent out their anger at a federation that cares for them.




A knowledge of English is thus an indispensable requirement for anyone to rise or live in any place under the context of the community no matter the variety of the English. By this we mean varieties which have been influenced according to goal, geographical dispensation and mother tongue. It is this local texture of English language that provides the in-going and out-going varieties for inter-ethnic communication and gives the individuals the sense of oneness, unity and loyalty. Even the formal English as taught and learnt in formal settings (classrooms) invariably have the local texture – not used as the English man uses it. Language is dynamic – lives and grows. The tones and pronunciation of native speakers are different resulting to dialects and eventual isoglosses. Even connotations of words acquire strength as the uses go depending on use and environment, not to talk of placement of stress shift. In vocabulary and grammar, we use certain styles such as calquiring – a method of translating our expressions as is usual with out indigenous languages e.g Headtie (scarfs) describing the piece of cloth tied on the head.

• ‘bush meat’ for game • ‘machine’ for motorcycle • ‘chewing stick’ for piece of stick chewed for cleaning teeth etc.

There are other forms of transliteration and mother tongue influence that give Nigerian English new words and or add meaning to existing ones e.g.

• He is a bush man - He is unrefined • Give me my change - Can I have my balance? • He impregnated the girl - He put the girl in a family way etc.

The major function of language is communication and social identity for human co-existence. Because language is dynamic, growth of any language can lead to birth of a new one. Nigerian English is a domesticated nativized variety. This variety is bound to have peculiarities according to the socio-cultural and political environment. English is our new historical symbol of federalism and nationalism and so, let us incontestably use it for the Nigeria nation. So, let us domesticate it and get integrated. 10. Conclusion In conclusion, this paper has examined how English functions as the language of unity in Nigeria and forms the basis of the nation’s linguistic existence. It is contended that with controversies surrounding the adoption of any of the Nigerian languages and the grave implications such adoption engenders, English Language saves the day as the nation’s lingua franca. It integrates all Nigeria as a cohesive entity, it is acceptable to all (to some grudgingly), and it serves the purpose of nationism and nationalism at the same time as it lessens the feelings of perceived intra-national linguistic domination by majority groups. For the unity of Nigeria to be sustained, it is ultimately suggested that the English language must continue to play its unifying role for the essentially necessary national integration while we continue to develop and maintain our local languages so as not to destroy the beauty of our natural endowment and heritage. References Adebayo, A.J. (2003). Language, National Integration and the Nigeria Federation. Adegbite, W. (2004). Bilingualism-Biculturalism and the utilization of African Languages for the Development of African Nations. Ibadan: Hope publications Ltd Bamgbose, A. (1991). Language and the Nation: The language question in sub-Saharan Africa. Edinburg: Edinburgh University Press. Brown, H.D. (1987). Principle of language learning and teaching. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Chomsky, N. (1957). Language: The properties of Human Language. U.S. Department of Education press. Encyclopedia Britannica, (2002). Vol 23. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Eno-Abasi, E.U. (2003). Tonal Reconstruction in Eastern lower cross dialects. Portharcourt: The Linguistic Association of Nigeria. Fanilola, K. (1988). Education through foreign language in Nigeria: Problems and Prospects. Alore: Ilorin Journal of Humanities; vols 3 & 4. pp 70-92. Igboanusi, H. and Ohia, (2001). Language conflict in Nigeria: the prospects of linguistic minorities. In Igboanusi, H. (ed). Language Attitude and language conflict in West Africa. Ibadan: Enicrownfit publishers. pp. 124-142. Isayev, M.I. (1977). National Language in the USSR: Problems and Solutions. Moscow: Progress Publications. Manivannan, G. (2006). Importance of English Global Journal of Humanities Vol. 3 (1&2). Online. Ndimele, O.M. (ed) (2006). Four Decades in the study of languages and linguistics in Nigeria: A festschrift for Kay Williamson. Aba: National Institute for Nigerian Languages.




Nida, E. & Wonderly, W.L. (1971). Communication Roles of Languages in Multilingual Society. In Whitely, W.H (ed) Language use and social change. London: OUP for international Africa Institute. pp 57-74. Obuasi, .I. (2006). The place of language in Nigeria’s Reform Agenda. Nsukka: UNN Press Ltd. Richard, J.C; Platt, J. & Platt, H. (1992) Longman dictionary of language and applied linguistics. New York: Rechards Earley. Sapir, L. (1921). The meaning of language, theory and practice. Washinton D.C. U.S.A centre for Applied Linguistics. Wilson, J. (1986). Task-based language learning. In David Harper (ed), ESP for the University (pp22-43). Oxford: Macmillan Education. Yule, G. (1985). The study of language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Enahoro, A. (2002). “Towards a new constitutional order” in Vanguard. Lagos: July 5. ppp18-19. Oladesu, E. (2002).“Revisiting the mistakes of the founding fathers”. The Comet. Lagos: October 2; pp 14-15.




Globalization And English Language Education In Nigeria Dr. (Mrs) Hanna Onyi Yusuf

Department of Educational Foundation and Curriculum Faculty of Education Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria

Tel: +2348033207255 E-mail: [email protected] Received: 30-07- 2012 Accepted: 23-08- 2012 Published: 03-09- 2012 doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.202 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.202 Abstract Education and ethnicity, culture and religion, and indeed all of man’s endeavour cannot be discussed without taking language into account. This paper therefore discusses language complexity and ethnic plurality which is largely brought about as a result of globalization. Globalization processes such as immigration and internationalisation lead to contact situations in which different people with their different and or distinct languages and cultures meet. These contacts have consequences at a content level i.e for the languages and cultures involved at an individual level i.e for the users of these languages and cultures; and at an institutional level, i.e for the societal structures in which these languages and cultures are situated. The paper further reveals that while there is now greater recognition of the importance of language both for economic and educational development, as well as human rights, the forces of globalization are leading towards uniformity in the language use, in culture and even in education. Keywords: Globalization, Language Education, Nigeria, Ethnic plurality 1. Introduction The concept of globalization is global and dominant in the world today. But, it was not handed down from heaven, it was not decreed by the holy of holies, it did not emerge spontaneously. It was created by the dominant social forces in the world today to serve their specific interest. Simultaneously these social forces gave themselves a new ideological name “The international community” – to go with the idea of globalization (Madunagu 1999). Globalization has largely been driven by the interests and needs of the developed world (Grieco and Holmes, 1999). It has turned the world into a big village. This inturn has led to intense electronic cooperation or commercial war to get the attention and nod of the global world. This war for survival can only get more intense in the new millennium. It is needless to distractedly search for any premise other than the foregoing to commence the analytical examination of the holocaust effects of globalization particularly as it affects the continent of Africa and Nigeria in specific. It should be stated, however that the extent of these effects as well as the coping ability/capacity of its victims are explainable within the context of human history, which on its own has not been static and which had continuously evolved with the society itself over the years. In the course of this evolution, various developments and changes had taken place. These changes or developments had in most cases affected the systematic existence of humankind regardless of the geographical location within the universe. One of such changes or developments that is currently affecting the human society today through its imposition of constraints on the policy-making autonomy or independence of member states vis-à-vis their capacities for the authoritative allocation of scarce and critical societal values or resources among other functions, is globalization. As a result of its combination of “destructive leviathan” and improved material well-being of humankind, it has continued, however, to attract increased scholarly and analytical attention across the globe. It is thus not fortuitous that globalization has been at the epicentre of most development and intellectual discourses. This is unconnected with the fact that world developments have been increasingly characterised not by their growth dynamics but by their links to the process of globalization. Hence, the overwhelming character of globalization has made it compelling for some scholars to use various aspects of global economy as units of analysis. 2. The concept of Language When one consider the social forms and physical artifacts of human societies, one is struck by the diversity of cultures in different times and places. Some humans walk on foot, others ride camels and horses, while others fly




on the plane and or ride rockets to the moon. But in all the societies where these people could be and are found, there is a language. This essential connection between having language and being human is one reason why those interested in the nature of human minds have always been particularly intrigued with language. To philosophers such as Descartes among others, Language was that function which most clearly distinguish us from beasts and was the sole sign and only certain mark of thought hidden and wrapped up in the body. He held that humans were utterly different from other animals because all humans have language while no other animals have anything of the sort. Comrie, 1987 added that human languages are at bottom much more alike than they seem at first glance. For example, all languages convey thought by the same means. They all use words and sentences to organise ideas. In contrast, animal communication often have nothing like words. For instance, a cat can purr happily or hiss angrily but they never have complicated sentences as man does. Another similarity is in the ideas human language can express. For example, when an Igbo man makes a speech in an occasion (in Igbo), numerous translators immediately whisper its equivalent in English, Hausa, Yoruba, Tiv etc to the listening dignitaries from other ethnic groups. The fact that Igbo can readily be translated suggest that by and large, the same things can be said in Yoruba and or Hausa, French or Arabic and yet be translated accordingly. 3. Properties of human language 3.1 Language is creative At first glance, language might seem to be merely a complicated habit, a set of acts of ear and mouth that have been learned by memorization and practice. According to this view, the explanation of talking is simple: each memorized speech act is simply performed wherever the appropriate circumstances arise. For instance, a mother may say “That is a bird”, when she sees one. Thus, her child, anytime he/she sees anything of the sort say “That is a bird”, e.t.c. In sum, people effortlessly create and interpret new sentences on the spot. To express all these thoughts, humans combine a limited though large number of words into sentences. Thus language is a system that allows us to reach limitless end from limited means. People can do this because human language system allows them to combine the old words in novel ways (Bloomfield, 1933; Chomsky, 1959). 3.2 Language is structured While language use is creative in the sense that human can invent new sentences all the time, it is also restricted. There are unlimited number of strings of English Words that humans would never utter. For instance, people do not say “is bird a that”, or “bird that is a”. Speakers construct their utterances in accord with certain abstract principles of language structure. These structural principles underline the way in which people combine words to makeup new sentences without special thought or formal training in school. 3.3 Language is meaningful Each word in a language expresses a meaningful idea (or concept) about something (e.g television or puppy); action (sit or run); abstraction (justice or fun), quality (blue or altruistic) and so on. The purpose of language is to express all these meanings so people have no choice but to learn a conventional word for each. 3.4 Language is referential Language users know more than how to put words together into meaningful and grammatical sentences. They also know which word refer to which things, scenes, and events in the world. If a child says “that is a kitten” (a sentence whose grammar is impeccable and whose meaning is transparent) but did so while pointing to a box, people would not think they have learned English very effectively. This is the problem of reference: how to use language to describe the world of real things and events – saying ‘kitten’ to make reference to a kitten, and ‘box’ to refer to a ‘box’ respectively. 3.5 Language is interpersonal Many aspects of human language are within the individual and are thus the property of each single human mind. But language is a process that goes beyond the individual, for it is a social activity in which the thoughts of one mind are conveyed to another. To accomplish this social ends, each speaker must know not only the sounds, words and sentences of his languages but also certain principles of conversation. These principles govern the way in which language is used appropriately under varying circumstances. Suppose, for example, that one sees a lion in the parlour and wants to tell a companion about this. He/she mustn’t speak English to his companion. They are non-verbal cues he will employ in communicating to his colleague who may understand. 4. The concept of Globalization Globalization refers to the process of the intensification of economic, political, social and cultural relations across international boundaries. It is principally aimed at the transcendental homogenization of political and social-economic theory across the globe. It is equally aimed at making the global initiative present worldwide. It




deals with the increasing breakdown of trade barriers and the integration of world market (Fafowora, 1998:5). In the words of Ohuabunwa, (1999:20),

“globalization can be seen as an evolution which is systematically restructuring interactive phases among nations by breaking down barriers in the areas of culture, commerce, communication and several other fields of endeavour”.

The reality in Nigeria today as it is for most African nations is that globalization has made it immensely difficult for governments to provide social insurance and a unified language or as technically called , “Lingua Franca”. Trends like this have been largely dictated by the assumption of powers that accompany globalization (i.e inequality in the status of the members of the “villagized world” and their inability to resist imposed policy options). Infact, this asymmetry which is undergirded by a system of production where finance/capital rules has been clearly amplified by Madunagu (1999) when he claimed that:

“The result of globalization in Africa is basically a competition between the palatial centres (developed world) and the slum, (Africa) of the village where a preponderant majority of the people daily sink deeper into poverty and misery.

Consequently, its (globalization) ideology remains a continuous licence for culture imperialism, and, the institutionalisation of both political and economic domination and exploitation of the weaker partners through their internal agents (Tandom: 98). This imperialistic cultural dimension of globalization, particular in the area of “internet connectivity” which has often been used as a bait for luring Africa and other development polities into the villagized world, has recently been put into perspective thus:

The world is gradually moving in a unidirectional manner and the tendency towards uniformity has never been so appealing as it is now. Consequently, there is a serious concern that the internet pool that is now low may lose their identity (Otokhine, 2000:2).

Generally speaking therefore, globalization has become more of a threat to the poor rather than an opportunity of global opportunity for global action to eradicate poverty. Given the foregoing, Obadina (ibid) argued that globalization is anchored in “the ethos of “winner takes all” and a “ beggar-their- neighbour” philosophy irrespective of its seeming moral terms of freedom, and this in itself has increased the debt burden of most countries in Africa. 4.1 Globalization and the transfer of information Globalization brings new innovation, technology, language, just name it. On the basis of argument, globalization brings (for instance) new technology and opposition to globalization is not tantamount to becoming technologically isolated from the rest of the world. For instance, the case of GSM today. Prior to its lunch at the start of the millennium, getting connected to the rest of the world was seen as luxury that only the wealthy can afford, even though it still poses some problems at the time. Line congestion, roaming, among others are notable disadvantages. But today, any man can call his/her friend or family member in any part of the world without little or no hitch. This is also the case with language. Advocates of globalization have often made the claim that globalization, through its elements brought the language envogue in Nigeria today (English). It is worth mentioning here that before the advent of English Language, Nigeria and indeed Anglophone Africa has a language of communication. As said above, English language has become pre-dominant because of so many reasons. First, the whites, (our colonial masters) speak it, and to ‘belong’, one has to speak it. Secondly, our sons and daughters were educated through the medium of communication-English, some of whom were taken abroad for further studies to take over the realm of affairs from them later when they feel they should relinquish power to the indigenes. Thirdly, most literature came in English. Most indigenous languages have little or no form of written document to serve as a guide to the up-coming generation. The languages (native) have no found orthography. Therefore, as soon as English language came forth, with its attendant availability of written guides, the masses learnt it, more so because it is the only way to interact with the native world, which at the time was controlled by the whites - The English. This is why David Graddol argued that:

“we are entering a phase of Global English which will shape future identities, economies and culture. The way this language is managed could determine the future of several generations” (English Next, 2006, P. 109).

As is the case among many ESL nations, English is operational in the political, social and institutional contexts which impacts on everything done. When students enter tertiary institutions, they already have experiences of learning English. They also have expectations about what language learning involves and what constitutes success. These are based in part on their earlier language learning and assessment experiences. Tertiary level instructors are to some extent often constrained by these expectations.




In common with many countries throughout Africa, Nigeria regards English language as critical to its future. All these could be said to be as a result of globalization. 5. The English Language as a global force The English language is the second most widely spoken tongue in the world today. Of the 6912 living languages listed in the Ethnologue language database, only Mandarin is spoken by more people. But it is the English language however that seems to be having a bigger impact on the world as a whole and has become the global de-fact standard used in business, cultural and political exchange; education, religion etc. The integration or coming together of the world’s cultures and economies is commonly known as globalization, and a shift in language usage and language demarcation is closely bound to these global changes. These international shift and trends affect the languages that we all speak, which in turn have a marked effect on the functions and organisation of our brains and the way that we think. Due to the rise of globalization, it seems that the English language more than any other language is having a most pronounced and lasting impact on the collective networks of the world mind The English language has over 500 million people that speak it, with 340 million of these using it as their primary or first languages. Perhaps one reason why the English language has become such an international force is because of its ability to adopt and mutate in the face of change, an open ended philosophy that has certainly served it well. English as a means of communication is good at incorporating the other languages into its own language as can be seen with the many words and phrases originally from other languages that most people would now consider authentically English. The strength of English language is that it accepts these variations and integrates them into itself effectively. There is a huge cultural uptake of English, with dozens of variations on the language coming into existence as people have shaped it with their own cultural conditioning. These differing versions of the language are still understandable as English however, and have helped it to evolve and grow at a rapid rate. English has become a sort of common denominator in international affairs, as it has a fairly open ended linguistic structure and is able to be understood in a wide variety of circumstances. The birth of the internet in an English speaking country has also had a huge impact on this global evolution of the language, with almost 80% of the world’s digital information now stored in English. The internet is basically English oriented, as most of the large search engines are based in the USA and the major computer languages themselves are a kind of sub set of the English language. This alone has been a huge effect on globalization and has meant that English speaking countries are at a definite advantage when it comes to communication with the world as a whole. 5.1 Language and globalization By definition, language is a body of words and the systems for their use common to people who are of the same community, nation, geographical area, or the same cultural tradition (Collins Dictionary, 2009). The online Etymology dictionary (2010) defines it as communication by voice in the distinctively human manner, using arbitrary sounds in conventional ways with conventional meanings. It is also defined as the system of linguistic signs or symbols considered in the abstract (the language monitor, 2011). The American dictionary of science (2010) on its part defines it as a system of objects or symbols, such as sounds or character sequences, that can be combined in various ways into a set of rules especially to communicate thoughts, feelings or instructions. On the other hand, globalization is the worldwide movement toward economic, financial, trade, and communications integration. It implies the opening of local and nationalistic perspectives to a broader outlook of an interconnected and independent world with free transfer of capital, goods and services across national frontiers (UNESCO, 2010). It is also seen as the movement from standard domestic business operations to a more international operation. Various aspects such as increased use and abilities of technology have made globalization both possible and easier. Globalization processes and their outcome have led to an increasing knowledge in scaling process, worldwide movements of people, goods and services, ideas and a growing influence of telecommunication and new media in the communicative and cultural landscape. On another hand, these processes tend to pose a descriptive challenge. These processes, movements and influences are not yet sufficiently understood and have to be analysed in detail using a variety of methods. Three main methods/domains are hereby classified to drive home the links between language and globalization. 5.2 Language and culture contact With respect to language, there is special attention for processes of language mixing, code switching, language change and the emergence of new varieties, registers or hybrid codes. A thorough study of these phenomena especially as a consequence of globalization show more speed and scope at the same time.




