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Inventory and Evaluation of Spread Ecology of the Inventory and Evaluation of Spread Ecology of the Inventory and Evaluation of Spread Ecology of the Inventory and Evaluation of Spread Ecology of the
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin, KeralaRiverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin, KeralaRiverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin, KeralaRiverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin, Kerala
Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. P.M. RadhamanyP.M. RadhamanyP.M. RadhamanyP.M. Radhamany
Professor
Department of Botany
University of Kerala, Karyavattom
Thiruvananthapuram
Inventory and Evaluation of Spread Ecology of the Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin, Inventory and Evaluation of Spread Ecology of the Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin, Inventory and Evaluation of Spread Ecology of the Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin, Inventory and Evaluation of Spread Ecology of the Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin,
KeralaKeralaKeralaKerala
2019201920192019
File No. A8/3371/2018/KSBB Thiruvananthapuram Dated 01.12.2018File No. A8/3371/2018/KSBB Thiruvananthapuram Dated 01.12.2018File No. A8/3371/2018/KSBB Thiruvananthapuram Dated 01.12.2018File No. A8/3371/2018/KSBB Thiruvananthapuram Dated 01.12.2018
Team of Experts with Relevant BackgroundTeam of Experts with Relevant BackgroundTeam of Experts with Relevant BackgroundTeam of Experts with Relevant Background
Dr. P.M. Radhamany Dr. P.M. Radhamany Dr. P.M. Radhamany Dr. P.M. Radhamany is currently working as Professor at the Department of Botany of University
of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram. She has more than 30 years of research experience in the field of
plant taxonomy, phytochemistry and pharmacology, and teaching experience in the post graduate
and M.Phil leavel. Dr. Radhamany has handled many research projects from state and central
sectors. She has also guided six Ph.D and other eight doctoral students are aiming Ph.D under her
mentorship. More than 40 resaerch publications, few book chapters, numerous conference papers
are the other credentials of Dr. Radhamany. Besides that, she acts as the member in boards and
panels of numerous academic and socio-cultural organizations.
Dr. Jose Mathew Dr. Jose Mathew Dr. Jose Mathew Dr. Jose Mathew is Assisatant Professor, Department of Botany, Sanatana Dharma College,
Alappuzha and consultant in CNERM, Kochi. He is the recipient of IDEA WILD grant and
SERB N-PDF. He introduced 31 new taxa to plant science and made few rediscoveries and new
distributional records of plants from Kerala part of Western Ghats. He wrote two scientific books,
30 research articles in scientific journals, 50 articles in popular magazines and presented 20 papers
in national and international conferences.
Technical AssistanceTechnical AssistanceTechnical AssistanceTechnical Assistance
Dr. Valsala Devi (Herbarium Curetor (Retd.), KUBH, University of Kerala)
Dr. T.J. Roby
Mrs. Remya Krishnan
Mr. Sam Alex
Miss. Arundhathi
ContentsContentsContentsContents Page No.Page No.Page No.Page No.
1.1.1.1. IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction 1111
1.1. Riparian zones 1
1.2. Significance of riparian zones 1
1.3. Achankovil River 2
1.4. Need and significance of the study 5
1.5. Objectives of the study 7
2222.... RRRReview of earlier workseview of earlier workseview of earlier workseview of earlier works 20202020
2.1. Flora 20
2.2. Endemic plants 21
2.3. Medicinal and economically important plants 22
2.4. Invasive plants 23
3333. . . . Methodology Methodology Methodology Methodology 25252525
3.1. Categorization of the River Bed 25
3.2. Methods employed for investigation of flora 25
3.3. Assessment of Conservation status 26
3.4. Surveying and mapping 26
3.5. Vegetation studies 27
3.6. Assessment of the flood impact 28
4.4.4.4. Results and DiscussionResults and DiscussionResults and DiscussionResults and Discussion 22229999
4.1. Species composition 29
4.1.1. Floristic analysis 29
4.1.1.1. Angiosperms 29
4.1.1.2. Non flowering plants 32
4.2. Rare and endemic species 56
4.3. Weed invasion in the study area 74
4.4. Effect of flood in biodiversity 88
4.5. Recommendations 92
ReferencesReferencesReferencesReferences 94
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1.1.1.1. INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION
Riparian EcosystemRiparian EcosystemRiparian EcosystemRiparian Ecosystem
The word riparian is related to living in, or located on the bank of natural water coarse usually a
river, sometime a lake or tide water. A riparian zone or riparian area is the interface between the
land and the river. Plant communities along the river margins are called riparian vegetation. In a
tropical riparian ecosystem, the species composition is an assemblage of evergreen, deciduous,
shola and riverine components.
1.1. Riparian Zones1.1. Riparian Zones1.1. Riparian Zones1.1. Riparian Zones
1. CMZ: Chanel Migration Zone (Flowing Zone). True hydrophytes can be seen here. Free
floating, rooted free floating, submerged floating, rooted submerged and rooted emergent
hydrophytes can be seen here. Woody debris and living vegetation provides shelter,
feeding and spawning habitats for birds, fishes and invertebrates.
2. Core zone: Transition zone in between the water and land ecosystem. The vegetation can
have both mesophytic and hydrophytic adaptations. Herbs and grasses are the dominant
vegetation. Vegetation of this zone provides organic matter to the stream. This filter stream
reduces the water temperature.
3. Inner zone: Herbs, shurbs and trees were found here and their roots act as a binding
system for the soil and by doing so reduces bank collapse and erosion.
4. Outer zone: Flood plain. This stream side plants play a vital role for river health. Here
plants perform a filtering function and prevent sediments and nutrients from entering the
stream. Vegetation and leaf litter slow overland water runoff, thus helping to prevent
erosion.
1.2. Significance of Riparian Zones1.2. Significance of Riparian Zones1.2. Significance of Riparian Zones1.2. Significance of Riparian Zones
Diversity and distribution of riparian plants influence the morphology and hydrological characters
of the rivers and its aquatic functions by way off:
• Acting as vegetative filter strips to filter the non-point source pollution.
• Prevents soil erosion
• Promote sediment deposition
• Stabilize the stream banks
• Manage floods
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
2
• Maintaining water quality parameters
• Provides habitats for wildlife and aquatic life form
Studies on riverine ecosystem deserve special significance to explore much more hidden
potential with multidisplenary relevance on sustainable development comprising climatology,
agricultural and fishery management, aquatic bio resources, watershed and energy management,
pesticide runoff, eutrophication and population ecology.
1.3. Achankovil River1.3. Achankovil River1.3. Achankovil River1.3. Achankovil River
The Achankovil River drains the southern part of the Achankovil Forest Division. The Kallar
River on the other hand drains the northern part of the tract finally joins the Achankovil River at
Mukkada. The converged and swelled up Achankovil River continues its westward flow through
the territory of Konni forests.
The Kallar River The Kallar River The Kallar River The Kallar River is the main tributary of Achankovil River This name is derived from the
rocky character of its bed. It effectively drains the Kallar valley, through a net work of rills and
rivulets. Numerous streamlets and rills flowing down from the western slope of the main ridge
between Aruvithalamottai and Uranimottai, join together to form the Mangala Aar. During its
westward course, many more brooks such as Vazhaperiyar, Manjapparathodu, Kooramalathodu
and Naadukanithodu converge and the watercourse swells up and Kallar River begins to emerge.
The Kanayar River that originates from the northern ridges flows in a southerly direction and
converges with Kallar River at Kanayarmoozhi. The Chittar River originating from the ridges near
Kadamankunnu, drains the northwestern part of the valley, flows in a southerly direction, and
converges with Kallar River at Pulikayam. Thenparathodu, Arambathodu and Muthuvanthodu that
drain the northwestern part of the tract also join this River at the western boundary, making it a
perennial watercourse of this tract. At Mukkada, on the western boundary, this River merges with
Achankovil River.
Achankovil Achankovil Achankovil Achankovil RiverRiverRiverRiver: : : : Its total length is 138 kms. Having an extend of 1340.400 sq.kms, the water
shed area of this River spreads over 50 villages in Kollam, Pathanamthitta, and Alappuzha
Districts. Its average annual sediment load is 77130 ton. The River emanates by the convergences
of several streamlets flowing down from the slopes of Pasukkidaimettu, a ridge near Kottavasal
(Elevation 700 m above MSL) on the western slope of the main ghats. During its westward course
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
3
many more brooks from the northern side (Kumbavuruttythodu, Kalluruttythodu,
Aruvikkarathodu, Kumbalamparathodu, Karadipparathodu) as well as the southern side of the
valley (Pallikondan Aar, Muthalathodu, Chittarthodu etc) join the River. At Mukkada, it joins with
Kallar River and continues its journey in the westwards to join finally with Pamba River at
Veeyapuram. The river thereafter flows northward and falls into Vembanad lake.
1.3.1. 1.3.1. 1.3.1. 1.3.1. TopographyTopographyTopographyTopography of the basin: of the basin: of the basin: of the basin: Like all the river basins in Kerala, the Achankovil basins also can
be divided into three natural zones based on elevation, consisting of low land or sea-board,
midland and high land. The coast for a short distance along the borders of lakes is flat, retreating
from it the surface roughens up into slopes which gradually combine and swell into mountains on
the east. The low land area along sea coast is generally swampy and liable to be flooded during
monsoon inundation. The plains/midlands succeed low land in gentle ascents and valleys
interspersed with isolated low hills. The high land on the eastern portion is broken by long spurs,
dense forests, extensive ravines and tangled jungles. Towering above all their slopes are Western
Ghats that form eastern boundary of the basins.
1.3.2. 1.3.2. 1.3.2. 1.3.2. GeologyGeologyGeologyGeology of the basin: of the basin: of the basin: of the basin: As per the Geological Survey of India publication No. 30 the most
prominent rock formation at the Achankovil site is of Archaean age Charnockites. The major rock
types of this tract are Magmatitic Gneissic, Charnockite and Khondalite of Archaean complex.
Quartz, Garnet, Hornblende, Feldspars and Black Mica are also found as constituents in these
formations. These rocks have suffered intensive deformation like faulting and folding during the
different phases of orogeny, most probably due to tectonic disturbances. The general foliation
trend shows NW ‐ SE direction, with steep dip towards SW. The heavy rainfall and high
temperature, causing alternate cycles of wetting and drying phenomena favour the process of
laterization. The major soil types met with in this tract are Red loamy soil, Laterite soil, Alluvial
soil, Sandy loam and Clayey soil.
1.3.3. Climate of the ripariane zone: 1.3.3. Climate of the ripariane zone: 1.3.3. Climate of the ripariane zone: 1.3.3. Climate of the ripariane zone: Generally, the climate in this area is moderately hot and
humid. The low‐lying area enjoys a healthy and fairly moderate climate, with not much appreciable
variation in either seasonal or diurnal temperatures. However, the interior areas experience a little
more climatic variations. The three distinct seasons noted in this tract are cold, hot and wet
seasons. The hottest season is noted during February to May and the coldest from December to
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
4
January. In the upland area the temperature declines towards elevated regions. Variations in the
radiant energy of the sun with respect to seasons, cloudiness, altitudes, latitudes and diurnal
changes were also noted. The temperature varies from 20° C to 36° C in the lower stretches and
17°C to 30 °C at higher altitudes. Mist is common on the higher slopes during November to
January.
1.3.4. Rainfall in the catchment area of the upper zone : 1.3.4. Rainfall in the catchment area of the upper zone : 1.3.4. Rainfall in the catchment area of the upper zone : 1.3.4. Rainfall in the catchment area of the upper zone : Achankovil forests region get heavy rain
showers from both south‐west monsoon (June to mid‐August) and north-east monsoon
(mid‐September to mid‐November). Bulk of the precipitation is from the south‐west monsoon.
The average rainfall received during the last ten years is 2800.10 mm and the average number of
rainy days in a year is 131. Maximum rainfall is observed in June, July, and October and lowest
during December, January and February months. The tract also receives pre‐monsoon showers,
preceded by thunderstorms, during April‐May.
1.3.5. Wind in the upper zone: 1.3.5. Wind in the upper zone: 1.3.5. Wind in the upper zone: 1.3.5. Wind in the upper zone: There are two prevailing winds blow on in this tract, following the
monsoons. From March‐April onwards, the tract experiences a light wind which will gradually
develop into south‐west monsoon round about the beginning of June. Westerly winds that blow
during the south‐west monsoon are mild and harmless. But, the easterly winds in months of
January and February are much violent and strong. They cause much havoc and damage to the
forest crops growing on the hilltops. The desiccating effect of these winds cause much damage to
the forests and may act as the driving force to spread the accidental forest fires.
1.3.6. Humidity in the upper zone:1.3.6. Humidity in the upper zone:1.3.6. Humidity in the upper zone:1.3.6. Humidity in the upper zone: The profound rainfall and bright sunshine cause a humid and
warm climate. Humidity varies from 65 to 98 % in different localities in accordance with time and
season. The highest relative humidity is noticed during the months of June, July, and August
(south‐west monsoon) and the lowest in February, when precipitation is kept minimum. General
relative humidity is lower in the afternoon and highest during the early morning hours, when the
atmospheric temperature will be the minimum.
1.3.7. Temperature: 1.3.7. Temperature: 1.3.7. Temperature: 1.3.7. Temperature: There is no observatory located with in the catchments of diversion points.
However, there is an IMD observatory at Alleppey in the vicinity of these basins. The mean daily
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
5
temperature observed at Alleppey various from 26.1o
C to 29.1o
C. During April, which can be
taken as representative of summer months, the mean daily minimum temperature is about 25.5o
C
and mean daily maximum temperature is about 32.7o
C. During July, which can be taken as
representative of monsoon months, the mean daily minimum temperature is 23.3o
C, while the
mean daily maximum temperature is 28.8o
C. During October, which can be taken as
representative of post monsoon months, the mean daily minimum temperature is 23.8o
C and the
mean daily maximum temperature is 29.7o
C.
1.4. Need and 1.4. Need and 1.4. Need and 1.4. Need and Significance of the studySignificance of the studySignificance of the studySignificance of the study
Most of the low lying areas in Achankovil River beds experienced severe floods especially
Venmony, Panthalam, Cheruthana, Payippad, Chambakkulam and Veeyapuram. The basic cause
of flood is the incidence of heavy monsoonal rainfall and the resultant large concentration of run-
off, which exceeds river systems. Besides that, the heavy floods, landslides, soil erosion, depletion
of slit and sand etc also affected the biodiversity, especially the riverine area. Elevation of water
level, eutrophication, deforestation, stream narrowing, loss of stream ecosystem services, invasion
of weeds are some of the factors that may lead to near extinction of a good number of endemic
plants species. In this context, assessment of the effect of flood on flora of the fragile areas is the
need of the hour. The impact of plant diversity on environmental and climatic dimensions are
adequately represented by way of floristic and vegetation analysis and of the influence of
anthropogenic activities, which address the needs and opportunities for eco-restoration and
conservation of the plants and animal species, especially of the RET category with special
reference to the biodiversity. In order to achieve the above mentioned objective and also to
formulate suitable proposal for conservation of plant resources of the concerned study area, there
is an urgent need to document precise information regarding the floristic composition, ecological
status and spread biology of the plant species of riverine area.
Some other significant factors about the study area
• Achankovil River is one of the major tributary to the Vembanad Lake, which is the largest
wetland (Ramsor site) in India.
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• Kuttanad (Rice bowl of Kerala) is the complement of the rivers viz., Pamba, Achankovil
and Manimala Rivers.
• The mangroves in the Vemband Lake are the brooding site of numerous indigenous/
endemic fishes, crustaceans and several animals.
• Achankovil forest division (Achankovil River originate here), situated inside the
Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve is one of the centres in the Western Ghats with a high
percentage of endemism (Nayar, 1997).
• It is one of the Heritage Sites in Western Ghats identified by UNESCO (Clara, 2012).
• Achankovil Shear Zone (AKSZ) is considered as a continuum of Mozambique belt (Pan
African origin) that extends from Madagascar to Sri Lanka (Rajesh et al., 1998). It is
expected that floristic analysis of the study area would provide valuable evidences to
validate the Indo- Sri Lankan botanical linkage hypothesis (Bossuyt et al., 2004)
• The River link project (RLP) proposed by National Water Development Authority
(NWDA): Pamba- Achankovil- Vypaar, passes through the study area of Achankovil forest
division. Three huge concrete dams, power generating units and a concrete tunnel across
the Western Ghats to Tamil Nadu are proposed in this project.
• High rate of rarity and endemism of the riparian vegetation along the River Achankovil and
its tributaries.
• Achankovil forest is listed under ecologically fringed land (EFL) in Kasthurirangan and
Madav Gadgil committee reports.
• Recent discovery of new genera and species from Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve area
shows the importance of intensive floristic exploration (botanization) of the study area.
• The evergreen catchment areas at the upper stretches of Achankovil River feed numerous
irrigation projects. It also provides water coolent for NTPC, Kayamkulam.
• Numerous famous temples resides the shore of Achankovil. Myths and History of these
lands merged with the River Achankovil. The river segment near is very famous for the
boat race in connection with Onam Celebrations of Kerala.
• Flood and landslides happened in 2018, caused much havoc in biodiversity to these
islands.
• Fast invasion of weeds to this precious area have been also noticed.
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• Indigenous people of in and around the bounds of Vembanad Lake are dependent to the
lake via., their belief, culture, myth and livelihood. Any disturbance to this unique
ecosystem may lead to the extinction of the rich diversity of endemic species and the
indigenous people.
Considering the above mentioned significant aspects of the study area, it is expected that the
present floristic enumeration would bring out the importance of conservation priorities to be
implemented to safeguard this highly fragile ecological region. It is also expected that the data
generated would provide a guide line for future conservation studies.
1.5. Objectives of the study1.5. Objectives of the study1.5. Objectives of the study1.5. Objectives of the study
The major objectives of the present study are:
• To prepare a database on riparian flora of the Achankovil River basin after the flood and
assessment of the impact of flood and landslides on ripriane flora.
• To assess the status of endemic, medicinal, economic and RET plants in the Achankovil River
basin.
• To assess the invasion of weed plants in the riparian zones
• To suggest riparian buffer system management strategy for the conservation of Achankovil
river basin.
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PLATE 2: Map showing the Rivers of south Kerala. Achankovil Forests and River marked in the map.
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
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PLATE 4: Map of Achankovil River. 3 zones of the study area marked
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
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PLATE 7: a.Thooval Mala, b. Kottavasal (Achankovil River originate here
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
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PLATE 8: a.Kaippattoor, b. Thumpamon, c. Venmony, d. Konathumoola, e.Kandiyoor, Thazhoorkadavu
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
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PLATE 9: a. Paayippad, b. Veeyapuram, c & d. Shargarakkavu, e. Mesthirikkana, f. Sanchyakkadavu
[Type text] Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
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2.2.2.2. REVIEW OF EARLIER WORKSREVIEW OF EARLIER WORKSREVIEW OF EARLIER WORKSREVIEW OF EARLIER WORKS
A brief review of literature with special reference to earlier works on flora, medicinal &
economic importance, rarity & endemism and studies on invasive plants are presented below
under appropriate heads.
2.1. Flora2.1. Flora2.1. Flora2.1. Flora
The European countries particularly Spain, UK, and Portugal showed keen interest in the
plant wealth of India, especially from southern part of Western Ghats. Coloquis dos Simples (a
checklist of medicinal plants of India) written by Garcia de Orta (1565) is considered as the first
published Botanical work on the plants of Western Ghats. Realizing the importance of spices and
medicinal plants of Malabar region, Hendrich Adrian Van Rheede (1636-1691), the then Dutch
admiral of Malabar, took special interest to collect and document the plant wealth of Malabar area.
