THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND PUBLIC POLICY

„WINTER SONATA‟ DREAMS: THE INFLUENCE OF THE KOREAN WAVE ON

JAPANESE SOCIETY

By

JONGHOON LEE

A Thesis submitted to the

Department of Asian Studies

in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts

Degree Awarded:

Spring Semester, 2010

ii

The members of the committee approve the thesis of Jonghoon Lee defended on February 26,

2010.

__________________________________

Yoshihiro Yasuhara

Professor Directing Thesis

__________________________________

Jimmy Yu

Committee Member

__________________________________

Koji Ueno

Committee Member

Approved:

_____________________________________

Lee Metcalf, Chair, Asian Studies

The Graduate School has verified and approved the above-named committee members.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables .................................................................................................... v

List of Figures ................................................................................................... vi

Abstract ............................................................................................................. vii

1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 1

1.1 The Korean Wave .................................................................................. 3

1.2 Previous Studies .................................................................................... 5

1.3 Theoretical Framework .......................................................................... 6

1.4 Methodology .......................................................................................... 7

2. THE ORIGIN OF THE KOREAN WAVE AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

....................................................................................................... 9

2.1 Historical background and Development of the Korean Wave

In Japan .................................................................................................. 10

3. KOREAN WAVE INITIATED BY MIDDLE-AGED AND ELDERLY

JAPANESE WOMEN ................................................................................. 16

3.1 The Fan as Active Performer ................................................................. 16

3.2 The Reasons for Success ........................................................................ 18

3.2.1 Story of Pure Love with Timely Situation ................................. 18

3.2.2 Some Traditional Values: Filial Piety

and Family Relationship ............................................................ 21

4. INFLUENCES ON JAPANESE SOCIETY:

CHANGING PERSPECTIVES ON KOREA ............................................. 26

5. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................. 43

5.1 Suggestions and Limitations .................................................................. 44

APPENDICES ................................................................................................... 46

A USE OF HUMAN SUBJECTS IN RESEARCH

– APPROVAL MEMORANDUM .................................................... 46

B VERBAL CONSENT SCRIPT IN JAPANESE ................................. 48

iv

C VERBAL CONSENT SCRIPT IN ENGLISH ................................... 50

D SURVEY QUESTIONS IN JAPANESE ........................................... 52

E SURVEY QUESTIONS IN ENGLISH .............................................. 55

REFERENCES ................................................................................................. 59

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ............................................................................ 63

v

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: NHK Audience Rating for Winter Sonata, 2004 ...................................... 13

Table 2: Winter Sonata-related Neologisms ........................................................... 15

Table 3: Japanese Preferences for Other People ..................................................... 27

Table 4: Japanese Affection for Korea ................................................................... 27

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: What will be Korea‘s International Relationship to Japan

in the Future? (1992) ......................................................................... 29

Figure 2: What effect will Winter Sonata Have on the Korea-Japan

Relationship? (2004) ......................................................................... 29

Figure 3: I feel close to Korea and Korean People ................................................. 31

Figure 4: I will hire a Korean-Japanese if I am a manager ..................................... 32

Figure 5: I will accept a Korean as my spouse or as the

spouse of a family member ................................................................... 33

Figure 6: I am interested in Korean history ............................................................ 34

Figure 7: I am interested in current Korea-Japan-related political issues

such as the territorial dispute over Dokdo/Takeshima islet .................. 35

Figure 8: I feel Korea is very important neighbor country to Japan

as an international partner ..................................................................... 36

Figure 9: I feel that the relationship between Korea and Japan

should be improved ............................................................................... 37

Figure 10: Have you increased your interest in Korea and its culture since

watching Winter Sonata? .................................................................... 38

Figure 11: Do you think the Korean Wave will last over times?............................ 38

vii

ABSTRACT

Through a case study of Korean television drama Winter Sonata, this thesis explores why Winter

Sonata became so successful in Japan and was able to affect many middle-aged and elderly women, and

how Korean Wave has changed the image of Korea and its culture.

In recent years, the popular Korean Wave (Hallyu) of culture and entertainment has swept over

all of Asia, but has had a particularly profound impact in Japan. The Korean Wave provides a rare

historical moment for Korean and Japanese people to critically review and reassess their own lives,

societies and most importantly, their checkered past history.

Winter Sonata has secured its position as a social phenomenon, becoming popular especially in

middle-aged and elderly women of Japan. This demographic have been neglected among the audience of

trendy dramas in Japan. Because women in twenties were regarded as major consumers, sponsors

wanted to produce youth-oriented trendy dramas. Thus, Japanese broadcasting companies did not

produce television dramas for middle-aged and elderly women before the boom of Winter Sonata.

In reality, however, despite the fact that the audience of the Japanese television dramas were

composed of middle-aged and elderly women, almost no program was available that fitted their taste

until the drama was telecasted in Japan. Their taste centers around their penchant for pure love story

with young characters in it, which is no longer addressed in Japanese drama these days, the drama

revitalized a feeling of nostalgia for romantic pure love among the middle aged and elderly female.

In addition Japanese middle-aged women‘s interest in the Korean drama is closely related to

their appreciation of some traditional Confucian values, such as filial piety and close family relationship,

attract middle-aged women, and these characteristics allow them to remind their past and old teaching.

However, Japanese audiences are selective in the traditional Confucian values they identify in Winter

Sonata. Middle-aged and elderly Japanese women may feel nostalgia for their childhood and for some

Confucian values, but they do not think that Japan must return to a conservative patriarchal social

structure.

The interest in Winter Sonata has been extended to the whole Korean popular culture like other

dramas, movies, music, and media. Along with that development, an increasing number of people in

Japan have become aware of a variety of aspects in Korean society and culture, and beyond the popular

viii

culture, they have started to step forward in learning Korean language and traveling around Korea with

their positive and empirical acts. That is, the interest in Korean popular culture has been linked to the

change in a Japanese way of life. Since the Korean Wave appeared, Japanese people have increased their

interest in overall Korean culture and Korea as a nation. The notable number of Japanese people

renewed their perception of Korea with a more active and positive attitude than in the past when the

history between Korea and Japan was rife with not a few diplomatic problems.

1

CHAPER 1

INTRODUCTION

Through a case study of the Korean1 television drama Winter Sonata (冬のソナタ), this thesis

explores the following questions: (1) why the successful program captured the imaginations of a group--

middle-aged and elderly Japanese women--, who had previously been neglected by mainstream Japanese

media, and (2) how the ‗Korean Wave‘ that was powered by Winter Sonata has changed the image of

Korea and its culture in Japan.

Winter Sonata appealed to the sensitivities of middle-aged and elderly Japanese women longing

nostalgically for the innocent emotions and some traditional Confucian values- filial piety and close

family relationships- they associated with Japan‘s golden age, the Showa period (1926-1989). It did this

by telling the kind of ‗pure love‘ story that Japanese television drama had ceased to broadcast during the

country‘s economic boom years in the 1980s, and by dramatizing some traditional Confucian values that

have historically sustained Japanese family and society. As a result of having their emotional needs

satisfied through Winter Sonata, the program‘s Japanese audience, and especially the middle-aged and

elderly women who comprise 90 percent of its viewership began to learn about Korea, initiating the

‗Korean Wave‘ as a social phenomenon in Japan. As a result, the negative image of Korea and its

culture long embedded in Japanese society, as a result of the two countries‘ antagonistic history, began

to become more favorable.

Although the Korean Wave‘s greatest economic and cultural impact has been in Japan, it

originally began in China. This may explain why most of the research done on the Korean Wave has

focused on China and related markets such as Taiwan and Hong Kong. Moreover, the research that has

been performed about the Korean Wave in Japan has concentrated on its economic aspect, for example,

how this cultural boom relates to the increased penetration of Korean cultural products and other

businesses in Japan.

1 In this paper, the term Korea identifies the Republic of Korea (South Korea)

2

Few academic papers or media reports have focused on the reasons behind the success of Winter

Sonata in Japan, those that have attributed its success solely to its ‗pure love‘ theme and to the longing

for the traditional Confucian values felt by middle-aged and elderly Japanese women. My own research,

presented in this paper, confirms that to a certain point, - these two elements largely account for the

drama‘s success.

According to Katayama Kyoichi, a famous Japanese author, the concept of ‗pure love‘ (Jun‟ai)

is fundamentally about committing oneself to another with one‘s heart and soul.2 While marrying and

rearing their children, most middle-aged and elderly women, aged 30 to 70, in Japan had to constrain

their emotions in order to cope with life's challenges. That is, their idealistic notions of love were

―contaminated‖ by many conditions, such as financial issues, that dominated life during Japan‘s

economy ascendance. The refreshing love story told in Winter Sonata appears to provide a welcome

outlet for their romantic feelings.

Nevertheless, one cannot ignore the fact that Winter Sonata was first targeted to Korean

audiences and televised in Korea before Japan. It did not achieve visible success in Korea, however.3 If

the ‗pure love‘ theme is strong enough to appeal to Japanese audiences, why did it not affect Korea‘s

middle-aged and elderly viewers, its first intended audience? I believe we cannot completely answer this

question without exploring another situational factor: there were no television dramas for middle-aged

and elderly women in Japan.

Moreover, my research reveals that whole traditional Confucian value is not the fact that the

drama appeals to Japanese audiences. Traditionally, Confucian values are strongly related to patriarchy.

As outlined by Mencius in the book Mencius, there are the three subordinations in Confucian thought: a

woman was to be subordinate to her father in youth, to her husband in maturity, and to her son in old age.

A cliché of classic Confucian texts, repeated throughout the tradition, is that men govern the outer world,

while women govern the home. Thus, in traditional Confucian society, woman‘s status was

fundamentally below that of the man.

If middle-aged and elderly Japanese women long for traditional Confucian values, that yearning

is highly selective. Though this demographic feels nostalgia for their childhood and for some Confucian

2 Naoko Komine, A study of the Influence of the Korean Wave on Japanese Society (Pusan: Bukyung University, 2005), 17.

3 The audience rating for Winter Sonata in Korea was 27.6% whereas the average audience rating for other dramas was 30%

or higher.

3

values,4 they do not believe that Japan must return to a conservative patriarchal social structure. Rather,

my research indicates that Winter Sonata viewers are impressed by the fact that the characters of the

drama use beautiful language, are polite, care about their families, and show filial piety. That is, Winter

Sonata reminds them not of a Japanese past dominated by patriarchal Confucian values, but of things

they fear Japanese society is leaving behind, such as filial piety and family relationships.

By focusing on the drama Winter Sonata as a social phenomenon in Japan, my research will

articulate why the drama succeeded in Japan and how it and the Korean Wave are influencing Japan‘s

perspective on Korea.

1.1 The Korean Wave

Before the World Cup soccer games co-hosted by South Korea and Japan in 2002, there was

little evidence of Japan‘s interest in learning about Korean culture, other than curiosity about traditional

artifacts like celadon porcelain and paintings. The Japanese impression of Korea was of a mysterious

country infamous for certain notorious events, such as the 1973 kidnapping in Tokyo of Korea‘s

political opposition leader Kim Dae-Jung,5 later Korea‘s fifteenth president, by the military-backed

government of dictator Park Jung-Hee.

The 2002 World Cup soccer games co-hosted by South Korea and Japan helped to revitalize the

Korean entertainment industry, but it was not until the Japanese Broadcasting Corporation (Nippon

Hoso Kyokai or NHK) first televised the Korean Broadcasting System‘s (KBS) melodrama Winter

Sonata (冬のソナタ) in 2003 that Japan‘s negative image of Korea began to change. An entertainment

or cultural boom called ‗Hallyu‘ (韓流), or the Korean Wave, was unleashed that has since engulfed

countries across Asia, including China and Vietnam.

It is not an overstatement to say that the cultural power of the Korean Wave has been pivotal in

alleviating the animosity between the two countries in a way that politics alone has never been able to

achieve. Japan was the first Asian country to Westernize and achieve modernization. Unlike other

Asian countries, Japanese leaders, since the Meiji Restoration in 1868, were willing to accept Western

4 Kyung-Hee Shin, Narrative Structure and Societal Meaning of the TV Drama Winter Sonata: Focusing on the Characters‟

Behavior (Daejeon: Chungnam University, 2006). ; Naoko Komine, A study of the Influence of the Korean Wave on Japanese

Society (Pusan: Bukyung University, 2005). 5 Because Koreans and Japanese use their last name first, I will follow that convention in this paper.

4

culture, knowledge, and technology in order to modernize Japan.6

According a scholar Koichi

Iwabuchi, Japan had two slogans, Datsua Nyuo (脫亞入歐, ―Escape from Asia, Enter the West‖), and

Wakon Yosai (和魂洋才, ―Japanese Spirit, Western Technology‖) in the nineteenth century, both

reflecting Japan‘s eagerness to become modern. This modernization led Japan as an emerging

imperialist and militarist nation to regard itself as the leader of Asia, as the self-appointed

representative of Asia to its Western counterparts.

