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The Vernacular Mosques of the Malay World:

Cultural Interpretation of Islamic Aspirations

Harlina Md Sharif

Hazman Hazumi

Abstract

This study looks into the spatial arrangements provided by vernacular mosques of the Malay

World and how they respond to the liturgical requirements of a mosque in Islam. Through an

analytical study done on the form and function of over forty selected mosques across the

Island Southeast Asia, this paper summarises the findings which demonstrate the originality

and ingenuity of indigenous designs which efficiently accommodate religious requirements

using local architectural repertoire.

1. INTRODUCTION

The Island Southeast Asia – historically known as the Malay World – is the region

which spreads over 13,000 islands stretching around 3500 miles from the north-west

tip of Sumatra to Irian Jaya. Set in between the Indian Ocean and the China Sea with

mountains, jungles, rivers, sea and the humidity of the climate as part of the natural

environment; this region produces a range of spectacular languages in vernacular

architecture as a result of the harmony between human beings and the environment.

The vernacular architecture of the Malay World is characterized with extended line

of the roof, often with outward sloping gables supported by timber posts which form

the main structural components. This structural configuration generates a unique

archetypal form consisting of a rectangular or square structure raised on main

wooden posts with pitched roofs often culturally identifiable to the various ethnic

groups of the region. The constructional system which emphasizes the timber

framing is characterized by its sophisticated jointing techniques demonstrated in the

absence of nails and intelligent methods of distributing dead loads of the building.

Variations are also witnessed between regions which are prone to seismic activities

such as Toraja and Nias; and non-volcanic regions such as the Malay Peninsula – in

which massive columns and equally massive diagonal struts are used as stabilizers in

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the first, while architecture of the later is distinguished for its slim and skeletal

framing members (Figure 1 & 2).

(a) (b)

Figure 1 (a): Traditional house of Toraja; (b) Traditional house of Nias

Edited from (Davison 1999: 8-9)

Figure 2 Traditional house in Pahang, Malay Peninsula

Edited from (Quirk 1998: 27)

Pile foundations and wooden posts have several advantages in the tropical climate of

the Malay World. The pitched roofs cater for the heavy rainfalls during the monsoon

seasons while the raised floor provides excellent under-floor ventilation system

(Figure 3).

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Figure 3 Climatic design of a Malay House

(Source: Philips Gibbs, 1987)

The under-floor space is also used as storage spaces and as a pen for domestic

animals (Davison 1999: 12). The raised floors protect the building from mud and

flood waters although Lee (2003) proposes that such configuration has more to do

with aesthetic considerations than mere pragmatic solutions to the environmental

requirements.

2. VERNACULAR MOSQUES CHARACTERISTICS AND ORIGINS

The emergence of Islamic centres in the coastal regions of the Malay World in the

beginning of the fourteenth century was signified by the presence of mosques in the

area. Although Pasai and Lamuri are known to have accepted Islam as early as the

11th century, none of the mosques built during the period survived. The earliest

extant mosques of the Malay World are found in the northern coastal region of the

Java Island. Although most of them have been extensively renovated over the years,

original forms can still be detected. The Malay Peninsula – despite the flourishing of

Melaka in the 15th century as an Islamic kingdom – lacks any archaeological

evidence of that period. The earliest mosques which survived are the eighteenth

century mosques of Melaka and the Kampung Laut Mosque in Kelantan which has

been relocated and extensively renovated with new materials in place.

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Most of the mosques designed in the vernacular architectural language in Java are

found built prior to the eighteenth century. However in other parts of the Malay

World such as Sumatera, the Malay Peninsula and Kalimantan, vernacular mosques

were still being built up to the early twentieth century. In general the vernacular

mosque derived its form from two main archetypes: the first is the traditional house;

the second which is more dominant in the Malay World is pre-Islamic religious

house archetype presented in the mosque form which is often referred to as the

Javanese mosque prototype.

2.1. TRADITIONAL HOUSE ARCHETYPE

The traditional house archetype adopted for the mosque design is mainly

found in the long roof construction (bumbung panjang) and its variations (Figure 4).

