Spectrum of Socio-Cognitive Development

A preliminary stage model of social cognition in individuals on a spectrum ofdevelopment

by

Nathan William Watts

TAE, Bed UG3

Queensland University of Technology© Copyright by Nathan William Watts 2014

Spectrum of Socio-Cognitive Growth

Nathan William Watts

Bachelor of Education (Secondary)

Queensland University of Technology

2014

Abstract

The Spectrum of Socio-Cognitive Development is a theoretical model that provides a structured

variable framework for explaining levels of social cognition in individuals. It is structured

similarly to Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development, in the necessity that it is a continuum

model of cognitive development; though focused on social cognition only. The Spectrum is not a

theory, it is a method to explain the dynamic nature of social cognition in individuals. The

Spectrum, consists of fundamentals, phases, skills and aspects. The development of the

Spectrum, is essential in the understanding of the different levels of social cognition individuals

have and could be utilised as a tool for developing learning programs in schools.

Table of Content

Abstract................................................................................................i

Introduction..........................................................................................1

Literature Review.................................................................................2

Research Methodology.........................................................................5

Explination of the Model......................................................................17

1. Fundementals..........................................................................17

2. Phases........................................................................................18

3. Social Cognition Skills............................................................22

4. Aspects.....................................................................................25

The Model............................................................................................28

Conclusion............................................................................................31

Bibliography.........................................................................................32

Appenicies...........................................................................................36

1

Introduction

Cognition is a field of diverse research interest, social cognition being one of those fields

researchers have a focus on; though little research has been done which explains the

development of social cognition in individuals.

The major question posed in this field is: is it possible for a stage model of social cognition to be

developed; this paper seeks to respond to this question by providing the answer, yes. The paper

goes futher then just answering this question by proposing a preliminary stage model of social

cognition that focuses on the development and transition of social cognition in individuals over a

spectrum of phases.

Many studies and models on social cognition have been attempted around small aspects or

viewpoints, such as bronfenbrenner and his work on explaining the diffrences in cognitive

outcomes of individuals exsposed to different cultural settings. The need for a structured model

of social cognitive development is evident to collaborate the different fields of social cognition

into one centralised model that shows accountable and developmental growth across all aspects

of social cognition; and, incorporating aspects of existensial, emotional, interpersonal and

intrapersonal intelligence into the framework of social cognition.

The stage model proposed has the practical application of being used as a tool to measure the

development of individuals in a social environment and provide insight into how social cognition

elvoves as an individual grows. The stage model is designed in an effectual method as it cements

absolutes in the theoretical framework and regulates what aspects can be flexible, which many

stage models do not address therefore leading to flaws and critisms of the fundemental integrity

of the model. The model has collated all the behaviours, routines, patterns and, skills pertaining

to social cognition into logical groups which across the spectrum show transitional growth.

Essentiall, as with most stage models measuring skills, the model will be critised by rules

governing the measurement of competence, though due to the intracet nature of social cognition,

the skills can be established to pose a series of basic criteria to be achieveable (Identify of likes

and dislikes, is measured by the criteria that: an individual is able to acknowledge what they like

and what they do not like). The concept of evolutionary and transitioning skills accounts for

empirical problems in studying competence; whereby to find the a developed social cognitive

skill that operation A (crying to gain attention) precedes operation B (Verbal communication

apparent but somewhat limited) it is necessary to establish that operation A can be found in the

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absence of operation B and that B can never be found in the absence of A. We thus need to

identify the minimal acceptable evidence of the manifestation of operations A and B. (Brown &

Desforges, 1979).

Throughout this paper, the model will be explained and justified though the empirical research

including approaches of observations, quantitive data analysis of survey results and the use of

reviewed literature to validate findings. Overall this paper hopes to build upon exisiting concepts

of social cognition and associate findings under a centralised model that provides the theoretical

framework for a spectrum of socio-cognitive development though phases, social cognitive skill

groups, aspects and fundementals.

Literature Review

Research has been a crucial aspect of the development of the Spectrum, the review of literatures

has been essential to validate the formulation of this theoretical model and providing some basis

for the extrapoloation of research into a new context. Inceptually, there was a need to develop a

frame work of social cognitive growth based on an existing model; unfortunately in Piaget's

Four Stages Model of Cognitive Development, little concern was placed on social cognition over

the four stages, Piaget was almost completely concerned with cognitive development, and that he

ignored social factors in development (Hala, 1997); though in saying this, some cognitive skills

addressed in his theory can have a social application. Piaget's theory whilst not having a focus on

social cognition, it does help provide an understanding for a conceptual framework based on,

Piaget's notion that social an personality development; requires dependence on cognitive

development. Whilst Piaget's theory does have its short comings; it nonetheless provides a

valuable framework for understanding changes that occur in many aspects of development

(Shaffer, 2004). Congruence with concept provided by other theories has helped mold the

Spectrum model proposed and provide some validity.