Japan‘s sense of itself as sitting on top of Asia‘s hierarchy enabled it to create a ―Japanized

Orientalism‖ that, according to a historian Shinichi Okazaki, placed Japan at the center of Asia. This

idea has dominated Japan‘s general thought in academic, political, and social discussions.7 Given this

context, it may be said that the Korean Wave has helped contemporary Japan pay more attention to

Asia.

Before the Korean Wave, trendy Japanese television dramas enjoyed a huge boom throughout

Asia, from Tokyo Love Story (1988-1990) and Long Vacation (1996) to Love Generation (1997).

Scholars attempted to explain why Japanese dramas had gained so much popularity across Asia. One

suggested that their success was an extension of Japan‘s past colonization of Asia into a new context:

cultural imperialism.8

Conversely, Korean dramas have now taken the place of Japanese dramas. Beginning with serial

dramas like Winter Sonata, these Korean cultural products have expanded to include film, popular

music, food, language, and so on. But the success of the Korean Wave in Japan cannot be seen as

simply a reverse form of cultural imperialism, because historically Korea was a colony of Japan, never

the reverse. Also, much of the modernization that countries like Korea have undertaken was learned

from Japan, the first Asian nation to modernize.

In addition, the Japanese audience for Korean television dramas differs from that of other

countries. In those countries, teenagers tend to be the ones who enjoy foreign programs first. In

contrast, in Japan, especially in the case of Winter Sonata, which ignited the Korean Wave, nine out of

ten viewers were middle-aged to elderly females. One explanation for Japan‘s unique response to the

6 Koichi Iwabuchi, ―Return to Asia? Japan in the Global Audiovisual Market.‖ Media International Australia 77 (1995): 94-

106. 7 Shinichi Okazaki, ―Hankuke Daehan Ilboninui Sahoe Munhwajeok Inshick” (Japanese Perspectives on Korea; focusing on

society and culture) (Seoul: Kyung Hee University, 1999), 27-28. 8 Chris Baker, Television, Globalization and Cultural Identities (London: Open University Press, 1999). According to Baker,

cultural imperialism is the practice of promoting, distinguishing, separating, or artificially injecting the culture of one society

into another. It is usually the case that the imperializing culture belongs to a large, economically or militarily powerful nation

and the colonized culture belongs to a smaller, less powerful one.

5

Korean Wave is the so-called cultural proximity theory, which emphasizes the power of culturally

proximate characteristics such as geography, tradition, and race within a region.9

This thesis is divided into three sections. The first section will review the historical background,

including the origin of the term of Korean Wave and its development, focusing on Japan. The second

section will discuss the attractions, uniqueness, and importance of Winter Sonata to Japanese, based on

my extensive interviews. The last section will examine the impact of the Korean Wave on Japanese

perspectives on Korea and its culture.

1.2 Previous Studies

Although the Korean Wave is a recent phenomenon, it has been the subject of a significant

amount of research. Among these studies four have been particularly notable in relation to Japan‘s

reception of the Korean Wave.

In the first study, ―Changing Images of Korea through the Korean Wave in Japan,‖ Kim Jun-

Sook and Kim Kwang-Tae discuss how the Korean Wave has influenced Japanese college students‘

perspectives on Korea.10

Conducting surveys of 193 college students in Tokyo and northeast Japan, they

found that Korean television dramas have played a significant role in strengthening the Japanese

students‘ interest in Korea. They also discovered that, even if most fans still consist of middle-aged and

elderly women, the audience for Korean dramas is spreading to other age groups, namely, to college-

age viewers like those students surveyed, and that it is causing negative images by Japanese of Korea to

become more positive. The authors assert that, because of the Korean Wave, positive opinions by

Japanese about the future relationship between Korea and Japan are increasing.

A second notable research study on the Korean Wave in Japan was conducted by Kim Hae-

Young in 2005. In her thesis ―Korea‘s Soft Power through Hallyu (Korean Wave),‖ she examines the

influence of culture on the dynamics of international relations through a case study of the Korean

Wave.11

She investigated how the Korean Wave influenced the Japanese people‘s image of Korea and

Korea‘s ‗soft power‘ toward Japan. According to Kim, the Korean people expect the Korean Wave to

have a positive effect on Korea‘s influence over Japan. However, Korean influence over the stars of the

9 Joseph D. Straubhaar, ―Beyond Media Imperialism: Asymmetrical Inter-Dependence and Cultural Proximity,‖ Critical

Studies in Mass Communications 8 (1991):39-59. 10

Jun-Sook Kim and Kwang-Tae Kim, “Hallyurul tonghan Ilbonesoui Hankookui Image Byunhwa” (Changing images of

Korea through the Korean Wave in Japan) Inmun Kwahak Yeongu, vol. 10 (2005): 23-48. 11

Hae-Young Kim, Korea‟s Soft Power through Hallyu (Seoul: Seoul National University, 2005).

6

Korean Wave themselves may actually suffer quite negatively. This is because the Japanese market is

much bigger than the Korean, so that the popularity of Korean Wave products in Japan will tend to make

the top stars dependent on the Japanese market, offsetting the positive, image-changing effect of the

Korean Wave in Japan.

In ―Narrative Structure and Societal Meaning of the TV Drama Winter Sonata: Focusing on the

Characters‘ Behavior,‖ Shin Kyung-Hee analyzes Winter Sonata‟s narrative structure and social

meaning.12

Shin asserts that the Korean Wave boom is a social phenomenon that results from the

recognition by Japanese of Japan‘s cultural and generational problems, such as the expansion of

individualism and liberalism. Winter Sonata, which emphasizes Confucian values, thus strikes a chord

of nostalgia among middle-aged and elderly Japanese women.

Lastly, Mori Yoshitaka‘s ―Japanese-Korean Wave: Winter Sonata and the Current Situation of

Popular Culture in Japan and Korea‖13

evaluates the significant role that Winter Sonata has played in

cultural exchanges between the two countries, paying special attention to the fact that the drama has

made Japan‘s mainstream media focus more attention on Japan‘s middle-aged and elderly women. Mori

also points out that the expansion of the Korean Wave is not limited to television dramas but is

spreading to other aspects of daily life, though some doubt its lasting impact.

1.3 Theoretical Framework

To explain the impact of audiovisual products, some scholars emphasize external aspects, such

as race, language, and geography. Cultural proximity, which develops externally to the audiovisual

product, is a factor in the dynamics of international trade. A scholar Al Hester argues that cultural and

historical similarity among countries, that is, cultural proximity, affects the volume and direction of

international information flow.14

His concept has been reiterated by Ithiel Pool, who discusses the

international spread of television programs.15

Pool argues that cultural aspects enable developing

societies to develop their own audiovisual products over time by importing the audiovisual products of

developed countries. According to Pool, other conditions being equal, audiences choose local programs 12

Kyung-Hee Shin, Narrative Structure and Societal Meaning of the TV Drama Winter Sonata: Focusing on the Characters‟

Behavior (Daejeon: Chungnam University, 2006). 13

Yoshitaka Mori, Japanese-Korean Wave: Winter Sonata and the Current Situation of Popular Culture in Japan and Korea

(Tokyo: Serica Shobo, 2004). 14

Al Hester. "Theoretical Considerations in Predicting Volume and Direction in International Information Flow," Gazette 19

(1973): 239-47. 15

Ithiel Pool, ―The Changing Flow of Television.‖ Journal of Communication 27(2) (1977): 139-49.

7

since they are protected by ―barriers of language,‖ ―barriers of social support,‖ and ―barriers of

culture.‖16

Joseph Straubhaar also presents a region‘s language, race, and cultural characteristics as

determinant factors in making audiences prefer local programs.17

Michael Elasma focuses on the

preference for one‘s own culture as a central concept of cultural proximity.18

According to Elasma,

audiences will choose their own nation‘s cultural product first. Only if some audience segment is

unsatisfied with its own cultural product will it consider the product of another, similar nations‘ culture

as a second-best choice.

Cultural proximity theory can indeed explain the preference for Korean television dramas in

Japan. Korea and Japan are close not only geographically, but also culturally in the ethics and values

they share from Chinese Confucianism, which highlights harmony with community and loyalty to

family and friends.

1.4 Methodology: Human Subject Data

The research in this paper employs two methods. One method is a case study that uses in-depth

interviews to investigate these questions: Why has Winter Sonata affected the Japanese, and how has the

drama affected their perspectives on Korea? The second method is a survey questionnaire exploring how

Japanese perspectives on Korea have changed after Japanese viewers were exposed to the Korean Wave,

especially contemporary Korean dramas. This questionnaire is compared with existing data. Before

conducting the interview and survey, I examined the Korean Wave and Japanese audiences‘ perception

of Korea by analyzing newspapers, magazines, the Internet fan sites of Korean stars, and existing

research.

The in-depth interviews were conducted in two sessions in Seoul, Korea. My subjects were

Japanese who were staying temporarily in Korea (from one month to two years) for study, business,

tourism, or other reasons. In each session, six people participated. Since I am not a native speaker of

Japanese, these interviews were conducted in Korean with the help of an interpreter. I interviewed four

males and eight females altogether. Three of the males and two of the females were in their twenties,

one of the males and two of the females were in their thirties, two of the females were in their forties,

16

Ibid, 142-43. 17

Straubhaar, ―Beyond Media Imperialism.‖ 18

Michael G. Elasmar, ed. The Impact of International Television: A Paradigm Shift (Mahwah, NJ and London: Lawrence

Erlbaum Associates, 2003).

8

and the remaining two females were in their fifties. Among the interviewees, two males were

undergraduate students, three females and one male were graduate students, one male was an

international businessperson, one female worked as a tour guide, one female was a college professor,

and three females were full-time housewives. Six of the interviewees were from eastern Japan, and the

other six were from western Japan. In addition, nine of the participants were self-described fans of

Korean drama (the three exceptions were one female and two males in their twenties). All interviewees

had watched Winter Sonata in Japan as well as other Korean dramas. This participant pool enables me to

show general perceptions about Winter Sonata and Korean drama in different audiences. Interviews

were preceded by about one and a half hours of open-ended questions, starting from broad questions and

ending with more specific ones about their thoughts on Winter Sonata and its implications on Japanese

Society.

The survey portion of my research was conducted in Japan, namely, Chiba and Tokyo, on 15

days, from 10 am to 6 pm, at public marketplaces such as a large shopping mall and a department store.

The target group was limited to people who had watched Winter Sonata. Of the 124 Japanese who

participated, 28 were male and 96 were female. Among the male participants, 2 were in their twenties, 8

were in their thirties, 12 were in their forties, 5 were in their fifties, and 1 was in his early sixties.

Among the female participants, 10 were in their twenties, 19 were in their thirties, 38 were in their

forties, 23 were in their fifties, and 6 were in their early sixties.

In order to protect the privacy and confidentiality of the interviewees and survey participants, I

collected no names. Only personal information, such as age and gender, were collected for the data

analysis.

To provide a context for discussing my research results, I will first review several relevant

newspaper articles and survey data findings.

9

CHAPTER 2

THE ORIGIN OF THE TERM KOREAN WAVE AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

The term Korean Wave (Hallyu, 韓流) was first used in 1999 by Beijing journalists who were

surprised both by the fast-growing local population of South Koreans and by the popularity of South

Korean culture [primarily television?] in China.19

It was used by the mainstream Japanese newspaper

Asahi Shimbun, in 2001.20

Originally, the term was a homonym of the Chinese word 寒流, which means

―fiercely prevailing foreign culture or trend.‖21

Though in Japan the term initially referred to Korean

television dramas, as the term developed in Japan, it took on a much wider cultural meaning. It began to

be applied to the appearance of Korean films and pop music in the local market, but also referred to the

cult-like popularity these cultural products engendered. The collaborative, Internet-based encyclopedia

Wikipedia defines Korean Wave as follows:

The Korean Wave or Korea fever refers to the significantly increased popularity of

South Korean culture around the world since the 21st century, especially among the Net

Generation.

South Korea is among the world‘s top ten cultural exporters and the Korean Wave

began with the export of Korean TV dramas such as Autumn Fairy Tale, Winter Sonata, Dae

Jang Geum (Jewel in the Palace) and Princess Hours across East and Southeast Asia; the

growing success of Korean dramas was soon matched by Korean movies, popular music, food

and language.

While popular throughout Asia, the Korean Wave‘s influence is most visible in China,

Japan and Southeast Asia, spreading to India, the Middle East, Central Asia, Iran, Israel,

Turkey and Russia. The Korean Wave is rapidly expanding beyond Asia through the Internet

and has a substantial presence in North, Central and South America, particularly in Chile,

19

He-Jung ChoHan, Hallyuwa Asiaui Daejung Munhwa (The Korean Wave and Asian pop culture) (Seoul: Yonsei Univ.

