Post on 11-Mar-2023
APPROVED: Courtney Brannon Donoghue, Committee
Chair Jennifer Porst, Committee Member Robert Weiner, Committee Member Andrea Miller, Interim Chair of the
Department of Media Arts and Dean of the Frank W. and Sue Mayborn School of Journalism
Tamara L. Brown, Executive Dean of the College of Liberal Arts and Social Sciences
Victor Prybutok, Dean of the Toulouse Graduate School
Thesis Prepared for the Degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
UNIVERSITY OF NORTH TEXAS
May 2021
KING OF THE MERCHANDISE: HOW SHOWA ERA PARATEXTS FOREVER
CHANGED THE GODZILLA FRANCHISE
Dalton Cooper
Cooper, Dalton. King of the Merchandise: How Showa Era Paratexts Forever Changed
the Godzilla Franchise. Master of Arts (Media Industry and Critical Studies), May 2021, 62 pp.,
1 table, 5 figures, 1 appendix, references, 49 titles, filmography, 21 titles.
The Godzilla media franchise is one of the longest running media franchises, which
means the character himself has gone through many changes throughout the years. However, in
American pop culture, the characters of Godzilla is perceived as a hero, a friend of humanity and
defender of Earth. This reputation comes from the Showa Era, where Godzilla often fought on
the side of humanity, rather than trying to destroy them as depicted in the original Gojira. In
recent years, Toho, Godzilla's corporate owners, have been steering the King of the Monsters
back into the villain role. Despite this tone shift by Godzilla's owners, American Godzilla
paratexts still generally depict Godzilla as a hero. These depictions of Godzilla are used to
maintain his status as a family friendly heritage brand and keep a door open for parents to
introduce their children to the brand. Such a strategy allows Godzilla to survive into the modern
day as an international powerhouse franchise.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project would not have been possible without the love and support from my parents,
Deana and David Cooper, my sister, Darbie Cooper, my thesis committee, Dr. Courtney Brannon
Donoghue, Dr. Jennifer Porst, and Dr. Robert Weiner. In addition, I would like to thank Buddy
Love, Breezy Taylor, Abby Hunter, Mary Seay, and Alexa Reed for listening to me ramble on
about Godzilla for the last three years. A special thanks is owed to J.D. Lees of G-Fan magazine
and YouTube user DMan1954 for assisting in the survey which is connected to this project.
Thank you all. Rock on.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... iii LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES............................................................................................... v CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 2. BRIEF HISTORY OF THE GODZILLA FRANCHISE ........................................ 9 CHAPTER 3. CASE STUDY OF SHOWA ERA TRAILERS AND POSTERS ........................ 23 CHAPTER 4. SHOWA ERA TOYS, GAMES, AND OTHER PARATEXTS ........................... 38 CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSION...................................................................................................... 47
Methods and “Things That I Wish Were Available” ........................................................ 47
Project Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 49 APPENDIX: GODZILLA FAN COMMUNITY SURVEY ........................................................ 56 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 58
v
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Page
Tables
Table 1: Godzilla Films Organized by Eras .................................................................................... 2
Figures
Figure 1: King Ghidorah Statue-Deluxe Edition (SpiralToy.com) ................................................. 6
Figure 2: Godzilla, King of the Monsters! poster by Jewell Enterprises ...................................... 25
Figure 3: Godzilla vs. The Thing, “A” poster by American International Pictures ...................... 26
Figure 4: Godzilla vs. The Smog Monster, poster by AIP ............................................................ 31
Figure 5: Godzilla vs. Megalon, poster by Cinema Shares ........................................................... 35
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
O people, know that you have committed great sins…If you ask me what proof I have for these words, I say it is because I am the punishment of God. If you had not committed great sins, God would not have sent a punishment like me upon you.
Genghis Khan We knew the world would not be the same. A few people laughed, a few people cried, most people were silent… “Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds.”
Robert J. Oppenheimer
It is a still night on Tokyo Bay. In the harbor, fishing boats lazily sway side to side in the
waves of the dark water. The year is 1954 and Japan is still recovering from the devastation of
World War II. Things are about to get much worse, however. Tokyo Bay begins to boil and
churn as steam and smoke faze into existence over the surface. The surface of the water breaks,
and up from the depths rises a towering, 164 feet tall monster, with scaly skin, jagged teeth, and
radioactive breath. As the monster descends on the city of Tokyo, it is as if Hell itself has been
unleashed on the citizens. The Japanese Self Defense Forces (JSDF) tries desperately to stop the
creature, but no weapons can stop him or even slow him down. Little do the people of Japan
know, this monster has started a streak of terror that continues into the modern day. It is unlikely
the creative team behind that first movie ever imagined the juggernaut this monster would
become, but both at home and abroad, he is an icon. From his trademark roar, blue radiation
breath, rogue’s gallery of villains and friends, and his complex relationship with humanity, he
has left his mark on international cinema. He has gone by many names: Gojira, Gigantis, King of
the Monsters, Monster Zero-One, Incarnation of God, Big G, and G-Man being just a few.
However, most people likely know him by his American name, Godzilla.
The Godzilla franchise is one of the longest running, continuous film franchises. As of
2
2021 there are thirty-five officially released Godzilla films, with number thirty-six planned for
release on March 31, 2021. Due to the large number of films, Toho, the Japanese company which
owns and controls the rights to the Godzilla franchise, has organized the films into four different
eras (see Table 1): Showa (1954 – 1975), Heisei (1984 – 1995), Millennium (1999 – 2004), and
Reiwa (2016 – 2018). When considering how and when Godzilla movies circulated in the U.S.
market, most American audiences will be familiar with the Showa Era. Traditionally, the 4
American made films are not grouped in with any eras from Toho, however Godzilla 2014,
Godzilla: King of the Monsters, and Godzilla vs. Kong are grouped together in the
“Monsterverse” cinematic universe. Godzilla 1998 stands alone among the other films as its own
release.
Table 1: Godzilla Films Organized by Eras
Year Title
Showa Era
1954 Gojira
1955 Godzilla Raids Again
1962 King Kong vs. Godzilla
1964 Mothra vs. Godzilla
1964 Ghidorah, the Three-Headed Monster
1965 Invasion of Astro-Monster
1966 Ebirah, Horror of the Deep
1967 Son of Godzilla
1968 Destroy All Monsters
1969 All Monsters Attack
1971 Godzilla vs. Hedorah
1972 Godzilla vs. Gigan
1973 Godzilla vs. Megalon
1974 Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla
1975 Terror of Mechagodzilla
(table continues)
3
Year Title Heisei Era
1984 The Return of Godzilla
1989 Godzilla vs. Biollante
1991 Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah
1992 Godzilla vs. Mothra
1993 Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla II
1994 Godzilla vs. SpaceGodzilla
1995 Godzilla vs. Destoroyah
Millennium Era
1999 Godzilla 2000: Millennium
2000 Godzilla vs. Megaguirus
2001 Godzilla, Mothra and King Ghidorah: Giant Monsters All-Out Attack
2002 Godzilla Against Mechagodzilla
2003 Godzilla: Tokyo S.O.S
2004 Godzilla: Final Wars
Reiwa Era
2016 Shin Godzilla
2017 Godzilla: Planet of the Monsters
2018 Godzilla: City on the Edge of Battle
2018 Godzilla: The Planet Eater
American made films (“Monsterverse” cinematic universe)
1998 Godzilla (excluded from Monsterverse)
2014 Godzilla
2019 Godzilla: King of the Monsters
2021 Godzilla vs. Kong
The Showa Era features the most films in the franchise, and many of them received a
theatrical release in the United States. After the Showa Era ended, only Godzilla 1985, Godzilla
2000, and Shin Godzilla received American theatrical distribution. This is significant, as the
Showa Era featured a large shift in the tone of Godzilla films. The very first Godzilla film, the
original Gojira, features graphic scenes of human suffering in the wake of Godzilla’s attack on
4
Tokyo. For example, after Godzilla’s rampage through Tokyo, a young girl with radiation burns
mourns over the body of her mother. The child’s wails are haunting and true sorrow can be felt
in the scene.
After the first film, Godzilla movies became increasingly centered on child-friendly and
light-hearted monster brawls and scenes of destruction, but without the effect on human lives
shown. Some of Godzilla’s most goofy moments can be seen in Invasion of Astro-Monster
(originally released in America as Monster Zero), where Godzilla does a “victory dance” after
defeating the dragon King Ghidorah, which was modeled after a humorous pose from the
Osomatsu-kun manga. In Godzilla vs Hedorah, renamed in America as Godzilla vs. The Smog
Monster, Godzilla curls up in a shrimp like position and uses his atomic breath to take flight in
pursuit of the monster Hedorah. Another case is seen in All Monsters Attack, dubbed Godzilla’s
Revenge in America, a schoolboy dreams of fighting bullies with Godzilla’s son, Minilla, and
has in-depth discussions about bullying with Minilla. There are countless other examples of
Showa Era corniness both from the Japanese and American viewpoint (director Ishiro Honda
notes that the more humanizing moments of Godzilla were “things I truly had a difficult time
making and filming” [Ryfle 230]) but those are some of the highlights. Such goofiness directly
contrasts to the first Showa Era film.
While Toho has since steered Godzilla back into a more serious direction, as seen in their
most recent live action film, Shin Godzilla, American pop culture still perceives Godzilla as a
goofy, child-centric franchise. Why? What happened? Showa Era paratexts are what happened.
What is a paratext? How could paratexts from the 1960s and 70s affect modern day perceptions
of anything, let alone a massive international film franchise like Godzilla? Why have other
campy franchises faded into obscurity, while Godzilla continues to dominate pop culture?
5
According to Jonathan Gray, “Paratexts surround texts, audiences, and industry, as
organic and naturally occurring a part of our mediated environment as are movies and television
themselves” (23). Paratexts are anything which accompanies a text, such as a trailer, poster, tie-
in toy, fast food promotion, viral marketing campaign, anything which serves to enhance or
promote the original text. For example, this paper examines film trailers, posters, and several toy
lines from the Godzilla franchise. Licensers framed the distribution and marketing of the
franchise in the United States, which shaped how Americans saw Godzilla. For clarity’s sake,
while the Showa Era officially ended in 1975, due to the fact it often took several years for the
United States to receive Godzilla media, this paper considers the American Showa Era to be
between 1954 and 1980, which provides a five year buffer. In addition, data collected via a
survey is presented to further exemplify the importance of Showa Era paratexts to Godzilla’s
international image.
The importance of such a revelation is for companies to realize how difficult it is to shake
the established reputation of a character or intellectual property, despite their attempts to rewrite
or rebrand the intellectual property. Especially with international brands, which have high
barriers to entry in the United States, established reputations can be both a blessing and a curse.
On one hand, everyone knows the name of your brand or franchise. On the other, if you take a
different direction with your franchise, you will have an extremely difficult time shaking the
perceptions of international audiences. However, by maintaining the nostalgia in paratexts, even
as the franchise changes, heritage brands can remain relevant in the ever-changing media
landscape.
This paper examines the connection between Showa Era paratexts in America and the
current pop culture image of Godzilla in the U.S. For example, I examine trailers, posters,
6
several toy lines, and a survey of American Godzilla fans to demonstrate how American Showa
Era paratexts helped reinforce Godzilla as media property targeted at children. Even consumers
who have never seen a Godzilla movie have likely seen a commercial, poster, or toy which
features the “Big G.” Primarily, commercials and marketing for the films themselves are
examined. The first few films focused on the horror of Godzilla, using phrases such as “dynamic
violence” and “a monster from the bowels of Hell” to describe the Big G. However, as the
franchise developed, Godzilla became a “defender of Earth” and “man’s friend,” helping to
reframe the character from a social threat to a childhood hero. These massive tonal changes
fostered an environment conducive to licensed toys and games, which have led to Godzilla being
perceived by the American audience as an innocent and playful superhero.
Figure 1: King Ghidorah Statue-Deluxe Edition (SpiralToy.com)
For the purposes of this paper, the terms “toy” and “game” refer to items which, at the
time of initial distribution, were intended to be played with by children. Such a distinction is
necessary as there are some collectible items which could be considered “toys,” but due to their
7
high price tag, are not intended for use outside of exhibition. For example, in 2020, Spiral Toy
Studios introduced a line of statues ranging from $600 to $1,750. While these items are made by
a toy company, it can safely be assumed anyone who spends $1,750 on a statue of King
Ghidorah is not going to play with it in the backyard (see Fig. 1).
