EFEK PERTANIAN TERHADAP LINGKUNGAN

EFEK PERTANIAN TERHADAP

LINGKUNGAN

Diabstraksikan oleh: smno.jurstnh.fpub.sept2012

Bahan kajian pada MK. Pertanian Berlanjut

Bagaimana Pertanian mengubah Lingkungan

• Pertanian merupakan aktivitas yang snagat penting bagi kehidupan manusia, dan menjadi salah satu sumber kerusakan lingkungan

• Problematik lingkungan yang serius:– Soil erosion– Sediment transport and deposition downstream– On-site pollution from overuse and secondary effects of

fertilizers and pesticides– Off-site pollution of other ecosystems, of soil, water and

air

Problematik lingkungan yang serius:– Deforestation– Desertification– Degradation of aquifers– Salinization– Akumulasi senyawa organik toksik– Kehilangan biodiversitas

Bagaimana Pertanian mengubah Lingkungan

BAHAYANYA PERTANIAN Industrial

Key: AWL to Study, Low-frequency Vocabulary

What are the hazards of industrial agriculture?

PERTANIAN ORGANIK: SEDANG BERKEMBANG

• Consumer demand for organic farming is rising at 20% per year.

• The highest growth is in Argentina, US, and China.• People are growing conscious of adverse effects of

industrial agriculture, where there is a focus on maximizing profits at the expense of health and the environment.

Bagaimana pemikiran anda bahwa pertanian-industrial berkontribusi pada pemanasan global dan pencemaran

air?

RISIKO KESEHATAN : METODE Industrial

• Pesticide residues on produce remain after washing and peeling.have links to cancer.

• Antibiotics we ingest from plant and animal sources lead to the development of

untreatablesuperbugs

Apakah anda khawatir tentang adanya residu pestisida atau antibiotik di dalam bahan pangan produk pertanian ?.

RISIKO KESEHATAN

• Plant and animal growth hormonesdisrupt endocrine system. lead to early puberty.

• Biological engineeringUnregulated items are virtually invisible in stores.Manipulation of genetic code could impact health.

How do you think genetically modified food might impact your health?

BAHAYA LINGKUNGAN• Environmental hazards comprise air pollution,

global warming, and other problems.• Synthetic fertilizers

largest source of nitrous oxide emissions

300 times more toxic than carbon dioxide gaseswill affect air pollution and intensify

global warming if continued

Are you concerned about air pollution in your country? Why or why not?

TANAH YANG TIDAK LESTARI

• Industrial mono-cropping: one crop is planted repeatedly on a single field.The process relies on the use of synthetic fertilizers.Mono-cropping kills microorganisms needed to

produce soil nutrients.Infertile soil leads to erosion,

unsustainable farmlands, and reduced biodiversity.

If mono-cropping is destroying farmlands and biodiversity, what is the alternative?

PERTANIAN ORGANIK• Organic farming prohibits the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, hormones, antibiotics, and genetically modified organisms.• It ensures soil sustainability

and overall quality.

What are the advantages of eating organic food?

ROTASI TANAMAN

• Holistic farming techniquesinfuse soil with essential nutrients.ensure different crops are planted every year.vary the nutrient demand in soil.create sustainable soil.

KESEJAHTERAAN TERNAK• Small-scale organic farms are

less likely to confine livestock to small spaces.against the use of antibiotics.

• Free-range farmsallow animals to roam freely. reduce stress and susceptibility to disease.

How do you feel about confining animals to small spaces in order to produce food?

The Plow Puzzle

• Nothing in nature like the plow– Big difference between soils of an unplowed forest

and soils of previously forested land that has been plowed and used for ag

• Soil difference noted in Marsh’s book– Man and Nature in 1864

Diunduh dari sumbernya: ………… 20/10/2012

Semakin kritis kondisi tanah,

semakin banyak input produksi

yang diperlukan, seperti pupuk, pestisida, air irigasi dan lainnya.

Diunduh dari sumbernya: http://www.ipm.iastate.edu/ipm/icm/2001/1-29-2001/soilerosion.html………… 22/10/2012

The Plow Puzzle

• When land cleared of its natural vegetation, the soil begins to lose its fertility– Physical erosion

• Became a global issue in the world– Intense plowing + drought– Loosened soil blow away


TANAH YANG TEREROSI = LAHAN KRITIS

• The land that became the Dust Bowl had been prairie– Deep rooted grasses that held soil in place– After plowing soil exposed to elements

• When original vegetation is cleared soil changes– Crops harvested and removed, less organic matter

returning to soil– Soil exposed to sunlight which speeds rate of

decomposition



• Traditionally decline in soil fertility combated using organic fertilizers– Animal manure

• In the 20th century crop production increased – Chemical or artificial fertilizers– Add nitrogen and phosphorous to the soil




Diunduh dari sumbernya: http://gerbangtani.wordpress.com/2012/08/18/perbaikan-lahan-kritis/ ………… 22/10/2012

Lahan kritis telah mengalami kerusakan baik secara fisika,

kimia, maupun biologi. Jumlah lahan kritis di Indonesia semakin

meningkat seiring adanya pembukaan dan penggundulan

hutan, penambangan, serta eksploitasi yang berlebihan

terhadap tanah. Diperkirakan saat ini luas lahan

kritis mencapai 77,8 juta hektare, yang terdiri dari lahan agak kritis mencapai 47,6 juta hektar, lahan kritis seluas 23,3 juta hektar, dan lahan sangat kritis mencapai 6,8

juta hektar.

http://gerbangtani.files.wordpress.com/2012/08/lahan-krits-skema.gif

Kemana material tanah yang tererosi

• A lot of it travels down streams and rivers– Deposited at their mouths– Fill in water ways – Damage fisheries and coral reefs

• Sedimentation has chemical effects– Enrichment of waters, eutrophication– Transport of toxic chemical pesticides


Bagaimana melestarikan tanah

• Soil forms continuously– But very slowly– 1mm of soil formation takes 10-40 years

• To be truly sustainable soil lost should equal amount of new soil produced


Pengolahan tanah menurut kontur

• Land is plowed perpendicular to the slopes and as horizontally as possible.– One of the most effective ways to reduce soil

erosion– Also uses less fuel and time


Pertanian Tanpa Olah Tanah (TOT)

• Involves not plowing the land, using herbicides and integrated pest management to keep down weeds, and allowing some weeds to grow.– The goal is to suppress and control weeds but not

eliminate them at the expense of soil conservation

– Additional benefit reduces the release of CO2


Pengendalian Hama

• Pests are undesirable – Competitors, parasites, and predators

• In agriculture pests are mainly– Insects, nematodes, bacterial and viral diseases,

weeds and vertebrates.• Loss can be large

– Estimated at 1/3 of potential harvest and 1/10 of the harvested crop


• Because a farm is maintained in a very early stage of ecological succession and enriched by fertilizers and water– It is a good place for crops– AND early-successional plants (weeds)

• Weeds compete for all resources– Light, water,nutrients, and space to grow.


Pengendalian Hama

Sejarah Pestisida• Pre- Industrial Revolution methods

– Slash and burn agriculture– Planting aromatic herbs that repel insects

• Modern science-based agriculture– Search for chemicals that would reduce abundance of

pests– The first, like arsenic, toxic to all life

• Killed pest and beneficial organisms


• Second stage began in the 1930– Petroleum based sprays and natural plant chemicals

(e.g., nicotine)• Third stage was the development of artificial

organic compounds– DDT, broad-spectrum – Aldrin and dieldrin used to control termites

• Toxic to humans, has been found in breast milk


Sejarah Pestisida

• Forth stage is a return to biological and ecological knowledge.

