Post on 21-Feb-2023
THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND PUBLIC POLICY
„WINTER SONATA‟ DREAMS: THE INFLUENCE OF THE KOREAN WAVE ON
JAPANESE SOCIETY
By
JONGHOON LEE
A Thesis submitted to the
Department of Asian Studies
in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts
Degree Awarded:
Spring Semester, 2010
ii
The members of the committee approve the thesis of Jonghoon Lee defended on February 26,
2010.
__________________________________
Yoshihiro Yasuhara
Professor Directing Thesis
__________________________________
Jimmy Yu
Committee Member
__________________________________
Koji Ueno
Committee Member
Approved:
_____________________________________
Lee Metcalf, Chair, Asian Studies
The Graduate School has verified and approved the above-named committee members.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Tables .................................................................................................... v
List of Figures ................................................................................................... vi
Abstract ............................................................................................................. vii
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 1
1.1 The Korean Wave .................................................................................. 3
1.2 Previous Studies .................................................................................... 5
1.3 Theoretical Framework .......................................................................... 6
1.4 Methodology .......................................................................................... 7
2. THE ORIGIN OF THE KOREAN WAVE AND ITS DEVELOPMENT
....................................................................................................... 9
2.1 Historical background and Development of the Korean Wave
In Japan .................................................................................................. 10
3. KOREAN WAVE INITIATED BY MIDDLE-AGED AND ELDERLY
JAPANESE WOMEN ................................................................................. 16
3.1 The Fan as Active Performer ................................................................. 16
3.2 The Reasons for Success ........................................................................ 18
3.2.1 Story of Pure Love with Timely Situation ................................. 18
3.2.2 Some Traditional Values: Filial Piety
and Family Relationship ............................................................ 21
4. INFLUENCES ON JAPANESE SOCIETY:
CHANGING PERSPECTIVES ON KOREA ............................................. 26
5. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................. 43
5.1 Suggestions and Limitations .................................................................. 44
APPENDICES ................................................................................................... 46
A USE OF HUMAN SUBJECTS IN RESEARCH
– APPROVAL MEMORANDUM .................................................... 46
B VERBAL CONSENT SCRIPT IN JAPANESE ................................. 48
iv
C VERBAL CONSENT SCRIPT IN ENGLISH ................................... 50
D SURVEY QUESTIONS IN JAPANESE ........................................... 52
E SURVEY QUESTIONS IN ENGLISH .............................................. 55
REFERENCES ................................................................................................. 59
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ............................................................................ 63
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: NHK Audience Rating for Winter Sonata, 2004 ...................................... 13
Table 2: Winter Sonata-related Neologisms ........................................................... 15
Table 3: Japanese Preferences for Other People ..................................................... 27
Table 4: Japanese Affection for Korea ................................................................... 27
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: What will be Korea‘s International Relationship to Japan
in the Future? (1992) ......................................................................... 29
Figure 2: What effect will Winter Sonata Have on the Korea-Japan
Relationship? (2004) ......................................................................... 29
Figure 3: I feel close to Korea and Korean People ................................................. 31
Figure 4: I will hire a Korean-Japanese if I am a manager ..................................... 32
Figure 5: I will accept a Korean as my spouse or as the
spouse of a family member ................................................................... 33
Figure 6: I am interested in Korean history ............................................................ 34
Figure 7: I am interested in current Korea-Japan-related political issues
such as the territorial dispute over Dokdo/Takeshima islet .................. 35
Figure 8: I feel Korea is very important neighbor country to Japan
as an international partner ..................................................................... 36
Figure 9: I feel that the relationship between Korea and Japan
should be improved ............................................................................... 37
Figure 10: Have you increased your interest in Korea and its culture since
watching Winter Sonata? .................................................................... 38
Figure 11: Do you think the Korean Wave will last over times?............................ 38
vii
ABSTRACT
Through a case study of Korean television drama Winter Sonata, this thesis explores why Winter
Sonata became so successful in Japan and was able to affect many middle-aged and elderly women, and
how Korean Wave has changed the image of Korea and its culture.
In recent years, the popular Korean Wave (Hallyu) of culture and entertainment has swept over
all of Asia, but has had a particularly profound impact in Japan. The Korean Wave provides a rare
historical moment for Korean and Japanese people to critically review and reassess their own lives,
societies and most importantly, their checkered past history.
Winter Sonata has secured its position as a social phenomenon, becoming popular especially in
middle-aged and elderly women of Japan. This demographic have been neglected among the audience of
trendy dramas in Japan. Because women in twenties were regarded as major consumers, sponsors
wanted to produce youth-oriented trendy dramas. Thus, Japanese broadcasting companies did not
produce television dramas for middle-aged and elderly women before the boom of Winter Sonata.
In reality, however, despite the fact that the audience of the Japanese television dramas were
composed of middle-aged and elderly women, almost no program was available that fitted their taste
until the drama was telecasted in Japan. Their taste centers around their penchant for pure love story
with young characters in it, which is no longer addressed in Japanese drama these days, the drama
revitalized a feeling of nostalgia for romantic pure love among the middle aged and elderly female.
In addition Japanese middle-aged women‘s interest in the Korean drama is closely related to
their appreciation of some traditional Confucian values, such as filial piety and close family relationship,
attract middle-aged women, and these characteristics allow them to remind their past and old teaching.
However, Japanese audiences are selective in the traditional Confucian values they identify in Winter
Sonata. Middle-aged and elderly Japanese women may feel nostalgia for their childhood and for some
Confucian values, but they do not think that Japan must return to a conservative patriarchal social
structure.
The interest in Winter Sonata has been extended to the whole Korean popular culture like other
dramas, movies, music, and media. Along with that development, an increasing number of people in
Japan have become aware of a variety of aspects in Korean society and culture, and beyond the popular
viii
culture, they have started to step forward in learning Korean language and traveling around Korea with
their positive and empirical acts. That is, the interest in Korean popular culture has been linked to the
change in a Japanese way of life. Since the Korean Wave appeared, Japanese people have increased their
interest in overall Korean culture and Korea as a nation. The notable number of Japanese people
renewed their perception of Korea with a more active and positive attitude than in the past when the
history between Korea and Japan was rife with not a few diplomatic problems.
1
CHAPER 1
INTRODUCTION
Through a case study of the Korean1 television drama Winter Sonata (冬のソナタ), this thesis
explores the following questions: (1) why the successful program captured the imaginations of a group--
middle-aged and elderly Japanese women--, who had previously been neglected by mainstream Japanese
media, and (2) how the ‗Korean Wave‘ that was powered by Winter Sonata has changed the image of
Korea and its culture in Japan.
Winter Sonata appealed to the sensitivities of middle-aged and elderly Japanese women longing
nostalgically for the innocent emotions and some traditional Confucian values- filial piety and close
family relationships- they associated with Japan‘s golden age, the Showa period (1926-1989). It did this
by telling the kind of ‗pure love‘ story that Japanese television drama had ceased to broadcast during the
country‘s economic boom years in the 1980s, and by dramatizing some traditional Confucian values that
have historically sustained Japanese family and society. As a result of having their emotional needs
satisfied through Winter Sonata, the program‘s Japanese audience, and especially the middle-aged and
elderly women who comprise 90 percent of its viewership began to learn about Korea, initiating the
‗Korean Wave‘ as a social phenomenon in Japan. As a result, the negative image of Korea and its
culture long embedded in Japanese society, as a result of the two countries‘ antagonistic history, began
to become more favorable.
Although the Korean Wave‘s greatest economic and cultural impact has been in Japan, it
originally began in China. This may explain why most of the research done on the Korean Wave has
focused on China and related markets such as Taiwan and Hong Kong. Moreover, the research that has
been performed about the Korean Wave in Japan has concentrated on its economic aspect, for example,
how this cultural boom relates to the increased penetration of Korean cultural products and other
businesses in Japan.
1 In this paper, the term Korea identifies the Republic of Korea (South Korea)
2
Few academic papers or media reports have focused on the reasons behind the success of Winter
Sonata in Japan, those that have attributed its success solely to its ‗pure love‘ theme and to the longing
for the traditional Confucian values felt by middle-aged and elderly Japanese women. My own research,
presented in this paper, confirms that to a certain point, - these two elements largely account for the
drama‘s success.
According to Katayama Kyoichi, a famous Japanese author, the concept of ‗pure love‘ (Jun‟ai)
is fundamentally about committing oneself to another with one‘s heart and soul.2 While marrying and
rearing their children, most middle-aged and elderly women, aged 30 to 70, in Japan had to constrain
their emotions in order to cope with life's challenges. That is, their idealistic notions of love were
―contaminated‖ by many conditions, such as financial issues, that dominated life during Japan‘s
economy ascendance. The refreshing love story told in Winter Sonata appears to provide a welcome
outlet for their romantic feelings.
Nevertheless, one cannot ignore the fact that Winter Sonata was first targeted to Korean
audiences and televised in Korea before Japan. It did not achieve visible success in Korea, however.3 If
the ‗pure love‘ theme is strong enough to appeal to Japanese audiences, why did it not affect Korea‘s
middle-aged and elderly viewers, its first intended audience? I believe we cannot completely answer this
question without exploring another situational factor: there were no television dramas for middle-aged
and elderly women in Japan.
Moreover, my research reveals that whole traditional Confucian value is not the fact that the
drama appeals to Japanese audiences. Traditionally, Confucian values are strongly related to patriarchy.
As outlined by Mencius in the book Mencius, there are the three subordinations in Confucian thought: a
woman was to be subordinate to her father in youth, to her husband in maturity, and to her son in old age.
A cliché of classic Confucian texts, repeated throughout the tradition, is that men govern the outer world,
while women govern the home. Thus, in traditional Confucian society, woman‘s status was
fundamentally below that of the man.
If middle-aged and elderly Japanese women long for traditional Confucian values, that yearning
is highly selective. Though this demographic feels nostalgia for their childhood and for some Confucian
2 Naoko Komine, A study of the Influence of the Korean Wave on Japanese Society (Pusan: Bukyung University, 2005), 17.
3 The audience rating for Winter Sonata in Korea was 27.6% whereas the average audience rating for other dramas was 30%
or higher.
3
values,4 they do not believe that Japan must return to a conservative patriarchal social structure. Rather,
my research indicates that Winter Sonata viewers are impressed by the fact that the characters of the
drama use beautiful language, are polite, care about their families, and show filial piety. That is, Winter
Sonata reminds them not of a Japanese past dominated by patriarchal Confucian values, but of things
they fear Japanese society is leaving behind, such as filial piety and family relationships.
By focusing on the drama Winter Sonata as a social phenomenon in Japan, my research will
articulate why the drama succeeded in Japan and how it and the Korean Wave are influencing Japan‘s
perspective on Korea.
1.1 The Korean Wave
Before the World Cup soccer games co-hosted by South Korea and Japan in 2002, there was
little evidence of Japan‘s interest in learning about Korean culture, other than curiosity about traditional
artifacts like celadon porcelain and paintings. The Japanese impression of Korea was of a mysterious
country infamous for certain notorious events, such as the 1973 kidnapping in Tokyo of Korea‘s
political opposition leader Kim Dae-Jung,5 later Korea‘s fifteenth president, by the military-backed
government of dictator Park Jung-Hee.
The 2002 World Cup soccer games co-hosted by South Korea and Japan helped to revitalize the
Korean entertainment industry, but it was not until the Japanese Broadcasting Corporation (Nippon
Hoso Kyokai or NHK) first televised the Korean Broadcasting System‘s (KBS) melodrama Winter
Sonata (冬のソナタ) in 2003 that Japan‘s negative image of Korea began to change. An entertainment
or cultural boom called ‗Hallyu‘ (韓流), or the Korean Wave, was unleashed that has since engulfed
countries across Asia, including China and Vietnam.
It is not an overstatement to say that the cultural power of the Korean Wave has been pivotal in
alleviating the animosity between the two countries in a way that politics alone has never been able to
achieve. Japan was the first Asian country to Westernize and achieve modernization. Unlike other
Asian countries, Japanese leaders, since the Meiji Restoration in 1868, were willing to accept Western
4 Kyung-Hee Shin, Narrative Structure and Societal Meaning of the TV Drama Winter Sonata: Focusing on the Characters‟
Behavior (Daejeon: Chungnam University, 2006). ; Naoko Komine, A study of the Influence of the Korean Wave on Japanese
Society (Pusan: Bukyung University, 2005). 5 Because Koreans and Japanese use their last name first, I will follow that convention in this paper.
