A survey of race relations in South Africa: 1959-1960

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A survey of race relations in South Africa: 1959 -1960

Author/Creator Horrell, Muriel

Publisher South African Institute of Race Relations, Johannesburg

Date 1961

Resource type Reports

Language English

Subject

Coverage (spatial) South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, SouthAfrica

Coverage (temporal) 1959-1960

Source EG Malherbe Library

Description A survey of race relations in South Africa in 1959 and 1960and includes chapters on: Constitutional matters; Partypolitical developments; Work for inter-racial harmony; Thepopulation of South Africa and measures for its registrationand control; Unrest and rioting among Africans; Action takenby the Government; Reactions in South Africa to the crisis;The African reserves; General matters affecting non-Whitepeople; The liquor laws as these affect the non-Whitepeople: Group areas; Housing; Transport services;Employment; Education; Health and nutrition; Welfare;Recreation; Justice; External affaits; Legislation of 1960.

Format extent(length/size)

326 pages

http://www.aluka.org/action/showMetadata?doi=10.5555/AL.SFF.DOCUMENT.BOO19610000.042.000

http://www.aluka.org

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IONE RAND TWETWELVE SHILLUt"IVE CENTS SIXPENCE--0RRELL _ _ _ _ __tICAN INSTITUTE OF RACE REIRT'w iiii V ii(io !i

A SURVEY OFRACEIN SOUTHRELATIONSAFRICA1959- 1960Compiled byMURIEL HORRELLResearch OfficerSouth African Institute of Race RelationsISOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF RACERELATIONSP.O. Box 97JOHANNESBURG1961

A SURVEY OF RACEACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe writer's warmest thanks are once more expressed to Dr. EllenHellmann, whoagain gave willing and invaluable help by commenting in detail on the wholemanuscript of this Survey, and making most useful suggestions foritsimprovement.Very sincere gratitude is expressed, too, to those who contributed material, amongthem the Institute's Regional Secretaries, Miss Mary Draper, Mrs.KathleenMatthews, Mrs. Marjorie Fowler and Miss Sheila Robertson, its ResearchAssistant Mr. Lawrence Reyburn, its Field Officer Mr. J. C. M. Mbata, and thesecretary of the Isaacson Foundation Bursary Fund, Mrs. A. Wolpe. Generoushelp was given, too, by the Municipal Administrators of Non-European Affairswho very kindly sent details about housing schemes in their areas, and by theNational Bureau of Educational and Social Research. Numerous Governmentofficials, especially those of the Department of Bantu Administration andDevelopment and Bantu Education, graciously supplied information on a varietyof subjects.

Others gave ready and courteous assistance by reading and commenting on partsof the manuscript; among them Mr. F. J. van Wyk, Miss Mary Draper andMr. J.C. M. Mbata.The writer's very deep indebtedness is acknowledged to members ofthe Institute'sstaff who gave friendly help in other ways: to Mrs. A. Honeywill whochecked theproofs, to Mr. L. Reyburn who assisted, to Miss B. Gordon, Mrs. D. Olsen andMr. Armstrong Mphahlele who supplied material from the library, and to Miss B.Gershater and Mrs. J. Higgins who did the typing.MURIEL HORRELL.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 iiiCONTENTSPageCONSTITUTIONAL MATTERSRE-CONSTITUTION OF THE SENATE ........................ 1Senate Act, No. 53 of 1955 .... ....... ....... .... ... 1Changes made from 1956 to 1959 ..................... 2Senate Act, No. 53 of 1960 ......................... 2The terms of the Act ....... .... ... .... ....... ... 2Method of electing Senators ..................... 3Parliamentary debate on the Bill .................. 3Senate elections ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... 4REFERENDUM ON THE REPUBLICAN ISSUE ..................... 5Preliminary announcements by the Prime Minister ...... 5 The Referendum Act,No. 52 of 1960 ................. 6Terms of the Act ....... .... ... .... ....... .... ... 6Parliamentary debate on the Bill ...... ......... 6Decision at Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference ... 7 The Referendum... .... ....... .... ... .... ....... ... 7Statement subsequently issued by 69 prominent men ...... 8 Actiontaken inNatal ....... .... ... .... ....... .... ... 9PARTY POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTSNATIONAL PARTY ... .... ... .... .... .... .... .... .... ....... 10UNITED PARTY .... ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... ... 10LIBERAL PARTY ... ... ... ...... ... ... ... ... ... ... 11PROGRESSIVE PARTY .... .... .... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... 12NATIONAL UNION PARTY ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 15SOUTH AFRICAN BOND .... .... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... ... 15WORK FOR INTER-RACIAL HARMONYS.A. INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONS ........................ 16Council meeting, January 1960 ....... ............... 16Executive Committee meeting, May 1960 .............. 20Hoernl Memorial Lecture ............................ 22S.A. BUREAU OF RACIAL AFFAIRS ........................... 22ECUMENICAL CONFERENCE ................................ 22WAR VETERANS' FOUNDATION ........................... 24

THE POPULATION OF SOUTH AFRICA, AND MEASURESFOR ITS REGISTRATION AND CONTROLCENSUS REPORTS .... ... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... ... 24Size of the population ... ... .... ... ... ....... ... ... 24Home languages, 1951 ....... .... ... .... ....... ....... 25Marital status of the population, 1951 ................. 25Religions ................................ 26Birthplaces of the Coloured and Asian people ......... 28

iv A SURVEY OF RACEPOPULATION REGISTRATION ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...Population Registration Amendment Act, No. 30 of 1960 28 Issuing ofidentitycards ... ..................... 28Appeals against racial classification ................... 29REGISTRATIONOF BIRTHS, MARRIAGES AND DEATHS ......... 30Births, Marriages and Deaths Registration Amendment Act,No. 5 of 1960 ... .... ... .... ... ... ... .... ... 30AUTHORITY OF AFRICAN CLERGY AND MINISTERS ............. 131PUBLICATIONS AND ENTERTAINMENTS BILL, 1960 ............ 32CONTROL OF EXHIBITION OF FILMS IN AFRICAN AREAS .......... 33PASSPORTS AND VISAS .... ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... ... 33CONTROL OF ENTRY INTO AND DEPARTURE FROM CERTAINAFRICANAREAS ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... ... ... 34BANNINGS AND BANISHMENTS ........................... 35Banning orders issued under the Suppression of Communismand Riotous Assemblies Acts ................... 35Banishment of Africans under Section five of the NativeAdministration Act ... ... ....... ... ... ....... 36THE TREASON TRIALS .... .... .... .... .... .... .... ... ....... 37REORGANIZATION OF THE CITIZEN FORCE ....................39UNREST AND RIOTING AMONG AFRICANSDISTURBANCES RESULTING MAINLY FROM OPPOSITION TO THEBANTUAUTHORITIES SYSTEMEast Pondoland ....... ... ... .... ... ... ....... ... 39Introductory remarks ... ... ....... ... ....... ... 39The disturbances ... .......... ... ... .... ... ... 40Grievances voiced by the people ................ 43Findings of the Departmental committee of enquiry ... 45Tembuland ... ... ... .... ... ... .... ... ... ... ... 47Gcalekaland ... .... ... ... .... ...... ... .... ... ... 48Northern Transvaal ........................... 48Sequels to rioting that occurred before the year under review 49Sekhukhuneland ....... ... ... ....... ... ....... 49M abieskraal ... ... .... ... ... .... ...... ... ... 49

A DISTURBANCE RESULTING FROM OPPOSITION TO THE LIQUORLAWSCato Manor, Durban ... ... ....... ... ... ....... ... 50MISCELLANEOUS DISTURBANCESPaarl ... ... .... ... ... ... .... ... ... ... .... ... 51W elkom .... ...... .... ... ... ... .... ... ... .... ... 52THE MOUNTING CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE PASS LAWSOpposition to the pass laws in previous years ......... 52 Arrests for pass lawoffences ....................... 52Order issued by the Commissioner of Police, June 1959 ... 52 Views ofOpposition political parties ............. ... 53African National Congress conference, December 1959 ... 54

RELATIONS: 1959-60Pan-African Congress conference, December 1959 ......Demonstration in Johannesburg, 22 February 1960 ......DEMONSTRATION PLANNED BY THE PAN-AFRICAN CONGRESS, ANDITSOUTCOME, 18-22 MARCHAnnouncement of the plans of the Pan-African Congress ...Action taken by P.A.C. members on 21 March .........Events in and near Vereeniging ..................Evaton ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...Vanderbijl Park ... .... ... ... ... .... ... ... ...Sharpeville ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...Events in Cape Town, 21 March ..................DISTURBANCES IN CAPE TOWN AND JOHANNESBURG, 23"Day ofMourning" . .................Johannesburg ... ... ... ... ... ... ...Cape Town ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...SUBSEQUENT DISTURBANCES, 30 MARCH- 11 APRILDeclaration of a state ofemergency ......Cape Town ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...Other towns in the Western Cape ..........Durban .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... ...Johannesburg ... ... ... ... ... ... ...Germiston ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...Port Elizabeth ...East London and Cradock ..................Bloemfontein ... .... ... ... ....... ... ...Pietermaritzburg, Beaufort West and Ermelo Casualty figures ... ... ... ... ... ... ...29 MARCH... ... ... 62... ... ... 62... ... ... 64... ... ... 65

... ... ... 67

... ... ... 67

... ... ... 67

... ... ... 67

... ... ... 68

... ... ... 68

... ... ... 68ACTION TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENTBANNING OF PUBLIC MEETINGS ...............TEMPORARY RELAXATION OF PASS RAIDS .........UNLAWFUL ORGANIZATIONS ACT, NO. 34 OF 1960 ...The Governor-General empowered to ban theP.A .C . .... ... ... ... .... ... ... ...Increased penalties for certain offences underAssemblies Act... ... ... ... ... ...Brief notes on the Parliamentary debate ......Banning of the A.N.C. and P.A.C .........Action taken by these bodies since April ...MOBILIZATION OF THE CITIZEN FORCE .........DECLARATION OF A STATE OF EMERGENCY ......... ... ... 68... ... ... 68... ... ... 69A.N.C. and69the RiotousEMERGENCY REGULATIONS ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...DURATION OF STATE OF EMERGENCY ..........................PERSONS DETAINED UNDER SECTIONFOUR OF THE EMERGENCYREGULATIONS ....... ...........................Arrests under Section four ............................

Rules governing the detention of thes Further information about the conditioRepresentations made by detainees an Release of the detainees ........A SURVEY OF RACE e persons ....... ... 79ns of detention ...... 81 1 their families ... ... 82 . ... ... ... ... ... 8 3OTHER ARRESTS DURING THE PERIOD OF EMERGENCY .........N um ber of arrests ...... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...Treatment of Africans by the police ...............Trials of Africans accused of offences against the law of theland or the emergency regulations (other than Sections 4 and 4 b is ... ... ... ... ...... ... ...... . ..Treatment of Africans arrested under Section 4 bis ...... SUSPENSION OFCERTAIN PUBLICATIONS, AND PROSECUTIONS OFED ITO RS ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...ATTEMPTED ASSASSINATION OF THE PRIME MINISTER .........

84 84 84REACTIONS IN SOUTH AFRICA TO THE CRISISPARLIAMENTARY DEBATE ON THE DISTURBANCES ............ 89REACTIONS OF LEADERS OF INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE ........... 90REACTIONS BY THE CHURCHES ... .. ................ .... ... 94Dutch ReformedChurches ....... ....... .... ....... ... 94Statement by the Anglican Archbishop of Cape Town ... 95 Effects of thisstatement .... ... .... ....... .... ... ... 95Action taken by the World Council of Churches .......... 97 Deportation ofBishopReeves ....... ....... ....... ... 98Effects on arrangements for the inter-church conferences ... 98 Discussion groupof ministers of various churches ....... 100 Joint pastoral letter by the CatholicBishops .......... 100Statement bythe Transvaal Region of the PresbyterianChurch .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... ... 101ACTION BY THE INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONS AT THE TIME OFTHEEMERGENCY ... ... ... ... ... ... .... ... ... ........ 101SABRA'S ANNUAL CONFERENCE ... .... .... .... ... ... ... ... 102PROPOSAL BY PROF. J. L. SADIE ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 103STATEMENT BY THE PRIME MINISTER .... .... .... ... ... ... ...103FURTHER DECISIONS IN REGARD TO THE "PASS LAWS" .......... 106Reference books to be compulsory for African women ... 106 Statement by theCommissioner of the S.A. Police ....... 106 Recent announcementby the Minister................. 106THE AFRICAN RESERVESAPPOINTMENT OF COMMISSIONERS-GENERAL ............... 107BANTU AUTHORITIES SO FAR ESTABLISHED ............... 107ALLOWANCES TO CHIEFS AND HEADMEN ........... ......... 108THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AFRICAN RESERVES ............109The extent of the Reserves ....... .... ....... ....... ... 109The future of the Transkei ....... ....... .... ....... ... 111

RELATIONS: 1959-60Proposed Pongola Poort irrigation scheme ............Soil conservation and agricultural development in the Reserves Industrialdevelopment on the borders of the Reserves ...Interim decision in regard to wages in the clothing industry in Northern Natal ....... ....... ... ...Government's plan for border industries .........First meeting of the Economic Advisory Council ...Statement issued after the meeting .................Memorandum by the S.A. Federated Chamber ofIndustries ... ... ... ... ...Industrial and commercial development within the ReservesThe Bantu Investment Corporation .................

Businesses in Transkeian towns ... .... ....... ... ...R ural villages ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...GENERAL MATTERS AFFECTING NON-WHITE PEOPLEAFRICANSNo deviation from Government policy as a result of thedisturbances ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...Administration of Africans in urban areas .............Participation of urban Africans in local government ......Proposed Bantu urban authorities ......Tribal representation in urban areas ...Residents' associations ... .... ... ... ...Proposals for direct representation of Norgoverning bodies ... .... ....... ...Conferences on urban Africans .........Taxation of Africans ... .... ....... ... ...Normal and provincial income taxes ...African general tax ......Local tax ... ... ... ...General and tribal levies ....... ... ...Other taxes paid by Africans .........State expenditure on behalf of Africans ......African Separatist Churches ............Compensationfor widows of Africans killnegligence ... ... ... ... ... ... ...Rights of inheritance ... .... .... ... ... ...Naturalization of "foreign" Africans ......COLOURED PEOPLEDepartment of Coloured Affairs .........Head of theDepartment .............Branch offices ... ... . .........Coloured mission stations and reserves ...Union Council for Coloured Affairs ......The sense of frustration among many Colouredthe Government's attitude ................ 123... 124 ... 124n-Whites on ... ... ... 125... ... ... 125... ... ... 126... ... ... 126... ... ... 126... . .... - 127... ... ... 127... ... ... 127-.I.. . ... 128... ... ... 128ed

through... ... ... 129... ... ... 130... ... ... 130... ... ... 131... ... ... 13 1... ... ... 13 1131... . .... 132people, and

A SURVEY OF RACEMunicipal representation in the Cape ...............Transvaal conference ofrepresentatives of the ColouredCom m unity ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...ASIANSGovernment official responsible for the interests of Asians ImmigrationAmendment Act, No. 8 of 1960 .........Review by the Institute of Race Relationsof a century ofIndian settlement and development ...............THE LIQUOR LAWS AS THESE AFFECT THE NON-WHITEPEOPLEBrief summary of the Union's present laws ............Inefficacy of these laws ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...Recommendations by the Malan Commission .........Statement by the Prime Minister, May 1960 ............Announcement by the Commissioner of Police, August 1960GROUP AREASRECENTLY-ANNOUNCED DECISIONS ON POLICY ...............Alternative accommodation must be available before anyoneis required to move ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...The future of Indian traders ....................Regulations under the Group Areas Development Act ...RECENT COURT CASES ... ... ... ... ...... ... ... ... ...S. M. Lockhat and eighteen others vs. the Minister of theInterior (Durban group areas proclamation) .........Cassem en 'n ander vs. Oos-Kaapse Komittee van die Groepsgebiederaad enandere (Proceedings before the Board)Administrators of Estate Marks vs. Group Areas Development Board (Propertyoccupied by members of different racial groups) ... ... ... ...... ... ... ... ...Fixed Properties (S.A.) Ltd. vs. Savage and another (valuation of affectedproperty) ... ... .... ... ... ... ...O ther cases ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...FINANCES OF GROUP AREAS DEVELOPMENT BOARD ............PUBLICATIONS ON GROUP AREAS ............................DEVELOPMENTS IN CERTAIN TOWNS WHERE GROUP AREAS WERE

PROCLAIMED PRIOR TO 1960Johannesburg ... ... ... ... .. .. . .. . .. . ...Coloured people (147), Indians (148), The final movement of Africans fromSophiatown (150).Pretoria ... ... .... ... ... ... .... ... ... .... ... ...Cape Town ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...D urban ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...K im berley ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...TOWNS IN WHICH GROUP AREAS WERE PROCLAIMED DURING 1960 ...Pieterm aritzburg ... ... ...... ... ... ... ... ... ...R ustenburg ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...Pietersburg ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...133134136 136136138 140 140 142 142142142 143 144 144144145146146 146 146 147147151 152 153 154 155 155 155156

RELATIONS: 1959-60Estcourt............W olmaransstad ... ... ... .... . ......Other towns ... ... .... ... ... ... .... ... ...TOWNS IN WHICH FURTHER AREAS HAVE BEEN "DEFINED"Port Elizabeth ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...ix... ... 157... ... 157... ... 158... ... 158... ... 159HOUSINGHOUSING FUNDS ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...HOUSING REQUIREMENTS ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ......PROVISIONS OF ALTERNATIVE "ACCOMMODATION" FOR AFRICANSWHOARE REQUIRED TO MOVE... .... ... ... ... .... ... ... 160

HOUSING SCHEMES FOR AFRICANS ......Johannesburg ... ... ... ... ...Reef towns ... ... ... ... ... ...OtherTransvaal towns .........The Cape Province ............N atal ... ... ... ... ... ... ...Orange Free State ............HOUSING FOR COLOURED AND INDIAN PEOPLETRANSPORT SERVICESRAIL AND AIR SERVICES ............BUS SERVICESApartheid in bus services .........Native Transport Services Account ...EMPLOYMENTTHE ECONOMIC SITtThe economic Boycotts of S UnemploymenImmigration... ... .... ... ... 160... ... .... ... ... 160... ... .... ... ... 162... ... .... ... ... 163... ... .... ... ... 164... ... .... ... ... 165... ... .... ... ... 167... .... ... ... ... 168... ... ... ... ... 170... ... ... .1.. ... 170... ... .... ... ... 170... ... .... ... ... 171JATION ... .... .... .... .... ... .... .... ... 172recession ... ... ... .... ... ... .... ... 172outh African products ................... 173t ... .... ... ... ... .... ... ... .... ... 174.... ... ... ... .... ... ... ... .... ...... 175Establishment of the Economic Advisory Council ......The South African Foundation ......................RESERVATION OF WORK ...Note on trends so far evident ... ... ....... ... ... ...Developments in regard to determinationsmade before 1960Passenger lift attendants (178), the building industry in the Transvaal and FreeState (178), domestic appliances(179).New determination for the clothing industry ............Proposed work reservation determinations............FACTORIES, MACHINERY AND BUILDING WORK AMENDMENT ACT,NO. 31 OF 1960 ... ... ... ... ... . .. . .. . .. . .. . ..

THE POVERTY OF URBAN AFRICANS ............New survey in Johannesburg by the Institute of RaceRelations ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .. . ..

A SURVEY OF RACESurvey by the Department of Economics of Natal University 186 The necessityfor increases in the wages of Africans ...... 187 Recent Wage Determinations......................... 189Voluntary increases in pay ....... ....... .... ... .... ... 189Relative lack of incentives for employers to improveproductivity ...........................189Recent increases granted ......................... 190The Association for theImprovement of Bantu Wagesand Productivity .... ... .... ... .... ...... ... 191Little change in the basic pattern of inequality betweenthe wages of White and Black ................. 191Recent announcement by the Minister of Labour ...... 191 STRIKES ANDLABOUR DISPUTES ........................ 192The separate Industrial Conciliation machinery provided forAfricans .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... ... 192Disputes without stoppages of work ..................... 193Strikes ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... ... 193Statistics for 1959 (193), Langeberg Kooperasie strike(194)., Hammarsdale strike (195), Emco strike (195)TRADE UNIONISM ... ... ... ... ... ... .... .... ... ... ... 195Racialcomposition of trade unions ..................... 195Developments in regard to co-ordinating bodies .......... 196EMPLOYMENT IN VARIOUS BRANCHES OF THE ECONOMY ... ......197Occupations in 1951 .... ....... .... ... .... ....... ... 197Agriculture ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... 197Numbers employed (197), White occupancy of rural areas (198).Appointment ofnew Inter-Departmental committee (199), Course of training for Coloured farmworkers (199), The S.A. Agricultural Union's "NativePolicy for Agriculture" (200).Manufacturing ................................... 201Construction and power ............................. 201Commerce ................................. 202African traders in Johannesburg (202), Courses of training for African traders(203), Traders' organizations(203).M ining .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... 203The Public Service ................................. 205The Railways ... ............................ 206M unicipal service .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... ... 206Personal services ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... ... 207

The professions .... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... 207Medicalprofession ............................ 207Law .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... ... ... ... 207Advocates Admission Draft Bill ............. 207Other professions ............................. 208

RELATIONS: 1959-60EDUCATIONCONTROL OF EDUCATION ... ... ... ... ... ...EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATIONAL SERVICES ..................Expenditure per pupil and per head of population ......Bantu Education Account ...........................Receipts, 1958-59 ... .... ....... .... ... .... ... ...Extension of University Education Amendment Act,N o. 32 of 1960 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...Estimated expenditure for the year ending 30 March196 1 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...Adequacy of fundsfor Bantu education .............NUMBER OF SCHOOL PUPILS AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION BETWEENTHESTANDARDS . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . ..TEACHERS . ... . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . ..N um bers .... .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . ..Pension schemes for African teachers ...............Cost-of-living allowances for African teachers .........NUMBERS OF NON-WHITES WITH VARIOUS EDUCATIONALQUALIFICATIONS ..... .. . .. . .. ... . .. . .. . ..AFRICAN EXAMINATION RESULTS ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...EXAMINATION FEES .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... ... ... ...SCHOOL BOARDS AND COMMITTEES FOR BANTU COMMUNITYSCHOOLS FARM SCHOOLS FOR AFRICANS ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...DISTURBANCES AT AFRICAN SCHOOLS ........................EDUCATION OF COLOURED CHILDREN ... ... ... ... ... ... ...THE TEACHING OF HISTORY ... ... ... ... ... ... .... .... ...SCHOOL FEEDING ... ... ... . .... . ... . .. . .. . .. . .SPECIAL SCHOOLS ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...Special schools and their enrolment ... ... ... ... ...Special Education Amendment Act, No. 45 of 1960 ...... VOCATIONAL ANDTECHNICAL EDUCATION ..................Training of African social workers ... ........... ... ...Proposed technical school for Coloured students .........Students attending technical and vocational classes ...... THE UNIVERSITIESAND UNIVERSITY COLLEGES ...................Enrolment at universities in 1958 ... .... .. ......Degrees and diplomas awarded to Non-White students in 1958 Admission ofNon-White students to university colleges and

universities in 1960 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...Admissionsto the new university colleges .........Admissions to the Natal Medical School and theUniversity of South Africa ....... ....... ... ...Admission of Non-White students to the open universitiesRegulations for the Bantu university colleges.........Senates, Boards, etc . ... .... ... .... ....... ... ...Admission, control and dismissal of students .........216 216 218 219 219 219 221 222 223 224 224 225 226 226 226 227 227227 228228 228229 229 231 231 231

A SURVEY OF RACEAdditional regulations for Fort Hare students ......Fees at the Bantu university colleges ............Study loans ......University College of Fort Hare Transfer Amendment Act,N o. 62 of 1960 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...Developments at Fort Hare during 1960 ............The two new Bantu university colleges ................University College of Pius XII, Basutoland ............University College of the Western Cape ............BURSARIES AND STUDY LOANS FOR NON-WHITE STUDENTS ......NIGHT SCHOOLS AND CONTINUATION CLASSES ...............AFRICAN LITERACY RATE ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...HEALTH AND NUTRITION232234 234239 240VITAL STATISTICS ... .... ... .... ... .... ... ...MEDICAL SERVICES ... .... ... .... .... .... ... ...Commission of Enquiry into costs .........Medical services available ................C linics ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...Treatment of specific diseases .............Tuberculosis (243),Eye diseases (244), 0(244).Blood transfusion services ................NUTRITIONVoluntary feeding schemes .........Announcement by the Prime MinisterWELFARETHE CHILDREN'S ACT, NO. 33 OF 1960 ...General provisions ............Administration of the Act as it affects.... ... 240

...... 241

.... ... 241

.... ... 241

....... 243

....... 243er diseases... . .. ° . .. .. ...... ... ... ... ...... ... ... .... ...Africans tobe trans-ferred to the Department of Bantu Administration and Development .... ... ... ... ....... ... .... ... ...Ethnological grouping of a child in need of care to be takeninto account ... ... ... .... ... ... ....... ... ..Proposal thatchildren classified in a different racial groupfrom that of their parents might be deemed "in need of care" .... ... ... .... ... ... ....... ... ... ...Notes on the Parliamentary debate ...................Boards of Management of Governmentinstitutions forAfricans .... ... ... .... ... ... ... .... ... ... ...THE BLIND PERSONS' AMENDMENT ACT, NO. 46 OF 1960 ......CONTROL OF SOCIAL WELFARE SERVICES FOR AFRICANS ..........CONTROL AND SITING OF INSTITUTIONS .............PENSIONSAND GRANTS .... ... .... ... .... .... .... .... ... ...Estimated State expenditure, 1960-61 ......... .....Pensions Law Amendment Act, No. 61 of 1960 .........Increase in social pensions ... ....... ... ... ....... ...249 249 250 250 253 253 254 254O * .°.th

RELATIONS: 1959-60 xiiiRates of old age, blind and disability pensions ......... 254 Amounts paid inpensions and grants ................ 255Old age, war veterans' and blind pensions and disability grants ... .... ... ... ... ....... ... 255Unemployment benefits ....................... 255Pneumoconiosis benefits ...................... 256Accidents to African mine-workers ............... 256Committee ofEnquiry into family allowances for Whites ... 256 Shelteredemployment services ...................... 257RECREATIONTHE ARTS .... ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... 257Literature ... ... ... .... ... ... .... ... ... ... ... 257Indian arts .... ... ... ... .... ... ... .... ... ... ... 258Painting ... ... ... .... ... ... ... .... ... ... .... ... 258

Music. ... ......... ... .. ... ... ... ... .... ...258ENTERTAINMENT .... ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... ... ... 259The theatre ... .... ... ... ... .... ... ... .... ... ... 259Cinemas .... ... ... ... .... ... ... .... ... ... ... ... 260Radio ... .... ... ... ... .... ... ... .... ... ... ... 260Broadcasting Amendment Act,No. 49 of 1960 ...... 260 Interim broadcastingservice for Africans .......... 261 Plans for the future .......................... 262Broadcasts during the State of Emergency ......... 262SPORTS ... ... ... ... .... ... .... ... .... ... ....... ... 263Bathing ... ... .... ... ... .... ... ... ... .... ... ... 263Reservation of Separate Amenities Amendment Act,No. 10 of 1960 ... .... ... ... ... .... ... ... 263S.A. Sports Association ......................... 263Soccer ... ... .... ... ... ... .... ... ... .... ... ... 264Cricket ....................................264Table tennis ... ... .... ... ... ... .... ... ... ... ... 265Boxing .... ... ... .... ... ... ... .... ... ... .... ... 265G olf ... .... ... ... ... .... ... ... ... .... ... ... 265JUSTICECRIMINAL STATISTICS ... .... ... .... ... .... ... .... ... ... 266NOTES ON THE PRISONS SYSTEM ........................... 266Classification of long-term prisoners ................ 266Use of prison labour ... ... ....... ... ... .... ... ... 266The prison farm system .......................... 267The probationary release of prisoners ................ 268PROMISES OF SIMPLIFIED COURT PROCEDURE AND BETTER POLICEPROTECTION FOR AFRICANS ........................... 269JUVENILES ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ......... ...... 270Youth camps ... .... ... ... ... .... ... ... .... ... ... 270Provision of work for urban youth ......... ..........271

A SURVEY OF RACETREATMENT OF FARM LABOURERSLEGAL AID BUREAUXEXTERNAL AFFAIRSBOYCOTTS OF SOUTH AFRICAN GOODS ......Calls for action ... ... ... ... ... ... ...West Indies and Central America .........B ritain ... ...... ... ... ... ... ... ...W est A frica ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...Central and East Africa ... ... ... ... ...Scandinavia ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...U nited States ... ... ... ... ... ... ...M alaya ... ... ... ... ...... ... ... ...Effects of these boycotts ... ... ... ... ...INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS _....................

United Nations, November 1959 .........The Netherlands .... ... .... ....... ... ...C anada ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ......B ritain ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...Mr. Macmillan's "Wind of Change" speech Dr. Verwoerd's reactions ............United States .... ... .... .... ... .... ... ...United Nations' debate, March/April 1960 ...Brazil .... .. . .. . .. . ..Commonwealth Prime Ministers' conference ...Pan-African Federation conference .........G hana ... ... ... ... ... ...N igeria ... ... . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . ..Establishment of the S.A. Political Bureau...272273. .........274. .........274275.... .... ... 275... ... ... 275... ... ... 275.... .... ... 276... ... ... 276.... ... ... . 276... .... ... 276... .... ... 277. .........277... .... ... 277... .... ... 278... .... ... 278... .... ... 278... .... ... 280... .... ... 281........... 281... .... ... 283... .... ... 283... .... ... 285... ... ... 285... .... ... 286... .... ... 286South African membership of international bodies ....... 287 United Nations'consideration of South-West Africa ...... 287 The treatment of persons of Indianorigin in South Africa ... 289SOME RECENT PUBLICATIONS DEALING WITH RACERELATIONSPublished by the Institute of Race Relations ........... 290

Published by others .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... 291INDEX ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... 294

RELATIONS: 1959-60 xvLEGISLATION OF 1960Births, Marriages and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, No. 5of 1960 ............................................ 30Blind Persons Amendment Act, No. 46 of 1960 .................249Broadcasting Amendment Act, No. 49 of 1960 ................. 260Children's Act, No. 33 of 1960 ... .... ... .... ....... .... ... ... 246Extension of University Education Amendment Act, No. 32 of 1960 211Factories, Machinery and Building Work Amendment Act, No. 31of 1960 ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ... 182Immigration Amendment Act, No. 8 of 1960 .................. 136Pensions Law Amendment Act, No. 61 of 1960 ................. 254Population RegistrationAmendment Act, No. 30 of 1960 .......... 28Referendum Act, No. 52 of 1960 ............................ 6Reservation of Separate Amenities Amendment Act, No. 10 of 1960263 SenateAct, No. 53 of 1960 ... .... .... ... .... ... .... ....... ... 2Special Education Amendment Act, No. 45 of 1960 .............. 225University College of Fort Hare Transfer Amendment Act, No. 62of 1960 ....... ....... ... ........................ 235Unlawful Organizations Act, No. 34 of1960 .................. 69

CONSTITUTIONAL MATTERSRE-CONSTITUTION OF THE SENATESENATE ACT, No. 53 OF 1955The history of the re-constitution of the Senate in 1955 and the reasons for thishas been given in previous Surveys0'Briefly, at the beginning of that year teffe-Senate had 48 members, ten nominatedby the Governor-General-in-Council (half of these selected on the ground mainlyof their thorough acquaintance with the reasonable wants and wishes of theColoured races), four electedby Africans, and the remaining 34 (eight for eachprovince and two for South-West Africa) elected, according to the system ofproportional representation with the single transferable vote, by the members ofthe House of Assembly and of the provincial councils(2) sitting together under theAdministrator of each province.During the six years preceding 1955 the Government had met with a series ofreverses in its efforts to place the Coloured voters of the Cape and Natal(3) on aseparate roll. It finally decided that the constitution of the Senate should be alteredin such a way as to make it possible for the Government to obtain a two-thirdsmajority for the necessary legislation at a joint session of both Houses (aprocedure laid down in the South Africa Act of 1909 for legislation affectingvoting rights).The Senate Act of 1955 provided that the Senate should include eighteenmembers nominated by the Governor-General (again, half of these selected on the

ground mainly of their thorough acquaintance withthe reasonable wants andwishes of the Coloured races), four elected by Africans, two electedfrom South-West Africa, the rest representing each of the provinces of the Union. Eachprovince would elect a number of members equal (to the nearest figure) to one-fifth of the total number of members of the House of Assembly plus the membersof the provincial council elected in that province, but in no case lessthan eight. Inthese elections the system of proportional representation would no longer be used:instead, elections would be by majority vote, each voter having onenontransferable vote for each senator to be elected (the bulk vote or "ticket"system).The new arrangement entitled the Transvaal to 27 elected members, the Cape to22, and the Orange FreeState and Natal each to eight. Altogether, the Senate had89 members. Of the(1) e.g. 1955-1956, page 22.(2) In the case of South-West Africa, the Legislative Assembly.(3) They had not been enfranchised in the other provinces.

A SURVEY OF RACEelected Senators from the provinces, the eight from Natal were members of theUnited Party and the 57 from the other provinces were Nationalists.CHANGES MADE FROM 1956 TO 1959The South Africa Act Amendment Act, No. 9 of 1956, removed the entrenchmentof voting rights and revalidated the Separate Representation of Voters Act of1951, which had been rejected by the Appeal Court because it was originallypassed by the Senate and the Assembly separately, and with simple majorities.This 1951 Act provided, inter alia, that a White Senator would be nominated bythe Governor-General on the ground of his thorough acquaintance with thereasonable wants and wishes of the Coloured people of the Cape. Thisappointment was made in July 1957.Then, in 1959, thePromotion of Bantu Self-Government Act (No. 46 of that year)repealed the Representation of Natives Act of 1936, which had provided thatAfricans in all provinces should elect four White Senators, and that Africans inthe Cape who qualified as voters should elect three White representatives to theHouse of Assembly and two to the Cape Provincial Council. Africanrepresentation in these bodies ceased when the term of office of their existingrepresentatives expired at the end of June 1960.As a result ofthese changes, the Senate had 86 members.The United Party's Senate plan was described in our 1956-57 Survey.(4)SENATE ACT, No. 53 OF 1960The terms of the ActThe Senate Bill of 1960 was referred to a Joint Select Committee afterits SecondReading, certain changes being made as a result.In its final form the Act provided for a Senate of, at present, 54 members. Ofthese, ten will be nominated by the GovernorGeneral, two from each province andtwo from South-West Africa. At least one of the two must be thoroughlyacquainted with the interests of the Cape Coloured, Malay and Griqua peoplel-' in

the province or territory concerned and capable of serving as a channel throughwhich these interests may be promoted. In making the nominations theGovernor-General must also have regard to the desirability of ensuring that the Senate willas far as practicable consist of persons having knowledge affecting the variousinterests of the inhabitants of the Union.(4) Page 3.(5) The term "Coloured" is defined so as to exclude Africans and Asians.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 3As before, one further Senator will be nominated on the ground of his thoroughacquaintance with the reasonable wants and wishes of the Coloured people of theCape.Members of the House of Assembly and provincial council in each province willform electoral colleges for the election of provincial representatives to the Senate.Their numbers will in each case be divided by ten to determine the number ofSenators to be elected from the province concerned: if the number is not amultiple of ten, the lowest next such multiple will be used. There will, however,be a minimum of eight Senators per province. Besides these, two Senators will beelected by the Members of Parliament and Legislative Assembly in South-WestAfrica.Elections will again take place according to the system of proportionalrepresentation, each voter having one transferable vote.According to the Minister of the Interior,(6) in terms of the new arrangement theTransvaal will have 14 elected Senators, the Cape 11, Natal 8, the Orange FreeState 8, and South-West Africa 2. On the basis of present party political strengthin Parliament and the provincial councils, and includingthe nominated Senators,the Government will have 39 representatives and the Opposition 15.The Act also provides that the Senate may establish standing committeesforvarious matters. It has in the past had standing committees on certainsubjects, butawider range of such committees will in future be possible. The Minister said(')that these bodies may be asked to consider matters that are not politicallycontentious, such as social and economic problems, before legislation is drafted.They will be representative of the various political parties in the proportion inwhich these parties are represented in the Senate.Method of electing SenatorsR 1341 of 2 September set out regulations for the election of Senators, accordingto the preferential votingsystem.Parliamentary debate on the BillWhen introducing the Bill at its Second Reading the Minister of the Interiorsaid(8) that now the Government had achieved its purposes through the 1955legislation, it proposed again reducing the size of the Senate and reintroducing thesystem of proportional representation. He went on to describe the terms of theBill.(6) Assembly, 22 February 1960, Hansard 6 cols. 1959.(7) Cols. 1967-8.(8) Cols. 1951-4.

A SURVEY OF RACEAll the Oppositionparties opposed the measure. On behalf of the United Party, itsleader, Sir de Villiers Graaff 9) welcomed the decision to re-constitute the Senate,but stated that the Government's plan did not go far enough. The provinces shouldhave equal representation, their representatives being elected directly by Whitevoters and not by electoral colleges composed of M.P.'s and M.P.C.'s. The actualstrength of the various parties would then be reflected in the Senate. Limitednumbers of White Senators should be elected by Coloured and African people,through separate voters' rolls.Mrs. V. M. L. Ballinger, leader of the Liberal Party and of the Natives'Representatives, supported') the suggestions by Sir de Villiersin regard to equalrepresentation from each province and direct voting on a basis of proportionalrepresentation. She urged that the vote should be extended to Non-Whites too,beginning with those who possessed at least the degree of education normallyattained by Whites under the compulsory education system. While this numberwas comparatively small, there should be further Senators to represent the rest,elected by Non-Whites, who would be free to choose persons of their own racialgroups.The leader of the Progressive Party, Dr. J. van A. Steytler, considered(") that theconstitution and powers of the Senate should be entrenched againstattempts tosubvert it for party or sectional purposes. The Bill, he said, did not give the Senateadequate substantive powers, failed to provide representation of any value for theNon-White people, did not make it possible for Non-Whites to be elected asSenators, and provided inadequate safeguards for racial minorities. Dr. Steytler,too, was in favour of the equal representation of all provinces.Mr. J. D. du P. Basson of the National Union pleaded for increased representationof Coloured people by members of their own group, if they so wished, and for therepresentation by Whites of Africans who are permanently resident outside theReserves.SENATE ELECTIONSThe term of office of the elected Senators expired on 26 November 1960,and thatof the nominated Senators on 6 December.Members of the House of Assembly and provincial council in each province meton 26 October to elect provincial representatives to thereconstituted Senate. Theresults were as had been(9) Cols. 1973-85.(10) Cols. 2010-6.(11) Col. 2033.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 5forecast-28 seats to the Government and 15 to the Opposition, as follows:Government OppositionTransvaal ... ... .... ... 10 4Cape ... ... .... ... ... ... 7 4Free State .... ... ... ... 8 0

Natal ...............1 7South-West Africa ......... 2 0Including the ten Senators still to be nominated and the Senator selected on theground of his acquaintance with the reasonable wants and wishes of the Colouredpeople of the Cape, the Government would have a total of 39 supporters in theSenate.REFERENDUM ON THE REPUBLICAN ISSUEPRELIMINARY ANNOUNCEMENTS BY THE PRIME MINISTEROn 20 January 1960 the Prime Minister announced("2) in the Assemblythat theGovernment intended holding a referendum on the republican issue, the decisionto be by majority verdict even if it was a majority of only one.The republic, when established, would be a democratic one, he said.There wouldbe no radical changes in South Africa's parliamentary institutionsor constitutionalpractices. The monarch would be replaced by a President,who would be outsidethe political arena: unlike the old republican system in the Transvaaland FreeState the head of the state would not also be the head of the government.Thelanguage and other rights of Englishspeaking as well as Afrikaans-speakingcitizens would be fully protected.Later, on 21 March, the Prime Minister reiterated(3 that a bare majority of voteswould be regarded as adequate, and added, "If we do not succeed... next time wewill adopt the ... method ... of allowing (the) ... decision to be taken by themajority in a Parliament elected for that purpose."The Government believed, Dr. Verwoerd said, "that on sober common-sensegrounds the Commonwealth is of value to us to-day." He continued, however, bysaying that the Commonwealthwas of little help in connection with SouthAfrica's colour policy.(12) Hansard 1 cols. 99-107.(13) Assembly, Hansard 10 cols. 3765-77.

6 A SURVEY OF RACETHE REFERENDUM ACT, No. 52 OF 1960Terms of the ActIn the main, the Referendum Act consisted of a series of amendments totheElectoral Act of 1946 with the object of making the ordinary electoral machineavailable for a referendum. The place of candidates in Parliamentary electionswould be taken by referendum agents, appointed by the electoral officers, eachconstituency to have one pro-republican and one anti-republican agent. Theirexpenses would be borne by political parties or other organizations.The ballot papers would state merely:"Are you in favour of a Republic for the Union?YesNomVoters would be asked to make a cross in the square opposite their choice ofanswer. White voters only would participate in the referendum.Parliamentary debate on the Bill

The Deputy Minister of theInterior moved in the Assembly on 11 March thatleave be granted to introduce the Bill. The leaders of all Opposition parties and ofthe Natives' and Coloured representatives objected, on the ground that thereferendum would be confined to White voters. The Progressive and LiberalParties considered that not only registered Coloured voters should participate (asthe United Party had suggested), but that Asians and Africans, too, should begiven the opportunity of expressing their point of view.(")Introducing the Bill at its Second Reading on 22 April, the Deputy Ministersaid15) that the National Party upheld "the principle that White South Africa isthe guardian of the Non-White and that it would be wrong to call in the Non-Whites as an arbiter in this matter." It would be for the Government andParliament to interpret and to implement the decision of the White voters, hecontinued.Guillotines were imposed on the debates in both Houses of Parliament. Sir deVilliers Graaff, who led the opposition to the measure, re-emphasized that it wasundesirable to exclude Coloured voters, said that there should be some attempt toconsult with the(14) Hansard 8 cols. 3200-9.(15) Hansard 14 cols. 5877-83.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 7African people, pointed out that the Bill failed to define the type of republic to bevoted upon or to guarantee that South Africa, as a republic, would remain amember of the Commonwealth, and stressed the opinion that at a time of nationalemergency it was highly unwise to plan very controversial constitutionalchanges.(")DECISION AT COMMONWEALTH PRIME MINISTERS'CONFERENCEOn behalf of the Prime Minister, who was then in hospital, Mr. Eric Louw, theMinister of External Affairs, attended the Commonwealth Prime Ministers'conference held in London during May 1960.It is believed that Mr. Louw sought advance approval for South Africa'sremaining in the Commonwealth as a republic, but no such assurance was given.In the communiqu6 issuedat the end of the conference it was stated, "In the eventof South Africa deciding to become a republic and if the desire was subsequentlyexpressed to remain a member of the Commonwealth, the meeting suggested thatthe South African Government should thenask for the consent of the otherCommonwealth Governments."THE REFERENDUMThe referendum was held on 5 October. The voting was as follows:For Againsta republic a republicCape ... ....... ....... ... 271,418 269,784Transvaal ................. 406,632 325,041Natal .... ... .... ... .... ... 42,299 135,598Orange Free State .......... 110,171 33,438

South-West Africa .......... 19,938 12,017Total ... 850,458 775,878*Therewere 7,436 spoilt papers. On an average, 5,451 voters in each constituencywere in favour of a republic, and 4,974 against it. To analyse the voting byprovinces, the percentages of the valid votes that were pro-republic were 77 in theOrange Free State, 62 in South-West Africa, 56 in the Transvaal, 50 in the Capeand 24 in Natal, the overall percentage being 52.3.There were 1,800,748 people on the voters' roll, so that the average percentagepoll was 90.75.(16) Cols. 5885-6.* It was announced later that a mistake had been made in the Houghtonconstituency result. This reduces the anti-republican vote by 1,000.

A SURVEY OF RACEThe result showed a cleavage between town and country, and between differentparts of the Union. Natal, the Eastern Cape, and the urban areas of the Transvaaland the Western Cape were largely anti-republican. It also became clear yet againhow great an advantage the delimitation system bestows on the National Party.Assuming that its members voted for a republic and that other parties wereopposed to this, and assuming, too, that the distribution of seats in the House ofAssembly should reflect the voting strength of the various parties, 52.3 per cent ofthe members elected by White voters should be representatives of the NationalParty, that is, 82 members, instead of the 102 members this partyIt is interesting to try to estimate the strength of the major parties in constituenciesthat the National Party did not contest at the general election in 1958. There were31 of these. In 1960 the average number of pro-republican votes cast in theseconstituencies was 1,938, which is 17 per cent of the average numberof validvotes, viz 11,363, cast in the 31 constituencies.If the figures are analysed on a provincial basis, the averages were 1,460 perconstituency in Natal, 1,778 in the Transvaal and 2,430 in the Cape.STATEMENT SUBSEQUENTLY ISSUED BY 69PROMINENT MENOn 21 October, sixty-nine prominent South Africans representative of all walks oflife, of both language groups and of both the largest political parties issued astatement declaring their belief that the great opportunities which awaited thecountry could only be successfully realized on the basis of what was right and justfor all sections of the population; that no group was superior or inferior to anothermerely on the grounds of race or colour; that every South African,regardless ofrace, colour or religion, had an inalienable right to respect of his personal dignityas a human being; and that everything possible should be done to improverelationships between different sections of the population, within the frameworkof a civilized, stable, well-run and prosperous society.They were conscious, they continued, of the need to examine many aspects ofracial relationships in the light of the important changes which had taken place inSouth Africa and elsewhere over the past twenty years. White South Africanswere more than ever before being challenged to meet the spiritual, material and

political ne!ds of all racial groups. Their responsibilities should be carried out in aspirit of humility and in such a way as to maintain the Western character, thestability and the orderly progress of the country.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 9Divisions between Afrikaans- and English-speaking White South Africans weremaking it difficult for men of goodwill to give effective attention to these andother problems. It was urgently necessary to bring about a greaterdegree ofunity.The people of South Africa were asked to accept the results of the referendum andproceed to establish a republic as soon as possible, maintaining the existing formof democratic constitution, and desiring to maintain the Commonwealthrelationship.Once the constitutional issue was settled, undivided attention couldbe given to colour and racial issues and to other matters of fundamentalimportance.Friendly and constructive relationships should be established with other Africancountries. The firmalignment of South Africa with the Western democratic worldwas supported.ACTION TAKEN IN NATALThe leader of the United Party in Natal, Mr. D. E. Mitchell, announcedon thefollowing day that the Natal Provincial Council would be asked to initiateactionwhich might lead to constitutional reforms to protect the fundamentalrights of thepeople of that province.It was reported on 26 October'6A) that the resolution to be put before theProvincial Council would demand that the new republican constitution shouldinclude five entrenched "fundamental rights"-freedom of worship, the equality ofEnglish and Afrikaans, parental choice of medium of education, independentuniversities, and freedom of opinion and the Press.The resolution would state that the provincial council should maintain its existingpowers, and that further powers should be ceded by the Government. Theseshould include:(a) exclusive provincial rights over the control of education,including African and technical education;(b) absolute control by the province over the appointment, dismissal and terms ofemployment of Provincial Administrationofficials;(c) powers of taxation and appropriation and borrowing of fundsfor effective administration;(d) the right to establish a provincial police force.It would be stated, further, that Parliament should relinquish any power tolegislate in regard to local matters in the province. All Crown and State-ownedland in the province should revert to Natal. This resolution was passed at a NatalProvincial Council meeting held on 31 October.(itA) Rand Daily Mail, 26 and 27 October 1960.

10 A SURVEY OF RACE

At the time of writing, the United Party members of the Transvaal ProvincialCouncil were planning a resolution to be put before this Council, asking theGovernment for an assurance that provincial rights would be maintained in therepublic. This resolution was unlikely to be as far-reaching as the Natal one.PARTY-POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTSNATIONAL PARTYNo developments of significance have taken place within the National Partyduring the year under review. The outcome of the referendum onthe republicanissue has undoubtedly strengthened the position of Dr. H. F. Verwoerd as leaderof the party.If, as has been suggested, the majority of South Africans voted along party linesin this referendum, then the result indicates that about 52.3 per cent of the Whitesin the Union are supporters of the National Party or the National Union Party(dealt with below).UNITED PARTYUntil the end of October 1960 there had been no developments of notewithin theUnited Party, either, since the Progressives broke away, an eventdescribed in theprevious issue of this Survey.(7)The then broad racial policy of the United Party was expressed by Mr. S. J. M.Steyn, in an amendment he moved during February to a motion in the Assemblyby the leader of the Progressive Party.080 The amendment was as follows:"That this House:1. confirms the traditional and accepted South African policy ofsocial and residential separation among the races;2. condemns the policies of the Government which seek a solutionof South Africa's race problems in unrealistic attempts to develop independentNative states,especially as those policies have no regard to the permanentpresence of millions of Nativesof the same ethnic groups outside those areas;3. calls upon the Government to accept the permanent multi-racialcharacter of the South African State and toformulate its policiesaccordingly; and(17) Page 6.(18) Assembly, 15 February 1960, Hansard 5 cols. 1560-1.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 114. demands that such reformed policies should, inter alia(a) accept therestorationof the Cape Coloured people in theCape Province and Natal on a common roll;(b) be based upon consultation with the Native peoples at alllevels and their representation as a group in the Parliament of South Africa whileensuring the maintenance of those Western standards of which the European racegroup is bytradition and history the guardian."Late in October, however, the leader of the United Party, Sir de Villiers Graaff,visited Britain and Canada to enlist support for South Africa's continued

membership of the Commonwealth. Before leaving, he issued a statement whichreorientated United Party policy. His main points were:1. Coloured people entitled to vote on a separate roll or a commonroll should also have the right to stand for Parliament.2. Artificial economic discrimination against Coloured people, likejob reservation, must disappear.3. Asians in South Africa must be accepted as a permanent partof the population.4. Immediate attention must be given to theeffects of the application of the GroupAreas Act on their economic enterprises.5. Negotiations must be opened to determine their future politicalstatus.6. Special emphasis must be laid on the development of theAfrican Reserves with White capital and White skill.7. South Africa must have the courage to accept a permanentdetribalized African population as a fact.8. This group must be given representation in Parliament basedprimarily on a permanent urban middle class, whose emergencemust be fostered.LIBERAL PARTYThe Liberal Party has recently revised its franchise policy.The new policy, as published in Contact of 18 June 1960, is, "The Liberal Party ofSouth Africa aims to achieve the responsible participation of allSouthAfricans inthe government and democratic process of the country, and, to this end, to extendthe right of franchise on the common roll to all adult persons."The Liberal Party considers it a prerequisite of a universal franchise that thereshould be entrenched in a rigid constitution a Bill of Rights based on theUniversal Declaration of Human

12 A SURVEY OF RACERights, which will protect the rights of all individuals, and which shall beenforceable by anindependent judiciary."The Liberal Party feels that it is not possible at this stage to foresee the precisecircumstances under which the change will occur, but aims to havethe idea of auniversal franchise and a Bill of Rights accepted by the people of South Africa,and to bring about the change with the minimum possible dislocation."Early in 1960 the Liberal Party decided to support the economic boycott of SouthAfrican goods planned in several other countries.Mainly as a result of one or otherof these developments, several prominent partymembers have resigned, among them Mr. Walter P. Stanford, M.P.,Mr. DonaldB. Molteno, Q.C., Dr. Oscar Wollheim and Mr. Gerald Gordon, Q.C.Some ofthose who resigned jolned the Progressive Party instead.During October 1960 (after the ending of the state of emergency), twomeetingswhich the Liberal Party was to have held in Cape Town and Johannesburgrespectively were banned by the magistrates concerned.PROGRESSIVE PARTY

The Progressive Party, formed in November 1959, held its first naticnalconference in Johannesburg during the same month. The congress adopted astatement of its main principles and policies, the principles being:"1. The maintenance and extension of the values of Westerncivilization, the protection of fundamental human rights and the safeguarding ofthe dignity and worth of the human person,irrespective of race, colour or creed.2. The assurance that no citizen of the Union of South Africashall be debarred on grounds of race, religion, language or sex, from making thecontribution to our national life of whichhe or she may be capable.3. The recognition that in the Union of South Africa there is onenation which embraces various groups differing in race, religicns, language andtraditions, that each such group is cntitled to the protection of these things and ofits right of participation in the government of the nation; and that understanding,tolerance and goodwill between the different groupsmust be fostered.4. The maintenance inviolate of the Rule of Law.5. The promotion of social progress and the improvement ofliving standards through the energetic development of a modern economy basedon free enterprise, whereby the national resources of men and materials can befully utilized,

RELATIONS: 1959-606. The promotion of friendly relations with other nations, more particularly themembers of the Commonwealth and those whoshare with us the heritage of Western civilization."In the Assembly on 5 February 1960, the party leader, Dr. J. van A. Steytler,moved that the House should accept a motion based on these principles.(") It wasin reply to this that Mr. Steyn moved the motion quoted above.Dr. Steytler was elected leader at the inaugural congress, the Hon. H. G.Lawrence, M.P., Q.C., being elected National Chairman. The congress decidedthat membership of the party should be open to persons of any race whopossessed the qualifications deemed suitable by the party for registering as voterson a common roll. Local branches would in due course decide for themselveswhether they should be mixed or exclusively White or Non-White. A commissionof experts was set up to define the qualifications for voting and to draft arecommended new constitution forSouth Africa, to incorporate a Bill of Rightsand constitutional safeguards for minority groups. The decentralization oflegislative and executive power in favour of the provinces was suggested by thecongress.Towards the end of 1959 Professor I. S. Fourie, M.P., broke away from theProgressive Party to become an Independent, and Mr. W. P. Stanford, M.P., leftthe Liberal Party to join the Progressives. The latter party thus continued during1960 to have twelve Members of Parliament.

It engaged in itsfirst contest with the United Party at a municipal by-election inJohannesburg in July, losing by 99 votes, the total poll being 3,657.The report of the constitutional commission, which was headed by Mr. DonaldMolteno, Q.C., and which embodied four minority reports on various matters, wasmade public on 14 November 1960, and was considered by a Union-wide Partycongress on the two following days.The congress decided that South Africa should have a rigid constitutionincorporating a Bill of Rights, which could only be amended by a specialprocedure still to be laid down by the commission. Eighteen basic rightsandfreedoms were suggested by the commission, accepted in principle by thecongress and referred to the National Executive Committee for furtherconsideration in detail.(19) Hansard 3 cols. 1000-1.

A SURVEY OF RACEIt was agreed by the congress that all voters should be South Africancitizens (asdefined by law and entrenched in the constitution), and should have attained theage of 21years. There should be two voters' rolls, both non-racial and open topersons of both sexes-an "A" or ordinary roll, and a "B" or special roll.Qualifications for the "A" roll would be:(a) a Standard VIII certificate or equivalent, or(b) a Standard VI certificate or equivalent, and, for the past two years, either anincome of £300 a year, or occupation (i.e.control) of fixed property valued at £500; or(c) the passing of a prescribed literacy test in an official language,and, for the past twoyears, either an income of £500 a year in cash or kind, oroccupation of fixed property valued at £500;or(d) marriage to a person with the necessary income or propertyqualifications provided that the applicant had the requirededucational standard; or(e) past registration on any list of voters for Members ofParliament.For admission to the "B" roll a literacy test only would be required. "B" voterswould elect ten per cent of the members of the House of Assembly, voting threemonths before each general election in especially delimited constituencies. Allcandidates for election to Parliament would have to be registered on the"A" roll.If at any time the number of "B" voters fell below 20 per cent of the number ofregistered "A" voters, then the percentage of special roll seats would be reduced.The income and property qualifications would be reviewed every five years by acommittee headed by a judge, this revision being made in accordancewith thepurchasing power of money.It was decided to set up an ad hoc committee to enquire into the question ofproportional representation in the Assembly.The congress was of the opinion that the Senate should be a "comparatively non-racial" body that would have power to check any legislation except money bills,

and would be able to block any discriminatory legislation introduced by amajority group in the Assembly. Machinery for resolving any deadlocks betweenthe two Houses of Parliament was suggested. It was proposed that theSenateshould consist of twelve members from each of the provinces and six from South-West Africa. They would be directly elected by "A" roll voters in speciallydefined constituencies, and would require the support of at least one-fifth of themembers of each racial group in their constituencies.

RELATIONS: 1959-60NATIONAL UNION PARTYAn account was given in the previous issue of this Survey2") of thedifferences ofopinion between Mr. J. D. du P. Basson, M.P., and the leaders of the NationalParty, which led to his expulsion from the party by majority vote.During February 1960 Mr. Basson launched a new political party, the NationalUnion, with the broad. aim of returning to the main principles of Hertzogism andachieving a greater degree of co-operation betweenthe Afrikaans and Englishsections of the population. His party favoured a republican form of government,but emphasized that the republic must be founded on the broad will ofthe people,based on Western democratic principles and the existing parliamentary system,and within the Commonwealth.According to its published aims, the party is opposed to any measures which drivethe White and Coloured people apart, assail the dignity of the latter ashumanbeings, and hinder them from making constructive contributions to the progress ofthe country. Coloured people, the party considers, should have the right to electtheir own Coloured representatives to legislative bodies.Large-scale and rapid economic and political development should take place inthe Bantu areas on a basis of mutual consultation and joint responsibility.Thosewhose permanent homes are outside the Reserves should be given agreaterresponsibility in the management of their own affairs, and measurescausingunnecessary friction should be removed. The political rights which were removedin 1959 should be restored, the Bantu outside the Reserves participating moredirectly in the election of their representatives.The National Union urges that diplomatic and other forms of contact with otherstates on the continent of Africa should be fostered, ano that a more positiveimmigration policy should be pursued.SOUTH AFRICAN BONDThe aims of the S.A. Bond, formed in December 1955, were outlined inan earlierissue of this Survey.21)In August 1960 the Bond opposed the National Party at a Parliamentaryby-election in the Harrismith constituency, its candidate obtaining 416 votes against4,881 polled in favour of his opponent.(20) Page 1.(21) 1955-56. page 3.

A SURVEY OF RACEWORK FOR INTER-RACIAL HARMONY

S.A. INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONSINSTITUTE'S COUNCIL MEETING, JANUARY 1960The following papers were given at the Institute's annual Councilmeeting, held inDurban during January 1960: Opening speech by the Most Rev. Denis Hurley,Catholic Archbishop of Durban.A Review of Recent Legislation, by the Director, Mr. Quintin Whyte (RR8/60).Fifty Years of Union, by Mr. D. B. Molteno, Q.C.-Fifty Years of Union-PoliticalReview. Papers by Prof. L. M.Thompson(RR 1/60) and Ex-Chief A. J. Luthuli (RR 250/59). Fifty Years ofEconomic Development, by Mrs. M. Kooy(RR 2 / 60).Social Development Since Union, by Miss Hansi Pollak (RR 6/60). TheIndianCommunity of South Africa-Past, Present and Future,by Dr. S. Cooppan (RR 7/60).South Africa and the Wider Africa, 1910-1960, by Professor theHon. E. H. Brookes (RR 14/60).The Findings of Council on "A Hundred Years of Indian SettlementandDevelopment in South Africa" are described later in this Survey.Its findings on"Fifty Years of Union" were as follows:Social Development Since Union1. Council recognizes the great developments made in the provision ofeducation, health, and welfare services during the past fifty years for people of allracialgroups.2. Until 1948 Non-Whites were included in all major governmental socialwelfare programmes, although these were based on the traditional pattern ofdifferentiation. But the earlier promising developments have been marred by theapplication of policies of separation which have led to the fragmentation of oursociety.3. From 1948 with the increasing extension of the policy of apartheid theStatewelfare programme, in contrast with that of the voluntary organizations, has beenrelatively static. It has been marked by the exclusion of certain Non-White groupsfrom benefits and services previously enjoyed and from certain new servicesprovided, and there has been ever-widening disparity in the level of grants andsocial pensions for the four racial groups.4. Council records its appreciation of the present vigorous programme for theprovision of houses for urban Africans. It(22) Published by the Institute as a panhIlet.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 17regrets however, that the present policy precludes the grant of sub-economichousing loans for such development.5. Council condemns the official policy of making Africans, who constitute thepoorest section of our population, increasingly meet the costof the social serviceswhich they receive.

6. Council acknowledges the progress made in penal reform in terms of theCriminal Laws Amendment Act and the Prisons Act of 1959, and urges theirearliest implementation.7. (a) The present officialpolicies regarding urban Africans are creatingfrustration, confusion and stultification for national and local voluntaryorganizations undertaking Africanwelfare work in urban areas.(b) Council is convinced that it is imperative that institutionscreated in response to urban African needs should be permitted to continue theiractivities. It is illogical, impracticable and inhumane that they beremoved to theReserves.(c) Council considers that the future development of progressive, well-administered and financially secure voluntary services for Africans is essential.This goal can best be attained by continued co-operative, inter-racial effort. Whilerecognizing and appreciating the increasing degree of African responsibility, bothin staffing and administering such services, Council is convinced that the enforcedexclusion of Europeans from such voluntary effort is not in the interests of theAfricans themselves nor of the community as a whole. Council further notes thatthis policy threatens toput an end to the participation of internationalorganizations in the voluntary welfare field.(d) Council urges the Executive to seek opportunities, througha national conference or otherwise, of bringing together nationally organizedvoluntary welfare organizations to examine in all its aspects the continuation andfuture provision of welfare services for Africans, particularlyforthose in urban areas.8. (a) Whilst recognizing that great progress has been made in theextension of schoolingto Non-White groups, Council is of the opinion that for theIndian, Coloured, and urban African communities compulsory education is longoverdue. In regard to the African community as a whole, Council acknowledgesthe manifold difficulties in the way of immediate compulsory education, but urgesthat it beregarded as a priority.(b) Council reiterates its earlier findings that the transfer ofAfrican education to the Bantu Education Department is unsound in principle. Ittotally rejects the concept that there should be different types or standards ofeducation

18 A SURVEY OF RACEfor different racial groups, and profoundly regrets the final blow in thefragmentation of education that has come atuniversity level.(c) Council regrets the discouragement and virtual abolitionof all general schemes of school feeding, especially inNon-European schools.9. Council regards with grave apprehension the announced policyof theGovernment to impose a uniformeducational policy on the Provinces, and

opposes all measures which aim at restricting legitimate variety in education andthereby controlling the intellectual life of the country on lines determined by theGovernment. 10. The migrant labour systemis a social evil largelyresponsible not only for the disintegration of African family life in urban and ruralareas but also for the general unrest and insecurity so manifest among the Africanpopulation. Far from recognizing migratory labour for the evilthat it is, theGovernment is perpetuating and extending it as an acceptable featureof our socialstructure.11. Council is dismayed at the growing interference in the domestic affairs ofChurch, professional, cultural, trade, welfare and other voluntary associationshaving multi-racial membership.12. The enforced fragmentation of South African society, affecting as it does notonly voluntary association but every activity of the national life, isprobably themost serious of the changes that hastaken place in the last decade. The possibilityof facing the challenge of the future in a spirit of co-operation, persons of all racescombining in a joint effort according to their ability, has receded toa dangerousdegree.13. Council, despite allthe above difficulties, believes that with faith, hope andhard work, it is still possible to rebuild South African society on lineswhichcommend themselves to the moral sense of mankind, and calls on the people ofSouth Africa to face the future in thisspirit.Economic Development since Union1. The first fifty years of Union have seen great economic change anddevelopment, involving an increasing measure of interracial economic integration.More diversified employment opportunities have become available to members ofall races in lesser or greater degree. Urban and industrial development has beenaccompanied by advances, inter alia, in housing and labour legislation. In additionto industries pioneered by private enterprise, the development, withgovernmentencouragement or direct initiative, of a few siccessful and expanding publicenterprises, has taken place.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 192. Nevertheless, poverty on a massive scale is still the dominantcharacteristic ofthe economic conditions of the Non-White and particularly the African peoples.3. In spite of the findings and recommendations of commission aftercommission-from the 1925 Economic and Wages Commission onward-suchprogress as has beenmade to deal with this poverty by realizing South Africa'sfull productive potential has been achieved by private enterprise with very littlegovernment initiative. Indeed, to a large extent it has been achieved in spite ofgovernment policy which has created or supported obstacles to economicadvance. In particular, official policy has failed adequately to develop theproductive capacities of the Non-White peoples, and has imposed positiverestrictions on their use and development in the supposed interests of the Whites.4. The Institute deplores the increasing number of racially discriminatory lawsand administrative practices which have been introduced especially over the lastten years. It considers that job reservation, influx control, enforcedracial

fragmentation of trade unions and the official insistence that the African labourforce increasingly become migratory in nature have inhibited economicdevelopment. Legislation introduced and directives issued, togetherwiththreatening and often conflicting statements of Government spokesmen, havecreated a state of widespread economic anxiety, uncertainty andinsecurity amongall sections of the South African community and have impaired the confidence ofoverseas investors.5. The Institute considers that the present and proposed measures to rehabilitatethe Bantu reserves are grossly inadequate, relative to the magnitude of the needand the urgency of the task. The Institute records its emphatic conviction that suchdevelopment does not implythe partition of the country into separate andpotentially rival industrial areas.6. Finally, the Institute recognizes that fear on the part of Whites ofunemployment and of Non-White competition at "cutrates" is a factor blockingthe economic advanceof the Non-Whites and causing deterioration in racerelations. It considers that such fear can be more successfully overcome bypositive measures to promote an expanding economy than by restrictive measureswhich lead to recessions and uncertainty, thereby perpetuating the very fear thatthey are designed to alleviate.Political Deve!opment since Unlon1. The members of the National Convention of 1908-1909, all of whom wereWhite South Africans, were optimistic that the Constitution they had devisedwould result in the removal of friction between English- and Afrikaans-speakingWhites. As General

20 A SURVEY OF RACEC. R. de Wet said in 1909, "To-day it does not matter what race we belong to... aslong as we are South Africans".2. Members of the Convention also declared that, notwithstanding the fact thatthe Constitution debarred Non-Whites from Parliament, and excluded from itsfranchise all Non-Whites in the Transvaal and the Orange Free State and nearlyall in Natal, the Union Parliament and Government would deal fairly with theNon-White inhabitants.3. The events of the last fifty years have not justified this optimism. There is stillfriction and misunderstanding between Afrikaans- and English-speaking WhiteSouth Africans. The Indians in Natal have been deprived of their municipalfranchise; the Cape Coloured voters have been placed on a separate roll; theAfricans are being deprived of all representation in Parliament. Non-Whites aresubjected tolaws which restrict their capacity to own and occupy property, tomove about inside their own country, to be educated in institutions of their ownchoice, to improve their industrial status, to express their opinions without fear ofreprisals, and even, in many cases, to live ordinary family lives. Indeed, some ofthese restrictive measures apply also to Whites.4. In this Half-Centenary Year we believe that we should dedicate ourselves tothe following tasks:(a) Respect for the personality andhuman dignity of all inhabitants

of the Union, and their equal treatment irrespective of thecolour of their skins.(b) The removal of causes of friction between the two main groupsof Whites, and between Whites and Non-Whites.(c) A common voters' roll for Whites and Non-Whites, skin colournot being a disqualification from being placed on the roll.(d) The removal of the restriction in the South Africa Act confiningmembership of the Senate and the House of Assembly toWhites only.(e)The timeous publication before Parliament meets of allimportant Bills (with the exception of Bills flowing from the Budget) to enablethe public to make representations on theirsubject matter.(f) The passing of legislation ensuring that the liberty of everyinhabitant of the Union shall not be interfered with save as aresult of an order of Court.(g) The effective entrenchment in a new Constitution of the fundamental rightsand liberties of all inhabitants of South Africa.EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE MEETING, MAY 1960Action taken by the Institute at the time of the emergency in South Africa isdescribed in a later chapter of this Survey, where

RELATIONS: 1959-60 21the broad decisions taken ata specially convened Executive Committee meetingare summarized.At the conclusion of this meeting the Executive Committee issued the followingstatement:"The Executive Committee of the South African Institute of Race Relations,meeting in this time of great crisis and difficulty, wishes to reaffirm its belief infreedom and in political rights for men of every race and colour inSouth Africa asmembers of an essentially integrated society. The Institute is convinced that thegranting of political rights to Africans and other Non-Whites in the Union is asinevitable as it is just. The only choice open to the governing White population iswhether to give these early with goodwill or later after much suffering andsorrow. The lull following on the strongmeasures taken by the Government mustnot be taken as acquiescence in the present unjust conditions. South Africa willface further times of division and disaster until the just claims of herNon-Whitecitizens are honestly met."It is the desire of theInstitute to save South Africa avoidable and uselesssuffering. It therefore appeals to the Government to end the state of emergency assoon as possible and to hasten the investigation of all cases with a viewto theimmediate release of as many people aspossible and the bringing of the restbefore the Courts of Law for just and open trial at an early date. The Instituteexpresses its sympathy with the dependants of those detained. It also urges thatthe pace of any economic or administrative reforms be accelerated in all areas andthat more attention be paid to the vital needs of the urban African population

whose permanent and vitally important status has been very little accepted up tothe present."Realising that much can be done to ease tensions andto benefit the urbanAfrican even if for a time main political issues remain unresolved, the Institutedesires to co-operate with the Chambers of Mines, Commerce and Industries andwith local authorities and the Central Government, especially with regard toimmediate concessions and relaxations in pass laws and influx control and also insuch matters as the raising of Non-White wages, the abolition of Job Reservationand the provision of better opportunities in commerce and industry for Non-Whiteworkers, including the right of collective bargaining. It urges further, theprovision of opportunities for freehold tenure by Africans in urban areas, activeparticipation of Non-Whites in local government, and a greater decentralisation ofpower to local authorities."The Institute commends to all the urgent necessity for maintaining and extendingfriendly contact with Non-Whites. It believes that inter-racial conferences shouldbe held wherever practicable, and expresses the hope that these will lead to anational conference, and one day to the summoning of a National Convention ofall races to shape by consent the future of the Union.

22 A SURVEY OF RACE"Committed by its whole history and tradition to peaceful courses, and earnestlydesiring to save South Africa from division and disaster, the Institute appeals toall in authority to come to terms with facts and to find solutions which willcommend themselves to the Non-Whites. The Institute is convinced that there stillexists among large sections of the Non-Whites a sincere and deeply felt desire toco-operate with the White population, and also that there is a very real danger thatthe continual thrusting out of these Non-White South Africans from the Europeanlife of the country may kill this spirit of co-operation and produce separation andhatred in its place, to the moral and material ruin of the country that we all love."HOERNLiE MEMORIAL LECTUREThe 16th annual Hoernl6 Memorial Lecture was delivered in Durbanon 7 July1960 by Professor C. W. de Kiewiet, president of the University of Rochester inNew York. The title of his lecture was "Can Africa Come of Age?"('1)It was repeated in Johannesburg on 27 July, on which occasion theInstitutepresented an illuminated scroll to Mrs. V. M. L. Ballinger, who until theGovernment abolished the representation of Africans in Parliament,was leader ofthe Natives' Representatives in the House of Assembly.S.A. BUREAU OF RACIAL AFFAIRSThe proceedings at the annual conference of SABRA are outlined in a laterchapter.ECUMENICAL CONFERENCESponsored by the Continuation Committee of the South African Churches'Conferences,2) an Ecumenical conference was held in Johannesburg from 7 to 10December 1959 to consider Christian responsibility in South Africa. Thisconference was called as part of a world-wide study of Christian responsibility inareas of rapid social change being sponsored by the World Council of Churches.

There were about 200 delegates and visitors, clergy and laymen, Afrikaans- andEnglish-speaking, White and Black, including nine visitors from overseas. Boththe official and the informal(1) 7his lecture has been published by the Institute in pamphlet form.(2) See 1958-1959 Sarvey, page 18,

RELATIONS: 1959-60 23social arrangements were completely multi-racial. After Dr. W. Nicol had openedthe conference with an address on "Our Changing World", the following paperswere read: Man in Areas of Rapid Social Change- The Rev. D. Kitagawaand the Rev. Dr. E. C. Blake (both from overseas).The Effects of Industrialization and Economic Development onRapidly Changing Areas-Prof. Monica Wilson and Dr. S.Biesheuvel.The Community in Areas of RapidSocial Change- The Rt. Rev.H. H. Munro.The Task of the Christian Church- Prof. H. D. A. du Toit andthe Rev. G. Setiloane.Responsible Citizenship- Dr. R. E. van der Ross and Mr. A. M.Broeksma, Q.C.Arrangements for the conference were made by the Hon. Secretary of theContinuation Committee, Mr. F. J. van Wyk, who is Assistant Directorof theInstitute of Race Relations.In its resolutions, the conference, inter alia:1. Stressed the responsibility of the Church to be a living community in which allbelievers share both the privileges and the duties of their common fellowship,liberated from the restraints of unworthy social systems, dehumanising industrialregimentation and persistent personal sins;2. Urged an earnest reconsideration of the policy of migratorylabour with a view to the re-establishment of normal family life, adequatelyhoused, and provided for by wage earners enjoyingsound human relationship at their work;3. Appointed the existing Continuation Committee to prepare, inconsultation with the Christian Council of South Africa and the Federal Councilof the Dutch Reformed Churches, for the creation of a council to which all thevarious churches in SouthAfrica shall belong;4. Called upon the Church and itsindividual members to acceptand practise respect for human personality, regardless of racialand cultural differences;5. Supported the efforts being made to raise the wages of unskilled Non-Whiteworkers;6. Urged all churches in areas of rapidsocial change to consider:(i) the development of youth work for Africans;(ii) the establishment of homecraft schools and the organizingof courses in house-wifery and child care to prepare

African girls for the Christian home;(iii) the appointment of Christian social workers; (iv) the erection of communityand social centres;

24 A SURVEY OF RACE(v) the provision of an adequate training for African andEuropean ministers and social workers who have toservein these areas;(vi) the provision of suitable literature on moral purity and theChristian home.7. An additional resolution, referred to the Continuation Committee forreconsideration:Urged that channels of consultation between White andNonWhite leaders beopened up, either by the government creating a type of Non-White Council ofState with advisory powers, orunofficially by the Churches themselves.The plans made by the World Council of Churches, during the crisis situation inSouth Africa, to hold a conference of its member churches in the Union aredescribed in a subsequent chapter.WAR VETERANS' FOUNDATIONGeneral Smuts's old home at Irene has been bought for the nation byMr. GuyBraithwaite of Pretoria, at whose suggestionthe War Veterans' Foundation hasbeen set up.The founders plan to use the building as a rallying point "for all men and womenof goodwill, and particularly for all organizations devoted to the tasks ofestablishing goodwill and racial harmony in the Union." Provision has been madefor three Afrikaans-speaking and three English-speaking ex-servicemen to serveas trustees, with one representative each from the former Cape Corps, Indian andMalay Corps and Native Military Corps.THE POPULATION OF SOUTH AFRICA ANDMEASURES FOR ITS REGISTRATION AND CONTROLCENSUS REPORTSSIZE OF THE POPULATIONAccording to the official publication Union Statistics for Fifty Years, theestimated size of the South African population in mid-1960, givenin thousands,was: Whites Coloured Asians Africans TotalCape .... .... ... ... 1,050 1,282 20 2,776 5,128Natal .... ... .... ... 340 47 377 1,996 2,760Transvaal .... ... ... 1,458 106 62 4,146 5,772 Free State .......... 275 15 -978 1,268Totals ... 3,123 1,450 459 9,896 14,928

RELATIONS: 1959-60 25A census of the population was taken during September 1960-the first since 1951.HOME LANGUAGES, 1951

Thepublication quoted above lists the home languages of the people of SouthAfrica in 1951Y) Of the Whites, 57 per cent spoke Afrikaans at home, 39 Dercent English, and one per cent both. Of the Coloured people, 89 per cent spokeAfrikaans, 10 per cent English, and one per cent both.Tamil was the most common home language among the Indians; next in order offrequency being Hindi, Gujarati, Telegu and Urdu. Xhosa was most often spokenby Africans, followed by Zulu, Pedi, Southern Sotho, Tswana, Tsonga, Swazi,Ndebele and Venda.The official languages spoken by the people of South Africa were givenin lastyear's Survey.2'MARITAL STATUS OF THE POPULATION, 1951Volume VII of the 1951 Census Report, which deals with the marital status,religions andbirthplaces of the Non-White peoples, was published during the yearunder review.3' In the table that follows, certain information from this report hasbeen compared with figures for 1951 in respect of the White group,as given inpreviously issued volumes.(4)The percentages of the total numbers of each group of the population(includingchildren) that fell into the various marital categories were:Not married .... ... .... ... ... 49.6 67.3 64.7 60.2Married (religious or civil) ... 44.6 27.7 31.5 7.8 Married (lobolo) ... ... ... ...- - 24.8Living together ............. + 0.4 + 2.1Widowed .... ... ... ........ 4.7 4.0 3.5 4.8Divorced ... .... ... .... ... 1.1 0.5 0.3 0.3Unspecified ... .... .... ... ... + 0.1 + +(+ represents less than one-half of 0.1 per cent)A greater proportion of the Whites than of any other group was married, and thedivorce rate was also far the highest amongst the Whites.The proportion of thetotal White population that had(1) Tables A 18 and 19.(2) Page 279.(3) U.G. 38/1959.(4) U.G. 61 and 62 of 1954. Percentages calculated by the Institute.

26 A SURVEY OF RACEbeen divorced was 1.3 per cent in urban areas but only 0.4 per cent in rural areas.While the percentages of the total African population that had entered into lobolomarriages were practically the same in urban and rural areas, the proportions thathad contracted civil or religious marriages varied considerably, being 13.6 percent in the towns and only 5.7 per cent in rural areas. There were more Africanwidows and widowers in rural areas than in the towns (the percentages being 5.3and 3.6 respectively); but,as is to be expected, the proportions of Africans whowere living together or were divorced were higher in urban than in rural areas.(The percentages were: living together-2.9 per cent urban, 1.8 per cent rural;divorced-0.5 per cent urban, 0.2 per cent rural).

