Post on 26-Jan-2023
Spectrum of Socio-Cognitive Development
A preliminary stage model of social cognition in individuals on a spectrum ofdevelopment
by
Nathan William Watts
TAE, Bed UG3
Queensland University of Technology© Copyright by Nathan William Watts 2014
Spectrum of Socio-Cognitive Growth
Nathan William Watts
Bachelor of Education (Secondary)
Queensland University of Technology
2014
Abstract
The Spectrum of Socio-Cognitive Development is a theoretical model that provides a structured
variable framework for explaining levels of social cognition in individuals. It is structured
similarly to Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development, in the necessity that it is a continuum
model of cognitive development; though focused on social cognition only. The Spectrum is not a
theory, it is a method to explain the dynamic nature of social cognition in individuals. The
Spectrum, consists of fundamentals, phases, skills and aspects. The development of the
Spectrum, is essential in the understanding of the different levels of social cognition individuals
have and could be utilised as a tool for developing learning programs in schools.
Table of Content
Abstract................................................................................................i
Introduction..........................................................................................1
Literature Review.................................................................................2
Research Methodology.........................................................................5
Explination of the Model......................................................................17
1. Fundementals..........................................................................17
2. Phases........................................................................................18
3. Social Cognition Skills............................................................22
4. Aspects.....................................................................................25
The Model............................................................................................28
Conclusion............................................................................................31
Bibliography.........................................................................................32
Appenicies...........................................................................................36
1
Introduction
Cognition is a field of diverse research interest, social cognition being one of those fields
researchers have a focus on; though little research has been done which explains the
development of social cognition in individuals.
The major question posed in this field is: is it possible for a stage model of social cognition to be
developed; this paper seeks to respond to this question by providing the answer, yes. The paper
goes futher then just answering this question by proposing a preliminary stage model of social
cognition that focuses on the development and transition of social cognition in individuals over a
spectrum of phases.
Many studies and models on social cognition have been attempted around small aspects or
viewpoints, such as bronfenbrenner and his work on explaining the diffrences in cognitive
outcomes of individuals exsposed to different cultural settings. The need for a structured model
of social cognitive development is evident to collaborate the different fields of social cognition
into one centralised model that shows accountable and developmental growth across all aspects
of social cognition; and, incorporating aspects of existensial, emotional, interpersonal and
intrapersonal intelligence into the framework of social cognition.
The stage model proposed has the practical application of being used as a tool to measure the
development of individuals in a social environment and provide insight into how social cognition
elvoves as an individual grows. The stage model is designed in an effectual method as it cements
absolutes in the theoretical framework and regulates what aspects can be flexible, which many
stage models do not address therefore leading to flaws and critisms of the fundemental integrity
of the model. The model has collated all the behaviours, routines, patterns and, skills pertaining
to social cognition into logical groups which across the spectrum show transitional growth.
Essentiall, as with most stage models measuring skills, the model will be critised by rules
governing the measurement of competence, though due to the intracet nature of social cognition,
the skills can be established to pose a series of basic criteria to be achieveable (Identify of likes
and dislikes, is measured by the criteria that: an individual is able to acknowledge what they like
and what they do not like). The concept of evolutionary and transitioning skills accounts for
empirical problems in studying competence; whereby to find the a developed social cognitive
skill that operation A (crying to gain attention) precedes operation B (Verbal communication
apparent but somewhat limited) it is necessary to establish that operation A can be found in the
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absence of operation B and that B can never be found in the absence of A. We thus need to
identify the minimal acceptable evidence of the manifestation of operations A and B. (Brown &
Desforges, 1979).
Throughout this paper, the model will be explained and justified though the empirical research
including approaches of observations, quantitive data analysis of survey results and the use of
reviewed literature to validate findings. Overall this paper hopes to build upon exisiting concepts
of social cognition and associate findings under a centralised model that provides the theoretical
framework for a spectrum of socio-cognitive development though phases, social cognitive skill
groups, aspects and fundementals.
Literature Review
Research has been a crucial aspect of the development of the Spectrum, the review of literatures
has been essential to validate the formulation of this theoretical model and providing some basis
for the extrapoloation of research into a new context. Inceptually, there was a need to develop a
frame work of social cognitive growth based on an existing model; unfortunately in Piaget's
Four Stages Model of Cognitive Development, little concern was placed on social cognition over
the four stages, Piaget was almost completely concerned with cognitive development, and that he
ignored social factors in development (Hala, 1997); though in saying this, some cognitive skills
addressed in his theory can have a social application. Piaget's theory whilst not having a focus on
social cognition, it does help provide an understanding for a conceptual framework based on,
Piaget's notion that social an personality development; requires dependence on cognitive
development. Whilst Piaget's theory does have its short comings; it nonetheless provides a
valuable framework for understanding changes that occur in many aspects of development
(Shaffer, 2004). Congruence with concept provided by other theories has helped mold the
Spectrum model proposed and provide some validity.