• Biological control- the use of biological predators and parasites to control pests– The use of Bacillus thuringiensis (BT)– Proved safe and effective


Sejarah Pestisida

• Other biological control agents– Small wasps that parasitize caterpillars

• Both effective and narrow spectrum– Ladybugs– Sex pheromones (chemicals released to attract

opposite sex) used as bait in traps


Sejarah Pestisida

Integrated Pest Management (Pengelolaan Hama Terpadu)

• Fifth stage• IPM uses a combination of methods

– Biological control– Chemical pesticides– Methods of planting crops (mixed fields)

• Goal can be control not elimination of pest– Economically makes sense– Does less damage to ecosystem, soil, water

and air


• No-till or low-till agriculture another feature of IPM– Helps build levels of natural enemies of pests



Monitoring Pesticida di Lingkungan

• World pesticide use exceeds 2.5 billion kg– US use exceeds 680 million kg– $32 billion worldwide, $11 billion in US

• Once applied may decompose in place or be carried by wind and water– Breakdown products can also be toxic– Eventually fully decompose but can take a very

long time


• To establish useful standards for pesticide levels in the environment and to understand the environmental effects, it is necessary to monitor the concentrations.– Standards have been set for some but not all

compounds



Genetically Modified Crops(Tanaman rekayasa genetik)

• Three methods– 1. Faster and more efficient development of new

hybrids– 2. Introduction of the “terminator gene”– 3. Transfer of genetic properties from widely

divergent kinds of life


Hibrida Baru

• From an environmental perspective, genetic engineering to develop hybrids w/in a species is likely to be a benign as the development of agricultural hybrids has been w/ conventional methods.

• Concern that genetic modification may produce– “superhybrids”– Could become pest or transfer genes to closely related weeds


The Terminator Gene

• Makes seeds from a crop sterile– Done for environmental and economic reasons– Prevents a gmo from spreading– Protects the market for the corporation that

developed it• Critics note

– Farmer’s in poor nations must be able to grow next years crops from their own seeds


• Genes transfer from one major life form to another– Most likely to have negative and undesirable impacts

• E.g. Bacillus thuringiensis– Produce toxin that kills caterpillars– Gene identified and transferred to corn– Engineered corn now produces its own pesticide


TRANSFER GEN

TRANSFER GEN

• Bt plants thought to be a constructive step in pest control– No longer need to spray pesticide

• Bt plants produce toxin in all cells– Even in pollen that can spread– Monarch butterflies that eat pollen may die


Grazing on Rangelands

• Almost half of the Earth's land area is used as rangeland– 30% of Earth’s land area is arid rangeland

• Arid rangeland easily damaged especially in time of drought

• Steams and rivers also damaged– Trampling banks and fecal matter


Traditional and Industrial Use of Grazing and Rangelands

• In modern industrialized agriculture– Cattle initially raised on open range– Then transport to feed lots– Major impact is local pollution from manure

• Traditional herding practices – Damage land through overgrazing– Impact varies depending on density relative to

rainfall and soil fertility


Biogeografi Ternak-Pertanian

• Everyplace people have dispersed they have bought animals w/ them– Pre-industrial and throughout western civilization

• Environmental effects of introductions– Native vegetation may be greatly reduced and

threatened w/ extinction– Introduced animals may compete w/ native herbivores,

threatening them w/ extinction as well


DAYA DUKUNG LAHAN GEMBALAAN

• Carrying capacity- – the maximum number of species per unit area that can

persist w/o decreasing the ability of that population or its ecosystem to maintain that density in the future.

• When the carrying capacity is exceeded, the land is overgrazed.


• Overgrazing– Slows the growth of vegetation– Reduces the diversity of plant species– Leads to dominance by plant species that are

relatively undesirable to the cattle– Hastens loss of soil by erosion– Subject the land to further damage from trampling


DAYA DUKUNG LAHAN GEMBALAAN

PERKEMBANGAN DESERT (GURUN)• Deserts occur naturally where there is too little

water for substantial plant growth.– The warmer the climate the greater the rainfall

needed to convert an area from desert to non-desert– The crucial factor is available water in the soil for

plant use– Factors that destroy the ability of a soil to store water

can create a desert


• Earth has five natural warm desert regions– Primarily between 15o and 30o north and south of

the equator• Based on climate 1/3 of Earth’s land area

should be desert– 43% of land is desert– Addition area due to human activities


PERKEMBANGAN DESERT (GURUN)

• Desertification – the deterioration of land in arid, semiarid, and dry sub humid areas due to changes in climate and human activities.

• Serious problem that affects 1/6 of world population (1 billion people)


PERKEMBANGAN DESERT (GURUN)

• The leading cause of desertification are bad farming practices.– Failure to use contour plowing– To much farming– Overgrazing– Conversion of rangelands to croplands in marginal

areas– Poor forestry practices


APA YANG MENYEBABKAN DESERTS

APA YANG MENYEBABKAN DESERTS• Desert like areas can be created anywhere by

poisoning of the soil– World wide chemicals account for 12% of soil

degradation– Irrigation in arid lands can cause salts to build

up to toxic levels


MENCEGAH PERKEMBANGAN DESERT

• Tahap pertama adalah mendeteksi gejala-gejala– Lowering of water table– Increase in the salt content of soil– Reduced surface water– Increased soil erosion– Hilangnya vegetasi alamiah

• Dapat dicapai dnegan sisitem pemantauan yang bagus

• Next step– Proper methods of soil conservation, forest

management and irrigation• Good soil conservation includes

– Use of wind breaks– Reforestation


MENCEGAH PERKEMBANGAN DESERT

APAKAH PERTANIAN MENGUBAH Biosphere?

• 1st – Pertanian mengubah tutupan lahan– Resulting in changes in reflected light– The evaporation of water– The roughness of the surface– Rate of exchange of chemical compounds

• 2nd – Pertanian modern meningkatkan emisi CO2– Major user of fossil fuels– Clearing land speeds decomposition


• 3rd Affect climate through fires– Associated w/ clearing land– Add small particulates to the atmosphere

• 4th Artificial production of nitrogen– Alters biogeochemical cycle

• 5th Affects species diversity– Reduces diversity and increases # of endangered

species


APAKAH PERTANIAN MENGUBAH Biosphere?

RUNOFFDAN

PENCEMARAN AIR

Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff

Youngs Creek Watershed ProjectGabe Robertson-Watershed Coordinator

Information/Pictures Courtesy of:US EPA

USDA-NRCS

Diunduh dari sumbernya: Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS. ………… 20/10/2012

PROBLEMATIK PERTANIAN

• Agricultural nonpoint source (NPS) pollution is the leading source of water quality impacts on rivers and lakes.

• Activities that cause NPS pollution include poorly located or managed animal feeding operations, overgrazing, plowing too often and improper use of fertilizers and pesticides.


POLUTAN PERTANIAN

• Sediment (Soil washed off fields)• Nutrients (Fertilizers)• Pathogens (Bacteria and viruses)• Pesticides (Insecticides, Herbicides, Fungicides)


Sedimentation

The main source of water pollution caused by farming activities is soil that is washed off fields. Rain carries soil particles (sediment) and dumps

them into nearby streams or lakes. Diunduh dari sumbernya: Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS.