The structural configuration is represented by a series of ‘A’ shaped timber frames

forming the skeleton of the building. Using post and beam construction, the posts

and roof frames form the loadbearing structural elements leaving the walls to be non-

loadbearing. The weight of the roof is spread through the frames towards the wall

plate level down to the posts or columns’ pedestals on the ground. This structural

arrangement resulted in greater design flexibility with regards to the interior spaces

as it allows for greater open plan design to be employed. Mosques built in domestic

house archetype however are relatively few. The examples found in this study are

Surau Aur (Patani), Masjid Wadi Hussein or Telok Manok (Patani), Masjid Langgar

(Kelantan) and Surau Tok Janggut (Kedah) (Figure 5 & 6).

Figure 4 Bumbung Panjang House Type with twelve pillars – section and elevations

Edited from (Quirk 1998: 27)

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Figure 5 Masjid Langgar, Kota Bharu, Kelantan

Bumbung Panjang traditional house prototype employing 16 pillars construction

Edited from (Tajuddin Rasdi 1999)

A mosque built in the traditional house prototype in general demonstrates several

unique characteristics. It has rectangular floor plan, often with the long side parallel

to the qibla (prayer) axis. The pillars supporting the long roof are often aligned

further emphasizing the qibla axis. In Surau Tok Janggut for example, the mihrab is

placed on the longer wall with the roof ridge aligned north-south. The floor level is

raised from the ground level; thereby entrance to the prayer space is marked by the

presence of stairs leading to the prayer hall. The entrance is sometimes found to the

sides of the prayer hall (i.e. in the southern or northern wall such as the case with

Masjid Teluk Manok); however – similar to traditional house spatial arrangement –

the main entrance of the mosque is usually provided via staircase leading to the

anjung (porche) or serambi (veranda). The serambi or anjung is often placed on the

eastern of the prayer hall – opposite of the qibla wall in the west – such as in the case

of Surau Aur, Surau Tok Janggut and Masjid Teluk Manok after renovation. The

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mosque is a detached building with ample open spaces around the building and is

usually found built near water source such as the sea or the river.

Surau Aur, Patani Long Roof House

Masjid Teluk Manok, Patani Long Roof House

Mosque Lubuk Bauk, Sumatera House at Karo Batak, Sumatera

Fig. 6 Mosque forms originating from traditional houses

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2.2. PRE-ISLAMIC RELIGIOUS HOUSE ARCHETYPE

The Javanese mosques prototype is built using a structural configuration made up of

soko guru (main posts) located in the central zone of the floor plan with smaller

perimeter columns supporting the roof span leaving the central prayer zone with

minimum column interruption. This structural system determines the roof form (i.e.

the height and the number of roof-tiers) and floor space (the area and shape) based

on the employment of main pillars which range from one central pillar (soko

tunggal) to four, twelve, sixteen, thirty six and forty eight.

Depending on the construction techniques and the final forms intended, the Javanese

mosque pyramidal roof has at least ten types of variations known as limasan, sinom,

joglo, kutuk ngambang, tajug, kampung, dara gepak, klabang nyander, srotong and

panggang epe (H.J. Wibowo 1987). The main types used for a mosque is usually

tajug, although joglo and limasan types are sometimes found as additional structures

to the main buildings.

This prototype is presented by the oldest extant wooden mosque in the

region, Masjid Agung Demak (built end of the 15th century) (see figures 7 & 8); to

the extent that mosques adhering to these forms are sometimes referred to in

Indonesia as ‘masjid Demakan’ (Demak-like mosque) (Roesmanto 2000: 79). The

structural configuration of the Demakan mosques is characterized by the square floor

plan with tiered roofs which are said to have been derived from joglo – the

traditional Hindu-Javanese architecture (figure 9). W. F. Stutterheim in “Cultuur

Geschiedents van Indonesie, De islam en Zijn Komst in III de Archipel” (1952) was

of the opinion that the mosque form originated from wantilan, a cock-fighting arena

which is found in Bali (Sartono et al. 1977: 210); G.F. Pijper however believed that

the form was a local produce, as the Javanese people have long recognised the tiered

roof form as representing the magical Meru mountain as the abode of the deities

(Pijper 1974: 17). H. J. De Graaf in his “De Oorsprong der Javanese Moskee”

however suggested that the mosque forms were influenced by the mosque

architecture in Malabar (Graaf 1963: 63).

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Figure 7 - Masjid Agung Demak in a photograph taken around 1800 A.D.

before the inclusion of gateway (gapura – built in 1804) and minaret (built 1932).

Figure 8 - Masjid Agung Demak – photograph taken in 1962;

showing the gateway in gable roof construction, and the steel minaret to the left.