He took strenuous effort to document the indigenous uses of plants with the help of local
traditional vaidyans viz., Itti Achuthen, Appu Bhat, Ranga Bhat and Vinayaka Panditt. Detailed
descriptions of 781 plants species with sketches, habit, habitat, medicinal and other uses were
published in 12 volumes during 1678-1693.
Icones Plantarum Indiae Orientalis published in six volumes during the period 1838-1853,
Illustrations of Indian Botany published in the year 1840 and the work in collaboration with
Walker-Arnott (1834) viz., Prodromus Florae Peninsulae Indiae Orientalis are some important
classical works on the flora of Peninsular India by Wight (1838-1853, 1840, 1834). The classical
works of Beddome (1868-74, 1869-74) on angiosperm flora of India are: ‘Icons Plantarum Indiae
Orientalis’ published during the period 1868-1874 and ‘The Flora Sylvatica for Southern India’
during the period 1869- 1874. The work of Roxburgh (1820, 1824), Flora Indica was a landmark
towards the compilation of the flora of India. The seven volume work, ‘The Flora of British India’
by Hooker (1872-1897) dealt with the flora of erstwhile British India. It is followed by ‘The Flora
of the Presidency of Bombay’ by Cooke (1901-1908) and ‘The Flora of the Presidency of Madras’
by Gamble (1915-1936). The work of Gamble (1915-1936) is considered as the best among the
regional floras. Meanwhile, the first comprehensive work on 582 indigenous trees of Travancore
entitled The Forest Trees of Travancore, was published by Bourdillon (1908). Subsequent floristic
works were done by Rao (1914), Lushington (1915), Fischer (1921) and Fyson(1932). The works
[Type text] Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
21
of Burkil (1965) entitled ‘The Chapters on the History of Botany in India’ and that of Joseph
(1977) on ‘Floristic studies in India-with special reference to Southern Circle of Botanical Survey
of India’ are the compilation of the contributions of various botanists. Many studies were
undertaken on the regional floras by the initiative of Botanical Survey of India primarily with the
objective of preparing a complete and comprehensive flora of India. The Flora of Tamil Nadu,
India. Vol. I-III (Nair & Henry, 1983; Henry et al., 1987, 1989) was published as part of
aforementioned project. Subsequent works on regional floras of Kerala either completed or being
completed are: Floristic studies of Idukki District (Vivekananthan, 1981); The Flora of Calicut
(Manilal & Sivarajan, 1982); Flora of Quilon District (Mohanan, 1984); Studies on the Flora of
Kasaragod Division, Cannanore District (Ansari, 1985); Flora of Palghat (Subramanian et al.,
1987); Flora of Silent Valley (Manilal, 1988); Flora of Cannanore (Ramachandran & Nair, 1988);
Flora of Kottayam District (Antony, 1989); Flora of Malappuram District excluding Nilambur
Forests (Babu, 1990); Flora of Palghat (Vajrevelu, l990); Observations on the Aquatic Angiosperms
of Malabar (Joseph, 1991); Flora of Pathanamthitta District (Anil Kumar, 1993); Flora of
Thiruvananthapuram (Mohanan & Henry, 1994); Flora of Thenmala Forest Division
(Subramaniyan, 1995); Flowering Plants of Thrissur Forests (Sasidharan & Sivarajan, 1996); Flora
of Nilambur (Sivarajan & Mathew, 1996); Shenduruny Wildlife Sanctuary (Sasidharan, 1997);
Epiphytic Flora in the Tropical Ecosystem of Western Ghats (Muktesh, 1998); Periyar Tiger
Reserve (Sasidharan, 1998); Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary (Sasidharan, 1999); Floristic Studies in
Vellarimala (Pradeep, 2000); Studies on Flowering Plants Diversity of Alappuzha District, Kerala
(Sunil &Sivadasan, 2000), The flora of protected areas such as Agasthyamala (Mohanan &
Sivadasan, 2002); Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary (Sasidharan, 2002); Flowering Plants of
Kerala (Sasidharan, 2004); Floristic Study of Wayanad District with special emphasis on
conservation of rare and threatened Flowering Plants (Narayanan, 2009); Riverine flora of Pamba
River Basin (George, 2013) and Flowering plants of Kerala (Sasidharan, 2013).
2.2. Endemic 2.2. Endemic 2.2. Endemic 2.2. Endemic PlantsPlantsPlantsPlants
Endemic taxa are essentially restricted to a specified geographical area. Tropical forests
show a igh degree of species richness and endemism (Orians & Groom, 2005). Endemic plant
species in India has been estimated as 33% with ca. 140 endemic genera but no endemic families
(Sheeba & Narasimhan, 2013.). Out of 150 important botanical sites identified for conservation
[Type text] Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
22
action by the World Conservation Monitoring Center (WCMC), five locations are in India
including the Western Ghats (IUCN, 1987). The high percentage of endemism in the Western
Ghats resembles oceanic islands (Subramanyam & Nayar, 1974). The species richness in the
Western Ghats is due to varied latitudinal and altitudinal gradients with varied rainfall and
temperature. These geographical peculiarities also favour a high degree of endemism. As Nayar
(1996) rightly point out endemic species in peninsular region are paleoendemics that are found in
hills of Peninsular India. Rarity is also considered as another natural phenomenon that arises by
physical, chemical, biological and anthropogenic intrusions. Many studies were done by earlier
researchers to assess the rare and endemic angiosperms (Cooke, 1901 – 1908; Chatterjee, 1939,
Chatterjee, 1940; Wherry, 1944; Henry et al., 1978; Rao, 1972, 1979; Jain & Sastry, 1980, 1982,
1984; Nayar, 1980, 1982; Bhaskar, 1981; Abraham & Mehrotra, 1982; Ahmedullah & Nayar,
1987; Nayar & Sastry, 1987, 1988, 1990; Vajravelu, 1987, 1988; Binojkumar & Balakrishnan,
1991; Ramesh et al., 1991; Bhattacharyya & Kumar, 1992; Sarkar, 1995; Nayar, 1996; Ramesh &
Pascal, 1997; Ahmedullah, 2000; Gopalan & Henry, 2000; Sasidharan, 2004; Joshi & Janarthanam,
2004; Nayar et al., 2006; Krishnan & Davidar, 2007; Mitra & Mukherjee, 2007; Ramachandran et
al., 2010. In a resent investigation, Sasidharan (2013) documented 5091 taxa of flowering plants
from Kerala of which 1709 are listed under endemic category and 493 under rare and endangered
category. Narayanan (2009) had enumerated 2034 plants from Wayanad District. Among them
596 plants are endemics (29 %) and 138 are facing various threats.
2.32.32.32.3. Medicinal and economically important plants
In AD 77, Dioscorides documented 600 useful plants of Mediterranean in his classical
work ‘De Materia Medica’ (Choudhary et al., 2008). In the 18th century, Carolus Linnaeus, the
Swedish biologist, who invented the modern system of botanical classification, travelled to
Saamiland to study the Saami people. He lived with the people as a member of their tribe, wearing
their clothes, sharing their food, and studying the plants they used. In the 19th century, British
explorer and ethnobotanist Richard Spruce spent 17 years in the Amazon and Andes regions of
South America. He discovered hundreds of new plant species and conducted important research
on plants used as hallucinogens for religious purposes by Amazonian tribes. Spruce also collected
specimens of the cinchona tree that were later used to establish quinine plantations in Southeast
Asia. Richard Evans Schultes was an authority on useful plants viz., coca, palms and orchids.
[Type text] Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
23
Since 1930 Schultes has conducted research among native American tribes in North, Central, and
South America. His studies of the mushroom used by the Mazatec peoples of southern Mexico
led to the development of the heart drug Visken (Schultes, 1976). As Sinha (1996) point out, there
are many records of ethnobotanical uses of plants from Indian subcontinent such as for worship,
medicine, food, fuel and for agriculture as mentioned in ancient Indian literature/religious texts
viz., Rigveda, Atharvaveda, Upanishads, Mahabharata, Puranas, Charakasamhitha (100 AD),
Sushruthasamhitha (100-800 AD) and Dwanwanthari Nighanthu (1200 AD). Catalogue of Indian
Medicinal Plants and Drugs (Fleming, 1810); Indigenous Drugs of India (Chopra, 1933); Indian
Materia Medica (Nadkarni, 1955); Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants (Nayar et al., 1956);
Glimpses of Indian Ethnobotany (Jain, 1981); Bibliography of Ethnobotany (Jain, 1984); A
Manual of Ethnobotany (Jain, 1987); Ethnobotany in South Asia (Maheswari, 1996); Contribution
to Indian Ethnobotany (Jain, 1997); Ethno-Medico-Botany of the Southern Western Ghats of
India (Henry et al., 1996); Indian Folk Medicines and other Plant-Based Products (Singh, 2007)
have laid milestones in Indian Ethnobotany.
Ethnobotanical studies on the indiagenous tribes with special reference to southern
Western Ghats were reported by Ramachandran & Nair (1981); Pushpangadan & Atal (1984);
Binu et al. (1992, 2011); Sivarajan & Balachandran (1994); Radhakrishnan et al. (1996); Sajeev &
Sasidharan (1997); Jery & John (1999); Nayar et al. (1999); Balakrishnan et al. (2003);
Nadankunjidam (2003); Ayyanar & Ignacimuthu (2005, 2013); Muraleedharan & Sasidharan
(2005); Ramachandran & Vijayan (2006); Johncy & Francis, 2007a, 2007b; Ramachandran (2007);
Yesodharan & Sujana (2007); Rasingam & Rehel (2009); Rajith & Ramachandran (2010); Binu
(2010); Amuthavalluvan, 2011; Narayanan et al. (2011); Sasi et al. (2011); Ajesh et al. (2012a,
2012b); Diana (2013); Varghese et al. (2013); David (2014); Xavior et al. (2014).
2.4. 2.4. 2.4. 2.4. Invasive PlantsInvasive PlantsInvasive PlantsInvasive Plants
It is only in the last three or four decades that the focus of conservation in India has
broadened to include not only species, but unique habitats and ecosystems. Invasive plant species
in Indian protected areas have received relatively little attention. Only few studies were undertaken
on the protected areas in India for which published information on invasive alien plants is
available. Of which, most of the studies were concentrated only on Lantana camera, Chromolaena
odorata and Prosopis juliflora. Studies in Kalakad Mundanturai Tiger Reserve (Chandrasekaran &
[Type text] Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
24
Swamy , 2010); Protected forests of Anamalais (Joshi et al., 2009); Greater Nicobar Biosphere
Reserve (Babu & Leighton, 2004); North-eastern India (Gogoi, 2001); Achanakmar- Amarkantak
Biosphere Reserve (Sahu & Singh, 2008; Shukla et al., 2009); Mudumalai National Park (Mahajan
& Azeez, 2001; Ramaswami & Sukumar 2011); Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Tiger Reserve
(Murali & Setty, 2001; Sundaram & Hiremath, 2012; Bandipur National Park (Puyravaud et al.,
1995; Prasad,2009; 2010; 2012); Melghat Tiger Reserve (Sawarkar,1984); Tadoba-Andhari Tiger
Reserve (Giradkar & Yeragi, 2008); Kumbalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary (Waite et al., 2009);
Ranthambore National Park (Dayal, 2007); Corbett Tiger Reserve (Babu et al., 2009; Love et al.,
2009); Rajaji National Park (Rishi, 2009; Kimothi & Dasari, 2010; Kimothi et al., 2010); Valley of
Flowers National Park (Saberwal et al., 2000; Kala & Shrivastava, 2004); Mukurti National Park
(Zarri et al.,2006; Srinivasan et al.,2007; Srinivasan, 2011); Kaziranga National Park (Vattakkavan
et al., 2005; Lahkar et al., 2011); Orang National Park (Lahkar et al., 2011); Pabitora Wildlife
Sanctuary (Lahkar et al., 2011); Manas National Park (Lahkar et al., 2011); Jaldapara Wildlife
Sanctuary (Lahkar et al.,2011); Garumara Wildlife Sanctuary (Lahkar et al.,2011); Gulf of Mannar
Marine Biosphere Reserve (Bagla, 2008; Chandrasekaran et al., 2008; Namboothri & Shankar
2010) were published and are considered as the relevant studies on the invasive plants species in
India. Besides that, a comprehensive list of invasive species in India has been prepared by Reddy
(2008). The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt.of India has also collected information on
invasive species in India (www.apfisn.net). Sankaran & Suresh (2013) have given comprehensive
information on invasive plants in the forests of Asia - Pacific.
In Kerala, only few studies on invasive plants in protected areas were carried out (Abraham
& Abraham, 2005; Sajeev et al., 2012; Sankaran et al., 2001; Sankaran and Srinivasan, 2001 and
Chandrashekara, 1999). In addition to that, Handbook on Invasive plants of Kerala (Sankaran et
al., 2012) has been prepared.
Many studies on plant invasion have been undertaken by earlier researchers. However, a
perusal of these literatures revealed that no in-depth studies on inventory and evaluation of spread
ecology of the weeds in riparian zones in south Kerala. It is expected that the present investigation
will provide additional information for conservation measures to be employed to protect the
indigenous biodiversity.
[Type text] Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
25
3.3.3.3. METHDOLOGYMETHDOLOGYMETHDOLOGYMETHDOLOGY
3.1. Categorization of the River Bed3.1. Categorization of the River Bed3.1. Categorization of the River Bed3.1. Categorization of the River Bed
The whole river bed categorized into three zones based on the elevation viz., Upper zone,
Middle zone and Lower zone. Before the comprehensive study, a pre survey conducted in these
zones.
Zone (Upper zoner: 150 - 1300 msl): Kallar, Kanyar, Kumbharuvatty, Manalar, Mukkada & Forest
nursery
Zone 2 (Middle Zone: 60-150 msl)-Thumpaman, Konathumoola, Sharngakkaavu, Venmony,
Kallimel, Kandiyoor, Sanchayakkadavu & Mesthirikkaana
Zone 3 (Lower zone 10 – 60 msl): Paayippad, Cheruthana, Veeyapuram, ValiyaPerumpuzha,
Vaazhakoottam Kadavu & Naalukettum Kavala. A presurvey was conducted by the expert team to
familiarize the location as well as to make a general assessment of the occurrence of the flowering
plants so as to work out a field survey schedule.
Training to Research AssociatesTraining to Research AssociatesTraining to Research AssociatesTraining to Research Associates
The Research fellows were selected for the study possessed sufficient background for plant species
identification, survey and collection of data. They were however given two week of intensive
training for the identification of plant species and their mapping.
3.2. 3.2. 3.2. 3.2. Methods employed for investigation of flora Methods employed for investigation of flora Methods employed for investigation of flora Methods employed for investigation of flora
Collection trips of duration 1- 3 days were conducted at regular intervals during 2018-2019
to different zone of Achankovil River beds. The specimens were collected in polythene bags to
prevent desiccation. The field data with respect to habit, habitat, phenology, colour and
morphology, of the collected specimens were noted in the field book. Phenological details were
noted during subsequent visits. Photographs were taken using Canon EOS 500D, Coolpix S 210
and Canon Power Shot SX 260 HS. Two specimens of each species were collected from different
locations to study the range of variations. Field data including height, colour and nature of bark,
colour of latex/exudates, presence of buttress, odour and colour of vegetative and floral parts were
recorded in the field book. Separate collections were made for both male and females. The
[Type text] Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
26
collected specimens were preserved using 70% methylated alcohol/ 5% solution of formaldehyde
by wet method (Fosberg & Sachet, 1965). The herbarium specimens were prepared as per the
standard specifications (Fosberg & Sachet, 1965; Bridson & Forman, 1991). The collected
specimens were brought to lab, critically analyzed using WILD M3Z Leica Stereo 19 microscope
and described. The specimens were provisionally identified by using pertinent literatures and
cross-compared with authentic herbarium specimens of the Kerala Forest Research Institute
(KFRI), Calicut University (CALI), Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanical Garden (TBGT) and
CMS College, Kottayam. Selected specimens were compared with protologues. Type specimens
were also consulted in few required cases.
3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3. Assessment of Conservation statusAssessment of Conservation statusAssessment of Conservation statusAssessment of Conservation status
Rarity: Rarity: Rarity: Rarity: Conservation status (extinct, critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable, and threatened)
of the collected specimens has been evaluated using as per IUCN norms (IUCN, 2003, 2006,
2014) and pertinent literatures (Nayar 1980a, 1980b, 1982, Nair & Sastry, 1987, 1988, 1990;
Sasidharan, 2013).
Endemics: Endemics: Endemics: Endemics: Endemism and species richness are provided since these data have much significance
in global prioritization for conservation efforts. A checklist of endemic plants and animals from the
study area was prepared based on the earlier works (Rao, 1972; Ramachandran et al., 2010, Nair
1980a, 1980b; Sasidharan, 2013; and online repositories). The Status analysis of each specimen
was done by cross comparison with the authentic herbarium specimens/pertinent literatures.
Relevant information on distribution aspects (Asiatic, Indian, South Indian, Peninsular Indian,
Western Ghats and southern Western Ghats) of endemic species were gathered from pertinent
literature.
3.4.3.4.3.4.3.4. Surveying and mappingSurveying and mappingSurveying and mappingSurveying and mapping
Detailed survey was conducted by going around the sites in boats and by entering the sites
wherever possible. Actual counts of the plants species were also made using standard methods
stated below.
Location maps provided by water shed management used for the study. The plants could be
mapped using latitude-longitude data collected using Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers.
[Type text] Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
27
But there was severe limitation as dense swamp was limiting GPS usage. For each boundary, few
reference points were also collected and checked to ensure accuracy.
3.5.3.5.3.5.3.5. Vegetation studiesVegetation studiesVegetation studiesVegetation studies
Spread ecology of vegetation conducted based on quadrate analayis. Qudrates of 20 x 20 m size
which including different zones of the riparian beds viz, Chanel Migration Zone (Flowing Zone),
Core zone, Inner zone, Outer zone. This quadrate analayis used to assess the vicinity of the true
riparian plants and the invasion of weeds. 10 quadtares from each zone were subjected for this
investigation.
The data collected from the quadartes were summarized through database and spreadsheet
programs. Summary table were further processed to get pictograms, IVI tables, biodiversity
indices, density, frequency, abundance, IVI (Importance Value Index) were calculated by using
formulae:-
Density measures:
i) Density (No. of individuals/ha)[D] = Number of Individuals encountered I x 10000
Total area sampled in m2
ii) Relative Density (RDi) = Number of individuals belonging to species I x 100
Total number of individuals
iii) Percentage Frequency (Fi) = Number of plots in which Species i was present x 100
Total number of plots sampled
iv) Relative Frequency (RFi) = Fi
Fi
v) Relative Basal Area (RBAi) = BP
BAi
Where BAi = Sum of basal area of the trees belonging to species i
BP = Sum of basal areas of all the trees in a plot
Basal area of a tree = π r2 ; r = gbh/2 π
vi) Importance Value Index (IVI)
[Type text] Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
28
It is used to express dominance and ecological success of any species.
IVI = Relative Density (RDi) +Relative Frequency (RFi) +Relative Basal Area (RBAi)
3.6. Assessment of the flood impact3.6. Assessment of the flood impact3.6. Assessment of the flood impact3.6. Assessment of the flood impact
Soil analysisSoil analysisSoil analysisSoil analysis: Changes in the soil analyzed by PH assessment. 10 samples from each zone were
collected and assessed through general protocol.
Semi structured interviewSemi structured interviewSemi structured interviewSemi structured interview: Effect of flood in the islands were assessed by a series of interview.