………… 20/10/2012

Problem Sedimentasi

• Clouds the water reducing the amount of sunlight that reaches aquatic plants.

• Clogs the gills of fish and smothers fish larvae.• Other pollutants such as fertilizers and

pesticides are often attached to soil particles and can cause algal blooms.

• Decreases the depth of waterbodies.


Unsur Hara Pupuk

Diunduh dari sumbernya: . http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/engineer/facts/05-073.htm ………… 22/10/2012

Manage nutrient application to avoid ammonium losses to surface water

1. Practice timely tillage to incorporate manure, balancing the risk of soil compaction with the losses of nitrogen to the atmosphere if the manure is not incorporated quickly.

2. Avoid applying manure near surface water or on steeply sloping land.3. Keep application rates low enough to prevent runoff.4. Mix manure into the soil as soon possible after applying it.5. On tile-drained land, keep application rates of liquid manure below 40 m3/ha (3,600

gal/ac) or pre-till the field before applying it. This will help prevent the movement of manure directly to tile through cracks or earthworm channels.

6. Use buffer strips and erosion control structures to filter runoff before it enters surface water. Buffer strips in riparian zones have proven to reduce nutrient movement off the field into nearby surface water sources. Buffer strips consume excess nutrients before they flow into surface water and enhance opportunities for groundwater denitrification.

Problematik Unsur-Hara Pupuk

Diunduh dari sumbernya: http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/engineer/facts/05-073.htm ………… 22/10/2012

Manage fields to avoid excess nitrate that could leach to groundwater

1. Identify fields and areas sensitive to nitrogen in areas where nutrient applications are planned. For instance, sandy or gravelly soils, and soils with shallow water tables are more susceptible to nitrogen leaching.

2. Match nitrogen applications with crop requirements. Use the spring or pre-sidedress soil nitrogen test where available (e.g., for corn and barley).

3. In your Nutrient Management Plan, account for nitrogen contributions from green manure crops and any previous crop rotations.

4. In your Nutrient Management Plan, account for nitrogen from any manure or biosolid application.

5. Apply most of the nitrogen just before the time of maximum crop uptake (e.g., sidedress corn).

6. Split applications of nitrogen through techniques such as fertigation.7. Practise crop rotations to make efficient use of nitrogen and maintain healthy soils.8. Establish cover crops as needed to "tie up" any excess nitrogen at the end of the season.

Pathogens (bacteria, viruses)

Animal waste can be a major source of pathogens in lakes and streams.


Problematik Pathogen

• Waterborne pathogens may cause diseases, such as eye, ear and skin infections as well as a number of other health related problems.


PestisidaInsecticides, herbicides, and fungicides are used to kill agricultural pests. These chemicals can enter and

contaminate water through direct application and runoff.


Problematik Pestisida• Can poison fish and wildlife• Contaminate food sources and destroy the habitat

that animals use for protective cover.• Can pose a health threat to humans that come in

contact with or drink water polluted with pesticides.


Best Management Practices (BMPs)

Diunduh dari sumbernya: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167880901003541 ………… 22/10/2012

Pengelolaan Hutan-Pertanian• Adds income

to your farm• Adds beauty

to your farm• Ground cover

provides wildlife habitat, reducessoil erosion, and improves water quality

Diunduh dari sumbernya: http://autonopedia.org/garden_and_farm/Permaculture/Permaculture.html ………… 22/10/2012

1..

Planned Grazing Systems

1. Improves vegetative cover, reducing erosion and improving water quality

2. Increases harvest efficiency and helps ensure adequate forage throughout grazing season

3. Increases forage quality and production which helps increase feed efficiency and can improve profits

4. Rotating also evenly distributes manure nutrient resources


Pengelolaan Pupuk Kandang

Manure storage structures protect water bodies from manure runoff by storing

manure until conditions are appropriate for field application.


Farm Pond1. Prevents soil erosion

and protects water quality by collecting and storing runoff water

2. Provides water for livestock, fish, wildlife, and recreational activities

3. Adds value and beauty to a farm or farmstead

4. Provides a water supply for emergencies


Kolam pemanen air hujan

Wildlife – Hutan Habitat

1. Ground cover reduces soil erosion, adds organic matter to the soil, filters runoff, and increases infiltration

2. It can add value to your farmstead

3. Planned wildlife habitat provides food and cover for wildlife.


Habitat hutan jati di musim kemarauFoto:smno-saradan-htnjati-nop2012

Filter Strips – Pertanian Kontur 1. Grass, trees and

shrubs provide cover for small birds and animals

2. Ground cover reduces soil erosion

3. The vegetative strip moves rowcrop operations farther from a stream.

4. Vegetation prevents contaminants from entering water bodies, protecting water quality


Pengolahan tanah menurut garus kontur pada lahan miring

Foto:smno-pujon-horti-nop2012

Penanaman Lahan-Kritis

Critical area plantings consist of grass or other vegetation that protects badly

eroding areas from soil erosion.


Penanaman lahan di bawah tegakan hutanFoto:smno-pujon-wanatani-nop2012

Contour Strip-cropping1. Contour stripcropping is

crop rotation and contouring combined in equal-width strips of corn or soybeans planted on the contour and alternated with strips of oats, grass, or legumes.

2. Contour stripcropping reduces soil erosion and protects water quality

3. Contour stripcropping may help reduce fertilizer costs by providing nutrient inputs naturally


Pengolahan tanah dan penanaman menurut garis konturFoto:smno-pujon-horti-nop2012

Diversion

1. Reduces soil erosion on lowlands by catching runoff water and preventing it from reaching farmland below

2. Vegetation in the diversion channel filters runoff water, improving water quality

3. Vegetation provides cover for small birds and animals

4. Allows better crop growth on bottomland soils


Saluran Air Berumput

1. Grass cover protects the drainageway from gully erosion

2. Vegetation may act as a filter, absorbing some of the chemicals and nutrients in runoff water

3. Vegetation provides cover for small birds and animals


Contour Buffer Strips

• Vegetation provides cover and habitat for small birds and animals

• The strips reduce erosion by slowing water flow and increasing water infiltration into soil

• By reducing siltation and filtering nutrients and chemicals from runoff, grass strips improve water quality


Contour Farming• Contouring can reduce

soil erosion by as much as 50% from up and down hill farming

• By reducing sediment and runoff, and increasing water infiltration, contouring promotes better water quality


Field Borders• Vegetative cover reduces

sheet and rill erosion by slowing water flow

• Vegetation filters runoff, improving water quality

• Grass and legume strips may be harvested in some cases and are easier to turn on than end rows

• Vegetation provides cover and habitat for small birds and animals


Perlindungan Sumur

Well protection is necessary when

changing farming practices which occur on or near the farmstead in order to reduce the risk

of contamination of water sources--mainly

the well.


