Academic Dependency Reversal: Beyond the West and the Rest

Sabine van der Horst

Gerben Nooteboom & Barak Khalir

Social Sciences and Asia

MA Contemporary Asian Studies

11 November 2012

Number of words:34601

A C A D E M I C D E P E N D E N C Y R E V E R S A LB E Y O N D T H E W E S T A N D T H E R E S T

Picture from the festival IMPAKT, ‘No more Westerners’. In which curator Cher Potter asks: “What

would the world look like if Westerners were exotic?” 2

Academic Dependency Reversal Sabine van der Horst 0417661

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1 The essay itself is 2965 words.

2 http://www.designindaba.com/article/stories-south-side

http://www.designindaba.com/article/stories-south-side

http://www.designindaba.com/article/stories-south-side

Contents

Introduction 3

Academic dependency 3

Historic roots of perceived “intellectual inferiority” in Global South countries 4

Modes of production 5

Cultural values as the center of superiority 5

Social sciences as bringing development 6

Academic dependency reversal and developments in the future of education 7

Creative and vibrant social sciences community 8

Why would we need academic dependency reversal? 8

Conclusion 10

Literature 11


2

Introduction

Could it be that the world’s history is finally reaching a point where the power balances will shift

beyond “the West and the Rest”? Can the “people without history” (Wolf 1982) begin to tell their

history? Can Subalterns be heard? If academic dependency might be reversed then subversive,

innovative and creative scholarship can emerge. Will it be in serve of ethnocentricity once more, but

now re-writing history to create a teleogic image of the superior ‘East’?

“... a Westernist image of world history, if not disciplined by a more adequate perspective, can

do untold harm; in fact it is now doing untold harm” (Hodgson 1993 in Gunder Frank 1998:16) .

Westernist images are perpetuating themselves through academic dependency. Atalas (2002:609)

gives the prerequisites he sees for academic dependency reversal. First is that social sciences should

serve development in a broad sense that goes beyond mere economic dimensions. Second he states

that social sciences communities in the Global South should consider attracting a critical mass of post-

doctoral students and researchers so that they may carry out their research there. Thirdly he sees that

the social sciences community needs to innovate creatively and vibrantly (ibid.).

In this paper I would like to argue that academic dependency could reverse in the near future.

First I will explain what academic dependency entails. Then I will explain how historically in academia

the conception of Western superiority emerged following through on modes of production and

cultural value systems. Finally I will consider the three prerequisites that Atalas (ibid.) states that would

enable academic dependency and reflect on the use of a transmodernist perspective in our

contemporary world.

Academic dependency

First off, what is academic dependency? Academic dependency is a form of imperialism.

Imperialism in this regard is considered to be the “policy and practice of the political and economic

domination of colonial by more advanced nations since the 16th century through military conquest

and subjugation.” (Atalas 2002:600). Atalas strives to reveal these unequal divisions of power in the

global academic world by drawing attention to prevailing academic imperialism, which is “the

domination of one people by another in their world of thinking.” (ibid.:601). This began during the

beginning of the colonial age where the schools, universities and publishing houses have all been

placed under tutelage of the colonial powers (ibid.).


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Since the colonial age officially has passed this imperialism has become more indirect and hidden

beneath the surface (ibid.) The direct control that the colonial powers once had over their colonies

has now shifted to more indirect forms of control by way of international law, major banking firms,

threats of military interventions and through various covert or clandestine actions from governments

of advanced nations (ibid.:602). In the postcolonial academic world, even though political

independence is achieved, ‘the West’ still has monopolistic control of the nature and flows of social

scientific knowledge (ibid.).

Academic dependency theory originated from Brazil in the 1950s that proposed that Latin

American social scientists would cut their ties with social sciences powers in the West and that they

should instead find a new indigenized or autonomous social science (Atalas 2002:603). Atalas (ibid.)

considers the psychological dimension to this dependency as the “shared sense of ... intellectual

inferiority against the West”.

Historic roots of perceived “intellectual inferiority” in Global South countries

This is not strange if considered that modern science was the main tenet of the perception of

western superiority (Goody 1996:2). Historically this has it roots in the 18th and 19th century

where the West was seen as unique in its modern development (Hobson 2004; Nederveen

Pieterse 2006; Gunter Frank 1998; Goody 1996). From a historical perspective it is obvious that

Asia and especially China was the strongest power in the world long before the Industrial

Revolution. Only for the past two hundred years could it have been perceived that the West was

‘superior’ (Nederveen Pieterse 2006, Hobson 2004, Goody 1996; Gunter Frank 1998). The fact

that social sciences emerged during this time of self-described Western superiority was

instrumental in the engraining of Eurocentrism within social sciences theories and methods.