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A. Masjid Agung Yogjakarta B. Masjid Payung Agung, Bali

C. Masjid Saka Tunggal, Yogyakarta D. Masjidan Lambang Teplok, Bali

Figure 9 - Various roof forms derived from Java-Hindu temple designs (Source: Ismundar, 1986)

G.F Pijper (1985: 8) identified several unique characteristics possessed by the

Javanese mosques. The floor plan is square – although in Bambang Setiabudi’s

analysis on 127 Javanese mosques (2006) fourteen of them are built with rectangular

plans. The mosques are also built on packed raised foundation as opposite to

traditional house prototype which is raised on stilts. The pyramidal roof is multi-

levelled with two to five tiers supported by four main central posts known as soko

guru. The main prayer hall is often extended to its front (eastern side) by serambi

(veranda) which is a partly opened structure and usually located to the front of the

mosque and sometimes to its sides. The serambi is usually built with gable roof

construction employing a series of main pillars arranged parallel to the roof ridge

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(see figure 10). Similar to the traditional house prototype, Javanese mosque is a

detached building with ample open spaces surrounding it.

Figure 10 - Sectional view of Masjid Agung Demak – showing the soko guru roof construction and the adjoined serambi

Adapted from (O'Neill 1994: 234)

3. ISLAMIC REQUIREMENTS AND CULTURAL RESPONSE

The only elemental requirement which defines a mosque is represented in the

indication of the direction of qibla. As Hillenbrand (1994: 31) accurately pointed

out that ‘no roof, no minimum size, no enclosing walls, no liturgical accessories are

required’. Similarly Bougas in his study of Surau Aur (Patani) summarised his

understanding of Southeast Asian mosques architecture as the following:

“Reduced to essentials, a mosque is no more than a wall at right angles to

the kiblat axis and behind or before the wall there can be anything. In the absence of

any strict prescriptions regarding mosque construction, peoples of Southeast Asia

could and did use traditional architectural forms in building their first mosques.

Patani Malays built their mosques in the form of wihan and Javanese based their

square mosques on ancient Hindu designs”(Bougas 1992).

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The fact that a mosque in Islam is established merely with the presence of the qibla

direction meant that the early mosques of the Malay World were developed based on

indigenous solutions to the design problems. As this study will demonstrate, in many

instances the vernacular mosques exhibit a significant level of innovative approaches

and original interpretation of Islamic aspirations.

3.1. THE CALL FOR PRAYER

Congregational prayers are held five times a day in a mosque and numerous

traditions emphasize the importance of it such as: ‘The prayer which a man performs

in congregation is worth twenty-five of his prayers in his home or in the market

place’ (Al-Bukhari/ Adhan: 31; Muslim/ Masajid: 245-8). The Prophet even

considered burning down the houses of those who were absent from the

congregational prayers (Al-Bukhari/ Adhan: 29, 34; Muslim/ Masajid: 251-4). The

importance of the congregational prayer is further stressed in a hadith narrated by

Muslim on how a blind man asked the Prophet to be excused from attending the

congregational prayer at the mosque by praying in his house, but the Prophet

declined and insisted that he should attend the mosque since he can hear the call to

prayer (Muslim 8/1374).

The act of gathering people for congregational prayers involves two parts - the first

is connected to notifying the mass that it is time for prayer; the second is summoning

people to the mosque for congregational prayer. During the time of the Prophet

(s.a.w), his companion Bilal was the muezzin and he used to perform the adhan by

standing on the roof of the mosque or from a house-top. The first adhan notifies

people that the time for prayer has arrived; while a second adhan (or iqamat)

signifies that the congregational prayer is about to begin. In Makkah, the second

adhan was uttered from the roof. During the reign of al-Rashid a little hut (zulla) is

built on top of the roof for this purpose. In Cairo, the adhan was uttered from a

chamber (ghurfah) located on the roof. In the Mosque of Ibn Tulun, the adhan was

proclaimed from the cupola located in the sahn (courtyard) (al-Maqrizi 1306/ 1888).

It was during the time of Mu’awiya that the minaret gave the adhan its physical and

monumental expression; almost in an effort to rival the existing fine stone church

towers that existed in Syria during that time (EI/Manar: 361-2). The minaret has

evolved over the time from being an instrument to proclaim adhan to become the

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signature of the mosque, the visual marker of Muslim towns to a sign of power (EI;

Minaret).