To be clear, modern resale prices for older toys does not factor into the definition of
“toy.” For example, the Shogun Warriors Godzilla toy has pieces which are removable. As a
result, loose pieces can go for over a hundred dollars on resale sites as collectors will pay top
dollar to finish an incomplete toy. However, since Shogun Warriors Godzilla was produced in
1977 for the purpose of play and use, it is considered a toy for the purposes of this paper.
Furthermore, this paper focuses on paratexts which were officially released in the United
States by Toho or a proper licensee and were officially circulated in the U.S. during the Showa
Era. Bootlegs, imports, and custom made paratexts are not considered. Paratexts which were
originally released in Japan or another foreign country but later received an official release in the
United States are considered. The theatrical trailers and posters for Showa Era films are
analyzed, as are the pressbooks for Godzilla vs. The Thing, Godzilla vs. The Smog Monster, and
Godzilla vs. Megalon. These pressbooks represent films from the beginning of the Showa Era,
the middle of the Showa Era, and the end of the Showa Era, respectfully. They are paramount in
examining how each film was marketed beyond the screen, with live displays, parades, comic
books, buttons, and real weaponry all being suggested as marketing for theaters to use. Lastly,
the results of a survey conducted is evaluated to demonstrate the perceptions of the Godzilla
franchise among Godzilla fans.
For this project, I conducted a survey to gauge various aspects of the Godzilla fan
community. Namely, how they perceived the franchise as a whole, as well as some demographic
8
information. I developed ten questions to gauge demographics of the current Godzilla fan
community, decipher which films in the franchise were the jumping off point for modern day
fans, and determine how the American Godzilla fan community perceives the franchise. To
distribute this survey, I posted the link to it on the Godzilla forums r/Godzilla on Reddit and
TohoKingdom.com. However, I also reached out to J.D. Lees of G-Fan magazine and popular
Godzilla YouTuber Dman1954 to see if they would tweet the survey out to their followers. As
fortune would have it, both G-Fan and Dman1954 agreed to help, and with their help, the survey
received 331 responses, smashing my goal of 50 responses.
All of this analysis is done to showcase Godzilla’s strength as a heritage brand.
According to Avi Santo “While supposedly empowering parents, the goal of children’s heritage
brands is ultimately to gain a foothold among younger consumers by transcending this nostalgic
evocation and establishing the brands’ contemporary relevance” (156). By leaning on these
nostalgic characteristics, even as the franchise becomes less and less like the Showa Era, the
Godzilla franchise always holds a door open for parents to introduce their children to the King of
the Monsters. Then as the children grow up, there will be mature Godzilla media for them to
consume in addition to the child-oriented media. Through this open door, Godzilla is able to
survive for generations the way other heritage brands like Star Wars, Batman, and Mickey
Mouse have while many of his contemporaries like Mr. Magoo and The Lone Ranger have fallen
by the pop culture wayside. This ability to speak to generation after generation by keeping
paratexts rooted in the Showa Era is paramount to Godzilla’s continued success and is something
many other brands could learn from.
9
CHAPTER 2
BRIEF HISTORY OF THE GODZILLA FRANCHISE
I fear all we have done is to awaken a sleeping giant and fill him with a terrible resolve.
Isoroku Yamamoto Commander-in-Chief of the Imperial Japanese Combined Fleet
following the attack on Pearl Harbor. With a purposeful grimace and a terrible sound, he pulls the spinning high-tension wires down.
Blue Öyster Cult, “Godzilla”
To understand the paratextual history of Godzilla, the textual history of Godzilla must be
briefly examined. Such a history allows those unfamiliar with the franchise to understand where
the Godzilla franchise comes from, and to better understand the tonal disconnect between the
early Showa Era, mid Showa Era, and late Showa Era, and how those tonal disconnects can
further be observed in the merchandise of the time. As such, this chapter presents a brief history
of the Godzilla franchise to establish an understanding of the films and the franchise as a whole
for those who are not familiar with the franchise.
The story of Godzilla starts with the end of World War II, specifically the use of atomic
weaponry to destroy the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. To this day, Japan remains
the only nation to ever be bombed by atomic weapons, with estimates from the University of
California Los Angeles stating estimated casualties of over 225,000 people are “conservative.”
What does this have to do with Godzilla? Everything. Like most nations involved in World War
II, Japan’s entire population was part of the war effort. Almost everyone who worked on the first
Godzilla film were affected by the war in some way. Director Ishiro Honda fought in the war in
the Chinese theater, producer Tomoyuki Tanaka and special effects director Eiji Tsuburaya
worked on propaganda films, and composer Akira Ifukube lost his brother to radiation sickness
10
(Kalat 22). Despite the war’s end, the nation of Japan had been defeated and the mood of the
nation was somber to say the least.
During this period, while coming home from a failed collaboration with a studio based in
the Philippines, producer Tomoyuki Tanaka stared at the ocean from his airplane and imagined a
giant beast emerging from the water. Then, on March 1, 1954 a civilian fishing boat, Dai-go
fukuryu maru (Lucky Dragon No. 5) sailed too close to a nuclear testing ground in the Marshall
Islands, and the crew developed radiation sickness (Ryfle 86). This event inspired Tanaka, along
with Honda and Tsuburaya to create Godzilla as more than just a King Kong-esque monster, but
rather a metaphor for nuclear weaponry. Despite everyone who heard the idea waving it off on
B-movie grounds, Honda, Tanaka, and Tsuburaya swore to each other “This movie…must depict
the attack of a giant monster as if it were a real event, with the seriousness of a documentary”
(Ryfle 85). And so, it did. On November 3, 1954, Gojira was released to Japanese audiences,
where it became a financial success. However, this was only the first film in what became known
as the Showa Era (named after Emperor Showa, the posthumous name of Emperor Hirohito).
Shortly after its Japanese release, Toho licensed the distribution rights to Gojira to the United
States, where, unlike its other films Toho had licensed to the United States, Samurai (1955) and
The Magnificent Seven (1956), it was a huge hit (Balio 127). Soon Gojira was followed by
Godzilla Raids Again (1956), and right off the bat the tone of the films started to change.
Whereas Gojira was a somber horror film about the end of the world, Godzilla Raids Again
focuses more on Godzilla’s battle with a new monster, Angurius, with the destruction of Osaka
being played up as spectacle rather than showing the consequences of the rampage. In addition,
the human characters laugh and joke with each other, adding a level of levity which is absent in
Gojira. With Gojira being designed as a somber warning on nuclear weapons, Godzilla Raids
11
Again presents a ray of hope for Japan’s healing from World War II. This trend of Godzilla being
a place for Japan to vent their feelings about their country or their place in the world continues
throughout the franchise. As Toshio Takahashi states, “Godzilla was and is a powerful antiwar
statement. Besides that, he is a mirror into the Japanese soul” (Kalat 23).
After Godzilla Raids Again, Toho would put the Big G into hibernation for almost ten
years until King Kong vs. Godzilla was unleashed on the world. King Kong vs. Godzilla would
revitalize the franchise, as it was a huge box office hit in Japan, where it remains the Godzilla
franchise’s most attended movie (Kalat 59). Producer Tomoyuki Tanaka would recognize this
success and correlate it with the film’s new direction for Godzilla. King Kong vs. Godzilla
features the titular monsters drawn into combat by humans seeking profit (a theme carried over
from previous Toho films like Mothra [1961]), rather than by their own savage accord. From
here on out, Godzilla’s adversaries would be controlled by wicked humans (Terror of
Mechagodzilla), alien invaders (Destroy All Monsters), or would attack his son (Son of Godzilla).
In addition, the films would only feature property damage, rather than the death or injury of
humans (barring the major exception of Godzilla vs. Hedorah, but those on-screen deaths were
caused by the pollution monster Hedorah rather than Godzilla himself). King Kong vs. Godzilla
would also feature Godzilla’s second-to-last last appearance as the antagonist of a film in the
Showa Era, as he would slip into the hero role in the film Ghidorah the Three-Headed Monster.
Whenever Godzilla would attack humanity in the subsequent Showa Era films, he would do so
either as a controlled slave for aliens, as seen in Invasion of Astro-Monster, or a monster
disguised as Godzilla would attempt to frame him as seen in Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla. The
massive success of King Kong vs. Godzilla would change the Godzilla franchise forever, as
12
Tanaka saw the dollar signs from this new formula. For the next twelve years, Godzilla would be
lighthearted and a hero for mankind and the planet Earth.
The rest of the Showa Era would pass according to this formula. Mothra vs. Godzilla
(Godzilla vs. The Thing in the United States) would be Godzilla’s last appearance as the
antagonist until the Heisei Era, Son of Godzilla would introduce Minilla as Godzilla’s adopted
son, and Godzilla and friends would fight aliens more often than Ellen Ripley from Fox’s Alien
franchise. However, after Terror of Mechagodzilla, the last film to feature the team of original
director Ishiro Honda, producer Tomoyuki Tanaka and composer Akira Ifukube (Eiji Tsuburya
passed away in 1970), Toho decided to retire Godzilla for a while. This decision had been a long
time coming and coincided with a “drop of standards” (Kalat 145). The final shot of the film
featured a non-shoot worthy exhibition suit waddling into the ocean. Watching that last shot is
like watching a professional wrestler who should have retired twenty years ago leaving the ring
for the last time. Godzilla is a shell of his former self, still beloved, but fans felt pity more than
genuine good will towards him. To this day, Terror of Mechagodzilla remains the least profitable
Godzilla film ever made (Kalat 145). After this box office failure, Toho would send Godzilla
into a decade long slumber.
In 1984, Godzilla would return to the silver screen in a film fittingly called Return of
Godzilla and would launch the Heisei Era of films. Return of Godzilla would bear witness to a
restoration of Godzilla’s villain status and would serve as a direct sequel to the original Gojira
(even the American version, Godzilla 1985, would see Raymond Burr return as Steve Martin
from Godzilla, King of the Monsters!).
The future of Godzilla depended on returning to the darker style of the early, allegorical Gojira. Certainly (sic) King Kong vs. Godzilla held the record for audience size, but Gojira had a more attractive audience demographic composition. In order to win back the
13
adult viewers who had defected during the seventies, Tanaka decided to abandon the fantastical approach. (Kalat 157)
Producer Tomoyuki Tanaka is quoted from a 1985 People interview as saying, “This character
change was responsible for his decline…it was a mistake” (Carlson) a sentiment echoed by Toho
spokesman Masaru Yabe when he said “The fans did not like Godzilla when he was [morally]
good” (Kalat 157).
While forty years had passed since the devastation of Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the
hands of atomic bombs, Toho still saw the opportunity to use Godzilla to once again be a “mirror
into the soul of Japan.” Within Return of Godzilla, Japan is caught in the middle of the two major
cold war powers, the United States and Soviet Union, wanting to destroy Godzilla by dropping
nuclear bombs on him while he is attacking Japan. In addition, during this period in history,
Japan had become prominent in international business and economics and was in the midst of the
“economic miracle” where Japan became the second largest economy until 2010 (Barboza), with
the film’s finance minister of Japan openly worrying about the economic repercussions if
Godzilla attacks Tokyo. Toho made a concentrated effort to make Godzilla a serious series again
with Return of Godzilla, spending a record six millions dollars on the production alone, with a
large portion of that being spent on a brand new, cybernetically enhanced Godzilla suit which
could give the King of the Monsters a moving face to show emotion in direct response to the
cheaply made way the last Showa Era films were made (Kalat 159).
This love and effort can also be seen in the American version, dubbed Godzilla 1985.
Godzilla 1985 maintained its anti-nuclear themes (albeit with more blame pushed on the
Russians than the original film) and even added a eulogy for Godzilla as he falls into a volcano,
as delivered by none other than Raymond Burr, who reprises his role as Steve Martin from the
American version of Gojira. According to director R.J Kizer (who directed the additional
14
American footage), “In fact, when I first met Mr. Burr at the Mondrian Hotel the evening before
the shoot, he answered the door with words to the effect of, ‘Godzilla is a symbol of the nuclear
menace threatening mankind.’ His tone and manner clearly told me that he took the allegorical
aspects of Godzilla quite seriously indeed” (Kalat 166). At this point, Burr was a full-on
celebrity (Perry Mason, Burr’s most famous role, started a year after Godzilla, King of the
Monsters! was released) and it was assumed the production would be unable to get him back.