4
culture, knowledge, and technology in order to modernize Japan.6
According a scholar Koichi
Iwabuchi, Japan had two slogans, Datsua Nyuo (脫亞入歐, ―Escape from Asia, Enter the West‖), and
Wakon Yosai (和魂洋才, ―Japanese Spirit, Western Technology‖) in the nineteenth century, both
reflecting Japan‘s eagerness to become modern. This modernization led Japan as an emerging
imperialist and militarist nation to regard itself as the leader of Asia, as the self-appointed
representative of Asia to its Western counterparts.
Japan‘s sense of itself as sitting on top of Asia‘s hierarchy enabled it to create a ―Japanized
Orientalism‖ that, according to a historian Shinichi Okazaki, placed Japan at the center of Asia. This
idea has dominated Japan‘s general thought in academic, political, and social discussions.7 Given this
context, it may be said that the Korean Wave has helped contemporary Japan pay more attention to
Asia.
Before the Korean Wave, trendy Japanese television dramas enjoyed a huge boom throughout
Asia, from Tokyo Love Story (1988-1990) and Long Vacation (1996) to Love Generation (1997).
Scholars attempted to explain why Japanese dramas had gained so much popularity across Asia. One
suggested that their success was an extension of Japan‘s past colonization of Asia into a new context:
cultural imperialism.8
Conversely, Korean dramas have now taken the place of Japanese dramas. Beginning with serial
dramas like Winter Sonata, these Korean cultural products have expanded to include film, popular
music, food, language, and so on. But the success of the Korean Wave in Japan cannot be seen as
simply a reverse form of cultural imperialism, because historically Korea was a colony of Japan, never
the reverse. Also, much of the modernization that countries like Korea have undertaken was learned
from Japan, the first Asian nation to modernize.
In addition, the Japanese audience for Korean television dramas differs from that of other
countries. In those countries, teenagers tend to be the ones who enjoy foreign programs first. In
contrast, in Japan, especially in the case of Winter Sonata, which ignited the Korean Wave, nine out of
ten viewers were middle-aged to elderly females. One explanation for Japan‘s unique response to the
6 Koichi Iwabuchi, ―Return to Asia? Japan in the Global Audiovisual Market.‖ Media International Australia 77 (1995): 94-
106. 7 Shinichi Okazaki, ―Hankuke Daehan Ilboninui Sahoe Munhwajeok Inshick” (Japanese Perspectives on Korea; focusing on
society and culture) (Seoul: Kyung Hee University, 1999), 27-28. 8 Chris Baker, Television, Globalization and Cultural Identities (London: Open University Press, 1999). According to Baker,
cultural imperialism is the practice of promoting, distinguishing, separating, or artificially injecting the culture of one society
into another. It is usually the case that the imperializing culture belongs to a large, economically or militarily powerful nation
and the colonized culture belongs to a smaller, less powerful one.
5
Korean Wave is the so-called cultural proximity theory, which emphasizes the power of culturally
proximate characteristics such as geography, tradition, and race within a region.9
This thesis is divided into three sections. The first section will review the historical background,
including the origin of the term of Korean Wave and its development, focusing on Japan. The second
section will discuss the attractions, uniqueness, and importance of Winter Sonata to Japanese, based on
my extensive interviews. The last section will examine the impact of the Korean Wave on Japanese
perspectives on Korea and its culture.
1.2 Previous Studies
Although the Korean Wave is a recent phenomenon, it has been the subject of a significant
amount of research. Among these studies four have been particularly notable in relation to Japan‘s
reception of the Korean Wave.
In the first study, ―Changing Images of Korea through the Korean Wave in Japan,‖ Kim Jun-
Sook and Kim Kwang-Tae discuss how the Korean Wave has influenced Japanese college students‘
perspectives on Korea.10
Conducting surveys of 193 college students in Tokyo and northeast Japan, they
found that Korean television dramas have played a significant role in strengthening the Japanese
students‘ interest in Korea. They also discovered that, even if most fans still consist of middle-aged and
elderly women, the audience for Korean dramas is spreading to other age groups, namely, to college-
age viewers like those students surveyed, and that it is causing negative images by Japanese of Korea to
become more positive. The authors assert that, because of the Korean Wave, positive opinions by
Japanese about the future relationship between Korea and Japan are increasing.
A second notable research study on the Korean Wave in Japan was conducted by Kim Hae-
Young in 2005. In her thesis ―Korea‘s Soft Power through Hallyu (Korean Wave),‖ she examines the
influence of culture on the dynamics of international relations through a case study of the Korean
Wave.11
She investigated how the Korean Wave influenced the Japanese people‘s image of Korea and
Korea‘s ‗soft power‘ toward Japan. According to Kim, the Korean people expect the Korean Wave to
have a positive effect on Korea‘s influence over Japan. However, Korean influence over the stars of the
9 Joseph D. Straubhaar, ―Beyond Media Imperialism: Asymmetrical Inter-Dependence and Cultural Proximity,‖ Critical
Studies in Mass Communications 8 (1991):39-59. 10
Jun-Sook Kim and Kwang-Tae Kim, “Hallyurul tonghan Ilbonesoui Hankookui Image Byunhwa” (Changing images of
Korea through the Korean Wave in Japan) Inmun Kwahak Yeongu, vol. 10 (2005): 23-48. 11
Hae-Young Kim, Korea‟s Soft Power through Hallyu (Seoul: Seoul National University, 2005).
6
Korean Wave themselves may actually suffer quite negatively. This is because the Japanese market is
much bigger than the Korean, so that the popularity of Korean Wave products in Japan will tend to make
the top stars dependent on the Japanese market, offsetting the positive, image-changing effect of the
Korean Wave in Japan.
In ―Narrative Structure and Societal Meaning of the TV Drama Winter Sonata: Focusing on the
Characters‘ Behavior,‖ Shin Kyung-Hee analyzes Winter Sonata‟s narrative structure and social
meaning.12
Shin asserts that the Korean Wave boom is a social phenomenon that results from the
recognition by Japanese of Japan‘s cultural and generational problems, such as the expansion of
individualism and liberalism. Winter Sonata, which emphasizes Confucian values, thus strikes a chord
of nostalgia among middle-aged and elderly Japanese women.
Lastly, Mori Yoshitaka‘s ―Japanese-Korean Wave: Winter Sonata and the Current Situation of
Popular Culture in Japan and Korea‖13
evaluates the significant role that Winter Sonata has played in
cultural exchanges between the two countries, paying special attention to the fact that the drama has
made Japan‘s mainstream media focus more attention on Japan‘s middle-aged and elderly women. Mori
also points out that the expansion of the Korean Wave is not limited to television dramas but is
spreading to other aspects of daily life, though some doubt its lasting impact.
1.3 Theoretical Framework
To explain the impact of audiovisual products, some scholars emphasize external aspects, such
as race, language, and geography. Cultural proximity, which develops externally to the audiovisual
product, is a factor in the dynamics of international trade. A scholar Al Hester argues that cultural and
historical similarity among countries, that is, cultural proximity, affects the volume and direction of
international information flow.14
His concept has been reiterated by Ithiel Pool, who discusses the
international spread of television programs.15
Pool argues that cultural aspects enable developing
societies to develop their own audiovisual products over time by importing the audiovisual products of
developed countries. According to Pool, other conditions being equal, audiences choose local programs 12
Kyung-Hee Shin, Narrative Structure and Societal Meaning of the TV Drama Winter Sonata: Focusing on the Characters‟
Behavior (Daejeon: Chungnam University, 2006). 13
Yoshitaka Mori, Japanese-Korean Wave: Winter Sonata and the Current Situation of Popular Culture in Japan and Korea
(Tokyo: Serica Shobo, 2004). 14
Al Hester. "Theoretical Considerations in Predicting Volume and Direction in International Information Flow," Gazette 19
(1973): 239-47. 15
Ithiel Pool, ―The Changing Flow of Television.‖ Journal of Communication 27(2) (1977): 139-49.
7
since they are protected by ―barriers of language,‖ ―barriers of social support,‖ and ―barriers of
culture.‖16
Joseph Straubhaar also presents a region‘s language, race, and cultural characteristics as
determinant factors in making audiences prefer local programs.17
Michael Elasma focuses on the
preference for one‘s own culture as a central concept of cultural proximity.18
According to Elasma,
audiences will choose their own nation‘s cultural product first. Only if some audience segment is
unsatisfied with its own cultural product will it consider the product of another, similar nations‘ culture
as a second-best choice.
Cultural proximity theory can indeed explain the preference for Korean television dramas in
Japan. Korea and Japan are close not only geographically, but also culturally in the ethics and values
they share from Chinese Confucianism, which highlights harmony with community and loyalty to
family and friends.
1.4 Methodology: Human Subject Data
The research in this paper employs two methods. One method is a case study that uses in-depth
interviews to investigate these questions: Why has Winter Sonata affected the Japanese, and how has the
drama affected their perspectives on Korea? The second method is a survey questionnaire exploring how
Japanese perspectives on Korea have changed after Japanese viewers were exposed to the Korean Wave,
especially contemporary Korean dramas. This questionnaire is compared with existing data. Before
conducting the interview and survey, I examined the Korean Wave and Japanese audiences‘ perception
of Korea by analyzing newspapers, magazines, the Internet fan sites of Korean stars, and existing
research.
The in-depth interviews were conducted in two sessions in Seoul, Korea. My subjects were
Japanese who were staying temporarily in Korea (from one month to two years) for study, business,
tourism, or other reasons. In each session, six people participated. Since I am not a native speaker of
Japanese, these interviews were conducted in Korean with the help of an interpreter. I interviewed four
males and eight females altogether. Three of the males and two of the females were in their twenties,
one of the males and two of the females were in their thirties, two of the females were in their forties,
16
Ibid, 142-43. 17
Straubhaar, ―Beyond Media Imperialism.‖ 18
Michael G. Elasmar, ed. The Impact of International Television: A Paradigm Shift (Mahwah, NJ and London: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, 2003).
8
and the remaining two females were in their fifties. Among the interviewees, two males were
undergraduate students, three females and one male were graduate students, one male was an
international businessperson, one female worked as a tour guide, one female was a college professor,
and three females were full-time housewives. Six of the interviewees were from eastern Japan, and the
other six were from western Japan. In addition, nine of the participants were self-described fans of
Korean drama (the three exceptions were one female and two males in their twenties). All interviewees
had watched Winter Sonata in Japan as well as other Korean dramas. This participant pool enables me to
show general perceptions about Winter Sonata and Korean drama in different audiences. Interviews
were preceded by about one and a half hours of open-ended questions, starting from broad questions and
ending with more specific ones about their thoughts on Winter Sonata and its implications on Japanese
Society.
The survey portion of my research was conducted in Japan, namely, Chiba and Tokyo, on 15
days, from 10 am to 6 pm, at public marketplaces such as a large shopping mall and a department store.
The target group was limited to people who had watched Winter Sonata. Of the 124 Japanese who
participated, 28 were male and 96 were female. Among the male participants, 2 were in their twenties, 8
were in their thirties, 12 were in their forties, 5 were in their fifties, and 1 was in his early sixties.
Among the female participants, 10 were in their twenties, 19 were in their thirties, 38 were in their
forties, 23 were in their fifties, and 6 were in their early sixties.
In order to protect the privacy and confidentiality of the interviewees and survey participants, I
collected no names. Only personal information, such as age and gender, were collected for the data
analysis.
To provide a context for discussing my research results, I will first review several relevant
newspaper articles and survey data findings.
9
CHAPTER 2
THE ORIGIN OF THE TERM KOREAN WAVE AND ITS DEVELOPMENT
The term Korean Wave (Hallyu, 韓流) was first used in 1999 by Beijing journalists who were
surprised both by the fast-growing local population of South Koreans and by the popularity of South
Korean culture [primarily television?] in China.19
It was used by the mainstream Japanese newspaper
Asahi Shimbun, in 2001.20
Originally, the term was a homonym of the Chinese word 寒流, which means
―fiercely prevailing foreign culture or trend.‖21
Though in Japan the term initially referred to Korean
television dramas, as the term developed in Japan, it took on a much wider cultural meaning. It began to
be applied to the appearance of Korean films and pop music in the local market, but also referred to the
cult-like popularity these cultural products engendered. The collaborative, Internet-based encyclopedia
Wikipedia defines Korean Wave as follows:
The Korean Wave or Korea fever refers to the significantly increased popularity of
South Korean culture around the world since the 21st century, especially among the Net
Generation.
South Korea is among the world‘s top ten cultural exporters and the Korean Wave
began with the export of Korean TV dramas such as Autumn Fairy Tale, Winter Sonata, Dae
Jang Geum (Jewel in the Palace) and Princess Hours across East and Southeast Asia; the
growing success of Korean dramas was soon matched by Korean movies, popular music, food
and language.