Les Vygotskys works help provide context to the social nature of cognition, in his works he
covers the importance of thought and language: Self-talk "develops along a rising not a
declining, curve; it goes through an evolution, not an involution. In the end, it becomes inner
speech" (Vygotsky, 1987). His concept of the Zone of Proximal development provides a
theoretical example of how scaffolding and peer learning is influential to social cognition. On
Vygotsky's less known works in regards to the psychology of play, it provides guidance to
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observations on how children develop socially through play and games; as a psychological
phenomenon and its role in the child's development.
Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development has provided significant validation of concepts
raised through observation and the structuring of the spectrum, with regards to the concept of the
psychosocial crisis that is apparent in each stage of Erikson's model, relating to varying social
cognition aspects (i.e. the ability to develop trust.)
When looking at the influence of cultural factors upon the development of cognition it provides
interesting insight into the divergence of outcomes possible for simple cognitive development.
Bronfenbrenner, suggested through his theory know as The ecology of human development
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979) that individual's cognitive abilities are influenced through systems of
cultural and community factors. These findings have provided the grounds for developments in
cultural social skill and the identity of the individual as they transition through the spectrum.
Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979) relates to Bronfenbrenner's proposal of systems
in the human ecology that influence an individual, within this theory Tajfel and Turner, assert
that group membership engenders in group/ self-categorisation and improvement in ways that
advantage the in-group at the detriment of the out-group. This membership to in-groups and the
self catagorisation is proccessed on the understanding in the theoryof social identity that person
has not one, “personal self”, but rather several selves that correspond to broadening circles of
group membership. Antithetic social contexts may initiate an individual to think, feel and act on
substructure of his personal, family or national “level of self” (Turner et al., 1987)
Freud, has provided guidance for framework around social cognitive processes related to
sexuality, Identity (as an extension of sexuality) and Play (Peer Interaction), by the interpretation
and contextualisation of his work The Ego and the Id.
The above mentioned theories have provided major theoretical account for the validity of the
spectrum and in some instances contributed to the mechanism of the spectrum. Some other
theories and models have been exploited to concrete observations and contribute to the theory;
these include: Self Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1987, 1991, 2000) is important to
describe the factors of motivation and self-determination in the enactment of play or peer
interaction of an individual, Deci & Ryan had developed this as a macro-theory of human
motivation and by exstension personality has been used across many fields of research including:
education, alcohol use, motivational interviewing, environmental behaviours and sports and
physical activity; Self-determination theory has become increasingly researched in social
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psychology contexts since the beginning of the twenty-first ceantury.
Parten's Stages of Play (Parten, 1933) links to many of the requirments found in self-
determination theory, can be found within this theory where motivation is required in the later
stages of play including associative and cooperative play. According to Parten, as children
became older, improving their communication skills, and as opportunities for peer interaction
become more common, the nonsocial (solitary and parallel) types of play become less common,
and the social (associative and cooperative) types of play become more common (Hughes, 2009
& Tomlin 2012). The final review of literature in regards to the development of social cognition
is the Cognitive Appraisal Theories, notably by Roseman, (1984). Roseman proposes that there
are certain appraisal components that interact to elicit different emotions (Roseman, 1996). The
theory is in essence a explination of how factors influence such as motives and acountability
(being the two most important) create emotional responses, in a sense these develop into more
intracet sets of skills of emotional resilience and exspression. When one evaluates a situation as
inconsistent with one’s goals, the situation is considered motivationally inconsistent and often
elicits a negative emotion, such as anger or regret (Roseman, 1996). In light with accountability
an individual can associate ones fault or accomplishment to the task in which an emotional
response is elicited from to place context of the emotional response and amplified by the
intensity of the stimuli causing the response. Roseman provides a model for which cognition
based emotional control is esstablished in a social context, linking it to factor premanating from
resilience, emotional exertion and responding to consequences dirivied from actions of the
individual.
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Research Methodology
To research the different social cognitive skills, develop the concept of aspects; in-line with these
skills and, to create the basis of the framework and their phases; three different research
approaches have been utilised.
1. Observation
The original design of the stage model of social cognition was formulated by previous
observation of social behaviours in individuals that has occurred over a four year period; this
observation has been non-controlled (no intervention; except in the case where workplace policy
dictates, or scenarios set up by the researcher), the observation was conducted in both a
professional (at work: classroom, playground, educational/holiday programs, before and after
school care) and personal (in life) context.