Social sciences was then used to feed into the discourse of European superiority, pristineness

and uniqueness, disregarding historical facts. (Nederveen Pieterse 2006, Hobson 2004, Goody

1996; Gunter Frank 1998)

The history of Eurocentrism is long and wide. Already during the time of the Ancient Greeks a

struggle between the Greeks and Persians led to a devaluation of ‘Asiatics’ (Goody 1996:3). Yet for

several hundred years between the Middle Ages in the West and the rise of social sciences there was

a time where the East was clearly seen as dominant (Gunter Frank 1998:2). This positioning has swiftly

faded away from western historical reckonings only to be replaced by the teleogic image of a


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timelessly superior west (Goody 1996:5). The Western self needed to be build by a constant

devaluation of and identity-building against “an Eastern other”.

Western culture was seen to be superior thanks to their rational spirit (Gunter Frank 1998:5).

This has elevated westerners above the ranks of the Asiatic dwellers that still were thought to exist in

a mythical, magical enchanted world which “necessarily” handicapped them to accepting reality

rationally. This is clearly a view that arose during the time in which Western culture changed into

more modern and secular expressions while shedding its alchemistic and enchanted worldview. A

development that curiously coincided with the widespread removal of a specific fungus that grew on

wheat and other grains called ergot that contains the precursor to lysergic acid (Klukhuhn 2009). The

replacement of the God with the rational mind in modern secular hierarchy has left little room for

indigenous or autonomous alternate modernities and sciences where there might be room for the

divine and the sacred. In some groups enchantment and modernity do already together such as

Deeb’s (2008) ethnography on Shi’it Muslims in Lebanon clearly shows. If the academic centers of

power move, these scholarly voices could be heard without modernist discrimination.

Modes of production

The “capitalist mode of production” has often been perceived as an invention of Europeans, and

responsible for European, Western and then global development (Gunter Frank 1998:5). Gunter Frank

(1998:4) deconstructs this a-historic imagining by showing how all of these were more of a function of

world economic development that occurred especially in Asia. The discovery of the world by the

West in the fifteenth century with the spread of capitalism and development to all these distant

undeveloped places was the coronation of the ‘white man’s burden’ (ibid.).

The attribution of a fundamental difference in Eastern and Western modes of productions is

perpetuated in Marxist and neo-Marxist versions. (Gunter Frank 1998:6). These are Eurocentric

renderings of categories that seem to claim two monolithic modes exist without internal

contestation: “the Asiatic mode of production” (ibid.:4) and the “capitalist mode of production” (ibid.).

Neither of these exist as they are imagined.

Cultural values as the center of superiority

Weber highlighted the instrumental role of Protestant ethics in modern development in the

beginning of the twentieth century while describing Confucianism as an obstacle to this higher goal

(Nederveen Pieterse 2006:64). Ironically this philosophical tradition was later thought to be at the


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basis of the rise of the Asian Tigers (ibid.; Goody 1996:9). Finally European Enlightenment thinking was

actually inspired by Confucianism (ibid.).

For these reasons it proves insufficient to speak of mutually exclusive categories as ‘East’ and

‘West’. This is why Goody (1996 in Hann 2009:128) argues for an essential Eurasia.

Goody (1996:1) further states that ethnocentrism is essential to every culture. This ethnocentrism

in the case of Global South countries can serve as a positive solvent for this perceived sense of

intellectual inferiority. By molding and mending social sciences towards building concepts that build

into a sense of ethnic superiority in the upcoming economic superpowers of Brazil, Russia, India and

China - also known as the BRIC countries - could repeat what was done within the Eurocentric social

sciences. Through this perhaps the future position of the West will become similar to Asia in the past.

Social sciences theory can then be used to portray Western culture as spiritually backward,

excessively individualistic and ecologically destructive to name a few common prevailing stereo-

typifications of ‘Western culture’. I am curious about the re-writing of history by indigenized and

autonomous scholars from Global South countries. Like Ruth Benedict (in Hobson 2004:1) writes:

“History cannot be written as if it belonged to one group [of people] alone”. Yet I can but hope it shall

be in a more connective or ‘religious’ 3 way of history writing that goes beyond nationalist interests.

Now to consider the three elements that are necessary for academic dependency reversal which

would be the precursor to these developments. According to Atalas (2002:609) the first is that social

sciences should change towards not aiding purely economic development, but that it should serve to

further development as a broader category.