PEREDAM ANGIN = Windbreak

1. A windbreak reduces wind erosion, conserves energy, reduces heating bills and beautifies a farmstead

2. Trees serve as a sound barrier, muffling road noise

3. Trees and shrubs provide wildlife food and cover

4. Improved livestock weight gains can be expected when livestock are protected from winter winds and snow


Pepohonan peneduh dan penangkal angin di kampus UB

Foto:smno-pkampus ub-nop2012

Pasture Planting

1. Heavy grass cover slows water flow, reducing soil erosion

2. Good pastures protect water quality by filtering runoff water and increasing infiltration

3. Lush pastures offer wildlife cover and habitat 4. As plants recycle and roots die, organic

matter in the soil is improved


Perlindungan Sungai

1. Streambanks are covered with rocks, grass, trees, or other cover to reduce erosion

2. Better water quality results from reducing amounts of nutrients, chemicals, animal waste, and sediment entering the stream

3. Buffer zones provide cover and habitat for birds and small animals


Pengujian Pupuk Kandang

1. Manure testing is used to sample and test manure to determine nutrient content.

2. This promotes proper nutrient application to fields.3. Preventing over-application of manure to crop

fields results in improved water quality


Penanaman Pohon

1. Improving stands of woodlands can increase profits2. Ground cover created by trees and associated debris

protects soil for rill and sheet erosion3. Ground cover also protects water quality by filtering

excess nutrients and chemicals from surface runoff and increasing infiltration rates

4. Healthy, well-managed woodlands provide long-term wildlife habitat


Olah-Tanah Konservasi

Conservation tillage involves

leaving last year’s crop residue on

the soil surface by

limiting tillage.


Residu panen daun tebu digunakan sebagai mulsa permukaan

Foto:smno-mulsa-dau-agst2012

Pengolahan-Tanah Konservasi

• Ground cover prevents soil erosion and protects water quality

• Residue improves soil tilth (health) and adds organic matter to the soil as it decomposes

• Fewer trips and less tillage reduces soil compaction

• Time, energy and labor savings are possible with fewer tillage trips



Pengolahan-Tanah Konservasi

Pengelolaan Hara

1. Sound nutrient management reduces input costs and protects water quality by preventing over application of commercial fertilizers and animal manure

2. Correct manure and sludge application on all fields can improve soil tilth and organic matter


Rotasi (Pergiliran) Tanaman• Pesticide costs may

be reduced by naturally breaking the cycles of weeds, insects, and diseases

• Grass and legumes in a rotation protect water quality by preventing excess nutrients or chemicals from entering water supplies

• Meadow or small grains cut soil erosion dramatically

• Crop rotations add diversity to an operationDiunduh dari sumbernya: Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS.

………… 20/10/2012

Sumber: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378429010003205

Wetlands• Wetlands can provide natural pollution

control.• They remove nutrients, pesticides, and

bacteria form surface waters and can act as efficient, lowcost sewage and animal waste treatment practices

• Wetlands filter and collect sediment from runoff water

• Because wetlands slow overland flow and store runoff water, they reduce both soil erosion and flooding downstream

• Many wetlands release water slowly into the ground which recharges groundwater suppliesDiunduh dari sumbernya: Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff , US EPA & USDA-NRCS.

………… 20/10/2012

PENGELOLAAN HAMA

• Scouting and spot treatment of only those pests that are threatening can save money

• Using fewer chemicals improves water quality

• Specific treatments for specific pests on specific areas of a field prevents over treatment of pests


LAHAN BER-TERASA terrace is an

earthen embankment

around a hillside that stops water

flow and stores it or guides it safely off a

field.


PENGGUNAAN LAHAN&

EROSI TANAH

Land Use & Soil Erosion

• Agriculture = dominant land use

• Urban Sprawl = new land use threat

• Excessive soil erosion – soil components moved to new location due to water or wind

Sumber: http://www.metacafe.com/watch/yt-x2CiDaUYr90/u_s_dust_bowl_of_1930s/

Proses terjadinya erosi oleh angin

Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012

TIPE EROSI TANAH• Erosi geologis (alamiah)

- continuous slow rate of erosion- 0.02 to 0.25 mm /yr for bare rock- 2 mm /yr on stable soil surface

• Erosi dipercepat – human-caused- 10 tons/A/yr

(natural replacement = 0.5 tons/A/yr)- splash, sheet, rill, & gully erosion- Dust Bowl (1930s)


PENGELOLAAN EROSI-TANAH

• USDA – 3,000 Soil & Water Conservation Districts

• Are we controlling soil erosion?- rate today = rate during 1930s)- 4 B tons /yr- mostly on farmland (50% water-based

& 60% wind-based)- 80% farmland > natural replace. rate


TOLERANSI KEHILANGAN TANAH = Tolerable Soil Loss

• USDA – erosion loss of 1 to 5 tons/A/yr without impacting crop production

• No scientific basis for this measure


BIAYA-BIAYA EROSI-TANAH

• Lower soil fertility / crop production• Air (dust) & water (sediments) pollution• Estimates of on-site costs = $27 B/yr• Estimates of off-site costs = $17 B/yr


FAKTOR EROSI-TANAH oleh AIR

1) Rainfall• Amount, Intensity, Seasonality

2) Surface Cover (erodibility)• Soil structure (related to water-stable

aggregates)

water-stable aggregates: material that aids in soil particles clumping together in water (e.g., organic matter)


cover crops: vegetation grown before/after primary crop for protection of soil surface (e.g., clover, alfalfa, winter wheat) – related to green manure



Pupuk Hijau:

plowing under of cover crop in order to

increase soil fertility (N fixation), increase

organic matter, reduce erosion

3)Topography•Slope grade and length



Mengendalikan Erosi Tanah

Clean tillage: crop residues turned into soil soon after harvest; often fall plow

1) contour farming2) Strip cropping3) Terracing4) Gully reclamation5) Conservation tillage6) Cropland Reduction Programs


Pertanian Garis Kontur• Farming

perpendicular to slope (across slope) -- Jefferson

• Reduces water runoff (65%), erosion, and siltation Diunduh dari sumbernya:

www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012

Pengolahan tanah / penanaman mengikuti garis kontur dilakukan pada lahan miring untuk mengurangi erosi dan aliran permukaan. Garis kontur adalah suatu garis khayal yang menghubungkan titik-titik yang tingginya sama dan berpotongan tegak lurus dengan arah kemiringan lahan.

Bangunan dan tanaman dibuat sepanang garis kontur dan disesuaikan dengan keadaan permukaan lahan.

Penanaman pada garis kontur dapat mencakup pula pembuatan perangkap tanah, teras bangku atau teras

guludan, atau penanaman larikan. Pengolahan tanah dan penanaman mengikuti kontur banyak dipromosikan di berbagai daerah di Indonesia dalam mengembangkan

pertanian yang berkelanjutan.Keuntungan1. Mengurangi aliran permukaan dan erosi2. Mengurangi kehilangan unsur hara3. Mempercepat pengolahan tanah apabila

menggunakan tenaga ternak atau traktor karena luku atau alat pengolah tanah yang lain.

