Post on 31-Jan-2023
1
The Vernacular Mosques of the Malay World:
Cultural Interpretation of Islamic Aspirations
Harlina Md Sharif
Hazman Hazumi
Abstract
This study looks into the spatial arrangements provided by vernacular mosques of the Malay
World and how they respond to the liturgical requirements of a mosque in Islam. Through an
analytical study done on the form and function of over forty selected mosques across the
Island Southeast Asia, this paper summarises the findings which demonstrate the originality
and ingenuity of indigenous designs which efficiently accommodate religious requirements
using local architectural repertoire.
1. INTRODUCTION
The Island Southeast Asia – historically known as the Malay World – is the region
which spreads over 13,000 islands stretching around 3500 miles from the north-west
tip of Sumatra to Irian Jaya. Set in between the Indian Ocean and the China Sea with
mountains, jungles, rivers, sea and the humidity of the climate as part of the natural
environment; this region produces a range of spectacular languages in vernacular
architecture as a result of the harmony between human beings and the environment.
The vernacular architecture of the Malay World is characterized with extended line
of the roof, often with outward sloping gables supported by timber posts which form
the main structural components. This structural configuration generates a unique
archetypal form consisting of a rectangular or square structure raised on main
wooden posts with pitched roofs often culturally identifiable to the various ethnic
groups of the region. The constructional system which emphasizes the timber
framing is characterized by its sophisticated jointing techniques demonstrated in the
absence of nails and intelligent methods of distributing dead loads of the building.
Variations are also witnessed between regions which are prone to seismic activities
such as Toraja and Nias; and non-volcanic regions such as the Malay Peninsula – in
which massive columns and equally massive diagonal struts are used as stabilizers in
2
the first, while architecture of the later is distinguished for its slim and skeletal
framing members (Figure 1 & 2).
(a) (b)
Figure 1 (a): Traditional house of Toraja; (b) Traditional house of Nias
Edited from (Davison 1999: 8-9)
Figure 2 Traditional house in Pahang, Malay Peninsula
Edited from (Quirk 1998: 27)
Pile foundations and wooden posts have several advantages in the tropical climate of
the Malay World. The pitched roofs cater for the heavy rainfalls during the monsoon
seasons while the raised floor provides excellent under-floor ventilation system
(Figure 3).
3
Figure 3 Climatic design of a Malay House
(Source: Philips Gibbs, 1987)
The under-floor space is also used as storage spaces and as a pen for domestic
animals (Davison 1999: 12). The raised floors protect the building from mud and
flood waters although Lee (2003) proposes that such configuration has more to do
with aesthetic considerations than mere pragmatic solutions to the environmental
requirements.
2. VERNACULAR MOSQUES CHARACTERISTICS AND ORIGINS
The emergence of Islamic centres in the coastal regions of the Malay World in the
beginning of the fourteenth century was signified by the presence of mosques in the
area. Although Pasai and Lamuri are known to have accepted Islam as early as the
11th century, none of the mosques built during the period survived. The earliest
extant mosques of the Malay World are found in the northern coastal region of the
Java Island. Although most of them have been extensively renovated over the years,
original forms can still be detected. The Malay Peninsula – despite the flourishing of
Melaka in the 15th century as an Islamic kingdom – lacks any archaeological
evidence of that period. The earliest mosques which survived are the eighteenth
century mosques of Melaka and the Kampung Laut Mosque in Kelantan which has
been relocated and extensively renovated with new materials in place.
4
Most of the mosques designed in the vernacular architectural language in Java are
found built prior to the eighteenth century. However in other parts of the Malay
World such as Sumatera, the Malay Peninsula and Kalimantan, vernacular mosques
were still being built up to the early twentieth century. In general the vernacular
mosque derived its form from two main archetypes: the first is the traditional house;
the second which is more dominant in the Malay World is pre-Islamic religious
house archetype presented in the mosque form which is often referred to as the
Javanese mosque prototype.
2.1. TRADITIONAL HOUSE ARCHETYPE
The traditional house archetype adopted for the mosque design is mainly
found in the long roof construction (bumbung panjang) and its variations (Figure 4).