The Institute's Research staff analysed the statistics for Africans in more detail,excluding persons under 15 years of age and those who did not furnishinformation. The resultant figures. for the Union as a whole, were:PercentagesNot married ... .... ... .... ... ... 34.7Married (Civil or religious) .......... 12.8Married (Lobolo) ................. 40.7Living together ....... .... ... .... ... 3.4W idowed ... ....... ....... ....... 7.9Divorced ... .... ... ....... .... ... 0.5The proportion of Africans in this group who had married according to religiousor civil rites, while only 12.8 per cent in the Union generally, was as high as 26.2per cent in the metropolitan area of Cape Town and the Witwatersrand-Vereeniging-Vanderbijl Park municipal townships. So far as the majormetropolitan areas were concerned, the proportion of persons who had contractedlobolo marriages was highest in the Witwatersrand (39.2 per cent) and Pretoria(36.4 per cent), and lowest in Port Elizabeth (23.4 per cent). In the Union as awhole 3.4 per cent of persons in the group concerned were living together; theproportion was 3.9 per cent in the metropolitan areas of Johannesburg and CapeTown but as high as 5.4 per cent in Pretoria.RELIGIONSIn the table that follows, information regarding the religions of the people hasbeen summarized, the percentages again having been calculated by theInstitute'sstaff.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 27Percentage of population groupconcerned adhering to stated religion Total no. ofReligion adherents White Coloured Asian AfricanChristianDutch ReformedN. G. Kerk 1,696,127 42.0 26.4 + 3.5Hervormde ...... 213,845 7.0 0.9 + 0.3Gereformeerde ... 144,384 4.2 2.2 + 0.1ChristianEnglish-speaking,Swiss, French,German, etc.Methodist ....... 1,363,958 8.3 9.2 0.5 12.2Anglican ... ... 1,230,509 15.8 20.8 1.3 6.8Roman Catholic ... 784,414 5.3 6.6 2.1 5.4Lutheran ...... 499,336 1.0 5.2 + 4.9Presbyterian ... 276,997 3.8 0.3 - 2.0Apostolic ... ... 268,715 2.9 3.5 0.2 1.8Congregational ... 247.452 0.5 10.2 + 1.4Baptist .... ... ... 113.360 1.0 0.7 0.5 0.9Other .......... 282,671 3.0 5.5 1.6 1.6ChristianNative Separatist ... 1,594,740- 0.1 - 18.6

Jewish .......... 108.743 4.1 + - +Asian religionsHindu ......... 246,820 + + 67.2 +Islam .... ... ... 146,829 + 5.7 21.5 0.1Other .......... 2,501 + - 0.6 +Other beliefs ... 46,755 0.2 0.3 2.0 0.4No religion orheathen ....... 3,405,348 0.5 1.4 1.2 39.4Unspecified...... 98,358 0.4 0.9 1.3 0.6+ = less than half of 0.1 per cent.Of the Whites, the highest proportions were adherents of the N.G. Kerk (42.0 percent), the Anglican Church (15.8 per cent), and the Methodist Church (8.3 percent).These three Churches, together with the Congregational Church, also had thegreatest proportions of Coloured adherents: N.G. Kerk-26.4 per cent, Anglicans-20.8 per cent, Congregational-10.2 per cent, Methodist-9.2 per cent. 5.7 per centof the Colouredpeople were followers of Islam.

28 A SURVEY OF RACEOf the Asians, 67.2 per cent were Hindus, and 21.5 per cent Muslims. Of theChristian Churches, the Roman Catholics and Anglicans had the highestproportions of Asian adherents.So far as Africans were concerned, 39.4 per cent were heathen or followed noparticular religion, and 18.6 per cent belonged to Native Separatist Churches. Ofthe other Christian Churches, the Methodists, followed by the AnglicansandRoman Catholics, had the highest proportions of adherents.BIRTHPLACES OF THE COLOURED AND ASIAN PEOPLEOf the Coloured people, 89.7 per cent were born in the Cape, 5.2 percent in theTransvaal, and 4.5 per cent elsewhere in the Union. The remaining 0.6 per centwere born overseas.Of the Asians, 77.7 per cent were born in Natal, 9.4 per cent in the Transvaal, 3.5per cent elsewhere in the Union, and 9.3 per cent outside South Africa(theremaining 0.1 per cent having failed to specify their birthplaces).8.6 per cent of the Asians were born in India or Pakistan- a total of 31,295persons. Of these, 784 had arrived in the Union more than 60 years before thecensus was taken, 7,478 more than 40 years, 8,164 more than 20 years, and10.999 up to 20 years.POPULATION REGISTRATIONPOPULATION REGISTRATION AMENDMENT ACT, No. 30 OF 1960The Population Registration Amendment Act, No. 30 of 1960, transferred thecontrol of population registration from the Director of Census andStatistics to theSecretary for the Interior. The official entitled the Population Registrar willcontinue to be in charge of the work itself.ISSUING OF IDENTITY CARDS

In reply to a question in the Senate on 24 March 1960, the Deputy Minister of theInterior said(5) that 1,771,000 identity cards had so far been issued to White,Coloured and Asian citizens, while 1,200,000 cards had still to be issued.Judging from information given in January 1960 by the Minister in theAssembly6), it appears that 70 per cent of the Whites had by then received theircards, as against 25 per cent of the Coloured and only 9 per cent ofthe Asians.The identity cards of Africans are incorporated in their reference books. Thewhole question of reference books is dealt with later in this Survey.(5) Hansard 6 col. 1289.(6) Hansard 1 cols. 197-8.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 29APPEALS AGAINST RACIAL CLASSIFICATIONThe Minister of the Interior said in the Assembly on 12 February 196007) that2,623 appeals hadbeen lodged against the racial classifications decided upon byofficials. Of these, 95 had been upheld, 35 dismissed, 39 withdrawn ordiscontinued because of the appellant's death, 1,101 had been reviewed by theDirector of Census, and 1,353 had still tobe dealt with.(These figures do not tally with others given by the Minister later('), when he saidthat the central board of review in Pretoria had heard 111 appeals, upheld 76 anddismissed 35. Of the 35, seven were later upheld by the Supreme Court.)As was mentioned in the previous issue of this Survey,(), the Minister announcedduring September 1959 that the board of review was to be replaced by specialappeal boards to be set up in the Transvaal, Cape, and possibly Natal. The firsttwo boards commenced sittings in February. The Minister said in the Assemblyon 20 May(") that by then the Pretoria board had heard 50 appeals, upheld 49 anddismissed one. The Cape Town board had heard and upheld 18 appeals.During July 1960 a Transvaal woman appealedto the Supreme Court, Pretoria,against her classification as an African. This classification had been made by theDirector of Census in 1954 and upheld, after she had objected, by the reviewingboard. She had an African mother, she said, but a Coloured father. Her husbandwas an African, and of their eight children, one had been classifiedas Coloured,two as Africans, while the remaining five were too young for classification butwere attending schools for Coloured children. Her appeal was upheld.(")In numbers of cases the appellants lived in a state of uncertainty and suspense foryears before their cases were decided. The Star of 25 February told of one suchstory, relating to a family in Cape Town whose members lived in White circles,were educatedin White schools and were employed as Whites. The eldest sonwas married to a White girl and had two children. During 1956 one of theyoungersons, who wished to become an apprentice, applied for a copy of his birthcertificate, which was sent to him withhis race entered as "mixed". (His birth hadbeen registered by a district nurse in a country town.)The youth returned the certificate immediately, stating that he was White, but thenall four sons were officially notified that they had been classifiedas Coloured andthat their names had been(7) Hansard 4 cols. 1397-8.

(8) Assembly, 20 May, Hansard 18 col. 8254.(9) Page 40.(10) Hansard 18 col. 8254.(11) Rand Daily Mail reports, 6 and 9 July 1960.

30 A SURVEY OF RACEremoved from the White voters' roll. They went to see the PopulationRegistrar inCape Town. who said there must have been some mistake, and gave the youngman a letter stating that he could enter his apprenticeship as a White person. Butno official confirmation was received from Pretoria. It was not until 1960-- fouryears later- that the family's appeal was heard by the board in Cape Town andupheld.The Star of 1 April 1960 told of a woman who had successfully appealed againstherclassification as Coloured, but whose marriage to a White man had meanwhilebeen delayed for two years.REGISTRATION OF BIRTHS, DEATHS AND MARRIAGESBIRTHS, MARRIAGES AND DEATHS REGISTRATIONAMENDMENT ACT, No. 5 of 1960Until 1960, records of births, marriages and deaths for all sections of thepopulation were kept by the registrar in each province, details being transmitted tohim by district registrars and marriage officers. Persons wanting birth, marriage ordeath certificates applied to one ofthese officials and paid the prescribed fee.The Deputy Minister of the Interior announced in the Assembly on16 February1960(2) that in future the central records relating to African births and deaths, andto marriages in which the husband is an African, will be kept, instead, by theDirector of the Bantu Reference Bureau in Pretoria.The Births, Marriages and Deaths Registration Amendment Act of 1960 makes itgenerally necessary,(3) when an African man is marrying under the common law,for more copies of the marriage register to be signed than are required formembers of other racial groups. If it is an ecclesiastical wedding,copies of theregister must be sent by the marriage officer to the Bantu Affairs Commissioneror magistrate of the district concerned. This official will keep one copy andforward the others to the registrar. He will also forward copies of the register ofany marriages contracted in his office.The Deputy Minister said'") that it was desirable for Bantu Affairs Commissionersor magistrates to maintain records of African marriages, in addition to themaintenance of a central record by the Director of the Bantu Reference Bureau.Bantu Affairs Commissioners and magistrates were in close touchwith marriageofficers in their districts and could ensure that statutory provisions were observed,for example that marriages were(12) Hansard 5 col. 1610.03) Amendment to Section thirty-nine and new section thirty-nne bis of thePrincipal Act.(14) Col. 1611.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 31

registered, and that protection was given to the rights of wives by customaryunion in cases where the husbands later contracted common law marriages toother women.Since 1 January 1960, Africans wishing to have copies of birth or deathcertificates have had to apply to the Bantu Affairs Commissioner ormagistrateinstead of to the provincial registrar. Copies of marriage certificates may beobtained from these officials or from the marriage officer if the wedding was anecclesiastical one. '5)The Amendment Act stipulated(6 that different fees may be prescribed fordifferent kinds of certificates. The Deputy Minister explained(") that the intentionwas to issue birth certificates free of charge, with the aim of encouragingregistration: a great number of parents of all races neglected to register the birthsof their children, he said.No charge is being made for certificates relating to births which took place after 1January 1960; but if these documents are lost, duplicates cost 5/-. A fee of 2/6 ischarged for original certificates of births which took place during 1959. If a childis more than a year old before its birth is registered, however, the feepayable forthe certificate is £1.The Directorate of the Bantu Reference Bureau is now filing a card for eachAfrican child whose birth is registered. When a child becomes sixteen years ofage the card will be transferred to the section dealing with the issuing of identitycards and reference books.!"8)AUTHORITY OF AFRICAN CLERGY AND MINISTERSIn the Assembly on 9 May 19600'9 Dr. D. L. Smit of the United Party read aloudthe terms of a circular letter, dated 3 March, that had been sent from theDepartment of Bantu Administration andDevelopment to the churches in SouthAfrica. This read: "It has come to the Department's notice that certain churchesengaged in missionary work among the Bantu, whose administration hasuntilrecently been controlled almost exclusively by Europeans, have of late beenentrusting to the Bantu ministers greater executive responsibilities in the conductof the affairs of the church . . . The Department has followed this developmentwith interest because firstly, in general, it accords with the Government's policyof preparing the Bantu eventually to take over the(15) Amendment to Section forty of the principal Act.(16) Addition to Section forty-eight.(17) Col. 1161.(18) Star report, 18 January 1960.(19) Hansard 17 cols. 7026-7.

32 A SURVEY OF RACEadministration of their own affairs and, secondly, on account of the diversity inmethod of the churches engaged in missionary work."But it is conceivable and, in fact, appears almost inevitable that, unless certainprecautionary measures are taken, Bantu bishops or even Bantu ministers will beplaced in a position of authority over European ministers, missionaries oremployees of the Church such as personnel attached to mission hospitals."

The Churches were asked to inform the Department what part their Africanministers played in administration, whether the situation envisaged had arisen orwas likely to arise, and whether in this connection any reorganization had beenmade or was contemplated.The implications of this letter, Dr. Smit said, would be regarded by manyprofessing Christians as an ungodly interference by the Government in matters ofreligion.Canon A. H. Zulu was during the year under review appointed the firstAfricanAssistant Bishop of theAnglican Church in South Africa.PUBLICATIONS AND ENTERTAINMENTS BILL, 1960A Publications and Entertainments Bill was read for the first time in the Assemblyduring 1960, and referred to a Select Committee after its first reading. No furtherprogresshad been made with it at the time of writing. It was designed to replacethe Entertainments (Censorship) Act of 1931.The Bill provides for the appointment by the Minister of the Interior ofaPublications Board consisting of a chairman and not less thanten other members,their qualifications, period and conditions of office and remuneration to beprescribed by regulation.It states that no-one may print any book or Deriodical without the Board'sapproval, or publish, distribute, exhibit or sell any book or periodical printed inthe Union which has not been approved by the Board. A periodical is defined as apublication mainly containing narratives or articles of general interest which ispublished at intervals of between six days and twelve months inclusive. TheBoard is required to reject any book or periodical which in its opinion is indecent,obscene or on any ground objectionable. It may grant approval subject to thecondition that a specified portion be excised. On such conditionsas it deems fit,itmay exempt certain persons from this procedure. but may at any timewithdrawthe exemption.The Board may prohibit the manufacture, printing, distribution, display or sale ofany book, periodical, pamphlet. picture, photograph, model or sound recordingwhich in its opinion is undesirable in that, inter alia, it prejudices good order orgeneral

RELATIONS: 1959-60 33welfare, offends decency or religious convictions, harms relations between anysections of the people, or "is otherwise on any ground objectionable."Newspapers may be deemed to be undesirable on the same grounds. Intheir case,prosecutions may be instituted only on the authority of the Attorney-General.The Board is also required to censor films to be shown in public. Again,conditional approval may be granted. A film is to be rejected if it isconsidered tobe undesirable for the reasons given above, or if it promotes communism asdefined in the Suppression of Communism Act, or depicts in anoffensive waypersons, crime, love scenes, scenes of violence involving White and NonWhitepersons or the intermingling of such persons.

The Board may prohibit the giving of any public entertainment if it considers thatthis may offend the religious convictions or feelings of any section of thepopulation, or that it is contrary to the public interest or good morals.The Bill provides for the establishment of an Appeal Board to hear objections toany decision of the Board, its chairman to be a judge, an advocate, a magistrate ofat least ten years' standing, or a-former judge or magistrate. The decision of theAppeal Board will be final. Any decision of or steps taken by the Board or AppealBoard will not be subject to appeal to or review by any courtof law.")Mention is made in a later chapter of this Survey of action taken against certainpublications or their editors under the emergency regulations.CONTROL OF EXHIBITION OF FILMS IN AFRICAN AREASProclamation No. 58 of 1960, of 18 March, stated that, except with the writtenpermission of the Department of Bantu Administration and Development, no-onemay distribute or exhibit any cinematograph film or film advertisement toAfricans in an African Reserve. Maximum penalties on being found guilty ofcontravening this proclamation are £50 or three months.PASSPORTS AND VISASIn reply to a question in the Assembly on 9 February 1960, the Minister of theInterior said(2") that during the preceding six months the applicationsof 34persons forpassports had been refused. He did not consider it to be in the publicinterest to(20) A more detailed analysis of the Bill, prepared by the Institute'sResearchAssistant, is available as RR. 158/60.(21) Hansard 4 cols. 1138-9.

34 A SURVEY OF RACEdisclose the names of these persons or the reasons for the refusal of theirapplications. Some of them who had enquired also about exit permitswereinformed that these would be granted.According to various Pressand other reports, among those who have been refusedpassports in recent months are the Rev. S. M. Mokatini, selected to visit theUnited States under the leadership exchange programme, Mr. Dennis Brutus ofthe S.A. Sports Association who wished to attenda meeting of the OlympicCommittee in Rome to urge the international recognition of NonWhite SouthAfrican athletes, Dr. P. L. Tsele who wanted to go to London to specialize inmedicine, Mr. Z. Nquini, the winner of a scholarship to the University ofKhartoum, and an African student selected to take up a scholarship at Cambridge.Mr. A. M. Phahle, who resigned his post as senior lecturer in physics at Fort Harewhen the Bantu Education Department took over the control. was denied apassport, but granted anexit permit on condition that he did not return to theUnion. The journalist Mr. Lewis Nkosi was refused a passport to enable him totake up a Nieman Fellowship that had been offered him at Harvard but was alsogranted an exit permit.Passports weregranted, among others, to sixty members of the original "KingKong" cast to go to London for the Jack Hylton production of this show, to Mr. S.Motsuenyane and his wife to visit the United States under the leadership exchange

programme, to Mr. C. Goliath of the Benoni Coloured School to study the workof the Boys' Brigade in Britain, to Lemmie "Special" Mabaso of penny whistlefame to appear on television in America, and to Messrs. A. Mbatini and M. Yawato take up teaching posts in Nigeria.In numbers ofcases, however, passports were granted only after protractednegotiations or long delays. Mr. Mbatini, for example, had been kept waiting formore than a year. Lemmie Mabaso's passport arrived too late for himto accept a£700 television offer. Several people, including Mr. Alan Paton, had to canceltheir original air bookings because of delays in the issuing of passports. Mr. Nkosiwas kept waiting for four months before being advised that he would not receiveone.Among those to whom visas were refusedwere Mr. John Hatch of the BritishLabour Party and Mrs. Mary K. Frank, an American theatrical producer.CONTROL OF ENTRY INTO AND DEPARTUREFROM CERTAIN AFRICAN AREASAs has been described in earlier issues of this Survey,2") Proclamation No. 52 of1958, as amended by No. 138 of 1959,(22) 1957-58, page 69, and 1958-59. page 128.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 35enables the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development to imposecontrolover the entry of persons to or their departure from African areas where there hasbeen unrest.A further amendment was gazetted on 8 April 1960, contained in ProclamationNo. 109 of that year. It states that if an African habitually resides outside an areato which these proclamations have been applied for purposes of employment orfor any other reason, he will not be deemed to be a resident of the area, even if heowns or is the occupier of property there, or is a registered taxpayerin the area, orowes allegiance to a chiefthere. The effect of this is that such an African, likeother non-residents, may not enter the area without a permit from the BantuAffairsCommissioner.In areas to which Parts I and III of the original proclamation have been applied, itis an offence to fail to report the unlawful presence of any African, or to make averbal or written statement likely to interfere with the authority of the State or achief, or to threaten anyone on account of his loyalty to the State or any of itsofficials or any chief or headman. If Part II of the proclamation is applied to anyarea, it becomes an offence to leave without a permit.On 24 June 1960, in terms of Government Notices 880 and 881, PartsI and IIIwere applied for periods of six months to all Africanareas in the Marico (Zeerust)area, the farms Metz, Enable and Muckle Glen in the Letaba district, twofarms inthe Nebo area, all African areas of Sekhukhuneland and in the Peddiearea, and tonumbers of farms and locations in the Pietersburg and Potgietersrus districts.BANNINGS AND BANISHMENTSBANNING ORDERS UNDER THE SUPPRESSION OF COMMUNISMAND RIOTOUS ASSEMBLIES ACTS

In reply to a question in the Assembly on 29 January 1960(231) the Minister ofJustice said that from June 1959 to the day on which he was speaking six Whites,seven Africans and three Coloured persons had been prohibited from attendinggatherings in the Union, in each case for a period of five years. No legal provisionexisted for them to defend themselves against the evidence onwhich the orderswere made.According to various Press reports, the three Coloured people, whosebanningorders were served during December 1959, were Mr. R. E. Viljoen, a member ofthe Cape Town City Council and national chairman of the Anti-Coloured AffairsDepartment(23) Hansard 2 cols. 584-5.

36 A SURVEY OF RACECommittee, Dr. N. A. Murison. National Secretary of this committee, and Mr. W.P. van Schoor, president of the Teachers' League of S.A. Mr.Viljoen was told thathe could continue to attend City Council meetings. Dr. Murison andMr. vanSchoor were served with further notices restricting them for five years to themagisterial districts of the Cape, Wynberg, Simonstown and Beilville.Among the others, who received their orders during December or earlyJanuary, were Mr. Vic Goldberg of Johannesburg, the local chairman of theCongress of Democrats, his wife (who was also confined to the districtofJohannesburg for five years), Miss A. Rietstein of Cape Town, a member of theC.O.D., Mr. Alfred Nzo, a member of the national executive of the AfricanNational Congress, and Mr. Peter Nthite, national secretary of theA.N.C. YouthLeague. Mr. Nthite was also ordered to remain in the district ofJohannesburg forfive years.As is described in a later chapter of this Survey, there was a state of emergency inSouth Africa from 30 March to 31 August, during which period hundreds ofpeople were detained in prison institutions. Shortly after the ending of theemergency. Mr. R. Arenstein of Durban was issued with orders prohibiting himfrom attending meetings and confining him to the district of Durban forfiveyears. He is an attorney, and was defending certain Pondos charged with arsonduring disturbances which are described later. This ban was subsequently liftedfor the purpose only of enabling him to continue the defence.BANISHMENT OF AFRICANS UNDER SECTION FIVEOF THE NATIVE ADMINISTRATION ACTIn last year's Survey a summary was given(4) ofinformation released by theMinister of Bantu Administration and Development in regard to the 81 Africanswho were served with removal orders during the years 1948-1958 inclusive. Inreply to a question in the Assembly on 22 January 1960(") he gave asupplementary list of a further seven persons who had been banished since 1948.The removal orders were for indefinite periods, he said, but each was reviewed atleast once a year.Each person was paid an amount of £2 prior to his departure, the Minister added.Employment was offered to him at his new place of residence, or, ifemploymentwas not available, an allowance was paid, the amount being determined by the

circumstances of each case. Removal was resorted to in cases where the presenceof the African concerned was inimical to peace, order and good government in aparticular area.(24) 1958-59 Survey, page 112. The names of some of the banished persons weregiven on page 14 of this 1958-59 Survey, on pages 60 et seq of the 1957-58issue, and in earlier volumes.(25) Hansard 1 cols. 214-5.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 37Replying to further questions on 8 March, the Minister disclosed(")that the areasto which the last seven Africans had been ordered wereKirsten or Tabaanslocation in the Sibasa district, the Mngomezulu area of Ingwavuma, the farmsKalkspruit or Chloe in the Pietersburg district, or the farms SoutheyorDriefontein near Vryburg.The Minister was again questioned about this whole matter on 15 March"27) Tworemoval orders had been withdrawn, he replied, and 28 further Africans had beenallowed to return home or to settle at places of their own choice, indefinitely orfor stated periods, and subject to good behaviour. He gave their names andtheareas to which they had been allowed to go.The December 1959 issue of Drum contained an illustrated article describing thecircumstances of some of the banished men, their financial difficulties, and theboredom and frustration they were experiencing. Further investigations weremade by the Black Sash and the Liberal Party, the latter reporting that two menworking on Trust farms were receiving £4 8s. 4d. and £5 a month respectively.On 15 November 1959 the Minister granted an interview to a deputation from theChristian Council, which conveyed to him the deep concern of the Christiancommunity over certain features of the banishment orders-the sudden manner inwhich they were apparently served, involving serious dislocation ofthe work anddomestic life of the persons concerned; the facts that reasons for the orders werenot disclosed, and that no appeal was possible to the courts. The deputationsuggested that the allowances paid to banished persons were totally inadequate,and that, although in theory their relatives were allowed to visit them, thisprovision was in practice of little value because of the long distancesto betravelled.The Minister said, in reply, that if the rate of the allowances was inadequate itwould be reviewed, but pointed out that there were facilities for earning money.An official of his department visited all banished persons at leastevery threemonths to hear complaints. Ministers of religion would certainly be given permitsto visit these people.(28')THE TREASONTRIALSAccounts have been given in previous issues of this Survey29) of the arrests of156 persons during December 1956 on charges(26) Assembly Hansard 8 col. 2932.(27) Assembly Hansard 9 cols. 3380-1.(28) From account of interview given in TheSouth African Outlook, 1 February1960.

(29) 1956-7 page 41; 1957-8 page 34, 1958-9 page 44.

38 A SURVEY OF RACEof high treason and of the year-long preparatory examination, at the end of which91 were committedfor trial. Their trial opened in August 1958, but after lengthylegal argument the Crown withdrew the indictment. A new indictment wasframedagainst thirty of the accused, its essence being an allegation of conspiracy tooverthrow the State by violence and to substitute another form of state.Leave was granted for an appeal to the Appellate Division on certain points of lawconcerning the validity of the indictment; but the Appeal Court ruled that it hadno power to decide on the matter at that stage.Meanwhile the trial of theremaining 61 accused was commenced. The defence applied successfully for theindictment to be quashed on the ground that it had been framed without regard toorders of the court relating to the indictment in the other case.Thetrial of the first thirty people was resumed on 3 August 1959. With arecess ofnearly two months over Christmas, the Crown case lasted until earlyMarch 1960,when the defence commenced leading evidence, its object being to prove that itwas not the policy of the organizations mentioned in the indictment to useviolence against the State.When a state of emergency was proclaimed on 30 March the accused, who hadbeen out on bail, were against imprisoned. The leader of the defence team askedthe court toconsider whether it was proper for the Crown to continue with thetrial in view of the fact that the Government, in support of its decision todeclare astate of emergency, had made positive statements about issues in the trial which,in effect, appeared to constitute a judgment. Furthermore, the defence had noknowledge of how many of the people it wished to call were detained or where;and even more important, it feared that, in terms of the emergency regulations,statements made by witnesses in court might be deemed to be subversive.The presiding judge adjourned the trial for nearly three weeks and, when it wasresumed, announced that the Minister of Justice had given the assurance thatwitnesses would be exempt from the application of the emergency regulations inso far as evidence given in court was concerned. The accused stated that theywere not prepared to accept this assurance.The emergency regulations were then amended by a proclamation providing thatno evidence given by a person in a criminal trial begun before 29 March would beused in evidence against him in a criminal prosecution concerning any allegedcontravention of the emergency regulations. Nor would it be taken into accountby the Minister, a magistrate or commissioned officer for any purposes of theemergency regulations. The treason trial accused still maintained that witnesseswere not adequately protected, but the court ruled that the trial should continue.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 39A few days later complaints were voiced in court about the facilities madeavailable to the accused in gaol for consultation with witnesses. Oninstructionsby the accused, the defence counsel were withdrawn on 26 April forreasonsconnected with the declarationof a state of emergency. The defence team

returned to the trial on 1 August. During August the defence appliedunsuccessfully for the recusal of the presiding judge, alleging that he hadquestioned witnesses in such a way as to suggest that he was not taking animpartial view of the evidence. At the termination of the state of emergency on 31August the accused were again allowed out on bail.The defence evidence came to an end early in October. The Crown then appliedfor an adjournment until 7 November to enable its counsel to prepare argument.This application was granted, but the presiding judge expressed himself as being"amazed" at the necessity for it.REORGANIZATION OF THE CITIZEN FORCEIn terms of an announcement made during December 1959 by the Minister ofDefence, South Africa's Citizen Force, instead of being formed into an armouredtask force for the defence of the Middle East gateways to Africa (ashad beenplanned a few years earlier), was being recast into lightly armed, highly mobileregiments strategically scattered over the Union, and designed chiefly for internalsecurity.(3)UNREST AND RIOTING AMONG AFRICANSDISTURBANCES RESULTING MAINLY FROM OPPOSITIONTO THE BANTU AUTHORITIES SYSTEMEAST PONDOLANDIntroductory remarksThere has been great unrest since the end of 1959 in Bizana, Flagstaff andLusikisiki, the three eastern districts of Pondoland, bordering on Natal.Thisunrest spread later to certain other districts of the Transkei.Press reports were discouraged by the authorities. Reporters could not be debarredfrom visiting the small "White" towns in the area nor from travelling alongthemain roads, but were not granted permits to enter the African Reserves, and wererefused permission(30) Star report, 2 December 1959.

40 A SURVEY OF RACEto meet the Paramount Chief. The newly-appointed CommissionerGeneral for theTranskei is reported(') to have said on 21 September 1960, "It is quite clear thatsome newspapers have embarked on a systematic campaign of creating suspicionwith regard to events in the Bantu homelands, and every opportunity isseized todiscredit the Bantu authorities in the eyes of the Bantu as well as theWhitepeople". He is said to have refused to see a party of journalists, and to have statedthat news would be released only through his office and solely to the S.A. PressAssociation.A departmental committee was appointed to enquire into the causes of thedisturbances, with special reference to the observance of Pondo law and custom inconnection with the establishment of tribal authorities, the fixingof theirboundaries, the appointment of members, the proper functioning of these bodies,and such other matters as appeared to be necessary. The chairmanwas the ChiefBantu Affairs Commissioner for the Ciskei. The findings of this committee aresummarized later in this Survey.

The disturbancesThe first reported incident took place on 16 February 1960,') when it was statedthat two White constables went to an area near the town of Bizana to investigatean allegation that Africans had ploughed up land in a betterment scheme that hadbeen reserved for other purposes. Their vehicle was attacked by about twenty menbrandishing assegais and sticks, but theymade good their escape. Although theincident was in no way directed against White traders, as a precaution severalWhite families in the area went to the town for the night.Information about the next incident was given by the Prime Minister intheAssembly on 22 March.3) On the 19th of that month two tribal councillors weretaken to hospital in Bizana after an angry mob had assaulted them and burneddown their huts. Rumours spread that the crowd planned to attack thehospital inorder to murder the councillors, and also to storm the gaol to try to release a manwho had been arrested in connection with the assault. Numbers of White tradersfrom outlying areas brought their families to Bizana for safety, onthe nights ofthe 19th and 20th fifteen women with their children sought refuge in the hospital,where a guard was posted, and the town was patrolled at night. According to Pressreports(') a crowd of about 500 Africans gathered on the main road: the PrimeMinister said that they came no nearer than eight miles from the town and therumoured attack did not eventuate.(1) Rand Daily Mail, 22 September 1960.(2) Star, 17 February.(3) Hansard 10 cols. 3848-9.(4) Star, 21 March.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 41It was alleged, he continued, that the chief of Tzekelo Location nearBizanaintended enlisting the help of men of the Maci tribe at Harding in demonstratingat a meeting of chiefs and tribal authorities that was planned for 23March. TheChief Bantu Affairs Commissioner, accompanied by police in saracens, enteredthe location to investigate. At first only a few women and children could be seen,but when the party had penetrated deep into the location the women uttered loudwar cries and the Africans beganemerging and collecting in large armed groups.The Commissioner addressed several groups in turn and heard their complaints:opposition was expressed to the Bantu authorities system, and it was said that thetribal authorities wanted to deprive the peopleof their land. He offered to explainthe working of the system if a meeting was arranged. The groups dispersed whenordered to do so.Policemen who later gave evidence in court are reported(') to havesaid thatbetween 20 March and 23 June, 27 kraals were burned down. On 2 May a policeparty was forced to open fire on a mob that had set fire to the hut of a headman inthe Bizana district.Further disturbances took place on 22 May. It is reported(') that the kraal of ChiefCele, near Bizana, was set alight, and that when the mob failed to obey an order todisperse the police opened fire, one African being killed and threewounded. Onthe same afternoon a crowd numbering more than a hundred is said to have

attacked the kraal of Councillor Dana, a member ofthe Territorial Authority, inthe Lusikisiki district. He faced them with a shotgun while neighbours went forhelp. When the police arrived Councillor Dana had been injured and two Africanswere found dead with shotgun wounds. The crowd had left, on its way setting fireto five kraals about three miles away. Three more kraals were burned during thenext week.7)According to Press reports,O) squads of heavily armed police patrolled theaffected districts, employing a helicopter to search for people who had beeninvolved in the disturbances.A serious clash between tribesmen and the police took place on 6 June ina valleyadjoining Ngquza Hill, between Bizana and Lusikisiki. It was reported(") thatAfricans from a score of kraals met there to discuss complaints against theirchiefs: estimates of their numbers varied from between four and five hundred toseveral thousand. Two aircraft and a helicopter dropped tear gasand smokebombs on the crowd, and police vehicles approached from two directions, oneparty apparently descending from the hill. The(5) Rand Daily Mail, 12 August, and Star, 9 September.(6) Rand Daily Mail, 25 May.(7) Ibid, 12 August and Sunday Times, 12 June.(8) Daily News, 1 June.(9) Rand Daily Mail and Mercury, 9 June, SundayTimes and Sunday Tribune,12 June, Contact, 2 July, Daily News, 14 June.

A SURVEY OF RACEAfricans raised a white flag. The police alleged that shots were fired at them- buta Press report states that later, when under crossexamination during a court case, apolice sergeant agreed it was possible that the firing had come fromthe secondparty of police. At all events the police then opened fire, pursuing the tribesmenwho fled into the bush.In an official statement issued on 9 June the Ministerof Justice said that sixAfricans had been shot dead. At the subsequent inquest a constable reported thataccording to fresh evidence the number was eleven, but it was stated that Pondoswho claimed to have been at the scene put the number as high as thirty. Thirteenwounded persons were admitted to the Holy Cross Mission Hospital, and it wasbelieved that other wounded remained either in their kraals or in hiding amongstthe hills. Twenty-one arrests were made, two Africans subsequently beingacquitted and the rest found guilty of "fighting". The dead were buried in shallowgraves at the scene of the meeting: an order for their exhumation for post-mortems was granted at the inquest.After this clash, police patrolling was intensified, the Chief Bantu AffairsCommissioner flew to Pretoria for consultations and, on return, held a series ofmeetings to enable the people to air their grievances.Hut-burning continued. The headman of Mtentu location near Umtata is said tohave been burned to death in his hut, a woman who had been with him dying inhospital. It was reported that another sub-headman in Amadibe location wasburned to death on 21 June, two more kraals in the Amankwe location were set on

fire and two women stabbed on 25 June, a man murdered and four more huts setalight in the Pumlo location near Lusikisiki on 6 September, and motorists on themain road stoned on 16 September.Tribesmen in the Bizana district refused to fill in returns when the official censuswas taken early in September.Mr. Enoch Mbhele, a Pondo from Bizana, left South Africa secretly duringSeptember with the intention of placing a memorandum before the UnitedNations.Towards the end of September the chairman of the Port St. Johns DistrictAuthority, who was also a memberof the Territorial Authority, is reported(") tohave been murdered in the Majola location while engaged in conducting a censusenumeration. About 200 of his followers then stormed the section ofthe locationfrom where the attackers were believed to havecome, and burned down some 50huts.(10) Star, 27 September 1960.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 43Grievances voiced by the peopleThe whole situation naturally gave cause for considerable concern, and at first itwasuncertain whether the findings of the committee of enquiry would bepublished. Miss Mary Draper, the Institute's Natal Regional Organizer, thusvisited such areas of Pondoland as were open to the public, submitting a report(")on her tentative conclusionsabout the reasons for the unrest. Similar reports byothers were published in various journals and newspapers.It was stated in Contact(12) that an "Anti-Bantu Authorities Committee" inPondoland, which had women's brigades too, had been organizing the tribesmen.Pondos throughout the Union had been banding themselves into groupsandcommittees to lend support and to raise money for the campaign.According to Miss Draper (and other sources, where this is stated)the maincauses of the unresttentatively appear to be four-fold.1. Recent actions by the Paramount Chief, Botha Sigcau, had causedan old dispute to flare up again. Botha was the eldest recognised son ofhis father,but according to Pondo custom was not eligible to succeed him totheParamountcy. The second son, Mandlonke, was appointed. He committed sucidein 1937. Tribesmen expected that the third son, Nelson, would then be selected,but instead the then government appointed Botha. Aided by substantialcontributtions from the tribesmen Nelson unsuccessfully contested this decision inthe courts. This matter is still a cause for resentment.Botha's life was threatened on several occasions during 1960: from time to timehe had to flee temporarily from the Great Placeat Qaukeni.(3)2. Secondly, the appointment and actions of certain chiefs, subchiefs, councillorsand headmen have been resented. Botha Sigcau is said to have overlookedpersons opposed to his rule when appointments were made. According to a Pressreport(4) of a statement by the Chief Bantu Affairs Commissioner for theTranskei, the appointment of some members of some Bantu authorities was made

without consultation with the people. Under cross-examination at the trial ofcertain Africans accused of arson, a policesergeant is reported(5) to have said thatbefore the introduction of Bantu authorities decisions were made by thetribesmen, and not only by the indunas as was the case subsequently.(11) RR 152/60.(12) Issue of 10 September.(13) Information partlyobtained from an article in Drum, Sept. 1960.(14) Rand Daily Mail, 15 June.(15) Ibid, 12 August.

44 A SURVEY OF RACEMiss Draper writes, "I met with numerous allegations thatbribery and corruption are rifeamongst certain chiefs and headmen, and that giftsin cash or in kind are expected in return for favours. Members of the Bantuauthorities have been given increased administrative powers, including judicialpowers, but the people feel that only those whocan afford to pay receivejustice".3. Increased taxation and the imposition of levies and other chargeswere also referred to as contributory factors in the unrest. Apart from the generaland local taxes payable, a general levy on African taxpayersof 10/- a year hasbeen in force in theTranskei since 1955.4. Opposition to betterment schemes appears to be one of the maincauses of dissatisfaction. Such schemes are not compulsory, buttribal authoritiesmay accept them on behalf of their people. Miss Draper mentioned repeatedcriticism that, instead of explaining to the tribesmen the advantages of theseschemes, certain chiefs and headmen had merely announced thatthey were to beundertaken.She reports that, although the actual work has notproceeded far in EasternPondoland, more than half the land in the area falling under Botha Sigcau'sQaukeni Regional Authority (Bizana, Flagstaff, Lusikisiki, Tabankulu and MountAyliff districts) has been declared a betterment area. Some parts are beingreplanned and divided into arable, grazing and residential areas.The extensivegrowing of New Zealand hemp (phormium tenax) is proposed in a sparsely-populated area of 30,000 morgen in the Lambasi location near Lusikisiki, whichwas set aside as a traditional grazing ground during the rule of a previousParamount Chief."In rehabilitating or stabilising rural locations", Miss Draper writes, "theauthorities are faced with the problem that there is insufficient arableland that canbe re-apportioned to the population in economically-sized plots for agriculturalpurposes. For this reason, the landless section of the community is to be re-housedin rural villages . . . Africans who are required to move their homesunderbetterment schemes receive only a small token sum as recompense ... Oneagricultural officer.., explained that as dwellings were in the mainvery primitiveand constructed of mud and thatch available locally, financial loss was not great. Imentioned a case of a man in the Matatiele district who had spent about £200 on

building a house from cement blocks and who had received only about £30. Headmitted that there were a few instances of this sort but they were ina minority,and such persons had to make sacrifices for the general good ..."Several Africans I talked to expressed the opinion that the people are convinc ethat the members of the Bantu authorities had

RELATIONS: 1959-60no real powers, 'but were merely tools by which the Government imposed its willon the people'..."I t is probably true to say that governments anywhere in the world who haveattempted to introduce widespread agrarian reforms have met with little co-operation from the people most directly affected, the peasant class, who are bytradition averse to anything that spells change. In the Union, the Governmentpolicy of appointing its own nominees to Bantu authorities to assist inimplementing reforms is making the work immeasurably more difficult ... Whenunpopular laws are administered by unpopular leaders thedifficulties aremultiplied ..."Whatever the operative factors, there seems little doubt that the word 'betterment'is among the worst swear words in the Pondo's vocabulary".Intimidation was undoubtedly occurring. Chiefs and councillorswho wereattempting to implement Government policies went in fear of their lives. MissDraper was told, she said, "that if tribesmen called a meeting or stagedademonstration against Bantu authorities it was dangerous not to attend, as it mightbe thought that onesupported the system, and one therefore ran the risk of one'skraal being burnt down".Findings of the Departmental Committee of EnquiryA meeting of tribesmen was called at Bizana on 11 October to hear the findings ofthe Departmental Committee of Enquiry announced by its chairman. It wasreported that no members of the police were present at the meeting,but that astrong force was standing by at the police station.According to Press reports,(6) the chairman said that numbers of the people'scomplaints were justified; but instead of bringing these to the notice of theGovernment through local magistrates or the Chief Magistrate at Umtata, they hadwasted money in employing attorneys and had held secret meetings. Law-abidingpeople had been threatened, told that if they did not attend the meetings their hutswould be burned, and ordered to contribute money, being fi--d £5 if they refused.Many huts had been burned and £20,000 damage caused.The people had been seriously misled. They were told thatthe Government wasagainst them, whereas all the time the Government was anxious to govern thevarious tribes according to their own laws and through their own chiefs andcouncillors.Dealing with various complaints, first, that the people were not properly consultedabout the Bantu authorities system and that(16) Star, 1 October and Rand Daily Mail, 12 October.

46 A SURVEY OF RACE

it had been forced on them, the committee found that the system was fullyexplained to the chiefs and headmen and many of the people. When the tribalauthorities were formed, however, the old customs of the tribes who resided atBizana were not observed in all respects. The people of Bizana had every right toresent this.On the complaint that the Paramount Chief of Eastern Pondoland did not consultthe people when nominating members of tribal authorities, it was foundthat therewas consultation, but mistakes were made later when members of tribalauthorities were nominated. These mistakes were not deliberate, nor were theymade by the Paramount Chief. The membership of tribal authorities was toosmall. Some locations had no representation and others had insufficient. The lawsand customs of the tribes concerned should have been observed, and they shouldhave been given an opportunity to say whom they wanted on the Bantuauthorities.The complaint that headmen who were not heads of tribal authorities should nottry cases was justified, and the committee recommended that this matter be putright.A number of grievances, however, could not be attributed to Bantu authorities.One of these was the rehabilitation scheme, the fear of which was unfounded. TheGovernment never undertook rehabilitation, stock reduction, fencing, control ofploughing, etc., unless the people asked for these measures.Increased taxation and stock rates, the health rate and increasesin the general levywere necessary because of increased expenses.As far as reference books and labour bureaux complaints wereconcerned, thecommittee found that hardships were sometimes experienced, but these were dueto non-compliance with the law. The many advantages of these books had notbeen fully explained.On Bantu education, the finding was that the syllabuses were better now than theyhad been before and that the education was not inferior.Complaints about dipping regulations had been referred by the Committee to theVeterinary Department for investigation.Mr. V. M. P. Leibbrandt, Chief Magistrate and Bantu Affairs Commissioner ofthe Transkei, then addressed the tribesmen. Those complaints aboutboundariesbetween different authorities and the appointment of members of tribal authoritieswhich the commission had found to be justified would be rectified as soon aspossible, after consultation with the people, he said.A similar meeting of tribesmen was called at Flagstaff on 12 October, the findingsof the departmental committee being heard without comment. But at athirdmeeting held at Lusikisiki on the following day, after listening to the findings aspokesman for the

RELATIONS: 1959-60 47local Pondo said that they still did not want the Bantu authorities system, they didnot want their chiefs and headmen because these had not been appointedaccording to tribal custom, and they would like the Government to relax a banrecently placed on Mr. R. I. Arenstein, a Durban lawyer who had been

representing them in certain legal cases, but had recently been prohibited fromattending gatherings or leaving the Durban magisterial district.(1;7This ban wassubsequently lifted for the purpose only of enabling Mr. Arenstein to continue hisdefence of certain tribesmen accused of arson.Shortly afterwards, on 25 October, it was reported&'8) that a meeting of about6,000 Pondo at Imzizi Hill near Bizana rejected the committee's findings anddecided to refuse to pay taxes as a sign of their opposition to the Bantuauthoritiessystem. A deputation of headmen was appointed to convey the feelings of themeeting to the Bantu Affairs Commissioner at Bizana, and to state that if therewas any official victimization of the tribesmen as a result of the decision, thepeople of Eastern Pondoland would adopt an attitude of total non-co-operationwith officials. A boycott of stores run by Whites in Bizana was also decided upon.TEMBULANDAccording to a report by the editor of Contact,(19) resentment of theBantuauthorities system is building up also in Tembuland in the central Transkei. In thisarea, too, journalists have been warned that they may not leave the White townsor main roads without a permit.A hut in the Engcobo district belonging to a headman, Spalding Matyile, in whichcensus returns for part of the area were temporarily housed, was burned on 10September. About two days later at Baziya, near Umtata, the hut of another pro-Government chief, Absolom Yengwa, was set on fire when he and hiswife andchild were asleep inside. As the woman tried to escape she and the childwereslightly wounded by gun-fire. Mr. Yengwa then began shooting at the attackersand drove them away. There was a serious clash at Mqanduli, south ofUmtata, on16 September between supporters and opponents of Bantu authorities, elevenpeople being killed.On 24 October, three prominent Tembus, Jackson B. Nkosiyane, Bangilizwe M.Joyi and Twalimfene A. G. Joyi, applied for a court order directingthe Ministerof Bantu Administration and Development to furnish particulars of banishmentorders served on them in 1958, or failing compliance, for an order setting asidethe(17) Rand Daily Mail report, 14 October 1960.(18) Star, 25 October 1960.(19) Issue of 24 September 1960.

48 A SURVEY OF RACEdeportations. They hadbeen sent to Voorspoed, Soekmekaar; Louis Trichardt;and the farm Wesselsvlei in the Kuruman district respectively. Mr. B. M. Jovisaid in court that he was earning only £4 ls. a month at Louis Trichardt,and out ofthat had to pay for his food and clothing. It was impossible for him to support hisfamily.(2") The court dismissed these applications with costs.GCALEKALANDIt was reported in a subsequent issue of Contact' ) that the opposition to the Bantuauthorities and rehabilitation schemes was alsospreading to Gcalekaland, thehome of the true Xhosa tribe. A meeting of about 500 tribesmen called by theWillowvale magistrate informed him of their rejection of these schemes. There

was widespread distrust of the newly-appointed Paramount, Zwelidumile BungeniSigcawa.NORTHERN TRANSVAALThere is also dissatisfaction among the Tsonga people of the Northern Transvaalin regard to the Bantu Authorities system. The Field Officer of the Institute ofRace Relations, Mr. J. C. M. Mbata, visited the area during September 1960, andreported (RR. 177/60) that there is a considerable intermingling of Tsonga, Vendaand Sotho people in this area. Until recently there was peaceful coexistence. Butthe Tsonga now complain that Venda chiefs have been appointed inpredominantly Tsonga areas and are being given very considerable authority. Thepeople no longer have the say in their own affairs that is customary according tothe traditional tribal system.One of the four regional authorities in the Northern Transvaal is composedentirely of Tsonga chiefs; but the Tsonga are in the minority on the other three,and feel that their affairs are neglected by these regional authorities. CertainVenda practices are being forced on them. One Tsonga school board has beendissolved and its powers transferred to a predominantly Venda regional authority.The change-over in another case was not complete at the time of the visit. All ofthis has caused much resentment, and assaults on chiefs and reprisals have beenreported.On 28 August, at a meeting called to discuss the formation of a territorialauthority, the Tsonga spokesman requested the Government to establish aseparate Bantu authorities system for his group. At the time of writing no solutionto this dispute had been found:the three groups had been asked to appointcommittees to discuss the matter with Bantu Affairs Commissioners.(20) Rand Daily Mail, 25 October 1960.(21) 22 October 1960.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 49SEQUELS TO RIOTING THAT OCCURRED BEFORE THE YEARUNDER REVIEWSekhukhunelandThe rioting that took place in Sekhukhuneland during May 1958 afterlargesections of the Ba-Pedi tribe had opposed the Bantu authorities system wasdescribed in an earlier edition of this Survey.(22)During the disturbances there was a dispute at Madibong between pro- and anti-Government factions. John Kgolane had been made sub-chief there, but themajority of the people considered that his ex-wife should have been appointed.Finally he and his body-guard were murdered, sixteen Africans later beingsentenced to death in consequence. The sentence was set aside by the AppealCourt, which referred the case back to the Transvaal Supreme Court for furtherevidence on certain points. After hearing fresh evidence, the court again imposedthe death sentence. Once more the accused appealed, and on this occasion theconvictions and sentences were set aside in two cases but upheld in the remainingfourteen cases.

Those who had been convicted andvarious organizations, among them theInstitute of Race Relations, urged the GovernorGeneral to exercise his prerogativeof mercy. In its petition the Institute said, "A study of the background and thesequence of events which gave rise to public violencedo reveal acts which, whilenot constituting provocation in the legal sense, nevertheless, in the tribal situationin Sekhukhuneland, all provoked local feelings of resentment, bitterness and asense of outrage."The Governor-General commuted all the sentences to life imprisonment.There is still great unrest in Sekhukhuneland, and widespread opposition to theGovernment's policies and to the methods used by pro-Government chiefs incarrying them out. It was reported(23) that at a recent meeting the Ba-Pedidecided upon a campaign of open defiance; to refuse to pay taxesor rent for Trustland, to defy agricultural planning schemes that impose restrictionson the area ofground which can be cultivated, and to refuse to cull cattle.MabieskraalAn account was given in our last Survey(24) of a disturbance that occurredatMabieskraal, to the north of Rustenburg in the Transvaal, after a section of thepeople had demonstrated against the authority of an acting chief whohad beenappointed by the Government following the banishment of the chief, JeremiahMabie.(22) 1957-58, page 72.(23) Sunday Times, 23 October 1960.(24) Page 129.

A SURVEY OF RACEThere is obviously still unrest. Proclamation No. 24 of 1960, dated 26February,stated thatbecause of disunity, the Batlhako tribe at Mabieskraal was unabletoadopt resolutions regarding tribal contracts and liabilities. The Minister of BantuAdministration and Development was, therefore, empowered to approve anycontracts or liabilities entered into or incurred by the chief if he was satisfied thatthey were in the interests of the tribe. This arrangement was to be in force for ayear, the period to be extended if necessary.A DISTURBANCE RESULTING FROM OPPOSI [ION TO THE LIQUORLAWSCATO MANOR, DURBANDuring the afternoon of 24 January 1960 a raiding party of eight White and 18African policemen went to Cato Manor to search for illicit liquor. Numerousarrests were made, and when the number of prisoners had mounted to32 it wasdecided that three of the policemen should take them to the police station whilethe others continued the raid.It is stated that an African constable accidentally trod on a woman's foot.Although apologies were made the woman followed the police, shouting at them.A large crowd very quickly collected and began stoning the police, who openedfire with their service revolvers before being forced to retreat. Fifteen soughtrefuge in a small bungalow, which was besieged by angry Africans armed withsticks, stones andpangas. The Africans eventually broke in. Four White and five

African policemen were murdered in the bungalow or as they attemptedto escape,the remaining White constable and three African policemen were seriouslyinjured, and two African constables received minor injuries. The body of oneAfrican civilian, with a bullet wound in the chest, was found later.A second detachment of police that had come to investigate reports of trouble wasprevented from reaching the scene by roadblocks, and was also attacked.Members sent a radio message asking urgently for re-inforcements: by the timethese arrived the crowds had dispersed.("-)Strong bodies of police raided Cato Manor and held 271 Africans for questioning.Many of these were released after questioningor during the course of thepreparatory investigation, 65 of them finally being committed for trial. Ten ofthese were released later, one died, 27 were charged with murder and the rest withpublic violence. The Minister of Justice imposed a four weeks' ban on publicmeetings in the township.(25) Information given by Minister of Justice. Assembly 25 January. 1960,Hansard2 cols. 300-1. and evidence led at the subsequent trial.

RELATIONS: 1959-60The Leader of the Opposition in Parliament pressed for the appointment of ajudicial commission of enquiry to investigate the basic reasons for the series ofdisturbances at Cato Manor. The Minister of Justice replied(6) that theGovernment considered this unnecessary, but had decided to appoint a committeeconsisting of senior members of the Departments of Justice, Policeand BantuAdministration to enquire into the events of 24 January, to recommend what stepsshould be taken to prevent their repetition, and in general to try to ensure greatersafety for the police. After the report had been received the Governmentwoulddecide whether or not to publish it, the Minister said.The Natal Region of the Institute of Race Relations submitted a memorandum(")to this Committee dealing with the general socio-economic reasons for unrest atCato Manor.MISCELLANEOUS DISTURBANCESPAARLIt was mentioned in our last Survey28') that on 31 October 1959 theauthoritiesannounced that Mrs. Elizabeth Mafekeng, who has eleven children,was to bebanished from Paarlin the Western Cape and ordered to an isolated farm nearVryburg in the north of the Province. Mrs. Mafekeng was President of the AfricanFood and Canning Workers' Union and Vice-President of the African NationalCongress Women's League.On 8 November,the day before she was due to leave, she escaped and went toBasutoland. This fact was at first kept secret and, unaware of her absence, largecrowds, estimated at more than 3,000, assembled next day in the street outside herhouse. An interesting point was that Coloured demonstrators predominated: thereare large numbers of Coloured canning workers in Paarl who shared theindignation of their African fellow-workers. Passing cars were stoned and it wasreported that some shots were fired at the police. Eventually the police opened fire

to disperse the mob. According to reports,(9 at least twelve demonstrators wereinjured and one White civilian stabbed.Numbers of arrests were made: 58 accused were later acquitted and six personsfound guilty of public violence.During December a disturbance took place in the African township following thearrest of a woman for non-possession of a permit to be in the area. The municipalregistration offices were set on fire and three vehicles stoned.(26) Hansard 2 col.381.(27) N.R. 11160.(28) Page 225.(29) Rand Daily Mail and Star of 10 November 1959.

A SURVEY OF RACEWELKOMA serious faction fight between Nyasa and Xhosa workers occurred in a minecompound at Welkom on Christmas day 1959. The policewere summoned andeventually dispersed the crowds by making baton charges.THE MOUNTING CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE PASS LAWSOPPOSITION TO THE PASS LAWS IN PREVIOUS YEARSIn a recently-issued Fact Paper,O) the Institute of Race Relations traced thehistoryof the long opposition to the pass laws by the African National Counciland the (abolished) Natives Representative Council.Opposition expressed by other bodies in past years has been described in previousissues of this Survey.In the Institute's Fact Paper a summary was given of the views of variousCommissions of Inquiry that have considered the pass laws, and the lawsthemselves were analysed- an elaborate task which showed the complexity of thenine Acts of Parliament, one Proclamation and threeGovernment Notices whichcontrol the movement of Africans.ARRESTS FOR PASS LAW OFFENCESNo detailed statistics relating to pass law offences later than those quoted in ourlast Survey2) have been published; but a more recent total figurewas containedinthe publication Union Statistics for Fifty Years. This showed that thetotal numberof convictions of Africans for offences against laws and regulations for "Bantucontrol" increased from 365,911 in 1957 to 396,836 in 1958.Numerous individual casesof hardship resulting from the application of influxcontrol and the pass laws were described in the Fact Paper.ORDER ISSUED BY THE COMMISSIONER OF THE POLICE,JUNE 1959On 6 June 1959 the Commissioner of the S.A. Police issued a Special ForceOrder3) in which he said:"It is felt that in cases of minor offences holders of reference books are entitled tobetter treatment than the irresponsible and idle type without reference books andare therefore entitledto the protection afforded them by the reference books...(1) No. 7-1960.-The 'Pass Laws'

(2) Page 108.(3) Quoted in full in Assembly Hansard No. 2 of 1960, cols. 390-2.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 53"The following instructions must therefore be strictlyfollowed in future:(a) Natives who are in possession of reference books and whoare in employment, or who run their own businesses or are property owners, orwho on account of advanced age do not work and who are not more than a yearortwo in arrear with their taxes, must not be arrested for minor offences but areonly to be warned, or warned or summoned for Court.(b) Accused persons are, of course, still entitled to pay admissionof guilt if they so desire.(c) When bail isconsidered, a Native who conforms to the aboverequirements should be treated with more consideration by, for instance, fixing asmaller amount of bail or by even releasinghim on his own recognizances.(d) Native women should be treated in the sameway as Nativemales."It must, of course, be realized that many of the Nativeswill not heed warning to appear before Court. In minor cases the PublicProsecutor should be consulted with in order to delete the cases fromthe roll as itcannot beafforded to waste valuable time in searching for accused personsinminoroffences."It will be noticed that, in terms of this order, African men were still liable tosummary arrest unless they could produce reference books indicating that theyhad complied with the various relevant laws and regulations. At the time ofwriting, no statistics had been published that would enable one to determinewhether, as a result of the order, arrests for "pass law" offencesdecreased innumber.VIEWS OF OPPOSITIONPOLITICAL PARTIESThe pass laws were debated in Parliament on 4 March 1960, on a motionintroduced by Mrs. V. M. L. Ballinger, leader of the Liberal Party and of theNatives' Representatives. She moved : (4)"that in the opinion of this House the passsystem now applied to our Africanpopulation constitutes an unjustifiable invasionof personal liberty, is(a) in conflict with the legitimate needs and demands of amodern industrial society;(b) inconsistent with sound principles of government inademocratic state; and(c) generally costly and inefficient, serving only to createpoverty and inter-racial tension, and should be replaced forthwith by a system inkeeping with modern democraticpractice."

(4) Assembly Hansard 7, cols. 2724-38.

54 A SURVEY OF RACESeconding this motion, Mr. W. P. Stanford of the Progressive Party supported"wholeheartedly the abolition of the pass law system and the influx controlsystem. We say that it must be replaced by a rational system of the canalization oflabour through labour bureaux on a voluntary and not a penal system .. . Theremust naturally be stabilization of the rural and the urban population and theremust be a raising of wage levels to a living wage level in both the farming and theurban communities, and . . . a proper development of the Reserves.'(')Although the United Party did not support the motion, it maintained that the passlaw system should be simplified and applied with greater fairness and justice.AFRICAN NATIONAL CONGRESS CONFERENCE, DECEMBER 1959The more important of the resolutions passed at the 47th annual conference of theA.N.C., held in Durban on 12 and 13 December 1959. dealt with two mainmatters: the economic boycott and thepass laws. The international boycott ofSouth African goods was welcomed, members being urged to intensify theirinternal boycott of listed "Nationalist products."A major campaign against the pass laws, which would have several culminatingpoints, was agreed upon. Arrangements would be made for deputations to waitupon local authorities and Bantu Affairs Commissioners throughout the countryon 31 March, "AntiPass Day", urging the abolition of the pass laws. On 15 April,"African Freedom Day", numerous public meetings would be convened to planmass anti-pass demonstrations to be held at the time of the Union Festival, duringMay. Further country-wide demonstrations would take place on 26 June.PAN-AFRICAN CONGRESS CONFERENCE, DECEMBER 1959The rival P.A.C. held its first annual conference in Orlando, Johannesburg on 20December. It planned a "status campaign" aimed at achieving courteous treatmentfor Africans in shops. It also decided to launch "decisive and final positive action"against the pass lawsunder the slogan of "no bail, no defence, no fine." Thedetailed plans for this campaign are described below.DEMONSTRATION IN JOHANNESBURG ON 22 FEBRUARY 1960A pamphlet which condemned the pass laws was produced in February1960 bythe consultativecommittee of fourteen organizations which had been establishedby the Anglican Bishop of Johannesburg, the Rt. Rev. A. Reeves. Copies werewidely distributed.(5) Cols. 2739-40.

RELATIONS: 1959-60On 22 February the A.N.C. together with membersof the "Bishop's Committee"staged a silent anti-pass demonstration on the Johannesburg City Hall steps. Adeputation from the A.N.C. handed to a representative of the City Council amemorandum in which the Council was urged to inform the Government that theinflux control system was oppressive and should be abolished, andwas asked toreplace the compulsory labour bureau with a voluntary bureau organized on thelines of a labour exchange.

That same day, in a speech at a City Council Meeting, Councillor Mrs. K.Mitchell of the Progressive Party described her party's views andrecommendations in regard to the pass law system.DEMONSTRATION PLANNED BY THE PAN-AFRICAN CONGRESS,AND ITS OUTCOME, 18-22 MARCHANNOUNCEMENT OF THE PLANS OF THEPAN-AFRICAN CONGRESSAt a Press conference on 18 March, Mr. R. M. Sobukwe, Presidentof the P.A.C.,announced(6) that his organization had planned a campaign aimed at the abolitionof the pass laws, which would commence on 21 March. Members were beingcalled upon toleave their passes at home and to surrender themselves for arrest atthe nearest police station. Should the police refuse to arrest them, theirinstructions were to go home, and return to the police station later in theday. Theslogan "no bail, no defence, no fine" would be strictly adhered to. After servingtheir gaol sentences, the campaigners would again offer themselvesfor arrest.P.A.C. members had been instructed to conduct the campaign in a spirit of non-violence, Mr. Sobukwe said. If ordered bythe police to disperse, they should doso quietly and in an orderly manner. He had written to the Commissioner ofPolice, informing him of the campaign, and appealing to him to instruct his mennot to make impossible demands of the Africans. He had added,"If the police areinterested in maintaining law and order they will have no difficulty at all."This campaign, Mr. Sobukwe stated, was the first step in the P.A.C.'s aim toachieve "freedom and independence" for the Union's Africans by 1963.The Secretary-General of the African National Congress informed Mr. Sobukweby letter that the A.N.C. would not support this campaign. "We must avoidsensational actions which might not succeed, because we realizethat it istreacherous to the liberation movementto embark on a campaign which has notbeen(6) Rand Daily Mail report, 19 March 1960.

A SURVEY OF RACEproperly prepared for and which has no reasonable prospect ofsuccess," he wrote.ACTION TAKEN BY P.A.C. MEMBERS ON 21 MARCHAt numbers ofpolice stations in widely scattered areas the demonstrations wentoff according to plan. Mr. Sobukwe and a number of companions, forexample,presented themselves without passes at the Orlando police station, Johannesburg,and were arrested. Mr. Sobukwe immediately resigned his lectureship on the staffof the Department of Bantu Studies at the Witwatersrand University. Others werearrested at various police stations in Johannesburg, Durban and other centres.In other towns, for example, at various policestations in the Cape Peninsula, thepolice refused to arrest volunteers and persuaded them to go home.There were areas in which irresponsible junior leaders of the movementapparently employed methods of intimidation to induce people to join thedemonstrations. For example, according to Press reports of evidence led later at ajudicial enquiry, it would seem that this occurred at Sharpeville, Vereeniging.

But because of the widespread and bitter opposition to the pass laws and otherlegislation, and the tense atmosphere that existed in the Union, many hundreds ofAfricans who were not P.A.C. members voluntarily joined the demonstrations insome towns. Others came with them, out of curiosity. Large crowds collected; andin the circumstances outbursts ofemotionalism were inevitable.EVENTS IN AND NEAR VEREENIGINGA judicial commission investigated events that occurred in townships nearVereeniging. As its report had not been made public at the time of writing, asummary is given instead of Press reports of the occurrences themselves and ofthe evidence led at the enquiry.EvatonIt would appear that a very large crowd (estimated in a Press report7) at 10,000)gathered outside the Evaton police station on the morning of 21 March,demanding to be arrested. When the police refused, the people began to getexcited; but they finally scattered after military aircraft had divedlow over theirheads.(7) Rand Daily Mail, 22 March 1960.

RELATIONS: 1959-60Vanderbijl ParkAnother crowd, estimated(8) at between three and four thousand. gathered at theVanderbijl Park police station. It was reported that about 20 Whitemen, carryingfirearms, threatened to take action against the Africans, but weredeterred by thepolice officer in charge, who then arrested the leader of the Africandemonstrators. The crowd began to get angry. They failed to withdraw whenmilitary aircraft swooped overhead and when nine tear gas bombs were thrown intheir direction, but were finally dispersed by a police baton charge.An Africanwho led the stoning of a police car, and one other man, were shot deadby thepolice.SharpevilleThe main disturbances in this area took place at Sharpeville Location,Vereeniging. As fairly detailed accounts of the events that occurredhere and atother centres were given in the Institute's Fact Paper Days of Crisis inSouthAfrica,(') for the purposes of this Survey summarized versions only are included,together with any information that has become available since the Fact Paper wasissued.Early on the morning of 21 March a crowd of Africans variously estimated atbetween five and seven thousand marched to the municipal offices atthe entranceto the location. Police officers said later in evidence that they wereafraid theAfricansintended marching on Vereeniging. After tear gas bombs had beenthrown and a baton charge made the demonstrators dispersed into sidestreets,about 60 policemen following them. Stones were flung, one policeman beingslightly injured, and it was stated thatseveral shots were fired by Africans, andthat some policemen opened fire without an order to do so from theirofficer. NoAfrican was, however, hurt.

The police then joined others in the police station inside the township, whichbecame surrounded by acrowd that gradually increased in size until it is said tohave numbered between 5,000 and 20,000 (estimates differed widely). The peopleare reported by the police to have been shouting and brandishing variousweapons. Their leader, said to be Mr. NyakaneTsolo, when questioned by apolice lieutenant, said they had come without their reference books and wished tobe arrested. The lieutenant urged him to send them home.In evidence given later before the judicial commission it was argued that althoughthecrowd was noisy and excitable it was not hostile. In general, the people hadnot carried sticks. They had(8) Star, 21 March and 13 and 14 April.(9) No. 5-1960.

A SURVEY OF RACEgathered at the police station because it was believed, rightlyor wrongly, that asenior police officer was to make a statement on the pass laws.Police reinforcements were summoned, arriving accompanied by saracenarmoured cars. A police colonel arrested Mr. Tsolo and two others. As the thirdman was arrested the tension increased, a scuffle took place, some stones werethrown, two shots were heard, and the crowd surged forward, so thatit appearedthat the fence might be pushed over. It is said that two of the officers tried tospeak to the crowd over loudspeakers,but could not make themselves heard, andthat two White policemen opened fire without an order to do so, about50 othersthen following suit, using service revolvers, rifles and sten guns. Thecrowdwavered and then fled, leaving many dead and wounded.The police tended the wounded and summoned ambulances, which tookthem tothe Vereeniging and Baragwanath hospitals. On 22 March it was officiallyannounced("°) that 67 Africans had been killed and 186 wounded: ofthe latter, 40were women and 8 children.(") A C.I.D. officer who subsequently investigatedthe shooting said in evidence that 69 people had been killed and 178 wounded.It would appear that firing was continued after the people began to flee: accordingto evidence given by medical practitionersat the enquiry, of the bullet woundsthat could be classified, 30 shots had entered the wounded or killed persons fromthe front and 155 from the back.For at least a week after the disturbances very many of the shops and factories inthe Vereeniging and Vanderbijl Park areas were very seriously short of Africanlabour: numbers of them were forced to close temporarily. It was alleged(2 thatcrowds in Sharpeville forced the buses to cease operating on 22 March, and thatnumbers of men who had gone to workbegged their employers to allow them toreturn home, or left without permission, on hearing that reprisals might otherwisebe taken against them or their families.Some months later, during September, 224 civil claims for damages amounting toabout £398,000, arising from the disturbance at Sharpeville, were served on theDepartment of Justice. On 21 October, however, the Minister ofJusticeannounced that during the next Parliamentary Session the Government would

introduce legislation to indemnify itselfand its officials retrospectively againstclaims resulting from action taken during the disturbances.(10) Rand Daily Mail of that date.(11) Minister of Justice, Assembly, 5 April, Hansard 12 col. 4837.(12) eg. Star and Rand Daily Mail of 22March.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 59EVENTS IN CAPE TOWN, 21 MARCHThe Prime Minister said in the Assembly on 21 March(") that on that morningabout 1,200 Africans had congregated at the Philippi police station and afewhundred at the police station at Nyanga. More than 1,000 had been formallyarrested at Wynberg.A serious disurbance took place that day in Langa township. A second judicialcommission was appointed to investigate the events: again, its reporthad not beenmade public at the time of writing, thus the summary that follows is based onPress reports.During the morning of 21 March a large meeting was held, apparentlywith theobject of organizing a march to the police station to invite arrest. Police officersarrived and summoned the leaders, who included Mr. Philip Kgosana oftheP.A.C., to find out what was being planned. They warned the leadersthat themarch would be unlawful and regarded as a hostile act. At their request, Mr.Kgosana dispersed thegathering, asking them to re-assemble that evening. It issaid that later in the morning he dispersed groups of Africans who had gatheredoutside the police station, emphasizing that the police were not to be attacked.The magistrate decided to ban further meetings at Langa that day, and a policepatrol toured the township broadcasting this message. Neverthelessat about 5p.m. a large crowd gathered at New Flats, a square around which are anumber ofmulti-storey hostels. Many of the people apparently understood that at themeeting they would hear the answer of the authorities on the question ofpasses,although the leaders had not told them this. An improvised platform was set up,and a Cape Times reporter said that when he arrived at about 5.30 p.m. the crowd,estimated at 6,000, was listening in a peaceable way to a long prayer.Numbers ofthem were sitting on the ground.The arrival of a squad of police in a saracen and wire-screened vans apparentlydisconcerted the Africans. The police officer useda portable loudspeaker to warnthe people three times to disperse within three minutes. The reporter, whotogether with a photographer had climbed on the roof of a low building to seewhat was happening, said in evidence that he did not hear this warningandpresumed that many of the Africans had not done so.The crowd failing to disperse, the police charged with batons andriot sticks. It issaid that one of the leaders tried to speak to the police to tell them that threeminutes was insufficient time for the crowd (estimated by then at 10,000) todisperse, but was hit with a baton. Other Africans were hit as they ran or afterthey had fallen. A second baton charge was made to disperse people who wereadvancing from another direction.(13) Hansard 10.col. 3759.

A SURVEY OF RACENow enraged, Africans began stoning the police- but no serious injuries werecaused. It is said that a shot was fired by an African in one of the blocks of flats.The police then opened fire on their attackers, andnumbers of shots were alsofired from a Browning machine gun mounted on the saracen. The reporter said hesaw five Africans returning the fire from round the corners of buildings. He andhis companion were stoned- he jumped down and was hit with a bottleandinjured as he escaped, the photographer being rescued by the police.There was sporadic firing by the police for ten or fifteen minutes, it is said.Reinforcements then arrived, a cease-fire order was given, and the police, togetherwith the reporterand photographer, retired in their vehicles. As they werereturning to the police station their vans were stoned and they again firedat theattackers. Four White nurses, passing along the same road by car,were alsostoned and injured. The police threw acordon across the road and diverted traffic.As he left, the reporter tried to signal to the driver who had broughthim to returnto town, but the signal was apparently not understood. This driverwassubsequently murdered and the car set alight.Numbers of buildings were also set on fire. Damage to the extent of £14,000 wasdone to Council property alone. The homes of several African police constableswere ransacked.According to evidence given at the enquiry, the casualties included the driver, twoAfricans killed by bullets, the four nurses who had been hurt, 26 Africanswounded by gunfire, 21 Africans injured by clubs, and some policemen who hadbeen struck by stones or sticks.Next morning the police attempted to rout out all the men in the single quarters tosend them to work. Some who escaped into the bush were followed with the aidof a helicopter. The police used riot sticks, and shots were fired. They beat upAfricans seen walking in the streets of Langa- one man was wounded while onhis way home from shift work.DISTURBANCES IN CAPE TOWN AND JOHANNESBURG 23- 29 MARCH"DAY OF MOURNING"Before describing subsequent disturbances, it is convenient to record that Ex-Chief Luthuli of the A.N.C. called on Africans and other sections of thepopulation to observe 28 March as a day of mourning for the dead of theSharpeville and Langa riots, appealing to them to stay away from work on thatday.

RELATIONS: 1959-60According to a Press report,(4) he said in evidence given at the treason trial thathe did not think one "stay-at-home" would lead to the realization of Africanambitions, but considered that a series of them would force the White public,from sheer self-interest, to persuade the Government to enter into negotiation withAfricans to see whether their demands could be accommodated. Alternatively, theWhite electorate would be influenced to change the Government.

The P.A.C. decided to support the day of mourning. It was reportedby thePress(5) that the "stay-at-home" was about 95 per cent successful among Africansin Cape Town, but that Coloured workers there had ignored it. It wasapparentlybetween 85 and 90 per cent successful in Johannesburg, and between 85 and 95per cent successful in Port Elizabeth. There was a fair response inPietermaritzburg. Between 20 and 25 per cent of the Africans in Durban stayedaway from work, and most of the Indian businesses there were closed for the day.JOHANNESBURGOn the evening of the Day of Mourning there was a two-hour eruption of riotingin the African townships to the south-west of Johannesburg, when people whohad ignored the call to "stay at home" were assaulted as they returned from work.The assailants seized numbers of reference books from these people and burnedthem.With the exception of senior officials, the staff of the Municipal Non-EuropeanAffairs Department in the townships were temporarily evacuated forthat evening.During the rioting an African police constable was killed and a number ofresidents in the townshipswere assaulted and injured by elements from the "anti-work" group.Four offices of the Natives Resettlement Board in Meadowlands were set on fireand extensively damaged, as well as a school. A shop in that area wasbroken intoand looted.The onlydamage done in the Municipal townships was to a Church in Dube.CAPE TOWNThe atmosphere in Cape Town remained extremely tense after the Langa riot. Ashappened also in the Vereeniging area, even before the call for a day of mourningthousands of Africans absented themselves from work, their numbers growingdaily. It was alleged('6) that agitators warned people, both in their homes and at(14) Star, 24 March.(15) Ibid. 28 March.(16) eg. Rand Daily Mail, 24, 25 and 26 March

A SURVEY OF RACEtheir places of employment, that there would be severe reprisals unlesstheyceased work, and that the police were called to the Epping Industrial Townshipwhen about 30 Africans threatened to destroy a factory unless the employees werereleased.On 23March about 100 young men are reported to have offered themselves forarrest at Caledon Square, but the police refused to apprehend them. They thenwent to the central police station, where they were taken into custodybut releasedthree days later.On the 25th March, about 2,000 Africans from Langa, led by Mr. PhilipKgosana,presented themselves at the Caledon Square police station without passes andasked to be arrested. Mr. Kgosana and a companion were put in the cells. Thecrowd continued to grow, and the senior police officer then decided to talk withthe leaders, who expressed their opposition to the pass system. The police officerundertook to see to it that no-one would be asked to produce his pass in Cape

Town until conditions returned to normal(this concession was on the followingday made general for a short period), and asked the leaders to disperse the crowd.They agreed to do so if Mr. Kgosana and his companion were released, and thepolice officer then allowed these two out on their own recognizances.About 57,000 men are said to have stayed away from work on 28 March to attendthe funerals of Africans who had been shot. The police used tear gas and batoncharges to disperse a crowd that assembled on the Grand Parade.SUBSEQUENTDISTURBANCES30 MARCH- 11 APRILDECLARATION OF A STATE OF EMERGENCYAs will be described later, on 24 March the Government banned public meetingsof all races in a large number of magisterial districts. On 28 March legislation wasintroduced to ban the A.N.C. and the P.A.C. Then, on 30 March, a state ofemergency was proclaimed. Hundreds of people were arrested before dawn thatmorning.These events are mentioned at this stage because they, too, preceded freshdisturbances in a large number of towns. The accounts of these disturbances arebased on Press reports.CAPE TOWNFor more than a week after the day of mourning nearly all of the 50,000 Africansemployed in Cape Town stayed away from work. All major building andengineering projects were immobilized, coal, milk, and newspaper deliveries wereseriously

RELATIONS: 1959-60 63impeded, bread and meat were in short supply, hotels and garageswere extremelyshort-staffed, and there was a congestion of shipping at the docks. Large numbersof migratory workers, estimated by the Deputy Minister of Bantu Administrationand Development at 1,750,(") returned to their homes in the Transkei or Ciskei toavoid becoming involved in the disturbances.On 30 March, crowds gathered in the African townships when it became knownthat many of the leaders had been arrested under the emergency regulations. Apeaceable column over a mile long, estimated at more than 30,000 people,(8)marched from Langa and Nyanga to the Caledon Square police station, in thecentre of the city, to demand the release of these leaders. An Air Force helicopterwith police observers circled overhead, and, in a show of strength, saracenarmoured cars and wire-screened vans carrying armed police drove through thecrowds, which parted to afford them passage.When the procession arrived at Caledon Square its leader, Mr. Philip Kgosana,addressed the people and asked for silence. He asked to see the Minister ofJustice, and said later in evidence thathe understood the Deputy Commissioner tooffer to make an appointment. This official said that he had merelyundertaken toconvey the request to the Minister. At the request of the police, Mr. Kgosana thenspoke to the people through a loud-speaker, asking them to disperse, which theydid. The Minister did not grant the interview, but instructed the Secretary for

Justice to see a deputation. In the meanwhile Mr. Kgosana had been detainedunder the emergency regulations.A group of shouting African womengathered outside the Houses of Parliament,which were guarded by police carrying sten guns and armoured carsmanned bysoldiers. Large crowds collected in the vicinity. They finally dispersed after policeofficers with loud-speakers had warned them that abaton charge would otherwisebe made. Many businesses in the centre of the city were temporarily closed.Troops and police were sent to guard vital installations.About a hundred women marched on the Langa police station. As theyfailed toobey an orderto disperse, tear gas bombs were thrown.During the night of 30 March heavily armed police, troops and sailors threw tightcordons round Langa, Nyanga East and Nyanga West. After 7.30 a.m. no-one wasallowed to enter or leave the townships: by that timeonly about 1,000 people hadleft for work. Next day the hour was extended to 8 a.m. Several thousand Africansfrom Nyanga massed in the Klipfontein Road on 2 April, but were haltedandordered back. Traffic was diverted from the main roads passing the Afri cantownships.(17) Assembly, 13 May, Hansard 17 col. 7512.(18) Star, 30 March.