Diunduh dari sumbernya: http://bebasbanjir2025.wordpress.com/tekn

ologi-pengendalian-banjir/pengolahan-tanahpenanaman-menurut-kontur/…………

22/10/2012

Corn

Strip Cropping

• Alternate strips of crops across a slope• Rotate crops (crop rotation), i.e., rotate

strips• Example:

Corn-Oats-AlfalfaOats

Alfalfa


Terrasering• Ancient practice from

mountain cultures• Create bench-like steps on

steep slopes• ridge terraces (broad-base

or grass backslope) – broad flat steps in slope

• channel terraces – dig channel across slope; used in high runoff sites


Terasering adalah penanaman dengan membuat teras-teras yang dilakukan untuk mengurangi panjang

lereng dan menahan atau memperkecil aliran permukaan agar air dapat meresap ke dalam tanah. Jenis terasering antara lain teras datar, teras kredit,

Teras Guludan, dan teras bangku

Teras Datar (level terrace)Teras datar dibuat pada tanah dengan kemiringan

kurang dari 3 % dengan tujuan memperbaiki pengaliran air dan pembasahan tanah. Teras datar dibuat dengan jalan menggali tanah menurut garis

tinggi dan tanah galiannnya ditimbunkan ke tepi luar, sehingga air dapat tertahan dan terkumpul. Pematang

yang terjadi ditanami dengan rumput

Diunduh dari sumbernya: http://riset-analyst.blogspot.com/2011/11/terasering-adalah.html

Pengolahan Tanah Konservasi• Limit or restrict plowing (tilling) of soil in

order to reduce soil erosion

1) Minimum Tillage – field cultivator & disc for working top few inches of soil (vs. moldboard plow turning 6+ inches)

• < 50% of US cropland

2) No Till – field machinery cuts narrow slit into soil & drops seed; maximal surface residue; maximal soil protection


Pertanian Tanpa-Olah-Tanah• Keunggulan:

- reduces labor, fuel consumption, soil erosion- increases crop yield

• Kendala-kendala:- need special equipment- not universal- disease & crop pest problems (herbicide & pesticide use)


TOT = Tanpa Olah Tanah

Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan....

………… 22/10/2012

Keuntungan Mulsa:1. Melindungi permukaan tanah dari pukulan

langsung butir-butir air hujan serta mengurangi aliran permukaan, erosi dan kehilangan tanah.

2. Menekan pertumbuhan tanaman pengganggu (gulma) sehingga mengurangi (biaya tenaga kerja untuk penyiangan.

3. Mulsa yang berupa sisa-sisa tanaman menjadi sumber bahan organik tanah

4. Meningkatkan aktivitas jasad renik (mikroorganisme tanah), sehingga memperbaiki sifat fisika dan kimia tanah

5. Membantu menjaga suhu tanah serta mengurangi penguapan sehingga mempertahankan kelembaban tanah sehingga pemanfaatan kelembaban tanah menjadi lebih efisien.

6. Tergolong teknik konservasi tanah yang memerlukan jumlah tenaga kerja / biaya rendah.

TOT dengan Mulsa seresah sisa panen


Mulsa sisa tanaman

Mulsa ini terdiri dari bahan organik sisa tanaman (jerami

padi, batang jagung), pangkasan dari tanaman pagar,

daun-daun dan ranting tanaman. Bahan tersebut disebarkan

secara merata di atas permukaan tanah setebal 2-5

cm sehingga permukaan tanah tertutup sempurna.

http://bebasbanjir2025.wordpress.com/teknologi-pengendalian-banjir/mulsa/

PESTICIDA

pesticide: chemical that kills pests (animal & plant)

herbicide – weedsinsecticide – insectsrodenticide – rodentsSilent Spring – Rachel Carson (1960s)1960s to present (6X > herbicide)


conventional farming: agrochemicals, new crop varieties, bigger equipment

alternative agriculture: use organic, biodynamic, integrated, low-input or no-till concepts


Pertanian Alternatif

Pertanian Alternatif

organic farming: no agrochemicals; combats disease/insects via cultural treatments (e.g., crop rotation, green manures, compost)

biodynamic farming: use soil preparations made from animal manure, silica, and plants

low-input farming: minimize use of material from outside of farm


The Ecology of Farming• Native communities = dynamic

equilibrium• Human-altered systems = monocultures,

ecosystem simplification


“Cutting-Edge” Agriculture Integrated Pest Mgt (IPM): limit pesticide

use by combating insect pests with broad-spectrum (integrated) approach (e.g., biological, chemical, cultural…)

precision farming: use satellites (Global Positioning System = GPS) to map fields and spatial data (crop yield, fertilizer application); manage smaller units (i.e., field sub-units)


Precision Farming


SIFAT & CIRI TANAH

• comprised of: minerals organic matter water air

• Properties = texture, structure, organic matter, life, aeration, moisture content, pH, fertility


TEKSTUR TANAH

• Coarse fraction (rock, gravel) vs. fine-earth fraction (sand, silt, clay)

• Sand > Silt > Clay• textural classes (soil texture pyramid,

p.105, fig 6.2)• adsorption: process of forming chemical

bonds (ionic bonds) between nutrients (+) and soil (clay -) – relates to leaching/fertility


Adsorption


Soil Structure • arrangement/grouping of soil into

aggregates (or clumps)• Influenced by “natural” physical factors

(e.g., freezing/thawing, burrowing) and human alterations (e.g., tilling)

• Affects soil permeability (air & water) and plant growth (roots)


Soil Organic Matter (OM) & Life • OM = living & dead organisms in soil• humus: top layer of soil produced via

decomposition; improves structure, permeability, stability, fertility, habitat

• microorganisms vs. macroorganisms• mycorrhizae (pl.): “fungus root”

symbiotic relationship between plant & fungus – nutrient uptake from soil (e.g., conifers and fungi)


Aeration & Moisture Content • pore space: space between soil particles

filled with air or water; relation to structure & texture (sand vs. clay)

• Pore space (aeration/moisture content) increased by OM

• At soil saturation, all pores filled with water – correlated with surface runoff intensity / erosion


pH (Kemasaman, reaksi) Tanah

• soil reaction: pH of soil (acid, neutral, basic) – depends on H+ or OH- ions

• wet & mesic soils – acidic to neutral• dry soils -- basic• pH & agriculture

- lime (CaCO3) – Ca+ ions reduce acidity- fertilizers (N, P) – with water… acidic


KESUBURAN TANAH

• soil fertility: capacity to provide all nutrients needed for maximum growth

• macronutrient vs. micronutrient - N vs Fe

• relation to pH• some nutrient sources:

• fixation, decomposition, animal waste


PEMBENTUKAN TANAH

Five Factors:1) Climate (temp. & precipitation)

physical & chemical changes in soil/rock (weathering) – clay, leaching

2) Parent material- weathering in place or transported- outwash plain, alluvial, lacustrine, dunes, tephra


Five Factors:3) Organisms (macro and micro)

4) Topography – relation to water movement & soil condition/type

5) Time *4.5 - 3.5 billion yrs before present(ybp)* relation to other 4 factors


PEMBENTUKAN TANAH

PROFIL TANAH

• soil profile: cross-section view of soil horizons

• horizon: layers of soil that share attributes of texture, structure, etc…


Major Horizons:• O horizon (organic layer)• A horizon (topsoil, humus, life)• E horizon (leaching zone)• B horizon (subsoil, accumulation zone)• C horizon (parent material, field stone)• R horizon (bedrock)


PROFIL TANAH

Water Resources Water Shortage?1) Human Population2) Consumption - ag.,industry,resident

3) Efficiency4) Distribution Problems5) Pollution (air, soil, water)


Water Cycle?

replacement period: time to complete cycle (9 days to 37,000 years)

• Unequal distribution of precipitation- US 102 cm - MI 81 cm- Death Valley 4 cm- Pacific NW 368 cm

• Evaporation & TranspirationDiunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012

AIR PERMUKAAN & Groundwater

• Surface water (lakes, streams) - may be potable, municipal use

• Groundwater – water infiltrates into soil• percolation into aquifer (porous soil stratum of

sandstone or limestone) • zone of aeration: plant roots, capillary water in

pore spaces• zone of saturation: pore filled from water table

down to bedrock


DAERAH ALIRAN SUNGAI

watershed: area drained stream/river• U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Flood Control 1) Levees – raise river banks with

earthen/stone dikes • develop floodplains• floods prevented, almost• increase flood severity?