2. Literature Review
In association with the research findings presented through the quantative data analysis and
observation, the literature review provides grounds in which a basis for the framework can be
established. The literature review has brought clarity and focus to the stage model proposed and
broaden the underpining knowledge and assumptions made to develop a preliminary stage model
of social cognition. In addition, past studies have improved the methodology in this paper by
providing a credential validation and contextualisation of the findings. The literature review is
crucial in the use as a methodology of this research paper as it compares the concepts proposed
in the preliminary stage model known as The Spectrum of Socio-Cognitive Growth to those
witnessed, validated and defined by previous researchers.
Explanation of the Spectrum Model
The Spectrum model is a dynamic continuum that seeks to explain the development of social
cognition in individuals. The model is devised of four components: Fundamentals, Phases,
Social Cognition Skills and Aspects.
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1. Fundamentals
Fundamentals are established to provide regulation to the spectrum, they set up the basic rules
and extensions that are allowed to be made in the spectrum in all its facets.
The fundamentals are of the spectrum are:
1.1 Phase-Age Expectancy
Each Phase has a age range expectancy attached to it, the fundamental,addresses the concept of
age to stage conformance that has been criticised in many stage models; like Piaget's Theory of
Cognitive Development. Through observation, a general expectancy to each phase has been
established, it is the expected age range in which an individual will be demonstrating social skills
relevant to the phase on the spectrum; though there are exceptions to this explained in other
fundamentals. The only exemption to this fundamental is the conceptual stage as all individuals
from birth start at this phase.
1.2 Non-conformance Principle
This principle dictates that in individual does not need to conform to all social cognition aspects
in their representative phase; the determination of what phase they are developed socially at is
through the dominance of demonstrated social cognition aspects relating to that phase (e.g. an
individual, demonstrates 4 out of 7 of the social cognition skill groups in the Organisational
phase of the spectrum; the individual can demonstrate higher or lower social cognition in the 3
other skill groups, they will be classified as having Organisational Social Cognition). The non-
conformance principle allows for learners to achieve demonstrate social cognition over separate
sections at relevant levels that do not constrain or discriminate social skills from other levels.
1.3 Transitional aspects
Certain aspects of social cognition skills can be transitional from one phase of the continuum to
another, these aspects can either transition in two ways to other phases.
1.3.1 Evolutionary Transition.
Aspects begin at a basic point and by the next phase has improved or
evolved to the next level of social cognition, many aspects of social
cognition work on this process.
1.3.2 Static Transition
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Aspects remain the same, but can be apparent in other phases of social
cognition, for example, the identity of trust in individuals remains the same in
being able to determine trust of an individual. Static transitional aspects are not
as common but do occur in the spectrum.
1.4 Backwards referral Principle
In this fundamental it addresses an individuals ability to refer back to a previous stage of social
cognition and enact certain aspects in their social behaviours, these are not to be confused with
transitional aspects. The Societal phase gives rational to the backwards referral principle
implementation by individuals with higher functioning social cognition.
1.5 Developmental limitation
The fundamental of developmental limitation is in place to account for individuals who due to
circumstances of psychological development are limited in their capacity to develop beyond
certain levels of social cognition, or are limited in their ability to achieve certain aspects of social
cognition due to their condition. For example; an individual with an Autism Spectrum Disorder,
may have limited play (peer interaction) social cognition; being more comfortable portraying
individual phase social cognition, but shows higher social cognition in orgnisation and identity.
More research will need to be conducted to further model the parameters of this fundamental.
The purpose of this fundamental is to remove the mastery paradigm in stage models, as not all
individuals are capable of achieve complete mastery over the spectrum.
2. Phases of the Spectrum
The spectrum is divided into phases, the use of the term phase is chosen rather then stage
as it does not require an individual to be demonstrating social cognition across the whole
phase rather, it requires that an individual show dominance in social cognition related to
that phase. The spectrum is divided into 5 phases, each phase has a social-cultural
designation, as the expected age range of each phase categorises with the introduction of
the social-cultural construct in the individuals development of social cognition.
2.1 Conceptual Phase
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The conceptual Phase is the starting point for all individuals (Birth), it is expected that
they will transition to the next phase by the age of 2. The phase is the conception of
primitive and instinctual social skill, individuals have limited social cognition and are in
the process of basic social skills in this stage including the establishment of trust: Centred
around the first Stage of Erikson's Theory it establishes if the infant's basic needs being
met by the parents and this interaction leading to trust or mistrust. This becomes the basis
of conceptual social cognition.