A SURVEY OF RACEAfter the weekend of 2nd and 3rd April, the Africans began returning to work inincreasing numbers. The cordons were retained at Langa until 7th April, and atNyanga for a further day. In the meanwhile, as will be described below, manyhundreds of Africans who were suspected of inciting others to stay away fromwork were arrested. As a large proportion of the inhabitants of the townships hadbeen away from work for a week or more, many of the people were short of cash,and there was considerable hunger and suffering. The Red Cross, the Black Sash,the Liberal Party, S.A. Coloured People's Organization and the Moslemcommunity collected food and milk to help relieve the distress.It was reported(9 that during the disturbances an African policeman wasmurdered, twelve Africans at least suffered bullet wounds, and more than thirtywere injured in other ways. An African baby was accidentally shot and killed by anaval guard at Nyanga.According to the Minister of Justice,(") during the rioting on 21 March andsubsequently, one church was destroyed at Langa and another twowere damaged,a school at Nyanga was destroyed and three further schools, atLanga, Nyangaand Windermere respectively, were damaged, the library halls at both Nyanga andLanga were destroyed, and the Langa Town Hall damaged.OTHER TOWNS IN THE WESTERN CAPEIn Stellenbosch on 30 March a large crowd marched from Kaya Mandi townshiptowards the town to demonstrate against passes, but were stopped by the policeabout a mile outside. When they refused to disperse the police made abatoncharge, causing the Africans to flee, many of them dropping their possessions.Their anger increasing, they set alight the administrative buildings inside theirtownship. and according to reports,(1) also a church, a clinic and the homes of

two African constables. Cars passing the township were stoned. It was stated thatthe police accepted an offer from the local skietcommando to assist in patrollingthe boundaries of the township to prevent the Africans from again marching out.Numbers of arrests were subsequently made.Trouble commenced in Worcester during the night of 28 March, when buildingsin the Zweletemba township, including six churches, one school and theciviccentre, valued at more than £30,000, were totally destroyed in rioting. ManyColoured people joined the Africans in staying away from work on 30 March. Onthat day the police used tear gas to break up a procession that was reported to bemarching to the town. At least two shots were fired, but apparently no-one washurt. According to Press reports(19) Star, 6 April.(ZO) Assembly, 19 April, Hansard 14 cols. 5486-7.(21) Star, 30 March

RELATIONS: 1959-60 65the police, assisted by skietcommandos, cordoned off the African townshipsduring the night, armed guards patrolled the streets of the town, and all bars andbottle stores weretemporarily closed.Also on 30 March the police in Somerset West stopped a procession ofAfricansthat was marching to the town. Municipal property and vital installations wereplaced under security guard.In Simonstown, on 31 March, about 1,000 Africans are reported to have marchedto a square in the centre of the town to invite arrest for not carrying referencebooks. After the Manager of Native Administration and the police had heard theircomplaints and had addressed them, they returned home. A church in the Africantownship was set alight and destroyed.A similar procession of between three and four hundred Africans marched intoHermanus on 1 April. The police, who had been reinforced by skietcommandos,ordered the crowd to disperse, and when theyfailed to do so, charged usingbatons and rifle butts. The Africans then fled, leaving behind scattered personalbelongings.In Paarl, on 2 April, several hundred Africans marched into the townand gatheredoutside the Magistrate's Court. A large bag ofreference books was publiclyburned. That evening, a school in an African township was set alight anddestroyed. Another school in Muizenburg was burned to the ground.In most of these towns there was large-scale absenteeism during the first week ofApril.DURBANThe detention of African leaders on 30 March led to a very tense situation inDurban. In the early hours of the next morning buses were stoned at Cato Manor(the service was then temporarily withdrawn), road-blocks were erected, andintimidators deterred African workers from leaving the area.A few hours later, about 5,000 people began marching from Cato Manor to thecity to demand the release of the leaders. They were halted by a seniorpoliceofficer, who persuaded them to go to a nearbysports field where the Chief

Magistrate and the Bantu Affairs Commissioner would meet them. This meetingwas held, but ended in an uproar.It is reported that on the next day, 1 April, a crowd about double the size startedmarching along various routes to the city from Cato Manor. One column of about1,000 was turned back near the Howard College of the University by adetachment of police and navy who made a baton charge. Other processions werehalted on the main road to Johannesburg: the majority of thepeople returned toCato Manor, but some split into smaller groups and continued along various sideroads.

66 A SURVEY OF RACEOne procession estimated at about 1,000 succeeded in reaching the centre of thecity and proceeded to the gaol, where they demanded the release of the leaders.They were addressed by a senior police official who then warned them that thepolice would open fire unless they had dispersed within five minutes. Theyapparently did so. A young Indianis reported(22) to have urged them to remainpeaceful.Another group surged up the Berea Road: motorists drove their vehicles over thecentral island to escape. A detachment of police opened fire, killing one Africanand wounding several others. Furtherclashes occurred elsewhere, another twoAfricans being shot dead. At the subsequent inquest a magistratefound that thepolice firing had been justified.A comparatively quiet weekend followed. On the Monday leaflets signed bysenior officials of the Bantu Affairs Department and the police, urging Africans tomaintain law and order, were dropped from the air and distributed by hand. Freshdisturbances broke out that day in other areas.There were scenes of general disorder near the municipal bus depot in Clermonttownship, near Pinetown, a bus was stoned, and only about 100 persons instead ofthe usual 1,500 left for work. A serious clash is reported(23) to have taken placebetween the police, who made three baton charges, and some Africans, armedwith kerries, one African being killed and nine injured, and several policemenhurt.Serious rioting occurred at Lamontville location, to the south of Durban, onMonday 4 April and the following day. About onethird of the workers are said tohave stayed at home on the Monday, or to have returned after being threatened byintimidators on their arrival in the city. Bus services were withdrawn.On bothdays crowds gathered in the afternoon to attack those who had been towork.Time and again the police cleared road blocks and dispersed mobs: on at least twooccasions they opened fire. It was reported24) that one African was shot dead,thirteen injured during baton charges, and several policemen hurtby blows fromstones or kerries.The gravest trouble took placeat the large S. J. Smith Hostel for 4,500 unattachedmen, which is near to Lamontville. Few of the men left for the city on theMonday. Anticipating trouble, the police stood by to try to protect thosewho hadbeen to work as they returned; but in spite of this eleven Africans were assaultedand taken to hospital. The police opened fire on three occasions, two

demonstrators being wounded. The hostel staff of about 60 men was evacuatedunder police escort.(22) Contact, 18 June.(23) Daily News, 5 April.(24) Daily News and Mercury.

RELATIONS: 1959-60The situation at the hostel was quieter next day, but remained tense. Againintimidators were at work. An attempt was made to burn the offices, but the firebrigade extinguished the blaze. Large numbers of residents are said to havereturned to their rural homes to avoid becoming involved in the troubles.On the Tuesday a strong force of police, supported by Citizen Force units,surrounded the hostel, warning the residents through loud speakersthat theyintended clearing the buildings and would open fire if necessary. No resistancewas encountered. The inmates were screened, about 300 arrests being made, andmany hundreds of sticks and other weapons were confiscated.JOHANNESBURGIsolated demonstrations of unrest continued in Johannesburg, although therewereno large-scale disturbances.On 31 March the police made a baton charge to disperse a crowd of about 300Africans in White City, Jabavu, and arrested the man who had been addressingthem. Africans from the Western Native Township stoned cars and trams passingnearby on the way to Newlands, and also threw stones at policemen. The policefired several shots, and according to the Press one African was wounded andarrested. The tram service was temporarily suspended. Further shots were firedwhen the police rescued two Chinese who were attacked while drivingthroughMeadowlands: two Africans were wounded and arrested.GERMISTONBetween twenty and thirty per cent of the Africans at Natalspruit, Germiston,stayed at home on 31 March. About 150 of them blocked the road to thetownshipwith boulders and, it was reported, loosened a section of the railway line. Theywere dispersed by a police baton charge. Later, a large crowd gathered and stonedthe police, critically wounding an African constable and injuring threeWhiteconstables. The police fired several shots to disperse the mob: oneAfrican is saidto have been wounded.PORT ELIZABETHUnrest flared up in Port Elizabeth, too. A church at Walmer and another atVeeplaats were set alight and destroyed, a school at Kwazakeletownship wasburned to the ground, and another four schools were damaged. Numbers ofreference books were burned.EAST LONDON AND CRADOCK,A church in Duncan Village, East London, and a school at Cradock, weredestroyed by rioters.

A SURVEY OF RACEBLOEMFONTEIN

On 1 April a crowd of Africans, which grew to several hundreds, gathered at thebus terminus in the city where men lighted a fire and burned numbers of referencebooks. The police arrested five of these men, but one escaped during the scuffle.Police reinforcements armed with tear gas bombs and sten guns thenarrived, theAfricans were ordered to disperse, and they gradually drifted away.PIETERMARITZBURG, BEAUFORT WEST AND ERMELOAttempts were made to set fire to the Bantu Administration Departmentoffices inPietermaritzburg and a high school for Coloured children in Beaufort West. Thebeer hall at Ermelo was destroyed.CASUALTY FIGURESAccording to a Press report 25, which quoted "official sources", 83 Non-Whitecivilians were killed and 365 injured in riots that occurred between 21March and9 April. The Minister of Justice said in the Assembly on 19 April26) thatthreeAfrican policemen had been killed, and 33 White, one Coloured and 25 Africanpolicemen injured.ACTION TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENTBANNING OF PUBLIC MEETINGSOn 24 March, after the Langa, Sharpeville, Evaton and Vanderbijl Park riots, butbefore disturbances had occurred in other areas, the Government banned publicmeetings of all races in 24 of the Union's 265 magisterial districts. Afew dayslater this ban was extended to numerous other districts. This action wastakenunder the Riotous Assemblies Act, the ban to be effective until 30 June.According to this Act, the implications were that in the districts concerned nogathering, meeting or procession of twelve or more persons having acommonpurpose could be held in an open space to which members of the public habituallyhad access unless permission was obtained from a magistrate.TEMPORARY RELAXATION OF PASS RAIDSOn 26 March the Commissioner of Police announced to the Press, "In view of thefact that Bantus. as a result of intimidation, are so gripped by fearto carryreference books and are even afraid(25) Star, 25 April.(26) Hansard 14 col. 5477.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 69to carry any money, I have decided to relieve this tremendous tension and toprevent innocent andlaw-abiding Bantus from landing in trouble."I have instructed that no Bantu male or female is to be asked for his orherreference book or any other documents. No Bantu will be taken into custodybecause he is not in possession of his reference book. Bantus must not be arrestedor detained for all sorts of petty offences. They must be warned or summonsed toappear."(27)Many people concluded that this was the beginning of the end of the pass system.It was announced on 27 March0') that Chief Luthuli had burned his referencebook. Many other Africans did so too. Others had their books confiscated anddestroyed by demonstrators.

Warnings were published in the Press, however, that influx control and labourbureaux regulations were still in force, and that without reference books Africanswould not be able to get employment and might experience difficulty inwithdrawing money from Post Office savings accounts. On 4 April the DeputyCommissioner of Police for the Witwatersrand announced that normal curfewregulations would be enforced strictly from that evening. Africans out after thecurfew hour should carry special passes or, if their reference books showed thatthey were exempted from curfew regulations, should take these books so as to beable to producethem voluntarily if challenged by the police.During the days that followed, many Africans in Johannesburg, Pretoria, Durbanand other centres applied for duplicates of their reference books,being required topay £1 each for these.On 10 April theDeputy Commissioner of Police for the Witwatersrandannounced that from that date country-wide action would be taken againstAfricans who were not in possession of these books.UNLAWFUL ORGANIZATIONS ACT, No. 34 OF 1960The Governor-General empowered to ban the A.N.C. and P.A.C.The Unlawful Organizations Bill was introduced in the Assembly on28 March.In its final form the Act provides that if the Governor-General is satisfied that thesafety of the public or the maintenance of public order is seriously threatened orlikely to be seriously threatened in consequence of the activities of the Pan-African Congress or the African National Congress, he may, without notice to thebody concerned, by proclamation in the Gazette declare such body, includingallits branches, committees, and local, regional or subsidiary bodies, to be anunlawful organization.(27) Star, 26 March.(1) Vide Sunday Times photograph of that date,

A SURVEY OF RACESimilarly, if he is satisfied that the safety of the public or the maintenance ofpublic order is seriously threatened or is likely to be seriously threatened by theactivities of any organization which in his opinion has been established for thepurpose of carrying on directly or indirectly any of the activities of any bodydeclared unlawful, he may declare this new organization to be unlawful.Any proclamation issued in terms of the provision described above may bewithdrawn by proclamation. Two provisions introduced as the result of criticismby the UnitedParty were, firstly, that any proclamation will remain in force for aperiod not exceeding twelve months, but its duration may be extendedbyproclamation for further periods not exceeding twelve months at a time. Secondly,if an organization is declared unlawful, the Minister must report the circumstancesto both Houses of Parliament within fourteen days if Parliament is in session, orotherwise within fourteen days after the commencement of the next session.Certain of the provisions of the Suppressionof Communism Act (No. 44 of 1950)will apply to any organization declared unlawful. The more important of thesefollow.

No-one may become or continue to be an office-bearer or member, or carry ordisplay anything indicating that he is or was a member, orcontribute or solicitsubscriptions, or carry on any activity in which the organization wasengaged.All property, rights and documents of the organization shall vestin a liquidator tobe appointed by the Minister of Justice, who will be paid, should the Minister sodecide, out of the assets of the organization. Any balance of assetsafter this, andafter all debts have been paid, will be distributed to one or more charitable orscientific organizations designated by the Minister.After a period of fourteen days from the date of the proclamation, no courtproceedings may be instituted for an order declaring the proclamation invalid.Anyone who performs any act calculated to further the aims or activities of anorganization declared unlawful or who continues as a member or contributes orsolicits subscriptions, shall be guilty of an offence and liable upon conviction to aterm of imprisonment not exceeding ten years. Anyone who refuses or fails toanswer to the best of his knowledge any question put tohim by the liquidator, orwho destroys or removes any property of the organization, shall be guilty of anoffence and liable upon conviction to a maximum sentence of a £200 fine or oneyear's imprisonment or both.The Minister is empowered to forbid anyperson who has been convicted of anoffence under the Act to became an office-bearer or member of any organizationspecified, or any public body, or to order him while he remains an office-bearer ormember to comply with prescribed conditions.

RELATIONS: 1959-60Increased penalties for certain offences under theRiotous Assemblies ActThe Riotous Assemblies Act, No. 17 of 1956, provided. inter alia, that personsfound guilty of intimidating others to stay away from work or to join anyassociation or society, or of jeering at people or blacklisting them for working, orof breaking a contract of employment in an essential service, willbe liable to amaximum penalty of £50 fine or six months' imprisonment or both.In terms of the Unlawful Organizations Act, these maximum penalties areincreased to a fine of £500, or five years' imprisonment, or ten strokes, or acombination of any two of these. In the case of a second or subsequent convictiona fine may not be imposed except in conjunction with asentence of whipping orimprisonment.These are the penalties imposed in terms of the Criminal Law AmendmentAct,No. 8 of 1953, and, under this Act, apply also to persons convicted ofadvising,encouraging or inciting anyone to commit an offence by wayof protest against alaw or in support of any campaign against any law.Brief notes on the Parliamentary DebateWhen introducing the second reading of the Bill, the Minister of Justice said2)that the Government "has decided to call a halt to the reignof terror which thePan-African Congress and the African National Congress have been conductingrecently among the Bantu peoples of South Africa, to call a halt to the activities of

the terrorists, White and Non-White, who act as instigators behind the sceneswithout taking an active part themselves."The combined membership of the two organizations was only about70,000, hecontinued: they were not at all representative of the Bantu in South Africa. Theiractivities bordered on revolution. They wanted to force the State to capitulate orcomply with their demands.He outlined the Government's reasons for increasing tenfold the penalties forintimidation. Cruel and barbaric victimization had been in progress, he said.Freedom volunteers went from house to house ordering people to stay away fromwork. Those who did not obey their orders were threatened with assault. Theirpay packets might be stolen, or members of their families were detained ashostages, or the sjambok was used. Threats were made to burndown their housesor to stab them. Law-abiding Bantu had been forced to burn their reference books.Intimidators visited places of work and threatened workers with murder and(2) Assembly, 28 March 1960. Hansard 11 cola. 4302-7.

A SURVEY OF RACEarson if they did not leave immediately. Shop-owners who sold listed productswere threatened, and if such products were sold they were confiscated from thepurchasers.All the Opposition Parties opposed the Bill at its first reading; but in view of theamendments introduced by the Minister (described above) and of theneed torestore law and order, the United Party thereafter supported it. Sir deVilliersGraaff said, however,(' that the Minister had "painted a shocking picture of thereign of terror that is carried out in certain of the Native townships, but perhaps he(the Minister) did not realise that at the same time he was painting a shockingpicture of the break-down of the administration of the Government and of thecomplete inability of this Government to give protection to the law-abiding loyalNatives."Banning of the A.N.C. and P.A.C.On 8 April, immediately after the Act had been promulgated, the Governor-General signed a proclamation (No. 119), to have effect until 6 April 1961,declaringthe A.N.C. and the P.A.C. to be unlawful organizations.Before this, the organizations had closed their offices and removed documentsand furniture.Action taken by these bodies since AprilSince April, the two bodies have gone underground. In viewof the general fear ofGovernment reprisals and of the prolonged detention of many of theleaders theyhave naturally experienced very considerable difficulties; butthey have not beendormant.As is mentioned earlier, the A.N.C. had planned that 15 April would be "FreedomDay", and that on this occasion numerous public meetings would be convened toarrange anti-pass demonstrations which would be held at the time of the UnionFestival. This plan had to be abandoned. Instead, the A.N.C. and P.A.C. togetherarranged for many thousands of circulars to be distributed in the townships.

calling upon Africans to stay away from work on 19 April (the dayafter theEaster weekend), in protest against recent Government action.This demonstration was an almost complete failure. Probable reasons were three-fold. Firstly, the initial emotional impact of the Sharpeville and Langashootingsand the arrests of leaders had dissolved. Secondly, few of the Africans couldafford to sacrifice a further day's pay, so soon afterthe demonstrations only abouta fortnight previously. And thirdly, many potential intimidatorsfrom the out-of-work and irresponsible elements had been arrested during the police raids on thetownships. The fear of intimidation(3) Cols. 4316-20.

RELATIONS: 1959-60still remained, however, and people tended to remain in their homes early in themorning until the word got around that everything was quiet.June 26, the next "culminating point" in the campaign planned earlier by theA.N.C., passedquietly and without incident throughout the Union.During the weeks that followed, at least thirteen former P.A.C. members werearrested and charged with taking part in the activities of an unlawful organization.Towards the end of September the "emergency committee" of the A.N.C.distributed leaflets referring to 1 October as a significant date in the campaignagainst the pass laws. On 27 September the Minister of Bantu Administration andDevelopment issued a statement appealing to Africans not to associate withpeople or organizations who were trying to persuade them to stage demonstrationsand protests before and on referendum day (5 October). No demonstrations werereported.MOBILIZATION OF THE CITIZEN FORCEWe return, now, to the action taken bythe Government at the time of thedisturbances. Between 30 March and 2 April the entire Citizen Force,PermanentForce Reserve, Citizen Force Reserve and Reserve of Officers, and the whole ofthe Commandos, were placed on stand-by, the regiments, squadrons and otherunits being mobilized as their services were required.DECLARATION OF STATE OF EMERGENCYIn Proclamation No. 90 published on 30 March, the GovernorGeneral said,"Whereas in my opinion it appears that circumstances have arisen in the areasspecified in the attached schedule which seriously threaten the safetyof the publicand the maintenance of public order, and the ordinary law of the landisinadequate to enable the Government to ensure the safety of the public and tomaintain order;"Now therefore, acting under the powers vested in me by section two of thePublic Safety Act, 1953 (Act No. 3 of 1953), I hereby declare thata state ofemergency exists within the areas specified in the attached Schedule as from the29th March, 1960."Theschedule listed 83 of the Union's 265 magisterial districts, a further 39districts being added in terms of proclamations issued on 1st andl1th April. Thesedistricts included all the large towns.EMERGENCY REGULATIONS

Proclamation 91 of 30 March setout the emergency regulations to apply in thespecified districts. A summary follows of these regulations, as amended bysubsequent proclamations.

A SURVEY OF RACEProhibition of gatheringsA magistrate or commissioned officer in the forces mightprohibit the holding inany area of any particular gathering or procession of more than a number ofpersons determined by him. or of all such gatherings, except thoseheld forpurposes of divine worship in a building ordinarily used for that purpose, or forthe purpose of instruction imparted under any law, or in connection withthefuneral of a person who had died from causes other than violence committedduring a state of emergency, or meetings of statutory bodies, industrial councils,employers' organizations or registered trade unions held for the purpose oftransacting any business of that body, or gatherings held for the purpose oftheatrical or cinematographic entertainment or a wedding.Orders which might be made by the Commissioner of PoliceTheCommissioner of Police might make orders, not inconsistent with theregulations, for the control of traffic, the closing of any private or public place orbusiness, the removal of the public from particular areas, the control of essentialservices, or theperiods during which persons might be in the streets or in publicplaces. He might prescribe a fine not exceeding £25 for the contravention of anyorder issued by him.Maintenance of orderIf a magistrate or commissioned or non-commissioned officer was of the opinionthat the presence or conduct of any person or persons at any place endangered ormight endanger the public safety or the maintenance of public order, or exposedor might expose life or property to danger, he might in a loud voice order suchperson or persons to stop, or to proceed to any indicated place, or to desist fromsuch conduct, and give warning that force would be used if the order was notobeyed forthwith.If the order was not obeyed, the magistrate or officer might authorize theapplication of force (including force resulting in death) in order toremove orprevent the suspected danger.Detention of persons(a) Section fourThe Minister or a magistrate or commissioned officermight order the arrest without warrant anddetention of any person if in hisopinion this was desirable in the interest ofthe public order or of the person concerned.The Minister would determine the period of detention,and might make rules for the administration of any place where persons werebeing detained. Sanctions for the enforcement of these rules might be laid down.He might

RELATIONS: 1959-60

impose such conditions as he saw fit upon the release of adetained person.A detainee who was not a South African citizen bybirth or descent might be declared to be an undesirable inhabitant of the Union,and then deported. Such an order would not be subject to appeal or toreview byany court of law. Naturalized citizens might be issued with suchorders.Certificates of exemption from detention might beissued to persons whose activities, in the opinion of the Minister or a magistrate,should be controlled. These certificates would set forth the conditions for suchexemption.(b) Sections nineteen and twentyAny peace officer might without warrant arrest anyonewho had committed an offence against the emergency regulations. The Minister, amagistrate or a commissioned officer might order the arrest ofanyone whocommitted, or was suspected of having the intention to commit, any offence withintent to hamper the maintenance of public order, or who had any informationrelating to such an offence or intended offence. Such a person would be detaineduntil the official concerned was satisfied that he had fully and truthfully answeredall questions put to him, and the Minister mightimpose conditions upon his release.(c) Further provisionsIt was an offence without the Minister's permission todisclose the name of anyone arrested or detained under the regulations, or to assista detainee to escape, or to harbour anyone who had escaped, or to deliver ortransmit anyunauthorized article to or from a detainee.An amendment to the regulations stated that no one who was detained in thepublic interest, or in his own interest, or because he had committed or intended tocommit an offence with the intention of hampering the maintenance of publicorder, would be allowed to consult with a legal adviser in connection with anymatter relating to his arrest and detention, unless permission was given by theMinister or someone acting under the Minister's authority.Arrest of Africans in certain circumstances (Regulation 4 bis.)Another amendment to the emergency regulations provided that if it was allegedthat an African detainee was at the time of his arrest not in possession of areference book, or was illegally in an urban area, or, being in an urban area had nofixed place

A SURVEY OF RACEof employment or inadequate honest means of livelihood, such detainee would bebrought before a magistrate for examination. The onus of proof would be on theaccused. If the magistrate, after hearing such evidence as he might considerexpedient (including any evidence or statement which the accused might desire totender) found that the allegation was true, the person concerned would be sent to aprison institution until the regulation lapsed or until the Minister of Justice

ordered his release. While he was in detention, the provisions of the Prisons Actand regulations would applyto him as if he were a person undergoing a normalsentence of imprisonment. Appeal against a magistrate's decisionlay to a boardconsisting of not more than three persons appointed by the Minister.As in the case of other detained persons, it was an offence to disclose the name ofanyone arrested under Regulations 4 bis without the Minister's permission.Subversive statements or publicationsIt was an offence to utter, print, type, display or distribute a subversive statement,which was defined as astatement which was calculated or likely to have theeffect:(a) of subverting the authority of the Government or the legislature;or;(b) of inciting the public or any person to resist or oppose theGovernment or any official or member of the forces in connection with anymeasure adopted in pursuance of the emergencyregulations or relating to the safety or the public; or(c) of engendering or aggravating feelings of hostility in the publicor any person towards any section of the public orany person;or(d) of causing panic, alarm or fear among the public, or ofweakening the confidence of the public in the successful termination of the stateof emergency, unless the statementwas proved to be a true and complete narrative.A magistrate or commissioned officer might order the seizure of any book,document or recording which in his opinion contained information capable ofbeing used in any attempt to hamper the maintenance of public order,and mightorder the search of any premisesif he suspected that publications of a subversivenature were there.The Minister might specify a newspaper, journal, magazine or other periodicalwhich in his opinion had systematically published matter of a subversivenature.No one might then print,publish, distribute or import such publication, or anypublication published in continuation of or substitution fc it.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 77Evidence given in criminal trials not to be used in prosecutionsunder the regulationsAn amendment to the regulations provided that no evidence given by a person in acriminal trial begun before 29 March would be used in evidence against him in acriminal prosecution concerning any alleged contravention of the emergencyregulations. Nor would it be taken into account for any purposes of the emergencyregulations. (This was designed to protect witnesses at the Sharpeville and Langaenquiries and the treason trial; but the accused in this trial did not consider that itprovided adequate safeguards.)Threats of harm, and incitement

It was an offence to threaten anyone, verbally or in writing, that harm, hurt or lossto his person or property would result unless he committed certain acts or took upcertain attitudes.It was also an offence to advise, incite or encourage anyone to stay away from orto retard his work, or to refuse to do any work, or to dislocate any industry orundertaking, or to prejudice any person, or to protest against any law with intentto thwart orexact concessions from any lawful authority or for the achievement ofany political or economic aim.Subversive associationsIf the Minister suspected that any association was in any way connected with anymatter relating to the state of emergency hemight order any person connectedwith it to be summoned to appear before a magistrate or other official forquestioning under oath, and might order him to produce any documents relating tothe affairs of the association. Anyone who refused to attend, or toanswer anylawful questions, or who knowingly gave a false answer, was guilty of an offence.The Minister might order any association which in his opinion was subversive todiscontinue its activities. If in any legal proceedings the question arose of whetherany association ordered to discontinue its activities was identical with anassociation formed after this order was issued, it would be presumed that this wasthe case if any books or property of the original association had been taken over,or if the majority of members or committee members of the original associationhad become members or committee members of the new association.Right to searchA magistrate or commissioned officer might order any person, vehicle or premisesto be searched if hesuspected there was on or in it any document ordered to beseized, or relating to an association ordered to discontinue its activities, or anyarticle affording

78 A SURVEY OF RACEevidence of an offence against the regulations. The premises of any personrequired to give evidence might be searched.Seizure of armsThe Minister might make a general order for seizure of arms in the possession ofall persons or any class of person. A magistrate or commisioned offi cer mightorder the seizure of arms in the possession of any person. It was anoffence to failto take adequate steps for the safe custody of dangerous weapons or drugs.Further offences, and penaltiesIt was also an offence to obstruct anyone in theperformance of his duties underthe regulations.Maximum penalties for offences against the regulations were a fine of £500, orfive years' imprisonment, or five years without the option of a fine, or both suchfine and such imprisonment.Indemnity forpersons exercising powers under the regulationsNo proceedings, whether civil or criminal, might be brought in any court of lawagainst a Government or police or Citizen Force officer, or any person acting bytheir direction or with their consent, by reason of any act advised, ordered or done

by them in good faith in the execution of their powers or the performance of theirduties under the emergency regulations. It would be presumed that such acts weredone in good faith unless the contrary was proved.DURATION OF STATE OF EMERGENCYAs from 2 May the strength of the mobilized Citizen Force units wasprogressively reduced by allowing members to go on indefinite unpaid leave.Parliament was to be prorogued on 20 May, and just before it rose both Housesapproved the emergency regulations, which, in terms of the PublicSafety Act,would otherwise have lapsed.On 11 May the state of emergency was lifted in 20 mainly rural districts, andwithin these districts the ban on public meetings in open spaces was removed. Theregulation which empowered magistrates to ban gatherings or processions in theirareas was repealed throughout the Union on the same day. Some weeks later, thestate of emergency was lifted in further districts, and ten more of the emergencyregulations were repealed in all areas.Finally, on 31st August, the state of emergency was brought to an end.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 79PERSONS DETAINED UNDER SECTION FOUR OF THEEMERGENCY REGULATIONSArrests under Section four (see page 74)Before dawn on 30 March the police arrested large numbers of people of all racialgroups under Section four of the emergency regulations-all the treason trialaccused, and many of the leaders of the Liberal Party, Congress of Democrats,Indian Congress, A.N.C. and P.A.C. and other organizations. Thenames of manyof them were published in the Press on 30 March: copies of the emergencyregulations, which rendered it an offence to disclose their names without theMinister's permission, had not yet been made available to the public.In fact, the arrests were made before the public had been informed that a state ofemergency had been proclaimed. Numbers of habeas corpus applications wereimmediately made in Johannesburgand Durban, the courts ordering the release ofsome of the people concerned. Several of these were re-arrested later that day, butothers quickly fled the country.On 30 March and during the days that followed numerous further arrests weremade, while people who feared that they might be included and wished topreserve their liberty of action left South Africa: amongst these were the AnglicanBishop of Johannesburg, the Rt. Rev. Ambrose Reeves, and Mr. Oliver Tambo,Deputy President of the A.N.C.The Public Safety Act provides that if persons are detained for longer than 30days without trial during a state of emergency, both Houses of Parliament must benotified. Lists of names of detainees were, thus, tabled in Parliament from time totime; but Parliament was prorogued before the full period had elapsed in somecases, thus the names of such persons were not disclosed and, at the time ofwriting, the full total of persons detained was not known.

On 16 May, however, the Minister of Justice said in the Assembly(4) that 94White and 1,813 Non-White persons had by then been detained. They included 35women, 33 of whom had children under the age of sixteen years.Rules governing the detention of these personsOn 11 April, rules were gazetted () "for theadministration and good governmentand the maintenance of order at any place where persons are being detainedpursuant to the Public Safety Act or the Emergency Regulations".(4) Hansard 18, Cols. 7702, 7772, 8244.(5) Government Notice 551.

A SURVEY OF RACEThe Provisions of the Prisons Act and Regulations were to apply unlessinconsistent with the rules summarized below.These rules stated that no detainee might receive a visit from any person,including a legal adviser, except with the permission of the officer in command ofthe place of detention in consultation with the local police authorities.Except also with such permission, no detainee might communicate with anyoneoutside his place of detention, or receive from anyone outside any newspapers orother literature (except Bibles), or any toilet or smoking requisites, food or drink.Reasonable amounts of money and supplies of clothing might be sent to the placeof detention on his behalf, and out of this money he might through officialagencies buy approved magazines and books, toilet requisites, food andunfermented drink, and tobacco, cigarettes and matches within reasonable limits.If a library was available at the place of detention its facilities might be placed athis disposal. Private clothing must be washed at the place of detention.Prison chaplains would perform the necessary religious duties inrespect ofdetainees, additional chaplains being temporarily appointed wherenecessary.However, local police authorities might debar individual chaplains from havingaccess to detainees.The detainees would be medically examined on arrival, and subsequently visited,by medical officers appointed in terms of the Prisons Act. Should such an officer,in consultation with the local policeauthorities, so recommend, medical, dental orhospital treatment outside the place of detention might be permitted.Detainees would be guilty of a contravention of the rules if they failedto complywith the conditions listed above, or wilfully furnishedfalse information,disobeyed lawful commands, were disrespectful to officials, caused unnecessarytrouble, without the necessary permission conversed with other detainees orpersons or left their places of sleeping, eating or recreation, had unauthorizedarticles in their possession, caused discontent or excitement, committed an actwith the intention of injuring their health, or if they attempted to commit any ofthese acts.Upon conviction the magistrate or an officer of the prisons service might imposethe duty to perform certain specified work for a period not exceeding fourteendays, or a fine not exceeding £10, or in default of payment confinement in aspecified room or building for a period not exceeding ten days, orconfinement ina specified place in company with others or alone for a period not exceeding thirty

days. The accused might be legally represented at his trial only if the officer incommand of the place of detention in consultation with the police so agreed.

RELATIONS: 1959-60Further information about the conditions of detentionThe Commissioner of Prisons said in a Press interview") that detainees would notcome into contact with any convicted or awaiting-trial prisoners. Should a prisonmedical officer so prescribe, specialdiets, protective clothing or additionalbedding would be provided. The Minister of the Interior added7) thatthe sametype of accommodation and diet was provided for detainees as forawaiting-trialprisoners of the racial group concerned.The conditions of detention were at first very strict. Some of the detainees werelocked for a time in solitary cells. In the early stages no visitors or letter-writingwere allowed (this condition was relaxed later), and relatives were permitted tosend only one letter a week, its contents to be confined strictly to domesticmatters. The letters were handed to detainees at the discretion of theCommissioner of Prisons.The accommodation and food provided for those who were taken to theJohannesburg and Cape Town gaols were unsatisfactory; but these people werelater moved, to the Pretoria and Worcester prisons respectively, where conditionswere somewhat better. Subsequently a few of the women were transferred to themodern prison at Nylstroom.Many of the familiesof the detainees experienced very considerable financialdistress. In reply to a question in the House on 19 April, the Ministerof SocialWelfare and Pensions said8) that dependants of persons detained, if they were inneedy circumstances, could apply forpublic assistance. Benefits consisted mainlyof rations, but might be supplemented by assistance in respectof householdrequirements and rent. In exceptional cases cash grants might bemade in lieu ofbenefits in kind. So far as Africans were concerned,the public assistance schemewas administered by the Department of Bantu Administration and Development.Various voluntary bodies and persons set up funds to assist the detainees and theirfamilies. A national organization, the Defence and Aid Fund, cameinto being touphold, maintain and promote human rights and civil liberties, to provide reliefand to assist with the legal defence of persons charged or convicted under certaincategories of laws restricting human rights, and to assist the dependants ofsuchpersons. Later the Red Cross took over family assistance in some areas, leavingthe specially formed relief funds to care for the welfare of the detaineesthemselves.(6) Star, 5 April.(7) Hansard 15 cols. 6318, 6322.(8) Assembly, Hansard 14 cols. 5480-1.

A SURVEY OF RACEIt was announced on 24 May that the Government had decided to paymaintenance grants to the dependants of detainees who qualified in termsof ameans test, on the following basis: Coloured and Africans in

Per month. Whites Asians. urban areas.Maximum grant per adult ...... El. 10. 0. £3. 0. 0. £1. 0. 0.Additional maximum amount foreach of the first two children £3. 0. 0. £1. 10. 0. 12. 6. Maximum amount eachfor additional children ... ......... £2. 0. 0. £1. 0. 0. 7. 6.Total maximum ............... .- £7. 10. 0. £3. 0. 0.Free income allowed (the grantbeing proportionately reduced where the income exceededthese amounts):Per adult .................. £7.10. 0. £3. 15. 0. £1. 0. 0.Per each child ............ £1. 0. 0. 10. 0. 5. 0.No grants were made to African dependants in rural areas.It is understood that, in practice, officials of the Department of BantuAdministration in Johannesburg and Pretoria refused to give allowances or rationsto African families unless the wives produced their refetence books (possession ofwhich was not compulsory). Representations were made to the Minister, whodenied the allegation but added that thewomen had been advised to take out thesebooks.Representations made by detainees and their familiesTwenty-one White women who had initially been held in the Johannesburg Fortsent a petition to the Minister early in May pointing out that they hadnot beeninformed of the reasons for their arrest, and had been denied the right ofdiscussing their detention with their legal advisers. They were fully prepared tomeet in open court any charges that might be preferred against them. Seven ofthem, whose husbands were also detained, had left 19 parentless children. Theothers had between them 15 children. Unless they were released on or before 12May they would engage in a hunger strike as from that date. As they werenotreleased, they did stage a hunger strike for eight days, which was terminated formedical reasons.Fourteen White men from Cape Town also went on a hunger strike which endedafter two days when the head of the local Security Branch undertook to obtainanswers to questions relating to theirdetention.On 14 May, twenty-four White, Asian and African children staged ademonstration in Johannesburg pleading for the release of their parents. While asmall deputation was delivering an appeal to the Mayor the rest weredetained bythe police andtaken to the central police station, where they were kept for aboutan hour.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 83The Minister of Justice subsequently said(9) that the police had removed thechildren because a crowd had gathered, opinions were divided, and an outbreak ofviolence was not impossible.Groups of children in Cape Town went to the Houses of Parliament on16 May,taking a petition to the Minister of Justice asking for the release of their parents. Ademonstration ofWhite, Indian and African women and children took place inDurban on 19 May. While on their way to keep an appointment with the Mayor

the women were stopped by the police and warned to appear in court toface acharge of participating in an illegal procession. Finding them guilty, a magistratesubsequently cautioned and discharged them. They appealed against this decisionand succeeded on a technicality.Release of the detaineesA few of the detainees were released during May, and on the 31st ofthat month(Union Day), as a "gesture of goodwill" 154 were set free. Some ofthe releaseswere unconditional, but in numbers of cases strict conditions were imposed, suchas that the person concerned was restricted to the magisterial districtin which helived, must not go out between 8 p.m. and 7 a.m. unless with the magistrate'spermission, must report daily to the police, must not attend gatherings orcommunicate with the Press or with anyone else who had been detained orwithanyone who had ever been a member of a banned organization, must engage in nopolitical activities, and must divulge no information about the places of detention.Such conditions lapsed when the state of emergency was terminated.Miss Hannah Stanton, a British subject who had been detained, was deported. Shehad been working with the Anglican Mission at Lady Selborne, Pretoria.About 1,200 detainees were released during the fortnight commencing on 28June, the 400 who were then left being held until the state of emergency ended on31August.A few of the Africans appeared before the courts on charges suchas incitingothers to burn reference books, but no charges were laid against the vast majorityof the detainees.During October some of the detainees submitted claims for damagesfor allegedillegal detention, but later that month the Minister of Justice announced that theGovernment intended introducing legislation to indemnify itself and its officialsagainst claims resulting from action taken during the emergency,(9) Assembly. 16 May, Hansard 18 cols. 7700-1.

A SURVEY OF RACEOTHER ARRESTS DURING THE PERIOD OF EMERGENCYNumbers of arrestsFrom the second week in April until the beginning of June the police, assisted bytroops, made very numerous raids on Africantownships throughout the Union. Inmost cases the troops sealed off the township concerned and patrolledthe streets,while the police made house-to-house searches. Thousands of Africans werearrested for serious offences such as participation in the rioting, incitement,possession of dangerous weapons, etc., or for statutory offences such as vagrancy,non-compliance with influx control regulations, being in the township without apermit, not being in possession of a reference book, failing to register as aworker,or being in arrears with tax. At the same time the police confiscated manyhundreds of weapons-kerries, iron bars, choppers, long knives, bicycle chainsattached to sticks, and also a few firearms. Illicit liquor and illegally brewed beerwas destroyed.

As well as making these raids on the African townships, the police made anintensive drive to check the credentials of Africans walking in the streetsof thetowns.According to the Minister of Justice,(I'° by 6 May, 18,011 arrests had been made(excluding the persons detained under Section four, as described above). Largenumbers were released after screening. The Minister gave further information on16 May,(") stating that:(a) 689 persons had so far been detained under Section four bis.Of these, 316 had been committed to institutions designated by the Commissionerof Prisons, and 284 had still to be interrogated. (The remaining 89 hadpresumably beenreleased.)(b) 8,454 other persons had been detained in urban areas sincethe commencement of the emergency. The charges against 176 had beenwithdrawn, 987 had been discharged, 1,022 had been sent home orto institutionsor deported, 5,351 had been found guilty and their cases disposedof, and actionwas pending against 897. (The remaining 21 were not accountedfor.)Treatment of Africans by the policeIn many towns, particularly Durban, Germiston and Johannesburg, the authoritiesexpressed their gratitude to the police for the calmness and restraint they hadshown under great provocation during the rioting.(10) Assembly, 6 May. Hansard 16 col. 6818.(11) Assembly, Hansard 18. cols. 7702-3.

RELATIONS: 1959-60It is alleged, however, ') that after the promulgation of an amendment to theemergency regulations which empowered the police to use force in themaintenance of public order, young policemen in Cape Town, engaged in clearingthe streets of "agitators", beat up many innocent Africans, and in some cases alsoColoured people, who were merely walking in the streets and, in numbers ofcases, had come to work in spite of the disturbances. Numerous severe injurieswere caused. The President of the Cape Chamber of Industries and fourteenAnglican clergymen made strong statements of protest.There were reports of similar assaults between 4 and 7 April on Africans inNyanga (Cape Town), where there had been a 90 per cent "stay-at-home". On 4April alone the only African doctor in the township is reported to havetreated 35people for injuries inflicted by the police. It wasalleged that during the house-tohouse search for dangerous weapons, members of the police removed valuablesand money from certain homes.In a statement issued on 6 April, the Minister of Justice is reported to have said(3that reports of undue force used by the police in dealing with intimidators andrioters were unsubstantiated. Two days later, however, when asked in theAssembly whether any such incidents had been brought to his noticeand, if so,what steps were being taken, he replied,('") "Yes. Steps will be taken after a fullinvestigation, should the Attorney-General so decide."

Trials of Africans accused of offences against the law of the landor the emergency regulations (other than Sections four andfour bis)After the disturbances,numbers of Africans appeared before the courts on seriouscharges. Mr. R. M. Sobukwe and 18 other leaders of the P.A.C. were convicted on4 May of inciting others to support a campaign for the repeal of the pass laws, Mr.Sobukwe being sentenced to three years' imprisonment, Mr. P. K. Leballo andthree others to two years each, and Mr. J. Madzunyana and thirteen others toeighteen months. Another extremely harsh sentence, of £300 or three years, waspassed on 142 Johannesburg Africans, led by Mr. Matthew Nkoana of the P.A.C.,who had been found guilty of working in concord against the reference booksystem and failing or refusing to produce their books on demand. Atboth trialsthe accused refused to plead to the charges, and stated that they felt no moralobligation to obey laws made by a White minority. Later notices of appeal werelodged and applications for bail were made. In the latter case the Supreme Courtconfirmed the sentences but suspended half for three years.(12) Co~tact. 16 April and Rand Daily Mail, 10 May,(13) Rand Daily Mail, 6 April.(14) 8 April. Hansard 12 col. 5121.

86 A SURVEY OF RACEThe appeal of Mr. Sobukwe and his co-accused was dismissed.Ex-Chief A. J. Luthuli, President-General ofthe A.N.C., was acquitted on acharge of incitement but found guilty of burning his reference book, and wassentenced to £100 or twelve months' imprisonment, plus six months suspendedfor three years.Other severe sentences were £300 or three years for Mr. Isiah Tsabalala ofJohannesburg for destroying reference books, two years (halfsuspended for threeyears) for thirteen Africans of Durban for taking part in an unlawful processionconstituting a danger to public safety, £200 or twelve months (half suspended) forDr. M. B. Zondi at Umzinto for destroying his reference book and inciting othersto do so, and £100 or six months, plus eighteen months, plus six strokes, for Mr. J.Itholeng of Kimberley, found guilty of similar offences. There were numeroussentences, in widely distributed centres, of £150 or eighteen months, ortwo years'imprisonment (half suspended), or £100 or twelve months, and many hundreds oflesser sentences.For various reasons numbers of the accused were remanded on several occasions,so that months elapsed before their cases were decided. It was, for example, notuntil September that four Pretoria Africans were eventually found guilty ofdestroying reference books and inciting others to do so. They were givencomparatively light sentences, of £50 or four months, plus nine months suspendedfor two years, and electing to pay the fines, were allowed to do so in instalments.Two others were acquitted, but had had to wait nearly six months before thisdecision was reached.Seventy-sevenAfricans were originally arrested after the Sharpevilledisturbances, in some cases while they were patients in hospital. One died after a

motor accident on the way to the gaol, and the cases against 53 were withdrawn.At the time of writing the trial ofthe rest was still in progress, as also were theprosecutions of Africans accused of public violence arising outof incidents atVanderbijl Park, Meadowlands and other places.Treatment of Africans arrested under Section four bisAs is mentioned above,Section four bis of the emergency regulations empoweredthe police to arrest without warrant Africans found without reference books, orillegally in an urban area, or in an urban area without fixed places ofemploymentor adequate means of livelihood.The full number was not disclosed; but thousands of Africans were detained underthis provision. Many of them disappeared suddenly, leaving their families in astate of acute anxiety and, often, financial distress. The prisons officials werefrequently unable or unwilling to disclose the whereabouts of the arrested persons.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 87It is reported that magistrates visited the gaols and held sittings there, the publicbeing excluded and legal representation being denied to the accused.A matter that gave particular cause for concern was that, particularly in the CapeTown area, numbers of juveniles were arrested, taken home in custody to collecttheir clothes, and then sent off by train, handcuffed in pairs, to an unknowndestination. Numbers of distressed mothers came for help to the CapeWesternoffice of the Institute of Race Relations, where affidavits were taken. It appearedthat numbers of the lads had been arrested without just cause: somewereattending school, or in employment, or registered as workseekers with the labourbureau, and they had been born in Cape Town and thus were entitled to stay there.One boy was the sole support of a widowed mother.Protracted negotiations followed-the affidavits were sent to the authorities, localand then senior officials were approached, questions were asked in Parliament,letters were sent to Cabinet Ministers, and two mothers brought habeas corpusactions. Eventually 27 boys were released, 25 of them being lads on whose behalfthe Institute had made representations. It transpired that some ofthem had beensent to a prison institution at East London.Large numbers of the arrested men were sent to Modder B near Brakpan on theEast Rand, a disused minecompound that had been converted into a prisoninstitution intended for short-term prisoners. Largely because of overcrowding,the conditions there apparently were highly unsatisfactory at first. In reply toquestions put by the Press, officials of the Department of Prisons are reported(")to have stated that at one stage 4,760 "Section four bis" detainees as well as 1,506other prisoners were accommodated there. Relatives were allowed nocommunication with them. They spent their days in barbed wire enclosures, and atnight were locked into cells where, at first, the younger men seized blankets fromthe older, weaker ones to protect themselves from the bitter cold. The youngerdetainees were later separated from the rest. Shower-baths were available but, atfirst, no towels were provided. The Acting Commissioner of Prisons admitted thateighteen men had died of pneumonia and "quite a number" of others had beentreated for this-he was uncertain how many. Some of the men had concealed the

fact that they were ill in case they missed their turn for release. Those whobecame ill were given proper medical care and special food, and thediet for allthe detainees was improved.According to a later Press report,SA) a hospital official at Modder Bsaid inevidence given in court that between December(15) Rand Daily Mail, 12 August. (15A) Star, 2 November 1960.

88 A SURVEY OF RACE1959 and July 1960, 42 prisoners had died at this prison, mainly frompneumonia.Cases were reported where men who had been released, or men accused ofcriminal offences who were out on bail, were rearrested by the police underSection four bis. This happened for example, to Mr. Alan Bula, who had beenallowed bail while facing a charge of incitement.6)A deputation headed by Mrs. Helen Suzman, M.P., and including a representativeof the Institute of Race Relations, met the Secretary for Justice andthe ActingCommissioner of Prisons and made representations in regard to the reportedconditions ofimprisonment of detainees, especially those at Modder B. Greatstress was laid on the need to inform relatives of their whereabouts, and thenecessity for providing prisoners with suitable discharge documents to protectthem from rearrest.Forty-three detainees in Durban refused to do work assigned to them by the prisonauthorities. They were tried at the prison and had no legal representation. Themagistrate found them guilty and sentenced two to solitary confinement and sparediet, and the rest to whippings of five strokes each. The reviewing judge referredthe matter to a full sitting of the Natal Division of the Supreme Court, where itwas ruled that in terms of the emergency regulations the proceedingshad beenlegally in order. The sentences were, however, reduced to three strokes each,suspended for six weeks.(7)After the termination of the state of emergency an African in Cape Townwasaccused under the emergency regulations of making a subversive statement, butwas acquitted.(8)Numbers of Africans who were detained and subsequently released without anycharges having been preferred against them found that their previous jobs hadbeen filled by others. If no alternative employment opportunities were availablethey were endorsed out of the urban areas where they had previously lived. Manyof them had lost all touch with their original homes in the Reserves. There werenumerous cases of this in the Western Cape. where the "Eiselen line"policy isbeing very strictly enforced (i.e. all Africans who are considered "surplus" torequirements are being required to leave the area, with the object ofgraduallyreplacing African by Coloured labour). SUSPENSION OF CERTAINPUBLICATIONS, AND PROSECUTIONSOF EDITORSGovernment Notice No. 521 of 5 April stated that, on examination of thepublications The Torch and New Age, the Minister of Justice was satisfied thatthere was in them a systematic(16) Rand Daily Mail report, 10 June.

(17) Rand Daily Mail, 28 June.(18) Star, 7 September.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 89publishing of matter which, in his opinion, was of a subversive nature.He appliedthe relevant provisions of the emergency regulations to them, which meant thattheir publication had to cease until the state of emergency was terminated.The editor of Africa South fled the country, but continued publishing his journaloverseas under the title Africa South in Exile.The editors of the Port Elizabeth Evening Post, of New Age and of Contact wereprosecuted under the emergency regulations for allegedly publishing subversivestatements within the meaning of these regulations. The publishers of Contactwere included in the prosecution. These cases were still proceedingat the time ofwriting. The editor of Contact, Mr. Patrick Duncan, was gaoled for three weeksfor refusing to disclose the source of his information for an article in hisjournal.ATTEMPTED ASSASSINATION OF THE PRIME MINISTERMr. David Pratt is alleged to have tried to assassinate the Prime Minister at theUnion Exposition in Johannesburg on 9 April. One revolver shot penetrated thePrime Minister's ear, and another his cheek.When Mr. Pratt appeared before the court he was found to be mentally disordered.REACTIONS IN SOUTH AFRICA TO THE CRISISPARLIAMENTARY DEBATE ON THE DISTURBANCESOn behalf of the United Party, Sir de Villiers Graaff moved in the Assembly on22 March() that once law and order had been restored, a strong judicialcommission should be appointed to enquire not only into the disturbances, butalso into their underlying causes. The Progressive Party and the Natives'Representatives supported this motion.During the course of the debate the Prime Minister stated,2 "the Government issympathetically inclined inthat direction, but it must first consider the technicalproblems before coming to a final decision." One of the technical problems wasthat such a commission "will possibly also partly cover the court inquiry which isnow taking place" (the treason trial). No commission had been appointed at thetime of writing (October 1960).(1) Hansard 10 col. 3853.(2) Col. 3915.

90 A SURVEY OF RACEREACTIONS OF LEADERS OF INDUSTRY AND COMMERCEChairman of the Wool BoardTowards the end of March Dr. J. H. Moolman, Chairman of the Wool Board,called upon the leaders of primary and secondary industry to make a jointapproach to the Government, urging it to amend its policies. (As a result ofpolitical pressure, Dr. Moolman was during October removed from thechairmanship of this Board, which he had held since its inception.)Cape Chamber of Industries

During the first week in April a delegation from the Cape Chamber of Industrieswas granted an interview with the Prime Minister to discuss ways of easing thesituation arising from the disturbances, and of safe-guarding law-abiding Africanswho wished to work but were being threatened by intimidators.In a memorandum subsequently handed to the Government(') the CapeChamberof Industries stated, "The disturbances that occurred on March 21,and thesubsequent events, have had, and are continuing to have, serious ill effects onSouth Africa's economy." The Government was urged to appoint a commission ofinquiry forthwith, itsmembers to include Non-White representatives of Non-White urban groups as well as representatives of the main sectorsof the economy,to investigate the nature of grievances among Non-White workers and toformulate recommendations.The Afrikaanse HandelsinstitumThe Chairman of the executive committee of the Handelsinstituut is reported(') tohave said that his organization, too, had been in touch with the Government.S.A. Federated Chamber of IndustriesA deputation from the S.A. Federated Chamberof Industries presented amemorandum to five Cabinet Ministers on 3 May. According to the Press,(,) theChamber stated its strong conviction that the recent wave of lawlessness had agenuine basis of grievance and dissatisfaction which agitators hadbeenable toexploit, and that the only alternative to a continuance of riotous outbursts was anew approach based on consultation as the key to a peaceful solution. TheGovernment was urged to consult with leaders acceptable to the urban Africanpeople.TheChamber considered that all industrialists should review the wages of lower-paid workers on a voluntary basis. At the same(3) Star report, 12 April.(4) Rand Daily Mail, 8 April.(5) Ibid, 4 May.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 91time the Government was requested to improve the machinery for wagefixationto make it possible for the Wage Board to review unskilled wages at more regularintervals, and to allow African workers a more active part in wage negotiations.Association of Trust CompaniesA Press report6) stated that at its meeting in Paarl the Association of TrustCompanies unanimously accepted a resolution expressing grave concern over thesituation, and called for a united effort by organized business tohelp theGovernment to solve the country's problems. Trust companies, it was said, wereonly too well aware of the withdrawal of funds by overseas clients, and thesewithdrawals, unless reversed, would have a disastrous effect on the economy.Major employers' organizationsOn 12 May a delegation representing the Afrikaanse Handelsinstituut, theAssociation of Chambers of Commerce of S.A., the S.A. FederatedChamber ofIndustries, the Steel and Engineering Industries Federation of S.A.and theTransvaaland Orange Free State Chamber of Mines handed a joint statement to

the Prime Minister. Between them these bodies represent the employers of 1 -million African workers-two-thirds of the Union's male African labour force.Their memorandum contained practical suggestions, within a limited field, havingas their object the easing of tensions. The suggestions were based ontheobservations that in large cities there was a settled urban Bantu population whichshould in certain respects be treated differently from those in the Reserves; thatthere was a wide diversity amongst the Bantu in class, education and socialstandards; and that the unrestricted influx of rural Bantu to the townswasundesirable.They were of the view, these organizations stated, that while agitators hadfomented unrest, their actions had been aided by the existence of genuinegrievances, and amongst these were grievances under the headings of the passlaws, influx control and curfew regulations, and the liquor laws. Suggestions weremade for changes considered necessary in these laws and regulations.0In a statement subsequently handed to the Press"8) the President of the AfrikaanseHandelsinstituut is reported to have said that his organization supported the broadprinciple of separate development and considered that its realization had not beenspeedy(6) Star, 3 May.(7) These suggestions are summarized in the Institute's Fact Papers"The 'PassLaws'and "The Liquor Laws".(8) e.g. Transvaler, 29 May.

92 A SURVEY OF RACEenough. South Africa should, however, be developed as an economic whole. Thediscussions held with other organizations had been on the subject ofpoints offriction in the application of separate development.Cape Chamber of Industries and Cape Town Chamber of CommerceAlso on 12 May the Cape Chamber of Yndustries and Cape Town ChamberofCommerce made a joint statement in which they urged that conditions should becreated for large-scale economic development to ensurea rising standard of livingfor all in South Africa. The country could not realize its economic potential, itwas stated, while four-fifths of its population were seriously lacking in economicopportunity as compared with the remaining fifth.One of a number of recommendations made by the two chambers was that thelaws relating to reference books, influx control and liquor, as well as theiradministration, must be modified to reduce statutory offences to a minimum, andto dispense with police searches and arrests.The chambers denounced job reservation, with particular reference to theColoured people in the Western Cape, and the splitting off of Coloured workersinto separate trade unions.The Stock ExchangeDuring the disturbances there had been avery rapid drop in the capitalizationvalue of shares quoted on the Stock Exchange. Commenting on this, the Presidentof the Johannesburg Stock Exchange said on 13 May,09) "There is no doubt that

this unprecedented fall has been largely occasioned by thepresent situation in ourcountry . . . Confidence in the future of South Africa is ebbing, and unlessimmediate and positive steps are taken to restore it, the economic effects of recentevents must soon be felt by everybody in the country."Associationof Chambers of Commerce of South AfricaThe executive committee of the Association of Chambers of Commerceof SouthAfrica issued a far-reaching statement on 19 May. All the people of the country, itsaid, must be allowed and encouraged to make the maximum contribution to theeconomy of which they were individually capable if an expanding economy wasto be achieved.Although every effort should be made to extend the country's export trade,expansion of industrial output must be based mainly upon enlargement of thedomestic market. To help achieve this(9) Star, 14 May.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 93purpose, large-scale State-aided immigration would be necessary in order toprovide skills and enterprise. The Reservesshould be developed immediately asan integral part of the Union's economy. A large proportion of the new industrialworkers required in the industrial centres as well as in the Reserves would beprovided by the persons displaced by agricultural development in the Bantu areas.Restrictions which prevented members of any race from conducting business orother economic operations in any part of the Union should be progressivelyrelaxed with a view to their ultimate withdrawal. No barriers should be placedinthe way of persons of any race utilizing present skills or acquiringand employingnew ones. Increased amounts should be spent on providing generaland vocationaleducational facilities for Non-Whites. The work reservation provisions of theIndustrial Conciliation Act should be repealed, and trade unons should with theeffluxion of time and wtih suitable safeguards become representative of workersof all races. Restrictions on the mobility of labour should be progressivelyrelaxed, and Africans should bepermitted to acquire freehold title in urbantownships.Views of some individual business leadersSpeaking as chairman of the Bonus Investment Corporation towards the end ofMay,") Dr. M. S. Louw (who is also chairman of Sanlam and other Afrikaansfinancial concerns) said it was clear that many overseas investorshad lost faith inSouth Africa and that the country must face the fact that its economicfuture waspartly dependent upon the "know-how," the goodwill and the capital of overseascountries."We will have to convince overseas countries that we are able to solveour racial problems satisfactorily," he is reported to have said.A review of the operations of the Anglo American Corporation of S.A.,Limited,was published by its chairman, Mr. H.F. Oppenheimer, at the beginning of June.In the course of this review Mr. Oppenheimer said that the recent disturbanceshad affected overseas capital markets to a degree which was not generallyappreciated in South Africa, and had made it more difficultto attract skilledspecialist personnel and to obtain essential expert "knowhow". It appeared that

law and order had been restored, but this was only an essential preliminary to therestoration of confidence. Steps must be taken to regain the goodwillof theAfricans and to create conditions in which agitators would be ineffective.Eventually White and Black would be forced to work together, and the sooner thiswas accepted the better for all concerned. Mr. Oppenheimer drew attention to the"entirely unrealistic assumption that the(10) Star report, 2 June.

94 A SURVEY OF RACEAfricans in the towns are only there temporarily" and to some of the frustrationsthat resulted.In an interim report to share-holders of the American-South African InvestmentCompany, Mr. C. W. Engelhard said(") that the South African Government wouldhave to recognize the need to develop a world-accepted policy of co-existenceamong the races in the Union if it wished to restore the full confidence of theforeign investor.Sir Charles Hambro, chairman of Union Corporation and a director of the Bank ofEngland, is reported(12) to have said early in June that confidencehad beenseriously shaken in financial circles in London by recent SouthAfrican events."The situation is being watched with interest and concern, and I believe thatconfidence would begin to return should any specific measures be taken topromote more harmonious relations with the urban Native population."Similar warningsabout loss of confidence by investors were voiced by otherfinancial leaders.REACTIONS BY THE CHURCHESDutch Reformed ChurchesIt was announced on 27 March(3) that at a meeting with Mr. J. D. duP. Basson,leader of the National Union, twelve influential ministers of the three DutchReformed Churches had rejected the Government's enforced apartheid policy asunethical, unbiblical and without any foundation in the Scriptures; had expressedtheir alarm at the way in which this policy was causing hatred, increasing racialtension and widening the rift between the races; and had agreed as individuals thatthey would speak out openly in the interests of right and justice, evenif this didmean entering the political field.The Moderators of the Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerke of South Africa calledupon all the congregations of the mother churches, the mission churches and theBantu churches to observe Sunday 10 April as a day of humiliation and prayer, inview of the serious crisis in South Africa.Nine leading members of this Church signed a public statement which wasreleased on 1 April. They appealed to churches overseas and locally to show agreat sense of responsibility in comments made in the crisis situation.As Christian citizens, they said, they accepted the shortcomings and the mistakesmade by the Church, the people, and successive governments in thehandling ofgreat and extraordinarily complicated national problems. Their Church had madeit clear that it(11) Ibid. 29 July.

(12) Ibid,2 June.(13) e.g. Sunday Times of that date.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 95could justify and approve of the policy of independent, distinctivedevelopment,provided this was carried out in a just and honourable way, without impairing oroffending human dignity. It had also accepted that this policy, especially in theinitial stages, would necessarily cause a certain amount of disruption and personaldiscomfort and hardship, for example in connection with the clearingof slums.The whole pass system should be seen in this light. Mutual attitudes andrelationships were, however, of primary importance. The Government was urgedto do everything in its power to carry out its policy in such a manner thathumanrelationships were not disturbed and that friction was reduced to a minimum.Statement by the Anglican Archbishop of Cape TownThe Anglican Archbishop of Cape Town, the Most Rev. Dr. Joost de Blank, isreported('") to have stated that the events of 21 March had confronted the Churchin South Africa with the gravest crisis in its history. On that day the Africansturned not only against those whom they considered to be their White oppressors,but also against the Christian Church as being identified with them.Unlessthe Church openly and publicly repudiated the doctrine and practiceofcompulsory segregation it was condemning itself to extermination-and the wholeof Southern Africa would be wide open to secularism and other non-Christiancreeds.After Sharpeville, almost every church had issued a statement condemningpolicies that could lead to such a shocking state of affairs and calling for activeco-operation between the races. But until the Dutch Reformed Churches identifiedthemselves with this repudiation the Christian faith was unable to make muchprogress. He (the Archbishop) had appealed to the World Councilof Churches tosend out a fact-finding team to investigate the racial situation in South Africa.Effects of this statementThe Moderature of the Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerk of the Cape issued astatement(") saying that it would heartily welcome a visit to South Africa by aleading member of the World Council of Churches.The statement continued by saying that at a time when co-operation between thechurches was more necessary than ever, the Moderature was compelled to reply tothe Archbishop's challenge. Reference was made to an agreementreached in May1959 between the N.G. Kerk and the Anglican Church in which these churchesundertook to enlighten one another on the basic principles(14) Star, 11 April.(15) e.g. Rand Daily Mall, 14 April.

A SURVEY OF RACEof their policy and action, to do everything in their power to obviate unfoundedconclusions, and to admit each church's autonomyand responsibility to act as itbelieved it must. The Anglican Church had on several occasions broken this

agreement, the Moderature maintained. Further co-operation with the Archbishophad become impossible.On the following day the Moderature of the N.G. Kerk in the Transvaal released aletter it had sent to the Secretary of the World Council of Churches in which itstated(6 that the time had arrived for a neutral church commission to find out howworld opinion against South Africa was deliberately poisoned with false andmendacious reports which were continually sent abroad by people who knew theywere untrue. The N.G. Kerk denied a few bishops the right to demandforthemselves a monopoly over South Africa's Christian conscience. It would bepleased ifa commission of the World Council could come to the Union toascertain whether the voices of the Archbishop and the Bishop of Johannesburgreally represented the views of their Church.The N.G. Church would gladly furnish such a commission with the fullfacts of allthe occasions on which it had approached the authorities on aspects in connectionwith its principles. It was, however, not the task of this Church tosubmit apolitical programme or pattern to the Government.The Moderature of the Hervormde Kerk in the Transvaal stated on the same day itwas convinced that separate development was the only fair policy for SouthAfrica. It granted the Bantu that which it claimed for itself-"that he shall serveGod in his own, independent church where he canbe ministered by his ownpreachers and glorify God in accordance with his own national outlook and in hisown language." It ill behoved the Archbishop "as responsible headof a Church totalk in such a challenging, presumptious and condemnatory manner to anotherchurch."According to the Sunday Times of 17 April, the Archbishop of Cape Townreplied to this criticism by saying that as long as the Christian belief that all menare equal in the eyes of God was recognized, he was prepared to co-operate withall churches. And if effective agreement was reached for its practise and hispresence retarded co-operation, he was prepared to retire from the scene and letsomeone else take over. He had made it clear in previous statements that allchurches stood condemned, and the Church of the Province was no exception.There was ample evidence that the Bantu had lost his faith not in one church oranother, but in all churches."We have no illusion and are deeply penitent for our failures", the Archbishopcontinued.A service of penitence had been held in(16) Ibid, 15 April.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 97St. George's Cathedral that week. "But as a church we have repudiated apartheidat the highest level, and we are seeking to eradicate it in all our churches andinstitutions."Action taken by the World Council of ChurchesThe Archdeacon of Cape Town visited Geneva to meet leaders of theWorldCouncil of Churches, bringing a message from the Archbishop asking the Councilto reaffirm its resolution of 1954 that segregation based on race, colour or ethnic

origin was contrary to the Gospel and was incompatible with the Christiandoctrine of man and with the nature of the Church of Christ.(No dissenting voice was raised in 1954when this resolution was adopted,although there were some abstentions from voting. The World Council recognizedthat many churches found themselves confronted by historical, political, socialand economic circumstances which might make the immediate achievement ofnon-segregation extremely difficult, but expressed confidence in their strengthand courage to overcome such difficulties.)Dr. Robert Bilheimer, the World Council's Director of the Division of Studies andan Associate General Secretary, visited South Africa during April to consultpersonally with the leaders of the eight member churches in South Africa. Hisitinerary in the Union was arranged by Mr. F. J. van Wyk, AssistantDirector ofthe Institute of Race Relations, in his capacity as honorary secretary of theContinuation Committee of the South African Churches' Conferences.After Dr. Bilheimer's return it was announced that the World Councilof Churcheshad proposed to its member churches that it take the initiative in convening a fullyrepresentative consultation of their leaders and W.C.C. representatives to seekmeasures towards reconciliation in the current emergency.Various "levels" were suggested as the "most urgent for ecumenical discussion atthis present time". Amongst these were the levels of factual understanding of thesituation in South Africa, action being taken by the Churches, understanding ofthe meaning of the Gospel for relationships among races, seekinga clearerunderstanding of contemporary history from a Christian viewpoint, andinterpretation of the meaning of the current emergency.The W.C.C. said that it would welcome an arrangement whereby specific plansfor the consultation would be made by a group consisting of the leaders of themember churches and a representative of the W.C.C.A second letter was sent to the Anglican Church and to the three Dutch ReformedChurches in which the W.C.C. noted that during Dr. Bilheimer's visitthe desirewas expressed that it should invite representatives of these churches toaconsultation concerning their relationship with each other and with theW.C.C.

A SURVEY OF RACEIt was glad about this initiative, and responded by issuing an invitation to such aconsultation, suggesting that it be held prior to but at the sametime as the largerconsultation.All these proposals and invitations were accepted, and an inter-church committee,of which Mr. F. J. van Wyk was honorary secretary, was set up to plan theconferences, to be held from 7 to 14 December. The World Counciland severalmemberchurches announced the names of their delegates.Deportation of Bishop ReevesOne of the leaders of the Anglican delegation was to be the Bishop ofJohannesburg, the Rt. Rev. A. Reeves, who left South Africa to avoid possiblearrest upon the declaration of a state of emergency, and remained in England onlong leave. He returned to the Union on 10 September (after the ending of theemergency). Two days later he was arrested and immediately deported by air,

without being given an opportunity to consult his legal advisers or to makerepresentations on his own behalf.Among numerous other bodies the Institute of Race Relations, of which theBishop was a Vice-President, protested against the Government's summaryeviction of an important spiritual leader of one of the major churches of thecountry. Whether or not so intended, this action "will be viewed by a great manyas a steD towards stifling views on the burning question of the day, namely, therelationship between White and Non-White, if such views are opposed to those ofthe Government," the Institute said.(7)Effects on the arrangements for the inter-church conferencesAt a religious rally held in Natal on 13 September, the Archbishop is reported(")to have said he had cabled the World Council of Churches, stating that, because ofthe deportation of Bishop Reeves, the conferences planned for December wouldnow have to be held, not in Johannesburg as had been the intention, butin a placenear but outside the Union where both the Bishop and Non-White clergy wouldbe allowed freedom to come and go as they pleased. The Archbishopsubsequently qualified this statement, saying that an acceptable alternativearrangement would be for the Government to allow Bishop Reeves to return toSouthAfrica for the purpose of attending the conferences.Two days after the deportation of the Bishop, the Rev. Dr. F. O'B. Geldenhuys ofthe Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerk waited on the Minister of the Interior,asking whether he might be furnished with thereasons for the Government'saction in order that he might inform his co-members of the World Council of(17) R.R. 165/60.(1s) Rand Daily Mail, 14 September.

RELATIONS: 1959-60Churches. The Minister stated that he was convinced that the serious step takenhad been necessary; but he declined to give reasons for it, on the ground that if hedid so, his sources of information would dry up. Dr. Geldenhuys then askedwhether it would not have been reasonable to inform Bishop Reeves,while hewas still overseas, that such a step would be taken against him if he returned tothe Union. The Minister replied that, in terms of the relevant Act, he wasempowered to issue deportation orders only against persons who were actuallypresent in South Africa at the time that the orders were served.All the seven other member-churches of the W.C.C. found themselves unable toaccept the Anglican Archbishop's suggestion that the conferences be held outsidethe Union; but they were greatly concerned over thepossible break-down ofrelations between the Anglican and the Afrikaans churches. For this reason Dr.Geldenhuys, and the Rev. C. F. B. Naud6 in his capacity as a member of theconference planning committee, again saw the Minister, asking, firstly, whetheritwould be possible confidentially to give the planning committee the reasons forthe deportation order, and secondly, whether the Government would agree togrant Bishop Reeves a safe-conduct to attend the conference. Both requests wererefused.

Two members of the planning committee-the Rev. Mr. Naud6 of the N.G. Kerkand the Rev. Dr. J. B. Webb of the Methodist Church-then flew to Cape Town tosee the Archbishop and put it to him that the question of Bishop Reeves'attendance was not an issue between the churches. It was subsequently announcedthat the Archbishop had been in touch with the World Council of Churches,stipulating further conditions for Anglican representation at the conferences.Dr. Robert Bilheimer of the World Council of Churches again flew to SouthAfrica from Geneva, and succeeded in resolving the difficulties in the way ofholding the conferences. Informal discussions took place between Dr. Bilheimer,the executive of the planning committee and representatives of theAnglicanChurch, including the Archbishop; and Dr. Bilheimer took the chair at a meetingof the conference planning committee held on 25 October.This meeting issued a re-affirmation of the purpose of the consultations to be heldfrom 7 - 14 December 1960, in which itwas stated, "The consultation will includethose of widely differing convictions. It is not our purpose to convert one anotherto our own opinions, but as Christians to seek together the guidance ofGod inachieving a more profound understanding of His Purpose in South Africa and forour witness in this land".A statement which, like the other document, had been unanimously adopted, wasissued to the Press. It read, "We are agreed that this consultation . . .should beheld in the Union of

A SURVEY OF RACESouth Africa as the discussion and worship of such an inter-racial andinterdenominational meeting will have a greater impact if it is held within theUnion . . . From the beginning, it has been planned that it be inter-racial incharacter . . . Such a gathering ... constitutes in itself a Christian witness ofimportance, although it is recognized that as yet there is no common mind on theissues which form the subject of the consultation. We meet, therefore, amiddisagreement, to seek the guidanceof God . . ."Mention was made of the difficulties that had been created by the Government'sdecision that Bishop Reeves would not be permitted to attend, and of theunsuccessful representations made by representatives of the planning committee.It wasstated that even though these representations had failed, the planningcommittee adhered to the dates previously decided upon for the consultations.On the day after this meeting, the Archbishop announced that Anglican delegateswould not attend consultations held in Johannesburg unless they were invited bythe Bishop of Johannesburg (who had been deported). A cable wassent to theBishop, who agreed to issue the invitations.Discussion group of ministers of various churchesAn informal discussion group of ministers of various Protestant churches,including all three Dutch Reformed churches, has been formed in Johannesburg toincrease inter-church fellowship and to discuss mutual problems. Non-Whitechurch leaders, originally asked as guest speakers, were subsequently invited tocontinue attending the discussions.Joint Pastoral Letter by the Catholic Bishops

It was announced on 21 May19' that the Catholic Bishops of South Africa hadissued a joint pastoral letter, and had enjoined the members of their Church toobserve the principles therein laid down. The practice of a social colour-bar mustcease, they said. Positive steps must be taken to ensure rapid racialintegration inparochial activities.While the Bishops conceded that it would be wrongto allow those with a moreadvanced culture to be deprived at the present stage of an effective part ingovernment, and to have their economic status reduced, this must not operateoppressively on other sections. In the political field this could be achieved by theoperation of a(19) Sunday Times of that date.100

RELATIONS: 1959-60 101qualified franchise, the qualification being the ability to exercise the vote in aresponsible manner.In the economicsphere, the common good demanded that those who had the skilland ability and the desire to advance should not be denied the opportunity forsuch advancement.The Bishops demanded that all peaceful methods be tried and triedagain, andcondemned the unlawful use of force and violence.Statement by the Transvaal Region of the Presbyterian ChurchThe Transvaal Region of the Presbyterian Church of Southern Africa issued astatement on 31 May to coincide with a "day of prayer and self-examination"calledby its church. Members were asked to recognise their own part in "causingor condoning frustration". Individual congregations were askedto ensure thatevery African employed by the church earned enough to feed, clothe and househimself and his family adequately.Y-°ACTION BY THE INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONS AT THE TIMEOF THE EMERGENCYOn 22 March the Institute of Race Relations issued a statement in which itpointedout that the pass laws had been a long-standing source of bitter grievance amongstAfricans, which sooner or later would lead to an explosive situation. Thepositionhad been aggravated by the fact that moderate leaders had been put out of action.Although the demonstration of the previous day had taken the form ofa call tonon-violent passive resistance, the situation had been conducive to undisciplinedemotional outbursts.As long as counsels of moderation brought no substantial redress of grievances,and no effective methods of consultation existed, it was inevitablethat extra-parliamentary methods, to which Non-Whites would more and more haverecourse, would take on an increasingly violent character. A pointhad beenreached in national affairs where a broad enquiry was called for todetermine whatshould be done to remedy burning grievances in connection with the pass laws, toestablish where other points of possible racial explosion existed, andto ascertainupon what methods the Government should rely to restore peace andharmonyother than methods of force and intimidation.

TheInstitute's President, Professor the Hon. Edgar H. Brookes, issued a Pressstatement on 13 April(") in which he said, "The tragic events of theselast weekshave caused deep pain and even anguish of spirit in many of us. It istoo early topronounce judgment on these events ... but one thing is clear: that no solution ofour problems is in sight until free and frank consultation has taken place betweenleaders possessing the confidence of the Europeans and those possessing theconfidence of the Non-Europeans."(20) Star report, 1 June.(21) e.g. Star of that date.

There was no choice as to whether reasonable aspirations of Non-Whites shouldbe satisfied, Professor Brookes continued. Sooner or later this would have to bedone. "But is it to be done early by mutual goodwill, or only after recurringcrises?" he asked. The Institute had always stood for mutual consultation on thebasis of goodwill, and of respect for proved facts, and appealedto theGovernment to follow this policy.During the periodof the emergency the Institute continued its normal work ofbringing together members of various sections of the population foran exchangeof views. The Director, Mr. Quintin Whyte, had discussions with numerouspolitical, business and other leaders in Cape Town and Johannesburg.A special meeting of the Institute's Executive Committee was convened toconsider what action the Institute might usefully take. It was decided that the maintopic for discussion at the 1961 Council meeting should be the laws andregulations affecting urban Africans, and that during the preceding monthsconferences on the position of urban Africans should be held in Natal (as hadalready been planned) and, if possible, in other Regions too. The Institute wouldcontinue and extendits fact finding work, the publication of the results of this,and its efforts to bring together members of different groups and backgrounds fordiscussions on a personal level as well as at meetings and conferences. A Pressstatement issued by the Executive Committee is set out on page 21.ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF SABRAThe annual conference of SABRA was held in Stellenbosch. commencing on 19April. After the introductory speeches there followed a closed session of membersto discuss the current situation.In a statement issued at the conclusion of the conference, SABRA'S Council saidthat recent events had compellingly brought home a realization of the criticalurgency of the racial problem, particularly in connection with the implementationof the policy of separate development.Profound indignation was expressed at the distorted picture of SouthAfricaconstantly being presented by the world Press. Note was taken of the large-scaleintimidation employed by irresponsible elements among the Bantu, andhopeexpressed that effective steps would be taken to prevent this in future. TheCouncil noted with appreciation the large measure of self-control shown underdifficult circumstances by the White and Coloured and the greater part of theBantu population,and the measures to maintain law and order that had been takenby the authorities.

Council was deeply convinced, it stated, of the necessity and extreme urgency ofproviding opportunities for self expression in the political and economic fields inthe Bantu areas. It considered102A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 103that the consolidation of these areas into larger political units wasessential; thattheir balanced economic development should be effected as soon as possible andundertaken in co-operation with organized agriculture, commerce and industry;that the utilization of White private capital and initiative should be considered;and that the finances required should be advanced, if necessary byway ofincreased taxation.Effective consultation with responsible Bantu was regarded as essential. TheCouncil pointed to its own activities in this connection, and instructed theExecutive Committee to give further special attention to the matter.A thorough investigation was advocated of aspects of policy and administrationwhich caused unnecessary friction and discontent among the urban Bantupopulation, in particular the supply of liquor, control of movement,the share ofthe Bantu in the management of their own townships, and their wages andproductivity.SABRA called upon everyone-White and Non-White-to avoid giving offence, topromote mutual respect, and to refrain from any conduct that conflicted with theprinciple of human dignity.PROPOSALBY PROF. J. L. SADIEAccording to a Press report,(") Professor J. L. Sadie of the University ofStellenbosch suggested during August that a Cabinet drawn from allWhitepolitical parties be formed to restore overseas confidence in South Africa.OVERSEAS REACTIONS TO THE CRISIS IN SOUTH AFRICAOverseas reactions to the crisis in South Africa are described in thelast chapter ofthis Survey.STATEMENT BY THE PRIME MINISTERA statement was read for the Prime Minister, Dr. H. F. Verwoerd,by the Ministerof Finance in the Assembly on 20 May.(23)A summary follows.No departure from Government policyThe recent disturbances had given cause for general reflection,Dr. Verwoerd said.Certain authorities had submitted ideas and proposals to the Government; but,however good their intentions, the authors often did not have sufficient facts attheir disposal to test the effects of their proposals. It remained thetask of theGovernment to make the necessary decisions.(22) Star, 25 August.(23) Hansard 18 cols. 8337-43.