Press, 2004), 6. 20

Kizo Ogura, Kanryuu Inpakuto (Impact of Korean Wave) (Tokyo: Kodansha Japan, 2005), 5. 21

He-Jung ChoHan, Hallyu‟wa Asiaui Daejung Munhwa, 7.

10

Mexico, and Argentina, and is increasingly becoming popular in the United States. It is also

gaining momentum in Eastern Europe and Scandinavia, led by Hungary and Norway. It is

gathering positive interest in North Africa, attracting a sizable niche audience in Egypt.

Currently, the Korean Wave is starting to hit the shores of the United Kingdom and Australia.22

2.1 Historical Background and Development of the Korean Wave in Japan

The Korean Wave phenomenon has extended to many regions, and the social circumstances of

each country have clearly affected how the phenomenon has materialized locally. In China and Vietnam,

the Korean Wave emerged with the broadcasting of Korean soap operas. In China and Taiwan, young

Koreans played a leading role in forming the Korean Wave. In contrast, in Hong Kong, Singapore, and

Japan, films rather than soap operas have been the main vehicle of the popularity of the Korean Wave.

Japan and Korea are neighbors in East Asia, sharing the legacy of Chinese culture, including

Buddhism and Confucianism. Historically, however, they have been separated by a number of barriers.

The origin of the modern historical antagonism between Japan and South Korea dates back to 1905

when Japan established a protectorate over Korea. This event dramatically ended the peaceful

relationship the two neighbors had long maintained. Japan went on to violate Korea‘s sovereignty, then

finally annexed it in 1910. For the next thirty-six years, Koreans suffered under Japan‘s relentless

political repression, economic exploitation, attacks against Korean culture, and infringement of human

rights.

The expression ―a close but distant country‖ became a very accurate description of the

relationship between Japan and South Korea following the liberation of Korea in 1945 after Japan‘s

defeat in World War II. Both countries were geographically close but psychologically distant. On the

Korean side, Japan was an object of hatred and anger due to the bitter memories and legacy of Japan‘s

colonial rule over Korea. On the Japanese side, South Korea was disdained for its authoritarian political

practices under the governments of Park Jung-Hee and Chon Doo-hwan, both of whom ascended to

presidency by military coup and persistently using Japan‘s past wrongs as a means to gain bargaining

leverage.

It was during the 1988 Seoul Olympics that Japan‘s image of Korea changed for the first time.

The Olympics showed the world a new Korea, a more developed and urbanized country than most

22

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_wave (Accessed March 19, 2010).

11

Japanese had previously supposed existed. Though Korea and Japan had been engaged in direct and

indirect cultural exchange since 1965, the year when diplomatic relations between the countries were

normalized, it was not until 1998 that mutual exchanges in the field of popular culture were clearly

activated.

Since World War II, all Japanese popular culture – music, movies, and literature –had been

banned in South Korea, as Koreans tried to throw off four decades of Japanese cultural suppression. A

variety of historical disputes hampered the two countries‘ ability to open themselves culturally to the

other. Among them were Japanese history textbooks that seemed to ignore the reality of Korea‘s

colonization, territorial disputes over the islet called Dokdo/Takeshima, Japanese prime ministers‘ visits

to Yasukuni Shrine, and the unresolved status of Korean comfort women and laborers forced to serve

Japan during World War II. Conscious that many South Koreans in their fifties, sixties, and seventies

were still repulsed by Japan and its culture, the Korean government maintained the ban until 1998.

Of course, exchanges between Japan and Korea had been active both on governmental and non-

governmental levels for some time, but in October 1998 the leaders of the two countries announced new

government exchange programs based on a mutual "Action Plan" that finally lifted the ban against

Japanese culture imports. Furthermore, both countries acknowledged the year 2002, which was also the

year of the soccer World Cup co-hosted by Japan and South Korea, as "The Year of Japan-South Korea

National Exchange." A "Japan-Korea Cultural Exchange Council,‖ consisting of leaders from many

nongovernmental fields, was also founded to discuss plans to enhance cultural and artistic exchange

between the two countries.23

In 1999 South Korean President Kim Dae-Jung, who informally called himself the ―president of

culture,‖ also promoted the liberalization of Japanese culture in South Korea by establishing the Basic

Law for Cultural Industry Promotion, allocating $148.5 million to this project.24

As a result of his policy,

Japanese movies were allowed to be circulated in South Korea, and live performances of Japanese pop

songs were drastically deregulated.

The cultural exchange unleashed in 1998 also fueled imports of Korean culture—initially film--

into Japan. The Korean movie Shiri was a moderate hit in Japan in 2000, followed by JSA in 2001, My

Sassy Girl in 2003, and Simido in 2004. All the films gained popularity as part of a Korean New Wave

23

Hoo-Ryun Kim, Ilbonui Hallyu; Yuksajuk Uimiwa Junmang (Korean Wave in Japan; Historical Meaning and Prospect)

(Seoul: Hankook University of Foreign Studies Press, 2005), 15-17. 24

Jian Cai, http://journeyeast.tripod.com/korean_wave_in_china.html (Accessed August 27, 2009).

12

of cinema.25

An increase in the popularity of South Korea and its culture as tourist destinations also

became apparent in Japan. Kusanagi Tsuyosi, a member of the hugely popular Japanese idol group

SMAP, learned Korean and introduced Korean culture on his television program.

As for television dramas, in 2002 a Japan-Korea collaborative drama Friends, featuring Fukada

Kyoko and Won Bin, was broadcast by TBS (Tokyo Broadcasting System) in Japan. It achieved only a

certain degree of popularity but a great deal of attention, mainly because it was one of the first

collaborative efforts between Japanese and Korean television networks.26

After that, some Korean

dramas were shown in Japan, mainly by BS (Satellite TV), but they were welcomed only by a small

number of avid fans of Korean culture.27

Nevertheless, when films and television drama are taken

together, it could be said that there was already pro-Korean cultural sentiment in Japan before the Winter

Sonata phenomenon began.

Winter Sonata was first broadcast at 10 pm Thursday nights beginning in April 2003 by NHK BS.

The average rating was about 1.1 percent28

--not bad for a satellite show, but limited by the late time slot.

However, ratings rose gradually as word-of-mouth grew, and NHK received many inquiries about re-

broadcasting the show. Following popular requests called into the network, NHK BS decided to air the

drama again during the 2004 New Year week. Concurrently, a DVD of episodes was also released and

made available at rental shops before the re-broadcast. By this time, Japan‘s media had slowly started to

report on Winter Sonata‟s popularity.29

A critical moment in the Winter Sonata phenomenon came on April 3, 2004. On that day Bae

Yong-Joon, the leading actor of Winter Sonata, arrived at Haneda, Tokyo International Airport. Five

thousand fans, mostly middle-aged women, gathered to welcome him. This was exceptional, considering

that only five hundred fans came to the airport when famous soccer player David Beckham arrived in

Japan. This particular news shocked the Japanese people, and the Winter Sonata and ―Yon-sama‖30

phenomenon drew great attention as a new boom.31

In the same month, NHK started to terrestrially

broadcast the drama at 11:30 pm, gaining a 20+ percent audience rating for the highest-rated episodes

and about 15 percent on average. Winter Sonata had already been among the top ten television programs

25

Mori, Japanese-Korean Wave, 28-30. 26

Ibid., 31. 27

Ibid., 32. 28

Mun-Sung Choi, Hallyu, Kyeoulyonga gurigo Daejung Munhwa (Korean Wave, Winter Sonata, and Popular Culture)

(Seoul: Munhak Maul Press, 2005), 43. 29

Ibid., 44. 30

Nicknamed ―Yon-sama,‖ Bae Yong-Jun was so admired by his fans they referred to him with the honorific suffix ―-sama‖. 31

Mori, Japanese-Korean Wave, 34-35.

13

in Japan since June 2004. By its last episode on NHK it had became number one (see Table 1 on the

following page).

Table 1: NHK Audience Rating for Winter Sonata, 200432

Date 5/1 5/15 5/29 6/12 6/26 7/10 7/24 8/7 8/21

Audience

Rating

9.2 12.6 15.0 15.7 17.1 16.5 16.8 16.5 20.6

Considering that Winter Sonata was aired around midnight and that average audience ratings

were about 10 percent, even during prime time (7 pm–10 pm), the show‘s rating was incredibly high. In

addition, in 2009 Winter Sonata was voted the best television program shown on Japanese NHK satellite

channel over the past twenty years.33

In a poll by NHK to pick the top thirty television programs in

celebration of the twentieth anniversary of its satellite channels, Winter Sonata got 20,750 out of the

total 160,533 votes. The drama series also contributed financially to NHK, which earned about ¥350,000

million ($3.5 million) from Winter Sonata–related products. It also sold 330,000 sets of DVDs and

1,220,000 copies of a novelized book. Because the first airing of Winter Sonata in Japan had used

dubbed Japanese voices, at the end of 2004, NHK broadcast a complete, original director‘s cut version

of Winter Sonata with the Korean-language voice track, with Japanese subtitles.34

Since Winter Sonata

was broadcast and gained significant popularity in 2004, several television programs, newspapers, and

magazines in Japan began including Korean Wave–related material. For instance, the weekly news

magazine AERA, an affiliate of Asahi Shimbun, printed a special issue, ―Knowing Korea through Bae

Yong-Jun,‖ ( ペ・ヨ ン ジ ュ ンで知る韓 國 ) in July 2004. The magazine dispatched a special

correspondent to Korea to report information about Bae Yong-Joon every week. Later, they purchased

the copyright for an interview article with Bae Yong-Joon from the Korean monthly magazine Wolgan

32

Young-Mi Yoo, Hankukkwa Ilbonui Munhwasuyong yeongu (The Study of Cultural Reception: Focusing on Korea and

Japan) (Seoul: Chungang University, 2004), 38. 33

http://news.stareastasia.com/2009/05/winter-sonata-voted-japan-nhks-favorite-program/ (Accessed July 30, 2009). 34

Yoo, Hankukkwa Ilbonui Munhwasuyong yeongu, 40-41.

14

Chosun, and published Bae‘s mini-book as a separate volume supplement. The mini-book became a

best-seller, selling more than 300,000 copies.35

According to the Korean Embassy in Japan, in 2004 a total of 386 Korean Wave–related articles

appeared in six major Japanese daily newspapers, such as Asahi Shimbun and Yomiuri Shimbun. This

amounts to at least one Korean Wave–related article per day.36

In the same year, Korean Wave was

honored as the eighth most important news story by the readers of Yomiuri Shimbun,37

the number two

mega-hit product by Mainichi Shimbun,38

and the top mega-hit product by Nihonkeizai Shimbun.39

Furthermore, several newly coined words relating to Winter Sonata, including Yon-sama, reflected its

huge popularity in Japan (see Table 2 on page 15).

35

Chosun Ilbo, October16, 2004. 36

http://news.kbs.co.kr/news.php?id=684293&kind=c (Accessed Aug. 18, 2009). 37

http://news.kbs.co.kr/news.php?id=672999&kind=c (Accessed Aug. 18, 2009). 38

http://news.kbs.co.kr/news.php?id=6654222&kind=c (Accessed Aug. 18, 2009). 39

http://news.kbs.co.kr/news.php?id=667537&kind=c (Accessed Aug. 18, 2009).

15

Table 2: Winter Sonata–related Neologisms40

Neologism In Japanese Meanings

Fuyu Sona 冬ソナ Abbreviation of Winter Sonata (冬のソナタ).

Fuyu Sona Divorce 冬ソナ 離婚 Many housewives got in trouble with their

husbands because they indulged in Winter

Sonata and bought books and CDs related to

the drama. This discord sometimes led to

divorce.

Yon fluenza ヨンフルエンザ The word combines Yon-sama and influenza,

meaning that once you watch Bae Yong-

Joon‘s drama you cannot stop watching it and

cannot go back to being the person who didn‘t

know Bae Yong-Joon.

Yongel‘s coefficient ヨンゲル From ―Engel´s Coefficient.‖ The ratio of

expenditures on Bae Yong-Joon–related

cultural products to gross household

expenditures.

Jiwoo Hime ジウ 姫 Princess Choi Ji-woo (main actress of Winter

Sonata)

40

Soo-Jung Kim, Ilboneseoui hallyu Yeongu (The Study of Korean Wave in Japan: Focusing on Internet, TV, Newspaper

reports) (Seoul: Chun-Nam University, 2007), 30.