However, Burr came back to Godzilla, telling Tom Shales of The Washington Post, “But it
wasn’t the large sum of money. It was the fact that, first of all, I kind of liked ‘Godzilla,’ and
where do you get to play yourself 30 years later?” (Shales). Burr’s serious attitude toward the
subject changed the production, with Kizer noting the original script was very tongue-in-cheek
about the subject material until they were able to sign Burr to the production (Kalat 166). This
serious tone shift marked a new age in Godzilla films. With the first film of this new series, Toho
took steps to recover Godzilla’s fearsome reputation as an allegory for Japan. Even as Godzilla
began facing foes both new and old, within the Heisei Era, he was always portrayed as the
antagonist or the lesser of two evils, never the hero or “friend of humanity.”
After Return of Godzilla, Godzilla would take a break for a few years until Godzilla vs.
Biollante was released in 1989. Despite being a return of the “vs” moniker and featuring a new
villain for Godzilla to fight, Godzilla vs Biollante does not slip into the Showa Era silliness of the
previous “vs” films. Godzilla vs. Biollante continues the serious themes of Return of Godzilla,
with bioterrorism, scientific manipulation by politicians, and even Americans resorting to
terrorism to keep their place of power in world politics and business. While Godzilla is the
“hero” of the story, he is only seen as such because of the threat the new monster Biollante
presents to Japan. In fact, when Godzilla awakens from his volcanic tomb, he causes mass panic
15
and fear amongst the populace, a far cry from the “man’s friend” Showa Era films. Despite only
turning a small profit for Toho (and being the last Toho made Godzilla film to be released in the
United States until Godzilla: Millennium in 1999), Godzilla vs Biollante brought in a renewed
push for more “vs” style Godzilla films (Kalat 177). In fact, every single Heisei film after vs.
Biollante was a vs film.
After Godzilla vs Biollante, more traditional Godzilla monsters were brought out of the
vault, such as King Ghidorah, Mothra, Rodan, and Mechagodzilla. However, despite these
Showa Era enemies coming back, the Heisei Era kept the serious tone all the way through. Even
the addition of Godzilla’s son, now simply called “Godzilla Jr.” or “Little Godzilla” and the
addition of more supernatural elements (such as time travel in Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah and
telepathy with monsters in Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla II), the themes continued to be played
seriously. Japanese nationalism (King Ghidorah being sent into the past to destroy Japan for its
economic success in Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah), nature vs. technology (the use of
Mechagodzilla to try and kill the real Godzilla in Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla II), and radioactive
material meltdowns (Godzilla’s fusion powered heart melting down in Godzilla vs. Destoroyah)
are seen in the other Heisei films. The fights between Godzilla and his foes become more brutal,
with blood and gore being common (Godzilla has an eye and hand melt off in vs. Biollante and
has several drills pierce his skin and destroy his second brain in vs Mechagodzilla II) and many
monsters die or almost die on screen, including Rodan and Godzilla Jr. These would all
culminate in the final Heisei Era film, 1995’s Godzilla vs. Destoroyah.
Godzilla vs Destoroyah was created to be the end of the Japanese Godzilla films to make
room for the upcoming American made Godzilla. To usher in the end of Japanese Godzilla film
production, Godzilla was going to die. This would be the first time the King of the Monsters
16
would suffer a confirmed death, on screen or otherwise, since the original Gojira way back in
1954. Toho decided to do this for a few reasons, citing “being out of ideas,” but the main reason
was a deal had finally been reached in Hollywood, soon Godzilla would be appearing in
American films so the current Godzilla had to be retired for his American cousin to take his
place (Kalat 214). It cannot be said Toho did not keep its promise, Godzilla does indeed die in vs
Destoroyah, perishing as a side effect of his nuclear-powered heart melting down due to
absorbing too much radiation. However, Godzilla Jr., thought dead after being attacked by
Destoroyah, absorbs his father’s spirit and matures into a new Godzilla who heads out to sea as
all Godzillas do. Thus, Toho kept their promise in killing Godzilla, but left the door open for him
to return in the future. With this, the Heisei Era came to an end. Godzilla’s story, however, was
far from over.
The road to Godzilla’s next appearance is worthy of a paper all on its own. In 1992,
Sony/TriStar obtained the rights to Godzilla, as reported by John Evan Frook for Variety.
Producer Rob Fried and Carey Woods were tapped to lead the film, with director Jan De Bont
attached for a 1994 release (Frook). However, this film never came to pass, despite Godzilla
models and a script being finalized (Aiken). Instead, Sony would hire director Roland Emmerich
and producer Dean Devlin to make the movie. Thus, Tristar’s Godzilla (stylized as Godzilla
1998) was unleashed on the world. Unfortunately, despite a large marketing campaign (Elliot),
large budget of 130,000,000 dollars (BoxOfficeMojo.com), and large amount of hype, Godzilla
1998 is despised by Godzilla fans, both American and Japanese alike, winning two Golden
Raspberry Awards and being nominated for six while maintaining a 15% approval rating from
critics and a 28% approval rating from fans on Rotten Tomatoes. While Godzilla is portrayed as
the antagonist of the film, the anti-nuclear themes are glossed over and character dialogue
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straight from the bad Showa Era dubs makes an appearance. Emmerich and Devlin use this
platform to take pot shots at Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert, who dared dislike their film
Independence Day (1996), and (allegedly) even J.D Lees, author of the Official Godzilla
Compendium, creator of G-Fan magazine and a huge detractor of the film in the first place,
rather than tackle the growing problem of more countries having nuclear weapons than ever
before.* Godzilla ends up being killed by regular missiles, and the comparisons to the Jurassic
Park series are plentiful (such as the Baby Godzillas who resemble velociraptors and chase
humans through Madison Square Garden). While Godzilla 1998 was supposed to launch a trilogy
of films, these follow ups never materialized. To this day, the majority of Godzilla fans (myself
included) curse the names of Roland Emmerich and Dean Devlin, going so far as to call the
monster from this film GINO (Godzilla In Name Only). Toho witnessed this train wreck, with
reports of suit actor Kinpatsu Satsuma walking out of a screening saying only “That is not
Godzilla” (Ryfle 344). To put this into context, this would be like if Disney allowed a Russian
studio to make a Mickey Mouse movie, only for the hypothetical Russian Mickey Mouse to be a
child murderer rather than a fun-loving symbol of innocence. Toho knew they would have to
deploy major damage control in order to save their most famous creation from being completely
destroyed.
According to David Kalat, Toho started gathering up crews and discussing a new
Godzilla film less than two months after the premier of Godzilla 1998 (230). From these
meetings, the third Godzilla era was born, the Millennium Era. This era would see a return to
Godzilla’s more fun aspects and would not shy away from the campier aspects of the franchise.
* For full disclosure, I have had small pieces published in G-Fan magazine and have had correspondence with J.D. Lees. This thesis is in no way affiliated with Lees or G-Fan and is simply pointing out the friction between Lees and Emmerich/Devlin.
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The first film in this new era was appropriately titled Godzilla: Millennium, and it was well
received by fans of the franchise, and even got an international theatrical release (the first since
Godzilla 1985) titled Godzilla: 2000. Godzilla became the hero once more, fighting an alien
hive-mind monster known as Orga this time around. However, Godzilla still kills people
knowingly, so the Heisei Era villainous traits had not completely faded. This honeymoon phase
ended the very next year, however, as Godzilla vs. Megagurius flopped hard in the Japanese
market, being the least attended Godzilla film to date (Kalat 237). However, the third film,
Godzilla, Mothra, King Ghidorah: Giant Monsters All Out Attack (stylized as GMK) was a huge
success in the Japanese market, where it made back double its production cost, and is held in
high regards amongst the fandom (Kalat 242). In this film, Godzilla once again becomes the
villain, being the manifestation of tortured souls who were killed by the Japanese in World War
II. David Kalat says it best, “This Godzilla, with his dead, milky-white eyes, kills people” (240).
This return to villainy seen in GMK would continue for the final three films in the Millennium
Era, Godzilla Against Mechagodzilla, Godzilla: Tokyo S.O.S, and Godzilla: Final Wars. In
Godzilla: Final Wars, however, while Godzilla is initially man’s archnemesis due to an alien
invasion which wields the combined strength of past Toho monsters, mankind has to release and
team up with Godzilla so he may destroy the other monsters and save humanity from the aliens.
Final Wars plays itself very seriously, but also has plenty of tongue in cheek moments, such as
Godzilla performing a diving move straight out of a soccer goalie’s portfolio. In short, the film
was aimed at kids despite the overdramatic, Matrix-like human characters. As the title suggests,
this would be the final Godzilla film in the Millennium Era, and Godzilla would be regulated to
video games, comic books, and other media for a decade.
Godzilla would return from his decade long hiatus, not in Japanese films, but in
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American films. Dave McNary reported for Variety in 2010 that Legendary Pictures had
obtained the rights to Godzilla and had plans to release the new film in 2012. In 2014, Legendary
Pictures and Warner Bros. released Godzilla (stylized as Godzilla 2014 for clarity) to worldwide
audiences. Legendary Pictures was well aware of the risk, as the property had not fully shaken
off the stain of Godzilla 1998 in the United States market. Legendary CEO Thomas Tull opened
up about the decision to make a Godzilla movie to The Hollywood Reporter’s Gregg Kilday,
“‘We make movies I want to see…I’ve loved Godzilla since I was a kid…’ (Kilday). He
explained that Legendary's reimagining of Godzilla was akin to how Christopher
Nolan reinvigorated Batman in Batman Begins and The Dark Knight…‘Everyone said that
franchise was broken, but Chris had a vision. Sometimes instead of just talking about it, you just
have to do it and show folks this is our version of it’” (Kilday).
This film featured Godzilla as somewhat of an anti-hero who was awakened after ages of
slumber by nuclear testing in the 1940s. Godzilla does not actively attack humanity in this film,
but he does not seem to care for them either as humanity tries to kill Godzilla within the film,
only acquiescing after a bigger threat, a pair of creatures known as MUTOs, appear. Godzilla and
humanity come to an unspoken understanding as Godzilla limps back into the ocean after a hard-
fought battle, and humanity does not open fire while he is weak. Godzilla 2014 would become a
success, becoming the highest grossing American made Godzilla film with a worldwide gross of
525,976,069 dollars (BoxOfficeMojo.com) and would launch a cinematic universe, with other
films like Kong: Skull Island (2017) and a direct sequel, Godzilla: King of the Monsters coming
from Legendary Pictures, culminating in the upcoming Godzilla vs. Kong. Within this series of
films, Godzilla maintains his antihero/indirect ally status. Godzilla does not actively kill humans,
instead focusing his attention on his kaiju rivals. Indeed, the MUTOs, King Ghidorah, and Rodan
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seem to actively attack humanity and are stopped by Godzilla, but humanity’s leaders still do not
trust Godzilla. The point here is Godzilla is not a superhero or guardian of humanity, he is an
alpha predator and simply does not care about the ant-like humans who pester him. However,
back in Japan, a more sinister monster would emerge from the depths.
Just as Toho returned to their atomic mascot after Godzilla 1998 to start the Millennium
Era, Toho would resurrect the Big G in 2016 after the success of Godzilla 2014. However,
whereas the Millennium Era would be a return to the franchise’s more campy and fun aspects,
this new era, dubbed the Reiwa Era, would bring back Godzilla’s status as a monster, a truly
horrific, Lovecraftian, esoteric threat to humanity. 2016’s Shin Godzilla is different from every
single film before it. Unlike all the previous Godzilla films, this would be a fresh start for the
franchise. Up to this point, every film acknowledged the original Gojira as canon in that film’s
universe. For example, Godzilla Raids Again, Return of Godzilla, and Godzilla vs. Megaguirus
are all direct sequels to the original Gojira. However, Shin Godzilla would exist in its own
continuity, with no predecessors. This would be the very first time this world would be attacked
by Godzilla. As such, when Godzilla first emerges out of Tokyo Bay as little more than a large
tail in the water, most scientists and politicians believe him to simply be a large whale who has
gotten too close to the shoreline. However, Godzilla soon evolves and sprouts legs, allowing him
to come ashore in the Kamata neighborhood of Tokyo and begin his rampage. Throughout the
film, Godzilla continues to evolve, growing larger and stronger, until he utterly destroys Tokyo
in a hellish display of power. During his final move on Tokyo, he walks the same path World
War II allied firebombers flew to attack Tokyo. The Japanese government bumbles their way
through every single decision, ultimately resulting in the unnecessary deaths of thousands until
the surviving bureaucrats (who are much younger and less traditional) finally come up with a
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plan to stop Godzilla. In a sequence reminiscent of Return of Godzilla, the United Nations
decides to drop nuclear bombs on Godzilla to try and stop him, which would destroy Tokyo in
the crossfire, so the ragtag group of government outcasts are on a clock to stop Godzilla. Their
plan works and Godzilla is frozen in place, which stops the UN countdown to missile launch as
well. However, the film ends with the promise if Godzilla awakens from his slumber, the timer
would restart, and Tokyo would have no time to evacuate before atomic decimation hits Japan
once again. The lead character, Rando Yaguchi, opines that the world must learn to live with
Godzilla.