Les Vygotskys works help provide context to the social nature of cognition, in his works he

covers the importance of thought and language: Self-talk "develops along a rising not a

declining, curve; it goes through an evolution, not an involution. In the end, it becomes inner

speech" (Vygotsky, 1987). His concept of the Zone of Proximal development provides a

theoretical example of how scaffolding and peer learning is influential to social cognition. On

Vygotsky's less known works in regards to the psychology of play, it provides guidance to

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observations on how children develop socially through play and games; as a psychological

phenomenon and its role in the child's development.

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development has provided significant validation of concepts

raised through observation and the structuring of the spectrum, with regards to the concept of the

psychosocial crisis that is apparent in each stage of Erikson's model, relating to varying social

cognition aspects (i.e. the ability to develop trust.)

When looking at the influence of cultural factors upon the development of cognition it provides

interesting insight into the divergence of outcomes possible for simple cognitive development.

Bronfenbrenner, suggested through his theory know as The ecology of human development

(Bronfenbrenner, 1979) that individual's cognitive abilities are influenced through systems of

cultural and community factors. These findings have provided the grounds for developments in

cultural social skill and the identity of the individual as they transition through the spectrum.

Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979) relates to Bronfenbrenner's proposal of systems

in the human ecology that influence an individual, within this theory Tajfel and Turner, assert

that group membership engenders in group/ self-categorisation and improvement in ways that

advantage the in-group at the detriment of the out-group. This membership to in-groups and the

self catagorisation is proccessed on the understanding in the theoryof social identity that person

has not one, “personal self”, but rather several selves that correspond to broadening circles of

group membership. Antithetic social contexts may initiate an individual to think, feel and act on

substructure of his personal, family or national “level of self” (Turner et al., 1987)

Freud, has provided guidance for framework around social cognitive processes related to

sexuality, Identity (as an extension of sexuality) and Play (Peer Interaction), by the interpretation

and contextualisation of his work The Ego and the Id.

The above mentioned theories have provided major theoretical account for the validity of the

spectrum and in some instances contributed to the mechanism of the spectrum. Some other

theories and models have been exploited to concrete observations and contribute to the theory;

these include: Self Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1987, 1991, 2000) is important to

describe the factors of motivation and self-determination in the enactment of play or peer

interaction of an individual, Deci & Ryan had developed this as a macro-theory of human

motivation and by exstension personality has been used across many fields of research including:

education, alcohol use, motivational interviewing, environmental behaviours and sports and

physical activity; Self-determination theory has become increasingly researched in social

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psychology contexts since the beginning of the twenty-first ceantury.

Parten's Stages of Play (Parten, 1933) links to many of the requirments found in self-

determination theory, can be found within this theory where motivation is required in the later

stages of play including associative and cooperative play. According to Parten, as children

became older, improving their communication skills, and as opportunities for peer interaction

become more common, the nonsocial (solitary and parallel) types of play become less common,

and the social (associative and cooperative) types of play become more common (Hughes, 2009

& Tomlin 2012). The final review of literature in regards to the development of social cognition

is the Cognitive Appraisal Theories, notably by Roseman, (1984). Roseman proposes that there

are certain appraisal components that interact to elicit different emotions (Roseman, 1996). The

theory is in essence a explination of how factors influence such as motives and acountability

(being the two most important) create emotional responses, in a sense these develop into more

intracet sets of skills of emotional resilience and exspression. When one evaluates a situation as

inconsistent with one’s goals, the situation is considered motivationally inconsistent and often

elicits a negative emotion, such as anger or regret (Roseman, 1996). In light with accountability

an individual can associate ones fault or accomplishment to the task in which an emotional

response is elicited from to place context of the emotional response and amplified by the

intensity of the stimuli causing the response. Roseman provides a model for which cognition

based emotional control is esstablished in a social context, linking it to factor premanating from

resilience, emotional exertion and responding to consequences dirivied from actions of the

individual.

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Research Methodology

To research the different social cognitive skills, develop the concept of aspects; in-line with these

skills and, to create the basis of the framework and their phases; three different research

approaches have been utilised.

1. Observation

The original design of the stage model of social cognition was formulated by previous

observation of social behaviours in individuals that has occurred over a four year period; this

observation has been non-controlled (no intervention; except in the case where workplace policy

dictates, or scenarios set up by the researcher), the observation was conducted in both a

professional (at work: classroom, playground, educational/holiday programs, before and after

school care) and personal (in life) context.

