The Art of Scenery and Representation in Tomb Mosques' Decorations

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The Art of Scenery and Representation in Tomb Mosques’ Decorations

Harlina Md Sharif

Hazman Hazumi

Introduction

The art of scenery or ‘scenic art’ is a technique of representation whereby a scene of

action or event is depicted, often with the inclusion of narrative aspect in its design

composition. Originally used in theatrical performances, the execution of scenery techniques

in visual and fine arts is usually found in paintings. The introduction of painting into the field

of Islamic arts is believed to have taken place during the Ilkhanid period in Persia (13th

century). The Mongol invasions that resulted in the dispersion of artisans and craftsmen

paved way to the immersion of Chinese artistic traditions, where painting was one of its

oldest and greatest art (The Arts of Islam, pp. 29, 309).

The impact of Chinese influence on the Islamic arts was evident in the art of book

and manuscript. With the Ilkhanid rulers passing through a stage of Buddhism before their

conversion to Islam in 1295 C.E., the Chinese artistic motifs such as the peony and lotus

became popular addition to existing repertoire of artistic composition (The Arts of Islam, p.

29). In the initial incorporation of illustrations in books, small size drawings were utilised

mainly as visual aids in highlighting the text intents of scientific writings. However, what

began as an illustrative method eventually developed into a distinctive art category known

as miniature paintings. Although in the beginning these paintings passed through a stage of

‘Islamicisation’ through the stylisation and modification of representational figures,

composed within symmetrical or geometrical compositional layout; they eventually

transformed into accomplished scenic and representation artistic work (The Arts, p.310).

The scenic art technique found its popular application in manuscript illuminations,

and to a small extent, textile decorations. In architecture, especially in buildings built during

Islamic rule, its application is limited and almost unknown. However, the mosaic decoration

on the walls of the Great Mosque of Damascus, was an exceptional case, with ‘more than an

acre of mosaics depicting a fanciful landscape thought to be the Quʾrānic paradise’

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(Encyclopaedia Britannica). It preceded the Persian experimentations by more than five

centuries. Apart from this early attempt by Umayyad Caliph Al-‐Walid I (705-‐715 C.E), its

applications in other Islamic buildings are yet to be learnt. For this reason, the discovery of

the scenic art in two tomb mosques in Java, namely Masjid Sendang Duwur and Masjid

Mantingan, is not only fascinating; it is critical in the efforts of understanding the origin and

characteristics of this rare art technique.

The Tomb Mosques in Java (15th -‐16th century)

The period of 15th and 16th century is often referred to as being ‘the transition

period’ (Tjandrasasmita 1984; Ambary 2001). This epoch witnessed the transformation of

artistic cultures from its ancient origins into Islamic aesthetic values. During this formation

stage, remnants of ancient traditional practice were detected in the extant mosques of Java

Island. The architecture and decorative elements evoked archetypal memory of pre-‐Islamic

traditions, which were adapted to suit the new creed.

This study looks at two mosques, both built in the 15th and 16th century, which are

classified as tomb mosques. They are the mosques of Masjid Sendang Duwur (in Lamongan,

Central Java) and Masjid Mantingan (near Jepara, Central Java). These mosques are

considered as ‘pure’ tomb mosques based on the study’s evaluation of their principal

functions in accommodating for tomb visitors. Despite the obvious risk of over-‐simplifying a

mosque’s functional typology (since a mosque ordinarily serves multi-‐purpose functions); a

pure tomb mosque often exhibits distinctive characteristics that are identifiable through

studying its physical layout.

One of the physical identifiers for a tomb mosque is its placement on a small hill or

an elevated site. The site selected is often isolated as isolation heightens the sacrosanct

aspect of the mosque (Abdul Rochym 1983, p.86). A review on the tomb layout for Sunan

Drajat and Sunan Tembayat, both which are objects of annual pilgrimage in Java; reveals this

distinctive criterion (Figure 1). Both of the mosques of Sendang Duwur and Mantingan are

similarly found built on small hill tops overlooking surrounding areas (Figure 2). It is also

common to find that the site selected was a historically sacred site. According to Moehamad

Habib (2001), a site is also considered pure if a sacred edifice –even a pre-‐Islamic structure-‐

was previously built therein. In his research conducted on Masjid Sunan Ampel, Masjid

Sendang Duwur and Masjid Mantingan, pre-‐Islamic artefacts were found on the sites of

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these mosques containing relief ornamentations depicting sacred figures or sacred buildings

of Hindu-‐Javanese times (Moehamad Habib 2001).