While popular throughout Asia, the Korean Wave‘s influence is most visible in China,
Japan and Southeast Asia, spreading to India, the Middle East, Central Asia, Iran, Israel,
Turkey and Russia. The Korean Wave is rapidly expanding beyond Asia through the Internet
and has a substantial presence in North, Central and South America, particularly in Chile,
19
He-Jung ChoHan, Hallyuwa Asiaui Daejung Munhwa (The Korean Wave and Asian pop culture) (Seoul: Yonsei Univ.
Press, 2004), 6. 20
Kizo Ogura, Kanryuu Inpakuto (Impact of Korean Wave) (Tokyo: Kodansha Japan, 2005), 5. 21
He-Jung ChoHan, Hallyu‟wa Asiaui Daejung Munhwa, 7.
10
Mexico, and Argentina, and is increasingly becoming popular in the United States. It is also
gaining momentum in Eastern Europe and Scandinavia, led by Hungary and Norway. It is
gathering positive interest in North Africa, attracting a sizable niche audience in Egypt.
Currently, the Korean Wave is starting to hit the shores of the United Kingdom and Australia.22
2.1 Historical Background and Development of the Korean Wave in Japan
The Korean Wave phenomenon has extended to many regions, and the social circumstances of
each country have clearly affected how the phenomenon has materialized locally. In China and Vietnam,
the Korean Wave emerged with the broadcasting of Korean soap operas. In China and Taiwan, young
Koreans played a leading role in forming the Korean Wave. In contrast, in Hong Kong, Singapore, and
Japan, films rather than soap operas have been the main vehicle of the popularity of the Korean Wave.
Japan and Korea are neighbors in East Asia, sharing the legacy of Chinese culture, including
Buddhism and Confucianism. Historically, however, they have been separated by a number of barriers.
The origin of the modern historical antagonism between Japan and South Korea dates back to 1905
when Japan established a protectorate over Korea. This event dramatically ended the peaceful
relationship the two neighbors had long maintained. Japan went on to violate Korea‘s sovereignty, then
finally annexed it in 1910. For the next thirty-six years, Koreans suffered under Japan‘s relentless
political repression, economic exploitation, attacks against Korean culture, and infringement of human
rights.
The expression ―a close but distant country‖ became a very accurate description of the
relationship between Japan and South Korea following the liberation of Korea in 1945 after Japan‘s
defeat in World War II. Both countries were geographically close but psychologically distant. On the
Korean side, Japan was an object of hatred and anger due to the bitter memories and legacy of Japan‘s
colonial rule over Korea. On the Japanese side, South Korea was disdained for its authoritarian political
practices under the governments of Park Jung-Hee and Chon Doo-hwan, both of whom ascended to
presidency by military coup and persistently using Japan‘s past wrongs as a means to gain bargaining
leverage.
It was during the 1988 Seoul Olympics that Japan‘s image of Korea changed for the first time.
The Olympics showed the world a new Korea, a more developed and urbanized country than most
22
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_wave (Accessed March 19, 2010).
11
Japanese had previously supposed existed. Though Korea and Japan had been engaged in direct and
indirect cultural exchange since 1965, the year when diplomatic relations between the countries were
normalized, it was not until 1998 that mutual exchanges in the field of popular culture were clearly
activated.
Since World War II, all Japanese popular culture – music, movies, and literature –had been
banned in South Korea, as Koreans tried to throw off four decades of Japanese cultural suppression. A
variety of historical disputes hampered the two countries‘ ability to open themselves culturally to the
other. Among them were Japanese history textbooks that seemed to ignore the reality of Korea‘s
colonization, territorial disputes over the islet called Dokdo/Takeshima, Japanese prime ministers‘ visits
to Yasukuni Shrine, and the unresolved status of Korean comfort women and laborers forced to serve
Japan during World War II. Conscious that many South Koreans in their fifties, sixties, and seventies
were still repulsed by Japan and its culture, the Korean government maintained the ban until 1998.
Of course, exchanges between Japan and Korea had been active both on governmental and non-
governmental levels for some time, but in October 1998 the leaders of the two countries announced new
government exchange programs based on a mutual "Action Plan" that finally lifted the ban against
Japanese culture imports. Furthermore, both countries acknowledged the year 2002, which was also the
year of the soccer World Cup co-hosted by Japan and South Korea, as "The Year of Japan-South Korea
National Exchange." A "Japan-Korea Cultural Exchange Council,‖ consisting of leaders from many
nongovernmental fields, was also founded to discuss plans to enhance cultural and artistic exchange
between the two countries.23
In 1999 South Korean President Kim Dae-Jung, who informally called himself the ―president of
culture,‖ also promoted the liberalization of Japanese culture in South Korea by establishing the Basic
Law for Cultural Industry Promotion, allocating $148.5 million to this project.24
As a result of his policy,
Japanese movies were allowed to be circulated in South Korea, and live performances of Japanese pop
songs were drastically deregulated.
The cultural exchange unleashed in 1998 also fueled imports of Korean culture—initially film--
into Japan. The Korean movie Shiri was a moderate hit in Japan in 2000, followed by JSA in 2001, My
Sassy Girl in 2003, and Simido in 2004. All the films gained popularity as part of a Korean New Wave
23
Hoo-Ryun Kim, Ilbonui Hallyu; Yuksajuk Uimiwa Junmang (Korean Wave in Japan; Historical Meaning and Prospect)
(Seoul: Hankook University of Foreign Studies Press, 2005), 15-17. 24
Jian Cai, http://journeyeast.tripod.com/korean_wave_in_china.html (Accessed August 27, 2009).
12
of cinema.25
An increase in the popularity of South Korea and its culture as tourist destinations also
became apparent in Japan. Kusanagi Tsuyosi, a member of the hugely popular Japanese idol group
SMAP, learned Korean and introduced Korean culture on his television program.
As for television dramas, in 2002 a Japan-Korea collaborative drama Friends, featuring Fukada
Kyoko and Won Bin, was broadcast by TBS (Tokyo Broadcasting System) in Japan. It achieved only a
certain degree of popularity but a great deal of attention, mainly because it was one of the first
collaborative efforts between Japanese and Korean television networks.26
After that, some Korean
dramas were shown in Japan, mainly by BS (Satellite TV), but they were welcomed only by a small
number of avid fans of Korean culture.27
Nevertheless, when films and television drama are taken
together, it could be said that there was already pro-Korean cultural sentiment in Japan before the Winter
Sonata phenomenon began.
Winter Sonata was first broadcast at 10 pm Thursday nights beginning in April 2003 by NHK BS.
The average rating was about 1.1 percent28
--not bad for a satellite show, but limited by the late time slot.
However, ratings rose gradually as word-of-mouth grew, and NHK received many inquiries about re-
broadcasting the show. Following popular requests called into the network, NHK BS decided to air the
drama again during the 2004 New Year week. Concurrently, a DVD of episodes was also released and
made available at rental shops before the re-broadcast. By this time, Japan‘s media had slowly started to
report on Winter Sonata‟s popularity.29
A critical moment in the Winter Sonata phenomenon came on April 3, 2004. On that day Bae
Yong-Joon, the leading actor of Winter Sonata, arrived at Haneda, Tokyo International Airport. Five
thousand fans, mostly middle-aged women, gathered to welcome him. This was exceptional, considering
that only five hundred fans came to the airport when famous soccer player David Beckham arrived in
Japan. This particular news shocked the Japanese people, and the Winter Sonata and ―Yon-sama‖30
phenomenon drew great attention as a new boom.31
In the same month, NHK started to terrestrially
broadcast the drama at 11:30 pm, gaining a 20+ percent audience rating for the highest-rated episodes
and about 15 percent on average. Winter Sonata had already been among the top ten television programs
25
Mori, Japanese-Korean Wave, 28-30. 26
Ibid., 31. 27
Ibid., 32. 28
Mun-Sung Choi, Hallyu, Kyeoulyonga gurigo Daejung Munhwa (Korean Wave, Winter Sonata, and Popular Culture)
(Seoul: Munhak Maul Press, 2005), 43. 29
Ibid., 44. 30
Nicknamed ―Yon-sama,‖ Bae Yong-Jun was so admired by his fans they referred to him with the honorific suffix ―-sama‖. 31
Mori, Japanese-Korean Wave, 34-35.
13
in Japan since June 2004. By its last episode on NHK it had became number one (see Table 1 on the
following page).
Table 1: NHK Audience Rating for Winter Sonata, 200432
Date 5/1 5/15 5/29 6/12 6/26 7/10 7/24 8/7 8/21
Audience
Rating
9.2 12.6 15.0 15.7 17.1 16.5 16.8 16.5 20.6
Considering that Winter Sonata was aired around midnight and that average audience ratings
were about 10 percent, even during prime time (7 pm–10 pm), the show‘s rating was incredibly high. In
addition, in 2009 Winter Sonata was voted the best television program shown on Japanese NHK satellite
channel over the past twenty years.33
In a poll by NHK to pick the top thirty television programs in
celebration of the twentieth anniversary of its satellite channels, Winter Sonata got 20,750 out of the
total 160,533 votes. The drama series also contributed financially to NHK, which earned about ¥350,000
million ($3.5 million) from Winter Sonata–related products. It also sold 330,000 sets of DVDs and
1,220,000 copies of a novelized book. Because the first airing of Winter Sonata in Japan had used
dubbed Japanese voices, at the end of 2004, NHK broadcast a complete, original director‘s cut version
of Winter Sonata with the Korean-language voice track, with Japanese subtitles.34
Since Winter Sonata
was broadcast and gained significant popularity in 2004, several television programs, newspapers, and
magazines in Japan began including Korean Wave–related material. For instance, the weekly news
magazine AERA, an affiliate of Asahi Shimbun, printed a special issue, ―Knowing Korea through Bae
Yong-Jun,‖ ( ペ・ヨ ン ジ ュ ンで知る韓 國 ) in July 2004. The magazine dispatched a special
correspondent to Korea to report information about Bae Yong-Joon every week. Later, they purchased
the copyright for an interview article with Bae Yong-Joon from the Korean monthly magazine Wolgan
32
Young-Mi Yoo, Hankukkwa Ilbonui Munhwasuyong yeongu (The Study of Cultural Reception: Focusing on Korea and
Japan) (Seoul: Chungang University, 2004), 38. 33
http://news.stareastasia.com/2009/05/winter-sonata-voted-japan-nhks-favorite-program/ (Accessed July 30, 2009). 34
Yoo, Hankukkwa Ilbonui Munhwasuyong yeongu, 40-41.
14
Chosun, and published Bae‘s mini-book as a separate volume supplement. The mini-book became a
best-seller, selling more than 300,000 copies.35
According to the Korean Embassy in Japan, in 2004 a total of 386 Korean Wave–related articles
appeared in six major Japanese daily newspapers, such as Asahi Shimbun and Yomiuri Shimbun. This
amounts to at least one Korean Wave–related article per day.36
In the same year, Korean Wave was
honored as the eighth most important news story by the readers of Yomiuri Shimbun,37
the number two
mega-hit product by Mainichi Shimbun,38
and the top mega-hit product by Nihonkeizai Shimbun.39
Furthermore, several newly coined words relating to Winter Sonata, including Yon-sama, reflected its
huge popularity in Japan (see Table 2 on page 15).
35
Chosun Ilbo, October16, 2004. 36
http://news.kbs.co.kr/news.php?id=684293&kind=c (Accessed Aug. 18, 2009). 37
http://news.kbs.co.kr/news.php?id=672999&kind=c (Accessed Aug. 18, 2009). 38
http://news.kbs.co.kr/news.php?id=6654222&kind=c (Accessed Aug. 18, 2009). 39
http://news.kbs.co.kr/news.php?id=667537&kind=c (Accessed Aug. 18, 2009).
15
Table 2: Winter Sonata–related Neologisms40
Neologism In Japanese Meanings
Fuyu Sona 冬ソナ Abbreviation of Winter Sonata (冬のソナタ).
Fuyu Sona Divorce 冬ソナ 離婚 Many housewives got in trouble with their
husbands because they indulged in Winter
Sonata and bought books and CDs related to
the drama. This discord sometimes led to
divorce.
Yon fluenza ヨンフルエンザ The word combines Yon-sama and influenza,
meaning that once you watch Bae Yong-
Joon‘s drama you cannot stop watching it and
cannot go back to being the person who didn‘t
know Bae Yong-Joon.
Yongel‘s coefficient ヨンゲル From ―Engel´s Coefficient.‖ The ratio of
expenditures on Bae Yong-Joon–related
cultural products to gross household
expenditures.
Jiwoo Hime ジウ 姫 Princess Choi Ji-woo (main actress of Winter
Sonata)
40
Soo-Jung Kim, Ilboneseoui hallyu Yeongu (The Study of Korean Wave in Japan: Focusing on Internet, TV, Newspaper
reports) (Seoul: Chun-Nam University, 2007), 30.