The structural configuration is represented by a series of ‘A’ shaped timber frames
forming the skeleton of the building. Using post and beam construction, the posts
and roof frames form the loadbearing structural elements leaving the walls to be non-
loadbearing. The weight of the roof is spread through the frames towards the wall
plate level down to the posts or columns’ pedestals on the ground. This structural
arrangement resulted in greater design flexibility with regards to the interior spaces
as it allows for greater open plan design to be employed. Mosques built in domestic
house archetype however are relatively few. The examples found in this study are
Surau Aur (Patani), Masjid Wadi Hussein or Telok Manok (Patani), Masjid Langgar
(Kelantan) and Surau Tok Janggut (Kedah) (Figure 5 & 6).
Figure 4 Bumbung Panjang House Type with twelve pillars – section and elevations
Edited from (Quirk 1998: 27)
5
Figure 5 Masjid Langgar, Kota Bharu, Kelantan
Bumbung Panjang traditional house prototype employing 16 pillars construction
Edited from (Tajuddin Rasdi 1999)
A mosque built in the traditional house prototype in general demonstrates several
unique characteristics. It has rectangular floor plan, often with the long side parallel
to the qibla (prayer) axis. The pillars supporting the long roof are often aligned
further emphasizing the qibla axis. In Surau Tok Janggut for example, the mihrab is
placed on the longer wall with the roof ridge aligned north-south. The floor level is
raised from the ground level; thereby entrance to the prayer space is marked by the
presence of stairs leading to the prayer hall. The entrance is sometimes found to the
sides of the prayer hall (i.e. in the southern or northern wall such as the case with
Masjid Teluk Manok); however – similar to traditional house spatial arrangement –
the main entrance of the mosque is usually provided via staircase leading to the
anjung (porche) or serambi (veranda). The serambi or anjung is often placed on the
eastern of the prayer hall – opposite of the qibla wall in the west – such as in the case
of Surau Aur, Surau Tok Janggut and Masjid Teluk Manok after renovation. The
6
mosque is a detached building with ample open spaces around the building and is
usually found built near water source such as the sea or the river.
Surau Aur, Patani Long Roof House
Masjid Teluk Manok, Patani Long Roof House
Mosque Lubuk Bauk, Sumatera House at Karo Batak, Sumatera
Fig. 6 Mosque forms originating from traditional houses
7
2.2. PRE-ISLAMIC RELIGIOUS HOUSE ARCHETYPE
The Javanese mosques prototype is built using a structural configuration made up of
soko guru (main posts) located in the central zone of the floor plan with smaller
perimeter columns supporting the roof span leaving the central prayer zone with
minimum column interruption. This structural system determines the roof form (i.e.
the height and the number of roof-tiers) and floor space (the area and shape) based
on the employment of main pillars which range from one central pillar (soko
tunggal) to four, twelve, sixteen, thirty six and forty eight.
Depending on the construction techniques and the final forms intended, the Javanese
mosque pyramidal roof has at least ten types of variations known as limasan, sinom,
joglo, kutuk ngambang, tajug, kampung, dara gepak, klabang nyander, srotong and
panggang epe (H.J. Wibowo 1987). The main types used for a mosque is usually
tajug, although joglo and limasan types are sometimes found as additional structures
to the main buildings.
This prototype is presented by the oldest extant wooden mosque in the
region, Masjid Agung Demak (built end of the 15th century) (see figures 7 & 8); to
the extent that mosques adhering to these forms are sometimes referred to in
Indonesia as ‘masjid Demakan’ (Demak-like mosque) (Roesmanto 2000: 79). The
structural configuration of the Demakan mosques is characterized by the square floor
plan with tiered roofs which are said to have been derived from joglo – the
traditional Hindu-Javanese architecture (figure 9). W. F. Stutterheim in “Cultuur
Geschiedents van Indonesie, De islam en Zijn Komst in III de Archipel” (1952) was
of the opinion that the mosque form originated from wantilan, a cock-fighting arena
which is found in Bali (Sartono et al. 1977: 210); G.F. Pijper however believed that
the form was a local produce, as the Javanese people have long recognised the tiered
roof form as representing the magical Meru mountain as the abode of the deities
(Pijper 1974: 17). H. J. De Graaf in his “De Oorsprong der Javanese Moskee”
however suggested that the mosque forms were influenced by the mosque
architecture in Malabar (Graaf 1963: 63).