Tomb of Sunan Drajat

(Moehamad Habib 2001)

Tomb of Sunan Tembayat

Source: http://yuliantoqin.culture360.org/

Figure 1 Layout of tomb complex

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(a) Sunan Sendang Duwur

Source: (Tjandrasasmita 1984)

(c) Masjid Mantingan – Sultan Hadlirin and Ratu Kalinyamat

Edited from: (Handinoto & Hartono 2007)

Figure 2 Layout of tomb mosques

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The second physical identifier is the design layout of the mosque complex, especially

in terms of placement of the tombs in relationship to the mosque. In most tomb mosques,

the necropolis of the revered individuals is placed in the region approximately to the west of

the main prayer hall i.e. in the direction of the qibla behind the qibla wall. The tombs found

in Sendang Duwur and Mantingan are all located in the western part of the mosques’

compounds. These tombs are placed within a cungkup, or a roofed structure, often with a

space around the tombs provided for tomb visitors to perform prayers and invocations.

The presence of pawestren (ladies prayer area) in Javanese mosques is also a sign

that a mosque functions as a tomb mosque. The main function of a pawestren is to provide a

space for female congregation who (were usually ‘rewarded’ to) sit and read passages from

the Qur’ān and selected dhikr in selected time of the year as a tribute and invocation

towards the spirit of the deceased. This space is distinguished from the normal prayer space

designated for women congregation by its placement and design in relation to the main

prayer hall and the tombs. Ordinary female prayer space is often located near the eastern

wall of the mosque i.e. behind the saf of male congregation; if the prayer space is relatively

tight. In bigger mosques, the female prayer space is located to the left of the main prayer

hall i.e. near the southern wall or on the upper level. This space is usually not completely

sealed and could be demarcated by movable screens such as half-‐height movable divider or

by drawing a curtain. It is also often accessible from the common entrance of the main

prayer hall. The pawestren however, is usually designed completely sealed off from the main

prayer hall. It is also located adjacent to the tomb building.

In Javanese mosques, the tomb of the most revered wali or rulers are placed in

dalem i.e. the most inner part of a tomb complex, which is usually the third and last place in

terms of sequence of placement. It is accessible through gated walkways, with successive

compounds providing sequential hierarchy of the tomb’s sanctity. This study finds that the

necropolis of Masjid Sendang Duwur and Mantingan are all designed with gated walls and

gateways, either in the form of Candi Bentar (split gates) or Paduraksa (covered) (Figure 3).

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Figure 3 Gateways and fences varieties in Masjid Sendang Duwur

(Source: Harlina Sharif & Hazman Hazumi)

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Historical Background

Masjid Sendang Duwur -‐ also known as Makam Sunan Sendang (The Tomb of Sunan

Sendang) -‐ is located in the village of Sendang Duwur, under the district of Paciran,

Lamongan. It is said to have been founded by Raden Nur Rakhmad, the son of Raden Abdul

Qohar – an ‘alim from Lamongan; and a grandson to Syeikh Abu Jazid Al Baghdadi a renown

ulema from Egypt 1. His contributions to Islamic teachings in Sendang Duwur gave him the

title Sunan Sendang (Wiryoprawiro 1986).

The mosque complex is located on an elevated site within the villages of Sendang

Duwur and Sendang Agung (also known as Sendang Lebak). Sendang is Javanese for small

pond, whereas Duwur means high (Sendang Duwur: small pond on a high ground); while

Lebak means valley. The Sendang Duwur village is situated in a rock hill area which is quite

remote from the flat coastal region; and can be reached by car from the arterial road of

Sedayu-‐Tuban through a small road of approximately 5 km. From Sendang Duwur village, the

mosque is accessible by foot, through a series of levels ascending approximately 500 meter.