During the field trips, interviews were conducted with old men, fishermen and women in the
riparian bounds of the Achankovil using a semi structured interview schedule (Annex.1). The
information collected from them was cross checked with prior data inscripted.
Cross checking of secoCross checking of secoCross checking of secoCross checking of secondary datandary datandary datandary data: An earnest attempt made by cross compared the collected data
with secondary data such as Mohanan (1984), AnilKumar (1993),Sunil & Sivadasan (2009), and
Mathew (2015).
Biodiversity lossBiodiversity lossBiodiversity lossBiodiversity loss: A close observation conducted on the bounds of Achankovil for the assessment
of the biodiversity loss. soil erosion, landsliding, loss of plants in flood, invasion of weeds etc.
examined in detail.
The floristic and phytosociological studies conducted in three
were subjected to systematic treatment and reasoning. The results emerged from the analysis are
described here.
4.1.4.1.4.1.4.1. Species Species Species Species composition composition composition composition
A detailed survey was conducted to enumerate the species composition and also to identify
the general status of the plants of
year 2018 -2019 are presented here.
families, endemism, threatened plants etc are given in separate sections.
4.1.1.4.1.1.4.1.1.4.1.1. Floristic analysis Floristic analysis Floristic analysis Floristic analysis
Floristic elements of the islands were collected and identified by taxonomical methods.
Plants in the Achankovil River bounds
pteridophytes and gymnosperms.
enumerated from the study area.
4.1.1.1. A4.1.1.1. A4.1.1.1. A4.1.1.1. Angiospermsngiospermsngiospermsngiosperms
The floristic analysis resulted in the documentation of
549 genera of 130 families. As revealed from the habit wise analysis of the collected specimens,
majority of the species fall under herbs (5
(11%).
FIG.1FIG.1FIG.1FIG.1 :::: Habit wise categorization of angiosperms in the islands of Alappuzha
17%
16%
11%
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
4.4.4.4. RESULTS & DISCUSSIONRESULTS & DISCUSSIONRESULTS & DISCUSSIONRESULTS & DISCUSSION
ogical studies conducted in three zones of Achankovil River Basin
were subjected to systematic treatment and reasoning. The results emerged from the analysis are
survey was conducted to enumerate the species composition and also to identify
plants of riparian zones. The results obtained from the survey during the
are presented here. A comprehensive checklist with due emphasis on dominant
families, endemism, threatened plants etc are given in separate sections.
Floristic elements of the islands were collected and identified by taxonomical methods.
ankovil River bounds were categorized and examined as flowering plants,
pteridophytes and gymnosperms. 614 Angiosperms, 20 Pteridophytes and 2 Gymnosperm
Categorization of floristic elements presented below.
The floristic analysis resulted in the documentation of 614 flowering plants belonging to
families. As revealed from the habit wise analysis of the collected specimens,
majority of the species fall under herbs (56%) followed by trees (17%), shrubs (16
Habit wise categorization of angiosperms in the islands of Alappuzha
56%
11%
Herbs
Shrubs
Trees
Climbers
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
29
Achankovil River Basin
were subjected to systematic treatment and reasoning. The results emerged from the analysis are
survey was conducted to enumerate the species composition and also to identify
The results obtained from the survey during the
A comprehensive checklist with due emphasis on dominant
Floristic elements of the islands were collected and identified by taxonomical methods.
were categorized and examined as flowering plants,
Gymnosperms were
Categorization of floristic elements presented below.
flowering plants belonging to
families. As revealed from the habit wise analysis of the collected specimens,
7%), shrubs (16 %) and climbers
Habit wise categorization of angiosperms in the islands of Alappuzha
Climbers
As revealed from the study, Upper Zone including the Achankovil Forest Division
coming under 276 genera. In the same manner,
Lower Zone, its number is reduced to
FFFFIGIGIGIG....2222.... Bar diagram shows the wealth of angiosperms in
Zones
FIG. 3. Dominant families shown in the Diagram
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Upper Zone
Species 319
Genus 276
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Fabace
ae
Poacea
e
Euphor
biacea
Series1 38 30
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
Upper Zone including the Achankovil Forest Division
genera. In the same manner, Middle Zone holds 345 species of 29
, its number is reduced to 305 species under 276 genera.
Bar diagram shows the wealth of angiosperms in each zones of the Achankovil River
. Dominant families shown in the Diagram
Upper Zone Middle Zone Lower Zone
319 345 305
276 298 276
Euphor
biacea
e
Acanth
aceae
Astera
ceae
Rubiac
eae
Morac
eae
Convol
vulace
ae
Orchid
aceae
30 30 23 21 17 17 16
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
30
Upper Zone including the Achankovil Forest Division has 319 species
species of 298 genera. In
each zones of the Achankovil River
Scroph
ulariac
eae
Cypera
ceae
14 14
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
31
Fabaceae, with 38 taxa is the largest family followed by Poaceae, Euphorbiaceae and
Acanthaceae (30 taxa from each family). Asteraceae bags third position with 23 representations.
Rubiaceae with 21 taxa is coming next largest family. Moraceae and Convoluvalaceae have 17
Euphorbiaceae representation. While Orchidaceae family has 16 elements, Cypreaceae and
Scrophulariaceae shares 14 members. These 11 familes contributes 236 elements and which
contributes 38% of the entire flora of the riparian zones.
Endemism and RarityEndemism and RarityEndemism and RarityEndemism and Rarity
As revealed from the study, 104 elements in the Achankovil Riparian Zones are endemic
to Peninsular India. Of which 20 taxa are facing various threats. Besides that, 125 Asiatic elements
are also present here. 36 species among them are Indo-Sri Lankan elements.
Non indigenous taxa of the study area Non indigenous taxa of the study area Non indigenous taxa of the study area Non indigenous taxa of the study area
Out of 614 plants identified from the study area, 389 plant taxa are non indigenous
including naturalized plants, alien/invasive plants, transformers and weeds. The flora of India as a
whole has been enriched by the intrusive elements from other parts of Asia, Europe, tropical
Africa, tropical America and Australia (Mani, 1974). The non indigenous taxa of these zones
exhibit a trend of affinity of Pantropical elements (96 spp.) > Tropical elements (74 spp.) >
Paleotropic elements (56 spp.) > African elements ( 48 spp.) > American elements (42 spp.) >
Australasia (27 spp.) > Orientals/Asia (21 spp.) > Cosmopolitan (19 spp.) > European (6 spp.).
Most of the African- American species located in the study area are fast spreading weeds.
Commelina benghalensis, Centotheca lappacea, Synedrella nodiflora and Spermacoce articularis
are examples of African elements. Alternanthera brasiliana, Centrosema molle and
Eleutheranthera ruderalis are American elements. Lantana camara, Mikania cordata, Mimosa
diplotricha and Chromolaena odorata are fast spreading aggressive weeds observed in the study
area.
Medicinal PlantsMedicinal PlantsMedicinal PlantsMedicinal Plants
Medicinal and economically important plants in the river beds also enumerated. 107
plants of these areas are coming under this category (Table 1). Highly medicinals such as Piper
longum, Embelia tsjeriam-cottam,
Salacia fruticosa etc. are the examples.
Fig.4. Phytogeographic affinities of the flora of
4.1.1.2. Non flowering plants4.1.1.2. Non flowering plants4.1.1.2. Non flowering plants4.1.1.2. Non flowering plants
20 Pteridophytes coming under 1
area. 12 Pteridophytes were enumerated from upper zone. 14 pteridophytes were enlisted from
middle zone and 13 from lower zones too. All of these elements are pantropical an
components. And in the case of Gymnosperm, Gentum
area.
12%
9%
8%
7%
4%
3%
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
cottam, Cyclea peltata, Sida acuta, Asparagus racemosus,
etc. are the examples.
. Phytogeographic affinities of the flora of Achankovil Riparian zones
Pteridophytes coming under 18 genera of 10 families were enumerated from the study
12 Pteridophytes were enumerated from upper zone. 14 pteridophytes were enlisted from
middle zone and 13 from lower zones too. All of these elements are pantropical an
And in the case of Gymnosperm, Gentum and Cycas are enlisted from the study
37%
16%
3%
1%
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
32
Asparagus racemosus,
families were enumerated from the study
12 Pteridophytes were enumerated from upper zone. 14 pteridophytes were enlisted from
middle zone and 13 from lower zones too. All of these elements are pantropical and tropical
and Cycas are enlisted from the study
Indigenous
Pantropicals
Tropicals
Paleotropics
African
American
Australasia
Orientals/Asia
Cosmopolitan
European
33
Table 1. Table 1. Table 1. Table 1. PLANTSPLANTSPLANTSPLANTS A.A.A.A. FLOWERING PLANTSFLOWERING PLANTSFLOWERING PLANTSFLOWERING PLANTS
Sl. No Scientific Name Family Upper Zone Middle Zone Lower Zone Status Medici-nals
1
Andrographis atropurpurea (Dennst.) Alston
Acanthaceae
√ √ E
2 Andrographis echioides (L.) Nees √ √ 3 Asystasia dalzelliana Sant. √ √ √
4
Asystasia gangetica (L.) Anders. ssp. gangetica Hook. f.
√ √ √
5 Barleria courtallica Nees √ E 6 Dicliptera cuneata Nees √ 7 Dicliptera paniculata (Forssk.) I. Darbysh. √ √
8 Dipteracanthus prostrates (Poir.) Nees √ √ E
9 Eranthemum capense L. √ √
10 Hygrophila ringens (L.) Steud √ √ √
11
Hygrophila schulli (Buch.-Ham.) M. R. & S. M. Almeida
√ √
12 Hygrophila triflora (Roxb.) Fosb. & Sachet √
13 Justicia betonica L.var. betonica Hook. f. √ √
14 Justicia japonica Thunb. √ √ √ 15 Justicia procumbens L. √
16
Lepidagathis incurva Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don var. incurva Manilal & Sivar.
√ √
17 Nelsonia canescens (Lam.) Spreng. √ √
18 Phaulopsis imbricata (Forssk.) Sweet. √ √ √
19
Pseuderanthemum malabaricum (Clarke) Gamble
√
20 Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurz √ √
21 Ruellia tuberosa L. √ √
22 Rungia apiculata Bedd. √ √
23 Rungia parviflora (Retz.) Nees √
34
24 Rungia pectinata (L.) Nees √ √ √
25 Rungia repens (L.) Nees √ 26 Strobilanthes barbatus Nees √ E 27 Strobilanthes ciliatus Nees √ √ E
28 Strobilanthes lawsoni Gamble √ E
29 Strobilanthes luridus Wight √ E 30 Thunbergia mysorensis (Wight) Anders. √ 31 Trianthema portulacastrum L. Aizoaceae √ √
32
Alangium salviifolium (L.f.) Wang. ssp. hexapetalum (Lam.) Wang.
Alangiaceae √
33 Limnocharis flava (L.) Buch. Alismataceae √
34 Achyranthes aspera L.var. aspera Hook. f. Amaranthaceae
√ √ √ √ 35 Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. √ √ √ √ 36 Allmania nodiflora (L.) R. Br. ex Wight √ 37 Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) Voss √ √
38 Alternanthera brasiliana (L. ) Kuntze √
39 Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Grisb. √ √ 40 Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. ex DC. √ √ √ 41 Amaranthus spinosus L. √ √ 42 Amaranthus viridis L. √ √ 43 Cyathula prostrata (L.) Blume √ √ √ √ 44 Hymenocallis littoralis (Jacq.) Salisb. Amaryllidaceae √ √ 45 Scadoxus multiflorus (Martyn) Raf. √ √ 46 Anacardium occidentale L. Anacardiaceae √ √ 47 Buchanania lanceolata Wight √ √ VU
48 Holigarna arnottiana Hook.f. √ √ √ E
49 Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr √ √ √ √ 50 Mangifera indica L. √ 51 Nothopegia aureo-fulva Bedd. ex Hook. f. √ E & CR 52 Semecarpus auriculata Bedd. √
53 Spondias pinnata (L. f.) Kurz √ √
54 Annona glabra L. Annonaceae √
35
55 Meiogyne pannosa (Dalz.) Sinclair √ E 56 Meiogyne ramarowii (Dunn) Gandhi √ √ E 57 Phaeanthus malabaricus Bedd. √ E
58 Polyalthia longifolia (Sonner.) Thw. √
59
Uvaria narum (Dunal) Wall. ex Hook.f. & Thoms
√ √
60 Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Apiaceae √ √ √ √ 61 Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. Apocynaceae √ √ √ 62 Anodendron paniculatum (Roxb.) A. DC. √ 63 Cerbera odollam Gaertn. √ √ 64 Chonemorpha fragrans (Moon) Alston √
65
Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don
√ √
66 Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) W.T.Aiton √ √
67
Parsonsia indoora (Lour.) M. R. & S. M. Almeida
√
68 Rauvolfia hookeri Sriniv. & Chithra √ E & EN √
69 Strophanthus wightianus Wall. ex Wight √ E
70 Tabernaemontana alternifolia L. √ √ √ E √
71
Aponogeton natans (L.) Engl. & Krause Aponogetona-ceae
√
72 Amorphophallus nicolsonianus Sivad. Araceae √ E 73 Anaphyllum wightii Schott √ E √ 74 Ariopsis peltata Nimmo √ 75 Arisaema leschenaultii Blume √ E
76 Caladium bicolor (Ait. ex Dryand.) Vent. √
77 Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott √ √ 78 Lagenandra ovata (L.) Thw. √ √
79 Pistia stratiotes L. √ √
80
Pothos crassipedunculatus Sivad. & N. Mohanan
√
81 Pothos scandens L √ √ √ √
36
82 Remusatia vivipara (Roxb.) Schott √
83
Schefflera wallichiana (Wight & Arn.) Harms
Araliaceae √
84 Areca catechu L Arecaceae √ √ √
85 Arenga wightii Griff. √ E & VU √
86 Borassus flabellifer L. (Introduced) √
87 Calamus thwaitesii Becc. √
88 Caryota urens L. √
89 Cocos nucifera L. √ √ √ 90 Aristolochia krisagathra Sivar. & Pradeep
Aristalochiaceae
√ E √
91
Aristolochia indica L. √
√
92 Thottea siliquosa (Lam.) Ding Hou √ √ 93 Asclepias curassavica L.
Asclepiadaceae √
94 Ceropegia elegans Wall. √ E
95 Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br. √ √ √
96 Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) R.Br. ex Sm. √ 97
98
Tylophora indica (Burm. f.) Merr. var. indica Manilal & Sivar
√ √ √ √
99
Tylophora tetrapetala var.tetrapetala Sasidh. & Sivar.
√
100 Wattakaka volubilis (L. f.) Stapf √ √ 101 Ageratum conyzoides L.
Asteraceae
√
102
Blumea lanceolaria (Roxb.) Druce var. spectabilis (DC.) Randeria
√
103 Chromolaena odorata (L.) King & Robins. √ √ √ √
104
Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S.Moore
√
105 Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. √ √ √ 106 Elephantopus scaber L. √ √ √ √ 107 Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. ex DC. √ √ √ √ 108 Epaltes divaricata (L.) Cass. √
37
109 Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. √ √ √ 110 Mikania micrantha Kunth √ √ √ 111 Phyllocephalum scabridum (DC.) Kirkman √ √
112 Sphaeranthus africanus L. √ √ √
113 Sphaeranthus indicus L. √ √ √ 114 Spilanthes ciliata HBK √ 115 Spilanthes radicans Jacq. √ 116 Struchium sparganophorum (L.) O. Ktze √ √ √ 117 Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. √ 118 Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray √
119 Tridax procumbens (L.) L. √ √ √
120 Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. √ √ √ √ 121 Vernonia elliptica DC. √ √ 122 Wedelia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. √ √ √ 123 Wedelia trilobata (L.) A. S. Hitchc. √
124 Xanthium indicum Koenig √
125 Impatiens cordata Wight Balsaminaceae
√ E
126
Impatiens diversifolia B.Heyne ex Wight & Arn.
√ √ E
127
Impatiens herbicola Hook. f. √ E & VU
128 Begonia cordifolia (Wight) Thw. Begoniaceae √ VU 129 Begonia malabarica Lam. √ 130 Oroxylum indicum (L.) Benth. ex Kurz Bignoniaceae √ √ 131 Pajanelia longifolia (Willd.) K. Schum. √ √ 132 Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. Bombacaceae √ 133 Cullenia exarillata Robyns √
134 Coldenia procumbens L. Boraginaceae √ √ √
135 Cordia cylindristachya Roem. & Schult. √ 136 Heliotropium indicum L √ √ 137 Brassica nigra (L.) Koch. Brassicaceae √ 138 Rorippa indica (L.) Hiern √ 139 Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. Bromeliaceae √ √
38
140 Burmannia coelestis D.Don Burmanniaceae √ √
141 Cabomba caroliniana Gray Cabombaceae √ √ 142 Sphenoclea zeylanica Gaertn. Campanulaceae √ 143 Capparis rheedei DC.
Capparaceae
√ E & VU 144 Cleome burmannii Wight & Arn. √ 145 Cleome monophylla L. √ √ 146 Cleome viscosa L. √ √ 147 Crataeva magna (Lour.) DC. √ √
148 Gynandropsis gynandra (L.) Briq. √
149
Polycarpon prostratum (Forssk.) Asch. & Sehweinf.
Caryophyllaceae
√ √
150 Euonymus dichotomus Heyne ex Roxb. Celastraceae
√ E
151 Lophopetalum wightianum Arn. √ √
152 Calophyllum inophyllum L. Clusiaceae √ √
153
Garcinia gummi-gutta (L.) Robs. var. gummi-gutta Mohanan
√ √ √
154 Calycopteris floribunda Lam. Combretaceae √ √ 155 Quisqualis indica L. √ √ 156 Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. √ √
157 Terminalia catappa L. √ √ √
158 Belosynapsis vivipara (Dalz.) C.E.C. Fisch. Commelinaceae
√ E
159 Commelina benghalensis L. √ √ √
160 Commelina diffusa Burm. f. √ 161 Cyanotis axillaris (L.) D.Don ex Sweet √ √ √ √ 162 Dictyospermum montanum Wight √ E
163 Floscopa scandens Lour √
164
Murdannia crocea (Griff.) Faden ssp.ochracea (Dalz.) Faden
√
165 Murdannia pauciflora (Wight) Brueck. √ 166 Murdannia vaginata (L.) Brueck √ 167 Connarus monocarpus L. Connaraceae √ √ 168 Rourea minor (Gaertn.) Merr. √ √
39
169 Aniseia martinicensis (Jacq.) Choisy Convolvulaceae √ √ 170 Cuscuta chinensis Lam. √ √ 171 Erycibe paniculata Roxb. √ √ 172 Evolvulus nummularius (L.) L. √ √ √ 173 Hewittia malabarica (L.) Suresh √ √ 174 Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. √ √ 175 Ipomoea cairica (L.) Sweet √ √
176
Ipomoea carnea Jack. ssp. fistulosa (Mart. ex Choisy) Austin
√ √
177 Ipomoea hederifolia L. √ √
178
Ipomoea marginata (Desr.) Manitz, f. marginata Babu
√
179
Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) R. Br. ssp.pes-caprae Gamble
√
180 Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker-Gawl. √ √ 181 Ipomoea pes-tigridis L. √ 182 Merremia hederacea (Burm. f.) Hall. f. √ √ 183 Merremia umbellata (L.) Hall. f. √ √ 184 Merremia vitifolia (Burm. f.) Hall. f. √ √ √ 185 Xenostegia tridentata (L.) Austin & Staples √ 186 Costus speciosus (Koenig) J.E. Smith Costaceae √ √ √ 187 Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Kurz Crassulaceae √ √ √ 188 Coccinia grandis (L.) Voight
Cucurbitaceae √ √ √
189 Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) Jeffrey √ 190 Luffa cylindrica (L.) Roem. √ √ √ 191 Mukia maderaspatana (L.) Roem. √ √ 192 Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.) Gandhi √ 193 Trichosanthes nervifolia L. √ √ √ 194 Bulbostylis barbata ssp. barbata Gamble Cyperaceae √ √ 195 Carex filicina Nees √
196 Cyperus compactus Retz. √
197 Cyperus cyperinus (Retz.) Sur. √ √ √ 198 Cyperus digitatus Roxb. √
40
199 Cyperus javanicus Houtt. √ √ 200 Cyperus tenuispica Steud. √ √
201
Fimbristylis aestivalis Vahl ssp.aestivalis Hook. f.