Flood Control (cont.) 2) Dredging – removal of sediments (Corps) –

pollutants? 3) Channelization – straightening streams

(NRCS) – floods & drainage, Everglades

4) Dams – water impoundment – public works projects• potable water, irrigation, recreation,

energy• loss of habitat, evaporation,

sedimentation, $$Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012

Protecting Watersheds & Floodplains

• watershed protection as proactive & sustainable flood control mgt.

• USDA, BLM, Army Corps, TVA• floodplain zoning & Federal Flood

Disaster Protective Act of 1973• nonstructural flood control


TIPE-TIPE PENCEMARAN

1) Sediment2) Inorganic Nutrient3) Thermal4) Disease-Producing Microorganisms5) Toxic Organic Chemicals6) Heavy Metals7) Organic Wastes


PENGELOLAAN PENCEMARAN

pollution control: (output control)manage pollutant post hoc- pollutant dispersion

pollution prevention: (input control)avoid pollution a priori


1) Sediment Pollution

- linked to soil erosion /poor land use

Sources: agriculture, logging, construction, strip mines

Costs: $1 million per day in USclog irrigation canals, hydro- electric

turbines, harbors, life of dams shortened

- carries toxins- turbid water & sedimentation “kills” coldwater fish/bivalve habitat


Controlling Sediment Pollution

- input control includes:conservation tillagecontour-strip farmingshelter beltsterracingcover crops/increase OM

- output control includes: $$$$$sediment filtration systems (artificial & natural)dredging


2) Inorganic Nutrient Pollution

- aquatic systems require certain chemical elements to exist & support life

- includes C, O, N, H, P among others- N & P often are limiting factors because of their

reduced abundance;- P > N in importance as limiting factor

- > N & P = > productivity of aquatic system


Lake Productivity Gradient

1) oligotrophic: nutrient-poor lake- low productivity- low plant/animal biomass- e.g., Lake Superior = young lake

2) mesotrophic: moderate nutrient base- swimming, fishing

3) eutrophic: nutrient rich- dense algal blooms- reduced dissolved oxygen, diminished fisheryDiunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012

3) Polusi Thermal

- increase temperature of aquatic system- Harmful effects:

- reduced dissolved oxygen- reduced fish reproduction- spread of disease

- Manfaat:- increase growth rate of some fish- heating homes

- Use of coolant towersDiunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012

4) Organisme yg menghasilkan penyakit

- infectious organisms introduced to water; cholera, typhoid fever, dysentery, polio, Cryptosporidium

- better sanitation & water treatment can reduce diseasee.g., chlorination for bacteria and oxygenation

for enteric disease (intestine-dwelling; anaerobic)

- coliform bacteria count: index of microorganism-based water pollutioncoliform = usually harmless bacteria in human gut Diunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012

5) Toxic Organic Chemicals

- Carbon-based compounds; synthetic derivatives such as Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) = toluene

- Synthetic Organics = resist decomposition & therefore persistent

- Disrupt normal enzyme function in organisms; interfere with normal chemical reactions in cells


Water Pollutants

1) Review Table 11.4, p 2682) Your choice, pick 1 of the pollutants

and,a) be able to name it; b) provide an explanation of its use;c) indicate its source & its prevalence in the Great Lakes; andd) explain its effects on human health


6) Heavy Metals

e.g., lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium (fundamental chemical elements)

- Mines & contaminated groundwater - Mines & tailings (Clarks Fork of

Yellowstone)- interfere with normal enzyme function- lead contamination (soil & water) from

paint & plumbing pipe (solder)- mercury contamination (methyl Hg in air

& water) from industry; in muscle tissueDiunduh dari sumbernya: www.cst.cmich.edu/.../lecture%20240-%20lan.... ………… 22/10/2012

7) Organic Waste: reduce available oxygen

- decomposition of wastes by bacteria uses oxygen; release of nutrients -- cyclic

- Oxygen-demanding organic wastesbiological oxygen demand (BOD): index of

amount of organic matter in water sample; indexed via rate of oxygen use by bacteria

- aquatic indicator species (bio-sentinels or bio-indicators) – also application to other pollutants (may flies, trout, bullheads, carp, sludge worms, mink)


Gulf of Mexico - Watershed

• hypoxic zone • dissolved oxygen

concentration less than 2 mg/L, or 2 ppm



Gulf of Mexico - Watershed

DAMPAK LINGKUNGAN

AKIBAT PESTISIDA

Diunduh dari sumbernya: Pesticide Action Network Europe 2010 ………… 20/10/2012

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES.An impression of recent scientific literature. August

2010 ... Soil contamination

Pesticides enter the soil via spray drift during foliage treatment, wash-off from treated foliage, release from granulates or from treated seeds in soil. Some pesticides such as

soil fumigants and nematocides are applied directly into soil to control pests and plant diseases presented in soil.

The transport, persistence or degradation of pesticides in soil depend on their chemical properties as well as physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil. All these factors affect sorption/ desorption, volatilisation, degradation, uptake by plants, run-

off, and leaching of pesticides.

Persistent organochlorine pesticides (OC) in soils

Persistence of pesticides in soil can vary from few hours to many years in case of OC pesticides. Despite OC pesticides were banned or restricted in many countries, they are

still detecting in soils (Shegunova et al., 20071; Toan et al., 20072; Li et al., 20083; Hildebrandt et al., 20094;

Jiang et al., 20095; Ferencz and Balog 20106).



2010 ... Sorption is the most important interaction between soil and pesticides and

limits degradation as well as transport in soil. Pesticides bound to soil organic matter or clay particles are less mobile, bio available but also less accessible to

microbial degradation and thus more persistent.

Soil organic matter is the most important factor influencing sorption and leaching of pesticides in soil. Addition of organic matter to soil can enhance sorption and reduce risk to water pollution. It has been demonstrated that amount and composition of organic matter had large impact on pesticides

sorption. For example soil rich on humus content are more chemically reactive with pesticides than nonhumified soil (Farenhorst 2006).

Farenhorst, A. (2006): Importance of Soil Organic Matter Fractions in Soil-

Landscape and Regional Assessments of Pesticide Sorption and Leaching in Soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 70(3), pp 1005-1012.

Sumber: https://www.soils.org/publications/sssaj/articles/70/3/1005



2010 ... High yield agriculture, as it is widely practised in Europa, depletes soil

organic matter and will reduce sorption.

Fast sorption usually occurs in short time after pesticide application. With time sorption is much slower. However, it has been observed for many

pesticides that increasing time, repeated application could increase their sorption and formation of bound, non-extractable residues.

Although bound residues are considered of low significance because they are inactive and nonavailable, it has been detected that they can release in some

time. Change in soil pH or addition of nitrate fertilizers can induced a release of this residues. There exist also evidences that some organisms, e.g. plants and earthworms, can uptake and remobilise old tightly bound residues (Gevao et

al., 2000).

Gevao, B., Mordaunt, C., Semple, K.T., Piearce, T.G., Jones, K.C. (2000): Bioavailability of Nonextractable (Bound) Pesticide Residues to Earthworms.

Environmental Science & Technology 35(3), pp 501-507.