The date of the mosque’s construction is established from various sources. A

chronogram found on a wooden panel written in Javanese characters in an archaic shape

together with an inscription below it in Arabic language was translated by Pijper as follows:

“It may be known that this mosque has been built twice, the first time in 1483

(Javanese calendar) which is the same as 971 Hijrah;2 and the second time in 1851 (Javanese

calendar) which is 1339 Hijrah, which makes it 368 years between the two constructions. In

the second construction, stones and a part from the wood of the first building have been

used”.

The date of the second construction confirms the date inscribed above the doorpost

of the mosque in Arabic, Javanese and Latin characters of the year 1920. Another inscription

found on a decorative wooden panel at the tomb of Sunan Sendang is written in Javanese

characters of an ancient form. According to Stutterheim who analysed the panel, the date

1 The name al-‐Baghdadi often refers to someone who originated from Baghdad, Iraq. The validity of the above account however could not be verified. 2 Tjandrasasmita in his thesis on Sendang Duwur quoted the copy of an old manuscript that he found in relation to the history of the mosque. Sunan Sendang was said to have “flown” the mosque from Mantingan and had it landed on the Tunon Hill (Sendang Duwur). The date quoted from the manuscript coincides with the inscription found on the panel “gunaning salira tirta hayu” which correlates to 1483 Shaka or 1561 C.E.

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inscribed was 1507 Shaka3 or 1585 C.E. This date may have been the date of the foundation

of the tomb, or the year Sunan Sendang died. The 24 years difference (between 1561 C.E.

and 1585 C.E.) is reasonable; thereby establishing the approximate date of build for the

mosque to be around that period (Tjandrasasmita 1984).

The mosque complex is made up of:

• the Sendang Duwur mosque and adjoining ablution building: the mosque is extensively

renovated although still maintaining the old form

• The eastern entrance compound which consists of a well (Sumur Giling), and a flight of

staircase directly connected to the main entrance of the mosque

• the northern compound: which houses several courtyards of old cemeteries and two

roofed structure that serve as store houses for the remnants of the old mosque

• the western compound: where the tomb of Sunan Sendang is located under cungkups

(pyramidal and hip roofs) within a courtyard which is located on a lower level to the level

of the mosque. This courtyard is locked from visitors who have no intention to pay

homage (ziyarah) to the tomb (Tjandrasasmita 1984).

• The southern compound: a steep site containing cemetery and a gated entrance to the

south giving access to the mosque for villages from Sendang Lebak.

The cemetery is a dominant feature in Sendang Duwur mosque. From the site plan,

it is evident that the mosque only occupies approximately a tenth of the whole compound.

Masjid Mantingan, also known as Masjid Astana Mantingan, is located in Mantingan

village within the district of Dati II Jepara; which is 6 kilometer to the south of Jepara town.

The mosque is accessible from the town through a series of villages and agricultural lands.

The mosque complex is located on a small hill – about 5 to 10 meter height from road level.

It is surrounded by plantation fields and located close to the woodcraft industry of Jepara.

The villagers’ dwellings are found outside the perimeter of the agricultural lands and

woodcraft industry.

Pangeran Hadlirin made Kalinyamat (18 km south of Jepara) as the ruling centre and

according to folk story, during the stressful times of ruling Jepara, from time to time he loved

3 Shaka or Saka: Javanese traditional calendar year

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to be in seclusion at Mantingan. To enable her to be with her husband, Ratu Kalinyamat built

a house (pasanggrahan) in Mantingan. In about 1549, Hadlirin was killed by the ruler of

Jipang Panolan, Haryo Penangsang (or Arya Panangsang) and his body was buried at

Mantingan. The Mantingan Mosque was built by Ratu Kalinyamat in about 1559; at the same

site where the house was; in commemoration of her husband’s death (Graaf 1985). The date

of build is based on the inscription found on the mihrab of the mosque, written in Javanese

script referring to the year of 1481 Shaka which correlates to 1559 C.E. (Ashadi 2006).