A SURVEY OF RACE

The Government saw no reason to depart from the policy of separate developmentand the underlying good this held for all in the future. It was regrettable that theGovernment was being hindered by misrepresentation in South Africa and abroad.It was significant that the disturbances had taken place mainly in areas where thelocal authorities were controlled by opponents of Government policy. Theprinciples of this policy were not always applied in the good spirit of theGovernment's aims, or with sufficient information to make it understandable.IncitementThe Government had decided, firstly, that it would have to take steps topreventincitement from continuing.Supervision by the Government of urban Bantu administrationSecondly, the Department of Bantu Administration would be equipped to enableit, in every city with a large urban Bantu residential area, to supervisetheadministration of the Bantu through the municipal authorities concerned.While the disturbances had not affected the policy of separate development,theyhad affected public opinion in such a way that the Government would now be ableto apply certain aspects of policy which had been under consideration for sometime but which previously did not have the necessary support.Urban Bantu AuthoritiesFirstly, the "practically useless Native Advisory Boards" wouldbe replaced byurban Bantu authorities with limited, though real, authority over the Banturesidential areas, under the supervision of the municipalities concerned. Theywould also have a measure of judicial authority. Provision would be made for thenecessary connection with the broader Bantu authorities, and, where necessary,for consultation with the Commissioners-General tobe appointed for the variousethnic groups.Increased police protectionSecondly, it was clear that protection of law-abiding Bantu by a greatly increasedpolice force within the residential areas was essential. Methods would be devisedto integrate the proposed urban Bantu authorities and their auxiliary services withthis police protection service.LiquorThirdly, in spite of certain doubts it still felt, and certain difficulties expected, theGovernment intended bringing about certain changes toremove the necessity forliquor raids. At the same time it would guard against crime, including theillegalliquor trade and the manufacture of dangerous concoctions.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 105Reference books andinflux controlThe Government was unable to abandon the reference book or the influx controlsystems. Nor could exemptions be considered. The size of the reference bookwould, however, be reduced, and the Department was trying to introduce methodsto make this document what it was originally intended to be-a means to facilitateBantu administration-and to make the system such that the Bantu wouldexperience all the advantages and privileges, instead of the disadvantages, whichwere never intended.

WagesIt had been said that the cost of living for the urban Bantu was such that they haddifficulty in making ends meet and were, therefore, liable to be incited. Nobodywished them to exist on starvation wages. A rise in wages could not, however, bebroughtabout by one sector alone. The Government fixed only minimum wages,and any employer was free to increase these. While it was undesirable for theGovernment to exercise compulsion, it wanted to encourage employersto paymore by rationalisation of their trades and by improving the productivity of theirworkers. The Government would see to it that the machinery which existed forBantu workers to negotiate with their employers was implemented to a greaterextent.Protection of Coloured labour in the Western CapeIn parts of the country where the Coloured community was the natural source oflabour, it was wrong to allow the Bantu to enter in great numbers. TheGovernment's policy for industries in these areas to make the bestuse of Colouredlabour would be implemented more strictly.Bantu homelandsThe Bantu homelands must be enabled to provide for both their increase inpopulation and the returning flow of Bantu. The Government had decided toconcentrate immediately on the development of industries onthe borders of theReserves: details would soon be made known in a separate statement.Inquiries into disturbancesAt this stage the Government did not intend appointing a broader commission ofinquiry into the causes of the disturbances. It was essential that the reports of thetwo existing commissions should first become available, and that the treason trialbe concluded since this "in part has the character of an inquiry into the causes ofthe disurbances." Furthermore, the effects of the measures mentioned aboveshould first be determined.

FURTHER DECISIONS IN REGARD TO THE "PASS LAWS"Reference books to be compulsory for African womenGovernment Notice No. 1135 of 29 July 1960 stated that 1 December 1960 wouldbe the "fixed date" for African women, after which it would be compulsory for allwomen of the age of 16 years and over to be in possession of reference books.According to a Press report,24) the Department of Bantu Administration andDevelopment has given the assurance that there will be no summary arrests ofwomen and no summary demands for their reference books.It would appear that nearly three-quarters of the African women were inpossession of these books by March 1960: the Minister of Bantu Administrationand Development said2') that up to the end of February 4,154,898 had been issuedto men and 3,020,281 to women. But many of the women who had not obtainedreference books were strenuously opposed to the system and, when the relevantGovernment Notice was published, fears were expressed that it would lead tounrest.Statement by the Commissioner of the S.A. Police

According to the Press,026) the Commissioner of the S.A. Police saidon 12August 1960, "The police have to refer to reference books in the ordinary courseof criminal investigation, including checks on persons regarded as idlers or won'tworks. But I have said before that the reference book system is tobe soadministered that the law-abiding Bantu have nothing to fear, and should in noway be prejudiced.""Thepolice no longer conduct specific reference book raids, and arrests are nolonger made merely for non-possession of reference books, provided satisfactoryexplanations are given that reference books were in fact issued tothe Bantuconcerned, or some alternative credential, such as the address of their employers,is offered and substantiated."Recent announcement by the MinisterOn 7 October the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development expressedhis appreciation of the way the Bantu had "decisively refused to allow themselvesto be misled" by agitators during the republican referendum. Because of thisbehaviour, and as an earnest of the Government's intention to administer the lawswith the utmost reasonableness, he had decided that the date upon which it was tohave been compulsory for women to possess reference books (1 December 1960)would be postponed to coincide more or less with the date on which thepossession of identity cards by the Whites would become obligatory.(24) Star, 2 August.(25) Assembly, 30 March 1960. Hansard 7 col. 1524.(26) Rand Daily Mail, 13 August.106A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60THE AFRICAN RESERVESAPPOINTMENT OF COMMISSIONERS-GENERALThe five Commissioners-General, whose appointmentwas provided for in thePromotion of Bantu Self-Government Act of 1959,(1) were nominated by theGovernor-General during June 1960. They are:Dr. W. W. M. Eiselen, retiring Secretary for Bantu Administration andDevelopment, for the Northern Sotho group,with headquarters at Turfloop;Mr. S. F. Papenfus, ex-M.P. for Harrismith and previously amember of the Native Affairs Commission, for the Southern Sotho group, withheadquarters at Witzieshoek;Ex-Senator Dr. I. S. Kloppers for the Tswana group, withheadquarters at Mafeking;Ex-Senator C. G. Nel for the Zulu and Swazi groups, withheadquarters at Nongoma;Mr. J. H. Abraham, ex-M.P. for Groblersdal, for the Xhosagroup, with headquarters at Umtata.BANTU AUTHORITIES SO FAR ESTABLISHED

A full account of the constitution and powers of territorial, regional, district andtribal Bantu authorities and of remaining local councils was given inlast year'sSurvey,(2' together with an analysis of the development of the Bantu authoritiessystem up to the end of November 1959.During the ensuing twelve months no new territorial authorities were created: theonly one so far in existence is that for the Transkeian Territories. At the time ofwriting, however, a territorial board was being constituted for the Tswana peopleof the Northern Cape and Western Transvaal, to serve until such time as theregional authorities system has been fully developed in this area. Ten furtherregional authorities were established in the Union, making a total of 33, the newones being:Ngqushwa regional authority in the Peddie area (Xhosa).Nongoma regional authority (Zulu).Ingwavuma regional authority (Zulu).(1) See 1958-59 Survey, page 52.(2) Pages 54 et seq,107

A SURVEY OF RACEUkukanyakufikile regional authority, Port Shepstone district(Zulu).Polokwane regional authority in the Pietersburg district(Northern Sotho).Balobedu-Pedi regional authority in the Letaba district(Northern Sotho).Naphuno regional authority in theLetaba district (NorthernSotho and Tsonga).Bakgatla-Ndebele regional authority in the Hammanskraalarea (Tswana and Ndebele).Nkomazi regional authority in the Barberton district (Swazi).Ndlopfu-Shangaan regional authority in the Letaba district(Tsonga).Thirteen local councils remain in existence. Seventeen new tribal authorities wereestablished during the year under review, in the areas of the Xhosa, Zulu andTswana groups, making a total of 373. According to the Chief Information Officerof the Department of Bantu Administration and Development") about another 145tribal authorities are still required-mainly in Natal, where the people have beenopposed to the system. No further Bantu authorities were established during thepast year inthe areas of the Southern Sotho group.On June 1960 a series of amendments to the Transkeian Bantu AuthoritiesProclamation, No. 180 of 1956, were gazetted as Proclamation 118 of 1960, thepowers and functions of the Transkeian Territorial Authority being set out indetail.ALLOWANCES TO CHIEFS AND HEADMENAccording to the official estimates of expenditure for the year ending 31 March1961,(') the following amounts have been set aside for payments to chiefs and

headmen during the current year (the amounts for the previous year being shownin brackets):Allowances to 550 chiefs and 1,200 headmen-L£127,900(E84,150)Promotion of efficiency of chiefs and headmen-£5,000(E2,500)Presents and rations for chiefs- and headmen-£9,000(£1,000)In reply to questions in the Assembly on 22 March 1960,0) the Minister ofBantuAdministration and Development said that(3) Statement as published in the Rand Daily Mail, 8 February 1960.(4) Estimates of Expenditure to be Defrayed from the Revenue Account, U.G.1/1960.(5) Hansard 10 cols. 3839-41.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 109allowances for chiefs were divided into a basic allowance and a bonus. The basicallowance, to be increased by about 25 per cent during the current year, wasdetermined by the number of taxpayers in the chief's tribe. The bonus, to beincreased by 100 per cent, was assessed at the end of each financial year by theChief Bantu Affairs Commissioner on the basis of a report by the Bantu AffairsCommissioner of the district on the manner in which the chief had performed hisduties. The new scales would be:Basic Allowance Maximum Bonus Number of taxpayers per annum perannumUp to 1,000 £40 £481,001 to 1,500 £48 £481,501 to 2,000 £56 £482,001 to 2,500 £64 £482,501 to 3,000 £72 £483,001 to 4,000 £80 £604,001 to 5,000 £88 £605,001 to 6,000 £96 £726,001 to 7,000 £104 £727,001 to 8,000 £112 £848,001 to 9,000 £120 £849,001 to 10,000 £128 £96Higher amounts than these were paid to the Paramount Chiefs of the Usutu,Eastern Pondo, Thembu and Western Pondo tribes, and to the chiefs of theGcaleka, Emigrant Tembu, Basotho, Mandhlakazi, Baca and Tembetribes.Cyprian Bhekezulu, Paramount Chief of the Usutu tribe, received additional sumsfor the salary of his deputy and the maintenance of certain dependants for whomthe traditional Zulu paramountcy was responsible. The allowances paid during1958-59 to the twelve senior chiefs were detailedby the Minister. These rangedfrom £100 a year to £1,200 a year in Cyprian Bhekezulu's case.

Besides their allowances, headmen received bonuses for tax collecting, theMinister added, up to a maximum of £8 during 1958-59, but this amount was nowto be doubled.THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AFRICAN RESERVESTHE EXTENT OF THE RESERVESAn analysis of the area of the Reserves was given in last year's Survey.(6) In theparagraphs that follow, the information given last year is combinedwith newfactual materialthat has since become available.(6) Page 83.

110 A SURVEY OF RACEThe Reserves consist, firstly, of the scheduled areas which are,in the main, theareas occupied by Africans at the time that the Natives Land Act of 1913 waspassed (there have been certain changes). The exact extent of these areas is notaccurately known because much of the land has never been properly surveyed, butthey measure approximately 10,729,435 morgen(')Secondly, between 1913 and 1936 Africans acquired about 1,440,137 morgen inareas recommended by various commissions for "release" to them.The Native Trust and Land Act of 1936 provided that a "quota" of 7- millionmorgen of land should gradually be added to the Reserves, but only 6,729,853morgen of this land (the released areas) was demarcated in a schedule to the 1936Act.According to the Report of the Controller and AuditorGeneral for 1958-59,(') ofthe 71 million morgen, 4,775,099 morgen had been acquired as at 31March 1959,made up as follows:Morgen.Land owned by the Crown and since vested inthe S.A. Native Trust .............. 1,786,250Land purchased by the Trust .............. 2,604,047Land purchased by Africans ............... 384,802As at 31 March 1959,then, there were 2,474,901 morgen still to be acquired.Further land, apparently amounting to 20,613 morgen, was bought between Apriland December 1959: the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development saidin the Assembly on 22 January 1960(') that 2,454,288 morgen were then stilloutstanding, as follows:Morgen.Transvaal .................. 1,194,545Cape .................. 950,007Natal .... .... .... .... ... 308,678Orange Free State ........... 1,058In terms of aspeech made by the Minister in Maclear on 5 October 1959,(") theGovernment intends making up the Natal quota partly by handing over to the S.A.Native Trust certain Crown land and little-used game reserves in that province.Further land, besides thefull 71 million morgen promised in 1936, should injustice be acquired for the re-settlement of Africans who are being removed from"Black spots"- farms

(7) 3021} morgen = 1 square mile.(8) U.G. 53/59. Part III of Report.(9) Hansard 1 col. 212.(to) Star of that dato,

RELATIONS: 1959-60 111owned by Africans in predominantly White farming areas. The TomlinsonCommission calculated(") that an additional 188,660 morgen should be purchasedfor this purpose.In the Supplementary Estimates for 1960-61") further amounts were provided forthe purchase and reclamation of land for Africans, with the result that the totalsfor that year were considerably more than the amounts voted in 1959-60: 1959-601960-61Purchase of land .............. £500,000 £1,250,000Reclamation work, development ofrural villages, etc ............ £750,350 £1,900,000£1,250,350 £3,150,000THE FUTURE OF THE TRANSKEIThe Deputy Minister of the Interior said inthe Assembly on 12 April 1960,("a) "Itis the policy of the Department of Bantu Administration gradually to move theColoured people and the White people from the Transkei. . . There is an inter-departmental committee which is investigating the whole question."PROPOSED PONGOLA POORT IRRIGATION SCHEMEIt was announced by the Minister of Water Affairs in the Assembly on 12 May1960 ') that the Government had decided to make a start during the current yearwith the construction of a dam at Pongola Poort-that is, the narrow valley wherethe Pongola River cuts through the Lebombo Mountains in Northern Zululand, onthe Transvaal border and just to the south of Swaziland. Such a dam would makeit possible to irrigate nearly 70,000 morgen of land on the Makatini Flats ofNorthern Zululand, which would be used for fibre production. The cost of thedam and of irrigation canals on both sides of the Pongola River wouldbe about£19-million. Supplementary canals would be built later to irrigate land to thenorth ofthe Mkuzi River.The history of this project has been told in previous issues of this Survey. Torecapitulate briefly, Northern Zululand, made up of the magisterial districts ofIngwavuma and Ubombo, was never conquered by Whites: in 1897 treaties wereconcluded in terms of which the African people there entrusted their interests tothe guardianship of Natal.(11) U.G. 6111955 pages 45-46.(12) U.G. 34/1960.(13) Hansard 13 col. 5365.(14) Hansard 17 cols. 7468-9, 7558.

112 A SURVEY OF RACEThe 1951 census showed that there were 61,769 Africans in the two districts, andonly 236 Whites, the latter being mostly Government officials, missionaries,

traders and their families. Judging from Map No. 32 in the Tomlinson Report,('5about 62 per cent of the Africans live in scattered Reserves, one of which liesalong the eastern slopes of the Lebombo Mountains, another in a widebelt alongthe coast, and the other much smaller ones lying between or to the south of these.The remaining 38 per cent of the Africans-or about 24,000 persons-live as so-called squatters on Crown land outside these Reserves which, until recently, hasnever been occupied by anyone except Africans.In 1951 the Institute of Race Relationssuggested to the Tomlinson Commissionthat the Government could prove that the then newly-announced apartheid policyhad its positive aspects by irrigating the Makatini Flats and developing there anAfrican resettlement scheme in the form of a profit-sharing sugar productionproject.During the same year, on hearing rumours that certain surveyed farms on Crownland in the irrigable area were to be disposed of to Whites, the Institutemaderepresentations to the Prime Minister and the Ministers of Lands and WaterAffairs, urging that the Makatini Flats be earmarked for a development schemefor Africans.From time to time(")0 it has been said that certain Crown lands on parts of theFlats that are not suitable for irrigation may be added to the African Reserves. Thethen Minister of Lands and Water Affairs pointed out during 19561") that severalof these Reserves were isolated, forming islands within the area that would beirrigable. "The Department", he continued, "is discussing the question ofexchangingcertain of these Reserves so that we can get the Natives on one sideand the Whites on the other. But when the Pongola Poort dam is built theintention is to have a certain irrigable area for the Natives."In the recent statement quoted above, the Minister of Water Affairs said that, interms of the scheme as now envisaged, between 10,000 and 11,000 morgen ofNative Trust land in scattered Reserves would fall within the area to be irrigated,but that the remainder of this area, between 58,000 and 59,000 morgen in extent,would be a White area. The Pongola scheme would provide an assured future for25,000 Whites and 75,000 Non-Whites, he added.(15) U.G. 61/1955.(16) e.g. Minister of Native Affairs, Assembly 13 June 1955.(17) Senate, 9 March and Assembly, 25 May 1956.

On 23 June 1960 the Director of the Institute of Race Relations wrote totheMinister of Bantu Administration and Development again urging that schemeshould be undertaken for the benefit of Africans. The further suggestion wasmade that technical and planning help should be sought from Mr. DavidE.Lilienthal who, after making a success of the American TennesseeValley,became head of a private company set up to provide managerial, technical andbusiness services in the development of natural resources.SOIL CONSERVATION AND AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENTIN THE RESERVES,In the Senate on 30 March 1960(18) the Minister of Bantu AdministrationandDevelopment gave detailed information about the progress of rehabilitation and

agricultural schemes in the Reserves during the preceding twelve months. He saidthat 22,150 miles of grass strips had been planted, 61 miles of contourbanksconstructed, 623 miles of training banks made, and 1,252 miles of fencingerected. Four hundreddams had been built, and 189 boreholes equipped. Fourirrigation schemes had been laid out or extended, bringing 510 morgen of landunder irrigation, and 300 morgen covered with drift sand had been reclaimed.Seventeen new co-operative dairy schemes hadbeen started, the participants in allsuch schemes earning an income of £49,934. Five hundred stud animals had beensold to Africans, while at stock sales Africans had sold 43,000 cattle, realizing£820,000.Afforestation schemes were making good progress. During the preceding twelvemonths 5,730,000 trees had been planted, and 894,750 cubic feet of saw logsexploited, the income derived from afforestation being £77,955. Five hundred andtwelve morgen of sisal, 760 morgen of New Zealand hemp, 170 morgenofMauritius hemp and 438 morgen of sugar cane had been planted, and200,000tons of sugar produced.The Minister added on another occasion"'9) that in the year 1958-59 Africans inthe Reserves produced 28,485 bales of wool, to a value of £821,604. Woolimprovement schemes were being launched.A supplement to the official Digest of South African Affairs for 13 May 1960gave a summary of the progress so far achieved. It stated that:5-million acres("°) had by then been stabilized, and 42,000acres irrigated;(18) Senate Hansard 7 cols. 1527-8.(19) Assembly, 13 May 1960, Hansard 17 col. 7502.(20) 1 morgen = 2.1/9th acres.RELATIONS: 1959-60113

114 A SURVEY OF RACE20,000 acres were under sugar cane, with 3,200 Africangrowers;5,000 acres were under fibres;there were 72,000 acres of plantations, and 6,000 acres oforchards;12,000 acres were under vegetables;162 co-operative dairy schemes, with 3,176 members, werein existence.In reply to a question in the Assembly on 15 March 1960(21") the Minister said itwas estimated that during 1959-60, £5,000 would be spent on the development ofrural villages, £700,000 on afforestation schemes, £140,000 on soil reclamation,£250,000 on irrigation schemes and £53,930 on secondary and tertiarydevelopment.On 10 May(2) the Minister mentioned the incentive presents he was giving toBantu authorities. The Regional Authority in the Zoutpansberg area, he said, hadtaken pains to buy good bulls, and to encourage this stock improvement he had

presented a pedigree Afrikaner bull to each of the chiefs. This Regional Authorityhad itself bought roadmaking machinery costing more than £4,000 andconstructed roads on which it was possible to travel at 60miles an hour. He (theMinister) had then given them further machinery. Similar presents hadbeen madeto Bantu authorities at Eshowe and Potgietersrus.A tilapia (kurper) and black bass fish farm has been established at Tsolo in theTranskei, yielding 1,500 lbs. of fish per acre of water. From this farm dams in thearea are stocked, the fish harvested being sold as food. There are similar projectsin other areas.(23)The retiring Chief Agricultural Officer of the Ciskei contributed anarticle onagricultural progress there to the March 1960 number of Bantu. He said thatholders of irrigation allotments in the Keiskammahoek district had been growingsweetcom, cauliflowers and peas, which were marketed with a frozen foodsfactory in East London. A thriving poultry industry had been started in a locationin the Middledrift district.According to an article entitled "Agricultural Education" in a supplement to theFortnightly Digest of South African Affairs for 18 March 1960,the agriculturaldiploma courses conducted for Africans at Tsolo in the Transkei and Fort Cox inthe Ciskei provide training in the following subjects:Animal husbandry, including cattle, horses, pigs and dairying-a two-year course;(21) Hansard 9 cols. 3376-7.(22) Assembly,Hansard 17 cols. 7109-10.(23) Report in Bantu, October 1959.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 115Field husbandry, including dryland, cropping, irrigation farming and veldmanagement-a two-year course;Farm management, including agricultural economics andelementary statistics-a one-year course;Soil conservation-a one-year course;Horticulture-vegetable gardening and fruit growing-a oneyear course;Sheep and wool-a one-year course; Poultry keeping-a one-year course;Farm handicrafts-a one-year course;Veterinary science-a half-year course;Forestry-a half-year course.Altogether, 532 qualified African agricultural instructors and demonstrators and33 veterinary field assistants were employed in the Reserves, it was stated.During April 1960 the Research Officer of the Institute of Race Relations visitedthe new Arabie agricultural school in the Nebo district and irrigation schemesalong the Oliphants River in the same area. One of these is the recently-developedCoetzeesdraai scheme, catering for about a hundred African farmers on 150morgen of land. For a start the settlers were permitted to grow maizeandpumpkins, using their own seed. It is planned that, later, as the farmersbecamemore efficient, better seed will be supplied and they will be encouraged to plantwheat, vegetables and fodder crops as well as maize.

These irrigation schemes are expensive to establish, costing between £100 and£200 per morgen. Partly for this reason and partly because of the conservatism ofthe people, progress must be slow. In her report(2") the ResearchOfficer wrote,"One concludes such visits very much impressed by the work that the Departmentis doing, but even more impressed by the amount that remains to be done beforethe Reserves can hope to support even their existing population at an adequatestandard of living".INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ON THE BORDERS OF THERESERVESInterim decision in regard to wages in the clothing industry inNorthern NatalIt wasmentioned in the previous issue of this Survey"') that during 1959 anacuteslackness developed in the clothing industry, especially on the Reef andin theCape, areas where wages were(24) R.R. 76/60.(25) Pages 90-2.

116 A SURVEY OF RACEcontrolled in terms of industrial council agreements. The workers expressed theview that competition from factories in the uncontrolled areas of Northern Nataland elsewhere, where lower wages were paid, was largely to blame.Many ofthese factories employed Africans from nearby Reserves.The Minister of Labour disputed this conclusion, but eventually said that hewould give the factories in the uncontrolled areas a period of twelve months inwhich so to regulate their activities that they would not compete with the olderconcerns.This period elapsed at the end of March 1960. The Minister said in the Senate on30 March26) that these factories had not succeeded in arranging their productionin such a way as to eliminate all unfair competition. "As has become increasinglyclear", he continued, "wages will play an important part in the implementation ofthe Government's policy concerning the establishment of industries inthe borderareas." The Government accordingly consideredit essential that there should bean early and searching enquiry into the whole question of this broad policy,including wage regulation, and had set up a committee under the chairmanship ofDr. J. H. Steyn for the purpose.Meanwhile, however, as an interim measure, subject to reconsideration, thequestion of unfair competition in the clothing industry, especially from NorthernNatal, would have to be dealt with, the Minister said. He pointed out that "theclothing factories located there are to a large extent not situated in what is to beregarded as border areas". It had been decided that the Transvaal industrialagreement for the clothing industry should be extended for one year to NorthernNatal.(26A) Wage scales paid on the Witwatersrand would not apply: lowerscales had been decided upon by the Transvaal industrial council "bearing in mindthe productivity and the affinity for training of the Non-European worker in thoseareas." The Minister gave illustrations of the rates of pay that wouldapply.

Minimum commencing wages for machinists would be £1 14s. a week forwomenand £1 16s. 6d. a week for men.The general secretary of the Garment Workers' Union said in a Press statement(7that this arrangement did not go far enough: there were still several factories inuncontrolled areas such as Parys, Villiers, George, Umtata and Port Shepstone inwhich wages were as low as 15s. a week, and which thus competed unfairly withestablishments on the Rand.(26) Senate Hansard 7 cols. 1516-7.(26A) This wasdone in terms of Government Notice 759 of 27 May 1960.(27) Sunday Times, 5 June 1960.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 117Government's plan for border industriesOn 2 June 1960 the Prime Minister issued a lengthy statementon plans for thesiting of industries on the borders of the Reserves.(") The decentralization ofindustry was urgent, he said: according to the 1956-57 industrial census 81 percent of the gross production of private secondary industry took place in the fourmain industrial areas. Forty-six per cent of the total number of factory workerswere employed in the Southern Transvaal complex. This over-concentration ofpopulation gave rise to social and even moral problems.Some of the main areas which could bedeveloped industrially were in the vicinityof the Reserves. There were eight suitable regions-central Natal, the Natal coastalarea, the Eastern Transvaal lowveld, the area to the north of Pretoria, the NorthernTransvaal, the Ciskei, the Western Transvaal and Northern Cape, and an areafalling within the Transkei, Southern Natal and Eastern Free State.The term "border area" meant a region which would be developed through Whiteinitiative and control, but was situated near a Bantu area so that the Bantu workerscould maintain their homes and family life there. The ideal border areas werethose where the Bantu could live in their own areas, and travel dailyto work; butas the situation of basic services would also have to be taken into accountprovisionwould in some cases also have to be made for the housing of workerson a weekly basis. Regions within about thirty miles of the Bantu areas might beregarded as being border areas.The development of border industries could succeed only in a climate ofgeneralindustrial development. The programme did not involve the large-scale transfer ofexisting factories to the border areas. What was envisaged was thata greaterproportion of the new factories should be located there, particularly thoseemploying large numbers of Africans. Industries which employed a highproportion of White labour would generally not find it profitable to establishthemselves in border areas.A permanent committee was to be set up to implement the border industryplanand to assist industrialists who wished to set up concerns in these areas. It wouldhave a chairman nominated by the Government (Dr. S. P. du Toit Viljoen waslater appointed), the other members being senior officials from the departments ofCommerce and Industry, Bantu Administration and Development, Labour andFinance, and representatives of the Railways, the Industrial Development

Corporation and the National Resources Development Council. (A representativeof the Economic Advisory Council was added after the establishment of thisbody.)(28) Published in Rand Daily Mail, 3 June.

118 A SURVEY OF RACEThe financing of industries in border areas would be undertaken privately or byexisting financial institutions, the Prime Minister continued. One of these was theIndustrial Development Corporation, which would be provided withthe necessaryfunds from time to time by the Treasury, for investment on special terms.The Government would assist in providing basic services such as power, waterand transport, and would also consider constructing and leasing factory buildingsand providing houses for White workers. The housing of the Bantu workers inBantu areas would be the task of the Department of Bantu Administration andDevelopment in consultation with the permanent committee.The principle of wage differentation in border areas would be maintained in so faras this was justified by the lower productivity of labour and the lower cost ofliving in these areas. Minimum wages wouldbe determined by industrial councilswith jurisdiction in the areas, or otherwise on the recommendation of the WageBoard. Possible concessions in regard to rail tariffs would be discussed by thepermanent committee with the Railways Administration.TheGovernment proposed granting higher depreciation allowancesin respect offactory buildings and plant in border areas, on the recommendation of thepermanent committee, and allowing industrialists to add the cost of transferring afactory, as calculated bythe committee, to capital for purposes of depreciationallowances. After an entrepreneur had been operating on the new location for ayear he would be compensated up to a maximum of 75 per cent of the differencebetween the cost of establishing his factory in a border area and its sales value onthe open market.Vocational schools would be established in Bantu areas to raise theproductivityof Bantu labour.First meeting of the Economic Advisory CouncilThe Economic Advisory Council was establishedduring July 1960, to advise theGovernment on the co-ordination of State policy from an economic point of viewand to assist in co-ordinating Government policy and the economic developmentof the country in general. Details of its composition and functionsare given in alater chapter of this Survey.The council met on 26 July to advise on the implementation of the Government'splan for border industries. As this plan had already been announced councillorswere unable to discuss its merits. According to astatement issued by the PrimeMinister's office,(2') Dr. Verwoerd told the members that the Governmentrecognized the importance of advice, but in reaching its final decision had toconsider wider political and social aspects which usually fell outside theresponsibility of business organizations.(29) See Rand Daily Mail of 27 July

RELATIONS: 1959-60 119Even in such instances, however, economic advice was still needed to ensure thatthe Government made its decisions with full knowledge of the economicimplications."Dr. Verwoerd drew a clear distinction between this kind of advice and thepractice of publicly advocating a political programme fundamentally opposed tothat of the government of the day", the statement said.Statement issued after the meetingOn 12 September the Prime Minister issued a statement reiterating theGovernment's intention to encourage the establishment of industries in borderareas.None of the concessions to industrialists would be automatic, he said, as thismight mean unfair competition with existing industries. Manufacturers wantingconcessions to be made to them should apply to the Permanent Committee for theLocation of Industries. Besides the kinds of possible assistance mentioned in theearlier statement, subsidies might be made available of up to 20 percent of thecost of building factories in border areas, or 10-year guarantees of up to 40 percent of the costs of construction might be provided, to make it easier formanufacturers to raise mortgages. The Government planned, after investigationby the Board of Trade and Industries. to extend to prospective industrialistsadvance assurances in regard to the level of tariff protection that would be grantedto them.The funds required for the plan would have to be decided from year to year, thePrime Minister said.Memorandum by the S.A. Federated Chamber of IndustriesTowards the end of 1959 the S.A. Federated Chamber of Industries presented amemorandum to the Cabineton industrial development in the Bantu areas and ontheir perimeters.3")Current estimates suggested, the Chamber stated, that the Union's total populationmight double itself before the end of the century. Maintenance of present livingstandards, letalone their improvement, would require a considerable expansion ofsecondary industry because there was no other sector of the economy that waslikely to provide adequate additional employment opportunities. Substantialindustrial development required thatthe Government should create a favourableeconomic climate and thereafter leave the initiative to private enterprise. Theindividual businessman should be free to decide, inter alia, where he would sitehis business, what he would buy, what he would make,where he would sell hisproducts and whom he would employ.(30) Subsequently published in The Manufacturer, November 1959.

120 A SURVEY OF RACEThe Chamber believed that, if economic forces and considerations were given freeplay, the development of industry in established areas would continue for someconsiderable time to come, and that this trend would be in the best interests of thecountry as a whole. There would, however, at the same time be a certain amountof decentralization for good economic reasons.

The Chamber would support the expenditure of money on the provision ofessential services in border areas provided the areas concernedoffered thepossibility of sound industrial development. It pointed outthat serious problemscould arise if wage rates in the perimeter areas were fixed at substantially lowerlevels than those paid elsewhere. It stated that it would be strongly opposed to themanipulation of the railway tariff to attract industries to otherwise uneconomicareas, or to the granting of tax concessions.It stated, "The Chamber would fail in its duty if it did not issue a grave warningagainst artificial and forced development of industries in particular areasinvolving discrimination against existing industries and the conduct of harmfuland expensive experiments in industrial development."INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT WITHIN THERESERVESThe Bantu Investment CorporationBy the beginning of May 1960, the Bantu Investment Corporation31) hadreceived 266 applications from Africans in the Reserves for loans and otherassistance, and had granted eleven applications for loans totalling £42,625(32)According to various Press reports,(") this total had risen to £98,000 by the end ofAugust. Loans had been made for the establishment of wholesale firms, furniturefactories and a number of bus services. They ranged from between £50 and £60for the purchase of stock to between £10,000 and £15,000 for larger enterprises.Bantu Affairs Commissioners are asked for reports on the applicants, and interestrates are fixed according to the risks involved in each case.Applications have been received from Africans in urban areas who are anxious tostart businesses in the Reserves, but have hadto be refused because assistance tourban Africans is precluded in terms of the Bantu Investment Corporation Act(No. 34 of 1959).(31) See 1958-59 Survey, page 92.(32) Deputy Minister of Bantu Administration and Development, Assembly 6May1960, Hansard 16 col. 6830.(33) e.g. Rand Daily Mail, 20 June and 7 September.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 121Businesses in Transkeian TownsThe Government is considering granting authority to the S.A. Native Trust to buybusinesses in Transkeian towns from Whites wishing to leave, with the object ofreselling these to Africans, who would be permitted to trade in the "White" areasalthough they would have to live in their own zones"3)RURAL VILLAGESIn reply to a question in the Assembly on 22 March 1960,"'1 the Minister ofBantu Administration and Development gave a list of the 22 Bantu ruralvillagesthat had been established since 1956. Only four of them had more than1.000resident families, these being the villagesof Soto at Komgha in the Cape,Moetladimo at Letaba, Magabeni at Umbumbulu in Natal, and Xama near EastLondon. Four had no residents as yet, while another seven had fewer than eighty

resident families. Workers at the SAICCOR rayon factory lived atMagabeni, anda village called Sundumbili was being laid out to house employees of the S.A.Pulp and Paper Factory at Eshowe.Business undertakings had so far been established by Africans in only ten of thevillages: three of these had five businesses each, three had two concerns each, andthe remaining four each had one business. The African entrepreneurs includedgeneral dealers, butchers, restaurant keepers, a tailor and carpenter.Besides these recently-established villages there are a few older ones- Zwelitshawhich serves the Good Hope Textile Factory near King William's Town, Umlazi,and Themba near Hammanskraal.The Minister said(") that additional funds had been voted in 1960-61 fordeveloping villages. Construction gangs were erecting dwellings for families whodid not prefer to build for themselves, starting at places such as Empangeni whereemployment opportunities already existed. The Zwelitsha, Umlazi and Thembavillages were to be extended, and new villages established at Uitvalgrond nearPretoria and at Tzaneen. According to The World,37) plots are being sold atthreenew villages near Pietersburg- Nanedi, Sebayeng and Turfloop.(34) Star, 23 March and Rand Daily Mail, 24 March.(35) Hansard 10 cols. 3825-7.(36) Senate, 30 March 1960, Hansard 7 cols. 1530-1. and Assembly, 10 May,Hansard 17 col. 7107.(37) 28 May 1960.

A SURVEY OF RACEGENERAL MATTERS AFFECTINGNON-WHITE PEOPLEAFRICANSNO DEVIATION FROM GOVERNMENTPOLICY AS A RESULT OF THEDISTURBANCES.In a statement read for him in the Assembly by the Minister of Financeon 20 May1960, the Prime Minister said,(') "We must guard against . . . the attempts ofopponents to try to use the events (i.e. the disturbances that had taken place duringthe previous month) and the atmosphere to encourage a change to a supposedlyaltogether new policy, or a revision of policy. This in the end appears to benothing but an attempt to revitalize the policy of integration whichhas alreadyfailed here and elsewhere in Africa. The Government sees no reason to departfrom the policy of separate development because of the disturbances".ADMINISTRATION OF AFRICANS IN URBAN AREASThe Prime Minister continued, "The Government therefore declares, firstly, that itwill have to take steps to prevent incitement or agitation, whether direct orindirect, from continuing as in the past."Secondly, it is announced on behalf of the Government that the Department ofBantu Administration will be equipped so that inevery city with a large Banturesidential area it will be able to exercise proper supervision overtheadministration of the Bantu through the local authority concerned, toensure thatthe Bantu are properly informed on the aims of Government policy;and to expand

the already existing opportunities available to the urban Bantu for establishingdirect contact with the Government or its representatives on matters of policy".Later, on 12 September, the Prime Minister said(A) that, in order toensure thatthe aspirations and needs of the urban Bantu population would receive sufficientattention, a special and very senior official of the Department ofBantuAdministration was to be appointed in every large urban area. He would, interalia, keep in close contact with Bantu leaders and recognized Bantu authorities.(1) Hansard 18 cols. 8337-8. QA) Rand Daily Mail, 13 September.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 123It was announced on 2 September that Mr. M. Smuts had been appointed ChiefUrban Areas Commissioner for the Witwatersrand and that special urban areascommissioners under his control would be appointed for Johannesburg, the WestRand and the East Rand. According to a Press report,") Mr. Smuts said heenvisaged that meetingsof members of different tribal groups would be called atwhich the implications of legislation would be explained and complaints heard.The procedure of consultation had not been fully worked out, but itwas likelythat, apart from public meetings, representations would be made to him, throughBantu Affairs Commissioners, by informal committees of influentialBantu in theurban locations and through recognized tribal representatives.Mr. Smuts' duties would also include liaison with municipalities to ensure thatGovernment policy was carried out in a uniform way, it was said.According to a later report in the Sunday Times of 13 November, Mr.Smutsdenied that the Government was attempting to usurp the functions ofmunicipalities in regard to African administration. "I shall merely make use oftheir agencies and modify, by advice, their administration in accordance withGovernment policy where necessary," he is reported to have said."We giveadvice to municipalities by attending meetings where Bantu affairs are discussed.We have asked all Reef municipalities to supply us with agenda so that we can bekept fully informed. Quite a number have agreed to do so." (It wasreported thatJohannesburg was one of these.)"I and my assistants attend meetings of advisory boards, chiefs' representativesand others to learn on the Government's behalf about Native grievances andaspirations. We also attempt to explain Government policy and laws and howthese will benefit the Bantu. Unfortunately we find that the Bantuoften opposeGovernment policy through misunderstanding. This we wish to avoid."A "Bantu in European Areas Draft Bill" was circulated confidentially tomunicipalities for comment towards the end of 1960.PARTICIPATION OF URBAN AFRICANS IN LOCALGOVERNMENTProposed Bantu urban authoritiesAt a meeting held in Bloemfontein in September 1960, the Minister of Financeannounced(') that during the next Session of Parliament legislation would beintroduced to replace urban African advisory boards by urban Bantu authorities,which would(2) Star, 2 September.

(3) Star report, 13 September.

124 A SURVEY OF RACEexercise the actual authority in African residential areas. African home guardswould be establishedto assist the Bantu authorities in maintaining order. Thisstatement was confirmed by the Prime Minister in the speech quoted above; but inneither case were details of the proposals given.A Bantu Urban Authorities Bill was introduced in 1952, but, following widecriticism by the United Municipal Executive, the Union Advisory BoardsCongress and others, was not proceeded with.(') The Congress expressed the viewthat the only effective way in which Africans could share in the responsibilities oflocal government was by their direct representation on municipal councils.Noteworthy features of this Bill were that representation on Bantu urbanauthorities was where possible to be on an ethnic basis, that they wouldhavepower to levy rates on Africans in their areas, that urban Bantu courts were to beestablished, and that the effect of the measure would be to increasevery greatlythe Government's powers of control of urban Africans at the expense of those oflocal authorities.The Institute of Race Relations is preparing a Fact Paper dealing with the workingof the advisory boards system in practice and with the proposals made in 1952.Tribal representation in urban areasTwo types of tribal representation in urban areas are being plannedby theGovernment. Firstly, there will be the representatives of territorial authorities,nominated by these bodies in consultation with the Minister and with theGovernor-General's approval. Their appointment was provided for in terms of thePromotion of Bantu Self-Government Act of 1959.(') These "ambassadors" maybe granted powers to try certain types of civil cases, and, with the Minister'sapproval, will constitute boards to assist them in affairs of cultural and generalethnic interest. No such representatives have yet been appointed.Secondly, the Government is already nominating semiofficial representatives ofchiefs to handle the affairs of tribesmen in the urban areas concerned. There is nolegislative authority for these appointments.Residents'associationsThe Africans of Durban have formed unofficial residents' associations in thevarious townships to work on lines parallel to the advisory boards in trying to dealwith the problems and difficulties of residents.(4) The Institute of Race Relations issued a summary of this Bill (R.R. 6152) andtwo commentaries (R.R. 36/52 and R.R. 78/52).(5) See 1958-59 Survey, page 33.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 125Proposals for direct representation of Non-Whites ongoverningbodiesAt the Transvaal congress of the United Party, held during August1960, theMayor of Johannesburg, Mr. A. Gorshel, introduced a resolution calling for the"adequate representation" of Non-Whites by Whites in Parliament and on

Provincial Councils and local government bodies, such representation not toexceed ten per cent of the total membership of these bodies. He suggested thatAfrican councils should also be set up in the townships and given a large say inthe expenditure of money intheir areas, subject to the control of the municipalcouncil. This resolution was referred to the Union Executive of the United Party.Earlier, during May, the Natal Regional Committee of the Institute of RaceRelations presented a memorandum to the Durban City Council, stating that theevents of recent months had presented a very real challenge and uniqueopportunity to local authorities. The City Council was urged to devoteits earnestattention to the importance and inevitability of direct Non-White representationon municipal councils, for it was unrealistic to envisage entirely separate systemsof local government for NonWhites within the same urban area on a permanentbasis. The Institute suggested that as a start the City Council shouldmeet andconsult with accredited and recognized leaders of the NonWhite communities todiscuss the form such representation could take. This memorandum wassubmitted without comment by the Durban City Council to the ProvincialCouncil.The Institute's Pietermaritzburg Branch is considering making similarrepresentations to the Pietermaritzburg City Council.CONFERENCES ON URBAN AFRICANSThe Natal Regional Committee of the Institute of Race Relations held a series offour symposia on "The African in the City: theKey to the New South Africa".These symposia dealt, in turn, with:The African in the City: His Family.His Education.His Work.His Share in Government.("Two days of the Institute's annual Council meeting to be held in January 1961will be devoted to consideration of the affairs of urban Africans.(6) Copies of the addresses given are obtainable from the Institute's NatalRegionalOffice.

A SURVEY OF RACETAXATION OF AFRICANSNormal and provincial income taxesAccording to the latest Report of the Commissioner for Inland Revenue,7) duringthe year ended 30 June 1958 income tax assessments were issued to 859,917Whites, 72,008 Coloured people, 18,404 Asians and 2,221 Africans. (The writercalculates that during that year 21.6 per cent of all the Whites were liable to paynormal and provincial income taxes, as against 5.4 per cent of the Colouredpeople, 4.2 per cent of the Asians and 0.02 per cent of the Africans.The sizes offamilies, in addition to the income-levels, are of coursetaken into account whentax assessments are made).No recent information is available on the amounts paid by Africans in income tax.African general tax

The provisions of the Natives Taxation and Development Act, No. 38of 1958,were summarized in an earlier edition of this Survey.8) Briefly, as from 1 January1959 every male African of the age of eighteen and over was requiredto paybasic general tax at the rate of £1 15s. a year, instead of £1 as previously. As from1 January 1960, men and women earning more than £180 a year were required topay a further tax, calculated according to a graduated scale, any amounts paid innormal income tax being deductable from this graduated tax.In the case of Africans, the general tax is levied instead of personal taxes payableby other sections of the population. During the year under review theInstitute ofRace Relations issued a revised edition of its memorandum on AfricanTaxation,(') in which it was pointed out that, in terms of this system,Africanswereat a disadvantage in several ways. Africans in the lowest income groupshave to pay more in general tax than is payable in personal taxes by persons ofother races with equivalent incomes. A married African pays the same as a singleone, whereas for otherpopulation groups the rates are reduced on marriage.Furthermore, Africans are taxed for eight more years of their lives than are otherpeople.According to the Minister of Finance,(") it is estimated that during the yearending 31 March 1961 Africans will pay £3,810,000 in basic general tax and£190,000 in the new graded tax.(7) U.G. 10/1960.(8) 1957-58, page 77.(9) African Taxation: Its Relation to Social Services. Fact Paper No. 4 - 1960(10) Assembly, 15 March 1960, Hansard 9 cols. 3378-9.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 127Local TaxAfricans in rural areas (other than on farms of Whites) pay local or hut tax of 10s.per hut per annum up to a maximum of £2, or, alternatively, quitrent or squattingfees.These taxes cannot be said to discriminate against Africans, sincethey areroughly comparable with rates, etc. payable by householders elsewhere.The total paid in local tax was £280,678 in 1958-59.(") If this figure is subtractedfrom combined totalsgiven in the latest relevant report of the Controller andAuditor-Genera(") it would appear that about £58,450 was paid in quitrent.General and tribal leviesThis is a form of taxation that is applied to Africans only. According tothe reportof the Controller and Auditor-General quoted above, as at the end of March 1959,besides the Transkeian general levy, there were 191 compulsory and 918voluntary tribal levies in force.03) During the preceding year these levies hadyielded £105,707 in the Transkeiand £246,500 elsewhere.Since then, new tribal levies have been imposed, and the Bantu authorities havecommenced exercising their powers of taxation. The Minister of BantuAdministration and Development said during January 1960'") that therevenue andexpenditure of Bantu authorities was as follows for the years stated:Year Revenue Expenditure1958 £438,000 £329,000

1959 £1,014,392 £817,046(Not all of the revenue wasderived from levies: it included, also, charges forservices provided, fines and fees collected by the chiefs, stock rates and Stategrants). The Minister stated that the expenditure of Bantu authorities was onsalaries, the erection of buildings, purchase of vehicles, stock improvement,health services, soil reclamation, conservation of water, the maintenance of roadsand bridges, etc.Amended regulations for the treasuries of Bantu authorities were published on 29July 1960 (G.N. 1096).Other taxes paid by AfricansOther taxes paid by Africans but not by other members of the population weredescribed in previous issues of this Survey.('")(11) Figure supplied by Dept. of Bantu Administration and Development.(12) For 1958-59, Part III, U.G. 53/59.(13) See 1957-58 Survey, page 82. for the distinction between these.(14) Assembly, Hansard 1 col. 262, and Senate, Hansard 7 col. 1528.(15) 1957-58, page 82. and 1958-59 page 120.

128 A SURVEY OF RACESTATE EXPENDITURE ON BEHALF OF AFRICANSIt is calculated by the Controller and Auditor-General(1"' that during the year1958-59, the State spent £28,374,467 on behalf of Africans, excluding advancesand loans from Loan Funds and the National Housing Fund. It should be notedthat expenditure under the head of "general administration" includes registrationfees and contributions to the Services and Transport Levies that were paid by thevarious Departments of State as employers of African labour.General administrationDept. of Bantu Administration and Development S.A. Native Trust ... ... ... ... ......Dept. of Bantu Education ............All other Departments ... ... ... ... ...Social Services.Dept. of Bantu Education ............Dept. of Health, including hospitals ...... Dept. of Bantu Administration andDevelopment Dept. of Education, Arts and Science ...... Dept. of Social Welfare.................All other Departments ... ... ... ... ...Capital expenditure S.A. NativeTrust ..............Bantu Administration and DevelopmentGeneral and Loan Votes ...... Dept. of Bantu Education ...... Dept. of Education,Arts and Science Dept. of Social Welfare ..........£... 3,252,807 ... 1,050,263 ... 1,348,896 ...107,889£5,759,855... 7,572,822 .. 7,161,950 .. 3,695,661 .. 239,294 .. 188,266 .. 237,742£19,095,735

3,123,118... ... 314,022... ... 73,345... ... 7,135... ... 1,257£3,518,877AFRICAN SEPARATIST CHURCHESIt was mentioned in last year's Survey('7) that the Government's general policy isthat church sites in urban locations should be allocated only to churchbodies thatare recognized by the(16) Part II of report for 1958-59. U.G. 52/1959, page 202.(17) Page 33.

RELATIONS: 1959-60Government. In a circular letter sent to the churches by the Department of BantuAdministration and Development on 21 January 1960 it was stated that there wereabout 2,300 African separatist churches, of which 78 were recognized.As a result of the Government's decision there has been some tendency forunrecognized churches to combine with churches that are acknowledged. It wasreported in October 1960, for example,1") that about 30,000 members of a sectcalledthe Ethiopian Church in Zion had decided to join the New Church of God(a church based on the teachings of the Swedish philosopher Swedenborg).Former ministers of the sect were being trained in the Swedenborgian theology.A deputation from the Interdenominational African Ministers' Federation wasgranted an interview with senior officials of the Department of BantuAdministration and Development on 27 October 1960. The members pleaded foran indefinite extension of the time-limit within which unrecognized churcheswere required to have relinquished sites in urban townships (this limit was the endof 1960). They stated that their Federation was prepared to assisttheunrecognized churches by providing training for their ministers and inother ways.At the time of writing the Government's decision had not been made known.COMPENSATION FOR WIDOWS OF AFRICANS KILLEDTHROUGH NEGLIGENCEDuring 1957 the Rev. A. Fonda of Johannesburg was killed in a motor accident,and his widow subsequently claimed£1,000 from the Santam Insurance Co., Ltd.,the insurers of the vehicle that struck him. Santam objected, and whenthe mattercame before the Rand Supreme Court in August 1959 argued that Mrs. Fonda'sapplication was bad in law because she had been married by tribal custom. Thisexception was, however, dismissed by the judge, who held that a woman marriedaccording to tribal law was entitled to sue for damages in such a case.Santam appealed against this decision, and in March 1960 the appeal was upheldby the Appellate Division. The effect was that in cases where couples had beenmarried by tribal law, should the husband be killed by negligence the widow wasprecluded from suing for damages if the death was as the result of a motoraccident. If it was due to any other cause she could sue only if the negligent

person was an African, and must do so in a Bantu Affairs Commissioner's courtunder Native law and custom.A considerable number of actions similar to that of Mrs. Fonda which had beendelayed pending the outcome of her case(18) Star, 10 Octobcr.129

then had to be dropped. It was reported(9) during the first nine months of 1960one Johannesburg attorney had dealt with 38 motor accident casesin whichAfrican men had been killed. In only14 of them had the couples been marriedunder the common law. In the remaining 24 cases claims could be instituted onbehalf of the children, but the widows were precluded from claiming against theinsurance companies. The attorney had been forced to turnaway about 20 otherwomen who had been married according to tribal law.Mr. J. P. Cope, M.P., questioned the Minister of Justice about thiswhole matter inthe Assembly on 22 March.("°) The Minister said that a ruling similarto that ofthe Appellate Division had been given by the Natal Provincial Division of theSupreme Court in 1956. He had then referred the matter to the Law RevisionCommittee, the recommendation of which was still awaited.In collaboration with the parliamentary draughtsmen, Mr. Cope then drew up aBill to amend the Native Administration Act, stating, "Notwithstandinganythingto the contrary in any law contained, a customary union between a Native and anywoman shall be deemed to be a valid marriage for the purposes of an action fordamages instituted by such woman, provided the cause of the actionarose duringthe subsistence of such customary union".Mr. Cope showed this draft Bill to the Minister of Bantu Administration andDevelopment, who offered to take it over and present itto Parliament during 1961as a Government measure.RIGHTS OF INHERITANCE,The position in regard to the rights of inheritance of African widowswassummarized in our last Survey.(") A valuable article on this subject by Dr. A. J.Kerr was published inthe issue of The South African Outlook for 1 February1960.NATURALIZATION OF "FOREIGN" AFRICANSIn the Assembly on 13 May 1960(2) the Minister of the Interior statedthat, interms of the S.A. Citizenship Act of 1949, machinery existed for Africans bornoutside the Union to become South African citizens. There had previously beensome doubt on this matter.!"2)(19) Rand Daily Mail, 5 September 1960.(20) Hansard 10 cols. 3824-5.(21) 1958-59 page 113.(22) Hansard 17 col. 7507.(23) See 1958-59 Survey, page 109.130A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 131The term "alien" is deemed to include Africans from the High CommissionTerritories, Nyasaland, etc. In terms of the Act an alien who wishes to become aSouth African citizen must give a year's notice to the Department ofthe Interiorof his intention to apply. Before becoming naturalized he must have been a lawfulresident of the Union for at least six years, and during this period must haveresided continuously in South Africa. He must be able to read and write one of theofficial languages to the satisfaction of the Minister, and have "an adequateknowledge of the responsibilities and privileges of South African citizenship."COLOURED PEOPLEDEPARTMENT OF COLOURED AFFAIRS Head of the DepartmentIt was decided by the Government during September 1960 that the Commissionerfor Coloured Affairs should in future be entitled the Secretary for ColouredAffairs.Branch offices of the DepartmentThe Deputy Minister of the Interior announced on 12 April(") that branch officesof the Department of Coloured Affairs were to be opened in Johannesburg,Kimberley, Durban and Port Elizabeth.A departmental information officer who toured the majorcentres during the earlypart of 1960 said that the Johannesburg office, to be established first, would workfor better employment opportunities and housing for the Coloured people, andwould promote recreational and cultural facilities.(2")Coloured Mission Stations and ReservesThe Coloured Mission Stations and Reserves Amendment Act of 1959 wassummarized in last year's Survey."') In terms of this Act, eleven of the sixteenColoured mission stations and reserves were declared bettermentareas on 27November 1959, and it was stated, in Government Notice No. 1937 ofthat date,that ten per cent of the costs of betterment works must be refunded to the State bythe boards of management concerned, ten per cent of the revenue from rates beingpayable annually in redemption of these amounts.(24) Assembly, Hansard 13 col. 5390.(25) Star report, 10 March 1960.(26) Page 155.

132 A SURVEY OF RACEIncreased sums of money were provided in the State estimates for 1960-61 for thedevelopment of these areas.(") £59,900 was allocated for the purchase of land,£48,500 for the development of the reserves, and £100 for advances to settlers.UNION COUNCIL FOR COLOURED AFFAIRSThe legislative authority for and theconstitution of the Union Council forColoured Affairs was described in the 1958-59 issue of this Survey,(28) where itwas stated that the establishment of the council was gazetted on 22May 1959,and that the Deputy Minister of the Interior had announcedthat the election ofmembers would take place after the provincial elections in October of that year.Twelve members were to be elected, all from the Cape, three to represent each ofthe four electoral divisions there.

This council was created at the time when Coloured voters were removed fromthe common roll. Furthermore, all the major Coloured organizations have in anycase been opposed to the setting up of separate machinery to represent theirinterests, which, they contended, were indivisible from those of the Whites.Consequently these organizations (including, it was reported,2") the moderateColoured People's National Union) decided to boycott the elections and to putforward no nominations. As the closing date approached twelve names were,however,sent in, one for each of the vacancies, the persons nominated beingpractically unknown in the community. There was considerable conjecture as towho was behind this move. As no further nominations were received thetwelvepersons concerned were declaredduly elected.(")During the following month the names of the fifteen Government-appointedmembers were published,(1) eight of them (including a Cape Malay and a Griqua)coming from the Cape, four from the Transvaal, two from Natal andone from theFree State.Shortly thereafter a first meeting of the council was convened, andan executivecommittee of three appointed and two elected members formed. Officialreports(")2 stated that the council regretted the efforts of a "handful of misguidedintellectuals" in attempting to "stifle the Union Council of Coloured Affairs atbirth". Among the subjects discussed were the need for more housing and thedifficulties caused by the Group Areas Act.(27) Estimates of Expenditure to be Defrayed from the Revenue and LoanAccounts,U.G. 1/60 and 8/60.(28) Page 153.(2-9 Sunday Times, 6 December.(30) G.N. 1869 of 1959. (13 November).(31) G.N. 2055 of 1959. (18 December).(32) Fortn!ghtly Digest of S.A. Affairs. 8 January 1960.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 133THE SENSE OF FRUSTRATION AMONG MANY COLOUREDPEOPLE, AND THE GOVERNMENT'S ATTITUDEParticularly in recent months it has been reported that large numbers of skilled,well-educated Coloured people who despair of their future in South Africa havebeen leaving the country.According to the Press,(") the Government has now decided to give moresympathetic attention to the needs and grievances of this section of thepopulation. It is stated that the DeputyMinister of the Interior has helddiscussions with Mr. George Golding of the Coloured People's National Union."Dawie," Die Burger's political commentator, wrote in the issue of this paper on23 July 1960, "The drive to a forward movement in Nationalistpolicy for theColoureds is becoming more and more strong. The most dramatic idea of courseis that the principle of the representation of Coloureds in Parliament must berecognized, or put in other words: that the Coloured voters must bepermitted toelect white or brown members. This of course is only one part of thecomplex of

plans which are being discussed by thinking people but it is the mostspectacularand the most calculated to stir tongues to speech. My impression is that theNationalist Party isalready more than half-way in agreement with the principle,and can be completely won for it by strong leadership. The time is approachingfor a decision".At the first congress of the S.A. Coloured People's Organization held after theending of the state of emergency it was made clear that members were notprepared to endorse any "new deal" for the Coloured people at the expense ofother Non-White groups.(')The proposal that Coloured people should be represented in Parliament bymembers of their owncommunity, although apparently supported by manymembers of the National Party, especially in the Cape, was, however, rejected byDr. Verwoerd in a Press statement made on 24 November. He is reported to havesaid that this would be a springboard for the integration of the races, leading tobiological assimilation. The policy should be one of parallel development. Thegreatest needs of the Coloured people were economic and educationaldevelopment, and experience in the local government of their ownpeople and inthe control of certain of their country-wide interests.MUNICIPAL REPRESENTATION IN THE CAPEFor the first time in its history Kimberley is to be served by two Coloured citycouncillors, who were elected in preference to(33) e.g. Rand Daily Mail, 27 June 1960.(34) Star report. 10 October 1960.

134 A SURVEY OF RACEWhite candidates for the seats concerned, and will represent White as well asColoured voters.""5)Coloured men and women have served on theCape Town City Council for manyyears.The question of the Non-White municipal franchise was dealt with in some detailin the 1958-59 issue of this Survey,(6) as was the official suggestion that separatemunicipal rolls should be created for Coloured voters in the Cape for the electionof separate local boards and governing bodies. At the time of writing there hadbeen no further moves in this connection.TRANSVAAL CONFERENCE OF REPRESENTATIVES OF THECOLOURED COMMUNITYThe Southern TransvaalRegion of the Institute of Race Relations arranged aconference of the local Coloured community, which took place on 19 March 1960and was attended by representatives of thirty-two Coloured organizations ofvarious types. The following papers were presented:Coloured Housing in Johannesburg, by Mr. H. le Pere.RR 61/60.Coloured Education, Recreation and Culture in the Transvaal,by Mr. G. L. Carr. RR 57/60.Employment and the Economic Situation, by Mr. D. J. Schultz.RR 64/60.

The Need for Unity, by the Rev. W. J. Bergins. RR 58/60.These resolutions were adopted:"1. This conference of the Coloured people, representative oforganizations in the Transvaal, wishes to put on record its emphatic opposition tothe recent policies pursued bythe Government, and wishes to express its beliefthat no peace will come to South Africa until the rights of all Non-White peopleto full and free participation in the political, economicand social life of this country are realised;2. this Conferencecalls on the Coloured people to continue to oppose all policiesof racial discrimination;3. this Conference urges that a Continuation Committee of the Conference takessteps, in co-operation with the S.A. Institute of Race Relations, to summon aNational Conference of theColoured people of the Union;4. while totally rejecting the principles of discrimination whichapply in South Africa, the Conference is constrained to seek(35) Ibid, 8 September.(36) Page 149.

amelioration of the lotof the people. In seeking an improvement in presentconditions, the Conference in no way acquiesces in the philosophy which liesbehind the principles ofsegregation."The formulation of detailed proposals to this end was left in the hands of aContinuation Committee which was then elected.It subsequently transpired that there would be insufficient supportfor a NationalConference of Coloured organizations. Particularly in the Cape Western Region itwas felt that the views of the political organizations were so divergent that aconference would not succeed in bringing the people together. It wassuggestedthat regional conferences should instead be held in the various centres.Lengthy consideration was given to the nature of the association which it wasplanned should be set up in the Transvaal. Eventually, at a second conference heldon 17 September, the proposed objects were clarified, as follows: "To securepositive co-operation among all the Coloured people of the Transvaal in order topromote their economic, social and political advancement and, in particular, by alllawful means to strive for:1. the right to elect and be elected to Parliament including theSenate, Provincial Councils, Municipal Councils and anyother local authorities;2. the removal of the industrial colour-bar and the right of allworkers to organise freely in all trade unions;3. the extension of free compulsory education for all, irrespective of colour, raceor creed and for the right of any person to enterany University, UniversityCollege, Training College,Trade School, Technical College or similar institution;4. the removal of all restrictions based on colour or race in

regard to the acquisition, ownership or ocupation of anyland orpremises;5. the removal of any restriction based on race or colour in anyplace of public entertainment, cinema or theatre, cultural, literaryor artisticexhibition, show or presentation and to promote the cultural advancement of thepeople in allspheres;6. the removal of the colour-bar in all forms of sport and forthe right of any individual irrespective of race or colour to participate in any local,provincial or national team in anybranch of sport.The Association shall have the right to co-operate with any other organisation orbody in any form considered advisable in furthering the aims and objectsset outabove, provided that the Association shall not identify itself with anypoliticalparty."RELATIONS: 1959-60135

A SURVEY OF RACEASIANSGOVERNMENT OFFICIAL RESPONSIBLE FOR THE INTERESTSOF ASIANSThe Deputy Minister of the Interior announced on 23 March 1960(") that as fromthe beginning of that year the Director of Immigration and Asiatic Affairs hadtakenover from the Department of Coloured Affairs responsibility fortheinterests of Asians. This official now ranked as an Under-Secretary.IMMIGRATION AMENDMENT ACT, No. 8 OF 1960In terms of the Immigrants Regulation Act of 1913, Asians may not move fromthe province in which they are domiciled unless they are granted permits by theDepartment of the Interior. They are prohibited immigrants in other provinces,and there is a total ban on their residence in the Free State. In the past, althoughthe Minister of the Interior could permit an Asian to visit a province other than theone in which he lived, he had no power to authorize a permanent change ofresidence.The Immigration Amendment Act of 1960 granted the Minister this power, butstipulated that anAsian who is allowed to settle in another province willautomatically lose his right of domicile in the province where he lived originally.Members of the Progressive and Liberal Parties pleaded unsuccessfully for thisstipulation to be removed. The timehad come, they said, when seriousconsideration should be given to the question of allowing Asians completefreedom of movement within the Union.(")REVIEW BY THE INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONS OF ACENTURY OF INDIAN SETTLEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT The 1960Council meeting of the Institute of Race Relations, held in Durban, coincided notonly with the fiftieth anniversary of the Union, but also with the hundredthanniversary of the arrival of Indians in South Africa. As has been mentioned

earlier, Dr. S. Cooppan presented a paper entitled "The Indian Community ofSouth Africa: Past, Present and Future". (9)The findings of Council were as follows:"Council reviewed a century of Indian settlement and development in SouthAfrica and noted, among others, thefollowing facts and sentiments:1. "The Indian community is largely derived from theindentured labour imported by the Government of Natal(37) Senate Hansard 6 col. 1229.(38) Assembly, 17 February 1960, Hansard 5 cols. 1689-93.(39) RR7/60.136

RELATIONS: 1959-60 137during 1860-1911 in order to help develop the young and struggling agriculturaland industrial enterprises started by Europeans; and has made a majorcontribution to theestablished economy of the country.2. "The legislation regulating the Indian immigrationscheme clearly envisaged the prospects of permanent settlement,therebyhistorically conditioning legitimate Indian expectations of full and freecitizenship, to which their initial political status gave support until theirsubsequent disfranchisement.3. "A century of Indian life in this country, the last fiftyyears under Union, reveals the hard upward struggle of a small culture-consciousand traditionally tolerant minority, against a rising tide of racial prejudiceand aWhite resistance, often expressed in discriminatory legislation deliberatelyaimed at throttling Indian initiative and enterprise.4. "The response of the Indians to the bright hopes andconfidence raised by the Cape Town Agreement of 1927 was a tremendous effortto confirm their qualifications for a full, loyal and responsible SouthAfricancitizenship in peace and war; and especially in the field of education, greatsacrifices were made in order to achieve western standards of living. 5. "Butthe subsequent imposition, contrary to explicitassurances, of further restrictions by the Union Government onthe members ofthe community already lacking in status andopportunities has caused generaldespair and a loss of faith by the Indians in the integrity of their Whitecompatriots and Christian government of their country.6. "The full implementation of the Group Areas Act willinflict upon the communityconsiderable material and spiritual loss, depriving itsmembers of the fruits of their labour andof a reasonable stability in their living.7. "The restriction imposed on contact at the highestcultural levels by the enforcement of separate university education is a cause forthe gravest apprehension. At the very stage of South African nationaldevelopment when intercultural understanding is essential, and a small butgrowing Indian intellectual leadership has become available and willing to strive

for greater tolerance and understanding between races, this unwarranted isolationmay well havedisastrous results.8. "While the Indian community enters upon its secondcentury in South Africa with a sense of gloom and frustration, it has not failed todetect the small ray of hope cast by the recent spontaneous actions of its Whitecompatriots in open defence of Indian rights and freedom. If this isa symptom

A SURVEY OF RACEof awakening White conscience, the hope is not entirely lost that the Indian SouthAfricans might yet attain their legitimate heritage to grow in peace tothe fullstature of their manhood like all their fellow citizens . . . no more andnoless."THE LIQUOR LAWS AS THESE AFFECT THENON-WHITE PEOPLEThe Institute of Race Relations is shortly to publish a Fact Paper dealing with theliquor laws as they affect the Non-White people of the Union, the inefficacy ofthese laws, the recommendations of various commissions, including therecentMalan Commission, relevant laws and regulations in other African territories andthe effects of the relaxation of the laws in these territories.BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE UNION'S PRESENT LAWSSpirits, wines and European-type beerAt the time of writing, Coloured people in Natal, and Coloured and Asians in theCape (excluding the Transkei) were able to buy liquor of any type, subject to anyconditions imposed by licensing boards. (A wide variety of conditions had in factbeen imposed.) Asians in Natal could obtain liquor for onconsumption only, andthe same applied to Coloured persons other than Griquas in the Transkei whowere the owners or sole lessees of immovable property worth at least £75.Subject to the exceptions mentioned below, Coloured people and Asians in theTransvaal and Free State, and Africans throughout the Union, were precludedfrom obtaining liquor (other than kaffir beer in the case of Africans).ExceptionsA magistrate might, however, issue to a Non-White applicant an annuallyrenewable letter of exemption, entitling him to buy stated quantities of liquorwithin the district concerned for his personal use only. If the holder of such aletter wished to obtain supplies in another district, his permit had to be endorsedby the magistrate or a senior member of the police there. Magistrates wererequired to satisfy themselves that applicants were living in accordance withWhite standards and had adequate incomes. For this purpose, police reports werenecessary.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 139In the Cape, farmers were permitted to supply adult male Non-White farmworkers with one free pint of unfortified wine daily, or one-and-a-half pints ofkaffir beer (the "tot" system). Any employer in the Free State mightgive his male

adult NonWhite employees a quarter of a pint of spirits or one pint ofother liquorper day.Non-White ministers of religion could apply for annually renewable permitsentitling them to buy stated quantities of wine for sacramental use; and peoplewho were ill could obtain liquor on doctors' orders, the certificate to beendorsedby the police except in cases of dangerous illness.Kaffir beerSeveral alternative schemes for the supply to Africans of kaffir beer might beapplied in urbanareas-domestic brewing, or the exclusive municipal supply ofbeer, or municipal brewing together with domestic brewing, or (with or withoutdomestic brewing) brewing by licensed Africans. The majority of the larger townspreserved a municipal monopoly; butin a few areas domestic brewing took placeside-by-side with municipal sales, the beerhalls catering mainly for unattachedmen. Permits were required for off-sales from beerhalls.There were some towns, however, where the local authorities did nottradeinbeer. In such cases domestic brewing was allowed, either by permitor freely,provided that householders did not possess more than four gallons at any onetime. Beer might be brewed for domestic consumption only: permits wererequired if householders wished to offer beer to guests at a function.African farm-workers required their employer's permission to possess kaffir beer.If it was to be offered at a gathering at which three or more visitors were present,the permission of a magistrate or the police had also to be obtained.There were fewer restrictions in the African Reserves. The law stated that, exceptin certain parts of Natal where individual Africans might be licensed to do so, no-one might sell beer. Those wishing to offer it to guests ata function must givenotice of their intention to the headman. Outside the Transkei, onlya person incharge of a kraal or homestead might brew or possess beer, and insuch quantitiesonly as might reasonably be consumed by himself and his family.Control of other substancesThe possession by Africans of yeast or methylated spirits was totally prohibitedunless these substances were required by entrepreneurs in orderto conduct theirbusinesses. At a local authority's request, the Minister might impose restrictions inits area on the possession of sprouted grain.

140 A SURVEY OF RACEINEFFICACY OF THESE LAWSComments by senior police officials and others on the inefficacy of theliquorlaws have been quoted in previous issues of this Survey. During the year nowunder review the report was published of the (Malan) Commissionof Inquiry intothe General Distribution and Selling Prices of Alcoholic Liquor. ThisCommission stated, as many others had done previously, that, although they ranthe risk of being arrested, Africans could obtain as much liquor as they wanted.Some witnesses had said it was not impossible that up to 60 per cent of the salesof strong drink in certain areas reached the consumer through illicit channels. But,because the trade was illegal, Africans had to pay high prices for their supplies,

and these often reached them in adulterated forms. "The application of the LiquorAct is a question of impossibility in our present era", the Commission concluded.Endeavours by the police to enforce the law have led to very high numbers ofarrests, and to great resentment on the part of Non-Whites. Detailed figuresshowing the rapid increase between 1921 and 1957 in the numbers of convictionsfor varioustypes of liquor offences are given in the Institute's Fact Paper, where itis shown that in the latter year no less than 16.8 per cent of the total number ofconvictions of Africans for all offences were for purely statutory liquor offencessuch as the illegal possession of liquor, unauthorized beer gatherings, etc. Theequivalent percentage in the case of Coloured people was 6.2.RECOMMENDATIONS BY THE MALAN COMMISSIONLight wines and European-type malt liquorsThe Malan Commission recommended that all Non-Whites should be permitted tobuy light wines and European-type malt liquors for on-consumption, the prices ofthese liquors to be low in comparison with those of fortified wines and spirits.NonWhite hotels should be licensed to sell wine and beer, which should beavailable also at beerhalls and beer gardens in municipal African townships.The Commission considered that, except in the cases of Coloured people in theCape and Natal, Indians in the Cape, and Chinese people (other thanthose livingor trading in Non-White residential areas), all off-sales should be by permit, suchpermits to be granted more liberally than in the past. Exempted Africans shouldbe able to buy wine and beer by the bottle from beerhalls, or through normalchannels if they live in "White" areas.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 141Fortified wines and spiritsFor the purpose of the Liquor Act, the Commission said, Chinese peopleshouldbe treated in the same way as Whites, unless they live or trade in a Non-Whiteresidential area, when off-sales should be by permit. Indians in the Transvaal andFree State should be entitled to buy spirits for on-consumption, as those in theother provinces may do; but sales for off-consumption should be by permit.The same arrangement should apply in the cases of Coloured people intheTransvaal and Free State, the Commission considered; while in theCape andNatal members of this group should continue to be free to buy spirits for on or offconsumption without permits. Restrictions imposed by licensing boards should beabolished.Africans holding letters of exemption should continue to be entitled to buy limitedquantities of spirits.Letters of exemptionThe procedure for obtaining letters of exemption should be considerablysimplified, the Commission said, and these letters should be valid for three yearsinstead of one. They should be more generously provided. It was recommendedthat any African who has committed no liquor offence or serious crime during thepreceding year, has a reference book and a permanent residential address, and hashad fixed employment for at least the preceding six months, should be entitled toa permit, allowing him or her to purchase at least eight bottles of malt, or four

bottles of natural wine, or two bottles of fortified wine, or one bottle of spirits amonth. "More civilized or educated" Africans should be permitted tobuy largersupplies.People living in African townships should purchase liquor at a separate,strengthened section of the beerhall, while others should deal through normalchannels.The "tot" systemAll reference to the "tot" system should be removed from the Liquor Act,theCommission considered, and no-one should be allowed to give free issues ofstrong drink to labourers on farms.Kaffir beer in urban areasIt was recommended that there should be a liberal provision of distribution pointsfor kaffir beer, other malt liquors and wine, say at least one forevery 500families. Conditionsat beerhalls should be greatly improved and adequate seatingprovided: the

142 A SURVEY OF RACECommission was very much opposed to standing bars for members of any racialgroup. Adequate provision should be made forthe acquisition of kaffir beer forhome consumption.STATEMENT BY THE PRIME MINISTER, MAY, 1960In a statement read for him in the House of Assembly on 20 May, the PrimeMinister said that, in spite of certain doubts it still felt, and certain difficultiesexpected, the Government intended bringing about certain changes toremove thenecessity for liquor raids. At the same time it would guard against crime,including the illegal liquor trade and the manufacture of dangerous concoctions.ANNOUNCEMENT BY THE COMMISSIONER OF POLICE,AUGUST, 1960On 13 August 1960 the Commissioner of the S.A. Police announced, "The policehave stopped making any organized liquor raids. The only occasion when a raidinvolving liquor occurs now is when theexistence of illicit liquor dens isdiscovered or reported to be causing crimes of violence- and then the primaryobject is to stop the violence rather than stop the drinking."Furthermore the police are, as a matter of policy, being generousinrecommending Natives for permits legalizing their purchases of European liquor."GROUP AREASRECENTLY-ANNOUNCED DECISION ON POLICYALTERNATIVE ACCOMMODATION MUST BE AVAILABLEBEFORE ANYONE IS REQUIRED TO MOVEIn reply to a series of questions in the Assembly on 29 March 1960, the Ministerof the Interior said,(') "I have repeatedly given the assurance that no one who isnot in a position to provide a dwelling for himself will be required to move shouldalternative accommodation not be available. It is naturally expected of wellto-dopeople to provide housing for themselves in their own areas". Later2) he added,"Where people cannot afford to build their own houses, the Group AreasDevelopment Board or the local authority will provide the necessary housing".

(1) Hansard 11 col. 4300.(2) Assembly. 12 April 1960, Hansard 13 col. 5368.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 143Asked how many people of each racial group would be required to move theirhomes in terms of proclamations for group areas issued to date, the Ministerreplied,O) "The furnishing of details ... will entail so much work and time that thiscannot be undertaken".He was also asked how many schools for Non-White children would have to bere-sited,what the estimated cost of rebuilding would be, and whether this wholequestion had been discussed with the provincial administrations, but again saidthat he could not furnish the information because too much work would beinvolved in preparing a reply.THE FUTURE OF ASIAN TRADERSQuestions were asked, too, about the Government's plans for thefuture of Asiantraders operating in areas now proclaimed for other groups. TheDeputy Ministerof the Interior replied,O3) "The Indians have arrogated to themselves the right tobe the only business men, and there are far too many of them in business. Whycannot some of them also do some work? Why should White people haveto usetheir hands and not they? They think that they alone are entitled to do business.No, we will act fairly, but I am tired of these Indians Who just wantpostponements all the time and who never make any constructive suggestions asto what quid pro quo should be given. They just want to retain what they have".The Deputy Minister has, however, said,4) "Indian, Coloured and Chinese tradersin areas for the White group have, in cases where circumstances have meritedsuch a step and where the evacuation periods have expired, been allowed bypermit to remain in occupation of their trading sites. In some cases the evacuationperiods have been extended. Since numerous factors must be taken intoconsideration, each case is treated on its own merits. Once an areahas beenproclaimed a group area for a particular group, further infiltration of members ofother groups cannot be allowed."On another occasion he addedO5) "It is proposed as a first step to resettle theaffected persons in their own areas for residential purposes. Those who aredependent for their livelihood on trade or other businessenterprise may on expiryof the evacuation period, in so far as it may be necessary, be allowedby means ofpermits to continue their present businesses until such time as they are able tomake a living in their own areas."(3) Assembly. 11 April, Hansard 13 col. 5285.(4) Assembly, 19 February, Hansard 5 cols. 1826-7.(5) Assembly, 12 April, Hansard 13 col. 5351.