Shin Godzilla was made as a direct result to the Japanese government’s lack of action in
the hours and days after the meltdown of the Fukushima-Daiichi nuclear power plant in 2011
(Blair). Godzilla once again became “a window into the soul of Japan” by becoming an allegory
for government inaction and inefficiency in the face of natural and manmade disasters. When
Godzilla is frozen, the countdown to destruction stops but does not go away. One disaster is
solved but the next one will be even worse and with less warning if nothing is done now. Shin
Godzilla became a massive hit in Japan, becoming the highest grossing Japanese made Godzilla
film ever (DeSentis), even being nominated for fifteen awards and winning eleven at the 40th
Japan Academy Film Prize including Picture of the Year, Director of the Year, and Best
Cinematography. Even in America, Shin Godzilla was only supposed to be in theaters for one
week but was eventually extended to play in theaters for sixteen days and was nominated for a
Saturn Award for best International Film. Toho jumped on this opportunity and forged a
partnership with Netflix to make a trilogy of anime films. While those films where not as well
received as Shin Godzilla, they kept Godzilla’s evil and vengeful attitude from Shin Godzilla,
and the partnership with Netflix has extended to Netflix’s forte of television as a new anime
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show called Godzilla: Singular Point is scheduled to be released on Netflix in 2021 (Couch). In
short, while the Reiwa Era is still ongoing, it is clear Godzilla has settled into his role of being
the villain, a monster which threatens to destroy all of humanity, just as he was way back in
1954.
Special effects director of Terror of Mechagodzilla, Teruyoshi Nakano, remembers the
last Showa film by saying “We tried to make Godzilla fearsome, but he wasn’t so scary in the
end. We all kept thinking about the children too much, we couldn’t get away from that” (Kalat
145). Nakano’s words are indicative of the Showa Era post King Kong vs. Godzilla. Children
became the main target demographic for the franchise, and the paratexts of the Showa Era reflect
this. Toho’s strategy of marketing towards children was so effective, Godzilla is still seen as a
childish and fun superhero in America, despite his role of villain being long since restored.
While this chapter is far from an extensive history of the franchise, it serves to establish context
for each Godzilla era and how Godzilla as a character and a franchise has evolved throughout the
decades. Despite his evolutions, one thing has remained constant for the Big G. The marketing
towards children.
This chapter served to give readers context into the Godzilla franchise. Despite
Godzilla’s status as an icon in pop culture, it is possible many only know of his exploits through
references and parodies. This brief history demonstrates the longevity of the franchise, as well as
showcasing the various eras and how each one is different. Without this context, the information
presented in the next few chapters would be more difficult to absorb.
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CHAPTER 3
CASE STUDY OF SHOWA ERA TRAILERS AND POSTERS
Moreover, the enemy has begun to employ a new and most cruel bomb, the power of which to do damage is, indeed, incalculable, taking the toll of many innocent lives. Should we continue to fight, it would not only result in an ultimate collapse and obliteration of the Japanese nation, but also it would lead to the total extinction of human civilization.
Emperor Hirohito American eyes, American eyes, view the world through American eyes. Bury the past, rob us blind, and leave nothing behind.
Rage Against the Machine, “No Shelter”
The crux of this project is the disconnect between the tone of Godzilla paratexts and
Godzilla texts themselves. This chapter examines the trailers and posters of Showa Era Godzilla
films as paratexts to make this point. Since there are so many paratexts, toys and other
merchandise are examined in chapter 4. This split is necessary because it keeps this project
organized, as the sheer number of paratexts would make a singular chapter impractical and
unwieldy.
Due to the large number of Showa Era paratexts, the case study for Showa Era paratexts
is broken up into two separate chapters. In this chapter, trends for Showa Era trailers and posters
is examined, and in the next chapter Showa Era toys and merchandise is examined. The Showa
Era is split into three sections to better examine the trends for the paratexts during each time
period. These sections are early Showa Era (1954-1965), mid Showa Era (1966-1971) and late
Showa Era (1972-1980). In addition, official pressbooks for three movies, Godzilla vs. The
Thing, Godzilla vs. The Smog Monster, and Godzilla vs. Megalon are analyzed. Theatrical
pressbooks were sent by film distributors to theaters to show theaters how to market the film to
their local audiences. These pressbooks allow the reader to see how the distribution company
was marketing the film at the time of release. These pressbooks are available online, but I have
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obtained originals for analysis. These originals are necessary as they can be read in their entirety,
as intended, without reliance on some third party’s representations. Within each chapter, the
importance of those paratexts to modern American perceptions of Godzilla is showcased as well.
The official United States trailers for every Showa film has been preserved on the internet
by YouTube user Chaplin1914 who has uploaded them across three different video uploads.
These uploads are used to analyze the trailers. The posters for each film are freely available on
IMDb so they are sourced from each film’s respective IMDb page. For clarity, the American
names for the films is used. For example, Gojira is called Godzilla, King of the Monsters!,
Mothra vs. Godzilla is called Godzilla vs. The Thing and so forth.
For the early Showa Era, the films Godzilla, King of the Monsters!, Gigantis the Fire
Monster, King Kong vs. Godzilla, Godzilla vs. The Thing, Ghidrah, the Three-Headed Monster,
and Monster Zero are examined for trends in their advertising. After Monster Zero, original
director Ishiro Honda and special effects director Eiji Tsuburaya would leave the franchise,
making it the perfect film to cut the first section off. Honda would return for later films, but
Tsuburaya would pass away in 1970.
For the first film in the series, Godzilla, King of the Monsters!, the trailer plays up the
inherent horror of the scenario presented in the film. The narrator of the trailer uses phrases like
“tidal wave of terror to wreak vengeance on mankind” “a psychotic cavalcade of electrifying
horror” “on a rampage of total destruction” “a holocaust of flame,” “is this the end of our
civilization?,” “dynamic violence” (my personal favorite). Images of Godzilla and his rampages
are plentiful, with no mention at all of the love triangle or other human elements in the story.
Indeed, almost every scene featuring Godzilla is shown, with star Raymond Burr only having
around five seconds of screen time in the entire 1 minute 43 second trailer. Nameless JSDF
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soldiers get more screen time than Burr, while main characters Dr. Serizawa, Emiko, Dr.
Yamane, and Ogata, are nowhere to be seen at all. Godzilla’s roar and atomic breath sounds are
constantly heard under the narrator, next to never-ending explosions and gunfire. The human
storyline is mentioned in exactly one sentence. Other than that brief mention, the entire trailer is
devoted to Godzilla and the destruction he causes. With this trailer, it is clear, Godzilla is evil,
and he wants to destroy all of humanity. The poster follows the same trend as the trailer, with
phrases such as “Incredible, Unstoppable Titan of Terror,” “Civilization Crumbles,” and “It’s
Alive!” being prominently displayed (see Figure 2). Across the cover, we see Godzilla breathing
fire on a crowd of fleeing civilians as bullets bounce harmlessly off of him. Godzilla, King of the
Monsters’! poster drives home the fact that Godzilla is brutal and is actively attacking humanity
with the intent of destroying everyone and everything.
Figure 2: Godzilla, King of the Monsters! poster by Jewell Enterprises
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After the first salvo that was Godzilla, King of the Monsters!, Godzilla’s various
distribution partners continued to use much of the same language, imagery, and editing choices
in their posters and trailers. For the sequel, Gigantis the Fire Monster, the trend of Godzilla and
his cohort being referred to in purely evil verbiage is continued. The narrator calls the monsters
“100 tons of hell and fire, “Creatures born in hell to destroy each other, but first they’ll destroy
the world,” and “As they scorch the Earth with 10,000-degree jets of flaming devastation.” More
horror verbiage, like “They’re both alive,” and “Not one but two of the most terrifying creatures
ever loosed on man” show the intention of the marketing was to show the horror and evil of these
giant monsters. As with Godzilla, King of the Monsters!, Gigantis the Fire Monster’s paratexts
were designed to play up the inherent horror of the situation.
Figure 3: Godzilla vs. The Thing, “A” poster by American International Pictures
There would be some changes with King Kong vs. Godzilla, however. We begin to see
the marketing focus primarily on the thrill of the premise while the horror aspect becomes
secondary. Trailers start using verbiage like “brace yourself,” “it’s cataclysmic,” and “The titanic
27
terrifying battle between…” However, typical “B” movie exploitation verbiage gets thrown
around by the narrators as well: “Where sensuous maidens offer themselves in ritual sacrifice to
his [King Kong’s] brute embrace,” “See King Kong stamp Tokyo into the ground, holding a
beautiful girl in his grasp.” Godzilla vs. The Thing featured an entire ad campaign based around
how horrifying “The Thing” was, even including a disclaimer on the poster that “those who
cannot take its full horror” should not see the movie (see Figure 3). In reality “The Thing” was
simply Mothra, a giant moth. While there are still horror aspects in these trailers, the main focus
is on the spectacle of two icons fighting each other.
After Godzilla became a full-time hero in Ghidrah, The Three-Headed Monster, we begin
seeing the monsters Godzilla fights as the main threat presented, rather than Godzilla himself.
King Ghidorah becomes Godzilla’s archnemesis and we often see trailers and posters declare
King Ghidorah as the “world’s most terrifying monsters” and “a new high in screen terror.” King
Ghidorah’s size over Godzilla is emphasized, as is the necessity for Godzilla to team up with
other monsters like Mothra and Rodan. At the end of the early Showa Era, we see the first
explicit reference to Godzilla being a hero in the Monster Zero trailer, “Godzilla and Rodan fight
the monster from outer space to save the world” (emphasis added). As the early Showa Era came
to an end, there were still lots of references to Godzilla’s horror roots with B-movie type posters
and trailers. The true essence of the early Showa Era can be seen in the pressbook for Godzilla
vs. The Thing.
Within the pages of the official pressbook, we see the newspaper ads American
International Pictures (the most frequent of Godzilla’s American distributors in the Showa Era)
would sell to theaters to print in local newspapers. They present a few different options, but they
mainly focus on the destruction and terror of the scenario. One headline reads, “Terrifying battle
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of giant monsters wreaks death, havoc in ‘Godzilla vs. The Thing,” opening tomorrow.” Another
reads “All-time greatest fight of giant monsters seen in ‘Godzilla vs. The Thing’ opening here
today.” The ads have such titillating selling points as “Cities are shattered, armies are destroyed,
air forces are rendered powerless when two of the most terrifying fictional monsters ever brought
to screen battle to the death in American International’s ‘Godzilla versus The Thing’,” ‘It’s
spine-tingling, excitement and nerve-shattering thrills that no monster movie fan will want to
miss,” and “Savage rites defy monsters - Panic stricken natives dance their weird, savage rites to
ward off evil influences of monsters in ‘Godzilla versus the Thing.” While these ads are
interesting, the true fun lies in the “Seat Selling Slants” section of the pressbook.
Within the “Seat Selling Slants” section, American International Pictures presents several
alternative methods of advertisement. American International Pictures primarily marketed their
films at the time to teenagers, with Samuel Z. Arkoff devising the “Peter Pan Syndrome”
strategy which read:
A younger child will watch anything an older child will watch, an older child will not watch anything a younger child will watch, a girl will watch anything a boy will watch, a boy will not watch anything a girl will watch, therefore, to catch your greatest audience you zero in on the 19-year-old male. (Doherty 157)
These strategies can be seen in the Godzilla vs. the Thing pressbook. One thing the reader should
note, the quotes below are transcribed exactly as they were written in the original document. As
such, there are some grammar mistakes, these are intentional as to maintain the original feel of
the document.