2.2 Individual Phase
The Individual phase is characterised by an individual beginning to constantly socialise
with others in a limited capacity, social exploration is very individually focused, social
orientation is predominantly individual focused, characterised by the existential question
posed by Erikson Is it okay to be me? (Erikson, 1950) And by extension, in the later
period of this stage Is it okay for me to do, move and act? (Erikson, 1980). In this phase
communication begins to develop with basic language skills, the concept of organisation
is in its infancy, Play (peer interaction) begins in a limited capacity and has benefits to
the development of peer cohesion, perspective forms with a bias caused by egocentric
thought, culture begins to play a role on social normality and interaction, identity begins
to form with characterised by Eriksons existential question and emotion begins to
develop to conform with social expectations. The expected age of compliance with this
phase is 2 to 5 years, though there is lenience in the transition from the previous phase
and into the succeeding phase; through the phase-age expectancy fundamental.
2.3 Institutional Phase
The institutional phase, aligns with the expected age range of 5 to 10 years of age, it is
refereed to the institutional phase as, during the expected age range of the phase,
individuals begin their formal education. During this phase an increase of communication
is witnessed; para-language begins to form and non-verbal language is used in
collaboration with verbal language. Individuals develop basic scope of written language
and are able to understand some para-language. Organisation of society through
relationships and hierarchy develops more, through the understanding of extended
relationship structures and simple hierarchy. Stereotypes are used to aid in systematic
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categorisation of people, places and objects.
The concept of sexuality is subconsciously developed; individuals identify their sexual
identity through the Id (the basic urges of an organism) and react appropriately with
suppressed libido, Heterosexual subconscious identification will lead to individuals
socialising primarily with members of the same gender and Homosexual subconscious
identification will lead to individuals socialising primarily with members of the opposite
gender. In this phase the concept of physical boundaries (personal space) is developed but
not fully enacted. Play (peer interaction) during this phase sees the introduction of group
play, through structured activities; Individuals begin to associate rules and hierarchy to
their games and activities (i.e. a game of tag). Group cohesion begins to develop between
peers and peers have influence on the individual in a group dynamic. During this stage
motivational factors and self-determination begin to develop on whether an individual
engages in an activity or game with their peers.
Perspective begins to morph towards social trends and egocentric thought diminishes, at
this phase an individual begins to have their perspective influenced through stereotype
stimuli, this is a process of conditioning which evolves into the next phase. The
detachment of egocentric thought leads to individuals associating that others have
perspectives different from their own, but lack the cognitive ability to think from an
others perspective in regards to socialisation.
Culturally, individuals begin to collaboratively form simple cliques (i.e. Preps, Grade
ones, Grade twos, etc.), there is a desire to lead, without the burden of responsibility, this
is commonly witnessed as a junior primary school individual wishing to be the line leader
on the way to a class room. Individuals begin to respond divergent to instructions and
tasks which is influenced by group dynamics and their cultural upbringing.
Identity begins to form more thoroughly, individuals align themselves to simple cliques
and their personal identity reflects their cultural upbringing, this has been proven through
Bourdieu's work on cultural capital (Bourdieu, 1986), where cultural ideologies reflect
upon individuals in institutions and vocational environments and lead to the development
of learnt social behaviours (i.e. middle/ruling class culture tends to be individualistic and
competitive, more disposed to regarding academic work as a preparation for professional
careers, and more accepting of the fact that young people will have an extended period of
dependence on families for study.) Individuals during this phase associate likes their
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personal likes and dislikes with others and characterise themselves through the existential
question posed by Erikson: Can I Make It In The World Of People And Things? (Erikson,
1950). Which is a transitional aspect into the next phase.
Emotionally, individauls react in a variety of ways to consequences of their actions, they
may accept the consequences after an emotional reaction to them, or they may react
negatively to the consequences. There is little regard to social protocol or expectations
when expressing emotions, but the implimentation of these protocols are forming (for
example: the falacy that boys do not cry). Resillience begins to form in response to
emotions; the individual may take time to return to their previous state after an
emotionally centred response, they develop tools and stratergies to aid them in resilience.
2.4 Organisational Phase
The organisational phase is esoterically centred around the introduction of senior
primary, high school and individuals entrance into a vocation; hence the expected age of
individuals in this phase is 10 to 16 years of age. It is characterised by Individuals
socialising in an organisational environment. During this phase evolution to many
previous aspects of social cognition are witnessed and some new social developments are
witnessed.
Communication aspects evolve to Para-language is applied in speech more frequently,
with the development of tactful speech and the individual being able to interpret para-
language. Non-verbal and verbal speech are concurrently used in autonomy and there is a
mastery over both verbal and written language.