Social sciences as bringing development

I believe we as scholars have the responsibility to reexamine the core of our social scientific

practice and the blind spots that obstruct a beneficial contribution to the true goal of social sciences

theory: namely contributing to a broader sense of development than merely economic (Atalas

2002:609). We need to stop “the prostitution of scholarship” where ratings and prestige are valued

over contributions to human understanding (Ingold 2012: xii).

Theoretical models for development has long been used as a ploy in Western identity building.

Various social sciences theories have perpetuated the contradiction between a developed west and a


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3 The etymological root of the word religion comes from three Latin words presumably: religiens and religare. Religiens means to take care and religare to bind fast. I explore this topic in a paper on religion (2008).

backward east. For example the world systems theory in which all systems or subsystems are brought

into relation with the West in terms of ‘center’ and ‘periphery’. Through this lens Taiwan has recently

moved from periphery to semi-periphery. Yet an important drawback of this view is that it only looks

at progress made towards industrialization (Goody1996:5). It leaves progress of other sorts out of

question.

I see the developing of societies not in terms of material comfort, not in the granting of

individual’s desires and cravings nor in the increase of consumption of luxury goods. Is Taiwan currently

in a higher state of development because the youth can buy new Louis Vuitton bags? If a country

suffers from an epidemic illness, then the GDP rises and with this positive economic development. Is

this really development? John Dewey (in Chomsky 2010:58) states my position clearly: “The ultimate

aim of production is not production of goods, but the production of free human beings,

associated with one and other on terms of equality”. I consider development from a

transmodernist perspective (Ghisi 2010:41) to be the radical equal of individuals and groups

regardless of their race, ethnicity, gender, sex, national identity.

Needless to say economic and political power structures strongly inhibit this ideal of “equality”

though. Within the social sciences communities in the Global South lack of funding and lack of

compelling salaries cause a severe braindrain of scholars flocking outward to the United States or

Europe to attend universities there. That is why Atalas (2002:609) gives as a second strategy for

academic dependency reversal the attraction of “a critical mass” of highly qualifying post-doctoral

students and researchers.

Academic dependency reversal and developments in the future of education

Thankfully there is a positive climate for this shift towards investing in education in Global South

countries. Even more now then at the time of Atalas (2002)’s writing global economic powers are

shifting.4 This is coupled with the shift from commodity based livelihoods to livelihoods based on

knowledge, according to Ghisi (2010:44). Teaching only deepens the existing knowledge and

experience through assisting another individual or group to learn something; therefore it encourages

abundance if knowledge is becoming the main resource of revenue (Vijar Kumar 2012:623; Ghisi


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4 Hans Rosling on TED Talks, Stats that reshape your worldview, http://www.ted.com/talks/hans_rosling_shows_the_best_stats_you_ve_ever_seen.html checked on 11 November 2012.

http://www.ted.com/talks/hans_rosling_shows_the_best_stats_you_ve_ever_seen.html




2010:44). Through sharing skills and knowledge through growing networks of “Open

Education” (Kumar 2012:619)5, the floor opens to true win-win situations.

These are mostly grassroots projects that are taking place. Yet at the state level investments must

also be made in education and research. Stopping the brain drain is imperative for a more balanced

and diverse global scientific community.

Creative and vibrant social sciences community

A third prerequisite that Atalas (2002:609) states is the development of a creative and vibrant

social sciences community. I agree that this is imperative. Although educational systems worldwide are

said to be in a state of crisis, there is a growing number of new developments that can perhaps

provide the necessary innovations for a more creative and vibrant academic world in general. (Kumar

2012:620) As I would like to argue, diversity is a powerful precursor to creativity.

A meta-theoretical framework emerging from developing global south countries could form a

compelling contrast to modern social sciences frameworks. Where the United States, the United

Kingdom and European countries have developed secular worldviews in a reactive turn away from an

oppressive church and state during the Enlightenment, Global Southern countries have had differing

histories formed more syncretistic religious practices for example. From these differences there might

emerge an authentic scholarship that reflects these “indigenous” values and considerations.

Since the minds in the global South developed under different circumstances, their indigenized

and “autonomous” scholarship could bring a balance to secularized, white- and male-centrist social

sciences. As the challenges in Brazil, China, India or Russia are different, therefore their autonomous

research agenda’s would reflect these struggles, from which refreshing and eye-opening solutions

could arise which could revive the archaic Western imperialist social sciences in a more global and

open transmodern scientific inquiry. The other countries in the Global South and especially Africa could

bring a wealth of fresh, new and embodied theory. Why is this necessary?