• Wherever possible stencil enormous footsteps – 5 to 6 feet or more in length and proportioned – on busy streets and have them leading to your theater, or to “Godzilla versus The Thing” display. The stencils can be lettered “Godzilla was here,” for an effective interest arouser in thriller film.”
29
• Spot all places where buildings have been wrecked or razed in your area, or where pre-construction digging is going on and post signs on surrounding fences, reading “Godzilla fought The Thing here!” – another effective attention-getter.
• Get local ice cream parlors to cooperate on “Godzilla” monster sundae specials. They can also set up a “Mystery Thing Sundae” – a monster sundae of mystery ingredients and flavors. This can be used as the basis of a contest with prizes awarded to kids who correctly name the flavors and ingredients used in mystery concoction.
• By all means use Godzilla and giant question mark as theme for theatre front and marquee display, with mystery monster battle themes from ads. These can be enhanced with red flashing eyes for Godzilla and other effects.
• Contact local police and fire departments and Defense Department – armed services offices for weapons display promotion, with sings “These couldn’t stop Godzilla or The Thing”… This display can be used in, lobby or at other central locations.
• In cooperation with local TV kid show, or newspaper, or radio personality, sponsor “Mystery Monster ‘Thing’ Contest” – with prizes awarded to youngster who submits drawing of most frightening monster as his or her idea of what “The Thing” really looks like. This will set up tremendous advance interest in “Godzilla versus The Thing.”
The biggest thing to take away from these slants is the addition of children-oriented
marketing. Almost all of the advertisements to this point have focused on horror and terror,
which are generally not topics suitable for children, but are suitable for AIP’s primary target,
teenagers. Even with this very film, “The Thing” was supposedly so horrific it had to be
censored in the poster. Yet, American International Pictures tells theater owners to team up with
ice cream parlors to give prizes to kids, and to team up with local kids shows to hold a children
art contest, while at the same time telling theaters to get real guns and weapons from local police
and military stations to display as props. After the massive success of King Kong vs. Godzilla,
children became drawn to the Godzilla franchise in droves. William Tsutsui cites a 1964 New
York Times article in his book, Godzilla On My Mind, which reads, “A little girl of 7, beautiful as
a dream in spite of a temporary absence of front teeth, said to a girl who was walking beside her
in a school crocodile supervised by a nun, ‘It was like the fight between Godzilla and King
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Kong’” (125). Such an observation by the New York Times shows the true appeal of King Kong
vs. Godzilla amongst children. Both Toho and its American partners noticed the love of King
Kong vs. Godzilla from children and knew they had a new target demographic. While most of the
marketing for Godzilla vs. The Thing still maintained the franchise’s horror roots; the distributors
began to open up marketing avenues for children. A trend which would continue throughout the
rest of the Showa Era.
The films which make up the mid Showa Era are Godzilla vs. The Sea Monster, Son of
Godzilla, Destroy All Monsters, Godzilla’s Revenge, and Godzilla vs. The Smog Monster. Within
this period of the Showa Era, we see much more varied approaches to marketing Godzilla films
likely due to the wide range of subject material in these films. We also see the first Godzilla
films to be debuted on television, rather than at the movie theater (Kalat 97). As such, there is
less material to analyze, but there is still plenty to derive trends from. In the “vs” films like
Godzilla vs. The Sea Monster, the advertisements run almost like ads for a boxing match.
Godzilla gets hyped up as “the dreaded monster” in the Godzilla vs. The Sea Monster trailer with
his opponent being billed as an exciting upstart bent on wrenching the championship belt from
Godzilla. There is also a lot of questionable advertising, namely by misrepresenting the films
being advertised. The trailers for Destroy All Monsters and Godzilla’s Revenge both feature
inflammatory language which paints Godzilla as the villain, “Godzilla paralyzes New York,” and
“This is man’s last chance to stop Godzilla’s vengeance,” respectively. However, within these
films Godzilla is either controlled by aliens, or does not attack humanity at all.
One of the most interesting aspects of the mid Showa Era is the addition of Godzilla’s
adopted son, Minilla. Minilla brought forth changes in the Godzilla formula, namely adding a
largely comedic element to the franchise. For example, the Son of Godzilla trailer describes the
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movie as a “rollicking monster spectacular” and the poster for Godzilla’s Revenge (called Minya:
Son of Godzilla on the poster) features the tagline “Every boy needs a friend even if it’s a
monster.” In fact, both of those films could be described as coming of age movies, Son of
Godzilla being for Minilla himself and Godzilla’s Revenge being for the human boy Ichiro.
Minilla would even feature in Toho’s attempt to win back adults, Destroy All Monsters (Kalat
105). Despite these comedic elements, there is still plenty of city destruction to be found in the
paratexts of the mid Showa Era. Destroy All Monsters’ trailer features Godzilla, Mothra, Manda,
and many more attacking various cities and causing havoc. In addition, in Godzilla vs. The Smog
Monster’s trailer, we see the titular Smog Monster, Hedorah, openly killing civilians, something
not seen since the original Godzilla, King of the Monsters!
Figure 4: Godzilla vs. The Smog Monster, poster by AIP
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The marketing for Godzilla vs. The Smog Monster, much like the film itself, is a beast
unlike any other and is difficult to pair off or group with any of the other films, not just in the
mid Showa Era, but in the entire Showa Era. We get quotes from the trailer’s narrator which
describe Godzilla as “man’s friend” and asking the question, “Can Godzilla save the Earth from
this mastodon of destruction?” While the marketing clearly portrays Godzilla as a child friendly
hero, we get a classic mature B-movie image of an attractive and provocatively dressed woman
being attacked in the poster (see Figure 4), specifically a woman in a red dress (with a high set
kick pleat) being ensnared by Hedorah’s tentacles in a vaguely sexual manner. Despite the death
of civilians and the woman in a red dress, Godzilla vs. The Smog Monster was still heavily aimed
at children, as can be seen in the pressbook for the film. As Godzilla vs. The Smog Monster is the
last film in the mid Showa Era period, the pressbook demonstrates how this period finished
evolving with its paratexts.
The pressbook for Godzilla vs. The Smog Monster includes articles to publish in local
newspapers, the same way Godzilla vs The Thing’s pressbook did. This time, however, the tone
is quite different. The article headlines read “Anti-smog campaign featured in latest Godzilla
adventure” and “Japanese kiddies groove on monster” with accompanying photo captions which
read, “Godzilla, the prehistoric saurian takes up the cudgels for mankind in ‘Godzilla vs. The
Smog Monster’…” Clearly, the advertising is focusing on the appeal to children, and the best
section is still to come. Instead of a “Seat Selling Slants” section, we get an aptly named
“Exploitation” section. The exploitation section features the following marketing ideas:
• Ecology Figure-Head – The figure of Godzilla as a fighter against pollution might be promoted just as Smokey, The Bear symbolizes the campaign against forest fires. An anti-pollution drive could be set up centered around the symbol of Godzilla with the backing of a local boy and girl scout headquarter officials and 4-H clubs, rallying their memberships to clean up streets and alleys and delivering bottles and cans to re-
33
cycling centers. Make liberal use of cut-outs of the Godzilla figure for counter cards and displays at schools, libraries, playground bulletin boards and recreation centers.
• Pollution Display – Ever pertinent and eye-catching 3-dimensional display can be created in your lobby by setting up cutouts of the monster figures from posters over a mound of rubbish with tin cans and bottles so that the smog monster rises from the heap. Effectiveness depends on the effort in making a realistic display of the pollution. A good accent would be to use a red scrim over the eyes of the monsters with backlighting shining through illuminating them.
• Monster Screams – Have someone record the monster screams from the sound track during the battle scenes on a long-playing cassette tape and play the sound through a tape deck and p.a. amplifier in front of the theatre as an attention grabber from passersby.
• School tie-ups – GODZILLA vs. THE SMOG MONSTER presents a strong case against smog and pollution in language especially suited to grammar school age children. Screen the film from members of the local board of education, principals and teachers to arrange for group showings to their young students. If practical, group rates might be offered. If enough cooperation can be stimulated from the officials, special performances might be arranged on weekend mornings exclusively for these groups. The cooperation will also help in making space available on school bulletin boards and in school libraries and recreation rooms for displays.
• Godzilla Cocktail – Have local bar owner create a new mixed drink labeled the GODZILLA COCKTAIL…IT CLEARS THAT FIVE O’CLOCK SMOG FROM YOUR BRAIN…for use in promoting his cocktail hour offerings. Picture title and playdate can be plugged in his advertising. Gag should be of interest as a humor item to local newspaper columnists and radio and television commentators.”
• Natural Gas Promo – Make a tie-up with local natural gas supplier and municipal and state agencies which have converted their vehicles to natural gas fuels as part of the anti-smog effort. Theme of the campaign would link Godzilla’s battle against smog evil on the screen and the agency’s battle for air purity on the streets.
It is clear that American International Pictures had their aim squarely at children.
Godzilla as a hero on the scale of Smokey the Bear? Teaming up with boy scouts and 4-H clubs?
The same monster, which not even twenty years ago brought fear and death to Japan and served
as a sobering reminder of the evils of nuclear warfare is now being suggested to team up with the
local 4-H club. Whereas Godzilla vs. The Thing’s marketing was mostly adult with a couple of
kid aimed things (monster sundae and monster drawing contest), Godzilla vs. The Smog Monster
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is mostly aimed at kids with a few advertising methods not aimed at kids (Godzilla cocktail).
Anyone who would have seen these paratexts during the film’s run would have certainly
remembered such a sight, Godzilla teaming up with the local girl scout troop to fight pollution.
And anyone who hangs out with the girl scouts must be a superhero for children to enjoy, and
not a horrifying monster from the depths of the ocean irritated by man’s weapons.
The late Showa Era films, Godzilla on Monster Island, Godzilla vs. Megalon, Godzilla
vs. The Cosmic Monster (sometimes called Godzilla vs. The Bionic Monster) and Terror of
Godzilla demonstrates where the franchise completely fell into the superhero phase. As fate
would have it, Godzilla on Monster Island, Godzilla vs. Megalon, and Godzilla vs. The Cosmic
Monster were part of a triple feature release and thus share a trailer. Each film has individual
trailers, but this triple feature deserves a brief mention for what the narrator says. The narrator
proudly declares, “Three of the newest most exciting monster hits starring Earth champion and
protector Godzilla.” Once more affirming Godzilla as a hero and protector of the world, rather
than a scourge and monument to its sins. Every film in this period features an alien monster, so
the trailers and posters make it apparent that Godzilla is fighting on humanity’s behalf against
these invaders. The poster for Godzilla on Monster Island features the quote, “Space monsters
from beyond the stars at war with Godzilla for the Earth,” and the Godzilla vs. Megalon trailer
says, “terror-stricken humanity knew that it was on the brink of total destruction. A once proud
civilization now has to place its trust and hope in Godzilla and his powerful ally, Robot Man [Jet
Jaguar]. In concert they would fight this evil in a duel to the death…this war is an all-out effort
whose ultimate purpose was to save our planet from total destruction” (see Figure 5). All
references to horror or terror are reserved for the enemy monsters rather than Godzilla himself.
The thrill of the fights is heavily emphasized, much like the mid Showa Era trailers and posters.
35
The most heavily promoted film in this period, Godzilla vs. Megalon, provides an excellent case
study of how late Showa Era period films were marketed as a whole, as shown in the film’s
official pressbook.