√ √
202 Fimbristylis microcarya Muller √ 203 Fuirena ciliaris (L.) Roxb. √ √
204
Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb. var. brevifolia; Hook. f.
√ √ √
205
Kyllinga nemoralis (J. R & G. Forst.) Dandy ex Hutch. & Dalz.
√ √
206 Pycreus puncticulatus (Vahl) Nees √ √ 207 Schoenoplectiella articulata (L.) Lye √ 208 Tetrameles nudiflora R. Br. Dasticaceae √ √ 209 Acrotrema arnottianum Wight
Dilleniaceae √
210 Tetracera akara (Burm. f.) Merr. √ √
211 Dioscorea bulbifera L. Dioscoreaceae
√ √ 212 Dioscorea hispida Dennst. √ √ 213 Dipterocarpus indicus Bedd.
Dipterocarpa Ceae
√ E & VU √ 214 Hopea ponga (Dennst.) Mabb. √ E & VU
215 Hopea parviflora Bedd. √ E & VU
216 Vateria indica L. √ √ E √ 217 Dracaena terniflora Roxb. Dracaenaceae √
218 Sansevieria roxburghiana Schult. & Schult. f. √
219 Drosera indica L. Droseraceae √
220 Diospyros bourdillonii Brandis Ebenaceae √ E
221 Diospyros peregrina (Gaertn.) Gurke √
222
Elaeocarpus serratus L. var.serratus Hook. f.
Elaeocarpaceae √ √ √
223 Elaeocarpus tuberculatus Roxb. √ 224 Muntingia calabura L √ √ 225 Eriocaulon heterolepis Steud. Eriocaulaceae √ E 226 Eriocaulon sexangulare L. √
41
227 Erythropalum scandens Blume Erythropalaceae √
228 Acalypha indica L. Euphorbiaceae √ √
229 Acalypha malabarica Muell.-Arg. √ 230 Agrostistachys indica Dalz. √ E 231 Antidesma acidum Retz. √
232 Aporosa cardiosperma (Gaertn.) Merr. √ √
233 Baccaurea courtallensis (Wight) Muell.-Arg. √ E 234 Bischofia javanica Blume √
235 Breynia retusa (Dennst.) Alston √ √
236 Briedelia stipularis (L.) Blume √
237 Croton bonplandianus Baill. √ 238 Croton hirtus L'Herit. √ 239 Croton tiglium L. √
240
Dimorphocalyx glabellus Thw. var. lawianus (Muell.-Arg.) Chakrab. & Balakr.
√ E
241
Drypetes sepiaria (Wight & Arn.) Pax & Hoffm.
√
242 Euphorbia heterophylla L. √ √ √ 243 Euphorbia hirta L. √ √ √ 244 Euphorbia rosea Retz. √ √ √ 245 Euphorbia thymifolia L. √ √ 246 Excoecaria agallocha L. √
247
Glochidion hohenackeri (Muell.-Arg.) Bedd. var. johnstonei (Hook. f.) Chakrab. & Gangop.
√ E & VU
248 Glochidion zeylanicum (Gaertn.) A. √
249 Homonoia riparia Lour. √
250 Macaranga peltata (Roxb.) Muell.-Arg √ √ √
251 Micrococca mercurialis (L.) Benth. √ √ 252 Microstachys chamaelea (L.) Muell.-Arg √ √ √ 253 Phyllanthus amarus Schum. & Thonn. √ √ √ 254 Phyllanthus urinaria L. √ √
42
255 Ricinus communis L. √ √ √ √ 256 Tragia involucrata L. √ √
257 Trewia nudiflora L. √
258 Bauhinia phoenicea Wight & Arn., Fabaceae –Sub Family: Caesalpiniaceae
√ E 259 Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. √ 260 Caesalpinia mimosoides Lam. √ 261 Cassia fistula L. √ 262 Chamaecrista mimosoides (L.) Greene √ 263 Humboldtia vahliana Wight √ E & EN
264 Senna alata (L.) Roxb. √ √
265 Senna occidentalis (L.) Link √ √ 266 Senna tora (L.) Roxb. √ √ √ 267 Tamarindus indica L. √ √ 268 Acacia caesia (L.) Willd. Fabaceae:
Subfamily: Mimosaceae
√ √ 269 Adenanthera pavonina L. √ 270 Entada rheedei Spreng. √ 271 Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit √ √
272 Mimosa diplotricha C. Wight ex Sanvalle √ √ √
273 Mimosa pudica L. √ √ √ 274 Racosperma auriculiforme (Benth. ) Pedley √ √ 275 Racosperma mangium (Willd.) Pedley √ 276 Aeschynomene aspera L. √ √ 277 Abrus precatorius L.
Fabaceae: Sub. Family : Papilionaceae
√ √ √ 278
279
Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC. var. vaginalis Hook. f.
√ √ √
280 Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. √ 281 Canavalia cathartica Thouars √ √ 282 Centrosema molle Benth. √ √ √ 283 Crotalaria verrucosa L. √ 284 Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth. √ √ √ 285 Derris trifoliata Lour. √ √ 286 Desmodium biarticulatum (L.) F.v. Muell. √ √
43
287 Geissaspis cristata Wight & Arn. √ √ 288 Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp. √ √ 289 Indigofera longiracemosa Boiv. ex Baill. √
290
Kunstleria keralensis C.N. Mohanan & N.C. Nair
√ E
291 Mucuna gigantea (Willd.) DC. √ 292 Mucuna monosperma DC. ex Wight √ E
293 Stylosanthes fruticosa (Retz.) Alston √ √
294 Tephrosia maxima (L.) Pers. √ √ 295 Vigna adenantha (Meyer) Marechal √ 296 Casearia ovata (Lam.) Willd. Flacourtiaceae √ E
297
Hydnocarpus pentandra (Buch.-Ham.) Oken
√ √ √ E √
298 Flagellaria indica L Flagellariaceae √
299
Canscora diffusa (Vahl) R. Br. ex Roem. & Schult.
Gentianaceae √
300 Exacum atropurpureum Bedd. √ E & VU
301 Aeschynanthus perrottetii A.DC. Gesneriaceae √ E 302 Didymocarpus humboldtiana Gard. √
303
Epithema carnosum (G. Don) Benth. var. hispida Clarke
√ E & VU
304 Rhynchoglossum notonianum (Wall.) Burtt √
305
Peliosanthes teta Andr. ssp. humilis (Andr.) Jessop
Haemodoracdeae
√
306 Hippocratea arnottiana Wight Hippocrataceae √
307 Salacia fruticosa Wall. √ E √
308 Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle Hydrocharitaceae
√ √ 309 Ottelia alismoides (L.) Pers. √ 310 Vallisneria natans (Lour.) Hara √
311
Hydrolea zeylanica (L.) Vahl Hydrophyllaceae
√
312 Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Hypoxidaceae √ √ √
44
313 Molineria trichocarpa (Wight) Balakr. √ 314 Gomphandra tetrandra (Wall.) Sleumer Icacinaceae √
315
Nothapodytes nimmoniana (Graham) Mabb.
√
316 Sarcostigma kleinii Wight & Arn. √ √ √ 317 Anisochilus carnosus (L. f.) Wall. ex Benth.
Lamiaceae √
318 Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze √ √
319 Hyptis capitata Jacq. √ √ √ 320 Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. √ √ √ 321 Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link √ √ √
322 Ocimum americanum L. √
323
Platostoma hispidum (L.) Paton
√
324 Pogostemon pubescens Benth. √ √ 325 Pogostemon purpurascens Dalz. √ 326 Actinodaphne malabarica Balakr. Lauraceae √ E & VU
327
Cinnamomum malabatrum (Burm.f.) J.Presl
√ √ √ E √
328 Litsea bourdillonii Gamble √ E & EN
329
Litsea coriacea (Heyne ex Meisner) Hook. f.
√ E
330 Neolitsea scrobiculata (Meisner) Gamble √ E
331 Persea macrantha (Nees) Kosterm. √ √
332 Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Spreng. Lecythidaceae √ √ 333 Couroupita guianensis Aublet √ 334 Leea indica (Burm. f.) Merr. Leeaceae √ √ √ √ 335 Lemna perpusillaTorrey Lemnaceae √ 336 Wolffia globosa (Roxb.) Hartog & Plas √
337 Utricularia aurea Lour. Lentibulariaceae
√
338 Utricularia striatula Smith √ 339 Asparagus racemosus Willd. Liliaceae √ √ √ √ 340 Gloriosa superba L. √ √ √ 341 Hugonia mystax L. Linaceae √
45
342 Lobelia alsinoides Lam Lobeliaceae √ √ 343 Lobelia heyneana Schult. 344 Lobelia zeylanica L. √ 345 Fagraea ceilanica Thunb. Loganiaceae √ √ 346 Strychnos minor Dennst. √ √ 347 Strychnos nux-vomica L. √ √ √ 348 Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Ettingsh. Loranthaceae √ √
349 Helicanthes elastica (Desr.) Danser √ √
350 Scurrula parasitica L. √ E
351
Ammannia baccifera L. ssp.baccifera Koehne
Lythraceae √
352 Cuphea hyssopifolia Kunth √
353
Lagerstroemia microcarpa Wight √
E
354
Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers.
√
355 Lawsonia inermis L.
356 Rotala indica (Willd.) Koehne √
357 Rotala macrandra Koehne √ E 358 Hibiscus lobatus (Murr.) O. Ktze. Malvaceae √
359 Hibiscus hispidissimus Griff √ √
360
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.var. rosa-sinensis Hook. f.
√ √
361
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. var. schizopetalus Dyer
√
362 Hibiscus sabdariffa L. √ √ 363 Hibiscus surattensis L. √ √ √ 364 Sida acuta Burm. f. √ √ √ 365 Sida alnifolia L. √ √ √ 366 Sida cordifolia L. √ √ √
46
367 Sida rhomboidea Roxb. ex Fleming √ √ √ E 368 Talipariti tiliaceum (L.) Fryxell √ √ √ 369 Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz. & Gibs. √ √ √ 370 Urena lobata L. √ √
371
Indianthus virgatus (Roxb.) Suksathan & Borchs.
Marantaceae √
372 Clidemia hirta (L.) D. Don Melastomataceae
√ 373 Medinilla beddomei Clarke √ E 374 Melastoma malabathricum L. √ √ √
375
Memecylon heyneanum Benth. ex Wight & Arn.
√ E
376
Memecylon randerianum SM & MR Almeida
√ E
377
Memecylon umbellatum Burm.f.
√ √
378
Sonerila grandiflora R. Br. ex Wight & Arn. √ E & VU
379
Sonerila rheedei Wight & Arn. √ E
380 Sonerila versicolor Wight √ E 381 Aglaia elaeagnoidea (A. Juss.) Benth.
Meliaceae √
382 Aglaia simplicifolia (Bedd.) Harms √ E & VU 383 Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) Parker √ 384 Azadirachta indica A.Juss. √ √ 385 Munronia pinnata (Wall.) Harms √ E 386 Naregamia alata Wight & Arn. √ √
387 Swietenia macrophylla King √ √
388 Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight & Arn. Menispermaceae
√ √ √
389
Cyclea peltata (Lam.) Hook.f. & Thomson
√ √ √
390
Tiliacora acuminata (Poir.) Miers ex Hook.f. & Thoms.
√ √ √
391 Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers. √ √
47
392 Nymphoides hydrophylla (Lour.) O. Ktze. Menyanthaceae √ √ 393 Nymphoides indica (L.) O.Ktze. √ √ 394 Glinus oppositifolius (L.) Aug.DC. Molluginaceae √ √ 395 Mollugo pentaphylla L √ 396 Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Moraceae √ √ √ 397 Artocarpus hirsutus Lam √ √ E
398
Artocarpus incisus (Thunb.) L.f.
√
399 Broussonetia papyrifera Vent. √ 400 Dorstenia indica Wall. ex Wight √ 401 Ficus arnottiana (Miq.) Miq. √ E
402
Ficus drupacea Thunb. var.pubescens (Roth) Corner
√ √
403 Ficus heterophylla L.f. √ √ √ 404 Ficus hispida L. f. √ √ √
405
Ficus laevis Blume var. macrocarpa (Miq.) Corner
√ E
406 Ficus pumila L. √
407 Ficus racemosa L. √ √ √ 408 Ficus religiosa L. √ √ √
409
Ficus tinctoria G. Forst.ssp.parasitica (Koen. ex Willd.) Corner
√
410 Streblus asper Lour. √ 411 Streblus taxoides (Heyne ex Roth) Kurz √
412 Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. Moringaceae √ √
413 Musa x paradisiaca L. Musaceae √ √
414
Gymnacranthera farquhariana (Hook.f. & Thoms.) Warb.
Myristicaceae
√
415
Knema attenuata (Hook. f. & Thoms.) Warb.
√ E
√
416 Ardisia littoralis Andr. Myrsinaceae √ 417 Embelia ribes Burm. f. √ √ 418 Embelia tsjeriam-cottam (Roem. & Schult.) √ √
48
DC. 419 Eugenia mooniana Wight Myrtaceae √
420 Psidium guajava L. √ √
421 Syzygium aqueum (Burm.f.) Alston √ 422 Syzygium caryophyllatum (L.) Alston √ 423 Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels √ √ 424 Syzygium malaccense (L) Merr. & Perry √ 425 Syzygium munronii (Wight) Chandrab. √ E 426 Syzygium zeylanicum (L.) DC. √ √ 427 Boerhavia diffusa L. Nyctaginaceae √ √ √ √ 428 Nymphaea nouchali Burm.f. Nymphaceae √ 429 Nymphaea pubescens Willd. √ 430 Nymphaea rubra Roxb. ex Salisb. √ 431 Gomphia serrata (Gaertn.) Kanis Ochnaceae √ √
432
Chionanthus mala-elengi (Dennst.) P. S. Green ssp. linocieroides (Wight) P. S. Green
Oleaceae √ E
433 Jasminum angustifolium (L.) Willd. √ 434 Jasminum coarctatum Roxb. √ 435 Jasminum flexile Vahl √ 436 Myxopyrum smilacifolium (Wall.) Blume √ √ 437 Olea dioica Roxb √ √ E 438 Ludwigia adscendens (L.) Hara Onagraceae √ 439 Ludwigia hyssopifolia (G. Don) Exell √ √ 440 Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven √ √ 441 Cansjera rheedei Gmel. Opiliaceae √
442
Acampe praemorsa (Roxb.) Blatt. & McCann
Orchidaceae √ √
443 Aerides ringens (Lindl.) C.E.C. Fisch. √ 444 Bulbophyllum tremulum Wight √ E
445 Calanthe sylvatica (Thouars) Lindl. √
446 Conchidium braccatum (Lindl.) Brieger √ E 447 Cymbidium aloifolium (L.) Sw. √
49
448
Dendrobium kallarense J. Mathew et. Yohannan
√ E
449 Goodyera procera (Ker.-Gawl.) Hook. √
450 Habenaria longicorniculata Graham √ E 451 Habenaria longicornu Lindl. √ E 452 Liparis viridiflora (Blume) Lindl. √ 453 Luisia macrantha Blatt. & McCann √ E 454 Seidenfia rheedei (Sw.) Szlach. √ 455 Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames √ 456 Vanda testacea (Lindl.) Rchb.f. √
457 Zeuxine longilabris (Lindl.) Trimen √ √ √
458
Christisonia tubulosa (Wight) Benth. ex Hook. f.
Orobanchaceae √ E
459 Biophytum reinwardtii (Zucc.) Klotzsch Oxalidaceae √ √ √ √
460 Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC. √ √ 461 Oxalis corniculata L. √ √ √ 462 Pandanus odorifer (Forssk.) Kuntze Pandanaceae √ 463 Passiflora foetida L. var.foetida Gamble Passifloraceae √ 464 Sesamum radiatum Schum. Pedaliaceae √ √ 465 Cryptolepis buchananii Roem. & Schult. Periplocaceae √
466 Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. ex Schult. √ √ √ √
467 Rivina humilis L. Phytalocaceae √ √ 468 Lepianthes umbellata (L.) Rafin. Piperaceae
√
469 Peperomia blanda (Jacq.) Kunth √ E 470 Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth √ √ √ 471 Piper longum L. √ √ 472 Piper nigrum L. √ √ 473 Piper velayudhani E.S.S.Kumar √ 474 Piper schmidtii Hook.f. √ E 475 Xanthophyllum arnottianum Wight Polygalaceae √ √ √ E 476 Acroceras munroanum (Balansa) Henrard Poaceae √ √ E 477 Arundo donax L. √ √ √
50
478 Axonopus compressus (Sw.) P. Beauv. √ √
479 Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss √ √ √ 480 Bambusa striata Lodd. ex Lindl. √ √ 481 Centotheca lappacea (L.) Desv. √ √ 482 Cenchrus echinatus L. √ 483 Chloris barbata Sw. √ √ 484 Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin. √ √
485 Chrysopogon hackelii (Hook.f.) C.E.C. Fisch. √ E
486 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. √ √ √ 487 Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd. √ √ 488 Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koeler √ √ 489 Digitaria radicosa (Pers.) Miq. √ √
490
Diplachne fusca (L.) P.Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult.
√ √
491 Echinochloa frumentacea Link √ √ 492 Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. √ √ 493 Ischaemum barbatum Retz. √ √ 494 Ischaemum muticum L. √ √ 495 Ischaemum timorense Kunth √ 496 Oplismenus burmannii (Retz.) P. Beauv. √ √ 497 Oplismenus composites (L.) P. Beauv. √ 498 Panicum notatum Retz. √ 499 Pennisetum pedicellatumTrin. √ 500 Perotis indica (L.) O. Ktze. √ 501 Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud. √ √ 502 Pseudoraphis spinescens (R. Br.) Vickery √ 503 Saccharum arundinaceum Retz. √ √ 504 Saccharum spontaneum L. √ √ 505 Sacciolepis interrupta (Willd.) Stapf √ 506 Persicaria barbata (L.) Hara Polygonaceae √ √ 507 Persicaria glabra (Willd.) Gomez, √ √ 508 Persicaria pulchra (Blume) Sojak √ √ 509 Persicaria strigosa (R. Br.) Nakai √
51
510
Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms.
Pontederiaceae
√
511 Monochoria vaginalis (Burm. f.) Presl √ 512 Portulaca oleracea L. Portulaceae √ √ √
513
Talinum portulacifolium (Forssk.) Aschers & Schweinf
√ √
514
Potamogeton octandrus Poir. Potamogetonaceae
√
515 Naravelia zeylanica (L.) DC Ranunculaceae √ √ √ 516 Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Mill. Rhamnaceae √ √ 517 Ziziphus rugosa Lam. √ √ 518 Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr. Rhizophoraceae √ √
519
Canthium coromandelicum (Burm. f.) Alston
Rubiaceae √ √
520 Canthium rheedei DC. √ √ E
521
Chassalia curviflora var. ophioxyloides (Wall.) Deb & B.Krishna
√ √
522 Dentella repens (L.) J. R. & G. Forst. √ √ 523 Ixora coccinea L. √ √ √
524 Ixora javanica (Blume) DC. √
525 Ixora lanceolaria Colebr. √ E 526 Ixora malabarica (Dennst.) Mabb. √ E 527 Mitracarpus hirtus (L.) DC. √ 528 Morinda citrifolia L. √ √ √ 529 Morinda umbellata L. √ 530 Morinda reticulata Gamble √ E & EN
531 Mussaenda frondosa L. √ √ E
532
Ochreinauclea missionis (Wall. ex G. Don) Ridsd.