16

CHAPTER 3

KOREAN WAVE INITIATED BY MIDDLE-AGED AND ELDERLY JAPANESE

WOMEN

3.1 The Fan as Active Performer

A closer examination of the demographics of the audience for Winter Sonata shows that the

Korean drama was not equally popular across Japanese genders and age groups. According to a

journalist Hayashi Kaori, the typical viewer of Winter Sonata is aged 30 to 70 (average 47.3 years old)

and overwhelmingly female--97 percent of respondents to a questionnaire to ―fans‖ of Winter Sonata

identified themselves as female.41

The Yon-sama phenomenon and its relation to middle-aged women have been frequently and

seriously reported on in Japan‘s mainstream media. For instance, on August 29, 2004, some television

talk shows reported pejoratively that fans had organized birthday parties in different Korean BBQ

restaurants in Tokyo to celebrate Yon-sama‘s birthday.42

This example illustrates one of the ways in

which the media dealt with Winter Sonata and the Yon-sama phenomenon: by focusing on audience

members whose behavior seemed to reflect the image of the stupid or ridiculous fan. But other media

looked at the show‘s base audience, middle–aged women, in a more sympathetic way. One question I

sought to explore is how Winter Sonata‟s fans viewed the often exaggerated, stereotypical image the

media projected on to them.

Some, particularly young interviewees, disliked the stereotyping. For instance, Ms. A, in her

twenties, who likes Korean dramas in general rather than just Winter Sonata, said: ―Well, they [the

middle-aged and elderly women] are not in our generation. I am impressed by how much they spend on

Winter Sonata, but I am totally different from them. I do not want to be seen in the same way as they

are.‖ Ms B, in her forties, told me: ―I do not understand why they put Bae Yong-Joon‘s poster on the

41

Kaori Hayashi, Fuyusona‟ ni Hamatta Watakushitachi Bungeishunju (Why We Love Winter Sonata So Much) (Tokyo:

Bunshun Shinsho, 2005), 28-29. 42

Seiko Yasumoto, The Impact of Korean Wave on Japan (Sydney: Univ. of Sydney Press, 2006), 59.

17

wall. I have never done it.‖ However, it should also be noted that more than half of the interviewees had

more sympathy with stereotypical fans than I originally expected. Ms. A, in her twenties, mentioned that

she does not like the behavior the media shows the maniac fans engaging in, but she does understand

why they do it. Such sympathy did not mean the fans I interviewed totally identified with the way fans

were represented in the media. How then should we understand this complicated relationship between

Winter Sonata‘s fandom and the media‘s representation of it?

The self-analysis of Ms. C, in her forties, may be suggestive. She said that fans loved not only

Winter Sonata, but also themselves as they uncritically love Winter Sonata. According to her, fans loved

themselves as fans because they were like someone who can be ―crazy‖ about a pure, romantic love

story even when they are middle-aged. She said that fans want to be on the news; they are happy to hear,

for example, their husband sighing ―my wife is crazy about Winter Sonata.‖ In the same way, Ms. D, in

her forties, said that when she asked herself what a seemingly ‗stupid‘ thing she was doing in her midlife,

she enjoyed reflecting on it. This complicated sentiment was also seen in group interviews when fans

talked both proudly and bashfully about the kinds of fan behavior they were engaging in, for example,

letting others listen to Winter Sonata‘s theme music set as their mobile telephone ringtone. This

combination of ‗pride‘ and ‗bashfulness‘ was one of the characteristic features shared among the fans I

studied. When I asked Ms. D if this meant that the fans were manipulated by the media, she replied, ―No,

no, we believe that it is ‗we‘ who manipulate the media.‖ In fact, they were performing as fans, as if

they were actresses. Such pretended ‗stupidity‘ was a performance.

It should also be noted that most fans I interviewed also believed that the Winter Sonata

phenomenon was created by the fans, not by the media. The fans gather and exchange information

through independent media, especially the Internet. They are critical of the mainstream media as they

think the latter only report what the fans already know. This imbalance between what the media see in

the fandom and what the fans see in the media is one of the interesting characteristics of the Winter

Sonata phenomenon. I would argue that the fans should be regarded as performers, not merely seen as

passive consumers. They are actively producing their own narratives, and they proactively associated the

story of Winter Sonata with other Korean stories, with culture and history, and even with their personal

experiences and memories by reading and watching the media.

18

3.2 Reasons for Success

3.2.1 Story of Pure Love with Timely Situation

Winter Sonata is a complicated love story with several plot twists. The story begins when Joon-

Sang (Bae Yong-Joon), the son of an eminent musician, moves to Chuncheon, a rural city in South

Korea. As an extraordinarily talented student, Joon-Sang is welcomed by his fellow students as well as

by teachers, but remains a quiet, introverted young man. As a result of his belief that his father is dead

and serious conflicts with his mother, Joon-Sang believes that no one truly loves him. Riding to school

one fortuitous day, Joon-Sang's classmate, Yu-Jin (Choi Ji-Woo), interrupts him on the bus. Joon-Sang

soon falls in love with Yu-Jin, who opens herself to him with an innocent heart. Their love, however, is

cut short when Joon-Sang is involved in a serious auto accident and, due to brain damage, is unable to

recall his past life. Joon-Sang's mother, desiring Joon-Sang's love and respect, has Joon-Sang

brainwashed by a psychologist, so Joon-Sang will not remember his painful memories of growing up as

an illegitimate child. As a result, Joon-Sang's memories prior to the accident are completely erased.

Joon-Sang's mother decides to move to the United States with Joon-Sang, where he can start a new life

under the identity of Lee Min-Hyung. As such, both his friends and teachers are told that Joon-Sang is

dead. Ten years later, Joon-Sang has become an award-winning architect in the United States. He does

not remember anything about his life in Korea. He is completely different than he was before the

accident: an open-minded person who cares about other people, including his mother. He relocates back

to Korea and Yu-Jin sees him on the street, prompting her to put off her engagement to childhood friend

Sang-Hyuk (Park Yong-Ha). Little does she know that Joon-Sang is now dating her friend and sometime

rival, Che-Lin. The story's plot intensifies when Yu-Jin, unsure whether this lookalike architect is in fact

her lost lover Joon-sang, finds work at the firm where Joon-Sang is employed.

Winter Sonata was designed as a fantasy to meet the needs of middle-aged and elderly women in

general. Winter Sonata‟s director, Yoon Suk-Ho, quoted in a number of Japanese publications,

immediately admits that such a design was the foundation of the Winter Sonata program.43

Yoon reports

that he created a fantasy world, which actually reflects reality in the general sense that it is fiction set in

realistic settings to meet the needs of modern-day people (by implication, people in the 30-70-year-old

age group). He saw that what was missing in their busy, changing everyday world was the timeless

values of women‘s emotional life—‗pure love‘ for family, parents and friends as well as romantic love,

43

Sang-Chul Yoo, Hallyuui Bimil (The Secret of Korean Wave) (Seoul: Saenggakhanun Namu Press, 2006), 58-60.

19

trust, belief in self, caring and kindness for others. Yoon sought to create a new space for the audience

that rolled up all these elements in it. These values, like Pole Star (Polaris), which is a recurrent theme in

the Winter Sonata series, provide a framework in which all the characters and plots interact. In other

words, Yoon deliberately designed Winter Sonata as a peculiar in the sense of somewhat fantasy like

text to provide viewers with an idealized reality. So, in part, Winter Sonata was designed to create a

fantasy through location, characters, and plot that would appeal to a certain market demographic--such

as Korea and Japan--and meet its needs.

As the director Yoon has mentioned in his interviews, the theme of pure love (Jun‟ai) is one

reason why Winter Sonata attracted many middle-aged and elderly women in Japan. This fact is well

reflected in my in-depth interviews:

―I was fascinated by its pure love. Loving one person for a long time… That reminds me of my

lost first love and made my heart beat faster. I believe many people have this experience when

they were young…. Also, I like those platonic love scenes. Winter Sonata conveys love without

aggressive sexuality. That distinguished its pure love from lust, which can be easily found in

current Japanese drama.‖ [Interviewee No. 9, in her forties]

―Every line was good. That contains pure love. Yon-sama does not treat his lover sexually in

Winter Sonata. I could feel how much he endures his own passion to protect his lover. That is

an ideal love, which I cannot find easily in the current generation. The drama does not

contaminate true love.‖ [Interviewee No. 7, in her thirties]

According to Kaori Shoji, a guest writer for the Japan Times, Korean stories like Winter Sonata

are popular because they depict pure lovers who would face many obstacles that are contrived to keep

them apart and pining for the romantic reunion. This is the reason for their success in Japan.44

Women

over thirty who are married and have children romanticize about pure love that centers on the idea of

first love, Shoji states. They enjoy imagining themselves as the heroine of the drama, as if they were

experiencing their first love again. Shoji differentiated Korean dramas from Japanese dramas by stating

that the latter easily get ―dirty‖ when dealing with love. Unlike Japanese dramas, which overuse kissing

and bed scenes, Korean dramas do not show these kinds of sexually aggressive scenes and are very

44

Christian Science Monitor, April 8, 2005.

20

―beautiful‖ in that a couple wanted each other to be happy, no matter how harsh his or her own life was

as a result.45

In addition, Korean dramas hark back to an earlier, golden era of Japanese films and television

dramas of the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, such as Kimi no Nawa (What Is Your Name?) and the Akai (Red)

series. Kimi no Nawa46

was a popular radio drama in 1952, a time when the male stars were more stoic

and more protective of women. It had plots involving ‗pure love‘ in which lovers were separated by war

or soldiers returned to find their loved ones had already married someone else.47

Kishi Keiko, leading

actress in Kimi no Nawa, has evaluated Winter Sonata as another version of Kimi no Nawa, and notes

that Korean and Japanese share the idea of pure love regardless of generational differences.48

The Akai series was a serial drama from the 1970s centering on human suspense. It also had

plots similar to Winter Sonata, such as secret births. Both Kimi no Nawa and Akai enabled middle-aged

and elderly women to nostalgically relive their own first, forgotten pure love by adding their own

personal interpretation to the pure love dramas. Pure love dramas like Winter Sonata remind Japanese

audiences of old Japanese television series and their memories of the Showa era, a version of the good

old days highlighted by Japan‘s cultural penchant for platonic love.

Like Kaori Shoji, most scholars and media reporters have identified the reason for Winter

Sonata‘s success as its pure love storyline. However, this theme cannot solely explain Winter Sonata‘s

success. Winter Sonata was first targeted to Korean audiences and was televised in Korea before Japan,

but it did not achieve success in Korea. If the pure love theme explains Winter Sonata‘s appeal to

Japanese audiences, and if, as Kishi Keiko has mentioned, Korean and Japanese share the idea of pure

love regardless of generational differences, why didn‘t Winter Sonata affect Korean audiences as

effectively as it did Japanese? To answer this question, the situational factors surrounding the show‘s

Japanese fans must be explored.

In many ways, middle-aged and elderly females should be regarded as a particularly distinctive

feature of the Japanese population. When they married and had children, during the period of Japan‘s

economic growth, a majority of the women who left the workforce to marry were expected to make

domestic duties their life-long career. Only when their children grew up would they have free time for

leisure activities of their own. This same generation of women has also been characterized as being

45

In Wither Sonata, kissing scenes are only shown three times out of twenty episodes. 46

This is a story of a man and a woman who meet amid the Great Tokyo Air Raid in 1945. 47

Si-Hyung Lee, “Ilbonesoui Hallyu: Kyoul Yonga wa gu uimi” (―The Korean Wave in Japan: Winter Sonata and Its

Implications‖) , Hankuke onlonhakbo 43, no. 3 (2008): 230-32. 48

Chungang Ilbo, May 25, 2005.

21

ambitious for an affluent lifestyle, one that was not likely to be fulfilled, especially as Japan‘s economic

problems emerged in the 1990s.49

Despite the size of this audience, before the Winter Sonata boom, Japanese broadcasting

companies did not produce television dramas for middle-aged and elderly women, except for some

daytime soap operas. Sponsors wanted to produce trendy, youth-oriented dramas because women in

their twenties were regarded as major consumers. However, twenty-something women usually did not

have time to watch television dramas at home. In reality, Japanese television drama audiences were

mostly composed of middle-aged and elderly women, but they did not have a suitable program to

watch.50

In this sense, Winter Sonata is important because it made middle-aged and elderly women,

ranging from 30 to 70 years old, visible as an audience. They have often been marginalized and invisible

as a topic for discussion in both journalism and academia in Japan. For example, academic studies of

popular culture have centered on youth culture, subculture, girls‘ culture, ethnic culture, and culture

centering on office workers.

Thus, unlike their Korean counterparts, who had long ago gotten used to similar ‗pure love‘

stories on television, Japanese audiences were quickly and easily drawn to a kind of story not shown on

Japanese television. By combining this timely situational factor with its ‗pure love‘ story, Winter Sonata

could achieve its success in Japan.