Sumber: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es000144d



2010 ... . Water contamination

Pesticides can get into water via drift during pesticide spraying, by runoff from treated area, leaching through the soil. In some

cases pesticides can be applied directly onto water surface e.g. for control of mosquitoes. Water contamination depends mainly on

nature of pesticides (water solubility, hydrophobicity), soil properties, weather conditions, landscape and also on the distance

from an application site to a water source. Rapid transport to groundwater may be caused by heavy rainfall shortly after

application of the pesticide to wet soils.



2010 ... During 90ies, herbicide Atrazine and Endosulphan were found most often in surface waters

in the USA and Australia due to their widespread use. Other pesticides detected included Pronofos, Dimethoate, Chlordane, Diuron, Prometryn and Fluometuron (Cooper 1996).

More recent studies also reported presence of pesticides in surface water and groundwater

close to agriculture lands over the world (Cerejeira et al., 20031; Konstantinou et al., 20062; Añasco et al., 20105). In general, the compounds most frequently detected were currently

used pesticides (herbicides Atrazine, Simazine, Alachlor, Metolachlor and Trifluralin, insecticides Diazinon, Parathion methyl, and organochlorine compounds due to their long

persistance (lindane, endosulfan, aldrin, and other organochlorine pesticides).

Cerejeira, M.J., Viana, P., Batista, S., Pereira, T., Silva, E., Valério, M.J., Silva, A., Ferreira, M., Silva-Fernandes, A.M. (2003): Pesticides in Portuguese surface and ground waters. Water Research 37(5), pp 1055-1063.Cooper, B. (1996): Central and North West Regions Water Quality Program 1995/1996. Report on Pesticide Monitoring. TS96.048, NSW Department of Land & Water Conservation, Sydney, AustraliaKonstantinou, I.K., Hela, D.G., Albanis, T.A. (2006): The status of pesticide pollution in surface waters (rivers and lakes) of Greece. Part I. Review on occurrence and levels. Environmental Pollution 141(3), pp 555-570.Añasco, N., Uno, S., Koyama, J., Matsuoka, T., Kuwahara, N. (2010): Assessment of pesticide residues in freshwater areas affected by rice paddy effluents in Southern Japan. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 160(1), pp 371-383..



2010 ..The geographic and seasonal distribution of pesticide occurrence follows

patterns in land use and pesticide use. Streams and rivers were frequently more polluted that groundwaters and more near the areas

with substantial agricultural and/or urban land use. Pesticides usually occurred in mixture of multiple compounds, even if individual pesticide were detected bellow limits. This potentially can lead to underestimation

of toxicity when assessments are based on individual compounds.High levels of pesticides chlordecone were detected in coastline, rivers, sediments and groundwater in the Caribbean island of Martinique due

to its massive application on bananas plantations (Bocquené and Franco 2005).

Bocquené, G., Franco, A. (2005): Pesticide contamination of the coastline of Martinique. Marine Pollution Bulletin 51(5-7), pp 612-619.

Sumber: http://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/2005/publication-879.pdf



2010 ... Effects on organisms

Soil organisms and processes

Soil microorganisms play a key role in soil. They are essential for maintenance of soil structure, transformation and mineralization of organic matter, making nutrients available for plants. Soil

microorganisms are also able to metabolise and degrade a lot of pollutants and pesticides and thus are of great concern for using in biotechnology. On the other hand, microbial degradation can lead

to formation of more toxic and persistent metabolites. Although soil microbial population are characterized by fast flexibility and adaptability to changed environmental condition, the

application of pesticides (especially long-term) can cause significant irreversible changes in their population. Inhibition of species, which provide key process, can have a significant impact on

function of whole terrestrial ecosystem.

Fungicides were found to be toxic to soil fungi and actinomycetes and caused changes in microbial community structure (Liebich et al., 20034; Pal et al., 20055).

Liebich, J., Schäffer, A., Burauel, P. (2003): Structural and functional approach to studying pesticide side-effects on specific soil functions. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 22(4), pp 784-790.Pal, R., Chakrabarti, K., Chakraborty, A., Chowdhury, A. (2005): Pencycuron application to soils: Degradation and effect on microbiological parameters. Chemosphere 60(11), pp 1513-1522.



2010 ... A ew studies show that some organochlorine pesticides suppress symbiotic nitrogen

fixation resulting in lower crop yields. Authors found out that pesticides Pentachlorphenol, DDT and Methyl parathion at levels found in farm soils

interfered signalling from leguminous plant such as alfalfa, peas, and soybeans to symbiotic soil bacteria. This effect, loosely comparable to endocrine disruption effects of pesticides in human and animals, significantly disrupt N2 fixation. As

consequence increased dependence on synthetic nitrogenous fertilizer, reduced soil fertility, and unsustainable long-term crop yields occur. The observations also may explain a trend in the past 40 years toward stagnant crop yields despite record high

use of pesticides and synthetic fertilizers worldwide (Fox et al., 20078; Potera 20079).

Fox, J.E., Gulledge, J., Engelhaupt, E., Burow, M.E., McLachlan, J.A. (2007): Pesticides reduce symbiotic efficiency of nitrogen-fixing rhizobia and host plants. Proceedings of

the National Academy of Sciences 104(24), pp 10282-10287.

Potera, C. (2007): Agriculture: Pesticides Disrupt Nitrogen Fixation. Environ Health Perspect 115(12).



2010 ... Soil invertebrates

Nematodes, springtails, mites and further micro-arthropods, earthworms, spiders, insects and all these small organisms make up the soil food web and enable decomposition of organic compounds such as leaves, manure, plant residues and they also prey on crop pests. Soil

organisms enhance soil aggregation and porosity and thus increasing infiltration and reducing runoff.

Earthworms represent the greatest part of biomass of terrestrial invertebrates (>80 %) and play an important role in soil ecosystem. They are used as bioindicator of soil contamination

providing an early warning of decline in soil quality. They serve as model organisms in toxicity testing. Earthworms are characterized by high ability to cumulate a lot of pollutants

from soil in their tissues, thus they are used for studying of bioaccumulation potential of chemicals.

A recent review of pesticides effects on earthworms showed on negative effects on growth and reproduction by many pesticides (Shahla and D'Souza 2010).

Shahla, Y., D'Souza, D. (2010): Effects of Pesticides on the Growth and Reproduction of Earthworm: A Review. Applied and Environmental Soil Science 2010, pp Article ID 678360,

9 pages.

Sumber: http://downloads.hindawi.com/journals/aess/2010/678360.pdf



2010 ... Glyphosate, nonselective herbicide, and chlorpyrifos, insecticide, belong to the

most worldwide used pesticides, especially on transgenic resistant crops. An integrated study on a Roundoup resistant soya field in Argentina showed

deleterious effect of these pesticides on earthworm population. Earthworms avoided soil with glyphosate, their feeding activity and viability were reduced. Glyphosate and chlorpyrifos caused also several adverse effects at cellular level

(DNA damage) that indicated physiological stress. Author concluded that the effects observed on the reproduction and avoidance caused by glyphosate could contribute to earthworm decrease, with the subsequent loss of their beneficial functions (Casabé et

al., 2007).

Casabé, N., Piola, L., Fuchs, J., Oneto, M.L., Pamparato, L., Basack, S., Giménez, R., Massaro, R., Papa, J.C., Kesten, E. (2007): Ecotoxicological Assessment of the

Effects of Glyphosate and Chlorpyrifos in an Argentine Soya Field. Journal of soil sediments 7(4), pp 232-239.