√ √ E & VU
533 Oldenlandia auricularia (L.) K. Schum. √ √ 534 Oldenlandia corymbosa L. √ √ 535 Oldenlandia trinervia Retz. √
52
536 Pavetta indica L. √
537
Psilanthus travancorensis (Wight & Arn.) Leroy
√ √ √
538 Spermacoce hispida L. √ √ 539 Spermacoce ocymoides Burm.f. √ 540 Acronychia pedunculata (L.) Miq. Rutaceae
√ √
541 Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa √ √
542
Atalantia racemosa Wight var. bourdillonii K.N. Nair & M.P. Nayar
√ E
543 Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC. √ √ √
544
Melicope lunu-ankenda (Gaertn.) T.G. Hartley
√
545 Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. √ √
546
Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) Nicolson
√ √
547 Scleropyrum pentandrum (Dennst.) Mabb. Santalaceae √ E 548 Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Sapindaceae √ √ √ 549 Otonephelium stipulaceum (Bedd.) Radlk. √ E 550 Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Merr. √ 551 Chrysophyllum cainito L. Sapotaceae √ 552 Isonandra lanceolata Wight √ √
553 Madhuca neriifolia (Moon) H. J. Lam √
554 Adenosma indianum (Lour.) Merr. Scrophulariaceae
√ 555 Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell √ √ √ 556 Limnophila aquatica (Roxb.) Alston √ 557 Limnophila aromatica (Lam.) Merr. √ √ √ 558 Limnophila repens (Benth.) Benth. √ 559 Lindernia anagallis (Burm. f.) Pennell √
560 Lindernia antipoda (L.) Alston √ √
561 Lindernia caespitosa (Blume) Panigrahi √
562 Lindernia hyssopioides (L.) Haines √ √
563 Lindernia rotundifolia (L.) Mukerjee √ √ 564 Mecardonia procumbens (Mill.) Small √
53
565 Scoparia dulcis L. √ √ √ √ 566 Torenia bicolor Dalz. √ E 567 Torenia hirsuta Willd. √ √ E 568 Ailanthus triphysa (Dennst.) Alston Simaroubaceae √ 569 Quassia indica (Gaertn.) Nooteb. √ √ √ √ 570 Smilax zeylanica L. Smilacaceae √ 571 Capsicum annuum L. Solanaceae √ √ 572 Datura stramonium L. √ 573 Physalis angulata L. √ √ √ 574 Solanum americanum Mill. √ 575 Solanum capsicoides All. √ 576 Solanum torvum Sw. √ 577 Helicteres isora L. Sterculiaceae √ √ √ 578 Melochia corchorifolia L. √ √ 579 Sterculia foetida L. √ √ 580 Sterculia guttata Roxb. ex G.Don √ 581 Sterculia villosa Roxb. √ 582 Waltheria indica L. √ √
583
Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) Moore ssp. laurina (Retz.) Nooteb.
Symplocaceae √ √
584 Corchorus aestuans L. Tiliaceae √ 585 Grewia nervosa (Lour.) Panigrahi √ √ 586 Grewia tiliifolia Vahl 587 Triumfetta annua L. √ 588 Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq √ √ √ 589 Trema orientalis (L.) Blume Ulmaceae √ √ 590 Laportea interrupta (L.) Chew Urticaceae √ √
591
Pilea microphylla (L.) Liebm.
√ √ √
592 Pouzolzia zeylanica (L.) Benn. √ √ √ 593 Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Gaertn. Verbenaceae √ √ √ 594 Clerodendrum infortunatum L. √ √ 595 Lantana camara L. √ √ √
54
596 Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene √ √ 597 Premna serratifolia L. √ √ √ 598 Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl √ √ 599 Tectona grandis L. f √ 600 Vitex pinnata L. √ √ 601 Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F.Muell. Violaceae √ √ 602 Ampelocissus indica (L.) Planch Vitaceae √ √ 603 Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch. √ 604 Cayratia pedata (Lam.) A. Juss. ex Gagnep. √ 605 Cissus latifolia Lam √ √ 606 Cissus trilobata Lam. √
607
Xyris pauciflora Willd. Xyridaceae √
608 Alpinia malaccensis (Burm. f.) Rosc. Zingiberaceae √
609 Amomum muricatum Bedd. √ E 610 Curcuma aeruginosa Roxb. √ 611 Curcuma ecalcarata Sivar. & Indu √ E √
612 Globba sessiliflora Sim. √
613 Zingiber nimmonii Dalz. √ E
614 Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Roscoe ex Sm. √ √ √
TOTAL 614 Species; 549 Genus F: 130 S: 319 ( G: 276)
S: 345 (G:298)
S: 305 (G: 276)
S:104 S : 107
B. PTERIDOPHYTES B. PTERIDOPHYTES B. PTERIDOPHYTES B. PTERIDOPHYTES Sl. No Scientific Name Family Upper Zone Middle Zone Lower Zone Status
1. Adiantum capillus-veneris L Adiantacdeae √ √ √
2. A diantum concinnum Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd
√
3. Adiantum philippense L. √ √
4. Asplenium crinicaule Hance Aspleniaceae √ 5. Asplenium tenerum G. Forst.
√
55
6. Blechnum occidentale L.
Blechnaceae √
7. Stenochlaena palustris (Burm.f.) Bedd. √ √ 8. Cyathea spinulosa Wall. ex Hook.
Cyatheaceae √
9. Lygodium japonicum (Thunb.) Sw. Lygodiaceae √
10. Marsilea minuta L. Marsileaceae √ √
11. Osmunda hugeliana C.Presl
Osmundaceae √
12. Leptochilus decurrens Blume Polypodiaceae √ √ √ 13. Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J. Sm. √ √ 14. Microsorum pteropus Blume √ √ √
15. Pyrrosia piloselloides (L.) M.G. Price √ √ √ 16. Acrostichum aureum L. Pteridaceae √ √ √ 17. Parahemionitis cordata (Roxb. ex. Hook &
Grev.) Fraser – Jenkins √ √ √
18. Vittaria elongata Sw. √ √ √ 19. Azolla pinnata R. Br. Salviniaceae √ 20. Salvinia molesta D.Mitch √ √
TOTALTOTALTOTALTOTAL S: 20 (G: 18)S: 20 (G: 18)S: 20 (G: 18)S: 20 (G: 18)
F: F: F: F: 10101010 S: 12 (G: 11)
S: 14 (G: 12)
S: 13 (G: 12)
S: 1
C. GYMNOSPERMC. GYMNOSPERMC. GYMNOSPERMC. GYMNOSPERM
Sl. No Scientific Name Family Upper Zone Middle Zone Lower Zone Status 1 Cycas circinalis L. Cycadaceae √ EN 2 Gnetum edule (Willd.) Blume Gnetaceae √ E
TOTALTOTALTOTALTOTAL S: 2 (G: 2)
F: F: F: F: 2222 S :1 (G : 1)
S :1 (G : 1)
S:2
Rare and Endemic species
56
4.2.4.2.4.2.4.2. Rare and Endemic SpeciesRare and Endemic SpeciesRare and Endemic SpeciesRare and Endemic Species
Checkilist of rare and endemic species are
enlisted here.
4444....2222.1. .1. .1. .1. Rare and Endemic Rare and Endemic Rare and Endemic Rare and Endemic floweflowefloweflowerrrring ing ing ing plantsplantsplantsplants
Family: AcanthaceaeFamily: AcanthaceaeFamily: AcanthaceaeFamily: Acanthaceae
1.1.1.1. Andrographis atropurpurea Andrographis atropurpurea Andrographis atropurpurea Andrographis atropurpurea (Dennst.)
Alston
Habit : Herb
Habitat : Openings in
evergreen and semi-
evergreen forests
Distribution : Western Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : July – September
2.2.2.2. Barleria courtallica Barleria courtallica Barleria courtallica Barleria courtallica Nees
Habit : Shrub
Habitat : Evergreen and semi-
evergreen forests
Distribution : Western Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : January – May
3.3.3.3. Dipteracanthus prostratusDipteracanthus prostratusDipteracanthus prostratusDipteracanthus prostratus (Poir.) Nees
Habit : Shrub
Habitat : Degraded forest
areas, also in the
plains
Distribution : Western Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : February –
November
4.4.4.4. Strobilanthes barbatusStrobilanthes barbatusStrobilanthes barbatusStrobilanthes barbatus Nees Habit
: Shrub
Habitat : Evergreen forests
Distribution : Western Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : September-
December
5.5.5.5. Strobilanthes ciliatusStrobilanthes ciliatusStrobilanthes ciliatusStrobilanthes ciliatus Nees
Habit : Shrub
Habitat : Evergreen and semi-
evergreen forests
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : October-December
6.6.6.6. Strobilanthes lawsoniStrobilanthes lawsoniStrobilanthes lawsoniStrobilanthes lawsoni Gamble
Habit : Shrub
Habitat : Evergreen forests
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : October-Decdember
7.7.7.7. StrobilanthesStrobilanthesStrobilanthesStrobilanthes luridusluridusluridusluridus Wight
Habit : Shrub
Habitat : Evergreen and shoal
forests
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : October-April
Family: AnacardiaceaeFamily: AnacardiaceaeFamily: AnacardiaceaeFamily: Anacardiaceae
1. Buchanania lanceolataBuchanania lanceolataBuchanania lanceolataBuchanania lanceolata Wight
Habit : Tree
Habitat : Semi-evergreen and
evergreen forests, also
in the plains
Distribution : South India and
Myanmar
Status : Vulnerable
Fl. & Fr. : November- March
2. Holigarna arnottiana Holigarna arnottiana Holigarna arnottiana Holigarna arnottiana Hook. F
Habit : Tree
Habitat : Semi-evergreen and
evergreen forests, also
in the plains
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : December- July
3. Nothopegia aureoNothopegia aureoNothopegia aureoNothopegia aureo----fulvafulvafulvafulva Bedd. ex
Hook. f.
Habit : Tree
Habitat : Evergreen forests
Distribution : Southern Western
Rare and Endemic species
57
Ghats
Status : Endemic & Critically
Endangered
Fl. & Fr. : December- July
Family: Family: Family: Family: AnonaceaeAnonaceaeAnonaceaeAnonaceae
1. Meiogyne pannosaMeiogyne pannosaMeiogyne pannosaMeiogyne pannosa (Dalzell) J. Sinclair
Habit : Tree
Habitat : Evergreen forests
Distribution : Western Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. &Fr : Throughout the year
2. Meiogyne Meiogyne Meiogyne Meiogyne ramarowiiramarowiiramarowiiramarowii (Dunn) Gandhi
Habit : Shrub
Habitat : Evergreen forests
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : January- August
3. Phaeanthus malabaricusPhaeanthus malabaricusPhaeanthus malabaricusPhaeanthus malabaricus Bedd.
Habit : Shrub.
Habitat : Evergreen forests
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats (Kerala)
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : Throughout the year
Family : Family : Family : Family : ApocynaceaeApocynaceaeApocynaceaeApocynaceae
1. Rauvolfia hookeriRauvolfia hookeriRauvolfia hookeriRauvolfia hookeri Sriniv. & Chithra
Habit : Shrub
Habitat : Evergreen and semi-
evergreen forests
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic &
Endangered
Fl. & Fr. :January- June
2. Strophanthus wightianusStrophanthus wightianusStrophanthus wightianusStrophanthus wightianus Wall. ex
Wight
Habit : Climber
Habitat : Evergreen and semi-
evergreen forests and
sacred groves
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : September- January
3. Tabernaemontana alternifoliaTabernaemontana alternifoliaTabernaemontana alternifoliaTabernaemontana alternifolia L.
Habit : Tree
Habitat : Moist deciduous
forests, also in sacred
groves
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : April- October
Family : Family : Family : Family : AraceaAraceaAraceaAraceaeeee
1. Amorphophallus nicolsonianus Amorphophallus nicolsonianus Amorphophallus nicolsonianus Amorphophallus nicolsonianus Sivad.
Habit : Herb
Habitat : Evergreen forests
Distribution : Western Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : May - September
2. Anaphyllum wightiiAnaphyllum wightiiAnaphyllum wightiiAnaphyllum wightii Schott
Habit : Herb
Habitat : Evergreen and semi-
evergreen forests
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : January - February
3. Arisaema leschenaultiiArisaema leschenaultiiArisaema leschenaultiiArisaema leschenaultii Blume
Habit :Herb
Habitat :Margins of evergreen
forests, sholas and
grasslands
Distriution :Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr . : July - September
Family :Family :Family :Family :ArecaceaeArecaceaeArecaceaeArecaceae
1.1.1.1. Arenga wightiiArenga wightiiArenga wightiiArenga wightii Griff.
Habit : Tree
Habitat :Evergreen forests
Rare and Endemic species
58
Distribution :Western Ghats
Status : Endemic &
Vulnerable
Fl. & Fr. :July - September
Family : Family : Family : Family : AristalochiaceaeAristalochiaceaeAristalochiaceaeAristalochiaceae
1.1.1.1. Aristolochia krisagathraAristolochia krisagathraAristolochia krisagathraAristolochia krisagathra Sivar. &
Pradeep
Habit :Climber
Habitat :Evergreen and semi-
evergreen forests
Distribution :Southern Western
Ghats (Kerala)
Status :Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : Throughout the year
Family : Family : Family : Family : AsclepiadaceaeAsclepiadaceaeAsclepiadaceaeAsclepiadaceae
1. Ceropegia elegansCeropegia elegansCeropegia elegansCeropegia elegans Wall.
Habit : Climber
Habitat : Deciduous forests
Distribution : Peninsular India
Status :Endemic
Fl. & Fr. :March- April
Family : Family : Family : Family : BalsaminaceaeBalsaminaceaeBalsaminaceaeBalsaminaceae
1.1.1.1. Impatiens cordataImpatiens cordataImpatiens cordataImpatiens cordata Wight
Habit :Herb
Habitat : Near water courses
in evergreen forests
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : December- March
December
2.2.2.2. Impatiens diversifoliaImpatiens diversifoliaImpatiens diversifoliaImpatiens diversifolia B.Heyne ex
Wight & Arn.
Habit : Herb
Habitat : Damp, moist areas
Distribution : Western Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : June- November Family : Family : Family : Family :
BombacaceaeBombacaceaeBombacaceaeBombacaceae
1.1.1.1. Cullenia exarillata Cullenia exarillata Cullenia exarillata Cullenia exarillata Robyns
Habit :Tree
Habitat :Evergreen forests
Distribution :Southern Western
Ghats
3.3.3.3. Impatiens herbicola Impatiens herbicola Impatiens herbicola Impatiens herbicola Hook. f.
Habit :Herb
Habitat :Grasslands
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic &
Vulnerable
Fl. & Fr. : November- January
Family : Family : Family : Family : BegoniaceaeBegoniaceaeBegoniaceaeBegoniaceae
1.1.1.1. Begonia cordifoliaBegonia cordifoliaBegonia cordifoliaBegonia cordifolia (Wight) Thw.
Habit : Herb
Habitat : Evergreen forests
Distribution : Peninsular India
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : July- August
Status : Vulnerable
Fl. & Fr. : January- November
Family :Family :Family :Family :CapparaceaeCapparaceaeCapparaceaeCapparaceae
1. Capparis rheedei Capparis rheedei Capparis rheedei Capparis rheedei DC.
Habit : Shrub
Habitat : Evergreen forests
Distribution : Western Ghats
Status : Endemic &
Vulnerable
Fl. & Fr. : September - March
Family :Family :Family :Family :CelastraceaeCelastraceaeCelastraceaeCelastraceae
1. Euonymus dichotomusEuonymus dichotomusEuonymus dichotomusEuonymus dichotomus Heyne ex
Roxb.
Habit : Shrub
Habitat : Evergreen forests
Distribution : Western Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : September - March
Family : Family : Family : Family : CommelinaceaeCommelinaceaeCommelinaceaeCommelinaceae
1.1.1.1. Belosynapsis viviparaBelosynapsis viviparaBelosynapsis viviparaBelosynapsis vivipara (Dalz.) C.E.C.
Fisch
Habit : Herb
Rare and Endemic species
59
Habitat : Evergreen forests
Distribution : Western Ghats
Status : Endemic &
Vulnerable
Fl. & Fr. : August - December
2.2.2.2. Dictyospermum montanumDictyospermum montanumDictyospermum montanumDictyospermum montanum Wight
Habit :Herb
Habitat : Evergreen and semi-
evergreen forests
Distribution :Peninsular India
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : July- October
Family : Family : Family : Family : DipterocarpaceaeDipterocarpaceaeDipterocarpaceaeDipterocarpaceae
1. Dipterocarpus indicusDipterocarpus indicusDipterocarpus indicusDipterocarpus indicus Bedd.
Habit :Tree
Habitat :Evergreen and semi-
evergreen
forests
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic &
Vulnerable
Fl. & Fr. : January- June
2. Hopea ponga Hopea ponga Hopea ponga Hopea ponga (Dennst.) Mabb.
Habit :Tree
Habitat :Evergreen and semi-
evergreen
forests, along in the
plains in sacred groves
Distribution :Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic &
Vulnerable
Fl. & Fr. :March- June
3. Hopea parvifloraHopea parvifloraHopea parvifloraHopea parviflora Bedd.
Habit :Tree
Habitat :Evergreen and semi-
evergreen
forests, along in the
plains in sacred groves
Distribution :Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic &
Vulnerable
Fl. & Fr. :January- June
4. Vateria indicaVateria indicaVateria indicaVateria indica L.
Habit :Tree
Habitat :Evergreen and semi-
evergreen forests, also
in the plains
Distribution :Western Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. :March- August
Family : Family : Family : Family : EbenaceaeEbenaceaeEbenaceaeEbenaceae
1. Diospyros bourdilloniiDiospyros bourdilloniiDiospyros bourdilloniiDiospyros bourdillonii Brandis
Habit :Tree
Habitat :Evergreen forests
Distribution :Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : March- December
Family : Family : Family : Family : EriocaulaceaeEriocaulaceaeEriocaulaceaeEriocaulaceae
1. Eriocaulon heterolepis Eriocaulon heterolepis Eriocaulon heterolepis Eriocaulon heterolepis Steud.
Habit : Herb
Habitat : Marshy grasslands
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : November- January
Family : Family : Family : Family : EuphorbiaceaeEuphorbiaceaeEuphorbiaceaeEuphorbiaceae
1.1.1.1. Agrostistachys indicaAgrostistachys indicaAgrostistachys indicaAgrostistachys indica Dalzell
Habit : Shrub
Habitat : Evergreen and shola
forests
Distribution : Central and
Peninsular India
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : February- March
2.2.2.2. Baccaurea courtallensisBaccaurea courtallensisBaccaurea courtallensisBaccaurea courtallensis (Wight)
Muell.-Arg.
Habit : Tree
Habitat : Evergreen and semi-
Rare and Endemic species
60
evergreen forests
Distribution : Peninsular India
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : January- June
3.3.3.3. Dimorphocalyx glabellus Dimorphocalyx glabellus Dimorphocalyx glabellus Dimorphocalyx glabellus Thw.Thw.Thw.Thw. var.
lawianuslawianuslawianuslawianus (Muell.-Arg.) Chakrab. &
Balakr.