The mosque is a three tiered pyramidal roof structure with attached pendopo style

serambi (built in 1950s). The complex could be divided into:

• The mosque with veranda and ablution area

• Eastern courtyard and main entrance to mosque

• Tomb of Sultan Hadlirin and Ratu Kalinyamat – west of the mosque

Decorative Scheme and Techniques

The art of scenery in these mosques are found applied on various mediums such as

stone slabs, wood panels and coral tiles. Masjid Sendang Duwur is the only extant mosque

known, to have preserved the art of stone carving inherited from pre-‐Islamic period. In this

mosque, the stone structures displayed an outstanding array of motif representations, with

three dimensional sculptural effects. Its decorative schemes are mainly seen employed in its

gated fences, as well as in the body of the tomb structure.

The intricate detailing reveals the expertise in execution of decorative schemes that

narrate symbolic subject matters. Vegetal and floral scrolls are stylised in the forms of

garuda wings, winged meru, life tree, lotus in pond, and scenery of mountains and forests.

Zoomorphic motifs are also found, especially around the opening of the gateways. Unique to

other tomb complexes and sacred edifices, Sendang Duwur’s winged gateway4 is found to

have no comparable references, either from traditional practices or similar edifices in Java.

In his study on this ancient artefact, Uka Tjandrasasmita (1984) cited the work of H. Bergema

in his book, “De boom des levens in schrift en Historie” that pointed out the similarity of

4 Entranceway to the tomb of the revered wali decorated with sculptured wings of garuda, a mythical bird in Javanese ancient beliefs

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Sendang Duwur’s winged gate design to a winged gate motif found on a round seal of

ancient Babylon that symbolises a gateway to heaven, or refers to the wings of the guardians

of the gate. Tjandrasasmita however, was of the opinion that the form is an innovation in

itself as winged gateway had previously been employed only in two-‐dimensional decoration

and not as a three-‐dimensional architectural design (Tjandrasasmita 1984) (Figure 3).

The same motif similarly is repeated on the wall surface of the gateway in a variety

of compositions (Figure 4, 5). In these designs, the ‘gateway to heaven’ is depicted as having

a pair of wings. Above the entry doors is a stylised makara, an important guardian in

Javanese mythology (Figure 6). Above the makara, is a tree with branches extending

outwards, believed to be representing the life tree. Zoomorphic motifs, sometimes

silhouetted using floral and vegetal, take various symbolical functions. The trunk of the

elephant is found ‘guarding’ the sides of one of the gateways of the Sendang Duwur.

Elephant is a relief motif associated with Buddha, while an elephant in a Hindu temple is

associated with Gaņeśa (Widyosiswoyo 2007).

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Location: Fence

Medium: Stone

Motif: Gateway, Garuda Wings, Life Tree, Makara Face, Forest

Figure 4


Location: Fence

Medium: Stone

Motif: Gateway, Garuda Wings, Life Tree, Makara Face, Forest

Figure 5


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Naga Makara

Figure 6 -‐ Zoomorphic themes stylised in floral and vegetal motifs

Source: (Dirdjoamiguno 1970)

Another zoomorphic motif found on the tomb gate relief was the motif of kala-‐

marga which floats above and curls around the gate opening. In Hindu temples, the kala

finds its origin in the Kala-‐mikha or Kirtti-‐murkha; the Infinite manifesting itself through the

mythical creature, which crowns the arches of the temple’s doorways and niches

(Burckhardt 1967). Kala-‐marga according to Javanese conception is a floating rainbow which

has the body of a serpent with two heads on opposite ends in the shape of a deer or a

buffalo (Figure 7). This serpent is believed to be floating above the island of Java; and its

heads duck into the seas of Java Island and the Indian Ocean to suck the waters and spit

them again upon the earth (Tjandrasasmita 1984). Popular motifs in Sendang Duwur’s gate

design were stylised makara, garuda wings, naga, serpent, scorpion, phoenix, and elephant.

All of these motifs were related to pre-‐Islamic conceptions of heaven and guardians (Figure

8).