5.3 Language and literacy acquisition The acquisition of language and literacy focuses on formal (educational) as well as informal contexts (via popular culture, new media, peer groups etc). especially the way in which the acquisition of language and literacy is influenced by globalization processes. Increased and diversified migration processes lead to new forms or language and literacy acquisition that are often considered problematic in formal contexts. The influence of new technologies leads to a growing role for mediation and multimodality in using language and literacy. 5.4 Language, culture, ideology and policy In the context of globalization new questions with respect to the relationship between language, culture and identity came into existence, and now these questions are also discursively shaped in media, policy and popular culture. 6. Globalization of language An example of globalization one finds in daily life is the enormous stream of English words (or words that only seem to be English) into our language. It seems as if the sprung of these words has increased during the last decade in a terrifying way. There is almost no company, whether its operation is international or not, that uses indigenous slogans anymore. Most people speak English and also our daily lives is full of English influences. This enforces the assumption that living languages complement each other, and as it does not become too dominant, a language can only win through such a completion. It may be funny but it gives concern if indigenous words or pidgin everybody usually understands are exchanged for English words without any reason. The case is however more complex and delicate for a multi-lingual nation like Nigeria. For example, the word “chop” in pidgin as every Nigerian understands it means “eat” (come and chop) meaning (come and eat). Imagine saying this to an American or a Scotish. “Chop” in the real English language context means to “cut into shreds”. So, telling an Irish or Australian to “come and chop” while he may be confronted with a bowl of food and not vegetable, fruits or the likes would rob him/her of an understanding of any sort. In Germany, “body bag” means a modern bag that is usually carried with one strap over the shoulder, but in English it means a bag to transport corpses, usually in cases of accidents, by paramedics, police etc. Globalization is sign of a high openness against other cultures, and of the distances between nationals to get narrower, and it also shows the global impact of the English language that offers people an opportunity to communicate all over the world, an opportunity we have to be dreadful for. But on the other hand it is also one of the biggest dangers for our language. It shows that from now on, every other language will have to settle for second behind the English. 7. Conclusion In today’s globalised world, governments and minorities are faced with conflicting pressures on one hand, for the development and use of language (and education) in a global/international language; on the other hand for the use and development of mother tongue, local or indigenous languages in education. Language complexity and ethnic plurality were largely brought about as a result of the creation of nation-states which were spread around the world as a result of European colonialism. European languages and formal education system were used as a means of political and economic control. The legacy that was left by the colonial powers has complicated ethnic relations and has frequently led to conflict. While there is now greater recognition of the importance of language both for economic and educational development as well as human rights, the forces of globalization are leading towards uniformity in the languages used, in culture and even in education. They are working against the development of language rights for smaller groups. We are witnessing a sharp decline in the number of languages spoken. Only those languages which are numerically, economically and politically strong are likely to survive. As a result many linguistic and ethnic groups are in danger of being further marginalised. References Bloomfield, B. (1933). Language. New York: Lawrence Earlbaum. Chomsky, N. (1959). The property of language Encarta.com/linguistic/noamchomsky.html Collins Dictionary (2009). London: Pearson English Next (2006). Journal of English Language as second language (ESL) P. 109 www.tilburguniversity.edu/babylon Fafowora, O.O. (1998). Management Imperatives of Globalization Management in Nigeria; Journal of Nigerian Institute of Management. Vol 34, Nos 2-4, April-December. Grieco, M., Holmes, L. (1999). Telecommunication options for community Business. An opportunity for economic growth in Africa. Africa Notes (October) pp 1- 3. Madunagu, E. (1999). “Globalization and its victims”. The Guardian (July 26th) P. 53.




Obadina, T. (1998). “Globalization, Human Rights and Development”. Africa Today (Oct) pp 32-33. Ohuabunwa Mazi, S.I. (1999). The challenges of Globalization to the Nigerian Industrial Sector. Nigerian Tribune (Dec.14) pp 20- 21. Otokhine, E. (2000). Internet strengthens culture imperialism. The commet (August 23) p. 21. Tendon, Y. (1998:a). Globalization and Africa’s options. AAPS Newsletter: Harare. AAPS Vol. 3, No. 2, May/August. The Language Monitor (2011). online Encarta.msn/language encyclopedia 761570647.html The online Etymology Dictionary (2010). London: Routledge Unesco, (2010). Language of Globalization. Biennial Newsletter, March. New York: UN press.




Second Language Acquisition at the Phonetic-Phonological Interface: A proposal

Ashima Aggarwal (Corresponding author) Department of Linguistics, University of Florida

4131 Turlington Hall, PO Box 115454 Gainesville FL 32611-5454 E-mail: [email protected]

Received: 30-06- 2012 Accepted: 24-08- 2012 Published: 03-09- 2012 doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.208 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.208 Abstract This paper examines the acquisition of novel second language phonological contrasts by speakers of different languages. It explores the possibility of building a framework to test the adult acquisition of voicing and aspiration features of Hindi by speakers of Dimasa, Rabha, Tamil and English. It is noteworthy that Hindi has a four-way voicing contrast while Dimasa, Rabha and Tamil have two-way, three-way and one-way respectively. The paper presents an experiment designed to test the acquisition of non-native acquisition by these L1 speakers. The task designed to train these L1 speakers to perceive the new contrasts is an AX same or different task. Training will be followed by retention and generalizability test also. Evidence of significantly better perception post-training will suggest access to Universal Grammar beyond the Critical period. Keywords: Second language acquisition, Critical period, voicing contrast, Universal Grammar 1. Introduction Although first language acquisition has been shown to be successful and effortless this is not the case with second language acquisition, especially for adults. In addition to this, second language acquisition differs from first language acquisition in that L2 acquisition might not always be complete. Both L1 and L2 are affected by a number of factors such as universal developmental order, constraints on possible phonological structures, aptitude, attitude and input (Birdsong 1992). The interaction of these variables may result in differential success in attainment of a language. Especially for the domain of L2 phonology neuromuscular abilities are said to constrain the acquisition of sounds that require different articulatory habits rendering the fate of L2 phonological acquisition to somewhat lesser than native-like. (Scovel, 1981, Wode, 1989, 1992). Apart from the muscular dexterity, the role of L1 phonology has been considered inevitable when it comes to adult L2 acquisition (Flege 1987a,b, Flege and Munro, 1994). Flege (1987a,b) claims that age-related accentedness is perceptually based. He uses Wode’s (1993, 1994) terms- continuous mode and categorical mode of perception to elaborate this. Where continuous mode of perception lets one discriminate between the fine gradience in the degree of voicing say of /b/. The categorical mode permits the hearer to only perceive those cues that bring about a phonemic contrast between two sounds (e.g. /p/-/b/). Flege goes on to suggest that children begin with a continuous mode of perception, but as they begin to hear the contrastive phones of their language they tune their perception to slowly create the phonetic categories that belong to their native language. These listeners develop an affinity to perceive L2 sounds in terms of their L1 categories. Flege proposed that L2 phonetic categories that are perceived as similar to L1 categories are merged with them failing the construction of new phonetic categories for them. However, this does not rule out the possibility of new sound categories for a new language. It means that the learners will need to reactivate the continuous mode of perception by focusing on minute differences in Voice Onset Time (VOT) between L1 and L2 to form new phonetic categories. Maturational or psychological, the relationship between such constraints continues to challenge researchers till date. Long (1990) claims the domain of phonology to be different from say syntax, semantics or morphology in that it is restricted by a very early critical period, 5-6 years of age. It is important to define the critical period here as




per different researchers. According to Singleton (2005) there is a lot of variation in what is meant by critical period Hypothesis based on definitions of various researchers. Our definition of the CPH will effect if something counts as evidence or counter-evidence to the existence of a critical period for phonology (Long 2005). However, there are some similarities in all accounts of critical period, all of them relate to maturational consequences. For instance, for Lenneberg (1967) and Newport (2002) critical period is biological in nature. Critical period is defined as a time frame during which external stimulus has the maximum influence on development or acquisition. If the organism is exposed to the same experience during or after this critical period, it will have little or no effect at all. The existence of a CPH for any linguistic domain would then imply that “their effects are (a) cognitively based, (b) thus unavoidable, and (c) surface in the loss of ability, resulting in a can vs. cannot dichotomy” (Rothman 2008). These implications in turn make possible the empirical verification or falsification of the CPH. Following previous research within the principles and parameters framework that provide evidence that not only are L1 phonological parameter settings transferred by learners (Archibald 1993), but parameters are also reset to a new value (Broselow and Finer 1991, Pater 1993, Young-Scholten 1994), i.e., even though learners may arrive at a parameter setting that is not that of the L2, the fact that they progress beyond the L1 setting is evidence that the learner has access to the parameter involved, helps the building of hypothesis for the current project. In consonance with the Full access (Schwartz 1996) and optimality theoretic account of perception by Boersma and Escudero (2003) that suggests that reranking in L2 phonology is possible in response to L2 input I would like to hypothesize that the various L1 speakers at test in this study should be able to acquire the Hindi ranking, given training with L2 Hindi stimuli. I propose that the initial rankings of each of these learners should reflect their L1 ranking (Wiltshire, 2005) with respect to voicing and aspiration contrasts in onset position. They will then, in light of positive evidence from Hindi, rearrange their constraint hierarchy to match that of L2 Hindi. They will have full access to UG even when the L1 lacks the phonological contrast. This means that the end state rankings of L1 and L2 will differ, however I do not make any claim that the L2 learners will eventually attain complete knowledge of the L2 contrasts (or that they will not). The interlanguage of the Dimasa, Rabha and Tamil learners will show resetting of parameters that will be different from their respective L1s and may be similar to L2 or some language attested in the world. 2. Critical period for phonology Many researchers have claimed that there exists a critical period for adult phonological acquisition. Of those a few have been summarized in this section. Fathman (1975) found that 6-10 yr olds were better at pronunciation than their 11-15yr old counterparts while older children, did better on higher order structures such as syntax and semantics even when both the age groups had equal amount of exposure to all syntactic, semantic and phonological structures. In another study, Oyama (1976) studies whether age of onset (AO) and length of exposure played a role in phonological production. Based on two tasks, namely, a read-aloud and a narration task, 60 ESL learners were rated for foreign accent. It was found that AO had an effect on the production but not years of exposure. However, the stimuli used cannot be ruled out to be neutral because it was observed that accent was relatively more while reading casual stories than while reading formal narratives. Neufeld (1978) conducted his study on 20 adult native speakers of English. After receiving 18 hours of intensive instruction in Japanese and Chinese phonology, the 20 adult subjects reported ten statements both Chinese and Japanese. The recording was played to three native speaker judges Chinese and Japanese. Two of the twenty participants were rated as native speakers of one of the languages and one subject received native speaker rating for both languages. These findings led Neufeld to conclude that second language can be acquired in adulthood without an accent and hence L2 phonological acquisition is not restricted by a critical period. In general, L2 phonology studies have looked at affects of exposure and length of residence as variables that effect L2 production, lesser attention has been paid to factors such as learners’ concern for accuracy (Elliott 1995) that is found to be of great importance in pronunciation accuracy. 2.1 Critical period and implications for Optimality Theory What the critical period entails for phonological acquisition is crucial. If the claims made by researchers regarding the presence of a critical period for phonology hold true then it would imply that no L2 learning is possible. For an Optimality Theory (OT) of phonology (Prince and Smolensky, 1993) it would mean that there is no possibility of reranking of phonological constraints. This challenges the working and functioning of the optimality theory mechanism. OT assumes that markedness and faithfulness constraints are arranged in a hierarchy in the phonologies of speakers and it is possible to rerank the constraints in response to the input. Its




components GEN, EVAL and CON allow infinite outputs to be evaluated based on the language specific ranking on universal constraints. It would be questionable to claim then that something allows this ranking in the acquisition of L1 grammar but prevents it from happening for an L2. Beyond accents, a critical period for L2 phonology would indicate that interlanguage phonology would show no development or changes in the ranking of constraints. In other words the learners have lost their ability to reset the parameters and will be limited to their L1 final ranking (assuming full access). The initial state and the end state of the L2 speaker would then be the same. The lack of reranking would in turn reflect inaccessibility to Universal Grammar (Chomsky, 1995) or accessibility to UG only via the L1. UG assumes that there exists a set of abstract principles that is present in all of the world’s natural human languages (Chomsky 1995). In terms of Optimality Theory, a critical period means that the L2 learners do not have access to UG constraints anymore and their interlanguage grammar is not constrained by UG. Moving beyond the omnipresent L2 accent, Young-Scholten and Archibald (2000) in their review of L2 syllable structure seek to answer whether L2 syllable are constrained by allowable L1 syllable structures. They found that not only are sounds of a language transferred but there is also evidence that learners attempt to maintain their L1 syllable structure (there is transfer from L1). Thus, L2 syllable structure is in part shaped by native language. Finally, in terms of ultimate attainment the existence of critical period for phonology denies any learnability post puberty and hence never the possibility of native-like speech perception and production. Such a claim would deny the mechanisms of Optimality theory such as Constraint Demotion Algorithm (Tesar & Smolensky, 2000) and Gradual Learning Algorithm that are error driven mechanisms for L2 learning (Boersma 1997; Boersma & Hayes 1999, 2001). A detailed description of these two will be provided in a later section of this paper. 2.2 Counter-evidence to critical period for phonology On the contrary there is an emerging literature on the ultimate attainment in adult learners (White 2000, 2003, Swartz and Sprouse 1996) and possibly access to UG by adult L2 learners (Birdsong 1992, Young-Scholten 1994, Ioup 1989, White & Genesee 1996). In their studies on phonological acquisition in adulthood, Bongaerts, Planken, and Schils (1995) and Bongaerts et.al.(1997) have shown that late learners can achieve native-like performance. To illustrate one of his study, Bongaerts (1999) looked at 41 native English subjects and 41 native Dutch speaking subjects who had not been exposed to English until age 12yrs. Both the groups were given a read allowed task that was judged by naïve native speakers of English for speakers exposed to English after age 12 on four different read aloud tasks were rated for authenticity. Results showed that 5 out of 41 Dutch participants were rated within 1.2 standard deviations of the mean for native English group. In a similar study on restrictions on French liaison using reading-aloud tasks conducted by Birdsong (1997), one fifth of the participants (adults) performed correctly, without any errors, thus exhibiting this complete acquisition of liaison. Klein (1995) also argued that absolute biological barriers for adult perception and production do not exist. What is necessary is massive and continued access to L2 input. He argued that this is possible if the learner has very high level of motivation which arises from their need to sound like a native speaker of that language. Recently more light was shed on the amount and quality of input that is needed for successful L2 acquisition by Rothman and Guijarro-Fuentes (2010). They claim that L2 acquisition takes place in the classroom and outside with a much lesser amount of input than that in naturalistic setting. This could be said to attribute to the native-non native differences in acquisition, but the generative paradigm suggests otherwise. I quote ‘Since within the generative paradigm linguistic properties are not acquired from direct evidence from the input, so-called poverty-of-the-stimulus properties, but as a result of linguistic universals that are triggered via the acquisition of properties encoded in the language-specific lexicon of the environment, equal quantity of input would not be needed’. Rothman and Guijarro-Fuentes (2010) suggest what is required is ‘minimally sufficient’ input that provides the triggers for the system to be configured although the definition of minimally sufficient input is debatable and beyond the scope of this paper. Schneiderman and Desmarais (1988) reported that their two native English subjects who acquired many languages in adulthood were judged as belonging to French-speaking areas by native Francophones, who listened to short tape-recordings of interviews of these subjects. One of the two subjects could also pass as a native speaker of Spanish. In another study by Novoa, Fein and Oblet (1988) a native English subject C.J. who acquired French, German, Italian, Moroccan Arabic and Spanish after the age of 15 was judged as having a lack of foreign accent. Finally Ioup (1989) reported on the success of their two subjects Julie and Laura (native-english speakers) in acquiring Egyptian Arabic as adults. They were described as native speakers by 8 out of 13 judges.




The results of such studies would provide challenge to Scovel’s (1981) assertion that there exists a maturationally constrained time frame for acquisition of accent, ending around 12 years of age, beyond which it is impossible for learners to acquire such a good pronunciation in a non-native language that they can ‘pass themselves off as native speakers’ of that language (Scovel, 1988). The fact that in most of the studies that show native-like successful acquisition of linguistic properties by adult learners, the percent of such learners constitute 5-20% of the subject population cannot be ignored. This shows that possibility of late learning is not just accidental but highly relevant to the study of L2 acquisition as it related to the critical period (cf. Bley-Vroman, 1989; Selinker, 1972). Thus, a great chunk of literature undermines the role of critical period as it relates to phonology. 3. Task for the L2 learner The task for the learners from an OT perspective would then be to arrive at the L2 Hindi ranking for Voicing and aspiration in stop consonants in the word initial position. For this they must recognize the underlying forms and the ranking of constraints that lead to correct surface forms for the target language. Within this theoretic framework, the speakers of various L1s- Rabha, Dimasa, Tamil are expected to arrive at the Hindi ranking by the use of two mechanisms- the Constraint Demotion Algorithm abbreviated CDA (Tesar and Smolensky 2000) and the Gradual Learning Algorithm abbreviated GLA (Boersma 1997; Boersma & Hayes 1999, 2001). 3.1 Constraint Demotion Algorithm: It begins with all the constraints being unranked. Then given the optimal surface forms of the language the role of the algorithm is to figure out the language exclusive ranking. The learner matches the winning candidate to the all the remaining non-winning candidates. The loser must be dominated by some other constraint that is higher ranked. All the constraints that the optimal output violates are less strict and violable and are thus demoted minimally below the highest constraint that would eliminate the loosing candidate. The CDA does not reflect the different interlanguage stages of learning because the shift to the adult grammar is almost immediate.