Habit : Tree
Habitat :Evergreen forests
Distribution :Peninsular India
Status : Endemic &
Vulnerable
Fl. & Fr. : December-
September
4.4.4.4. Glochidion hohenackeriGlochidion hohenackeriGlochidion hohenackeriGlochidion hohenackeri (Muell.-
Arg.) Bedd. var. johnstoneijohnstoneijohnstoneijohnstonei (Hook.
f.) Chakrab. & Gangop.
Habit : Tree
Habitat :Semi-evergreen and
evergreen forests
Distribution :Southern Western
Ghats
Status :Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : April- November
evergreen forests
Distribution : Western Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : October- March
Family : Family : Family : Family : Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae
Sub Family : Sub Family : Sub Family : Sub Family : CaesalpiniaceaeCaesalpiniaceaeCaesalpiniaceaeCaesalpiniaceae
1. Bauhinia phoeniceaBauhinia phoeniceaBauhinia phoeniceaBauhinia phoenicea Wight & Arn.
Habit :Climber
Habitat :Evergreen and semi-
evergreen forests
Distribution :Western Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : December- April
2. Humboldtia vahlianaHumboldtia vahlianaHumboldtia vahlianaHumboldtia vahliana Wight
Habit : Shrub
Habitat : Evergreen forests
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic & `
Endangered
Fl. & Fr. : October- March
Sub Family : Sub Family : Sub Family : Sub Family : PapilionaceaePapilionaceaePapilionaceaePapilionaceae
1.1.1.1. KunstleriaKunstleriaKunstleriaKunstleria keralensiskeralensiskeralensiskeralensis C.N.Mohanan
& N.C.Nair
Habit :Climber
Habitat : Evergreen and
semi- evergreen
forests, also in
sacred groves
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats (Kerala
Status : Vulnerable
Fl. & Fr. : April- June
2.2.2.2. Mucuna monospermaMucuna monospermaMucuna monospermaMucuna monosperma DC. ex Wight
Habit :Climber
Habitat : Moist deciduous and
semi-evergreen forests,
also in the plains
Distribution : Western Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : September-
December
Family: Family: Family: Family: FlacourtiaceaeFlacourtiaceaeFlacourtiaceaeFlacourtiaceae
1. Casearia ovataCasearia ovataCasearia ovataCasearia ovata (Lam.) Willd.
Habit : Tree
Habitat : Evergreen and
semi-evergreen
forests
Distribution : India
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : April- June
2. Hydnocarpus pentandraHydnocarpus pentandraHydnocarpus pentandraHydnocarpus pentandra (Buch.-Ham.)
Oken
Habit : Tree
Habitat : Semi-evergreen
and moist
deciduous forests,
also in the plains
Distribution : Western Ghats
Rare and Endemic species
61
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : December- May
Family: Family: Family: Family: GentianaceaeGentianaceaeGentianaceaeGentianaceae
1.1.1.1. Exacum Exacum Exacum Exacum atropurpureumatropurpureumatropurpureumatropurpureum Bedd.
Habit : Herb
Habitat : Grasslands and
scrub jungles in
laterite hillocks
Distribution : Peninsular India
Status : Endemic &
Vulnerable
Fl. & Fr. : November-
January
Family: Family: Family: Family: GesneriaceaeGesneriaceaeGesneriaceaeGesneriaceae
1.1.1.1. Aeschynanthus perrottetiiAeschynanthus perrottetiiAeschynanthus perrottetiiAeschynanthus perrottetii A.DC.
Habit : Shrub
Habitat :Evergreen and
shola forests
Distribution :Western Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : November- January
2.2.2.2. Epithema carnosumEpithema carnosumEpithema carnosumEpithema carnosum (G. Don) Benth.
var. hispidahispidahispidahispida Clarke
Habit : Herb
Habitat : On wet rocks in
grasslands
Distribution : Peninsular India
Status : Endemic &
Vulnerable
Fl. & Fr. : May- October
Family: Family: Family: Family: HippocrataceaeHippocrataceaeHippocrataceaeHippocrataceae
1.1.1.1. SalaciaSalaciaSalaciaSalacia fruticosafruticosafruticosafruticosa Wall.Wall.Wall.Wall.
Habit : Climber
Habitat : Evergreen and
semi-evergreen
forests, also in the
sacred
groves and plains
Distribution : Western Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : February- May
Family: Family: Family: Family: LauraceaeLauraceaeLauraceaeLauraceae
1. Actinodaphne bourdilloniiActinodaphne bourdilloniiActinodaphne bourdilloniiActinodaphne bourdillonii Gamble
Habit : Tree
Habitat : Shola and
evergreen forests
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic &
Vulnerable
Fl. & Fr. : April- March
2. CinnamomumCinnamomumCinnamomumCinnamomum malabatrummalabatrummalabatrummalabatrum (Burm.f.)
J.Presl
Habit : Tree
Habitat : Evergreen and
semi-evergreen
forests, also in the
plains
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. :March- April
3. Litsea bourdilloniiLitsea bourdilloniiLitsea bourdilloniiLitsea bourdillonii Gamble
Habit :Tree
Habitat : Evergreen forests
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic &
Vulnerable
Fl. & Fr. : December- May
4. Litsea coriaceaLitsea coriaceaLitsea coriaceaLitsea coriacea (Heyne ex Meisner)
Hook. f.
Habit : Tree
Habitat : Semi-evergreen
forests and sacred
groves
Distribution : Peninsular India
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : December- January
5. Neolitsea Neolitsea Neolitsea Neolitsea scrobiculatascrobiculatascrobiculatascrobiculata (Meisner)
Gamble
Habit : Tree
Habitat : Evergreen and
shola forests
Distribution : Southern Western
Rare and Endemic species
62
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. :January- May
Family: Family: Family: Family: LoranthaceaeLoranthaceaeLoranthaceaeLoranthaceae
1. Scurrula parasiticaScurrula parasiticaScurrula parasiticaScurrula parasitica L.
Habit : Epiphytic herb
Habitat : Evergreen and
moist deciduous
forests, also in the
plains
Distribution :Western Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : December - March
Family: Family: Family: Family: LythraceaeLythraceaeLythraceaeLythraceae
1.1.1.1. Lagerstroemia microcarpaLagerstroemia microcarpaLagerstroemia microcarpaLagerstroemia microcarpa Wight
Habit : Tree
Habitat : Moist deciduous
forests, also in the
plains
Distribution : Western Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : June - February
2.2.2.2. Rotala macrandraRotala macrandraRotala macrandraRotala macrandra Koehne
Habit : Herb
Habitat : Marshy areas and
ponds
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : September-
December
Family: Family: Family: Family: MalvaceaeMalvaceaeMalvaceaeMalvaceae
1. Sida rhomboideaSida rhomboideaSida rhomboideaSida rhomboidea Roxb. ex Fleming
Habit : Shrub
Habitat : Wastelands
Distribution : Peninsular India
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : July- September
Family: Family: Family: Family: MelastomataceaeMelastomataceaeMelastomataceaeMelastomataceae
1.1.1.1. MedinillaMedinillaMedinillaMedinilla beddomeibeddomeibeddomeibeddomei C.B.Clarke
Habit : Shrub
Habitat : Moist deciduous,
semi-evergreen and
evergreen forests
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : May- June
2.2.2.2. Memecylon Memecylon Memecylon Memecylon heyneanumheyneanumheyneanumheyneanum Benth. ex
Wight & Arn.
Habit : Shrub
Habitat : Evergreen forests
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. :March- June
3.3.3.3. Memecylon randerianumMemecylon randerianumMemecylon randerianumMemecylon randerianum SM & MR
Almeida
Habit : Shrub
Habitat : Evergreen and
semi-evergreen
forests, and also in
sacred groves
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. :February- May
4.4.4.4. SonerilaSonerilaSonerilaSonerila grandifloragrandifloragrandifloragrandiflora R. Br. ex Wight
& Arn.
Habit : Herb
Habitat : Evergreen forests
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic &
Vulnnerable
Fl. & Fr. : November-
December
5.5.5.5. SonerilaSonerilaSonerilaSonerila rheedeirheedeirheedeirheedei WallWallWallWall
Habit : Herb
Habitat : Evergreen and
semi-evergreen
forests
Distribution : Southern Western
Rare and Endemic species
63
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : July- August
6.6.6.6. Sonerila versicolorSonerila versicolorSonerila versicolorSonerila versicolor Wight
Habit :Herb
Habitat :Evergreen forests
Distribution :Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic &
Vulnerable
Fl. & Fr. :August- November
Family: Family: Family: Family: MeliaceaeMeliaceaeMeliaceaeMeliaceae
1.1.1.1. Aglaia simplicifoliaAglaia simplicifoliaAglaia simplicifoliaAglaia simplicifolia (Bedd.) Harms
Habit : Shrub
Habitat : Evergreen forests
Distribution : Indo-Malesia
Status : Vulnerable
Fl. & Fr. : November- June
2.2.2.2. Munronia pinnataMunronia pinnataMunronia pinnataMunronia pinnata (Wall.) Harms
Habit :Herb
Habitat :Evergreen forests
Distribution :Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. :August- November
Family: Family: Family: Family: MoraceaeMoraceaeMoraceaeMoraceae
1.1.1.1. Artocarpus hirsutusArtocarpus hirsutusArtocarpus hirsutusArtocarpus hirsutus Lam
Habit : Tree
Habitat : Semi-evergreen
and moist
deciduous forests,
also in the plains
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : December- March
2.2.2.2. Ficus arnottianaFicus arnottianaFicus arnottianaFicus arnottiana (Miq.) Miq.
Habit : Tree
Habitat : Evergreen and
shola forests
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : August- April
3.3.3.3. Ficus laevis Ficus laevis Ficus laevis Ficus laevis Blume var. var. var. var. macrocarpamacrocarpamacrocarpamacrocarpa
(Miq.) Corner
Habit : Climber
Habitat :Evergreen and
shola forests
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : August- April
Family: Family: Family: Family: MyristicaceaeMyristicaceaeMyristicaceaeMyristicaceae
1.1.1.1. Knema Knema Knema Knema attenuata attenuata attenuata attenuata (Hook. f. & Thoms.)
War
Habit : Tree
Habitat :Evergreen and
semi-evergreen
forests
Distribution :Western Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : December- June
Family: Family: Family: Family: MyrtaceaeMyrtaceaeMyrtaceaeMyrtaceae
1.1.1.1. SyzygiumSyzygiumSyzygiumSyzygium munroniimunroniimunroniimunronii (Wight)
N.P.Balakr.
Habit : Shrub
Habitat :Evergreen forests
Distribution :Western Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : December- May
Family: Family: Family: Family: OleaceaeOleaceaeOleaceaeOleaceae
1. Chionanthus malaChionanthus malaChionanthus malaChionanthus mala----elengielengielengielengi (Dennst.) P.
S. Green ssp. ssp. ssp. ssp. linocieroideslinocieroideslinocieroideslinocieroides (Wight) P.
Habit : Tree
Habitat : Semi-evergreen,
evergreen and shola
forests
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic &
Endangered
Fl. & Fr. : January- May
Rare and Endemic species
64
2. Olea dioicaOlea dioicaOlea dioicaOlea dioica Roxb
Habit : Tree
Habitat :Semi-evergreen and
moist deciduous
forests, also in the
plains
Distribution :India
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : November- April
Family: Family: Family: Family: OrchidaceaeOrchidaceaeOrchidaceaeOrchidaceae
1.1.1.1. Bulbophyllum tremulumBulbophyllum tremulumBulbophyllum tremulumBulbophyllum tremulum Wight
Habit : Herb
Habitat :Semi-evergreen and
evergreen forests
Distribution : Western Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : June- September
2.2.2.2. Conchidium braccatumConchidium braccatumConchidium braccatumConchidium braccatum (Lindl.)
Brieger
Habit : Herb
Habitat :Evergreen forests
Distribution :Western Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. :September-
December
3.3.3.3. Dendrobium kallarenseDendrobium kallarenseDendrobium kallarenseDendrobium kallarense J. Mathew et.
Yohannan
Habit : Herb
Habitat :Evergreen forests
Distribution :Peninsular India
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. :July- August
4.4.4.4. Habenaria longicorniculataHabenaria longicorniculataHabenaria longicorniculataHabenaria longicorniculata J.Graham
Habit : Herb
Habitat :Grasslands and
moist deciduous
forests
Distribution :Western Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. :July- August
5.5.5.5. Habenaria longicornuHabenaria longicornuHabenaria longicornuHabenaria longicornu Lindl.
Habit : Herb
Habitat :Grasslands and
moist deciduous
forests
Distribution :Peninsular India
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : September-
October
6.6.6.6. Habenaria perrottetianaHabenaria perrottetianaHabenaria perrottetianaHabenaria perrottetianaA. Rich
Habit : Herb
Habitat :Grasslands
Distribution :South India
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. :September-
October
7.7.7.7. Luisia macranthaLuisia macranthaLuisia macranthaLuisia macrantha Blatt. & McCann
Habit : Herb
Habitat :Evergreen forests
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. :April- January
Family: Family: Family: Family: OrobanchaceaeOrobanchaceaeOrobanchaceaeOrobanchaceae
1.1.1.1. Christisonia tubulosaChristisonia tubulosaChristisonia tubulosaChristisonia tubulosa (Wight) Benth.
ex Hook. f
Habit : Herb
Habitat : Evergreen and
shola forests
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. :: July- August
Family: Family: Family: Family: PiperaceaePiperaceaePiperaceaePiperaceae
1. Peperomia blandaPeperomia blandaPeperomia blandaPeperomia blanda (Jacq.) Kunth
Habit : Herb
Habitat : Moist deciduous,
semi-evergreen and
evergreen forests
Distribution : Peninsular India
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : July- December
2. Piper schmidtiiPiper schmidtiiPiper schmidtiiPiper schmidtii Hook.f.
Habit : Climber
Rare and Endemic species
65
Habitat : Semi-evergreen
and evergreen
forests
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : December- March
Family: Family: Family: Family: PolygalaceaePolygalaceaePolygalaceaePolygalaceae
1. Xanthophyllum Xanthophyllum Xanthophyllum Xanthophyllum arnottianumarnottianumarnottianumarnottianum Wight
Habit : Tree
Habitat : Evergreen and
semi-evergreen
forests, also sacred
groves in the plains
Distribution : Western Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : Throughout the
year
Family: Family: Family: Family: PoaceaePoaceaePoaceaePoaceae
1.1.1.1. ChrysopogonChrysopogonChrysopogonChrysopogon hackeliihackeliihackeliihackelii (Hook.f.)
C.E.C.Fisch.
Habit : Herb
Habitat : Grasslands
Distribution : Peninsular India
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : October- January
Family: Family: Family: Family: RubiaceaeRubiaceaeRubiaceaeRubiaceae
1. Canthium rheedeiCanthium rheedeiCanthium rheedeiCanthium rheedei DC.
Habit : shrub
Habitat : Rocky areas in
semi-evergreen and
moist deciduous
forests,
also in sacred
groves
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : March- August
1.1.1.1. Hedyotis leschenaultianaHedyotis leschenaultianaHedyotis leschenaultianaHedyotis leschenaultiana DC. var. var. var. var.
leschenaultianaleschenaultianaleschenaultianaleschenaultiana Deb & Dutta
Habit : Shrub
Habitat : Evergreen and
shola forests
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : November- March
2.2.2.2. Ixora lanceolariaIxora lanceolariaIxora lanceolariaIxora lanceolaria Colebr.
Habit : Shrub
Habitat : Semi-evergreen
`forests and sacred
groves
Distribution : Western Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : January- May
3.3.3.3. Ixora malabaricaIxora malabaricaIxora malabaricaIxora malabarica (Dennst.) Mabb
Habit : Shrub
Habitat : Semi-evergreen
and moist
deciduous forests
and sacred groves
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic &
Vulnerable
Fl. & Fr. :October- March
4.4.4.4. Morinda reticulataMorinda reticulataMorinda reticulataMorinda reticulata Gamble
Habit : Climber
Habitat : Semi-evergreen
forests
Distribution : Peninsular India
Status : Endemic &
Endangered
Fl. & Fr. : April- May
5.5.5.5. Mussaenda frondosaMussaenda frondosaMussaenda frondosaMussaenda frondosa L.
Habit : Shrub
Habitat : Moist deciduous
and semi-
evergreen forests,
also in the plains
Distribution : Peninsular India
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : September- March
Rare and Endemic species
66
6.6.6.6. Ochreinauclea missionisOchreinauclea missionisOchreinauclea missionisOchreinauclea missionis (Wall. ex G.
Don) Ridsd.
Habit : Tree
Habitat : Riverine forests
Distribution : Western Ghats
Status : Endemic &
Vulnerable
Fl. & Fr. : August- January
Family: Family: Family: Family: RutaceaeRutaceaeRutaceaeRutaceae
1. Atalantia racemosaAtalantia racemosaAtalantia racemosaAtalantia racemosa Wight var.
bourdilloniibourdilloniibourdilloniibourdillonii K.N. Nair & M.P. Nayar
Habit : Shrub
Habitat : Evergreen and
semi-evergreen
forests
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : January- April
Family: Family: Family: Family: SaSaSaSantalaceaentalaceaentalaceaentalaceae
1.1.1.1. Scleropyrum pentandrumScleropyrum pentandrumScleropyrum pentandrumScleropyrum pentandrum (Dennst.)
Mabb.
Habit : Tree
Habitat : Evergreen and
semi-evergreen
forests
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : February- July
Family: SapindaceaeFamily: SapindaceaeFamily: SapindaceaeFamily: Sapindaceae
1.1.1.1. Otonephelium stipulaceum Otonephelium stipulaceum Otonephelium stipulaceum Otonephelium stipulaceum (Bedd.)
Radlk.
Habit : Tree
Habitat : Evergreen and
semi-evergreen
forests
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : February- July
Family: Family: Family: Family: SapotaceaeSapotaceaeSapotaceaeSapotaceae
1. PalaquiumPalaquiumPalaquiumPalaquium ellipticumellipticumellipticumellipticum (Dalzell) Baill.
Habit : Tree
Habitat : Evergreen forests
Distribution : Western Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : February-
July
Family: Family: Family: Family: ScrophulariaceaeScrophulariaceaeScrophulariaceaeScrophulariaceae
1. Torenia bicolorTorenia bicolorTorenia bicolorTorenia bicolor Dalz.
Habit : Herb
Habitat : Marshy areas
Distribution : Western Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : Throughout the year
2. Torenia Torenia Torenia Torenia hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta Willd
Habit : Herb
Habitat : Marshy areas
Distribution : Southern Western
Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : February-March
Family: Family: Family: Family: ZingiberaceaeZingiberaceaeZingiberaceaeZingiberaceae
1. Amomum muricatumAmomum muricatumAmomum muricatumAmomum muricatum Bedd.
Habit : Herb
Habitat : Evergreen forests
Distribution : Western Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : March- May
2. Curcuma ecalcarataCurcuma ecalcarataCurcuma ecalcarataCurcuma ecalcarata Sivar. & Indu
Habit : Herb
Habitat : Grasslands
Distribution : Western Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. : April -October
3. ZingiberZingiberZingiberZingiber nimmoniinimmoniinimmoniinimmonii (J.Graham)
Dalzell
Habit : Herb
Habitat : Moist deciduous
forests, also in the
Rare and Endemic species
67
plains
Distribution : Western Ghats
Status : Endemic
Fl. & Fr. :July- October
4.2.2.4.2.2.4.2.2.4.2.2.GymnospermGymnospermGymnospermGymnospermssss
Family :CycadaceaeFamily :CycadaceaeFamily :CycadaceaeFamily :Cycadaceae
1. CycasCycasCycasCycas circinaliscircinaliscircinaliscircinalis L.
Habitat :Wastelands and moist
deciduous forests
Distribution : Southern India
Status : Endangered
Family :GnetaceaeFamily :GnetaceaeFamily :GnetaceaeFamily :Gnetaceae
1. GnetumGnetumGnetumGnetum eduleeduleeduleedule (Willd.)Blume
Habitat :Evergreen and semi-
evergreen forests, also in sacred groves
in the plains
Distribution : Peninsular India
Status : Endemic
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
68
PLATE 13: a. Homonoia riparia Lour., b. Begonia malabarica Lam., c. Aerides ringens (Lindl.)