In the Malay World, the minaret was non-essential in the pre-eighteenth century

mosques since the proclamation of adhan could be done by standing on the

platforms provided under the roof space or in the serambi area. The bedug or

kentong (wooden drums) which has been in place in many Southeast Asian societies

and used traditionally as a means of notifying and summoning people of important

occasions was adapted to the task of gathering people for congregational prayers.

The bedug is usually beaten a few times preceding the adhan in a specific rhythm to

alert people of the oncoming prayer time.

The way in which the bedug is incorporated within the mosque design as a response

to the task of summoning people can still be witnessed in many surviving traditional

mosques today. In many of these mosques, the bedug is placed in the serambi

(veranda) area such as in Masjid Agung Demak (b. 15th century). In Masjid Kuno

Bayan Beleq, Nusa Tenggara (b. 16th century) and Masjid At-Taqwa Lerabaeng,

Nusa Tenggara (b. 17th century) the bedug is hung from the centre of the roof top,

and when beaten will produce reverberated sound due to its placement underneath

the roof. In Masjid Sultan Ternate (b. 18th century), Masjid Kampung Hulu Melaka

(b. 18th century) and Masjid Kampung Duyong Melaka (b. 18th century) the bedug

house is incorporated within the main gateway structure of the mosque – posing as

visual identifier for the mosques (figure 11).

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Figure 11 - The bedug house cum gateways

The need for the adhan to be heard has resulted in the introduction of minarets. In

the Malay World, the minarets were later addition to the mosque’s scheme and as

such were often found detached from the main building and built in a different

material than the mosque. However, in a few mosques surveyed in the region,

transformation of part of the building to incorporate a place to proclaim the adhan

has produced original interpretation of the liturgical requirement. Masjid Kuno

Patinburak, Irian Jaya (b. 19th century) and Masjid Teluk Manok, Pattani (b. 18th

century) accommodated a platform for the muezzin by opening up a portion of the

roof top to provide a tower-like structure which allows the muezzin to ascend and

proclaim the adhan (Figure 12).

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Figure 12 - (left) Masjid Teluk Manok; (right) Masjid Tua Patinburak

In Masjid Kampung Laut, Kelantan (b. 18th century), Masjid Tinggi Bagan Serai,

Perak (b. 19th century) and Surau Tok Janggut, Kedah (b. 19th century) the minarets

were built to echo the vernacular architecture and despite being free standing

structures, they relate to the main buildings through their design, material and

proportion (Figure 13).

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Figure 13 - the minarets of Masjid Kampung Laut (left);

Masjid Tua Bagan Serai and Surau Tok Janggut (right).

3.2. SPATIAL ORGANIZATION FOR CONGREGATIONAL PRAYERS

Congregational prayers are performed with the imam standing in front of the

ma’mum (the followers) in the central space near the qibla wall, while the ma’mum

stand in perpendicular rows (saf) to the qibla axis. This arrangement requires the

prayer hall to accommodate for the expansion of the saf in linear directions by

providing ample space either parallel to the saf lines (i.e. expansion of the length of

the saf) or parallel to the qibla axis (accommodating more saf i.e. expansion in

length, in the direction of the qibla axis). As the ma’mum are expected to stand in

uninterrupted rows without any gaps in between them (where possible), the prayer

hall is expected to have minimum physical obstructions that will break the saf. The

saf requirements alone dictate that the prayer hall should ideally have several critical

criteria such as an efficient floor plan and size; an open plan scheme with minimum

column interruption; and convertible spaces that adapt to various socio-religious

functions.

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3.2.1. The shape of an efficient floor plan

Figure 14 Efficient forms for mosque’s floor plan

As the saf are made of ma’mum standing in straight rows, the shape of the

floor plan which comfortably caters for such arrangement is either

rectangular or square (figure 14). The early mosques in Islam are found to

have square or rectangular floor plans as these are the most workable form

that are able to accommodate for the linear arrangements required of the

mosque’s spatial organization (see figures 15 to 18). The rectangular and

square floor plans essentially alleviate any kind of confusion with regards to

alignment of safs and functionality of spaces within the prayer hall. Floor

plans in the forms of a circle or an octagon which emphasizes the centre-

inner space are unsuitable and functions less-effectively. Masjid Ubudiah

Kuala Kangsar (b. 20th century) and Masjid Zahir, Kedah (b. 20th century)

(figure 19) which employ octagon within square floor design require extra

efforts in defining the saf and qibla axis by means of arches or niches in

walls; as well as introduction of carpet or prayer rugs with lines on the

ground to assist in pointing out to the correct direction.