Table 1. A sample table below shows how CDA works

C1 C2 C3 C4

x * * y *

The winning candidate x violates constraints C2 and C3 while the sub-optimal candidate y violates C4. Initially all the constraints C1, C2, C3, C4 were unranked. In response to the input, C2 is minimally demoted below C4 (the constraint that rules out y) yielding (C1, C3, C4)>> C2 and C3 is demoted minimally below C4 giving (C1, C4) >> (C2, C3). This gives us the ranking where the constraints violated by the winner are lower ranked than those violated by the non-winning candidates. 3.2 The Gradual Learning Algorithm Boersma (1998) proposes stochastic constraint ranking, that is, the ranking of constraints is not absolute of fixed instead based on probability. Given such a mechanism one can explain how the same given input might have different possible outputs even though one output might be more probable than the others. All the constraints in a person’s grammar begin with the arbitrary value of 100. Each constraint is thus associated with a probability density function whose center lies at its ranking value. The evaluation is non-deterministic, and the strict domination of the language-specific constraints is reflected by the space between the constraints. In other words each constraint has a range of values it can select from at the time of evaluation (production or perception). At this time of evaluation, if the value of two constraints selected by the listener overlaps, it will lead to free variation and for a perception grammar it implies that the listener will alternate between listening two phonetic forms. On the other hand if the values selected for the two constraints are far apart then the ranking of constraints is relatively strict and the listener will always hear one phonetic form and not the other. This will happen if the input does not have much variation. That is, if the input data is not varied then the constraint values will be far apart and fixed. Whenever a listener hears a target language input, he/she tries to match the ranking values of the target form and his/her form. If they do not match then the listener increases the values (and thereby the strictness) of all




constraints that allow the listeners form and decreases the values of the constraints that allow the target form. The Gradual Learning Algorithm can also describe the stages of acquisition, unlike CDA. Curtin (2001) uses GLA to model the variation in children’s production and their stepwise changes in grammar using an orderly demotion of markedness constraints thereby resulting in the acquisition of adult-like prosody. An advantage of the GLA is that it can help establish the can learn rates of variation because contradictory options exert contrasting effect on ranking values. This learning also relies on frequency in that the more frequently heard (in training trials) variant gets relevant ranking values of the interacting constraints. Eventually the difference in frequency of conflicting inputs will get the constraint values separated so far apart that the ranking will be fixed. Then for this study the various L1 learners should begin with a ranking of their L1 constraints and UG, assuming Full Transfer and Full Access (Schwartz and Sprouse, 1996). Initially faithfulness constraints are demoted below markedness that is followed by subsequent reranking within the markedness constraints followed by the promotion of faithfulness constraints above markedness once again (Hancin- Bhatt, 2008). Boersma and Escudero (2003) have successfully used phonetically based phonological constraints to portray the perception grammar of Canadian English and Canadian French learners using GLA. They make use of ‘optimal perception hypothesis’ that states that an optimal listener will select auditory properties that consistently distinguish sounds in the production of his/her language. On top, such a hearer is likely to perceive the intended sounds by the speaker. Thus the stimuli used in the training should help the listeners, on the basis of frequency, establish the constraint ranking that allows them to hear all four voicing and aspiration contrasts. 4. Considering two opposing views The no parameter resetting view suggests that speakers can resort to only those parameter settings in their interlanguage that are present in their L1. This view suggests that any subsequent parameter resetting is not possible in response to L2 input, which means that new parameter values cannot be acquired. This implies that native like representations like those of speakers of L2 will definitely be unattainable if the L1 and L2 have different parameter values. No parameter resetting then infers that there is full transfer but not full access. An interlanguage grammar based on no parameter resetting would mean that there would be no change in the learner’s representations subsequently. The representations will remain same, as they were initially, namely L1 based (White 2003). The opposing position to the no parameter resetting is the ‘parameter setting and resetting’ position. This assumes that the interlanguage grammar of the learner is fully constrained by UG. The learners’ grammar can then draw from universal grammar even what was not present in their L1. Assuming a full Transfer Full access view, the initial state would consist of L1 parameter settings with the possibility of being reset in response to the properties of the L2 input (Schwartz and Sprouse 1994, 1996). Unlike no-parameter resetting hypothesis, the initial and subsequent stages within the interlanguage grammar will be different if the L1 and L2 have different parameter values. Assuming the alternative approach, Full Access No transfer supports that L1 is never present in the interlanguage grammar, that is, it does not form a part of the interlanguage grammar at the initial stage or at subsequent stages. Instead the parameters are set to L2 values right away from the beginning. This is possible because the learners have access to UG that in turn interacts with the incoming input from L2 sans a preceding L1-setting stage. This suggests that there is parameter setting, like in the case of L1 acquisition, but no need for resetting (White, 2003). Thus the Full transfer full access and Full Transfer without access agree in that restructuring of parameter values and hence attainment of L2 parameter values is possible, where they differ is the issue whether L1 settings are ever transferred or not. At the same time they disagree with the ‘no parameter hypothesis’ that disallows any resetting during the course of L2 development. If it is assumed that no-resetting is possible in the case of the L1 learners involved in this study, namely, Dimasa, Rabha and Tamil, then it should be found through the perception test that the speakers are incapable of perceiving the contrast missing in their L1. In other words, the Tamils should not be able to perceive anything other than plain voiceless stops, the Dimasas should not be able to perceive Voiceless stops and Voiced aspirated stops and the Rabhas should never be able to perceive Voiced aspirated stops from Hindi, irrespective of the type of training or the stimuli used.




If it is assumed that resetting of parameters is possible then it can be claimed that the L2 learners can move beyond the settings of their L1 to adapt to new voicing and aspiration contrasts, even in adulthood. This stance is somewhat more appealing to me based on the existing theories and research that strengthen this claim. 5. Methodology During the pretest, participants in all the groups are presented with 12 AXB triads (=36 words) of Hindi stops, 6 belonging to the bilabial and 6 belonging to velar place of articulation, that contrast in voicing or aspiration word initially. The sequence of presentation is counterbalanced within the different blocks presented to each listener (AAB, ABB, BBA, BAA). The tokens are alternated with equal number of distractors (12 AXB triads). This set is repeated two or three times (24 AXB triads X 3=72 triads) to ensure that the perception results are not accidental but based on some true phonological representation that the listeners are relying on. All the groups are tested on two inter stimulus intervals (ISI=500ms and ISI=1500ms). So the 72 triads will be run twice for each listener, once with ISI=500ms and once with ISI=1500ms (so 72 X 2=144 triads). During the pretest, the participants are informed that each trial will consist of three words and that they are to say whether the second (X) is more similar to the first (A) or to the second (B). Note that X is physically different token of A or B so that listeners do not attend to acoustic differences that are not phonetically relevant in Hindi and instead focus on acoustic differences that differentiate phonetic categories in L2 Hindi. 5.1 Training The training is same as pre-test except that this time we use an AX identification task instead of AXB forced-choice identification task. After each stimuli the listener presses a key on the keyboard that says ‘same’ or ‘different’. After each response by the listener the computer screen gives feedback to them. This is done by means of a check mark (for correct answer) or a cross mark appearing (for wrong answer) on the computer screen after every. The stimuli repeats till the participants get the correct answer. 5.2 Posttest On the third day the subjects take the posttest. The posttest will be same as the pre-test. Immediately after the posttest all the experimental groups take generalizability test. 5.3 Generalizability test The stimulus for this test will contain 6 AXB pairs. These pairs consist of monosyllabic words that contain dentals in the onset position. Half of these pairs vary for voicing and the other half vary in aspiration. The will be alternated by 6 distractors, resulting in a total 12 AXB pairs. The generalizability test will be exactly same as the posttest except that the place of articulation will be Dental instead of bilabial or velar. 5.4 Retention test After a period of two weeks the participants will be given the posttest again to see if they perform the same way or if there are any changes. 6. Optimality theory as the optimal theory There are three conditions that are proposed by Hancin-Bhatt (2008) to be met in order for a theory to be adequate as a theory of acquisition. First, generalizability across the levels of phonology, accountability for the range of possible structures that occur in L2 sound patterns and predictability with respect to how an input will trigger the restructuring of the grammar (Also see Grosjean 1998 and White 2000). Hancin-Bhatt elaborates further that there are some fundamental issues that a theory of phonological acquisition needs to address. Foremost the theory must define what the assumed phonological features at the initial state are and in subsequent stages, second what the inputs and representations that force restructuring in the grammar are, and finally, how the grammar accommodates multiple grammatical representations for a single input. In the following discussion, I will show how OT fulfills all the criteria of a sound phonological theory as compared to other theories such as those proposed by Best (1995), Flege (1995), Major (2001). Below is a brief overview of some models that seek to explain L2 acquisition. Major’s Ontogeny Phylogeny Model (OPM) intends to capture the patterns in interlanguage grammar and the relationship between L1, L2 and universals. He claims that ‘L2 increases, L1 decreases, and U [universals] increases and then decreases.’ At the initial stage of learning the learner has only L1 and universals are accessible only through the L1. Although Major’s OPM made predictions about the stylistic variations and linguistic relationships such as similarity and markedness it leaves a lot of questions unanswered. It leaves open the questions such as the working of the universals and the L1 and L2 systems.




Another model suggested to explain the perception of non-native lies in the seminal work by Catherine T. Best (1995) who proposed the Perceptual Assimilation Model (PAM). PAM suggests that L2 perception is greatly influenced by L1 phonological system and that the perception of non-native segments is performed on the basis of their being same-as or different-from the native phonological system (Best, 1995). According to the PAM a given non-native phone may be perceptually assimilated to the native phonological system in one of the six ways. First, Two-Category assimilation (TC) is where two non-native phones assimilate to two different native phones. Second, Single Category assimilation (SC) takes place when two non-native phones assimilate to the same L1 phone. Third, Category Goodness (CG) occurs when two non-native phones get assimilated to the same native phone but one of the non-native phones seems to fit better than the other. Next, Uncategorized-Categorized pair (UC) occurs if one non-native phone is categorized while the other remains uncategorized. However if both the non-native phones cannot be categorized, we have a condition called Uncategorized-Uncategorized pair (UU). Last, the non-native phones remain Non-Assimilable (NA) if the L2 sounds are perceived as non-speech sounds different from any native phonemes. Thus the PAM describes the assimilation of not individual sounds but sound contrasts of non-native language into that of L1. To this end PAM is a suitable model to describe the assimilation possibilities of non-native to native phoneme categories but it might be inadequate to provide an acquisitional account of second language phonemes. In other words it does not describe how do listeners progress as the course of learning proceeds. PAM cannot be criticized as a model of acquisition per se since it meets the requirements of an adequate model as proposed by Hancin-Bhatt, but I suggest that it is does not provide an account of the learning process. It does not shed light on the resetting of parameters, speaking in strict UG terms. In the discussion of various acquisitional theories the mention of Flege’s SLM (1995) is quintessential. The SLM claims that the more different the L2 and the nearest L1 sound are, the more likely the learners will notice the dissimilarity between the two sounds. In other words, the L2 sounds that remain dissimilated are less challenging than the sounds that are strongly assimilated into L1 sounds According to Flege’s SLM the sounds in one’s L1 and L2 interact in two ways. First is “category assimilation” which means when a novel category cannot be instated for the L2 sound because they are always classified as examples of L1 sound, a new category for the L2 sound is not formed, instead, the L1 and the L2 sound ‘merge’ into one phonetic category over time. It is hypothesized that this merged category incorporates the phonetic characteristics of the two L1 and L2 sounds. In terms of voicing then an example could be a native speaker of French where /t/ is represented by a short-lag VOT of about 20ms who learns English as his L2 where /t/ is realized by a long-lag VOT value of about 80ms might develop a merged phonetic category of the two L1 and L2 /t/ sounds producing the new merged /t/ with a VOT value of 60ms (intermediate value of the L1 and L2). This new merged category will now be used by the speaker in both his L1 French and L2 English in the absence of two different categories for each language. The second way in which the L1 and L2 phonetic systems are predicted to interact based on the SLM is called “phonetic category dissimilation”. This occurs when the learner forms a new L2 category. Since bilinguals want to retain a contrast amongst all sounds present in their common L1-L2 phonetic area it causes the newly formed L2 category to dissimilate or move away from the nearest L1 sound. This is evident from a study conducted by Flege and Eefting (1987) that showed that English-Spanish bilinguals used longer VOT values for English voiceless stops and shorter VOT values for Spanish voiceless stops than their monolingual counterparts. This is evidence indicating that L1 Spanish voiceless stop categories somewhat dissimilated from the L2 English voiceless stop categories. Again although I in no way want to undermine the work done by Flege but I suggest that for the purpose of this acquisitional study we need a framework that can model developmental sequence of the different L1 groups at the different stages of interlanguage grammar which does not suffice by the use of SLM. Although the task for an adequate theory is by no means simple, nevertheless optimality theory has the elements to meet the requirements of a sound acquisitional theory. A brief summary of OT follows, some of which has been mentioned in part in previous sections. The advent of Optimality theory can be traced back to Prince and Smolensky (1993) as a move away from the derivational approaches to phonology. Similar to the derivational approach, the underlying mental representation and the surface representation of sounds still exist but now they are referred to as the input and the output respectively. Instead of rules now there are constraints. Archangeli (1999) provides a description of the way OT works. It has components called the GENerator, EVALuator and the CONstraints. The generator generates a set of candidates or prospective outputs that are evaluated by the evaluator on the basis of the least expensive




violation incurred against the universal constraint set, thereby producing the optimal output candidate. In terms of OT, universal grammar is proposed as a set of universal constraints that are violable. The universality of these constraints themselves provides a means to explain the cross-linguistic similarities on one hand and the violability of these constraints explains language variation. OT is economical since it presents a single means to express which constraints are violable through strict domination of constraints unlike rewrite rules that were so many in number and ordered with respect to one another.

Figure1: Archangeli’s schema of OT Source: Archangeli (1999)

The universal set of constraints belongs to either of the two classes: Markedness constraints or Faithfulness constraints. Markedness constraints ensure well-formedness by restricting marked structures in languages while faithfulness constraints allow preservation of input structure. Both types of constraints are violable and the winning candidate is the one that incurs least serious violations. The seriousness of the constraints is determined by how high the constraint is ranked in the hierarchy of that language.

Tableau 2. Example of Constraint ranking

Input Constraint 1 Constraint 2 Constraint 3

Candidate 1 *!

Candidate 2 *

Candidate 3 *

In the above tableau the constraint ranking is strictly hierarchical CONSTRAINT 1>>CONSTRAINT 2>> CONSTRAINT 3 Since CONSTRAINT 1 is highest ranked, any violated will not be tolerated, CONSTRAINT 2 is the second most expensive constraint to be violated so candidate 2 is also ruled our so the optimal winner is candidate 3 which violates the lowest ranked constraint. The rankings of constraints are language–specific and it is claimed that different constraint rankings will give rise to different language typologies. Thus there will be languages that use a different constraint ranking such as CONSTRAINT 2>>CONSTRAINT 1>> CONSTRAINT 3 or

Input GEN Candidate set Output EVAL

CONstraint hierarchy of the

language




CONSTRAINT 1>>CONSTRAINT 3>> CONSTRAINT 2 that will lead to different optimal candidates for those languages. These different rankings also delimit the grammars of the world’s languages unlike the large number of rules within derivational phonology. An advantage of OT over the rule-based theory is its straightforwardness in explanation of the ‘homogeneity of target/heterogeneity of process’ (McCarthy). Within A rule based theory, a rule describes the process and the change that applies to it. But there is no motivation why a number of processes apply to the same target over and over again. There is no explanation why the same target undergoes recurrent changes. Contrary to this OT, successfully explains the reason: to avoid the target from being marked, that is, the markedness constraints prevent the target from occurring as it is and therefore it need to undergo repairs. However, what repairs will take place resulting in the final output depends on the language specific ranking. OT is capable of not just modeling learning but also describing the recourse during the interlanguage stages of grammar. It explains learnability using the CDA and the GLA. (The workings of the CDA and the GLA have been mentioned in the earlier sections so I will not repeat it here). The CDA describes how restructuring takes place and the GLA is efficient in explaining variability between learners in their developmental grammars using error-driven approaches. Universality of the constraints, violability of the constraints and the different ranking of constraints in languages form the foundational pillars of explanatory adequacy in Optimality Theory. These functions and workings of the OT make the case for it to be the best suitable theory to describe acquisition. Where universal similarities in the world’s grammars violability of constraints allows inter linguistic variation and different rankings explain typological variation among languages. This coupled with the Gradual learning algorithm can efficiently explain the L2 acquisition of novel second language properties or contrasts. 6. Conclusion The results of this study bear great consequences in either supporting or refuting the existence of the critical period. A reranking of the existing L1 constraint hierarchy, as evidenced by the pretest, would indicate successful acquisitional capabilities even after puberty, defying the strict CPH. However, the lack of any restructuring of the L1 constraint ranking will indicate the less severe nature of the critical period. In either case the implications have serious consequences of L2 pedagogy. The need for unaccented and ‘unimpaired’ learning, which is the concern of most foreign language learners, relies on the strictness of this maturational barrier. The study will conclude whether it is possible to learn novel L2 sounds in adulthood or parents need to start early. The question of ‘how early?’ is yet beyond the scope of this project because of the varied definitions of the critical period proposed by different researchers. References Archangeli, D. (1999). Introducing Optimality Theory. Annual Review of Anthropology 28, 531-552. Archibald, J. (1993a). Language learnability and L2 phonology. Dordrecht: Kluwer. Best, C. T. (1995). A direct realist view of cross-language speech perception. In W. Strange (Ed.), Speech perception and linguistic experience. Issues in cross language research ,171-204. Timonium, MD: York Press. Birdsong, D. (1992). Ultimate attainment in second language acquisition. Language, 68, 706–755. Birdsong, D. (1997). Intransitivity and SE in French: Aspects of late L2 learnability. Paper presented at the 22nd Boston University Child Language Development Conference. Bley-Vroman, R. 1989. “The Logical Problem of Foreign Language Learning”. In S. Gass and J. Schachter (eds.) Linguistic Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 41-68. Boersma, P. (1998). Functional phonology: Formalizing the interactions between articulatory and perceptual drives. Doctoral dissertation, University of Amsterdam. Boersma, P. and Escudero, P. (2003): Modelling the perceptual development of phonological contrasts with Optimality Theory and the Gradual Learning Algorithm. In Arunachalam, Sudha, Elsi Kaiser and Alexander Williams (eds.) Penn Working Papers in Linguistics 8.1: Proceedings of the 25th Penn Linguistics Colloquium, 71-85. Boersma, P., & Hayes, B. (1999). Empirical tests of the Gradual Learning Algorithm. Master’s thesis, University of Amsterdam and UCLA. Boersma, P., & Hayes, B. (2001). Empirical tests of the Gradual Learning Algorithm. Linguistic Inquiry, 32, 45-86.




