THE HUMAN SIDE OF SEAFARING

CHUA WAN SING

SCHOOL OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

NANYANG TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

2012/13

THE HUMAN SIDE OF SEAFARING Human Side of Seafaring

Submitted by

Chua Wan Sing

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering

College of Engineering

Nanyang Technological University

A Final Year Project presented to the Nanyang Technological University

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

Degree of Bachelor of Engineering

2012/13

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Abstract

Past literature has portrayed seafaring as being unique and being one of the finest of lives. However,

seafarers have, in recent years, displayed a lack in their professionalism. Thus, the lack of quality

and motivated seafarers is of grave concern. To date, little research has been conducted on this

aspect. As such, this study shall investigate the underlying reasons behind the lack of motivation

and professionalism of seafarers. This paper will be divided into three segments. The first segment

shall delve into past literature and interviews with ship managers and crew, which will shed light on

the push and pull factors of a seafaring career. It is discovered that most tend to shun this career due

to various reasons such as the increasing affluence of the economy, rising career expectations, as

well as the negative reputation of the shipping industry. In contrast, a seafaring career is still

attractive because of the relatively high pay, strong seafaring traditions, and the opportunity to seek

adventure as well as to meet foreigners and new people. The second segment shall use the

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to make a comparison between the past and present conditions of

seafaring. The comparison will assist in determining if changes in the environment were

accountable for the lack of motivation in seafarers. From the data collected, it is observed that the

conditions of seafaring have improved. Overly high expectations and lack of full understanding of

the job scope of a seafarer’s life and career path of the seafarers were attributable to their lack of

motivation to remain as seafarers in the medium to long term. In the third segment, practical

recommendations will be suggested. This segment will be divided into 3 main categories: talent

acquisition, talent management and talent retention. Talent acquisition shall detail the use of social

media, greater gender diversity as well as corporate social responsibility to increase the number of

recruits in the workforce. On the other hand, talent management shall outline the use of skills

development. Lastly, talent retention shall involve the use of higher wages and better benefits such

as higher connectivity as well as encouraging greater interaction between crew on board. Overall,

this research aims to lay the foundation needed to deal with the self-actualising needs of seafarers.

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Acknowledgements

First and foremost, I would like to take this opportunity to express gratitude to my project

supervisor, Mr Teh Kong Leong, for his continuous support and guidance throughout the term of

my Final Year Project.

Secondly, I would like to acknowledge the following people with thanks:

Mr Wladimir de Beaupuy

Mr Harman Singh Khangura

for sharing their knowledge and experience.

In addition, I would like to express appreciation to the interviewees for taking time off from their

busy schedules to contribute valuable insights.

Lastly, I would like to express special thanks to my course mates and friends for their care and

support throughout the project.

Without all their kindness, understanding and assistance, this report could not have been completed.

I am sure there may be some I have missed, but they are no less appreciated. Many thanks to all!

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ABSTRACT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES, GRAPHS AND TABLES

i

ii

iii

vi

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

1.2 Importance of study

1.3 Objectives and Scope

1.4 Definitions

1.4.1Quality Seafarer

1.4.2 Importance of Quality Seafarer

1.4.3 Motivation

1

1

2

2

2

3

3

CHAPTER 2

RESEARCH AND METHODOLOGY

2.1 Preparatory Stage

2.2 Design Study

2.3 Synthesis of Data and Delivery of Report

6

7

8

CHAPTER 3

LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1 Challenges in Shipping

3.2 The Fading Allure of Shipping

3.2.1 Economically

3.2.2 Socially

3.2.3 Negative Reputation of Shipping

9

9

10

11

12

Table of Contents

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3.3 Embracing the Allure of the Sea

3.3.1 Economically

3.3.2 Strong Seafaring Traditions

3.3.3 To Meet New People

12

12

14

15

CHAPTER 4

FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Findings from Survey Results

4.2 Sailing in the Past and Present

4.2.1 Physiological Needs

4.2.2 Safety and Security Needs

4.2.3 Social Needs

4.2.4 Esteem Needs

4.2.5 Self-actualising Needs

4.3 Thoughts and Analysis

16

16

16

18

20

22

23

25

CHAPTER 5

RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Talent Acquisition

5.1.1 Increasing Exposure of Seafaring Profession

5.1.2 Attracting Women to a Career at Sea

5.1.3 Using Corporate Social Responsibility to Prepare a Ready Pool of

Talents

5.2 Talent Management

5.3 Talent Retention

5.3.1 Wage Structure

5.3.2 Better Connectivity

5.3.3 More Social Life on Board

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26

27

28

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34

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CHAPTER 6

LIMITATIONS

35

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION

36

REFERENCES

APPENDIX A - Case Studies

APPENDIX B - Ship Management Interview Transcripts

APPENDIX C – Crew Interview Transcripts

APPENDIX D - Using Corporate Social Responsibility to prepare a ready pool of talents

37

40

44

57

70

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List of Figures, Graphs and Tables

Figure 1: An interpretation of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, represented as a pyramid with the more

basic needs at the bottom…………………………………………………………………………….4

Figure 2: Career chart of officers…………………………………………………………………...23

Figure 3: Career chart of ratings…………………………………………………………………….25

Figure 4: Obtaining trainees from various orphanages……………………………………………..72

Figure 5: Trainees obtained through corporate-run orphanage……………………………………..72

Graph 1: Comparison of wages by years at sea versus on shore……………………………………11

Graph 2: Average number of collisions per ship (2000-2010)……………………………………...18

Graph 3: Increase in world fleet…………………………………………………………………….19

Graph 4: Number of UK national seafarers active at sea, 2002 – 2010…………………………….40

Graph 5: Age profile for UK Certificated Officers and Ratings, 2010……………………………..41

Graph 6: Japan seafarers…………………………………………………………………………….42

Graph 7: Demographics of seafarers………………………………………………………………..70

Graph 8: Percentage of the nationality of officers, ratings and cadets in AET……………………..71

Table 1: Estimated Supply/Demand in OECD Countries……………………………………………9

Table 2: ILO recommended basic wage for an AB ………………………………………………...13

Table 3: Increase in wage (2012-2014)……………………………………………………………..20

Table 4: Suicide Statistics compiled from various reports………………………………………….21

Table 5: Key areas of appraisal attributes…………………………………………………………..24

Table 6: Salary increase of the top management on board………………………………………….30

Table 7: Proposed recommendations a ship manager may consider………………………………..32

Table 8: Seafarers by nationalities employed on Singapore Flag ships in 1999……………………43

Table 9: Annual wage variations in salary based on origin…………………………………………73

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Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Background

In the 6th century B.C., Anarcharsis mentioned, “There are three sorts of people: those who are

alive, those who are dead, and those who are at sea.” Life at sea was like nothing ashore. Sailors

were no different from the exiled. They lived a life of isolation and led a sedentary life.

However, sailing can be fun, exciting and challenging. In the Bible, a statement was made. “Qui

nescit orare, discat naviagare” – he that knows not how to pray, let him go to sea. This was a

declaration that reflects the seafarer’s long standing conviction that only at sea could they find the

ultimate awe and terror. Even in literature, works such as “The Seafarer” reveal the mixed emotions

of an adventurous seaman who yields to the irresistible fascination for the sea in spite of his

knowledge of its perils and hardships.

Fast forward to the 21st century, the age of the proud seaman is over. The “bigger ships and lesser

manpower” concept is practised by many shipping companies. As the shipping slump continues,

manpower reduction has become an important management strategy. “Seafarers are generally very

motivated to do whatever is necessary to keep the ship on schedule, regardless of how little sleep

they had. This reflects a certain sense of ruggedness and a prevailing fear of the loss of

employment” (Roehrer, 2011). These ultimately breed insecurity and poor motivation in seafarers.

1.2 Importance of Study

Peter Cardy, the Chief Executive of the Maritime and Coastguard Agency (UK), once mentioned

that ships and trade do not depend on vast machines – but on people who run them. The shipping

industry is run by people, for people. Humans design ships, build them and repair them. It is human

nature that drives the daily routine tasks on board (Gregory et al, 2010). The human element is the

secret behind its successes, the victims of its failures and ultimately the solution to preventing major

catastrophes. A greater understanding of human nature can help management to effectively deal

with and change undesirable behaviour.

With piracy, separation from family and friends, and increasingly strict regulations, the enticement

of the sea has faded. As the industry laments the insufficient numbers of seafarers, papers are being

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published on the challenges of seafaring. There are at least 2 papers written on the human side of

shipping in recent years. In 2010, “The human element– a guide to human behaviour in the shipping

industry” was published by the Maritime and Coastguard Agency to promote the more effective

management of seafarers. The guide focused more on possible safety issues based on the

capabilities and weaknesses of an average man. Likewise that year, a thesis “The human element in

international seafaring” looking into management of seafarers was written by Sajadi et al. However,

there is a lack of studies covering in depth the trend of falling motivation among seafarers.

1.3 Objectives and Scope

This paper aims to look into the motivational issues of seafarers and discusses the following

questions:

1. Are people motivated to pursue a sailing career?

2. What are the changes in the environment that have led to changes in motivation of

seafarers?

3. What are the possible solutions?

1.4 Definition of Terms

The human side of seafaring in this report studies the fundamental aspects of human behaviour with

regards to motivation.

1.4.1 Quality seafarer

Seafarers can be broadly defined as individuals who predominantly work at sea. They are typically

found in the cargo shipping, oil and gas and leisure shipping segments in the maritime sector

(Deloitte, 2011). In this report, the focus will be on commercial seafarers on merchant ships.

Seafarers can be broadly categorised as officers and ratings. Officers are members of the ship’s

management and typically work in 1 of 2 departments – navigation (deck) and engineering. Whilst

on duty, a deck officer is responsible for steering and manoeuvring the ship, controlling navigation

and communications and also for looking after cargo operations and safeguarding the cargo.

Engineering officers are responsible for operating and maintaining mechanical and electrical

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equipment throughout the ship. Ratings on the other hand are seafarers who assist officers across

all departments.

In a nutshell, the ideal seafarer should possess the following attributes:

Leadership and management skills

Well-trained with the right experience

Functionally competent

Right attitudes - engaged and motivated

Physical and mental health

Ownership and pride

1.4.2 Importance of a quality seafarer

Having quality seafarers on board can mitigate unnecessary risks to life, reputation, efficiency and

safety. To ensure that the ship continues to operate efficiently and safely, shipowners expect the

ship’s crew to maintain shipboard housekeeping and ship seaworthiness. Through good

housekeeping, the shipowners can project a professional image. Ship visits from classification

societies are common and a dedicated crew instantly instils confidence. A well-maintained and

organised ship shows an orderly and responsible work approach of the crew to its daily tasks. A safe

and clean workspace can prevent ship damage, personal injury or even disaster.

1.4.3 Motivation

Motivation can be broadly defined as a process that arouses, energises, directs and sustains

behaviour and performance (Luthans, 1998). It is the process of stimulating people to act or behave

in a particular way and the general willingness of someone to achieve a desired task. A motivated

employee would want to do a good job and to express this desire through behaviour and action.

However, people come with varying degrees of motivation and thus it is vital for employers to

figure out how those motivations may or may not fit an operation.

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Figure 1: An interpretation of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, represented as a pyramid with the more

basic needs at the bottom.

In this paper, we will explore what motivates people to go to sea and choose to stay at sea.

Motivation will be benchmarked in line with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. According to Maslow,

the main motivators of human behaviour stem from their needs. The needs are categorised into 5

levels namely physiological needs, safety needs, love and belonging, esteem needs and self-

actualising needs. (Refer to Figure 1) Only when the lower levels of needs are met, can an

individual move on to satisfy a higher level of needs.

There are five different levels in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs for seafarers:

Physiological

Needs

These include the most basic needs that are vital to survival. Physiological needs

include adequate wage, salary and working conditions. These needs are the most

basic and instinctive needs in the hierarchy because all needs become secondary

until these physiological needs are met.

Safety and

Security Needs

Security needs are important for survival, but they are not as demanding as the

physiological needs. Examples of security needs include a desire for steady

employment, shelter from the environment and other benefits such as sick pay

and safe working conditions.

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Social Needs

These include needs for belonging, love and affection through teamwork and

other activities to develop relationships and acceptance between co-workers.

Relationships such as friendships, romantic attachments and families help fulfill

this need for companionship and acceptance.

Esteem Needs

After the first three needs have been satisfied, esteem needs become increasingly

important. These include the need for things that build self-esteem, personal

worth, social recognition and a sense of accomplishment through acquisition of

technical knowledge of one’s job, positive feedback and opportunities for

advancement.

Self-actualising

Needs

This is the highest level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Self-actualising people

are self-aware, concerned with personal growth, less concerned with the opinions

of others and interested in fulfilling their potential from successful undertaking

stimulating and challenging tasks.