Organisation shifts to account for a transition of understanding extended relationship
structures and simple hierarchy to understanding of complex relationships and hierarchy.
Stereotypes are deployed as a form of description for individuals, they begin to
characterise individuals by the use of stereotyped descriptors.
Sexuality begins to form more externally, with the onset of adolescence and a conscious
understanding of ones own sexual identity, predominantly around the age of 13. This is
enacted by the development of the ego and the libido becoming released from
suppression. Individuals begin to engage in sexual-social behaviours such as dating,
development of basic relationships and engaging in minor sexual behaviours such as
kissing, during this phase physical boundaries become defined and are implemented.
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Play and peer interaction becomes more systematic and games form into more organised
contexts (i.e. sports teams). Peer interaction develops in a more communicative play
approach where individuals utilise multiple mediums to engage in planning, conversation
and, play. Group dynamics develop to associate which peers interact well in the group
and which peers do not interact well; friendship plays a vital role in group dynamic.
Perspective develops to see a return of egocentrism, especially with the development of
adolescence egocentrism: a cognitive distortion in which adolescents believe that they are
the focus of every ones attention and concern. (Vargas Lascano, 2012). At the onset of
this phase the ability to acknowledge others have a different perspective then their own,
and, they can begin to formulate alternate perspective assuming it is how others might
think. Impartiality begins to develop with individuals being able to justify right from
wrong and using their new found ability to formulate others perceptions.
Cultural skills develop with the diversifying of cliques from simple social categories to
abroad range of groups (i.e. Nerds, Jocks, Cool kids, Rebels, etc.) The desire for
leadership remains but with the tolerance and willingness for some aspects of
responsibility being accepted.
Identity is almost completely moulded and during this phase, often influenced by peers,
also know as peer pressure. With the development of new and diverse cliques, individuals
begin to associate with one of these categories of social discrimination. In-line with the
association of social discrimination, individuals can identify what makes them different
from others and individualises them. Individuals begin to explore themselves more
thoroughly completing the existential question Can I Make It In The World Of People
And Things? (Erikson, 1950). Individuals begin critique themselves by internally
questioning themselves the existential question posed by Erikson: Who am I? What can I
be? (Erikson, 1950) this aspect transitions into the next phase for completion of the
question.
On an emotional context of social cognition, individuals become more stable in their
emotions. When faced with consequences they often will begin to accept, but, question
the consequences to their actions, this shows a degree of resilience and hypothetico-
deductive reasoning on part of the individual. Resilience is being consolidated in the
individual and their reactions to emotional reactive stimuli; they begin to return to a
normal state quicker than what they would if they were in the institutional phase, but
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there is still some lag in the control of emotional resilience. Individuals begin to align
their emotional reactions to that of socially standards and are portrayed in accordance
with social protocol.
2.5 Societal Phase
The societal phase is the pinnacle of social cognition, most individuals would be expected
to achieve dominance over social cognition skills in this phase by the age of 16; this stage
carries on into adult life. The phase is characterised by an Individuals practice of
socialisation at an Individual, Institutional and Organisational phase; concurrently, whilst
also demonstrating participation in society. The societal phase is essentially when an
individual is able to use his or her social skills to contribute to their society.
Through the development of communication, an individual has mastery over all aspects
of their language including: Para-language, Syntax, Verbal and, Non-verbal; being able to
use these all systematical with each other. They also have developed a mastery over
written language being able to articulate and structure their opinions and arguments in a
written context. Within this phase an individual is able to attempt cross-language
communication, being the ability to communicate with people using a different language
in a passive capacity (Finding common ground, utilising alternative communication
methods) or through the speaking of another language.
Organisation becomes complete with understanding of relationships and hierarchy being
developed to interpreted complex structures; with an understanding of how others interact
within the structure. Stereotypes are still used to categorise people, places and objects,
but the reliance on this method is reduced, instead individuals develop schemata that
appropriately categorise and identify individuals using generalised perceptions that have
been adjusted to fit the change in perception from an original stereotype; not all
individuals are capable of this form of categorisation.
Sexuality has completely developed; by now individuals will have categorised their
sexual identity to fit into the spectrum of sexual orientation/identity. With this sexual
relationships begin to develop, leading to the implementation of sexual-social skills that
surround the concept of interment relationships including: trust, bi-lateral thinking and,
blended group cohesion (where social circles combine and adjust to challenges in social
ideologies). Eventually with the development of sexual relationships; families develop
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and responsibilities associated with parenting are developed, these include adjustments to
priorities, re-assigning of trust and promoting social protocols onto their children.