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Engaging with Old Testament Stories: A Multimodal Social Semiotic Approach to Children Bible Illustrations

Abuya Eromosele John (Corresponding author) Department of General Studies, Rufus Giwa Polytechnic. Owo, Ondo State, Nigeria

Tel: +234- 08131231331 E-mail: [email protected]

Akinkurolere Susan Olajoke Department of General Studies, Rufus Giwa Polytechnic, Owo, Ondo State, Nigeria

Tel: +234- 08032099737 E-mail: [email protected] Received: 31-07- 2012 Accepted: 27-08- 2012 Published: 03-09- 2012 doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.219 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.219 Abstract Studies based on Multimodal Discourse Analysis (MDA) do not only abound but have remained on the increase in recent times. However, focus has not been on the multimodal analysis of Children Bible stories through the linguistic framework of social semiotics. This paper, informed by this need presents and analyses pictorials of Children Bible stories, thus reflecting at one level the linguistic features and how they are being complemented by visual features on another level. Also, the paper emphasizes the importance and effectiveness of visual features by revealing meanings. The study concludes that despite the fact that linguistic features could convey meaning, certain meanings are best conveyed through the use of visual images especially to children who are passive readers. Keywords: Multimodal, Children, Social – Semiotic, Images, Bible, Discourse, Analysis 1. Introduction The Bible is widely known as the most important book of the Christians. The Christianity religion is encapsulated and entrenched in the doctrines that manifest in the Bible. No doubt, the Bible is indispensable to every Christian. Christians make use of the Bible as an essential tool of evangelism. The early missionaries that came to Nigeria targeted the children, and the introduction of western education went a long way to assist them in evangelism. Most adult were already addicted to their native gods but children that usually possess flexible minds became interested in Christian religion. Apart from the Bible, the gospel of Christian religion is spread through tract, pamphlet, poster, magazine, bulletin, handbill and more importantly Bible story books. The Bible story book is not synonymous with the Bible. Hence, it is a book of selected stories from the Bible usually with visual images for the purpose of children evangelism. This is one of the major ways through which print media has contributed significantly to the growth of Christianity through evangelism as rightly noted by Anderson (1983) that print media has continued to be a primary vehicle for the expression of Evangelistic Christianity, and printed materials with an evangelistic agenda filled a variety of niches within the publishing industry. The Children Bible story-book is usually targeted at children, and in most cases, the story book is studied under the guide of an adult, usually parents or children evangelists. The Bible story-book is usually filled with pictures or visual images that will usually attract and arrest the attention of children since they are passive readers. Thus, the importance of visual images in Bible story book can never be over emphasized. The visual images are mostly subservient to the verbal text but possess the ability to generate meaning as the verbal text. No wonder, Messaris and Abraham (2001) opine that: viewers may be less aware of the process of framing when it occurs visually than

when it takes place through word. Consequently, visual images may have the




capacity of conveying messages that would meet with greater resistance if put in words, but which are received more readily in visual images.

This submission emphasizes the importance of visual images in any text which is not just created but premised on the need for images. In the case of children, the visual images as Bible story illustrations are meant to make the stories of the Bible easy to understand by such representation. Hence, the children do not just read the text but also the images. On images, Kress and Leeuwen (2006) posit that:

images are produced in the context of real social institutions, in order to play a very real role in social life-in order to do certain things to or for their readers, and in order to communicate attitudes towards aspects of social life and towards people who participate in them, whether authors and readers are consciously aware of them or not.

2. Multimodal Discourse Analysis (MDA) Synder (2009) defines multimodal discourse analysis as the study of the intersection and interdependence of various modalities of communication within a given context. More importantly, multimodal discourse analysis is an emerging field of discourse which studies languages together with other semiotic resources for the purpose of deriving meaning in a social context. The principle that underpins multimodal analysis posits that communication takes place across different modes. Mode refers to the distinct semiotic system for expressing meaning. There are two approaches to multimodal interactional analysis: Norris approach, and Baldry and Thibaults approach. Norris’ approach bothers on what individuals express and react to in specific situations which the ongoing interaction is always constructed (Norris 2004). Through the work of Norris, a clear distinction is made between embodied and semibodied modes of communication. Baldry and Thibault’s approach is premised on the Halliday notion of text as ‘living language’ by observing that different semiotic modalities make different meanings in different ways according to the different media of expression they use. Baldry and Thibault approach enables the examination of the relationship between multimodal text and genre. Researchers in the field of MDA are concerned with the role of mode on meaning as Norris (2004) defines mode as a loose concept of a grouping of signs that have acquired meaning in our historical development. Analyses that bother on modality focus on the effect of form on the consciousness of hearers, speakers or readers (Keane 1997). Infact, it is the introduction of multimodality that brought emphasis on image, music, gesture, and so on. No wonder, Linda (2005) states that modality refers to the relationship of messages or how true an image is as rightly opined by Kress and Van Leeuwen (1996). 3. Social Semiotic Approach to Multimodal Discourse Analysis (MDA) Multimodality has its root in Social Linguistics and Discourse Analysis, and it has undergone various transformations especially from mid 1980s, whereby scholars begin to focus on making meanings beyond languages. The social semiotic approach is concerned with the way people use semiotic resources both to produce communicative artefacts and events and to interprete them … in the context of specific social situations and practice (Van Leeuwen 2005). The theoretical foundation of social semiotic approach to multimodal discourse analysis is derived from Systemic Functional Linguistic (SFL) view of language as a social semiotic (Halliday 1978). It is along this reasoning that Halliday 1978 defines semiotic as a process of making meanings by selecting ‘from the total set of options that constitute what can be meant’. According to Olowu (2012):

Kress and Van Leeuwen’s contribution to the field of semiotic lies in their recognition of visual language as an underrated of communication which up till now has been subordinate to verbal language. They suggest that as technology facilities, the sharing of visual information, a way and means of understanding visual communication is more important than ever.

This argument stresses the fact that visual information is the focus in the social semiotics. The social context of such form determines meaning accrued to it. No wonder, Thibault (1991) submits that:

In social semiotics, the basic logic is that of contextualization. No semiotic form, material entity or event, text, or action has meaning in and of itself. The meaning these have are in and through the social meaning - making practices which




construct semiotic relations among forms, material processes and entities and social actions

Since, it is now impossible to make sense of texts even of their linguistic parts alone, without having a clear idea of what these other features might be contributing to the meaning of a text (Kress 2000), the social semiotic approach of Kress and Van Leeuwen (2001) is based on Halliday (1978)’s three fundamental metafuntions: The ideational metafuntion, the interpersonal metafuntion, and the textual metafuntion. These metafuntions operate in the semantic of every language and are defined as:

i. The ideational metafuntion:- This refers to the resource for the representation of experience: our experience of the world that lies about us and also inside us, the world of our imagination. It is meaning in the sense of content.

ii. The interpersonal metafuntion:- This is the resource for meaning as a form of action. The speaker or writer doing something to the listener or reader by means of language.

iii. The textual metafuntion:- This is the resource for maintaining relevance to the context both the preceding and following text and context of the situation

4. Objectives of the study The objectives of the study are outlined below:

i. Examine the linguistic features of the selected Bible stories illustrations ii. Analyse the ways visual information is presented in the Bible stories illustration

iii. Observe and describe the relationship between the linguistic and the visual components in developing themes associated with the illustrations

5. Research Methodology For the purpose of this study, illustrations of Children Bible stories are selected. The Children Bible Story Book is titled 101 favorite stories from the Bible by Ura Miller (2006). The Book typifies a true Children Bible Story Book with a visual illustration accompanying each story. The choice of the book is premised on its richness in the use of colour and visual images. Four illustrations are selected from Old Testament stories; this choice is premised on the fact that most concepts and objects in olden days are usually difficult to be explained in linguistic form to the modern day children without recourse to modes that can make such real. The analysis of selected illustrations will be anchored on the themes of family and love. The analysis will be done using Kress and Van Leeuwen’s Multimodal Discourse Analysis through Social Semiotic Approach. The selected illustrations are labeled A- D. 6. Data presentation and Discussion of Themes This section is on data presentation and discussion. As earlier mentioned, each selected story illustration will be analysed and discussed in close reference to the relevant and appropriate themes. Illustration A Illustration B

Verbal Anchorage A: Adam and Eve sent out of the garden because of disobedience.




The title of the story is ‘‘The First Sin ‘Cast out of the Garden of Eden’’. There are lexical items employed in the process of narrating the story which can be found in Genesis 3, such lexical items are: garden, beautiful, station, husband, wife, God, tempt, home, serpent, animal, disobedience, Adam, Eve, voice, command. These linguistic features serve as a mode through which the story of Adam and Eve’s experience in the Garden of Eden was narrated. The story is significant for it enables the children to know and understand the beginning of family since they are product of family. The story of Adam and Eve explicates the origin of family. The words associated with the family in the linguistic mode are ‘husband, wife, and home’. It is in the home that we find husband and wife as marriage in Christianity is regarded as a union between a man and a woman in such that they become husband and wife (Olowu 2012). 6.1 Visual Component of A Kress and Van Leeuwen (2001) posit that colour is ‘entirely different from language’. In the illustration, the garden is presented with green colour with other colours such as yellow, pink, and white; they are employed to illustrate flowers. This shows riches of the Garden of Eden. The children become aware of the fact that Garden of Eden is rich in fruits. The colours as signifiers serve as a mode. The picture of Adam and Eve signifies husband and wife. They are being represented in a way that Adam takes the lead out of the garden, and Eve’s head is bent with her hand raised to support her cheek. It signifies sobriety as a result of her disobedience to God’s instruction by giving the husband fruit from the forbidden tree even though she was deceived by the serpent. The picture represents the reward of sin for the caption reflects the exit of Adam and Eve from the beautiful Garden of Eden. The fact that Adam holds the hand of Eve despite their predicament shows the love that serves as the bond in family. The covenant between husband and wife is ‘for better for worse’ and ‘till death parts them’, this is demonstrated through Adam’s action. 6.2 Verbal Anchorage B: Cain and Abel each offer a gift upon altar The title of the story is ‘Cain Kills His Brother Abel ‘The First Family’. Words identified from the story are ‘baby, child, gift, stone, killed, murderer, altar, prayed, God, sin, angry, worship, brother’. The use of ‘baby’ ‘child’, ‘brother’ in the story depicts family. Every society is made up of a number of units- the unit is family. The author narrates how Cain killed his brother (Abel) as a result of anger that grew out of jealousy because his offering displeased God while Abel’s offering was accepted according to Genesis 4. 6.3 Visual Components of Illustration B The visual illustration is colourful. Abel is wearing a blue cloth, blue represents love while Cain cloth is brown, other colours are: green for vegetation, yellow for flame of fire, grey for smoke, and white for lamb. The location or position of Cain and Abel is in opposite direction. Abel’s face is lifted up which depicts that he is looking unto God while Cain is looking towards his brother direction and he is not concentrating on his sacrifice. Any time, human being focuses on men rather than God, it usually leads to jealousy, rivalry, bitterness, anger and even murder. The smoke from Abel’s sacrifice represents acceptance. Hence, his hands are brought together to show gratitude to God. The illustration represents a typical row among siblings which can generate into sin such as anger or murder, and develops the theme of family further by emphasizing that love is an essential ingredient in the family. Assuming he loved Abel, he would not have killed him. Illustration C

Verbal Anchorage: Noah and his family thank God for saving their lives




The story is titled ‘Noah – The Ark Builder History’s First Boat Ride’. There are lexical items such as people, earth, Noah, God, ark, family, animals, birds, rain, door, thankful, saving, altar, rainbow, sky, flood and others. The author narrates how God destroyed people from the earth as a result of their wickedness while Noah and his family were saved. The author concludes that God formed a beautiful rainbow in the sky as a sign of His promise never to destroy the earth with a flood again. It is a matter of high significance that those that survived the flood belong to the same family. This further places prominence on the institution of family. 6.4 Visual component of illustration C The illustration is made up people wearing clothes of colours such as red, blue, green, orange, yellow e.t.c. The ark has faded-brown colour while the rainbow has seven different colours. Noah is seen wearing red cloth that represents danger since he led his family and other non- human creatures through a dangerous adventure. The smoke is grey while the flame is yellowish on a light brown altar. Noah and his family members’ posture in the illustration as they offer sacrifice of thanksgiving depicts that they give glory to God. The fact that Noah is standing while others are kneeling or sitting down portrays him as the leader as well as the head of the family. Also the rainbow seven colour represents perfection. Hence, the rainbow is not just a sign but a signifier of the promise of God to the people. The bond that ties the members of the family together is love for they surround the altar, it is love that brings about togetherness in a family. The appearance of the animals such as lion, antelope, e.t.c in the illustration shows that other creatures (animal and birds) survive the flood disaster because they entered the ark of Noah. The Ark is synonymous to the present day Jesus Christ in christian faith. It is believed that anyone that does not accept Jesus Christ as his personal Lord and Savior will not be saved according to John 3:16- 18. Illustration D

Verbal Anchorage: Abraham is thankful that he does not have to offer his son.

The above illustration accompanies a story, titled ‘Abraham Sacrifice- A Great Test of Love’. In the story, certain words such as father, children, land, altar, worship, knife, kill, son, multitude, people, angel, ram, bushes, thankful and the likes were employed by the author to narrate the story of how Abraham obeyed God by offering his only son as a sacrifice to God. The unit of family is not usually regarded as complete without child/children especially in African culture. Hence, the importance of a child in marriage can never be over emphasized. Despite the pain and rigours that Abraham and Sarah went through before the birth of Isaac in their old age, he willingly submitted Isaac for sacrifice (Genesis 15:1- 6; 21; 22). The author concludes the story on how God intervened by providing a ram instead of Abraham’s son at the point of sacrifice.




6.5 Visual Components of Illustration D Isaac (Abraham son) is seen wearing a red cloth which signifies danger. The red cloth is usually associated with occultism or rituals. The body is the sacrifice to be offered to God. The knife meant to kill the boy is also tied with red string, this also is synonymous to the meaning derived from the red colour cloth. Abraham wears a multicolor cloth in the illustration. The colours are purple, green and blue. The blue colour depicts love. This represents the love that Abraham had for God. Anywhere there is altar, there will be sacrifice, and the boy is placed on the altar as it becomes a true signifier of Abraham’s submission to the will of God. The ram is found beneath the bushes while pot of fire is black in colour which represents death. The image of the ram beneath bushes shows that it is an unexpected and sudden provision. Here the visual image speaks more than the text as it is observed that the visual image may be more effective than linguistic text in the ‘construction of affective meaning’ ( Olowu 2012). 7. Conclusion The visual image presented in our analysis and discussions are very powerful. The four illustrations are rich in meaning. It is observed that certain images signify certain phenomena in the present day. The image of altar in illustration B- D represents the place of prayer. In the Old Testament Christian religion, altars were usually erected by assembling stones, also sacrifices were provided for burnt offerings. Children understand Bible stories better through illustrations. More so, in the present Christian practice, sacrifices are no more burnt in the churches or on altars. Hence, there is no better way to bring to fore the meaning that an altar in the Old Testament Christian practice connotes other than employing images. Postures, position, gaze, and distance are significant for meaning in the selected illustrations (Busa 2010). Therefore, images are read just as linguistic texts are read. In teaching children, parents or teachers are supposed to be conscious and conversant with the level and qualities that children possess which should make them teach the children in the simplest manner possible. Consequently, the illustrations in the Bible stories analyzed through social semiotic approach to multimodal discourse analysis serves as a substantiating evidence. The illustrations could also be referred to as image communication that foregrounds the linguistic features of the Bible stories in such a way that the children understanding are increased. Hence, this paper has analyzed visual information contribution towards meaning through MDA. O’Halloran (2011) observes that one of the major challenges facing multimodal discourse analysis include the development of theories and frame work for semiotic resources other than language, the modeling of social semiotic process (in particular, intersemiosis and resemioticisation) and the interpretation of the complex semantic space which unfolds within and across multimodal phenomena. It is expected that theories that bother specifically on semiotic resources will make a better contribution to multimodal analysis. We therefore submit that a social semiotic approach to MDA should also be employed in analysing illustrations from New Testament Bible stories or better still a comparative analysis of Old and New Testament Bible stories. References Anderson, A. (2004). An introduction to pentecostalism: Global characteristic christianity. Cambridge: Cambridge university press. Busa, M.G (2010). Sounding natural: Improving oral presentation skills. Language value, 2 (1), 61. Halliday M.A.K (1978) Language as social semiotic: The social interpretation of language and meaning. London: Edward Arnold. 16. Keane, W. (1997). Religions language. Annual Review of Anthropology. 26,47-71. Kress, G. (2000) Challenges to thinking about language. TESOL Quarterly, 34 (2), 337-340. Kress, G., & Van Leeuwen, T. (1996). Reading images: The grammar of visual design. (1st Ed). London and New York: Routledge. 159 Kress,G and T. Van L. (2001). Multimodal discourse: The modes and media of contemporary communications. London: Arnold. 27 Kress, G., & Van Leeuwen, T. (2006). Reading images: The grammar of visual design (2nd Ed). London and New York: Routledge. 15 Linda, M.M. (2005). Multimodal discourse analysis of advertisements of hongkong charity organisations. The University of Hongkong. An unpublished M.A Thesis.




Messaris, A., & Abraham, A. (2001). The role of images in framing news stories. In Reese S. D. et al (eds) Framing public life: Prospective on media and our understanding of the social world. London: Lawrence Erlbaun Associate 215 – 226 . Miller, U. (2006). 101 favourite stories from the Bible. Ohio, USA: Christain Aid Ministries. Norris S. (2004). Analysing multimodal interaction: A methodological framework. NewYork/London: Routledge. O’Halloran, K.L (2011). Multimodal discourse analysis. Hyland, K. and B Partridge (eds) Companion to discourse .London/New York: Continuum. Olowu, A. (2012). A multimodal discourse analysis of Christian women mirror magazine Obafemi Awolowo University An Unpublished M.A Thesis. 33- 43. Synder, J. (2009). Applying multimodal discourse analysis to study image – enabled communication. School of Information Studies, Syracuse University. The Holy Bible King James Version Van, L. (2005). Introducing social semiotics. New York: Routledge.




Evaluation of English Language Teaching Departments of Turkish and Iranian Universities in Terms of Politeness Strategies with

Reference to Request Maryam Rafieyan, MA

Islamic Azad University, Tabriz Branch, Iran Email: Rafieyan_ [email protected]

Tel: 00989143117926

Received: 31-07- 2012 Accepted: 30-08- 2012 Published: 03-09- 2012 doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.226 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.226 Abstract The ultimate objective in post-method pedagogy is developing language learner’s communicative competence to enable them to participate in communication acts. Effective oral communication entails observation of a number of conversational principles and appropriate use of various strategies to avoid violation of mutually recognized rules, e.g. politeness strategies. Some researchers believe that politeness strategies have a number of universal Features (Goff man, 1967, 1971: Goody, 1978 a). In line with previous research studies, the present study set out to investigate whether nationality would influence the use of request politeness strategies by Iranian and Turkish EFL learners at the same proficiency level. Participants in this study included 448 students at four different levels of proficiency who were majoring in English language teaching at Gazi University in turkey and Islamic Azad University – Tabriz Branch. 224 Turkish students at four different grade levels and the same number of Iranian students participated directly in this phase of the research. Each grade level group consisted of 56 students. The researcher administered a questionnaire enquiring their preferences in selecting the proper forms of requests ( Blum - Kulka & Olshtain , 1985) .The statistical analysis revealed a strong correlation in intra-groups while the inter – group results displayed relatively significant differences . The Turkish participants used request politeness strategies more appropriately than Iranians which support the role of culture in the use of such strategies. The findings highlight the necessity of observing cultural background in teaching communication strategies such as request politeness strategies particularly in EFL contexts. Keywords: Politeness Strategies, Request, Cross-Cultural analysis, Communication Strategies, Cultural Background 1. Introduction Conversation analysis and the use of different strategies to convey intended meaning through various modes are issues that have occupied the minds of so many scholars and miscellaneous researches have been done so far. Austin (1962) and Searle (1965, 1981), for example, classified speech acts in different types and for each type set a special rule. Grice (1964) proposed that conversations conform to four maxims and named them as Quantity, Quality, Relevance, and Manner. Lakoff (1973) reduced Grice’s maxims to two and named them as: Be clear and Be polite. In her view, these two are sufficient rules to guarantee “pragmatic competence”. Based on this classification, Lakoff concentrates on the rules of politeness of which there are three:

1. Don’t impose on your addressee. 2. Let the addressee make his own decisions. 3. Make the addressee feel good, be friendly.