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Chapter 2: Research and Methodology

This chapter aims to outline and explain the collection and analysis of data and information. A 4

stage methodology was planned for this paper.

.

2.1 Preparatory Stage

The key terms were defined. 3 preliminary interviews were carried out to narrow down the scope to

make the topic more manageable. Preliminary research was conducted and much focus was given to

the topic of the motivation of seafarers. The objectives are presented as questions in this report.

Delivery of the Report

Drawing appropriate conclusions from the results

Submission and presentation of the report

Synthesis of Information

Answering the three objectives Formulating practical solutions

Study Design and Primary Data Collection

Planning of methodology Compiling literature reviews Launching of survey

Preparatory Stage

Defining of key terms Conducting of preliminary

consultations Narrowing of scope to focus

on unexplored territories

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2.2 Study Design and Primary Data Collection

Resources online and offline were used for the collection of primary data. To answer the first

question, “Are people motivated to pursue a sailing career?”, literature readings which explored the

various pull and push factors of a career at sea were compiled.

To answer the second question, a set of self-administered interview questions targeting ships’ crew

was generated to substantiate the findings from the literature readings. The same questionnaire was

applied in all interviews to obtain comparable results. With the help of the ship managers, a group

of survey participants were selected from the pool of crew who were in the office. Seafaring

participants were mainly chosen based on their nationality, age and willingness to participate in the

survey. To obtain honest replies rather than artificially prepared responses, survey questions were

not pre-distributed.

As the responses to the survey would be set out individually in the appendix, all information shall

remain confidential apart from crucial information for the survey to protect the respondents’

identities. This was to encourage honest responses through the assurance that their replies would

have no negative effect on their current or future employment in the industry. In addition, the

respondents were engaged in an open dialogue to tell their story. Probes were included in the

interview if an interviewee did not volunteer the information or failed to answer the question. The

interviews were documented to accurately reflect the tone and attitude of the seafarers. (Refer to

Appendix C)

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs was used as a comparison benchmark to determine if change in

environment could be responsible for the lack of motivation in seafarers. Journals and diaries of

seafarers were used to explore the conditions and environment of seafarers in the past while the

modern life of seafarers was better understood through extensive literature readings. Although

Maslow’s theory is not the final answer to work motivation, it nonetheless provides a suitable

framework in the exploration of changes in comparing the different needs and expectations of

seafarers.

A second survey was carried out to obtain managerial opinions and practical recommendations. The

surveyed population included lecturers, union officers, ship managers and ex-seafarers. Question 6

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was added to encourage interviewees to think out of the box. (Refer to appendix B) For

interviewees with seagoing experience, Questions 2 and 3 explored the conditions that would tempt

them back to sea. For this survey, group interview was encouraged. This was to create a more

vibrant and friendly environment which was more conducive for brainstorming of ideas. Using the

comparison results collected, a realistic evaluation of past and current seafaring conditions based on

the Maslow theory could be done. This helps to formulate practical solutions of what can be done

and needs to be done.

2.3 Synthesis of data and delivery of report

The synthesis of ideas would be revealed in the following chapters. The submission and

presentation of the final report will then mark the completion of Stage 4.

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Chapter 3: Literature Review

3.1 Challenges in Shipping

Estimated Supply/Demand in OECD Countries

Supply Demand Difference

2010

Officers 184000 229000 -45000

Ratings 143000 288000 -145000

2015

Officers 194000 257000 -63000

Ratings 117000 309000 -192000

Table 1: Estimated Supply/Demand in OECD Countries

Source: ISF/BIMCO

With fewer young men joining the ranks of seafarer and older seafarers entering retirement, the

'looming crisis' of shortage of seafarers remains a matter of continuing worry (Grey, 1995).

According to the International Maritime Organisation (IMO), the global shortage of seafarers,

especially officers has now reached levels that threaten the future of the international shipping

industry which is the lifeblood of world trade. In 2010, ISF/BIMCO observed a shortage of 13,000

officers, 2.1% of the total and a balance for ratings globally. For Organisation for Economic

Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, the shortage of officers is more noticeable, with a

gap of 45,000 between demand and supply for officers and 145,000 for ratings. The gap is expected

to widen in year 2015 with a shortage of 63,000 in officers and 192,000 for ratings. Even in the

developed Asian maritime countries, a decline in the number of seafarers is observed. Specific

details are shown in the case studies in Appendix A.

3.2 The fading allure of seafaring

Seafaring is a demanding profession filled with hardships, loneliness and isolation. Many youth

from developing nations may find the work conditions at sea unattractive. Working onboard entails

long working hours and long periods away (an average of 3-4 months) from home. At the end of a

long, physically demanding and stressful day, there is no returning home to the family; no evening

with friends at the tavern or the pub; no change of scenery; no chance to properly relax, unwind or

de-stress…24 hours a day, 7 days a week, for weeks and often for months on end; and, ever-present

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in the back of their minds was the possibility of natural and other, more insidious hazards such as

pirate attacks, unwarranted detention and abandonment in foreign ports (Von Dreele, 2010).

3.2.1 Economically

Economies are gradually becoming more developed and there are increasing opportunities for better

paid jobs. With more career options, fewer people inevitably choose the seafaring profession. For

trained maritime personnel, figures have shown that fewer men see themselves having a lifetime

career at sea. There is now a tendency for seafarers to become “short time stayers”, spending shorter

periods of their life at sea and seeking shore-based jobs earlier (ESCAP, 1995). Trained seafarers

possess the necessary professional experiences and education which make them flexible towards

taking alternative employment, putting them in high demand from other shore positions. Hence, the

gap between wages paid to officers and those employed on shore-jobs are narrowing. (Refer to

Graph 1) Based on a 20 years working career at sea, an average officer can expect to see his salary

double as he rises steadily through the ranks. However, those who move on shore after 6 years of

sea experience can also see a significant rise in their income compared to if they had stayed at sea.

This is not to say that all officers will see an immediate pay rise if they come ashore. But the

likelihood of an officer who has at least 10 years of sea experience to command a comparable pay

ashore is high. With little salary premium, fewer seafarers are willing to stay at sea. In the worst

case scenario, some trained maritime personnel may opt not to go to sea at all.

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Graph 1: Comparison of wages by years at sea versus on shore

Source: Faststream Recruitment Group

* The salaries of those who left within 10 years are exceptionally high as most are high fliers who

made rapid progression through the ranks. They are also very successful when working ashore.

3.2.2 Socially

Global fertility rates are generally in decline with the trend being the most pronounced in

industrialised countries. With slower population growth, the number of people interested in a career

at sea shrinks proportionately. This also in turn leads to a more “valuable” workforce, in which

every organisation is fighting for the same talents. Family dynamics are also changing, growing

smaller and increasingly close-knitted. In developed nations, the younger generation, also known as

Generation Y, is brought up in a vastly different environment from the previous generations.

Generation Y can be defined as those born in 1978-1994 (Cahoon et al, 2008).

These children are more likely than ever to be the only child of working parents who have a greater

share of their parent’s affection and attention. They are likely to grow up receiving constant praise

and recognition from their parents and at school (Garlick et al, 2007). Also, most have lived during

the time of healthy economy and prosperity with rising social and financial affluence, leading to a

different perspective and expectations of working life. Generation Y has been described in many

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

14000

1 to 5 6 to 10 11 to 15 16 to20 20+

Average salary by years at sea

Average shorebased salary for ex-seafarers based on years at sea

*

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literatures as demanding a greater work-life balance than previous generations. They tend to have

higher and more unrealistic expectations of employment benefits and no longer believe in “hard

work comes before a rise in ranks”1 (Cahoon et al, 2008). This implies a lower tolerance level for

the conditions at sea.

3.2.3 Negative reputation of shipping

Bad publicity from accidents at sea has influenced the public’s perception of the seafaring

profession. Its declining reputation can be attributed to the lack of ownership among existing

seafarers resulting in low self-esteem and job dissatisfaction. Many shipmasters and officers do not

show initiative beyond their job description, only doing what needs to be done. Moreover, recent

years have seen an increase in the number of cases whereby captains act in a manner contrary to

expectations.2 These cases were highly publicised and the captains as well as the seafaring

profession has henceforth gained notoriety, distorting the public’s opinion of the profession. As a

result, careers at sea are deemed as less desirable, which contributes to a shortage of seafarers.

3.3 Embracing the allure of the sea

A career at sea is unique. Traditionally, seafarers are lured to sea by former sailors-heroes with

stories of voyages in foreign lands. Whether it is to fulfill one’s need for adventure or simply

following family traditions, there are still people who want to go to sea. The various reasons are

explored in the following sub-sections.

3.3.1 Economically

Many seafarers, especially those from poorer nations, are attracted to life onboard because of

promises of a decent wage. (Refer to table 2) In the Philippines, an ordinary seaman being

1 In a survey conducted by a recruitment company Achieve Group, which polled 450 company

executives, Singaporeans were found being too choosy when it comes to the nature of the work,

working conditions and hours and workplace location when job-hunting. As a whole, they generally

demanded too high a pay. (Insing, 2012)

2 In 1991, Captain Yiannas Avranas of a Greek cruise liner left his sinking ship. In 2000, the

captain of a sinking Express Samina which took more than 60 lives was accused of failing to help

passengers to flee from the sinking vessel. In 2012, Captain Franceso Schettino will be charged for

abandoning his overturned vessel, Costa Concordia.

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employed on an international ship can earn about 50, 000 Pesos a month. This is as much as 10 to

100 times the income of wage-earners employed in their home country. Taking on seafaring as a

career is the fastest way to break out the cycle of poverty. For seafarers from countries wracked

with civil strife, the living conditions on board are a considerable improvement.

Principle Details

Minimum Basic Monthly Wage As agreed by the ILO Joint Maritime

Commission from time to time.

Normal Working Hours 8 hours per day, 48 hours per week (which

equates to 208 hours per month).

Leave Leave shall in no case be less than 30 calendar

days for one year’s service i.e. 2.5 days per

calendar month.

One day’s basic wage = basic monthly wage

divided by 30. Multiply by 2.5 to get leave pay

per month.

Overtime Rate Each hour of overtime should be compensated at

a rate of 1.25 x the basic hourly rate (the

monthly basic wage divided by 208).

Weekly rest day and Public Holidays Work performed on the weekly day of rest and

on public holidays should be duly recorded and

signed by the seafarer and should be

compensated by:

1. overtime remuneration in respect of each hour

worked at the rate of 1.25 times the hourly rate

for normal hours

OR

2. in lieu of remuneration, at least equivalent

time off duty and off the ship at the rate

indicated in 1 above

OR

3. additional leave in lieu of remuneration at the

rate indicated in 1 above

Overtime

Hours

Overtime records should be kept and signed by

the seafarer and the master or duly authorised

officer.

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The last ILO Subcommittee on Wages of Seafarers of the Joint Maritime Commission met in

February 2006. The Subcommittee agreed that the recommended basic minimum wage should be

raised to US$515 as of 1 January 2007, US$530 as of 1 January 2008 and US$545 as of 31

December 2008.

Minimum basic monthly wage (01/01/2007) – $515 USD

Minimum basic monthly wage (01/01/2008) – $530 USD

Minimum basic monthly wage (31/12/2008) – $545 USD

Taking into account the principles above the total negotiated settlement at present is as follows:

Minimum basic monthly wage (01/01/2007) US$ 515.00

2.5 days leave per month US$ 42.92

104 hours overtime per month US$ 322.40

8 hours compensatory leave for public holidays US$ 24.80

Total US$ 905.12

Minimum basic monthly wage (01/01/2008) US$ 530.00

2.5 days leave per month US$ 44.17

104 hours overtime per month US$ 331.76

8 hours compensatory leave for public holidays US$ 25.52

Total US$ 931.45

Minimum basic monthly wage (31/12/2008) US$ 545.00

2.5 days leave per month US$ 45.42

104 hours overtime per month US$ 340.08

8 hours compensatory leave for public holidays US$ 26.16

Table 2: ILO recommended basic wage for an AB

3.3.2 Strong seafaring traditions

Around the world, there are countries which have close ties to the sea due to their genealogical

history. To name a few examples, there are the Norwegians who share a common ancestry with the

Vikings and the Filipinos who have a pelagic lifestyle nurtured from childhood. Most seafarers have

roots in fishing and deep sea trade and grow up in families that have at least one seafarer among its

members. Deeply ingrained in them is a feeling that they are destined for the sea – a destiny that

many men and women would embrace as they come of age.

As such, in these communities, there is high respect for seafaring as an occupation choice. In the

Philippines, being a seafarer is one of the most sought after professions for young men and women

(Barawid, 2012). It is a cherished ambition of most Filipino parents for their children. Where the

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pace of life is more unstable, many parents are seen often urging their sons and even daughters to

embrace a career at sea.