QIBLA

Qibla axis

Qibla wall

4 saka guru

Basic square plan of mosque Basic rectangular

floor plan

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Figure 15 The plan of the Prophet’s mosque

Edited from (Grabar 1987)

Figure 16 - Plan of mosque at Kufa with the adjacent Dar al-Imara (rebuilt 670)

Edited from (Frishman et al. 1994)

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Figure 17- The plan of the Prophet’s Mosque (after rebuilt in 707-709):

- the four minarets are placed at the corners of the mosque

Edited from (Frishman et al. 1994)

Figure 18 - The Great Mosque of Damascus (b. 709-715)

With central nave which accommodated for the maksurah and mimbar

Source: (Frishman et al. 1994)

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Figure 19 – Masjid Zahir (left) and Masjid Ubudiah (right)

An octagon within a square arrangement for prayer hall floor plan poses challenges in identifying the qibla axis

A review on the shapes of traditional mosques plans demonstrates the pragmatic

response to the design problem. Bambang Setiabudi in his studies on 127 Javanese

mosques revealed that 81 mosques have square plans and 14 have rectangular plans

(Bambang 2006) (figure 20). Similarly a survey carried out on vernacular mosques

of the Malay Peninsula and other parts of the Malay World finds that all of the

mosques have basic rectangular or square floor planes with minor variations (figure

21). The rectangular and square floor plans enable the saf to be arranged

systematically. The arrangement also allows immediate recognition of the qibla axis

as main entrance door is usually located opposite of the qibla wall thereby providing

a clear sense of orientation.

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Figure 20 - Javanese mosques’ plans Adapted from (Bambang 2006)

Figure 21 Variations of Malay Traditional Mosques Floor Plans

3.2.2. Open plan with minimum column interruption

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The prayer hall requires a structural and constructional system which enables the

roof to span over an open space plan with minimum column interruptions. The open

plan concept – apart from accommodating for minimally interrupted saf – should

also be designed to allow good audio and/or visual reception of the acts of the imam

and the khatib (the one who gives sermons).

These design requirements are met by the vernacular mosques through the structural

configurations employed in both of the prototypes studied. In mosques built using

traditional house prototype such as Masjid Teluk Manok (Patani), Masjid Tinggi

Bagan Serai (Perak) and Surau Aur (Patani) the rectangular plan resulted in

elongated prayer space in the direction parallel to the qibla axis. The columns are

found at the perimeter walls such as in the case of Masjid Teluk Manok, which

provides uninterrupted prayer space for the congregation. In other schemes the

linearity of the column arrangements further emphasise the qibla axis which

consequently direct the ma’mum’s attention towards the qibla wall where the

positions of the imam and the khatib are located. The elongated floor plan parallel to

the direction of the qibla axis also ensures that both the imam and the khatib are in

full view to the congregation members.

The floor spaces of Javanese mosque prototype are alleviated from unnecessary

columns due to the existence of the main central pillars and perimeter columns

which support the roof framing members. With such structural arrangements to

distribute the deadload, the design of the roof framing members produces intricate

detailing resulting in aesthetically pleasing interior as demonstrated especially in

Masjid Merah Panjunan, Cirebon (b. 15th century) and Masjid Sultan Ternate,

Maluku (b. 17th century) (see figure 22).

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Figure 22 – (top) Masjid Merah Panjunan, Cirebon; (bottom) Masjid Sultan Ternate, Maluku

3.2.3. Convertible Spaces

According to tradition, the command for the congregational prayer (salat al-

jama’ah) was manifested in the year of 620-4 (EI). With the expansion of ritual

obligations in the nature of salat from being a solitary act to a communal activity,

the mosque’s developed from being merely a place for prostration to become the

centre in which the community gathers and activities were performed on communal

ground. The mosque therefore took the role of a community center – where Muslims

gather around the Prophet (s.a.w) and he taught them religion and administered their

daily activities. The architecture of this mosque was never pivotal according to the

Prophet’s traditions since he was granted the whole world as his masjid, as reflected

in the hadith ‘Wherever the hour of prayer overtakes you, you shall perform the salat

and that is a masjid’ (Al-Bukhari/ Salat: 56; Muslim/ Masajid).