2010 ... Other non-target species

Effect of pesticides on bees are closely watched because their crop pollination. However, little is known about the impacts of pesticides on wild pollinators in

the field. In recent study conducted in Italian agricultural area, authors monitored species richness of wild bees, bumblebees and butterflies were

sampled after pesticides application. They detected decline of wild bees after repeated application of insecticide fenitrothion. Lower bumblebee and

butterfly species richness was found in the more intensively farmed basin with higher pesticide loads (Brittain et al., 2010).

Brittain, C.A., Vighi, M., Bommarco, R., Settele, J., Potts, S.G. (2010): Impacts of a pesticide on pollinator species richness at different spatial scales. Basic and Applied Ecology 11(2), pp 106-115.



2010 ... Impact of pesticides on insect is determined by the timing of application because susceptibility to exposure differs between species and at different

life stages. Therefore, unconsidered agricultural practises can harm butterfly populations.

It has been shown that using herbicides to control of invasive plants can

significantly reduce survival, wing and pupa weight of butterfly at treated areas. Author highlighted the importance of careful consideration in the use of herbicides in habitats harboring at-risk butterfly populations.

Reduction of adverse effect may be reached by applications in late summer and early fall, post flight season and during larval diapause (Russell and

Schultz 2009). Russell, C., Schultz, C.B. (2009): Effects of grass-specific herbicides on butterflies: an experimental investigation to advance conservation efforts. Journal of Insect Conservation 14(1), pp 53-63.



2010 ... Water organisms – invertebrates, amphibians, fishes

Pesticides can enter fresh water streams directly via spray drift or indirectly via surface runoff or drain flow. Many pesticides are toxic to freshwater organisms. Acute and

chronic effects are derived from standart toxicity tests. Within the ecological context, sublethal effects of toxic contaminants are very important. For example, downstream drift

of stream macroinvertebrates in common reaction to various types of disturbance, including chemical contamination and may result in significant changes of structure of

lotic communities. Downstream drift was shown for several pesticides such as pyrethroid, neonicotinoid, organochlorine, organophosphate insecticides or lampricides. Neurotoxic insecticides

exhibited the strongest drift-initiating effects on stream-dwelling insects and crustaceans. Moreover, it was detected that macroinvertebrate drift can be induced even by short-

term pulse exposures (within 2 hours) at field-relevant concentrations (already 7–22 times lower than the respective acute LC50 values) (Beketov and Liess 2008).

Beketov, M., Liess, M. (2008): Potential of 11 Pesticides to Initiate Downstream Drift of Stream Macroinvertebrates. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 55(2), pp 247-253.



2010 ... In ecotoxicologial risk assessment of pesticides, attention is also focused on the

ability of treated aquatic ecosystems to recover. After pesticide application structural and functional changes in ecosystem were monitored. Whereas some

species can be reduced, other may profit from lower predation and food competition. The time needed for recovery depends on biotic factor such as

presence of dormant forms, life cycle characteristics, landscape as well as on the season when exposure occur.

It has been detected, isolated ecosystems were more susceptible to damage and community structure changed to lower biodiversity states. Recovery in these

ecosystems depends on the availability of immigrating organisms (Caquet et al., 2007). Long-living species might not recover until very long time (7 months of

experiment) (Beketov et al., 2008).

Beketov, M.A., Schäfer, R.B., Marwitz, A., Paschke, A., Liess, M. (2008): Long-term stream invertebrate community alterations induced by the insecticide thiacloprid: Effect concentrations and recovery dynamics. Science of The Total Environment 405(1-3), pp 96-108.Caquet, T., Hanson, M.L., Roucaute, M., Graham, D.W., Lagadic, L. (2007): Influence of isolation on the recovery of pond mesocosms from the application of an insecticide. II. Benthic macroinvertebrate responses. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 26(6), pp 1280-1290.



2010 ..Birds

Decline of farmland bird species has been reported over several past decades and often attributed to changes in farming practises, such as increase agrochemical inputs, loss of

mixture farming or unfarmed structures. Besides lethal and sub lethal effects of pesticides on birds, concern has recently focused on the indirect effects. These effects act mainly via reduction of food supplies (weeds, invertebrates), especially during breeding or winter

seasons. As consequence insecticide and herbicide application can lead to reduction of chick survival and bird population. Time of pesticides application plays also important role in

availability of food. Several practises (generally Integrated crop management techniques) can be used to minimize unwanted effects of pesticides on farmland birds, such as use of selective pesticides, avoiding spraying in during breeding season and when crops and weeds are in flower, minimise spray

drift or creation of headlands. Evidences of this important indirect effect of pesticides has been reported e.g. By Boatman et

al., 20042; Taylor et al., 20063.

Boatman, N.D., Brickle, N.W., Hart, J.D., Milsom, T.P., Morris, A.J., Murray, A.W.A., Murray, K.A., Robertson, P.A. (2004): Evidence for the indirect effects of pesticides on farmland birds. Ibis 146, pp

131-143.

Taylor, R.L., Maxwell, B.D., Boik, R.J. (2006): Indirect effects of herbicides on bird food resources and beneficial arthropods. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 116(3-4), pp 157-164.



2010 ... Effects of pesticides and farming practises on biodiversity

Intensive pesticides and fertilizers usage, loss of natural and semi-natural habitats and decreased habitat heterogeneity and all other aspects of agricultural intensification have

undoubted impact on biodiversity decline during last years.

Intensive agriculture

A current Europe-wide survey in eight West and East European countries brought alarming evidence of negative effects of agricultural intensification on wild plants,

carabid and bird species diversity. Authors demonstrated that, despite decades of European policy to ban harmful pesticides, pesticides are still having disastrous consequences for

biodiversity on European farmland. Insecticides also reduced the biological control potential. They conclude that if biodiversity is to be restored in Europe, there must be a Europe-wide shift towards farming with minimal use of pesticides over large areas

(Geiger, F., Bengtsson, J., Berendse, F., Weisser, W.W., Emmerson, M., Morales, M.B., Ceryngier, P., Liira, J., Tscharntke, T., Winqvist, C., Eggers, S., Bommarco, R., Pärt, T., Bretagnolle, V., Plantegenest, M., Clement, L.W., Dennis, C., Palmer, C., Ońate, J.J., Guerrero, I., Hawro, V., Aavik, T., Thies, C., Flohre, A., Hänke, S., Fischer, C., Goedhart, P.W., Inchausti, P. (2010): Persistent negative effects of pesticides on biodiversity and

biological control potential on European farmland. Basic and Applied Ecology 11(2), pp 97-105..

Sumber: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_



2010 ... Taking a landscape in Great Britain as an example, it has been showed that impact of agriculture intensification on biodiversity differs among agricultural land use and depends on specific agricultural pressure like land use changes, land cover or crop

management. Authors found out that, as result of eutrohication and N surplus, vegetation diversity surrounding cropped land shifted to a composition typical for more fertile

conditions. However, species richness of plants and breeding birds were more affected by broad habitat diversity (Firbank, L.G., Petit, S., Smart, S., Blain, A., Fuller, R.J. 2008. Assessing the impacts of agricultural intensification on biodiversity: a British perspective. Philosophical Transactions

of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 363(1492), pp 777-787.).

The pressures of agricultural changes may be reduced by:- minimizing loss of large habitats,

- minimizing permanent loss of agricultural land, - maintaining habitat diversity in agricultural landscapes in order to provide ecosystem

services, - minimizing pollution from nutrients and pesticides from the crops themselves.

Sumber: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/363/1492/777.full

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