Figure 5: Godzilla vs. Megalon, poster by Cinema Shares
Mel Maron, the president of Cinema Shares during the latter half of the Showa Era,
revealed in an interview with Steve Ryfle and Stuart Gilbraith IV for Godzilla vs. Megalon’s
DVD release by Media Blasters, that he chose to release Godzilla vs. Megalon “because I saw
Godzilla as a heroic figure by that point and felt the timing was right to show children a hero
who was a friendly monster and not Superman” (Ryfle & Gilbraith IV). Maron and Cinema
Shares spared no expense for this release, as shown by the pressbook. A four-page comic book
was released for theaters to “Pass them out in advance of the playdate through toy departments,
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via radio station giveaways, at sporting events, or any other means of mass distribution.” The
pressbook elaborates, “This full color comic book can be of great help in attracting the younger
crowd.” In addition, a set of four buttons were made depicting the monsters from the film which
were also meant to be given out at the theater, through radio or television stations, or any other
major place. Perhaps the most unique and quirky marketing available to theaters, however, has to
be the Monster Convoy. According to the press book:
There is available, upon special request to Cinema Shares Sales Representatives, giant full color cut-outs of the four monsters featured in the film. These cut-outs plus side panels are especially made to fit on Volkswagen Beetles. Arrangements can be made for these displays to be shipped to you, and cars provided through your local Volkswagen Dealer. This can be a huge promotional plus for your theatre, but it requires a lot of advance planning and work. You can have your local officials declare “MONSTER DAY” or “GODZILLA DAY” and have a parade, or use the convoy to visit shopping centers, or at sports events, etc. Prices for the cut-outs and side panels are dependent on the length of time required. Please call your local Cinema Shares Representative for details.
Meaning, if a theater had put in the effort, they could have had a parade of Godzilla cars and pass
buttons and comic books while the parade occurred. Unfortunately, I have been unable to track
down any pictures or proof this Monster Convoy every happened. Clearly, Cinema Shares went
all out with their promotion of Godzilla vs. Megalon and its effects are still felt today. Megalon
was a one-time villain, never again appearing in another film, even in Godzilla: Final Wars, a
movie famous for bringing back Showa Era monsters like Ebirah and Hedorah. Yet, every video
game, comic book series, and board game includes Megalon. For example, in Funko’s board
game Tokyo Clash, the four playable monsters are Godzilla, Mothra, King Ghidorah, and
Megalon. Not Rodan, not Mechagodzilla, not Anguirus, not even Minilla. Megalon. David Kalat
writes of Godzilla vs. Megalon’s legacy, “That it is probably the most accessible and best-known
Godzilla film among Americans is truly a shame” (135).
The Showa Era was a massive era, featuring a wide range of tones and themes for
37
Godzilla and friends. However, all things must come to a close. After Terror of Godzilla, the
Showa Era would end and Godzilla media in America would be regulated to toys and the
animated Hanna-Barbera show Godzilla (stylized as The Godzilla Power Hour). These paratexts
and more are discussed in the next chapter. Within this chapter, trailers and posters were
examined to showcase the wide range of tones in Showa Era marketing. Such changes in tone
allow for the disconnect between modern Godzilla films and Showa Era films. When creating
modern additions to legacy franchises, these shifts should be taken into account by franchise
owners to decide how to market their new products, both texts and paratexts.
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CHAPTER 4
SHOWA ERA TOYS, GAMES, AND OTHER PARATEXTS
Godzilla is the son of the atomic bomb. He is a nightmare created out of the darkness of the human soul. He is the sacred beast of the apocalypse.
Tomoyuki Tanaka Supersize our tragedies (You can’t define me, or justify greed), Bought in the land of the free!
Sum 41,“We’re All to Blame”
The most important paratexts which need to be analyzed for this project are the toys,
games, and other merchandise from the Showa Era. This chapter examines these paratexts for the
tonal shift associated with the Showa Era. Godzilla is a legacy franchise which has been able to
continue generation after generation, and part of the reason for its continuation is its ability to
speak to each new generation while keeping bridges to the older generations up. Bridges which
were built by the Showa Era and its paratexts.
During 1977, Star Wars would hit theaters and massively popularize licensed toys of all
shapes and sizes. As Jonathan Gray notes, “Moreover, though Star Wars hardly invented the
licensing and merchandising game, with Lone Ranger and other properties making considerable
profits in previous years, the phenomenal success of its merchandise, along with George Lucas’s
coup of retaining merchandising and licensing rights, began a new era” (177). While Godzilla
saw merchandise before Star Wars, it saw a massive boom after Star Wars, which makes sense
seeing as Godzilla is an instantly recognizable property with the same key demographic as Star
Wars, that being young boys. Furthermore, as elaborated on by Dan Fleming in his book
Powerplay: Toys as Popular Culture, “Luke Skywalker, the young hero of [the Star Wars
trilogy], is actually a rather softly defined character… Identifying with Luke, especially for a
child, will consequently depend on imagining oneself in those contexts rather than isolating Luke
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or actor Mark Hamill from them as an object of reified identification” (96). Much like Luke
Skywalker, Godzilla is not the most well-defined character. Godzilla has switched sides on the
morality scale so many times he can be either a hero or villain, he does not speak any kind of
discernable language, him and his Toho cohort will go from allies to enemies at a moment’s
notice, and he even changes physical design almost every movie. This softly defined character
allows Godzilla, like Luke Skywalker, to become an easy self-insert for any child. Indeed, a
child can fight Godzilla with his Green Army Men or can destroy his LEGO block skyscrapers
with his Godzilla toys. Godzilla’s softly defined character allows for such play variations to
occur.
Aaron Gerow says in his chapter of In Godzilla’s Footsteps: Japanese Pop Culture Icons
on the Global Stage, “Godzilla can offer one window onto what we could call the dual monsters
of textuality and spectatorship in Japanese film history, offering an example of the historical
struggles over what movies mean and who determines that” (63). Ever since Godzilla Raids
Again had a dart and gun toy/game released in 1955 to help promote the film in Japan, toys and
games have been a central part of the Godzilla franchise. The first American toy, however,
would not reach our shores until King Kong vs. Godzilla in 1963. This toy, a board game simply
titled Godzilla Game, would launch the American media empire that is the Godzilla franchise.
To this day, countless toys and games are released by different licensees to differing levels of
success in the United States. In this chapter, the Showa Era games, toys, puzzles, and other
paratexts are examined.
A 1998 book published by Schiffer and written by Sean Linkenback collects every
officially licensed Godzilla product from 1955 and 1998. This book, the Unauthorized Guide to
Godzilla Collectibles, is instrumental in studying toys and games produced for the American
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market, as it was the first comprehensive book on the subject in English. Through the
Unauthorized Guide to Godzilla Collectibles, Wonderland EP vinyl record, Godzilla Game by
Ideal, The Godzilla Game by Mattel, Godzilla King of the Creatures jigsaw puzzle, three puzzles
by HG Toys, Aurora model kits, Knickerbocker plush toys, Godzilla Battles the Tricephalon
Monster playset by HG Toys, and the Godzilla’s Gang and Shogun Warriors lines by Mattel is
analyzed.
The first Godzilla game or toy released in America was, conveniently, Godzilla Game by
Ideal. Godzilla Game coincided with the release of King Kong Game, both of which were
released by Ideal to promote the King Kong vs. Godzilla movie. The box art depicts Godzilla
breathing fire down on a city as civilians flee in typical Godzilla fashion. The instructions give
context for the game “Godzilla…is running amuck. Blinded with rage he goes around destroying
such things as oil fields, railroad yards, and electrical works…Someone must get to the Rocket
Launch Area and fire the Missile (with the radioactive warheads) as this is the only weapon that
will stop him.” Players must spin a tri-colored spinner to move their pieces to the Rocket Launch
Area in order to shoot a wooden disc to stop Godzilla. Here Godzilla is the antagonist and the
players must stop him. According to the instructions, however, Godzilla is merely destroying
property and not attacking humanity itself. Much like the film that inspired it, Godzilla Game is a
more serious toned entry than others examined herein, but it was designed to appeal to children.
After Godzilla Game, Godzilla saw several model kits created and released by Aurora
throughout the 1960s. One model features Godzilla standing among the ruins of a recently
destroyed city, one infamously features Godzilla hunched over the wheel of a small go-kart
while wearing a Speed Racer-esque helmet with a small dragster parachute emerging from a
backpack on Godzilla’s back. These two models could not be further from each other in tone.
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The first model was a more serious Godzilla, with the instruction manual proclaiming, Godzilla
as a “hideous monster” which “destroyed villages and murdered countless numbers of people.”
The second model, dubbed Godzilla’s Go Kart is a goofy toy, with all seriousness lost. These
models would not be the only ones made by Aurora.
In addition to these models, Aurora would release models for Rodan and King Ghidorah.
At the time, toys of villains like Rodan, King Ghidorah (and even to an extent, Godzilla) was
rare. According to Avi Santo, “child rearing experts from the 1930s to the 1950s believed that
children sought to emulate their heroes and that therefore playing with villainous characters
provided children with the wrong role models. These ideas began to erode in the 1960s, as play
was reconceived as a space for children to be imaginative, rather than learn to be good citizens”
(163-164). These Godzilla toys were being released during the same period the ideas of play
were being changed. During the 1960s and 1970s, parents were more likely to be ok with
children playing with toys of villainous characters, however Godzilla had become a hero at this
point, which would make any hesitant parents with holdover ideas from the 1950s, more likely to
be ok with their children playing with a Godzilla toy.
One interesting creation is the Godzilla Battles the Tricephalon Monster playset. Godzilla
Battles the Tricephalon Monster features Godzilla fighting a royalty-free version of King
Ghidorah (as evidenced by its three-headed design) as civilians flee and the military responds.
This set is unique compared to modern sets as it features civilian pieces as well as military
pieces, so the user could pose civilians fleeing from the action in addition to setting up the action
itself. Godzilla Battles the Tricephalon Monster is a prime example of Jonathan Gray’s
explanation of play’s importance to paratexts, as the user can set up their own stories and act
them out via this playset. Within the context of Star Wars toys, Gray explains, “Through play,
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the Star Wars toys allowed audiences past the barrier of spectatorship into the Star Wars
universe, thereby complicating established dichotomies of the authentic text and the hollow,
cash-grabbing paratext” (176). Within the context of Godzilla Battles the Tricephalon Monster,
Godzilla can be the good guy, battling with the military and protecting the civilians against the
evil Tricephalon Monster, or the monster roles could be switched with Godzilla battling the
heroic Tricephalon Monster, or both monsters could be evil and the military could be simply
trying to defend humanity; the possibilities are endless. This method of play as described by
Gray can also be applied to the previously mentioned Aurora models, as both heroes and villains
were created, allowing for endless possibilities.
Much like Star Wars, some of the first post-Star Wars merchandise released were jigsaw
puzzles. One of these was Godzilla: King of the Creatures from American Publishing
Corporation. It came in two versions, a smaller boxed version, and a larger canned version. The
artwork of the puzzle features Godzilla chewing on a train car as, yet again, civilians run from a
burning city. In addition, in 1978 HG Toys got ahold of the Godzilla license and made four
jigsaw puzzles. The puzzles are nothing special, they all feature a distinctly off model Godzilla
either destroying a city, fighting a monster, or fighting some military hardware. However, they
are distinctly aimed at children, rather than adults or even older teenagers.
Wonderland Records released a double-sided LP simply titled Godzilla, King of the
Monsters (stylized as King of the Monsters LP for clarity) which featured two stories, Godzilla
vs. The Alien Invasion and Godzilla vs. Amphibion. The sleeve also advertises other Wonderland
Record releases as “The most complete catalog of children’s records in the world…Entertaining
as well as educational.” The stories presented on this record may be entertaining, but they are
unlikely to be educational unless you do not know what the Bermuda Triangle is. That flavor
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text, while simply being a marketing tool to get parents to buy these records for their children,
does demonstrate the power of targeting children in Godzilla’s media empire. This record is for
children and kids, there is no doubt about it. At this point, Godzilla was deep into the “hero of
Earth” phase and this record continues that legacy as seen in his battle to “save the world from
the dreaded ‘Alien Invasion.’” This particular paratext is unique as it is still in print. It was
rereleased in 1998 as an audio cassette to ride the coattails of Godzilla 1998 and was rereleased
again onto iTunes and other audio streaming platforms in 2014 by TinToy, where it can still be
found, listened to, and purchased to this day.
One of the most famous Godzilla toys is known as Shogun Warriors Godzilla. It stood
nineteen-and-a-half to twenty inches tall (depending on which wave you bought) had a “pretend
flame” which could pop in and out of its mouth to simulate fire breath, could shoot its fist at
enemies, had a removable tail piece, and had wheels under its feet so it could roll around
unimpeded. The tagline for the Shogun Warriors line was “Invincible guardians of world
freedom!” and Godzilla was certainly a welcome addition to this team of guardians. Being up to
twenty inches tall, Shogun Warriors Godzilla dwarfed its Kenner made Star Wars competition
which had a standard four-inch height. Indeed, it is easy to visualize a case where a child could
pit his Star Wars figures up against Shogun Warriors Godzilla to fight to the death. While
Godzilla does have a menacing look (even the second issue box has “blood” on Godzilla’s claws,
which was later removed in further issues) (Linkenback), he is still presented as a hero on the
box. Unfortunately, Mattel did not make figures for any of Godzilla’s Toho counterparts, but
they would make a second line of Godzilla toys, named after the Big G himself.