However, with the extended functions of the mosque physical adjustments

are needed to appropriately cater for the demands of the space. The multi-functional

aspect of the mosque is demonstrated in the functions performed by the Prophet’s

mosque itself. It was a place where knowledge was taught and judiciary was held.

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The Prophet’s mosque was also used as a political and administrative center where

the Prophet (s.a.w) received foreign delegations, conducted negotiations and passed

judgments. After the battle of Uhud, the leaders of Medina spent the night there,

where the Aws tended their wounded and one prisoner of war was tied up to one of

the pillars. It was a place that housed a group of seventy newly converted Muslims

that came to Medina with no money and nowhere to live. A portico (suffah) was

built for them and they were known as Ahl al-Suffah. Their welfare was taken care of

by the Prophet (s.a.w) and the mosque was the place that they learned about Islam

(EI/Masdjid). The mosque was also the centre for distribution of the state’s funds

(bayt al-mal) to those eligible (EI/Masdjid). Apart from learning, political, military

and administrative related activities, the mosque was sometimes converted to

become a cultural centre whereby in one occasion the Prophet’s wife A’isha

described that she watched with the Prophet (s.a.w) and other Muslims a display

with shield and lance performed by some Sudanese or Abyssinians in the mosque’s

courtyard (EI/ Masdjid).

The socio-cultural elements of the mosque require that the spatial arrangements

provide for both sacred and profane activities. In other words while the

congregational prayer forms the core and elemental aspect of the mosque’s structure,

the mosque is also expected to be able to be expanded to provide for other socio-

religious activities without disrupting its fundamental core. From this perspective the

spatial arrangement offered by the vernacular mosque architecture – especially seen

in the soko guru construction - seems to respond efficiently to the upgraded

functions (figure 23).

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Figure 23 – Flexible arrangement for expansion in soko guru construction

The soko guru configuration produces a pyramidal roof structure which is visually

expressive in stating the space hierarchy with the prayer hall forming as the core of

the mosque’s scheme. With the requirements of other socio-religious activities; the

spaces around this core is expandable in linear directions by providing additional

structures which complemented the main building in form and proportion without

deforming the original scale and proportion.

In Javanese building tradition, the need for expansion in traditional house is often

met with a number of methods. According to Tjahjono (1999: 34), the three types of

Javanese house – the kampung, the limasan and the joglo types - have different ways

of responding to the demand for extra space. The kampung-style house can be

extended by adding a front and back porch, or by replicating the core unit a number

of times. The limasan house is extended at its perimeter by introducing perimeter

columns supporting an extended roof structure drawn from the central structure

forming a two-tiered roof covering. The joglo type house similarly is extended by

adding perimeter columns surrounding the external veranda of the house (see figure

24).

extension extension

QIBLA

Qibla wall

exte

nsio

n

core

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a- Kampung house b- Limasan house

c- Joglo house

Figure 24 - Javanese traditional house types and extension methods

Adapted from (Tjahjono 1999)

The tajug structural configuration employed in the mosque design gives sufficient

allowance for the mosque to be extended at the perimeter by covering the

surrounding veranda with a roof layer below the original roof edges. However

further expansion requires new structures to be built. A replication of the core unit -

as seen in the method of expansion in the kampung style house although possible;

will however produce a conflict in the space hierarchy –as there will be no difference

between the original and the extension. In addition, the interior space will echo

hypostyle mosque type whereby rows of columns will cause interruption to the flow

of space and intermittently break the saf. From aesthetic perspective, this option will

cause additional volumes to the building mass and most likely to create a cluttered

visual language.

The vernacular mosque – in its response to the design problem – has adopted the

serambi or pendopo system as an extension to the core. As the name suggests, the

serambi (veranda) or pendopo (pavilion) are inherited from the Javanese traditional

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house spatial arrangements concept (figure 25). The Javanese traditional house

consists of three main zones: the head (kepala), the body (badan) and the foot or

bottom (kaki). Within these zones, the pendopo is located in the head zone with the

core of the house – dalem or omah – placed in the centre (badan) and the services

area such as kitchen placed at the foot (kaki).