8
Figure 7 - Masjid Agung Demak in a photograph taken around 1800 A.D.
before the inclusion of gateway (gapura – built in 1804) and minaret (built 1932).
Figure 8 - Masjid Agung Demak – photograph taken in 1962;
showing the gateway in gable roof construction, and the steel minaret to the left.
9
A. Masjid Agung Yogjakarta B. Masjid Payung Agung, Bali
C. Masjid Saka Tunggal, Yogyakarta D. Masjidan Lambang Teplok, Bali
Figure 9 - Various roof forms derived from Java-Hindu temple designs (Source: Ismundar, 1986)
G.F Pijper (1985: 8) identified several unique characteristics possessed by the
Javanese mosques. The floor plan is square – although in Bambang Setiabudi’s
analysis on 127 Javanese mosques (2006) fourteen of them are built with rectangular
plans. The mosques are also built on packed raised foundation as opposite to
traditional house prototype which is raised on stilts. The pyramidal roof is multi-
levelled with two to five tiers supported by four main central posts known as soko
guru. The main prayer hall is often extended to its front (eastern side) by serambi
(veranda) which is a partly opened structure and usually located to the front of the
mosque and sometimes to its sides. The serambi is usually built with gable roof
construction employing a series of main pillars arranged parallel to the roof ridge
10
(see figure 10). Similar to the traditional house prototype, Javanese mosque is a
detached building with ample open spaces surrounding it.
Figure 10 - Sectional view of Masjid Agung Demak – showing the soko guru roof construction and the adjoined serambi
Adapted from (O'Neill 1994: 234)
3. ISLAMIC REQUIREMENTS AND CULTURAL RESPONSE
The only elemental requirement which defines a mosque is represented in the
indication of the direction of qibla. As Hillenbrand (1994: 31) accurately pointed
out that ‘no roof, no minimum size, no enclosing walls, no liturgical accessories are
required’. Similarly Bougas in his study of Surau Aur (Patani) summarised his
understanding of Southeast Asian mosques architecture as the following:
“Reduced to essentials, a mosque is no more than a wall at right angles to
the kiblat axis and behind or before the wall there can be anything. In the absence of
any strict prescriptions regarding mosque construction, peoples of Southeast Asia
could and did use traditional architectural forms in building their first mosques.
Patani Malays built their mosques in the form of wihan and Javanese based their
square mosques on ancient Hindu designs”(Bougas 1992).
11
The fact that a mosque in Islam is established merely with the presence of the qibla
direction meant that the early mosques of the Malay World were developed based on
indigenous solutions to the design problems. As this study will demonstrate, in many
instances the vernacular mosques exhibit a significant level of innovative approaches
and original interpretation of Islamic aspirations.
3.1. THE CALL FOR PRAYER
Congregational prayers are held five times a day in a mosque and numerous
traditions emphasize the importance of it such as: ‘The prayer which a man performs
in congregation is worth twenty-five of his prayers in his home or in the market
place’ (Al-Bukhari/ Adhan: 31; Muslim/ Masajid: 245-8). The Prophet even
considered burning down the houses of those who were absent from the
congregational prayers (Al-Bukhari/ Adhan: 29, 34; Muslim/ Masajid: 251-4). The
importance of the congregational prayer is further stressed in a hadith narrated by
Muslim on how a blind man asked the Prophet to be excused from attending the
congregational prayer at the mosque by praying in his house, but the Prophet
declined and insisted that he should attend the mosque since he can hear the call to
prayer (Muslim 8/1374).
The act of gathering people for congregational prayers involves two parts - the first
is connected to notifying the mass that it is time for prayer; the second is summoning
people to the mosque for congregational prayer. During the time of the Prophet
(s.a.w), his companion Bilal was the muezzin and he used to perform the adhan by
standing on the roof of the mosque or from a house-top. The first adhan notifies
people that the time for prayer has arrived; while a second adhan (or iqamat)
signifies that the congregational prayer is about to begin. In Makkah, the second
adhan was uttered from the roof. During the reign of al-Rashid a little hut (zulla) is
built on top of the roof for this purpose. In Cairo, the adhan was uttered from a
chamber (ghurfah) located on the roof. In the Mosque of Ibn Tulun, the adhan was
proclaimed from the cupola located in the sahn (courtyard) (al-Maqrizi 1306/ 1888).