16
CHAPTER 3
KOREAN WAVE INITIATED BY MIDDLE-AGED AND ELDERLY JAPANESE
WOMEN
3.1 The Fan as Active Performer
A closer examination of the demographics of the audience for Winter Sonata shows that the
Korean drama was not equally popular across Japanese genders and age groups. According to a
journalist Hayashi Kaori, the typical viewer of Winter Sonata is aged 30 to 70 (average 47.3 years old)
and overwhelmingly female--97 percent of respondents to a questionnaire to ―fans‖ of Winter Sonata
identified themselves as female.41
The Yon-sama phenomenon and its relation to middle-aged women have been frequently and
seriously reported on in Japan‘s mainstream media. For instance, on August 29, 2004, some television
talk shows reported pejoratively that fans had organized birthday parties in different Korean BBQ
restaurants in Tokyo to celebrate Yon-sama‘s birthday.42
This example illustrates one of the ways in
which the media dealt with Winter Sonata and the Yon-sama phenomenon: by focusing on audience
members whose behavior seemed to reflect the image of the stupid or ridiculous fan. But other media
looked at the show‘s base audience, middle–aged women, in a more sympathetic way. One question I
sought to explore is how Winter Sonata‟s fans viewed the often exaggerated, stereotypical image the
media projected on to them.
Some, particularly young interviewees, disliked the stereotyping. For instance, Ms. A, in her
twenties, who likes Korean dramas in general rather than just Winter Sonata, said: ―Well, they [the
middle-aged and elderly women] are not in our generation. I am impressed by how much they spend on
Winter Sonata, but I am totally different from them. I do not want to be seen in the same way as they
are.‖ Ms B, in her forties, told me: ―I do not understand why they put Bae Yong-Joon‘s poster on the
41
Kaori Hayashi, Fuyusona‟ ni Hamatta Watakushitachi Bungeishunju (Why We Love Winter Sonata So Much) (Tokyo:
Bunshun Shinsho, 2005), 28-29. 42
Seiko Yasumoto, The Impact of Korean Wave on Japan (Sydney: Univ. of Sydney Press, 2006), 59.
17
wall. I have never done it.‖ However, it should also be noted that more than half of the interviewees had
more sympathy with stereotypical fans than I originally expected. Ms. A, in her twenties, mentioned that
she does not like the behavior the media shows the maniac fans engaging in, but she does understand
why they do it. Such sympathy did not mean the fans I interviewed totally identified with the way fans
were represented in the media. How then should we understand this complicated relationship between
Winter Sonata‘s fandom and the media‘s representation of it?
The self-analysis of Ms. C, in her forties, may be suggestive. She said that fans loved not only
Winter Sonata, but also themselves as they uncritically love Winter Sonata. According to her, fans loved
themselves as fans because they were like someone who can be ―crazy‖ about a pure, romantic love
story even when they are middle-aged. She said that fans want to be on the news; they are happy to hear,
for example, their husband sighing ―my wife is crazy about Winter Sonata.‖ In the same way, Ms. D, in
her forties, said that when she asked herself what a seemingly ‗stupid‘ thing she was doing in her midlife,
she enjoyed reflecting on it. This complicated sentiment was also seen in group interviews when fans
talked both proudly and bashfully about the kinds of fan behavior they were engaging in, for example,
letting others listen to Winter Sonata‘s theme music set as their mobile telephone ringtone. This
combination of ‗pride‘ and ‗bashfulness‘ was one of the characteristic features shared among the fans I
studied. When I asked Ms. D if this meant that the fans were manipulated by the media, she replied, ―No,
no, we believe that it is ‗we‘ who manipulate the media.‖ In fact, they were performing as fans, as if
they were actresses. Such pretended ‗stupidity‘ was a performance.
It should also be noted that most fans I interviewed also believed that the Winter Sonata
phenomenon was created by the fans, not by the media. The fans gather and exchange information
through independent media, especially the Internet. They are critical of the mainstream media as they
think the latter only report what the fans already know. This imbalance between what the media see in
the fandom and what the fans see in the media is one of the interesting characteristics of the Winter
Sonata phenomenon. I would argue that the fans should be regarded as performers, not merely seen as
passive consumers. They are actively producing their own narratives, and they proactively associated the
story of Winter Sonata with other Korean stories, with culture and history, and even with their personal
experiences and memories by reading and watching the media.
18
3.2 Reasons for Success
3.2.1 Story of Pure Love with Timely Situation
Winter Sonata is a complicated love story with several plot twists. The story begins when Joon-
Sang (Bae Yong-Joon), the son of an eminent musician, moves to Chuncheon, a rural city in South
Korea. As an extraordinarily talented student, Joon-Sang is welcomed by his fellow students as well as
by teachers, but remains a quiet, introverted young man. As a result of his belief that his father is dead
and serious conflicts with his mother, Joon-Sang believes that no one truly loves him. Riding to school
one fortuitous day, Joon-Sang's classmate, Yu-Jin (Choi Ji-Woo), interrupts him on the bus. Joon-Sang
soon falls in love with Yu-Jin, who opens herself to him with an innocent heart. Their love, however, is
cut short when Joon-Sang is involved in a serious auto accident and, due to brain damage, is unable to
recall his past life. Joon-Sang's mother, desiring Joon-Sang's love and respect, has Joon-Sang
brainwashed by a psychologist, so Joon-Sang will not remember his painful memories of growing up as
an illegitimate child. As a result, Joon-Sang's memories prior to the accident are completely erased.
Joon-Sang's mother decides to move to the United States with Joon-Sang, where he can start a new life
under the identity of Lee Min-Hyung. As such, both his friends and teachers are told that Joon-Sang is
dead. Ten years later, Joon-Sang has become an award-winning architect in the United States. He does
not remember anything about his life in Korea. He is completely different than he was before the
accident: an open-minded person who cares about other people, including his mother. He relocates back
to Korea and Yu-Jin sees him on the street, prompting her to put off her engagement to childhood friend
Sang-Hyuk (Park Yong-Ha). Little does she know that Joon-Sang is now dating her friend and sometime
rival, Che-Lin. The story's plot intensifies when Yu-Jin, unsure whether this lookalike architect is in fact
her lost lover Joon-sang, finds work at the firm where Joon-Sang is employed.
Winter Sonata was designed as a fantasy to meet the needs of middle-aged and elderly women in
general. Winter Sonata‟s director, Yoon Suk-Ho, quoted in a number of Japanese publications,
immediately admits that such a design was the foundation of the Winter Sonata program.43
Yoon reports
that he created a fantasy world, which actually reflects reality in the general sense that it is fiction set in
realistic settings to meet the needs of modern-day people (by implication, people in the 30-70-year-old
age group). He saw that what was missing in their busy, changing everyday world was the timeless
values of women‘s emotional life—‗pure love‘ for family, parents and friends as well as romantic love,
43
Sang-Chul Yoo, Hallyuui Bimil (The Secret of Korean Wave) (Seoul: Saenggakhanun Namu Press, 2006), 58-60.
19
trust, belief in self, caring and kindness for others. Yoon sought to create a new space for the audience
that rolled up all these elements in it. These values, like Pole Star (Polaris), which is a recurrent theme in
the Winter Sonata series, provide a framework in which all the characters and plots interact. In other
words, Yoon deliberately designed Winter Sonata as a peculiar in the sense of somewhat fantasy like
text to provide viewers with an idealized reality. So, in part, Winter Sonata was designed to create a
fantasy through location, characters, and plot that would appeal to a certain market demographic--such
as Korea and Japan--and meet its needs.
As the director Yoon has mentioned in his interviews, the theme of pure love (Jun‟ai) is one
reason why Winter Sonata attracted many middle-aged and elderly women in Japan. This fact is well
reflected in my in-depth interviews:
―I was fascinated by its pure love. Loving one person for a long time… That reminds me of my
lost first love and made my heart beat faster. I believe many people have this experience when
they were young…. Also, I like those platonic love scenes. Winter Sonata conveys love without
aggressive sexuality. That distinguished its pure love from lust, which can be easily found in
current Japanese drama.‖ [Interviewee No. 9, in her forties]
―Every line was good. That contains pure love. Yon-sama does not treat his lover sexually in
Winter Sonata. I could feel how much he endures his own passion to protect his lover. That is
an ideal love, which I cannot find easily in the current generation. The drama does not
contaminate true love.‖ [Interviewee No. 7, in her thirties]
According to Kaori Shoji, a guest writer for the Japan Times, Korean stories like Winter Sonata
are popular because they depict pure lovers who would face many obstacles that are contrived to keep
them apart and pining for the romantic reunion. This is the reason for their success in Japan.44
Women
over thirty who are married and have children romanticize about pure love that centers on the idea of
first love, Shoji states. They enjoy imagining themselves as the heroine of the drama, as if they were
experiencing their first love again. Shoji differentiated Korean dramas from Japanese dramas by stating
that the latter easily get ―dirty‖ when dealing with love. Unlike Japanese dramas, which overuse kissing
and bed scenes, Korean dramas do not show these kinds of sexually aggressive scenes and are very
44
Christian Science Monitor, April 8, 2005.
20
―beautiful‖ in that a couple wanted each other to be happy, no matter how harsh his or her own life was
as a result.45
In addition, Korean dramas hark back to an earlier, golden era of Japanese films and television
dramas of the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, such as Kimi no Nawa (What Is Your Name?) and the Akai (Red)
series. Kimi no Nawa46
was a popular radio drama in 1952, a time when the male stars were more stoic
and more protective of women. It had plots involving ‗pure love‘ in which lovers were separated by war
or soldiers returned to find their loved ones had already married someone else.47
Kishi Keiko, leading
actress in Kimi no Nawa, has evaluated Winter Sonata as another version of Kimi no Nawa, and notes
that Korean and Japanese share the idea of pure love regardless of generational differences.48
The Akai series was a serial drama from the 1970s centering on human suspense. It also had
plots similar to Winter Sonata, such as secret births. Both Kimi no Nawa and Akai enabled middle-aged
and elderly women to nostalgically relive their own first, forgotten pure love by adding their own
personal interpretation to the pure love dramas. Pure love dramas like Winter Sonata remind Japanese
audiences of old Japanese television series and their memories of the Showa era, a version of the good
old days highlighted by Japan‘s cultural penchant for platonic love.
Like Kaori Shoji, most scholars and media reporters have identified the reason for Winter
Sonata‘s success as its pure love storyline. However, this theme cannot solely explain Winter Sonata‘s
success. Winter Sonata was first targeted to Korean audiences and was televised in Korea before Japan,
but it did not achieve success in Korea. If the pure love theme explains Winter Sonata‘s appeal to
Japanese audiences, and if, as Kishi Keiko has mentioned, Korean and Japanese share the idea of pure
love regardless of generational differences, why didn‘t Winter Sonata affect Korean audiences as
effectively as it did Japanese? To answer this question, the situational factors surrounding the show‘s
Japanese fans must be explored.
In many ways, middle-aged and elderly females should be regarded as a particularly distinctive
feature of the Japanese population. When they married and had children, during the period of Japan‘s
economic growth, a majority of the women who left the workforce to marry were expected to make
domestic duties their life-long career. Only when their children grew up would they have free time for
leisure activities of their own. This same generation of women has also been characterized as being
45
In Wither Sonata, kissing scenes are only shown three times out of twenty episodes. 46
This is a story of a man and a woman who meet amid the Great Tokyo Air Raid in 1945. 47
Si-Hyung Lee, “Ilbonesoui Hallyu: Kyoul Yonga wa gu uimi” (―The Korean Wave in Japan: Winter Sonata and Its
Implications‖) , Hankuke onlonhakbo 43, no. 3 (2008): 230-32. 48
Chungang Ilbo, May 25, 2005.
21
ambitious for an affluent lifestyle, one that was not likely to be fulfilled, especially as Japan‘s economic
problems emerged in the 1990s.49
Despite the size of this audience, before the Winter Sonata boom, Japanese broadcasting
companies did not produce television dramas for middle-aged and elderly women, except for some
daytime soap operas. Sponsors wanted to produce trendy, youth-oriented dramas because women in
their twenties were regarded as major consumers. However, twenty-something women usually did not
have time to watch television dramas at home. In reality, Japanese television drama audiences were
mostly composed of middle-aged and elderly women, but they did not have a suitable program to
watch.50
In this sense, Winter Sonata is important because it made middle-aged and elderly women,
ranging from 30 to 70 years old, visible as an audience. They have often been marginalized and invisible
as a topic for discussion in both journalism and academia in Japan. For example, academic studies of
popular culture have centered on youth culture, subculture, girls‘ culture, ethnic culture, and culture
centering on office workers.