Later in 1978, Mattel would release a line of toys they licensed from the Popy toy
company in Japan under the name Godzilla’s Gang. Ironically, despite the name of the toy line
44
being Godzilla’s Gang, Godzilla is the only Toho monster which was licensed, all the other
monsters are from the popular kaiju franchise Ultraman, none of which have ever appeared in a
Godzilla film. To put this in perspective, this would be like if Japan licensed a random line of
Star Wars toys, called them “Vader’s Squadron” but featured Star Trek or Battlestar Galactica
characters with only Darth Vader as a Star Wars representative. These figures were much more
in line with their Star Wars rivals, being approximately six inches tall and featured the collecting
aspect of finding each of the eight monsters. After two lines of toys, Mattel was not yet done
with the Godzilla franchise, as they had one more product they wanted to release.
In a move eerily similar to Ideal’s Godzilla Game, Mattel would release their own board
game starring the king of the monsters, also called… Godzilla Game (stylized as Godzilla Game:
Mattel for clarity). In this game, Godzilla takes on the role of the antagonist as you must avoid
him to keep your spaceships intact, while hoping your opponent’s spaceships were all destroyed
by Godzilla. The last person with remaining spaceships is the winner. Godzilla would pop out of
the board to “eat” any spaceships which got to close to his position on the board. The front of the
box features art of Godzilla eating a spaceship, with three small children playing the game in a
small window view. This time, the recommended age is over five years old instead of three.
Interestingly, whereas the first Godzilla Game’s goal was to defeat Godzilla, Godzilla Game:
Mattel’s goal was to simply survive Godzilla’s onslaught. While Godzilla is the antagonist in this
game, he is still child friendly, as evidenced by the photo of the children playing on the front of
the box.
One of the most well-known paratexts of the time was a children’s book published by
Crestwood House and written by Ian Thorne simply titled Godzilla (stylized as Godzilla:
Crestwood for clarity). Godzilla: Crestwood was part of Crestwood’s extremely popular monster
45
series, with other entrants including King Kong, Dracula, Frankenstein, The Wolf Man, and
many more. Thorne’s first few sentences sum up the tone of the book, and the view of Godzilla
by American audiences, flawlessly, “He’s green! He’s scaly! He’s as tall as a skyscraper! He
breathes fire! He chews up trains! He stomps whole cities into rubble when he’s in a bad mood!
Somehow, in spite of all this, he’s very, very lovable. People all over the world have cheered him
in movies and on TV. He’s Godzilla, King of the Monsters” (Thorne 7). Throne’s book is a
lovely, heartfelt tribute to the King of the Monsters; however, it does have its flaws. Thorne
repeats several mistakes and errors which were common at the time, such as asserting King Kong
won the fight in King Kong vs. Godzilla in western regions, whereas Godzilla won in the oriental
sections of the world, which is false (King Kong wins in all versions of the film) and the multiple
misnamings of Toho’s monsters (calling Anguirus “Anzilla” or Kumonga “Aspiga”). However,
Thorne does a great job informing the younger readers of Godzilla’s history, with a rather down-
to-Earth description of why Godzilla was created as an allegory to the atomic bomb and even
mentioning the difference between Gojira and Godzilla, King of the Monsters!. Thorne even
gives a nice diagram and breakdown of how Eiji Tsuburaya and his crew made the special effects
in the Godzilla films, potentially inspiring countless aspiring young special effects workers. On
the last page of the book, Throne give his views on the franchise at the time.
Some people have said that the Godzilla movies are like a comic book, and so they are, but what’s wrong with that? Many other critics have enjoyed the movies. Their special effects are wonderful. And the plots are almost always good fun for both adults and children. It doesn’t matter that all Godzilla’s actions aren’t realistic. Millions of people, all around the world, wouldn’t miss a monstrous moment of them. (Thorne 46) The Showa Era was filled to the brim with Godzilla paratexts. This case study is in no
way exhaustive, but it gives some context into the popularity with children the Godzilla franchise
continues to enjoy to this day. Being a Godzilla fan in the United States is difficult and was even
46
more so during the Showa Era. Movie releases would come out years later than in Japan, weird
English dubs, and being shamed by peers for liking something that is not “a NFL franchise, a
favored NASCAR driver, or Oprah” as William Tsutsui says, were never the best things to
experience. To remedy these things, the paratexts allowed fans to fill the gap between movies
with their own stories the same way kids did for Star Wars when the original trilogy was in
production. “The late 1970s and early 1980s came before the ubiquitous presence of VHS in
Western homes, and so if Star Wars was to live and be saved from becoming its own cold war, it
had to enter the body of paratexts” (Gray 181). Godzilla had to survive in the United States in the
same manner, through toys, games, and other paratexts. Even if a monster who appeared in a toy
did not appear in a Toho made movie, like the Amphibion or Tricephalon, they still became
important to those who played with their toys.
The examination of these paratexts serves to remind legacy franchise owners that play is
important to the legacy of your franchise. The very nature of play allows for consumers to make
their own stories, both serious and silly, for the characters involved. A more loosely defined
character, such as Godzilla, allows for more ways to play. Licensees and franchise owners
should take into consideration the importance of play and loosely defined characters when
creating new texts within their franchises, as it allows for a greater play potential.
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CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
As long as the arrogance of mankind exists, Godzilla will survive. Tomoyuki Tanaka
Beneath the seas I searched and had a different view of us on Earth: The sinking ship of men.
GOJIRA “Flying Whales”
Within this chapter, the final conclusions of this paper are drawn to show the strength of
legacy brands which lean into and embrace their goofy past while still evolving and changing as
they create new texts. In addition, the methodology of collecting these paratexts is discussed
briefly to give the ready insight into how this project advanced and to demonstrate to the reader
how difficult it can be to find some of these older and out of print paratexts.
Methods and “Things That I Wish Were Available”
The process of searching for and obtaining Godzilla paratexts is an adventure worthy of
its own paper. There are endless Godzilla paratexts, and not all of them are well documented. For
example, there is only one known photograph of the first ever Godzilla toy, a Japanese only gun-
and-target game. In fact, the first English language collection of Godzilla paratexts, Sean
Linkenback’s An Unauthorized Guide to Godzilla Collectibles is out-of-print and hard to find. I
obtained my copy by searching through old and abandoned Godzilla forums, and found reference
to it being available at the Brooks Memorial Library in Brattleboro, Vermont. After calling the
library, the book was made available for purchase from the Friends of Brooks Memorial Library.
Using this book, this researcher was able to narrow down dates and manufactures for Godzilla
paratexts in the United States. For pressbooks, film reels, and other rare books, eBay was used to
find and obtain them. The contents of pressbooks are online, however they are not always fully
48
scanned, so tracking down the original documents was necessary to truly understand how
Godzilla films were marketed in the U.S. during the Showa Era. Original Showa Era film trailers
were found on YouTube, where user Chaplin1914 uploaded the trailers for every Showa Era film
across three compilation videos, however an original 35mm print of a trailer for Monster Zero
was also found to ensure accuracy. Online Godzilla forums TohoKingdom.com, r/Godzilla on
Reddit, and other Godzilla fan blogs provided original photos of toys and other paratexts when
photos were not found in An Unauthorized Guide to Godzilla Collectibles.
In a perfect world, every Godzilla paratext or reference guide would be available in
English. Alternatively, I would be able to speak Japanese. Neither of these things are true, and
they led to some hiccups in research. For example, there is a book titled The Intellectual History
of Godzilla by Figyuru Aya, which it probably a fantastic source. However, it is exclusively in
Japanese. In addition, any toy or merchandise catalogs from Japan are going to be in Japanese. In
the future, it would be beneficial for me to learn to read some Japanese, or perhaps partner with a
researcher who does know how to read Japanese. In the future, it would be beneficial to get in
contact with Toho directly to discuss their marketing strategies in the United States. I did call
Toho’s Los Angeles office in an attempt to get in contact with Rui Machida, the Licensing
Manager of Toho International, but the office seems to be closed (likely due to the effects of the
ongoing Covid-19 Pandemic) and no one ever returned my calls. Perhaps when the Covid-19
Pandemic passes, the offices will reopen, and Rui Machida will be able to be reached.
One big issue with any Godzilla project is the overall lack of academic writing on the
subject. William Tsutsui, Jason Barr, and Susan Sontag are pretty much the only academics who
have written extensively on Godzilla, with others like David Kalat, Stuart Gilbraith IV, Steve
Ryfle, and Ed Godziszewski being extremely well researched and knowledgeable, but not
49
academic. This is why broader writings on paratexts from Jonathon Gray and Avi Santo were
used to help fill in the gaps. Hopefully, Godzilla will be taken more seriously in the academic
profession and more will be written on the franchise in the future to further all projects related to
the franchise.
Lastly, a bigger project would at the very minimum need to analyze the paratexts of
Godzilla 1998. While the film is reviled and shunned by not just the Godzilla community, but by
film critics and casual film watchers alike, it is an important part of the franchise. Godzilla 1998
was the first American made Godzilla film and had a massive marketing campaign. Pinball
machines, handheld electronic games, an animated series, countless toys, an online computer
game, and a team up with Taco Bell all came from Godzilla 1998 as it was supposed to launch a
trilogy of American made films. In fact, according to the survey conducted for this project,
Godzilla 1998 was the film most likely to be the first exposure Americans had to the Godzilla
franchise (beating the original Godzilla, King of the Monster! by a single vote). Some may
consider my exclusion of Godzilla 1998 paratexts as a grave sin, but this was done because it has
been over twenty years since that film was released, and the franchise has left Godzilla 1998
behind. There are new American movies, new American tie ins and toys and other merchandise,
the Godzilla 1998 generation has grown up and has been replaced with Godzilla 2014. I would
not be surprised if the survey were reran in twenty years, Godzilla 2014 would be the starting
point for the majority of respondents rather than Godzilla 1998. A bigger project, however,
would certainly require a dive into Godzilla 1998’s tuna infested marketing.
Project Conclusions
In 2020, Toho teamed up with several American companies to make a new line of board
games featuring Godzilla. One of these was a new original game by Funko called Godzilla:
50
Tokyo Clash. Within the game, players take control of one of four monsters: Godzilla, Mothra,
King Ghidorah, or Megalon, in order to battle each other all while the military builds the oxygen
destroyer to force both players to lose. What is interesting about this game is the many Showa
Era references and call backs. The biggest example is the inclusion of Megalon as a playable
monster. Godzilla is the main character so it is given he will be playable, Mothra and King
Ghidorah are part of Toho’s “Big Five” along with Rodan and Mechagodzilla and are iconic to
the franchise so it makes sense they would make the cut, but Megalon was a onetime villain. In
2019 Legendary’s Godzilla: King of the Monsters featured Mothra, King Ghidorah, and Rodan
in their first American movie, why not include Rodan to make it more of a tie in? Or if the
concern is that Rodan is not villainous enough because he has teamed up with Godzilla several
times before, and they wanted two heroes and two villains, why not Gigan? Gigan has been in
three times as many movies as Megalon has and has even teamed up with King Ghidroah several
times. They had endless options for a fourth monster, and they chose the goofy monster from a
late Showa Era film. Why? Because Megalon is one of the most recognizable monsters in
Godzilla’s rogue gallery. For a long time, Godzilla vs. Megalon was the quintessential Godzilla
film in the United States. As previously mentioned, David Kalat called it the “most accessible
and best-known Godzilla film among Americans” (135). It was lampooned in the original run of
Mystery Science Theater 3000, and most notably, it received a primetime television premier on
NBC which was hosted by famed comedian John Belushi (unfortunately the buffers featuring
Belushi have not been seen since the original broadcast and are considered lost media). Despite
Godzilla vs. Megalon’s well-earned reputation as a bad movie, it was everywhere and is one of
Godzilla’s most identifiable romps. In order to cash in on that Showa Era nostalgia, Funko likely
chose Megalon to be the fourth monster in Tokyo Clash over his more qualified peers. This
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Showa Era nostalgia and basis would continue into the other board game this paper examines.