It was during the time of Mu’awiya that the minaret gave the adhan its physical and
monumental expression; almost in an effort to rival the existing fine stone church
towers that existed in Syria during that time (EI/Manar: 361-2). The minaret has
evolved over the time from being an instrument to proclaim adhan to become the
12
signature of the mosque, the visual marker of Muslim towns to a sign of power (EI;
Minaret).
In the Malay World, the minaret was non-essential in the pre-eighteenth century
mosques since the proclamation of adhan could be done by standing on the
platforms provided under the roof space or in the serambi area. The bedug or
kentong (wooden drums) which has been in place in many Southeast Asian societies
and used traditionally as a means of notifying and summoning people of important
occasions was adapted to the task of gathering people for congregational prayers.
The bedug is usually beaten a few times preceding the adhan in a specific rhythm to
alert people of the oncoming prayer time.
The way in which the bedug is incorporated within the mosque design as a response
to the task of summoning people can still be witnessed in many surviving traditional
mosques today. In many of these mosques, the bedug is placed in the serambi
(veranda) area such as in Masjid Agung Demak (b. 15th century). In Masjid Kuno
Bayan Beleq, Nusa Tenggara (b. 16th century) and Masjid At-Taqwa Lerabaeng,
Nusa Tenggara (b. 17th century) the bedug is hung from the centre of the roof top,
and when beaten will produce reverberated sound due to its placement underneath
the roof. In Masjid Sultan Ternate (b. 18th century), Masjid Kampung Hulu Melaka
(b. 18th century) and Masjid Kampung Duyong Melaka (b. 18th century) the bedug
house is incorporated within the main gateway structure of the mosque – posing as
visual identifier for the mosques (figure 11).
13
Figure 11 - The bedug house cum gateways
The need for the adhan to be heard has resulted in the introduction of minarets. In
the Malay World, the minarets were later addition to the mosque’s scheme and as
such were often found detached from the main building and built in a different
material than the mosque. However, in a few mosques surveyed in the region,
transformation of part of the building to incorporate a place to proclaim the adhan
has produced original interpretation of the liturgical requirement. Masjid Kuno
Patinburak, Irian Jaya (b. 19th century) and Masjid Teluk Manok, Pattani (b. 18th
century) accommodated a platform for the muezzin by opening up a portion of the
roof top to provide a tower-like structure which allows the muezzin to ascend and
proclaim the adhan (Figure 12).
14
Figure 12 - (left) Masjid Teluk Manok; (right) Masjid Tua Patinburak
In Masjid Kampung Laut, Kelantan (b. 18th century), Masjid Tinggi Bagan Serai,
Perak (b. 19th century) and Surau Tok Janggut, Kedah (b. 19th century) the minarets
were built to echo the vernacular architecture and despite being free standing
structures, they relate to the main buildings through their design, material and
proportion (Figure 13).
15
Figure 13 - the minarets of Masjid Kampung Laut (left);
Masjid Tua Bagan Serai and Surau Tok Janggut (right).
3.2. SPATIAL ORGANIZATION FOR CONGREGATIONAL PRAYERS
Congregational prayers are performed with the imam standing in front of the
ma’mum (the followers) in the central space near the qibla wall, while the ma’mum
stand in perpendicular rows (saf) to the qibla axis. This arrangement requires the
prayer hall to accommodate for the expansion of the saf in linear directions by
providing ample space either parallel to the saf lines (i.e. expansion of the length of
the saf) or parallel to the qibla axis (accommodating more saf i.e. expansion in
length, in the direction of the qibla axis). As the ma’mum are expected to stand in
uninterrupted rows without any gaps in between them (where possible), the prayer
hall is expected to have minimum physical obstructions that will break the saf. The
saf requirements alone dictate that the prayer hall should ideally have several critical
criteria such as an efficient floor plan and size; an open plan scheme with minimum
column interruption; and convertible spaces that adapt to various socio-religious
functions.