144 A SURVEY OF RACEIn reply to a further question, the Minister said on 25 March,O6) "The creation ofnew avenues of employment for Asiatics in the Public Service is not beingconsidered by the Government at present." Asked whether the Government wasprepared to reconsider its attitude in regard to the payment of compensation to

traders for the loss of goodwill as a result of the implementation of the GroupAreas Act, the Minister answered "No".7)REGULATIONS UNDER THE GROUP AREAS DEVELOPMENT ACTRegulations under the Group Areas Development Act were published asGovernment Notice No. 1693 of 23 October 1959.RECENT COURT CASESS. M. LOCKHAT AND EIGHTEEN OTHERS VS. THE MINISTER'OF THE INTERIORNineteen members of the Indian community of Durban, who are owners and/oroccupiers of property in areas proclaimed for Whites, were, in terms of therelevant proclamation, required to move before 5 June 1959. They did not do so,and instead instituted an action against the Minister of the Interior for an ordersetting the proclamation aside and declaring it to be null and void. In theirdeclaration they maintained, inter alia, that: 1. the Group Areas Board had failedto give proper consideration to the availability of suitable accommodation formembers of the Non-White groups outside the areas set asidefor Whites;2. before completing the enquiry the Board had already made adecision as to the group areas it was going to recommend, hence failed to giveproper consideration to the representationsmade at the enquiry;3. the chairman of the Board was prejudiced against Indiansand this prejudice improperly influenced his mind;4. the Act did not authorise discrimination between differentraces so as to result in partial and unequal treatment to a substantial degree, whichwould be the effect of theproclamation.The Minister of the Interior made a number of exceptions to the declaration,submitting that it was so vague and embarrassing as to be bad in law, and wasinsufficient to sustain the action. These exceptions were consideredin theSupreme Court, Durban,(6) Assembly Hansard10 col. 4106.(7) Hansard 11 col. 4300.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 145on 4 July 1960. The judge dismissed all but two of them, these two having in anycase been conceded by the plaintiffs when an amendment to the declaration wasmade.Commenting on certain of the exceptions, the judge said that in his opinion theterms of the Act indicated that it is necessary for the Board, the Ministerand theGovernor-Generalin-Council to consider whether or not suitable alternativeaccommodation, reasonably adequate for the needs of the affectedpersons, isavailable for them at the date when a proclamation takes effect, and whether ornot the proclamation will have an equitable result.The exercise of power to proclaim group areas, the judge stated, can and should(in the absence of specific authority in the statute to the contrary) beexercised

without the result that members of different races are treated on a footing ofpartiality and inequality to a substantial degree. The question as to whether theDurban proclamation produced such a result could not be decided ontheexceptions: the plaintiffs would have to prove not only that there was inequalitybut that this was substantial. They would also have to prove their allegationofprejudice against the chairman of the Board. If they succeeded, theywould beentitled to the relief they claimed, that is, the setting aside of the proclamation.The allegations did constitute a sufficient basis in law for the Courtto interfere,thejudge ruled.An appeal has been noted by the Government. Evidence in support oftheplaintiffs' allegations has, in the meanwhile, not been led.CASSEM EN 'N ANDER VS. OOS-KAAPSE KOMITTEE VAN DIEGROEPSGEBIEDERAAD EN ANDEREThe case Ramjee vs. theEastern Cape Committee of the Group Areas Board andanother08) was described in an earlier issue of this Survey.") A fullbench of theEastern Cape Division of the Supreme Court ruled that the Group Areas Boardmust apply the maxim audi alteram partem, since it acted in a quasi judicialcapacity. If it had information which was relevant and prejudicialto the case of anobjector it should in fairness communicate this information to the objector so as togive him an opportunity of controverting it. A reportexplanatory of a plan mustbe communicated to the objector or lie for inspection.(8) 1958 (2) S.A. 67 (E).(9) 1957-58. page 89.

146 A SURVEY OF RACEThis judgment was overruled in Cassem's case.(") PrenticeHallServices (Pty) Ltd.summarise the findings of the Appellate Division as follows:1. "Proceedings before the Board are not quasi judicial incharacter.2. "While Sections 5 and 6 of the Act confer certain powersand impose certain duties on theBoard which are of a quasi judicial nature, theintention was to keep the rightswhich interested parties derived therefrom within limits.3. "An objector does not have the right to know what thereasons for a proposal are so that he can rebut them,nor has he a right to peruse areport which a Committee hasplaced before the Board.4. "An objector has no right to require the Board to subpoenaa person to clarify the proposal before the Board."ADMINISTRATORS OF ESTATE MARKS VS. GROUP AREASDEVELOPMENT BOARD")It was ruled in the Supreme Court, Pretoria, on 18 December 1959 thatthedefinition of an affected property must be construed as not including propertyoccupied partially by members of one racial group and partially by members ofanother.FIXED PROPERTIES (S.A.) LTD. VS. SAVAGE AND ANOTHER2)

Again to quote the summary by Prentice-Hall Services, it was decided thatvaluators appointed under Section 19 of the Group Areas Development Act "arenot obliged prior to the hearing of representations to reveal to the owners ofaffected properties the grounds upon which any valuation thereof has been made.The valuators are bound, however, to observe the maxim audi alteram partem andto reveal to the owners at any hearing such information which they haveconcerning the properties which may be prejudicial to the owners' interests."OTHER CASESAt least 26 other cases relating to the interpretation of the legislation dealing withgroup areas have been before the courts during the year underreview.FINANCES OF THE GROUP AREAS DEVELOPMENT BOARDAccording to the 1958-59 report of the Controller and Auditor-General,(3) up to31 March 1959 the Group Areas Development Board had received £2,649,571 inloans from the State. Since then it has been given two further loans, each of£1,500,000.(10) 1959 (3) S.A. 651.(11) S.A. 514 MT.(12) P.H. 1960 (1) K.43.(13) Part III, U.G. 53159.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 147During the year 1958-59 it received £9,748 in appreciation contributions and paidout £22,594 in depreciation contributions, as follows:AreaAppreciationSophiatown ......Newlands ......Albertville ... ... Klipriviersoog ... Athlone ... ... Elsies River Rylands ......Schotsche Kloof ... Duinefontein ... Parow 4 ......Bellville 1 ... ...These figures indicate that areas in Johannesburg and in were less than the basicvalues f5,088741 228 1,834738 56250507£9,748Depreciation£1,5973113,480492 15,842872£22,594

numbers of people in the four Athlone received amounts which ixed for theirproperties.PUBLICATIONS ON GROUP AREASTwo recently-published books are Handbook on the Group Areas Act by Mr. F. P.Rousseau, Q.C., the law adviser to the Group Areas Board, and Group Areas andtheir Development, by Mr. Lewis Dison and Mr. Ismail Mohamed.The Institute of Race Relations published a memorandum entitled "SomeHardships Caused by the Group Areas Act" (RR 70/60).DEVELOPMENTS IN CERTAIN TOWNS WHERE GROUP AREAS WEREPROCLAIMED PRIOR TO 1960JOHANNESBURGColoured PeopleIn the group areas proclamation of August 1956 Bosmot and New Monteleo, tothe west of the Coloured areas of Newclare and Coronationville, were set asidefor occupation by Coloured people. On 13 November 1959 they were proclaimedas areas for Coloured ownership too.'") These areas, which are outside theJohannesburg municipal boundary, have been acquired by the(14) Proclamation 249159.

148 A SURVEY OF RACEGroup Areas Development Board. According to a Press statement by thechairmanW) the Board will soon begin laying out a township, and will require theCity Council's assistance with the provision of services.It is willing to enter intoan informal agreement in terms of which the development will be controlled by ajoint committee of the Board and the City Council. Housing schemes will beprovided for people in the lower income groups, while others will be encouragedto build their own dwellings, if necessary with the assistance of loans from theNational Housing Commission.A similar part letting and part freehold scheme for Coloured people is to bedeveloped by the municipality at Langlaagte, to the east ofCoronationville. Thisnew suburb will be called Riverlea.It is possible that a further Coloured township will be established atEnnerdale,about 20 miles south of Johannesburg, where about 1,200 Coloured peoplealready live on freehold plots.IndiansThe association representing the Indian waiters of Johannesburg, who are about600 in number, urged the City Council to provide a housing scheme for them atLanglaagte, since their hours of work made it impossible for them to live in theproclaimed Indian area of Lenasia, between 19 and 22 miles from the centre ofthe city. The Group Areas Board refused to allow this, however. There is no areaallocated for Indian residence within the Johannesburg municipal boundary, henceno municipal housing schemes are planned for this section of the community.The Group Areas Development Board continues to be involved in litigation inregard to Lenasia. As was mentioned in last year's Survey,(6) the township ofLenasia and adjoining land at Lenasia Extension No. 1 were expropriated by theBoard from the Lenz Township Company during 1956. As no agreement could be

reached as to the amount payable by way of compensation, the matter wasreferred to arbitration, and during March 1958 compensation was determined inthe amount of £205,554. The company then applied successfully to the SupremeCourt for the proceedings to be set aside on the ground that the appointment of thearbitrators had been irregular.A new hearing before a different panel of arbitrators commenced duringNovember 1959. The company submitted valuation figures by two swornappraisers of £619,546 and £614,840 respectively, while the three figures putforward by the Board were £147,733, £150,000 and £208,259. InFebruary 1960the arbitrators(1-) Star, 27June 1960.(16) Page 166.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 149decided on an amount of £326,350, and ordered the Board to pay its own costs,the fees of the arbitrators, and a portion of the company's costs.This amount of£326,350 was considered to be the value of the property on the day ofexpropriation, 6 September 1956.There has been a further legal action in regard to the basic value of the property asdetermined by the Board-that is, its value on 2 August 1956, theday before it wasproclaimed a group area. If this differs from the amount mentioned above, eitherappreciation or depreciation contributions will become payable. During August1960 the Supreme Court set aside this determination, ordering thevaluators topaythe costs of the action.A third case was heard in January, when the owners of mineral rights on part ofLenasia Extension No. 2 applied successfully for an interdict restraining theBoard for three years from developing a township there, to enable prospectingoperations to be undertaken.There are about 80 privately built houses at Lenasia. The Boardis planning veryshortly to commence a building programme, starting with a hundred houses atLenasia Extension No. 1 for Indians of the-middle classes, and 400 dwellings inan area to the south of this for those in the lower income groups. Stands are alsoavailable for sale.Fifty Indian families, who some five years ago were rendered homeless byadvancing industry, have since then been accommodatedin old army huts atLenasia which have each been divided into two sections, rented at £2a month.During January 1960 about a hundred Indian families in Sophiatown were servedwith notices to leave the area and to move to Lenasia, into 128 huts in anothersection of the old army camp to be rented to them at £5 a month. They wererequired to pay their own transport costs. On the day that the notices expired theirSophiatown homes were demolished. Dissatisfaction was expressedat theconditions in the camp:the huts had no internal partitions and no ceilings, therewas block sewerage and communal shower rooms with cold water only. The hutswere provided with electricity but water had to be carried from taps outside.Transport charges to town were high, averaging 12/6 per week.These people will when possible be moved to the new housing scheme.

The Witwatersrand Central School Board decided during October to move thepupils of the Johannesburg Indian High School from the centre of town toLenasia, but thisdecision was later reversed after the parents and pupils hadprotested. Large numbers of other Indian school-children, however, do have totravel to and from Lenasia.

150 A SURVEY OF RACEThe final movement of Africans from SophiatownIt was mentioned in last year's Survey'7) that by the end of 1959 theNativesResettlement Board had moved to either Meadowlands or Diepkloof all thoseAfricans from Sophiatown whose names were included in a list of legal residentscompiled in 1955. More than a thousand Africans remained, however, most ofthem having been rendered homeless when the dwellings in which theyhad livedwere demolished.The Johannesburg municipality opened a special office to consider applicationsfor housing from those who were not entitled to accommodation from theResettlement Board but who qualified to be in the Johannesburg area. By mid-November 473 Africans had been found to qualify for municipal accommodation,56 had been ordered to leave because theywere illegally in the city, 707 had beenasked to produce proof that they were entitled to housing, and the cases of 205people, mainly women, who did not appear to qualify, were being investigated.The special office was reopened for this purpose.It was announced in February 1960 that as from the 22nd of that month themunicipality would no longer regard Sophiatown residents as priority cases fortenancies in its townships. Those who would like their cases reinvestigated couldapply to the office, which would be opened for a third time, but the rest mustreturn to the places from which they came. There were a number of police raids inthe ruins of Sophiatown-the Minister of Justice said in the Assembly on 22March,(8) in reply to a question, that between 1 January and the date on which hewas speaking 6,020 prosecutions had resulted from the raids, whichwerenecessary to combat crime. Many of these people, being unable to pay fines, weresent to prison, but on their release again faced the problem of where to go.Those who were left were mainly old men, women and children. Dr.EllenHellmann, chairman of the Southern Transvaal Regional Committeeof theInstitute of Race Relations, wrote to the Star about them, her letter being featuredon 1 March. Thehuman misery could not be left to assuage itself, she said. It waspure fiction to say that all those who had no right to be in Johannesburg had"some place" in the country to which to go. Dr. Hellmann pleaded forsomeconstructive means of dealing with these people, if necessary temporaryaccommodation in a transit camp.The Minister of Bantu Administration and Development was questioned about thematter in the Assembly on 25 March.!")(17) Page 168.(18) Hansard 10 cols. 3826-8.(19) Hansard 10cols. 4110-1.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 151When an inspection had been made a week previously, he replied, 47persons(including 21 children) had been found living in shacks, and two men weresheltering in the ruins ofdemolished buildings. The Minister announced that themunicipality had decided to move these people to temporary accommodationwhere the sorting out process would continue, individuals being resettled inaccordance with the circumstances of their cases.The Johannesburg Manager of Non-European Affairs states that altogether 1,172African families were moved to the municipal South-Western African townshipsfrom Sophiatown, Martindale and Newclare.In terms of a series of proclamations gazetted on 2 September 1960( 2) parts ofSophiatown and Martindale were proclaimed areas for White ownership andoccupation, persons of other racial groups to move out within one year or twoyears respectively. The remainder of Martindale was proclaimed a border strip.As is mentioned above, about a hundred Indian families have been sent to livetemporarily in hutments at Lenasia, but there are still Indian, Coloured andChinese people for whom alternative accommodation will have to be found.PRETORIAAs has been mentioned in previous years,21) in terms of a proclamation of 6 June1958 it is probable that all the Indians of Pretoria will have to move theirhomesto Claudius, an undeveloped area about eight miles south-west of the city,although some of them may be permitted to continue to trade in a portion of thecentral Asiatic Bazaar. Part of the Coloured location, adjoiningthe Bazaar, hasnot yet been zoned; but about half of the Coloured population wasaffected by theproclamation, and these people will have to moveto Derdepoort, nine to ten mileseast of the city, adjoining the African township of Vlakfontein. Thepolicy is thatall Africans should move to municipal locations or to an area named Uitvalgrond,about 20 miles north of Pretoria. The proclamation deprived the Africans of LadySelborne and Claremont where they had freehold rights.The Pretoria City Council has accepted responsibility for the development ofClaudius and Derdepoort. According to a statement made by the Minister of theInterior during March,W22) both areas had been planned, and the Council hopedbefore the end of 1960 to commence building houses for those persons who areunable to build for themselves. About 1,800 African squatters at Mooiplaats, inthe future Indian area, were rendered homeless(20) Nos. 304 to 307.(21) See Survey 1957-58, page 105.(22) Assembly, 25 March 1960. Hansard 10 col. 4114.

152 A SURVEY OF RACEduring February when their shacks were demolished: according toa Pressreport(23) few of them qualified for municipal housing. An area betweenClaudius and the White parts of the city was during May proclaimed a borderstrip, the four White families who live there being given a year in which to move.Coloured people have again voiced their objections to moving next to theAfricans at Vlakfontein; and the Chinese community notified the Group Areas

Board of its strong opposition to a municipal proposal that a Chinesegroup areashould be proclaimed to the north of Claudius.African property-owners at Lady Selborne and Claremont are to be given theopportunity of purchasing plots at Uitvalgrond, which is undeveloped land abouttwenty miles to the north-west of Pretoria. It will be an area primarily for theSotho group, and, according to a statement by an official of the Department ofBantu Administration and Development,(23A) the schools will providetuitionthrough the medium of Sotho languages only: there will be no separateschoolsfor other groups. The plots, measuring about 90 by 120 feet, will be sold for £40each. The Department will build houses for those Africans who do not prefer tobuild for themselves to an approved plan. The departmental houses will be soldfor about £160, this amount being payable over a maximum of30 years.Uitvalgrond is more than twice as far out of town as are Lady Selborne andClaremont. Furthermore, as has been explained in previous issues of thisSurvey,23") it is possible that Africans who are forced to sell properties in thelatter areasmay receive inadequate compensation.Lady Selborne was on 6 June 1958 proclaimed an area for future Whiteoccupation. During November 1960 the Group Areas Board held a further publicsitting to hear representations about the future of this township.CAPE TOWNThere have been few further developments in Cape Town, where the central cityarea and the Southern Suburbs have not yet been zoned. In the speech quotedabove the Minister of the Interior said that the Development Board alreadypossessed two proclaimed townships at Duinefontein on the Cape Flats, and wasplanning a third. This is the area allocated to the Coloured people who willhaveto move from parts of the city that have been zoned for Whites. The Boardintended to build about 500 houses there, the Minister said, and would shortly callfor tenders for the first 150.(23) Star, 9 February.(23A) Pretoria News, 21 May 1960.(23B) e.g. 1958-59. page 159; 1957-58 pages 94 and 95.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 153The Board was acquiring the necessary land for the purposes of building 107houses in the future Indian areas of Rylands and Cravenby, which would besufficient for present requirements, the Minister continued.During the year under review a borderstrip has been proclaimed in Parow,disqualified persons to move out within two years.(")DURBANIt was stated in last year's Survey(2P) that the large Cato Manor area, inland fromthe city of Durban, had been zoned for Whites, but that, after several vacillations,the City Council had decided to recommend that a portion of the area, which isalmost entirely Indian-occupied, should be allocated to Indians. Thisrecommendation was rejected by the Government.During October 1959 the Natal Committee of the Group Areas Board advertisedproposals for the zoning of an area in central Durban. The Natal Regional

Committee of the Institute of Race Relations submitted a memorandum to theBoard(26) in which it was pointed out that, in terms of these proposals, not asingle White person would have to move, but 7,290 Indians, 755 Coloured people,19 Chinese and an unknown number of Africans would have to do so. The valuesof the affected properties were: White-4,841; Indian--2,926,720; Coloured-12,660; Chinese-£82,750; African-f6,770. These figures were based on the 1958 municipal valuationroll, and theactual market values would be very much higher, particularly in the cases ofIndian-owned properties where the values had become inflated because there hadbeenso few areas where Indians could own property.Most of the Indian-owned areas which it was proposed should be allocated toWhites were "scheduled" under the 1946 Asiatic Land Tenure Act, theInstitutesaid: that is, they were areas in which Asians couldbuy without permits and withlegislative safeguards. The proposals would, thus, be a breach oftrust.Several of the areas proposed for Whites included wellestablishedIndianbusinesses, for the goodwill of which no compensation would be payable. FourIndian schools, two religious schools and a mosque would be affected. It wasimprobable that White buyers would be found for the Non-White residentialproperties except at very considerably reduced values, and only partialcompensation would be made for suchlosses.(24) Proclamation 310/1960.(25) Page 172.(26) NR 106/59.

154 A SURVEY OF RACEAccording to estimates quoted by the Minister of the Interior,(7) in terms ofexisting proclamations 1,000 Whites, 75,000Indians and 8,500 Coloured personswould eventually have to move from the areas where they at present resided (83Non-Whites for every White). The municipality assessed the immediate Indianhousing requirements at 23,000 dwellings, plus a further 21,000 to cover normalpopulation increase over fifteen years. The new population displacementsenvisaged by the Board's proposals would add to what was already an almostinsuperable housing problem. The Institute earnestly hoped that these proposalswould not beaccepted.In terms of the group areas proclamation of 6 June 1958, low-lying land atWentworth was zoned for Coloured people, and three areas were allocated toIndians; the Wentworth-Merebank area in the south, the Umhlatuzana area inlandfrom this, anda long belt along the south of the Umgeni River in the north,including part of the Springfield housing scheme and Reservoir Hills.The Minister of the Interior said in the Assembly on 25 March 1960(28) that theDurban City Council had accepted responsibility for the erection of 4,000 housesfor Indians in the WentworthMerebank area, 200 of them having beencompleted.It had applied for borrowing powers for the purchase of 5,700 acres of land in theUmhlatuzana area, where 14,000 dwellings would be built.The City Council hadalso accepted responsibility for the provision of housing for Coloured people inthe Wentworth area. Arrangements had been made for the gradual evacuation of

the State villages of Austerville and Wentworth, where Coloured people wouldberesettled.The action instituted against the Minister of the Interior by nineteen Indians,applying for an order to set aside the Durban group areas proclamation, isdescribed above.KIMBERLEYThe Kimberley group areas proclamation, and itseffects on the Coloured andIndian people, were described in last year's Survey.29) About half the Colouredpeople, who lived in areas zoned for Whites, were required to moveto an area inthe north of the city where certain Coloured housing schemes had already beenestablished.During November 1959 the Group Areas Board advertised a borderstrip in NorthEnd to separate the Coloured from the White. Opposition was encountered from aWhite man who owned land there. Later, in March, the Board announced thatthere were(27) Hansard 5 of 1958, col. 1472.(28) Hansard 10 cols. 4114-5.(29) Page 174.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 155unsurmountable difficulties in the way of its original proposal. and advertised anew border strip which would take in much of the Coloured area. According toevidence given at the hearing, Coloured people would have to relinquish propertyvalued at £50,000 and 124 of them would have to move if the proposalwereaccepted. Their group area, in whichthey thought they would have security,would have to be deproclaimed and portions of it then proclaimed a White areaand a border strip. Some of them had moved into these sections, and built goodhomes, since the original proclamation was published in July 1959.The municipality suggested that these people should be allowed to remain underpermit; but this suggestion was opposed by certain White citizens. No decisionhad been published at the time of writing.TOWNS IN WHICH GROUP AREAS WERE PROCLAIMEDDURING 1960PIETERMARITZBURGProclamations 81 and 82 of 1960, dated 1 April, demarcated the groupareas forWhites, Indians and Coloured people in Pietermaritzburg. The general pattern isthat all the Coloured and Indians who do not already live therewill have to moveto the north-east of the city, leaving the rest to Whites. At a rough estimate, nearlyten thousand Indians, more than two thousand Coloured but less than ahundredWhites will be required to move.The Non-White people who live in the central suburbs will have to leave within ayear of the date of the proclamation. There are three major blows forIndians.Firstly, Woodlands, which was a "scheduled" area under the AsiaticLand TenureAct of 1946, is allocated to Coloured people, raciallydisqualified persons to leavewithin a year. Secondly, the Pentrich-Camps Drift area to the south-west of thecity is demarcated for Whites: about 5,000 Indians live there and have four largeschools and considerable numbers of trading establishments. Theyare required to

move within five years. And thirdly, within seven years about a thousand Indianswill have to leave the Upper Church Street area, near the station. Thisis one oftheir main trading areas, the businesses including departmental stores, generaldealers, jewellers, outfitters. fruiterers and caf6s. The Indians will retain theirother major trading area at the opposite end of Church Street.RUSTENBURGProclamation 5 of 1960, dated 15 January, dealt with Rustenburg. It, too, will bearheavily on the Indian people.There are between 800 and 900 Indians in Rustenburg, about 55 of them runningtrading establishments and the rest of the

A SURVEY OF RACEwage-earners being employed in these stores. All except three of the stores aregrouped together in a predominantly Indian area at the north-eastern end of themain street, where the Indians have a mosque, a well-built school, a small cinemaand a sports ground. In terms of the proclamation, all the Indians will have tomove to an area called the Turf, about two miles from the centre of the town,which will be well-nigh use!ess for trading purposes as it is remote from a mainroad and out-of-the-way for both White and African customers. The owners of thethree isolated stores are required to move within two years, and the rest withinfive years.The Coloured people, who are between 150 and 200 in number, and who now livein the African location, will also have to go to the Turf, where land to thenorth ofthe Indian group area has been allocated to them.The Turf is at present occupied by about a hundred White families, many of themsmall-holders, who will have to leave within three years in some cases, orotherwise at a date still to be determined. The Non-Whites object to havingto goto this area since the ground there is liable to subside and building is expensive asexceptionally strong foundations are necessary.A meeting of White citizens, held on 25 March, decided to draw up a petitionurging the Minister of the Interior to allow the Indians to continue to trade at theirexisting premises, even if they are required to move their homes.As is mentioned above, on 12 April the Deputy Minister of the Interior announcedthat as a first step affected persons would be resettledin their new areas forresidential purposes. Those who were dependent for their living on businessenterprise might, however, be allowed by means of permits to continue theirpresent businesses until such time as they were able to make a living in their ownareas.But it would be very unsatisfactory for a trader to have to operate under anannually-renewable permit. He would be hesitant about renovating or improvinghis premises (especially as it is unlikely that he would be permitted to bequeathhis business to his heirs). Because of the insecurity, wholesalers would bereluctant to grant him normal credit facilities, and bank overdrafts and bondswould be difficult to secure. Even if the already-established traders are allowed toremain under permit, future prospects are bleak for their sons.30)PIETERSBURG

Group areas were proclaimed in Pietersburg in terms of Proclamations 36 of1960, dated 4 March, and 359 of 1960, dated 14 October. The entirebuilt-up areaof the town has been allocated(30) A more detailed report on the Rustenburg situation is contained in RR 68/60.156

RELATIONS: 1959-60 157to Whites. The Indians, about 900 in number, will have to move withinfive yearsto an undeveloped area called Ivydale, the near border of which is about half amile out of the town.This is an attractive area for residential purposes but again the Indians areconcerned because their livelihood will be seriously affected if they are requiredto move their stores as well as their homes. Eighty-seven per cent of them aredependent on trade. They own 39 properties, the municipal valuationof whichwas £261,000 in 1956, the present market value being between £350,000 and£400,000. The goodwill is estimated at £125,000. They have a mosque and schoolin the western part of the town, where they live now.About 237 Coloured people, at present living in scattered premises,wherever theycan find accommodation, and often paying exorbitant rents, are to goto an areacalled Venteria, to the north of the Indian area and further from the centre of thetown. Four or five White families will have to move out of this area withintwoyears.Ten more White families, with properties worth about £65,000, willhave to moveout ofa border strip between the Indian area and the main road to Pretoria.About 60 prominent White citizens of Pietersburg signed a petition to the Ministerof the Interior protesting about the adverse economic effects which theproclamation would have on the NonWhite communities.31)ESTCOURTThe Estcourt proclamation, No. 76 of 1 April 1960, was of a different nature. Thenorth-east part of the town is almost entirely Indian-occupied, their businesses,mosque, school, and the homes of the better-off people being located there.Indians in the lower income groups live in shacks on the farm Zaay Lager,adjoining the predominantly Indian area.In terms of the proclamation the Indians will be permitted to retain their tradingarea. Housing for Indians and Coloured people will be developed at Zaay Lager.WOLMARANSSTADGroup areas for the Whites and Indians of Wolmaransstad were proclaimed on 17June (Proclamation 193/60). The Whites will be left undisturbed, but the Indians,who number about a hundred, will have to move within five years to anundeveloped portion of town lands, about 1 miles out. They will have to leaveproperty worth some £30,000.2)(31) A more detailed account of the situation in Pietersburg is given inRR 75160.(32) Sunday Times report, 26 June 1960.

A SURVEY OF RACEOTHER TOWNS

A similar pattern to that at Wolmaransstad is apparently being imposed in a largenumber of other small towns in which group areas have been proclaimed duringthe year under review. These areBurghersdorp, Ceres, Coligny, Durbanville(Bellville District), Eersterivier, Graaff-Reinet, Humansdorp, Middelburg(Transvaal), Mossel Bay, New Germany (Pinetown District), Prieska, Richmond,Riversonderend (Caledon District), Robertson, Steynsburg, Warmbaths andWolseley. Fourteen of these towns are in the Cape, thus it is mainly Colouredpeople who will be affected there. The Transvaal and Natal proclamations affectmainly Indians, but in some cases Coloured as well.In a few other towns the pattern ismore complicated and a certain amount ofinterchange of property will apparently result from recent proclamations, althoughin most cases it will still be the Non-Whites who will be the main sufferers. Thesetowns are Breidenbach (King William's Town district), George, Molteno,Suurbraak (Swellendam district) and Tulbagh. The Haarlem (Uniondale)proclamation merely defined an area for future Coloured occupation.TOWNS IN WHICH FURTHER AREAS HAVE BEEN "DEFINED"In terms of Section sixteen (3) of the Group Areas Act the Minister of the Interioris able to freeze the development of an area or a specific property.If this sectionis applied, any building which is erected, extended or completed afterthe date ofthe relevant proclamation is deemed to have been unoccupied at that date, unlessthe Minister makes a determination in favour of a particular racial group or unlessa permit was obtained for the constructional work. The effect of thisis thatoccupation which was previously lawful is rendered unlawful. An Indian, forexample, who makes extensions to a defined property may lose his right tooccupy it.According to Mr. F. P. Rousseau, Q.C., the law adviser to the Group AreasBoardP3) "The object of this provision was ... to prevent development whichwould, when group areas came to be proclaimed, give greater value tovestedinterests and so complicate the task of removing those who had penetrated ... toprevent development by persons who are members of groups which will probablyhave to vacate the areasconcerned ... In its objects and application Section 16(3)doubtless does discriminate against Asiatics ..."(33) Vide his book Handbook on the Group Areas Act, pages 12 and 29.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 159Very large numbers of mainly Indian-owned properties have been so defined inparts of cities which have not yet been zoned. or in towns where no group areashave so far been proclaimed. This process has continued during the year underreview in numerous areas, notably Port Elizabeth and East London. Two entireareas of Port Elizabeth which are racially mixed were defined in terms ofProclamation 159/60 of 13 May: these are the predominantly Colouredarea alongthe Baakens River in Fairview, and the mixed area around Kempston Road. TheIndians of Port Elizabeth fear that the latter is to be their group areafor businessand that Asian trading will be limited to this part of the town. The result would beruinous for most of them.( 4HOUSING

HOUSING FUNDSAs at31 March 1959 the capital of the National Housing Fund amounted to£123,846,458, of which £96,698,289 represented outstanding advances made tolocal authorities0) During the two years that followed amounts of £6,300,000 and£7,300,000 respectively were added to this capital. 2)In 1958-59 the expenditure included the following amounts: £8,485,195 wasadvanced to local authorities for economic housingschemes. Of this, £5,086,540 was allocated for theerection of 17,581 dwellings for Africans.£690,469 was advanced to local authorities for assisted housing schemes. Of this£130,947 was allocated for the erectionof 252 dwellings for Africans. £995,404 was lent to individual persons.(') Besidesthese amounts, £48,840 was lent to local authorities onthe Department of BantuAdministration and Development's Loan Vote for the purchase of land for theestablishment of African locations.(4)Details are given below of the funds of other bodies responsible for housing, forexample the Natives ResettlementBoard in Johannesburg.(34) Report in Contact, 18 June 1960.(1) From Report of Controller and Auditor-General for 1958-59. Part III. U.G.53/59.(2) Estimates of Expenditure to be Defrayed from Loan Account, U.G. 8/60.(3) U.G. 53/59, op cit,and Minister of Bantu Administration and DevelopmentAssembly 25 March 1960, Hansard 10 cols. 4116-7.(4) Report of Controller and Auditor-General for 1958-59, Part I1 U.G. 52/59.

The Railway Administration spent £272,055 during 1959 on housing for itsAfrican employees.5)HOUSING REQUIREMENTSIt was mentioned in last year's Survey6) that an interdepartmental committee hadbeen appointed to enquire into the extent of the backlog in housing for theColoured and Indian groups and into methods of overcoming this backlog. TheMinister said in the Assembly on 25 March 196007) that the findings of thecommittee would not be made available to Parliament.PROVISION OF ALTERNATIVE "ACCOMMODATION"FOR AFRICANS WHO ARE REQUIRED TO MOVEDuring April 1958 an African named Willie Themba, who has a wife and eightchildren, was required to move from the Old Location of Roodepoort-Maraisburg,which is being cleared, and was offered a site in Dobsonville with fencing andservices. The municipality said itwould try to provide a temporary room on thissite, for which the monthly charge would be 4/-, if Mr. Themba needed it. He andhis family had previously occupied two rooms of a dilapidated house.A second removal notice was served on him sixteen months later, but he refusedto move, and instead applied to the court for an order declaring the removal noticeto be null and void. His contention was that he should be given the choice of ahouse or a site on which to build. This application was dismissed withcosts in theRand Supreme Court on 29 February 1960.()

HOUSING SCHEMES FOR AFRICANSJOHANNESBURGDuring the past year 5,571 houses for Africans were erected by the City Counciland 42 by private builders. A further 2,507 sites in the site-and-serviceschemeswere occupied: altogether nearly 33,000 of the 35,000 available sites in theseschemes have now been allocated. Accommodation for about 9,000 more familiescan still be provided in the South-Western Townships.(5) Minister of Transport, Assembly16 February 1960, Hansard 5 cols. 1598-9.(6) Page 165.(7) Hansard 10 cols. 4105-6.(8) Star report of that date.160A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 161Altogether, in the locations and townshipscontrolled by the City Council, thereare now 351,811 African families living under family conditions and 22,231single persons in hostels or living as lodgers.About 16,000 families still require housing, including those on the waiting list andthe residents of Pimville and Western Native Township, who will have to bemoved in terms of Government policy. The Council is planning to build 5,000houses during the financial year 1960-61.A scheme to provide street lighting in all the townships has been adopted, and theinstallation of waterborne sewerage is progressing rapidly. There are now 17beerhalls and gardens with four off-sales depots (including two beerhalls in thecity).A new sports stadium to serve the Moroka-Jabavu area is in the final stages ofcompletion; and a dam, paddling pool and open air theatre have beenprovided atMofolo during 1960. Thirty-three playgrounds for children are now available: nochild lives more than half a mile away from a playground. During the past yearthe Horticultural Section planted 15,000 fruit trees in the gardens of new housesand 2,000 ornamental trees in suitable places.The Natives Resettlement Board has not furnished the Institute withrecentstatistics; but according to its annual report for 1958-59(')and the latest report ofthe Department of Bantu Administration and Development, by September1959 ithad completed 12,252 houses, while a further 1,050 were in variousstages oferection. On 31 October 1959 there were 11,879 families, numbering56,923persons, settled at Meadowlands, and 1,101 families of 5,219 persons atDiepkloof. Besides these, 63 single women were accommodated in groups inhouses, and 1,560 single men in a hostel.Between February 1959, when the scheme started, and October of thatyear 2,063families were removed on a voluntary basis from Alexandra Township toMeadowlands. Others had been accommodated by the municipality in itstownships.Adult sons who are living with their parents in areas controlled by theResettlement Board arerequired to pay fees of 7/6 a month to the Board.

As at 31 March 1959 the Board had received State loans totalling £4,988,479.Further amounts of £1,250,000 and £550,000 respectively were made availableduring the two following years. By the end of March1959 the Peri-Urban AreasHealth Board had been lent £55,450 for purchasing properties andprovidingservices at Alexandra Township, and it received a further £100,000 during(9) U.G. 1511960 and U.G. 51/1960.

A SURVEY OF RACEeach of the nexttwo years'0 The Health Board has spent considerable sums onimproving roads, installing street lighting, removing rubble and providingablution blocks with laundry facilities and beerhalls and beer gardens.REEF TOWNSGermistonThere are now 55,000Africans accommodated at Katlehong Township,Natalspruit, and 16,200 at the Tembisa Regional Township, Kaalfontein, whichserves Edendale, Kempton Park and Bedfordview as well as Germiston. Themunicipality estimates that housing for a further 10,000 people in the former and18,000 in the latter township will be required over the next ten years.During the past year the municipality built 3,350 dwellings in the two townships,34 more being privately erected. One school was built, five churches, and tenshops, and recreational facilities were extended.BenoniBenoni completed its necessary African housing programme more than two yearsago. Twenty-five owner-built houses are under construction there. During the pastyear the municipality provided a new clinic, school, shop and library, andconstructed a number of internal roads. Altogether, 90,500 Africans are housed inBenoni.BrakpanIn the last twelve months 675 dwellings and a block of shops were completed inBrakpan. A thousand further houses toreplace single rooms on the site-and-service scheme, three schools and a further block of shops are now to be provided.There are totals of 1,881 houses in the Brakpan Location and 2,175 in the newTsakane Township.SpringsAs the housing position is satisfactory, no new dwellings were erected in Springsduring the year under review. There are now(10) Reports of the Controller and Auditor-General, 1958-59, Parts II and III,U.G.52/59 and 53/59; Estimates of Additional Expenditure from the BantuAdministration and Development Loan Vote, U.G. 2/60; Estimates of Expenditureto beDefrayed from Loan Account, U.G. 8/60..

RELATIONS: 1959-60 16346,756 Africans housed in the municipal townships and 11,393 livingin towns oron farms nearby. The municipality has recently built an administrative block, a

post office which houses the telephone exchange and two beerhalls with improvedarrangements for off-sales. A communal hall, to provide seating accommodationfor 1,030 people, is nearing completion at Kwa-Thema.NigelAs plans for a new township are being drawn up, no building operations otherthan the provision of a new brewery took place in Nigel during the past year.About 1,400 African families are now housed, the estimated shortage beingbetween 700 and 1,000 dwellings.AlbertonThe Alberton municipality has this year built 850 dwellings and provided aclubhouse, three tennis courts, two soccer fields and a baseball field. There arenow 12,262 Africans accommodated in the township, the shortage being 850dwellings.Roodepoort-MaraisburgDuring the past year 928 houses were built in RoodepoortMaraisburg, 858 ofthem being erected on site-and-service plots. There are now 18,500 Africanshoused in the area, the remaining shortage being about 3,500 dwellings. A clinic,a milk-depot and a beerhall have been built recently.KrugersdorpIn Krugersdorp, 955 houses and two lower primary schools were built during thepast twelve months. Altogether, 30,250 Africans are housed in the Council's twotownships.OTHER TRANSVAAL TOWNSPretoriaDuring the last year 1,202 dwellings, a police station, a dry cleaning factory, amilk depot, a creche and cloakrooms at two sportsfields were built inPretoria.There are now 106,000 Africans housed in the municipal townships. The estimateshortage is 7,500 dwellings.

164 A SURVEY OF RACEVereenigingSeventy Africans built their own homes in Vereeniging last year.Themunicipalitycompleted two new schools, has accepted tenders for the erection of966 dwellings, and has applied for authority to build another 864 houses. Therewill be no shortage of accommodation when these schemes have beencompleted.So far, 4,300 families have been housed.VanderbijlparkIn Vanderbijlpark, 14,000 Africans are now accommodated, the remainingshortage being about 850 dwellings. The municipality recently built a creche.PietersburgThere are 21,660 Africans housed in Pietersburg. The municipality has built nonew dwellings recently, but provided a cinema and two soccer fields. The peopleof the African township of New Pietersburg, who have freehold title, are to beremoved.Ermelo

The Ermelo municipality built no new houses during the pastyear, but isconsidering plans for a scheme of about 600 dwellings. There are 1,193 familiesnow housed there, the present shortage of housing being some 550.Africans areto be removed from the freehold township of New Ermelo.THE CAPECape TownTowards the end of 1959 building was commenced at Nyanga West, an areawhich is being developed by the Cape Town City Council for the resettlement offamilies from the slums of Windermere and Retreat. By October 1960, 834 three-or four-roomed dwellings hadbeen completed, 558 temporary pre-fabricatedhutments provided and 1,200 sites serviced. There were 9,634 Africans alreadyliving in this township. About 3,500 more houses are needed there.At the time of writing the "hostels" area of Langa accommodated1,096 Africanfamilies and 18,000 "single" men, the total population being 24,926.There were4,519 Africans still living at Windermere, 2,821 in Retreat and 2,982 atAthlone/Welcome Estate.

The Divisional Council of the Cape controls a township at Nyanga East. Duringthe past year it extended the recreational facilities there but builtno further housesas there was no shortage of accommodation in its area of jurisdiction.In October1960 there were 19,446 Africans living at Nyanga East.All the residents of the Simon's Town location are being moved to Nyanga West.They will, in consequence, be involved in considerably increased transport costs.Port ElizabethBetween January and August of 1960 the Port Elizabeth municipality built 1,425houses,making a total of 10,731 since April 1956. There are now 11,100 families(46,000 persons) living at Kwa-Zakele and 8,600 families (51,000 people) at NewBrighton. About 200 more dwellings are needed.East LondonThere were no new houses built in the African townships of East London duringthe year under review; but a creche for 200 children, a swimming bathwith afiltration plant and a new library with reading room facilities were provided.There is housing for 1,985 families at Duncan Village, 476 inWest BankLocation and 122 in Cambridge Location, the estimated shortage being about6,000 dwellings.PaarlA squatter's camp known as Sakkieskamp is being cleared, those families whoqualify to remain in the area being moved to a new township near Paarl. It seemslikely, however, that as the residents are screened numbers of them will beendorsed out of the Western Cape, where influx control is being very strictlyenforced. Many of these people have lost touch with the Reserves, and in any caseit is well-nigh impossible to find work in these areas.NATALDurbanDuring the year ended 30 September 1960 the Durban municipality built 1,950permanent houses, 2,023 temporary houses, and hostel accommodation for 2,384

men. Except for eleven better typedwellings erected for home owners at LamontLocation, these were all built at Kwa Mashu. A home for the aged, a child welfarehome and a bowling green were provided at Lamont, aRELATIONS: 1959-60'165

166 A SURVEYOF RACEswimming bath at Umlazi Glebe, libraries at Lamont and Chesterville,and anumber of bus shelters, shops and other ancillary buildings.It is estimated that Durban's African population of 210,000 is housed as follows:Municipal singleaccommodation .............. 17,500Municipal family accommodation (permanent) ... 56,500 Cato Manor EmergencyCamp ................. 55,000Municipal compounds, police barracks, etc ........ 1,000 Railway and Governmentcompounds .......... 8,000Licensed premises (under Section 9(4) of the Natives(Urban Areas) Consolidation Act ........... 31,000Domestic servants housed on residential premises 31,500 African-ownedproperty ..................... 1,000Shacks and illegalhousing ... .... ... .... ... ... 8,500210,000The immediate requirements are an additional 15,000 houses and 20,000 beds inhostels.The Minister of Bantu Administration and Development gave details about thenew Umlazi Mission Reserve housing scheme in the Assembly on 2 February1960.(") The Durban City Council is to act as the agent of the S.A. Native Trust indeveloping a scheme to cater initially for 10,000 African families, hesaid, andeventually for double that number. The pattern of development will be similar tothat at Kwa Mashu, except that Africans will be able to obtain freehold title. Atender for an aerial contour survey of the whole area has already been accepted.During August 1960 the Natal Regional Office of the Institute of Race Relationssent a memorandum(2) to the municipality expressing its concern about theproposal to increase site rentals at the Cato Manor Emergency Camp from £1 to£1 10s. Od. a month, and urging that the shortfall in administrative costs shouldinstead be met by subsidizing the Native Revenue Account from the BoroughFund.There were two minor outbursts of violence at the Cato Mancr squatters' camp on15 November 1960, when, according to police reports, agitators tried to deter 323families from complying with the municipality's plan to move them to KwaMashu.PietermaritzburgThe Natal Local Health Commission reports that during 1959 ten dwellings werebuilt for Africans and seven for Indians in the Public Health area of Edendale anddistrict, the population(11) Hansard 3 cols. 785-6.(12) NR. 101/60.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 167of which is 35,309 (254 Whites, 891 Coloured, 4,916 Indians and 29,248Africans). Thirty-one further houses were under construction at the end of theyear. No further housing schemes have since been undertaken; but the residentserected 119 new wattleand-daub dwellings, 104 for Africans, 10 for Indians andfive for Coloured families, which it is hoped will eventually be replaced bypermanent dwellings.Twenty-nine other buildings were erected and the construction of anotherthirtycommenced during 1959, including the £12,000 Doris Goodwin S.A.N.T.A.centre. A third park/playground for Africans is being provided, and extensions tothe YMCA youth centre have been made at a cost of £3,100. This centrewas builtby the Commission and is rented by the YMCA at a nominal figure. TheEdendalepopulation has available one enclosed football stadium and three other footballgrounds.ORANGE FREE STATEBloemfonteinDuring the year ended 30 September 1960 a further 168 permanentdwellingswere built by Africans in the site-and-service village of Bloemfontein. Themunicipality provided an additional 29 cottage dwelling units at the hostel, thusincreasing the number of beds to 1,424, and also built a lower primary school anda clinic for the examination and treatment of African tuberculosis patients.KroonstadIn Kroonstad, 500 dwellings for sale to Africans were built over thepast year, anda further 120 Africans erected their own homes. The municipality provided acycle track, a soccer field and a tennis court. Altogether, 22.000 Africans are nowaccommodated in separate houses, and there are 3,000 lodgers requiringaccommodation.BethlehemDuring the twelve months ending on 30 September the Africans of Bethlehembuilt 153 more dwellings. There are now 1,754 families housed in thistown,while a further 1,880 families of lodgers still require accommodation. Themunicipality has completed an electricity scheme in the old African township,built 805 latrines in the new housing area, installed children's playgroundequipment, bought cinema equipment, and built a waiting room for Africans at theSuperintendent's office.

A SURVEY OFRACEWelkomNo new dwellings were erected in Welkom during the past year; but a site-and-service scheme is well under way. A loan for 1,000 houses has beenapproved,tenders for their erection being under consideration. It is expected that the firstbatch of houses will be completed early in 1961.There are now 20,000 Africans housed in the Thabong Township. The shortage ofhouses, estimated at 1,000, will be overcome when the new scheme has beencompleted.

HOUSING FOR COLOURED AND INDIAN PEOPLEJOHANNESBURGOf the estimated 39,500 Coloured people in Johannesburg, 10.509 live inCouncil-controlled areas; but large numbers of these will have to be moved interms of group areas proclamations and plans. The rest are living wherever theycan find accommodation. Extensive housing schemes are, thus, required.During 1960 the City Council built 60 flats for Coloured families. Plans for theprovision of dwellings in the Coloured group areas are described in the previouschapter. A swimming bath willprobably become available for use atCoronationville during 1961.It is estimated by the municipality that there are 28.000 Asians inthe city. Onlyabout a thousand of them are so far living in the proclaimed Indian group area atLenasia. There is a large concentration, of about 8,600, in the DiagonalStreet/Burghersdorp area, where it is hoped that they will be able to retain tradingand residential rights. This area has not yet been zoned. The rest live in areaszoned for Whites, Coloured or industry,many of them in slum dwellings.The Natives Resettlement Board has been renovating houses vacated by Africansat Newclare for letting to Coloured families.CAPE TOWNThe Cape Town City Council built 822 houses for Coloured families during theyear under review, having by October 1960 provided accommodation for 8,500Coloured people. There is a shortage of about 12,000 dwellings. Provided that thenecessary funds are made available, the Council plans to build 2,000 houses ayear.In the area controlled by the Divisional Council of the Cape there are 3,729dwellings accommodating 20,037 Coloured, Indian and Malay people. Another2,836 homes are needed for about 14,700 who are unsuitably housed.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 169It was mentioned earlier that the Group Areas Development Board plans toprovide dwellings for Coloured people at Duinefontein and for Indians at Rylandsand Cravenby. It is catering for some of those who will be displaced interms ofgroup areasproclamations.OTHER TOWNSPlans for the provision of housing schemes for Indians and Coloured inPretoriaand Durban were described in the previous chapter, under the heading of groupareas.Judging from replies received to a circular letter sent out by the Institute of RaceRelations, it seems that during the past year very little has been done in othertowns in this regard. In numbers of cases this is because of the continueduncertainty about the areas where members of the different racialgroupsare to bepermitted to live. In Germiston, for example, the Coloured and Indian citizens arestill living in the Old Location, from which the African residents have beenremoved. Benoni reports a shortage of about 500 houses for the Coloured section;andthe Springs municipality states that the housing position is mostunsatisfactory as far as the Asians are concerned.

As the situation in Johannesburg, Pretoria, Cape Town and Durban indicates, evenafter the proclamation of group areas months, if not years, elapse before thenecessary housing schemes are planned and erected. In variousparts of thesecities the periods during which disqualified groups were required tomove haveelapsed, but because no alternative housing is ready the persons concerned havehad to be issued wtih temporary permits to remain where they are. Withinthe nextfour to five years the time limit will have expired in other parts of the townsmentioned and in numerous other areas such as Pietermaritzburg,Kimberley,Carolina, Lydenburg, Ermelo, White River, Klerksdorp, Rustenburg, Pietersburg,Wolmaransstad and many others. Vast sums of money and suppliesof labour andmaterials will be needed if these removal schemes are to be undertaken within theperiods originally determined by the Government. And if this is not done, vastnumbers of people will be left in a state of great insecurity, as theirpresence inthe areas where they live will be legal only by virtue of temporary permits toremain.In some towns where the residential areas for various groups have beendetermined progress has been made during the past year with the provision ofnecessary amenities. In Kroonstad, for example, the municipality has completedan electricity reticulation scheme in the Coloured township, has extended theschool, and has provided a creche, a soccer field and netball field.

A SURVEY OF RACETRANSPORT SERVICESRAIL AND AIR TRANSPORTRAIL TRANSPORTIn a Press statement made on 12 September 1960 the Prime Minister said01) thatthe provision of better transport for NonWhites to and from work was receivingspecial attention. In most cases adequate railway services for people in the Bantutownships would be available by the end of 1962.Meanwhile, these services continue to be very inadequate in many areas. Trainsare seriously overcrowded, and Africans have to undertake the long daily journeysin much discomfort.In the Estimates of Additional Expenditure for 1959-60(2) a sum of £2-millionwas voted from the consolidated revenue fund tomeet the loss incurred by theRailways Administration in operating passenger services to and fromAfricantownships. A further sum of the same amount was voted in the estimates for1960-613)AIR TRANSPORTA special airways service between Durban and Johannesburg was introduced forNon-White passengers during December 1959. On other routes Non-Whitesoccupy the front seats of the aircraft.BUS SERVICESAPARTHEID IN BUS SERVICESAn account was given in last year's Survey4) of the Supreme Court action inwhich the Pietermaritzburg Local Transportion Board was ordered to grant

transport certificates to the municipality without the stipulation that separatevehicles must be provided for the different racial groups.After losing this action the Board recused itself, and was reconstituted. The newchairman said(') that previous policy directives were still effective, in spite of thejudgment: the Board was required to impose bus apartheid "as far as possible".Nevertheless the Pietermaritzburg City Council asked the Board to renew its buscertificates for 1960 without imposing total apartheid, which would add £33,000to the annual loss of £40,000 already incurred.(1) Rand Daily Mail, 13 September.(2) U.G. 211960.(3) U.G. 1/60.(4) Page 195.(5) Rand Daily Mail report, 13 January 1960.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 171During March the Board granted the certificates without such restrictions, butordered the Council to keep a record for the rest of the year ofthe race group ofevery passenger carried.(')NATIVE TRANSPORT SERVICES ACCOUNTThe terms of the Native Transport Services Act, No. 53 of 1957, weresummarized in an earlier edition of this Survey.(')Details of the amounts collected and spent from the date the services levy wasfirst introduced until the end of March 1959 were given in the Report of theDepartment of Transport for the year 1958-59.(8 ) They were as follows: Rate peradult maleAfrican employee per Amount Area 6 days worked. collected. Payments.£ £Benoni ........ 6d. 30,604Durban .......... 6d. 447,977 44,594Edenvale ...... 6d. 1,983Germiston ...... 6d. 111,260 559Johannesburg 1/- 1,206,633 1,002,135Cape Town- Divisional Council ... 6d. 82,293 10,313Cape Town- CityCouncil ...... 6d. 42,805Kimberley ...... 6d. 22,235 147Klerksdorp ...... 6d. 1,008Kroonstad ...... 3d. 18,026 7,514Krugersdorp ... 6d. 10,975Pietermaritzburg ... 6d. 65,590 43,779Pinetown ...... 6d. 892Port Elizabeth ... 6d. 190,622 33,662Pretoria ...... 1/- 352,662 328,923Welkom ...... 6d. 33 28As is clear from this table, it is only in Johannesburg, Pretoria andPietermaritzburg that the money collected was put to effective use in subsidizing

companies running bus services for Africans to enable them to keep fares at loweramounts than would otherwise have been necessary. During the year under reviewthe rate of the subsidy was reduced from 1/- to 9d. in Johannesburg, from 1/ to6d. in Pretoria, and from 6d. to 3d. in Benoni and Durban. Employers in CapeTown, the area of the Divisional Council of the Cape and Krugersdorpwereexempted from paying further contributions.The bus company PUTCO, which operates in Johannesburg, Pretoria and Durban,has been debarred from running services in(6) Star report, 10 March 1960.(7) 1956-7, page 137.(8) U.G. 50/1959.

A SURVEY OF RACEcompetition with the Railways, and is restricted to running feeder buses betweenrailway stations and outlying parts of the African townships (except that, inJohannesburg, an inter-township service is permitted during the "valley" periodbetween 8 a.m. and 4 p.m.). All routes require the approval of the local RoadTransportation Board.As a result, many Africans have been involved in additional transport costs. InPretoria, for example, an African travelling from Vlakfontein to town by buspreviously paid between 6d. and 10d., depending on the points at which hemounted and alighted. If he lives in an outlying part of Vlakfontein he now has topay 3d. for the feeder bus, 8d. train fare, and generally 4d. for another bus fromthe station:a total of 1/3. A woman carrying a bundle of washing has to payanother 6d. on the train.Regular users of the train service can reduce the fare from 8d. to 6d. or 5d. if theybuy weekly or monthly tickets respectively, but these are of no use towasherwomen or casual workers, and few unskilled workers are able to save theamount necessary for a monthly ticketY)EMPLOYMENTTHE ECONOMIC SITUATIONTHE ECONOMIC RECESSIONThe downward trend in the rate of growth of economic activity during 1958 andthe first half of 1959 was described in last year's Survey.") Mr. T. W. de Jongh,head of the Department of Economic Research and Statistics of the S.A. ReserveBank, wrote early in 1960,(Y) "Expansionary tendencies were coming to the foreby the middle of the (previous) year. For the second half of the year, the availableevidence points towards a gradual but distinct recovery, althoughit would seemthat manufacturing activity was still lagging behind in this respect".But then came Sharpeville and the state of emergency. In his annual address tostockholders of the Reserve Bank on 10 August3) the Governor of the Bank, Dr.M. H. de Kock, said that the revival in the tempo of economic expansion hadcontinued during 1959-60, as reflected by an estimated increase of 5.9 per cent inthe gross national product over that of the previous year. But, he continued, "Thecountry's monetary resources, however, after increasing by(9) Information furnished by a Pretoria member of the Institute.

(1) Page 197.(2) Quarterly Bulletin of Statistics, S.A. Reserve Bank, March 1960."3) The full address was published in the Rand Daily Mail, 11 August 1960.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 173£29-million during the second half of 1959,showed a decline of £39-millionduring the first half of 1960 ... This sharp reversal in the balanceof payments canbe attributed primarily to the repercussions of the riots ... which caused theGovernment to declare a state of emergency ... An element ofuncertainty wasevidently created abroad which was, in various ways, reflected ina decline inconfidence on the part of foreign investors, and in a substantialnet outflow ofcapital".This decline in confidence, Dr. de Kock said, "can, no doubt, be ascribed mainlyto a widespread misunderstanding of the political and economic positionin theUnion". However, he continued, "we must face the fact not only that the netoutflow of capital ... has already had an appreciable adverse effect on thecountry's monetary reserves and financial markets, but also that a continuation ofthe outflow will exercise a restraining influence on the economy as a whole ...The Union still needs a moderate net annual amount of foreign capital to help inthe financing of all the new private and public development projects which wouldbe necessary not only to maintain but also to increase the standard of living of thepopulation as a whole"."We should exert ourselves to revive the confidence of foreign investors", Dr. deKock maintained. It should be brought home to them that the political andeconomic position in the Union is different from that in most other partsofAfrica, and that "various steps have been taken or are contemplated to removecauses of friction and dissatisfaction as far as the Bantu ... are concerned."Dr. de Kock announced that the Bank rate was to be raised from 4 to 4- per cent.BOYCOTTS OF SOUTH AFRICAN PRODUCTSThe decisions by various other countries to boycott South African products aredealt with in the last chapter of this Survey. It is important at this stage, however,to make mention of their general effects to date.When addressing the annual general meeting of the Federal Consultative Councilof the Railway Staff Associations on 7 June 1960, the Minister of Transportsaid4) that he would like to give concessions to the Railway staff, but it would befoolish to incur any increase in expenditure in view of the very seriousposition inwhich South Africa found herself. "If these boycott movements gain momentumand get more support," he added, "South Africa can be placed in a very bad wayeconomically".The Minister of Economic Affairs said on 2 September(') that he realized thatcertain individual producers who had concentrated on the African market werebeing affected by the boycotts. He(4) Star report of that date.(5) Rand Daily Mail report, 3 September 1960.

174 A SURVEY OF RACE

added, however, that only a small dent had been made in the country's total exporttrade. His department was planning the composition of three trade missions whichwould look for new markets in the Far East, United States and Europe.Later, in a statement published in the Star of 8 November, the Director of theExporters' Association, Colonel R. Jones, said that during the first six months of1960 South African exports had increased by £22-million. He had, since then,noticed no slackening, and expected that for the whole year there would be anincrease of £40-million on the £438-million total of 1959.UNEMPLOYMENTThe way in which the unemployment statistics maintained by the Department ofLabour are compiled, and the extent to which they may be regarded as beingcomprehensive, were described in last year's Survey.06) It was mentioned that thenumber of registered White, Coloured and Asian unemployed (including a fewAfrican women) increased from about 14.000 in December 1957 to27,018 at theend of April 1959. This figure constituted 2.06 per cent of the total numberofworkers of these racial groups-slightly above the 2 per cent acceptedinternationally as indicating full employment.The number of unemployed continued to increase until about August, and thenbegan to decline. By 31 December 1959 it was 25,019-13,104 Whites, 9.244Coloured people and 2,671 Asiansf The percentages these figuresconstituted ofthe total number of workers were 1.31 per cent in the case of Whites and 3.86 percent in the cases of Coloured and Asians.It will be noted that according tothese figures there was certainly not fullemployment among the two latter groups; but. for reasons given in last year'sSurvey, it would appear that in fact there were many more unemployed Colouredand Asian people than the numbers given above. These numbers include only thework-seekers who had registered with the Department of Labour.Asked, later, what the position was in the larger centres, the Ministerof Labourreplied8) that on 30 April 1960 there were 4,376 Coloured and Indianunemployed inDurban, 3,839 in Cape Town, 2,069 in Johannesburg and 573 inPort Elizabeth.But the situation particularly in Natal demonstrates how misleading the cfficialfigures may sometimes be. During July 1959(6) Page 198.(7) Minister of Labour, Assembly 8March 1960, Hansard 8 col. 2921.(8) Assembly. 17 May 1960. Hansard 18 col. 7806.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 175there were 2,500 unemployed Indians registered with the Department of Labour inthat province. In fact, however, there were probably between 13,000 and 15,000Indians out of work in Durban. The Deputy Divisional Inspector ofLabour forNatal is reported to have saidV9) that, on an average, only one Indian inan adultfamily of five was in regular employment.Many men of the age of 30 or over,who were able and eager to work, had never obtained a regular jobsince they leftschool. During December 1959 the Deputy Minister of Labour called for a report

from departmental officials in Natal on the situation as affecting the Indians, inview of increasing unemployment amongst their ranks.The powers that the Government has taken to reserve work for members of aspecified racial group threaten further NonWhite workers with unemployment.This matter is dealt with below.Statistics in regard to African unemployment in the towns are too misleading tobe worth quoting, as they indicate merely the number of registered workseekerswho are legally in the urban areas concerned, and do not include those who havebeen "endorsed out" because they cannot find work, nor those who would havemigrated to the towns to seek employment had the system of influx control notbeen in operation.It was mentioned in last year's Survey(1) that during 1959 the UnemploymentInsurance Act was amended to make it possible for unemployment benefits to bepaid for longer periods than usual during a time of depression. The Minister ofLabour was empowered to suspend the normal provisions of the Act in hisdiscretion at such times. On 17 March 1960 the Minister said(") that about 800contributors had benefitted from such action taken by him, the amountof moneydisbursed being £19,300.IMMIGRATIONThe Government has decided to adopt a less restrictive immigrationpolicy. TheMinister of theInterior announced on 12 April 1960,(2) "We are nowreorganizing our entire immigration machinery ... The time has perhaps comewhen we need no longer be so strict in screening immigrants. To-day we canaccept people who in the past might have been rejected, because we can findemployment for them here".(9) Star, 23 January 1959.(10) Page 204.(11) Senate, Hansard 5 col. 991.(12) Assembly, Hansard 13 cols. 5338-9.

176 A SURVEY OF RACEESTABLISHMENT OF THEECONOMIC ADVISORY COUNCILThe Economic Advisory Council was established during July 1960, to advise theGovernment on the co-ordination of State policy from an economic point of view,and to assist in coordinating Government policy and the economic developmentof the country in general.Its chairman is Dr. D. H. Steyn, who will vacate his post as Secretaryfor Financein March 1961. He was also appointed as economic adviser to the Cabinet. Thedeputy chairman is Dr. J. A. Lombard, formerly professionaladviser to theTreasury.Certain of the members were appointed by the Prime Minister for periodsof twoyears because of their particular knowledge of economic and financial matters.These are Mr. Vernon Atkinson, Mr. P. Frame, Mr. Harry Goldberg, Professor D.Hobart Houghton, Dr. M. S. Louw, Dr. M. D. Marais, Professor C. G. W.Schumann and Mr. J. G. van der Merwe.

Other members were appointed for two years to represent organizations selectedby the Government which have an interest in the co-ordination of economicactivities. These bodies, which were each asked to nominate two representatives,are the Afrikaanse Handelsinstituut, the Association of Chambers ofCommerceof S.A., the Confederation of Employers' Organizations, the S.A. AgriculturalUnion, the S.A. Confederation of Labour, the S.A. Federated Chamber ofIndustries, the S.A. Trade Union Council and the Transvaal and Orange Free StateChamber of Mines.Others who will serve on the council are the Chairman of the Public ServiceCommission, the Secretary for Labour, the Secretary for Agricultural Economicsand Marketing, the Secretary for Commerce and Industries, the Secretary forFinance, the Secretary for Bantu Administration and Development,the Secretaryfor Mines, the General Manager of the S.A. Railways and Harbours, the Chairmanof the Board of Trade and Industries, the Chairman of the Wage Board, theChairman of the Industrial Tribunal, the Registrar of Financial Institutions, andthe head of the Economic Section, Department of ExternalAffairs.The Prime Minister announced(3) that the full council would be convened fromtime to time to discuss problems submitted to it by the chairman, and would meetat least once a year to discuss the chairman's report. The councillors would alsoserveas a panel from which the chairman might in his discretion select personsfor consultation in regard to specific problems referred to him by the Government.Working committees would in this way be formed, on which other persons withintimate knowledge of(13) Assembly, 22 March 1960, Hansard 10 cols. 3885-6.

the relevant subject might also be asked to serve. Reports of such committeeswould be submitted to the chairman, and considered by co-ordinating committeesof officials responsible for the implementation of policy in the particular sphereconcerned. After this, the reports would be submitted to the PrimeMinister.The first meeting of the council, which was summoned to consider theimplementation of the Government's plan for the establishmentof industries inborder areas, is described in an earlier chapter of this Survey.THE SOUTH AFRICAN FOUNDATIONThe South African Foundation was launched by a group of eminent SouthAfricans during December 1959. It is a nonpolitical body, the aims of which areto "promote international understanding of South Africa, her people, their way oflife, achievements and aspirations", to present a true picture of the country,illustrate the opportunities for investment, and help in stimulating the export ofSouth African products and services.RESERVATION OF WORKNOTE ON TRENDS SO FAR EVIDENTDiscussing a determination dealing with a section of the iron, steel, engineeringand metallurgical industry, Miss M. V. Piercy recently said(4 thatthe originalrequest for this came from Die Yster en Staalbedryfsvereniging (aWhite tradeunion), which claimed that employers who had been using Whites incertainlowly-paid operative jobs were finding it difficult to compete successfully in the

open market, and thatin consequence a trend of displacement by Non-Whites wasdeveloping.The Minister of Labour has confirmed that this was the reason5) Thisparticulardetermination, he said, was introduced because one of the biggest employers ofWhite labour in the industry found it difficult to compete with others who wereemploying Non-Whites at lower rates of pay, and was considering displacingabout 400 Whites by Non-Whites. (The Non-Whites were apparently being paidat or near the minimum rates laid down for the jobsconcerned, while the Whitesreceived larger amounts).The majority of the determinations so far made, Miss Piercy continued, relate towork in the semi-skilled to unskilled categories, and were made to protect smallgroups of White workers,(14) Article entitled "Statutory Work Reservation in the Union of South Africa",S.A. Journal of Economics, Vol. 28 No. 3, September 1960.(15) Assembly, 6 May 1960, Hansard 16 cols. 6900-1.RELATIONS: 1959-60177

178 A SURVEY OF RACEoften in one area only. But, she said, "the results have been. in most cases, out ofall proportion to the small domestic field at first concerned; reservations havebeen made covering the entire breadth, or a large portion, of the Union. In theabsence of work reservation legislation, the settlement of localdisplacementcomplaints was made through the normal local channel of negotiation, and thescope of settlements thus corresponded to the need of local circumstances. Thischannel is, indeed, still used. To demand more for domestic purposes is tochallenge the seasoned principle of collective negotiation".DEVELOPMENTS IN REGARD TO DETERMINATIONS MADEBEFORE 1960Passenger lift attendantsAs was described in last year's Survey,00)Determination No. 5 reserved forWhites the work of operating passenger lifts in numerous categoriesofestablishments in the municipal areas of Johannesburg, Pretoria andBloemfontein. This became operative early in 1960. Numbers of Africans werereplaced by Whites in large stores and other undertakings. Some of the smallerconcerns adopted the use of automatic devices in lifts, thus doing awaywith thenecessity for attendants.No information is available about the number of Non-Whites who were displaced.The Minister of Labour has merely said(7) that applications for exemption fromthe determination were received from three employers in respectof elevenColoured persons in Johannesburg. All were refused.The building industry in the Transvaal and Free StateDetermination No. 6, also described in last year's Survey,(' reserved for Whitesthe skilled and much of the semi-skilled work in the building industry in urbanareas of the Transvaal and Free State (other than in African townships). Thisbecameeffective as from 18 March 1960. Coloured employers were not affected,

but were debarred from employing Coloured artisans after existingcontracts hadbeen completed.Authority was delegated to Divisional Inspectors of Labour to exempt from thereservation Coloured artisans working in proclaimed Coloured group areas.(")The Coloured, Malay and Asiatic Building Workers' Union, formed during 1959,sent a memorandum protesting against this determination to all Members ofParliament and to numerous other(16) 1958-59. page 234.(17) Assembly, 19 April 1960, Hansard 14 col. 5489(18) Stated by Miss Piercy in the article op Cit.

RELATIONS: 1959-60trade unions. It estimated that there were only about 500 Coloured and Asianbuilding artisans in the Transvaal and a potential of about 50 Coloured ones in theFree State (some of them apparently migrate between the Cape andthe Free Statein accordance with the availability of work). Their numbers were so small thatthey were not a threat to the Whites. (According to a Press report(9) there aresome 12,000 White building employees in the provinces concerned).The Minister of Labour said2") during April that applications for the exemptionof Coloured artisans who were employed in the building industrywhen thedetermination was made were considered on their merits and granted when Whiteworkers were unobtainable. Exemptions were widely granted, and itappears thatfew Coloured artisans have, in fact, been prohibited from continuing in theirtrades. Butthey are naturally experiencing a sense of great insecurity.The determination also affected considerable numbers of NonWhites, mainlyAfricans, who had been employed in the building trade as drivers ofpoweroperated cranes or mechanical vehicles of anunladen weight of more than threetons. These jobs were reserved for Whites.Domestic appliancesDetermination No. 7, again set out in more detail in last year's Survey, reservedfor Whites 27 listed categories of work (except in the Cape, where23 categorieswere listed) in the section of the iron. steel, engineering and metallurgical industrythat is concerned with the manufacture of certain types of kitchen and electricalequipment and hollowware. It applied throughout the Union, and came into forceat the end of April 1960.It was stated in the Star of 2 May that, as a result, employers on theWitwatersrand would be forced to replace 2,450 African and 100 Coloured semi-skilled workers. These figures were challenged by the Minister of Labour, whosaid(21) that three employers' organizations, which employed about 80 per cent ofall workers in the industry concerned, had stated in an application for exemptionthat 413 Africans and 178 Coloured persons would be affected.The Star continued tomaintain, however, that its figures were more accurate thanthe Minister's.(22) According to the Rand Daily Mail of 24 May, employers askedfor blanket exemptions, stating that the determination would force more than2,500 African and Coloured workers outof employment. Wages would have to be(19) Star, 14 April 1960.

(20) Assembly, 6 May 1960, Hansard 16 cols. 6902-3.(21) Assembly. 6 May 1960, Hansard 16 cols. 6900-1.(22) Issue of 9 May.

A SURVEY OF RACEraised to attract Whitereplacements, which would mean that the prices of thedomestic appliances would have to be increased. They would then not be able tocompete with the prices of imported articles.During July the Minister granted a reprieve until the end of Octoberto employerswho were members of the Sheet Metal Industries Association, the ElectricalEngineering and Allied Industries Association, and the Radio, Refrigeration andElectrical Appliances Association. At the time of writing this period had justelapsed, and itwas too early to state what the effects had been. It seems that someemployers were possibly able to divert displaced Non-White workers tounreserved work.NEW DETERMINATION FOR THE CLOTHING INDUSTRYA very complicated new Determination, No. 8, was gazetted on 6 May in terms ofGovernment Notice No. 651 of 1960. Its provisions vary in different parts of theUnion, but the basic object is to prevent the percentage of Whites employed byany employer, or the percentage of Whites and Coloured together,from fallingbelow the percentages existing on 28 August 1959 (a point of averageemployment in the industry) or on the date of the determination, whichever wasthe higher. The effect will be to check the employment of increasing proportionsof Africans in established factories and in most urban areas. This provisionapplied as from 6 July 1960. and throughout the Union.Other provisions deal with the major urban areas of the Cape and Natal, and withthe whole of the Transvaal.Cape and Natal (urban areas)If on the dates mentioned more than ten per cent of the employees in any factorywere White, this proportion may be decreased as long as it does not fall below tenper cent and as long as the actual number of White employees is not reduced.Any vacancies or new posts must be filled by White or Coloured employees. Thisapplied to the posts of machinists from 6 May 1960 and to other categoriesofwork from 6 November 1960.TransvaalIf on the dates mentioned more than 25 per cent of the employees inany factorywere White, this proportion may be decreased as long as it does not fall below 25per cent and as long as the actual number of White employees is not reduced.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 181If the proportion of White workers was less than 25 per cent, whenever the totalnumber of employees is increased at least half of the new workersmust be Whiteand half of the balance Coloured.New employers must employ at least 25 per cent Whites, and half ofthe balanceof the workers must be Coloured.

As from the date of the proclamation, no White machinist may be replaced by aNon-White, nor may a Coloured machinist be replaced by an African. (The workof machinist is numerically the most important in the industry).No employer whoemploys both White and Non-White machinists may reduce the number ofWhites. Similarly, no employer who employs both Coloured and Africanmachinists may reduce the number of Coloured.Whenever posts of supervisors, foremen, choppers-out or markers-in are vacatedor created, the work must be reserved for Whites.General notes and commentsExcept in cases where an employer had reduced the proportions of White orColoured workers between 28 August 1959 and the date of the proclamation, thisdetermination did not affect workers already employed. As time goes by,however, more and more of the work in clothing factories in the Transvaal andmajor urban areas of the Cape and Natal will be reserved in the firstplace forWhites and in the second place for Coloured. It would appear that new factories inother areas will be allowed to employ as many Africans as they wish.The Minister of Labour is reported'23I to have said he expected that, as a result ofthe determination, between 200 and 300 posts would shortly become available forWhites in the clothing industry in the Transvaal. This number would increase astime went by.Interim interdictThe Garment Workers' Industrial Union (Natal) and the African GarmentWorkers' Union (Natal) appliedto the Supreme Court for an interim interdictpreventing the Industrial Tribunal from implementing this determination, for anorder calling upon the Tribunal to show cause why its recommendations in regardto the reservation of work in the clothing industry should not be set aside, and foran order calling upon the Minister of Labour to show cause why hisdetermination, based on these recommendations, should not alsobe set aside. Thisapplication was granted on 5 November 1960.(23) Star, 4 May 1960.

A SURVEY OF RACEPROPOSED WORK RESERVATION DETERMINATIONSCertain disputes about Non-White "penetration" into previously White spheres ofwork have been settled by negotiation, without the use of a determination. Thiswas the case in regard to motortransport driving in the municipal undertaking ofPietermaritzburg.According to the latest report of the Department of Labour,("' during 1959 theIndustrial Tribunal sent letters inviting proposals for work reservation to twoindividual employers.Three investigations which were referred to the Tribunal during 1959 have not yetresulted in determinations: these are the building industry in Natal and the Cape,the trades of welding, painting and crane driving in the iron, steel, engineeringand metallurgical industry, and motor transport driving on the Free Stategoldfields.

The Tribunal has, since, been asked to investigate the desirabilityof institutingprotection against inter-racial competition in motor transport driving in Durban,the furniture and footwear industries in the Union, abattoirs and the wholesalemeat trade on the Witwatersrand and in Pretoria, the liquor and catering trade inDurban, Pietermaritzburg and along the Natal Coast (this would include the postsof barmen, etc.), and thedriving or operation of vehicles in the manganeseindustry on the West Rand. It is also investigating the general labourposition inthe Western Cape and the application of wage incentive schemes.According to a Press report,}"- the Cape Chamber of Industries has urged theSecretary for Coloured Affairs to recommend that Coloured workers in theWestern Cape should be excluded from all work reservation determinations.FACTORIES, MACHINERY AND BUILDING WORK AMENDMENT ACT,NO. 31 OF 1960TERMS OF THE ACTThe Factories, Machinery and Building Work Act, No. 22 of 1941 as amended,empowered the Governor-General to make regulations dealing with safety,cleanliness, ventilation, lighting, etc., in factories. Included in therelevantSection(") were two paragraphs, Nos. (1) (b) and (h), enabling him to makeregulations as to:(b) the accommodation, facilities and conveniences to be providedin factories by occupiers for employees while they are working,resting or eating therein;(24) For the year 1959. U.G. 59/60.(25) Rand Daily Mail, 18 October 1960,(25) Section fifty-one of the Act.