2. Literature Review

In association with the research findings presented through the quantative data analysis and

observation, the literature review provides grounds in which a basis for the framework can be

established. The literature review has brought clarity and focus to the stage model proposed and

broaden the underpining knowledge and assumptions made to develop a preliminary stage model

of social cognition. In addition, past studies have improved the methodology in this paper by

providing a credential validation and contextualisation of the findings. The literature review is

crucial in the use as a methodology of this research paper as it compares the concepts proposed

in the preliminary stage model known as The Spectrum of Socio-Cognitive Growth to those

witnessed, validated and defined by previous researchers.

Explanation of the Spectrum Model

The Spectrum model is a dynamic continuum that seeks to explain the development of social

cognition in individuals. The model is devised of four components: Fundamentals, Phases,

Social Cognition Skills and Aspects.

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1. Fundamentals

Fundamentals are established to provide regulation to the spectrum, they set up the basic rules

and extensions that are allowed to be made in the spectrum in all its facets.

The fundamentals are of the spectrum are:

1.1 Phase-Age Expectancy

Each Phase has a age range expectancy attached to it, the fundamental,addresses the concept of

age to stage conformance that has been criticised in many stage models; like Piaget's Theory of

Cognitive Development. Through observation, a general expectancy to each phase has been

established, it is the expected age range in which an individual will be demonstrating social skills

relevant to the phase on the spectrum; though there are exceptions to this explained in other

fundamentals. The only exemption to this fundamental is the conceptual stage as all individuals

from birth start at this phase.

1.2 Non-conformance Principle

This principle dictates that in individual does not need to conform to all social cognition aspects

in their representative phase; the determination of what phase they are developed socially at is

through the dominance of demonstrated social cognition aspects relating to that phase (e.g. an

individual, demonstrates 4 out of 7 of the social cognition skill groups in the Organisational

phase of the spectrum; the individual can demonstrate higher or lower social cognition in the 3

other skill groups, they will be classified as having Organisational Social Cognition). The non-

conformance principle allows for learners to achieve demonstrate social cognition over separate

sections at relevant levels that do not constrain or discriminate social skills from other levels.

1.3 Transitional aspects

Certain aspects of social cognition skills can be transitional from one phase of the continuum to

another, these aspects can either transition in two ways to other phases.

1.3.1 Evolutionary Transition.

Aspects begin at a basic point and by the next phase has improved or

evolved to the next level of social cognition, many aspects of social

cognition work on this process.

1.3.2 Static Transition

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Aspects remain the same, but can be apparent in other phases of social

cognition, for example, the identity of trust in individuals remains the same in

being able to determine trust of an individual. Static transitional aspects are not

as common but do occur in the spectrum.

1.4 Backwards referral Principle

In this fundamental it addresses an individuals ability to refer back to a previous stage of social

cognition and enact certain aspects in their social behaviours, these are not to be confused with

transitional aspects. The Societal phase gives rational to the backwards referral principle

implementation by individuals with higher functioning social cognition.

1.5 Developmental limitation

The fundamental of developmental limitation is in place to account for individuals who due to

circumstances of psychological development are limited in their capacity to develop beyond

certain levels of social cognition, or are limited in their ability to achieve certain aspects of social

cognition due to their condition. For example; an individual with an Autism Spectrum Disorder,

may have limited play (peer interaction) social cognition; being more comfortable portraying

individual phase social cognition, but shows higher social cognition in orgnisation and identity.

More research will need to be conducted to further model the parameters of this fundamental.

The purpose of this fundamental is to remove the mastery paradigm in stage models, as not all

individuals are capable of achieve complete mastery over the spectrum.

2. Phases of the Spectrum

The spectrum is divided into phases, the use of the term phase is chosen rather then stage

as it does not require an individual to be demonstrating social cognition across the whole

phase rather, it requires that an individual show dominance in social cognition related to

that phase. The spectrum is divided into 5 phases, each phase has a social-cultural

designation, as the expected age range of each phase categorises with the introduction of

the social-cultural construct in the individuals development of social cognition.

2.1 Conceptual Phase

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The conceptual Phase is the starting point for all individuals (Birth), it is expected that

they will transition to the next phase by the age of 2. The phase is the conception of

primitive and instinctual social skill, individuals have limited social cognition and are in

the process of basic social skills in this stage including the establishment of trust: Centred

around the first Stage of Erikson's Theory it establishes if the infant's basic needs being

met by the parents and this interaction leading to trust or mistrust. This becomes the basis

of conceptual social cognition.