Brown and Levinson (1978) define politeness as maintaining H’s face, that is, being imposed on and approved of in certain respects. Face refers to wants, and Brown and Levinson (1978) argue that we have two types of wants: ego-preserving wants and public-self preserving wants, which refer to people’s desire to be considered




contributing members of the society. The former generates negative face, and the latter, positive face. Making a request more polite decreases the imposition involved and helps maintain the relationship between S (speaker) and H (hearer). However, that increases the chance of rejection, and S does not achieve the action goal. Thus, it is important to increase H’s approval of S. Politeness is a communication strategy that people use to maintain and develop relationships (relation goal). Because requests are essentially discourteous, achieving a request (action goal) may damage the relationship between the people concerned (Leech, 1983). Politeness, therefore, is an important issue in making requests. Brown and Levinson (1978) present five super strategies of politeness that show different levels of politeness. 1) A speaker may perform the request “baldly”, making no attempt to acknowledge the hearer’s face wants. 2) A speaker may perform the request while attending to the hearer’s positive face wants using what Brown

and Levinson (1978: 106) label a positive politeness strategy. 3) A speaker might perform the request with negative politeness, acknowledging the hearer’s negative face

wants, the desire to be unimpeded and not imposed on. 4) A speaker may “go off-record” in performing the request. Here, the speaker performs the act but in a vague

manner 5) (e.g . , hinting) that could be interpreted by the hearer as some other act. 6) A speaker may not make the request and therefore not gain the goal. The first strategy in the list is not polite at all, and the last one is very polite, but does not gain anything .T thus there are four different levels of politeness strategies that have potential to gain the goal. 1.1 Politeness Speaking and having communication with others is an activity which takes place when people involved. The mutual cooperation of interlocutors through recognition of certain conventions controls the way of interpretation and their use of language, and hence each interlocutor is responsible for the way of using language appropriately and should be held responsible for any violation of mutually recognized conventions. The ways we address someone directly and the manner in which refer to the same person are not always the same. The use of direct address formulae is governed by a relationship between two participants the speaker and the hearer. When choosing a term of reference, however, the speaker not only has to take into account his/her relationship with the hearer but also has to decide how to present the referent in a situationally appropriate manner (Nevala, 2004: 2125-26). Leech (1983: 80) referring to politeness principles tries to imply that cooperative principle in itself cannot explain “(i) why people are often so indirect in conveying what they mean; and (ii) what is the relation between sense and force when non-declarative types of sentence are being considered.” Therefore, he suggests, a complementary principle, as he named politeness principle, is needed to complement it. Based on Leech (1983) the politeness principle has two formulations, one as being negative and the other positive. The negative one “minimizes the expression of impolite beliefs’ while the positive one “maximizes the expression of polite beliefs” (p. 80). Based on this assumption, he observes politeness as a gradable entity that indicates the more polite utterance is the one with indirectness of its force. The reason behind it is the increase in respondent choice but decrease in utterance’s force. Leech points out that societies are different in using different maxims and the weight they attach to them. Lakoff (2001: 212) advocating an approach based on discourse analysis states that to have a clear understanding of what is considered ‘polite’, one should have insights into the way that language is used in a particular socio-cultural setting without which the complexity of the politeness and what should be considered polite remains unsolved. Through concentration on a particular speech act located in a specific cultural and societal time and space place, we can come to understand a great deal about who we are, what we want, and the rules and assumptions that bind us together as a society [Lakoff (2001: 212) cited in Daly (2004: 446)]. Referring to the above mentioned assumptions, one can claim that the term politeness cannot be defined or clarified without neglecting cooperative behavior which can be explained in terms of mutual presentation of ‘face’.




1.2 Face Brown and Levinson (1987: 59- 60) argue that face is something that every member of a society has. It can be defined as one’s public self-image. Goffman (1967: 5) defines the concept of face as “the positive self-value a person effectively claims for himself.” Thomas (1995: 164) defines it as “every individual’s feeling of self-worth or self-image.” In all these definitions, face is considered as a quality that can be enhanced, maintained or lost; that is to say, everyone’s face depends on everyone else’s being maintained. (Brown and Levinson 1987: 61). Hence, every time a speaker wants to utter something he needs to be careful that his utterance will either maintain or threaten the addressee’s face in a way that he intends to do, and at the same time enhancing or maintaining his own face. “It is in general in every participant’s best interest to maintain each other’s face. That is to act in ways that assure the other participants that the agent is heedful of the assumptions concerning face” Brown and Levinson (1987: 61). The assumptions that Brown and Levinson (1987: 61) refer to are termed as positive and negative face. 1.3 Negative Face and Negative Politeness Fukada (2004: 1992) defines negative face as “the claim to one’s territory, personal preserves, and rights to non-distraction, such as freedom of action and freedom from imposition.” Brown and Levinson (1987: 62) define negative face as: The want of every ‘competent adult member’ that his actions be unimpeded by others. Negative politeness “is oriented mainly toward partially satisfying (redressing) H’s negative face, his basic want to maintain claims of territory and self-determination. Brown and Levinson (1987: 70) believe that “negative politeness is primarily ‘avoidance-based’ and realization of its strategies requires that the speaker recognizes and honors the addressee’s negative face wants and tries not to interfere with addressee’s freedom of action.” Hence, negative politeness is characterized by self-effacement, formality and restraint, with attention to very restricted aspects of H’s self-image, centering on his want to be unimpeded (p. 70). 1.4 Positive Face and Positive Politeness Fukada (2004: 1992) defines it in a rather similar way as Daly where he refers to it as “the desire to be appreciated or approved of by other members of a society.” Brown and Levinson (1987: 62) define positive face as “the want of every member that his wants be desirable to at least some others.” Positive politeness by definition is “redress directed to the addressee’s positive face, his perennial desire that his wants (or the actions/ acquisitions/ values resulting from them) should be thought of as desirable.” (Brow and Levinson, 1987: 101) As Brown & Levinson (1987: 103) put it , positive politeness utterances are used to extend intimacy, to imply common grounds or shared wants even between strangers who assume that they share similarities for the purpose of interaction. 1.5 Off-record politeness Another way of expressing politeness is using off-record communicative act to provide a variety of defensible interpretations. “A communicative act is the off- record if it is done in such a way that it is not possible to attribute only one clear communicative intention to the act” (Brown and Levinson, 1987: 211). Off record utterances, hence, are used when the speaker wants to do face threatening act, but does not want to accept direct responsibility for doing it since the possible interpretations for an off record utterance are not only one clear communicative intention, it is up to the addressee to interpret it. Therefore, off-record utterances are basically indirect that require the addressee to make inference to get what was intended. Based on this basic and essential feature, off record utterances are mainly general (containing less information) or different from what one means (p. 211). 1.6 Request The study of requests as an important element in linguistic studies of speech acts and psychology is prevalent in literature dealing with politeness. Besides the studies carried out by linguists within the field of speech act theory, there are a lot of studies on children’s acquisition of pragmatic competence with their core focus on requests and other related materials on requests in English. Other types of research on requests refer to cross-




cultural work on requests, including a project reported in Blum–Kulka and Olshtain (1984), focusing on the way of using requests and apologies in Hebrew, Danish, German, Canadian and French. The same cross-cultural studies carried out by Haverkate (1979) and Walters (1979) investigated requests in Spanish; and some other investigations comparing requests in English with those in Greek (Drossou 1985). 1.7 Statement of the problem Brown and Levinson (1978) strongly believe that there exists some universals in politeness usage and most of languages follow the certain strategies to display honor and respect. Taking for granted this statement, the present study attempts to know whether the same universality exists among the students who learn English as their foreign language in upper- and advanced levels or not. The present study tries to investigate the similarities or possible differences among Persian learners of English and Turkish learners of English in deploying requests. 1.8 Research Questions

The study will investigate to find an answer to the following research questions: 1. Are the politeness strategies used by Persian EFL learners and Turkish EFL learners in making requests

the same? 2. Is there any significant difference between students in each group according to their awareness in

making requests? The purpose of the study is to answer the research questions referred to before and to measure the degree of Iranian and Turkish students’ awareness in making requests compared with the native speakers in using politeness strategies. This aim will be achieved through:

1. Analyzing the strategies of the Persian Learners of English (PLE ) in making requests, 2. Analyzing the strategies of the Turkish Learners of English (TLE ) in making requests, 3. Comparing both groups with each other and with native speakers’ realization of the same requests.

1.9 Hypotheses Based on the above mentioned research questions , five null hypotheses were formed as the following : 1.9.1. Hypothesis 1 There is no significant difference between the scores of students in using politeness strategies according to their majoring universities 1.9.2. Hypothesis 2 There is no significant difference between the scores of the first year students in using politeness strategies according to their majoring countries. 1.9.3. Hypothesis 3 There is no significant difference between the scores of the second year students in using politeness strategies according to their majoring universities. 1.9.4. Hypothesis 4 There is no significant difference between the scores of the third year students in using politeness strategies according to their majoring universities. 1.9.5. Hypothesis 5 There is no significant difference between the scores of the fourth year students in using politeness strategies according to their majoring universities. 2. Method 2.1 Setting In this research setting refers to two different Universities in Turkey and Iran: Gazi University in Turkey and Tabriz Azad University In Iran. In both institutions, four different grade levels of the English learners study English Language Teaching.. These four grade levels in both universities include: 1) 1st grade ELT students 2) 2nd grade ELT students




3) 3rd grade ELT students 4) 4th grade ELT students Tabriz Azad University, one of the famous universities in Iran, is situated in the province of East Azarbayjan in Iran and it includes degree programs in various fields of humanities and sciences. Gazi University one of the largest and oldest universities in Turkey, is located in Ankara, the capital city of Turkey. It also offers degree programs in various fields of humanities and sciences. 2.2 Participants All of the subjects involved in this research were chosen among from teachers of English and students of ELT programs. The subjects in this research are three groups: a) Native speakers of English b) Turkish ELT students in Turkey c) Iranian ELT students in Iran. 2.2.1 Native speakers The native speakers of English in this study included 15 people who teach English in various Turkish universities. 20 native speakers were aimed at initially, but it was difficult to realize this number; therefore 15 English – speaking teachers of English were given the questionnaire. They acted as judges to provide us with the set of the correct answers of the test so that we could evaluate Turkish and Iranian students’ proficiencies in politeness situations, in particular, in requests in various discoursed scripts. All of these 15 subjects were presented a questionnaire including 10 questions based on different situations. For each situation, 4 different alternatives were suggested and the role of the native speakers was to suggest which one could be the most or the least appropriate option in each situation. Their responses were considered as the main reference to evaluate the ELT students’ responses to the same questionnaires. 2.2.2 Turkish and Iranian Students To obtain reliable data in our study, it was thought that four different educational groups were to be given the same questionnaire. Each grade level group consisted of a 56 students. The number of the students who answered the questionnaire in some groups exceeded 56. To homogenize all groups the minimum number available was decided to be the base reference, which became 56. They were asked to choose the most and the least appropriate responses in 10 different scripts .Thus, 224 Turkish students in four different grade levels and the same number of Iranian students participated directly in this phase of the research. 2.3 Instrument The research based mainly on a questionnaire adapted from Olshtain and Blum-Kulka (1985), which was used by Irman (1996). This questionnaire included 10 questions based on ten different social scripts each emphasizing a particular request. All three groups in our research were asked to mark only two alternatives provided for each question, one as “the most polite” and the other as “the least polite”. 2.4 Procedure In April 2005, permission for conducting the questionnaire was requested from both Tabriz Azad University and Gazi University to introduce the questionnaires to the students in four different grade levels and to collect the data from them. The questionnaires were given to the instructors of each class and asked to give a short explanation about the nature of the research and to encourage students to read the questions carefully and provide their reasonable answers for the options put forward in alternatives. The data collection procedure lasted for a week and for some grade levels, more than 75 questionnaires were completed. Because the minimum number for questionnaire returns was 56, 56 was decided to be base number. Therefore, in each university the questionnaires of 224 students were taken into consideration. The analysis procedure consists of different steps. First, the native speaker’s responses were calculated. It followed a very simple procedure. By this I mean that first all of the responses for each situation, for example, situation one counted. In each situation the respondents should label alternative as the most polite and one as the least polite option. Therefore the similar and possibly different responses for situation one counted. For example, for situation one, 5 out of 15 respondents the native speakers-Labeled item ‘a’ as the most appropriate one and 10 of them labeled item ‘d’ as the most appropriate choice. In that case, item ‘d’ selected as the true response




because the majority of the native speakers believed in that one. The same procedure used for the least appropriate responses – as well. It was thought that if one item receives the equal answers or the difference would be just one – I mean 7 for item ‘a’ and 6 for item ‘b’, say, in that case both of them should be considered as the appropriate ones. The percentage of each items responses had to be calculated just to make it clear and illustrate it in a table. When this phase finished, then based on the native speakers preferences and their recognition, the Turkish and Iranian students’ responses could be counted. The procedure based on marking each situation individually and each situation valued four scores two for the true the most appropriate one and two for the least appropriate one. Then, each questionnaire could be scored ranged from zero to forty (10 situations and four score for each one). This procedure could be applied for all the four student groups participated in the research in both countries. The results of this evaluation could be realized and interpreted through the referred computerized program known as SPSS. The results and the evaluation of the scores will be appeared in the next section in detail. 3. Results This section presents the distribution of “L”(the least polite ) and “M” ( the most polite) responses for the options by the native participants , native participant’s final and correct responses to the presented situations , the number of participants means and T-scores of the results of the compared groups of subjects .Table 1 gives the distribution of “L” and “M” responses for the options by 15 native speakers .Tables 2 shows the correct answers of the test according to the responses of the native speakers . In situations 1, 8 and 10 , two correct answers are identified for the option “L” because two equal groups of native speakers or two equal groups with one difference chose two options as “L” .

Table 1. The Distribution of (Situations )”L” and ”M” Responses for the Options

Situation(S)

N a B c D 15 L M L M L M L M

S1 N 6 0 5 0 0 9 4 6 S2 N 0 2 10 0 1 12 4 1 S3 N 9 0 1 13 3 2 2 0 S4 N 8 0 0 2 3 10 4 3 S5 N 0 13 10 1 2 0 3 1 S6 N 5 2 6 0 2 3 2 10 S7 N 5 3 7 0 2 8 1 4 S8 N 5 1 5 1 2 10 3 3 S9 N 3 1 4 2 2 12 6 0

S10 N 5 1 5 1 4 2 1 11

Table 2. Native Participant’s Final and Correct responses to the Presented Situations

Correct “L” Responses Correct “M” Responses Situation 1 a ، b C Situation 2 B C Situation 3 A B Situation 4 A C Situation 5 B A Situation 6 B D Situation 7 B C Situation 8 a ، b C Situation 9 D C

Situation 10 a ، b D




The figures 1, 2 demonstrate that the total mean for English students in Gazi university is more and it has less distribution compared to Tabriz Azad university and also it follows a normal distribution that approximately 95% of the scores fall in 1.96 section, but the scores in the Tabriz Azad university are negatively skewed. In Gazi University most of the scores ranges from 65-75 while in Tabriz Azad university this range is different and varies from 55-65.

90.080.070.060.050.040.0

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

Std. Dev = 9.25

Mean = 65.1

N = 224.00

Figure 1. Total Score Distribution- Bell-Shaped Histogram of English Students in Gazi University

80.070.060.050.040.030.020.010.0

80

60

40

20

0

Std. Dev = 11.91

Mean = 58.9

N = 224.00

Figure 2. Total Score Distribution- Bell-Shaped Histogram of English Students in Tabriz Azad University.

3.1.1 Interpretation of the data In this section, first the research data is going to be dealt with and then based on the data the related hypotheses would be proved or rejected. 3.1.2 Evaluation specification One sample Kolmogorov- Smirnov test (Table 3) shows whether the data is normal to assign a statistical evaluation in order to prove or reject the hypotheses.




Table 3. One – sample Kolmogorov - Smirnov Test

The score of Turkish & Iranian university students in different classes

448 Number

Normal Parameters a,b 61.99 Mean 11.09 Std. Deviation .123 Absolute Most Extreme .076 Positive Differences -.123 Negative 2.606 Kolmogrov- Smirnov Z .000 Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)

a. Test distribution is Normal.

b. Calculated from data.

The table 3. shows that the related data for the variable in this research , including the data obtained from Gazi and Tabriz Azad university , students studying in four different years , follow a normal distribution .Hence , Parametric evaluation is used.

90.080.070.060.050.040.030.020.010.0

200

100

0

Std. Dev = 11.09 Mean = 62.0

N = 448.00

Figure 3. The scores of Tabriz Azad University and Gazi University students in four different levels

This figure shows the distribution of Tabriz Azad university and Gazi University students scores. 3.1.3 Hypotheses Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference between the scores of students in using politeness strategies according to their majoring universities.

Table 4. Descriptive Statistical Scores of the Students in Tabriz Azad and Gazi Universities

University N Mean Std.Deviation Std.Error Mean

Gazi Tabriz Azad

224 224

65.07 58.91

9.25 11.91

.62

.80

As the table shows the mean of the scores of students at Gazi university is (M= 65.07, SD=9.25) whereas, for Tabriz students is (M=58.91, SD=11.91). In order to find out whether there is a significant difference between the mean scores of the students in Tabriz Azad University and Gazi University, an independent sample T-test was run. (Table 5)




Table 5. Independent T scores for Tabriz Azad University and Gazi University students

t-test for Equality of Means

Levene's Test for

Equality of Variances 95% Confidence

Interval of the Difference

Std. Error Difference

Mean Difference

Sig. (2-tailed) df t Sig. F

Upper Lower

8.14 4.18 1.01 6.16 .000 446 6.113 .000 13.6 Equal variances assumed

Score

8.14 4.18 1.01 6.16 .000 42.02 6.113

Equal variances not assumed

Based on the table the variances of the two groups are equal .So, the results indicate a significant difference, t(6.113) = 446 , t(6.113) = 420.2 , p=0.000 between the mean scores of the students of two universities . The tables show that with 95% degree of confidence (P<0.05) there exists a significant statistical difference between Gazi students and Tabriz Azad university students. The tables show that Gazi students act better than Tabriz Azad university students in using politeness strategies. Therefore, the first hypothesis is rejected. Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference between the scores of the first year students in terms of being aware of politeness strategies according to their countries.