(h) conditions of work of employees in any factory where in theopinion of the Minister special provision is necessary to safeguardthe physical,moral orsocial welfare of such employees.A proviso(2') read, "Provided that in making such regulations the Governor-General shall not discriminate on the basis of race or colour except inrespect ofregulations framed under paragraphs(b) and (h) of sub-section (1)".The Amendment Act of 1960 deleted this proviso and added a new paragraph (h)bis enabling regulations to be made governing "the separation in or atany factoryof persons of different sexes, races or classes, and the making of separateprovisionin or at any factory for persons of different sexes, races or classes inregard to any matter."It also widened the scope of paragraph (b) by amending it to read:"the accommodation, facilities and conveniences for employeesin or at factories".It contained a large number of other amendments designed to improve generaladministration and procedure.PARLIAMENTARY DEBATEDuring the speech made when introducing the Bill at its Second Reading,theDeputy Minister of Labour said28) that in terms ofthe principal Act the

Governor-General could make regulations requiring the provision of separatesanitary conveniences, washrooms, changing rooms, rest rooms and dining rooms,and separate places of work where employees of different races worked in thesame room. He had, however, not been able to require the provision of separateentrances, clocking-in devices, pay offices, first-aid rooms, protective clothing,crockery and cutlery, or separate places of work (i.e. separaterooms).The United Party didnot oppose the Second Reading, but attacked the newclauses quoted above during the Committee stage.-The Progressive Party, LiberalParty and Natives' and Coloured representatives did, however, oppose the SecondReading. Reasons advanced by the Progressive Party were that the measureextended the principle of racial segregation in factories in a manner calculated tointerfere with their economic operation, and to endanger the security of workers,by opening the way to further job reservation.(29)(27) Included in Sub-section (3).(28) Assembly, 26 January 1960, Hansard 2 cols. 438, 566.(29) Cols. 455, 457.RELATIONS: 1959-60183

184 A SURVEY OF RACEOpposition speakers maintained(3") that the new provisionscould constitute "aback-door method of applying job reservation," without the cumbersomeprocedure, involving publicity, necessary in terms of Section seventy-seven of theIndustrial Conciliation Act. If they were applied, the employers concerned wouldeither be forced to make expensive structural alterations to their premises, or elsemight decide to employ workers of one racial group only, dismissingminorities ofother groups. If Whites were dismissed for this reason, the Minister might thencomplain that Non-Whites were ousting Whites from their jobs, and he might thenreserve the work for Whites in terms of Section seventy-seven.The Minister of Labour said3') that in the past, the maximum demands in regardto separate facilities had not been made immediately of any factory owner whowould otherwise have been placed in financial difficulties. "One starts off with themost primary requirements and gradually, as that factory becomesstrongerfinancially and can afford it, those conditions are imposed".He gave theassurance that the new provisions would be imposed in the same way and thatemployers would not be forced to close or to dismiss minorities of workers ofracial groups different from the rest. But subsequent Opposition speakerscontinued to voice suspicion of the Government's motives and to oppose theamendment.THE POVERTY OF URBAN AFRICANSNEW SURVEY IN JOHANNESBURG BY THE INSTITUTE OFRACE RELATIONSAverage wages and family incomeA new study of African incomes and essential expenditure was carried out inJohannesburg by Mrs. Joy de Gruchy under the auspices of the Institute of RaceRelations during 1959.32)

She made an extensive investigation of the average wages paid in a large varietyof industries and occupations, and the starting wages paid to all workers placed bythe Johannesburg labour bureau over a period of six months, comparing theresults with those of various income surveys conducted by the municipality.(30) Cols. 500, 453-4, 450, 510-1.(31) Cols. 480-1.(32) See The Cost of Living for Urban Africans, by Mrs. J. de Gruchy, publishedby the Institute.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 185Her conclusion was that the average wages paid to African men in Johannesburgin 1958 were £9 ils. Od. a month if either food or quarters or both were provided,and £15 if the entire wages were paid in cash.In its Western Areas survey conducted in 1950, the municipality foundthat therewas an average of 1.3 wage-earners per family. Assuming thatthis figure appliedgenerally, the average income of a family dependent on cash earnings would workout at £ 19 10s. Od. a month.Minimum essential expenditureAs in other similar studies, in calculating the theoretical minimum essentialexpenditure Mrs. de Gruchy took into account only the essential irreducible itemsof rent, transport and tax, and added scientifically computed estimates of whatshould be spent on food, clothing, fuel and light and cleaning materials to achieveminimum acceptable standards of health and decency. The figures quoted belowrefer to an average family of five; but Mrs. de Gruchy included tables which makeit possible to calculate the essential monthly expenditure for households ofvarying composition.The minimum budget for the average family, she concluded, was (per month):£ s. d.Food ... .... ... ... .... ... ... 13 12 8Clothing ... .... ... .... ... ... 4 13 0Rent ... .... ... .... ... .... ... 2 5 0Fuel and light ... ....... ....... 1 98Cleaning materials ............. 16 6Transport .... ... .... ... .... ... 1 3 5Tax .... ... .... ... .... ... ... 2 11Total ... .... ... .... ... £24 3 2Monthly shortfallThe monthly shortfall, thus, was £4 13s. 2d., takingthe theoretical minimumessential expenditure only into account.Expenditure patternsMrs. de Gruchy then compared the pattern of expenditure given above with theactual expenditure incurred by 53 sample African families according to amunicipalinvestigation conducted in December 1956 and January 1957, and withthe expenditure of 17 White families with incomes under £750 a year (the lowest

A SURVEY OF RACE

income bracket included) in a survey conducted in 1955 by the Bureau of Censusand Statistics. The following figures show the percentage distribution of monthlyfamily expenditure: Theoretical minimum 53 African 17 White Itemessential expenditure families familiesFood ... .... ... ... 56.4 51.2 37.9Clothing ... ... ... 19.2 15.6 11.2Rent .... ... .... ... 9.4 6.1 11.2Fuel and light ...... 6.1 9.3 3.6Cleaning materials ... 3.4 4.2 3.3Transport ... ... ... 4.8 6.1 4.2Other .............. 0.7 (tax) 7.5 28.6She pointed out that the White families, on average, spent more on "other" items(except for tax, not taken into account in the theoretical minimumbudget) thanthe average Johannesburg African received in wages, and more onfood than theaverage African family received in income.These "other" items include furniture, household equipment, insurance, education,such medical and dental services as are not available free, church dues, personalcare, recreation, reading and writing materials, assistance to relatives living awayfrom home, etc.The 53 African families spent, on average, about £1 1ls. Od. a month on suchitems, some of which are, in fact, essentials. This means that the monthly averageshortfall is in fact considerably more than the £4 13s. 2d. mentioned above.Effective minimum incomeMrs. de Gruchy quoted Professor E. Batson's conclusion that thestandards ofconsumption provided by the datum line are only reached in practice when theavailable income is equal to about 150 per cent of the datum line. Inother words,if the poverty datum line for a family of five in Johannesburg is £24 3s. 2d. amonth, in accordance with the calculation given above, then, in order to allow for"other" items and unforeseen circumstances, the family income should be about 1times this, or just over £36 a month. In fact, as has been mentioned, the averageAfrican family of this size had £19 10s. Od.SURVEY BY THE DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICSOF NATAL UNIVERSITYA more comprehensive study of African incomes and expenditure is beingundertaken by the Department of Economics of Natal University, under Professor0. P. F. Horwood. Information about the conclusions so far reached was given byProfessor

Horwood in a paper entitled "The African in the City- His Work", given at asymposium on this subject arranged by the Natal Region of the Instituteof RaceRelations.(33)This survey, Profesor Horwood said, is covering 10,400 African households oftwo or more persons, in which there have been found to be 11,300 actual wage-earners. The average size of the African household in Durban is fourpersons.Eighty per cent of the men earned between £5 and £15 a month, and 86 per cent

of them were doing unskilled manual work. These people were not newcomers toDurban: the average period of residence there of the householders was 14 years.Average wages were £10 10s. Od. for men, and just on £4 for women. The effectof a new unskilled wage determination, gazetted after the actual wagespaid hadbeen investigated, would be very slight, Profesor Horwood said, mainly becausemost employers had been paying higher wages than the previous minima.Eighty-five per centof the householders had less than £15 a month in cash wages- and the position was little improved if other forms of income were also takeninto account, since 73 per cent of the households relied on wage incomes only.The poverty datum line, for peopleliving in the least expensive municipaldwellings, was £13 6s. Od. a month for a household of two, £18 6s. Od. for one offour, and £25 13s. Od. for one of six.A summary picture of the relative sufficiency of household incomeswas affordedby a comparison of average (wage) income with the poverty datum line for anaverage-sized family of four persons. The median average monthly householdincome was found to be £10 8s. Od., and the corresponding minimum living costwas estimated at £16 16s. 5d. Thus, on the average, there would appear to be ashortfall in wage income of more than £6 a month.A survey of actual family expenditures was in progress. So far, on the average,these were tending to exceed incomes quite considerably. Two of thebestenumerators,sent to try to find explanations for this, obtained evasive replies. Itwould appear that the persons questioned were always in debt, and/orsupplemented their incomes by illicit means.THE NECESSITY FOR INCREASES IN THEWAGES OF AFRICANSConferencein Port ElizabethDuring December 1959 a conference, attended by about 200 persons, was held inPort Elizabeth under the auspices of the Distressed Areas Council.The openingaddress, entitled "X-ray(33) Copies of the paper are available from the Institute's Durban Office.RELATIONS: 1959-60187

on Poverty" was given by Professor J. T. Irving, whose cost-ofliving studies inGrahamstown have been described in previous issues of this Survey.(34)Resolutions were passed calling for, interalia, a national minimum wagedetermination, the progressive increase in wages of unskilled workers up to atleast £25 a month, and the removal of legislation which restricted Non-Whiteeconomic advancement.Meeting in East LondonThe Mayor of East London, Mr. P. Osmond, convened a multi-racial meetingthere in April 1960, at a time when the citizens had been shocked, notonly by thenation-wide disturbances, but also by the findings on poverty contained inthe firstvolume of the Border Regional Surveybeing conducted at Rhodes University.The meeting appointed an action committee, representative of all races, toinvestigate the low level of local wages.

Representations made following the disturbancesThe representations made to the Government following the disturbances byleaders of commerce and industry are described in an earlier chapter. Briefly, theS.A. Federated Chamber of Industries called, inter alia, for improved machineryfor wage fixation in order that the Wage Board might review unskilled wages atmore regular intervals, and urged that African workers should play amore activepart in wage negotiation.The Association of Chambers of Commerce of S.A. stated that no barriers shouldbe placed in the way of persons of any race utilizing present skills or acquiringand employing new ones. The work reservation provisions of the IndustrialConciliation Act should be repealed, and trade unions should gradually and withsuitable safeguards become representative of workers of all races. Restrictions onthe mobility of labour should be progressively relaxed.It is reported(.' that later, during June, it was agreed at a representative meeting ofemployers from all the major urban centres to ask the Governmentto legislate fora minimum monthly wageof £15 for all African workers in towns with totalpopulations of more than 25,000. This would not apply to domestic, mine or farmworkers. The employers fully appreciated that £15 was too low, butsuch actionwould be a first step, would in practice meanincreased wages for two-fifths of theAfricans, and, in industries where competition was keen, would overcome thedifficulty that employers were afraid to raise wages to this amount incase, as aresult, they were undercut by others.(34) e.g. 1958-59,page 211.(35) Rand Daily Mail, 20 June 1960.188A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 189RECENT WAGE DETERMINATIONSDuring the year under review, as a result of Wage Board recommendations, newdeterminations have been made governing the minimum wages payable tounskilled workers employed by local authorities and private employers inBloemfontein, Durban and Pietermaritzburg, and by private employers on theRand and Pretoria. The Wage Board has dealt, too,with the wages payable innumbers of specific industries and undertakings.In the Assembly on 6 and 9 May 1960(36) the Minister of Labour gave details ofsome of the wage increases that had resulted. The determination dealing withunskilled labour on the Witwatersrand, for example, affected thirty industries andwould result in wage increases ranging from 16.5 per cent to 22.5per cent. Thewages of unskilled workers in East London had been improved by 38per cent,and those of municipal employees in Bloemfontein by 30.1 per cent. Mrs. V. M.L. Ballinger pointed out that(") the determinations which had been revised were,in some cases, 17 years old, and that the new minimum wages were veryinadequate.According to the Report of the Department of Labourfor 19590'8) during thatyear, by making representations at meetings of industrial councils,conciliation

boards or the Wage Board, members of the Central Native Labour Board hadsucceeded in obtaining improvements in the wages and other conditions ofemployment of more than 183,000 African workers.This report gives details of the numbers of employers and employees whosewages were governed by agreements, awards or determinations in force at the endof 1959, as follows: Number of such Employers Employees instruments in forceaffected affectedIndustrial council agreements ... 79 20,190 572,880Conciliation boardagreements ...... 10 197 18,261Awards ......... 6 42 10,011Wage determinations ... 141 25,143 415,457236 45,572 1,016,609VOLUNTARY INCREASES IN PAYRelative lack of incentives for employers to improve productivityAt a recent symposium on "The African in theCity- His Work", arranged by theNatal Region of the Institute of Race(36) Hansard 16 col. 6898 and Hansard 17 col. 6936.(37) Col. 6959.(38) U.G. 59/60. pages 8, 7. 10

190 A SURVEY OF RACERelations, Mr.Norman Mould said3" that if one compared the output per man-hour of most of South Africa's major industries with that in Europe or America,one found that the Union rated unfavourably.In order to obtain increased productivity so that a higher generalstandard ofliving could be achieved, three things were necessary- better management,greater mechanization and increased individual output. If the target for higherproductivity were set at 100 per cent, he would rate the contributionsthat mightbe expected from these three factors at 50 per cent, 35 per cent and 15 per centrespectively, Mr. Mould said.Because, in practice, Whites filled all managerial posts in South Africa, hecontinued, the White community was called upon to produce somethinglike fourto six times as high a proportion of men of superior leadership calibreas wasrequired in most of the other Western countries. There was the danger that thecountry might accept a low standard of management personnel, dictated by whatwas convenientlyavailable.In no country, however, did any major gain in productivity take place unlessmanagement were given the incentive to make that gain. The usual incentiveswere spiralling labour costs through trade union pressure, the lawof supply anddemand operating in labour, and, (a poor third), Government action to raiseminimum wage levels. Confidence in the future of the country was also necessary.These incentives were less effective in South Africa than in other Westerncountries in so far as they stimulated employers to raise the productivity ofAfrican workers.Recent increases granted

There are, however, other incentives at work in South Africa. As Mr. Mouldindicated, many employers appreciate the desirability of an improvement in thestandard ofliving of all the citizens of the country in which they operate to maketheir profits. But, in any case, attention has unavoidably been focussed of late onthe need to develop internal markets, for which increased purchasing power isrequired. And the disturbances have brought a growing awareness of the necessityfor having a contented labour force.Numbers of further firms and other employing bodies have during the past yearmade voluntary increases in the wages of their Non-White employees- amongthese are the municipalities of Benoni, Heidelberg and Durban, the Argus Group,the O.K. Bazaars (a second general increase within twelve months),the Steel andEngineering Industries Federation of S.A. and numerous others.The NationalFederation of BuildingTrade Employers(39) Copies of this paper are obtainable from the Institute's Durban Office.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 191is precluded from making sudden improvements because of the necessity formaking tenders in advance, but has promised substantial increases during196104o)The Association for the Improvement of Bantu Wages andProductivityThe Association for the Improvement of Bantu Wages and Productivity now has afull -time director, stationed inJohannesburg, and branches in Cape Town, PortElizabeth, East London, Durban and Kimberley. Mr. Vernon R. Atkinson hasbeen elected president.The director, Mr. E. R. Silberbauer, said recently(41) it was estimated that Non-White workers in South Africawere now earning £20-million a year more thanthey did in 1957, when the wage bill was £365-million. But wages were stillinadequate and there were thousands of workers whose pay had not been raisedfor some years.He had set a £20-million-a-year targetfor the improvement of African wages.LITTLE CHANGE IN THE BASIC PATTERN OF INEQUALITYBETWEEN THE WAGES OF WHITE AND BLACKSpeaking at a conference sponsored by the National DevelopmentFoundation inJuly 1960, Mr. L. H. Samuels, Senior Lecturer inEconomics at the University ofthe Witwatersrand. said(42) that although the real wages of Africanshad risen inrecent years. the basic pattern of inequality in the incomes of African and Whiteworkers had changed little in the last quarter of a century.Since 1938 the average wage of Africans in industry had increased by351 percent, as against 381 per cent for Whites. But when the rise in prices was taken intoaccount, the discrepancy became much greater since food, which bulked solargely in the African worker's budget, had become so much more expensive.Allowing for this factor, the increases in real wages were about 72per cent forWhites and only 46 per cent for Africans.RECENT ANNOUNCEMENT BY THE MINISTER OF LABOUR

The Minister of Labour is reported to have said on 15 November 1960 that theGovernment was opposed to the introduction of a general minimum wage, for thiswould cause the country's cost structure to soar, and inflation or unemployment orboth(40) Rand Daily Mail report, 25 August 1960.(41) Ibid, 6 and 13 October 1960.(42) Rand Daily Mail report, 23 July 1960.

A SURVEY OF RACEwould follow. The standard of living of the low-paid worker should be improvedgradually by selective wage increases, the Government considered.To assist in this process, wage determinations for unskilled labourin certaintrades would be reviewed at intervals of not less than five years, instead of tenyears or longer. The new minimum wages for unskilled workers wouldbeincorporated in Industrial Conciliation agreements or Wage Board determinationsevery time these were revised. In referring other matters to the WageBoard forinvestigation, the Minister would give priority to industries where largenumbersof unskilled workers were employed.From 1918 to 1958 the average annual increase in wages earned by thewholepopulation was 2.4 per cent per head, the Minister said. It was threeper cent inthe developed "White" areas, where Africans had shared in the improved livingconditions. Duringthe past three years substantial increases had been prescribedin the minimum wages of the unskilled worker, amounting to as much as £1 3s.6d. a week.The Government was anxious to see an even larger improvement, and wouldwelcome the co-operation of private employers.It was convinced that planned wage increases would bring an increase in labourproductivity, not only because this would increase the work potentialof theworker, but also because it would encourage the employer to utilizehis labourforce more effectively.STRIKES AND LABOUR DISPUTESTHE SEPARATE INDUSTRIAL CONCILIATION MACHINERYPROVIDED FOR AFRICANSThe terms of the Native Labour (Settlement of Disputes) Act were described in anearlier issue of this Survey.43) This Act did not prohibit African trade unions, but,as in earlier legislation, denied them official recognition, and rer,dered strikes byAfricans illegal. It provided for the establishment of:(a) Regional Native Labour Committees with African membersappointed bythe Minister of Labour sitting under White chairmen (the NativeLabour Officers for the region), to maintain contact with employers andemployees, to receiverepresentations, and to assist in settling disputes;(b) a Central Native Labour Board consisting of White membersappointed by the Minister;(c) elected works committees in establishments employing notless than 20 Africans.

(43) 1952-53. page 79.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 193In the Assembly on 18March 1960014) the Minister of Labour gave details of thecomposition of the regional committees and the board. The chairman of theCentral Native Labour Board was Mr. S. D. Mentz, he said, and therewere fiveother members. He gave their names and the salaries they received. He alsoprovided the names of all the African members of the Regional NativeLabourCommittees which had been set up in Johannesburg, Germiston, Benoni,Krugersdorp, Vereeniging, Pretoria, Durban, East London, Port Elizabeth andCape Town.Later, on 9 May,(4") the Minister said that only ten works committees werefunctioning. The Pan-African Congress and the African National Congress had"incited workers not to make use of such channels", he added.DISPUTES WITHOUT STOPPAGES OF WORKIn the Annual Report of the Department of Labour for 195909') itis stated,"during the year there were 61 Bantu labour disputes which were settled byimplementing the provisions of the Act (referred to above) without the workersresorting to strike action. The number of Bantus involved in these disputes was10,130. Several of the disputes were of such a nature that they might have resultedin strikes and consequent dislocation in the industries concerned had it not beenfor the timeous intervention of the Central Native Labour Board and its subsidiarybodies. The settlement of disputes was in many instances facilitated by co-operation on the employers' part."STRIKESStatistics for 1959In the same report it is stated(47) that during 1959 White persons participated inthree strikes, while Non-Whites (including Africans) were involved in 43. Onlytwo of these were serious-a strike of White workers at the Winkelhaak mine, andone of 1,457 Africans in the explosives and chemical industry at Somerset West.Altogether, 3,497 Africans had been involved in strikes, 25,600 man-hours havingbeen lost as a result. "There were sixteen disputes which caused a stoppage ofwork but which were due(44) Hansard 9 cols. 3639-40.(45) Hansard 17 cols. 6938-9.(46) U.G. 59/60. page 8.(47) Pages 6 and 8.

A SURVEY OF RACEto misunderstanding and were settled after explanation." The average duration ofall work stoppages by Africans was 7 hours 13 minutes.The Minister of Labour gave slightly differentfigures in the Assembly on 5February and 29 January 1960.(48") During 1959, he said, therehad been 36strikes by Africans, involving 3,462 workers. In 27 cases the employees had beenprosecuted and in eight cases convicted. One case was pending. Totals of 822

persons had been charged and 221 convicted. In 27 cases increased wages orimproved working conditions had been granted.Langeberg Kooperasie strikeA new wage determination for the canning industry was published towards theend of 1959. It laiddown a new minimum wage for the Port Elizabeth area which,although higher than the previous minimum, was actually less than what theLangeberg Kooperasie was already paying its 615 African workersthere.According to Press reports49) the South African canned fruit industry, which islargely dependent on overseas markets, was falling behind Australia and othercountries in the race for sales. Many Eastern Cape pineapple farmers were facingbankruptcy. The Langeberg chain of factories, responsible for60 per cent of thecountry's fruit exports, was going through grave financial difficulties.It was consequently decided to prune the wages paid in the Port Elizabeth factoryto the new statutory minimum. The Trade Union Council stated that workersearning £2. 16. 6d. a week would, in terms of this decision, be deprived of morethan eight shillings a week.On 8 December 1959, 450 Coloured and Africans walked out in protest, bringingwork to a standstill. The factory engaged other workers in their place; butthen ageneral strike in the company's eight canneries, which would have involved12,000 workers, was threatened by the Food and Canning Workers'Union, alsothe Congress Alliance threatened a general boycott of Langeberg products.The chairman of the company announced a few days later that the Port Elizabethworkers would be re-engaged and given(-') Hansard 3 col. 994; Hansard 2 col. 602(49) e.g. Evening Post, 12 December 1959.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 195bonuses to bring their pay back to the previous rates. This decision, he said, hadbeen taken because it was desirable to have a contented labour force.Hammarsdale strikeMr. M. Glazer, manager and part-owner of a clothing factory. had originallyoperated in Durban, but dismissed his Indian, Coloured and African employeesthere, moved to Hammarsdale (an area where wages were uncontrolled), andengaged about 450 untrained Africans at lower rates of pay.During January 1960 a dispute took place about wages and the recognition ofelected representatives of the African Garment Workers' Union. All the Africanworkers came out on strike. About 40 White and Non-White policemen, some ofthe former armed with sten guns, then arrived from Pietermaritzburg and arrestedabout 20 workers who were picketing the factory and about 150 others who wereattending a meeting. About 50 employees returned to work, but these wereinsufficient to permit production to be continued. As so many were awaiting trial,the factory had to close down and Mr. Glazer returned to Durban.On 11 April, 202 workers were found guilty on charges arising from the strike.Their sentences ranged from £15 or six weeks (£10 or four weeks beingsuspended for three years) to £5 or three weeks suspended for three years.("°)Emco Strike

African workers at the Emco Chemical and Cosmetics Factory in Durban cameout on strike during July 1960. Forty-two of them were subsequently cautionedand discharged when they appeared in the magistrate's court.TRADE UNIONISMRACIAL COMPOSITION OF TRADE UNIONSAccording to the 1959 report of the Department of Labour, quoted above, and toreplies by the Minister of Labour to a series(50) From reports in Rand Daily Mail, 2 February and 12 April, Star, 2 February,and New Age, 4 and 11 February.

196 A SURVEY OF RACEof questions in the Assembly,00 at the end of 1959 there were 183 registered tradeunions and 221 registered employers' organizations. Eleven more trade unions hadapplied for registration.Of the registered unions, 95 had White members only, 36 had Coloured and Asianmembers only, and 52 were open to both White and Coloured persons.Of the 52,twenty-four had established separate branches for their White and their Colouredmembers, 25 had been granted exemption partially or entirely fromthisrequirement of the Act of 1956,("1 and "the other three unions were unable tofunction constitutionally and at the close of the year the cancellation of theircertificates of registration was under consideration".53'Of the eleven unions not yet registered, six catered for Whites only and theremaining five for Coloured and/or Asians only.DEVELOPMENTS IN REGARD TO CO-ORDINATING BODIESAs was described in some detail in last year's Survey(5" the main co-ordinatingtrade union bodies are the S.A. Confederation of Labour, which is furthest to theright; the centre body, which is the largest-the Trade Union Council; and, to theleft of this, the S.A. Congress of TradeUnions (SACTU). Towards the end of1959 a new group, the Federation of Free African Trade Unions of S.A.(FOFATUSA), was formed in Johannesburg with nine member unions which hadpreviously maintained a loose liaison with the T.U.C., and continue to beassociated with that body. FOFATUSA claimed about 17,000 members.Africantrade unions are divided, some being affiliated to FOFATUSA and otherstoSACTU.The T.U.C. is associated with the anti-Communist International Confederation ofFree Trade Unions (ICFTU), which has been anxious to extend its influence inAfrica. During November 1959, however, at a conference held inAccra, a neworganization called the All-African Trade Union Federation was formed, whichwill not have direct ties either with ICFTU or with the Communist-dominatedWorld Federation of Trade Unions. SACTU became a senior affiliated member ofthis new body.(51) 15 March, Hansard 9 cols. 3390-1.(52) See 1957-58 Survey, page 176.(53) Report of Deparment of Labour, op cit, page 6.(54) 1958-59, pages 221-2.

RELATIONS: 1959-60EMPLOYMENT IN VARIOUS BRANCHES OF THE ECONOMYOCCUPATIONS IN 1951The recently-issued publication Union Statistics for Fifty Years gave details of theoccupations of the population in 1951. Given insummary form this information isas follows (the percentages having been calculated by the writer).Economically active personsNumber of persons aged 15years and over ...... Of these, number who wereeconomically active ... Percentage of agegroupsconcerned who were economically active ...... Percentages of each racial groupemployed in various occupationsPeasants ... ... ... ...Other forms of agriculture,hunting, fishing ...... Mining and quarrying ... Manufacturing .........Construction ... ... ... Electricity, gas, water andsanitary services ... ... Commerce and finance ... Transport,storage,communication ... ... ...Domestic services ...... Governmental services ... Other community andrecreational services, hotels and restaurants ...... Unemployed, or activities notadequately describedWhites Coloured Asians Africans1,803,601 630,301192,478 5,218,407983,568 404,524 94,481 3,110,01454.664.249.1 59.6- 14.414.8 5.8 18.6 6.80.7 18.211.50.4 7.013.4 2.8 100.024.1 0.9 17.4 9.60.4 6.23.5 18.9 2.16.6 10.3 100.013.7 0.6 23.3 2.40.2 24.525.914.4 7.3 4.30.5 3.22.6 2.42.0 18.2 2.2 1.813.6 14.9 100.0

3.8 3.8 100.0AGRICULTURENumbers employedThe same publication gave the numbers of persons employed in agriculture on thefarms of Whites, Coloured and Asians during

198 A SURVEY OF RACEthe month of June 1957. The occupiers of the farms and their wives and otherrelations are not included: Farm employees,excluding seasonal Domestic servants.and occasional workers.Whites:Men ... ... ... 10,575Women 418 78Coloured and Asian:Men ......... 95,548 1,018Women ...... 7,087 21,318Africans:Men .......... 612,054 11,283Women ...... 90,188 114,055Cash wages paid to these workers during the month of June 1957, andtheestimated cash value of payments in kind during the preceding year,are given forboth men and women in the report of the Agricultural Census for 1956-57.(") It is,however, impossible to arrive at accurate average figures, since in this report thewages of adults and juveniles are combined and, furthermore, wages vary atdifferent times of the year.White occupancy of rural areasThe report of the (du Toit) Commission of Inquiry into European Occupancy ofthe Rural Areas was published during the year under review. It states that in therural areas (excluding small country towns) the White population decreased from673,000 in 1931, to 571,000 in 1951, to an estimated 552,000in 1958. (Yet inphysical volume the farmers produced 76 per cent more in 1958 than they didtwenty years earlier).In these "White" rural areas the Africans had doubled their numbers during thepast three decades. By 1951 there were 2,337,000 Africanson the farms of Whitesand 587,000 in the rest of the platteland (rural areas). The preponderance ofAfricans on the "White" platteland was proceeding apace, especiallyin the southand south-west parts of the Free State and in Natal. If the existing processcontinued, by 1971 there would be only 515,000 Whites but more than fourmillion Africans in the "White" rural areas.It was in the best future interests of South Africa to maintain on theplatteland themaximum number of Whites who could be assured of a worthy and safe existencethere, the Commission said. The White platteland was largely the pivot ofWestern civilization, and should it collapse, "White" civilization in thecities, too,would in the long run not be able to hold its own.(55) U.G. 56159.

The Commission recommended that only the absolute essential numbers ofAfricans should be employed, and that Chapter IV of the Native Trustand LandAct(56) should be very strictly enforced. It was suggested that a progressive taxshould be imposed on farms that were not occupied by Whites, that share-cropping by Africans should be forbidden, and that educational and socialamenities for Whites should be improved on the platteland.Appointment of new Inter-Departmental CommitteeIt was announced on 6 November 1959, in terms of Government Notice 691, thatthe Minister of Bantu Administration and Development had appointed an inter-departmental committee to enquire into:(a) "the nature and extent of the residence of Bantu on land oflandowners in the European areas;(b) the efficiency or otherwise of existing labour systems, especiallythe farm labour tenant system in so far as it concerns farmingand the land;(c) the implications of the abolition of the farm labour tenantsystem and the institution of a system of full-time employmentin so far as it concerns the following:(i) the farmers who are at present using the farm labourtenant system;(ii) the Bantu families who will become redundant in theEuropean rural areas;(iii) the land known as labour farms;(iv) the resettlement in the Bantu areas of surplus Natives;(d) the effective canalisation of Bantu labour to agriculture;(e) the squatter problem on mission farms, State-owned land andcompany land;(f) the revision of laws to facilitate the supply of labour for farmersin the most useful and effective way;(g) any other relative matters."Course of training for Coloured farm workersThe Deputy Minister of the Interior said on 12 April 1960("7) that an agriculturalgymnasium for Coloured farm workers was shortly to be established on the farmKromme Rhee near Stellenbosch. A course lasting a year would be conducted,providing training in such things as driving tractors, keeping milk records,supervising dairies, gardening and sheep shearing.(56) See 1953-54 Survey, page 85.(57) Assembly, Hansard 13 col. 5390.RELATIONS: 1959-60199

The S.A. Agricultural Union's "Native Policy for Agriculture"During August 1960 the S.A. AgriculturalUnion published its "Native policy forAgriculture." It accepted that the African must be afforded the opportunity "offully developing his personality within the framework of an orderlycommunity."

The relationship between employer and African employees was closer on farmsthan in towns, it was stated, and in the former areas would "continueto be thetraditional one of guardian and protdgd."The more proficient a farm labourer could become, the greater would be his valueto his employer and the higher would be the wage which he could command on aneconomic basis. A higher standard of performance generally followed when anemployer understood his employees not only as workers but alsoas humanbeings. To improve such understanding farmers should learn anappropriateAfrican language.The system of labour tenants was obsolete and should be replaced withthe leastpossible delay by a system of full-time farm labour. Farmers should employ onlythe number of workers who could be kept fully occupied, this regular workingforce being supplemented by properly organized seasonal labour and by teams oftrained workers who would go from farm to farm undertaking such tasks aserecting fences or sawing timber.Dealing with educational policy, the Agricultural Unionexpressed the view thatin the Reserves, training facilities should be provided up to the highest possiblelevel. In the White areas, however, only such education as is required bylabourers, semiskilled workers and artisans should be available toAfricans. Thoseon farms should receive their initial education in small farm schools, provided ona fairly liberal scale, and giving training through the medium of the mother tonguein the three R's, and, on a practical basis, in nature study, agriculture andhorticulture. The language of the Whites in the neighbourhood concerned shouldalso be studied. Boys who wished to work on farms should then proceed to take atwo-year course of training for agricultural labourers.Detailed recommendations followed for theimprovement of health services,housing and nutrition. The Union had obtained the concession from theGovernment that the costs of houses for farm labourers might bededucted from afarmer's taxable income.Farmers should organize their labour in such amanner that the worker had certainfree hours during the week for his own affairs or for recreation, theUnion stated.Permanent workers should be granted at least ten days' annual leave with full pay.Christianity, humanity and justice should always bethe mainspring of the farmer'sdealings with his labourer, the Union concluded. In this respect every citizen,including the farmer, could make a great contribution to the creation of betterracial relations.200A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 201MANUFACTURINGA preliminary report on the 1955-56 industrial Census was issued during the yearunder review.(8) There were, at the time of the census, 3,797 White and 611 Non-White working proprietors in theprivate manufacturing industry. The paidemployees numbered 159,599 Whites, 86,596 Coloured, 26,379Asians and

336,591 Africans. Average salaries and wages were £815 a yearfor the Whites,£215 for the Coloured, £269 for the Asians and £153 for the Africans.The average salaries and wages paid during 1958 in the manufacturing industry(including private construction) were given by the Deputy Minister ofthe Interiorin reply to a question in the Assembly on 29 January 1960.9() They were £868 forWhites, he said, £282 for Coloured and Asians and £156 for Africans.CONSTRUCTION AND POWERThe Industrial Census report also provided information about employment inconstruction and in the generation and distribution of electricity, gas and steam in1955-56.There were 1,898 White and 156 Non-White working proprietors in theformer industry. Information given about the paid employees is: WhitesColoured Asians AfricansConstructionNumber of employees Average salaries andNumber Average... 24,196 wages £805Powerof employees ... salaries and wages6,636£85611,987 734 73,889 £320 £432 £140337£26460 11,054 £183 £103The Report of the Department of Labour for 195 9(6°) gives the followinginformation aboutAfrican building workers:Number registered during 1959Blocklaying ...... 16 Electrical Wiring ...... Plumbing .......... 23Bricklaying ... ... ... 147 Bricklaying/Plastering .. 50 Plastering ...... ... 24Painting ............ 24Carpentry ... ....... 62Total number registered at end of 1959562841,390170 118 133 4202,373Learners receivingtraining at the end of 195970292689831

95 861,073(58) Special Report No. 227.(59) Hansard 2 cols. 598-9.(60) U.G. 59/60. page 15.

202 A SURVEY OF RACEA new wage determination for African building workers was published during theyear under review,(6"' increases of from 2d. to 31d. an hourbeing given. The newwage rates for registered workers range from 1/6 in Queenstown andAlbany to1/10 an hour in the Western Cape. On the Reef, 1/8 an hour is payable. Cost-of-living allowances, overtime pay and incentive bonuses are paid in addition to thebasic rates.COMMERCEAfrican Traders in JohannesburgEarly in 1960 Mr. Lawrence Reyburn, Research Assistant on the staff of theInstitute of Race Relations, obtained detailed information about their problemsand difficulties from 47 African traders in Johannesburg's South-WesternTownships("). This was a sample of approximately one in twenty-five, thoseinterviewed being chosen on the basis of the type of trade in which they wereengaged and the townships in which their businesses were situated.In his conclusions, Mr. Reyburn pointed out that for as long as Africans weredenied freehold tenure of land, African commerce was doomed to inferior statusrelative to that of the Whites. He pleaded that, failing freehold tenure,30-yearleases with as few restrictive conditions as possible should be granted, the lesseeto be allowed the right of renewal on the expiry of this period.There was hesitation on the part of investors to advance money to traders on thestrength of notarial bonds (taken outover the moveables on a property), Mr.Reyburn found, because the municipality would not register such bonds againstthe trading site permit of the owner of the buildings concerned. He recommendedthat they should be so registered in order to help to alleviate the capital shortagewith which most African traders had to contend.Centralized trading areas were preferable to the wide dispersal of shopsthroughout a township, Mr. Reyburn suggested. If traders erected their ownbuildings, rather than rentingpremises built by a local authority (as was the caseat Meadowlands), they would be able to draw up plans which would best meettheir needs.In spite of the successful courses that had been conducted by the JohannesburgJunior Chamber of Commerce, the vast bulk of the traders and their assistantsremained ignorant of efficient trading methods. Suggestions were made for theestablishment of a commercial school to provide such training.(61) G.N. 130 of 29 January 1960 and G.N. 556 of 22 April.(62) Theresults of this study were published by the Institute as Fact Paper No.6-1960, African Traders: Their position and problems in Johannesburg'sSouthWestern Townships.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 203Mr. Reyburn drewattention to the unease and confusion that had been caused bya statement by the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development to theeffect that African traders were only temporarily being allowed tocarry onbusiness in urban townships.(63)He pleaded for increased police protection in the townships, stricter enforcementof regulations prohibiting illegal trading, and the lifting of restrictions on theestablishment of agencies of banks in urban African areas. (Eachof the fourleading banking institutions is still allowed a quota of only four agencies intownships throughout the Union.)Courses of training for African tradersFollowing the publication of this study, plans were made. by the Institute of RaceRelations to organize a training coursefor African traders. Mr. Reyburn wasresponsible for drawing up the syllabuses. At the time of writing the necessarypreliminary work had been practically completed.The University College of the North has established a Lower Diplomacourse fortraderswho have passed the Junior Certificate, and intends introducing a HigherDiploma course, the entrance qualification for which will be either the LowerDiploma or the Senior Certificate.Traders' organizationsIn his survey Mr. Reyburn described the African Chamber of Commerce, theBantoe Winkelierse Helpnekaar Vereeniging, the Johannesburg and DistrictTraders' Association and the Ikaheng Finance Corporation Limited, which are allAfrican organizations.It was announced during October 196064) that a group of Coloured business menin the Cape Peninsula had decided to establish a retailers' organization which theyhoped would eventually become a Coloured Chamber of Commerce.MININGAccording to the publication Union Statistics for Fifty Years, therewere averagesof 64,690 Whites, 3,374 Coloured, 407 Asians and 518,018 Africans employed inmining during 1959. The large majority of these (e.g. 398,127 of the Africans(6"))were engaged in gold mining.(63) See 1958-59 Survey, page 249.(64) Rand Daily Mail, 13 October 1960.(65) Statement by the Minister of Mines, Assembly 19 April 1960, Hansard 14col.5800.

Both the actual number and the percentage of Africans employed by the membersand contractors of the Witwatersrand Native LabourAssociation that were drawnfrom within the borders of the Union again increased from 1958 to 1959.Statistics as at 31 December 1959 were:Country of origin Numbers Percentage of totalUnion .... ... ... .... ... .... ... 135,667 35.20Three High Commission Territories 72,915 18.92East Coast and Tropical Territories 176,821 45.88

The Deputy Minister of the Interior said on 29 January 1960(06)that the averagesalaries and wages paid in cash to mining employees during 1958 were £1,095 forWhites, £236 for Coloured and Asians, and £68 for Africans.In reply to a series of questions in the Assembly on 15 March 19606') the Ministerof Mines said that during 1959 the wages for Africans working in gold andcoalmines which were members of the Transvaal and Orange Free State Chamber ofMines were: Per shiftUnderground Surfaceworkers workersMinimum wages ............. 3/- 2/3Average wages:Gold mines ... ... ... ... 4/8 3/5Coal mines ... .... ... ... 4/3 3/6The rate of overtime was one-and-a-half times the daily wage. Various types ofprotective clothing were issued free, such as hard hats, boots,knee guards andshin guards.The Minister was also asked what the estimated costs per shift to the employerswere of food, medical services, housing, clothing and other benefitsin kindsupplied to African mineworkers. He replied that these costs differed from mineto mine, and the information was not available. According to a recent publicationby the International Labour Office(8) the average cost of food andaccommodation in 1957 was 3/ 1- per shift.Two Africans from Nyasaland who had served in a mine at Welkom-EversonWilson and Monahang Phutheho-were during December 1959 awarded thecoveted Golden Helmet and also bronze medals for outstanding first aid servicesrendered at th,2 scene of an accident.(69)Another bronze medal and an inscribed watch were presented in November 1960to Mokgosi Muthuso forsaving the life of a White miner during blastingoperations.(66) Assembly Hansard 2 cols. 598-9.(67) Hansard 9 cols. 3385-7.(68) Africa Labour Survey, page 281.(69) Rand Daily Mail report, 11 December 1959.A SURVEY OF RACE204

RELATIONS: 1959-60 205THE PUBLIC SERVICEAs at 31 March 1959 the employees in the Public Service, excluding theRailwaysand the Provincial Administrations, and their average annual salaries and wages,were: (7) AveragesalariesNumbers and wagesWhites .... ... .... ... .... ... 102,842 £724.8Coloured and Asians .......... 10,894 £220.0Africans ....... ....... ....... 107,604 £166.8

Africans were employed in the largest numbers inthe Departments of BantuEducation, Forestry, Police, Water Affairs, Bantu Affairs and Posts, Telegraphsand Telephones. The largest numbers of Asians and Coloured were employed inthe Departments of Posts, Telegraphs and Telephones, Police, Defence, PublicWorks, Forestry, Health and Education, Arts and Science.Detailed information about the posts for Non-White employees in the Departmentof Posts, Telegraphs and Telephones, and the rates of pay, was given by theMinister of this Department in the Assembly on 9 February 1960.(7") The highestsalaries, paid to 29 Coloured and Indian Grade 1 postal assistantsand 24 Colouredoverseer postmen were £330 x 30- £690, and £420 x 30- £690, respectively(excluding cost-of-living allowances). African Grade I postal assistants were paidon the scale £260 x 20- £300 x 30 £540: there were 78 such posts.The Minister of Bantu Administration and Development provided informationabout posts for Africans in his department.(12) The highest-paid post was for aBantu sub-editor, with a salary of £360 x 30- £720.According to the Minister of Justice,73) the strength of the Police ForceduringApril 1960 was: Strength ShortageW hites .... ... .... ... .... ... .... ... 12,850 921Coloured .... ... .... ... .... ... ... 1,012 128Indians .... ... .... ... .... ... ... ... 333 44Africans ............................ 11,976 900Second Class Sergeant Johannes Meno, together with four White policemen, wasawarded the Queen's Medal during December 1959. His award was for braveryand skill in arresting dangerous criminals.(70) From official Bullet.'n of Statistics, July 1960.(71) Hansard 4 col. 1151.(72) Assembly, 11 March 1960, Hansard 8 cols. 3196-7.(73) Assembly, 8 April,Hansard 12 cols. 5119-20.

206 A SURVEY OF RACETHE RAILWAYSDuring 1959 the S.A. Railways and Harbours Administration employed averagesof 123,684 Whites, 9,839 Coloured, 654 Asians and 101,303 Africans!") Thesetotals had decreased by February 1960: on the 16th of that month the Minister ofTransport said that 110,720 Whites and 107,994 Non-Whites were thenemployed.(71)On 4 March the Minister gave details of gratuities paid to Non-White railwayworkers who had served for at least five years, and annuities paid to those whocompleted at least fifteen years' service.76)He gave information on another occasion"71) about the separate machinery thathad been set up to deal with African labour disputes, similar to that provided forin terms of the Native Labour (Settlement of Disputes) Act. A Central LabourBoard had been established, also, in each system area, a regional committeeconsisting of the head or sub-head of the department concerned, the Inspector ofNativeLabour, and five appointed African members. Besides this, at centreswhere there were concentrations of African labour workers' representatives were

elected, a maximum of twenty such representatives in each system area beingpermitted to meet the regionalcommittee at least once a year.It was announced at a Press conference on 11 November 1960 thatschools hadbeen established to train Non-White supervisors, who, on completion of theirtraining, would instruct foremen and indunas in charge of labourers in harboursand goods yards. This scheme was gradually to be extended.MUNICIPAL SERVICETwo Africans employed by municipalities were given awards for courage duringthe year under review. In December 1959 the Mayor of Barberton presented abicycle toMr. Sambok Manize in recognition of his bravery in dragging amunicipal electrician clear of a live wire. Two months later the Mayor ofJohannesburg presented a watch and £5 to Mr. Simon Gaba, the watch being a giftfrom the White driver of a municipal truck who was saved from being crushed bya collapsing concrete slab by Mr. Gaba's action in wedging poles underneath it.i4) Union Statistics for Fifty Years, Table G 15.(- ) Assembly, Hansard 5 col. 1597.(76) Assembly, Hansard 7 cols. 2719-20.(77 Assembly, 9 February 1960. Hansard 4 cols. 1141-2.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 207PERSONAL SERVICESNew hotels for Non-Whites have been opened in Kimberley and Bloemfontein.The 1955-56 Industrial Censusreport') stated that in the laundry and dry-cleaningtrade there were 105 White and 81 NonWhite working proprietors. The paidemployees were 2,612 Whites, 2,481 Coloured, 1,633 Asians and 8,234 Africans,their average annual salaries and wages being £486,£169, £192 and £168respectively.According to a Press report79) the Maternal and Child Welfare Officer of theCape Town City Health Department said during July 1960 that during theprevious year about 200 babies born to Coloured domestic servantshad died as aresult of neglect or unhygienic conditions in the homes of foster parents. In manycases, in order to avoid losing their jobs in private households, the mothers hadleft the babies within ten days of their birth. This death-rate was almost twice ashigh as the overall Coloured infant mortality rate.THE PROFESSIONSMedical ProfessionThe Minister of Health said early in 196080) that there were 7,789 medicalpractitioners, 416 interns and 1,371 medical students registered in the Union. TheGovernment employed 61 full-time and 389 part-time district surgeons.Included in the totals were 67 African medical practitioners, 18 African interns,108 African medical students, and about 93 Coloured and Indian doctors.81)Dr. J. Rex Tatane was duringApril appointed ophthalmic registrar atBaragwanath Hospital, and was also awarded a twoyear bursary bythe S.A.National Council for the Blind to enable him to specialize in ophthalmology inLondon.Law

An Advocates Admission Bill was drafted by the Government, and during theearly months of 1960 was circulated in legal circles for comment. Itprovided forthe establishment of an Advocates Admission Board to make rules for theadmission, suspension and(78) Special Report No. 227.(79) Star, 9 July 1960.(80) Assembly, 29 January, Hansard 2 col. 589. and 26 February, Hansard 6 col.2268.(81) Race Relations News, November 1959, and article by Miss M. C. E. Vegtelin the Bantu Education Journal, May 1960.

removal of advocates, and tomake recommendations to the Minister of Justice inregard to qualifications for admission. The Board would consist of the ChiefJustice as chairman, the Secretary for Justice or his nominee, two practisingbarristers selected by the Minister from a panel of four names submitted by theGeneral Council of the Bar in each province, and two academic persons selectedby the Minister from a panel of names submitted by the University LawFaculties.The Minister of Justice said in the Senate on 25 April,8') "South Africa will in thefuture, particularly with a view to the growing threats of Communism,have to bemore selective than in the past in respect of the admission of attorneys .. . Adefinition of who a suitable and proper person is who can become an attorney willhave to be more strictly interpreted."According to a Press report,8') the President of the Association ofLaw Societiessaid that, after seeing the Bill, members of the legal profession gave thisAssociation an overwhelming majority mandate toseek an interview with theMinister and make every effort to combat the suggestions outlined above. Thisinterview was granted. The Minister is reported to have given the assurance thatno legislation on the matter would be introduced during the 1961 Session ofParliament, and in any case any such measure would be discussed with the legalprofession before its introduction.It was found in a survey conducted by the Department of Labour in 1959(4) thatthere were then 49 African attorneys.As was mentioned in an earlier issue of this Survey,8") during 1958 Mr. C. M.Kobus, a Cape Town attorney, was ordered to leave his chambers inthe centralarea of the city and to move to Langa Township or some other African area.Appeals were unsuccessfully made on hisbehalf by the Law Society of the Capeand the Institute of Race Relations. Mr. Kobus moved to Langa, but his practicewas ruined because his African clients were away in town all day andhisColoured clients needed permits to visit him and were not allowed into thetownship at the weekends. During 1960 Mr. Kobus was forced to giveup his ownpractice. He is now again at work in the city, but as an assistant to an Indianattorney.Other professionsThe Minister of Health said on 12 February 1960,00 in reply to a question in theAssembly, that there were 17,154 White nurses, 903 Coloured orIndian nursesand 4,633 African nurses registered with the S.A. Nursing Council.

(82) Hansard 10 cols. 2329-31.(83) Rand Daily Mail, 22 October 1960.(84) Quoted by Miss M. C. E. Vegter in the article op cit.(85) 1957-58, page 177.(86) Assembly, Hansard 4 cols. 1395-6.A SURVEY OF RACE208

RELATIONS: 1959-60 209It was mentioned in the 1957-58 issue of this Survey(7) that during August 1958,in terms of a notice published in the Gazette, all practising nurses were required tosend a form to the Nursing Council stating their racial groups and identitynumbers. Many of them voiced strong objections. In reply to a further questionthe Minister said that the names of large numbers of nurses were removed fromthe register because they failed to comply with this requirement. The exactnumber was unknown: some women had not replied because they objected todoing so, but others had not submitted forms because they had ceasedto practice.However, about 700 nurses subsequently applied for their namesto be restored tothe register. They were required to pay the basic registration fee of £4.Advisory Boards andAdvisory Committees for Coloured and for African nurseswere set up during the year under review.050According to an article by Miss M. C. E. Vegter in the Bantu Education Journal ofMay 1960, in 1959 there were, in South Africa:2,779 African studentnurses;504 agricultural demonstrators;19 university lecturers;67 librarians; 33 journalists;73 accountants;61 chemical assayers or metallurgists;188 laboratory technicians or assistants; and3 scientists.During 1960 the Natal University honoured Mr. Arthur D. Lazarus, the principalof Sastri College, by conferring on him the honorary degree of D.Phil. TheColoured poet Mr. S. V. Petersen was awarded a bursary of £1,000by theDepartment of Coloured Affairs to enable him to study educational methods inGermany.EDUCATIONCONTROL OF EDUCATIONOn 25 April 1960 the Minister of Education, Arts and Science movedfor leave tointroduce the Union Education Advisory Council Bill, which provided for theestablishment of such a(87) Page180.(88) See 1956-57 Survey, page 159, for terms of the Nursing Act of 1957 underwhich provision was made for the establishment of these bodies.

council, to consist of seven to twelve members appointed by the Minister for aperiod not exceedingfive years. The Provinces would, in terms of the Bill, eachbe represented by one educationalist recommended by the Administrator. Thefunction of the council would be "to advise the Minister generally in regard to thepolicy to be adopted in connection with the education of White persons." Itsactivities would be closely controlled by the Minister.The Bill stated that no province might introduce draft legislation oneducationwithout the prior approval of the Minister.It provided, also, that theMinister might appoint a committee consisting of amember of the council as chairman and two other persons to carry out at any Stateor State-aided school any investigation ordered by the Minister "in connectionwith any matter affecting the basic principles of education". These principles werenot defined.Despite the opposition of the United and Progressive Parties the Bill wasintroduced, but was not proceeded with during the second sitting of the 1960Session of Parliament.EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATIONAL SERVICESEXPENDITURE PER PUPIL AND PER HEAD OF POPULATIONThe latest year for which the Department of Education, Arts and Science hascalculated the expenditure on education per pupil and per head of population is1953. The expenditure during that year was:Whites Coloured and Asians Africans£Per head ofPer pupil population63. 18. 5. £13. 9. 5. 20. 4. 3. £3. 19. 7.E8. 19. 11. 17. 10.The National Bureau of Educational and Social Research states that the estimatedexpenditure on education in 1957-58 was: Provinces:W hites ... ... ... ... ... ... ...Coloured ... ... ... ... ... ...A sians ... ... ... ... ... ... ...Bantu Education Department:Africans .... ... .... ... .... ... ...Department ofEducation, Arts and Science:Whites, Coloured and Asians ......Africans .... ... .... ... .... ... ...£33,348,000 £6,378,800 £2,571,500£9,500,000£8,793,808£184,815210A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 211BANTU EDUCATION ACCOUNT

Receipts, 1958-59According to reports by the Controller and Auditor-General,O) the followingamounts were paid into the Bantu Education Account during the year 1958-59:Fixed amount paid from general revenue.......... £6,500,000 Four-fifths ofproceeds of African general tax ....... £2,160,827 Receiptsfrom schools, sale ofland, etc ............ £163,220Amount transferred from loan account .......... £356,787£9,180,834Extension of University Education Amendment Act, No. 32 of 1960This Act contained two clauses only, to amend the Extension of UniversityEducation Act (No. 45 of 1959) and the University College of Fort Hare TransferAct (No. 64 of 1959) by providing that moneys required for capital expenditure inconnection with Bantu university c6lleges may be advanced by the Loan Accountto the Bantu Education Account upon such terms and conditions as theMinisterof Bantu Education, in consultation with the Minister of Finance, may determine.When introducing the Bill, the Minister of Bantu Education said(') that loanswould be free of interest and repayable over a period of thirty years.In opposing the Bill the United Party maintained that when money was to beappropriated from the Loan Account the proper' authority was Parliament. Itreiterated its view that there should not be a separate account for Bantu education.In the reports quoted above the Controller and AuditorGeneral stated that as at 31March 1959 the Bantu Education Accountwas £989,425 in debt to the LoanAccount.(1) U.G. 51/1959 page 28 and U.G. 5211959 page 268.(2) Assembly, 10 February 1960, Hansard 4 col. 1206.

A SURVEY OF RACEEstimated expenditure for the year ending 30 March 1961The estimated expenditure from the Bantu Education Account for the year ending31 March 1961 is:"3)£Salaries, wages and allowances ...... Other administrative costs, includingexpenses ... ... ... ... ... ...Supplies and services ... ... ... ...Bursaries and loans to pupils ...... Vacation courses and teachers' classesSubsidies:Community schools ......State-aided schools ... ... ...Night and continuation classes School feeding ... ... ... ... ...... ... ... 1,495,500examination ...... ... 413,650... ... ... 335.050... ... ... 11,500... ... ... 1,000... ... ... 6,427,810... ... ... 930,240

... ... ... 10,000

... ... ... 50,000Financial assistance to community schools for capitalexpenditure... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...Maintenance of university colleges:Fort H are ... ... ... ...... ... ... ...University College of Zululand .........University College of the North ......... Redemption of loans for capitalexpenditure ......120,000175,000 87,000 94,000 41,250£10, 192,000Besides this, it was expected that £470,000 would be spent from loan funds,£199,800 of this amount on the erection or purchase of school buildings, £50,000on Fort Hare (presumably for the purchaseof the hostels and of houses for newWhite members of staff) and the remaining £220,200 on continuingthe buildingprogrammes at the two new university colleges. The estimated total capital cost ofthese new colleges is £400,000 each.Adequacy of funds for Bantu educationIn reply to a question in the Assembly on 15 March 1960, the Minister of Financesaid4) it was estimated that during the year ending 31 March 1961 Africans wouldpay £3,810,000 in basic general tax and £190,000 in the tax calculated onincome:a total of £4,000,000. If fcur-fifths of this is paid to the Bantu Education Accountthe amount concerned would be £3,200,000, as against £2,160,827 in 1958-59,before the rate of taxation was increased.(3) U.G. 9/1960 and U.G. 8/1960.(4) Hansard 9 cols. 3378-9.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 213The total sum derived from African taxation will increase gradually as averagesalaries and wages are raised and as the population grows, but no further suddenexpansion is likely unless the rate of taxation is again increased. The contributionfrom general revenue to the Bantu Education Account is pegged at £61-million ayear. It thus appears probable that for some considerable time thefunds availablefor Bantu education are unlikely to exceed the present amount of about £10-million per annum.It will, however, be necessary to spend more on salaries for additional membersof staff for the university colleges. Furthermore, the introduction of the double-session system in the substandards has led to a large increase in the number ofpupils in these classes; and as each year passes a proportion of these additionalchildren will proceed further upwards in the schools, and consequently moreteachers, with higher qualifications and thus higher pay, will be needed. Onlyabout 52 per cent of the African children in the Union are as yet at school,(5) sothat many more schools are required and many additional teachersto staff them. Itwould accordingly seem essential that thedecision to peg the State contributionshould be rescinded.

NUMBER OF SCHOOL PUPILS AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION BETWEENTHE STANDARDSIn the recently-issued publication Union Statistics for Fifty Years, details aregiven of the number of pupils of each racial group, boys and girls, who attendedpublic and private schools in the different provinces in various years.To summarize the latest available figures, the school population in 1958 was asfollows:Numbers of pupilsWhites-Public schools 614,178Private schools 45,762 659,940Coloured and AsiansPublic schools 381,190Private schools 6,872 388,062AfricansPublic schools 1,243,088Private schools 95,335 1,338,4232,386,425According to the State InformationOffice(6) the number of African pupils hadrisen to 1,428,000 by 1959.(5) Estimate by Bantu Education Department.(6) Supplement to Fortnightly Digest of S.A. Affairs, 18 March 1960.

214 A SURVEY OF RACEThedistribution of pupils in 1958 between the various standards can besummarized as follows:Percentages of total number of pupils in the standards indicated.ColouredWhites and Asians AfricansSub A and B 19.6 34.6 45.5Stds I and II 20.0 28.3 28.5Stds III and IV 19.7 20.6 14.9Stds V and VI 18.0 11.7 7.9Stds VII and VIII 14.0 3.6 2.9Stds IX and X 6.2 1.0 0.2Stdnot stated(Special classes etc.) 2.5 0.1 0.1100.0 99.9 100.0It will be noted that the percentage of pupils in senior secondary classes (Stds. IXand X) were 6.2 in the case of Whites,1.0 for Coloured and Asians, and 0.2for Africans.Speaking of conditions on the Reef, from Nigel to Randfontein, Dr.J. E.Mathewson said recently7) that out of a total Bantu population of 912,947(excluding mine employees), 123,189 children were attending school there.Only 306 of them were in senior secondary classes. This meant that facilitiesexisted for only one out of every 400 children to qualify for university training,Dr. Mathewson pointed out. Apart from the possible shortage of qualifiedteachers, the main reason for this was the policy of financing the erection ofschools. Only lower primary schools (up to Std. II) could be built from the

compulsory schools levy fund. Other schools could be provided onlyif the Bantuthemselves raised half the necessary money, and thenonly would the Departmentconsider contributing on a £ for £ basis. The BenoniMunicipality had suggested that it should build higher primary or secondaryschools from either the schools levy or the Native Revenue Account (inbothcases money contributed by the Bantu themselves), but the Department hadrefused permission.In reply to a question in the Assembly on 9 February 1960, the Minister of BantuEducation said(') that there were 7,138 Bantu schools in the Union,of which 241were secondary schools and 36 high schools.(7) In a paper entitled 'The Role of Urban Bantu Administration as a BasicComponent of the Policy of Separate Development," given at the 9th AnnualConferenceof the Administrators of Non-European Affairs, August 1960.(8) Hansard 4 cols. 1153-4.

TEACHERSNUMBERSThe Minister also said that 22,601 full-time teachers were employed in theseBantu schools. More recent figures were not available, but in December 1958there were only 148 White and 426 Bantuteachers with university degreesemployed in teaching Africans.According to the publication Union Statistics for Fifty Years, during1958 thestudents attending training colleges for teachers included 6,389 Whites, 2,168Coloured and Asians and 6,330 Africans. (With a few exceptions, of course, onlythe African students would later be employed in schools for Africans.) There arestill more Africans enrolled for the Lower Primary Teachers' course (Std. VI plus3 years) than for more advanced courses.PENSION SCHEMES FOR AFRICAN TEACHERSThe Minister was also questioned about pension schemes for African teachers,and replied that his Department made no provision for these. Teachers who hadbeen appointed in the Cape Province before 1 April 1955, and whose services hadremained continuous since their appointment, contributed to the Cape Teachers'Pension Fund, from which they received benefits upon retirement. Similarly,teachers in Natal who contributed to the Natal Teachers' ProvidentFund beforetheGovernment took over the control of Bantu education remained members ofthis fund.African teachers in Government Bantu schools who did not contributeto either ofthe funds mentioned above were provided for in Section 69 of the GovernmentService Pensions Act of 1955 (Act No. 58). No other Bantu teachers contributedto any pension fund or were eligible for benefits.The section quoted by the Minister provides for gratuities to be paid to Non-White Government servants who retire between the ages of 55 and 65 years aftera period of service of between five and fifteen years, for annuities for those whohave served for more than fifteen years, and for gratuities for thedependants ofthose who die after the completion of five years' service.

COST-OF-LIVI NG ALLOWANCES FOR AFRICAN TEACHERSBrief details were given in last year's Survey 9) of the revised salary scales,incorporating cost-of-living allowances, that have been introduced for White,Coloured and Asian teachers. The previous year's Survey(") contained short noteson the salary scales(9) 1958-59 page 253.(10) 1957-58, page 187. For details see Bantu Education Journal Vol. IV No.5.June 1958.RELATIONS: 1959-60215

for African teachers. In the Assembly on 10 May 1960 the Minister of BantuEducation(") gave the scales of cost-of-living allowances for African teacherswhose salaries are fully subsidized by the State:Salary per annum Married SingleOver £84 to £90 £62. 12. 0. £34. 16. 0.£90 ,, £100 £76 £38S£100 ,, £110 £84 £42S£110 ,, £120 £92 £46£120 ,, £130 £100 £50£130 ,, £150 £120 £60S£150 ,, £200 £160 £80£200 ,, £300 £240 £100£300 ,, £350 £280 £100S£350 £320 £100NUMBERS OF NON-WHITES WITH VARIOUS EDUCATIONALQUALIFICATIONSDuring 1960 the Institute of Race Relations attempted2 to estimate how manyliving Non-White persons had passed various school examinations or theirequivalents. Although all available sources were explored, it was notpossible, onthe basis of obtainable information, to do more than hazard rough guesses, and inthe cases of Coloured people and Asians it was not feasible to do so beyond Std.VI.It appeared that about 141,000 Coloured, 54,000 Asians and 284,000 Africansthen alive in South Africa might be in possession of Std. VI certificates,and thatpossibly 62,000 Africans might have passed Std. VIII or equivalent, and 14,000Std. X or equivalent.The Department of Bantu Education intimated later, however, that ithad suppliedan incorrect figure for the number of Std. X passes in 1959. As some reliance hadbeen placed on this figure in making the estimates, it is probable that the numberof Africans with Std. X or equivalent certificate is, in fact, lower than 14,000.AFRICAN EXAMINATION RESULTSAt the end of 1959, 44,082 Africans wrote the Department's Std. VI examination,and of these, 12.835 failed.(13)(11) Hansard 17 col. 7086.(12) RR. 91 and 107 of 1960.

(13) Letter No. E 70/19 dated 17 March 1960 from the Secretary for BantuEducation.A SURVEY OF RACE216

RELATIONS: 1959-60 217At the end of 1958, 7,982 Africans wrote the Junior Certificate examinations ofthe Transvaal, Cape or University of South Africa. Of these, 3,452, or 43 per cent,failed. In addition, 1,888 candidates were entered by the Department ofEducation, Arts and Science, and of these, 431 obtained National J.C. passes. Therest, 1,457, do not necessarily represent failures as the certificate can be obtainedby instalments.(13A)The matriculation results have been particularly poor. African students write thesame matriculation examinations as do members of other racial groups: theDepartment is not issuing special syllabuses, as it has done for classes up to theStd. VIII level.1")According to information furnished by the Departmentof Bantu Education, 630African candidates from State and Stateaided schools entered for the matriculationexamination conducted by the Joint Matriculation Board at the end of1959. Ofthese, 38 obtained matriculation passes qualifying them for entrance touniversities, 79 obtained school leaving certificates, and 513 failed. Thepercentage of failures was 81.4. The proportion of failures waslowest in theCiskei (74 per cent) and highest in the Orange Free State (95 per cent).Besides these pupils, 531candidates from private schools and students who hadstudied by means of correspondence courses also entered for the examination. Ofthese, 72 obtained matriculation passes, 73 school leaving certificates, and 386failed, the percentage of failures being 72.7. If all the entrants are consideredtogether, the combined proportion of failures was 77.4 per cent.The results in 1958 were as follows:14A) of 660 candidates from State and State-aided schools, 113 obtained matriculation passes. 135 obtained school leavingcertificates and 412 failed. The percentage of failures was 62.4. The proportion offailures was lowest in the Ciskei (36 per cent) and highest in the Orange FreeState (90 per cent).Besides these pupils, a further 269 candidates entered for the examination. Ofthese, 114 passed (the number of matriculation passes is not stated).For interest, the Institute's Research Assistant extracted earlier figures from theReport of the Commission on Native Education(13A) Bantu Education Journal, February 1960. Vol. VI No. 1. "The Objectives,Nature and Standard of Secondary School Education", by A. A. Allison.(14) See 1956-57 Survey, page 187, and earlier issues.(14A) Article by Mr. A. A. Allison op cit..

218 A SURVEY OF RACE(1949-51)."'5) The proportions of African failures in the matriculationorequivalent examinations were 45.2 per cent in 1947 and 47.2 per cent in 1948.

The Minister is reported by the Star to have said on 14 May 1960 that thepercentage of passes at schools where there were White teacherswas much higherthan at those where there were exclusively African teachers. In the14 schoolswhere Whites were included on the teaching staff, 205 out of 391 pupilspassed.The largest numbers of failures were in the subjects English higher, mathematicsand commerce. The requirements of English higher were unnecessarily high forBantu students, the Minister added.African students have to write either English or Afrikaans on the higher grade toqualify for the full matriculation certificate. The Joint Matriculation Boardannounced during July()6 that it had decided in principle to recognize an Africanlanguage on the higher grade in the place of English or Afrikaansfor admission touniversities; but the date when this decision would come into effect had not beenfixed. African students would then be able, if they wished, to write their homelanguage on the higher grade and one or both of the official languages on thelower grade.It appears to be doubtful whether this will provide a satisfactory solution,however. Africans will need to be proficient in one of the official languages ifthey are to proceed to a university college. Possibly, in view of the Minister'sremarks, a reason for thehigh percentage of failures in English and mathematicsis that the Department was too hasty in replacing White teachers withAfricanswho did not possess the necessary qualifications or experience for handling thesesubjects. It would seem, too, that poorteaching in the lower standards is largely toblame for the high proportion of matriculation failures. If this is thecase, there isadditional cause for concern over the fact, mentioned above, that the Departmentis still training more Africans for the Lower Primary Teachers' course than formore advanced courses.EXAMINATION FEESUntil 1959 African students paid £1 15. 0. in examination fees for writing thematriculation examination, and lesser amounts for more junior examinations. Butthese fees wererecently raised, with(15) Para. 488.(16) Star report, 5 July 1960.

the result that Africans will now have to pay more than do most membersof otherracial groups. The Institute of Race Relations investigated the fees payable tovarious examining authorities, and found that the position is as follows:Examination andexamining body MatriculationJoint Matriculation Board Cape and Transvaal ... NatalFree State ... ... ...Junior Certificate (Std. VIII)Bantu Education Dept ...Joint Matriculation BoardCape ... .... .... ... ...Transvaal ... ....... ...N atal ... .... .... ... ...Free State .... ... ... ...

Std. VIBantu Education Dept ... Provinces ... ... ... ...Africans£4. 10 0N/A* N'AN/AN/A... N/A... N/A... N/A... N/A10/... N/AN A-Not applicable. SCHOOL BOARDS AND COMMIT]COMMUNITY SCHOFees payable by:Whites, Colouredand Asians£4. 10. 0£3£3 & 10/- registration£3. 10. 0N/A£4-but examinationto be discontinued£1. 5. 0Internal examinationonly£1. 15. 0&5/-registration£1. 10. 0N/AInternal examinations only, except for Coloured andAsians in Natal,who pay 2/6FEES FOR BANTU OLSNewregulations for school boards and committees for Bantu communityschoolswere published during the year under review.(")FARM SCHOOLS FOR AFRICANSAccording to a circular letter sent out by the Inspector of Bantu Education atErmelo on 2 February 1960,it is Departmental policy that farm schools cateringfor African children from more than one farm should not be biggerthan one-teacher schools, providing education up to the Std. II level. Schoolsprovidingadditional classes may, however, be approved ifall the pupils are resident on theowner's farm.DISTURBANCES AT AFRICAN SCHOOLS

There have been several disturbances at African schools duringthe year underreview.(17) R. 1177 of 5 August 1960.RELATIONS: 1959-60219

220 A SURVEY OF RACEIn March 1960 some of the boys attending the Pax Institution near Pietersburgapparently became restive and discussed staying away from their classes becausethey were dissatisfied with their breakfast. The Principal metthem to hear theirgrievances. Next day the student who was considered to be the ringleader wasexpelled. According to a letter sent to parents by the Principal, the friends of thisstudent then planned to persuade numbers of others to leave, and to set fire to theschool. The police were summoned and arrested eight boys. The Principalannounced that any pupil who wished to leave was free to do so, andout of 367boarders about 60 did go, many of them stating that they were taking this actionbecause of their fear of the ringleaders.There were at least three incidents during May. About 50 studentsof theAmanzimtoti Zulu Training School (formerly Adams College) arereported("' tohave left as a result of various complaints about the tuition. Serious troubleoccurred at the Kilnerton High School, near Pretoria, after relatives and friends ofthe students had been refused admission to the annual drama night. Classes wereboycotted, an attempt was made to set the buildings on fire, and the Matron of thegirls' hostel was attacked. Two boys were suspended by the Regional Inspector.Unrest continued, however, the Inspector being shouted down whenhe attemptedto address a meeting. Finally it was decided that all the senior boys, about 122 innumber, would be suspended, but could apply for re-admission. The police weresummoned to escort them from the premises.The third disturbance during that same month was at the Moroka TrainingInstitution at Thaba 'Nchu. Following complaints about the food the boys stonedthe house of the Assistant Boarding Master, who was responsiblefor the catering,and subsequently refused a hearing to the Bantu Affairs Commissioner andboycotted the dining hall. About 240 of the older students were then senthome.The Acting Principalsent out questionnaires which had to be signed before acommissioner of oaths by those boys who wished to apply for re-admission, andby their parents. The boys were required to name the ringleaders and to state themeans of intimidation that had been employed. These statements, thequestionnaire declared, would not be used in evidence against the scholars whomade them, but might be used in evidence against other pupils in any civil orcriminal actions which might be preferred. The parents had to agreeto the boysundergoing such punishment as might be decided upon, and to accept that if thelads again gave cause for dissatisfaction they might be sent home for good andexcluded from all Government Bantu schools.(18) Star, 8 June.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 221

There was trouble, too, at Tigerkloof in the Cape, where the carpentry pupilsapparently refused to do some painting and were sent home. Next day thecarpentry block was burnt down. All the boys were then arrested and charged, butwere released after about nine days in gaol. Some of them appearedin court later,one being found guilty of arson and seven of malicious damage to property.Twelve pupils in receipt of bursaries from the Isaacson FoundationBursary Fund,administered by the Institute of Race Relations, were among those expelled fromvarious schools. The Director of the Institute wrote to the Secretary for BantuEducation stating that, while he did not wish to condone unruly behaviour, he wasanxious about the future of the boys concerned. Some of them appeared to havebeen caught up in a mass situation for which it was difficult to allocateresponsibility. He asked for information about the Department'spolicy in thematter.The Secretary replied, "Ihave to inform you that students who have been expelledfrom a school other than a teacher training school may apply for admission to anyother public school."Because of the shortage of accommodation in the high schools, however, it isdoubtful whethersuch applications would be favourably considered by otherprincipals. Of the twelve Isaacson Foundation bursars, only one was accepted atanother school.EDUCATION OF COLOURED CHILDRENAt a conference of the Transvaal Coloured community convened by theSouthernTransvaal Region of the Institute of Race Relations on 19 March 1960, Mr. G. L.Carr gave a useful paper entitled "Coloured Education, Recreation and Culture inthe Transvaal."("9)In the course of his address Mr. Carr pointed out that the Coloured people in theWestern Province and Orange Free State are predominantly Afrikaans-speaking athome, while those from the Eastern Province and Natal are largely English-speaking. Some of the Coloured people in the Transvaal speak English and othersAfri kaans, but, because most of them live in the towns, the Transvaal Colouredhave been surrounded by environmental influences that are largely English.Even in the Western Province, however, where there is a strong Afrikaans culturalbackground, there hasin the past been a tendency for Coloured students to adoptthe English medium for purposes of higher education, especially atthematriculation and university levels. One of several reasons for thishas been that(19) RR 57/60.

A SURVEY OF RACEColoured student teachers who wished to take full-time academic courses, thusqualifying for high school work, had to attend Englishspeaking universities sincethe Afrikaans universities were closed to them. They are, thus, better able to teachin English than in Afrikaans.In recent years the principle of mother tongue education has been increasinglyenforced, and a majority of Coloured pupils in the Transvaal are now receivingtheir education through the medium of Afrikaans. Of the 222 Transvaal Colouredpupils in Stds. VI to X in 1955, Mr. Carr said, Ill were in English-medium and Ill

in Afrikaans-medium schools. By 1960, of 433 pupils in these classes, 129 werein English and 304 in Afrikaans schools.While he agreed that a child learns best through the medium of his mother tongue,Mr. Carr said, necessary prerequisites are that the environmentalinfluencesshould be sufficiently strong in that language or culture, and that the teachersshould be adequately qualified to teach through the medium concerned. Withsome few exceptions, neither of these prerequisites obtained in the Transvaal. Itappeared that there had been a degree of unseemly haste in switching to theAfrikaans medium.Whereas, some thirty years previously, results obtained by Colouredpupils inexternal examinations compared favourably with those of pupilsin White schools,to-day Coloured students were at least one year retarded. There appeared to be adefinite link between standards of attainment, the language medium andthequalityof the teaching. Between 1955 and 1959, 57 Coloured pupils in TransvaalAfrikaans-medium schools entered for the Std. IX (internal) examination and only16 passed. Of 29 entries for Std. X, no candidates passed. Therewould be nomatriculation entries for1960, and, allowing for the usual falling-off, abouttwelve would form the 1961 matriculation class.Mr. Carr dealt, also, with the fear amongst the Coloured communitythat they, likethe Africans, were to receive their "peculiar" brand of education,thetype deemedsuitable being determined "more by political considerations of maintainingbaasskap than by a desire to raise the Coloured educational standard to the highestlevel in the shortest possible time."THE TEACHING OF HISTORYMr. F. E. Auerbachof Johannesburg has recently completed a thesis entitled "AnInquiry into History Text-Books and Syllabuses for Transvaal High Schools." Heis reportedP2°O to have found 427(20) Sunday Times, 25 September 1960.222

examples of divergences between the English and Afrikaans versions of text-books. There is a measure of race prejudice in the books used by both languagegroups, but to a far lesser extent in the English versions.Mr. Auerbach concludes that there has been a drastic reduction intheknowledgeimparted to primary school children about the world outside South Africa. Thepast savagery of Africans and their primitive tribalism is emphasized rather thantheir modern mode of life, especially in the towns.SCHOOL FEEDINGA short reviewof school feeding schemes was given in the 1957-58 issue of thisSurvey. (21)During the year now under review the Transvaal Provincial Administrationdecided to abolish the existing scheme as from July 1960 in schoolsfor White,Coloured and Asian children, and again to reduce the financial allocation. Onlyspecial schools for backward or problem children, and schools where over half ofthe pupils came from less privileged homes, would continue to receive feedinggrants, up to an increased maximum of I/- per pupil per day.

"Less privileged" homes were to be those where the income of the parents did notexceed the following amounts:22)WhitesI child ...2 children3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10ColouredIrrespective AsiansIrrespectiveIncome levelper annum... ... ... ... .. . ... ... £372... ... ... ... .. . ...£... 420... ... .. . .. . . .. . ... . £456... ... .. . .. . . .. . ... . £492... ... .. . .. . . .. . ... . £528... ... .. . .. . . .. . ... . £564... ... .. . ... .. ...£... 600... ... .. . .. . .. . ... ... £636... ... ... ... ... ...£... £672... ... ... ... ... ...£... £708of number of children ...... £174of number of children ...... £138(21) Page 190.(22) Information furnished bySouthernRelations.Transvaal Region of Institute of RaceRELATIONS: 1959-60223

Members of the Southern Transvaal Region of the Institute of Race Relationspointed out that the present income level below which sub-economic rentals werepayable by Coloured people (a level generally regarded as being much toolow)was £20 a month, yet the Transvaal Provincial Administration was fixing the "lessprivileged" level at £14 10s. The Asian level was even lower, and in both thesecases, in contrastto the rule applicable to Whites, the number of children in thefamily was ignored. A strong letter of protest was sent to the Transvaal EducationDepartment.SPECIAL SCHOOLSSPECIAL SCHOOLS AND THEIR ENROLMENTAccording to the Report of the Department of Education, Arts and Science for1959,(23) the enrolment at State and State-aided special schools during that yearwas: Whites Coloured Asians AfricansSchools of industries ... ... 2,223 611-State-aided vocational schools 160 4695Reformatory schools ... ... 289 811 46 922

Schools for the handicapped:Epileptics ... .... ....... 143- -Blind ... .... .... ... ... 196 58 23 197Deaf .... ... .... ... ... 651 293 22 374Cerebral palsied ....... 226 ...Questioned about special schools for Non-White physically handicapped persons,the Minister of Education, Arts and Science said in the Assembly on 17 February1960(24) that there were eight of these, each providing general education besidestraining in the crafts listed:Dominican School for Coloured, Asian and African Deaf, atWitteboom. Boys-agriculture and shoemaking. Girls-cooking and needlework.Worcester School for Non-White Deaf. Subjects as above. Kutlwanong School forAfrican Deaf. at Roodepoort. Plasteringand agriculture.Athlone School for Non-White Blind, Cape. Boys-cane-work.girls--spinning, weaving, knitting.Arthur Blaxall School for Indian Blind, Durban. Siloe School forAfrican Blind,Chuniespoort,Pietersburg. Basketwork, weaving, knitting.(23) U.G. 11/1960.(24) Hansard 5 cols. 1660-2.224A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 225Bosele School for African Blind in Sekhukhuneland. Weaving andknitting.Efata School for African Blind, Umtata. Weaving and knitting.Asked about existing training facilities for teachers, the Minister replied(2") thatspeech therapeutists were trained at the Universities of the Witwatersrand, CapeTown and Pretoria, vocational therapeutists at the Witwatersrand, teachers forthementally retarded at Pretoria and Stellenbosch, and teachers for the deaf at CapeTown University. (These courses at the open universities will, of course, in futurebe available only to Whites).In-service training courses for qualified White and Non-White teachers werearranged to instruct them in special methods for teaching particulartypes ofhandicapped children.SPECIAL EDUCATION AMENDMENT ACT, No. 45 OF 1960The Amendment Actof 1960 stated that the provisions of the Special EducationAct may be administered partly by one Cabinet Minister and partly byothers.(Similar arrangements have been made in the cases of the Children's Act(26) andthe Vocational Education Amendment Act.(27))When introducing the Bill, the Minister of Education, Arts and Science said(28)that special schools for Africans would fall under the Departmentof BantuAdministration and Development. African children at present attending mixedNon-White schoolsin the Western Province would gradually be transferred toschools for Africans as accommodation became available. Specialschools for

Coloured children would fall under the Department of Coloured Affairs, and thosefor Whites under the Department of Education, Arts and Science.The Amendment Act also lowered the age for the admission of childrento specialschools, provided for a system of inspection, amended the conditions under whichthe State may take over schools from voluntary bodies, and made various otherchanges. One new provision to which the Progressive Party objected(2") was thatwhich stated that children admitted to special schools must remain there until theyhave complied with the requirements in(25) 5 February 1960, Hansard 3 cols. 984-5.(26) See chapter entitled "Welfare."(27) See 1957-58 Survey, page 192.(28) Assembly. 11 February 1960. Hansard 4 col. 1337.'29) Col 1374,

respect of compulsory school attendance in the province in which they areresident. Previously, they had to remain until they were sixteen years of age. TheProgressive Party pointed out that the amendment would leave the positionunchanged so far as White children were concerned, but, becauseof the fact thatthere was no compulsory education for Non-White children, would remove theonus on the State to care for Non-White children until they reached the age ofsixteen years.The United Party and the Progressive Party opposed the Bill(3") because itdivided the control of special education between different departments of State ona racial basis. A further objection voiced by the United Party was that the measureaffected private interests and required further study.VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATIONTRAINING OF AFRICAN SOCIAL WORKERSAs was mentioned in earlier issues of this Survey, the management committee ofthe Jan H. Hofmeyr School of Social Work in Johannesburg was given the choiceof ceasing operations after the end of 1959, when its subsidy was terminated, or ofcontinuing to run the school as a private institution. It was forced on financialgrounds to accept the former alternative.The Department of Bantu Education continued the training of those students onlywho had already enrolled and were due to complete their courses atthe endof1960. It has provided social science courses, which commenced in 1960, at thenew university colleges. No new African social science students were admitted tothe open universities as from the date these colleges opened.The result will be that fromthe end of 1960 (or later in the cases only of Africanstudents already enrolled at the open universities before that year)until the firststudents qualify at the new colleges, there will be a gap in the production of newAfrican social workers.PROPOSED TECHNICAL SCHOOL FOR COLOURED STUDENTSThe Minister of the Interior announced(31) during March that the Department ofColoured Affairs had been entrusted with the(30) Cols. 1345, 1352, 1371.(31) Senate, 23 March 1960, Hansard 6 col. 1221.