Also in 2020, Hasbro and Parker Brothers teamed up with Toho to release Monopoly:
Godzilla Edition. Monopoly: Godzilla Edition is a love letter to the franchise, featuring
references to every era and even makes reference to the classic Blue Öyster Cult song
“Godzilla.” Since Monopoly can be played with up to six players, they needed six monsters to
use as game pieces, so they chose Toho’s Big Five (Godzilla, Mothra, Rodan, King Ghidorah,
and Mechagodzilla) and for number six they chose none other than Godzilla’s son, Minilla. Once
again, they could have picked Destoroyah, Jet Jaguar, Zilla (the renamed design of the 1998
Godzilla), Angurius, literally anyone, but they chose one of the most reviled members of
Godzilla’s family. Just like Megalon with Tokyo Clash, the designers for Monopoly: Godzilla
Edition knew Minilla, while being hated by the Godzilla fandom, is also an extremely iconic part
of the Godzilla franchise, and a monster both Godzilla fans and the general public would
recognize as part of the Godzilla family. However, Minilla is just the tip of the Showa Era
iceberg in Monopoly: Godzilla Edition. Along with the property name, each property features
and image of the monster who is most associated with that property in the films. Ebirah,
Anguirus, Varan, Manda, Gorosaurus, Baragon, Titanosaurus, Jet Jaguar, Hedorah, King Caesar,
Gigan, and Megalon are all Showa Era monsters which can be bought, along with Showa Era
hazards like the Xiliens, Red Bamboo, and the Atragon. The most interesting thing about these
Showa Era monsters is even if they made appearances in other eras, the game uses the designs
and names from the Showa Era. Ebirah, Anguirus, Manda, Baragon, Hedorah, King Casear,
Gigan, the Xiliens, and the Atragon have all appeared in the Millennium Era, but the game
designers chose to use their Showa Era designs. In the case of the Atragon, they even used its
Showa Era name as the ship is now known as the Gotengo. There are, of course, references to the
52
Heisei Era and the Millennium Era, but the Showa Era has the most representation in Monopoly:
Godzilla Edition.
The Showa Era’s representation in these board games bring back memories of the fun and
lighthearted parts of the Godzilla franchise. As shown by the Reiwa Era Godzilla films, however,
Godzilla is not the same father figure, hero of Earth he was in 1975. In Japan, Godzilla is back to
his roots as an omen of global death and destruction. In Shin Godzilla he wantonly destroys
Tokyo and is speculated to want to destroy the entire world via his constantly evolving biology
and weaponry. In the anime trilogy, Godzilla kills so many people, he forces humanity to
evacuate the Earth, and has an unexplained hatred for humanity, actively hunting them down
across the Earth, no matter how small or weak of a group. Godzilla is the devil in the Reiwa Era,
a reminder that humanity cannot outrun its sins, even if they traverse through space for 20,000
years, when they return to Earth, Godzilla will still be there, waiting for them so he can finish the
job. Even in the American films, Godzilla is not a true hero or protector of humanity, he is
simply an alpha predator trying to maintain his natural habitat. He has no love for humanity in
the American films, he simply lives on the same planet as them. Humanity has tried several times
to kill Godzilla in the Legendary Pictures films, but each time they had failed, and the one time
they got close, the only reason Godzilla did not retaliate was because the organization Monarch
revived him and Godzilla had a bigger issue (namely King Ghidorah) to deal with. Yet, the
Showa Era continues to endure. This is because Toho and its licensees know, the Showa Era is
the gateway to the Godzilla franchise for children.
According to the survey I conducted for this paper, over half, 56.63% of the respondents’
first movie in the Godzilla franchise was a Showa Era film. Thusly, it should be no surprise that
43.6% of respondents reported the Showa Era as their favorite Godzilla Era, which is not a
53
majority but was the plurality vote winner. To prove the Godzilla’s franchise appeal to kids, we
see in my survey that 89% of respondents were ten years old or younger when they saw their first
Godzilla movie. Furthermore, 95.9% of respondents answered they would let their children
under the age of thirteen to see a new Godzilla movie if it was rated PG-13 by the MPAA.
Similarly, 64% of respondents said they would let their children under the age of eighteen see a
new Godzilla movie if it was rated R by the MPAA. And the cherry on top of it all, 86.4% of
respondents claimed they believed Godzilla is a child-friendly franchise. It is important to note
that out of the 331 respondents, the average age of the respondents was 28.47 years old, with a
mode age of 21 years old.
The Showa Era is the most influential era of the Godzilla franchise. It featured the most
monsters, the most American distribution, the most movies, the most iconic parts of the
franchise, and, as my survey shows, the jumping off point for most American Godzilla fans.
From the cold seriousness of Gojira, to the over-the-top silliness of Godzilla vs. Megalon, the
Showa Era is a rollercoaster ride through Godzilla, both as a franchise and as a character. The
world has seen Godzilla hunt humanity down to the last member of the species the way radiation
hunts cells in the human body, and we have seen Godzilla fight entire alien invasions himself to
save humanity from the horrors of enslavement. During this wild journey, one thing has
remained constant, Godzilla sells toys. While Godzilla was supposed to perish forever at the end
of Gojira, “movie monsters that make a lot of money never die…and Godzilla was a
blockbuster. So, the monster returned” (Thorne 16).
Godzilla, from the very beginning, has been a tale of two countries. First, we have the
originators, Japan, and we have the licensees, the United States. Being a child of the atomic
bomb, Godzilla is tied to these two countries. Godzilla is both punishment and the future for
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Japan following their defeat in World War II. Ever since the end of the war, debates have been
had over the ethics of the use of atomic weaponry against the Japanese, even in the face of
Japan’s endless war crimes which some have argued were just as bad as the crimes of Nazi
Germany, but this paper is not an examination into the ethics of war. The facts are, Japan
committed travesties in World War II, even original director Ishiro Honda could have faced trial
as he ran a “comfort camp” (essentially a brothel for Japanese servicemen where the women
were mostly sourced from the local area) and the war ended after the United States dropped two
nuclear weapons on Japan. Godzilla, as an allegory of these atomic weapons, is part of that story.
Godzilla “is a mirror into the Japanese soul” (Kalat 23), which is why he is a constantly
evolving monster in Japan. However, in the United States, he is firmly rooted in the actions of
his heroic phase. As William Tsutsui puts it, “the image rooted in America’s pop culture
subconscious is that of Godzilla the goofy champion, the saurian defender of the world, the judo-
kicking, karate-chopping, bug-eyed, technicolor creature from the films of the 1960s and the
1970s” (43). Godzilla is a pop culture icon in the United States, just as he is in his homeland of
Japan, just for different reasons. The United States leans into the Showa Era heroism of the
character, which is both reflected in and multiplied by American paratexts. Even today, as Toho
and even American production companies steer Godzilla into a more villainous or anti-hero role,
Godzilla’s merchandise and paratexts show him in a heroic light. Unlike villains like Freddy
Krueger who also got children’s toys back in the day and have since stopped making children’s
toys, Godzilla still gets children’s toys and other paratexts. While the modern era of Godzilla is
still young, it is likely this trend will continue.
Avi Santo writes about heritage brands, “heritage brands, while lucrative, also pose
complex managerial challenges because of their need to consistently strike the right balance
55
between nostalgia and innovation.” (191). Godzilla presents its own challenges when it comes to
brand management, due to its status as an international icon which is not owned by an American
company, its reputation as a B-movie schlock franchise, and its disastrous first American made
film. However, while some legacy brands fail to make marks in the modern marketplace,
Godzilla continues to thrive. The franchise does so due to its understanding of the importance of
the Showa Era, and continues to use Showa Era movies and strategies for its modern day
paratexts. Even when Godzilla is not a hero, his paratexts allow for him to be whatever the
children who buy his toys need him to be. Rights owners who own intellectual properties that
have long since seen their heyday can implement similar strategies Toho and its licensees use to
keep Godzilla profitable. So long as the Godzilla franchise continues to understand the
importance of the Showa Era paratexts, it will continue to survive in the modern media climate.
57
The following are the questions asked to members of the Godzilla fan community during an
online survey which started on October 19, 2020.
1. How were you first exposed to the Godzilla franchise?
2. Which Godzilla film was the first one you watched?
3. Which Godzilla Era is your favorite?
4. About how old were you when you first saw a Godzilla film?
5. If the next Godzilla film was rated PG-13, would you allow your children (under the age of 13) to see it?
6. If the next Godzilla film was rated R, would you allow your children (under the age of 18) to see it?
7. As a child, did you own a Godzilla toy, video game, or board game? Please specify.
8. As a child, did you watch the Hanna-Barbera animated series Godzilla (sometimes called The Godzilla Power Hour)?
9. Do you think Godzilla is a child-friendly franchise?
10. How old are you?
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Filmography
All Monsters Attack. Dir. Honda, Ishiro. Prod. Tanaka, Tomoyuki, and Henry G. Saperstein. Toho, United Productions of America, 1969. Film.
Destroy All Monsters. Dir. Honda, Ishiro. Prod. Tanaka, Tomoyuki. Toho, 1968. Film.
Ebirah, Horror of the Deep. Dir. Fukuda, Jun. Prod. Tanaka, Tomoyuki. Toho, 1966. Film.
Ghidroah, the Three-Headed Monster. Dir. Honda, Ishiro. Prod. Tanaka, Tomoyuki. Toho, 1964a. Film.
Gigantis the Fire Monster. Dir. Oda, Motoyoshi. Prod. Schreibman, Paul, and Tomoyuki Tanaka. Toho, Warner Bros., 1959. Film.
Godzilla. Dir. Edwards, Gareth. Prod. Banno, Yoshimitsu. Legendary Pictures/Warner Bros., 2014. Film.
Godzilla: City on the Edge of Battle. Dir. Seshita, Hiroyuki, and Kobun Shizuno. Prod. Furusawa Yoshihiro, and Takashi Yoshizawa. Polygon Pictures/Toho, 2018a. Film.
Godzilla: King of the Monsters. Dir. Dougherty, Michael. Prod. Allsopp, Matt. Legendary Pictures/Warner Bros., 2019. Film.
Godzilla, King of the Monsters! Dir. Honda, Ishiro, and Terry Morse. Prod. Tanaka, Tomoyuki. Perf. Burr, Raymond. Toho, Jewell Enterprises, 1957. Film.
62
Godzilla: Planet of the Monsters. Dir. Seshita, Hiroyuki, and Kobun Shizuno. Prod. Furusawa Yoshihiro, and Takashi Yoshizawa. Polygon Pictures/Toho, 2017. Film.
Godzilla: The Planet Eater. Dir. Seshita, Hiroyuki, and Kobun Shizuno. Polygon Pictures/Toho, 2018b. Film.
Godzilla vs. Gigan. Dir. Fukuda, Jun. Prod. Tanaka, Tomoyuki. Toho, 1972. Film.
Godzilla vs. Hedorah. Dir. Banno, Yoshimitsu. Prod. Tanaka, Tomoyuki. Toho, 1971. Film.
Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla. Dir. Fukuda, Jun. Prod. Tanaka, Tomoyuki. Toho, 1974. Film.
Godzilla vs. Megalon. Dir. Fukuda, Jun. Prod. Tanaka, Tomoyuki. Toho, 1973. Film.
Invasion of Astro-Monster. Dir. Honda, Ishiro. Prod. Tanaka, Tomoyuki, and Henry G. Saperstein. Toho, United Productions of America, 1965. Film.
King Kong vs. Godzilla. Dir. Honda, Ishiro. Prod. Tanaka, Tomoyuki, and John Beck. Toho, RKO General Pictures, 1962. Film.
Mothra vs. Godzilla. Dir. Honda, Ishiro. Prod. Tanaka, Tomoyuki. Toho, 1964b. Film.
Shin Godzilla. Dir. Anno, Hideaki, and Shinji Higuchi. Prod. Ichikawa, Minami. Toho, 2016. Film.
Son of Godzilla. Dir. Fukuda, Jun. Prod. Tanaka, Tomoyuki. Toho, 1967. Film.
Terror of Mechagodzilla. Dir. Honda, Ishiro. Prod. Tanaka, Tomoyuki, and Henry G. Saperstein. Henry G. Saperstein Productions, Toho, 1975. Film.