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Location: fence Medium: stone

Motif: serpent with head of a deer, rainbow

Location: fence Medium: stone

Motif: serpent/ scorpion tail

Figure 7 Kala-‐marga with a deer head and serpent tail, curling around the gateway.

a) Naga with opened mouth b) Peacock

c) Stylised makara face with peacock wings d) Naga

Figure 8 (a-‐d) Motifs symbolically representing the concepts of heaven and guardianship (Source: Harlina Sharif & Hazman Hazumi)

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The decorative themes for the tomb structure depict subjects that are symbolically

representing sceneries in heaven. Motifs are carved both on stone and wood panels.

Depiction of heaven is executed through the scenery of orchards, with cungkup (covered

structure) in the form of meru5, mountains, clouds, the moon and the sun as the subject

matters. Garuda wings still persist, guarding the entry to the sacred tomb, as well as in the

depiction of the gate in the heaven scenery (Figure 9, 10).

a) Garuda wings guarding entry to tomb

b) Pedestal at the foot of stairs towards the tomb entry

c) Wood panels on the body of the tomb structure

Figure 9 – decorative scheme on the tomb structure


Figure 10 – depiction of heaven in stone carved panel of the tomb.


5 Meru, in Javanese ancient beliefs, is a sacred mountain that represents the centre of the world. It is an abode for the Gods and sacred spirits.

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Masjid Mantingan similarly employed symbolic motifs and design composition to

narrate the concepts of death, heaven and revered individuals. The subject matters of the

panel decorations varied from floral series, geometrical and scenery; with motifs of

silhouetted animals such as the monkey (Hanuman), elephant and phoenix; orchard (or

paradise) scene with split gates, fences and pendopo against meru background. In this

mosque ingenious skill of carving is evident from the intricate detailing of motif composition

on coral slabs. These slabs are currently plastered to the entry wall of the mosque’s prayer

hall in medallion-‐like manner (Figure 11).

Figure 11 – Decorative coral panels of Masjid Mantingan plastered on the entry wall


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(a)

(b)

Location: wall Medium: coral

Motif: forest/ park, meru, life tree


Motif: candi, split gate, meru, lotus, forest

(c)

(d)


Motif: water lily, mountains


Motif: water lily, moving clouds

Figure 12 – Details of the coral designs in Masjid Mantingan


Conclusion: Extinction of the Art

The period of 15th and 16th century, was the last period that exhibited a wide

range of artistic traditions, many which originated from pre-‐Islamic practices. It was

during this era that the mosques employed full range of decorative motifs consisting of

floral and vegetal, zoomorphic, cosmos, geometric pattern, scenery, calligraphy, and

three-‐dimensional artworks. Despite the obvious potentials to be further developed to

create a more accomplished language of Islamic art, some of the pre-‐Islamic art tradition

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failed to survive. Critical among these repertoires is the art of scenery and

representation, which totally diminished in mosque decorative schemes by the 17th

century.6

The 17th and 18th century witnessed the stagnancy in the creations or

developments of building art forms. Stone architecture and the art of stone carving

totally diminished from mosque’s design. Similarly motifs such as zoomorphic, cosmos,

scenery and three-‐dimensional artworks, almost completely disappeared during this

period. Decorative artworks that prevailed were in the ‘minor’ aspects of the building,

mainly associated with ornamental rather than architectural. The whole capacity of

decorations was reduced to the furnishings of the mosque, such as in the mimbar, the

“grandfather” clock, the lighting accessories, and the main doorway into the prayer hall.

The way in which the motifs were used across the periods studied raises several

interesting points. Firstly, how were certain features of decorative elements readily

accepted as ‘Islamic’ while others were rejected? Floral and vegetal motif, for example,

had widespread applications, regardless of time and region. It is the most dominant

form of motif used, regardless of art medium (i.e. material). On the other hand

zoomorphic, cosmos, scenery and three-‐dimensional motifs and applications were

abruptly stagnated by the 17th and 18th century. Notwithstanding the fact that these

decorative styles were absorbed after initial borrowing, and undergone rigorous filtering

and trimming stages in order to fit Islamic requirements; they failed to survive after early

applications.