3.3.3 To meet new people

For people with a spirit of adventure, going to sea fulfills their dreams to see the world. Seafaring

could mean new experiences and chances to meet new acquaintances in foreign places in addition to

the benefits of having no extra travelling and hotel accommodation expenses. Seafarers can also

enjoy the camaraderie of the diverse crew on board. While living and working in a confined

community on board, strong bonds and friendships are likely to form between the mariners. This is

partially due to a mutual reliance for companionship to discuss personal problems.

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Chapter 4: Findings and Analysis

4.1 Findings from survey results

According to Dennis Cooper, an extension diary specialist with the University of Wisconsin - River

Falls, ambition is an indication of strong motivation. Questions 5 and 8 of the survey look into the

ambitions of a seafarer. (Refer to Appendix C)

From the results of the survey, officers appear to be more motivated than ratings with a clearer goal

of their career path in mind. However, it is observed that the new generation of seafarers tends to

show lower adversity quotient compared to older seafarers. This may affect their motivation to stay

long-term at sea.

From the other questions, it is noted that the accounts of the life and challenges at sea from the

seafarers are in line with the literature readings, giving strong support to the data consolidated in

this paper.

4.2 Sailing in the past and present

In this section, the changes in the shipping environment based on the five levels of Maslow’s

hierarchy are explored.

4.2.1 Physiological needs

In the old days of sail, exploitation, abuse, unsafe and unhygienic conditions coupled with low

wages were the norm. Laws to protect seamen and unions to act as a collective voice to represent

the needs of seamen were unheard of.

Now, the treatment of seaman and their welfare is still dependent on the benevolence of their

employers. However it is guided by laws such as the various ILO Conventions which lay down

provisions for basic physiological needs of seafarers. To date many improvements have been made

to facilities and conditions. Accommodation standards have been improved with larger and more

comfortable cabins. Leisure amenities such as hobby rooms and bars have also been introduced. A

new and consolidated Maritime Labour Convention (MLC) 2006, which will raise the bar for the

17 | P a g e

minimum requirements of the working conditions of seafarers, will come into force in the 4th

quarter of 2013.3 This will further improve the welfare of seafarers.

Another significant change in the shipping scene is technological advances. There is now a greater

emphasis on machinery automation with the integration of systems. Seafaring is now less physically

demanding. However, automation has also created new attention demands (Sarter et al, 1995). Ship

sizes are growing bigger and it is observed that there is a reduction in manning levels. An operator

now has to be more aware of the various systems simultaneously. Instead, cognitive demands have

increased creating new human weaknesses such as fatigue and failure to multi-task. Fatigue is now

a major health and safety issue in the shipping industry (Smith, 2006).

3 According to the International Labour Organisation, the MLC gives “every seafarer the right to: a

safe and secure workplace that complies with safety standards; fair employment; decent working

and living conditions on board ship and also health protection, medical care and other forms of

social protection. “The MLC establishes minimum requirements for almost all aspects of working

conditions for seafarers including conditions of employment, hours of work and rest,

accommodation, recreational facilities, food and catering, health protection, medical care, welfare

and social security protection” Hughes, D. (2012c, Aug 22). Labour convention a breakthrough for

seafarer's welfare. Strait Talk.

18 | P a g e

4.2.2 Safety and Security Needs

With technology and regulations, ship accidents have generally decreased. (Refer to graph 2) After

many hard lessons, a lot of thought has gone into making ships today more seaworthy than their

predecessors4 and promoting a culture of safety in seafaring. The integration of technology has also

increased the ship’s safety, allowing the Master to stay more aware of the ship’s vital signs. There is

now 1 ship loss in every 670 in 2009 compared to 1 ship in every 100 in 1912 despite an increase in

the commercial fleet (Hughes, 2012a).

Graph 2: Average number of collisions per ship (2000-2010)

Source:Standard Saefty Navigation Special Edition

* General cargo and containerships are normally cruising faster than tankers. In addition, tankers

are under much stricter scrutiny of regulation compliance than that of general cargo and container

ships because of their size and potential consequences of collision. The period of increasing number

of collision is during 2007 to 2009 which links to the correlation with the very good freight market

at that time.

However, the sea is still an unforgiving environment and seafaring will always have its

occupational risks. Unique hazards confronting seafarers include piracy attacks. To combat piracy,

4 International Martime Organisation (IMO) mandates the safety standards through an international

convention, requiring all ships to have a management safety system in operation. Ships are also now

built based on the rules of classification societies.

0

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

0.03

0.035

0.04

0.045

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Average number of collisions per ship

Tanker Container/General Cargo

19 | P a g e

there are instances where shipowners and operators now employ armed security personnel.

However, the use of military means alone is not supported by the UN. Little progress towards any

political commitment to the protection of seafarers from pirates has been made. International bodies

and governments appear to be tolerating the pirate attacks. In fact, the safety of seafarers may be

threatened by suggestions for an international task force to discourage the payment of ransoms to

pirates and thereby eliminate the profit motive.

The safety of seafarers may be further threatened with ships being manned by insufficiently skilled

personnel. ‘Human element’ has been highlighted as the cause of 90 per cent of the serious

incidents at sea (Sadjadi et al, 2010). With the increase of vessels (Refer to graph 3), ship managers

have resorted to quicker promotions of junior officers on the basis of certificates of competency

with little consideration for experience and temperament to fill the manning gaps. The quality of

crew used to be supported through rigorous interviews and drills. However, in recent times, such

tests can be easily passed through regurgitation of the requirements without real understanding of

the handling of real-life situations. This has led to the erosion of seamanship and in turn the higher

risk of human error.

.

Graph 3: Increase in world fleet

Source: Compiled by UNCTAD secretariat on the basis of data supplied by IHS Fairplay

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2011

Oil Tanker 339 261 146 268 282 326 450 475

Dry Bulk 186 232 235 262 276 321 457 450

General Cargo 116 106 103 104 101 192 106 109

Container 11 20 26 44 64 98 169 184

Other 31 45 49 58 75 49 92 96

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

Nu

mb

er o

f se

agoin

g m

erch

an

t

ves

sels

of

100 g

ross

ton

s an

d a

bove

20 | P a g e

With respect to job security, a seafaring job is now more contractual than permanent. This leads to

the constant fear of not getting an extension of employment among seafarers. Pay pressures by the

union is also an issue. Even in times of recession, international trade unions (ITF) are prioritising

higher wages over job security. (Refer to table 3) This may lead to seafarers being laid off.

2012 2013 2014

Master 5460 5606 5786

Chief Engineer 4973 5106 5270

Chief Officer 3568 3663 3780

1st Engineer 3568 3663 3780

2nd

Officer 2883 2960 3053

2nd

Engineer 2883 2960 3053

3rd

Officer 2784 2857 2946

3rd

Engineer 2784 2857 2946

Bosun 1895 1942 2001

Fitter 1895 1942 2001

Chief Cook 1895 1942 2001

AB 1709 1752 1806

Greaser 1709 1752 1806

Table 3: Increase in wage (2012-2014)

Source: Compiled from ITF uniform “TCC” Collective Agreement for crews on Flags of

Convenience ship 1 January 2012-20004

4.2.3 Social Needs

Life at sea has always involved living in a distant micro-community with its own customs and

traditions. Seafarers may be away from home for up to 10 months to clock the necessary hours at

sea and hence seafarers are afflicted with constant homesickness and a longing for the type of

personal connection that a shipmate cannot provide. As evident from the survey results, this is the

greatest challenge at sea. (Refer to Question 4, Appendix C)

21 | P a g e

With technological advancement, there are now more options for a seafarer to contact his/her

family.5 They can be considered to be more connected to civilisation on land than before. However,

the advent of interactive and instantaneous social media may also postulate an alternative argument

that seafarers may actually be more isolated than ever. Seafarers may be less engaged in social life

on board, further depriving them of actual, physical communication.

Social life on board is also less vibrant. Seafarers are now contracted and are unlikely to return to

the same ship together with the same crew. This may be a hindrance to improving familiarity with

fellow shipmates. With a more demanding cognitive workload, seafarers have less opportunity to

engage in casual interaction, forming friendship. In watch-keeping for example, seafarers are

essentially alone even when sharing the bridge since bridges on mega ships may span up to 50

metres (Cahoon et al, 2008).

Reference Nationality Deaths Suicides % Suicide

Roberts & Williams 2007 UK 166 16 9.6

Roberts & Marlow 2006 UK 41 6 14.6

Roberts 2006 UK 20 2 10.0

Roberts 2003 FOC 68 7 10.3

Li 2002 UK 2,640 348 13.2

Cooper 2000 Various 521 91 17.5

Nielson 1999 Various 21 4 19.0

Hansen 1996 Danish 53 12 22.6

Jaremin et al. 1996 Polish 44 4 9.1

Larsson & Lindquist 1992 Swedish 117 18 15.4

Table 4: Suicide Statistics compiled from various reports

5 Seafarer centres in certain ports that allow seafarers to communicate with their family via the

internet free of charge. Some shipping companies give seafarers access to broadband services on

board so that seafarers can also call home when out at sea.

22 | P a g e

To counter global threats of maritime terrorism, ships must now comply with extensive security

measures for access to major ports.6 In addition with shorter ship turn around times, shore leave has

become harder to come by.7 Spending more time trapped on board may be mentally unhealthy for

seafarers in the long run. There are cases where mental health becomes such a serious issue that

seafarers choose to commit suicide. (Refer to table 4) However, there is no previous suicide

statistics collated in the past to make comparison possible.

4.2.4 Esteem Needs

Hundreds of years ago, seamen were bearers of progress and civilization to new and undiscovered

worlds. However, there are few unexplored parts of the world today. 90 percent of world trade is

carried by sea but there is little understanding amongst people in society of the contribution that

seafarers make to the world economy.

IMO has taken an active role in recognising the efforts of seafarers.8 These have helped to

strengthen the sense of purpose in seafaring careers. Recognition is a powerful motivator. Praise for

a job done well has lasting positive effects of feeling valued and appreciated. Apart from a good

pay, seamen also need to be treated with reverence and dignity

However, the reach of IMO efforts is limited to the maritime community. Those outside the

industry are not aware of such recognition. To further improve the esteem of the seafaring

profession, more marketing can be done to expand the recognition to beyond the immediate sphere

of influence – maritime shipping etc.

6 The implementation of the International Ship and Port Security Code (ISPS) has made it more

difficult sometime impossible for seafarers to go ashore particularly in US ports. With the

implementation of TWIC (Transportation Workers Identification Certificate), crew members are

restricted from walking through a terminal to the gate for shore leave.

7 Ships are now able to discharge cargo within 24 hours or less. Seafarers are not able to go onshore

because the duties on board do not allow them even a half day off.

8 . In 2004, IMO bravery awards were introduced. It is to mark and commend the decisive, brave

and courageous actions that seafarers make at sea. In 2010, the International Maritime Centre

named the year “Seafarer of the Year” to raise awareness of the professional job done by today’s

seafarers and improve regulations to make the industry safer. The theme was celebrated throughout

the year. This was to allow the international maritime community the opportunity to pay tribute to

the world’s seafarers for their contribution to society and to recognise the risk they shoulder in the

execution of their duties.

23 | P a g e

4.2.5 Self-actualising Needs

This notion has not been much explored in the past. Self-actualising needs stem from internal

motivators, such as a desire to perform even without external motivators such as material rewards.

In most shipping companies, seafarers take personality and aptitude tests as part of a selection

procedure. Most officers show personality traits of being keenly competitive, and enjoy pioneering

explorations and challenges. On the whole, they show a need for support but yet embrace

independence and freedom. They tend to score lower in ego and most have intellectual and creative

interests (Wall, 1980). The interviews conducted with shipping managers revealed that regardless of

nationality, most officers posess such personality traits.

For career-minded seafarers, who use their career progression to measure themselves, need to have

strong control over their career path. Most cadets aim to become chief engineers or captains. The

clear ranking system at sea will initially be sufficient to satisfy their self-actualising needs as they

climb the ranks. (Refer to figure 2) However, when they reach the peak of their sea career, they will

eventually be bored due to their need for new challenges. As such, it is observed that many captains

leaving for jobs ashore. Hence, shipping managers can create development opportunities for the

high performers by involving them in special tasks which requires offshore expertise. Through these

little projects, ship managers can identify the officers who are “high potential” and can be groomed

for internal vacancies ashore instead of keeping them in their respective fields.

Officers (Engineering)

Officers (Deck)

Figure 2: Career chart of officers

5th Engineer

4th Engineer

3rd Engineer

2nd Engineer

Chief Engineer

3rd Officer 2nd officer Chief Officer Master

24 | P a g e

In companies such as Maersk, e-learning is made available to fulfill their intellectual needs.