2.2 Individual Phase

The Individual phase is characterised by an individual beginning to constantly socialise

with others in a limited capacity, social exploration is very individually focused, social

orientation is predominantly individual focused, characterised by the existential question

posed by Erikson Is it okay to be me? (Erikson, 1950) And by extension, in the later

period of this stage Is it okay for me to do, move and act? (Erikson, 1980). In this phase

communication begins to develop with basic language skills, the concept of organisation

is in its infancy, Play (peer interaction) begins in a limited capacity and has benefits to

the development of peer cohesion, perspective forms with a bias caused by egocentric

thought, culture begins to play a role on social normality and interaction, identity begins

to form with characterised by Eriksons existential question and emotion begins to

develop to conform with social expectations. The expected age of compliance with this

phase is 2 to 5 years, though there is lenience in the transition from the previous phase

and into the succeeding phase; through the phase-age expectancy fundamental.

2.3 Institutional Phase

The institutional phase, aligns with the expected age range of 5 to 10 years of age, it is

refereed to the institutional phase as, during the expected age range of the phase,

individuals begin their formal education. During this phase an increase of communication

is witnessed; para-language begins to form and non-verbal language is used in

collaboration with verbal language. Individuals develop basic scope of written language

and are able to understand some para-language. Organisation of society through

relationships and hierarchy develops more, through the understanding of extended

relationship structures and simple hierarchy. Stereotypes are used to aid in systematic

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categorisation of people, places and objects.

The concept of sexuality is subconsciously developed; individuals identify their sexual

identity through the Id (the basic urges of an organism) and react appropriately with

suppressed libido, Heterosexual subconscious identification will lead to individuals

socialising primarily with members of the same gender and Homosexual subconscious

identification will lead to individuals socialising primarily with members of the opposite

gender. In this phase the concept of physical boundaries (personal space) is developed but

not fully enacted. Play (peer interaction) during this phase sees the introduction of group

play, through structured activities; Individuals begin to associate rules and hierarchy to

their games and activities (i.e. a game of tag). Group cohesion begins to develop between

peers and peers have influence on the individual in a group dynamic. During this stage

motivational factors and self-determination begin to develop on whether an individual

engages in an activity or game with their peers.

Perspective begins to morph towards social trends and egocentric thought diminishes, at

this phase an individual begins to have their perspective influenced through stereotype

stimuli, this is a process of conditioning which evolves into the next phase. The

detachment of egocentric thought leads to individuals associating that others have

perspectives different from their own, but lack the cognitive ability to think from an

others perspective in regards to socialisation.

Culturally, individuals begin to collaboratively form simple cliques (i.e. Preps, Grade

ones, Grade twos, etc.), there is a desire to lead, without the burden of responsibility, this

is commonly witnessed as a junior primary school individual wishing to be the line leader

on the way to a class room. Individuals begin to respond divergent to instructions and

tasks which is influenced by group dynamics and their cultural upbringing.

Identity begins to form more thoroughly, individuals align themselves to simple cliques

and their personal identity reflects their cultural upbringing, this has been proven through

Bourdieu's work on cultural capital (Bourdieu, 1986), where cultural ideologies reflect

upon individuals in institutions and vocational environments and lead to the development

of learnt social behaviours (i.e. middle/ruling class culture tends to be individualistic and

competitive, more disposed to regarding academic work as a preparation for professional

careers, and more accepting of the fact that young people will have an extended period of

dependence on families for study.) Individuals during this phase associate likes their

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personal likes and dislikes with others and characterise themselves through the existential

question posed by Erikson: Can I Make It In The World Of People And Things? (Erikson,

1950). Which is a transitional aspect into the next phase.

Emotionally, individauls react in a variety of ways to consequences of their actions, they

may accept the consequences after an emotional reaction to them, or they may react

negatively to the consequences. There is little regard to social protocol or expectations

when expressing emotions, but the implimentation of these protocols are forming (for

example: the falacy that boys do not cry). Resillience begins to form in response to

emotions; the individual may take time to return to their previous state after an

emotionally centred response, they develop tools and stratergies to aid them in resilience.

2.4 Organisational Phase

The organisational phase is esoterically centred around the introduction of senior

primary, high school and individuals entrance into a vocation; hence the expected age of

individuals in this phase is 10 to 16 years of age. It is characterised by Individuals

socialising in an organisational environment. During this phase evolution to many

previous aspects of social cognition are witnessed and some new social developments are

witnessed.

Communication aspects evolve to Para-language is applied in speech more frequently,

with the development of tactful speech and the individual being able to interpret para-

language. Non-verbal and verbal speech are concurrently used in autonomy and there is a

mastery over both verbal and written language.