Since witnessing the huge success of Winter Sonata, Japan‘s mainstream media has focused

repeatedly on the pure love theme. The novel Sekai no Chushin de, Ai o Sakebu (Crying for Love at the

Heart of the World, 世界の中心で, 愛をさけぶ) by Katayama Kyoichi, is one example. The book has sold

more than three million copies, becoming the bestselling Japanese novel of all time. The film version of

the book drew three million people to theaters, and a television adaptation, aired from July to September

2004, registered one of Japan‘s highest audience ratings.

3.2.2 Some Traditional Values: Filial Piety and Family Relationship

Another explanation for why Japanese middle-aged women are attracted by Winter Sonata can

be found in traditional values, such as the centrality of communal life, filial responsibility, disciplined

49

Miura Atsushi, Kanryu Shakai (Society of Korean Wave) (Tokyo: Kobunsha Shinsho, 2005), 42. 50

Yuji Hosaka. Ilboneseoui Hallyuboom gochal (Consideration of Korean Wave in Japan), International Study Collection,

vol.10 (Daegu: Kyemyung Univ. Press, 2005), 49.

22

work ethic, and empathy toward social minorities. These are values that conform to Confucian teachings

and are widely upheld by the countries that comprise the pan-Chinese arc.51

Winter Sonata seems to encompass both of the two ostensibly opposing vectors of cultural

value—one the one hand, the vociferous parade of high modernity and, on the other, the faithful defense

of group values. This fact appeals to Japanese audiences who harbor bi-directional aspirations for

material wealth and ethical exaltation simultaneously. Replete with modern, exotic images on the one

hand and curiously familiar ideas on the other hand, Winter Sonata offers satisfaction in twofold

measure.52

For instance, the main structure of the Winter Sonata story is conflict between emotion (love

between man and woman) and reason (traditional value: obey one‘s parents). Yu-Jin‘s mother opposes

marriage between her daughter and Joon-Sang (played by Bae Yong-Joon). In contrast, conflict between

parents and children over child‘s marriage is rarely found in contemporary Japanese drama. Since

Japanese parents‘ absolute authority is reduced, the love story in Japanese drama usually focuses on

emotions between man and woman. However, Korean parents still have strong authority over their

children‘s affairs, including marriage, and children respect their parents‘ decisions. This suggests that

the contemporary Korean family has a more intimate relationship than its Japanese counterparts. As they

watch the Korean protagonists‘ agony and effort to gain their parents‘ consent, Japanese middle-aged

women satisfy their self-respect as parents who have lost absolute authority over this young generation:

―I felt from Winter Sonata that the Korean son regards his mother very preciously. There is a

strong family relationship in this drama. In Japan, there are distinctions between parents‘ and

children‘s business. Although they [children] think their parents are precious, they hardly

express that feeling, in contrast to Koreans. I was impressed by an expression of love between

family members from the drama.‖ [Interviewee No. 2, in his twenties]

―I did not show my respect to my parents. I did not talk to them. I always asked them to do

something that I wanted to do. Current Japan is losing that sense of order. After I watched

Winter Sonata, I thought, I have to correct myself first. Actually, I became stricter to my

children.‖ [Interviewee No. 10, in her forties]

51

Kyung-Hee Shin, Narrative Structure and Societal Meaning of the TV Drama Winter Sonata: Focusing on the Characters‟

Behavior (Daejeon: Chungnam University, 2006). 52

Kyung-Hee Shin, Narrative Structure and Societal Meaning of TV Drama Winter Sonata.

23

Japan is quickly moving toward an individualized society because of its urbanization and

industrialization. The individualized family structure of post–high-economic-growth Japan is now

hearing anxious voices of warning.53

Since the family is a base unit of society, broken family

communications and relationships, increasing divorce rates, and domestic violence have become social

problems in Japan and a threat to the foundation of the country. Even though Korea is stepping into a

similar stage of economic developmental, through its dramas Korea is showing to its audiences that it is

a society that still has traditional Confucian values, such as respecting elders and regarding family as

precious.

In her research, Shin Kyung-Hee has asserted that the Korean Wave boom is a social

phenomenon that is motivated by the recognition of cultural, generational problems in current Japan,

such as the expansion of individualism and liberalism, and that Winter Sonata‘s emphasis on Confucian

value incites nostalgia in Japan‘s middle-aged and elderly women.54

According to Shin, while watching

Winter Sonata, Japanese middle-aged women covet traditional Confucian values, which they used to

have in the past but see weakened in the current generation.

However, my research reveals that traditional Confucian values per se are not why the Winter

Sonata drama appeals to Japanese audiences. Rather, they very selectively choose and value only some

of these traditional values, such as filial piety and family relationship. My interviewees in their twenties

and thirties, for example, did not agree that Japan belongs to Confucian culture and shares Confucius‘s

teaching with other Asian countries. In contrast, interviewees in their forties, fifties, and sixties agreed

that they grew up with traditional Confucian teachings, but they too agreed that Japan does not belong to

Confucian culture anymore, as the family system has disintegrated with industrialization. Although

middle-aged and elderly women felt nostalgia for their childhood and some Confucian values, they did

not think that Japan has to return to a conservative patriarchal society.

This fact is also reflected in certain criteria that Japanese women state they seek in the male

stars of Winter Sonata and other Korean dramas. Evidently, actors and actresses are another main factor

drawing audiences to television dramas. Some interviewees stated that the image of Korean male stars,

including Bae Yong-Joon and Park Yong-Ha, gave them more favorable perspectives on general images

of Korean males:

53

Hankook Ilbo, February 23, 2004.

http://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=101&oid=038&aid=0000221207 (Accessed August 5,

2009). 54

Kyung-Hee Shin, Narrative Structure and Societal Meaning of TV Drama Winter Sonata.

24

―Japanese men to some extent do not clearly show their expressions. But Korean men, for

instance, will sacrifice to save women in a dangerous situation. In that case, Japanese men will

flee from the danger…. The belief that Korean men will never run away from the danger is

increasing in me.‖ [Interviewee No. 4, in her twenties]

―I am not a big fan of Winter Sonata and other Korean dramas. Korean dramas have very

typical and similar story lines. Once I get used to it, I am not so much interested in plot itself.

Rather, I am a big fan of Korean stars such as Chang Don-gun and Won Bin. Their appearances

and styles are very similar to Japanese counterparts. However, Korean stars have some aura

that I cannot explain well. Anyway, I feel, they [Korean stars] are friendlier than Japanese stars.‖

[Interviewee No. 3, in her twenties]

―I was impressed when Bae Yong-Joon was protecting his fans in a dangerous situation at

Tokyo Haneda Airport. His action was unbelievable to me. Most of the Japanese stars

unconsciously might show negative behavior to the fans who are rushing into them. However,

Bae Yong-Joon was caring about fans‘ safety before his own security. That single event

showed how he is a warm and nice person.‖ [Interviewee No. 6, in her thirties]

Belonging to the same Asian race, the Korean actors and their distinctive image enable Japanese

women to feel as if they are their heroines. Japanese fans of Korean drama appear to think that Korean

stars are good-looking enough to attract Japanese women, polite and humble enough to allow Japanese

women to reach out to them (either in reality or in their own imaginations), and strong enough to protect

women. Japanese audiences also think that the Korean males on Korean dramas seem manlier than

Japanese males because Korean males have to do military service, which is not mandatory for their

Japanese counterparts.55

Also, Japanese women are attracted by Korean male stars, who seem passionate

enough to express their love. Since Japan is a strictly patriarchal society, Japanese women are familiar

with vertical domestic hierarchy, in which women should obey and respect their husbands. For instance,

traditionally Japanese wives were supposed to walk behind their husbands, a tradition that definitely

shows women‘s lower social position relative to their husbands.56

55

Si-Hyung Lee, “Ilbonesoui Hallyu,” 234. 56

Ibid, 235.

25

In this social atmosphere, Japanese middle-aged women are fascinated by Bae Yong-Joon and

his sweet character in Winter Sonata; they regard him as an ideal man. Since many Japanese women

perceive Japanese men as weak, impassionate, and unable to satisfy their expectations, they are attracted

by Korean male stars, who look similar to Japanese men but have more desirable characteristics.57

The

criteria for men that Japanese women seek and find in Winter Sonata and other Korean dramas could be

good evidence that the Japanese audience no longer seeks a traditional patriarchal society.

57

Ibid, 236.

26

CHAPTER 4

INFLUENCES ON JAPANESE SOCIETY: CHANGING PERSPECTIVES ON

KOREA

The Winter Sonata phenomenon goes far beyond just enjoying a television drama. It affected the

daily social and cultural practice of its fans. As we will see, many Winter Sonata fans have begun to

show a general interest in Korean culture, to organize fan meetings, to participate in Winter Sonata tours

in Korea, and even to start studying Korean language and culture. The impact of this drama has been to

fundamentally influence fans‘ lives.

Before the Korean Wave, most of the Japanese public thought of Korea and its people

negatively, a perspective deeply rooted in their distorted sense of superiority over other Asian countries.

Research into Japanese ethnic prejudicial perspectives conducted by Wakatsuma Hiroshi and Yoneyama

Toshinao in 1967, two years after Japan and Korea normalized their diplomatic relationship, shows

Japan‘s deeply rooted negative view of Korea.58

Though Japanese had generally favorable views of

Western white people, they devalued neighboring peoples whose appearance resembled theirs. Among

these neighboring Asian people, Japanese rated Koreans as among the worst (see Table 3 on the

following page).

58

Ji-Eun Lee, Hankuke Daehan Ilboninui Uisik Byunhwa (A Study on the Change of Koreans‘ Perception of Japanese)

(Seoul: Kwangwoon University, 2007), 21-23; Hiroshi Wakatsuma and Toshinao Yoneyama, Nihonjin no Jinshukan

(Japanese Perspectives on Other People), vol. 5 (Tokyo: Japanese Broadcasting and Press Corporation, 1967), 38.

27

Table 3: Japanese Preferences for Other People.59

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Middle

Class

German French American British Italian Chinese Thai Indian Russian Indonesian Filipino Korean Black

People

Farmers Americ-

an

British German French Italian Thai Indian Filipino Russian Chinese Indonesian Korean Black

People

Proletariat

Class

French British American Italian German Indian Thai Russian Indonesian Filipino Chinese Black

People

Korean

College

Students

British German American French Italian Indian Russian Chinese Thai Indonesian Filipino Black

People

Korean

Overall British French German Ame-

rican

Italian Indian Russian Thai Chinese Indonesian Filipino Korean Black

People

Respondents to the survey were asked to pick one adjective from sixty-four word pools that in

their opinion best described what they thought of when they thought of one of thirteen national or ethnic

groups. One third of respondents picked intelligent for British, bright for French, rational and active for

Germans, artistic for Italians, ingenuous and conservative for Thai. On the other hand, the words most

often associated with Koreans were dirty and vile.

According to research conducted more than twenty years later by the Japan-Korea 21 Century

Committee,60

Japan‘s negative views of Koreas persisted into the 1990s. Survey participants were asked

to rate their affection toward Korea on a scale of 0 to 10 (see Table 4).

Table 4: Japanese Affection for Korea61

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2.8% 1.0% 2.5% 4.0% 5.2% 35.5% 2.8% 3.0% 2.4% 0.6% 0.7%

If we regard 0~5 as negative (51%) and 6~10 (9.5%) as positive, then negative feelings toward

Korea dominated.

The Korean Wave has brought dramatic changes to these negative points of view: Japan‘s

interest in and favorable impression of Koreans have increased. One evidence of this is the sales of spin-

59

Ji-Eun Lee, Hankuke Daehan Ilboninui Uisik Byunhwa, 21-23; Hiroshi Wakatsuma and Toshinao Yoneyama, ―Nihonjin no

Jinshukan,‖ 38. 60

Ji Eun Lee, Hankuke Daehan Ilboninui Uisik Byunhwa, 23-25. 61

The total number of participants was 3,507.

28

off products related to Winter Sonata in Japan: they have provided a ¥122.5 billion (about US$1.1

billion) boost to the Japanese economy.62

After Winter Sonata, a Korean-language textbook published

by NHK sold twice as many copies as the previous year, and nearly 900,000 copies of the novel based

on the drama were sold in Japan in the first half of 2004.63

Korean language schools sprang up for

Japanese fans eager to write fan letters to the main Korean actors in Winter Sonata: Bae Yong-Joon and

Choi Ji-Woo. Vacation tours to Korea swelled, and Japanese fans swarm to the airports whenever the

Korean stars fly into Japan. In 2004, the number of Japanese tourists who traveled to Korea grew 35.5

percent compared to the previous year. The number of Japanese tourists who travel to the specific

shooting locations of Winter Sonata increased rapidly, particularly following 2003. Most have been

women. Many Korean celebrities now have contracts with major Japanese companies specifically to

gain from the sales of products in Japanese magazines and TV commercials.