C.E.C. Fisch., d. Habenaria longicorniculata Graham, e. Aristolochia krisagathra Sivar. & Pradeep,
f. Humboldtia vahliana Wight
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
69
PLATE 14: a. Habenaria longicornu Lindl., b. Goodyera procera (Ker.-Gawl.) Hook., c.
Helicteres isora L., d. Ficus laevis Blume var. macrocarpa (Miq.) Corner, e. Hemidesmus indicus
(L.) R. Br., f. Impatiens cordata Wight
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
70
PLATE 15: a. Meiogyne ramarowii (Dunn) Gandhi, b. Zingiber nimmonii Dalz., c.
Molineria trichocarpa (Wight) Balakr., d. Mucuna monosperma DC. ex Wight, e.
Munronia pinnata (Wall.) Harms, f. Chionanthus mala-elengi (Dennst.) P. S.
Green ssp. linocieroides (Wight) P. S. Green
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
71
PLATE 16: a. Lophopetalum wightianum Arn., b. Luisia macrantha Blatt. & McCann, c.
Christisonia tubulosa (Wight) Benth. ex Hook. f., d. Strobilanthes luridus Wight, e. Hygrophila
schulli (Buch.-Ham.) M. R. & S. M. Almeida, f. Meiogyne pannosa (Dalz.) Sinclair
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
72
PLATE 17: a. Memecylon heyneanum Benth. ex Wight & Arn., b. Lagerstroemia microcarpa
Wight, c. Parahemionitis cordata (Roxb. ex. Hook & Grev.) Fraser – Jenkins, d. Barleria
courtallica Nees, e. Conchidium braccatum (Lindl.) Brieger, f. Crataeva magna (Lour.) DC.
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
73
PLATE 18: a. Tetracera akara (Burm. f.) Merr.., b. Amorphophallus nicolsonianus Sivad., c.
Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch., d. Diospyros bourdillonii Brandis, e. Gnetum edule
(Willd.) Blume, f. Anaphyllum wightii Schott
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
74
4.3. Weed invasion in the study area4.3. Weed invasion in the study area4.3. Weed invasion in the study area4.3. Weed invasion in the study area
A survey was conducted to enumerate the species composition and also to identify the
general status of the weed invasion in the riverbeds of Achankovil. The results obtained from the
survey during the year 2018-2019 are presented here.
4.3.1.4.3.1.4.3.1.4.3.1. Invasive Invasive Invasive Invasive weedsweedsweedsweeds
Seven noxious weeds were spotted in the riverine bounds viz., Chromolaena odorata,
Lantana camara, Camonea vitifolia, Sphagneticola trilobata, Mikania scandens, Mimosa diplotricha
and Ipomoea carnea Jack. ssp. fistulosa (Mart. ex Choisy) Austin.
4.3.1.1.4.3.1.1.4.3.1.1.4.3.1.1. Chromolaena odorata Chromolaena odorata Chromolaena odorata Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob. (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob. (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob. (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob.
Synm.Synm.Synm.Synm. Chromolaena barranquillensis ; Chromolaena odorata f. odorata ; Chromolaena odorata f.
squarrosa ; Chrysocoma maculata; Chrysocoma volubilis ; Chrysocoma volubilis ; Eupatorium
affine; Eupatorium atriplicifolium ; Eupatorium barranquillense; Eupatorium brachiatum ;
Eupatorium conyzoides ; Eupatorium conyzoides var. incanum ; Eupatorium conyzoides var.
phyllocephalum ; Eupatorium conyzoides var. scaberulum ; Eupatorium conyzoides var.
tambillense ; Eupatorium dichotomum; Eupatorium divergens ; Eupatorium floribundum ;
Eupatorium graciliflorum; Eupatorium klattii; Eupatorium odoratum; Eupatorium odoratum var.
brachiatum ; Eupatorium odoratum var. cubense; Eupatorium odoratum var. mallotophyllum;
Eupatorium odoratum var. pauciflorum; Eupatorium sabeanum ; Eupatorium stigmatosum ; Osmia
atriplicifolia ; Osmia conyzoides ; Osmia divergens; Osmia floribunda ; Osmia graciliflora; Osmia
odorata .
Common NameCommon NameCommon NameCommon Name: Siam weed, Christmas bush, devil weed, camphor grass, common floss flower,
communist green and triffid. Communist pacha (Malayalam)
Family: Family: Family: Family: AsteraceaeAsteraceaeAsteraceaeAsteraceae
Distribution: Distribution: Distribution: Distribution: Chromolaena odorata is native to the Caribbean and Latin America. It has
been introduced to tropical Asia, west Africa, and parts of Australia. Kerala: Kerala: Kerala: Kerala: All Kerala
Description: Description: Description: Description: HHHHerbs, dense tangled bushes to 1.5-3.0 m in height. The older stems are brown and
woody near the base; tips and young shoots are green and succulent. The root system is fibrous and
does not penetrate beyond 20-30cm in most soils. stems terete, pubescent; leaves opposite, flaccid-
membranous, velvety-pubescent, deltoid-ovate, acute, 3-nerved, very coarsely toothed, each margin
with 1-5 teeth, or entire in youngest leaves; base obtuse or subtruncate but shortly decurrent; petiole
slender, 1-1.5cm long; blade mostly 5-12cm long, 3-6cm wide, capitula in sub-corymbose axillary
and terminal clusters; peduncles 1-3cm long, bracteate; bracts slender, 10-12mm long; involucre of
about 4-5 series of bracts, pale with green nerves, acute, the lowest ones about 2mm long, upper
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
75
ones 8-9mm long, all acute, distally ciliate, flat, appressed except the extreme divergent tip; florets
all alike (disc-florets), pale purple to dull off-white, the styles extending about 4mm beyond the
apex of the involucre, spreading radiately; receptacle very narrow; florets about 20-30 or a few
more, 10-12mm long; ovarian portion 4mm long; corolla slender trumpet form; pappus of dull
white hairs 5mm long; achenes glabrous. The seeds of Siam weed are small (3-5mm long, ~1mm
wide, and weigh about 2.5mg seed-1. ImpactImpactImpactImpactssss:::: Chromolaena odorata can be considered as a very
serious weed in all types of plants species in the humid areas of the Palaeotropics. C. odorata is a
typical pioneer species of secondary forest succession with a strong heliophilic character and
vigorous vegetative development. lnitially C. odorata spreads by seed, but after establishment it may
also reproduce vegetatively from lateral branches; regrowth occurs after slashing and burning. It
flowers at the end of the rainy season and after flowering the leaves fall and the stems die back. The
ripe seeds are wind dispersed, although adherence to the fur of animals, clothes and machinery,
and the contamination of planting material are also important mechanisms for seed dispersal over
large distances. C. odorata may easily invade open spaces. In heavily disturbed environments, it
competes effectively with other plants and crops, and may become the dominant species.
4.3.1.2.4.3.1.2.4.3.1.2.4.3.1.2. Lantana camara Lantana camara Lantana camara Lantana camara L.
Synm.Synm.Synm.Synm. : Camara vulgaris; Lantana camara f. albiflora ; Lantana camara f. caffertyi; Lantana camara
f. camara ; Lantana camara f. nana ; Lantana camara f. rubelloflavescens ; Lantana camara var.
camara; Lantana camara var. nana ; Lantana coccinea ; Lantana coccinea ; Lantana
glandulodissima ;Lantana glandulosissima f. aculeatissima ; Lantana glandulosissima f. parvifolia ;
Lantana glandulosissima var. grandis ; Lantana mexicana ; Lantana polyacantha ; Lantana scabrida ;
Lantana spinosa ; Lantana spinosa ; Lantana tiliaefolia; Lantana tiliaefolia var. glandulosa ; Lantana
tiliaefolia var. scabra ; Lantana urticifolia subsp. urticifolia.
Common Name: Common Name: Common Name: Common Name: Big-sage , wild-sage, red-sage, white-sage and tickberry. Kongini, Aripoo
(Mal.)
Family: Family: Family: Family: VerbenaceaeVerbenaceaeVerbenaceaeVerbenaceae
Distribution: Distribution: Distribution: Distribution: Native of Central and South America; it has been introduced and now it has a
cosmopolitan range. Kerala: Kerala: Kerala: Kerala: All Kerala
Description: Description: Description: Description: Deciduous shrub, to 2 m (6 ft) ormore, with stems square, covered with bristly hairs
when green, often armed as well with scattered small prickles. Leaves opposite, simple, with
petioles to 2 cm (0.8 in) long; blades oval, rough hairy, to 15 cm (6 in) long and 6 cm (2.4 in) wide,
with margins blunt-toothed and blade bases broad, squared off (truncate); leaves strongly aromatic.
Flowers small, multicolored, in stalked, dense, flat-topped clusters to 4 cm (1.5 in) across; corolla a
narrow tube with 4 short spreading lobes; flowers in a single cluster may be white to pink or
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
76
lavender, yellow to orange or red, changing color over time. Fruit a round, fleshy, 2-seeded drupe,
about 5 mm (0.2 in) wide, green turning purple then blue-black.
Impacts: Impacts: Impacts: Impacts: Its infestations alter the structural and floral composition of native communities. As the
density of Lantana camara in forest increases, allelopathic interactions increase and hence there is
decline in species richness. Due to its prolific nature of flowering and dispersal, the species tends
to alter the structure of the terrestrial ecosystem by gregarious presence. The species forms dense
thickets and tends to eliminate the native species. L. camara become the understorey species in
disturbed native forest thus dominating the flora, causing disruption in succession and loss in
biodiversity. L. camara often causes a reduction in yield or impedes harvesting in plantations. Also,
species has potential to contaminate the gene pool of the rare plant species. Allelopathy
characteristics of species enable it to survive secondary succession and become monospecific
thickets. Fire regimes are altered immensely by the presence of the Lantana camara in natural
systems. The species burns readily in hot and dry conditions. Its occurrence on forest margins are
seen as major threat to community, as a result of increased in roads of fire into the land.
4.3.1.3.4.3.1.3.4.3.1.3.4.3.1.3. Camonea vitifolia Camonea vitifolia Camonea vitifolia Camonea vitifolia (Burm.f.) A.R.Simões & Staples
Synm.Synm.Synm.Synm. : Convolvulus angularis; Convolvulus vitifolius ; Ipomoea vitifolia ; Ipomoea vitifolia var.
angularis ; Merremia vitifolia; Tirtalia vitifolia.
Local Name : Local Name : Local Name : Local Name : Grape-leaf Wood Rose
Family: Family: Family: Family: ConvolvulaceaeConvolvulaceaeConvolvulaceaeConvolvulaceae
Distribution: Distribution: Distribution: Distribution: E. Asia - China, India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos,
Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines. Kerala: Kerala: Kerala: Kerala: All Kerala .
Description: TDescription: TDescription: TDescription: Twinning or prostrate herb. The stems are purplish when old, and grow to 4 m long.
Leaf blade is circular in outline, 5-18 by 5-16 cm, cordate at the base, palmately 5-7-lobed. Flower-
buds narrow-ovoid, acute. Flower tube is funnel shaped -6 cm long, glabrous, bright yellow, paler
towards the base. Pedicel 1–1.6 cm, thicker distally. Sepals oblong or ovate-oblong, 1.4–1.8 cm,
enlarged in fruit, ± leathery, ± shiny, pitted adaxially, pellucid glandular, apex obtuse or ± acute;
outer 2 hirsute abaxially; inner ones glabrous. Corolla yellow, paler in tube, funnelform, 2.5–5.5
cm, glabrous outside; limb ± 5-angled. Stamens ca. 1.1 cm; anthers spirally twisted. Ovary glabrous.
Capsule straw colored, ± globose, ca. 1.2 cm, papery. Seeds black-brown, trigonous-ovoid, ca. 7
mm, gla-brous.
Impacts: Impacts: Impacts: Impacts: Found all over the open forests, thickets, and hedges, in teak-forests, along edges of
secondary forests, on river-banks and waysides. Camonea vitifolia become the understorey species
in disturbed native forest thus dominating the flora, causing disruption in succession and loss in
indigenous phytodiversity.
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
77
4.3.1.4.4.3.1.4.4.3.1.4.4.3.1.4. Sphagneticola trilobata Sphagneticola trilobata Sphagneticola trilobata Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski(L.) Pruski(L.) Pruski(L.) Pruski Synm.Synm.Synm.Synm. : Acmella brasiliensis ; A. spilanthoides ; Aster strigosus ; Buphthalmum heterophyllum; B.
procumbens ; B. repens ; B. strigosum ; Polymnia carnosa (Rich.) Poir.; P. carnosa var. carnosa ; P.
crenata ; Seruneum paludosum ; S. trilobatum ; Silphium trilobatum ; Sphagneticola ulei ;
Stemmodontia carnosa ; S. trilobata ; Thelechitonia trilobata ; Verbesina carnosa ; V. carnosa var.
aspera ; V. carnosa var. carnosa; Verbesina carnosa var. triloba ; V. tridentata ; Wedelia brasiliensis
; W. brasiliensis var. brasiliensis; W. carnosa ; W. carnosa ; W. carnosa var. carnosa; W. carnosa
var. glabella ; W. carnosa var. triloba ; W. carnosa var. triloba ; W. crenata ; W. paludicola; W.
paludosa ; W. paludosa var. paludosa; W. paludosa var. vialis ; W. pedunculata; W. pedunculata ;
W. tannensis ; W. triloba ; W. trilobata; W. trilobata ; W. trilobata var. hirtella ; W. trilobata var.
pilosissima; Wollastonia trilobata
Local Name:Local Name:Local Name:Local Name: Bay Biscayne creeping-oxeye,Singapore daisy, creeping-oxeye, trailing
daisy, and wedelia.
Family :Family :Family :Family : Asteraceae
DistributionDistributionDistributionDistribution: Native of Tropical America, but now grows throughout the Neotropics. Kerala: All
over.
DescriptionDescriptionDescriptionDescription: Perennial herbs, prostrate, diffuse, rooting at nodes; stems glabrous or pubescent.
Leaves 3-10 x 3-7 cm, elliptic-obovate, usually with 3 angular lobes with toothed margins, acute at
apex, basally cuneate, glabrous to sparingly pubescent; petiole short, upto 5 mm. Heads radiate, 2-
2.5 cm across, solitary on ebracteate 4-15 cm long peduncles. Involucre green; bracts lanceolate, 1-
1.5 cm long, ciliate; inner narrower. Ray florets 5-8; corolla bright yellow, 1.5-2.0 x 0.5-0.7 cm, 3-4
denticulate; tube short. Ovary trigonous; stigma bilobed. Pappus connate into a spathiform,
fimbriate cup at the apex, devoid of awns. Disc florets many; corolla yellow; tube 5-8 mm long, 5-
lobed; lobes deltoid, densely pubescent within. Anthers black, syngenecious. Style branches
flattened and marginally pubescent. Achenes blackish, warty, 4-6 mm long, crowned by the
persistent pappus cup.
ImpactsImpactsImpactsImpacts: Sphagneticola is one of the most significant dominant invasive plant species. The
presence of invasive plant species such as S. trilobata in the terrestrial ecosystem poses a major
threat to the biodiversity of a given community and ecosystem functions. S. trilobata was found to
prevent regeneration of co-occurring species and damage riverbanks and wastelands. This could
have been attributed to the allelopathic effect of S. trilobata leachates and residues that caused
substantial reduction in germination and growth rate of native plants. One of the reasons S.
trilobata is more aggressive and dominant in the invaded region is because of the lack of natural
enemies which are capable of controlling its population growth.
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
78
4.3.1.5.4.3.1.5.4.3.1.5.4.3.1.5. Mikania scandensMikania scandensMikania scandensMikania scandens Willd.Willd.Willd.Willd.
Synm.Synm.Synm.Synm. : Eupatorium orinocense var. batataefolium ; E. scandens; Mikania angulosa ; M.
batataefolia ; M. menisperma ; M. menispermea ; M. mikanoides ; M. pubescens; M. scandens var.
pubescens ; M. scandens var. scandens; Willoughbya scandens ; W. scandens var. normalis ; W.
scandens var. pubescens
Local Name: Local Name: Local Name: Local Name: Mikenia, Bittervine, Chinese Creeper, Climbing Hempweed. Vayara ( Mal.)
Family: Family: Family: Family: Asteraceae
Distribution:Distribution:Distribution:Distribution: Native to the eastern and central United States and it is spread all over pantropical.
KeralaKeralaKeralaKerala: All Kerala .
DescriptionDescriptionDescriptionDescription: Climbers, stem glandular-hispid. Leaves simple, opposite, 5-8 x 4-6 cm, ovate, apex
acute, base cordate, crenate, glabrate; petiole 2-4 cm long. Heads 5 mm long, in axillary panicles;
bracts biseriate, outer 2 smaller, inner 3-5, 4 x 1.5 mm, ovate, obtuse. Flowers 3-5, similar, bisexual;
corolla 3 mm long, tubular, lobes 5, glandular, white; anthers linear. Achenes 2 mm long, 5-ribbed,
black, glabrous; pappus 4 mm long, many, hispid.
ImpactsImpactsImpactsImpacts: Its rapid spread is a threat to natural environments, where it kills or reduces growth of
preferred species, severely impacting on biodiversity and production. Large numbers of wind-
dispersed seeds and ability to propagate vegetatively from stem fragments facilitate rapid invasion.
Management of M. micrantha is difficult.
4.3.1.6.4.3.1.6.4.3.1.6.4.3.1.6. Mimosa diplotricha Mimosa diplotricha Mimosa diplotricha Mimosa diplotricha C. WrightC. WrightC. WrightC. Wright
Synm. Synm. Synm. Synm. :::: Mimosa invisa; Morongia pilosa; Schrankia brachycarpa; Schrankia pilosa
Local Name:Local Name:Local Name:Local Name: Giant sensitive plant
Family: Family: Family: Family: Fabaceae, Mimosaceae
Distribution: Distribution: Distribution: Distribution: Native to t Native of Tropical America; a weed in India. Kerala: All Kerala
Description: Description: Description: Description: Rambling shrubs, stem pubescent, prickles short, in 4-rows. Leaves to 10 cm long;
pinnae opposite, to 5 cm long; leaflets to 35 pairs, to 5 x 1 mm, oblong, truncate at base, glabrous;
rachis prickled. Head to 1.5 cm across, in terminal racemes, peduncled. Flowers many, 3 mm long,
pink; stamens 10, filaments 6 mm long. Pods 2-5 cm long, bristly, black when mature.
Impacts:Impacts:Impacts:Impacts: It has the ability to climb over and smother other plants and can shade out light-
demanding species, preventing the natural regeneration of other plants, and it constitutes a wildland
fire hazard when dry. Due to its prolific nature of flowering and dispersal, the species tends to alter
the structure of the terrestrial ecosystem by gregarious presence. The species forms dense thickets
and tends to eliminate the native species. There are no potential enemies and the seeds spread
through winds are another threat to the indigenous flora.