Organisation shifts to account for a transition of understanding extended relationship

structures and simple hierarchy to understanding of complex relationships and hierarchy.

Stereotypes are deployed as a form of description for individuals, they begin to

characterise individuals by the use of stereotyped descriptors.

Sexuality begins to form more externally, with the onset of adolescence and a conscious

understanding of ones own sexual identity, predominantly around the age of 13. This is

enacted by the development of the ego and the libido becoming released from

suppression. Individuals begin to engage in sexual-social behaviours such as dating,

development of basic relationships and engaging in minor sexual behaviours such as

kissing, during this phase physical boundaries become defined and are implemented.

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Play and peer interaction becomes more systematic and games form into more organised

contexts (i.e. sports teams). Peer interaction develops in a more communicative play

approach where individuals utilise multiple mediums to engage in planning, conversation

and, play. Group dynamics develop to associate which peers interact well in the group

and which peers do not interact well; friendship plays a vital role in group dynamic.

Perspective develops to see a return of egocentrism, especially with the development of

adolescence egocentrism: a cognitive distortion in which adolescents believe that they are

the focus of every ones attention and concern. (Vargas Lascano, 2012). At the onset of

this phase the ability to acknowledge others have a different perspective then their own,

and, they can begin to formulate alternate perspective assuming it is how others might

think. Impartiality begins to develop with individuals being able to justify right from

wrong and using their new found ability to formulate others perceptions.

Cultural skills develop with the diversifying of cliques from simple social categories to

abroad range of groups (i.e. Nerds, Jocks, Cool kids, Rebels, etc.) The desire for

leadership remains but with the tolerance and willingness for some aspects of

responsibility being accepted.

Identity is almost completely moulded and during this phase, often influenced by peers,

also know as peer pressure. With the development of new and diverse cliques, individuals

begin to associate with one of these categories of social discrimination. In-line with the

association of social discrimination, individuals can identify what makes them different

from others and individualises them. Individuals begin to explore themselves more

thoroughly completing the existential question Can I Make It In The World Of People

And Things? (Erikson, 1950). Individuals begin critique themselves by internally

questioning themselves the existential question posed by Erikson: Who am I? What can I

be? (Erikson, 1950) this aspect transitions into the next phase for completion of the

question.

On an emotional context of social cognition, individuals become more stable in their

emotions. When faced with consequences they often will begin to accept, but, question

the consequences to their actions, this shows a degree of resilience and hypothetico-

deductive reasoning on part of the individual. Resilience is being consolidated in the

individual and their reactions to emotional reactive stimuli; they begin to return to a

normal state quicker than what they would if they were in the institutional phase, but

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there is still some lag in the control of emotional resilience. Individuals begin to align

their emotional reactions to that of socially standards and are portrayed in accordance

with social protocol.

2.5 Societal Phase

The societal phase is the pinnacle of social cognition, most individuals would be expected

to achieve dominance over social cognition skills in this phase by the age of 16; this stage

carries on into adult life. The phase is characterised by an Individuals practice of

socialisation at an Individual, Institutional and Organisational phase; concurrently, whilst

also demonstrating participation in society. The societal phase is essentially when an

individual is able to use his or her social skills to contribute to their society.

Through the development of communication, an individual has mastery over all aspects

of their language including: Para-language, Syntax, Verbal and, Non-verbal; being able to

use these all systematical with each other. They also have developed a mastery over

written language being able to articulate and structure their opinions and arguments in a

written context. Within this phase an individual is able to attempt cross-language

communication, being the ability to communicate with people using a different language

in a passive capacity (Finding common ground, utilising alternative communication

methods) or through the speaking of another language.

Organisation becomes complete with understanding of relationships and hierarchy being

developed to interpreted complex structures; with an understanding of how others interact

within the structure. Stereotypes are still used to categorise people, places and objects,

but the reliance on this method is reduced, instead individuals develop schemata that

appropriately categorise and identify individuals using generalised perceptions that have

been adjusted to fit the change in perception from an original stereotype; not all

individuals are capable of this form of categorisation.

Sexuality has completely developed; by now individuals will have categorised their

sexual identity to fit into the spectrum of sexual orientation/identity. With this sexual

relationships begin to develop, leading to the implementation of sexual-social skills that

surround the concept of interment relationships including: trust, bi-lateral thinking and,

blended group cohesion (where social circles combine and adjust to challenges in social

ideologies). Eventually with the development of sexual relationships; families develop

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and responsibilities associated with parenting are developed, these include adjustments to

priorities, re-assigning of trust and promoting social protocols onto their children.