While some are cynical about the boom's economic benefits, most Japanese would call the new

interest in Korea a good thing. Korean food, for example, which is more pungent and spicy than

Japanese fare, has grown much more popular than ever before. The boom has raised Japan's

consciousness of its neighbor considerably and increased cultural exchanges—so much so that Korean

dramas are broadcast nearly every day on television now, and Korean movies are much more visible.

In one survey, 41 percent of Japanese respondents answered that their image of Korea had

changed in a more positive way since experiencing Korean culture through television dramas, films, and

pop music.64

Figures 1 and 2 (on the following page) graph the results of surveys of Japanese public

opinion about Korea conducted in 1992 and 2004. Though the questions asked in each year were not

identical, they do show that the Korean Wave has caused a positive change in the image Japanese hold

of Korea.

62

http://www.alcglobal.jp/international/Newsletter/017.html (Accessed March 10, 2009). 63

Weng Kin Kwan. ―Japan grip by Korean fever‖, http://www.centurychina.com/plaboard/archive/3663517.shtml (Accessed

March 11, 2009). 64

KOFACE (Korean Foundation for Asian Culture Exchange), ―Report on Korean Wave Enhancement Strategy,‖ 2005.

29

Figure 1. What Will Be Korea’s International Relationship to Japan in the Future? (1992)65

Figure 2. What Effect Will Winter Sonata Have on the Korea-Japan Relationship? (2004)66

65

Korea Press Center, ―Research about Image of Korea in Japan,‖ report on Tokyo-oriented survey by Japan Research Center,

October 1992.

0.00%

5.00%

10.00%

15.00%

20.00%

25.00%

30.00%

35.00%

40.00%

A Good Neighboring Country

It Will Not Become Close

Korea Is an Obstacle for Japan

I Do Not Know

1992

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%

Expansion of Tourist Exchanges

Expansion of Goods Exchanges

Expansion of Cultural Exchanges

Increased Intimacy between the Two

Countries

2004

30

In addition, in the Japanese government‘s survey of public opinion about diplomacy toward

Korea (conducted annually since 1978), until 1998 the majority of Japanese have responded that they do

not feel affinity toward Korea, except for 1988, the year of the Seoul Summer Olympics. However,

according to the October 2004 survey of about 3,000 Japanese adult men and women, a record high of

56.7 percent replied that they do feel affinity toward Korea--the highest in history. Those who said they

did not feel affinity fell to its lowest, 39.2 percent.67

Indeed, statistics show that more and more Japanese understand Korea better than ever before.

For example, Japanese government statistics shows that 55 percent of Japanese have a favorable view of

Korea in year 2005. For Japanese in their twenties and thirties, the figure is over 60 percent.68

This

impressive change, which started with middle-aged and elderly Japanese women, continues to affect the

interest of younger generations of Japanese in Korean culture and entertainment.

To verify the positive influence of Winter Sonata, I conducted a follow-up survey in July 2009

in Tokyo and Chiba. The target group was limited to people who had watched Winter Sonata. The target

group was asked to rate the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with eight statements about how

their perspectives on Korea had changed since watching Winter Sonata. The results are shown on the

following pages (positive responses are identified in blue, and negative responses in red).

66

Gallup Korea and Japan Research Center, ―Comparative Research in Korean and Japan about Korean Wave,‖ Tokyo-

oriented research, December 2004. 67

Chosun Ilbo, December 20, 2004. 68

Naoko Komine, A study of the Influence of the Korean Wave on Japanese Society (Pusan: Bukyung University, 2005).

31

Positive: 33.8%

Positive: 52% (18.2% increase)

Figure 3. I feel close to Korea and the Korean people.

Completely Agree

6%

Agree

9%

Slightly Agree

19%

Slightly Disagree

42%

Disagree

20%

Completely Disagree

4%

Before watching Winter Sonata

Completely Agree

8%

Agree

15%

Slightly Agree

29%

Slightly Disagree

36%

Disagree

10%

Completely Disagree

2%

After watching Winter Sonata

32

Positive: 66.1%

Positive: 73% (6.9% increase)

Figure 4. I will hire a Korean-Japanese if I am a manager.

Completely Agree

10%

Agree

19%

Slightly Agree

37%

Slightly Disagree

22%

Disagree

7%

Completely

Disagree

5%

Before watching Winter Sonata

Completely Agree

11%Agree

22%

Slightly Agree

40%

Slightly Disagree

18%

Disagree

7%

Completely

Disagree

2%

After watching Winter Sonata

33

Positive: 34%

Positive: 51% (17% increase)

Figure 5. I will accept a Korean as my spouse or as the spouse of a family member.

Completely Agree4%

Agree13%

Slightly Agree17%

Slightly Disagree38%

Disagree21%

Completely Disagree

7%

Before watching Winter Sonata

Completely Agree4%

Agree18%

Slightly Agree29%

Slightly Disagree26%

Disagree17%

Completely Disagree

6%

After watching Winter Sonata

34

Positive: 40%

Positive: 47% (7% increase)

Figure 6. I am interested in Korean history.

Completely Agree2%

Agree15%

Slightly Agree23%

Slightly Disagree35%

Disagree19%

Completely Disagree

6%

Before watching Winter Sonata

Completely Agree2%

Agree18%

Slightly Agree27%

Slightly Disagree33%

Disagree17%

Completely Disagree

3%

After watching Winter Sonata

35

Positive: 22.5%

Positive: 34% (11.5% increase)

Figure 7. I am interested in current Korea-Japan–related political issues such as the territorial

dispute over Dokdo/Takeshima islet.

Completely Agree2%

Agree6%

Slightly Agree14%

Slightly Disagree33%

Disagree23%

Completely Disagree

22%

Before watching Winter Sonata

Completely Agree4% Agree

11%

Slightly Agree19%

Slightly Disagree31%

Disagree21%

Completely Disagree

14%

After watching Winter Sonata

36

Positive: 65.3%

Positive: 75% (9.7% increase)

Figure 8. I feel Korea is a very important neighbor country to Japan as an international partner.

Completely Agree12%

Agree27%

Slightly Agree26%

Slightly Disagree19%

Disagree14%

Completely Disagree

2%

Before watching Winter Sonata

Completely Agree14%

Agree30%

Slightly Agree31%

Slightly Disagree19%

Disagree4%

Completely Disagree

2%

After watching Winter Sonata

37

Positive: 65.3%

Positive: 74% (8.7% increase)

Figure 9. I feel that the relationship between Korea and Japan should be improved.

Completely Agree13%

Agree25%

Slightly Agree27%

Slightly Disagree17%

Disagree16%

Completely Disagree

2%

Before watching Winter Sonata

Completely Agree14%

Agree29%

Slightly Agree31%

Slightly Disagree19%

Disagree6%

Completely Disagree

1%

After watching Winter Sonata

38

Positive: 74.1%

Figure 10. Have you increased your interest in Korean culture since watching Winter Sonata?

Positive: 59.6%

Figure 11. Do you think the Korean Wave will last over time?

Completely Agree18%

Agree25%

Slightly Agree32%

Slightly Disagree15%

Disagree7%

Completely Disagree

3%

After watching Winter Sonata

Completely Agree10%

Agree16%

Slightly Agree33%

Slightly Disagree21%

Disagree15%

Completely Disagree

5%

After watching Winter Sonata

39

Across every one of the before-and-after questions in these figures, positive feeling about Korea

increased after Japanese were exposed to Winter Sonata. To test that Winter Sonata has had a positive

influence on Japanese perspectives on Korea and its culture, I also conducted follow-up interviews. In

these interviews, I found that the Japanese interviewee‘s most common comment was that Korea had

become closer to them. For example, for many Japanese, Korea is a ―close but far‖ (chikaku te to)

country, a conventional Japanese description of Korea. Although this phrase, ―close but far‖ was

repeatedly heard, when it was examined in detail very different nuances of meaning emerged. For

instance, Ms. S, in her fifties, said that she had not learned anything about Korea before Winter Sonata.

She reluctantly said that women in her generation knew only a few things, for example, about the

Korean War and the 38th

Parallel North,69

because their schools taught them nothing about contemporary

Korea. As Ms. S had not been interested in any other aspects of Korean culture, such as football in the

2002 FIFA World Cup, watching Winter Sonata was truly her first contact with Korea.

A big fan of Bae Yong-Joon, Ms. L, in her fifties, told me that she also knew almost nothing

about Korea. Until she watched Winter Sonata, she had believed that all Korean women still wear

Korean traditional dress, even today. What surprised her most about Winter Sonata was that Koreans

live their lives in the same way that Japanese do. Ms. L was also impressed by the development of

technology, such as mobile phones, in Korea. By and large, Japanese women in their fifties feel that they

have not learned about Korea in Japan‘s educational system. They also feel that their access to Korean

culture has been very limited. For example, Ms. H, in her forties, explained that the drama had changed

her impression of Korea. Before Winter Sonata, she had thought Korea remained behind Japan. But after

watching it, she started studying the Korean language to know more about Korea.

Ms. J, in her forties, said that she felt Korea was very far from her. She also thought that

Koreans just copied the Japanese. She only considered what Japanese could give to Koreans, but

believed Japanese could receive nothing from Koreans. After watching Winter Sonata, Korea grew

closer to her, though a strong gap still exists because of the difficult past history between Korea and

Japan. Japanese people can easily say that ―we love Yon-sama,‖ ―We love Korea,‖ but the Korean

people cannot say the same positive things about Japan. Ms. J felt confused when she saw, during her

Korean tour, what the Japanese military authorities had done in Korea. But now she believes that

Japanese women like her can create a good breakthrough between the two countries, by loving Korean

69

The 38th

Parallel North is the boundary that runs through the Demilitarized Zone separating South and North Korea.

Established in 1953, it is often seen as a symbol of Korea‘s national division.

40

dramas and actors, even if Korean people are surprised by this enthusiasm. During her tour, Ms. J found

a history between Japanese and Koreans of more hardship than friendship. This made her reconsider

how she should understand history, and eventually led her to believe that her fandom is necessary to

overcome it.

I was very intrigued by the way these women spoke about Korea in their personal terms. They

were persuasive. The emerging vocabulary made possible by the Winter Sonata phenomenon opens up

the political potential for a re-construction and re-understanding of the old and the new Korea-Japan

relationship.

Although many Japanese who enjoyed Winter Sonata are caught up in all things Korean, the

Korean Wave has also sparked a backlash of anti-Korean sentiment, especially on the Internet. Hate-

Korean Wave70

(嫌韓流), a comic book by an anonymous author known by the pseudonym Yamano

Sharin, contains strong anti-Korean content and became an unlikely bestseller in Japan in 2005. Hate-

Korean Wave appeared partly as a backlash against the hype about the Korean Wave in Japanese

mainstream media. As a result, optimism was expressed that this new Japanese fascination with things

Korean might help ease the political tensions between the two countries. Hate-Korean Wave is, in the

most immediate sense, a critique of the popularity of the Korean Wave.

Juxtaposing fiction with reality and manga drawings with photographs and lengthy

commentaries, Hate-Korean Wave creates a simple and sometimes extreme argument that demonizes

what amounts to essentialized stereotypes of South Korea and South Koreans. The provocative tone of

the comic is exemplified in the three speech bubbles reproduced on the comic‘s cover: ‗There is no more

need for apology or compensation for Korea!!‘; ‗Korea is misrepresenting many Japanese cultural

products such as samurai, kendo, sushi … as being of Korean origin!!‘; and ‗Why does Korea invade the

Japanese territory of Takeshima?‘, a reference to the contested Takeshima/Dokdo Islet. Other topics

discussed in Hate-Korean Wave include the Korean national soccer team‘s supposed foul play in the

70

The story revolves around Kaname, a first-year university student; his girlfriend, Itsumi; and other members of their

university‘s ‗East Asia Investigation Committee‘, as well as their zainichi (resident Korean) friend, Koichi. Kaname initially

believes the story of Japan‘s oppression of colonized Korea as taught at school and is critical of his grandfather who once

worked for the colonial government in Korea. Kaname‘s belief, however, is subsequently challenged by his grandfather‘s last

words before his death, that ―Japan contributed to the development of Korea.‖ Confused, Kaname decides to join the history

group on entering the university and begins his quest for the "truth‖ about Korea and Japan-Korea relations. Throughout the

comic, he and Itsumi accumulate knowledge about Korea and Japan-Korea relations from the Internet, books, and senior

members of the history group. In each chapter they debate with opponents such as their zainichi friend, with other history

study groups, with citizen activists, and with South Korean students over issues such as the Japanese colonization of Korea,

the status of Korean residents in Japan, and who should accept responsibility for the war. Invariably they win every debate.