Seafarers are given the opportunity to either learn on board or during their vacation. Usually, most

modules are “one-size-fits-all” and would revolve closely around the core shipping activities

relevant to their work. Most companies have a performance measurement system in place to

determine a seafarer’s suitability for rehiring. (Refer to table 5) Using the same system, the

weaknesses and strengths of the individual can be identified. From there, modifications can be made

to the curriculum to better suit the individual’s learning needs. If used appropriately, this system can

also double up as an outlet for constructive feedback for self-improvement.

Personal Competencies and

characteristics

Technical and job-related

skills

Leadership and management

skills (For officers only)

Teamwork

Language skill (English) Planning and organisation of

work, effective use of resources

Communication Handling of stores and spares Monitoring and control

Creativity Reporting ability Results and orientation

Maturity, sobriety Cargo-related operations Staff relations

Diligence, self-motivation Deck-related operations Decisiveness

Reliability, Responsibility Engineering knowledge Ability to perform under

pressure

Appearance, physique, health

condition

Environmental awareness and

conformity

Communication of values,

norms and policies

Table 5: Key areas of appraisal attributes

Souce: PWC. (2012). Shipping crew performance management systems.

Resources can be provided so that seafarers have the opportunity to hone their interests. Putting

training videos on-board can allow some seafarers to learn a new language or learn a new skill like

wood craft to help consume the long hours at sea.

25 | P a g e

Ratings (Engineering)

Ratings (Deck)

Figure 3: Career chart of ratings

Ratings are usually neglected in the shipping companies because of their lower training cost and

shorter career ladder. (Refer to figure 3) Hence, ship managers have less incentive to retain them. In

addition, training a rating to become a cadet is difficult and not cost-effective. Most ratings are

academically less educated and are trained to take orders, which may hinder their decision-making

capabilities. However, there should also be systems in place to recognise ratings of exceptional

caliber. These ratings should be given autonomy in carrying out tasks to assess their ability.

4.3 Thoughts and Insights

From the above analysis, it is concluded that seafaring conditions have improved. However, with

higher job expectations, this resulted in an imbalance between reality and expectations. This leaves

seafarers less motivated. To develop stronger motivations, the management has to look at people as

individuals. Only by aligning what motivates people to their personal goals, can we expect them to

thrive and give their utmost.

Maslow assumes that humans go from lower to higher levels. But in reality, it is entirely possible

that all the levels can interact with each other or that higher level needs can take precedence over

lower level needs. For example, a seafarer can (up to some point) choose to ignore fatigue or hunger

on a task to gain acceptance by fellow crew members or recognition by management. As such,

assumptions cannot be made that if higher level needs are met, lower level needs would also be

satisfied.

Greaser Fitter Junior

Engineer (Professional 3rd Engineer)

With master's recommendation

Ordinary Seaman Able Seaman Boatswain

26 | P a g e

Chapter 5: Recommendations in shipping

To address global concerns about the lack of seafarers, the proposed solutions can be summarised

into 3 main categories: talent acquisition, talent management and talent retention.

5.1 Talent acquisition

5.1.1 Increasing exposure of the seafaring profession

Historically, shipping has had difficulty in recruiting people from families and communities without

a shipping legacy. Thus in recent years, considerable resources have been dedicated to increase

awareness of the sector and broaden the recruitment pool. Marketing seafaring as a calling is

commonly done on a national level as during economic downturns, firms are more likely to cut

back on recruitment and focus on the retention of staff.

Apart from traditional awareness events such as school talks and site visits9, social media that are

more popular with the technology-savvy students can be used. Unlike traditional media, there is

greater control over the content. Bad press has always been an issue for the industry. The use of

Facebook, Twitter etc. allows the creation of content and the ability of highlighting news such as

acts of valour done by our seafarers, downplayed by traditional media. Having a greater influence

among the young, social media can reshape negative impressions of the seafaring profession.

However, the content created should not lean towards over-glamorising the profession. Seafaring is

9 In 2007, MPA launched the MaritimeONE initiative to provide a more coordinated approach to

the promotion of maritime careers in Singapore. Activities and programmes including networking

events, school talks and site visits, scholarship and internship opportunities all help to put maritime

and a seafaring career in a more positive light. In 2012, an additional 4.2 million dollars was set

aside for Tripartite Nautical Training Award (TNTA) to train 80 Singaporean sea cadets in the next

2 years.

Talent acqusition

Talent management

Talent retention

Optimising resources to create value

27 | P a g e

a tough profession. Young people should not be given a wrong impression resulting in unrealistic

expectations.

5.1.2 Attracting women to a career at sea

According to the ILO, 1-2 per cent of the world’s 1.25 million seafarers are women. There is no

global figure for female ship commanders or officers although people inside the industry say that

the number is increasing. The figures remain low mainly due to the lack of awareness. Apart from

the young, the shipping industry can do more to move women towards this profession which has

traditionally been male-dominated.

To help women break through cultural bias in this man’s world, more policies in favour of women

seafarers have to be put in place. Codes that protect women from discrimination and harassment

have to be implemented and strictly enforced. To discourage women mariners from quitting to start

a family before they become officers, maternity plans have to be introduced.

28 | P a g e

5.1.3 Using corporate social responsibility to prepare a ready pool of talents

In war-ravaged countries such as Cambodia or Afghanistan, there are many orphanages. Many

orphanages hope to equip their children with life-skills so that they can be independent. However,

most lack the necessary corporate support. If shipping lines were to work with the orphanages, they

can set up training centres and act as provider of sponsored education for the children who wish to

pursue a career at sea. From the shipping company’s perspective, the benefits are endless.

Benefits from collaboration Notes Good reputation

Seen as a humanitarian corporation

helping the less privileged

Costly project which requires

commitment

Long lead time before benefits can be

reaped

Return on investment is high

Strongly related to core business and a

solution to officer shortages

Orphans can be a source of manpower

Children are well-educated with a good

grasp of English as most orphanages are

sponsored by charity organisations from

developed countries

Background suitability

Used to hardship and tend to be

appreciative of opportunities that come

their way

May have a greater sense of loyalty to

the shipping firm

Lesser family ties which imply lesser

emotional issues arising due to isolation

at sea

General personality traits which may not

be true for all

Character may change over time

Double-usage of facility

Enhance corporate bonding through

corporate volunteering

More meaningful team-building than

Outward Bound School

Satisfy the self-actualising needs of

some employees.

Depending on company’s culture and

employee’s enthusiasm, company may

have to sponsor the air flight or provide

a few days of leisure after the

volunteering programme to encourage

active employees’ participation

Further details of the plan can be found in Appendix D.

5.2 Talent Management

Shipping has moved from a labour-intensive to become a capital intensive-industry. Most

disgruntled workers cite lack of training and career advancement as main reasons for wanting to

jump ship (Chuang, 2012). Through training and development, a shipping company can re-use the

same seafarers and lower the rate of wastage. Funds should be allocated by companies for seafarers

29 | P a g e

to continuously improve themselves regardless of their rank. This encourages employees to develop

their cognitive and mental capacities pro-actively and to lead a life of self-actualising and self-

improvement. In Singapore, for example employers can tap into Maritime Training Fund or Skill

Development Fund for their employees. To nurture their other talents apart from seamanship, skills

outside the curriculum can be taught such as conflict management and basic training skills in

recognising an aggrieved colleague.

Shipping companies could facilitate the e-learning platform to allow seafarers to learn on board and

attain personal goals of personal fulfillment. This would also help prevent seafarers from reaching a

point of restlessness when all their basic needs are met. A modified learning curriculum should be

in place for each seafarer suited to their learning abilities and interest. As mentioned in the previous

chapter, having training videos on-board can allow some seafarers to learn a new language or learn

a new skill like wood craft.

At present, one major problem is to produce quality cadets that can cater to the global market.

Though the teaching curriculum is standardised globally, there is still a stark difference in quality of

cadets from different training centers. Under the STCW 95, substandard maritime schools which do

not comply with the international standards will be closed down. In addition seafarers who have

deficiencies in their maritime education will not be allowed to go to sea. At present, some shipping

companies have their own in-house training school to ensure a minimum quality. This lessens the

probability of unqualified people being accelerated into higher ranks. To substantially raise the bar,

a common written and oral examination could be set by a recognised body such as IMO which can

be used as an indication of quality recognised globally.

5.3 Talent retention

Training costs for officers are high. An officer who stays longer on the job is cost-effective and

benefits the company. As such, concerted efforts should be encouraged to retain a seafarer by

providing him/her the right conditions to continue a career at sea.

30 | P a g e

5.3.1 Wage structure

Money is believed to be the common motivator for a diverse crew and to keep talents on board.

Tanker

Job Title Salary 2011 Salary 2012 % Change

Master Mariner $112, 738 $115, 613 +2.6

Chief Engineer $103,931 $112, 208 +9.6

Chief Officer $94, 673 $100, 860 +7.2

Second Engineer $71, 036 $74, 659 +5.1

Dry

Job Title Salary 2011 Salary 2012 % Change

Master Mariner $95, 351 $110, 981 +16.4

Chief Engineer $84, 760 $98, 963 +16.6

Chief Officer $64, 910 $82, 737 +27.5

Second Engineer $65, 123 $75, 019 +15.2

Offshore

Job Title Salary 2011 Salary 2012 % Change

Master Mariner $119, 823 $128, 247 +7

Chief Engineer $109, 557 $114, 874 +4.6

Chief Officer $83, 584 $87, 313 +4.5

Second Engineer $52, 987 $55, 632 +5

Passenger

Job Title Salary 2011 Salary 2012 % Change

Master Mariner $128, 864 $153, 379 +22.8

Chief Engineer $91, 978 $103, 319 +12.3

Chief Officer $65, 883 $67, 908 +3

Second Engineer $73, 199 $66, 674 -9.0

Table 6: Salary increase of the top management on board

Source: Faststream Recruitment Group

31 | P a g e

The efficiency wage theory is an economic model which asserts that the productivity of workers is

positively correlated with the wages they receive. 10

With reference to the economics demand-

supply model, increasing the wages is a sure-win way of an immediate increase in supply. This is

practised in the shipping industry. From table 6 consolidated by Faststream Recruitment Group, it

can be seen a year-on-year increment for the top 3 positions on board. However, in an event where

employers try to outbid each other to poach quality employees, it is questionable how sustainable

the lure of money is.

To satisfy monetary gratification, apart from a higher pay, there is also a performance-based bonus

and merit increment to spur motivation. Standby pay could also be made available in times when a

seafarer goes for training etc. Standby pay, if implemented by the company, is approximately half

of the amount they would receive at sea. Normally as an industrial practice, seafarers will have a

lower monthly wage at sea as compared to the market rate to offset the stand-by pay.

5.3.2 Better connectivity

Emotional needs are also crucial motivators. After long absence from society and family, some

seafarers may lack awareness and information when back on shore. Most seafarers are well

prepared to respond to any extraordinary problems at sea but may be unable to handle domestic

situations at home. As such, efforts can be put in to help a seafarer adapt to life ashore. With

technology advancement, there is now secure and ‘always-on’ Internet Connectivity.11

For many

vessels managed by reputable shipping lines, members are now allowed to access email facilities

aboard many ships. This can help seafarers to stay connected through social media, keep themselves

updated to current affairs as well as access to local programmes.

From the survey’s results, many of the seafarers cited homesickness as one of the greatest

challenges. Ship managers can continue to remain committed in the implementation of thoughtful

10

The hypothesis is that paying workers a higher wage than the market can make an employee more

devoted and loyal to the company. With a higher wage, the employee knows he may not find a

better deal in the market and will also work harder to make sure he keeps the job. Workers stay

satisfied and this keeps them committed to their work. The theory states that although a firm pays

more, it will eventually benefit from the greater productivity and motivation from their workers. 11

Singtel has recently launched a broadband service specially catered for crew members out at sea.

Connectivity at sea will now be as good as on land.

32 | P a g e

solutions. Using the 6 major factors that would affect the life of a seafarer identified in a study by

ITF, some recommendations are proposed in this paper. (Refer to recommendations of Table 7)

Hidden costs

China: Seafarers are paid at a

lower rate during their leave

period.

India: Seafarers have to bear

the cost of training including

travelling, big sums required for

re-contracting and travel

expenses for family travel on

board.

UK: Wives have to take

flexible jobs to accommodate

their husband’s leave period.

The overall picture:

The nature of life at

sea imposes different

financial burdens and

work constraints on

other members of the

family.

Proposed

recommendation:

Travel for wives

should be

completely borne by

company and viewed

as a reward

incentive.

To reduce the

problem of

fluctuating income,

companies may

consider levelling

evenly the income

for seafarers signed

on long-term

contract.

Duration at sea

China: 1 to 1 work to leave

ratio with 6 months at sea for

local companies. 4 to 1 work to

leave ratio with at least 1 year

at sea for foreign companies.

India: Ratings are at sea for

longer periods compared to

officers.

UK: 2 to 1 work to leave ratio.