Play and peer interaction is now completely systematic and games form into more

organised contexts (i.e. sports teams). Peer interaction is formed utilising a

communicative play approach where individuals utilise multiple mediums to engage in

planning, conversation and, play to achieve outcomes related to the peer interaction.

Interaction has become more democratic in nature, individuals recognise the balance in

power and collate the opinions of others in their consolidation of work, play and games.

Perspective has evolved to a stage where they are able to arrive at multiple outcomes

when perceiving the perceptions of others; through perception of the individual on others

by observation of their interactions, moods and interpretation of their communication.

Individuals have developed the ability to be completely impartial in line with their ability

to interact democratically with their peers; during this phase, impartiality is developed

through assessing, right from wrong and lining up actions against rules, laws, regulations

with regards for the consequences and doing this in a completely non bias manner.

Culture has formed to a point where cliques collapse and are replaced by discourses

instead. This is a process of dissociation of generalised thoughts and replaced with

categorisation of groups through no discriminative criteria. An individual at this

particular stage contribute their culture and cultural identity to the community. At this

point in time, the desire for leadership is somewhat diminished; though is still apparent

with leadership being sought in vocational, academic, cultural or community contexts,

with acceptance of leadership roles, individuals identify and conform to the need for

compliance to responsibilities.

Identity has come to a stage where an individual knows who they are and have some

degree of knowledge in the direction they wish for their life to head in. Existential

question on identity are still posed and continue late into life. The question of Who am I?

What can I be? (Erikson, 1950) will become completion by the age of 19 and further

existentiall questions proposed by Erikson develop including Can I Love? (20-39 years),

Can I Make My Life Count? (40-64 years) And, Is It Okay To Have Been Me? (65+

years)(Erikson, 1950).

Emotion has completely transformed and individuals demonstrate emotional maturity

through several aspects. The acceptance of consequences of an individuals actions and

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rationalising how could the consequences be avoided next time, has finally been achieved

where an individual acknowledges consequences to their actions and critically reflects

upon their actions and consequences to see how they can be shaped to avoid conflict in

the future. Emotions have become completely dictated by social protocol; though these

social protocols are often questioned by the individual. Resilience of emotions is

demonstrated, an individual becomes more resilient when faced with situations of

adversity to their emotions, they enact mechanisms that help them return to a normal

state, this of course is not affected by the onset of extreme adverse conditions that require

extended periods of emotional outlet (i.e. the death of a person close to the individual).

3. Social Cognition Skills

Social cognition has been classified into eight skill groups, each skill group has its own unique

influence on social cognition, they act essentially as schemes of aspects of social cognition, some

skill groups influence other skill groups but aspects cannot transition from one skill group to

another. There is no order of superiority to these social cognition skill groups as they all play a

vital role in the development of social cognition.

3.1 Communication

Communication provides the basis of a linguistic dialogue that is necessary for socialisation to

occur; this process is done on a number of levels and aspects; continually evolving from simple

calls to complex syntax. The communication group looks at deploying stimuli, analysing to

stimuli and the creation of text.

3.2 Organisation

Organisation is essentially a receptive series of social aspects where an individual is able to

create an organisational scheme and rather then accommodate (create a new scheme) or

assimilate (change the Information to fit the scheme) the information. In this case hierarchy and

relationships use a new method; when they gather more they modify the scheme to suit the new

information. Processes of classification are used within this skill group to identify information

and stereotyping is one of the aspect witnessed.

3.3 Sexuality

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Sexuality is not witnessed until the beginning of the Institutional phase. The skill group is

heavily influenced by Freud's work The Ego and the Id. The skill group looks at how sexuality is

subconsciously present in our development and why it only unfolds during adolescence; whilst

this being a psycho-sexual analysis, it does lead onto the development of social skills aligned

with sexuality such as the development and evolution of relationships through sexuality.

3.4 Play (Peer Interaction)

Piaget stated that Play is the answer to how anything new comes about . With this in mind; it

can be stated the importance of play and the peer interaction that collaborates with the process.

Many aspects of play especially in the Individual phase are influenced by Parten's Stages of

Play.

3.5 Perspective

Perspective is a form of interpersonal intelligence; how as an individual, we deal with others and

how we perceive others. The set of social cognition skills looks at perspective, egocentrism,

stereotypes and impartiality. This is important in social cognition as the more we develop; the

more aware we become of our peers opinions and perspectives not only our own.

3.6 Culture

Culture is important in helping shape an individuals identity, whilst doing this culture provides

the context for socialisation, as in each culture/society there is different protocols established for

socialisation. This set of skills also involves the association of discourses and cliques, forming

the context for social interaction with others of the same identity or association. The concept of

leadership is addressed in the culture skill group, it looks at how leadership is desired and how

this correlates to the level of responsibility that is desired with this leadership, this reflects on

how an individual can lead their group through their culture.