Thus, unlike their Korean counterparts, who had long ago gotten used to similar ‗pure love‘
stories on television, Japanese audiences were quickly and easily drawn to a kind of story not shown on
Japanese television. By combining this timely situational factor with its ‗pure love‘ story, Winter Sonata
could achieve its success in Japan.
Since witnessing the huge success of Winter Sonata, Japan‘s mainstream media has focused
repeatedly on the pure love theme. The novel Sekai no Chushin de, Ai o Sakebu (Crying for Love at the
Heart of the World, 世界の中心で, 愛をさけぶ) by Katayama Kyoichi, is one example. The book has sold
more than three million copies, becoming the bestselling Japanese novel of all time. The film version of
the book drew three million people to theaters, and a television adaptation, aired from July to September
2004, registered one of Japan‘s highest audience ratings.
3.2.2 Some Traditional Values: Filial Piety and Family Relationship
Another explanation for why Japanese middle-aged women are attracted by Winter Sonata can
be found in traditional values, such as the centrality of communal life, filial responsibility, disciplined
49
Miura Atsushi, Kanryu Shakai (Society of Korean Wave) (Tokyo: Kobunsha Shinsho, 2005), 42. 50
Yuji Hosaka. Ilboneseoui Hallyuboom gochal (Consideration of Korean Wave in Japan), International Study Collection,
vol.10 (Daegu: Kyemyung Univ. Press, 2005), 49.
22
work ethic, and empathy toward social minorities. These are values that conform to Confucian teachings
and are widely upheld by the countries that comprise the pan-Chinese arc.51
Winter Sonata seems to encompass both of the two ostensibly opposing vectors of cultural
value—one the one hand, the vociferous parade of high modernity and, on the other, the faithful defense
of group values. This fact appeals to Japanese audiences who harbor bi-directional aspirations for
material wealth and ethical exaltation simultaneously. Replete with modern, exotic images on the one
hand and curiously familiar ideas on the other hand, Winter Sonata offers satisfaction in twofold
measure.52
For instance, the main structure of the Winter Sonata story is conflict between emotion (love
between man and woman) and reason (traditional value: obey one‘s parents). Yu-Jin‘s mother opposes
marriage between her daughter and Joon-Sang (played by Bae Yong-Joon). In contrast, conflict between
parents and children over child‘s marriage is rarely found in contemporary Japanese drama. Since
Japanese parents‘ absolute authority is reduced, the love story in Japanese drama usually focuses on
emotions between man and woman. However, Korean parents still have strong authority over their
children‘s affairs, including marriage, and children respect their parents‘ decisions. This suggests that
the contemporary Korean family has a more intimate relationship than its Japanese counterparts. As they
watch the Korean protagonists‘ agony and effort to gain their parents‘ consent, Japanese middle-aged
women satisfy their self-respect as parents who have lost absolute authority over this young generation:
―I felt from Winter Sonata that the Korean son regards his mother very preciously. There is a
strong family relationship in this drama. In Japan, there are distinctions between parents‘ and
children‘s business. Although they [children] think their parents are precious, they hardly
express that feeling, in contrast to Koreans. I was impressed by an expression of love between
family members from the drama.‖ [Interviewee No. 2, in his twenties]
―I did not show my respect to my parents. I did not talk to them. I always asked them to do
something that I wanted to do. Current Japan is losing that sense of order. After I watched
Winter Sonata, I thought, I have to correct myself first. Actually, I became stricter to my
children.‖ [Interviewee No. 10, in her forties]
51
Kyung-Hee Shin, Narrative Structure and Societal Meaning of the TV Drama Winter Sonata: Focusing on the Characters‟
Behavior (Daejeon: Chungnam University, 2006). 52
Kyung-Hee Shin, Narrative Structure and Societal Meaning of TV Drama Winter Sonata.
23
Japan is quickly moving toward an individualized society because of its urbanization and
industrialization. The individualized family structure of post–high-economic-growth Japan is now
hearing anxious voices of warning.53
Since the family is a base unit of society, broken family
communications and relationships, increasing divorce rates, and domestic violence have become social
problems in Japan and a threat to the foundation of the country. Even though Korea is stepping into a
similar stage of economic developmental, through its dramas Korea is showing to its audiences that it is
a society that still has traditional Confucian values, such as respecting elders and regarding family as
precious.
In her research, Shin Kyung-Hee has asserted that the Korean Wave boom is a social
phenomenon that is motivated by the recognition of cultural, generational problems in current Japan,
such as the expansion of individualism and liberalism, and that Winter Sonata‘s emphasis on Confucian
value incites nostalgia in Japan‘s middle-aged and elderly women.54
According to Shin, while watching
Winter Sonata, Japanese middle-aged women covet traditional Confucian values, which they used to
have in the past but see weakened in the current generation.
However, my research reveals that traditional Confucian values per se are not why the Winter
Sonata drama appeals to Japanese audiences. Rather, they very selectively choose and value only some
of these traditional values, such as filial piety and family relationship. My interviewees in their twenties
and thirties, for example, did not agree that Japan belongs to Confucian culture and shares Confucius‘s
teaching with other Asian countries. In contrast, interviewees in their forties, fifties, and sixties agreed
that they grew up with traditional Confucian teachings, but they too agreed that Japan does not belong to
Confucian culture anymore, as the family system has disintegrated with industrialization. Although
middle-aged and elderly women felt nostalgia for their childhood and some Confucian values, they did
not think that Japan has to return to a conservative patriarchal society.
This fact is also reflected in certain criteria that Japanese women state they seek in the male
stars of Winter Sonata and other Korean dramas. Evidently, actors and actresses are another main factor
drawing audiences to television dramas. Some interviewees stated that the image of Korean male stars,
including Bae Yong-Joon and Park Yong-Ha, gave them more favorable perspectives on general images
of Korean males:
53
Hankook Ilbo, February 23, 2004.
http://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=101&oid=038&aid=0000221207 (Accessed August 5,
2009). 54
Kyung-Hee Shin, Narrative Structure and Societal Meaning of TV Drama Winter Sonata.
24
―Japanese men to some extent do not clearly show their expressions. But Korean men, for
instance, will sacrifice to save women in a dangerous situation. In that case, Japanese men will
flee from the danger…. The belief that Korean men will never run away from the danger is
increasing in me.‖ [Interviewee No. 4, in her twenties]
―I am not a big fan of Winter Sonata and other Korean dramas. Korean dramas have very
typical and similar story lines. Once I get used to it, I am not so much interested in plot itself.
Rather, I am a big fan of Korean stars such as Chang Don-gun and Won Bin. Their appearances
and styles are very similar to Japanese counterparts. However, Korean stars have some aura
that I cannot explain well. Anyway, I feel, they [Korean stars] are friendlier than Japanese stars.‖
[Interviewee No. 3, in her twenties]
―I was impressed when Bae Yong-Joon was protecting his fans in a dangerous situation at
Tokyo Haneda Airport. His action was unbelievable to me. Most of the Japanese stars
unconsciously might show negative behavior to the fans who are rushing into them. However,
Bae Yong-Joon was caring about fans‘ safety before his own security. That single event
showed how he is a warm and nice person.‖ [Interviewee No. 6, in her thirties]
Belonging to the same Asian race, the Korean actors and their distinctive image enable Japanese
women to feel as if they are their heroines. Japanese fans of Korean drama appear to think that Korean
stars are good-looking enough to attract Japanese women, polite and humble enough to allow Japanese
women to reach out to them (either in reality or in their own imaginations), and strong enough to protect
women. Japanese audiences also think that the Korean males on Korean dramas seem manlier than
Japanese males because Korean males have to do military service, which is not mandatory for their
Japanese counterparts.55
Also, Japanese women are attracted by Korean male stars, who seem passionate
enough to express their love. Since Japan is a strictly patriarchal society, Japanese women are familiar
with vertical domestic hierarchy, in which women should obey and respect their husbands. For instance,
traditionally Japanese wives were supposed to walk behind their husbands, a tradition that definitely
shows women‘s lower social position relative to their husbands.56
55
Si-Hyung Lee, “Ilbonesoui Hallyu,” 234. 56
Ibid, 235.
25
In this social atmosphere, Japanese middle-aged women are fascinated by Bae Yong-Joon and
his sweet character in Winter Sonata; they regard him as an ideal man. Since many Japanese women
perceive Japanese men as weak, impassionate, and unable to satisfy their expectations, they are attracted
by Korean male stars, who look similar to Japanese men but have more desirable characteristics.57
The
criteria for men that Japanese women seek and find in Winter Sonata and other Korean dramas could be
good evidence that the Japanese audience no longer seeks a traditional patriarchal society.
57
Ibid, 236.
26
CHAPTER 4
INFLUENCES ON JAPANESE SOCIETY: CHANGING PERSPECTIVES ON
KOREA
The Winter Sonata phenomenon goes far beyond just enjoying a television drama. It affected the
daily social and cultural practice of its fans. As we will see, many Winter Sonata fans have begun to
show a general interest in Korean culture, to organize fan meetings, to participate in Winter Sonata tours
in Korea, and even to start studying Korean language and culture. The impact of this drama has been to
fundamentally influence fans‘ lives.
Before the Korean Wave, most of the Japanese public thought of Korea and its people
negatively, a perspective deeply rooted in their distorted sense of superiority over other Asian countries.
Research into Japanese ethnic prejudicial perspectives conducted by Wakatsuma Hiroshi and Yoneyama
Toshinao in 1967, two years after Japan and Korea normalized their diplomatic relationship, shows
Japan‘s deeply rooted negative view of Korea.58
Though Japanese had generally favorable views of
Western white people, they devalued neighboring peoples whose appearance resembled theirs. Among
these neighboring Asian people, Japanese rated Koreans as among the worst (see Table 3 on the
following page).
58
Ji-Eun Lee, Hankuke Daehan Ilboninui Uisik Byunhwa (A Study on the Change of Koreans‘ Perception of Japanese)
(Seoul: Kwangwoon University, 2007), 21-23; Hiroshi Wakatsuma and Toshinao Yoneyama, Nihonjin no Jinshukan
(Japanese Perspectives on Other People), vol. 5 (Tokyo: Japanese Broadcasting and Press Corporation, 1967), 38.
27
Table 3: Japanese Preferences for Other People.59
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Middle
Class
German French American British Italian Chinese Thai Indian Russian Indonesian Filipino Korean Black
People
Farmers Americ-
an
British German French Italian Thai Indian Filipino Russian Chinese Indonesian Korean Black
People
Proletariat
Class
French British American Italian German Indian Thai Russian Indonesian Filipino Chinese Black
People
Korean
College
Students
British German American French Italian Indian Russian Chinese Thai Indonesian Filipino Black
People
Korean
Overall British French German Ame-
rican
Italian Indian Russian Thai Chinese Indonesian Filipino Korean Black
People
Respondents to the survey were asked to pick one adjective from sixty-four word pools that in
their opinion best described what they thought of when they thought of one of thirteen national or ethnic
groups. One third of respondents picked intelligent for British, bright for French, rational and active for
Germans, artistic for Italians, ingenuous and conservative for Thai. On the other hand, the words most
often associated with Koreans were dirty and vile.
According to research conducted more than twenty years later by the Japan-Korea 21 Century
Committee,60
Japan‘s negative views of Koreas persisted into the 1990s. Survey participants were asked
to rate their affection toward Korea on a scale of 0 to 10 (see Table 4).
Table 4: Japanese Affection for Korea61
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2.8% 1.0% 2.5% 4.0% 5.2% 35.5% 2.8% 3.0% 2.4% 0.6% 0.7%
If we regard 0~5 as negative (51%) and 6~10 (9.5%) as positive, then negative feelings toward
Korea dominated.
The Korean Wave has brought dramatic changes to these negative points of view: Japan‘s
interest in and favorable impression of Koreans have increased. One evidence of this is the sales of spin-
59
Ji-Eun Lee, Hankuke Daehan Ilboninui Uisik Byunhwa, 21-23; Hiroshi Wakatsuma and Toshinao Yoneyama, ―Nihonjin no
Jinshukan,‖ 38. 60
Ji Eun Lee, Hankuke Daehan Ilboninui Uisik Byunhwa, 23-25. 61
The total number of participants was 3,507.
28
off products related to Winter Sonata in Japan: they have provided a ¥122.5 billion (about US$1.1
billion) boost to the Japanese economy.62
After Winter Sonata, a Korean-language textbook published
by NHK sold twice as many copies as the previous year, and nearly 900,000 copies of the novel based
on the drama were sold in Japan in the first half of 2004.63
Korean language schools sprang up for
Japanese fans eager to write fan letters to the main Korean actors in Winter Sonata: Bae Yong-Joon and
Choi Ji-Woo. Vacation tours to Korea swelled, and Japanese fans swarm to the airports whenever the
Korean stars fly into Japan. In 2004, the number of Japanese tourists who traveled to Korea grew 35.5
percent compared to the previous year. The number of Japanese tourists who travel to the specific
shooting locations of Winter Sonata increased rapidly, particularly following 2003. Most have been
women. Many Korean celebrities now have contracts with major Japanese companies specifically to
gain from the sales of products in Japanese magazines and TV commercials.