Why would we need academic dependency reversal?

It is of utmost importance that we work together to find sustainable and durable solutions for a

world rife with crises. Nationalist, capitalist and ideological marginalizing interests pale in importance

over the survival of humanity (Ghisi 2010:39). Ignorance is what guides most of the problematic


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5 See for example the group ‘De Universiteit’ in Utrecht. http://www.deuniversiteit.nl

http://www.deuniversiteit.nl

http://www.deuniversiteit.nl

behaviors and striving to deconstruct those ignorances through critical empirically led science is one

part. Then new insights and possible solutions might be proposed based upon a deep understanding

of what it means to be alive (Ingold 2011: xi) . Anthropology seems the discipline equipped for this

task.

Global governance could be informed by global think-tanks in which simultaneously diversity is

celebrated while consensus is sought. Natural and cultural diversity is life-bringing to both realms of

mind and body. The preservation of this diversity and the creation of a paradigm of abundance (Ghisi

2010:41) is a multi- and interdisciplinary undertaking, where art, science, design and ethics should go

hand in hand, guided by the ideal of transmodernity6 - a radical equality for any race, culture, sex or

religion (ibid.).

Academic dependency reversal is a powerful force that might release a tidal wave in academia.

European scholars can prepare the ground and decrease state and economic entanglements with

science, as so for to give “the right example”. Since egocentrism in the individual does not have to be

biologically determined (De Waal 2009),, hopefully the inherent ethnocentrism in every culture

(Goody 1996:1) can be curtailed.

It seems to me the task of Global North scholars now they are still dominant is to go beyond the

dominant Eurocentric patriarchal tendencies that are prevailing in contemporary social science.The

arising of Eastern bodies of knowledge and theories in a globalizing scholarly world can be a powerful

impetus for revolutionary innovation within social science theory. Some of the contributions made by

for example Indian scholars have been greatly influential within social sciences, such as Arjan

Appadurai (1996)’s proposed theory of scapes, Spivak (1988)’s proposition of the Subaltern. As the

Eastern and Southern system of knowledge production begins to rise from their poverty and state

suppression induced slumber, waves of theory can start to flood the modern and postmodern

scientific world, opening all to a working collectively like one giant brain network to produce solutions

for contemporary problems that are highly relevant for as well East and West, North and South parts

of our planet.


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6 Transmodernism - a term coined by Spanish feminist and philosopher Rosa Maria Rodriguez in 1989 in an essay that uses Hegalian logic to arrive upon transmodernity as the synthesis of modernity and postmodernity(Ateljevic 2010:283).

Conclusion

Academic dependency is the indirect imperialist control over the research agenda’s, methodology

and theoretical frameworks within social sciences in the Global South. This stems from a sense of

intellectual inferiority. The historic root of this perceived inferiority comes from the use of social

sciences in the West to further imperialist agenda and to build a sense of a rational, secular and

developed Western self against Orientalist, backward and enchanted Others. Interestingly the concept

of a pristine West turns out to be a fallacy when the history, modes of production and value systems

are considered.

I see processes of change within educational systems and the organization of society as

precursors to academic dependency reversal. In the near future this will enable the emergence of

radically new social sciences theory that hopefully will give Subalterns a voice and bring solutions to

contemporary global problems by a more diverse field of social sciences.

I see a task for contemporary Western social sciences in strengthening the resolve to go beyond

economic and nationalist interests for scholarly research. This could help to lay the foundations for

academics from the rising nation-states towards transmodernity.

It could well be that soon stereotypes over the West will be reproduced through upcoming

bodies of literature from the Global South, but let us hope that there might be some truth to the

teleogic visions to modernity and that humanity as a whole does progress from constant Othering

and ethnocentrism. Perhaps a transmodern approach could bring hope.


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2003, Academic Dependency and the Global Division of Labour in the Social

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Appadurai, Arjun

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Ateljevic, Irena 2009, Philosophical Issues in Tourism. Edited by Tribe, John. Chapter 16

“Transmodernism, Remaking our (Tourism) World?” in Channel View Publications, Bristol/Ontario.

Chomsky, Noam.

2010 New World of Indigenous Resistance. Edited by Lois Meyer and Benjamin

Maldonado. City Lights Publishers, San Franscisco.

Deeb, Lara. 2008 An Enchanted Modern: Gender and Public Piety in Shi’i Lebanon. Princeton University

Press, Princeton


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Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. 1988 "Can the Subaltern Speak?." The American tradition in qualitative research 1: 321.


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Academic Dependency Reversal: Beyond the West and the Rest

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