3.7 Identity

Identity plays a crucial role in socialisation, if an individual has no identity, how can they

socialise? This is linked closely with Interpersonal intelligence; having a deep understanding of

the self; what one's strengths/ weaknesses are, what makes one unique, being able to predict

one's own reactions/emotions. Identity is characterised by the individuals thoughts of existential

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questions proposed by Erikson in his stages of personal development. In-line with this skill

group individuals identify a membership to a clique or discourse, by self-classifying their

personal characteristics. It looks how culture and peers impact upon an individuals identity and

how individuals compare and differentiate each other through the identification of their likes,

dislikes, characteristics, traits, beliefs, values and, culture.

3.8 Emotion

Emotions are a means to express desires and feelings, in the social context they hold the skills to

determine behaviour, resilience, reaction to consequences and, beginning to form emotional

responses that are dictated in society by social protocols, Roseman’s theory of appraisal holds

that there are certain appraisal components that interact to elicit different emotions (Roseman,

1996) .

4. Aspects

Aspects are individual behaviours, routines, responses or skills that come under one of the eight

social cognition skills groups. Aspects are the elaborations of how these behaviours, routines,

responses or skills are demonstrated under each phase.

During certain phases, Aspects are not apparent, this is due to the inability to express or

demonstrate these aspects until a later phase.

Some aspects in this model are influenced or characterised by concepts raised by theorist.

Aspects that pertain to organisation can be referenced by Piaget's Theory of Cognitive

Development (1964) in particular looking at his concept of schemata, as people are born with a

tendency to organise their thinking processes into psychological structures or mechanisms.

(Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013) Piaget described the organisation of information through the use of

schemes and information could be deposited into schemes in one of two ways (know as

adaption): Assimilation, where an individual changes the information to fit the scheme and,

Accommodation: where an individual creates a new scheme to fit the information. In the

organisation set of social cognition skills, stereotypes and discourses abide by these two form of

adaption, but hierarchy and relationship structures are organised through a new method referred

to as Alteration; where the scheme is adjusted to suit the information.

Aspects pertaining to sexuality and sexual identity can be justified using Freud's work on The

Ego and the Id (1923), where it is noted that the libido is suppressed during childhood and

17

individuals tend to show association with members of the opposite gender they are attracted to,

with the onset of adolescence the libido returns and the Ego seeks to please the Id by enacting on

these desires of sexuality.

Play (peer interaction) aspects are influenced by a few theorist, most notably Self Determination

Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1987, 1991, 2000), Parten's Stages of Play (Parten, 1933). During

the Individual phase, play (peer interaction) is heavily influenced by the observations and

research conducted by Parten in the development of her Stages of Play theory, it shows the

degree of play in which individuals engage in: Unoccupied (Play), Solitary (Independent) Play,

Onlooker Play (Behaviour), Parallel Play, Associative Play, Cooperative Play. Associative play

transitions into the institutional phase of play (peer interaction) and cooperative play is witnessed

up to the societal phase and can be contextualised to other peer interactive scenarios. Self-

determination and motivation influence an individuals willingness to participate in activities

either individually or with peers this is apparent by the onset of the institutional phase and is

characterised by Self Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1987, 1991, 2000) where a task

posed to the individual must have the ability for Autonomy: the universal urge to be causal

agents of one's own life and act in harmony with one's integrated self. Competence: Seek to

control the outcome and experience mastery (White, 1959) and, Relatedness: the universal want

to interact, be connected to, and experience caring for others (Baumeister & Leary, 1995).

Especially with the element of relatedness it can be perceived that self-determination and

motivation play a significant role in the individuals desire to socialise through play and peer

interaction.

Perspective aspects are validated by concepts raised by Piaget, in regards to cognition, with skills

found in his Stage model of Cognitive Development having a social context to them, other

theorist include Kohlberg: Stages of Moral Development (Kohlberg, 1958) and my work on a

Superficial Social Conditioning Theory (Watts, 2013)1 Piaget contributes to the validity of

findings through his concept of egocentric thought, concrete operation (correlates to Institutional

phase) individuals being unable to think hypothetically and adolescence egocentrism. Individual

phase social cognition shows a high tendency for individuals to have egocentric thought;

whereby they are limited to thinking only fro their perspective. During the institutional

perspectives are still the own of the individual, but they acknowledge that others have different

1This theory, has not been validated by academics as yet, the findings in this theory closely resemble the outcomes

of observations in this paper pertaining to the influences of stereotypes on perspective and perception.