A SURVEY OF RACE226

RELATIONS: 1959-60 227planning of a technical high school for Coloured students, to be builtat Athlone,near Cape Town.STUDENTS ATTENDING TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONALCLASSESAccordingto the Annual Report of the Department of Education, Arts andScience for 1959,(12) during the previous year 590 full-time and 3,714 part-timeNon-White students were attending the M.L. Sultan Technical College in Durban.The other technical colleges, catering mainly for Whites, had 7,856 full-time and41,271 part-time students, and 11,366 enrolled for correspondence classes.Altogether there were 726 persons taking preparatory classes (Std. VI and below),26,851 technical students, 13,087 commercial students, and 4,429 studyingdomestic science.THE UNIVERSITIES AND UNIVERSITY COLLEGESENROLMENT AT UNIVERSITIES IN 1958It is stated in the report quoted above that in June 1958 the enrolmentat SouthAfrican universities was as follows:Universityof Cape Town ......N atal ... ... ...Orange Free State Potchefstroom ...Pretoria ... ... ...Rhodes ....... ...Stellenbosch ......Witwatersrand ... University College of Fort Hare University of South Africa...... (correspondence courses)Whites Coloured Asians Africans4,408 388 127 372,530 31 373 1881.709 - - _1,474 6,324 1,098 3,694 4,7566,14473 320 1,17932,137 704 1,318 1,797The homesof 314 of these students (251 of them enrolled with the University ofSouth Africa) were outside the Union or SouthWest Africa.(32) U.G. 11/1960.

228 A SURVEY OF RACEDEGREES AND DIPLOMAS AWARDED TO NON-WHITESTUDENTS IN 1958According to the same report, the degrees and diplomas awarded to Non-Whitestudents in 1958 were:Coloured

B.A .... ... ... .... ... ... 20B .Sc .... ... ... ... .... ... 13B.Comm .... ... ... ......B.Ed . ................ 1B. Electrical Engineering B. Civil Engineering ...... B. Social Science .........M.B. Ch.B ................ 6B.A. (Hons.) .............M.A ...................M .Sc._ .__ ... ... 1M. Electrical EngineeringLL.B.LL 1 .. . ... *. ' . ...Diplomas and certificates:Theology .......... 2Agriculture ......Librarianship ......... 2 Secondary school teachers 15 Primary school teachers1Asians2674 1 12041Africans98 211318 3 1 11-- 10-- 54 3961 68 192ADMISSION OF NON-WHITE STUDENTS TO UNIVERSITYCOLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES IN 1960Admissions to the new university collegesAt the beginning of the year underreview the University College of the WesternCape was opened at Bellville South to cater for Coloured students, and two newuniversity colleges were opened for Africans- the University College of the Northat Turfloop, near Pietersburg, which is mainly for Sotho students, and theUniversity College of Zululand at Ngoya for the Zulu and Swazi groups. NewAfrican students admitted to Fort Hare were selected mainly from the Xhosagroup. Descriptions of the new colleges are given on page 237.

In mid-1960 the University College of the Western Cape had one Asian and 169Coloured students, studying for degrees in arts, science, commerce, or diplomasin education or librarianship. One student was doing post-graduate work.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 229The University College of the North had 88 students taking arts or sciencecourses, or studying for diplomas in education, social work or commerce, or adiploma for traders. Forty-one students had been enrolled at the UniversityCollege of Zululand, and were studying for degrees in arts or socialscience, or fordiplomas in education or commerce.The Minister of Education, Arts and Science said in the Assembly on 9February33) that the Government intended establishing a university college inDurban for Asians by 1961. According to a later statement, this collegeis to betemporarily housed in buildings formerly used by the Navy on Salisbury Island.Professor S. P. Olivier of the University of Cape Town has been appointedRector.Admissions to the Natal Medical School and the University ofSouth AfricaAll the suitably qualified students who could be accommodated were admitted tothe Natal Medical School for NonWhites, and there were naturally norestrictionson Non-White students enrolling for correspondence courses with the Universityof South Africa.Admission of Non-White students to the open universitiesNon-White students who had commenced studying at the open universities in1959 or earlier were permitted to continue their courses, provided that theyqualified on academic grounds for re-admission. According to the Minister ofEducation, Arts and Science3') the numbers of Coloured and Asianstudents whowere re-admitted were:Coloured AsianUniversity ofCape Town ....... 361 70Natal .......... 39 355the Witwatersrand 1 32No statistics relating to Africans were given. As will be indicated below,theMinister's figures do not tally with those supplied to the Institute of RaceRelations by the universities concerned.He also said(5) that 127 Coloured and 562 Asians had applied to him forpermission to enrol for the first time at one or other of the open universities. Hehad granted all the applications from Asians because no university college forthem had as yet been established, but had refused permission to 48 of theColoured(33) Hansard 4 cols. 1136-7.(34) Assembly, 12 April 1960, Hansard 13 cols. 5328-9.(35) Speech quoted above, alsoAssembly 22 March, Hansard 10 cols. 3823-4.

students because alternative facilities existed. Of those whose applications wererefused, 38 wished to attend Cape Town University, four the University of Nataland six the University of the Witwatersrand.The universities themselves, for academic reasons, refused admission to numbersof the students whose applications had been approved by the Minister. Accordingto the Minister 32 Coloured and 395 Asian students were enrolled for thefirsttime at open universities in 1960, but it appears that these figures are incorrect.Hesaid, for example, that 22 Coloured and 26 Asian students had been admitted toCape Town University, but the University itself informed the Institute that thesenumbers were 43 and 71respectively (it included Malays in the Asian group).The Universities state that the total numbers of Coloured and Asianstudentsenrolled in mid-1960, including both new and previous enrolments, were:Coloured AsianUniversity of Cape Town....... 326 139. . Natal .......... 46 561. . the Witwatersrand 30 184University College of Fort Hare ... 49 66The Minister of Bantu Education pursued a far less liberal policy than did hiscolleague. He said on 26 April36) that he had received 190 applicationsfromAfricans for permission to enrol at open universities, and had approved four ofthem only. Five further cases had not then been decided. His reasons for refusingthe rest were that the courses for which the students wished to enrol wereavailable at a Bantu university college, or the Natal Non-White Medical School,or, by means of correspondence, at the University of South Africa. The Instituteof Race Relations and others pointed outthat students who were forced to studythrough correspondence classes were having unnecessary difficulties placed intheir way. In particular, attention was drawn to the difficulties that law studentswho had obtained B.A. degrees at Fort Hare would experience in attemptingLL.B. degrees through correspondence classes. Seven of the unsuccessfulapplicants had wished to study engineering at the University of theWitwatersrand: permission was refused because, in the Minister's opinion, therewere as yet "noprospects of employment for qualified Bantu engineers"37) (inspite of all the development work in progress in urban African townships). TheJohannesburg City Council was forced to cancel a bursary it haddecided to awardfor this course.(36) Assembly,Hansard 15 col. 6015.437) Statement by the Department's Chief Information Officer as reported in theSunday Times, 7 February 1960.230A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 231Again, it would appear that for academic reasons some of the successfulapplicants were refused by the universities themselves. So far as can beascertained by the Institute, only two new African students were accepted- one to

study music at the University of Cape Town, and the other to do a post-graduatearts course at the University of the Witwatersrand.In 1960 there were 82 African students at the University of Natal whowerecontinuing courses commenced prior to 1960 (excluding the students atthe NatalMedical School), 51at the University of the Witwatersrand, and 26 at Cape TownUniversity. Besides these, there were the two newly-admitted Africans.REGULATIONS FOR THE BANTU UNIVERSITY COLLEGESSenates, Boards, etc.In terms of Government Notices 25 to 27 of 8January 1960, African advisoryboards were constituted for the three university colleges. Their duties andfunctions, and the allowances payable to members, were set out in R 311 of 4March.R 1445 of 23 September dealt with the powers and duties of theSenate of theUniversity College of the North, and R 1446 of the same date set out regulationsfor faculty boards at the two new colleges.Admission, control and dismissal of studentsRules have been gazetted, too, for the admission, control and dismissal of studentsat the three Bantu university colleges38 Some of these rules are normal ones, withwhich students at any institution must comply, for example those relating to thepayment of fees, production of certificates serving as entrancerequirements,regular attendance at lectures, payment for damage caused to college property,etc.Other regulations are less usual, for example:1. Students may not leave the college precincts without permission from theHostel Superintendent or a representativedulyauthorized by the Rector.2 Any student organization or organizational work in whichstudents are concerned is subject to the prior approval of theRector.13b) e.g. G.N. 2049 of 18 December 1959 in respect of the University College oftheNorth, and R. 59 of 15 February 1960 in respect of the University Collegeof Zululand.

A SURVEY OF RACE3. No meetings may be held in the grounds of the College withoutpermission from the Rector. Approved student committees may meet inaccordance with the rules of the constitution ofthe body concerned.4. No magazine, publication or pamphlet for which students arewholly or partly responsible may be circulated without the permissionof theRector in consultation with the AdvisorySenate and the Senate.5. No statement may be given to the Press by or on behalf ofthe students without the Rector's permission.6. The Rector may, after consultation with the Advisory Senate

and the Senate, suspend or dismiss a student who, in the opinion of the Rector,infringes these regulations or anyparticular regulation or is guilty of misconduct.In case of serious irregularity which in the opinion of the Rector justifiesimmediate action he may, in his discretion, take such action and thereafter reportto the Council.Additional regulations for Fort Hare studentsAs will be described below there was unrest among the students of Fort Hareduring 1960. Thereafter, revised and very detailed regulations were gazetted.incorporating newprovisions.39'Students are now required each year to apply for permission to report forregistration, and with the application form must be sent a testimonialof goodconduct by a minister of religion, a Bantu Affairs Commissioner or a magistrate.(Students at the other Bantu colleges are required to send "testimonials ofgoodconduct to the satisfaction of the college authorities"). The application foradmission form, in the case of Fort Hare students, states, "If I qualify for suchregistration I solemnly undertake and promise that I will strictly comply with allthe rules and regulations of the college. and that I will submit to any disciplinarymeasures that may be taken against me in accordance with the said regulations".The applicant's signature must be witnessed by his parent or guardian and by acommissioner of oaths.A section of the form must be completed by the parent or guardian, who isrequired to undertake to pay the fees in advance, to accept liability for anydamage the applicant may cause to college property, and to agree that theapplicant will be subject to the disciplinary regulations of the college and will beexpected to perform such duties in the hostel as may be allocated to him by(39) R 1444 of 23 September 1960.

the staff. The parent or guardian is also required to accept liability for the full feesfor any semester during which his child or ward may be expelled.Some of the new regulations are:1. If in the opinion of the Minister it is not in the interests of theinstitution to register a candidate, he may refuse registration even ifthe candidatecomplies with all the other conditions ofregistration.2. The Fort Hare regulations published towards the end of 1959stated that no student or person not underthe jurisdiction of the college may beupon the college grounds as a visitor without the permission of theRector or hisduly authorized representative, and then only on such conditions asmay bedetermined.The new regulations repeat this provision, and add thatno Fort Hare student or group of students may visit any other institutionwithoutthe permission of the Rector and of the institution concerned, and then only onsuch conditions as maybe determined.

3. Students who contravene theregulations, or are guilty of misconduct ordisobedience or insubordination are to be brought before a collegedisciplinecommittee of which the Rector is chairman. Legal representation will not beallowed at the enquiry, and the procedure will be as determined by the Rector.Should the student admit his guilt or be found guilty, theRector may:(a) expel him permanently or for a specified period;(b) suspend him from stated activities or privileges for aspecified period;(c) limit his freedomof movement;(d) if the student is a bursary holder, recommend the cancellation or reduction ofhis bursary;(e) demand payment of such sum as is calculated to compensate for any damageor costs wilfully or negligently caused to college property or toany person as aresult ofan offence.Should a student be expelled, the Rector must report to the ExecutiveCommitteeof the Council and to the Minister. If the expelled student considers he has beenwronged, he must nevertheless leave the college within 24 hours. He has the rightwithin 14 days to make such representations to theMinister as he deems fit, sending a copy to the Rector.In the event of any serious irregularity which in theopinion of the Rector requires immediate action, he maytake such steps as heconsiders necessary, as soon as possibleRELATIONS: 1959-60233

234 A SURVEY OF RACEthereafter submitting a report to the Executive committee andthe Minister.The Minister, after consultation with the Executive Committee, may confirm orset aside the expulsion or impose lesserpunishment.4. As is mentioned later, a dispute arose during 1960 aboutthe constitution of the Students' Representative Council, which was then dissolvedby the students. The new regulations state that after consultation with theSenateand approval by the Council, the Rector may establish student orhostelcommittees, nominate primarii or student officers, or cause themto be elected.Regulations in respect of fees at the Bantu university collegesR 1447 of 23 September 1960 set out the fees payable at the three universitycolleges, including tuition and board and lodging, but excluding the cost of booksand stationery, fees for any subjects taken in addition to the minimumrequirements for the course, fees for supplementary examinations, and registrationand examination fees payable to the University of South Africa for anycourses

taken on a correspondence basis with that University (i.e. courses as yet notavailable at the Bantu university college concerned).The fees payable per annum are:Fort Hare Other collegesB.A., B.Sc .... ... ... ....... £90 £90U.E.D.. ................. £92 N/AB.Ed ..................... £80 £80Hons. degrees, M.A., M.Sc. ... £804) £80(40)Bantu Education Diploma ... £55 £55Other diploma courses institutedby Dept. of Bantu Administration and Development ... £60 £60Regulations in respect of study loansR 1447 of 23 September also dealt with study loans, stating that applications mustbe made to the Registrar of the college concerned, and will be considered by theCouncil and forwarded with a recommendation to the Secretary for BantuEducation.The amounts of the loans were not stated, but, according to information furnishedby the University College of the North. these are:Degree courses ... £50 a year, or in exceptional cases £60.Diploma courses in commerce and for traders- £50 p.a.Diploma course for teachers-in-service- £40 p.a.Bantu Education Diploma- £40 p.a.(40) Plus £10 if laboratory facilities are used.

The applicant must sign an agreement form. If he is training to be a teacher hemust undertake after leaving college toserve for five years in a school controlledor approved by the Department. If he is taking any other course he must agree, ifhis qualification is considered to render him suitable for employmentby the BantuEducation Department, the Department of Bantu Administration andDevelopment, the S.A. Native Trust or a Bantu authority, to accept suchemployment and to serve for five years. Should he not be offeredsuch a postwithin six months after qualifying, he may enter other employment.Loans are repayablesix months after assuming duty or entering employment; butthe Department may agree to repayment in instalments over a longer period. If itdoes, then interest at the rate of five per cent per annum must be paid onoutstanding balances. If the student is employed by one of the departments orauthorities mentioned above, this body has the right to recover the loan ininstalments from the employee's salary.Should the recipient of a loan fail to attend classes regularly or to pursue hisstudies conscientiously, or to make satisfactory progress, or to accept a postoffered or to render uninterrupted service in it, or should he behave in a mannerwhich in the Minister's opinion is unbecoming to the profession he desires tofollow, the Department may cancel theagreement. If this should be done the loanis repayable immediately, together with interest at ten per cent per annum fromthe date the loan was made.UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF FORT HARE TRANSFER AMENDMENT

ACT, No. 62 OF 1960The University College of Fort Hare Transfer Act, No. 64 of 1959, provided thatstudents registered during the year preceding the date when the college wastransferred to the control of the Bantu Education Department (1 January 1960)might write the examinations of Rhodes University, for which they werepreparing. Students subsequently registered would write the examinations of theUniversity of South Africa or, in the case of certain diploma courses, theexaminations of the college itself.The wording of this provision had an unintended effect, preventing students whohad attended Fort Hare previously but who for some reason were not registeredduring 1959 from continuing to prepare themselves for the examinations ofRhodes University. The Minister of Bantu Education said in the Assembly(1) thatsome African students after a year or two at college were forced to leave for atime to earn the money for(41) 13 May 1960, Hansard 17 cols. 7536-7.RELATIONS: 1959-60235

A SURVEY OF RACEcontinuing. Four such students had returned to Fort Hare in 1960, one of themneeding only one subject to complete his B.A. degree.The Amendment Act of 1960 provided that not only students registered in 1959,but also previously-registered students, may write the examinations and obtain thedegrees of Rhodes University.DEVELOPMENTS AT FORT HARE DURING 1960It was mentioned in last year's Survey 42) that Professor H. R. Burrows was notre-appointed as Principal of Fort Hare when the Bantu Education Departmenttook over control, being replaced by Professor J. J. Ross from the University ofthe Orange Free State.Two other members of staff were not re-appointed- Professor L. Blackwell (Law)and Lady Agnew (senior lecturer in Geography). Two professors (English andHistory), a senior lecturer, a lecturer, the registrar and the librarian weredismissed by the Department. being deemed to have retired on superannuation.They received their provident and pension benefits.Other members of staff resigned, among them Professor Z. K. Matthews,Dr. M.Webb, Mr. S. B. Ngcobo, Mr. C. L. C. S. Nyembezi and Mr. A. M. Phahle (allProfessors or Senior Lecturers). They were paid gratuities, butforfeited theirpension rights!")3Eleven students were not re-admitted in 1960. The Minister of BantuEducationsaid(") that their re-admission "was not considered by me to be in the best interestof the college because of their activities in 1959". Two of these were post-graduate students, one had completed eight university courses,two had completedseven courses, one had completed six courses, and the rest had passedfourcourses or less.The Students' Representative Council continued in being, but its oldconstitutionwas inappropriate and members were uncertain of their standing. TheS.R.C. was

not permitted to continue its affiliation to the National Union of S.A. Students(NUSAS). All this caused dissatisfaction. During September 1960 the Presidentand President-Elect of NUSAS visited Fort Hare to discuss the matter. The Rectorwould not allow themto address a mass meeting of students on the campus, buteventually agreed to their meeting the S.R.C.That evening a public meeting, attended mainly by students, was held away fromthe college premises, in Alice. Indignation was expressed at the ban onaffiliationwith NUSAS and the ambiguous(42) Page 276.(43) Minister of Bantu Education, Assembly 12 February 1960, Hansard 4cols.1403-4.(44) Assembly, 8 March, Hansard 8 col. 2927. and 3 May. Hansard16 cols. 6530-1.

status of theS.R.C. Next day there was a near-revolt at the college, meetings ofprotest being held and demonstrations staged in the dining halls. The studentsdecided to dissolve the S.R.C. pending the drawing up of a new constitution.The college authorities quelled the disturbance by demanding, on a penalty ofdismissal, that every student should sign a declaration reaffirming his acceptanceof the college regulations. A few days later the revised and more stringentregulations, described above, were gazetted.THE TWO NEW BANTU UNIVERSITY COLLEGESA brief description of the buildings to be provided at the new university colleges,at a final cost of about £400,000 in each case, was given in last year's Survey.4)Representatives of the Institute of Race Relationsvisited the colleges in April andJune 1960, respectively, and reported favourably on the lecturehalls, hostels anddining halls, which are of attractive design, and on the equipment being provided.At the time of these visits, the building programme was incomplete at theUniversity College of the North (at Turfloop), and in the early stagesonly at theUniversity College of Zululand. Eventually each college will have anadministrative building, eight blocks of lecture halls and offices, a very largedining hall also used as a recreational centre, a library, a students' union building,and 25 hostels, each accommodating twenty students. Playing fields are being laidout.The college at Turfloop had 88 students during 1960, of the Sotho, Venda andTsongagroups. Both official languages are used by lecturers. The students weretaking first-year arts or science courses, or studying for diplomas in social work,commerce (a course for teachers-in-service) or a diploma course for traders. Afew of the arts andscience students intended eventually taking their degrees, butduring 1960 the majority were studying for the Bantu Education Diploma (fivedegree courses plus professional training), designed to prepareteachers forworking in the first three classes ofsecondary schools. The post-graduate UnionEducation Diploma course will be introduced later.The Zululand college had only 41 students in 1960, seven of them intending totake degrees in arts or social science, and the rest studying for the Bantu

Education Diploma or the teachers' diploma in commerce. A science course willbe introduced in 1961. The medium of instruction is English.(45) Page 278,RELATIONS: 1959-60237

238 A SURVEY OF RACEThe fees at thesecolleges are low in comparison with those at the openuniversities, but on the other hand generous remissions of fees were granted toneedy Non-White students particularly at the University of Natal. Furthermore,the large majority of the students at the new colleges will have to live in and payhostel fees, whereas Non-White students attending the open universities couldlive at home or with friends, and could take part-time jobs to help cover theirexpenses.The college regulations, providing for strictcontrol of the activities of students,are summarized on page 231. Both Rectors state that S.R.C.'s will be formed at alater stage. During 1960 the Zululand college had a student council, composed ofa nominated primarius and two elected students from each hostel. The college atTurfloop had merely a nominated primarius at each hostel. Affiliation to NUSASor other student bodies was not permitted in either case.The Zululand college is isolated from other higher educational institutions. Atneither college is intellectual contact with students of other ethnic groupspossible.UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF PIUS XII, BASUTOLANDMembers of the Institute of Race Relations also visited the University College ofPius XII in the Roma Valley in Basutoland, run by the Catholic Church, at which76 African students from South Africa were studying. A description of thiscollege was issued as RR 160/60.UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF THE WESTERN CAPEThe University College of the Western Cape, catering for Coloured, Malay,Griqua and Cape Asian students, was opened in March 1960 at Bellville-Southnear Cape Town in temporary premises formerly occupied by a school. A largesite has been set aside nearby on which permanent buildings are to be erected.By mid-1960 there were one Asian and 169 Coloured and Malay students, onetaking a post-graduate course, 34 studying for a B.A., 70 for a B.Sc., 1 for aB.Comm., 58 for teachers' diplomas, and 6 for a diploma in librarianship. Bothofficial languages are used by lecturers. Coursesin law, social science andpharmacy are to be introduced in 1961.Pending the erection of hostels, a Coloured teacher has opened a hostel in twolarge dwelling houses where about 50 male students are living.The regulations for students&460 are similar to those at the two new Bantuuniversity colleges (see page 231).(4) R, 239 of 19 February 1960.

BURSARIES AND STUDY LOANS FOR NON-WHITE STUDENTS

In the State Estimates of Expenditure for the year ending 31 March 1961(4") theBantu EducationDepartment has set aside £11,500 for bursaries and loans toAfrican students, and the Department of Education, Arts and Science hasallocated £5,975 for bursaries to Non-White medical students.Several new types of bursaries have been announced during the year underreview. Ten bursaries for higher education have, for example, been awarded bythe Hajee Suliman Ebrahim Charitable Trust. The World University Serviceoffered scholarships tenable at the open universities; but, as is described above,the admission of new Non-White students to these universities in 1960 wasstrictly controlled.Between its inception in 1955 and early 1960 the Isaacson Foundation BursaryFund, administered by the Institute of Race Relations, awarded 309loans orgrants for matriculation, university or specialist vocational courses, amountingto£18,320. Forty-one new bursaries for study at universities and 67 for generalschooling were granted at the beginning of 1960.NIGHT SCHOOLS AND CONTINUATION CLASSESDuring the yearending 31 March 1960, the State set aside £156,500 forsubsidizing continuation classes for Whites, £4,800 for subsidiesfor Colouredcontinuation classes, and £10,000 for African night schools and continuationclasses48 (Night schools provide primary education, and continuation classespost-primary education.)The new and cumbersome regulations introduced for African schools and classeswere described in an earlier issue of this Survey.(") As a result, all those in theDurban area closed down (except forcourses conducted in the M. L. SultanTechnical College). Inter alia, all schools and classes with ten ormore pupils wererequired to register with the Department of Bantu Education, andit was decidedthat those permitted to operate in the "White" areasof towns would have to befinanced privately, no subsidies being payable.There were extremely long delays before the Department replied toapplicationsfor registration and, in the cases of schools in African areas, for subsidies. As aresult, many ofthe latter(47) U.G. 1/1960, 8/1960, 9/1960.(48) U.G. 1/1960 and 9/1960.(49) 1957-58, Page 204.RELATIONS: 1959-60239

schools closed down because of financial difficulties. Some schools and classes inthe Cape Town and Witwatersrand areashave now been granted registration, butthe organizers of eight schools in White suburbs of Pretoria obtained no reply.Then, during February 1960, a Departmental official ruled that these schools mustclose until further notice. They catered for domesticservants and other Africansaccommodated in the "White" areas, who found it impractical to travel out to theAfrican townships in the evenings to attend classes.The Indian Women's Literacy Association in the Natal coastal area,which isprivately financed, was running 26 groups, catering for 139 pupils, during 1959.

The assistance given by the then Adult Education Department of the Institute ofRace Relations with the preparation of specialized literacy materialhas beendescribed in previous years. This Department later became independent of theInstitute, and has worked with the Continuation Committee of the South AfricanChurches Conferences in setting up a Bureau of Literacy and Literature.AFRICAN LITERACY RATEAccording to the 1951 census, only32.5 per cent of the Africans in the Unioncould then read or write in English, Afrikaans or an African language. TheDepartment of Bantu Education estimates that by 1958 this literacy rate had risento 35 per cent.("°)HEALTH AND NUTRITIONVITAL STAT ISTICSVital statistics for the White, Coloured and Asian sections of the population in1958 are given in the official publication Union Statistics for Fifty Years, togetherwith international comparisons and the expectation of life for newlyborn childrenof the three racial groups mentioned.There are no equivalent official figures relating to Africans because so many ofthem fail to register births and deaths, especially in rural areas. Registration ismore complete in the towns, but even there largenumbers of births are notrecorded.(50) Bantu Education Journal, May 1960, article by Miss M. C. E. Vegter.240A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 241For purposes of comparison with other groups average figures for seven of thelarger towns are given in the table that follows; but it is likely that because not allthe births are registered the birth rate given is too low and the infant mortality rateis inflated.Birth and death rates WhitesBirth rate per 1,000 of the population 24.5 Ex-nuptial births as a percentage ofthe total births ... ... ... ... ... 1.6)eath rate per 1,000 of the population 8.6 Infant death rate per 1,000 live births29.4United Kingdor United States of Sweden ... ... .Canada .......Japan ..........Portugal .......Coloured Asians Africans47.0 30.8 36.836.816.9 132.3Some International comparisons (1955-57)Birth rate Death raten ... ... ... ... ... 16.0 11.6America ......... 24.8 9.4

............... ... 14.7 9.7

.. ... ... ... ... ... 24.9 8.2

.. ... ... ... ... ... 18.4 8.0

......I...... ... 23.4 11.6Expectation of life for aWhites ......Coloured ......Asians ......newly-born child in SouthMale... ... ... 64.57... ...... 44.82... ... ... 55,77AfjFe 7C 47 542.8 36.18.2 16.3 65.1 180.8Infant death rate24.7 26.2 17.4 31.4 40.2 88.7rica, 1950-52 nale.08 .77 .72MEDICAL SERVICESCOMMISSION OF ENQUIRY INTO COSTSIt was announced during January 1960) that the Minister of Healthhad appointeda commission to enquire into the high costs of medical services and medicines,and to investigate means by which these costs couldbe reduced. The chairmanwas Professor H. W. Snyman, dean of the Medical Faculty of the University ofPretoria.MEDICAL SERVICES AVAILABLEThe publication Union Statistics for Fifty Years gave information about themedical personnel and hospital bedsin the Union in(1) Star, 5 January 1960.

242 A SURVEY OF RACE1958 or 1957, as follows (more recent figures having been substituted in the casesof medical practitioners and students, and nurses):19591958- 7,7894161,37122,690- 1,4331,072 1,3061912,847

435 1957- 11,7911,176438medical practitioners internsmedical students trained nurses medical specialists (included in number ofmedical practitioners given above) medicalauxiliaries dentistsdental students chemists and druggists chemists' apprentices midwives mentalnurses male nursesThe Bureau of Census and Statistics stated that its information in regard tohospital beds was not necessarily exhaustive, and did notinclude mentalhospitals. Available information, relating to the year 1958, was:Public hospitals ... ... ...Mission hospitals .........Mine and industrial hospitalsInfectious diseases hospitals ...Private nursing homes ......Maternityhomes .........These hospitals were staffed by:Matrons and trained nurses ...Probationer nurses .........Hospital beds for: Whites Non-Whites11,547 17,255158 8,960340 11,1712,118 10,0675,568 1,4341,804 85621,535 49,743Whites6,197' 9,23215,429Non-Whites2,766 10,61613,382Since 1958 the hospital facilities have been considerably extended. In theTransvaal alone, for example, a new hospital for Non-Whites was recently openedat Nylstroom, and new hospitals, also for Non-Whites, are to be provided atNatalspruit (Germiston) and on the West Rand near Krugersdorp.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 243CLINICSDuring May 1960 the TransvaalProvincial Administration decided to charge feesfor treatment at curative clinics. Depending on the patient's means, amountsranging from 5/- to 15/- were to be paid by Whites, and sums varying from 2/6 to10/- by NonWhites. Patients who produced documentary evidence from amagistrate to the effect that they had no incomes would continue to beentitled to

free treatment; and clinic doctors would be empowered to waive full payment incases where lengthy treatment was required.During June the attendance at such clinics in the Johannesburg African townshipsdropped to one-third of the figures for the corresponding period during theprevious year. Although treatment at the municipal child welfare and ante-natalclinics continued to be free, there was some falling off in attendance due to fearthat fees might be imposed there too. The Rand Daily Mail pointed out inaleading article(') that most Africans who paid the fee would in consequence haveto reduce their budgets for food. If the people stayed away because they could notafford the charge, epidemics might result. In either case there wasa hidden cost tothe community that might outweigh the fees collected, that were expected toamount to £14,000 a year.According to a reported statement by the Johannesburg Medical Officer ofHealth,() the attendance increased during July to 36 per cent of the previousfigure. It would probably stabilize at a higher level, but there was as yet noindication of what that level would be.The control of clinics in theAfrican Reserves is increasingly being handed over toBantu Regional Authorities. In a statement made in the Senate on 30 March1960(4) the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development said that duringthe previous year these authorities had taken over68 existing clinics and hadestablished six new ones. They were planning to establish 36 additional clinicsduring the next twelve months.TREATMENT OF SPECIFIC DISEASESTuberculosisDuring the financial year 1960-61 the State voted £3,772,000 for anti-tuberculosiswork, including subsidies to SANTA and other bodies.According to a Press report,() planned extensions to the Dr. Henry BernsteinChest Hospital at Sharpeville, although(2) Issue of 16 June.(3) Rand Daily Mail, 9 September 1960.(4) Hansard 7 col. 1532.(2) Rand Daily Mall, 8 June 1960.

approved in principle by the Department of Health, were vetoed bytheDepartment of Bantu Administration and Development, which stated thatwherever possible African TB cases should betreated in hospitals in AfricanReserves.Dr. Bernstein, the Vereeniging Medical Officer of Health, is reported to havecommented that to send an African even ten miles away from his home imposedhardships both on him and his family. During the past year330 new cases of TBhad been reported in the area-"a formidable figure". More cases than ever beforewere being treated, but they were being sent back to the same unsatisfactory homeconditions and relapses were inevitable.In the attempt to avoid suchrelapses and to prevent the families of patients fromcontracting the disease, feeding schemes have been introduced at some centres.The Alexandra AntiTuberculosis Association, for example, provides each contact

family with a weekly food-parcel. The Peri-Urban Areas Health Board hasrecently decided to assist by supplying out-patients with rations.Eye diseasesThe S.A. Bureau for the Prevention of Blindness is continuing to treat about60,000 Africans in the Northern and North-Western Transvaal who aresufferingfrom trachoma. Ointments are being used, but it is hoped to develop a vaccinewhich will be more effective. The Bureau is planning to extend its work to theTranskei and Ciskei, where one of the major causes of blindness is cataract56)Other diseasesDuring 1960 the S.A. National Cancer Association undertook an intensivecampaign to make the public aware that most forms of cancer are curable ifcaught in the early stages.The Polio Research Foundation has developed an oral polio vaccine which, at thetime of writing, was being made available for general use.A first clinic for Non-White patients has been opened in Johannesburg by theCerebral Palsy Association of S.A.As a result of improved methods of treatment, there has been a markeddecline inthe number of sufferers from leprosy. The Minister of Health said during January106007 that there were only 32 White patients, and slightly more ihan1,600NonWhites, in South African leper institutions.(6) Ibid, 23 December 1959.(7) Senate, 28 January 1960. Hansard 2 col. 239.244A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 245BLOOD TRANSFUSION SERVICESLengthy regulations for blood transfusion services were gazetted on 20 May 1960,in terms of R699. It was laid down, inter alia, that blood donor societies orbranches which recruit both White and Non-White blood donors must beorganized into separate racial divisions so that Whites and Non-Whites are bledseparately and separate records are kept.The race of the donor must be printed onlabels attached to containers of blood. It was not, however, made compulsory fora patient to be given the blood of a donor of his own race.NUTRITIONVOLUNTARY FEEDING SCHEMESAs has been mentioned inprevious years, school feeding schemes have been veryconsiderably curtailed, especially so far as Africans are concerned. This matter isdealt with in the previous chapter.Numerous voluntary feeding schemes continue in being, for examplethe CapePeninsula School Feeding Association, which caters for children of all racialgroups, and the African Children's Feeding Scheme in Johannesburg. During1959 the latter organization spent an average of £2,220 a month. Itoperatedthirteen feeding centres at which approximately 3,000 children a day received twoslices of brown bread spread with enriched peanut butter, and a pint of skimmedmilk. Each child who could afford it paid Id., the balance of the costs, amounting

to 2d. or 3d., being met by the Scheme. A mobile van had been purchased, whichtravelled along set routes and fed about 900 more children daily. Besides this, thediet of more than 1,700 children in 25 creches was supplemented, and 17,500children in 39 schools were given puzamandhla to drink-this is a fermented product based on mealie meal and fortified with specialreference to the protein, vitamin and calorific content.A Malnutrition Relief Committee has been set up in Durban to buy milk forundernourished African babies. The Bloemfontein Joint Council raised money foran African school feeding scheme, but was not permitted to operate this. Instead ithas established two distribution centres in the African township at which, at theend of 1959, about a thousand children of indigent parents were being given someaddition to their diet on every school day.

ANNOUNCEMENT BY THE PRIME MINISTERThe Prime Minister announced on 12 September 19608) that attentionwas beinggiven to the provision of more nutritious food for Africans. This would not onlycontribute towards raising their standard of health, but would increase thecountry's productivity.Apart from the possibility of employers themselves providing at least onenutritious meal a day, an intensive propaganda campaign among the Africanscould result in a better-balanced diet for them. Discussions with this in view weretaking place.Special attention was being given to the possibility of making better use ofavailable protein foods.WELFARETHE CHILDREN'S ACT, NO. 33 OF 1960GENERAL PROVISIONSThe Children's Act of 1960 is a consolidating and amendment measure, draftedwith the assistance of several Government departments and welfare organizations.In general, it improved the machinery for the care of children.A children's court, for example, may now impose such requirements as it maydetermine on a child brought before it and the child's parents or guardian.Children of fourteen years or over may be ordered to go to attendance centres fortreatment in order that they maybe disciplined or rehabilitated. The object,according to the Deputy Minister of Social Welfare and Pensions(') isto ensurethat a child remains with its parents wherever possible, rather than being sent toan institution. The salary of a parent may be attached for the maintenance of achild. Mothers, as well as fathers, may be deprived of their parentalpowers if theydesert or habitually ill-treat or neglect to maintain their children. New provisionsare included designed to prevent the "black market" inillegitimate children.The medical superintendent of a hospital is empowered to consent to an operationon a minor in cases of extreme urgency if. after consultation with another medicalpractitioner, he is of the opinion that the operation should not be deferred for thepurpose(8) Rand Daily Mail report, 13 September.(1) Assembly. 4 February 1960, Hansard 3 cols. 959-975.

A SURVEY OF RACE246

of obtaining the consent of the parent or guardian. The law relating t,, theadoption of childrenis simplified in cases where one or both parents are dead, orhave deserted the child, or have been declared habitual criminals, orare mentallydefective.ADMINISTRATION OF THE ACT, AS IT AFFECTS AFRICANS, TO BETRANSFERRED TO THE DEPARTMENT OFBANTU ADMINISTRATION AND DEVELOPMENTThe Minister of Bantu Administration and Development is empowered toestablish Bantu children's courts. In areas where this has not beendone, the BantuAffairs Commissioner's court will automatically be a Bantu children's court. ThisMinister may also appoint officials to undertake the duties of commissioners ofchild welfare in respect of African children.Where Africans are concerned, reference in any provision of the Act to a divisionof the Supreme Court is to be construed as a reference to the appropriate NativeAppeal Court; but there will still be the right of appeal from a decision of thelatter to the Supreme Court2)ETHNOLOGICAL GROUPING OF A CHILD IN NEED OFCARE TO BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNTUnder the earlierAct, a child's religious denomination had to be taken intoaccount when he was placed in the custody of foster parents or sent to a children'shome (other than a statutory home). In terms of the new measure, regard mustalso be paid to the child's cultural background, ethnological background andnationality.3'Regulations made by the competent Minister under the Act may now differ inrespect of persons belonging to different classes or races.") No such provisionexisted in the earlier Act.PROPOSALTHAT CHILDREN CLASSIFIED IN A DIFFERENTRACIAL GROUP FROM THAT OF THEIR PARENTSMIGHT BE DEEMED "IN NEED OF CARE"As read a first time, the Bill defined a child in need of care as being, inter alia, "achild who has, in terms of the Population Registration Act, 1950 (Act No. 30 of1950), been classified as belonging to a race other than the race of hisparents orguardian if there is in the family a child who belongs to the same race as theparents or guardian".(2) Sections two and six.(3) Sections thirty-five, forty-eight, seventy-one and forty-four.(4) Section ninety-one.RELATIONS: 1959-60247

Introducing the Bill at its Second Reading, the Deputy Minister of SocialWelfareand Pensions announced that he would move the deletion ofthis sub-section inthe committee stage, since it might be misinterpreted. It was a fact, however, he

said, "that sometimes one finds a White child and a Coloured child in the samehouse". The problem was practically confined to one part of the country, "and inorder to give me and the people interested in the matter the opportunity to studythe problem further, in order to see whether we cannot find other ways and meansof coping with this position. I have decided not to go on with this provision"!"NOTES ON THE PARLIAMENTARY DEBATEDuring his Second Reading speech, the Deputy Minister said that there werebetween 5,000 and 6,000 children in institutions in South Africa. A survey hadrevealed that only 1.5 per cent of these children were orphans and only 16.5 percent were semi-orphans (with one parent alive). Thus 82 per cent still had bothparents. The main reason why children came to be in institutions was thebreakingup of their homes. Fully 50 per cent of the parents of children in institutions wereeither divorced or living apart.The second most important reason was the abuse of liquor. If this situationcontinued, more stringent measures would be introduced. Seventyper cent of theparents of children in institutions were in good health mentally and physically.Worst of all was the fact that 35 per cent of the parents were fully capablephysically, financially and mentally, of taking care of their childrenthemselves ifthey wished to do so.The survey had furthermore discredited the theorythat working mothers were thecause of children being in need of care or of ending up in institutions. Only tenper cent of the mothers of children in institutions were working mothers, and eventhen it could not be said that this was the only reason why the child was in theinstitution.Bantu children's courts would be more fitted to deal with African children thanthe ordinary children's courts, the Deputy Minister said, "because theyunderstand their background, language, morals and tradition".") In reply to aquestion in the Assembly on 17 May 1960, the Minister of Bantu Administrationand Development said(7) that with the introduction of Bantu children's courts, hisdepartmental officers would establish direct close contact with social problemsarising out of the delinquent and deviate conduct of urban Bantu youth,and theexperience thus gained would be of assistance in planning satisfactory solutions.(5) Assembly, 4 February 1960, Hansard 3 cols. 973-4.(6) Col. 974.(7) Hansard 18 cols. 7810-1.248A SURVEY OF RACE

When his department took over, on 1 July 1960, eight probation officers would betransferred to it from the Department of Social Welfare, which department wouldrender any necessary professional assistance until the neworganization had beendeveloped.Dr. D. L. Smit of the United Party pointed out(') that in the Transkei, Zululandand parts of the Ciskei Bantu Affairs Commissioners already carried out the workin respect of African children that was done by children'scourts elsewhere. Hefelt that the new system would be an improvement. Bantu Affairs Commissioners

possessed the same legal qualifications as magistrates, and had farwiderexperience of the needs of Africans.On behalf of the Progressive Party, Mr. J. P. Cope(') questioned the wisdom ofmaking urban Bantu Affairs Commissioners responsible for this work. Theircourts were overloaded and, through no fault of the officials, hadan extremelybad name among Africans. Furthermore, Mr. Cope said, he doubtedwhether childwelfare for Africans could be separated from that for Whites. Theproblem was ascientific and social rather than a penal one. The Progressive Party also pointedout<'O that the Bill made no provision for the protection of young Coloured orAfr ican children brought from the rural areas to the cities for domesticemployment.BOARDS OF MANAGEMENT OF AFRICAN CHILDREN'SINSTITUTIONSIn terms of R 1480 of 30 September 1960 the Minister of Bantu Administrationand Development published regulations for boards of management of institutionsfor African children established in terms of the Children's Act (i.e. governmentchildren's homes, schools of industries and reform schools). These are in future toconsist of the Bantu Affairs Commissioner as chairman, and between two andeight other members appointed by the Minister, with the principal of theinstitution as secretary.THE BLIND PERSONS' AMENDMENT ACT, NO. 46 OF 1960The Blind Persons' Amendment Act of 1960 added a new Section twelve bis tothe principal Act empowering the GovernorGeneral to divide the responsibilityfor the administration of this Act as it affects members of different racial groupsbetween various Departments of State.(8) Hansard 4 cols. 1168-9.(9) Cols. 1188-93.(10) Cols. 1115-7.RELATIONS: 1959-60249

In terms of Proclamation No. 252 of 29 July 1960 the administration of theprovisions of the Act which affect Africans was assigned to the Minister of BantuAdministration and Development.When introducingthe Bill at its Second Reading(") the Deputy Minister of SocialWelfare and Pensions pointed out that, in practice, the Department of BantuAdministration and Development had administered pensions for blind Africanssince 1944. The necessary funds had beenprovided on the Pensions Vote and thenhanded over. In future it would appear on the Bantu Administration andDevelopment Vote.The Deputy Minister hinted that the administration of services for theColouredblind might be separated from that of White persons. One of the Colouredrepresentatives asked, if this were done, whether voluntary committees withmixed White and Coloured membership which worked among both groups wouldhave to divide into separate bodies. The Deputy Minister replied,(2)"It will n ot be

done at this stage, although the Act empowers us to do so. It may be done infuture."CONTROL OF SOCIAL WELFARE SERVICES FOR AFRICANSThe Minister of Social Welfare and Pensions said in the Senate on 29 January1960,(") "It is self-evident that the welfare of the Bantu cannot be gaugedaccording to standards which are of application to Europeans. A specializedapproach is needed in this respect which will fit in with the general Bantu policyof the State. The Department of Bantu Administration andDevelopment is theappointed body to do this work."He added that this Department had already assumed the responsibility forchildren's institutions for Africans, including hostels and Places ofSafety, forsending children to such institutions, for maintenance grants, adoption, the care ofthe blind, experimental services, the subsidizing of social workersemployed bylocal authorities, community centres, homes for the aged, detention schools, workclasses and feeding services.CONTROL AND SITING OF INSTITUTIONSCONTROLIt has been mentioned in previous issues of this Survey14) that during 1957 thethen Native Affairs Department sent a circular letter to local authorities andwelfare organizations stating that it(11) Assembly, 4 April 1960, Hansard 12 col. 4825.(12) Col. 4831.(13) Hansard 2 col. 269.(14) 1958-59 page 288, 1956-7 page 36.250A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 251could not approve of the control of social, social welfareor recreational servicesfor Africans by voluntary White bodies or by mixed committees. White personswho were interested in assisting could serve on separate advisory orseparatefund-raising comruittees, but the activities must be conducted by committeesconsisting only of Africans. Sites or buildings in the African townships that wereneeded for these activities must be leased only to allAfrican committees.The Department had no objection to White officials of the State or of thelocalauthority beingco-opted by the African committees in an advisory capacity. Itsuggested that all payments by these committees should be by cheques whichshould be countersigned by a responsible White official.At a meeting held on 8 December 1959 the Johannesburg Planning Council forNon-European Social Welfare adopted the following resolutions:(1) "that this Council is of opinion that it is to the detriment ofSouth Africa as a whole, to attempt to deal with the social welfare problems ofone racial group inseclusion from theother groups;(2) that this Council considers that the Africans are fully capable

of assuming the full range of responsibility connected with socialwelfare work. Anumber of Africans are already successfully fulfilling responsible positions, but itis of opinion that it would be unwise to force such a changeover too quickly.Therefore it asks the Department of Bantu Administration and Development toreconsider the policy with a view to allowing sufficient time, possibly somethingin the nature of a set number of years, to enable suitably qualifiedsuccessors totake over. The agencies should forthwith make it a priority tospeed this changeover;(3) that this Council is of the opinion that the provision forcounter-signing of cheques by an official might lead to a feeling that undueinterference will take place and considers that it may not always be possible forofficials to give the detailed attention necessary to these matters. It thereforeconsiders that the agency concerned should be permitted to choose an officialor any other suitable person to carry out this function;(4) that this Council considers that control and co-operationshould not be limited to officials but should be extended to suitable Europeanswho have proved their capacity in this regard, particularly with a view tomaintaining the essential link between the agency and the European fund-raisingbodies;

(5) that this Council draws attention to the need for providing forpractical training ofsocial workers in urban areas, which willbe the main field of their future activities;(6) that this Council places on record its conviction that the problems of the urbanAfricans cannot be solved in the ruralareas".During the year under review the Non-European Association of Boys' Clubs, theAlexandra Anti-Tuberculosis Association, and the Mofolo Youth Centre andJabavu Creche run by the Salvation Army in Johannesburg have appointed all-African Executive Committees. In most cases White peopleare assisting withgeneral advice and with book-keeping.Numerous organizations such as institutions run by Child Welfare Societies, theFred Clarke Training Institute conducted by the Salvation Army in Johannesburg.and the Entokozweni Welfare Centre inAlexandra Township, have asked forextensions of time during which African organizers and committeemembers willbe trained to take over the work.A further stipulation by the Government is that no resident White members ofstaff will be permitted in institutions in African areas. The Salvation Army haswithdrawn six Whites who previously lived at the Bethany Home in Johannesburgand has appointed an African Superintendent and Matron; but, as wasmentionedin last year's Survey, the Mtutuzele Home had tobe closed because no suitablyqualified African woman could be found to take over the onerous dutiesof theWhite supervisor.SITING OF INSTITUTIONSIt was also mentioned last year that the organizers of institutions forAfricanswhich are establishedin areas zoned for members of other racial groups have

been informed that these projects will have to be re-sited in African areas. Theeffect of this ruling on various institutions was described.Since then a SANTA tuberculosis settlement and the new clinic for Africanssuffering from cerebral palsy have been granted 30-year leasehold sites in a"buffer strip" near the Baragwanath Hospital.The Bridgman Memorial Hospital is being allowed to continue to function untiladequate maternity services are available at the Baragwanath Hospital. Analternative site in an African rural area has been offered. The future of theMargaret Ballinger Home for crippled and convalescent African children is stillundecided, negotiations for an alternative site being in progress.252A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 253PENSIONS AND GRANTSESTIMATED STATE EXPENDITURE, 1960-61Detailed information about the anticipated State expenditure during the year1960-61 onpensions, grants and subsidies for various sections of the population iscontained in the official estinates. ',) A summary follows:Pensions and grantsBlind, old age, disability and war veterans' pensions Maintenance of children,family and confinementallowances ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...Assistance to semi-fit and disabled persons ...... Relief of distress ..........................Welfare services by Bantu authorities (State grantin-aid) ... ..State contributions to workmen's compensation, unemployment insurance andpneumoconiosis compensation funds ... ... ... ... ... ...£25,310,000 1,652,500285,300 418,900 400,000946,800 £29,013,500SubsidiesChildren's institutions ................. ...... 815,900Schools for handicapped children .............. 478,860Homes for the aged and infirm ................. 229,510Sheltered employment, work centres and workers'hostels ........................... 437,000Social centres and salaries of social workers ...... 224,100 Grants-in-aid tovoluntary welfare societies ...... 151,200£2,336,570Besides these sums, an amount of £166,980 is allocated for State institutions forchildren and aged or infirm people.INCREASE IN SOCIAL PENSIONSThe Minister of Finance announced in his Budget speech16) that as from 1 April1960 the bonuses granted to social pensioners would be increased by £6 a year for

Whites and £1 10s. a year in the case of Coloured people and Asians. Anadditional amountW)1' Estimates of Expenditure to be defrayed from the Revenue Account, U.G.1/60,and Supplementary Estimates, U.G. 34/60.0) Aisembly, 2 March 1960. Hansard 7 cols. 2504-5.

254 A SURVEY OF RACErepresenting a five per cent increase would be paid to the S.A. Native Trust topromote African welfare. (A sum of £200,000 was subsequently voted for thispurpose in the Additional Estimates).The Minister also said that in future all White pensioners would be paid at cityrates. There continue to be two rates- city and non-city - for Coloured people andAsians, while for Africans there are three rates- city, town and rural.These alterations were brought into effect by means of the Pensions LawAmendment Act, No. 61 of 1960.RATES OF OLD AGE, BLIND AND DISABILITY PENSIONSIncluding the increased bonuses, the maximum rates of old age, blindanddisability pensions are now: Pension plusBasic Free bonus plus freePension Bonus means meansWhites ...... £114 £24 £90 £228ColouredCity ...... £49 10 0 £6 £45 £100 10 0Non-city ... £37 10 0 £6 £39 £82 10 0AsiansCity ...... £43 10 0 £6 £36 £85 10 0Non-city ... £31 10 0 £6 £30 £67 10 0AfricansCity ...... £12 £8 5 0 £12 £32 5 0Town ...... £9 £8 5 0 £9 £26 5 0Rural ...£... 6 £8 5 0 £6 £20 5 0The earnings ofa blind person are halved to determine his means. Since 1 April1955 veterans of the South African war have not been subjected to a means test.The free means for other White war veterans who have reached the age of 70years is £250.7)An example is given to show how the means test operates. An African old-agepensioner in a city who has an income of £12 a year or less is entitled to the fullpension of £12 plus the bonus of £8 5s. a year. If his income is £24 a year (equalto the pension plus the free means) he is not entitled to any pension. Should hisincome be between £12 and £24 he is paid a reduced pension. If, for instance, it is£18, this figure is deducted from £24, giving £6, which is his basic pension. Inaddition he receives the bonus of £8 5s., and together with his own income of £18he would have £32 5s. a year.

The rates given above for Coloured and Asian pensioners are, in fact, availableonly to such persons as are certified by the District Pensions Officerto be "of asuperior class". In practice, very few(17) Information from Social Development Since Union by Professor HansiPollak,published by the Institute of Race Relations in 1960. Page 29.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 255indeed receive these amounts. In the absence of any such certification themaximum rates paid during 1960 to Coloured people in cities were £46 10s. basicpension plus a bonus of £6. Maximum rates for Asians in cities were £40 10s.plus a bonus of £6. Similarly, the non-city rates were in each case £3 lower thanthe amounts shown in the table. The percentages shown in the table that followsshould be read in this light.In the case of Africans the ability of an applicant's family to contribute towardshis support is taken intoaccount, and also the ability and opportunities of theapplicant to support himself, partially or wholly.AMOUNTS PAID IN PENSIONS AND GRANTSOld age, war veterans' and blind pensions and disability grantsThe information contained in the table thatfollows was given by the Minister ofSocial Welfare and Pensions and the Minister of Bantu Administration andDevelopment in the Assembly on 22 January 1960.("SNumberofOld age pensions: pensionersWhites ...... 87,124 Coloured and Asians...... 50,840 Africans ... ... 214,011War veterans' pensions:Whites ...... 28,738 Coloured and Asians ... ... 1,217 Africans...... 909Blind pensions:Whites ... ...Coloured and Asians ... ...Africans ... ...Disability grants:Whites ... ...Coloured and Asians ... ...Africans ... ...1,115 1,658 15,61810,799 10,403 50,729Total amount paid£9,973,007 2,081,339 2,781,9564,693,81454,409 12,323126,254 71,991210,4931,307,597 420,767 675,277

Average amount per head£114 9 440 18 9 13 0 11Percentage of persons receiving maximum pension36%32% Coloured68% AsiansNearly all38%38% Coloured67% AsiansNearly all26%33% Coloured66% Asians Nearly all37%38% Coloured70% Asians Nearly allUnemployment benefitsAccording to the report of the Department of Labour for 1959P) during that year90,237 contributors received ordinary(18) Hansard 1 cols. 215-8.(19) U.G. 59/60.

unemployment benefits, 22,274 received illness allowances, 22,364 receivedmaternity benefits, and payments were made to 2,162 dependants ofdeceasedcontributors.The Minister of Labour said in the Assembly(2°I that the estimated amounts paidby the Fund during 1959 were £4.308,000 to Whites. £1284.000 to Colouredpersons, £466,000 to Asians and £95,000 to Africans.It was recently stated in a Press report(") that "foreign" Africans who havecontributed to the Unemployment Insurance Fund (having salaries of £273 a yearor more) are refused benefits when they become unemployed and are instructed toreturn to their countries of origin.Pneumoconiosis benefitsThe Minister of Mines and the Minister of Bantu Administration andDevelopment were questioned in the Assembly about pneumoconiosis benefitspaid to Africans during the year 1958-59.('2) It appears that £925,076 was paidto 4,639 African workers, and a further £919,724 was handed by the Fund to theDepartment of Bantu Administration and Development for transmission topneumoconiosis sufferers and their dependants.Accidents to African mine-workersIn reply to a further question 23) the Minister of Mines said that during 1959 therewere 733 Non-Whites killed in mine accidents. The maximum compensation thatwas paid to persons totally dependent on such workers was £758 3s. 6d., theminimum amount was £120, and the average £248 7s. 9d.

COMMITTEE OF ENQUIRY INTO FAMILY ALLOWANCES FORWHITESIt was announced on 20 November 1959, in terms of Government Notice No.1892, that a committee of enquiry, headed by Dr. H. J. Piek, had been appointedto investigate the advisability of introducing an extensive family allowancescheme for Whites in order to bring about an increase in the White birth rate andan improvement in the standard of care and education of children from lessprivileged homes. The committee was also instructed to examine whether, on theother hand, it would be preferable to extend the range of free or subsidizedservices available to Whites.(20) 22 January 1960, Hansard 1 col. 218.(21) Rand Daily Mail, 24 September 1960.(22) 29 January, Hansard 2 col. 605; and 23 February, Hansard 6col. 2006.(23) Assembly. 29 January 1960, Hansard 2 col. 584.A SURVEY OF RACE256

257RELATIONS: 1959-60SHELTERED EMPLOYMENT SERVICESThe Minister of Labour said in the Assembly during May-24) that Whites wereadmitted to sheltered employment projects if they suffered from mental orphysical disabilities which rendered them unfit for employment in the open labourmarket, but were capable of doing remunerative work and earning at least half ofthe amount paid to them. Only Non-White ex-volunteers were adinitted.There were sheltered employment factories in Cape Town, Johannesburg (two inthis city), Bloemfontein, East London and Potchefstroom, and two farms in theJohannesburg area, that catered for Whites. Factories in Cape Town,Johannesburg and Grahamstown provided sheltered employment for Non-Whites;and undertakings in Durban, Kimberley, Pietermaritzburg. Port Elizabeth andPretoria catered for both Whites and Non-Whites.As at 31 March 1960 there were 1,400 Whites, 414 Coloured.9 Indians and 21 Africans employed in these projects.The Johannesburg Non-European Affairs Department conducts a shelteredemployment project for Africans, at Orlando.RECREATIONTHE ARTSLITERATUREAt a conference of African authors held in Pretoria in 19590) a committee was setup to investigate the feasibility of establishing a Bantu academy in order to haveindependent and authoritative opinion in matters of orthography andvocabularyin the field of African languages. This committee was given power to act.It is planning the establishment of three inter-linked organizations: a BantuLanguage Society, with membership open to all interested persons;a BantuAuthors' Society, with membership restricted to those who have had workspublished in an African language; and some organization comparable with a

language and literature academy, with membership on a merit basis. This lastbody would deal with matters such as orthography and vocabulary.(:4) 17 May 1960, Hansard 18 cols. 7805-6.(1) See 1958-59 Survey, page 291.

258 A SURVEY OF RACEThe firstnovel by a South African Indian, entitled Behold, the Earth Mourns, waspublished during November 1960. The author is a Durban woman, Dr. AnsuyahR. Singh, who is a graduate in medicine of the University of Edinburgh.Mr. Peter J. Philander, a Colouredpoet, won the second and only prize awardedby the Department of Education, Arts and Science in a national competition forAfrikaans poets, which was open to persons of all races. His entry was the onlyone considered good enough to merit a prize. Mr. Philander is a teacher. His firstvolume of poetry, Uurglas, was published in 1955.Mr. D. M. Malcolm of Natal University is compiling an anthology of Zululiterature.A new bilingual monthly newspaper called Die Banier was started in Cape Townduring December 1959, with the aim of providing a mouth-piece for Coloured andWhite people and of initiating and strengthening as many contacts as possiblebetween the two groups.INDIAN ARTSAn exhibition of Indian paintings and musical instruments and of photographs ofIndian life was held in Johannesburg during January 1960.PAINTINGNumbers of Non-White painters continue to make excellent progress, notably Mr.S. M. Lekgetho of Lady Selborne, Pretoria. Both the S.A. Tourist Corporation andthe PretoriaMunicipality commissioned paintings from him during the year underreview.MUSICOne of the main interests of the late Mr. Edward Joseph of Johannesburgwas toencourage the study of music by Africans. Shortly after his death in1959 amemorial concertwas arranged, with African artists, who gave their services free.The proceeds were used to found a College of Music for Non-Whites. whichopened in March 1960 under the direction of Mr. Joseph Friedland.with twentyfull -time and thirty part-time students. It is hoped to introduce a three-year coursein 1961.The Eoan Group of Cape Town undertook a highly successful tourof the Unionduring 1960, presenting, in Italian, the operas La Boheme, Rigoletto, La Traviataand Cavelleria Rusticana, also the ballets Invitation to the Waltz and GoldenGoose. The company, whose musical director is Mr. Joseph Manca, represents acrosssection of the Cape Coloured community. The members receive no pay fortheir performances but, if necessary, while they are on tour

R ELATIONS: 1959-60 259

the company pays them the salaries they would have received in their normaloccupations. Their visit to Johannesburg inspired the formation ofa culturalsociety at Alexandra Township.Fourleading Johannesburg African choirs again combined to present Handel'sMessiah during the Christmas Season, arrangenients for this being made by theMOTH. The Pietermaritzburg Philharmonic Society decided to foregoitsGovernment subsidy on learning that,if this subsidy was to be renewed, it wouldnot be permitted to present the Messiah to a mixed audience.2)The Bothner Memorial Scholarship for music teachers has for thefirst time beenawarded to a Non-White person- Mr. Frank Petersen, a Coloured teacher at theAthlone Teacher Training College, Paarl. This enabled him to visit Britain and theContinent to study school music education and choral conducting.An Indian printer from Durban, Mr. Eric Tithoo, was awarded an italianGovernment scholarship to study operatic singing, the pianoforte, theory andlanguages at the Academy of St. Cecilia in Rome.ENTERTAINMENTI'HE THEATREThe musical play Mkumbane (The Valley in the Gulley), which deals withlife atCato Manor, had a very successful six-dayrun in Durban early in 1960, theproceeds being in aid of the Institute of Race Relations. The play was by AlanPaton, the music by Todd Matshikiza, the producer was Malcolm Woolfson; andthere was an all-African amateur cast of more than 100. This group of Africanshas decided to maintain its identity and develop its talents.During January 1960 the Union of Southern African Artists presentedEugeneO'Neill's play The Emperor. Jones, with Leon Gluckman as producerand a cast ofAfricans. It ran for two weeks in Johannesburg and was subsequently staged inPretoria.The triumphant run in Johannesburg of the jazz opera King Kong was describedin last year's Survey.Y3) This is now to be staged in London under theauspices ofJack Hylton Promotions. Leon Gluckman will again be the producer. Most of theoriginal stars and 60 members of the original cast, who have been grantedpassports for the purpose, will play in it. The book is being streamlined and thelyrics re-written. The leading woman's part will not be taken this time by MiriamMakeba. Since the Johannesburg production she has been making highlysuccessful appearances in night clubs and on television in the United States, and isat present heavily committed there.(2) See statement by the Minister ofEducation, Arts and Science, Assembly, 22January 1960, Hansard 1 col. 244.(3) Page 294.

The South African National Theatre Board has in principle decided toestablish aNon-White theatrical company.("When it visited the Union early in 1960 the Royal Ballet Company decided not tobring its South African Malay member, Johaar Mosaval, in case he might besubjected to embarrassment. The company gave special performances for Non-White audiences. A little later, however, the Swedish Folk Dancing Association

decided to cancel a planned tour of the Union as a protest against the racial policyof the country. The British Musicians' Union has placed a total ban onappearances by its members in South Africa.CINEMASIt has been mentioned in previousissues of this Survey50 that Proclamation No.164 of 1958 provided, inter alia, that, except under permit, no racially disqualifiedperson may attend a public cinema except as a representative or guest of the Stateor a statutory body.Early in 1959 Mr.I. Barenblatt, the managing director of a cinema at SomersetWest in the Cape, was prosecuted for admitting Coloured people to thegallery ofhis cinema. He was found guilty in the magistrate's court of contraveningprovisions of the Group Areas Act, and was given a suspended sentence. TheCape Supreme Court set aside his conviction and sentence, however, on theground that the relevant section of the Act did not make it an offence for amember of the Coloured group to attend a cinema which was attended bymembers of the Coloured group at the time that the Act came into force.TheAttorney-General of the Cape appealed against this judgment, but during March1960 his appeal was dismissed by the Appellate Division.0)RADIOBroadcasting Amendment Act, No. 49 of 1960In terms of the Broadcasting Amendment Act of 1960, the Board of Governors ofthe S.A. Broadcasting Corporation is given increased powers of control of itsaffairs and of the interpretation of its functions.The Act provides, inter alia, thatthe Governor-General will appoint a BantuProgramme Control Board, consisting of the chairman of the Board of Governorsand between three and seven other persons. This board will approve thebroadcasting of programmes for reception by Africans and the appointment ofemployees of the S.A.B.C. for service exclusively in connection(4) Star report, 19 August 1960.(5) 1957-58, page 91; 1958-59 pages 295-6.(6) Star report. 14 March 1960.260A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 261with the functions of the board and the compiling of African programmes. Theboard may appoint advisory councils at such places as it may deem fit, which mayin turn appoint advisory subcommittees.When introducing the Bill at its Second Reading,7) the Minister of Posts andTelegraphs said that at the present stage the Bantu Programme Control Boardwould consist exclusively of Whites, but there was nothing to prevent Africansfrom being members of advisory committees.The Act also provides that the expenditure in connection with the compiling orbroadcasting of programmes for reception by Africans shall, without the approvalof the Minister, not exceed the total of the amounts received by the corporation:(i) in respect of listeners' licences issued to Africans, which

amount will be determined by the Postmaster-General inthe manner he deems most suitable;(ii) from any other source in connection with the broadcastingof such programmes.The expenditure to be met fromthese sources will include amounts needed for theremuneration of members of the Bantu Programme Control Board.The Minister explained(') that most of the overhead costs for the Bantuprogrammes would be met by the corporation, but that revenue from licencesissued to Africans would be used to cover running costs.Interim broadcasting service for AfricansMr. C. D. Fuchs was during December 1959 appointed head of the Bantubroadcasting service which came into operation in June 1960.As an interim arrangement, the English and Afrikaans transmitters are being usedduring certain hours of the early morning to broadcast programmes in Zulu,Northern Sotho, Southern Sotho and Xhosa. These programmes are prepared atthe regional headquarters in Johannesburg, Durban and Grahamstown, and arerelayed from stations throughout South Africa according to the geographicaldistribution of people of these language groups. There is now a total of 10 hours'broadcasting for Africans a week as compared with 3- hours prior to June; but themorning hours are, of course, inconvenient for most African workers.The expansion of the service has created new opportunities for Africanannouncers, entertainers, writers and musicians.(7) Assembly, 6 April 1960, Hansard 12 cols. 5070-2.(8) Col. 5074.

A SURVEY OF RACEPlans for the futureMr. Fuchs is reported to have said on 15 July 9) that a separate service, with itsown studios and transmitters, was being planned to provide full dailyprogrammesfor African listeners.There have been numerous Press forecasts'10) that the African service will be onthe rediffused high frequency modulation system, which channels are used bymodern television services. This would avoid interference: the medium and short-wave bands are becoming very congested. The range is, however, very limited,and most receiving sets now in use in South Africa cannot operate on it. Africanswishing to listen to the Bantu programmes would probably have to buy short-wave transistor receiving sets, which would be inexpensive, but would enablethem to hear only the programme arranged for them by a Government-appointedBoard.*Broadcasts during the State of EmergencyAs has been mentioned in an earlier chapter, during the state of emergency inSouthAfrica numerous business, church and other leaders urged the Governmentto consult with responsible African leaders. In a programme entitled "The SouthAfrican Scene," the S.A.B.C.'s "cultural adviser," Mr. J. J. Kruger, described suchsuggestions as being"childish and superficial." There were numerous complaints

from listeners that he was using his broadcasts to defend the Government'sapartheid policy.The Rand Daily Mail submitted a series of questions on the matter to the S.A.B.C.Replying to certainof these questions the Director-General said,(1) "In normaltimes, as you know, the corporation, while not avoiding matters of controversy,ensures that both points of view are put in one and the same broadcast. At present,however, times are not normal,for our country finds itself in a state ofemergency. That being the case the S.A.B.C. feels, just as it did in World War II,that the duty to support authority transcends the confines of party politics . . . We,therefore, trust that, if you view the matter in this light, you will feel that theS.A.B.C. is not involving itself in party politics, but is doing what isundoubtedlya duty."Other questions, relating to the fact that apartheid was the policy of only onepolitical party, were left unanswered.(9) Rand Daily Mail of that date.(0) e.g. Star, 26 December, 8 January and 23 February.It was subsequently announced that the high frequency modulation system isgradually to be introduced throughout South Africa for all transmissions.Listeners wishing to hear other broadcasts will need receiving sets inc'uding theV.H.F. band as well as conventional wave lengths, or else their existing receiverswill have to be modified. This will be out of the question for the poorersectionsof thepopulation.(11) As quoted in the Rand Daily Mail, 26 May 1960.262

RELATIONS: 1959-60 263SPORTSBATHINGReservation of Separate Amenities Amendment Act, No. 10 of1960Official plans for apartheid on thebeaches have been held up because it wasfound that the Reservation of Separate Amenities Act of 1953 did not empowerlocal authorities to bring about such apartheid. They might reserve publicpremises or land or portions thereof for the exclusive use of persons of aparticular race, but the term "land" included only land above the high-watermark.12)The Amendment Act of 1960 had one clause only, containing a definition of"land" as including the sea and sea-shore as defined in the Sea-Shore Act of 1935.This latter Act stated that the sea is "the sea and the bed of the sea within the threemiles limit," and that the sea-shore is "the land situated between low-water markand high-water mark."S.A. SPORTS ASSOCIATIONAs was mentioned in the previous issue of this Survey, the S.A. SportsAssociation has been set up, with headquarters in Port Elizabeth, towork for thefull and direct international recognition of all South African sportsmen.

During the year under review this Association protested against the exclusion ofMaoris and Non-White South Africans from the All-Blacks Rugby tour, and madeunsuccessful representations for the tour to be abandoned.It wrote to the International Olympic Committee, sending a copy to theS.A.Olympic and Commonwealth Games Association, charging the latter body withhaving exercised racial discrimination, and requested that this charge be placed onthe agenda for the Olympic Games committee meeting to be held in Rome. In notype of sport had an open, non-racial trialbeen conducted to determine thecomposition of the South African team, the Sports Association stated. Not one ofthe national bodies affiliated to the S.A. Olympic Association had been preparedto admit all South Africans as members without racial discrimination. All offersof affiliation had been made on condition that racial discrimination was acceptedby Non-Whites in the administration of the sport. (The Government's attitudeinthis regard is set out on page 227 of the 1955-56 issue of this Survey.)(12) Statement by Minister of Lands, Assembly 28 January 1960.Hansard 2 cols.520-1.

264 A SURVEY OF RACEMr. Dennis Brutus, the secretary of the Sports Association, hoped to go to Rometo express the views of hisorganization, but was denied a passport. Mr. NelsonMahono (a former member of the Pan-African Congress) therefore went to Romefrom Ghana for the purpose.This Association also cabled the Imperial Cricket Conference held at Lordsduring July, asking that consideration should be given to racial discrimination inthe national cricket association of South Africa. It sent letters to allthe players inthe trials held to select a cricket team to tour England, asking them to withdrawbecause of the exclusionof Non-White cricketers.SOCCERThere are three controlling bodies in the soccer world in South Africa. TheFootball Association of S.A. (FASA) is a White body, and represents SouthAfrica on the Federation of International Football Associations (FIFA). It hasoffered affiliation without voting rights to the other two bodies. Oneof these, theS.A. Bantu Soccer Federation, accepted the offer; but the other,the SoccerFederation of Southern Africa (SFSA) aims at achieving full recognition by FIFAratherthan accepting subservient associate membership through the White body.Until recently SFSA was composed of three separate organizations-the Indian,Coloured and African Football Associations (the Africans are divided betweenthis body and the BantuSoccer Federation). During October 1960, however, thesethree organizations decided to merge.At a congress of FIFA held during August it was decided by 52 votes to ten togive FASA twelve months within which to comply with the non-discriminatoryinternational soccer policy, failing which the latter body would lose itsinternational recognition. Subsequently, however, it was reportedthat the BritishFootball Association is to sponsor a move to enable both FASA and SFSA toenjoy status within FIFA.CRICKET

As is mentioned above, no Non-White players were considered for inclusion inthe South African cricket team which toured England in 1960. Itwas commontalk that several Non-White cricketers, especially the Coloured player Mr. BasilD'Oliviera, qualified for such consideration.During March Mr. D'Oliviera accepted an invitation to join the British MiddletonClub in the Lancashire League as a professional. He captained a Non-White teamin a benefit match held for him before his departure, the opposing team of Whitesbeing, with

one exception, the same as that which represented the Western Province in aCurrie Cup match held shortly beforehand. This bmnefit match ended in a draw.TABLE TENNISIt has been mentioned in previous years that the international federation whichcontrols table tennis recognises the S.A. Table Tennis Board rather than the(White) S.A. Table Tennis Union. The Board has a non-racial constitution,although its membership is predominantly Non-White.During 1960 the TableTennis Union invited the associations of England, Walesand Scotland to tour South Africa. These associations accepted on theunderstanding that they would wish also to play against the Board and that noarrangements should be made which would cause harm to the Board or itsinterests. However, the international federation vetoed the tour because of theracial situation in South Africa.BOXINGThe chairman of the (White) S.A. Amateur Boxing Association stated duringFebruary that the constitution of thisbody provided for affiliation by a Non-Whiteassociation, but that this provision had not been put into effect because thereappeared to be several Non-White boxing associations independent of oneanother. Until they united to form a really representativebody no action could betaken.New boxing regulations were gazetted in January 1960. They provide, inter alia,that no boxing contracts or tournaments may take place between Whites and Non-Whites in South Africa. White persons are prohibited from actingas promoters,managers, seconds or advisers at any Non-White tournament, nor may they bedirectly or indirectly interested in any such tournament or in any Coloured boxerparticipating in it.A tournament between South African White and Non-White boxerswas,however, staged in Basutoland during September, with judges from PortugueseEast Africa. One of the bouts was won by the European Bennie Nieuwenhuizenand another by the African Elias Tshabalala. In a third, the African Enoch Nhlapobeat a European from Lourenqo Marques.GOLFThe South African Indian golfer, Sewsunker "Papwa" Sewgolum, retained theDutch Open golf title at a match held in Eindhoven in July 1960.RELATIONS: 1959-60265

A SURVEY OF RACEJUSTICECRIMINAL STATISTICSCriminal statistics for 1958, as given in the publication Union Statistics for FiftyYears, are:Whites Coloured Asians AfricansTotal number of convictions ... 162,776 158,615 31,062 1,122,081 Convictionof juveniles (includedin previous figures) .......... 13,326 27,104 3,546 144,083The percentages of the total number of convictions of each racial group that werefor offences against the liquor laws and the laws and regulationsfor control ofAfricans were: Whites Coloured Asians AfricansLiquor laws .... ... .... ... 8.9 37.1 7.5 20.8Control of Africans ...... 2.6 2.9 2.9 35.4In reply to questions in the Assembly on 19 January 1960,0) the Minister ofJustice gave the following figures relating to theyear ended 30 June 1959:Whites Coloured Asians AfricansAdmissions to penal institutions ... 13,382 60,424 2,074 325,715 Average dailytotal of prisoners ... 2,856 * 373 ** The combined figure for Coloured and Africans was 46,657.NOTES ON THE PRISONS SYSTEMCLASSIFICATION OF LONG-TERM PRISONERSAccording to information made available by the Commissioner of Prisons, long-term prisoners are sent as soon as possible to observation centreswhere theirpotentialities and the dominantreasons for their lapse into crime are assessed.They are then assigned to the most suitable form of corrective training.USE OF PRISON LABOUROrganized workers in most Western countries support the principle of equal payfor equal work, and are thusopposed to the use of prison labour in competitionwith ordinary paid labour. Mainly for this reason, prison labour isas far aspossible used for the production of food, uniforms, footwear, sleeping mats, bags,brushes and other articles required by the Prisons Department itself, and forbuilding work, stone-dressing, welding, carpentry, etc., in(I) Hansard 1 cols. 12-13.266

RELATIONS: 1959-60 267connection with prison buildings. The Director of Prisonsconsiders that thenumber of builders trained by his department is too small to offer any threat tofree workers.In South Africa, prison labour is also used on extra-mural activities for Statepurposes, such as the construction of dams, farming operations, the maintenancebf public buildings and grounds, etc.THE PRISON FARM SYSTEMThe Commissioner of Prisons informed the Institute of Race Relations on 16February 1960(2) that there were then 24 farm gaols, situated as follows:

(i) thirteen in theCape Province at Soete Inval and Koelenhof(Stellenbosch district), Staart van Paardeberg, Simondium and Klein Drakenstein(Paarl district), Rawsonville (Worcester district), Obiqua (Tulbagh district),Dwarsrivier (Wolseley district), Riebeekkasteel (Riebeek West district), WarmBokveld (Ceres district), De Dooms, Bien Donne and Hawequa (last inWellington district);(ii) one in the Orange Free State at Geneva (Kroonstad district); (iii) ten in theTransvaal at Leslie, Kinross, Trichardt, OngesienandGeluk (Bethal district); Davel (Ermlo district),Hendrina (Hendrina district),Woestalleen and Bultfontein (Middelburg district), and Driehoek (Witbankdistrict).The average number of prisoners then accommodated in each of these institutionswas 255. Only long-term prisoners serving sentences of two years and more (themajority being recidivists) are, in general, allocated to these institutions. In theirclassification the intelligence, aptitudes and interests of the prisoners as well asthe employment opportunities in the areas where they will finally go whendischarged are taken into consideration.The costs of constructing the prisons and the housing for prison personnel areborne by the farmers, but on completion these buildings are handedover totheDepartment. The farmers have no say whatsoever in the control of the institutionor the care and maintenance of the prisoners.Twenty prison warders, eight White and the rest Non-White, are stationed at eachfarm prison. All the provisions of the Prisons Act of 1959 and the regulationsframed thereunder apply to these institutions. The Department ofPrisons suppliesthe prisoners' food, and medical attention is given by full-time medical officers ofthe Department of Health. The institutions are alsosubject to inspection by lcalauthority health and sanitation officers.'2) Letter Ref. No. C.T. 2/60.

The prisons are semi-open ones, the prisoners being employed extra-murally.Farmers pay the Department one shilling and ninepence per prisoner perday.With incidental expenses such as transport, interest on the capital cost, etc., it isestimated that the cost to the farmer is about ten shillings a day.Departmental inspectors visit the institutions and working spans at least threetimes a week.In addition, medical officers must see each prisoner at least once aweek. Periodic visits are paid by magistrates, when all prisoners are interviewedon parade. Visiting prison boards must interview all prisoners at least once a year.Prison visitors andministers of religion are given full facilities to meet theprisoners on Sundays.THE PROBATIONARY RELEASE OF PRISONERSThe Commissioner of Prisons also informed the Institute that the system of paroleor the probationary release of prisoners has beensubstituted for the old 9d. a dayscheme. This is a purely voluntary system, the prisoner's writtenconsent and hisacquiescence with stipulated conditions being required. The prisoners are selectedby prison boards, and must be medically fit. Those who, because of the nature oftheir offences, may constitute a danger to the public may not participate.