16
3.2.1. The shape of an efficient floor plan
Figure 14 Efficient forms for mosque’s floor plan
As the saf are made of ma’mum standing in straight rows, the shape of the
floor plan which comfortably caters for such arrangement is either
rectangular or square (figure 14). The early mosques in Islam are found to
have square or rectangular floor plans as these are the most workable form
that are able to accommodate for the linear arrangements required of the
mosque’s spatial organization (see figures 15 to 18). The rectangular and
square floor plans essentially alleviate any kind of confusion with regards to
alignment of safs and functionality of spaces within the prayer hall. Floor
plans in the forms of a circle or an octagon which emphasizes the centre-
inner space are unsuitable and functions less-effectively. Masjid Ubudiah
Kuala Kangsar (b. 20th century) and Masjid Zahir, Kedah (b. 20th century)
(figure 19) which employ octagon within square floor design require extra
efforts in defining the saf and qibla axis by means of arches or niches in
walls; as well as introduction of carpet or prayer rugs with lines on the
ground to assist in pointing out to the correct direction.
QIBLA
Qibla axis
Qibla wall
4 saka guru
Basic square plan of mosque Basic rectangular
floor plan
17
Figure 15 The plan of the Prophet’s mosque
Edited from (Grabar 1987)
Figure 16 - Plan of mosque at Kufa with the adjacent Dar al-Imara (rebuilt 670)
Edited from (Frishman et al. 1994)
18
Figure 17- The plan of the Prophet’s Mosque (after rebuilt in 707-709):
- the four minarets are placed at the corners of the mosque
Edited from (Frishman et al. 1994)
Figure 18 - The Great Mosque of Damascus (b. 709-715)
With central nave which accommodated for the maksurah and mimbar
Source: (Frishman et al. 1994)
19
Figure 19 – Masjid Zahir (left) and Masjid Ubudiah (right)
An octagon within a square arrangement for prayer hall floor plan poses challenges in identifying the qibla axis
A review on the shapes of traditional mosques plans demonstrates the pragmatic
response to the design problem. Bambang Setiabudi in his studies on 127 Javanese
mosques revealed that 81 mosques have square plans and 14 have rectangular plans
(Bambang 2006) (figure 20). Similarly a survey carried out on vernacular mosques
of the Malay Peninsula and other parts of the Malay World finds that all of the
mosques have basic rectangular or square floor planes with minor variations (figure
21). The rectangular and square floor plans enable the saf to be arranged
systematically. The arrangement also allows immediate recognition of the qibla axis
as main entrance door is usually located opposite of the qibla wall thereby providing
a clear sense of orientation.
20
Figure 20 - Javanese mosques’ plans Adapted from (Bambang 2006)
Figure 21 Variations of Malay Traditional Mosques Floor Plans
3.2.2. Open plan with minimum column interruption
21
The prayer hall requires a structural and constructional system which enables the
roof to span over an open space plan with minimum column interruptions. The open
plan concept – apart from accommodating for minimally interrupted saf – should
also be designed to allow good audio and/or visual reception of the acts of the imam
and the khatib (the one who gives sermons).
These design requirements are met by the vernacular mosques through the structural
configurations employed in both of the prototypes studied. In mosques built using
traditional house prototype such as Masjid Teluk Manok (Patani), Masjid Tinggi
Bagan Serai (Perak) and Surau Aur (Patani) the rectangular plan resulted in
elongated prayer space in the direction parallel to the qibla axis. The columns are
found at the perimeter walls such as in the case of Masjid Teluk Manok, which
provides uninterrupted prayer space for the congregation. In other schemes the
linearity of the column arrangements further emphasise the qibla axis which
consequently direct the ma’mum’s attention towards the qibla wall where the
positions of the imam and the khatib are located. The elongated floor plan parallel to
the direction of the qibla axis also ensures that both the imam and the khatib are in
full view to the congregation members.
The floor spaces of Javanese mosque prototype are alleviated from unnecessary
columns due to the existence of the main central pillars and perimeter columns
which support the roof framing members. With such structural arrangements to
distribute the deadload, the design of the roof framing members produces intricate
detailing resulting in aesthetically pleasing interior as demonstrated especially in
Masjid Merah Panjunan, Cirebon (b. 15th century) and Masjid Sultan Ternate,
Maluku (b. 17th century) (see figure 22).