18

perspective, yet, are limited by their ability to think hypothetically, and, by extension, think

from others perspectives. During the organisational phase, it has been witnessed the development

of adolescence egocentrism; where the individual assumes that others are judging them, during

this phase, the ability to think hypothetically develops and individuals are able to attempt

thinking from others perspectives. Kohlberg weighs into this stage with his Stage Model of

Moral Development (Kohlberg, 1958),the influence on moral development in the spectrum and

its aspects occurs from a perspective approach, specifically developing in the organisational

phase and progressing into the societal phase; with the development and enactment of

imparitality. During the organisational phase the individual develops the ability to be impartial,

this correlates to the fourth stage of moral development (authority and social order obedience

driven), during this stage an individual is driven by the desire to comply with the rules of society

in the weighing of a decision, as they are important to maintaining a functioning society, Most

active members of society remain at stage four, where morality is still predominantly dictated by

an outside force (Kolhberg, 1973). As an individual progresses onto the societal phase, their

social cognition in relation to impartiality shifts to correlate with Kolhberg's fifth stage (social

contract driven), where the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights and values.

These perspectives become mutually respected and unique to the individual and their community

and laws are regared as social contracts which individuals as citizens are bound to; ultimately

imparitality is completely unbiased and enactedin such a manner, with democracy being a core

value to individuals in the societal phase.

Stereotypes begin to take influence on individuals perspectives, often through an

ethnomethological process of conditioning, whereby stereotypes influence the decision making

from the institutional phase and by the societal phase individuals begin to circulate the

stereotypes that influence their perspective or challenge them.

Cultural aspects of social cognition play a crucial role in the development of individuals, this is

predominantly validated by Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner,

1979), the theory identifies five environmental systems which individuals will interact with that

influence their social upbringing, in theory it shows that individuals grow cognitively in different

aspects according to their cultural upbringing; Bronfenbrenner's work was influenced by

Vygotsky's developmental psychology theories. Under this section, there is a cross-skill aspect

that becomes apparent, this falls under the social and organisation skill groups, but due to the

cultural context of this socialisation it falls predominantly in the cultural category. This

19

collection of aspects is the development of cliques and discourses which culturally the individual

identifies among them and through their identity, associate with. From the leadership aspect,

individuals develop their desire for leadership and acceptance of responsibility; leading to the

aspersion of the individuals culture into society.

Identity aspects play an important role in the socialisation of individuals, it leads to individuals

being able to associate their identity to groups they associate with and in turn identify

membership to cliques and discourses. They begin to compare themselves to others associating

what makes others similar to them and then how they are each different and unique. An

individuals identity predominantly through the organisational phase is influenced by their peers

(peer pressure). Mainly identity is associated with Erikson's stages of psychosocial development

(Erikson, 1950), especially through the posing of existential questions that individuals consider

through development in a number of ways including self reflection, play and comparison. These

questions impact upon identity of the individual and reflects to there social standing with the

placement of their identity in a social environment.

Emotion is affected by many aspects, essentially they are responses to stimuli which evolve to

adhere to social protocols and the implementation of emotional skills in a social environment.

The major aspects relating to this area of social cognition include resilience, reactions to

consequences, emotional reaction and adaption of emotional reactions to social protocols.

20

The Model

The Spectrum of Socio-Cognitive Development model; whilst theoretical is based on research

backing of different theories and the observations conducted to obtain the results laid out as

aspects in the model.

21

22

23

Conclusion

The Spectrum of Socio-Cognitive Development, has through observation and research

developed a theoretical framework for the growth and development of social cognition. The

spectrum has been designed to protect itself from criticisms and flaws that have been associated

with stage models, like with Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development. To counter theses

criticisms, fundamentals have been established to account for potential discrepanciesand

variables that are encountered in studies pertaining to society and psychology.

The spectrum has addressed different phases, social cognition skill group and the associated

aspects relating to these stipulated categories.The validity of the spectrum has been aided

through the theoretical research of theorist to concrete the observations, including: Self

Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1987, 1991, 2000), Parten's Stages of Play (Parten,

1933), Social Identity Theory ( Tajfel & Turner, 1979) Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial

Development (Erikson, 1950), The Ego and the Id. (Freud, 1923), The ecology of human

development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979), Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development, Stage Model of

Moral Development (Kohlberg, 1958) and, Cognitive Appraisal Theories, Notably (Roseman,

1984).

The spectrum has laid the foundation for development of theories pertaining to social cognition

in a developmental continuum; with further reseach using quantitive and qualitive research

methodologies, it would be possible for the stage model to be adjusted and validated.

24

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