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
79
4.3.1. 7.4.3.1. 7.4.3.1. 7.4.3.1. 7. Ipomoea carneaIpomoea carneaIpomoea carneaIpomoea carnea Jack. ssp. ssp. ssp. ssp. fistulosafistulosafistulosafistulosa (Mart. ex Choisy) Austin
Synm. Synm. Synm. Synm. : Ipomoea fistulosa Mart. ex Choisy; Ipomoea crassicaulis (Benth.) Robins.; Batatas crassicaulis
Benth
Local Name: Local Name: Local Name: Local Name: Neyveli katta (Mal.); Bush Morning Glory ,Shrub Ipomoea
Family: Family: Family: Family: Convolvulaceae
Distribution:Distribution:Distribution:Distribution: Native of America; now Pantropical
Description:Description:Description:Description: Erect to subscandent shrubs; stems fistulose at maturity, tomentose. Leaves ovate-
lanceate, 4-14 by 2.5-9 cm, base cordate, apex gradually acuminate, lateral veins 8-10 pairs,
prominent. Cymes many-flowered, axillary or subterminal; peduncle c. 10 cm long; calyx lobes
subequal; corolla pale pink, c. 9 cm long. Capsule ovoid. Seeds pubescent.
Impacts: Impacts: Impacts: Impacts: Due to its prolific nature of flowering and dispersal, the species tends to alter the structure
of the terrestrial ecosystem by gregarious presence. The species forms dense thickets and tends to
eliminate the native species. There are no potential enemies and the seeds spread through winds
are another threat to the indigenous flora.
4.3.2.4.3.2.4.3.2.4.3.2. Aquatic and Aquatic and Aquatic and Aquatic and ssssemi aquatic emi aquatic emi aquatic emi aquatic wwwweeeeeeeedsdsdsds
Some aggressive aquatic weeds viz., Colocasia esculenta, Cabomba caroliniana, Eichhornia
crassipes and Pistia stratiotes were also shows invasive nature in islands. Native biota was highly
affected by them. Sometimes, water transport highly affected by the high abundance of Cabomba
and Eichornia in the water course. It is also affecting the inland fishing too.
4.3.3.4.3.3.4.3.3.4.3.3. Likely invasive species (L.IAS)Likely invasive species (L.IAS)Likely invasive species (L.IAS)Likely invasive species (L.IAS)
These plants are non-native, having biological potential for rapid or widespread dispersal
and naturalized in the islands. These plants also have invasion history in other protected areas.
However, there is no major invasion in the study area noticed. Plants species such as Xanthium
indicum, Urena lobata, Hygrophila ringens, Microstachys chamaelea, Stachytarpheta jamaicensis,
Persicaria glabra, Ludwigia peruviana, L. hyssopifolia, Cleome viscosa, Tridax procumbens,
Achyranthes aspera, Ipomoea hederifolia, Mimosa pudica, Aerva lanata and Evolvulus alsinoides
are the invasive species with potential to be a noxious weed, identified from the islands.
4.3.4.4.3.4.4.3.4.4.3.4. Spread Spread Spread Spread eeeecology and cology and cology and cology and pppphytosociology of the hytosociology of the hytosociology of the hytosociology of the nnnnoxious weeds in the study areaoxious weeds in the study areaoxious weeds in the study areaoxious weeds in the study area
The data collected for the present study were analyzed to throw light on the answers to the
specific questions raised in the study. As based on the criterion we have used, 11 invasive alien
plants species were enumerated. An earnest attempt is made to study the spread ecology of these
weeds of the entire region. The details emerged from the study are presented below.
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
80
TableTableTableTable 4444: Spread ecology of Invasive weeds in : Spread ecology of Invasive weeds in : Spread ecology of Invasive weeds in : Spread ecology of Invasive weeds in Upper ZoneUpper ZoneUpper ZoneUpper Zone
Quadrate No CO LC CV ST MS MD
1 1 5 3 7 7
2 1 20 4
3 9 2
4 5 5 6 11
5 3
6 3 11
7 4
8 4
9 25
10 8 4
11 2 5
12 2 3 1
13
14 7 2 3
15 3 15
16 6
17 2 7 11
18 7 2
19 6 1 20 1
20 4 3 16
Total 45 40 35 105 27 25 277
Abundance 3.52 3.42 3.01 9.16 2.63 2.61
Standard Deviation 2.82 2.36 2.5 6.32 1.36 1.62
Density 1.3 0.86 1.3 8 0.61 1.6
Relative Density 1.73 0.9 1.08 4.33 0.7 1.19
Frequency 30 21 33 25 21 17
Relative Frequency 1.7 3. 21 3.35 3.01 2.03 1.79
Relative Dominance 0.31 0.30 0.17 0.71 0.21 0.19
RIVI 3.74 4.41 4.6 3.37 2.94 3.17
TableTableTableTable 5555: Spread ecology of Invasive weeds in : Spread ecology of Invasive weeds in : Spread ecology of Invasive weeds in : Spread ecology of Invasive weeds in Middle ZoneMiddle ZoneMiddle ZoneMiddle Zone
Quadrate No CO LC CV ST MS MD IC CE
1 3
2 3 11 8
3 2 4 5 2 6 25
4 7 6 2 14 6 22
5 8 3 18 2 10
6 9 14 14
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
81
7 10 18 14 4
8 16 4 5
9 20 9 10 21 5 27
10 10 4 16
11 7 11 6 9
12 14 4 9
13 21 14 16 3
14 14 8 2 9 18
15 21 15 9 4
16 21 9 7
17 3 16 15
18 14 25 2 4
19 13 1 18 7 15
20 21 9 3 2 3 11
Total 156 135 91 126 71 68 98 85 856
Abundance 14.2 12.17 9.11 11.45 6.45 11.33 8.9 7.71
Standard Deviation 9.86 8.27 6.86 7.12 5.04 6.59 6.06 5.14
Density 8.95 7.05 4.4 6.42 3.55 3.4 4.9 4.12
Relative Density 3.28 3.95 3.08 4.42 2.49 1.83 2.44 2.12
Frequency 65 70 60 55 54 30 55 60
Relative Frequency 3.51 2.86 4.16 3.81 3.76 1.25 2.81 1.65
Relative Dominance 0.942 0.74 0.46 0.66 0.37 0.0003 0.51 0.06
RIVI 7.732 6.55 7.7 8.89 6.62 2.50 5.76 3.43
Table Table Table Table 6666: : : : Spread ecology of Invasive weeds species in Spread ecology of Invasive weeds species in Spread ecology of Invasive weeds species in Spread ecology of Invasive weeds species in Lower ZoneLower ZoneLower ZoneLower Zone
Quadrate No CO LC CV ST MS MD IC CE CC EC PS
1 5 5 80 500
2 10 15 300
3 10 135 235
4 8 9 25
5 15 4 17 26 58
6 6 9 96
7 15 152
8 11 8 75 700
9 6 300
10 4 24 6 24 250
11 11 23 80 210
12 8 10 20 25 120 72 60
13 96
14 11 60 600
15 10 7 9 125 85
16 15 14
17 8
18 8 5
19
20 7 2
Total 59 103
Abundance 5.6 9.1
Standard Deviation 3.1 4.6
Density 9.1 5.1
Relative Density 1.2 2.3 2.63
Frequency 8.1 3.6
Relative Frequency 1.2 1.3 2.01
Relative Dominance 0.031 0.5 0.032
RIVI 2.431 4.16 4.96
FIG.FIG.FIG.FIG.7777:::: RIVI of the noxious weeds in the study area
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
CO LC CV ST
CO LC
Upper Zone 3.74 4.41
Middle Zone 7.732 6.55
Lower Zone 2.431 4.16 4.96
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
21 85
10 110
20 6 51 71
20 13 9 200
10 18 10 90 100
92 33 99 167 254 522 1137
7.2 3.26 8.53 10.26 11.6 16.65 21.6
3.6 1.23 2.59 3.25 4.56 94.3 265.2
4.6 1.65 4.28 11.52 6.35 11.25 16.25
2.63 1.02 2.53 4.16 2.96 2.15 4.15
4.5 5.02 5.75 2.3 5.85 3.58 5.26
2.01 1.14 1.59 2.03 2.65 1.53 1.15
032 0. 04 0.02 0.08 1.23 0.59 1.26
4.96 2.20 4.16 6.26 6.75 3.16 6.16
RIVI of the noxious weeds in the study area
MSMD IC
CECC
EC
CV ST MS MD IC CE CC
4.6 3.37 2.94 3.17
7.7 8.89 6.62 2.5 5.76 3.43
4.96 2.2 4.16 6.26 6.75 3.16 6.16
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
82
25
25
85
15
1542 1830 5838
22.6 26.3
302 256
15.2 19.1
3.15 2.32
3.25 2.15
2.56 1.96
0.26 1.26
5.15 4.26
PS
EC PS
5.15 4.26
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
83
4.3.4.1.4.3.4.1.4.3.4.1.4.3.4.1. Spread ecology of Spread ecology of Spread ecology of Spread ecology of weedsweedsweedsweeds
Chromolaena odorata is widely acknowledged as a major economic and ecological burden
to many tropical and subtropical regions of the world including India. In three zones of the study
area, this noxious weed is spreading at an alarming rate. The research revealed the decrease of
species diversity in the invaded habitats. As denoted by Ambika and Jayachandran (1980), C.
odorata produces a variety of allelochemicals, including flavonoids, terpenoids, and alkaloids to
suppress the crops. Lowland Vayals are also prone to the invasion. When compared to other
habitats, salt invaded area is less infested.
Lantana camara L. a notorious global invader, has spread rapidly in many of the 60 regions
of the world and is listed among the world's one hundred worst invasive species (Lowe et al., 2000).
Morphological and ecological characteristics that have contributed to its successful spread in
Tropical countries. These include prolific flowering and production of fleshy fruit throughout the
year features that are particularly important as frugivorous birds are important dispersal vectors.
Endozoochory (i.e. the dispersal of seeds after passage through the vertebrate gut) has been shown
to increase seed germination rates and vigor (Jordaan et al., 2011).In three zones of the Achankovil
Rivers, L. camera is naturalized. However, modest invasion noticed there.
Camonea vitifolia was not an aggressive weed until the last two decades. But, these plants
acclimatized in Indian forest especially the Western Ghats and proliferate at an alarming rate. C.
vitifolia grows particularly well on forest margins and rapidly colonises forest gaps created by dead
trees and tree falls. It can even cause death of shrubs and small trees. Roots emerges out from each
node of the plant and will spread over the thickets and gaps. The research revealed that, C. vitifolia
is a destructive weed even in swamps. The lowland Vayals also provide habitat for them. Urgent
preventive measures should be adopted to conserve the local flora.
Sphagneticola trilobata was able to adapt to different environments. The mean phenotypic
plasticity index of S. trilobata was higher than that of other invasive plant species. As revealed from
the study S. trilobata spread all over the habitat except sacred groves. It denoted that, this species is
highly adapted for these habitats and may spread over shades also. It having a greater biomass and
higher rates of transpiration compared to the indigenous vegetation it also reduces water run-off in
water catchments.
The spread of Mikania scandens suppresses indigenous vegetation through physical
smothering and allelopathy. M. Scandens forms a higher plant biomass than the indigenous
vegetation on swampecosystems. Another noteworthy result observed in the study that, M.
scandens is slowly invaded into the mangrove forest also. Mikania scandens threatens the habitats
of animal taxa too.
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
84
Mimosa diplotricha is a fast-growing, sprawling annual although behaves as a short-lived
perennial shrubby leguminous vine. This plant forms dense, tangled clumps up to 2 m high. It
produces enormous seeds and these seeds remain dormant for up to several years. There are no
potential enemies to Mimosa diplotricha and their seeds spread through winds and easily grow
everywhere.
Ipomoea carnea ssp. fistulosa is a pantropical weed, was able to adapt to different
environments. In different habitat of the islands it spreads its distribution at an alarming rate. When
compared to other zones, no such invasion of Ipomoea carnea in uppeerzone. However, urgent
preventive measures should be adopted to conserve the local flora.
Aquatic weeds are highly infested in lower zone. Of which Cabomba and Eichornia are
denoted as notorious weeds. Its bulky vicinity in the water course makes nuisance. Water transport,
inland fishing, local flora and fauna are highly affected by their growth. Urgent preventive measures
should be employed at the earliest.
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
85
PLATE 19: a. Chromolaena odorata (L.) King & Robins., b. Lantana camara L., c. Mikania
micrantha Kunth, d. Calopogonium mucunoides Desv., e. Asclepias curassavica L., f. Ageratum
conyzoides L.
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
86
PLATE 20: a. Cabomba caroliniana Gray, b. Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) Voss, c. Colocasia
esculenta (L.) Schott, d. Ipomoea carnea Jack. ssp. fistulosa (Mart. ex Choisy) Austin, e. Alternanthera
brasiliana ( L. ) Kuntze, f. Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
87
PLATE 21: a. Monochoria vaginalis (Burm. f.) Presl., b. Urena lobata L., c. Xenostegia tridentata
(L.) Austin & Staples, d. Mimosa diplotricha C. Wight ex Sanvalle, e. Xanthium indicum Koenig,
f. Ricinus communis L.
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
88
4.4.4.4.4444. Effect of flood in biodiversity. Effect of flood in biodiversity. Effect of flood in biodiversity. Effect of flood in biodiversity
Flood in 2018 made much havoc in Kerala. The impact of flood in river bounds of
Achankovil is subjected to investigation. Results revealed from the study are enlisted here.
• Invasion of weedsInvasion of weedsInvasion of weedsInvasion of weeds
Seven noxious weeds were spotted in the study area viz., Chromolaena odorata, Lantana
camara, Camonea vitifolia, Sphagneticola trilobata, Mikania scandens, Mimosa diplotricha
and Ipomoea carnea Jack. ssp. fistulosa (Mart. ex Choisy) Austin. Besides that, 4 aggressive
aquatic weeds viz., Colocasia esculenta, Cabomba caroliniana, Eichhornia crassipes and
Pistia stratiotes numerous likely invasive species are growing at an alarming rate. Few more
Likely Invasive Weeds shows its fast spreading capacity throughout the bounds of the river.
• Invasion of aquatic organismsInvasion of aquatic organismsInvasion of aquatic organismsInvasion of aquatic organisms
The invasive fishes like African Catfish, Redbelly, Cattla etc. makes the serious problem in
the indigenous biodiversity.
• Declining of fish populationDeclining of fish populationDeclining of fish populationDeclining of fish population
As revealed from the long term investigation and questionnaire survey, the population of
indigenous fishes likes Etroplus, Kayal Prawns, Valves, Gastropods etc. facing a serious
declination.
• Loss of vegetationLoss of vegetationLoss of vegetationLoss of vegetation
Flood caused the destruction of plants even the mangrove vegetation. Numerous plants
fallen down. Besides that, plant diseases such as yellowing and various insect diseases were
also noticed. Stretches of Humboldtia vahliana and Crataeva magna were washed out in the
heavy flood.
• River channelizationRiver channelizationRiver channelizationRiver channelization
Because of heavy landslides, sand & soil deposition and tree fallen in the flood, river
channelization and dechananelization takeplace. It causes loss in the biodiversity and
minerals.
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• Plastic accumulationPlastic accumulationPlastic accumulationPlastic accumulation
Kilograms of plastics and bottles were accumulated in the bounds of Achankovil River.
Heavy deposition occurred in Panthalalam, Sharngadharakkavu and Veeyapuram regions.
It will affect this biodiversity rich area. Besides the plastics, large deposition of glass bottles
noticed in the agriculture field of Kuttanadu. Broken glass piece causes injury to farmers
and laborers.
• Diseases and infectionsDiseases and infectionsDiseases and infectionsDiseases and infections
Numerous diseases noticed throughout the field such as Mahali, Yellowing, leaf
curling & leaf buring in paddy, blast in crops and damping off in tubercrops. Invasion of
numerous insects and moths are also observed.
• Lost seedsLost seedsLost seedsLost seeds
Seeds of agricultural crops and stocks are destroyed. Seed stocks of pisum, rice,
tapioca, yams, banana and seasonal crops are lost. It will be affect for the upcoming
farming seasons.
• Water contamination and acidificationWater contamination and acidificationWater contamination and acidificationWater contamination and acidification
Water bodies and wells are covered with oily layers in lowland zones and vayals.
Besides that, the pH of water changed to acidic forms. This change will affect in living
components of the ecosystem.
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PLATE 22: a-f. Biodiversity and ecological loss after flood
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
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PLATE 23: a-f. Biodiversity and ecological loss after flood
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4.4.4.4.5555. Recommendations. Recommendations. Recommendations. Recommendations
4.4.4.4.5555.1. .1. .1. .1. EcosyestemEcosyestemEcosyestemEcosyestem restorationrestorationrestorationrestoration
Riparian vegetation plays a significant role in controlling erosion and improving water
quality of the area. Riparian vegetation are known to provide shelter, act as nursery grounds and
are also habitats for economically important fishes, prawns, crabs and molluscs. Flood 2018 caused
much destruction in bounds of the Achankovil River. Riparian zones restoration is the need of the
hour. Aspects to be paid attention to
1. Identification of appropriate sites for restoration (soil stability, flooding regime, elevation,
extent of pollution)
2. Selection of species/species assemblages suitable for the soil and hydrological conditions of the
site
3. Quality of the planting material
4. Adoption of an appropriate planting technique
5. After-care practices
6. Mechanisms to obtain local community participation and support for restoration
4.4.4.4.5555.2. .2. .2. .2. Methods to control of Invasive Alien SpeciesMethods to control of Invasive Alien SpeciesMethods to control of Invasive Alien SpeciesMethods to control of Invasive Alien Species
The following methods are proposed to control and prevent the invasion and the
expansion of the weed plants.
4.5.2.1.4.5.2.1.4.5.2.1.4.5.2.1. Prevention of spreadPrevention of spreadPrevention of spreadPrevention of spread
For preventive measures which have already established in some areas and immediate
eradication is difficult, efforts should be focused on preventing their spread by:
1) Restricting the movement of soil and plant parts from infested areas to un-infested areas and
2) Removing the weeds manually or mechanically (cutting or pulling) before flowering and fruiting
and burning them at the site.
3) Integrated weed management
4). Introduction of eco-friendly pathogens or insects which is harmful to these weeds
5). Application of biological herbicide
5). Application of herbicide
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
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4.5.2.2.4.5.2.2.4.5.2.2.4.5.2.2. Habitat restorationHabitat restorationHabitat restorationHabitat restoration
Manual/mechanical control may be difficult, costly and unsustainable for exotic weeds
which have established in large areas. In such cases, systematic restoration strategies should be
taken up. To achieve this, remove the weeds manually or mechanically (pulling along with
roots/tubers) in small areas at a time and subsequently plant the area with fast growing native
species. Assisted regeneration may also be attempted in such areas.
4.5.2.3.4.5.2.3.4.5.2.3.4.5.2.3. Silviculture PracticesSilviculture PracticesSilviculture PracticesSilviculture Practices
Introduction of saplings in open areas of the swamps and ensure facilities for its growth. It
will help to reduce the radius of the open areas and such a way we can prevent the expansion of
weeds.
4.5.3.4.5.3.4.5.3.4.5.3. PlasPlasPlasPlastic removaltic removaltic removaltic removal
Accumulated plastic in the islands should be collected and recycled. For the same, self help
groups, NGO s etc. can be participate.
4.5.4.4.5.4.4.5.4.4.5.4. Application of limestone in agriculture field will get positive result in soil problems.
4.5.5.4.5.5.4.5.5.4.5.5. Monitoring and conservation of endemic and endangered plants in the riparian bounds of
Achankovil with the help of BMCs, and NGOs.
Riverine Flora of Achankovil River Basin
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