41

2002 World Cup football match, Korean imitations of Japanese consumer products, and a controversial

history of zainichi Korean residents in Japan. In addition, the comic includes four columns contributed

by neo-nationalist scholars and writers, as well as six ―reports‖ critically assessing such issues as the

comfort women and the Korean government‘s failure to make the relief contribution it promised

following the Sumatra earthquake.

Postwar compensation, territorial disputes, and even the discussion of the ―origins‖ of cultural

practices are complex issues with multiple dimensions, but the comic reduces them to a simple matter of

black and white, right and wrong, and above all, ―us‖ versus "them.‖ The comic‘s structure reinforces

this binary representation by invariably giving the pro-Japan stance the final word in each section. In all

the comic‘s debates, the characters who hold ‗pro-Japan‘ views are depicted as extremely

knowledgeable, articulate, and rational, whereas their opponents typically stutter with confusion, break

out in cold sweat, lose their tempers, and fail to find anything convincing to say. Insofar as the pro-Japan

argument always wins, Hate-Korean Wave is a jingoistic work.71

Yamano maintains that the Korea boom was a creation of the mass media and that he has simply

made available in manga (comic) form the anti-Korean sentiments that are rife among Japanese Internet

users. Yamano‘s position seems to be that those who find Korean popular culture attractive, fashionable,

cool, and hip do not know the ―true‖ Korea; the mission of his comic is to show the true, ―other side‖ of

Korea. Japanese who support Hate-Korean Wave often defend it as the antithesis of the Korean Wave

"media-creation‖ and look down on those consumers who simply went along with the trend.

Such debunking perspectives notwithstanding, it remains hard to deny that Winter Sonata has

played a critical role in changing Japanese perspectives on Korea and its culture. It may be true that the

success of the FIFA Korea-Japan World Cup greatly improved the relationship in the late 1990s and

2000s, resulting in the increasing popularity of Korean films and other popular culture. But it‘s clear that

the megahit of Winter Sonata and subsequent Yon-sama phenomenon changed Japan‘s stereotypical

image of Korean people and culture to an unprecedented degree. That this occurred almost out of the

blue is reflected in the way in which the Korean Wave took by surprise those who had been sincerely

involved in Korea-Japan cultural exchange. Unable to fully understand the phenomenon as it occurred,

they warned that it was merely a superficial and temporary phenomenon. Although it is still too early to

conclude what the lasting effects of Winter Sonata will be, in contrast to destructive cynics like Hate-

71

Tabuchi Hiroto, ―Nationalist Comics Become Popular in Japan‖ (http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-

yn/content/article/2005/12/01/AR2005120100150.html) (Accessed September 2, 2009); Matthew Rusling, ―Comics Stoke

Japan-Korea Tension‖ (http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Japan/HD21Dh01.html) (Accessed September 2, 2009).

42

Korean Wave, I believe the Korean Wave phenomenon should be viewed as initiating a crucial change

in the cultural field between the two countries.

43

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

In this paper, I have discussed why Winter Sonata became so successful in Japan and how the

Korean Wave that followed it influenced Japanese perspectives and behaviors on both Korea and its

culture. I have shown that Winter Sonata secured its position as a social phenomenon by becoming

popular especially among Japan‘s middle-aged and elderly women. While watching the drama, Japanese

audience added their own interpretations to it, such as recalling their own pure first love through Bae

Yong-Joon or nostalgically recalling certain traditional Confucian values illustrated by the drama. The

result was a new interpretation of Korean culture and society, such as the generalization that Korean

males are gentle and nice. That is, the virtual reality depicted or suggested in Winter Sonata acted on the

viewers‘ actual lives, encouraging them to reconstruct values that are missing in contemporary Japanese

society.

The Korean Wave boom phenomenon in Japan is well explained by Michael Elasma‘s cultural

proximity theory, which states that if an audience is unable to gain satisfaction from their own nation‘s

cultural products, they will look to the cultural products of another nation whose culture is close to

theirs.72

The audiences of middle-aged and elderly Japanese women were unsatisfied by Japanese

television because its programs had been created by sponsors who believed women in their twenties

were the most promising market. Winter Sonata represented the first television program to fit their taste

and tally with their needs. As my survey showed, this audience segment‘s taste centers around a

penchant for ‗pure love‘ stories involving young, selfless, asexual characters who can revitalize viewers‘

feelings of nostalgia for platonic love.

The cultural proximity theory also accounts for some cultural or traditional Confucian values

embodied by the Winter Sonata story. Japanese middle-aged women‘s interest in the Korean drama is

closely related to their appreciation of traditional Asian values, such as perseverance, filial piety, justice,

72

Elasmar, The Impact of International Television.

44

humanity, courtesy, and self-control. Nonviolent and asexual characteristics attract middle-aged women,

and these characteristics remind them of their past and the values they were raised.

However, I also showed that Japanese audiences are selective in the traditional Confucian

values they identify in Winter Sonata. Middle-aged and elderly Japanese women may feel nostalgia for

their childhood and for some Confucian values, but they do not think that Japan must return to a

conservative patriarchal social structure.

Cultural proximity theory also helps to explain the passion for good-looking Korean guys

among Winter Sonata‘s middle-aged and elderly Japanese viewers. The actors‘ Asian looks makes them

more accessible to Japanese women than Western heroes. Since Japanese women perceive Japanese men

to be weak and impassionate, they are attracted by Korean male stars, who have similar looks but more

desirable characteristics.

In addition, however, the cultural proximity factors that help explain Winter Sonata‘s popularity

were also complemented by the peaceful mood between the two countries that was promoted by 2002

Korea-Japan World Cup. This event led the Japanese media industry to pick up and broadcast Korean

dramas, setting the stage for the Korean Wave.

Japanese interest in Winter Sonata has since extended to the entirety of Korean popular culture,

including other dramas, movies, music, and media. As a result, an increasing number of Japanese have

become aware of many aspects of Korean society and culture, and, beyond popular culture, they have

started to learn Korean and to travel to Korea. That is, this interest in Korean popular culture can be

linked to a change in the Japanese way of life.

5.1 Suggestions and Limitations

As the Korean Wave spreads throughout Japan, research on the phenomenon has increased.

However, most of this research has a pronounced rosy tint, uncritically touting a coming age in which

past historical barriers and enmities are overcome and laying a glowing foundation for better diplomatic

relations, free-flowing commerce, and mutual understanding. Scholars must be cautious about such

uncritical celebrations of the role of popular culture in the enhancement of international relations. Such

overoptimistic views tend to disregard, and even suppress, serious tensions such as marginalization and

inequality within each society. One must recall the nature of the currency under discussion: popular

culture is the medium of exchange. If we take seriously cross-border dialogue engendered by the flow of

45

pop culture, we must also go beyond the national framework and consider how complicated

transnational circulations of people, capital, and media intersect with local multicultural and postcolonial

issues. Thus, it is not enough to examine the Korean Wave‘s impact on the international relationship

between Japan and Korea. We must also consider the impact of the Korean Wave as a vehicle for

mediated transnational cultural dialogue that can help to reconstruct the identity and social position of

long-marginalized resident Koreans in Japan (called zainichi-kankokujin), most of whom are

descendents of expatriates from Korea when it was under Japanese colonial rule.

Recently, the Japanese press has focused on another Korean drama, Jewel in the Palace, which

has also become a big hit in Japan. This fifty-plus-episode costume drama, about the first and only

woman in Korean history to rise from cook to a king‘s doctor, appeals to both Japanese men and women.

Where 90 percent of Winter Sonata‘s fans were middle-aged women, about 40 percent of Jewel in the

Palace‟s audience is male. This shift in audience gender is worthy of further research.

In terms of limitations, the research conducted in this paper faced a language barrier. Since I

cannot speak Japanese fluently, I relied mostly on Korean and English materials and conducted

interviews in Korean with the help of Japanese interpreters with whom I communicated directly in

English. In addition, this research cannot be generalized due to its sampling size and selection process.

Thus, I hope in the future to revisit this research with a more scientific sampling design and significant

sample size.

46

APPENDIX A

USE OF HUMAN SUBJECTS IN RESEARCH – APPROVAL MEMORANDUM

Office of the Vice President For Research

Human Subjects Committee

Tallahassee, Florida 32306-2742

(850) 644-8673 · FAX (850) 644-4392

APPROVAL MEMORANDUM

Date: 6/15/2009

To: Jonghoon Lee

Address: 2112 Continental Ave. Tallahassee, Florida, 32304

Dept.: COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

From: Thomas L. Jacobson, Chair

Re: Use of Human Subjects in Research

The Influence of the Korean Wave on Japanese Society: Focusing on the Television Drama Winter

Sonata

The application that you submitted to this office in regard to the use of human subjects in the proposal

referenced above have been reviewed by the Secretary, the Chair, and two members of the Human

Subjects Committee. Your project is determined to be Expedited per 45 CFR § 46.110(7) and has been

approved by an expedited review process.

The Human Subjects Committee has not evaluated your proposal for scientific merit, except to weigh

the risk to the human participants and the aspects of the proposal related to potential risk and benefit.

47

This approval does not replace any departmental or other approvals, which may be required.

If you submitted a proposed consent form with your application, the approved stamped consent form is

attached to this approval notice. Only the stamped version of the consent form may be used in recruiting

research subjects.

If the project has not been completed by 6/14/2010 you must request a renewal of approval for

continuation of the project. As a courtesy, a renewal notice will be sent to you prior to your expiration

date; however, it is your responsibility as the Principal Investigator to timely request renewal of your

approval from the Committee.

You are advised that any change in protocol for this project must be reviewed and approved by the

Committee prior to implementation of the proposed change in the protocol. A protocol

change/amendment form is required to be submitted for approval by the Committee. In addition, federal

regulations require that the Principal Investigator promptly report, in writing any unanticipated problems

or adverse events involving risks to research subjects or others.

By copy of this memorandum, the Chair of your department and/or your major professor is reminded

that he/she is responsible for being informed concerning research projects involving human subjects in

the department, and should review protocols as often as needed to insure that the project is being

conducted in compliance with our institution and with DHHS regulations.

This institution has an Assurance on file with the Office for Human Research Protection.

The Assurance Number is IRB00000446.

Cc: Yoshihiro Yasuhara, Advisor

HSC No. 2009.2816

48

APPENDIX B

VERVAL CONSENT SCRIPT IN JAPANESE

フロリダ州立大学

アジア学科

社会科学学部

口頭承諾書

日本社会における韓流の影響：テレビドラマ“冬のソナタ”

はじめまして、私は Jonghoon Lee です。私はフロリダ州立大学で―日本社会における韓流の影

響：テレビドラマ‖冬のソナタ―という研究に携わっています。このリサーチはフロリダ州立大

学の日本文学・ 日本語学部助教授、Yoshihiro Yasuhara 博士によって監督されています。

この研究によって冬のソナタ（又は他の韓流映画）を見た日本人の韓国や韓国文化に対する見

解を知りたいと思います。参加者にはいくつかの質問に答えてもらい、約５分で終わります。

質問は冬のソナタ（又は他の韓流映画）を見る前・ 見た後のあなたの韓国と韓国文化に対す

る見解についてです。参加については、任意で、途中でやめても罰則などはありません。

この研究に参加する事によって直接利益を得る事はなく、金銭的な支払いもありません。

氏名を書く必要はありません。また、個人情報は研究者のコンピューターに３ヶ月間保管さ

れ研究終了後消去されます。

この研究に参加する５分、時間がありますか？

この研究質問に答えるという事は、この研究に参加するとみなされます。何か質問はあります

か？

49

この研究の為に集められた全ての情報は関係者のみに公開され、あなたの答え、個人情報は公

にされません。この研究は個人個人の答えを見るものではなく、全体的な傾向を調べる為に行

われます。

この研究に関して何かご質問がありましたら 1-618-521-0926, bell0120@hotmail.com、

Jonghoon Lee までご連絡下さい。又は、1-850-644-8603, yyasuhara@fsu.edu、指導官・

Yasuhara 博士までご連絡下さい。被験者権利についての質問は 1-850-644-8633, the FSU IRB

Secretary まで。また、この研究参加によって起きた懸念、不安、その他問題は 1-850-644-

1234, the FSU Counseling Center までご連絡下さい。

研究に参加して頂き、ありがとうございます。集められた情報は韓国、日本間の平和的関係を

促進する為に役立てられます。

FSU Human Subjects Committee Approved on 6/15/2009. Void after 6/14/2010. HSC#: 2009.2816.1

50

APPENDIX C

VERVAL CONSENT SCRIPT IN ENGLISH

Florida State University

Asian Studies

College of Social Science

Verbal Consent Script

The Influence of the Korean Wave on Japanese Society: Focusing on the

Television Drama Winter Sonata

Hello, my name is Jonghoon Lee and I am involved in a research study called ―The Influence of the

Korean Wave on Japanese Society: Focusing on the Television Drama Winter Sonata‖ at Florida State

University. This research is supervised by Dr. Yoshihiro Yasuhara, an assistant professor of

Japanese literature and language at Florida State University.