Play and peer interaction is now completely systematic and games form into more
organised contexts (i.e. sports teams). Peer interaction is formed utilising a
communicative play approach where individuals utilise multiple mediums to engage in
planning, conversation and, play to achieve outcomes related to the peer interaction.
Interaction has become more democratic in nature, individuals recognise the balance in
power and collate the opinions of others in their consolidation of work, play and games.
Perspective has evolved to a stage where they are able to arrive at multiple outcomes
when perceiving the perceptions of others; through perception of the individual on others
by observation of their interactions, moods and interpretation of their communication.
Individuals have developed the ability to be completely impartial in line with their ability
to interact democratically with their peers; during this phase, impartiality is developed
through assessing, right from wrong and lining up actions against rules, laws, regulations
with regards for the consequences and doing this in a completely non bias manner.
Culture has formed to a point where cliques collapse and are replaced by discourses
instead. This is a process of dissociation of generalised thoughts and replaced with
categorisation of groups through no discriminative criteria. An individual at this
particular stage contribute their culture and cultural identity to the community. At this
point in time, the desire for leadership is somewhat diminished; though is still apparent
with leadership being sought in vocational, academic, cultural or community contexts,
with acceptance of leadership roles, individuals identify and conform to the need for
compliance to responsibilities.
Identity has come to a stage where an individual knows who they are and have some
degree of knowledge in the direction they wish for their life to head in. Existential
question on identity are still posed and continue late into life. The question of Who am I?
What can I be? (Erikson, 1950) will become completion by the age of 19 and further
existentiall questions proposed by Erikson develop including Can I Love? (20-39 years),
Can I Make My Life Count? (40-64 years) And, Is It Okay To Have Been Me? (65+
years)(Erikson, 1950).
Emotion has completely transformed and individuals demonstrate emotional maturity
through several aspects. The acceptance of consequences of an individuals actions and
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rationalising how could the consequences be avoided next time, has finally been achieved
where an individual acknowledges consequences to their actions and critically reflects
upon their actions and consequences to see how they can be shaped to avoid conflict in
the future. Emotions have become completely dictated by social protocol; though these
social protocols are often questioned by the individual. Resilience of emotions is
demonstrated, an individual becomes more resilient when faced with situations of
adversity to their emotions, they enact mechanisms that help them return to a normal
state, this of course is not affected by the onset of extreme adverse conditions that require
extended periods of emotional outlet (i.e. the death of a person close to the individual).
3. Social Cognition Skills
Social cognition has been classified into eight skill groups, each skill group has its own unique
influence on social cognition, they act essentially as schemes of aspects of social cognition, some
skill groups influence other skill groups but aspects cannot transition from one skill group to
another. There is no order of superiority to these social cognition skill groups as they all play a
vital role in the development of social cognition.
3.1 Communication
Communication provides the basis of a linguistic dialogue that is necessary for socialisation to
occur; this process is done on a number of levels and aspects; continually evolving from simple
calls to complex syntax. The communication group looks at deploying stimuli, analysing to
stimuli and the creation of text.
3.2 Organisation
Organisation is essentially a receptive series of social aspects where an individual is able to
create an organisational scheme and rather then accommodate (create a new scheme) or
assimilate (change the Information to fit the scheme) the information. In this case hierarchy and
relationships use a new method; when they gather more they modify the scheme to suit the new
information. Processes of classification are used within this skill group to identify information
and stereotyping is one of the aspect witnessed.
3.3 Sexuality
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Sexuality is not witnessed until the beginning of the Institutional phase. The skill group is
heavily influenced by Freud's work The Ego and the Id. The skill group looks at how sexuality is
subconsciously present in our development and why it only unfolds during adolescence; whilst
this being a psycho-sexual analysis, it does lead onto the development of social skills aligned
with sexuality such as the development and evolution of relationships through sexuality.
3.4 Play (Peer Interaction)
Piaget stated that Play is the answer to how anything new comes about . With this in mind; it
can be stated the importance of play and the peer interaction that collaborates with the process.
Many aspects of play especially in the Individual phase are influenced by Parten's Stages of
Play.
3.5 Perspective
Perspective is a form of interpersonal intelligence; how as an individual, we deal with others and
how we perceive others. The set of social cognition skills looks at perspective, egocentrism,
stereotypes and impartiality. This is important in social cognition as the more we develop; the
more aware we become of our peers opinions and perspectives not only our own.
3.6 Culture
Culture is important in helping shape an individuals identity, whilst doing this culture provides
the context for socialisation, as in each culture/society there is different protocols established for
socialisation. This set of skills also involves the association of discourses and cliques, forming
the context for social interaction with others of the same identity or association. The concept of
leadership is addressed in the culture skill group, it looks at how leadership is desired and how
this correlates to the level of responsibility that is desired with this leadership, this reflects on
how an individual can lead their group through their culture.