The overall picture:

When their partners

are away for more

than 4 weeks, spouses

feel lonely and

experience emotional

distances when they

are together.

Proposed

recommendation:

Internet connection

on board.

Shorter contracts at

sea regardless of

ranks.

Ship visits and

women sailing

China: Some companies allow

spouses of senior officers to

sail. Visits on board in port are

now impossible due to shorter

turnaround times.

India and the UK: Family

members can join seafarers on

board.

The overall picture:

This helps wives to

better understand

their husband’s life

and work on board.

Thus, they feel less

alienated.

Proposed

recommendation:

Incentive could be

extended to all

seafarers regardless

of ranks and is

rewarded based on

performance.

33 | P a g e

Communication China: On vessels without

internet connectivity, seafarers

are unable to call home due to

fast turnaround times.

India: Not all ratings have

phone lines back home.

UK: Less communication

concern.

The overall picture:

Communication helps

to sustain relationship

over long absences by

allowing seafarers to

feel part of their

families and be

involved in the

decision-making of

everyday events.

Proposed

recommendation:

Internet connection

on board to allow the

use of online calling

e.g. Skype.

Demands on

leave time

China, India and UK:

Duration of training courses

may take up to three months

during leave time.

The overall picture:

Seafarers have to do

their training in their

leave time.

Proposed

recommendation:

Institute 2 weeks of

additional leave time

for seafarers who

attend extremely

long training courses

so that they can have

a meaningful period

of time with their

family.

Company

support

China: There is a channel -

Seafarers’ Wives Committee

whereby wives can receive help

from other seafarers.

Traditionally, companies have

supported wives, but have

reduced their involvement due

to economic reasons.

India: Double standards in

company support for wives of

senior officers and ratings

whereby there are instances in

which ratings’ wives are not

informed.

UK: Low company contact that

leads to seafarers’ families

having a bad impression on a

career at sea for its

unpredictable schedules which

disrupts family life.

The overall picture:

Company support is a

helpful mean for

families to be more

involved in his life on

board. In times of

emergency, family

members want to be

informed

immediately.

Proposed

recommendation:

Company newsletter

for family members.

Support group

formed for wives of

seafarers so that they

can share their

experiences and also

provide emotional

support for each

other.

Table 7: Proposed recommendations a ship manager may consider

Source: ITF

34 | P a g e

5.3.3 More social life on board

Relationships formed on board have always been the highlight of seafaring positions. Tense

relationships may affect mood and quality of work and thus job satisfaction (Wall, 1980). The

social atmosphere on board is highly dependent on the top management on the vessel. In Maersk,

there is a 3-months-on-3-months-off contract, such that the senior managers - the captain, chief

engineer and second engineer are always put in the same team onto the same ship. With good shift

scheduling, this arrangement is possible with a success planning rate of 70-80 per cent. Assigned

with a budget of $3,000 a year, the management on board can then plan activities to bond the other

seafarers or improve living welfare suited to their needs. However, it is noted that most companies

do not have a welfare budget for the ship and many even debit seafarers’ salaries for welfare and

entertainment services without their permission (Von Dreele, 2010). Unless shipping companies are

willing to make the effort, the Maersk method even when implemented will not show much success

in creating a vibrant on-board social life.

35 | P a g e

Chapter 6: Limitations

The lack of sea experience was a major problem in fully understanding the situation at sea. Even

though there are materials and diary entries of seafarers that can be found online, there is difficulty

in verifying the facts and thus information is taken at face value. To improve the accuracy of the

findings, cross-references were made with different sources and interviews were conducted.

In addition, accommodating the schedule of seafarers was a challenge, and thus the pool of

interviewees was small. There is also an absence of responses from woman seafarers. Also, the

interviews may be subjected to personal bias. Seafarers from the same vessels are exposed to the

ripple effect of emotional contagion12

. Some of the seafarers may make use of the opportunity to

complain by exaggerating their dissatisfaction with seafaring. And thus, interviews mainly served as

support to the findings of the literature review.

12

This phenomenon is described as “a process in which a person or group influences the emotion or

behavior of another person through the conscious or unconscious induction of emotion states and

behavioral attitudes” (Schoenewolf, 1990).

36 | P a g e

Chapter 7: Conclusion

It is heartening to see that efforts to reverse the falling rates of seafarers are making progress,

however marginal. But this is not sufficient and more can be done. In order to ensure that there is a

global pool of competent and motivated seafarers to meet future demand, seafaring has to be

presented to the younger generations as a viable career choice and the profession has to be given its

due respect.

From the survey results and general industry feedback, it is concluded that seafarers seem less

motivated than before. However it is important to note that seafarers appear to be determined,

compliant and self-sacrificing to attain long-term rewards. These are attributes that are crucial to

create motivated individuals. By creating the right environment and ethos, shipping companies can

cultivate motivated seafarers with the enthusiasm to excel in whatever work they undertake and

embrace the attitude to give their best.

Through the literature readings, this paper has touched on the key changes in the environment and

how this could affect seafarer’s expectations and perceptions of the possibilities at sea. Using

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the differences between the past and present seafaring conditions

were highlighted. Seafarers show a lack of motivation due to conflicts of reality with expectations.

Top-class seafarers should be rewarded well in return for their service and nurtured to attain further

heights of competency. Some basic recommendations that could lay the foundation to increase

seafarers’ ownership of their careers through talent acquisition, talent management and talent

retention were explored. Social media could be used to better engage the youth while the

recruitment of women and youth from orphanages could be a solution to officer shortages. To

manage talent, training is crucial. To retain talents, an attractive wage structure, better connectivity

as well as vibrant social life on board have to be in place.

A key point to take away is that management policies play a huge role in retention of talent. The

implementation of measures and managing of people is a shared responsibility and has to take place

at all levels of the industry. Lastly, it is important for current and aspiring seafarers to embrace the

right mindset. By being committed and having pride in their work, these seafarers can shape the

views of the next generation on this career and also improve the global reputation of seafaring.

37 | P a g e

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Association, I. S. M. s. (2012, Mar 19). International president to chair save our seafarers. The

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important motivation from http://www.healert.org/documents/published/he00430.pdf

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Cahoon, S., & Haugstetter, H. (2008). Shipping, shortages and generation Y. Department of

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Iversen, R. T. B. (2010). The mental health of seafarers: A brief review.

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40 | P a g e

Appendix A – Case Studies

Lack of seafarers in developed countries (Case: UK)

The UK has been widely regarded as the maritime cluster internationally, being particularly strong

in the provision of many marine services. Even in UK, the number of officers has fallen steadily.

Since 1997, the number of UK national certificated officers active at sea has fallen by over 20

percent (Deloitte, 2011).

Even though the number of seafaring officer trainees (cadets) has risen since 2002, a significant

percentage of cadets who begin training fail to complete the qualification. (Refer to graph 4) The

majority of the cadets will go on to become officers, but there is still an insufficient amount of new

entrants. As some of the certified officers moved onshore, there is also a decline in active seafarers

Graph 4: Number of UK national seafarers active at sea, 2002 – 2010

Source: DfT / National Statistics UK Seafarer Statistics 2010

In addition, the sector struggled to attract young people. Most youth are deterred due to a lack of

seafaring tradition in the family. Apart from this, there is a reluctance to be away from family and

friends and the lack of access to social media networks to keep in contact with them. Young people

12441 13101 13151 13244 13572 12126 11423 11392 11275

2753 3743 3260 2915 2462

1758 2760 3151 3353

9511

10941 10429 9380 9752

8150 9327 10400 11336

1012

1002 1033

1050 1109

1426 1701

1795 1832

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

35000

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Certified Officers Uncertified Officers Ratings Officer Trainees

41 | P a g e

are no longer attracted by the idea of “seeing the world” given quick turnaround times. The industry

has also suffered from negative press and other issues such as piracy recently. This causes the

phenomenon of an “aging stock” of seafarers. As the number of leaving seafarers greatly

outnumbers the new, younger entrants, the age profile of the seafarers has been getting older. As

shown in Graph 5, nearly two-thirds of UK certified active officers are over 40 years old.

Graph 5: Age profile for UK Certificated Officers and Ratings, 2010

Source: DfT / National Statistics UK Seafarer Statistics 2010

Lack of seafarers in developed countries (Case: Poland)

Poland, part of the OECD, has been a major source of seafarers for Europe. However, recently there

is a lack of young people interested in a career at sea. Contrary to the working environment survey

conducted by DNV in 2009, money is not the issue for seafarers in Poland. In Poland, jobs are not

aplenty. Based on the 2011 annual average unemployment rates from International Labour

Organisation, CNBC ranked Poland 9th in the countries with the highest unemployment rates.

Poland has an average annual unemployment rate of 9.6 percent, with more than one in every five

young children out of work. However, out of half a million high school graduates, only 1000 could

be persuaded to consider a career at sea, even though it was better rewarded than many shore-side

jobs (Grey, 2010).

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Lack of seafarers in developed countries (Case: Japan)

Graph 6: Japan seafarers

Source: UNESCAP

In 1974, the number of Japanese seafarers working on ocean-going vessels reached its peak of

57,000. Since then, the number of Japanese seafarers has fallen drastically. It was suggested that if

the present trends were to continue, there will be as few as 3,800 Japanese seafarers by the year

2000 (ESCAP, 1995). In the period of 10 years from 1988 to 1998, the number of seafarers serving

onboard has fallen by 50.1%. (Refer to Graph 6.) Extrapolating the figure into the year 2018, the

total number would hit 1800. Similar to the “aging stock” phenomenon in the UK, an ageing

problem is also observed. There is a lack of young recruits entering the industry to replace the older

seafarers. Many maritime cadets do not choose to go to sea but opt for a more comfy land-based

job. The average age of Japanese seafarers is 47 as reported by United Nations ESCAP in 1995.

This figure is expected to continue to go up.

Lack of seafarers in developed countries (Case: Singapore)

The maritime industry is estimated to employ over 150,000 workers. As of 30th Sept 2010, there is

a total of 43,000 seafarers of over 100 nationalities working on board Singapore flagged ships,

1998 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998

Japanese Seafarers 12922 10844 9933 8781 8081 6359

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

14000

43 | P a g e

among which less than 400 are Singaporean (ASF, 2011). For locally registered ships, the number

of Singaporean seafarers working on board constitutes less than 3 per cent as of 1999. (Refer to

Table 8) This percentage is expected to be much lower now as there is no restriction on the

employment of foreign seafarers on board Singapore ships.

Nationalities Officers Ratings Total

Indonesian 5,057 5,316 10,373

Filipino 2,146 4,234 6,380

Chinese 973 2,271 3,244

Myanmar 1,396 1,092 2,488

Indian 1,389 739 2,128

Singapore 157 314 810

South Korean 505 48 553

Russian 274 271 545

Thai 157 380 537

Malaysian 274 247 521

Others 1,521 1,272 2,793

Total 14,188 16,184 30,372

Table 8: Seafarers by nationalities employed on Singapore Flag ships in 1999

Source: UNESCAP

The deferment of the compulsory National Service was no longer made available for maritime

officers in the latter part of 1970s. Officers who enlisted for National Service rarely return back to

sea. This was one of the reasons for the fall in seafarers more specific to Singaporeans seafarers.

Even for seafarers who return to serve on board, they do not stay at sea for long. As of 1980, an

officer would take up a shore job after an average of 8 years at sea (ESCAP, 1995).

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Appendix B - Ship Management Interview Transcripts

Interviewee A

1. What is your job scope?

Program Head for Maritime Security Programme, meaning I conduct maritime security

training for shipboard personnel to be designated as Ship Security Officer, Company

Security Officer and Ship Security Personnel.

2. Do you prefer working ashore? What would tempt you back to sea? (if you have

experience at sea)

My background – I served in the Republic of Singapore Navy as a Naval Officer for 17

years. My services were rotated onboard warships and shore based appointments. Well,

looking back, actually the best time of my career was onboard ships. Considered retired,

thus the second question is invalid.

3. Would you encourage your son to pursue a career at sea and continue the family

seafaring tradition? (if you have experience at sea)

A definite Yes! if he’s interested. However, young Singaporeans are too pampered to want

to seek the challenges of a seafarer’s career.

4. It is generally accepted that life at sea is more pressurized than it has ever been. In

your opinion, what do you think we can do to motivate youngsters to pursue a career

at sea?

Life at sea is definitely more pressurized as compared to the past, reasons due to a smaller

complement of ship crew, high-tech automated system and of its dependent, and the ever

increasing threats of piracy and terrorism.

Youngsters nowadays are now mainly motivated by money as compared to the cliché for

the love and challenges of the sea.

5. There is a general world-wide shortage of seafarers. Fleet continues to grow. What

can we do to attract the right talents on board?

1. Better wage structure meaning more money.

2. Better career prospect and diversification into the maritime industry.

3. Accessibility to global inter-connectivity.

6. If money was no obstacle and you could provide one additional benefits for our fellow

seafarers, what would it be?