I am asking you to take part in a research study because I am trying to learn more about Japanese

perspective on Korea and its culture after watching Winter Sonata or other Korean Motion Pictures

known as Korean Wave. You will be asked to answer the survey questionnaire. It will take about 5

minutes. The questions are about your perspectives on Korea and its culture before and after you have

watched Winter Sonata or other Korean motion pictures. Your participation is voluntary, and you can

stop the survey at any time without any penalty to you.

You will not benefit directly from participating in this research study, and you will not be paid for

participating in this research study.

You do not need to identify your name. Your personal information will be kept in my computer with

password protection for 3 months, and it will be destroyed following analyses of the data.

51

Do you have five minutes to participate in this research study?

Answering the survey questions that I will ask means that you consent to participate in this research project. Do

you have any questions?

All the information I collected in today’s study will be confidential, and there will be no way of identifying

your responses in the data archive. I am not interested in any one individual’s responses; I want to look at

the general patterns that emerge when the data are aggregated together.

If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Jonghoon Lee

at 1-618-521-0926 ,bell0120@hotmail.com, or supervisor Dr. Yasuhara at 1-850-644-8603,

yyasuhara@fsu.edu. If you have any questions about subjects’ rights, you may contact the FSU

IRB Secretary at 1-850-644-8633. If your participation in this study has caused you concerns,

anxiety, or otherwise distressed you, you may contact the FSU Counseling Center at 1-850- 644-

1234.

Your participation today is appreciated and it will help to discover more ways of promoting

peaceful atmosphere between Korea and Japan.

FSU Human Subjects Committee Approved on 6/15/2009. Void after 6/14/2010. HSC#: 2009.2816.1

52

APPENDIX D

SURVEY QUESTIONS IN JAPANESE

Part I. 冬のソナタ（又は他の韓流映画）を見る前と見た後のあなたの韓国に対する見解の違い

を知るものです。一番当てはまるものに丸をつけて下さい。

１．韓国、又は韓国人に親近感を持っている。

見る前：強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対

見た後：強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対

２．もし自分が経営者だったら、在日韓国人を雇う。

見る前：強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対

見た後：強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対

３．韓国人を配偶者、又は家族の一員として認める。

見る前：強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対

見た後：強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対

53

４．韓国の歴史に興味がある。

見る前：強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対

見た後：強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対

５．現在の韓国・日本間の竹島問題などの政治的論争に興味がある。

見る前：強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対

見た後：強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対

６．国際的パートナーとして韓国は日本にとって大事な近隣諸国である。

見る前：強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対

見た後：強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対

７．日韓関係は改善されるべきである。

見る前：強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対

見た後：強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対

54

8. 冬のソナタや他の韓国映画を見た後、韓国の文化について興味がありますか？

強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対

9. この韓流ブームはしばらく続くと思いますか？

強く賛成 賛成 やや賛成 やや反対 反対 全く反対

PartII. データーを分析する為の統計的な質問です。適切な答えを記入して下さい。

１．いくつですか？

________歳

２．性別は？

男性 女性

３．結婚していますか？

１）はい ２）いいえ

55

APPENDIX E

SURVEY QUESTIONS IN ENGLISH

Part I. The purpose of this survey is to know your changing perspectives on Korea before and

after you have watched Winter Sonata. Please circle the best answer.

1. I feel close to Korea and Korean People.

Before: Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely

Agree Agree Disagree Disagree

After: Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely

Agree Agree Disagree Disagree

2. I will hire Korean-Japanese if I am a manager.

Before: Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely

Agree Agree Disagree Disagree

After: Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely

Agree Agree Disagree Disagree

56

3. I will accept Korean as spouse of mine or my family members.

Before: Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely

Agree Agree Disagree Disagree

After: Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely

Agree Agree Disagree Disagree

4. I am interested in Korean history.

Before: Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely

Agree Agree Disagree Disagree

After: Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely

Agree Agree Disagree Disagree

5. I am interested in Korea-Japan related current political issues such as territorial dispute over

Dokdo/Takeshima islet.

Before: Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely

Agree Agree Disagree Disagree

After: Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely

Agree Agree Disagree Disagree

57

6. I feel Korea is very important neighbor country to Japan as an international partner.

Before: Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely

Agree Agree Disagree Disagree

After: Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely

Agree Agree Disagree Disagree

7. I feel the relationship between Korea and Japan should be improved.

Before: Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely

Agree Agree Disagree Disagree

After: Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely

Agree Agree Disagree Disagree

8. Have you increased your interest on Contemporary Korean Culture after you have watched Winter

Sonata or other Korean motion pictures?

Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely

Agree Agree Disagree Disagree

9. Do you think Korean wave will be lasted long period?

Completely Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Completely

Agree Agree Disagree Disagree

58

Part. II. This survey is statistical question to analyze the data. Please indicate the best answer.

1. How old are you?

________years

2. What is your gender?

Male Female

3. Are you married?

1) Yes 2) No

59

LIST OF REFERENCES

1. Books

Atsushi, Miura. Kanryu Shakai (Society of Korean Wave). Kobunsha Shinsho, Tokyo, Japan,

2005.

ChoHan, He-Jung. Hallyu‟wa Asiaui Daejung Munhwa (Korean Wave and Asian pop

culture). Seoul, Yonsei Univ. Press, Korea, 2004.

Choi, Mun-Sung. Hallyu, Kyeoulyonga gurigo Daejung Munhwa (Korean Wave, Winter

Sonata, and Popular Culture). Munhak Maul Press, Korea, 2005.

Chris Baker. Television, Globalization and Cultural Identities. London: Open Univeristy

Press, 1999.

Elasmar, Michael G. The Impact of International Television: A Paradigm Shift.

Mahwah, NJ and London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2003.

Gallup Korea and Japan Research Center, Comparative research in Korean and Japan about

Korean Wave. Tokyo-oriented research, 2004.

Hayashi, Kaori. Fuyusona‟ ni Hamatta Watakushitachi Bungeishunju (Why we love Winter

Sonata so much). Bunshun Shinsho, Tokyo, Japan, 2005.

Kim Hoo-Ryun. Ilbonui Hallyu: Yuksajuk Uimiwa Junmang (Korean Wave in Japan:

Historical meaning and prospect). Hankook Foreign Language Univ. Press, Korea,

2005.

KOFACE (Korean Foundation For Asian Culture Exchange), Report on Korean Wave

Enhancement Strategy, 2005

Korea Press Center, Research about Image of Korea in Japan, Tokyo-oriented survey by

Japan Research Center, 1992.

Mori, Yoshitaka. Japanese-Korean Wave: Winter Sonata and the Current Situation of

Popular Culture in Japan and Korea. Serica Shobo, Japan, 2004.

Ogura, Kizo. Kanryuu Inpakuto (Impact of Korean Wave). Koodansha, Japan, 2005.

Yoo, Sang-Chul. Hallyuui Bimil (The Secret of Korean Wave). Saenggakhanun Namu Press,

Korea, 2006.

60

2. Journals

Hester, Al. "Theoretical Considerations in Predicting Volume and Direction in International

Flow." Gazette 19, 1973.

Hiroshi Wakatsuma & Toshinao Yoneyama. “Nihonjinno Jinshukan” (―Japanese

perspectives on other people‖). Japanese Broadcasting and Press Corporation, vol. 5, 1967.

Hosaka, Yuji. ―Ilboneseoui Hallyuboom gochal” (―Consideration of Korean Wave in Japan‖)

International Study Collection, vol.10, Kyemyung Univ. Press, Korea, 2005.

Kim, Jun-Sook and Kim,Kwang-Tae. “Hallyurul tonghan Ilbonesoui Hankookui Image

Byunhwa” (―Changing images on Korea through Korean Wave in Japan‖). Inmun

Kwahak Yeongu, Vol. 10, 2005.

Koichi, Iwabuchi. ―Return to Asia? Japan in the global audiovisual market‖. Media

International Australia, 77, 1995.

Lee, Si-Hyung. ―Ilbonesoui Hallyu: Kyoul Yonga wa gu uimi‖ (―The Korean Wave in Japan:

Winter Sonata and its Implications‖). Hankuke onlonhakbo, Korea, 43, no.3, 2008.

Pool, Ithiel. ―The changingflow of television.‖ Journal of Communication, 27(2), 1977.

Straubhaar, Joseph D. ―Beyond media imperialism: Asymmetrical Inter-Dependence and Cultural

Proximity‖, Critical Studies in Mass Communications, 8, 1991.

3. Academic Dissertations and Theses

Kim, Hae-Young. Korea‟s Soft Power through Hallyu, Seoul: Seoul National University, Korea, 2005.

Kim, Soo-Jung. Illboneseoui hallyu Yeongu (The study of Korean Wave in Japan:

Focusing on Internet, TV, News paper reports). Kwangju: Chun-Nam University, Korea, 2007.

Lee, Ji Eun. Hankuke Daehan Ilboninui Uisik Byunhwa (A study on the change of

Korean‟s perception of Japanese). Seoul: Kwangwoon University, Korea, 2007.

Shinichi, Okazaki. Hankuke Daehan Ilboninui Sahoe Munhwajeok Inshick (Japanese

Perspectives on Korea; focusing on society and culture). Seoul: Kyunghee Univ. Korea,

1999.

Shin, Kyung-Hee Narrative Structure and Societal meaning of TV drama Winter Sonata: Focusing on

the characters‟ behavior. Kwangju: Chungnam University, Korea, 2006.

Yasumoto, Seiko. The impact of Korean Wave on Japan. Sydney, Univ. of Sydney Press,

2006.

61

Yoo, Young-Mi. Hankukkwa Ilbonui Munhwasuyong yeongu (The study of cultural reception: Focusing

on Korea and Japan). Seoul: Chungang University, Korea, 2004.

Komine, Naoko. A study of the Influence of the Korean Wave on Japanese Society. Pusan: Bukyung

University, 2005.

4. News Articles and Magazine

AERA (Japanese Magazine), August16, 2004.

Christian Science Monitor, April 08, 2005

Chosun Ilbo (Korean Newspaper) December 20, 2004.

October16, 2004

Chungang Ilbo(Korean Newspaper) May 25, 2005

5. Websites

ALC Press Newsletter. http://www.alcglobal.jp/international/Newsletter/017.html

(accessed March 10, 2009).

Hankook Ilbo (Korean Newspaper):

http://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=101&oid=038&aid=0000221207

(Accessed August 5, 2009)

Jian Cai, Http://joureyeast.tripod.com/korean_wave_in_china.html (Aug. 27, 2009)

Korean Broadcasting System:

http://news.kbs.co.kr/news.php?id=684293&kind=c (Accessed Aug. 18, 2009)

http://news.kbs.co.kr/news.php?id=672999&kind=c (Accessed Aug. 18, 2009)

http://news.kbs.co.kr/news.php?id=6654222&kind=c (Accessed Aug. 18, 2009)

http://news.kbs.co.kr/news.php?id=667537&kind=c (Accessed Aug. 18, 2009)

Kwan, Weng Kin. ―Japan grip by Korean fever‖,

http://www.centurychina.com/plaboard/archive/3663517.shtml (accessed March 11, 2009).

Matthew Rusling, ―Comics stoke Japan-Korea Tension‖.

http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Japan/HD21Dh01.html) (Accessed September. 2, 2009)

Tabuchi Hiroto. ―Nationalist Comics become popular in Japan.

http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-yn/content/article/2005/12/01/AR2005120100150.html (Accessed

September. 2, 2009)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_wave (Accessed March 19, 2010)

http://news.stareastasia.com/2009/05/winter-sonata-voted-japan-nhks-favorite-program/

62

(Accessed July 30, 2009)

63

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Jonghoon Lee

In the summer of 2002, Jonghoon Lee completed his first Bachelors degree in Theology at Yonsei

University in South Korea. He, also, completed his second and third Bachelors degree in Journalism and

Psychology at Southern Illinois University at Carbondale in spring of 2004 and in spring of 2006. Under

the advisement of Prof. Yoshihiro Yasuhara, he obtained his Master‘s degree in spring of 2010 from the

Department of Asian Studies at The Florida State University.

Jonghoon‘s research interests include Korean-Japanese cultural relationship and current socio-

historical issues between the countries, such as territorial disputes over Dokdo/Takeshima, historical

characterizations in Japanese textbooks, comfort women polemics and forced laborers during WW II.