Table 6. Descriptive Statistical Scores of the first Year Students in Tabriz Azad University and Gazi Universities


Gazi

Tabriz Azad

56

56

63.48

61.07

8.58

11.97

1.15

1.60

Table 7. Independent T Scores for the Second Year Students in Tabriz Azad university and Gazi University

t-test for Equality of Means Levene's Test for Equality of Variances

95% Confidence Interval of the

Difference Std. Error Difference

Mean Difference


Upper Lower


Score

6.32 1.49 1.97 2.41 .224 99.677 1.225





Tables 6 and 7 indicate the comparison of the means of two groups. Group 1 displays Turkish students and Group 2 shows Iranian students. The mean obtained for the first year of Gazi students is (M=63.48, SD=8.58) while it is (M=61.07, SD=11.97) for Tabriz Azad university students. The mean difference between the two groups is 2.41 (p>0.05) and with 95% degree of confidence the tables show that there is not a meaningful difference between the two groups according to their majoring universities. So the hypothesis is accepted. Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference between the scores of the second year students in being aware of politeness strategies according to their universities.

Table 8. Descriptive Statistical Scores of the Second Year Students in Tabriz Azad university and Gazi University

University N Mean Std.Deviation Std.Error Mean Gazi Tabriz Azad

56 56

64.29 60.63

8.81 12.47

1.18 1.67

Table 9. Independent T Scores for the Second Year Students in Tabriz Azad university and Gazi University




Mean Difference


Upper Lower

7.70 .38 2.04 3.66 0.76 110 1.794 .167 1.934 Equal variances assumed

Score

7.71 .39 2.04 3.66 0.76 98.968 1.794


*p<0.05

The means of Turkish students in second year of majoring English at Gazi university is (M = 64.29, SD = 8.81) and for Iranian students at Tabriz Azad University the mean is (M = 60.63 , SD = 12.47) and the mean difference between these two groups is 3.66 (p> 0.50). The result with 95% degree of confidence displays there is not a significant difference between the second year English student’s scores of Gazi and Tabriz Azad universities. In other words, there is not a difference between second year English students at Gazi and Tabriz universities .So, the hypothesis is accepted. Hypothesis 4: There is no significant difference between the scores of the third year students in using politeness strategies according to their majoring universities.

Table 10. Descriptive Statistical Scores of the third Year Students in Tabriz Azad University and Gazi University

University N Mean Std.Deviation Std.Error Mean Gazi Tabriz Azad

56 56

66.34 56.43

10.72 11.67

1.43 1.56

As the Table 10 shows the means of the third year English students at Gazi university is) M = 66.34, SD = 10.72) and for Tabriz students in the same level is (M = 56.43, SD = 11.67).




The result with 95% degrees of confidence reveals that there is a significant difference between the third year English students in Gazi and Tabriz Azad universities and the mean is bigger for Turkish students than Iranian students so, The hypothesis is rejected. In order to find out whether there is a significant difference between the mean scores of the third year students in Tabriz Azad University and Gazi University, an independent sample T-test was run (Table 11).

Table 11. Independent T scores for the Third Year Students in Tabriz Azad University and Gazi University




Mean Difference


Upper Lower

14.11 5.71 2.12 9.91 .000 110 4.68 .520 .416 Equal variances assumed

Score

14.11 5.71 2.12 9.91 .000 109 4.68


Based on the table the variances of the two groups are equal, therefore, the equal variances assumed and the results indicate a significant difference, t(110) = 4.68 , P = .000 , between the mean scores of the students of two universities . Thus, the first null hypothesis is rejected. Hypothesis 5: There is no significant difference between the scores of the fourth year students in terms of being aware of politeness strategies according to their universities.

Table 12. Descriptive statistical scores of the fourth year students in Tabriz Azad University and Gazi University


Gazi

Tabriz Azad

56

56

66.16

57.50

8.63

11.16

1.15

1.49

Table 13. Independent T Scores for the Fourth Year Students in Tabriz Azad University and Gazi University




Mean Difference


Upper Lower


Score

12.40 4.92 1.89 8.66 .000 103.5 4.59


*p<0.05




Tables 12 and 13 show the fourth year English students’ scores in both countries. Group 1 displays Gazi students’ scores and group 2 shows the scorers of Tabriz Azad University students .The means of Turkish students( M = 66.16, SD = 8.63)and for Iranian students this mean is( M = 57.50 , SD = 11.16) and the mean difference between these two groups is 8.66 and p<0.05. The result with 95% degree of confidence shows that a there is a significant difference between the means of the fourth year students’ scores at Gazi and Tabriz universities The scores obtained by Gazi students are better than Tabriz students’ scores. Based on the result , there is a significant difference between these two groups and the hypothesis is rejected. 4. Discussion The research is completely based on the assumptions put forward by Brown & Levinson (1987) who believe there exists common rules in using politeness strategies among different cultures. The present research has tried to investigate the feasibility of such an assumption through a cross-cultural analysis of the students who learn a second language in the relatively same levels in two different countries. Apparently, the issue of politeness covers a wide range of topics which investigating all of them seem impossible and improper. Hence, the present research has tried to probe just an element of a very broad domain – requests. Realizing the importance and necessity of limiting the realm, the research has adopted the measurement tool used by Kulkand Olshtain (1985) collecting information from native speakers through devising a questionnaire including various social scripts which the natives should mark the most appropriate and the least appropriate responses, a model was achieved and the mean of all responses calculated for each individual item. The most appropriate and the least appropriate utterances became clear and the next step was to apply the findings to our own cross-cultural investigation. The exact purpose of the study has been to investigate 1) any possible differences between the foreign language learners in two relatively different cultures – Iran and Turkey. To provide a valid and reliable answer to these research questions, four groups of learners in each country were selected. These four groups were students who study English in the first to the fourth year of majoring English in their English faculties in their home countries. Five hypotheses according to the research questions appeared. 5. Conclusion and Implications The results of the research shows that some universal correlations exist in using politeness strategies The analysis of the results in each two groups revealed the fact that there was not any significant gap between the four-group students in each university. The results show that there is a consistency in each group students’ results. The cross-cultural analysis of the Gazi and Tabriz Azad universities, on the other hand, revealed that in some cases there is a significant difference between these two compared groups and the difference is statistically significant. Therefore, it can be suggested that a same request in two different languages could be observed differently and the difference does not have any relation to the language, rather to the background knowledge and the schema theory. The results show that each group perceives the politeness according to their own cultural preferences. The implication based on this assumption can claim that politeness is a cultural and social concept and should not be mixed merely to linguistic knowledge .The finding have remarkable implications for language teaching .knowing that appropriate use of politeness can prevent serious misunderstandings between the speakers، language teachers should be aware of the necessity of sociolinguistic information in language instruction and they should be concerned with how to teach such pieces of pragmatic information. Those who are interested in this field can investigate the issue of politeness and particularly requests through recording subjects responses authentically. By this I mean that, they can mantle cameras in some classes and through camera observation record the subjects responses to some stimulations that are planned through some role plays. Through the role plays and the way subjects react to those pre-decided situations, the possible different forms of responses can be recorded and later analyzed through the strategies suggested by Brown and Levinson (1987). References Austin, J.L. (1962). How To Do Things With Words. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Brown, P. and Levinson, S. (1978). Universals in language usage: Politeness phenomena. In E. Goody (ed.) Questions and politeness: Strategies in Social Interaction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 56-311.




Blum-Kulka, S. and Olshtain, E. (1985). Requests and apologies: a cross- cultural study of speech act realization patterns (CCSARP). Applied linguistic 5(3): 146-212. Drossou, M. (1985). Requests in English and in Greek. MA dissertation, University of York. Fukada, A. and Asto, N. (2004). Universal politeness theory: application to the use of Japanese honorifics. Journal of Pragmatics 36, 1991-2002. Goffman, E.(1967) Interaction ritual : essays on face to face behavior. Garden City, New York Haverkate, H. (1979). Impositive sentence in Spanish: theory and description in pragmatics. Amsterdam. İrman, İ. (1996). An Evaluation of the Communicative Success of Turkish EFL Learners in Utilizing Politeness Strategies in Requests. Ingilizce' yi Yabancı Dil Olarak Öğrenen Türk Öğrenecilerin Ingilizce' deki Ricalardaki kibarlık Stratejilerini Kullanmalarındaki Iletişimsel Başarılarının Değerlendirilmesi. Unpublished Master's Thesis. Eskisehir, Anadolu University. Lakoff, R. (2001). The logic of politeness: or minding your p’s and q’s. Proceedings of the Ninth Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society, pp. 292-305. Leech, G. N. (1983). Principles of Pragmatics. London. Nevala, M. (2004). Accessing politeness exes: forms of address and terms of reference in early English correspondence. Journal of Pragmatics, 36 (2004) 2125-2160. Searle, J.R. (1965). What is a speech act? In: Black, M. 9ed.), Philosophy in America. Routledge, London. Searle, J.R. (1979). Expression and Meaning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Searle, J. R. (1969). Speech Acts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Thomas, J.(1995).The language of power: towards a dynamic pragmatics, Journal of pragmatics.9(6): 199-216 Walters, J. (1979). Strategies for requesting in Spanish and English: Structural similarities and pragmatic differences. Language Learning 29(2): 277-94. APPENDIX 1 The Original Questionnaire Adapted From Olshtain and Blum- Kulka, Used by Irman (1996). A QUESTIONNAIRE ON POLITENESS STATEGIES USED IN REQUESTS A. Age: B. Sex: C. Nationality: Each of the following situations describes an event which might easily take place in reality. The situation is followed by four different sentences. Please rate each sentence on a scale as being: 1= appropriate 2= more or less appropriate 3= not appropriate (You may use 1, 2, or 3 for more than one option.) SITUATION 1 You are a bank officer and you realize that an old man is not in line. You ask him to get in line. ( ) a. Please get in line, sir. ( ) b. why don’t you get in line, sir? ( ) c. Could you please get in line, sir. ( ) d. Sir, we ask that all our customers use the line. SITUATION 2 You are trying to study. Your roommate who is about your age is playing his/her music tapes very loudly. You ask him/her to turn it down. ( ) a. Turn it down, please. ( ) b. We’re gonna go deaf. ( ) c. Can you turn the music down? ( ) d. Do me a favor and turn it down. SITUATION 3 You are attending the first lesson of a new course. The classroom is very hot. The professor is standing near the window. You ask him to open it.




( ) a. Do me a favor and open the window, sir. ( ) b. Could you please open the window sir? ( ) c. Open the window, please. ( ) d. Isn’t it hot in here, sir? SITUATION 4 You are in a pastry shop. You ask the shop assistant who is younger than you to give you the big chocolate cake in the front window. ( ) a. Any chance of giving me this one? ( ) b. I prefer chocolate cake. ( ) c. Excuse me, could you give me this one? ( ) d. Give me this one, please. SITUATION 5 You are in the dean’s office. You ask him to write a letter of recommendation which you need to be eligible for a scholarship. ( ) a. Excuse me, would it be possible for you to write a letter of recommendation for me? ( ) b. Why don’t you write a letter of recommendation for me sir? ( ) c. I urgently need a letter of recommendation. ( ) d. Sir, write a letter of recommendation for me, please. SITUATION 6 When talking about literature with your friend who is about your age, you have discovered that s/he has a book you would like to have, but couldn’t find in any stores. You ask him/her to lend it to you. ( ) a. Lend me that book, please. ( ) b. Why don’t you lend it to me? ( ) c. I have been looking for this book for ages. ( ) d. Can you lend me that book? SITUATION 7 You are a receptionist in a hotel. You ask a customer who is younger than you to leave the key before leaving the hotel. ( ) a. Leave the key, please. ( ) b. Why don’t you leave the key? ( ) c. We ask that all our guests leave their keys with us before leaving the hotel. ( ) d. Could you please leave key? SITUATION 8 You are at home preparing to have your dinner. You realize that there isn't any bread at home. You call the doorman's son and want him to buy a loaf of bread. ( ) a. I need a loaf of bread ( ) b. Get me a loaf of bread, Please. ( ) c. Can you get me a loaf of bread? ( ) d. Do me a favor and get a loaf of bread. SITUATION 9 Your are a student. A research assistant who is younger than you gives you a lift downtown. You ask him to drop you off somewhere near the post office. ( ) a. Why don’t you drop me off somewhere near the post office? ( ) b. Drop me off somewhere near the post office, please. ( ) c. Could you drop me off somewhere near the post office? ( ) d. A-ha! Here is the post office. SITUATION 10 You are in the canteen with your friend and you ask the man who is older than you to serve you two cups of coffee. ( ) a. Give us two cups of coffee, please. ( ) b. Why don’t you give us two cups of coffee? ( ) c. Is the coffee fresh? ( ) d. Can you give us two cups of coffee?




APPENDIX 2 The Modified Questionnaire Given to English Native Speakers inTurkey and Students of ELT Departments in Gazi University and Tabriz Azad University A Test on Politeness Strategies Used in Requests Each situation below describes an event which might easily take place in daily life. Each situation is followed by four different utterances. Please: - Put ( M ) in the parenthesis before the utterance you think is THE MOST POLITE, and - Put ( L ) in the parenthesis before the utterance you think is THE LEAST POLITE. SITUATION 1 You are a bank teller and you realize that an old man is not in line. You ask him to get in line. ( ) a. Please get in line, sir. ( ) b. why don’t you get in line, sir? ( ) c. Could you please get in line, sir. ( ) d, Sir, we ask that all our customers use the line. SITUATION 2 You are trying to study. Your roommate who is about your age is playing his/her music tapes very loudly. You ask him/her to turn it down. ( ) a. Turn it down, please. ( ) b. We’re gonna go deaf. ( ) c. Can you turn the music down? ( ) d. Do me a favor and turn it down. SITUATION 3 You are attending the first lesson of a new course. The classroom is very hot. The professor is standing near the window. You ask him to open it. ( ) a. Do me a favor and open the window, sir. ( ) b. Could you please open the window sir? ( ) c. Open the window, please. ( ) d. Isn’t it hot in here, sir? SITUATION 4 You are in a pastry shop. You ask the shop assistant who is younger than you to give you the big chocolate cake in the front window. ( ) a. Any chance of giving me this one? ( ) b. I prefer chocolate cake. ( ) c. Excuse me, could you give me this one? ( ) d. Give me this one, please. SITUATION 5 You are in the dean’s office. You ask him to write a letter of recommendation which you need to be eligible for a scholarship. ( ) a. Excuse me, would it be possible for you to write a letter of recommendation for me? ( ) b. Why don’t you write a letter of recommendation for me sir? ( ) c. I urgently need a letter of recommendation. ( ) d. Sir, write a letter of recommendation for me, please.




SITUATION 6 When talking about literature with your friend who is about your age, you have discovered that s/he has a book you would like to have, but couldn’t find in any stores. You ask him/her to lend it to you. ( ) a. Lend me that book, please. ( ) b. Why don’t you lend it to me? ( ) c. I have been looking for this book for ages. ( ) d. Can you lend me that book? SITUATION 7 You are a receptionist in a hotel. You ask a customer who is younger than you to leave the key before leaving the hotel. ( ) a. Leave the key, please. ( ) b. Why don’t you leave the key? ( ) c. We ask that all our guests leave their keys with us before leaving the hotel. ( ) d. Could you please leave key? SITUATION 8 The person next to you has just finished reading a newspaper you are interested in. You request his to give it to you. ( ) a. would it be all right if I ask you to give me your newspaper? ( ) b. Can you give me your newspaper, please? ( ) c. why don’t you give me your newspaper? ( ) d. Is it ll right if I ask you to give me hour newspaper. SITUATION 9 Your are a student. A research assistant who is younger than you gives you a lift downtown. You ask him to drop you off somewhere near the post office. ( ) a. Why don’t you drop me off somewhere near the post office? ( ) b. Drop me off somewhere near the post office, please. ( ) c. Could you drop me off somewhere near the post office? ( ) d. A-ha! Here is the post office. SITUATION 10 You are in the canteen with you friend and you ask the man who is older than you to serve you two cups of coffee. ( ) a. Give us two cups of coffee, please. ( ) b. Why don’t you give us two cups of coffee? ( ) c. Is the coffee fresh? ( ) d. Can you give us two cups of coffee?