The aim is to afford a prisoner who might be adversely affected byfurtherimprisonment an opportunity of integrating himself with a free lifeand ofproviding for his own needs and those of his family. Prisoners of both sexes andall races may be released on parole. Short-term prisoners who wish to participatein the scheme are released as soon as possible after conviction. Long-termprisoners are first required to serve a reasonable portion of their sentences, duringwhich time their general conduct and attitude to life are assessed.Prisoners are as far as possible placed in occupations or trades inwhich they havereceived training or are qualified: some are, thus, allowed to work in urban areas.In placing those who lack special qualifications, preference is givento activitieswhere their labour can be used for the production of food or other requirements ofnational importance.Those who are out onparole may be placed under the supervision of any suitableperson. They are regarded as free workers, and are paid in accordance with theirabilities, payment being made in the presence of a member of the PrisonsDepartment. Part of the money earned may beused for personal needs, part maybe sent to the prisoners' families, and the rest is saved for use afterdischarge.268A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 269The employer is held responsible for the provision of food of a stipulated nutritivevalue, and of accommodation and working clothes. Free medical attention isgiven by district surgeons. Members of the Prisons Department visit the prisonersperiodically. If the conditions of their release are infringed they are returned toprison. On the expiry of their periods of probationary release the prisoners areexamined by Departmental medical officers.Should a prisoner be working in an urban area where it is inconvenientfor aprivate employer to provideaccommodation, arrangements may be made for theformer to return to prison each evening.In certain circumstances a prisoner may be granted leave at a reasonable stagebefore his discharge, to enable him to arrange his private affairs, to restore familyrelationships and, where necessary, to meet his prospective employer.The Minister of Justice said in the Senate on 25 April 1960) that duringthe pastyear 107,000 short-term and 250 longer-term prisoners had been allowed out onparole or probationary release.PROMISES OF SIMPLIFIED COURTPROCEDURE AND BETTER POLICE PROTECTION FOR AFRICANSCOURT PROCEDUREIn a statement published on 13 September 1960 the Prime Ministerannounced4)that consultations were taking place between the Department of BantuAdministration and Development and the Department of Justice on theelimination of anomalies and the simplification of court procedures involvingAfricans.POLICE PROTECTION

The Commissioner of Police is reported5) to have said on 12 August thatit hadnot yet been possible to provide more police patrols in all African townships, asthe Government intended. But in the meantime extra police were beingconcentrated at points where frequent crimes were reported andexpected, such asin the vicinity of railway stations and bus terminii on the evening of payday.(3) Hansard 10 cols. 2237-8.(4) Rand Daily Mail of that date.(5) Ibid, 13 August 1960,

JUVENILESYOUTH CAMPSInformation received from the Department of Bantu AdministrationandDevelopmentThe Secretary for Bantu Administration and Development informed the Instituteof Race Relations on 20 April 1960'6) that, in terms of the powers granted to theMinister by paragraph (b) of Proclamation No. 194 of 1958, four Bantu youthcampshave been established. They are situated on S.A. Native Trust land, and areadministered on a basis of ethnic grouping "to ensure that youths belonging to thevarious major ethnic groups in the Union are rehabilitated in their own spheres ofenvironment."The Elandsdoorn Youth Camp (at Enkeldoorn, near Groblersdal) is used foryouths of the Sotho and other Northern and NorthEastern Transvaal tribes. Asecond camp has been established on the Trust farm Mooifontein, districtLichtenburg, for the Tswana, Free State Sotho and other Western Transvaal tribes.The Bekruipkop camp (near Mount Coke Mission, ten miles south-east of KingWilliam's Town) serves the Xhosa group, and the Vuma camp (Eshowe district) isused for the Zulu group.Each camp provides for atotal of 300 youths. The number committed during 1959was not known at the time the letter was sent because certain statistics wereoutstanding. The minimum period of detention is usually two years. Most of theyouths committed to these institutions were at the time of their arrest residing inurban locations, although many were not legally domiciled in those areas.The youth camps are not educational institutions in the sense that normal schoolfacilities are provided. Illiterates are, however, givenelementary education on apart-time basis. The training of the youths is mainly directed towards theacquisition of manual ability in agriculture and horticulture.In replying to this letter the Institute of Race Relations emphasized theneed fortraining which would be of value to the youths when they returned to the urbancommunities where their parents were domiciled, and stressed the importance ofre-integrating them into the lives of their families.Report on Elandsdoorn Youth CampAccording to areport in the Sunday Times of 10 July 1960, there are 200 youthsin the Elandsdoorn camp, who come mainly from the Witwatersrand and are allunder the age of eighteen. The(6) Letter ref. B.A. 117 No. 761276.A SURVEY OF RACE

270

R-LATIONS: 1959-60 271camp is unfenced. The boys live in groups of seven in split-pole rondavels underthatch. They sleep on thick mats, and have enough blankets.The initial practice of sending the lads out to work for White farmers has beenabandoned. They now work in teams on the Trust land, some of them growingfood for the camp, a neighbouring Dutch Reformed Church mission hospital and ahome for aged and disabled Africans associated with it. Other teams work onconstructionjobs about the property. Voluntary night classes are arranged for themore advanced and ambitious boys.The youths are paid 2/- a day, and have a shop where they can buy anything fromcigarettes to clothing and guitars. The camp account books reflectcredits of up to£34 against the names of boys who have saved their money.Parents are encouraged to visit the camp. Because of the distance fromJohannesburg they can stay overnight. Youths who shape well may be released onprobation to their parents' carebefore the expiration of the two-year period forwhich they are committed. These releases are at the discretion of the board ofcontrol, which consists of members of the Bantu authority for the areaunder thechairmanship of the Bantu Affairs Commissioner.PROVISION OF WORK FOR URBAN YOUTHSThe Johannesburg municipality has set up a youth employment bureau within itsNon-European Affairs Department. It was reported in the Star of 12 August1960 that in the two months since its establishment the bureau had found work forabout 230 young men and women. Hardest to place satisfactorily were those witha Junior Certificate or matriculation qualification, some of whom had studiedtyping and shorthand. The social worker in charge of the bureau also did follow-up work, visiting the young people at their places of employment.The youth training scheme introduced by the Boksburg municipality wasdescribed in last year's Survey.7) Training schemes for young Africans have alsobeen launched in Germiston and Vanderbijlpark.In a paper read at a symposium arranged by the Natal Region of the Institute ofRace Relations, Mr. Martin Dhlamini gave a vivid description of the difficultiesand frustrations encountered by a young African seeking work in a city.8)(7) Page 305.(8) Copies of his paper are obtainable from the Institute's Durban Office.

A SURVEY OF RACEMr. Paul Mosaka of Johannesburg is advocating the wide introduction of anAfrican Parent-Child scheme, in terms of which townships would be divided intowards, each having a committee which would work to bring about neighbourhoodcohesion, to re-establish family bonds where necessary, and to assist parents toassert responsible parental discipline.TREATMENT OF FARM LABOURERSThe scheme for offering petty offenders work on farms as an alternative toprosecution, the abuses of this scheme and its abandonment duringJune 1959

were described in last year's Survey.0 It was mentioned that two committees hadbeen appointed to investigate the scheme andto enquire into all the differentmethods of recruiting farm labour: their reports have not been made public.During the year now under review there have been several court cases arisingfrom abuses of the system outlined above.A farmer named Mr. F. Joseph made a successful habeas corpus application to theRand Supreme Court for the return of his employee Simon Legodi from a farm inthe Bronkhorstspruit area. It was stated in court that Mr. Joseph left Legodi to dosome work in Johannesburg. At lunch-time Legodi crossed the road to buy somefood, leaving his reference book behind in his jacket pocket, and was arrested andtaken to the Bantu Affairs Commissioner's court at Fordsburg. On returning andfinding that Legodi had disappeared Mr. Joseph made extensive enquiries andfound out what had happened. He sent another employee to take Legodi'sreference book to him. This man reported that Legodi had been found guilty ofnot carrying a reference book, and sentenced to £5 or five weeks.Mr. Josephmade attempts to pay the fine, and with some difficulty ascertained that Legodihad been sent to the Modder B prison and from there to a farm. On the return dayof the habeas corpus application it was reported that Legodi had been returned tohis employer, who hadpaid his fine.(")0Mr. G. H. Pistorius, a farmer from the Springs area, was during March foundguilty of assault on a farm labourer, was sentenced to a fine of £30 or one month,plus a month's imprisonment suspended for two years, and was ordered to paythecomplainant, Alfred Maseko, £10 as compensation. On his own admissionPistorius had been present while his foreman assaulted Maseko. Thejudge saidthat assaults by employers on their employees just must not happen.The ordinarycitizen had no right totake the law into his own hands."')(9) Pages 311-317.(o0) Star reports. 19 and 23 February 1960.(11) Ibid, 26 March 1960.272

R ELATIONS: 1959-60 273During October 1960 Mr. D. A. Kwala brought anaction for t750 damagesagainst Mr. J. F. du Plessis, a farmer of the Delmas district, and his formerforeman, C. L. S. Botha. He complained that Botha had assaulted himand otheremployees on several occasions during 1958, and had preventedthe workers fromgoing to report his actions to the police. (Mr. du Plessis was not present during theassaults.) It was reported that four other Supreme Court actions had beeninstituted arising from these incidents, for a total sum of £11,500 damages, andthat seven further actions were pending or contemplated. Counsel for Mr. duPlessis announced that these matters had been settled out of court, hisclienthaving decided to pay £3,750 to the complainants. The case was postponed sinedie."2A considerable volume of recruited labour is still flowing to the farms, but it isreported13) that inspectors of the Department of Bantu Administration and

Development are making every effort to ensure that the workers are housed, fed,paid and treated in confornmity with stipulated standards.LEGAL AID BUREAUXIt was reported in last year's Survey'4) that the Department of Justice has beenconducting an investigation of the present legal aid system, and had sent amemorandum expressing the views of prominent Departmental officials to theAssociation of Law Societies. According to an editorial in the October 1959 issueof de Rebus Procuratoriis the Department recommends the completerepeal oflegal aid in criminal matters, except that pro Deo defences (on an improved basis)should be retained for accused on capital charges. It considers legal aid necessaryin civil matters, but excludes all Africans, stating that sufficient provision is madefor them by the Bantu courts and commissioners. It recommends thatall cases offamily disputes should be excluded. Enquiries offices should be set up atmagistrates' courts, from which applicants who appear to qualify for legal aidshould be referred to one of a panel of voluntary attorneys in accordance with thein forma pauperis procedure,which would be made simpler and more effective.The Department consulted the law societies, not on the principle of the suggestedscheme, but on minor details of its operation. During 1959 the Institute of RaceRelations drew up a memorandum1") stressingthe need for legal aid, in criminalas well as civil cases, and for Africans as well as others. Suggestions were madefor an improved scheme. Copies of this memorandum were(12) Ibid, 27 and 30 October 1960.(13) Ibid. 3 October.(14) Page 324.(15) RR 247/59.

sent to the Secretary for Justice and to members of law societies and of the BarCouncil. In acknowledging receipt, the Secretary of the Associationof LawSocieties said that although it appeared that the Department had already made upits mind as to the way legal aid was to be conducted in the future, the Societieswere nevertheless making strong representations in regard to their variousrequirements. No announcement has been made as to the Government's decisionin the matter.An amount of only £5,500 was again voted for subsidies to legal aid bureauxduring the financial year 1960-61. These bureaux are finding it ever increasinglydifficult to maintain the necessary volume of work with their available financialresources.At the annual meeting of the Johannesburg bureau in June 1960 its chairman,Mr.H. J. B. Vieyra, Q.C., said that during the previous year the bureau had conducted7,955 interviews and accepted 1,073 new cases. In civil matters attorneys wereinstructed in 409 cases, in 174 of these cases counsel being briefed. In 59 criminalcases attorneys and counsel were engaged and 46 of the accused weredischarged36)EXTERNAL AFFAIRSBOYCOTTS OF SOUTH AFRICAN GOODSCALLS FOR ACTION

At a conference held during November 1959, the newly-formed All-Africa TradeUnion Federation appealed to all African peoples, the internationalfree labourmovement and all democratic governments to use their influence and power torefuse markets for South African goods. All unions representing seamen anddockworkers were urged to withdraw their services from firms importing orexporting goods to South Africa.Further support for a boycott was given at the second AllAfrica People'sConference held in Tunis during January 1960 and at the Pan-African Federationconference that took place at Addis Ababa in June, where it was decided toemploy commercial, diplomatic and political sanctions against South Africa. Itwas also suggested that petroleum companies should be approached with theobject ofpreventing the sale of oil to the Union.(16) Star report, 15 June 1960.274A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 275WEST INDIES AND CENTRAL AMERICAThe first countries to state that they intended banningimports from South Africawere Jamaica and Antigua. They were later joined by Barbados and BritishGuiana.During April 1960 dockworkers in Trinidad refused to handle a cargo of SouthAfrican merchandise or to refuel the ship carrying these goods. Aconsignment ofhardboard had to be returned to the Union.BRITAINBacked by the Labour and Liberal Parties, the powerful Trade Union Congressand some, but not all, of the co-operative societies, an Anti-Apartheid Committeein Britain organized a boycottof South African goods for the month of March.The left-wing journal Tribune published a list of forty branded products, includingtinned foods, cigarettes, wines and spirits and fruit, for shoppers to avoid. Similarlists were distributed among the 8-million trade unionists and the general public.The British Chamber of Commerce dissociated itself from the boycott.WEST AFRICAEarly in 1960 Nigeria decided to ban all imports from South Africa. Ghanafollowed suit as from the beginning of August,stating that applications for importlicences would only be entertained in the most exceptional circumstances.It is reported') that as from 1 December 1960 light shipping linesare to impose a25 per cent surcharge on goods coming from West Africa to the Union because ofthe additional expense caused by the fact that cargo vessels are almost empty ontheir northward passage.CENTRAL AND EAST AFRICAThe Sudan, too, has imposed an official ban on South African goods. There areunofficial boycotts in Kenya and Tanganyika. At a Pan-African conferencerepresentative of six Central and East African territories, held in Tanganyikaduring September 1959, it was decided that as from 1 November ofthat year thecountries concerned would boycott South African liquor, which is easily

distinguished, and the widely used South African hoes. A wider boycott would beinstituted after details of imports had been worked out.The Government of the new State of Somaliland decided during June1960 toexclude South Africafrom the Commonwealth countries that were to be granted a15 per cent preferential trade tariff.(1) Star, 9 November 1960.

SCANDINAVIALeaders of the 3,300,000 trade unionists of Sweden, Denmark, Norway andFinland called upon them to support a boycott of South African goods whichlasted from April to August 1960 inclusive. The Swedish co-operative societiespledged their support. Norwegian dock workers refused to off-load consignmentsof South African fruit.Two South African tennis players were refused permission to play in theNorwegian championships during May, when the boycott was in force.UNITED STATESIn June 1960 the American Committee on Africa arranged a conference whichwas co-sponsored by the Americans for Democratic Action, theAmerican Societyof African Culture, the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America, theInternational Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, the Jewish LabourCommittee, theNational Association for the Advancement of Coloured People and thelocalregion of the United Automobile Workers.It was decided to urge the Washington Government to cease buying gold andstrategic raw materials from South Africa if other sources were available, toadvocate a consumer boycott of South African goods, to urge dockworkers torefuse to unload these goods, to try to persuade the organizers of the World TradeFair not to grant South Africa a pavilion, and to attempt to dissuade businessmenfrom investing in the Union.(')MALAYAThe Malayan Government decided during July 1960 toplace a ban on the entry ofgoods from South Africa.EFFECTS OF THESE BOYCOTTSAs is mentioned in an earlier chapter, in spite of the boycotts the total volume ofSouth Africa's export trade increased during 1960. In many cases it provedpossible to find alternative markets.Numbers of individual firms and industries were, however, adversely affected, forexample producers of canned fish and fruit, rubber products, batteries, brassgoods, machine parts, building materials and pharmaceutical products.(')Manufacturers of certain export goods are said to be sending out these productswithout the imprint "Made in South Africa".(2) Star report, 2 June 1960. (" Reports in the Star, 3 June, and Rand Daily Mall,30 July 1960.276A SURVEY OF RACE

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

UNITED NATIONS, NOVEMBER 1959On 17 November 1959, by 62 votes to three, with seven abstentions, the UnitedNations General Assembly adopted a resolution expressing deep regret andconcern that the Union Government had not yet responded to previous appealsthat it should reconsider its policies which impaired the right of allracial groupsto enjoy the same fundamental rights and freedoms. The Assembly stated its deepconviction that policies which accentuated or sought to preserve racialdiscrimination were prejudicial to international harmony. It was for this reasonconvinced that the South African Government's discriminatory policy was notsimply a matter of domestic jurisdiction, but was an international subject of theutmostimportance.The countries that opposed the motion were Britain, France and Portugal. Thosethat abstained from voting were Australia, Belgium, Canada, the DominicanRepublic, Finland, the Netherlands and Spain. The United States supported themotion, thehead of its delegation stating that "apartheid is a violation of humanrights buttressed and sanctified by law."THE NETHERLANDSOn 10 November the Dutch Foreign Minister issued a statement on behalf of hisGovernment in which he is reported to havesaid that the Netherlands abstainedfrom voting because she doubted whether the United Nations was entitled to dealwith the Union's domestic policy. Nevertheless, the Netherlands Government wasof the opinion that South Africa's apartheid policy was incompatible with thesense of justice in all three parts of the Netherlands Kingdom.On I1 January the South African Ambassador at The Hague handed theNetherlands Foreign Minister a note expressing the Union Government'sdispleasure and serious concern overthis statement. It could not but have anunfavourable reaction on the traditionally friendly relations between the Unionand the Netherlands, and would also react unfavourably upon therelations of theAfrikaner people with the land of their forefathers.the note said.The Netherlands Government rejected South Africa's objections to itsofficialviewpoint on apartheid.According to the Press,'4) on 5 April the Dutch Lower House resolved to make acri de coeur to the Union Parliament for "reflection onthe welfare of the whole ofthe South African people in the(4) Rand Daily Mail, 6 April 1960.RELATIONS- 1959-60277

light of the apartheid policy." The Prime Minister, Professor Jan de Quay, saidthat apartheid could not find grace in Dutcheyes. His Government felt that theregrettable events in the Union could not be seen otherwise than as a directconsequence of the South African Government's apartheid policy.CANADADuring January the President of the 1,200,000-member Canadian LabourCongress (C.L.C.) criticized the Canadian Government for Canada's abstentionfrom voting on the United Nations' resolution, and stated that Canadashould do

everything in its power to bring pressure on the Verwoerd Government to changeits policy. The Labour Congress passed a motion demanding that South Africa beexpelled from the Commonwealth.The Prime Minister, Mr. John Diefenbaker, replied that he had strongfeelingsabout racial discrimination. Nevertheless he had no intention of supporting theC.L.C.'s stand. Members of the Commonwealth were bound to disagree about thecourses of action each followed, but the independence of each member was theessence of the CommonwealthP5)On 22 March, when the House Leader of the Canadian CommonwealthFederation, speaking in the House of Commons in Ottawa, urged his Governmentto lodge an official protest against the "brutal" policy of apartheid, Mr.Diefenbaker replied that the Canadian Government had made it clearthat itcondemned racial discrimination.(6)But it appears that the detention in South Africa under the emergency regulationsof Mr. Norman Phillips, foreign editor of the Toronto Star, provoked Mr.Diefenbaker for the first time into making a statement which might be construedas interference in South African affairs. It is reported(7) that he not only protestedagainst the arrest of one of his countrymen, but also conveyed "the widespreadindignation felt in Canada at the measures which have given rise to therecentviolence and loss of life in South Africa."BRITAINMr. Macmillan's "Wind of Change" speechAn historic speech was made by the Rt. Hon. Harold Macmillan on 3 February toa combined meeting of the South African Houses of Parliament.After thanking the Union Government for arranginghis tour of the country andexpressing appreciation of the friendship he had encountered, Mr.Macmillanwent on to point out that the(5) Star report, 29 January.(6) Ibid, 22 March.(7) Ibid, 11 April.278A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60economies of Britain and South Africa, while expanding rapidly, hadyetremained interdepedent. He deplored the consumer boycott in Britain of SouthAfrican goods which could only have serious effects on Commonwealth relationsand trade and be to theultimate detriment of others than those against whom itwas aimed.The most striking of all the impressions he had formed during his tour of Africa,Mr. Macmillan said, was of the strength of African national consciousness. Indifferent places it took ondifferent forms. But it was happening everywhere. Thewind of change was blowing throughout the continent. Whether one liked it ornot, this growth of national consciousness was a political fact.Its causes were tobe found in the achievements of Westerncivilization. National policies must take

account of it and come to terms with it, for otherwise the precariousbalance ofEast and West, on which the peace of the world depended, might be imperilled.The great issue in this second half of the 20th century was, as Mr. Macmillan sawit, whether the uncommitted people of Asia and Africa would swing to theCommunist camp, or to the West. Would the great experiments in self-government that were being made in Asia and Africa, especially within theCommonwealth, prove so successful and by their example so compelling, that thebalance would come down in favour of freedom and order and justice ?Thestruggle was joined, and it was a struggle for the minds of men. Each of theindependent members of the Commonwealthmust answer for itself the questionas to what it could show the uncommitted nations to help them to choose aright.It was a basic principle of the modern Commonwealth that each respected theother's sovereignty in matters of internal policy. At thesame time it must berecognized that, in this shrinking world, the internal policies of one nation mighthave effects outside it. "We may sometimes be tempted to say to each other 'mindyour own business'. But in these days I would myself expand the old saying sothat it runs 'mind your own business, but mind how it affects my business too.'"It had been Britain's aim, in the countries for which she had borne responsibility,not only to raise the material standards of life. but to create a society whichrespected the rights of individuals a society in which men were giventheopportunity to grow to their full stature, and that in Britain's view must includethe opportunity of an increasing share in political power and responsibility; asociety in which individual merit, and individual merit alone, was the criterion fora man's advancement. In countries inhabited by several differentraces, it had beenBritain's aim to find means by which 1o foster fellowship between the differentparts.279

A SURVEY OF RACEHe was well aware of the peculiar nature of the problems with which theUnionwas faced, Mr. Macmillan said. "As a fellow member of the Commonwealth wealways try, and I think have succeeded, in giving South Africa our support andencouragement.But I hope you won't mind my saying frankly that there are someaspects of your policies which make it impossible for us to do this without beingfalse to our own deep convictions about the political destinies of free men."He had spoken frankly about the differences which existed between the twocountries in their approach to one of the great current problems with which eachhad to deal within its own sphere of responsibility, Mr. Macmillan concluded. Butdifferences on one subject, important as they were, need not and should notimpair the capacity to co-operate with one another in furthering the manypractical interests which were shared in common. "Those of us who by the graceor favour of the electors are temporarily in charge of affairs in yourcountry and inmine ... have no right to sweep aside on this account the friendship that existsbetween our countries.. . I hope- indeed I am confident- that in another 50 yearswe shall look back on the differences which exist now between us as mere mattersof historical interest. For as time passes and one generation yields to another,

human problems change and fade. Let us therefore resolve to build- and not todestroy. Let us also remember that weakness comes from division,and, in wordsfamiliar to you,strength from unity."Dr. Verwoerd's ReactionsIn thanking Mr. Macmillan, Dr. Verwoerd is reported(') to have said, "I think it isan attribute of civilization that one is capable of discussion with friends and, inspite of differences, remain friendsand be capable of co-operating in all thatremains of mutual interest". Maintaining that "there must not only be justice to theBlack man in Africa, but also to the White man", he added, "There may be verygreat dangers inherent in your policies in that the very objects you are aiming atmay be defeated."Later, in the Assembly, Dr. Verwoerd said,") "It appears to me that the Westernnations are prepared to abandon the Whites in Africa ... The White man of Africais not going to be told that, because he is outnumbered by the Black peoples, hemust allow his rights to be swallowed up and be prepared to lose his say ... We donot accept ... that the White inhabitants must be satisfied as a minority in a multi-racial country to compete with the Black masses on an equal basis, which in thelong run can only mean a Black government."(8) Rand Daily Mail, 11 February.(9) 9 March, Hansard 8 cols. 3015-21.280

RELATIONS: 1959-60 281What he saw developing in Africawas Black dictatorships, Dr. Verwoerd stated."The Black masses which did not find their burdens very onerous under Whitedemocratic domination or under careful White leadership will perhaps in futurefind things more difficult". Neither human intermingling nor politicalintermingling but a permanent co-existence should be the aim, he maintained."One accepts that Black neighbour states must come into being- their development must take place from the bottom upward, and gradually, at thespeed at which he is capable of advancing That is what we are trying to do in ourBantu homelands"."We will see to it that we remain in power in this White South Africa", Dr.Verwoerd said later.(") The Bantu "should really be rooted in the areas inhabitedby their forefathers".UNITED STATESOn the day after the Sharpeville and Langa riots a Press representative of the U.S.State Department read the following prepared statement at a Press conference inWashington:"The United States deplores violence in all itsforms andhopes that the African people of South Africa will be able to obtain redress forlegitimate grievances by peaceful means.While the United States, as a matter of practice, does not ordinarily comment onthe internal affairs of governments with which it enjoys normal relations, it cannothelp but regret the tragic loss of life resulting from the measures takenagainst the demonstrators in South Africa."

According to Dr. Verwoerd,(n) on 23 March Mr. Eric Louw asked the U.S.Ambassador to call to see him. "The Minister made it clear that by raising thematter with the Ambassador he was not conceding the right of the U.S.Government to concern itself with the domestic affairs of South Africa . . . TheUnion Government found it necessary, however, to express its concern that theState Department authorized the Press statement without first acquainting itselfwith the full facts, which had been the subject of a judicial inquiry regarding theattacks by many thousands of Bantu on a small Police Force to whom wasentrusted the duty of maintaining law and order."UNITED NATIONS' DEBATE, MARCH/APRIL 1960At the request of the Afro-Asian group, which maintained that the situation inSouth Africa had grave potentialities for international friction,endangered themaintenance of international peace and security, and should be discussed as amatter of urgency,(10) 23 March, Assembly Hansard 10 col. 3984.(11) Assembly, 23 March, Hansard 10 cols. 3981-2.

282 ASURVEY OF RACEthe United Nations Security Council met on 30 March, and decided without anyobjections that the matter would be accepted for discussion.Immediately thereafter the U.K. representative said that while his delegation hadnot objected, Britain nevertheless reserved her position because of her view onintrusion into the domestic affairs of member states. She would approachthedebate with that view in mind. The French and Italian representatives alsoexpressed concern about interference in members' domestic affairs; but the formeradded that French opinion had always vigorously disapproved of racialdiscrimination, and the Italian representative qualified his remarkby saying thatevents in South Africa appeared "to justify some special procedure on our part."(The other members of the Security Council were the United States,Russia,China, the Argentine, Tunisia, Ceylon, Ecuador and Poland. Delegations fromSouth Africa, India, Ghana, Pakistan, Guinea and Liberia were invited toparticipatein the debate).Mr. Brand Fourie, the head of South Africa's permanent mission to theU.N., thenpointed out that this was the first time in the history of the U.N. thatthe SecurityCouncil had decided to consider "a purely local disturbance." It was creating adangerous precedent which could affect other countries. The annual discussionsof South Africa's racial problems in the General Assembly had helped to inflamethe situation in the Union, he said. He warned members that the forthcomingdebate might well incite new racial strife, and said that if this were to be the resultthe blame would rest squarely on the shoulders of the Security Council. Statingthat now the item had been inscribed on the agenda he would have to report to hisGovernment for further instructions, Mr. Fourie then retired to his seat on thesideline.According to Press reports,('2) although highly critical of the policies ofapartheid, the speeches that followed were moderate in tone.

A resolution was finally adopted by nine votes to nil with Britain and Franceabstaining. It expressed the view that the situation in South Africa was one thathad led to international friction and if continued might endanger internationalpeace and security. It was deplored that the disturbancesshould have led to theloss of life of so many Africans. The policies and actions of the South AfricanGovernment, which had given rise to the situation, were deplored. The SouthAfrican Government was called upon to initiate measures aimed at bringing aboutracial harmony based on equality, and to abandon its policies of apartheid andracial discrimination.0:) e.g. Star. 31 March.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 283The Secretary-General of the United Nations, Mr. Dag Hammarskjbld, wasrequested, in consultation with the Union Government, to make sucharrangements as would adequately help in upholding the purposesand principlesof the Charter, and to report to the Security Council whenever necessary andappropriate.(")Mr. Eric Louw subsequently announced in the Union House of Assembly1') thatMr. Hammarskjb1d had written to him making it clear that any consultationswould not require prior recognition by South Africa of the United Nations'authority. This being the case, he had informed Mr. Hammarskjold that the latterwould be welcome to come to the Union for discussions at a time mutuallysuitable and still to be arranged. He had suggested that it might be convenient forMr. Hammarskj6ld to go to London for preliminarydiscussions after theCommonwealth Prime Ministers' conference.The latter did so, and at the conclusion of the talks a statement was issued to theeffect that "after a useful exchange of views" Mr. Hammarskj6ldand Mr. Louwhad agreed "on the characterand course of the further consultations, which arescheduled to take place in Pretoria."Mr. Hammarskj6ld made plans to visit the Union during May; but the rioting inthe Congo forced him to change his arrangements. He held further discussionswith Mr. Louw in New York during October, after which it was stated(") that hewas drafting an interim report for the Security Council and plannedto leave forthe Union on 4 or 5 January 1961.BRAZILDuring April the head of the Brazilian mission in South Africa was recalled "forconsultations". It was reported(") that Brazil was trying to organize a collectivestand by all the Latin American Governments to face what the Brazilian ForeignMinister publicly described as "an issue of prime importance for nationsborn of afusion and a co-ordination of efforts of different races". He added that the internalsecurity of such countries was threatened by the propagation of doctrines aimed atdestroying the relationship between peoples of different races and creeds.COMMONWEALTH PRIME MINISTERS' CONFERENCEAccording to Press reports, at the opening session of the Commonwealth PrimeMinisters' conference in London on 3 May, Tunku Abdul Rahman, Premier ofMalaya, referred to "the

(13) Star report, 2 August 1960.(14) ]9 April, Hansard 14 cols. 5562-3.(15) Star report, 11 October.(16) [bid, 6 May.

problem of racial discrimination in South Africa and its effects on relationsbetween South Africa and other Commonwealth countries," and saidhe hoped anopportunity would be found for the Prime Ministers to discuss the subject.Themeeting reaffirmed the traditional practice, however, that at Commonwealthconferences there was no formal discussion of the internal affairsof membercountries.Mr. Eric Louw pointed out that the South African Government was aloneresponsible for its domestic policies; but agreed to a suggestion that he shouldmeet other heads of delegations for informal discussions.According to reports, Mr. Louw gave offence to certain delegates by holding aPress conference before these informal discussions at which he appeared to pre-judge their outcome, making it clear that South Africa had no intentionofmodifying its policies or admitting any sort of liability for the crisis that haddeveloped.The Premier of Malaya stated on 5 May that he had walked out of informaldiscussions with Mr. Louw and would refuse to have further talks with him. Itwas impossible to discuss matters with the representative of a country which hadfirmly decidedthat there would be no change in its policies, he said.Addressing the India League in London, Pandit Nehru said that apartheid might"shake the very foundations of the Commonwealth". "I wish to lay stress on thedangers and explosive character of this situation," he added. Field Marshal AyubKhan of Pakistan said at a Press conference that unless some human solution toapartheid was found "it will certainly set alight the best part of Africa."Mr. Louw is reported to have been involved in disputes withMr. Diefenbaker,who called upon him to explain or justify a public statement that he was unawareof Canada's attitude to apartheid, and with Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, whosaid thatthe invitation to Mr. Louw to visit Ghana later in 1960 had been a conditionalone, the condition being that the Union reciprocate with an invitation to Ghana'sForeign Minister, Mr. Ako Adjei, to make a similar trip thereafter. So far SouthAfrica had not agreed to this condition, and the original invitation would now bewithdrawn because of the recent events in the Union. Mr. Louw denied that anyconditions had been attached to the invitation.It was announced at this time that Tunku Abdul Rahman was shortly to pay anofficial visit to West Germany. Mr. Louw had planned to visit Bonn during thissame period but had been advised by officials there that his proposedvisit "wouldbe inconvenient".284A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 285

The communiqu6 issued at the end of the Prime Ministers' conference referred inguarded terms to the discussions that had taken place on South Africa's racialsituation even though these were informal and although Mr. Louwis reported tohave been strongly opposed to any such reference. It said, "Whilere-affirming thetraditional practice that Commonwealth conferences do not discuss the internalaffairs of member countries, Ministers availed themselves of Mr. Louw's presenceto have informal discussions with him about the racial situation in South Africa."During these informal discussions Mr. Louw gave information and answeredquestions on the Union's policies, and the other Ministers conveyed to him theirviews on the South African problem. The Ministers emphasized that theCommonwealth itself is a multi-racial association and expressed the need toensure good relations between all member States and peoples of theCommonwealth."As is mentioned in an earlier chapter, it is believed that Mr. Louw sought advanceapproval for South Africa's remaining inthe Commonwealth as a republic, but nosuch assurance was given. The communiqud stated, "In the event of South Africadeciding to become a republic and if the desire was subsequently expressed toremain a member of the Commonwealth, the meeting suggested that the SouthAfrican Government should then ask for the consent of the other CommonwealthGovernments".It is understood that the adequacy of a purely White referendum, and the inclusionof South-West African White voters, was questioned by Mr. Nehru, Dr. Nkrumahand Tunku Abdul Rahman.PAN-AFRICAN FEDERATION CONFERENCEThe decision made at the Pan-African Federation Conference, which was held inAddis Ababa during June 1960, to employ commercial, diplomatic and politicalsanctions against the Unionis mentioned earlier in this chapter.A further decision was that Ethiopia and Liberia, as the only participatingcountries that had been members of the League of Nations, should take thequestion of the South-West African mandate to the International Court of Justice,on the submission that the Union had violated the terms of the mandate bysuppressing rights and liberties and practising racial discrimination.GHANAIt was announced during July that the Ghana Government had decided that all itsportsand airports would be closed to South African shipping and aircraft exceptin cases of distress. A South

A SURVEY OF RACEAfrican citizen would only be permitted to enter Ghana, whether in transit orotherwise, if he declared before Ghana officialshis opposition to apartheid andother forms of racial discrimination.Dr. Verwoerd stated on 14 August7) that the Union Government wouldtakeaction against South Africans who signed this anti-apartheid declaration. AnyUnion citizen working or livingin Ghana who applied for a British passportwould "forfeit his moral right to privileges in his own country", andwould berefused a South African passport. Legislation on this matter, which would be

retrospective to the date of the Prime Minister's announcement, would beintroduced during 1961.An American airline which used the Accra airport subsequently succeeded inhaving in transit South African passengers exempted from the GhanaGovernment's requirement. Such passengers, unless they have signed thedeclaration, are restricted to the international section of the airport.NIGERIAAccording to a Press report,80 the Nigerian Government was also consideringrefusing airport facilities to South African aircraft. An official of the S.A.Railways, Harbours and Airways Administration stated, however,09) that thedecision eventually to by-pass Kano had been made by South Africa. A long-range Boeing service was being introduced, and these aircraft would not need torefuel at Kano, as the D.C. 7B's did.ESTABLISHMENT OF THE S.A. POLITICAL BUREAUNumbers of Non-White South Africans who left the country at the time of theemergency or on their release from detention made their way along an establishedescape route to Ghana. They were joined later by young men going for "political,administrative and military training.'"2°) Among these people wereMr. OliverTambo, ex-deputy President-General of the A.N.C., Mr. Tennyson Makiwane andMr. V. Make, treason-trialists and former members of the A.N.C., Dr. Y. Dadoo,former President of the S.A. Indian Congress, and Messrs. NelsonMahono andPeter Molotsi, formerly of the Pan-African Congress.Money has been raised in Ghana to enable these men and others to set up aS.A.Political Bureau, which is said to have offices in Accra, London, Leopoldville,Cairo and Addis Ababa, with the object of carrying out anti-South AfricanGovernment propaganda.(17) Rand Daily Mail report, 15 August 1960.(18) Sunday Times, 3 July.(19) Star, 6 July.(20) Rand Daily Mail report. 3 September.286

SOUTH AFRICAN MEMBERSHIP OF INTERNATIONAL BODIESThe status of South Africa's permanent mission at the United Nationshas beenraised to that of an Embassy. Mr. Brand Fourie, the Union's representative at theUnited Nations,became its first Ambassador there.(") The Minister of ExternalAffairs, Mr. Eric Louw, again visited New York for the 1960 session.During January 1960 the Union reversed its previous decision and decided tobecome a member of the United Nations EconomicCommission for Africa. Mr.Brand Fourie headed a delegation of senior officials who attendedthe secondsession of this body, which was held in Tangier.At a conference of managers of railway systems in African countries, held duringMay, Mr. D. H. C. du Plessis, the Union's General Manager of Railways,unreservedly offered all the technical know-how of his administration to the newAfrican states.

International bodies continue to be hesitant about holding conferences in theUnion, in case Non-White delegates are subjected to embarrassment. For thisreason the venue of a conference of the International Societyof Sugar CaneTechnologists, held in February 1960, was altered from Natal to Mauritius.Individual Non-White official visitors are, however, made welcome by the UnionGovern.. ment: among such visitors during the year under reviewwas Mr. SubashMazumdar, an Indian statistician attached to the U.N. Food and AgriculturalOrganization, who came to South Africa for discussions with Governmentofficials and was accommodated in a leading hotel in Pretoria.UNITED NATIONS' CONSIDERATION OF SOUTH-WEST AFRICAAs was mentioned in last year's Survey,(") on 17 November 1959 the UnitedNations' General Assembly adopted a resolution calling upon SouthAfrica toenter into negotiations with the United Nations with a view to placing South-WestAfrica under U.N. trusteeship.Shortly thereafter, during December, there was serious rioting in WindhoekLocation, the alleged underlying cause being resentment overa scheme to moveresidents to a new municipal township where the housing was betterbut therentals higher. About eight policemen were injured when stones were flung atthem, several buildings and cars were badly damaged, eight or twelve Africans(reportsdiffered) were killed when the police and soldiers opened fire, and at leastthirty Africans were wounded. The Government appointed a one-man commissionto enquire into the causes of this disturbance.(21) From Modern South Africa, May 1960, issuedby S.A. InformationServicein London.(22) Page 326.287RELATIONS: 1959-60

Although the General Assembly's debate on South-West Africa had beenconcluded, the Trusteeship Committee of the United Nations decidedby a smallmajority of votesto grant a hearing to three African petitioners from the territory.A resolution was adopted noting with deep concern the action taken by the policeand soldiers, and urging the Union Government to desist from the useof force andfrom compelling residentsof the location to move.The United Nations Standing Committee on South-West Africa, of which Brazil,Denmark, Eire, Ethiopia, Guatemala, Indonesia, the Phillipines, the United ArabRepublic and Uruguay are members, issued a further report during September1960. It quoted a letter from the Union's Minister of External Affairs in which thelatter is reported to have said that the Union would not negotiate with theUnitedNations on the question of placing SouthWest Africa under trusteeship. Whilereserving the Union's legal claims to the territory, it would, however, discuss anyother possibilities with some special U.N. body.23")The committee stated that, judging from the information it had beenable togather, conditions in South-West Africa had not improved. There seemed to be amarked disparity in the amount of money appropriated for the benefit of the

Whites and the amount appropriated for the benefit of all other races. The policyof apartheid dominated South Africa's administration of the territory. It seemedthat the intention was to integrate SouthWest Africa into the Union, or to annex it.As is mentioned earlier, during November 1960, in their capacityas formermembers of the League of Nations, Liberia and Ethiopia instituted an actionagainst South Africa in the International Court of Justice. Article sevenof theLeague mandate agreement provided that if any dispute between the mandatorypower and another member of the League relating to the interpretation or theapplication of the provisions of the mandate could not be settled by negotiation, itshould be submitted to the International Court of Justice. In 1950 theCourt ruledthat this article was still in force.The question of South-West Africa was again inscribed on the agenda for themeeting of the Trusteeship Committee in November(23) Rand Daily Mail report, 14 September 1960.288A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 2891960, in spite of Mr. Eric Louw's contention that the matter wassub judice inview of the action pending in the International Court. The South Africandelegation took no further part in the discussions.THE TREATMENT OF PERSONS OF INDIANORIGIN IN SOUTH AFRICADuring December 1959 the United Nations GeneralAssembly once again urgedSouth Africa to negotiate with India and Pakistan on the question of thetreatmentof persons of Indian origin in South Africa.

290 A SURVEY OF RACESOME RECENT PUBLICATIONS DEALINGWITH RACE RELATIONSPUBLISHED BY THE INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONSFifty Years of Union, by Donald B. Molteno, Q.C. (Presidential Address). CanAfrica Come of Age? by Prof. C. W. de Kiewiet (Hoernl6 MemorialLecture).Social Development since Union, by Prof. Hansi Pollak. An Outline of NativeLaw, by Julius Lewin. The Cost of Living for Urban Africans, by Joy de Gruchy.A Survey of Race Relations, 1958-1959, compiled by Muriel Horrell. Fact PaperNo. 4-African Taxation: Its Relation to African SocialServices.Fact Paper No. 5-Days of Crisis in South Africa (Events up to 15 May1960), compiled by Muriel Horrell.Fact Paper No. 6-African Traders: Their Position and Problems inJohannesburg's South Western Townships, by Lawrence Reyburn.Fact Paper No.7-The "Pass Laws", by Muriel Horrell. Fact Paper No. 8-The Liquor Laws: Howthese affect the African,

Coloured and Asian People, by Muriel Horrell. 30th Annual Reportof theInstitute, 1958-59.Race Relations Journal:Vol. XXVI No. 4:The Significance of the Bandung, Cairo and Accra Conferences, byWilliam Bross Lloyd, Jnr.Two Souths, by Violaine Junod.The Legal Status of African Women, by Julius Lewin et alii.The African Peasant, by Jessie Hertslet.Book reviews.Vol. XXVII N o. 1:South Africa and the Wider Africa, by Prof. the Hon. E. H. Brookes.Where Stands the Federation? by Maurice Webb.A Review of Recent Legislation, by Quintin Whyte.Recent Trends in Race Relations in Britain, by Sydney Collins.Book reviews.Vol. XXVII No. 2:Fifty Years of Union-Political Review, by Prof. L. M. Thompson.Prospects for Race Relations in Southern Rhodesia, by Terence Ranger.Dr. John Philip and Liberalism, by Julius Lewin.The Role of the Church in Race Relations inthe United States ofAmerica, by Darrell Randall. Vol. XXVII No. 3:Julius Nyerere: A Biography, by George Dunheved.The Concept of Pan-Africanism, by Prof. Vernon McKay.Report on the Congo, by John Marvin.Book reviews.

RELATIONS: 1959-60Race Relations News-12 issues. Thought (a Journal of Afrikaans Thinking for theEnglish-Speaking)Four issues-December 1959March 1960June 1960September 1960.Perspektief (a Journal of Liberal Thinking for the Afrikaans-Speaking).Two issues-June 1960September 1960.(Memoranda issued in roneod form are mentioned in the text of this Survey).PUBLISHED BY OTHERSAdam, Thomas R.: Government and Politics in Africa South of the Sahara(New York: Random House) 1959.Apthorpe, R. J. (Ed): From Tribal Rule to Modern Government. Proceedings ofthe 13th conference of the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute forSocial Research (Mimeographed) 1959.Barker, Anthony: Giving and Receiving: An Adventure in African MedicalPractice (Faith Press,London) 1959.

Biesheuvel, Simon: The Development of Personality in African CulturePaper presented at the C.C.T.A./C.S.A. Symposium, August 1959(Roneoed).Biesheuvel, Simon: Tests for the Study of African Personality Development.Paper given atC.S.A. meeting, August 1959 (Roneoed). Black Sash, The:Education for Isolation. 1960. Branney, L.: Towards the SystematicIndividualisation of African LandTenure. Journal of African Administration, October 1959.Brookes, Edgar H.: The City of God andthe Politics of Crisis (OxfordUniversity Press) 1960.Clegg, Edward: Race and Politics: Partnership in the Federation ofRhodesia and Nyasaland (Oxford University Press) 1960.Clutton Brock, Guy: Dawn in Nyasaland (Hodder and Stoughton) 1959. Coleman,James S.: Nigeria: Background to Nationalism (University ofCalifornia Press) 1958.Creighton, T. R. M.: The Anatomy of Partnership: Southern Rhodesia andthe Central African Federation (Faber and Faber) 1960. Crozier,Brian: TheRebels (Chattoand Windus) 1960. Davidson, Basil: Old Africa Rediscovered(Gollancz) 1959. Davis, G., Melunsky, L. and du Randt, F. B.: Urban Native Law(GrotiusPublications, Port Elizabeth) 1959.Delius, Anthony: The Last Division (Human and Rousseau, Cape Town)1959.Dickson, Mora: New Nigerians (Dennis Dobson, London) 1960. Dison, Lewisand Mohamed, Ismail: Group Areas and Their Development(Butterworth, Durban) 1960.Duffy, James: Portuguese Africa (Harvard University Press) 1959. EducationLeague, The:Blackout: a Commentary on the Education Policyof the Instituut vir Christelik-Nasionale Onderwys. September 1959,

292 A SURVEY OF RACEFagan, the Hon. H. A.: Our Responsibility: A Discussion of South Africa'sRace Problems (Universiteitsuitgewers en Boekhandelaars, Stellenbosch) 1959.Field, M. J.: Search for Security (Faber and Faber) 1960. Fraenkel, P.: Wayalishi(African life in Rhodesia) (Weidenfeld and Nicholson, London) 1959.Gaitskell, Arthur: Gezira: A Story of Development in the Sudan (Faberand Faber) 1959.Gelfand, Michael: Shona Ritual (Juta) 1959. Hanna, A. J.: The Storyof theRhodesias and Nyasaland (Faber andFaber) 1960.Hatch, John: Everyman's Africa (Dobson) 1959. Hepple, A.:Censorship andPress Control in South Africa (Published bythe Author) 1960.Hobart Houghton, D. (Ed.): Economic Development in a Plural Society:Studies in the Border Region of the Cape Province (Oxford UniversityPress) 1960.

Huxley, Elspeth: ANew Earth: Land Reform in Kenya (Chatto and Windus)1960.Institute of Race Relations, London: Coloured Immigrants in Britain (OxfordUniversity Press) 1960.Irving, James: Macleantown: A Study of a Small South African Community(Rhodes University) 1959.Jabavu, Noni: Drawn in Colour (John Murray) 1960. KrUger, D. W.:SouthAfrican Parties and Policies, 1910-1960 (Humanand Rousseau) 1960.Kuper, Hilda: Indian People in Natal (Natal University Press) 1960. Leys, Colin:European Politics in Southern Rhodesia (Oxford UniversityPress) Second edition 1959.Leys, Colin and Pratt, Cranford (Ed.): A New Deal in Central Africa(Heinemann) 1960.London--Central Office of Information: Nigeria: the Making of a Nation1960.Mackenzie, W. J. M. and Robinson, Kenneth (Ed.): Five Elections inAfrica: A Group of Electoral Studies (Clarendon Press, Oxford) 1960. Macmillan,W. M.: The Road to Self-Rule: A Study in Colonial Evolution(Faber and Faber) 1959.Marquard, Leo: The Peoples and Policies of South Africa (Oxford UniversityPress). Second and revised edition, 1960.Mason, Philip: Year of Decision: Rhodesia and Nyasaland, 1960 (OxfordUniversity Press) 1960.Mason, R. J.: British Education in Africa (Oxford University Press) 1960.Massyn, J. A. R.: Productivity of Bantu Labour (A summary of the InterAfricaLabour Institute report). The Manufacturer, February 1960. Matthews, David andApthorpe, Raymond (Ed.): Social Relations in CentralAfrican Industry (Rhodes-Livingstone Institute)1959.Murdoch, G. P.: Africa: Its Peoples and Their Culture History (McGrawHill)1959.Murray, D. N. and Edelstein, M, L. (Ed.): Social Work in South Africa(Privately published) 1959,

RELATIONS: 1959-60 293Mwewa, P. B.: The African Railway Workers' Union, Ndola (RhodesLivingstoneInstitute) 1959.Nyirenda, A. A., Ngwane, H. D. and Bettison, D. G.: Further Economic andSocial Studies, Blantyre-Limbe, Nyasaland (Rhodes-Livingstone Institute)1959.Paton, Alan: The Charlestown Story (Liberal Party of South Africa) 1960. Pedler,F. J.: West Africa (Methuen) New edition, 1959. Phillips, John: Kwame Nkrumahand the Future of Africa (Faber andFaber) 1960.Pienaar, S. and Sampson, Anthony: South Africa: Two Views of SeparateDevelopment (Oxford University Press) 1960.Rhoodie, N. L. J. and Venter, H. J.: Apartheid (HAUM, Cape Town.

Pretoria) 1960.Richards, Audrey I. ,(Ed.): East African Chiefs: A Study of PoliticalDevelopment in Some Uganda and Tanganyika Tribes (Faber andFaber) 1960.Ritner, Peter: The Death of Africa (MacMillan, New York) 1960. Roskam, K. L.:Apartheid and Discrimination (A. W. Sythoff, Leyden) 1960. Rosseau, F. P.,Q.C.: Handbook on the Group Areas Act (Juta) 1960. Salisbury, CentralStatistical Office: First and Second Reports on theUmtali and Gwelo Budget Surveys, 1959.Sampson, Anthony. Common Sense About Africa (Gollancz) 1960. Sanger,Clyde: Central African Emergency (Heinemann) 1960. Skeffington, Arthur:Tanganyika in Transition, 1960. Slade, Ruth: The Belgian Congo:Some RecentChanges (Oxford University Press for the Institute of Race Relations) 1960.Singh, A. R.: A Survey of Hospitals, Clinics and Social Services for theIndian Community ofDurban (Sponsored by the R. K. KhanHospital and Dispensary Trust) 1960.Smith, T. E.: Elections in Developing Countries (MacMillan) 1960. Spottiswoode,H. (Compiler): South Africa: The Road Ahead. (Howard B.Timmins, Cape Town) 1960.Symon, S. A.:African Medicine in the Mankoya District, NorthernRhodesia (Rhodes-Livingstone Institute) 1960.Ullendorff, E.: The Ethiopians (Oxford University Press) 1960.United Nations:Economic Survey of Africa Since 1950 (1959). United Nations: Special StudyonSocial Conditions in Non-Self-GoverningTerritories, 1959.United Nations and International Labour Office: Equal Pay for EqualWork, 1960.Watson, R. G. T.: Tongaati-An African Experiment (Hutchison) 1960. Wilson,Monica: The Early History of the Transkei and Ciskei (AfricanStudies, No. 4 of 1959).Wood, Susan: Kenya: The Tension of Progress (Oxford UniversityPressfor Institute of Race Relations) 1960.Younger, Kenneth: The Public Service in New States (Oxford UniversityPress) 1960.

294 A SURVEY OF RACEINDEXAAdvisory Boards-104, 123 Also see Local governmentAdvocates Admission Bill-207 Afforestation-1 13 African: Births, Marriages andDeaths: Registration of--30, 240, 241Children's courts-247, 249Feeding Scheme-245 institutions-249 ,,9 Education-see Bantu,, Ministers and Clergy: authority of-31National Congress:Action taken since going underground-72, 286

Banning of-69, 71, 72Conference, December 1959-54Demonstrations arranged by-54, 60Population-see PopulationRepresentation in Parliament-2on municipal councils: suggestions for--125 proposed urban Bantu authorities-104, 123, 124 Women: legal status-129. . "passes" for-106Africans: Expenditure by the State on-128in urban areas:Advisory boards-104, 123Conferences on position of-102, 125Government policy for-104, 122, 123, 124Institute of Race Relations statement-17Opposition Party views-li, 14, 15Representatives ofchiefs-124Urban Bantu authorities proposed-104, 123, 124 Africans: Need for consultationwith-21, 24, 90, 91, 93, 101, 103 Also see Bantu, Native, etc.Afrikaanse Handelsinstituut-90, 91 "Agitation": Court penalties for-71, 76, 77,, said to be occurring-45, 56, 62, 66, 71, 73, 102, 104 Agricultural bettermentschemes: opposition to--41-49, 44fJ.,, development in the Reserves-113training for Africans-114 .... .. Coloured-199Union-200Agriculture: Employment in-197 Air transport for Non-Whites-170 Alberton:housing-163 Alexandra Anti Tuberculosis Association-244Township-161All -Africa conferences-274, 285 Anglican Church-85, 95-100 Apartheid policy-94, 96, 102, 104, 105, 122, 280ff... .., Overseas attitudes to-277 etseq.Arrests during emergency: Regulations-74, 75 Under Section 4.-79 ,, Section 4bis-84, 86 Urban areas-84-88

RELATIONS: 1959-60Asians-136 et seq.Domiciliary rights-136Education-see EducationFuture of in South Africa--ll, 136Official responsible for the interests of-136Traders: effects of Group Areas Act-143, 156 Also see IndiansAssemblies: banning of-62, 68, 74 Association for the Improvement of BantuWages and Productivity-191of Chambers of Commerce of S.A.-91, 92, 188, Trust Companies-91 Athletics-263B

Ba-Hurutshe tribe--35, 49 Ballinger, Mrs. V. M. L., M.P.-4, 22, 53, 189 Banningof A.N.C. and P.A.C.-62, 69, 71, 72persons from meetings or certain areas-35public meetings-62, 68, 74publications-76, 88 Banishment of Africans-36, 47 Bantu authorities established-107incentive presents-i 14opposition to system-39-49representatives in urban areas-124revenue and expenditure-127urban areas-104, 123, 124 Bantu Education-211 et seq.Bursaries andstudy loans-234, 239Disturbances at schools-219Educational qualifications of Africans-216Examination fees-218results-216Farm schools-200, 219 Financing of-211, 213Night schools-239 School boards-219 Statistics-213, 214Teachers-215Universities and university colleges-227 et seq. Bantu in Urban Areas Draft Bill-123Investment Corporation-120Also see African, NativeBasson, Mr. J. D. du P., M.P.-4, 15, 94 Bathing-263Beach apartheid-263 Benoni: housing-162, 169 Bethlehem: housing-167Betterment schemes-see Reserves Bilheimer, Dr. R.-97-100 Birthplaces of Asiansand Coloured-28 Births, marriages and deaths: registration of-30, 240, 241"Bishop's" Committee-54 Bizana disturbances-39-47 Black Sash-37, 64 Blackspots-1 10 Blind pensions-253 et seq.Persons' Amendment Act-249 Blindness-244

296 A SURVEY OF RACEBloemfontein: housing-167Joint Council-245riots-68Blood transfusion services-245 Border industries-105, 115 et seq.Regional Survey-188 Boxing-265Boycotts of Nationalist products-54South African goods-274 et seq... . . .. . Effects of-173, 276 Brakpan: housing-162 Brazil-283Britain: attitude to apartheid-278boycott of South African goods-275Broadcasting-260 et seq. Brookes, Prof. theHon. E. H.-16, 101 Building industry: employment in-201 job reservation-178,182 workers, African-201Bursaries and study loans-234, 239 Bus services: apartheid in-170C

Canada-278, 284 Cancer-244Canningworkers-194 Cape Chamber of Industries-85, 90, 92, 182 Cape Town:Arrests of juveniles during emergency-87Chamber of Commerce-92Group areas-147, 152Housing: African-164, Coloured and Indian-152, 168Police action during emergency-85Riots-50,65, 166 Catholic Church-100 Cato Manor: Group areas-153 . . 11Housing-166Riots-50, 65, 166 Census reports-24-28 Central Native Labour Board-189, 192Cerebral Palsy-244 Chamber of Commerce-91, 92, 188Industries-85, 90, 91, 92, 119, 182, 188Mines-91Chiefs: Numbers and remuneration-108Powers of-43, 48Representatives in urban areas-124 Children's Act-246 Christian Council of S.A.-23, 37,, responsibility in areas of rapid social change-22. Church of the Province ofS.A.-85, 95-100Churches: Authority of African ministers-31Dutch Reformed-23, 94-100Number of adherents-27Other-see under name of ChurchSeparatist-27, 128 Cinemas-260Citizen Force: Mobilization of during emergency-73, 78, 84reorganization of-39 Civic guards, African-124

RELATIONS: 1959-60 297Clergy and ministers, African, authority of-31 Clinics: Fees imposed-243in the Reserves-242Clothing industry: Job reservation-180 Strike by African workers--195 Wages inNorthern Natal-I 15 Coloured Affairs Department-131Council for Coloured Affairs-132Education-135, 221, 226Also see EducationFarm workers: courses of training-199Housing-168Mission Stations and Reserves-131People:Attitudes and future of-133, 134Conference in Southern Transvaal- 134 Government's attitude-105, 133 People'sNational Union-133.. Organization-64, 133Representation in Parliament-i, 2, 3, 135on municipal councils-133, 135 Views of OppositionParties-11, 14, 15Commerce: African traders-202Coloured traders-203Employment in-202

Indian traders-143, 156 in the Reserves-120, 121 Commissioners-General- 107Commonwealth: Membership by South Africa-5, 7, 11, 285Prime Minister's Conference-7, 283 Compensation for African widows-129Congress of Trade Unions-196 Constitution of South Africa-1-9, 13, 14Consultation with Non-Whites: Need for-21, 24, 90, 91, 93, 101, 103Continuation classes-239Committee of S.A. Churches' Conference-22, 97-100, 240 Cope, Mr. J. P., M.P.-]30, 249 Cost of living-184 et seq. Court procedure affecting Africans-104, 124,269 Cricket-264Criminal Law Amendment Act-71Statistics-266Crisis in South Africa-73 et seq.Broadcasts during-262 Economiceffects-172, 276 Government policy following-103 et seq., 122 Overseas reactions-274 et seq. Reactions in South Africa-89 etseq.D"Day of Mourning"-60 Deaths: registration-30 De Blank, the Most Rev. J.-95-100Defence and Aid Fund-81 Deportations-75,83, 98, 99, 100 Detention of persons:Demonstrations for release of detainees-82 Emergency regulations for-74 Personsdetained, Section 4-79-83 Section 4 bis-84, 86-88 Trials of Africans-85

298 A SURVEY OF RACEDiplomatic relations-277 et seq. Disturbances amongst Africans-39 et seq.Also see CrisisDoctors: Numbers-207, 242 Domestic appliances: job reservation-179 Draper,Miss Mary-43 Duncan, Mr. P.-89 Durban: Cato Manor: group areas and rents-153, 166Cost of living-186Group areas-144, 153Housing: African-165, Indian-154Riots at Cato Manor-50, 65, 166. elsewhere-65Unemployment-174, 175Dutch Reformed Churches-23, 94-100EEast London: Conference on poverty of Africans-187Housing-165Economic Advisory Council-118, 176Commission for Africa-287Conditions in South Africa-172 Developments since Union-18Sanctions against Nationalist products-54South African goods-274 et seq.Ecumenical conference-22 Education-209et seq.African-see BantuAsian and Coloured-135, 137, 221, 226Bursaries-234, 239

Compulsory: Need for Non-Whites-17 Control of: Government Policy-18, 209Examination fees-218Expenditure on-210 History teaching-222Night schools-239Numbers of pupils-213Qualifications of Non-Whites-216Special schools-224Teachers-see Teachers Universities-227 et seq.Vocational and technical-226 Eiselen line policy-88, 105, 165 Elandsdoorn YouthCamp-270 Emergency in South Africa: Broadcastsduring-262 Declaration of-73Economic effects-172, 276 Government policy following-103 et seq., 122Overseas reactions-274 et seq. Reactions in South Africa-89 et seq. .. .. .. ..Regulations-73 Employment-172 et seq.for juveniles-271 Engelhard, Mr. C. W.-94 Engineering industry: reservation ofwork-179, 182 Entertainment-259 Entertainments: censorship of-32 Entry intoand departure from certain African areas-34

RELATIONS: 1959-60 299Eoangroup-258 Ermelo: housing-164 Estcourt: group areas-157 Evaton riot-56Exit permits from South Africa-34 Expectation of life-241 Expenditure by theState on Africans-128 External Affairs-274 et seq. Extra-Union Africans:Naturalization of-130of ,, Unemployment benefits denied-256Extension of University Education Amendment Act-211 Eye diseases-244FFactories, Machinery and Building Work Amendment Act-182 Familyallowances-256 Farm labour-197 et seq.training for Africans-il14 ,, Coloured-199 labourers: treatment of-272schools for Africans-200, 219Farming: Betterment schemes opposed-41-49, 44ff.,9 Development in Reserves-113 Farms: White occupancy of-198 Federation ofFree African Trade Unions-196 Feeding: Malnutrition: Governmentannouncement-246Nutrition-18, 223, 245 et seq.School feeding-18Voluntary schemes-245 Field sports-263 Films: Censorship of-33shown in African Reserves-33"Foreign" Africans: Naturalization of-130 Unemployment benefits denied-256Fort Hare-228, 232, 235, 236 Franchise rights: African representation inParliament-2 on municipal councils: proposals-125Coloured representation in Parliament-i, 2, 3, 133, 135 9... on municipalcouncils-133, 135 Consideration of by Institute of Race Relations-19-20, 125Proposed by Opposition Parties-il , 12, 14, 15 Freehold tenures: need for-93, 202Furniture industry: proposed job reservation-182

GGaols-see PrisonsGarment workers-Job reservation-180Strike by Africans-195Wages in Northern Natal-I 15 Gatherings: Banning of-62, 68, 74 Gcalekaland:Opposition to Bantu authorities-48 Geldenhuys, Rev. Dr. F. O'B.-99 Germiston:Housing-162, 169Riots-67Ghana-275, 284, 285, 286

A SURVEY OF RACEGolf-265Graaff, Sir de V., M.P.-4, 11, 72, 89 Group areas-142 et seq.Alternative accommodation for those required to move142, 145, 160Basic values-146Books dealing with-147Defined areas-158Development Board-146Proceedings of Board not quasi judicial-145HHambro, SirCharles-94 Hammarsdale strike-195 Hammarskj6ld, Mr. Dag-283Handelsinstituut: Afrikaanse--90, 91 Health-240 et seq. Hellmann, Dr. E.-150Hermanus riot-65 History teaching-222 Hoernld Memorial Lecture-22 Homeguards-124 Hospitals-242 Hotels for Non-Whites-207 Housing-159 et seq.Funds-159Needed for people forced to move-169Also see name of town concernedSchemes for Africans-160 et seq.Coloured and Indians-168IIdentity cards issued-28 Immigration-93, 175Amendment Act-136 Incitement: Penalties for-71, 76, 77,, said to be occurring-45, 56, 62, 66, 71, 73, 102, 104 Incomes of Africans:Government's attitude-105, 191 Need for increase-19, 23, 91, 92, 105, 187, 191Recent increases-189, 190, 192 Wage Board Action-192 Also see Cost of livingIndemnity during disturbances and state of emergency-58, 78, 83 Indians-136 etseq.Arts-258Domiciliary rights-136Education-see EducationFuture of in South Africa-i1, 136Housing-168Official responsible for interests of-136Reviewof a century of Indian settlement-136 Traders affected by Group AreasAct-143, 156Unemployment-174, 175

United Nations debates-289Industrial colour bar: need for relaxation of-93conciliation machinery for Africans-192, 206Councilagreements-189development in the Reserves-120on borders of Reserves-105, 115 et seq Industry: employment in-201300

RELATIONS: 1959-60Infantile mortality-207, 241 Influx control: hardships-88, 165Also see Pass lawsInstitute of Race Relations: Action at time of emergency-20, 101 Council meeting16-20, 136 Executive meeting, May 1960-20, 102 Also see numerous subjectheadingsInterdenominational African Ministers' Federation-129 Internationalorganizations-277 et seq. Intimidation-Penalties for-71, 76, 77said to be occurring-45, 56, 62, 66, 71, 73. 102. 104 Irrigation schemes in Africanareas-il15 Isaacson Foundation Bursary Fund--221, 239Job reservation-177 et seq.in factories-182Johannesburg: Alexandra Township-161Costof living for Africans-184Group areas-147Housing: Africans-160 et seq.Coloured and Indians-148, 149, 168 Lenasia-148Meadowlands-161Planning Council for Non-European Social Welfare- 251Riots-61, 67Transport services for Africans-171Welfare projects for Africans-252Western Areas-147 et seq.Judicial authority of African courts-104, 124, 269 Justice-266 et seq. Juveniledelinquency-266, 271employment--271KKaffir beer-139, 141 Kenya-275Kgosana, Mr. P.--59, 62, 63 Kimberley: Coloured men on City Council-133Group areas-154 King Kong-259 Kroonstad: Housing-167, 169 Krugersdorp:Housing-163LLabour disputes--192 et seq.migrant-19, 23reservation of work-177 et seq... .. ... in factories-182LadySelborne-152 Land betterment schemes: opposition to-41-49, 44fl.purchased by S.A. Native Trust-i 10

Also see Agricultural, ReservesLanga riots-59, 63 Langeberg Kooperasie strike-194 Languages of population athome-25

302 A SURVEY OF RACELaw: Advocates Admission Bill-207African attorneys-208Justice-266 et seq.Lawrence, the Hon. H. G., M.P.-13 Legal aid-273status of African women-129 Lenasia-148Leprosy-244Levies proposed in urban areas-124" : tribal-127Liberal Party: Action by-37, 64. . policy-4, 11, 53Lift operators: job reservation-178 Liquor and Catering trade: proposed jobreservation-182laws: summary of-138offences-140, 266raids: Government decision-104. . Opposition to-50, 140Suggestions for relaxing laws-91, 92, 104, 140ft. Literacy rate amongst Africans-240 Literature-257Also see PublicationsLobolo marriages-25, 129 Local authorities: Control of African affairs by-104,122, 123, 124government: Advisory Boards-104, 123Chiefs' representatives in urban areas-124 Coloured-133, 135 Proposed urbanBantu authorities-104, 123, 124 Suggestions for African representation onmunicipal councils-125 Lockhat case-144Louw, the Hon. E. H., M.P.-7, 283-285, 289Dr. M. S.-93Luthuli, ex-Chief A. J.-60, 69, 86MMabieskraal-49 Macmillan, the Rt. Hon. H.-278 Mafekeng, Mrs. E.-51Maintenance grants-82 Malan Commission-140 Malaya-276, 283, 284Malnutrition-245 Manufacturing-see IndustryMarico District-35 Marital status ofpopulation-25 Marriages: Lobolo-25, 129Registration of-30 Mbata, Mr. J. C. M.-48 Meadowlands-161 Medicalpractitioners-207, 242services-242Meetings banned-62, 68, 74 Methodist Church-99 Metz-35Migrant labour-19, 23 Mineworkers: Accidents to Africans-256 Mining:employment in-203 Ministers: African: Authority of-31

RELATIONS: 1959-60 303

Mission Stations and Reserves: Coloured-131 Mitchell, Mr. D. E., M.P.-9 ModderB prison-87 Molteno, Mr. D. B., Q.C.-12, 13, 16 Moolman, Dr. J. H.-90 Mothertongue education for Coloured pupils-221 Motor transport driving: proposed jobreservation-182 Multi-racial membership of voluntary organizations-17, 251Municipal employees-206,, representation of Coloured-133, 135proposed for Africans-125 urban Bantu authorities-104, 123, 124 Municipalities:Control of African affairs-104, 122, 123, 124 Music-258N"Natal stand"-9 National Union of S.A Students-236Party policy-4, 15Party policy-6, 10, 94, 96, 103, 105, 122, 133, 280ff.Number of seats in Assembly-8 Native Separatist Churches-27, 128Transport Services Levy-171Also see African, BantuNaturalization of aliens, including Africans-130 Naudd, the Rev. C. F. B.-99Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerk-23, 94-100 Netherlands-277 Nigel: Housing-163 Nigeria-275, 286 Night schools-239 Nkoana, Mr. M.-85 Nkrumah, Dr. K.-284 Nurses-208, 242 Nutrition-18, 223, 245Government announcement on malnutrition-246School feeding-18, 223 Voluntary schemes-2450Occupations of population-197 Oppenheimer, Mr. H.-93PPaarl: Housing-165Riots-51, 65Painting-258Pan-African Congress: Action taken since going underground-72, 286 Banningof-69, 71, 72 Campaignagainst pass laws-55 Conference, December 1959-54Pan-African Federation Conferences 274, 285 Parliamentary representation-seeFranchise rights, Senate, Referendum, and individual political parties by name.

304 A SURVEY OF RACEPass laws: Description of-52Government decisions-105, 106Influx control: hardships-88, 165Offences against-52, 266Opposition to-52-56Raids to be decreased-52, 105, 106 Reference books to be smaller-105Suggestions forrelaxation of-91, 92, 93, 101, 103Temporary relaxation of during emergency-68Women's reference books-106 Passports-33Peddie area-35 Pensions and grants-253 Personal service: employment in-207Pietermaritzburg: Bus services-170, 171Group areas-155Housing-166

Pietersburg: Group areas-156Housing-164Platteland: European occupancy of-198 Pneumoconiosis-256 Police Force: Actionby-84, 86-Also see Disturbances-45 et seq.Strength of-205protection for Africans-104, 269 Poliomyelitis-244Political developments sinceUnion-19rights-see FranchisePondoland disturbances-39-47 Pongola Poort irrigation scheme-I 1 Population:Birthplaces-28Home languages-25Marital status-25 Occupations-197Religions 26Size of-24PopulationRegistration: Africans-31 Amendment Act of 1960-28 Borderlinecases-29 Progress of-28 Port Elizabeth: Conference on poverty of Africans-187Group areas-145, 159Housing-165Riots-67Strike by African canning workers-194 Poverty of Africans-184 et seq. Pratt, Mr.D.-89 Presbyterian Church-101 Pretoria: Group areas-151Housing: African-164, Coloured and Indian-151Transport services for Africans-171, 172 Prison farms-267labour: use of-266Prisoners: probationary release of-268 Prisons-266: Youth camps-270Professions: employment in-207 Progressive Party policy-4, 12-14, 54Prohibition-see BanningPromotion of Bantu Self-Government Act-2 Provinces: powers of-9, 10 Publicorder: preservation of-74

RELATIONS: 1959-60Public SafetyAct-73, 79 Public Service: Employment in-205 Publications andEntertainments Bill-32by Non-White authors-257dealing with Group Areas-147deemed subversive during emergency-76, 88of Institute of Race Relations-290of others-291RRacial classification-see Populationpolicies in South Africa: overseas opinions-277 et seq. Radio services-260Rahman, Tunku Abdul-283, 284 Railway services to African townships-170Railways: Employment in-206 Recreation-257 Red Cross-64, 81 Reeves, Rt. Rev.A.-79, 98-100 Reference books: Size to be reduced-105Women-106

Also see Pass LawsReferendum-5-8, 285 Refugees from South Africa-79, 286 Regional authorities-107 Registration of births, marriages and deaths--30, 240, 241 Religion: role of ina multi-racial State-22 Religions of population-26 Removal orders served onAfricans-36, 47 Republic in South Africa-5-8, 285 Reservation of SeparateAmenities Amendment Act-263work-177 et seq.in factories-182 Reserves: African-107 et seq.Agriculturaldevelopment of-113Betterment schemes: opposition to-41-49, 44fJ.Coloured-131Commerce-120, 121Entry into and departure from certain areas-34Extent of-109Funds for development-IllIndustrial development within Reserves-120in border areas-105, 115 et seq. Need for rapid development of-93, 103 RiotousAssemblies Act-35, 71 Riots among Africans-39 et seq.Also see CrisisRoodepoort-Maraisburg: Housing-160, 163 Rugby-263Rural areas: White occupancy-198" villages-i 14, 121Rustenburg: Group areas-155SSabra-102Sadie, Prof. J. L.-103 Scandinavia-276 School boards-219Y, feeding-18, 223

306 A SURVEY OF RACESchools: disturbances at-219Also see EducationSearch: powers ofduring emergency--77 Secondary industry-see IndustrySekhukhuneland-35, 49 Senate Act-l-5Elections--4Separate Representation of Voters Act-2territorial development-see Apartheid Separatist Churches-27, 128 Sharpevilleriot-57, 86 Sheltered employment-257 Simon's Town: Housing-165Riot-65Sixty-Nine men: statement by-8 Smit, Dr. D. L., M.P.-31, 249 Sobukwe, Mr. R.M.-55, 56, 85 Soccer-264Social developments since Union-16welfare-see Welfareworkers: training of African-226 Soilconservation in the Reserves-113 SomersetWest riot-65 Sophiatown-150 South Africa Act Amendment Act-2Foundation-177South African Agricultural Union: policy for African workers-200

. . Bond-15Bureau for Racial Affairs-102Coloured People's Organization-64, 133Congress of Trade Unions-196Federated Chamber of Industries-90, 91, 119, 188 Cape Chamber-85, 90, 92, 182Institute of Race RelationsAction at time of emergency-20, 101 Council meeting-16-20, 136 Executivemeeting, May 1960-20, 102 Also see numerous subject headingsNational Tuberculosis Association-243Political Bureau-286Sports Association-263Trade Union Council-196South-West Africa: Representation in Senate-3 Question referred to InternationalCourt of Justice-285,288 United Nations' consideration of-287 Windhoek riot-287 Special Education Amendment Act-225schools-224Sport-263Springs: Housing-162, 169 Squatters-1 12Stanford, Mr. W. P., M.P.-13, 54 Stanton, Miss Hannah-83 State of emergency inSouthAfrica-73 et seq.Also see CrisisStatement by 69 prominent men-8 Steel and Engineering Industries Federation ofS.A.-91 Stellenbosch riot-64 Steyn, Mr. S. J, M., M.P.-10

RELATIONS: 1959-60Steytler, Dr. J. van A.--4, 13 Stock Exchange-92 Strikes-192 et seq. Subsidies:welfare-253 Subversive associations during emergency-77statements and publications-emergency regulations-76, 88 Suppression ofCommunism Act-35, 70 Suzman, Mrs. H., M.P.-88TTable tennis-265 Tambo, Mr. 0.-79, 286 Tanganyika-275 Taxation of Africans-126 : Opposition to increase in-44 Teachers: Cost-of-living allowances forAfricans-216Distinctions earned by-209Numbers-215Pensions schemes for Africans-215Training of-216, 218 Technical training-226 Tembuland:opposition to Bantuauthorities-47 Territorial authorities-107, 108 : representatives in urban areas-124Theatre-259Trade unions-195 et seq. Traders: African-202Indian-143, 156Coloured-203Transkei: Bantu authorities-107, 108Future of Whites.and Coloured-illt, 121Pondoland disturbances-39-47 Transport levy-171services-170

Transvaal and Orange Free State Chamber of Mines-91 Treason trials-37, 77, 89,105 Trials of Africans resulting from state of emergency-85 Tribal authorities-108levies-127. . proposed in urban areas-124representatives in urban areas-124Tsonga people: opposition to Bantu authorities system-48 Tuberculosis-243UUnemployment- 174insurance-255Union Council for Coloured Affairs-132Education Advisory Council Bill-209United Nations: Consideration of apartheid policy-277, 281 South-West Africa-287 Treatment of Indians-289 Debate after Sharpeville-281Economic Commission for Africa-287Status of South African mission-287 United Party policy-4, 10 United States:attitude to apartheid-281PV y boycott of South African goods-276

308 A SURVEY OF RACEUniversities and university colleges-227 et seq.Admission of Non-White students-229Degrees and diplomas awarded to Non-Whites-228Enrolment at-227, 230University College of Fort Hare-228, 232, 235, 236 Pius XII-238the North-203, 228, 237 Western Cape-228, 238 Zululand-228, 237 for Indians-229Colleges: Admission to-228 Fees-234Regulations for-231 Study loans-234 University of Natal: Cost-of-livinginvestigation-186 Unlawful Organizations Act-69 Unskilled workers: wages-seeIncomes Urban areas: Advisory boards-104, 123Government policy for African administration-104, 122, 123, 124 Representatives of chiefs in-124Urban Bantu authorities-104, 123, 124Also see Africans, Franchise rightsVVanderbijlpark: Housing-164Riots-57Van Wyk, Mr. F. J.-23, 97, 98 Vereeniging: Housing-164Riots-56-58Verwoerd, Dr. the Hon. H. F.-5, 10, 89, 103, 117, 133, 280, 286 Villages in theReserves-114, 121 Visas-33Visitors: Non-White to the Union-287 Vital statistics-240 Vocational training-226Voting strength of various political parties-7, 8WWage agreements-189,, determinations-189

Wages of Africans: Government's attitude-105, 192 Need for increase-19, 23, 91,92, 103, 187, 191 Recent increases-189, 190, 192 Wage Board action-192 Alsosee Cost of livingWar Veterans' Foundation-24 Webb, Rev. Dr. J. B.-99 Welfare-246 et seq.organizations for Africans: Control and siting of institutions-250services-Control of African services-247, 250Development during the past fifty years-16 Membership of controllingcommittees-17 Welkom: Disturbances-52,, Housing-168Western Areas of Johannesburg-147 et seq. Whyte, Mr. Quintin-16, 102 "Wind ofChange" speech-321

RELATIONS: 1959-60 309Wolmaransstad: Group areas-157 Women, African: Legal status-129Reference books-106 Wool Board-90 Worcester riot-64 World Council ofChurches-24, 95-100xXhosas: opposition to Bantu authorities-48YYouth camps for Africans-270 Youths: employment for-271zZeerust area-35 Zulu, Bishop, A. H.-32

THE NATURE AND AIMSOF THES.A. INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONSThe Institute furthers inter-racial peace, harmony and cooperation in South Africaby seeking the truth in all inter-racial situations and making it known, whether itbe popular or unpopular with any Government or party or group.The Institute is not a political body, nor is it allied to or given financial help byany political party or Government. It is not tied to any "ism", is not pro-white oranti-white, or pro-black or antiblack. Institute membership is open to all,irrespective of colour or creed.The Institute believes that problems can be solved by hard thinking, hard workand goodwill, on the basis of fact found by dispassionate, objective scientificenquiry.It is concerned not only withtensions between white and black, but between allgroups: Afrikaans- and English speaking, urban and rural, white and black andcoloured and brown.It opposes injustice and unfair discrimination, andIt seeks to further the social, economic and political development of allcommunities in South Africa.INSTITUTE OFFICESHEAD OFFICE: Auden House, 68 de Korte Street, Braamfontein(P.O. Box 97), Johannesburg.

CAPE TOWN: 203-205 Bree Street. DURBAN: 11-12 Colonization Chambers,355 West Street, (P.O.Box 803).PORT ELIZABETH: Southern Life Buildings, Donkin Hill.

1Qfl~-44E&-~9~-4i . F! 1972