Based on an incentive system, reward selected seafarer and their family to a fully-paid

holiday at a port of call of his choice, maybe on a yearly basis.

7. IMO named 2010 the “Year of the Seafarer” to recognize the contributions made by

seafarers. Do you think the efforts made by IMO and unions to make maritime

committee more appreciative of the efforts of seafarers are sufficient?

45 | P a g e

On this note, I would like to compliment the good efforts of SMOU in collaboration with

e2i, local shipping companies and etc. in chartering a fully sponsored Deck Cadet Training

Programme for Singaporeans who does not meet the criteria in terms of academic and other

qualifications needed to enroll in the normal stream for cadet training.

46 | P a g e

Interviewee B

1. What is your job scope?

Designation: Manning Assistant

Jobscope

- Identify source of employment – Manila, Riga and India Manning office.

- Crewing activity is in compliance with the policies & procedures mentioned in this

manual.

- Ensure All Officers & Crew comply with the requirements of Flag State/ STCW 78 as

amended and

additional requirements of WESTSHIP as applicable for each rank.

- To maintain records of all active seagoing staff at WESTSHIP office either electronically

and or in hardcopy

- To ensure that as proper rotation and relief plan is in place at all times

- Liaise with manning agents, travel agents, and other offices concerning crew/officer

replacements and other various crew issues

- Responsible for maintenance up to date records of all officers, their qualification,

experience, and training records, medical records and other documents.

- Submit Officers Matrix online – Q88

- Generate crewlist with Empl IDs for VOD purposes to Master onboard

- Provide chatcards for crew onboard as per Master’s request

- Provision and Bonded Stores

- Application/Renewal of Liberian seaman book / Licence.

- To ensure proper monitoring mechanism is in place to assess appraisal reports of all

seafarers including feedbacks from superintendents and general office.

2. Do you prefer working ashore? What would tempt you back to sea? (if you have

experience at sea)

NA

3. Would you encourage your son to pursue a career at sea and continue the family

seafaring tradition? (if you have experience at sea)

NA

4. It is generally accepted that life at sea is more pressurized than it has ever been. In

your opinion, what do you think we can do to motivate youngsters to pursue a career

at sea?

NA

5. There is a general world-wide shortage of seafarers. Fleet continues to grow. What

can we do to attract the right talents on board?

- Award orderly for their good performance in terms of Bonus and Increment

- Loyalty is needed. Good rapport between a seafarer and manning agent as well as the

managing company.

6. If money was no obstacle and you could provide one additional benefits for our fellow

seafarers, what would it be?

47 | P a g e

- Standby Pay

- Enhancement of family carriage to long. Extentsion of family carriages to long time

serving crew of no particular rank.

7. IMO named 2010 the “Year of the Seafarer” to recognize the contributions made by

seafarers. Do you think the efforts made by IMO and unions to make maritime

committee more appreciative of the efforts of seafarers are sufficient?

As long as not a particular seafarer was highlighted in their magazines to the readers, the

recognition has probably gone unnoticed.

48 | P a g e

Interviewee C

1. What is your job scope?

My job is to manage the crew. This include payroll, work schedules, admin matters like

applying permits and sending them for checkups. I also handle the crews’ problems, hire

and fire crew. My direct superior is the deck supervisor.

2. Do you prefer working ashore? What would tempt you back to sea? (if you have

experience at sea)

No experience at sea.

3. Would you encourage your son to pursue a career at sea and continue the family

seafaring tradition? (if you have experience at sea)

No experience at sea.

4. It is generally accepted that life at sea is more pressurized than it has ever been. In

your opinion, what do you think we can do to motivate youngsters to pursue a career

at sea?

I think is a lot easier to hire talent from places where people are desperate for jobs. Like

India, Myanmar or Philippines. The crew is well trained and willing to work hard.

Singaporeans, prefer office jobs. Even surveyors lack new talent.

5. There is a general world-wide shortage of seafarers. Fleet continues to grow. What

can we do to attract the right talents on board?

More pay, more off days. Make it easier to hire crew. Now to hire, must apply COE, Work

Permit, go embassy to endorse their certs, health checks every year. There are a lot of

admin to settle. I often end up rejecting applicants because they don’t fulfill so ministry

criteria or another.

6. If money was no obstacle and you could provide one additional benefits for our fellow

seafarers, what would it be?

A lot of seafarers complain about the contract terms to me. Not enough pay, difficult

scheduling. I guess more pay will make them happier.

7. IMO named 2010 the “Year of the Seafarer” to recognize the contributions made by

seafarers. Do you think the efforts made by IMO and unions to make maritime

committee more appreciative of the efforts of seafarers are sufficient?

Honestly I don’t think it makes a big difference to seafarers in Singapore. The seaman

union is like NTUC. Go there for fun, but that’s it. The MOM is stronger. If any crew runs

off to complain to MOM about mistreatment by the company, we going to have problems

trying to prove we are not at fault.

49 | P a g e

Interviewee D

1. What is your job scope?

I am in the education sector performing academic teaching duties for subjects related to

shore-based activities of the maritime sector. My main duties are related to teaching. Some

other tasks I handle include overseas student exposure and immersion camps (exchange

programs) and creative research tools for improvement of my organization and subsidiaries.

(Business Design Thinking and Change Management).

2. Do you prefer working ashore? What would tempt you back to sea? (if you have

experience at sea)

I am not a sailor previously, but I have been in various positions that require me to visit

ships out at sea, so perhaps my input for this question may not be from a personal

perspective.

However, I have friends of various ages who have been at sea as sailors. The old seafarers

describe the life as being cut off from shore and there is no difference for weekdays or

weekends as 7 days are all work/sailing days.

They prefer working at sea if they were younger and single. After getting married and

having kids, they prefer working ashore to have more opportunities to spend time with their

families.

They may go back to sea only if their children are already working and the pay at sea is

much more than their pay ashore.

3. Would you encourage your son to pursue a career at sea and continue the family

seafaring tradition? (if you have experience at sea)

I am not a sailor previously, but I have been in various positions that require me to visit

ships out at sea, so perhaps my input for this question may not be from a personal

perspective.

My friends who were sailors have children (males) that are studying maritime related

courses that train them to work as officers (navigational or engineering) onboard ships.

Most of them influence their children to join the seafaring tradition.

4. It is generally accepted that life at sea is more pressurized than it has ever been. In

your opinion, what do you think we can do to motivate youngsters to pursue a career

at sea?

Things that motivate youngsters nowadays are salary and comfort. If the pay at sea is much

higher than shore jobs, this will attract these youngsters who are pay-driven. In addition,

they need the comfort of feeling connected (Facebook, Internet, Email, etc).

5. There is a general world-wide shortage of seafarers. Fleet continues to grow. What

can we do to attract the right talents on board?

50 | P a g e

Marketing of seafaring careers and scholarships/sponsorships would make this sector more

attractive. My educational institution has marketing events that reach out to primary and

secondary schools to raise awareness.

Not many school students have heard of study fields beyond Arts/Science/Commerce as

they do not specialize until reaching Diploma or Degree studies.

Interviews and Oral Tests are performed for seafarers to ascertain competency of crew

before they are issued with a Certificate of Competency (COC), of which there are various

levels. This is a safeguard to ensure that only competent people can handle certain types or

sizes of vessels.

6. If money was no obstacle and you could provide one additional benefits for our fellow

seafarers, what would it be?

If money was of no consideration, i.e. very rich company, I suggest for the company to

provide satellite communications connectivity for crew use onboard ships with no

restriction on bandwidth or data usage.

It is currently very expensive to use satellite communications so companies often restrict

the connection to some computers in the ship office. There are opportunities for seafarers to

contact their loved ones by satellite phone and through the Internet (Skype, Facebook, etc),

but not too often.

7. IMO named 2010 the “Year of the Seafarer” to recognize the contributions made by

seafarers. Do you think the efforts made by IMO and unions to make maritime

committee more appreciative of the efforts of seafarers are sufficient?

The Award will definitely raise the morale of the seafarer and motivate other seafarers to

work hard for it.

Singapore Maritime Officers Union (SMOU) allows for seafarers to be updated on

happenings in the maritime sector and network. There is Annual General Meetings (AGM)

and other events held for members and their families which encourage bonding and sharing.

I believe SMOU is doing a good job.

For IMO, it is a very large international organization and it is hard to reach out to every

seafarer, so it does not have the personal appeal to all seafarers. They are treated more of a

regulatory body that provides information and guidelines to maritime companies.

Unions thus make the maritime community feel more appreciated and exclusive.

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Interviewee E

1. What is your job scope?

Now, I am working as a country manager in a family-owned Finnish company. There are 7

officers around the world. We are a project-based engineering firm and are not very related

to ship management. Some of my key responsibilities include dealing with government,

taxes, banks, internal HR etc.

2. Do you prefer working ashore? What would tempt you back to sea? (if you have

experience at sea)

I was a seafarer previously. I never planned to go to sea until I heard a talk in school. I was

influenced. A qualified engineer was quite well-paid. It was a good salary for a young man.

There was no need to pay taxes and expenditure was low. I didn’t exactly know where I

was going but I believed suffering was part of the experience.

Yes, I prefer working ashore. I have set up a family and need to be with them. After 10

years at sea, you can easily find a pay comparable to at sea. Most importantly, you can be

with your family. That is worth more any amount.

At this phase in life, I will not be tempted to go back to sea as my children are not

financially independent. I may consider going back to sea once the children gain financial

independence or there are no jobs available on land. The answer may differ for people with

no family.

3. Would you encourage your son to pursue a career at sea and continue the family

seafaring tradition? (if you have experience at sea)

I would encourage my son only if he has an interest in it. I don’t mind him being away from

home. It is worth going through this career for the unusual experience. I myself have never

regretted going to sea. It will teach him to appreciate life more and he has the opportunity to

go to sea.

4. It is generally accepted that life at sea is more pressurized than it has ever been. In

your opinion, what do you think we can do to motivate youngsters to pursue a career

at sea?

Not sure whether it is more pressurized now. It would be good if there are more people on

board. It helps to improve this social life. It is also good to get real by instilling the mindset

that suffering is part of life and not paint a rosy picture of the life at sea.

At different stages, there are different challenges at sea. The job itself is not difficult. The

training we get in school is sufficient for work-wise though the equipment should be

modernized. However, the education we received then lacked soft skills. The emotional side

is the biggest problem. We could be away from home for up to 6 months. I missed my

family. And when I am not working, I think a lot and read a lot. I was homesick initially. It

would be good if more awareness could be given about the job and some tools to deal with

the isolation could be taught. For me, I read, listen to cassette to pass time. I look forward to

letters from home. It is the first question we dock “any letters for me?” Life on board is like

a floating prison.

52 | P a g e

Even for my cohort, all will do the cadet but not all can take it. Eventually only 30 chose to

go to sea and about 10 became chief engineers. What pushed me on was the chief engineer

ticket. I had a goad to clock the sea time and take the exam. It would be good if they could

reduce the drop-out rate.

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5. There is a general world-wide shortage of seafarers. Fleet continues to grow. What

can we do to attract the right talents on board?

Marketing of the seafaring career. Ex-seafarers could give talks. . Shipping companies can

also send people to school so that people would understand the profession better.

6. If money was no obstacle and you could provide one additional benefits for our fellow

seafarers, what would it be?

Quick and easy access to family and friends through skype and techmology. It would be

good if we could access local TV programmes. Shorter sea contracts would be good.

7. IMO named 2010 the “Year of the Seafarer” to recognize the contributions made by

seafarers. Do you think the efforts made by IMO and unions to make maritime

committee more appreciative of the efforts of seafarers are sufficient?

Exposure is to the marine audience. There need to be more exposure through other media

modes for the impact to be there. As working class, most people prefer tangible benefits.

Maybe a reward?

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Interviewee F

1. What is your job scope?

Lecturer

2. Do you prefer working ashore? What would tempt you back to sea? (if you have

experience at sea)

No particular preference. I will go back if there is a need. Now I am mostly involved with

students going on board for training or immersion programs.

3. Would you encourage your son to pursue a career at sea and continue the family

seafaring tradition? (if you have experience at sea)

Whatever career he takes up, wherever he goes will be his own choice. I can only provide

guidance.

4. It is generally accepted that life at sea is more pressurized than it has ever been. In

your opinion, what do you think we can do to motivate youngsters to pursue a career

at sea?

Monetary award. For young people starting out their career, survival needs will be high.

5. There is a general world-wide shortage of seafarers. Fleet continues to grow. What

can we do to attract the right talents on board?

Shipping companies and crew agencies must treat seafarers right. While survival needs are

high, human beings still have pride, self actualizations. Unless they are been treated with

respect and pay according to the risks and sacrifices they put up. Not many will join.