Some Major Steps to Translation and Translator Mohammad Reza Hojat Shamami (PhD student of English Translation)

National Academy of Sciences, Armenia Tel: 0037498823592 E-mail: [email protected]

Received: 31-07- 2012 Accepted: 31-08- 2012 Published: 03-09- 2012 doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.242 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.242 Abstract This work is an overview of the main issues at the core of theorizing translation practice and the features of a good translator or how to be a good translator and of course what are the Skills to become a Freelance Translator and Translation process. In this world of science and technology there is knowledge explosion every day. This knowledge which is generally written in the English language needs to be transmitted in various languages so that people who do not know how to speak and write the original language can get the knowledge necessary for industrial development and technological innovation to keep up with the rest of the world. To transmit this knowledge effectively, there is a need for competent translators in various languages. Keywords: Translation, Translator, SL, Accommodation, Text 1. Introduction These days, people all across the globe generally believe that translation is just the involuntary substitution of languages, and therefore anybody can be a translator if she or he knows a foreign language. This perception is completely wrong, just having a good knowledge of foreign languages does not give any 100% assurance that a translation will be rendered reasonably well. In simple words translation requires skill to make the right and good analysis of the meaning in the target language (Steiner, 1975). Moreover, a translator must be aware of the essence of the subject besides having a fine awareness of the language, including language rules, and spelling rules. However, as the world is getting more globalize, in the past couple of years we are coming across the greatest challenge of text conversion and that is how to find the proper equilibrium between conveying the sense and beauty of the initial text and making the target conversion more efficient and effective. Only talented translators are competent of finding this sense of balance. So having a superior knowledge of the translation subject is just a part of the translation process (Richard, 1953). 2. Significance of the Research It is through translation we know about all the developments in communication and Technology and keep abreast of the latest discoveries in the various fields of knowledge, and also have access through translation to the literature of several languages and to the different events happening in the world. India has had close links with ancient civilizations such as Persian, Greek, Egyptian and Chinese. This interactive relationship would have been impossible without the knowledge of the various languages spoken by the different communities and nations. This is how human beings realized the importance of translation long ago. Needless to mention here that the relevance and importance of translation has increased greatly in today's fast changing world. Today with the growing zest for knowledge in human minds there is a great need of translation in the fields of education, science and technology, mass communication, trade and business, literature, religion, tourism, etc (Gilson, 1977 ). Broadly speaking, translation turns a text of source language (SL) into a correct and understandable version of target language (TL) without losing the suggestion of the original(Fillmore, 1986). Many people think that being bilingual is all that is needed to be a translator. Being bilingual is an important prerequisite, no doubt, but translation skills are built and developed on the basis of one's own long drawn-out communicative and writing experiences in both the languages. As a matter of fact translation is a process based on the theory of extracting the meaning of a text from its present form and reproduces that with different form of a second language. Conventionally, it is suggested that translators should meet three requirements, namely, 1)Familiarity with the source language, 2) Familiarity with the target language, and 3) Familiarity with the subject matter to perform the job successfully. Based on this concept, the translator discovers the meaning behind the forms in the source




language (SL) and does his best to reproduce the same meaning in the target language (TL) using the TL forms and structures to the best of his knowledge(Holt, 1986). Naturally and supposedly what changes is the form and the code and what should remain unchanged is the meaning and the message Larson, Therefore, one may discern the most common definition of translation, i.e., the selection of the nearest equivalent for a language unit in the SL in a target language. Computers are already being used to translate one language into another, but humans are still involved in the process either through pre-writing or post-editing. There is no way that a computer can ever be able to translate languages the way a human being could since language uses metaphor/imagery to convey a particular meaning. Translating is more than simply looking up a few words in a dictionary (Wittgensteinl, 1953). A quality translation requires a thorough knowledge of both the source language and the target language. Successful translation is indicative of how closely it lives up to the expectations as: reproducing exactly as for as possible the meaning of the source text, using natural forms of the receptor/target language in such a way as is appropriate to the kind of text being translated and expressing all aspects of the meaning closely and readily understandable to the intended audience/reader. Technically, translation is a process to abstract the meaning of a text from its current forms and reproduce that meaning in different forms of another language. In fact, for a translator knowledge of two or more languages is essential. This involves not only a working knowledge of two different languages but also the knowledge of two linguistic systems as also their literature and culture. Such translators have been seen to possess various qualities which we shall briefly discuss later. Linguistically, translation consists of studying the lexicon, grammatical structure, communication situation, and cultural context of the source language and its text, analyzing it in order to determine its meaning, and then reconstructing the same meaning using the lexicon and grammatical structure which are appropriate in the target language and its cultural context (Dollerrup, 1992). 3. Overview of the Research In practice, there is always considerable variation in the types of translations produced by various translators of a particular text. This is because translation is essentially an Art and not Science. So many factors including proficiency in language, cultural background, writing flair, etc. Translation turns a communication in one language into a correct and understandable version of that communication in another language. Sometimes a translator has to take certain liberties with the original text in order to re-create the mood and style of the original. This, in other words is called 'accommodation. This has three dimensions: cultural accommodation; collocation accommodation; ideological accommodation; and aesthetic accommodation. Accommodation is considered a synonym of adaptation which means changes are made so the target text produced is in line with the spirit of the original. Translation is not merely linguistic conversion or transformation between languages but it involves accommodation in scope of culture, politics, aesthetics, and many other factors (Nida, 1969). A translator does need certain tools to help him out in moments of difficulty. These tools can be in the form of good monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, encyclopedias, e-dictionaries, glossaries of technical and standard works, etc. pertaining to the SL text. He must have patience and should not be in a hurry to rush through while translating any text. He should not hesitate in discussing with others the problems that he may come across. Moreover, he should not shy away from conducting micro-research in order to arrive at proper and apt equivalents. In short, he should be a competent and proficient bilingual, familiar with the subject/area of the SL text chosen for translation. He should never try to insert his own ideas or personal impressions in the TL text. His objective should be to convey the content and the intent of the SL text as exactly as possible into the TL text. The job of a translator is very rewarding and intellectually stimulating finally, a few words (based upon my close understanding about translation study and activity) for up-coming translators and translation-lovers (Labov, 1972). To translate from one language into another has never been an easy endeavor. It is an exercise both painstaking and cumbersome and only those who have engaged themselves with translation work can realize the complex character of this Art. I have been associated with translation work for over three decades translating from English, more especially, from Kashmiri/Urdu into Hindi and back (Di Petro, 1968). 4. Statement of the Problem Focusing on this fact, (Chomsky, 1965) how can someone turn into a good translator? If you are serious about becoming a successful translator, you must be able to fulfill or follow the following criteria: 1. The first and most important step is reading of different translations of different types of texts. An effective translating requires first-class knowledge, so approachable skills should be developed before performing any text conversion. An excellent translator has a complete knowledge of both source and target speech, so you must




understand the diverse genres in both source and target verbal communication. It helps in improving reading aptitude in general, and gives insights, which can be subconsciously useful. 2. The second most vital talent required is the potential to write appropriately in both source and target languages. Writing is the chief work of a text converter. You should be well aware of different styles of writing and morals of editing in both source and target language. Factors like editing and proper punctuation usage increase the value and readability of the translation. 3. You should have listening ability to understand and alertness to grasp various expressions, idioms, and specific vocabulary and their uses. This talent is like an intuition and can't be developed easily, so to a certain extent it requires regular practice. Language intuition is like a necessity for all those who want to be proficient translators. 4. The act of translating is like accepting the significance of the source text within the framework of the source-language discourse. Now in order to enlarge this understanding, you must make yourself aware with cultural divergence and the diverse strategies present in the source and target verbal communication. 5. You should also be well aware of diverse registers, styles of speaking, and social stratification of both source and target languages. This socio-cultural awareness helps in improving the quality of translations to a large level. It is very important to understand that the work of translating takes place in the socio-cultural framework; as a result it is very vital to evaluate translating activity only within a social perspective. 6. In order to develop excellent translation proficiency, you have to become yourself attentive of different knowledge-providing sources like bilingual dictionaries, encyclopedias and learn how to utilize them. Now using dictionaries requires a very technical proficiency. Words have diverse meanings in different circumstance, and therefore you have to perform a repetitive exercise to know the projected meaning of words in a specific situation. 7. In addition to this you should know the sentence structure of indirect speech and different figures of speech in the source language like hyperbole, irony, and meiosis. Having detail knowledge of these figures of speech will further help in changing your flaccid knowledge into active talent. 5. Objectives and Purposes of Research It is important that translators are familiar with the product they are translating and also with the tools they are using. The translation process is not the replacement of one word with another, but the formation of concepts in another language. Knowledge of the product being translated provides more understandable products to the end user. Time and resources for educating translators should be planned well in advance. 6. Methodology Provide the translators with tools that increase productivity and that prevent translation of non-textual application data. When purchasing or developing a translation tool, the following features should be included. An editor that provides the ability to show displays that would be seen by the end user, and the ability to translate the textual data on the system but still protect the parts of the application that are not textual data. The editor should also include functions such as scan and replace, find, copy, move, and delete. A dictionary functions to provide consistency of words and phrases throughout the product. A validation process to check translation errors that might cause the application to malfunction. A merge function that provides the ability to merge the translated text into a new version of the original text. This merge function allows for translating only new text, and saves time and effort. A print function for validation purposes (Cau Simon, 1983). 7. Literature Review/Research Background

The Asian languages, particularly Persia, Japanese, Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese, represent a significant part of the translation industry in the United States, especially on the West Coast(Antal, 1963). Some agencies specialize in only Asian languages or even just one or two of them. Still others make the brunt of their money from these languages. First, a brief clarification. Although Asia certainly includes India, Nepal, Tibet, Sri Lanka, as well as Malaysia, Indonesia, Australia, New Zealand and numerous other fascinating and important nations, this article will address only those languages which fall in the Sino group (Chinese, Vietnamese, Khmer, Burmese, Thai, Laotian, etc.) or the Altaic group (Korean and Japanese; Turkish is omitted for geographical reasons)( Benjamin, 1992). Apologies to the numerous other languages of the region, but they come from different families and are not relevant to this discussion. For convenience, I'll refer to the above languages as the Asian languages. Please also note that when I refer to European languages, I mean (Bloomfield, 1993) those members of the Romance, Germanic, or Baltic-Slavic families. This excludes Basque, Hungarian, and Finnish, whose origins have nothing to do with PIE (Proto Indo-European).




Modern Asian languages are much older than most modern Indo-European languages. French, Spanish and the other Romance languages all find their origins in Latin. English, German, and the other Germanic languages find their origins in Proto-Germanic (Brower, 1959). Baltic-Slavic is the original form of the current Baltic languages and Slavic tongues which include Russian and others. Note that all the proto-forms of these languages date from roughly 100-200 C.E., or even more recent. Asian languages lack much of the linguistic equipment we take for granted in an Indo-European tongue (Benjamin, 1992). For instance, neither Japanese nor Chinese distinguish the singular or plural unless absolutely necessary, they have no verb tenses as we are used to them in say French or Russian, no gender, cases, articles, or declensions as we know them in English, Spanish, or German(Antal, 1963) . Asian languages also lack verb tenses as we think of them in English. At best, Japanese has a perfect and imperfect tense. For instance, we cannot say, "The Bridge collapsed tomorrow," in English (if you're wondering why we would need to say this, recall the collapse of a bridge in Seoul, Korea. I heard about this event only one hour after it happened, around 3:00 p.m. in California. Thus, it was already tomorrow in Korea, requiring me to answer the question "When did it happen?" with the statement, "The Bridge collapsed tomorrow."). In Japanese, there is no such problem. Because the event is complete, the perfect tense is used and an adverb of time indicating tomorrow is added (Brislin, 1976). Moreover, Japanese (along with Korean) can omit virtually everything from a sentence which is not vital. The subject is rarely expressed in a sentence (and unlike Spanish, is not specified by the verb conjugation because there is none). Objects are often dropped. In its conversational form, many Japanese statements consist of nothing more than an adverb or adjective plus a verb (making eavesdropping somewhat more difficult than it is in English).Not only do these languages differ vastly from English,( Creas, 1997) but the cultural and historical backgrounds do as well. Virtually all European languages can trace at least some of their history through the Roman Empire and back to the ancient Greeks. The Asian languages find much of their cultural heritage in ancient Chinese history and philosophy, but are also influenced by many other sources, including Buddhism (Dollerrup, 1992). If you're translating into an Asian language, you have to deal with a major technical issue. Unlike the European languages which have agreed to use ASCII as the standard way of expressing the Roman alphabet (and recall that Spanish made an official modification a few years ago to accommodate this, and Germany did the same more recently), there is as yet no general agreement about how to deal with the so-called two-byte languages (which include most of the Asian languages, plus some others). You have probably been wondering how you look up a Chinese character in a dictionary. It depends. If you know the pronunciation, you might peruse that section of the dictionary and scan for it. This can take considerable time, but it is often faster than looking up the character in a character dictionary (Brislin, 1976). This leads to another problem. While there are reasonably good if not excellent specialized dictionaries for the European languages, there are few if any for the Asian languages. So when Asian language translators take more time to deal with terminological issues, this is part of the reason. And for lack of good, current reference materials, many Chinese translators have to struggle with this issue and use what they know to be outdated or overly generic terminology simply because they can do no better. This is neither an apology nor a defense, just a statement of fact (Abangma, 1987). Translators of Asian languages live in a world of logistical nightmares compared to their European counterparts. And, the nightmare only gets worse when we consider the technology (Anderson, 1971). 8. Results and Discussions All above-mentioned cases illustrate a remarkable and rich history of translation and major changes it caused in the history of our beloved country, Iran. Finally, we should know that it takes much more to be a good and skilled translator. Talented translators are not made overnight, it definitely requires a significant investment in both source and target speech. For every talented text (Benjamin, 1992) converter, switching simultaneously between two universes is one of the most demanding tasks lot of training, learning, and experience are needed to turn someone into a good translator. When engaging translators for your work, be sure to give them a detailed briefing on the work to be done (Brower, 1956). This will help minimize any misunderstanding and make the process more efficient. As professional translators we are supposed to improve our quality all the time. This is done to make our translations perfect and gaps between one source language to one target language can be minimized. In this case, we are supposed to watch over the key differences of the language pairs we are handling. The first noteworthy conclusion we can draw from this paper is that translation is teachable because, on the one hand, it is a craft and consequently teachable as are other crafts; on the other hand, it is closely related to teaching language itself, although it is vital to make a distinction between the two. Another important point is that those engaged in teaching translation to students who are learning the target language along with translation should be aware that they are




teaching two different things at the same time and that they should use a congruent eclectic method applicable to both. Believing that translation is a teachable craft they should help their students get an insight into the nature of translation and recognize that it is vital for them to pay attention to translation theories while honing their translation and language skills (Cau Simon, 1983). They should also be aware that ignoring the above-mentioned points leads to students' confusion, lack of motivation, and loss of interest in the curriculum. 9. Conclusion In short, translation has a very wide and rich history in West. Since its birth, translation was the subject of variety of research and conflicts between theorists (Richard, 1953). Each theorist approaches it according to his viewpoint and field of research, the fact that gives its history a changing quality. It can also be concluded that translation process in Iran has been applied extensively since time immemorial to transfer the knowledge of varied scientific disciplines and literature from other languages into Persian and vice versa. The process made it possible for scientists and scholars to take advantage of scientific achievement of other nations in different areas. Within a specified period of time, translators of Iran used translation to expand and introduce Iranian culture, art and ideology to other nations. Finally, translation has been not only a means of preserving Iranian historical, scientific and cultural inheritance left from the distant past which was in danger of destruction as a result of invasion and war but also, translation from other languages has led to literary and political revolutions in Iran especially, in late nineteenth and the beginning of twentieth century. References Abangma, S.N. (1987). Modes in Denya Discourse. Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics: Dallas. 279P. Anderson, J. M. (1971). The Grammar of Case. Towards a Localistic Theory. Cambridge: University Press. 219p. Antal, L. (1963). Interpretation and Transformation. Linguistics. NY: University Press. Ballard, D. (1971).The Deep and Surface structure Grammar of interclausal Relations. Dordrecht.Holland.118p. Benjamin, W (1992). The Task of the Translator, Illuminations. Harry Zohn.Fontana. Bloomfield, L. (1993). Language and Translation. New York: Henry Holt and Co. Brislin, R. W. (1976). Back translation for cross – cultural research. New York: Garden Press.216P. Brower, R. A. (1959). On Translation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bunkowske, E. W. (1956). Religious Words! Which and Where? The Bible Translator. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 231P. Cau, S. C. ( 1983). The Nature and Limitations of Shakespeare translation. New York: Academic Press. Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Crease, R. (1997). Hermeneutics and the Natural Sciences. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Crystal, D. (1973). Current Trends in translation Theory. The Bible Translator. Prague. Academia publishing House. 329P. Di, P. (1968). Contrastive Analysis and the Notions of Deep and Surface Structure. Washington. DC. Dollerrup, C. (1992). Teaching Translation and Interpretation. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. John Benjamin Publishing Company. Fillmore, C. J. (1986). The Case of Case. Universals in Linguistic Theory. New York. Holt Rinehart and Winston. Gilson, P. (1997). Image and Logic. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. Labov, W. (1972). Sociolinguistic Patterns. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 344P. Nida, E. A. (1969). Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden. Brill. 218 p. Richard, A. (1953). Toward a Theory of Translating Studies in Chinese Thought. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 262P. Steiner, G. (1975). After Babel aspects of Language and Translation. London: Oxford University Press. 507P. Wittgensteinl, P. (1953). New York. Macmillan. Oxford. Blackwell. 232P.




The Role of Meaning in Translation of Different Subjects Mohammad Reza Hojat Shamami (PhD student of English Translation)

National Academy of Sciences, Armenia Tel: 0037498823592 E-mail: [email protected]