22
Figure 22 – (top) Masjid Merah Panjunan, Cirebon; (bottom) Masjid Sultan Ternate, Maluku
3.2.3. Convertible Spaces
According to tradition, the command for the congregational prayer (salat al-
jama’ah) was manifested in the year of 620-4 (EI). With the expansion of ritual
obligations in the nature of salat from being a solitary act to a communal activity,
the mosque’s developed from being merely a place for prostration to become the
centre in which the community gathers and activities were performed on communal
ground. The mosque therefore took the role of a community center – where Muslims
gather around the Prophet (s.a.w) and he taught them religion and administered their
daily activities. The architecture of this mosque was never pivotal according to the
Prophet’s traditions since he was granted the whole world as his masjid, as reflected
in the hadith ‘Wherever the hour of prayer overtakes you, you shall perform the salat
and that is a masjid’ (Al-Bukhari/ Salat: 56; Muslim/ Masajid).
However, with the extended functions of the mosque physical adjustments
are needed to appropriately cater for the demands of the space. The multi-functional
aspect of the mosque is demonstrated in the functions performed by the Prophet’s
mosque itself. It was a place where knowledge was taught and judiciary was held.
23
The Prophet’s mosque was also used as a political and administrative center where
the Prophet (s.a.w) received foreign delegations, conducted negotiations and passed
judgments. After the battle of Uhud, the leaders of Medina spent the night there,
where the Aws tended their wounded and one prisoner of war was tied up to one of
the pillars. It was a place that housed a group of seventy newly converted Muslims
that came to Medina with no money and nowhere to live. A portico (suffah) was
built for them and they were known as Ahl al-Suffah. Their welfare was taken care of
by the Prophet (s.a.w) and the mosque was the place that they learned about Islam
(EI/Masdjid). The mosque was also the centre for distribution of the state’s funds
(bayt al-mal) to those eligible (EI/Masdjid). Apart from learning, political, military
and administrative related activities, the mosque was sometimes converted to
become a cultural centre whereby in one occasion the Prophet’s wife A’isha
described that she watched with the Prophet (s.a.w) and other Muslims a display
with shield and lance performed by some Sudanese or Abyssinians in the mosque’s
courtyard (EI/ Masdjid).
The socio-cultural elements of the mosque require that the spatial arrangements
provide for both sacred and profane activities. In other words while the
congregational prayer forms the core and elemental aspect of the mosque’s structure,
the mosque is also expected to be able to be expanded to provide for other socio-
religious activities without disrupting its fundamental core. From this perspective the
spatial arrangement offered by the vernacular mosque architecture – especially seen
in the soko guru construction - seems to respond efficiently to the upgraded
functions (figure 23).
24
Figure 23 – Flexible arrangement for expansion in soko guru construction
The soko guru configuration produces a pyramidal roof structure which is visually
expressive in stating the space hierarchy with the prayer hall forming as the core of
the mosque’s scheme. With the requirements of other socio-religious activities; the
spaces around this core is expandable in linear directions by providing additional
structures which complemented the main building in form and proportion without
deforming the original scale and proportion.
In Javanese building tradition, the need for expansion in traditional house is often
met with a number of methods. According to Tjahjono (1999: 34), the three types of
Javanese house – the kampung, the limasan and the joglo types - have different ways
of responding to the demand for extra space. The kampung-style house can be
extended by adding a front and back porch, or by replicating the core unit a number
of times. The limasan house is extended at its perimeter by introducing perimeter
columns supporting an extended roof structure drawn from the central structure
forming a two-tiered roof covering. The joglo type house similarly is extended by
adding perimeter columns surrounding the external veranda of the house (see figure
24).
extension extension
QIBLA
Qibla wall
exte
nsio
n
core
25
a- Kampung house b- Limasan house
c- Joglo house
Figure 24 - Javanese traditional house types and extension methods
Adapted from (Tjahjono 1999)
The tajug structural configuration employed in the mosque design gives sufficient
allowance for the mosque to be extended at the perimeter by covering the
surrounding veranda with a roof layer below the original roof edges. However
further expansion requires new structures to be built. A replication of the core unit -
as seen in the method of expansion in the kampung style house although possible;
will however produce a conflict in the space hierarchy –as there will be no difference
between the original and the extension. In addition, the interior space will echo
hypostyle mosque type whereby rows of columns will cause interruption to the flow
of space and intermittently break the saf. From aesthetic perspective, this option will
cause additional volumes to the building mass and most likely to create a cluttered
visual language.