3.7 Identity
Identity plays a crucial role in socialisation, if an individual has no identity, how can they
socialise? This is linked closely with Interpersonal intelligence; having a deep understanding of
the self; what one's strengths/ weaknesses are, what makes one unique, being able to predict
one's own reactions/emotions. Identity is characterised by the individuals thoughts of existential
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questions proposed by Erikson in his stages of personal development. In-line with this skill
group individuals identify a membership to a clique or discourse, by self-classifying their
personal characteristics. It looks how culture and peers impact upon an individuals identity and
how individuals compare and differentiate each other through the identification of their likes,
dislikes, characteristics, traits, beliefs, values and, culture.
3.8 Emotion
Emotions are a means to express desires and feelings, in the social context they hold the skills to
determine behaviour, resilience, reaction to consequences and, beginning to form emotional
responses that are dictated in society by social protocols, Roseman’s theory of appraisal holds
that there are certain appraisal components that interact to elicit different emotions (Roseman,
1996) .
4. Aspects
Aspects are individual behaviours, routines, responses or skills that come under one of the eight
social cognition skills groups. Aspects are the elaborations of how these behaviours, routines,
responses or skills are demonstrated under each phase.
During certain phases, Aspects are not apparent, this is due to the inability to express or
demonstrate these aspects until a later phase.
Some aspects in this model are influenced or characterised by concepts raised by theorist.
Aspects that pertain to organisation can be referenced by Piaget's Theory of Cognitive
Development (1964) in particular looking at his concept of schemata, as people are born with a
tendency to organise their thinking processes into psychological structures or mechanisms.
(Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013) Piaget described the organisation of information through the use of
schemes and information could be deposited into schemes in one of two ways (know as
adaption): Assimilation, where an individual changes the information to fit the scheme and,
Accommodation: where an individual creates a new scheme to fit the information. In the
organisation set of social cognition skills, stereotypes and discourses abide by these two form of
adaption, but hierarchy and relationship structures are organised through a new method referred
to as Alteration; where the scheme is adjusted to suit the information.
Aspects pertaining to sexuality and sexual identity can be justified using Freud's work on The
Ego and the Id (1923), where it is noted that the libido is suppressed during childhood and
17
individuals tend to show association with members of the opposite gender they are attracted to,
with the onset of adolescence the libido returns and the Ego seeks to please the Id by enacting on
these desires of sexuality.
Play (peer interaction) aspects are influenced by a few theorist, most notably Self Determination
Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1987, 1991, 2000), Parten's Stages of Play (Parten, 1933). During
the Individual phase, play (peer interaction) is heavily influenced by the observations and
research conducted by Parten in the development of her Stages of Play theory, it shows the
degree of play in which individuals engage in: Unoccupied (Play), Solitary (Independent) Play,
Onlooker Play (Behaviour), Parallel Play, Associative Play, Cooperative Play. Associative play
transitions into the institutional phase of play (peer interaction) and cooperative play is witnessed
up to the societal phase and can be contextualised to other peer interactive scenarios. Self-
determination and motivation influence an individuals willingness to participate in activities
either individually or with peers this is apparent by the onset of the institutional phase and is
characterised by Self Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1987, 1991, 2000) where a task
posed to the individual must have the ability for Autonomy: the universal urge to be causal
agents of one's own life and act in harmony with one's integrated self. Competence: Seek to
control the outcome and experience mastery (White, 1959) and, Relatedness: the universal want
to interact, be connected to, and experience caring for others (Baumeister & Leary, 1995).
Especially with the element of relatedness it can be perceived that self-determination and
motivation play a significant role in the individuals desire to socialise through play and peer
interaction.
Perspective aspects are validated by concepts raised by Piaget, in regards to cognition, with skills
found in his Stage model of Cognitive Development having a social context to them, other
theorist include Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development (Kohlberg, 1958) and my work on a
Superficial Social Conditioning Theory (Watts, 2013)1 Piaget contributes to the validity of
findings through his concept of egocentric thought, concrete operation (correlates to Institutional
phase) individuals being unable to think hypothetically and adolescence egocentrism. Individual
phase social cognition shows a high tendency for individuals to have egocentric thought;
whereby they are limited to thinking only fro their perspective. During the institutional
perspectives are still the own of the individual, but they acknowledge that others have different
1This theory, has not been validated by academics as yet, the findings in this theory closely resemble the outcomes
of observations in this paper pertaining to the influences of stereotypes on perspective and perception.