6. If money was no obstacle and you could provide one additional benefits for our fellow

seafarers, what would it be?

Money will always be the fundamental problem for all businesses. Company should not run

the ships like any other commodities. When people are involves, you just have to treat

people right.

7. IMO named 2010 the “Year of the Seafarer” to recognize the contributions made by

seafarers. Do you think the efforts made by IMO and unions to make maritime

committee more appreciative of the efforts of seafarers are sufficient?

In my opinion, getting the CAs signed is more crucial for them than fighting for the benefits

of our seafarers. IMO can only do that much. We shall see how Manila Amendment help to

improve the working and living conditions on board. We cannot let ship owners’

conscience to decide what is necessary for seafarer to survive out there.

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Interviewee G

1. What is your job scope?

I lead a group of maritime professionals in managing a fleet of vessels both commercially

and technically on behalf of their owners.

2. Do you prefer working ashore? What would tempt you back to sea? (if you have

experience at sea)

This is a difficult question to answer as the grass is always greener on the other side. What

will definitely tempt me back to sea is a matching pay package as what I am getting now

with maximum 2 months on, 2 months off contracts.

3. Would you encourage your son to pursue a career at sea and continue the family

seafaring tradition? (if you have experience at sea)

A career at sea builds character and at the end of the day, if my kids have the intention to

pursue a shipping career, experience at sea will be something that is invaluable. Hence, to

answer this question, I will say yes. However, my kids are girls and as a conservative Asian

father, I will hesitate to allow them to go to sea. Furthermore, to have some experience at

sea can build character, but to spend a large part of your life at sea means sacrificing family

life as well as potential career growth ashore. Take it this way; I overheard a young man

who apparently is pursuing his studies telling his parents that his expected pay when he

graduate is around S$7,000. That is with no experience whatsoever, I have my doubts

whether that kid will ever get his wish but then again, it’s used as an example. Will any

logical parents advise their children to go to sea and earn US$2,400 and that is only after

they get their COCs?

4. It is generally accepted that life at sea is more pressurized than it has ever been. In

your opinion, what do you think we can do to motivate youngsters to pursue a career

at sea?

We have this saying amongst my peers who went to sea. When we have a shore job, we are

on 24/7. When we are at sea, what happens after our watch is not our problem unless there

is real danger to the ship. If we are in command, then what happens after we sign off the

vessel is not our problem and when we are on leave, we are really on leave. Ashore, and

you can check with many wives of shipping men, we are never really on leave. Hence, is

life at sea really pressurized or is it that people’s tolerance of pressure has dwindled? In this

time and age, the only thing that can motivate people to go to sea is the potential of making

more money. Hence, the linkage between the value of experience at sea with career growth

ashore must be drawn to attract the youngsters.

5. There is a general world-wide shortage of seafarers. Fleet continues to grow. What

can we do to attract the right talents on board?

Question here is what are the talents we need onboard? With increasing focus on forcing the

shore company to micro-manage the vessels with tons of paperwork and the definition of a

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good seaman as someone who can write very well as opposed to someone who actually

practice and have good seamanship, we will need to define what talents we need. When I

was a deck officer, I used to have Masters lamenting that they are now no more than

glorified taxi-drivers and I have engineers now who have all the paper qualifications but cry

for shore repairmen when slight fault to the generators are discovered. Therefore, perhaps

you’ll need to identify what sort of people you need onboard first before we can identify

how to attract them.

6. If money was no obstacle and you could provide one additional benefits for our fellow

seafarers, what would it be?

End of the day, we all work for money. If there is one additional benefits, it will be

unrestricted internet access in each cabin for the seafarers to communicate with their loved

ones.

7. IMO named 2010 the “Year of the Seafarer” to recognize the contributions made by

seafarers. Do you think the efforts made by IMO and unions to make maritime

committee more appreciative of the efforts of seafarers are sufficient?

Again, the only way to make humans feel appreciated is to find ways and means for them to

retire earlier, and that is through more monetary compensation. Naming a particular year as

“Year of the Seafarer” is pure cosmetic and to me is a waste of resources. However, if we

do increase compensation to such a level where seafarers will feel so appreciated and allow

them to retire earlier, how do we justify the increase in operating expense when TCEs are

way below breakeven? Maybe put pressure on the charterers? Good luck in trying that.

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Appendix C – Crew Interview Transcripts

Interviewee A

Age: 54

Nationality: Myanmar

1. What is your job scope?

Radio Communication aboard

2. What are your thoughts of your career at sea? Why did you go to sea?

It is a very good career for me. I enjoy going out to sea.

3. How are you coping with your responsibilities?

By experience, I can easily handle my job at ease. My job is actually not very tough.

4. What are the main challenges you faced on a daily basis?

Sometimes at sea, there may be job pressure arsing by the charterer for in and out mailing

of paper work. On a brighter side, the work is not that difficult.

5. Do you like working in such a challenging environment?

Definitely not. I personally like a quiet environment and easy job.

6. How well has your training equipped you for your current job?

For a radio officer, we used to have a training centre long ago. But nowadays, the training

centre for Radio Operator is replaced by a “Global Operator Certificate” centre.

7. How do you cope with long periods away from your friends and family?

We always miss our family when at sea but we have to endure it. It is part of our job. To

miss them less, I do meditation.

8. Where do you think your career will take you?

I don’t think about this much. I am just doing this to make a living and to make things work

with what I have got.

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Interviewee B

Age: 61

Nationality: Sinagaporean

1. What is your job scope?

I am the Chief Engineer. I oversee the 2nd and 3rd engineer. Basically my duties consist of

everything that is in the engine and pump room. I make sure the machinery is operating

properly, carry out the maintenance, and keep the engine and pump room as clean and neat

as possible. If any contractors or superintendent or surveyors come to my territory, I escort

them and help them. If there are parts that need servicing, I supervise the 2nd and 3rd

engineer. If we can’t fix the fault, I will inform the technical superintendent, and assist

contractors when they come do repairs.

2. What are your thoughts of your career at sea? Why did you go to sea?

I went to sea because in the 1960s Singapore was giving benefits to sea men, for example

income tax exemption, job matching and training. In those times, the pay was considered

very good as compared to other jobs. And since I’m single, I signed up on an international

ship. I went to Europe for liner trade and sometimes on bulkers; I travel from Europe to

Asia. In the 70s, I had earned enough. And so I come back to Singapore and get married, I

now do coastal trade in order to take care of my family. The pay is lower but at least I am

near Singapore. Now I’m 60 plus. I will retire at the end of the year. My Boss wanted me to

sign on as a deck superintendent for a few years more, but I reject because I’m too tired to

run up and down ships. I prefer to relax.

3. How are you coping with your responsibilities?

Now I am semi-retired. I am mainly handing over responsibilities to my replacement chief

engineer. My ship just down-slip from dry dock. During dry dock, I just help the technical

superintendent to check stuff, and then ask my replacement to do small maintenance like

cleaning the pipes. I’m just on hand over and advisory role.

When starting out, it can be difficult. If you are an oiler or a 3rd engineer, then you have to

get very dirty. Coverall will turn black when servicing the engine block or the bilge pump.

Young people don’t want to do my job, hot, dirty, smelly. Now, we only hire Indonesian

and Indians.

4. What are the main challenges you faced on a daily basis?

Last time, the hardest part is fixing the engine. It took many days, requiring a big crew and

chain block and tower crane to open the housing and service the pistons. We cannot lose all

the O rings and moving parts. It would take days to import or to machine make. The floor

can get very slippery with the oil, and the moving of heavy machinery is dangerous.

For maintenance we have to clean the pipes, make sure they are not blocked else machinery

will overheat, such as the lube oil cooling unit. We also have to remove sludge and dirt

from tanks like the waste oil tank manually. Cleaning the bilge water tanks is especially

smelly. But the higher your rank, the less dirty work you do.

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Now I seldom get my hands dirty unless I’m showing the other engineers how to do

something for the 1st time. The hardest job now is advising the technical superintendent,

because if they need help, then we have a big problem.

5. Do you like working in such a challenging environment?

When you work on the ship for a long time, the ship is likened your ship. You know every

part of the ship. You spend time to figure out everything on the ship. When my company

first bought my vessel from the Japanese, everything was in Japanese. We only had one day

of orientation. But I slowly figure out all the instructions and things myself. I don’t like the

system of rotating crew. The crew can learn more, but he doesn’t develop sense of

belonging. You need to have a love for your ship for you to do your job well. That’s why I

tell the company not to rotate me.

6. How well has your training equipped you for your current job?

My job must have mechanic background and maybe electrical background. Nowadays the

chief engineer must be a polytechnic graduate. But like all the jobs on the ship, you will

know when you do more. I learn the basics from the Chief engineer then because different

ships use different parts. I learn from scratch when posted to a new ship on my own. You

must dare to ask. And you must not be lazy to figure out things yourself. During the

handover, the previous engineer is unable to teach you everything in a short time.

7. How do you cope with long periods away from your friends and family?

I change to coastal ship because I have family. Young that time, can go overseas. Old le,

stay in Singapore.

8. Where do you think your career will take you?

Retire le how to have prospects! Boss want me to do deck superintendent, I don’t have the

energy. Plus I am not used to it. Ask me to sit in office and wear shirt.

.

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Interviewee C

Age: 37

Nationality: Indonesian

1. What is your job scope?

I am an able seaman (A/B). I do anything on the ship, depending on what the chief officer,

bosun or captain tells me to do. I have a basic tanker support cert. So I help the oiler with

his job.

2. What are your thoughts of your career at sea? Why did you go to sea?

I went to sea because the pay is good, and my cousins and brothers are also sea men. I don’t

want to be a farmer or a factory worker. The pay is not as good as a sea man pay, and I

would have to work longer hours. As a seaman I enjoy off days and coffee time.

Note: Crew have an hour break respectively for each of the 3 main meals. They have an

additional 1 hour break at 10am and another at 3pm.

3. How are you coping with your responsibilities?

Sometimes, work is tiring and long. Dry dock is the busiest time for an A/B. A lot of things

have to be done like cleaning the ship and tanks, removing rust and painting the deck and

fixing and throwing old equipment. I have to do whatever I am told. When there is tank

cleaning, I sleep only 2 hours a day. The tanks are dangerous because of the fumes, and it is

very hot inside. We drink a lot of milk when we clean. It keeps us healthy.

4. What are the main challenges you faced on a daily basis?

I think the pay is not enough. In Singapore, everything is so expensive. When I go out on

off days, I must pay for everything myself. Transport, food, nothing is cheap. Even the food

I eat on the ship, I must pay some of the cost myself. On off days I prefer to stay on the ship

and rest. The most expensive is cigarettes, but no choice, I need to smoke. Then the office

always asks for this, ask for that and transfer me from ship to ship which can be very

troublesome. And the deck supervisor and the contract are very strict. For the smallest err, I

will get a warning letter. If they terminate my contract, I need to pay the administration fee.

5. Do you like working in such a challenging environment?

My job is ok but very tiring. All I like is that I earn more on the ship than on land.

6. How well has your training equipped you for your current job?

Yes, the seaman course teaches us a lot of things. But I am not clever, so I learn more doing

work than studying.

7. How do you cope with long periods away from your friends and family?

I miss them, but it is ok, I am not married. Maybe next time I will marry. Now I just talk to

them sometimes. I try to take leave on Hari Raya to go home. But it is highly dependent on

the crew schedule, which I cannot control. This makes me sad, and they always tell me they

don’t have enough crew to cover my job.

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8. Where do you think your career will take you?

If I study more and get more certs, I may be promoted to a chief officer. But I am not good

at studying. So I think I will stay A/B until I retire.

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Interviewee D

Age: 45

Nationality: Indonesian

1. What is your job scope?

I am a cook. I’m in charge of cooking and keeping the kitchen clean. When the ship is

alongside, I will go to the Captain to get the grocery money. Then I will go buy food on

shore. I also have to clean out the rubbish.

2. What are your thoughts of your career at sea? Why did you go to sea?

I went to sea because I needed money for my family. I married late so my children are still

in school. I work in Singapore because the pay is good. I have little education so sailing one

of the few jobs I can do.

3. How are you coping with your responsibilities?

My job is ok. I wake up early, cook 3 meals, and wash the dishes and the kitchen, and

throw rubbish. Once in a while, if the ship got visitors like surveyors, I will make coffee for

them. If the ship is alongside, I will go shopping for food. The biggest problem is the ship

has many cockroaches. This is normal for any ship. I have to watch out for them and make

sure they don’t get into the food. The white ones are hard to see so I have to wash the rice

properly.

4. What are the main challenges you faced on a daily basis?

Washing the kitchen is troublesome. Sometimes I have to do extra work like cleaning the

deck. This is not my job, but if the Bosun asks for help, I cannot say no.