Received: 31-07- 2012 Accepted: 31-08- 2012 Published: 03-09- 2012 doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.247 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.247 Abstract This work is an important consideration of the main issues at the core of meaning and the features of its process. We have seen that even within a single language there are a great variety of ways in which form expresses meaning. Only when a form is being used in its primary meaning or function is there a one – to one correlation between form and meaning each language has its own distinctive forms of representing the meaning. Therefore, in translation the same meaning may have to be expressed in another language by a very different form. To translate the form of one language literally according to the corresponding form in another language would often change the meaning, or at least result in a form which is unnatural in the second language. Meaning must, therefore have priority over form in translation. It is meaning which are to be the linguistic forms. Keywords: Meanings, Antonyms, Reciprocal words, Support Relations 1. Introduction However, as our world is getting more globalize, in the past couple of years we are observing the greatest challenge of text conversion and that is how to find the proper equilibrium between conveying the sense and beauty of the initial text and making the target conversion more efficient and effective(Anderson, 1971). Unless the source language and the receptor language are closely related languages, from the same language family, it is not likely that and the translation. The nature of language is that each language uses different forms and these forms have secondary and figurative meanings which add further complications. A ''Word – for – word'' translation which follows closely the form of the source language is called a structure of the source text as in an interlinear translation, but a literal translation does not communicate the meaning of the source text (Benjamin, 1989). It is generally no more than a sting of words intended to help someone read a text in its original language. It is unnatural and hard to understand, and may even be quite meaningless, or give a wrong meaning in there receptor language. It can hardly be called a translation (Biguenet, 1989). 2. Significance of the Research It is through the meaning we can claim about all the developments in all kinds of texts and keep abreast of the latest discoveries in the various fields of knowledge, and also have obtain through meaning to the literature of several languages and to the different events happening in the world (Bollinger,1977). This interactive relationship would have been impossible without the knowledge of the various languages spoken by the different communities and nations. This is how human beings realized the importance of meaning in different languages long ago (Brower, 1959). 3. Kinds of Meaning People usually think of meaning as something to which a word or sentence refers. For example, the word apple refers to the fruit produced by a certain tree (Catford, 1965). People know the meaning of apple because they have seen an apple and learned to call it apple. This kind of meaning is called Referential meaning because the word refers to a certain thing, event, attribution, or relation which person can perceive or imagine. A sentence has meaning because it refers to something that happened, or may happen, or is imagined as happening. Referential meaning because the word refers to a certain thing event, attribution, or relation which a person can perceive or imagine. A sentence has meaning because it refers to something that happened, or may happen or is imagined as happening. Referential meaning is what the communication is a bout. It is the information content (Chafe, 1970). The Referential meaning is organized into a semantic structure. The information bits are'' packaged '' that is, they are put together and expressed by a variety of combinations. As they are '' packaged '' into larger and larger units




there is Organizational meaning in the discourse which must also be taken into account in the translation. may be the topic be old information, some new certain information may be the topic (what is being talked about) of the discourse, other information commenting on the topic, and some information may be more central to the message, that is more important or more prominent (Gumperz, 1982). The two propositions Mary peeled an apple and Mary ate an apple include Mary as the agent and Apple as the affected in both propositions. Mary and Apple are both referred to twice (Referential meaning). But in order to form a correct grammatical structure, we must also know if the Organizational meaning includes the fact that there is only one Mary and only one Apple or if there are two Marys or two Apples. If they are the same, the surface structure in English would be a form like Mary peeled an apple. And then she ate it. After the first proposition is given. Mary and Apple are both old information and so pronominal forms are used (Fleming, 1972). Where the communication takes place, when it takes place, the age, sex, and social status of the speaker and hearer, the relationship between them the presuppositions that each brings to the communication, the cultural background of the speaker and the addressee, and many other situational matters result in Situational meaning. For example, they very same person may be referred to by various lexical items. A man named John Smith may be referred to as John Mr. Smith, Professor Smith, etc. depending on the situation. This choice carries Situational meaning. It may indicate whether the situation is formal or informal. A friend who fevers to him as John as he greets him in the morning may later in the day call him Professor Smith when introducing him at a university seminar. Different lexical forms will be chosen to indicate Situational meaning (Cook, 1971). 3.1 Implicit Referential Meaning All language has grammatical form which is obligatory but languages differ in what is obligatory. For example, in English, it is obligatory to make explicit whether a noun is singular or plural. One cannot say, ''I saw dog walking down street. '' One must say ''I saw some dogs walking down the street.''. Or ''I saw a dog walking down the street. '' Number must be made explicit in English, but in many languages it can be left implicit. Nouns which refer to events contain implicit information. Since a noun form is used, there is no indication of who the agent and affected are. The sentence '' Help will come '' has no subject or object verbs to describe this event , the subject and object would need to be supplied, that is a form something like the following: Someone will come and he they will help us (Austin, 1962) . 3.2 Implicit information and Organizational Meaning A text is a unit. It is organized in some logical way. It is characterized by cohesion, continuity, grouping and patterns of prominence, there is a flow of old and new information redundancy which helps signal the unity and various ways to indicate the topic or theme of the text but languages differ in how these matters are indicated. One language may use pronominal forms a great deal and another may have an abundance of pro – verbal forms. One may have clear markers of which events make up the backbone of the story. Another may rely on chronological order (Austin, 1962). 3.3 Implicit Situational Meaning Information which is left implicit when talking to one person might be made explicit when talking to another. A woman might say to her husband, ''Peter is sick. '' In reporting the same information to the doctor she would say, ''My son Peter is sick. '' Or ''My son is sick''. The information may son was not needed to identify Peter when talking to her husband who knew very well who Peter was. Often in normal conversation, there is much which is going on in the situation which makes it possible to understand exactly what is meant without using many words. For example, a mother , seeing her child about to put his hand in the fire, cries out , ''No '' The child understands the message, ''Don't put your hand in the fire'' All of this information is carried by one word ''No '' might mean something very different, as when used to answer the question, Did you go to town today? In that case, the implied information is not found in the situation but in the question which had been asked, that is, in the linguistic context. It is quite possible for person from one culture to read a story written about a happening in another culture and not understand the story at all because so much information is left implicit. The story teller had not made this information explicit because everyone in the culture knew who did what at the festival he was describing. The language structure did not make it necessary to include this information, and since the common culture supplied it to his audience, it was left implicit. However, a translation into Portuguese required that the information be made explicit if the story was to be understood. In order to adequately determine the meaning of the text, one must know the situational setting of the communication (Ahrens, 1971).




One of the challenges facing a translator knows when to supply the information which is implicit in the text. The author may have written for people with the same culture and same experiences as his. But the translator, or those whom he would like to read his translation, may not have this background and may not know much of this implied information. They may not be able to understand his translation unless he makes some of this implicit information from the communication situation explicit. As will be discussed in much more detail later, the translator does not want to add information which is not part the text he is translating. There is a difference between implicit information and information which is simply absent and never intended to be part of the communication (Crowell, 1973). For instance, in the example ''My son Peter is sick, '' the mother did not say ''peter has brown hair and is ten years old. This is not implied. It is absent. It is not part of the communication and, therefore, should not be added. If a person wrote, ''John made the Queen's list'' he is assuming that the readers know that the Queen of England is indicated. However, for an audience that did not know this fact and had never heard of the Queen, much less her list, the implied information would need to be added. It is not absent, it is implied, and part of the communication situation. The translation may have to be as explicit as to state, ''John made the Queen of England's yearly. Honors list. '' Implicit information needs to be added only when it is necessary to communicate correct meaning or to insure naturalness of form in the receptor language translation (Dik Simon, 1980). It will sometimes need to be made explicit because the source language writer and his audience shared information which is not shared by the receptor language audience. 3.4 Antonyms The antonym of a word is the exact opposite, or contrasts in some particular part of its meaning. All language will have pairs of words which are antonyms. But different language will have different sets. For example, in English we distinguish short and tall vertically and short and long horizontally. In Aguaruna, there are only two words sutajuch and esajam which are used for both the vertical and horizontal distinction of length. In English, we have the words well and bad which are antonyms. In Aguaruna, the distinction is made by the word good, pegkeg, contrasting with the same word good linked to a negative suffix, not – good, pegkegchau. That is there are not two separate words, there is simply good and not good. Some language will have words for slave and free. Others will simply have a word for free while the meaning for ''slave '' will be not free. It can sometimes be very helpful to a translator who is looking for a particular word to realize that if the thinks about the antonym, the word opposite in meaning, he may be able to find the desired word by constructing a negative form of the antonym.’ In some instances a receptor language may already use a construction with negatives as a normal way of handling certain positive concepts. In Bila' an of the Philippines. The expression it is not possible we will not is how we must is expressed '' (Nida, 1964). 4. Reciprocal words Most languages will also have sets of words which are the reciprocal of one another. For example, the words give and receive have a reciprocal relationship to one another. One can say, ''John gave Mary a book.'' Or one can say. ''May receive a book from John''. The meaning is the same since the two actions are reciprocal actions. One can say ''John taught Bill, '' or '' Bill learned from John. ''Teach and learn are reciprocal actions. This may sometimes be very helpful in translation where the receptor language does not have a specific word used in the same way as the source language. It may be that the same meaning can be communicated by using a reciprocal word. For example, the government gave a large grant to the miners, might in some translation need to be translated conversely; the miners received a large grant from the government (Wittgenstein, 1953). 5. Addition and Support Relations In the preceding section, the analysis of a text into propositions was discussed and illustrated. However, a text does not consist of a long list of propositions only. This proposition group together into larger and larger units. It was noted that meaning components units to form concepts, concepts unite to form concept clusters, and concept clusters unite to form propositions. In narrative texts, for example, propositions unite to form propositional clusters, these clusters unite to form semantic paragraphs, semantic paragraphs unite to form episodes, episodes unite to form episode clusters, episode clusters unite into parts and these unite to form a discourse. The number of levels of groupings will depend on the length, type, and complexity of the text. Not all levels occur in each text. The names for groups will vary with the different discourse types. It is the idea of grouping that is important to understand (Buchwald, 1993). 6. Chronological and No Chronological Another classification of communication relations which is important to understand is the difference between chronological and no chronological relations. Those relations in which the propositions are related to each other in




terms of time are said to be chronological relations. Where the time element is not focal in the relationship the relations are labeled as no chronological. In the examples above, the first one about John has for propositions which are relation chronologically, that is first John went home then he ate supper, then he did his homework and finally he went to bed. These are in chronological sequence that is there is an element of time in the relation between them. However, in the second illustration, Mary swept the floor is the result of the reason; the floor was dirty (Donald, 1975). Causality is the focal relationship. Since time is incidental and not focal the relation is classified as no chronological. It is true, however that the reason usually precedes the result in time of occurrence in the happening being recorded in the text. In a larger discourse for example, there may be a series of paragraphs each one describing an event which leads up to a final major event. These paragraphs would then be in a relation of progression to the head paragraph which would be the goal. The relations, sequential, simultaneous and progression are commonly found in narrative and procedural discourses (Nida, 1964).

7. Results and Discussions A study of dictionary will indicate the amazing '' a packaging'' of meaning components in lexical items. One single word means watch sheep by night. All of those components are in a single lexical item. In Vietnamese, there is a word which means someone leaves to go somewhere and something happens at home so that he has to go back home(Crowell, 1973). Many times a single word in the source language will need to be translated by several words. It is characteristic of languages that the same meaning component will occur in several surface structure lexical items (forms). In English, the word sheep occurs. However, the words lamb, additional meaning components of young (in lamb), it is further characteristic of languages that one form will be used to represent several alternative meanings. This again is obvious from looking in any good dictionary (Fleming, 1972). 8. Conclusion Each language has its own distinctive forms of representing the meaning. Therefore, in translation the same meaning may have to be expressed in another language by a very different form. To translate the form of one language literally according to the corresponding form in another language would often change the meaning, or at least result in a form which is unnatural in the second language. References Ahrens, T. (1977). Concepts of Power in Melanesian and Biblical perspective. Musicology. 141P. Anderson, S. R. (1971). On the Role of Deep. Structure in Semantic Interpretation. Foundations of Language. 219p. Austin, K. L. (1962). How to Do Things with word. New York: Oxford University Press. Benjamin, A. (1989). Translation and the Nature of Philosophy. London and New York: Rutledge. 342p. Biguenet, J. (1989). The Craft of translation Chicago: University of Chicago press. Bollinger, D. (1977). Meaning and Form. London: Longman. Brower, R. A. (1959). On Translation. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Buchwald, J. (1993). Design for Experimenting. World Changes. Harwich. Cambridge: University Press. Catford, J.C. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation. London: Oxford University Press. 103P. Chafe, W. L. (1970). Meaning and the Structure of Language. Chicago:The University of Chicago press. Cook, W. A. (1971). Case Grammar as a Deep Structure in Tagmemic Analysis. Languages and linguistics working papers. Washington DC: Georgetown University. Crowell, T. H. (1973). Cohesion in Bororo Discourse. Linguistics. The Hague: Mouton. 104P. Derrida, J. (1982). White Mythology. Metaphor in the Text of Philosophy: The Harvester Press Ltd. Dik, S. C. (1980). Studies in Functional Grammar. New York: Academic Press. Donald, B. (1975). Machine Translation of Languages. New York: The Massachusetts Institute of Technology and John Wiley and Sons. 135P. Fleming, I. (1972). Logical Relationships. Instructions for the Preparation of Data Relevant for the Analysis of Serological Constructions and their Grammatical Realizations. Settle. Summer Institute of Linguistics. Gumperz, J. J. (1982). Language and Social Identity. Cambridge-New York: Cambridge University Press. 272P. Langer, S. K. (1951). Philosophy in a New Key. New York: New American Library. 256P. Nida, E. A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden. Brill. 331P. Ricoeur, P. (1969). Le Conflit des interprétations: essais d herméneutique. Paris: Éditions du Seuil. 505p. Wittgensteinl,J. (1953). Philosophical Investigations. New York. Macmillan. Oxford. Blackwell. 232P.




Book Review: Litosseliti, L. (2010). Research Methods In Linguistics. Continuum International Publishing Group Ltd.

228pp. ISBN 978-0-8264-8993-7 (paperback) Mohammad Javad Riasati (Corresponding Author)

Department of Foreign Languages, Shiraz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shiraz, Iran E-mail: [email protected]

Forough Rahimi

Department of Foreign Languages, Shiraz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shiraz, Iran E-mail: [email protected]

Received: 20-06- 2012 Accepted: 03-07- 2012 Published: 03-09- 2012 doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.251 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.5p.251 1. Introduction Research Methods in Linguistics presents the key concepts and principles of basic methods in linguistics research. It is an attempt to outline a comprehensive and organized resource for conducting research in linguistics. The issues covered in the book consist of a helpful collection of research methods in linguistics, which can benefit researchers and students in the field, and may appeal to both novice and experienced researchers. 2. Book Overview The book is organized into three sections: Issues, Quantitative and Corpus Research Methods, and Qualitative Research Methods. The first section of the book covers two chapters examining some basic principles of research questions and tenets of quantitative and qualitative research methods. The following section contains three chapters which examine quantitative and corpus research methods in linguistics. They present a comprehensive overview of basic quantitative and corpus research designs, with the goal to introduce the practical stages required for researchers to comprehend and employ such designs. The last section has five chapters and discusses qualitative approaches in linguistics, with an emphasis on current major methods including discourse-analytic approaches, linguistic ethnography, interviews and focus groups, multimodal analysis, and narrative analysis. 3. Chapters Overview Chapters 1-2 Chapter 1, written by Jane Sunderland, examines research questions, the rationale behind them, their origins, and their classification and implementation. A distinctive feature of the chapter is the wide range of examples of research questions in earlier sociolinguistic studies. The chapter also includes implications of different types of research questions for data collection and analysis. Chapter 2, by Jo Angouri, is a meticulous investigation into how quantitative and qualitative methods can be integrated in linguistic research. The chapter is concerned with the use of triangulation and mixed methods, and discusses some of the benefits and hurdles in mixed-methods design. The chapter also discusses how mixed methodologies can contribute to richer findings and helps overcome some barriers involved in such type of research. Chapters 3-5 Chapter 3, by Sebastian M. Rasinger, introduces the most common issues and conceptsof quantitative research. It starts with enumerating the major features of quantitative research with an emphasis on how it differs from qualitative type. Using examples from the field of linguistics, the chapter covers such issues as quantifiability:




the quality of being measurable. The chapter further discusses the issues of reliability, and validity of data and the most frequently used quantitative designs. It then focuses on the use of questionnaires in quantitative research, offering many practical ideas on how to design, phrase and code questionnaires. Chapter 4, by ErezLevon, starts with a detailed discussion on how to formulate and test hypotheses in quantitative inquiries. The basic concepts needed to test hypotheses are also described. Another part of the chapter introduces two of the most frequently used statistical tests in quantitative studies: chi-square and t-tests. It also examines how they can be used and what they really indicate. The final section of this chapter is concerned with the interpretation of quantitative research results and how quantitative and qualitative methods can be triangulated in linguistic research. Chapter 5, written by Paul Baker, starts with a discussion of theoretical principles underlying corpus linguistics techniques. Two approaches, corpus-based and corpus-driven, are introduced as important methodological approaches in corpus linguistics. Another part of the chapter examines different kinds of research questions corpus linguistics is concerned with. There are also some examples given on the use of corpora from past work in stylistics, discourse analysis, forensic linguistics, and language teaching. The final part of the chapter outlines some criticisms of corpus approaches. The chapter ends with a discussion of points that need to be taken into account while doing corpus analysis. Chapters 6-10 In Chapter 6, Judith Baxter reviews four different approaches to discourse analysis in linguistics: Conversation Analysis (CA), Discourse Analysis (DA), Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), and Feminist Post-structuralist Discourse Analysis (FPDA). The approaches are discussed in detail in terms of their background, underlying principles, major characteristics as well as their strengths and limitations. The chapter also discusses the relationship between the micro-analytical approaches investigating the details of linguistic interactions and macro-analytical approaches examining the broader social aspects of language. Chapter 7, by Angela Creese, is concerned with linguistic ethnography and its contribution to the study of language. Two key issues in linguistic ethnography are discussed. The first issue deals with the interdisciplinary of linguistic ethnography; the second issue focuses on linguistic ethnography’s social constructivist and post-modernist orientation. Another part of the chapter discuses methods of linguistic ethnography, including traditional ethnography and team ethnography. The final part of the chapter discusses the usefulness of integrating ethnography with other methods to arrive at richer data. In Chapter 8, Nigel Edley and Lia Litosseliti provide a critical examination of the use of interviews and focus groups within social science and linguistics research. The authors first discuss the logic of using interviews, arguing that they are usually seen as a means of accessing phenomena that cannot be achieved through direct observation. Another part of the chapter deals with recent challenges against the use of interviews, specifically some problems inherent in the use of interview data. The authors then discuss several remarks in defense of interviews and focus groups and conclude that they can be seen as valuable research tools. The final part of the chapter discusses some of the pros and cons of both interviews and focus groups. Chapter 9, by Jeff Bezemer and Carey Jewitt, discusses multimodal approaches to the study of linguistics and the centrality of multimodality in social linguistic traditions. The authors discuss social semiotic approaches to multimodality, which is the extension of social interpretation of language and its meanings to a range of modes of representation and communication employed in a culture. Another part of the chapter discusses steps involved in a social semiotic approach to multimodal research. This is illustrated using two examples to show how these steps are applied in research on classroom interaction and textbooks. The chapter ends with a discussion of the potentials and limitations of multimodal analysis. Finally, in Chapter 10, Julio C. Gimenez introduces the key features of traditional and new emerging sociolinguistic approaches to the analysis of narratives, with an emphasis on narrative networks. The author starts with a review of the major definitions of narratives and then introduces two traditional analytical approaches: componential and functional analyses. The chapter then discusses the origins and theoretical principles of narrative networks, with a detailed description of how to design and analyze networks, and how they contribute to the critical analysis of narratives. 4. Conclusion The organization of the chapters in the book makes each article useful for readers, since each chapter starts with a brief overview of the contents of the chapter before moving on to theoretical debates in the field. The papers




are well written and the topics chosen are interesting for those interested in the field. A salient feature of the book which makes it user-friendly is the large number of examples provided in detail to illustrate a certain point and make it more comprehensible. Furthermore, each chapter ends with a sources list entitled “Further Reading” that can be useful for those interested in the area. The book is a well-developed and highly informative one. Its overall structure is very comprehensible for the reader and can serve as a good resource to broaden the understanding of its users. Overall, the book can serve as a useful asset for many researchers, both novice and advanced. It can also be of great help to graduate and postgraduate students interested in learning and conducting research in linguistics, and can be of interest to scholars and practitioners working in the field of linguistics research.

The Authors:

Mohammad Javad Riasati is a PhD candidate in Applied Linguistics at UPM and a faculty member at Islamic Azad University, Shiraz Branch. He has published some books and articles and presented at some national and international conferences. His main areas of interest include second language acquisition and teacher education.

Forough Rahimi is a PhD candidate in Applied Linguistics at Islamic Azad University, Shiraz Branch, where she presently teaches. She is also a member of ‘Young Researchers Club’. She has published some books and articles and presented at some national and international conferences. Her main areas of interest include critical applied linguistics, second language acquisition, teacher education, and specifically critical discourse analysis.

IJALEL, Vol.1 No.5 (2012) [Special Issue]

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