While some are cynical about the boom's economic benefits, most Japanese would call the new
interest in Korea a good thing. Korean food, for example, which is more pungent and spicy than
Japanese fare, has grown much more popular than ever before. The boom has raised Japan's
consciousness of its neighbor considerably and increased cultural exchanges—so much so that Korean
dramas are broadcast nearly every day on television now, and Korean movies are much more visible.
In one survey, 41 percent of Japanese respondents answered that their image of Korea had
changed in a more positive way since experiencing Korean culture through television dramas, films, and
pop music.64
Figures 1 and 2 (on the following page) graph the results of surveys of Japanese public
opinion about Korea conducted in 1992 and 2004. Though the questions asked in each year were not
identical, they do show that the Korean Wave has caused a positive change in the image Japanese hold
of Korea.
62
http://www.alcglobal.jp/international/Newsletter/017.html (Accessed March 10, 2009). 63
Weng Kin Kwan. ―Japan grip by Korean fever‖, http://www.centurychina.com/plaboard/archive/3663517.shtml (Accessed
March 11, 2009). 64
KOFACE (Korean Foundation for Asian Culture Exchange), ―Report on Korean Wave Enhancement Strategy,‖ 2005.
29
Figure 1. What Will Be Korea’s International Relationship to Japan in the Future? (1992)65
Figure 2. What Effect Will Winter Sonata Have on the Korea-Japan Relationship? (2004)66
65
Korea Press Center, ―Research about Image of Korea in Japan,‖ report on Tokyo-oriented survey by Japan Research Center,
October 1992.
0.00%
5.00%
10.00%
15.00%
20.00%
25.00%
30.00%
35.00%
40.00%
A Good Neighboring Country
It Will Not Become Close
Korea Is an Obstacle for Japan
I Do Not Know
1992
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
Expansion of Tourist Exchanges
Expansion of Goods Exchanges
Expansion of Cultural Exchanges
Increased Intimacy between the Two
Countries
2004
30
In addition, in the Japanese government‘s survey of public opinion about diplomacy toward
Korea (conducted annually since 1978), until 1998 the majority of Japanese have responded that they do
not feel affinity toward Korea, except for 1988, the year of the Seoul Summer Olympics. However,
according to the October 2004 survey of about 3,000 Japanese adult men and women, a record high of
56.7 percent replied that they do feel affinity toward Korea--the highest in history. Those who said they
did not feel affinity fell to its lowest, 39.2 percent.67
Indeed, statistics show that more and more Japanese understand Korea better than ever before.
For example, Japanese government statistics shows that 55 percent of Japanese have a favorable view of
Korea in year 2005. For Japanese in their twenties and thirties, the figure is over 60 percent.68
This
impressive change, which started with middle-aged and elderly Japanese women, continues to affect the
interest of younger generations of Japanese in Korean culture and entertainment.
To verify the positive influence of Winter Sonata, I conducted a follow-up survey in July 2009
in Tokyo and Chiba. The target group was limited to people who had watched Winter Sonata. The target
group was asked to rate the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with eight statements about how
their perspectives on Korea had changed since watching Winter Sonata. The results are shown on the
following pages (positive responses are identified in blue, and negative responses in red).
66
Gallup Korea and Japan Research Center, ―Comparative Research in Korean and Japan about Korean Wave,‖ Tokyo-
oriented research, December 2004. 67
Chosun Ilbo, December 20, 2004. 68
Naoko Komine, A study of the Influence of the Korean Wave on Japanese Society (Pusan: Bukyung University, 2005).
31
Positive: 33.8%
Positive: 52% (18.2% increase)
Figure 3. I feel close to Korea and the Korean people.
Completely Agree
6%
Agree
9%
Slightly Agree
19%
Slightly Disagree
42%
Disagree
20%
Completely Disagree
4%
Before watching Winter Sonata
Completely Agree
8%
Agree
15%
Slightly Agree
29%
Slightly Disagree
36%
Disagree
10%
Completely Disagree
2%
After watching Winter Sonata
32
Positive: 66.1%
Positive: 73% (6.9% increase)
Figure 4. I will hire a Korean-Japanese if I am a manager.
Completely Agree
10%
Agree
19%
Slightly Agree
37%
Slightly Disagree
22%
Disagree
7%
Completely
Disagree
5%
Before watching Winter Sonata
Completely Agree
11%Agree
22%
Slightly Agree
40%
Slightly Disagree
18%
Disagree
7%
Completely
Disagree
2%
After watching Winter Sonata
33
Positive: 34%
Positive: 51% (17% increase)
Figure 5. I will accept a Korean as my spouse or as the spouse of a family member.
Completely Agree4%
Agree13%
Slightly Agree17%
Slightly Disagree38%
Disagree21%
Completely Disagree
7%
Before watching Winter Sonata
Completely Agree4%
Agree18%
Slightly Agree29%
Slightly Disagree26%
Disagree17%
Completely Disagree
6%
After watching Winter Sonata
34
Positive: 40%
Positive: 47% (7% increase)
Figure 6. I am interested in Korean history.
Completely Agree2%
Agree15%
Slightly Agree23%
Slightly Disagree35%
Disagree19%
Completely Disagree
6%
Before watching Winter Sonata
Completely Agree2%
Agree18%
Slightly Agree27%
Slightly Disagree33%
Disagree17%
Completely Disagree
3%
After watching Winter Sonata
35
Positive: 22.5%
Positive: 34% (11.5% increase)
Figure 7. I am interested in current Korea-Japan–related political issues such as the territorial
dispute over Dokdo/Takeshima islet.
Completely Agree2%
Agree6%
Slightly Agree14%
Slightly Disagree33%
Disagree23%
Completely Disagree
22%
Before watching Winter Sonata
Completely Agree4% Agree
11%
Slightly Agree19%
Slightly Disagree31%
Disagree21%
Completely Disagree
14%
After watching Winter Sonata
36
Positive: 65.3%
Positive: 75% (9.7% increase)
Figure 8. I feel Korea is a very important neighbor country to Japan as an international partner.
Completely Agree12%
Agree27%
Slightly Agree26%
Slightly Disagree19%
Disagree14%
Completely Disagree
2%
Before watching Winter Sonata
Completely Agree14%
Agree30%
Slightly Agree31%
Slightly Disagree19%
Disagree4%
Completely Disagree
2%
After watching Winter Sonata
37
Positive: 65.3%
Positive: 74% (8.7% increase)
Figure 9. I feel that the relationship between Korea and Japan should be improved.
Completely Agree13%
Agree25%
Slightly Agree27%
Slightly Disagree17%
Disagree16%
Completely Disagree
2%
Before watching Winter Sonata
Completely Agree14%
Agree29%
Slightly Agree31%
Slightly Disagree19%
Disagree6%
Completely Disagree
1%
After watching Winter Sonata
38
Positive: 74.1%
Figure 10. Have you increased your interest in Korean culture since watching Winter Sonata?
Positive: 59.6%
Figure 11. Do you think the Korean Wave will last over time?
Completely Agree18%
Agree25%
Slightly Agree32%
Slightly Disagree15%
Disagree7%
Completely Disagree
3%
After watching Winter Sonata
Completely Agree10%
Agree16%
Slightly Agree33%
Slightly Disagree21%
Disagree15%
Completely Disagree
5%
After watching Winter Sonata
39
Across every one of the before-and-after questions in these figures, positive feeling about Korea
increased after Japanese were exposed to Winter Sonata. To test that Winter Sonata has had a positive
influence on Japanese perspectives on Korea and its culture, I also conducted follow-up interviews. In
these interviews, I found that the Japanese interviewee‘s most common comment was that Korea had
become closer to them. For example, for many Japanese, Korea is a ―close but far‖ (chikaku te to)
country, a conventional Japanese description of Korea. Although this phrase, ―close but far‖ was
repeatedly heard, when it was examined in detail very different nuances of meaning emerged. For
instance, Ms. S, in her fifties, said that she had not learned anything about Korea before Winter Sonata.
She reluctantly said that women in her generation knew only a few things, for example, about the
Korean War and the 38th
Parallel North,69
because their schools taught them nothing about contemporary
Korea. As Ms. S had not been interested in any other aspects of Korean culture, such as football in the
2002 FIFA World Cup, watching Winter Sonata was truly her first contact with Korea.
A big fan of Bae Yong-Joon, Ms. L, in her fifties, told me that she also knew almost nothing
about Korea. Until she watched Winter Sonata, she had believed that all Korean women still wear
Korean traditional dress, even today. What surprised her most about Winter Sonata was that Koreans
live their lives in the same way that Japanese do. Ms. L was also impressed by the development of
technology, such as mobile phones, in Korea. By and large, Japanese women in their fifties feel that they
have not learned about Korea in Japan‘s educational system. They also feel that their access to Korean
culture has been very limited. For example, Ms. H, in her forties, explained that the drama had changed
her impression of Korea. Before Winter Sonata, she had thought Korea remained behind Japan. But after
watching it, she started studying the Korean language to know more about Korea.
Ms. J, in her forties, said that she felt Korea was very far from her. She also thought that
Koreans just copied the Japanese. She only considered what Japanese could give to Koreans, but
believed Japanese could receive nothing from Koreans. After watching Winter Sonata, Korea grew
closer to her, though a strong gap still exists because of the difficult past history between Korea and
Japan. Japanese people can easily say that ―we love Yon-sama,‖ ―We love Korea,‖ but the Korean
people cannot say the same positive things about Japan. Ms. J felt confused when she saw, during her
Korean tour, what the Japanese military authorities had done in Korea. But now she believes that
Japanese women like her can create a good breakthrough between the two countries, by loving Korean
69
The 38th
Parallel North is the boundary that runs through the Demilitarized Zone separating South and North Korea.
Established in 1953, it is often seen as a symbol of Korea‘s national division.
40
dramas and actors, even if Korean people are surprised by this enthusiasm. During her tour, Ms. J found
a history between Japanese and Koreans of more hardship than friendship. This made her reconsider
how she should understand history, and eventually led her to believe that her fandom is necessary to
overcome it.
I was very intrigued by the way these women spoke about Korea in their personal terms. They
were persuasive. The emerging vocabulary made possible by the Winter Sonata phenomenon opens up
the political potential for a re-construction and re-understanding of the old and the new Korea-Japan
relationship.
Although many Japanese who enjoyed Winter Sonata are caught up in all things Korean, the
Korean Wave has also sparked a backlash of anti-Korean sentiment, especially on the Internet. Hate-
Korean Wave70
(嫌韓流), a comic book by an anonymous author known by the pseudonym Yamano
Sharin, contains strong anti-Korean content and became an unlikely bestseller in Japan in 2005. Hate-
Korean Wave appeared partly as a backlash against the hype about the Korean Wave in Japanese
mainstream media. As a result, optimism was expressed that this new Japanese fascination with things
Korean might help ease the political tensions between the two countries. Hate-Korean Wave is, in the
most immediate sense, a critique of the popularity of the Korean Wave.
Juxtaposing fiction with reality and manga drawings with photographs and lengthy
commentaries, Hate-Korean Wave creates a simple and sometimes extreme argument that demonizes
what amounts to essentialized stereotypes of South Korea and South Koreans. The provocative tone of
the comic is exemplified in the three speech bubbles reproduced on the comic‘s cover: ‗There is no more
need for apology or compensation for Korea!!‘; ‗Korea is misrepresenting many Japanese cultural
products such as samurai, kendo, sushi … as being of Korean origin!!‘; and ‗Why does Korea invade the
Japanese territory of Takeshima?‘, a reference to the contested Takeshima/Dokdo Islet. Other topics
discussed in Hate-Korean Wave include the Korean national soccer team‘s supposed foul play in the
70
The story revolves around Kaname, a first-year university student; his girlfriend, Itsumi; and other members of their
university‘s ‗East Asia Investigation Committee‘, as well as their zainichi (resident Korean) friend, Koichi. Kaname initially
believes the story of Japan‘s oppression of colonized Korea as taught at school and is critical of his grandfather who once
worked for the colonial government in Korea. Kaname‘s belief, however, is subsequently challenged by his grandfather‘s last
words before his death, that ―Japan contributed to the development of Korea.‖ Confused, Kaname decides to join the history
group on entering the university and begins his quest for the "truth‖ about Korea and Japan-Korea relations. Throughout the
comic, he and Itsumi accumulate knowledge about Korea and Japan-Korea relations from the Internet, books, and senior
members of the history group. In each chapter they debate with opponents such as their zainichi friend, with other history
study groups, with citizen activists, and with South Korean students over issues such as the Japanese colonization of Korea,
the status of Korean residents in Japan, and who should accept responsibility for the war. Invariably they win every debate.