Figure 25 - The variations of spatial planning in traditional Javanese house

Source: (Frick 1997: 87)

The pendopo serves as a reception hall, a place where the members of the house

socialise with visitors; and organise traditional feasts and celebrations. It is placed in

a semi-public zone and it serves as a marker to the status of the owner of the house

(Maria 1999: 37-9). Similar concept finds its echo in the ‘anjung’ and its adjoining

space ‘serambi’ of a traditional Malay house.

The multifunction nature of the pendopo is evidence in the several of the mosques

surveyed. In the tomb mosque of Sunan Gunung Jati, Central Java the Pendopo Soka

was originally used as an assembly hall but has now become a resting room for

pilgrims performing the ziyarah (Muhaimin 1995: 181). In Surakarta for example,

the annual gerebeg which involves processions taking place from the villages and

end with the participants having public feasts at the serambi of the mosque

(Lombard 2000). In principal mosques such as Masjid Agung Demak, Masjid Agung

Banten and Masjid Agung Cirebon Kasepuhan which are found to be much bigger

with greater roof heights and bigger areas allocated for public activities; the

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provision of several vast size serambis in front and to the sides of the mosques are

essential in accommodating for social interactions and activities without disturbing

the haram areas of the mosques.

Its introduction to the Masjid Agung Cirebon Kasepuhan for example took several

stages as the space increment of the mosque grows organically in response to the

social needs. During the rule of Panembahan Ratu I (1568-1649) the southern

serambi (Prabayaksa) and the eastern serambi (Pamandangan) were constructed

adjoining the main prayer hall. In 1567, another serambi was built to the east of

Pamandangan by Panembahan Girilaya from whom this serambi was named after

(Serambi Girilaya). In 1679, Sultan Sepuh I added another serambi to the front of

Serambi Girilaya. The final addition to the existing structure was made in 1934-5

under the rule of Sultan Sepuh XI to the side of Prabayaksa (see figure 26 & 27).

Figure 26 - Masjid Agung Cirebon – extensions of floor plan

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Figure 27 - Masjid Agung Cirebon Kasepuhan sectional view exhibiting hierarchy of functional areas – the core and the extensions

The adaptation of a serambi or a pendopo into a mosque scheme satisfies the demand

for accommodation of socio-religious activities such as religious celebrations;

socialising and resting place for wayfarers; and other activities which are related to

the socio-cultural needs of the community. Public judgements were also traditionally

carried out by the qadhi in the serambi (Sartono et al. 1977). The flexibility of this

space is due to its architectural characteristics whereby it is usually opened on all

sides with the exception of the side adjoining to the mosque’s core. The structural

arrangement that utilises the soko guru configuration takes the form of a joglo or

limasan (figure 28). The expansion system produces a low scale and human-friendly

structures which at the same instance provides for the demarcation of functional

activities into different zones. Visually it provides additional character to the mosque

without rivalling the most essential and central functions at the core represented by

the tiered roofs. As the pendopo or serambi concept is familiar to the Muslim people

– both in its form and functions - the introduction of this space as an extension to the

mosque is seen as an intelligent and sophisticated design decision made.

29

A. Joglo extensions to main prayer hall

B. Limasan extensions

Figure 28- Extensions to main prayer hall in the forms of additional serambi in pendopo structure which either takes the form of joglo (A) or limasan (B) variants.

Source: (Maria 1999)

Sectional view Lambang gantung construction

Joglo roof plan

Sectional view Variation 1

Variation 2

Variation 3

Roof plan for limasan

30

4. CONCLUSION

The study looks at the design of the mosque from the aspect of spatial

arrangements by analyzing the architectural forms which produce the mosque’s scale

and proportion, arrangement of spaces, design of circulation and aesthetic qualities.

From an analysis done on more than forty mosques built from the 15th to the 20th

century in major traditional city centers in the Malay World, the study finds that the

mosques built in vernacular architecture offered original solutions to the design

challenges posed by the mosque as a community and cultural centre. The popularity

and widespread application of soko guru structural configuration across the

archipelago, is probably indebted to the adaptive characteristics it offered especially

in major mosques (masjid agung – such as the Sultanate or State Mosques) which

accommodate larger congregation and are prone to further expansions. On the other

hand, despite the rich variety of traditional house designs in the region, the long roof

prototype is the mostly adopted mosque design usually found in traditional

community mosques. The ingenuity demonstrated by the indigenous building

tradition, and the abilities of the Muslim people to adopt and adapt the traditional

building language to accommodate for Islamic requirements have produced

architectural solutions which are unrivalled by many contemporary mosques today.

31

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