18
perspective, yet, are limited by their ability to think hypothetically, and, by extension, think
from others perspectives. During the organisational phase, it has been witnessed the development
of adolescence egocentrism; where the individual assumes that others are judging them, during
this phase, the ability to think hypothetically develops and individuals are able to attempt
thinking from others perspectives. Kohlberg weighs into this stage with his Stage Model of
Moral Development (Kohlberg, 1958),the influence on moral development in the spectrum and
its aspects occurs from a perspective approach, specifically developing in the organisational
phase and progressing into the societal phase; with the development and enactment of
imparitality. During the organisational phase the individual develops the ability to be impartial,
this correlates to the fourth stage of moral development (authority and social order obedience
driven), during this stage an individual is driven by the desire to comply with the rules of society
in the weighing of a decision, as they are important to maintaining a functioning society, Most
active members of society remain at stage four, where morality is still predominantly dictated by
an outside force (Kolhberg, 1973). As an individual progresses onto the societal phase, their
social cognition in relation to impartiality shifts to correlate with Kolhberg's fifth stage (social
contract driven), where the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights and values.
These perspectives become mutually respected and unique to the individual and their community
and laws are regared as social contracts which individuals as citizens are bound to; ultimately
imparitality is completely unbiased and enactedin such a manner, with democracy being a core
value to individuals in the societal phase.
Stereotypes begin to take influence on individuals perspectives, often through an
ethnomethological process of conditioning, whereby stereotypes influence the decision making
from the institutional phase and by the societal phase individuals begin to circulate the
stereotypes that influence their perspective or challenge them.
Cultural aspects of social cognition play a crucial role in the development of individuals, this is
predominantly validated by Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner,
1979), the theory identifies five environmental systems which individuals will interact with that
influence their social upbringing, in theory it shows that individuals grow cognitively in different
aspects according to their cultural upbringing; Bronfenbrenner's work was influenced by
Vygotsky's developmental psychology theories. Under this section, there is a cross-skill aspect
that becomes apparent, this falls under the social and organisation skill groups, but due to the
cultural context of this socialisation it falls predominantly in the cultural category. This
19
collection of aspects is the development of cliques and discourses which culturally the individual
identifies among them and through their identity, associate with. From the leadership aspect,
individuals develop their desire for leadership and acceptance of responsibility; leading to the
aspersion of the individuals culture into society.
Identity aspects play an important role in the socialisation of individuals, it leads to individuals
being able to associate their identity to groups they associate with and in turn identify
membership to cliques and discourses. They begin to compare themselves to others associating
what makes others similar to them and then how they are each different and unique. An
individuals identity predominantly through the organisational phase is influenced by their peers
(peer pressure). Mainly identity is associated with Erikson's stages of psychosocial development
(Erikson, 1950), especially through the posing of existential questions that individuals consider
through development in a number of ways including self reflection, play and comparison. These
questions impact upon identity of the individual and reflects to there social standing with the
placement of their identity in a social environment.
Emotion is affected by many aspects, essentially they are responses to stimuli which evolve to
adhere to social protocols and the implementation of emotional skills in a social environment.
The major aspects relating to this area of social cognition include resilience, reactions to
consequences, emotional reaction and adaption of emotional reactions to social protocols.
20
The Model
The Spectrum of Socio-Cognitive Development model; whilst theoretical is based on research
backing of different theories and the observations conducted to obtain the results laid out as
aspects in the model.
23
Conclusion
The Spectrum of Socio-Cognitive Development, has through observation and research
developed a theoretical framework for the growth and development of social cognition. The
spectrum has been designed to protect itself from criticisms and flaws that have been associated
with stage models, like with Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development. To counter theses
criticisms, fundamentals have been established to account for potential discrepanciesand
variables that are encountered in studies pertaining to society and psychology.
The spectrum has addressed different phases, social cognition skill group and the associated
aspects relating to these stipulated categories.The validity of the spectrum has been aided
through the theoretical research of theorist to concrete the observations, including: Self
Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1987, 1991, 2000), Parten's Stages of Play (Parten,
1933), Social Identity Theory ( Tajfel & Turner, 1979) Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial
Development (Erikson, 1950), The Ego and the Id. (Freud, 1923), The ecology of human
development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979), Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development, Stage Model of
Moral Development (Kohlberg, 1958) and, Cognitive Appraisal Theories, Notably (Roseman,
1984).
The spectrum has laid the foundation for development of theories pertaining to social cognition
in a developmental continuum; with further reseach using quantitive and qualitive research
methodologies, it would be possible for the stage model to be adjusted and validated.
24
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