41
2002 World Cup football match, Korean imitations of Japanese consumer products, and a controversial
history of zainichi Korean residents in Japan. In addition, the comic includes four columns contributed
by neo-nationalist scholars and writers, as well as six ―reports‖ critically assessing such issues as the
comfort women and the Korean government‘s failure to make the relief contribution it promised
following the Sumatra earthquake.
Postwar compensation, territorial disputes, and even the discussion of the ―origins‖ of cultural
practices are complex issues with multiple dimensions, but the comic reduces them to a simple matter of
black and white, right and wrong, and above all, ―us‖ versus "them.‖ The comic‘s structure reinforces
this binary representation by invariably giving the pro-Japan stance the final word in each section. In all
the comic‘s debates, the characters who hold ‗pro-Japan‘ views are depicted as extremely
knowledgeable, articulate, and rational, whereas their opponents typically stutter with confusion, break
out in cold sweat, lose their tempers, and fail to find anything convincing to say. Insofar as the pro-Japan
argument always wins, Hate-Korean Wave is a jingoistic work.71
Yamano maintains that the Korea boom was a creation of the mass media and that he has simply
made available in manga (comic) form the anti-Korean sentiments that are rife among Japanese Internet
users. Yamano‘s position seems to be that those who find Korean popular culture attractive, fashionable,
cool, and hip do not know the ―true‖ Korea; the mission of his comic is to show the true, ―other side‖ of
Korea. Japanese who support Hate-Korean Wave often defend it as the antithesis of the Korean Wave
"media-creation‖ and look down on those consumers who simply went along with the trend.
Such debunking perspectives notwithstanding, it remains hard to deny that Winter Sonata has
played a critical role in changing Japanese perspectives on Korea and its culture. It may be true that the
success of the FIFA Korea-Japan World Cup greatly improved the relationship in the late 1990s and
2000s, resulting in the increasing popularity of Korean films and other popular culture. But it‘s clear that
the megahit of Winter Sonata and subsequent Yon-sama phenomenon changed Japan‘s stereotypical
image of Korean people and culture to an unprecedented degree. That this occurred almost out of the
blue is reflected in the way in which the Korean Wave took by surprise those who had been sincerely
involved in Korea-Japan cultural exchange. Unable to fully understand the phenomenon as it occurred,
they warned that it was merely a superficial and temporary phenomenon. Although it is still too early to
conclude what the lasting effects of Winter Sonata will be, in contrast to destructive cynics like Hate-
71
Tabuchi Hiroto, ―Nationalist Comics Become Popular in Japan‖ (http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-
yn/content/article/2005/12/01/AR2005120100150.html) (Accessed September 2, 2009); Matthew Rusling, ―Comics Stoke
Japan-Korea Tension‖ (http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Japan/HD21Dh01.html) (Accessed September 2, 2009).
42
Korean Wave, I believe the Korean Wave phenomenon should be viewed as initiating a crucial change
in the cultural field between the two countries.
43
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
In this paper, I have discussed why Winter Sonata became so successful in Japan and how the
Korean Wave that followed it influenced Japanese perspectives and behaviors on both Korea and its
culture. I have shown that Winter Sonata secured its position as a social phenomenon by becoming
popular especially among Japan‘s middle-aged and elderly women. While watching the drama, Japanese
audience added their own interpretations to it, such as recalling their own pure first love through Bae
Yong-Joon or nostalgically recalling certain traditional Confucian values illustrated by the drama. The
result was a new interpretation of Korean culture and society, such as the generalization that Korean
males are gentle and nice. That is, the virtual reality depicted or suggested in Winter Sonata acted on the
viewers‘ actual lives, encouraging them to reconstruct values that are missing in contemporary Japanese
society.
The Korean Wave boom phenomenon in Japan is well explained by Michael Elasma‘s cultural
proximity theory, which states that if an audience is unable to gain satisfaction from their own nation‘s
cultural products, they will look to the cultural products of another nation whose culture is close to
theirs.72
The audiences of middle-aged and elderly Japanese women were unsatisfied by Japanese
television because its programs had been created by sponsors who believed women in their twenties
were the most promising market. Winter Sonata represented the first television program to fit their taste
and tally with their needs. As my survey showed, this audience segment‘s taste centers around a
penchant for ‗pure love‘ stories involving young, selfless, asexual characters who can revitalize viewers‘
feelings of nostalgia for platonic love.
The cultural proximity theory also accounts for some cultural or traditional Confucian values
embodied by the Winter Sonata story. Japanese middle-aged women‘s interest in the Korean drama is
closely related to their appreciation of traditional Asian values, such as perseverance, filial piety, justice,
72
Elasmar, The Impact of International Television.
44
humanity, courtesy, and self-control. Nonviolent and asexual characteristics attract middle-aged women,
and these characteristics remind them of their past and the values they were raised.
However, I also showed that Japanese audiences are selective in the traditional Confucian
values they identify in Winter Sonata. Middle-aged and elderly Japanese women may feel nostalgia for
their childhood and for some Confucian values, but they do not think that Japan must return to a
conservative patriarchal social structure.
Cultural proximity theory also helps to explain the passion for good-looking Korean guys
among Winter Sonata‘s middle-aged and elderly Japanese viewers. The actors‘ Asian looks makes them
more accessible to Japanese women than Western heroes. Since Japanese women perceive Japanese men
to be weak and impassionate, they are attracted by Korean male stars, who have similar looks but more
desirable characteristics.
In addition, however, the cultural proximity factors that help explain Winter Sonata‘s popularity
were also complemented by the peaceful mood between the two countries that was promoted by 2002
Korea-Japan World Cup. This event led the Japanese media industry to pick up and broadcast Korean
dramas, setting the stage for the Korean Wave.
Japanese interest in Winter Sonata has since extended to the entirety of Korean popular culture,
including other dramas, movies, music, and media. As a result, an increasing number of Japanese have
become aware of many aspects of Korean society and culture, and, beyond popular culture, they have
started to learn Korean and to travel to Korea. That is, this interest in Korean popular culture can be
linked to a change in the Japanese way of life.
5.1 Suggestions and Limitations
As the Korean Wave spreads throughout Japan, research on the phenomenon has increased.
However, most of this research has a pronounced rosy tint, uncritically touting a coming age in which
past historical barriers and enmities are overcome and laying a glowing foundation for better diplomatic
relations, free-flowing commerce, and mutual understanding. Scholars must be cautious about such
uncritical celebrations of the role of popular culture in the enhancement of international relations. Such
overoptimistic views tend to disregard, and even suppress, serious tensions such as marginalization and
inequality within each society. One must recall the nature of the currency under discussion: popular
culture is the medium of exchange. If we take seriously cross-border dialogue engendered by the flow of
45
pop culture, we must also go beyond the national framework and consider how complicated
transnational circulations of people, capital, and media intersect with local multicultural and postcolonial
issues. Thus, it is not enough to examine the Korean Wave‘s impact on the international relationship
between Japan and Korea. We must also consider the impact of the Korean Wave as a vehicle for
mediated transnational cultural dialogue that can help to reconstruct the identity and social position of
long-marginalized resident Koreans in Japan (called zainichi-kankokujin), most of whom are
descendents of expatriates from Korea when it was under Japanese colonial rule.
Recently, the Japanese press has focused on another Korean drama, Jewel in the Palace, which
has also become a big hit in Japan. This fifty-plus-episode costume drama, about the first and only
woman in Korean history to rise from cook to a king‘s doctor, appeals to both Japanese men and women.
Where 90 percent of Winter Sonata‘s fans were middle-aged women, about 40 percent of Jewel in the
Palace‟s audience is male. This shift in audience gender is worthy of further research.
In terms of limitations, the research conducted in this paper faced a language barrier. Since I
cannot speak Japanese fluently, I relied mostly on Korean and English materials and conducted
interviews in Korean with the help of Japanese interpreters with whom I communicated directly in
English. In addition, this research cannot be generalized due to its sampling size and selection process.
Thus, I hope in the future to revisit this research with a more scientific sampling design and significant
sample size.
46
APPENDIX A
USE OF HUMAN SUBJECTS IN RESEARCH – APPROVAL MEMORANDUM
Office of the Vice President For Research
Human Subjects Committee
Tallahassee, Florida 32306-2742
(850) 644-8673 · FAX (850) 644-4392
APPROVAL MEMORANDUM
Date: 6/15/2009
To: Jonghoon Lee
Address: 2112 Continental Ave. Tallahassee, Florida, 32304
Dept.: COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
From: Thomas L. Jacobson, Chair
Re: Use of Human Subjects in Research
The Influence of the Korean Wave on Japanese Society: Focusing on the Television Drama Winter
Sonata
The application that you submitted to this office in regard to the use of human subjects in the proposal
referenced above have been reviewed by the Secretary, the Chair, and two members of the Human
Subjects Committee. Your project is determined to be Expedited per 45 CFR § 46.110(7) and has been
approved by an expedited review process.
The Human Subjects Committee has not evaluated your proposal for scientific merit, except to weigh
the risk to the human participants and the aspects of the proposal related to potential risk and benefit.
47
This approval does not replace any departmental or other approvals, which may be required.
If you submitted a proposed consent form with your application, the approved stamped consent form is
attached to this approval notice. Only the stamped version of the consent form may be used in recruiting
research subjects.
If the project has not been completed by 6/14/2010 you must request a renewal of approval for
continuation of the project. As a courtesy, a renewal notice will be sent to you prior to your expiration
date; however, it is your responsibility as the Principal Investigator to timely request renewal of your
approval from the Committee.
You are advised that any change in protocol for this project must be reviewed and approved by the
Committee prior to implementation of the proposed change in the protocol. A protocol
change/amendment form is required to be submitted for approval by the Committee. In addition, federal
regulations require that the Principal Investigator promptly report, in writing any unanticipated problems
or adverse events involving risks to research subjects or others.
By copy of this memorandum, the Chair of your department and/or your major professor is reminded
that he/she is responsible for being informed concerning research projects involving human subjects in
the department, and should review protocols as often as needed to insure that the project is being
conducted in compliance with our institution and with DHHS regulations.
This institution has an Assurance on file with the Office for Human Research Protection.
The Assurance Number is IRB00000446.
Cc: Yoshihiro Yasuhara, Advisor
HSC No. 2009.2816
48
APPENDIX B
VERVAL CONSENT SCRIPT IN JAPANESE
フロリダ州立大学
アジア学科
社会科学学部
口頭承諾書
日本社会における韓流の影響:テレビドラマ“冬のソナタ”
はじめまして、私は Jonghoon Lee です。私はフロリダ州立大学で―日本社会における韓流の影
響:テレビドラマ‖冬のソナタ―という研究に携わっています。このリサーチはフロリダ州立大
学の日本文学・ 日本語学部助教授、Yoshihiro Yasuhara 博士によって監督されています。
この研究によって冬のソナタ(又は他の韓流映画)を見た日本人の韓国や韓国文化に対する見
解を知りたいと思います。参加者にはいくつかの質問に答えてもらい、約5分で終わります。
質問は冬のソナタ(又は他の韓流映画)を見る前・ 見た後のあなたの韓国と韓国文化に対す
る見解についてです。参加については、任意で、途中でやめても罰則などはありません。
この研究に参加する事によって直接利益を得る事はなく、金銭的な支払いもありません。
氏名を書く必要はありません。また、個人情報は研究者のコンピューターに3ヶ月間保管さ
れ研究終了後消去されます。
この研究に参加する5分、時間がありますか?
この研究質問に答えるという事は、この研究に参加するとみなされます。何か質問はあります
か?
49
この研究の為に集められた全ての情報は関係者のみに公開され、あなたの答え、個人情報は公
にされません。この研究は個人個人の答えを見るものではなく、全体的な傾向を調べる為に行
われます。
この研究に関して何かご質問がありましたら 1-618-521-0926, bell0120@hotmail.com、
Jonghoon Lee までご連絡下さい。又は、1-850-644-8603, yyasuhara@fsu.edu、指導官・
Yasuhara 博士までご連絡下さい。被験者権利についての質問は 1-850-644-8633, the FSU IRB
Secretary まで。また、この研究参加によって起きた懸念、不安、その他問題は 1-850-644-
1234, the FSU Counseling Center までご連絡下さい。
研究に参加して頂き、ありがとうございます。集められた情報は韓国、日本間の平和的関係を
促進する為に役立てられます。
FSU Human Subjects Committee Approved on 6/15/2009. Void after 6/14/2010. HSC#: 2009.2816.1
50
APPENDIX C
VERVAL CONSENT SCRIPT IN ENGLISH
Florida State University
Asian Studies
College of Social Science
Verbal Consent Script
The Influence of the Korean Wave on Japanese Society: Focusing on the
Television Drama Winter Sonata
Hello, my name is Jonghoon Lee and I am involved in a research study called ―The Influence of the
Korean Wave on Japanese Society: Focusing on the Television Drama Winter Sonata‖ at Florida State
University. This research is supervised by Dr. Yoshihiro Yasuhara, an assistant professor of
Japanese literature and language at Florida State University.