Examples can be retrieved from the zoomorphic motif applications seen in

Masjid Sendang Duwur. The mythical subjects found in the gateway and stone wall

designs of the tomb complex, have been highly abstracted with a clever mix of floral and

vegetal scrolls. Although in certain cases figurative representation were unpretentious,

such as the naga figure that guards the bottom of the steps, other applications were

more subtle and required the talents of highly able artisans to execute the subject

matters without compromising artistic quality (Figure 13). In Masjid Mantingan for

example, the figure of silhouetted Hanuman among the vegetal and floral pattern can

still be recognised despite being subject of disfigurement (Figure 14).

6 Results based on analysis done on 41 mosques across the period between 15th and 20th century. The art of scenery and representation was effectively truncated by the 17th century.

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Figure 13 Phoenix stylised in floral and leaves motifs

(Source: Dirdjoamiguno 1970)

Figure 14 Hanuman disguised in floral and vegetal pattern


Secondly, the pre-‐Islamic motifs that survived in the transition period were

found to have different meaning and application from the ‘usual’ Islamic tradition.

This peculiarity requires one to probe deeper into the origin and significance of

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particular motifs, which warrants their survival into the early Islamic period. The

floral and vegetal motifs used in the early mosques were those which had Hindu

symbolism attached. The use of lotus, depicted in meandering movements within a

pond, according to Widyosiswoyo (2007), originally represented Brahma who was

born of waters. In early Buddhist art, it represented the Nativity (Coomaraswamy

1972). It was employed in early Islamic period, to symbolise divine beings and

denote miraculous birth and apparitional character. The lotus is a common theme

found in the decorative panels of Masjid Mantingan, as well as on the wooden

panels of the Sendang Duwur tomb structure.

Other than the lotus, life tree motif was also present in various locations in

the tomb complex of the aforementioned mosques. Although one can suppose that

the idea of a life tree echoes an Islamic reference of shajarat al-‐khuldi (the eternal

tree) which grows in the paradise, the motif was originally popular in several Hindu-‐

Javanese temples. It is not a co-‐incidence that these motifs were mainly employed in

the tomb architecture, where embodiment of concepts related to life in paradise are

expressed (Tjandrasasmita 1984).

Thirdly, features adapted from pre-‐Islamic artistic traditions often required

major adjustments or ‘disguise’ effects in order to suit Islamic purposes. Even with

the adjustments, their survival was not guaranteed. The scenery decorative styles,

depicting forest, meru, lotus, winged gateway and highly stylised makara, were

outwardly rejected afterwards. Despite being camouflaged with floral and vegetal

motifs, which are readily accepted as part of Islamic arts’ repertoire, their meanings

and origins were very much authentically related to Hindu and pre-‐Islamic beliefs

and epics. Even the style of representation i.e. depiction of life in paradise, has no

archetypal origin in Islamic artistic tradition.

The process of selective borrowing is a common phenomenon during a

transition period between different belief systems. In his study of early Indo-‐Islamic

mosque architecture of India, Robert Hillenbrand similarly highlighted the process of

filtering undergone by the Muslims in India before any artistic traditions could be

accepted as Islamic (Hillenbrand 1988). In contrast to the Indian experience,

however, Muslims in Island Southeast Asia only arrived at a period of selective

borrowing, and did not exceed the stage of experimentation between the old and

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the new. As experimentation requires not only a vast knowledge of artistic

repertoire, but more importantly a deep understanding of both cultures; its success

depends on persistence, support and sponsorship – which, may take decades or

centuries. This requires stable socio-‐political and economic conditions. In the case of

Muslim civilisation in the Dunia Melayu, the on-‐going political turmoil especially in

the 17th and 18th century, which witnessed the disintegration of many Islamic

sultanates of the region, provided constrained opportunities for any sort of

development, especially pertaining to the arts and architecture. Furthermore, a high

level of artistic innovation is required, if ever the past artistic styles were to be

employed, incorporating fundamental appreciation of motif and material

technologies in its borrowings as well as applications. As artistic culture is an intrinsic

part of a society, understanding the past tradition and its artistic grammar, is a vital

tool in developing a unique repertoire of original Islamic arts vocabularies.

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The Art of Scenery and Representation in Tomb Mosques' Decorations

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