5. Do you like working in such a challenging environment?

I don’t like the work because I have to be away from my family. The pay is also low. I

cannot spend too much on my off day because I need to send money to my family. I am

also getting old. It is difficult to do some of the work because my back hurts

6. How well has your training equipped you for your current job?

I have attended basic seaman course. I also can cook since I was very young. My job needs

less training than engineer or chief, just hard work.

7. How do you cope with long periods away from your friends and family?

I miss my wife and children a lot. I will work hard and earn more money before I can go

home and see them. I write letters and make calls home. I am glad that the money I earn can

give my family a better life than if I am a farmer.

8. Where do you think your career will take you?

Unless I go for more training, I cannot promote. I have no money or time to study. I shall

work until my children finish school and find a job. If there is better contract, I will take.

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Interviewee E

Age: 45

Nationality: Indonesian

1. What is your job scope?

I am a cook. I’m in charge of cooking and keeping the kitchen clean. When the ship is

alongside, I will go to the Captain to get the grocery money. Then I will go buy food on

shore. I also have to clean out the rubbish.

2. What are your thoughts of your career at sea? Why did you go to sea?

I went to sea because I needed money for my family. I married late so my children are still

in school. I work in Singapore because the pay is good. I have little education so sailing one

of the few jobs I can do.

3. How are you coping with your responsibilities?

My job is ok. I wake up early, cook 3 meals, and wash the dishes and the kitchen, and

throw rubbish. Once in a while, if the ship got visitors like surveyors, I will make coffee for

them. If the ship is alongside, I will go shopping for food. The biggest problem is the ship

has many cockroaches. This is normal for any ship. I have to watch out for them and make

sure they don’t get into the food. The white ones are hard to see so I have to wash the rice

properly.

4. What are the main challenges you faced on a daily basis?

Washing the kitchen is troublesome. Sometimes I have to do extra work like cleaning the

deck. This is not my job, but if the Bosun asks for help, I cannot say no.

5. Do you like working in such a challenging environment?

I don’t like the work because I have to be away from my family. The pay is also low. I

cannot spend too much on my off day because I need to send money to my family. I am

also getting old. It is difficult to do some of the work because my back hurts

6. How well has your training equipped you for your current job?

I have attended basic seaman course. I also can cook since I was very young. My job needs

less training than engineer or chief, just hard work.

7. How do you cope with long periods away from your friends and family?

I miss my wife and children a lot. I will work hard and earn more money before I can go

home and see them. I write letters and make calls home. I am glad that the money I earn can

give my family a better life than if I am a farmer.

8. Where do you think your career will take you?

Unless I go for more training, I cannot promote. I have no money or time to study. I shall

work until my children finish school and find a job. If there is a better contract, I will take it

up.

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Interviewee F

Age: 31

Nationality: Indonesian

1. What is your job scope?

Chief Officer. 2nd incharge of ship. Assist the captain in all matters. Assist superintendents

in all matters. Supervise crew on behalf of captain.

2. What are your thoughts of your career at sea? Why did you go to sea?

Difficult. The working hours are long and it is bad for health. I am squashed in the middle.

The crew complain to me; the captain and superintendents give me orders. I go to sea to

earn the money. The pay is better than in Indonesia.

3. How are you coping with your responsibilities?

I manage by smoking and complaining. My contract is about to end. I am looking forward

to changing employers. Serving on International vessel is better than coastal. There is more

pay, less trouble from office.

4. What are the main challenges you faced on a daily basis?

Drydocking is the busiest time. Average 2 hours of sleep if need to rush jobs like tank

cleaning. It won’t be so bad if we had enough manpower. But for a small bunker vessel,

there is a minimum 7 people manning. Normally Chief Officer just supervise work, but

because lack of manpower, I have to do the hard work too which I don’t like. Once

alongside, Captain relax in bunk. Usually all the supervising and handling of contractors is

my job. Superintendents also come find me for stuff like admin and preparing for surveys.

Last time, we have lazy superintendents who sit in office, pay lip service and send email.

They ask you to do a lot of things for them, or give you stupid instructions. When things go

wrong, they scold you or send warning letter. The current one is good. He is not afraid to

get dirty and sometimes help us carry heavy things. Superintendent must be around to

supervise from early morning to late at night during dry docking.

5. Do you like working in such a challenging environment?

I don’t like the pay. I don’t like the work. But until I get a better contract, I will stick to this

job. If there is someone to help me, I will like it better, like a second officer on an

International vessel.

6. How well has your training equipped you for your current job?

I forgot everything I studied. To do the work well, there must be a lot of practice. What

matters is on job experience. I am studying to get the certs so I can get a better rank and

pay.

7. How do you cope with long periods away from your friends and family?

I miss them. I call my family and talk to them. Under the old contract I can see them on off

days. I will take ferry to my home town. Under the new contract, the pay is higher but time

spent onboard the ship is increased so I don’t have time to visit them.

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Where do you think your career will take you?

Now I am a chief officer. The next rank is a Captain. To be a captain I need to go back to

Indonesia and study for a few more years. Studying means not working. So now I am

looking for chance to transfer to International ship. If not in this company then other

company, depend on the contract. I will see my family less, but the pay is a lot more.

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Interviewee G

Age: 24

Nationality: Singaporean

1. What is your job scope?

SMF Cadet. Will be posted on ship for 9 months, serving as an A/B seaman. I do anything

and everything on the ship, like alongside drill, replace fenders and keep watch. I’m not

allowed to steer the ship. To operate the manifolds and bunker hose, I need to have

certificate certifying I’m allowed to serve on an oil tanker. After this I am qualified to be

chief officer

2. What are your thoughts of your career at sea? Why did you go to sea?

I went to sea because I have a relative working as a Port Captain. He advised me to sign up

as a seaman due to the high demand and good pay. If I sign up as a Port captain under PSA

or MPA then I don’t need to sail. Just stay at port, do office work or as a terminal surveyor

3. How are you coping with your responsibilities?

Everything is new because theory is different from practice. This is the first ship I’m

serving on. It is good that the crew is Indonesian. The language is different, but at least we

have similar food and customs. The work is hard but necessary. If the captain doesn’t

experience what the crew does, how can he lead them? It’s like NS (military training). The

hardest thing is the long hours on watch. Although I got the weekend off and when at port, I

can go home and sleep, the hours are still very long and full of hard work.

4. What are the main challenges you faced on a daily basis?

Like I said, theory is different from practice. Like replacing the fender, I must carry the

heavy tire to the ship side, remove the old one, and then tie the new one. And there’s a lot

of heavy lifting and tool work. I don’t like smoking, but the entire ship is like a chimney,

everyone smokes.

5. Do you like working in such a challenging environment?

I don’t like the pay. I don’t like the work. But until I get a better contract, I will stick to this

job. If there is someone to help me, I will like it better, like a second officer on an

International vessel.

6. How well has your training equipped you for your current job?

The things they teach at SMA are very useful. Now, it is like my internship. I watch and

learn from the chief officer, bosun and captain. The stuff they don’t really teach, like paint

chipping, I do with the other A/b and learn on the spot. SMA does a good job on the basic

the officer skills like navigation, log taking, Rules of the road and Maritime laws. I am

learning the more hands on stuff now.

7. How do you cope with long periods away from your friends and family?

My parents don’t like it if I have to sail internationally. So I’m aiming for port captain or

coastal ship captain. Else deck surveyor might be a good choice.

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Where do you think your career will take you?

Port Captain. After sufficient experience, I may get a job as a terminal surveyor, deck

superintendent or maybe even a charterer.

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Interviewee H

Age: 26

Nationality: Singaporean

1. What is your job scope?

Operations , maintenance of marine propulsion plant.

2. What are your thoughts of your career at sea? Why did you go to sea?

I went to sea because of good career advancement. At that point of time, the USD was

stronger. The exchange rate was very favourable. It was at 1SGD to 1.7 USD. My lecturers

at school were ex-seafarers so they promoted the career. Also, I wanted to see the world.

However it is not that possible now with port security (ISPS). There are many restrictions.

If your ship is carrying wet cargo, you can stay in port longer for about 2-3 days. But still,

there isn’t shore leave.

I would prefer working onshore, but at this moment I would still like to stay at sea. I doubt I

would encourage my children to pursue a career at sea since the exchange rate would

probably get weaker and thus less favourable. There are also little holidays, only 14 days of

annual leave. To attract more youths, there would have to be a higher pay.

Ship managers even though they may have prior sea experience don’t think like a seafarer

when they go on shore. They are concern about cost-cutting, sometimes reducing food and

storage of spares.

3. How are you coping with your responsibilities?

Ok.

The life at sea can be seen as more pressurised. My cohort had 120 people. At the end of

the course, there were 10 dropouts. Now, we only have less than 10 pursuing a career at sea.

4. What are the main challenges you faced on a daily basis?

Maintaining relationships with people back at home but it makes you cherish what you

have. The working conditions are harsh as we have to work under different working

climate.

On a side note, it would be good if at the end of the contract, there could be discounted

travel programmes given to seafarers.

5. Do you like working in such a challenging environment?

Yes. I can work like this up to 50 years old depending on my physical health. In this job,

you have to be alert. You have to know when things will happen before it happen.

6. How well has your training equipped you for your current job?

Yes, sufficiently.

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7. How do you cope with long periods away from your friends and family?

Self-develop and self-study. Sometimes I watch movies on my laptop. There is a library on

board so I read too. We have a ship fund so we do have PSP and PS3 but it does get boring

after a while. I enjoy socialising with my other colleagues on board. Most are from different

culture backgrounds so it is interesting to hear stories about their life back home.

Where do you think your career will take you?

In 3 years’ time, I may become a chief engineer. I hope to work in MPA. The pay will be

lower unless there is lengthy experience at sea.

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Appendix D – Using Corporate Social Responsibility to prepare a ready pool of talents

Graph 7: Demographics of seafarers

Source: UNESCAP

Worldwide, the OECD countries (North America, Western Europe, Japan) still remain an important

source for officers although there is a growing bulk of officers now recruited from the Far East and

East Europe. The Far East especially the Philippines and India are now important sources of rating

supplies. (Refer to Graph 7) There is also a large increase in the number of seafarers in China;

however the majority of them are serving the domestic fleet.

To reduce the increasing operational cost, recent trends have shown “shipping companies

worldwide [have been] moving away from the majority traditional maritime regions such as Europe

and North America … to employ crews from countries where labour cost is low.” (Sadjadi et al,

2010). The onboard presence of seamen from developing nations has declined in recent years.

(Refer to Graph 8) As such, a career at sea is generally conceptualised as a “developing country

occupation”.

0 50 100 150 200 250

OECD Countries

Far East

Africa/ Latin America

Eastern Europe

Indian Sub-Continent

Number of seafarers (in thousands)

Ratings

Officers

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Graph 8: Percentage of the nationality of officers, ratings and cadets in AET

Building upon the concept of using labour from poorer nations, shipping companies can consider

looking into war-torn countries which can provide even cheaper sources of manpower. Shipping

firms can then draw out trainees from a selected list of orphanages. (Refer to Figure 4)

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Figure 4: Obtaining trainees from various orphanages

For firms who are keen to use their own education curriculum, they can also set up their own

charity foundation and limit sponsored seafaring education to the children from their orphanages.

(Refer to Figure 5)

Figure 5: Trainees obtained through corporate-run orphanage

Training Centre

operated by a shipping line

Orphanage A

Orphanage B

Orphanage C

Orphanage D

Shipping Line Orphanage

Provision of basic accommodation and education to less priviledged children

Shipping Line Training Centre

Children (around 15 years old) are given the option to pursue a career at sea through a fully paid COC training

Talks will be given to give more information of the seafaring profession

Career at Shipping line

Joining the shipping line as a rank of cadet

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Differential pay

Candidate Origin

Job type Western Europe

(Including Scandinavia)

Eastern Europe Asia

Master Mariner $138,320 $109,627 $111,422

Chief Engineer $104,628 $104,448 $102,740

Chief Officer $90,273 $74,653 $74,319

Second Engineer $81,871 $81,125 $72,996

Table 9: Annual wage variations in salary based on origin

Source: Faststream Recruitment Group

Differential wage based on nationality is a practised concept in shipping. This means that seafarers

from a poorer nation are paid less than seafarers from a richer country despite doing the same work

on board the same ship. (Refer to table 9) The wage disparity is not a small sum. In accordance with

ISF International Wage survey (1998), the highest wage for officer was USD 14,935 a month while

the lowest was recorded to be USD 2,090 a month. For an able seaman, the highest wage recorded

was US 8,311 a month while the lowest was recorded to be USD 256 a month. Comparatively,

seamen from developed nations can be viewed as less competitive than seaman from developing

nations

Seafarers from Asia tend to command a lower pay. If shipping companies were to find seafarers

from nations which have higher unemployment and lower standards of living, it is believed that the

annual pay of an average officer can be cut to 7-9 times lower than the average wage observed in

the table.