I am asking you to take part in a research study because I am trying to learn more about Japanese
perspective on Korea and its culture after watching Winter Sonata or other Korean Motion Pictures
known as Korean Wave. You will be asked to answer the survey questionnaire. It will take about 5
minutes. The questions are about your perspectives on Korea and its culture before and after you have
watched Winter Sonata or other Korean motion pictures. Your participation is voluntary, and you can
stop the survey at any time without any penalty to you.
You will not benefit directly from participating in this research study, and you will not be paid for
participating in this research study.
You do not need to identify your name. Your personal information will be kept in my computer with
password protection for 3 months, and it will be destroyed following analyses of the data.
51
Do you have five minutes to participate in this research study?
Answering the survey questions that I will ask means that you consent to participate in this research project. Do
you have any questions?
All the information I collected in today’s study will be confidential, and there will be no way of identifying
your responses in the data archive. I am not interested in any one individual’s responses; I want to look at
the general patterns that emerge when the data are aggregated together.
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Jonghoon Lee
at 1-618-521-0926 ,bell0120@hotmail.com, or supervisor Dr. Yasuhara at 1-850-644-8603,
yyasuhara@fsu.edu. If you have any questions about subjects’ rights, you may contact the FSU
IRB Secretary at 1-850-644-8633. If your participation in this study has caused you concerns,
anxiety, or otherwise distressed you, you may contact the FSU Counseling Center at 1-850- 644-
1234.
Your participation today is appreciated and it will help to discover more ways of promoting
peaceful atmosphere between Korea and Japan.
FSU Human Subjects Committee Approved on 6/15/2009. Void after 6/14/2010. HSC#: 2009.2816.1
52
APPENDIX D
SURVEY QUESTIONS IN JAPANESE
Part I. 冬のソナタ(又は他の韓流映画)を見る前と見た後のあなたの韓国に対する見解の違い
を知るものです。一番当てはまるものに丸をつけて下さい。
1.韓国、又は韓国人に親近感を持っている。
見る前:強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対
見た後:強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対
2.もし自分が経営者だったら、在日韓国人を雇う。
見る前:強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対
見た後:強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対
3.韓国人を配偶者、又は家族の一員として認める。
見る前:強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対
見た後:強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対
53
4.韓国の歴史に興味がある。
見る前:強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対
見た後:強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対
5.現在の韓国・日本間の竹島問題などの政治的論争に興味がある。
見る前:強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対
見た後:強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対
6.国際的パートナーとして韓国は日本にとって大事な近隣諸国である。
見る前:強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対
見た後:強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対
7.日韓関係は改善されるべきである。
見る前:強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対
見た後:強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対
54
8. 冬のソナタや他の韓国映画を見た後、韓国の文化について興味がありますか?
強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対
9. この韓流ブームはしばらく続くと思いますか?
強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対
PartII. データーを分析する為の統計的な質問です。適切な答えを記入して下さい。
1.いくつですか?
________歳
2.性別は?
男性 女性
3.結婚していますか?
1)はい 2)いいえ
55
APPENDIX E
SURVEY QUESTIONS IN ENGLISH
Part I. The purpose of this survey is to know your changing perspectives on Korea before and
after you have watched Winter Sonata. Please circle the best answer.
1. I feel close to Korea and Korean People.
Before: Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely
Agree Agree Disagree Disagree
After: Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely
Agree Agree Disagree Disagree
2. I will hire Korean-Japanese if I am a manager.
Before: Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely
Agree Agree Disagree Disagree
After: Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely
Agree Agree Disagree Disagree
56
3. I will accept Korean as spouse of mine or my family members.
Before: Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely
Agree Agree Disagree Disagree
After: Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely
Agree Agree Disagree Disagree
4. I am interested in Korean history.
Before: Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely
Agree Agree Disagree Disagree
After: Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely
Agree Agree Disagree Disagree
5. I am interested in Korea-Japan related current political issues such as territorial dispute over
Dokdo/Takeshima islet.
Before: Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely
Agree Agree Disagree Disagree
After: Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely
Agree Agree Disagree Disagree
57
6. I feel Korea is very important neighbor country to Japan as an international partner.
Before: Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely
Agree Agree Disagree Disagree
After: Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely
Agree Agree Disagree Disagree
7. I feel the relationship between Korea and Japan should be improved.
Before: Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely
Agree Agree Disagree Disagree
After: Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely
Agree Agree Disagree Disagree
8. Have you increased your interest on Contemporary Korean Culture after you have watched Winter
Sonata or other Korean motion pictures?
Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely
Agree Agree Disagree Disagree
9. Do you think Korean wave will be lasted long period?
Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely
Agree Agree Disagree Disagree
58
Part. II. This survey is statistical question to analyze the data. Please indicate the best answer.
1. How old are you?
________years
2. What is your gender?
Male Female
3. Are you married?
1) Yes 2) No
59
LIST OF REFERENCES
1. Books
Atsushi, Miura. Kanryu Shakai (Society of Korean Wave). Kobunsha Shinsho, Tokyo, Japan,
2005.
ChoHan, He-Jung. Hallyu‟wa Asiaui Daejung Munhwa (Korean Wave and Asian pop
culture). Seoul, Yonsei Univ. Press, Korea, 2004.
Choi, Mun-Sung. Hallyu, Kyeoulyonga gurigo Daejung Munhwa (Korean Wave, Winter
Sonata, and Popular Culture). Munhak Maul Press, Korea, 2005.
Chris Baker. Television, Globalization and Cultural Identities. London: Open Univeristy
Press, 1999.
Elasmar, Michael G. The Impact of International Television: A Paradigm Shift.
Mahwah, NJ and London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2003.
Gallup Korea and Japan Research Center, Comparative research in Korean and Japan about
Korean Wave. Tokyo-oriented research, 2004.
Hayashi, Kaori. Fuyusona‟ ni Hamatta Watakushitachi Bungeishunju (Why we love Winter
Sonata so much). Bunshun Shinsho, Tokyo, Japan, 2005.
Kim Hoo-Ryun. Ilbonui Hallyu: Yuksajuk Uimiwa Junmang (Korean Wave in Japan:
Historical meaning and prospect). Hankook Foreign Language Univ. Press, Korea,
2005.
KOFACE (Korean Foundation For Asian Culture Exchange), Report on Korean Wave
Enhancement Strategy, 2005
Korea Press Center, Research about Image of Korea in Japan, Tokyo-oriented survey by
Japan Research Center, 1992.
Mori, Yoshitaka. Japanese-Korean Wave: Winter Sonata and the Current Situation of
Popular Culture in Japan and Korea. Serica Shobo, Japan, 2004.
Ogura, Kizo. Kanryuu Inpakuto (Impact of Korean Wave). Koodansha, Japan, 2005.
Yoo, Sang-Chul. Hallyuui Bimil (The Secret of Korean Wave). Saenggakhanun Namu Press,
Korea, 2006.
60
2. Journals
Hester, Al. "Theoretical Considerations in Predicting Volume and Direction in International
Flow." Gazette 19, 1973.
Hiroshi Wakatsuma & Toshinao Yoneyama. “Nihonjinno Jinshukan” (―Japanese
perspectives on other people‖). Japanese Broadcasting and Press Corporation, vol. 5, 1967.
Hosaka, Yuji. ―Ilboneseoui Hallyuboom gochal” (―Consideration of Korean Wave in Japan‖)
International Study Collection, vol.10, Kyemyung Univ. Press, Korea, 2005.
Kim, Jun-Sook and Kim,Kwang-Tae. “Hallyurul tonghan Ilbonesoui Hankookui Image
Byunhwa” (―Changing images on Korea through Korean Wave in Japan‖). Inmun
Kwahak Yeongu, Vol. 10, 2005.
Koichi, Iwabuchi. ―Return to Asia? Japan in the global audiovisual market‖. Media
International Australia, 77, 1995.
Lee, Si-Hyung. ―Ilbonesoui Hallyu: Kyoul Yonga wa gu uimi‖ (―The Korean Wave in Japan:
Winter Sonata and its Implications‖). Hankuke onlonhakbo, Korea, 43, no.3, 2008.
Pool, Ithiel. ―The changingflow of television.‖ Journal of Communication, 27(2), 1977.
Straubhaar, Joseph D. ―Beyond media imperialism: Asymmetrical Inter-Dependence and Cultural
Proximity‖, Critical Studies in Mass Communications, 8, 1991.
3. Academic Dissertations and Theses
Kim, Hae-Young. Korea‟s Soft Power through Hallyu, Seoul: Seoul National University, Korea, 2005.
Kim, Soo-Jung. Illboneseoui hallyu Yeongu (The study of Korean Wave in Japan:
Focusing on Internet, TV, News paper reports). Kwangju: Chun-Nam University, Korea, 2007.
Lee, Ji Eun. Hankuke Daehan Ilboninui Uisik Byunhwa (A study on the change of
Korean‟s perception of Japanese). Seoul: Kwangwoon University, Korea, 2007.
Shinichi, Okazaki. Hankuke Daehan Ilboninui Sahoe Munhwajeok Inshick (Japanese
Perspectives on Korea; focusing on society and culture). Seoul: Kyunghee Univ. Korea,
1999.
Shin, Kyung-Hee Narrative Structure and Societal meaning of TV drama Winter Sonata: Focusing on
the characters‟ behavior. Kwangju: Chungnam University, Korea, 2006.
Yasumoto, Seiko. The impact of Korean Wave on Japan. Sydney, Univ. of Sydney Press,
2006.
61
Yoo, Young-Mi. Hankukkwa Ilbonui Munhwasuyong yeongu (The study of cultural reception: Focusing
on Korea and Japan). Seoul: Chungang University, Korea, 2004.
Komine, Naoko. A study of the Influence of the Korean Wave on Japanese Society. Pusan: Bukyung
University, 2005.
4. News Articles and Magazine
AERA (Japanese Magazine), August16, 2004.
Christian Science Monitor, April 08, 2005
Chosun Ilbo (Korean Newspaper) December 20, 2004.
October16, 2004
Chungang Ilbo(Korean Newspaper) May 25, 2005
5. Websites
ALC Press Newsletter. http://www.alcglobal.jp/international/Newsletter/017.html
(accessed March 10, 2009).
Hankook Ilbo (Korean Newspaper):
http://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=101&oid=038&aid=0000221207
(Accessed August 5, 2009)
Jian Cai, Http://joureyeast.tripod.com/korean_wave_in_china.html (Aug. 27, 2009)
Korean Broadcasting System:
http://news.kbs.co.kr/news.php?id=684293&kind=c (Accessed Aug. 18, 2009)
http://news.kbs.co.kr/news.php?id=672999&kind=c (Accessed Aug. 18, 2009)
http://news.kbs.co.kr/news.php?id=6654222&kind=c (Accessed Aug. 18, 2009)
http://news.kbs.co.kr/news.php?id=667537&kind=c (Accessed Aug. 18, 2009)
Kwan, Weng Kin. ―Japan grip by Korean fever‖,
http://www.centurychina.com/plaboard/archive/3663517.shtml (accessed March 11, 2009).
Matthew Rusling, ―Comics stoke Japan-Korea Tension‖.
http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Japan/HD21Dh01.html) (Accessed September. 2, 2009)
Tabuchi Hiroto. ―Nationalist Comics become popular in Japan.
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-yn/content/article/2005/12/01/AR2005120100150.html (Accessed
September. 2, 2009)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_wave (Accessed March 19, 2010)
http://news.stareastasia.com/2009/05/winter-sonata-voted-japan-nhks-favorite-program/
63
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Jonghoon Lee
In the summer of 2002, Jonghoon Lee completed his first Bachelors degree in Theology at Yonsei
University in South Korea. He, also, completed his second and third Bachelors degree in Journalism and
Psychology at Southern Illinois University at Carbondale in spring of 2004 and in spring of 2006. Under
the advisement of Prof. Yoshihiro Yasuhara, he obtained his Master‘s degree in spring of 2010 from the
Department of Asian Studies at The Florida State University.
Jonghoon‘s research interests include Korean-Japanese cultural relationship and current socio-
historical issues between the countries, such as territorial disputes over Dokdo/Takeshima, historical
characterizations in Japanese textbooks, comfort women polemics and forced laborers during WW II.