The vernacular mosque – in its response to the design problem – has adopted the
serambi or pendopo system as an extension to the core. As the name suggests, the
serambi (veranda) or pendopo (pavilion) are inherited from the Javanese traditional
26
house spatial arrangements concept (figure 25). The Javanese traditional house
consists of three main zones: the head (kepala), the body (badan) and the foot or
bottom (kaki). Within these zones, the pendopo is located in the head zone with the
core of the house – dalem or omah – placed in the centre (badan) and the services
area such as kitchen placed at the foot (kaki).
Figure 25 - The variations of spatial planning in traditional Javanese house
Source: (Frick 1997: 87)
The pendopo serves as a reception hall, a place where the members of the house
socialise with visitors; and organise traditional feasts and celebrations. It is placed in
a semi-public zone and it serves as a marker to the status of the owner of the house
(Maria 1999: 37-9). Similar concept finds its echo in the ‘anjung’ and its adjoining
space ‘serambi’ of a traditional Malay house.
The multifunction nature of the pendopo is evidence in the several of the mosques
surveyed. In the tomb mosque of Sunan Gunung Jati, Central Java the Pendopo Soka
was originally used as an assembly hall but has now become a resting room for
pilgrims performing the ziyarah (Muhaimin 1995: 181). In Surakarta for example,
the annual gerebeg which involves processions taking place from the villages and
end with the participants having public feasts at the serambi of the mosque
(Lombard 2000). In principal mosques such as Masjid Agung Demak, Masjid Agung
Banten and Masjid Agung Cirebon Kasepuhan which are found to be much bigger
with greater roof heights and bigger areas allocated for public activities; the
27
provision of several vast size serambis in front and to the sides of the mosques are
essential in accommodating for social interactions and activities without disturbing
the haram areas of the mosques.
Its introduction to the Masjid Agung Cirebon Kasepuhan for example took several
stages as the space increment of the mosque grows organically in response to the
social needs. During the rule of Panembahan Ratu I (1568-1649) the southern
serambi (Prabayaksa) and the eastern serambi (Pamandangan) were constructed
adjoining the main prayer hall. In 1567, another serambi was built to the east of
Pamandangan by Panembahan Girilaya from whom this serambi was named after
(Serambi Girilaya). In 1679, Sultan Sepuh I added another serambi to the front of
Serambi Girilaya. The final addition to the existing structure was made in 1934-5
under the rule of Sultan Sepuh XI to the side of Prabayaksa (see figure 26 & 27).
Figure 26 - Masjid Agung Cirebon – extensions of floor plan
28
Figure 27 - Masjid Agung Cirebon Kasepuhan sectional view exhibiting hierarchy of functional areas – the core and the extensions
The adaptation of a serambi or a pendopo into a mosque scheme satisfies the demand
for accommodation of socio-religious activities such as religious celebrations;
socialising and resting place for wayfarers; and other activities which are related to
the socio-cultural needs of the community. Public judgements were also traditionally
carried out by the qadhi in the serambi (Sartono et al. 1977). The flexibility of this
space is due to its architectural characteristics whereby it is usually opened on all
sides with the exception of the side adjoining to the mosque’s core. The structural
arrangement that utilises the soko guru configuration takes the form of a joglo or
limasan (figure 28). The expansion system produces a low scale and human-friendly
structures which at the same instance provides for the demarcation of functional
activities into different zones. Visually it provides additional character to the mosque
without rivalling the most essential and central functions at the core represented by
the tiered roofs. As the pendopo or serambi concept is familiar to the Muslim people
– both in its form and functions - the introduction of this space as an extension to the
mosque is seen as an intelligent and sophisticated design decision made.
29
A. Joglo extensions to main prayer hall
B. Limasan extensions
Figure 28- Extensions to main prayer hall in the forms of additional serambi in pendopo structure which either takes the form of joglo (A) or limasan (B) variants.
Source: (Maria 1999)
Sectional view Lambang gantung construction
Joglo roof plan
Sectional view Variation 1
Variation 2
Variation 3
Roof plan for limasan
30
4. CONCLUSION
The study looks at the design of the mosque from the aspect of spatial
arrangements by analyzing the architectural forms which produce the mosque’s scale
and proportion, arrangement of spaces, design of circulation and aesthetic qualities.
From an analysis done on more than forty mosques built from the 15th to the 20th
century in major traditional city centers in the Malay World, the study finds that the
mosques built in vernacular architecture offered original solutions to the design
challenges posed by the mosque as a community and cultural centre. The popularity
and widespread application of soko guru structural configuration across the
archipelago, is probably indebted to the adaptive characteristics it offered especially
in major mosques (masjid agung – such as the Sultanate or State Mosques) which
accommodate larger congregation and are prone to further expansions. On the other
hand, despite the rich variety of traditional house designs in the region, the long roof
prototype is the mostly adopted mosque design usually found in traditional
community mosques. The ingenuity demonstrated by the indigenous building
tradition, and the abilities of the Muslim people to adopt and adapt the traditional
building language to accommodate for Islamic requirements have produced
architectural solutions which are unrivalled by many contemporary mosques today.
31
Bibliography al-Maqrizi, T. a.-D. A., (1306/ 1888). Kitab al-Mawa'iz wa 'l-i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa 'l-
athar, in Khitat, ed. A. F. a. Sayyid London. Bambang, S. B., 2006. A Study on the History and Development of the Javanese Mosque Part 3: Typology of the Plan and Structure of the Javanese Mosque and its Distribution.
Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, Vol. 5(No. 2). Bougas, W. A. L., (1992). Surau Aur: Patani's Oldest Mosque, in Archipel Paris. Davison, J., (1999). Traditional Architecture, in Indonesian Heritage, ed. G. Tjahjono
Jakarta: Archipelago Press. Frick, H., 1997. Pola Struktural dan Teknik Bangunan di Indonesia, Semarang: University
Press Soegijapranata. Frishman, M., H.-U. Khan & A.-A. Mohammad, 1994. The mosque : history, architectural
development and regional diversity London: Thames and Hudson. Graaf, H. J. D., 1963. The Origin of the Javanese Mosque. Journal of Southeast Asian
History, Vol. 4(No 1 (Mar., 1963)). Grabar, O., 1987. The Formation of Islamic Art, New Haven: Yale University Press. H.J. Wibowo, G. M., Sukirman Dh., 1987. ArsitekturTradisional Daerah Istimewa
Yogyakarta, Yogyakarta: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. Hillenbrand, R., 1994. Islamic Architecture: Form, Function and Meaning, Edinburgh:
Edinburgh University Press. Houtsma, M. T., 1965. Encyclopedia of Islam, Leiden: E.J.Brill. Lombard, D., 2000. Nusa Jawa : silang budaya kajian sejarah terpadu Bagian II: Jaringan
Asia, Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama. Maria, I. H., 1999. Pendopo Dalam Era Modernisasi. Dimensi Teknik Arsitektur, Vol. 27(No.
1, Juli 1999). Muhaimin, A. G., 1995. The Islamic Traditions of Cirebon, Canberra: ANU Press. O'Neill, H., (1994). South-east Asia, in The Mosque: History, Architectural Development &
Regional Diversity, eds. F. Martin & K. Hasan-uddin London: Thames & Hudson. Pijper, G. F., 1974. The Minaret of Java, Leiden: Brill: India Antiqua. Pijper, G. F., (1985). Mesjid-mesjid di Pulau Jawa, in Sejarah Islam di Indonesia 1900 -
1950Jakarta: Penerbit Universitas Indonesia (UI-Press), 15 - 66. Quirk, B., (1998). The Malay House of the Peninsular East Coast, in The Encyclopedia of
Malaysia, ed. V. F. Chen Singapore: Archipelago Press. Roesmanto, T., (2000). Ekspresi Tektonik Masjid Agung Demak dan Masjid "Demakan", in
Tectonic Dimension in Islamic Architectural Tradition in Indonesia:The Third International Symposium on Islamic Expression in Indonesian Architecture, ed. Widodo Yogyakarta
Department of Architecture, Islamic University Indonesia, 79-115. Sartono, K., D. P. Marwati & N. Nugroho (eds.), (1977). Sejarah Nasional Indonesia III,
Jakarta: Balai Pustaka. Tajuddin Rasdi, M., 1999. The Architectural Heritage of the Malay World: The Traditional
Mosque, Johor Bahru: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Tjahjono, G., (1999). The Javanese House, in Indonesian Heritage, ed. G. Tjahjono Jakarta:
Archipelago Press, 34-5.